Number 16

8 Treasure Islands

26 Koa Constrictors

42 Mangrove Mania

56 Beam Me Down, 

Scotty

71 Don’t Litter 

the Stream!

90 Left High 

 and Dry?

What’s Inside

The

Edition
Patrick Hart, University of 

Hawai‘i at Hilo

Travis Idol, University of 

Hawai‘i at Mānoa

Ken W. Krauss, United States 

Geological Survey

Moana McClellan, University 

of Minnesota

Davianna Pōmaika’i McGregor, 

University of Hawai‘i at 

Mānoa

Dean Meason, Scion Research, 

New Zealand

Jason Turner, University of 

Hawai‘i at Hilo

Tracy Wiegner, University of 

Hawai‘i at Hilo

With thanks to

Ann Bartuska, Deputy Under 

Secretary, USDA Research, 

Education, and Economics, who 

provided the idea, inspiration, 

and support for this Hawai‘i–

Pacific Islands edition.

Christian Giardina, Forest 

Service

James Akau, AmeriCorps 

Volunteer

Leila Kekuewa, AmeriCorps 

Volunteer

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park

Natural Inquirer

Produced by

Forest Service

Cradle of Forestry in America 

Interpretive Association

Production Staff

Babs McDonald, Forest Service

Jessica Nickelsen, Cradle 

of Forestry in America 

Interpretive Association

Michelle Andrews, University 

of Georgia

Emily Melear-Daniels, Cradle 

of Forestry in America 

Interpretive Association

Elissa Riley, Cradle of Forestry 

in America Interpretive 

Association

Forest Service

Thomas L. Tidwell, Chief

Jimmy L. Reaves, Deputy 

Chief, Research and 

Development

Jim Hubbard, Deputy Chief, 

State and Private Forestry

John Sebelius, Staff Director, 

Science Quality Services

Safiya Samman, Staff Director, 

Conservation Education

Cradle of Forestry in 

America Interpretive 

Association

Carlton Murrey, Executive 

Director 

Stuart Ryman, Chairman

Hawai’i-Pacific Islands Edition • Number 16 • Spring 2012

Adam DeWitte, Director of 

Education

Forest Service Scientists 

Highlighted in the 

Journal

Susan Cordell, Pacific 

Southwest Research Station

Katherine Ewel, Pacific Southwest 

Research Station, Retired

Christian Giardina, Pacific 

Southwest Research Station

R. Flint Hughes, Pacific 

Southwest Research Station

Richard MacKenzie, Pacific 

Southwest Research Station

Paul Scowcroft, Pacific 

Southwest Research Station

Amanda Uowolo, Pacific 

Southwest Research Station

Collaborating Scientists

Jim Allen, Northern Arizona 

University

Greg Asner, Stanford University

Trisha Atwood, University of 

British Columbia

Yvonne Yarber Carter, 

Ka‘ūpūlehu Dryland Forest 

Outreach Program

Nicole Cormier, United States 

Geological Survey

David Flaspohler, Michigan 

Technological University

J. B. Friday, University of 

Hawai‘i at Mānoa

Cover mural: Friends of the Ka‘ūpūlehu Dryland 

Forest program: Ho‘ola Ka Makana‘a and 

Kealakehe Dryland Forest. Support: HFIA HFI, KS-

‘Āina Ulu, Nahelehele, & FOCUS mural collaboration. 

Concept & Design: Yvonne Yarber Carter, Leah 

Ingram, Pua Whitehead. Mural painters: Hui Ho‘ola 

Ka Makana‘a & Hui La‘au Kama‘āina (Group for the 

native plants), ages 7-60.
1

The Natural Inquirer • Number 16

Contents

Editorial Review Board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

About the Natural Inquirer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Who Are Scientists? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Welcome to the Hawai‘i-Pacific Islands edition of 

the Natural Inquirer! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Features:

Treasure Islands: Hawaiian Kīpuka 

and the Future of Native Hawaiian Birds . . . . . . . . 8

Koa Constrictors: Studying Things That 

Slow the Growth of Koa Crop Trees . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Mangrove Mania: How Elevation Change 

and Sea-Level Rise Affect Mangrove Forests . . . 42

Beam Me Down, Scotty: The Use of Airborne 

and Satellite Technology To Measure Carbon 

in Hawaiian Forests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

Don’t Litter the Stream! An Invasive Tree 

Species and a Hawaiian Stream Food Web . . . . . 71

Left High and Dry? Attempting To Restore 

a Tropical Dry Forest in Hawai‘i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

The Hawaiian Language and Hawaiian Glossary . . 106

Eye Witness Puzzle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

Crossword Puzzle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

Note to Educators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

Lesson Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

Reflection Section Answer Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

National Education Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

What Is the Pacific Southwest Research Station? . . 128

What Is the Forest Service? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

What Is the Cradle of Forestry in America

Interpretive Association? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

42

8

90

56
2

Hawai‘i-Pacific Islands Edition, http://www.naturalinquirer.org

Hawai‘i Pacific-Islands Editorial Review Boards’ Comments

Laupahoehoe High and Elementary School,

Laupahoehoe, HI View from the school’s front door. 

Editorial Review Board

“Many different types of measurement are used in 

science.” (Mangrove Mania)

“It was interesting and educational.”

“I think that this is a great article, but it would have 

been better with the colors.” (Beam Me Down, Scotty)

“It was a very educational article. Thank you.”

“Some of the Hawaiian words are confusing.”

“It’s a good magazine.”

“I learned what mangrove forests are and what they provide.”

“The most important thing I learned in this 

article is how endangered the dry forests are.”

“Koa is one of the most valued tropical wood.”

“This was very easy for me to understand the work 

they did, and I enjoyed reading the material.”

“I liked the pictures, and it was good.” (Left High and Dry)

“It’s important so that people stop damaging native forests.”

“Needs color! More pictures!” (Treasure Islands)

“It is very good, and I learned a lot of things.”

Natural Inquirer editorial review board hard at work.
3

The Natural Inquirer • Number 16

About the Natural Inquirer

Who Are Scientists?

Scientists report their research in 

journals, which are special magazines 

that enable scientists to share 

information with one another. This journal, the 

Natural Inquirer, was created so that scientists 

can share their research with you and with 

other middle school students. Each article tells 

about scientific research conducted by scientists 

in the Forest Service, U.S. Department of 

Agriculture. If you want to know more about 

the Forest Service, you can read about it on the 

inside back cover of this journal, or you can visit 

the Natural Inquirer Web site at http://www.

naturalinquirer.org.

All of the research in the Natural Inquirer is 

concerned with nature, such as trees, forests, 

animals, insects, outdoor activities, and water. 

First, you will “Meet the Scientists” who 

conducted the research. Then you will read 

something special about science and about the 

natural environment. You will also read about 

a specific research project, which is written 

in the format that scientists use when they 

publish their research in journals. Then, YOU 

will become the scientist when you conduct 

the FACTivity associated with each article. 

Look at the glossary and the special sections 

highlighted in each article for more information. 

A Hawaiian glossary is on page 106. This 

edition of the Natural Inquirer includes a new 

section. At the end of each article, you will 

learn something special about the culture of 

Hawai‘i and the Pacific Islands. Did you know, 

for example, that Hawaiians have been surfing 

ocean waves for thousands of years?

At the end of each section of the article, you 

will find a few questions to help you think about 

what you have read. Your teacher may use 

these questions in a class discussion.

b Be curious—Are you interested 

in learning?

b Be enthusiastic—Are you enthused

about an environmental topic?

b Be careful—Are you accurate in 

everything that you do?

b Be open minded—Are you willing 

to listen to new ideas?

b Question everything—Do you think 

about what you read and observe?

Scientists are people who collect and 

evaluate information about a wide range 

of topics. Some scientists study the 

natural environment. To be a successful 

environmental scientist, you must:
4

Hawai‘i-Pacific Islands Edition, http://www.naturalinquirer.org

Welcome

Sitting in the tropical zone of the 

Pacific Ocean, Hawai‘i and the 

Pacific Islands are special places. Because 

these islands lie close to the equator, their 

coastal climate is warm all year. The 

youngest islands were created by volcanoes 

and have mountains that sometimes get 

snow! Take a look at the map below to locate 

the Hawaiian Islands and the Federated 

States of Micronesia (FSM). Find the largest 

of the Hawaiian Islands. The entire State 

of Hawai‘i takes its name from this largest 

island. Five of the articles in this Natural 

Inquirer describe research that scientists did 

on the island of Hawai‘i. One article describes 

research done on two islands in the FSM. The 

FSM is an independent country made up of 

hundreds of small islands.

The research you will read about in 

this Natural Inquirer was conducted by 

scientists working at the Institute of Pacific 

Islands Forestry, or IPIF. Located in Hilo, 

HI, scientists at IPIF study a range of 

environmental topics in Hawai‘i and the 

Pacific Islands. 

to the Hawai‘i-Pacific Islands edition of the Natural Inquirer!

The Pacific Ocean and the Pacific Islands. Images courtesy of http://free-extras.com/images/pacific_ocean_globe-12033.htm, http://www.chachasconeyisland.com; and the 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
5

The Natural Inquirer • Number 16

This Natural Inquirer was created with the 

help of two Native Hawaiian AmeriCorps 

volunteers. AmeriCorps is a group of 

U.S. Federal job programs. AmeriCorps 

gives adults of all ages the opportunity to 

address important needs by working within 

communities. James Akau and Leila Kekuewa 

worked with middle school students at 

Laupahoehoe High and Elementary School, 

did research, and wrote sections of this 

journal. All of this was done as a part of their 

AmeriCorps experience. 

The Hawaiian Islands

Let’s learn about the Hawaiian Islands. 

These islands are the most remote group 

of human-populated islands in the world. 

Hawai‘i is 3,857 kilometers (2,397 miles) 

from California and 6,195 kilometers (3,850 

miles) from Japan. The Hawaiian Islands 

extend more than 2,413 kilometers (1,500 

miles) across the Pacific Ocean. Because the 

Hawaiian Islands are so remote, many of the 

native plants and animals living there are 

unique. These plants and animals arrived on 

their own, traveling by wind, wings, or waves. 

Over hundreds of thousands of years, these 

plants and animals evolved into species found 

nowhere else on Earth. More than 90 percent 

of Hawaiian native species are found only 

in Hawai‘i. For example, the State bird of 

The Hawaiian 

Language

Occasionally, you will come 

across Hawaiian words in this 

Natural Inquirer. Hawaiian words 

are in italics. For more information 

about the Hawaiian language and 

for a glossary and pronunciation of 

these words, see page 106.

James Akau is an expert in Hawaiian 

plants and Native Hawaiian culture.

Leila Kekuewa is giving the shaka hand signal while caring for plants in a greenhouse. 

In Hawai‘i, this signal means, “Hello. Everything is good. Take care of yourself.”
6

Hawai‘i-Pacific Islands Edition, http://www.naturalinquirer.org

Hawai‘i, the nēnē goose, may have evolved 

from Canada geese that landed in Hawai‘i 

thousands of years ago.

 Polynesians were the first settlers of the 

Hawaiian Islands. The Polynesians brought 

plants and animals with them to the islands. 

Other people coming from all over the world 

also brought plants and animals with them. 

Today, many of these nonnative plants and 

animals are causing problems for the native 

ecosystems of Hawai‘i. You will learn about 

many of these problems in this Natural 

Inquirer. 

The island of Hawai‘i is larger than all of 

the other Hawaiian Islands combined. The 

youngest of the Hawaiian Islands, Hawai‘i 

has two active volcanoes. Kīlauea volcano is 

the world’s most active volcano.

 Near the coast on the island of Hawai‘i, 

the temperature is warm all year. In the 

higher areas near the volcano summits, 

the temperature is cooler. Snow sometimes 

falls on the summit of Mauna Kea volcano. 

Because it is warm and cool, wet and dry, 

and coastal and mountainous, the island of 

Hawai‘i has a wide variety of ecosystems. 

It is so diverse that no other place on Earth 

is like it. At least one-half of the ecosystems 

in Hawai‘i are in danger today from changes 

caused by humans. Of the plant and animal 

species already lost forever in the United 

States, about 75 percent are from Hawai‘i. 

Of all plant and animal species in danger of 

being lost in the United States today, about 25 

percent are in Hawai‘i.

Hawaiian citizens today represent a wide 

variety of races and ethnic backgrounds. 

Native Hawaiians and other Pacific Islanders 

make up only about 10 percent of the 

population. You will learn, however, that 

Hawaiians have made a commitment to 

preserve native Hawaiian culture and many 

of its customs. At the end of each article, 

you will read about how many of today’s 

Hawaiians keep traditional Hawaiian 

culture alive.

Like other early cultures, early Hawaiians 

felt a special connection to the land. They 

held the land in deep reverence and 

developed practices to express this reverence 

and respect. Early Hawaiians understood that 

although they may be only one individual, they 

were also a part of the human and natural 

community. This spiritual connection was 

often expressed by chanting (oli). Chanting 

was used to express ‘ihi (respect), mililani 

Kīlauea volcano caldera. Photo by Babs 

McDonald.

The nēnē goose is the State bird of Hawai‘i. 

A Canada goose is shown in the inset. Photos 

courtesy of the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
7

The Natural Inquirer • Number 16

(praise), mahalo (thanksgiving), aloha (love), 

‘ohana (family connections and kinship with 

other life forms), ha‘aha‘a (humility), and kupono

(righteousness). Today, many Hawaiians keep 

the practice of chanting alive, and by doing so 

acknowledge these values in their lives.

Federated States of Micronesia

The Federated States of Micronesia 

(FSM) form a nation made up of more than 

600 islands. Only 65 of these islands are 

inhabited. The FSM has four states, similar 

in many ways to the States within the United 

States. Each state, for example, has its own 

government. These states are Yap, Chuuk, 

Pohnpei, and Kosrae. The FSM is located 

just north of the equator. Its temperature 

rarely changes throughout the year, with an 

average temperature of 27 degrees Celsius 

(°C ) (80 degrees Fahrenheit (°F)). Daily highs 

are about 31°C (88°F) and daily lows are 

about 25°C (77°F). Rainfall is heaviest in the 

summer. The FSM may be one of the wettest 

places on Earth. Some areas of FSM receive 

about 838 centimeters (330 inches) of rain 

every year! (On the average, about how much 

rain do these areas receive every day? How 

does this compare with the amount of rainfall 

in your area?)

The total land area of the FSM is not 

large, totaling only 702 square kilometers 

(271 square miles, or a little larger than 

Washington, DC, and the State of Delaware 

combined). The 607 islands, however, cover 

about 2,589,000 square kilometers (1,000,000 

square miles) of ocean. Formed millions of 

years ago by volcanoes, the environment of 

the FSM includes mountains, river valleys, 

hills, grasslands, and sandy beaches. One of 

the special environments in the FSM that you 

will learn about is mangrove forests. These 

forests are found along the coast where they 

thrive in salt water. 

Like in Hawai‘i, nonnative (invasive) 

species have become a problem in FSM. 

Recently, scientists have begun to identify 

invasive species and suggest what should be 

done to control or eliminate them.

At least nine languages, including English, 

are spoken throughout the FSM. Because so 

many ocean miles separate the four states, 

each state has a different culture. Although 

modern in many aspects, the FSM has also 

maintained its traditional ways of life. 

Farming and fishing are the main occupations 

of people living in the FSM. 

The Pacific Islands may be far away 

from your community. As you read about 

Hawai‘i and the FSM in this Natural Inquirer, 

however, think of how your own community 

is similar to the Pacific Islands and how it is 

different.

Glossary

Caldera (kal der ə): A cauldron-like feature 

created when land collapses following a volcanic 

eruption.

Ecosystem (ē kō sis təm): A system made up 

of an ecological community of living things 

interacting with their environment, especially 

under natural conditions.

Inhabited (in ha bə təd): Occupied or lived-in.

Invasive (in vā siv): Tending to spread.

Native (nā tiv): Living or growing naturally in a 

particular region.

Reverence (rev (ə) rən(ts)s): Honor or respect 

felt or shown.

Species (spē sēs): A class of individuals having 

common attributes and designated by a 

common name.

Summit (sə mət): The highest point.

Traditional (trə di shən nəl): Being established 

or customary.
8

Hawai‘i-Pacific Islands Edition, http://www.naturalinquirer.org

Treasure Islands

Hawaiian Kipuka and the Future 

of Native Hawaiian Birds 

Photo courtesy of David Flaspohler.
9

The Natural Inquirer • Number 16

Meet the Scientists

Dr. Patrick Hart, 

Avian Biologist: I am an 

ecologist who studies 

birds on the island of 

Hawai‘i. Hawai‘i has some 

of the most beautiful birds 

in the world. Many of the 

native bird populations, 

however, are declining and in danger of 

extinction. I work with other bird ecologists to 

better understand the causes of this decline. 

We also work to find ways to protect the 

remaining birds and even help them increase 

in numbers. Being a scientist who studies birds 

is a bit like being a detective. The birds give us 

clues about why their populations are declining 

and what we can do to help. Our job is to piece 

all these clues together into a big picture that 

we humans can understand. I like this job 

because it lets me spend time in the forest 

surrounded by the birds and plants that I love. 

One of my favorite experiences recently 

was flying into a remote rain forest by 

helicopter to survey birds and plants. Few 

biologists had ever been to this area. This area 

was also home to Pu‘u ‘O‘o, an active volcano. 

Our helicopter landed on a field of lava that 

was a flowing, molten river just a week before. 

Trees along the edge of the flow had been 

knocked over and burned by the lava and were 

still smoking. Just steps from the edge of the 

flow, however, the forest was untouched and 

beautiful.

Dr. David Flaspohler, Avian Ecologist: My favorite 

science experience was realizing that science is 

about exploration and curiosity. As an ecologist, I get 

to spend a lot of time watching nature. I observe the 

behavior of birds and the ways that they interact with 

their environment. As a scientist, I have the privilege 

of being paid to explore some of the most interesting 

and beautiful creatures on the planet.

Dr. Christian Giardina, Ecologist: I like 

being a scientist because I like understanding 

how nature works. It is great to have a job 

studying plants and animals and the forests in 

which they live. I am an ecologist who works 

to protect forests. Sometimes I work to restore 

forests that have been damaged by invasive 

species, human disturbances, or things like 

drought from climate change. I use information 

from my research on forests to understand how 

to make forests more resistant to disturbances. 

I also learn how to rebuild forest ecosystems

after they have been damaged. 

My favorite experience as a scientist 

happened when I was doing forest ecology

research in the country of Belize in Central 

America. I was walking along a river called the 

Rio Frio (cold river), which ran through the most 

amazing rainforest. 

Hundreds of species 

of giant trees grew 

in this forest. I came 

upon an enormous 

cave that the Rio 

Frio ran through. 

Amazing plants grew 

all along the rim of 

the cave, and it was 

full of bats. Bats are 

some of the most 

incredible creatures 

in the world. Photo by 

Skeeter Zimsky.

t

t

t
10

Hawai‘i-Pacific Islands Edition, http://www.naturalinquirer.org

Figure 1a. Kīpuka are forested islands in a sea 

of hardened volcanic lava flow. In the Hawaiian 

language, “s” is not used to refer to the plural. 

Photo by Babs McDonald. 

Scientists try to control 

as many things as possible 

in a research project. Let’s 

say that a scientist wants to 

understand how much water a 

particular type of potted plant 

needs to grow its healthiest. 

The scientist might plant seeds of that plant 

type in six pots that are made up of the same 

material, are the same size, and contain the 

same kind of soil. The pots would be kept in 

Thinking About Science

What kind of 

scientists did 

this research?

Avian biologist: This kind of scientist 

studies the characteristics of birds, including 

their physical bodies and their behavior.

Avian ecologist: This kind of scientist 

studies how birds interact with their habitat.

Ecologist: This kind of scientist studies the 

relationship of living things with their living 

and nonliving environment. 

the same temperature and the same amount 

of sunlight. The only difference is the amount 

of water given to the plants. All of these things 

are known as variables. By controlling all the 

variables except for water, the scientist can be 

relatively certain that any difference observed in 

how the plants grew was related to the different 

amounts of water given to the plants. 

In this study, the scientists found a natural 

environment that was similar in many ways to 

the six pots. This environment is called a kīpuka. 

A kīpuka is an area of forest surrounded on all 

sides by volcanic lava flows (figures 1a-c). This 

means that a kīpuka is like a forested island in a 

sea of hardened lava.

The main difference between the kīpuka in 

this study was their size in hectares and the 

complexity of their plants and trees, especially 

their heights. The scientists were interested 

in discovering how many and what species of 

birds live in different kīpuka. If they found any 

differences, what do you think might be the 

reasons? 

Figure 1b. Kīpuka have definite boundaries 

between the forested area and the hardened 

lava that surrounds them. Photo by Babs 

McDonald. 

Glossary words are in bold and are defined 

on page 19. Hawaiian words are in italics 

and their pronunciation is given on page 

106.
11

The Natural Inquirer • Number 16

Figure 2. If you want to see an i‘iwi, you will 

have to visit Hawai‘i because that is the only 

place they are found on Earth. What do you call 

a species that is found nowhere else? Photo by 

David Flaspohler. 

Figure 3. Elevation is a measure of the height of 

land above sea level. 

Thinking About the Environment

The native forests of Hawai‘i 

have been home to 113 species 

of birds found only in Hawai‘i. 

When a species is found in only 

one place and no other, it is 

said to be endemic (ən dəm ik) 

to that area (figure 2). Of the 113 endemic 

bird species, 71 are extinct, and 31 are listed as 

endangered species. Seven native bird species 

are found in kīpuka on the island of Hawai‘i. Two 

of these—the ‘io or Hawaiian hawk and the 

‘Akiapola‘au—are endangered species. 

Native Hawaiian bird populations are under 

threat from many things. Nonnative birds compete 

for food and nesting sites. Removing forests for 

buildings or agriculture reduces the habitat of 

native birds. A disease called avian malaria has 

killed many of the native birds living at the low 

elevations on the island of Hawai‘i (figure 3). 

Avian malaria is spread by mosquitoes, which 

cannot live in the colder climate of the middle 

and higher elevations. The kīpuka, which are 

found at the middle elevations, provide protection 

from avian malaria for native Hawaiian birds. If 

nonnative birds are found living in the kīpuka, native 

bird species in Hawai‘i may suffer even more 

through competition for food and nest sites.

Figure 1c. A kīpuka created by a recent Pu‘u ‘O‘o volcanic eruption 

on Hawai‘i illustrates how kīpuka are formed. The white shapes on 

the right are clouds, and the lava is flowing into the ocean. The 

white area on the left is steam from the volcano. Image courtesy of 

the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. 

Be sure to read, 

“Cultural kīpuka in 

Hawai‘i” on page 22.
12

Hawai‘i-Pacific Islands Edition, http://www.naturalinquirer.org

Introduction

When native wildlife is under threat, 

scientists want to learn as much as possible 

about that wildlife’s habitat. In particular, 

some scientists want to know if native wildlife 

species prefer some habitats. These scientists 

want to know if nonnative wildlife also live in 

the preferred habitat. When nonnative wildlife 

move into the habitat of native species, they 

threaten the native species even more. 

The scientists in this study were interested 

in learning about birds living in different sized 

kīpuka on the island of Hawai‘i (figure 4). 

Kīpuka are like islands of forest surrounded by 

hardened lava (figure 5). The kīpuka studied by 

the scientists were located on the Mauna Loa

volcano (figure 6). The kīpuka were created 

during a volcanic eruption in 1855 (figure 7). 

The kīpuka, therefore, have been like forested 

Figure 4. Hawai‘i, consisting of a group of 

islands, is located in the Pacific Ocean. The 

island of Hawai‘i is the largest of the Hawaiian 

Islands. In 1959, Hawai‘i became the 50th State 

in the United States. 

Figure 5. Hardened lava surrounds the kīpuka.

You can see the edge of a kīpuka on the right. 

Photo by Babs McDonald. 

Figure 6. Mauna Loa is Earth’s largest volcano; 

it covers about one-half of the island of Hawai‘i 

(See inset). Mauna Loa is a shield volcano 

with gentle slopes. Mauna Loa rises almost 4 

kilometers (13,000 feet) above sea level. The 

true height of Mauna Loa, when considered 

from its base on the ocean floor, is about 17 

kilometers (56,000 feet)! This height is almost 

twice that of Mt. Everest. In this photo, Mauna Loa

is 56 kilometers (about 35 miles) away and is 2.4 

kilometers (8,000 feet) higher than the elevation 

at which this photo was taken. Mauna Loa is an 

active volcano, and its last eruption was in 1984. 

See http://www.k12.hi.us/~kapunaha/student_

projects/volc_blowout/shield_volcano.htm for 

more information about shield volcanoes. Photo 

by Babs McDonald. Inset courtesy of the United 

States Geological Survey (USGS). 

islands for more than 150 years. The scientists 

considered past studies of birds in other forest 

habitats. Based on what was already known, 

the scientists hypothesized that larger kīpuka 

with taller trees and more complex vegetation 

would have a greater variety of native and 

nonnative bird species.
13

The Natural Inquirer • Number 16

Methods

The scientists studied 18 kīpuka ranging in 

size from 0.1 hectare to 56 hectares. These 

kīpuka were between 1,470 meters and 1,714 

meters above sea level. The scientists also 

studied a large area of forest land that was just 

less than 1,000 hectares in size. The scientists 

used this large forested area as a control.

Figure 7. The kīpuka are located northeast of 

the summit caldera of Mauna Loa on Hawai‘i. A 

caldera is a cauldron-like feature created when 

land collapses following a volcanic eruption. 

A summit caldera is the caldera at the highest 

point of the volcano. See page 6 for a photo of 

Kīlauea caldera, also on Hawai‘i. 

A BIG Question: 

Why should humans care about endemic 

and endangered plant and animal species? 

By the end of this article, be prepared to 

discuss whether the scientists’ recommendation should be followed in Hawai‘i.

Number Crunches

b What was the range of the kīpuka in

acres? Multiply the number of hectares by

2.47 to find out.

b What was the range in elevation of the

kīpuka in feet? Multiply the number of

meters by 3.27 to find out.

b About how far below the summit of

Mauna Loa were the kīpuka located?

The scientists first identified the complexity 

and height of vegetation in each kīpuka. To 

determine the complexity of the vegetation, 

the scientists walked into each kīpuka. They 

observed and recorded the types of vegetation 

found in each kīpuka (figure 8). 

Figure 8. The scientists observed and recorded 

the types of vegetation and trees found in 

each kīpuka. This hāpu‘u tree fern is endemic to 

Hawai‘i. Photo by Babs McDonald. 

Reflection Section

b	 Whydoyouthinkthescientistswereinterested

inlearningaboutthehabitatofnativeand

nonnativebirdspeciesinHawai‘i?Ifyouneeda

hint,reread“ThinkingAbouttheEnvironment.”

b	 Statethehypothesis intheformofaquestion.

Scientists state a hypothesis in a particular way. 

They state a hypothesis as if no relationship will 

be found between the variables they are studying. This statement is called a null hypothesis. For 

example, a scientist might hypothesize the amount 

of water provided to a potted plant has no relationship to its rate of growth. The scientist then tries 

to prove or disprove the hypothesis. In your own 

words, state the scientists’ hypothesis for this study.
14

Hawai‘i-Pacific Islands Edition, http://www.naturalinquirer.org

Figure 9. Using LiDAR, scientists can accurately 

calculate the height of vegetation such as trees. 

To measure the height of the vegetation, 

the scientists used a technology called LiDAR. 

LiDAR stands for Light Detection and Ranging. 

LiDAR uses beams of light to measure 

distances. These beams of light are sent to 

Earth from a satellite or an airplane. For this 

study, an airplane was used. Each beam of 

light is reflected off of the Earth’s surface and 

is sent back to the airplane. Scientists know 

the speed of light and the amount of time each 

light beam takes to return to the plane. With 

this information, they use a computer program 

to calculate the distance between the airplane 

and the Earth’s surface. When the light reaches 

vegetation such as trees or it reaches the 

ground, it bounces off of the trees or ground 

and back to the airplane (figure 9). With this 

information, scientists can calculate the height 

of trees.

One of the scientists went into each kīpuka 

to observe and record the species of birds found 

living in that kīpuka. The scientist visited each 

kīpuka twice in the winter and twice in the 

summer. He did all of his observations between 

30 minutes after sunrise and 11 a.m. Each 

observation lasted for 30 minutes. Half of the 

time the scientist observed in early morning, 

and the other half of the time he observed in 

late morning. Each bird species has a unique 

song that the scientist learned. When he heard 

or saw a bird, the scientist recorded its species 

and the kīpuka in which he found it.

Number Crunches

b If it is 11:00 a.m. in Hawai‘i, what time is

it where you live? Hawai‘i is 5 to 6 hours

behind the United States Eastern Time.

The amount of time depends on whether

the Eastern Time Zone is on Daylight

Savings (6 hours behind) or Standard

Time (5 hours behind). Hawai‘i is 10 hours

behind Coordinated Universal Time (UTC).

UTC is similar to Greenwich Mean Time.

(Hint: Hawai‘i does not observe United

States Daylight Savings Time and is in the

Hawai‘i-Aleutian Time Zone.) What time is

it in Hawai‘i right now?

Reflection Section

b	 Howdid the large area offorest serve as

a control?

b	 Why did the scientists record the type

of vegetation and trees found in each

kīpuka?
15

The Natural Inquirer • Number 16

Findings

Kīpuka number

Area in 

hectares

Total number 

of native and 

nonnative bird 

species found 

in the kīpuka

Total 

number of 

nonnative bird 

species found 

in the kīpuka

4 0.07 2 0

1 0.07 3 0

11 0.09 2 1

13 0.13 3 0

2 0.13 4 1

17 0.17 2 0

12 0.19 3 0

9 0.57 5 1

14 0.59 3 0

6 1.22 5 1

10 1.70 5 1

3 2.18 6 0

15 3.18 6 0

5 9.28 5 0

7 18.54 6 1

8 35.55 7 1

16 38.64 8 2

18 55.7 9 3

Large forest About 

1,000

10 4

The vegetation and tree 

species were similar in all of the 

kīpuka studied. The exception to 

these similarities was the largest

kīpuka, in which the native koa

tree was also found. 

The highest number of 

different bird species that was 

possible to observe was 14. The 

scientists found 10 species living 

in the large nearby forest. As 

they expected, the scientists 

found that the smaller the kīpuka

in hectares, the fewer number 

of bird species were found living 

there (table 1). The number 

and type of species did not vary 

between summer and winter. 

Five of the six most frequently 

found bird species were native 

species. The nectar-feeding 

‘apapane was the most commonly 

found species (figure 10). It was 

found in every kīpuka studied as 

well as in the large forest.

The i‘iwi (figures 11a and 

11b) and ōma‘o (figure 12) 

were two other native species 

commonly found in the kīpuka.

Table 1. The larger the kīpuka in hectares, the larger the number of 

birds species that were found.

Figure10. The ‘apapane uses 

its curved beak to drink nectar 

from flowers. The ‘apapane is 

endemic to Hawai‘i. Photo by 

David Flaspohler. 
16

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The endangered ‘io (Hawaiian hawk) was 

found only in the largest kīpuka and in the large 

area of forest (figure 13). Of the 11 species 

observed in the kīpuka and the large forest, 5 were 

Figure 11a. An ‘apapane and an i‘iwi. What are the similarities 

and differences between the ‘apapane and the i‘iwi? Which of 

these birds is the i‘iwi? How do you know? Photo by David 

Flaspohler.

nonnative species. The larger the kīpuka, the more 

nonnative species were observed.

The scientists also found that the kīpuka with 

the tallest trees had the greatest number of bird 

species (figure 14).

Figure 11b. What kind of food 

do you think the i‘iwi eats? 

How do you know? Photo by 

Nolan Lancaster. 
17

The Natural Inquirer • Number 16

Figure 12. After each bird was caught, a band 

was placed on its leg, and then it was released. 

Here, Nolan Lancaster and Elizabeth Ames are 

releasing an ōma‘o. The bands were placed 

on the legs in a unique color combination that 

enabled the scientists to individually identify 

each bird. Photo by Jessie Knowlton.

Figure 13. The ‘io needs large areas of forest. 

Photo by Dr. J. B. Friday. 

Figure 14. The number of bird species found in 

the kīpuka was closely related to the maximum 

height of the trees. As you can see in this 

scatter plot, as the maximum height of the trees 

increased, the number of bird species also 

increased. The line in the scatter plot is placed 

to indicate the general relationship between 

maximum tree height and number of bird 

species. 

Reflection Section

b	 Based on the findings, do you think

the ‘apapane is likely to be one ofthe

endangered bird species?Why orwhy

not?

b	 Read the next-to-the-last sentence in

“Findings” and examine table 1.What

can you say aboutthe kīpuka and the

future of native bird species?

b	 Looking overtable 1 and figure 14,what

can you say aboutthe height oftrees in

different size kīpuka?
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Hawai‘i-Pacific Islands Edition, http://www.naturalinquirer.org

Reflection Section

b	 Whatis one advantage ofrestoring

smallforest patches?

b	 Whatis one disadvantage ofrestoring

only smallforest patches? (Hint: Think

aboutthe ‘io orHawaiian hawk.)

b	 Whymightit be importantto begin

nowto restore patches of native forest

at higher elevations?

BIG

Questions: 

Why should humans care about 

endemic and endangered species? 

Should the scientists’ 

recommendation be followed? Why?

Adapted from Flaspohler, D.J.; Giardina, C.P.; Asner, G.P.; Hart, P.; Price, J.; Lyons, C.K.; Castaneda, X. 2010. 

Long-term effects of fragmentation and fragment properties on bird species richness in Hawaiian forests. Biological 

Conservation. 143: 280–288. http://www.fs.fed.us/psw/publications/giardina/psw_2010_giardina(flaspohler)003.pdf. 

This research received support from the National Science Foundation, the Forest Service, and a Michigan 

Technological University Faculty Development Grant.

Discussion

This study is unusual because the kīpuka

have been like forested islands for more than 

150 years. This number of years is a long time 

to be isolated from other areas of forest. When 

Mauna Loa erupted in 1855, the kīpuka were 

created at the same time, and the hardened lava 

has discouraged tree growth around the kīpuka.

Without new growth, the kīpuka have remained 

isolated from one another. Because the kīpuka 

are surrounded by hardened lava, they have not 

been disturbed much by human activities. The 

kīpuka, therefore, are a good place to study how 

different species of birds come into and live in an 

isolated forest patch. 

One of the most interesting findings of this 

study is that nonnative bird species do not 

appear to live in kīpuka under about 10 hectares 

in size. Native bird species live in small-sized 

kīpuka without danger of having their habitat 

taken over by nonnative birds. These small 

forested islands, therefore, may act as a refuge

for some native bird species. 

The kīpuka are located at the middle 

elevations. This level of elevation is above the 

range of mosquitoes that carry and spread avian 

malaria to birds with their bites. As Earth’s 

climate changes and the average temperature 

rises, malaria-carrying mosquitoes may one 

day be able to live in the middle elevations. If 

this change happens, native bird species will 

need a new habitat to survive. This habitat 

must be beyond the range of mosquitoes. The 

scientists recommended restoring small areas of 

native forest at higher elevations. Because the 

number of native bird species living in kīpuka is 

also related to the height of trees, it is important 

to begin native forest restoration at higher 

elevations early to allow trees to grow tall.
19

The Natural Inquirer • Number 16

Glossary

Alien (ā lē ən): Differing in nature or character 

typically to the point of incompatibility. 

Avian (āv ē ən): Having to do with birds.

Complexity (käm plek sə tē): Characterized by 

having complicated or related parts.

Control (kən trōl): In science, a control is a 

situation used for comparison. Usually, it is found 

naturally.

Ecology (ē kä lə jē): The study of the 

relationship between living things with each 

other and with the nonliving environment.

Ecosystem (ē kō sis təm): A system made up 

of an ecological community of living things 

interacting with their environment, especially 

under natural conditions.

Elevation (e lə vā shən): The height above the 

level of the sea.

Endangered species (en dān jərd spē sēs): A 

species threatened with extinction.

Extinct (ik stiŋ(k)t): No longer living.

Extinction (ik stiŋ(k) shən): The state of being 

extinct; no longer existing.

Habitat (hab ə tat): The place or environment 

where a plant or animal naturally or normally 

lives and grows.

Hypothesize (hī pä thə sīz): To make an 

assumption to test its logical consequences.

Invasive species (in vā siv spē sēs): A plant or 

animal species not native to an area and with the 

potential to harm the native environment.

Molten (mōl tən): Liquefied by heat. 

Native (nā tiv): Living or growing naturally in a 

particular region.

Range (rānj): The region throughout which 

a kind of organism or ecological community 

naturally lives or occurs. 

Refuge (ref yüj): A place that provides shelter 

or protection.

Restoration (res tə rā shən): The act of bringing 

back to an earlier condition.

Species (spē sēs): A class of individuals 

having common attributes and designated by a 

common name.

Variable (ver ē ə bəl): Something that is able or 

apt to vary.

Accented syllables are in bold. Definitions and 

marks are from http://www.merriam-webster.com. FACTivity

Time Needed

One to two class periods (one for 

homework or background research, one 

period for in-class FACTivity). 

Materials

•	 Copy of charts on pages 20 and 21.

• 	 Treasure Islands article.

• Access to Internet, media center, or

encyclopedias.

• 	 Pencil.

The question you will answer in this 

FACTivity is: What are the similarities and 

differences between isolated environments 

of various sizes? 

As you learned in this article, a kīpuka is a 

forested island in a “sea” of hardened lava. 

The lava has isolated each kīpuka so that the 

plants and animals that live there have had a 

measure of protection from invasive species. 

The Hawaiian Islands are similar in some 

ways to kīpuka. They are forested volcanic 

islands in the middle of the Pacific Ocean. 

The Hawaiian Islands are the most isolated 

islands on Earth. This isolation had, in the 

years before humans populated the islands, 

protected Hawai‘i from invasive species. 

For this FACTivity, consider the Hawaiian 

Islands as a type of kīpuka. The volcanic 

island kīpuka, however, are much larger than 

the forested islands created by lava. You 

will compare the Hawaiian Islands with the 

kīpuka studied in this research. Consider the 

Hawaiian Islands in two ways: all islands as a 

kīpuka and each island as a kīpuka. 
20

Hawai‘i-Pacific Islands Edition, http://www.naturalinquirer.org

You will work in small groups. Using the 

chart below, compare the Hawaiian Islands 

with the kīpuka studied in this research. 

Research may be done at the media center 

or at home. Think of another isolated 

environment to compare. If possible, this 

isolated environment should be close to 

home or school. This other environment 

could be very small or quite large, such as 

an island in a lake or a median strip in the 

center of a highway. After completing the 

first chart, summarize the similarities and 

differences in the second chart. Finally, write 

a sentence or a paragraph about all isolated 

environments.

Your teacher will hold a class discussion 

about the class findings. Discuss what makes 

these isolated environments similar. What 

makes them different? What can be said 

about all isolated environments?

Forest kīpuka Each Hawaiian island 

as a separate kīpuka

Hawaiian Islands as 

one kīpuka

(Optional) Other 

isolated environment 

(describe):

Size

Animals and Plants

What isolates the 

kīpuka?

General description

The method you will use to answer the question is: 
21

The Natural Inquirer • Number 16

Extension

After reading “Cultural kīpuka in Hawai‘i” 

on the following page, compare the Waipi‘o 

Valley as a cultural kīpuka with the forested 

kīpuka described in this article. You may use 

the chart on the previous page as a guide. 

After you have completed the comparison, 

your teacher will hold a class discussion 

about the similarities and differences 

between forested kīpuka and cultural kīpuka. 

Then read your conclusion about “All isolated 

environments.” Is what you concluded true 

for cultural kīpuka as well? If so, why do you 

think that is so? If not, why not?

Similarities between kīpuka Differences between kīpuka

All isolated environments...

Math FACTivity

Create a bar chart for table 1. Place 

kīpuka area on the Y-axis and the other 

three columns on the X-axis. Note that you 

will create two columns for each numbered 

kīpuka. Your teacher will hold a 

class discussion about whether 

the table or the bar chart is easier 

to understand. Does everyone in 

your class agree? Why do you think 

that is the case? Why is one easier 

to understand than the other? What does 

this discussion tell you about how scientists 

(and you) should present data?
Figure 15. Dr. Davianna 

Pōmaika‘i McGregor is a 

social scientist who studies 

Hawaiian culture. 

Figure 17. Waipi‘o Valley is known for its beautiful 

landscapes and steep mountains. Photo by 

Richard MacKenzie. 

Hawai‘i has forested kīpuka she wrote, it also has 

cultural kīpuka (figure 15).

The natural environment of the island of Hawai‘i 

is steep and rugged in many places. Over the 

centuries, native Hawaiians settled in isolated areas 

of Hawai‘i. These places were isolated for different 

reasons. For example, steep mountains and cliffs 

might have isolated them. When Caucasians and 

Asians came to Hawai‘i, they usually went to the 

places to which they could travel easily or that were 

good for large-scale agriculture.

Waipi‘o Valley was particularly isolated (figures 

16-18). Even today, Waipi‘o Valley is difficult to 

visit. A four-wheel drive vehicle is needed to go 

into the valley. Waipi‘o Valley is known as the 

valley of kings. It is considered a sacred place, or 

wahi pana. 

You have just learned about the kīpuka in 

Hawai‘i. Kīpuka are forested islands in the middle 

of a sea of hardened lava. Because these kīpuka are 

isolated environments, they have kept their native 

plant and animal species over time. At the same 

time, other forested 

areas in Hawai‘i 

have experienced 

invasions from alien 

plant and animal 

species. In 2007, a 

native Hawaiian 

social scientist 

who studies the 

cultural history of 

Hawai‘i considered 

an interesting 

comparison. Just as 

22

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Figure 16. Waipi‘o Valley is located on the northnortheastern coast of Hawai‘i.

 Cultural Kipuka in Hawai‘i
23

The Natural Inquirer • Number 16

Figure 18. Waipi‘o Valley is difficult to visit, even 

today. Photo by Richard MacKenzie. 

Because of the isolation of Waipi‘o Valley, its 

residents maintained Hawaiian customs and 

lifestyle to the present day. As had been done by 

early Hawaiians, native Hawaiians still cultivate 

taro and traditional varieties of banana, sweet 

potato, and sugar cane. Taro is a root crop that 

grows in wet soils and is a main food source 

for about 10 percent of the world’s population. 

Fishing is still a large part of Waipi‘o culture, 

though modern tools are often used. Trees, fruits, 

nuts, and plants for eating and for medicine are 

found in the valley. Because the valley is rich in 

natural resources, its 

residents felt and still 

feel little need to buy 

products beyond what 

is necessary. In today’s 

cultural kīpuka, only 

things like flour, salt, 

soap, batteries, and 

kerosene are brought in 

from outside the valley.

Just as forested kīpuka have protected 

many native Hawaiian plant and animal 

species, cultural kīpuka, such as Waipi‘o Valley, 

have preserved many traditional Hawaiian 

perspectives and practices. Dr. McGregor 

studied Waipi‘o Valley as a cultural kīpuka. 

Dr. McGregor observed, “Kua‘āina are the 

native Hawaiians who remained in the rural 

communities of our islands, took care of the 

kūpuna or elders, continued to speak Hawaiian, 

bent their backs and worked and sweated in the 

taro patches and sweet potato fields, and held 

that which is precious and sacred in their care” 

(2007, p. 4).

Adapted from McGregor, D.P. 1995. Waipi‘o Valley, a 

cultural kīpuka in early 20th century Hawai‘i. Journal 

of Pacific History. 30(2): 194–209 and McGregor, D.P. 

2007. Nā Kua‘āina: Living Hawaiian culture. Honolulu: 

University of Hawai‘i Press.

Additional Web 

Resources

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park:

http://www.nps.gov/havo/

U.S. Geological Survey kīpuka page:

http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/images/pglossary/kipuka.php/

U.S. Geological Survey Mauna Loa page:

http://hvo.wr.usgs.gov/maunaloa/

U.S. Geological Survey Hawai‘i volcanoes page:

http://hvo.wr.usgs.gov/

A history of Hawaiian native birds (The National 

Zoo/Smithsonian Institution):

http://nationalzoo.si.edu/publications/zoogoer/1995/1/

hawaiisforestbirds.cfm/

University of California—Los Angeles Botanical 

Garden taro page:

http://www.botgard.ucla.edu/html/botanytextbooks/

economicbotany/colocasia/index.html

Adaptation lesson plan:

http://www.uhh.hawaii.edu/affiliates/prism/documents/

unitintroduction.pdf/

Waipi‘o Valley (Wikipedia):

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/waipio_valley

Waipi‘o Valley history:

http://gohawaii.about.com/cs/bigislandland/a/waipio_

valley.htm

“Treasure Islands” refers 

to the title of a famous 

young adult adventure 

novel, Treasure Island, 

by Scots author Robert Louis Stevenson. 

Treasure Island is a story 

about pirates and buried 

gold. It was published in 

1883.
24

Hawai‘i-Pacific Islands Edition, http://www.naturalinquirer.org

National Science 

Education Standard Where and How the Standard Is Addressed

Abilities Necessary To 

Do Scientific Inquiry

Thinking About Science: The control of variables, isolating the 

reasons for differences in the number of bird species. Introduction 

Reflection Section: State the research question. Methods: Technology, 

observation, recording. Findings: Bird banding. Findings Reflection 

Section: Drawing conclusions from data.

Understanding About 

Scientific Inquiry

Thinking About Science: The importance of controlling variables. 

Introduction Reflection Section: Hypotheses and research questions. 

Methods: Observation protocol. Methods Reflection Section: 

Understanding the use of a control, understanding the importance of 

recording observations. Figure 12: Ethical care of wildlife. Discussion 

Reflection Section: Implications and further study (both questions).

Structure and Function 

in Living Systems

Figure 13: Number of bird species and tree height. Discussion: The 

creation and structure of kīpuka, number of native bird species and 

kīpuka size. Discussion Reflection Section: Growth and development of 

trees.

Regulation and 

Behavior

Introduction: Preferred habitat. Introduction Reflection Section: 

Relationship between native and nonnative species. Discussion 

Reflection Section: Native species habitat preference, exclusion of 

nonnative species by habitat size.

Populations and 

Ecosystems

Thinking About the Environment: Endemic and endangered species. 

Introduction: Relationship between native and nonnative species, 

hypothesis regarding habitat size, tree height, and number of species. 

Figure 13: Relationship between tree height and number of species. 

Discussion: Relationship of bird species and mosquitoes. 

Diversity and Adaptation of Organisms

Thinking About the Environment: Endemic and endangered species. 

Introduction: Invasion of species into native habitat. Figure 8: Endemic 

plant species. Figures 11a and 11b: Adaptations of nectarvores. 

Discussion: Adaptation to a changing climate.

National Education Standards
25

The Natural Inquirer • Number 16

National Curriculum 

Standard for Social 

Studies

Where and How the Standard Is Addressed

Culture Cultural Kīpuka in Hawai‘i: Isolation of culture and its implications.

Time, Continuity, and 

Change Cultural Kīpuka in Hawai‘i: Changes in culture over time.

People, Places, and 

Environments 

The BIG Question: Informal decisionmaking regarding humanenvironment relationships, consequences of human interaction 

with the environment. Discussion: Consequences of human 

interaction with the environment. FACTivity: Understanding spatial 

perspectives.

Structure of Earth 

System

Thinking About Science: Kīpuka. Introduction: Creation of kīpuka, figures 6 

and 7: Volcanoes.

Natural Hazards Thinking About the Environment: Mosquitoes and avian malaria. 

Introduction and Introduction Reflection Section: Invasive species. 

Science and 

Technology in Society Methods: Use of LiDAR. 

Understandings 

About Science and 

Technology

Methods: Use of LiDAR, figure 9: LiDAR

Science as a 

Human Endeavor

Meet the Scientists. Thinking About Science, Introduction, and 

Introduction Reflection Section: What the scientists were interested in 

studying.

Nature of 

Science

Thinking About Science: The use of controls. Introduction: The applied 

nature of science (solving a problem). Discussion: Implications and the 

application of science to solve problems. 
26

Hawai‘i-Pacific Islands Edition, http://www.naturalinquirer.org

Koa Constrictors 

Studying Things That Slow the 

Growth of Koa Crop Trees

Photo courtesy of Paul Scowcroft.
27

The Natural Inquirer • Number 16

Meet the Scientists

Dr. J.B. Friday, Forester: 

My favorite scientific 

experience on this project was 

seeing how the native plants, 

particularly the Hawaiian mint, 

grew back after we controlled 

the grasses. The Hawaiian 

forest was once full of plants that are rare 

today, so it feels good to help restore some of 

it. Photo by Dr. Dean Meason.

Mr. Paul Scowcroft, Research 

Forester: My favorite science 

experience was discovering why 

hanging a sheet of shade cloth 

on the east side of native ohia

tree seedlings protected them 

from frost damage. At 6,500 feet 

elevation, where forests have 

been turned into cattle pasture, 

temperatures can easily fall below 

freezing. Shade cloth is a piece of cloth that 

lets some sunlight through but also provides 

some shade.

We wondered if the shade cloth caused 

the leaves to warm slowly in the morning. 

This slow warming would be similar to 

treating frostbite by slowly warming the 

fingers. We attached electrical wires to 

the underside of leaves. These wires enabled 

us to record the leaves’ temperature over time. 

Some of the leaves were fully exposed to the 

sky. Some were shielded from the morning sun 

by shade cloth hung on the east side of the 

seedling. Others were located within a forest of 

5-year-old koa trees. You will learn more about 

koa trees in this article. 

We found that exposed seedlings 

experienced lower temperatures for a longer 

time than shade cloth-shielded or koaprotected seedlings. The shade cloth blocked 

part of the night sky and prevented heat loss 

into space. The koa trees blocked even more 

of the sky. In both cases, the results 

were warmer leaves. Even though the 

temperature difference was only 2 to 3 

degrees, it reduced frost damage. Under 

koa trees, heat loss was so low that ohia

seedlings showed almost no damage and 

kept growing throughout the winter. From 

this experiment, we learned that after ice 

crystals puncture the cell walls of leaves, the 

cells die. It doesn’t matter how slowly frozen 

leaves are warmed! Photo by Dr. J.B. Friday. 

Dr. Dean Meason, 

Forest Scientist: My 

favorite science experience was 

working in the soil in the native forests 

of Hawai‘i. Soils can be wet and gooey 

or light and fluffy. Some soils are 

rich with organic matter, while other 

soils are rocky. Soils provide water, 

nutrients, and support to trees. Without the 

right soil the trees will die. Soil is very different in 

Hawai‘i. It all comes from volcanic eruptions. In 

Hawai‘i, you can see lava pouring out of Pu‘u ‘O‘o

into the sea. Walking up into the mountains you 

can see hard lava slowly turning into rich volcanic 

soil that plants can thrive in. 

t

t

t

t

Dr. Travis Idol, Forest 

Ecologist: My favorite science 

experience was measuring the 

growth of roots into mesh bags 

filled with soil. The bags were 

placed in holes in the ground in 

forests of different ages. That way, 

we could tell how fast the roots 

were growing. That would tell us how much 

energy and biomass the trees were sending 

belowground where it is not normally visible. 

The youngest forests (only 5 years old) had 

the fastest root growth but also the most rapid 

root death. These facts make sense because 

young trees have to grow roots, shoots, 

and leaves quickly to compete with their 

neighbors. After the forest ages, the fewer 

but bigger trees have well-established root 

systems and leaf canopies, and thus don’t have 

to compete as intensely. 

Photo by Dr. J.B. Friday. 

Glossary words are in bold and are defined 

on page 36. Hawaiian words are in italics and 

their pronunciation is given on page 106.
28

Hawai‘i-Pacific Islands Edition, http://www.naturalinquirer.org

How do scientists choose 

what to study? Scientists 

choose to study things for 

many reasons. Usually, 

scientists begin their career 

studying a topic in which they 

are interested. Sometimes, 

they first learned about 

their favorite topic when they were young. 

Something about the topic made them curious 

and they wanted to learn more. (What topic 

have you found out about that makes you 

curious to learn more?) When scientists do 

their research, their attention is on their topic 

of interest. The specific research questions, 

however, may be influenced by society. When 

a social problem is identified in their topic of 

interest, scientists help solve the problem.

In this research, scientists studied a native 

tree species in Hawai‘i. Many trees of this 

species were cut down about 100 years ago. 

Now, however, demand for wood from these 

trees is rising. People want to be able to use this 

tree to create wood products. The scientists 

in this study were already interested in native 

Hawaiian trees. They decided to help solve the 

problem by focusing their interest, experience, 

and research on this particular native tree 

species.

Thinking About 

Science

Thinking 

About the 

Environment

The koa (Acacia koa) tree is 

endemic to Hawai‘i. It is native 

only in Hawai‘i. Young koa trees grow fern-like 

leaves (figure 1). As koa trees grow older, sickleshaped leaf stems that function like leaves replace 

the fern-like leaves (figure 2). Koa trees are 

found all over the Hawaiian Islands (figure 3).

Figure 1. Young koa trees have true leaves. 

These leaves are fern-like in appearance. Photo 

by Dr. J.B. Friday. 

Be sure to read, 

“Canoeing and 

Surfing in Ancient Hawai‘i”

 on page 38.
Figure 2. As koa trees get older, leaf stems that 

function like leaves replace the fern-like leaves. 

Photo by Dr. J.B. Friday. 

Figure 3. The Hawaiian Islands are located in 

the Pacific Ocean. In 1959, Hawai‘i became the 

50th State in the United States. 

Koa trees are special because they provide 

wood for furniture, cabinets, surfboards, body 

boards, canoes, ukuleles, and guitars (figure 

4). They also provide habitat for endangered 

native bird species. Koa trees are culturally 

important as well. Early Hawaiians built dugout 

canoes out of the trunk of this tree. Many 

koa trees were cut down in the late 1800s and 

early 1900s to provide land for agriculture and 

cattle. In recent years, the demand for the 

wood from this tree has become larger than 

the sustainable supply. There is now a need 

to grow more koa trees that can be used for 

wood products. It is also important to protect 

koa trees so that native birds have a place to live 

now and into the future.

Figure 4. Koa wood guitars are known for 

producing rich tones. These tones get richer 

as the guitar is played over time. In this photo, 

Adam Allen is playing an acoustic koa wood 

guitar at Musician’s Warehouse, Bogart, 

Georgia. Country star Taylor Swift plays a 

variety of acoustic koa wood guitars. See http://

taylorswiftkoawoodguitar.com/?p=108. Photo by 

Babs McDonald. 

29

The Natural Inquirer • Number 16
30

Hawai‘i-Pacific Islands Edition, http://www.naturalinquirer.org

Introduction

Koa is one of the most valued of tropical 

woods. A particular type of koa tree, called 

Acacia koa, is found in the Hawaiian Islands. The 

wood from this tree is used to create furniture, 

cabinets, carved bowls, canoes, surfboards, 

body boards, ukuleles, and guitars (see figure 

4). Unfortunately, the future demand for koa

wood will not be met unless better ways are 

found to grow koa crop trees today. Crop trees 

are trees with straight trunks and few side 

branches (figure 5). These trunks are best for 

creating lumber (figure 6). 

Figure 5. Koa crop trees have straight trunks. 

Photo by Paul Scowcroft. Figure 6. Lumber is cut from koa crop trees. 

Photo by Dr. J.B. Friday. 

Although landowners know how to start 

koa trees from seed, young koa trees face three 

obstacles as they grow into crop trees. The 

first is competition from koa trees that do not 

have straight trunks. The second is competition 

from nonnative grasses growing under the 

trees. The third obstacle for koa crop trees is 

growing in soils that lack the necessary nutrients 

for healthy growth. Because many new koa 

forests are growing on land that was once used 

for cattle or agriculture, the soil is often low in 

necessary nutrients.

 The scientists in this study were interested 

in studying these three obstacles for koa crop 

trees. They wanted to measure the growth of 

koa crop trees over a 3-year period following 

special treatments. Specifically, the scientists 

wanted to know how koa crop trees would 

respond to each of the following treatments: (1) 

removing nearby noncrop koa trees; (2) killing 

nonnative grasses with an herbicide; and (3) 

using an herbicide to kill nonnative grasses and 

adding the fertilizer phosphorus (P) to the soil.
31

The Natural Inquirer • Number 16

Methods

The scientists studied koa trees on the 

northeastern slope of Mauna Loa volcano 

(figure 7). The scientists studied an area 

covering 12 hectares. The trees had been cut 

down in the 1960s, and the area was used to 

graze cattle. Although koa trees still grew in 

the pasture, there were few trees compared 

with the original forest. The disturbance 

caused by cutting the trees down and having 

cattle graze allowed nonnative grasses to grow 

Figure 7. The location of the study site on the island of 

Hawai‘i. For more information about Mauna Loa volcano, see 

figure 6 in the article, “Treasure Islands,” in this journal. 

Figure 8. Koa seeds have a hard 

protective coating. Photo by Dr. J.B. 

Friday. 

Why is 

phosphorus 

important to 

koa trees?

Phosphorus is one of the three most 

essential minerals for all plants, 

including koa trees. The other essential 

minerals are nitrogen and potassium. 

Phosphorus is necessary for photosynthesis. 

It helps koa trees withstand stress, 

promotes growth of leaves and roots, and 

is involved with the manufacture of sugars 

and starches. If phosphorus is not widely 

available, koa trees may grow more slowly.

on the ground. Underground, dormant koa

seeds lay buried. These dormant koa seeds 

have a hard protective coating. Over time 

soil acids, bacteria, and fungi break down this 

protective coat, allowing water and oxygen 

to get inside the seed (figure 8). Still, the 

soil must be disturbed in some way for the 

seeds to germinate. In 1978, a bulldozer was 

used to disturb the soil. Soon after, the seeds 

germinated, and young koa trees began to 

grow.

Reflection Section

b	 Explain in your ownwordswhy crop

trees are needed for products such as

surfboards, body boards,furniture, and

guitars.

b	 Why did the scientistswantto

study the three obstacles to koa

crop tree growth?

b	 Look atfigure 5.Do you see any

noncrop koa trees in the photo?Howdo

you know?
32

Hawai‘i-Pacific Islands Edition, http://www.naturalinquirer.org

Number Crunches

b How many acres large was the study area? Multiply the number of hectares by 2.47 to find out.

In 2001, the scientists identified eight areas 

to study within the 12 hectares. In four of the 

areas, noncrop koa trees growing close to crop 

trees were killed (figures 9 and 10). This is 

called “thinning.” In the other four, noncrop koa 

trees were left as a control. A control is used 

as a comparison in scientific studies. Each of 

these eight areas was 60 meters long on a side. 

Within each area, the scientists marked four 

smaller areas. In three of the smaller areas, the 

scientists applied one of the three treatments, 

leaving the fourth smaller area untreated 

(figures 11 and 12).

Figure 9. To thin the areas, noncrop koa trees 

growing close to crop trees were killed by 

girdling. Girdling is a method of cutting around 

the outer part of the trunk. This cutting stops the 

flow of sugar-rich fluids down the tree, killing the 

roots and, gradually, killing the tree. By gradually 

killing the tree, insects and other animals could 

still use the tree as habitat. Photo by Paul 

Scowcroft. 

Figure 10. Two noncrop koa trees killed by 

girdling. Photo by Paul Scowcroft. 
33

The Natural Inquirer • Number 16

Figure 11.

Scientists 

studied eight 

areas. Each 

of these eight 

areas contained 

four smaller 

areas. Only 

three of the four 

smaller areas 

were treated. 

Figure 12. Scientists treated the nonnative grasses 

in this area with herbicide. Photo by Paul Scowcroft. 

Number Crunches

b How old were the koa trees in 2001? How old would they be today?
34

Hawai‘i-Pacific Islands Edition, http://www.naturalinquirer.org

The scientists identified all potential crop 

trees. In 2001 and 2002, they measured the 

diameter at breast height (DBH) of every 

crop tree. They thinned the noncrop koa trees 

in four of the eight areas. Then they applied 

the herbicide and phosphorus treatments. In 

the summers of 2003, 2004, and 2005, the 

scientists once again measured the DBH of all 

crop trees.

What is DBH?

DBH stands for diameter 

at breast height. In 

the United States, this distance is 1.4 

meters from the ground. This method is a 

standard way to measure the size of trees 

(figure 13). When the tree is growing on 

a hill, DBH is measured on the uphill side 

of the tree.

Figure 13. The scientists measured the 

DBH of every koa crop tree in the eight 

areas. Photo by Paul Scowcroft.

Number Crunches

b How many feet above the ground is

DBH? Multiply 1.4 meters by 3.28 to

find out.

b How many feet on each side was the

study area?

Reflection Section

b	 Explain in your ownwordswhy scientists

use a control inwhich no

treatmentis applied.

b	 Why did the scientistsmeasure

theDBHofthe koa crop trees

before and afterthe treatments?

Findings

By the end of the second year, 75 percent of 

the girdled koa trees had died. By the third year, 

all the girdled trees were dead. The trunks of 

koa crop trees growing in the thinned areas and 

without other treatments did not grow much 

larger. In thinned areas with herbicide to control 

nonnative grasses, the trunk sizes increased by 

70 percent. The scientists could not say with 

confidence, however, that the growth was 

related to the addition of herbicide. Although a 

70-percent increase in size seems high, it was 

not enough to be sure that the growth was 

caused by the herbicide treatment. Scientists 

always err on the side of caution. When they 

cannot be relatively certain, scientists say 

that the observed difference in growth is not 

significant. 

In the thinned areas where herbicide was 

used along with the application of phosphorus, 

the koa crop tree trunks more than doubled in 

DBH. In this case the scientists were confident 

that the combination of thinning, herbicide, and 

phosphorus contributed to the faster growth. 

The scientists called the doubling a significant 

difference in observed growth.
35

The Natural Inquirer • Number 16

What makes an observed 

change significant?

When scientists do experiments or 

make observations, they realize 

that they usually will not be able to make 

a conclusion for sure. In most instances, 

the best they can do is conclude that an 

observed change is not due to a chance 

occurrence. Depending on the number 

of observations and the strength of the 

observed change, scientists might call an 

observed change significant. When scientists 

are fairly certain that the observed change 

was not caused by a chance occurrence, it 

Reflection Section

b	 If youwere one ofthe scientists doing this research,whatwould you recommend to

managerswanting to increase the growth rate of koa crop trees?

b	 Is phosphorus importantto the growth of koa trees?Howdo you know?

Reflection Section

b	 Howare koawood guitars and phosphorus

related?

b	 Whywould thinning alone be

best donewhen the trees are

young?

Discussion

The scientists believed that thinning alone 

did not improve growth because it would 

take more than 3 years for koa crop trees to 

respond to an increase in available sunlight. The 

scientists recommended that if thinning is the 

only treatment to be used, it should be done 

when the trees are young. The disadvantage 

of thinning at a young age has to do with the 

identification of crop trees and noncrop trees. 

When trees are younger, it is more difficult 

to identify which trees will become the best 

crop trees. When koa trees are older, the most 

is considered a significant change. Scientists 

do not just decide for themselves whether a 

change is significant. They use mathematical 

equations to determine whether a change is 

significant.

When most people say that something 

is significant, they mean that the event or 

object has a great amount of importance. 

When scientists say that an observed change 

is significant, they mean that it is very likely 

the change was not caused by chance. 

effective way to grow koa crop trees is to thin 

the noncrop trees, use herbicide to kill nonnative 

grasses, and apply phosphorus as a fertilizer.
36

Hawai‘i-Pacific Islands Edition, http://www.naturalinquirer.org

Glossary

Biomass (bī ō mas): Living matter.

Dormant (dör mənt): Temporarily inactive.

Elevation (e lə vā shən): The height above the 

level of the sea.

Endangered (in dān jərd): Species whose 

continued existence is in danger.

Germinate (jər mə nāt): Sprout or develop. 

Come into being.

Habitat (ha bə tat): The place or environment 

where a plant or animal naturally or normally 

lives and grows.

Herbicide ((h)ər bə sīd): A substance used to 

destroy or slow plant growth.

Native (nā tiv): Growing or living naturally in a 

particular place.

Nutrients (nü trē ənts): Substances that provide 

nourishment.

Organic (ör ga nik): Of, relating to, or derived 

from living organisms.

Seedling (sēd liŋ): A young plant grown from 

seed.

Species (Spē sēs): A class of individuals having 

common characteristics and designated by a 

common name.

Sustainable supply (sə stā nə bəl sə plī): 

Something that satisfies a need or wish 

and is managed so that it is not used up or 

permanently damaged.

Tropical (trä pi kəl): Of or relating to a region 

or climate that is frost-free, with temperatures 

high enough to support year-round plant growth 

given sufficient moisture.

Accented syllables are in bold. Definitions and 

marks are from http://www.merriam-webster.com.

FACTivity

Note: This FACTivity can be used with any 

Natural Inquirer article.

Time Needed

40 minutes

Materials

•	 This article.

• 	 Graphic organizer on page 37.

In this FACTivity, you will explore the 

reasons the scientists in this study might 

have chosen to be involved in the study. 

The question you will answer in this 

FACTivity is: Based on this FACTivity, what 

can you conclude about why each of these 

scientists became involved in this research 

project?

The method you will use to answer the 

question is: Reread the first paragraph 

in “Thinking About Science.” Then read 

one scientist’s statement at a time. 

Identify word clues or phrases from each 

statement that appear to be related to the 

research described in the article. Write 

word or phrase clues in the organizer 

below. In the last column, state the 

relationship between the clues and the 

research. 

For example, in Mr. Scowcroft’s 

statement, the phrase, “forests have been 

turned into cattle pasture” is a phrase 

clue. This would be written in the second 

column. In the last column, you might state 

that, “Mr. Scowcroft studies koa forests that 

had earlier been turned into pasture.” This 

statement would be a sound conclusion 

because Mr. Scowcroft studied these 

areas during one of his favorite science 

experiences and the same type of area 

was studied in the article.
37

The Natural Inquirer • Number 16

Scientist’s 

last name 

and type of 

scientist

Clues from the scientist’s statement

Relationship between clues 

and the research described in 

the article

Now answer the question posed at the beginning of this FACTivity.

Adapted from Scowcroft, P.G.; Friday, J.B.; Idol, T.; Dudley, N.; Haraguchi, J.; Meason, D. 2007. Growth response of 

Acacia koa trees to thinking, grass control, and phosphorus fertilization in a secondary forest in Hawai‘i. Forest Ecology and 

Management. 239: 69–80. http://www.fs.fed.us/psw/publications/scowcroft/psw_2007_scowcroft001.pdf
38

Hawai‘i-Pacific Islands Edition, http://www.naturalinquirer.org

The first Polynesians in Hawai‘i carved 

canoes and used these to travel over large 

distances. This is called holomoana or voyaging, 

a practice that continues today. In Hawai‘i, koa

trees are still shaped into canoes (figure 14). 

This is done for recreation and to keep alive the 

cultural practice and art of carving canoes. The 

art of carving canoes is called kalai wa a.

For Native 

Hawaiians and 

those who paddle 

traditional canoes, 

canoe building is a 

spiritual experience. 

In ancient times, 

canoe building 

was undertaken 

by traditional 

builders only after 

making customary 

offerings to the 

gods and receiving 

signs understood 

as blessings to 

continue. Today, traditional offerings of thanks 

and respect are still practiced. From the time 

a decision was made to build a canoe until 

its first voyage, events were seen as good or 

bad omens. Koa trees were harvested in the 

mountain forests. The elepaio, a species of 

flycatcher, was observed over many days to 

note its tree-pecking behavior. If a elepaio was 

seen pecking into a tree, the tree was known to 

have insects. This would make it unsuitable for a 

canoe. Many of these traditional approaches to 

harvesting koa logs and shaping canoes are still 

practiced today.

Shaping a canoe from a solid koa log is 

complicated. After the canoe tree is cut, the 

future canoe is roughly shaped on the outside. 

After the outside shaping is done, the inside is 

hollowed out. In the past, this was done with 

stone tools. Today, power tools are also used. 

After the inside is hollowed out, the canoe tree 

is light enough to be hauled from the forest 

to the shore. Hauling a canoe to shore was 

an important cultural event, requiring many 

people working (laulima) in unison (lokahi). The 

entire community celebrated this event. After 

bringing the canoe 

close to shore, the 

canoebuilder finished 

shaping the canoe. 

This work was so 

respected that no one 

was allowed to talk in 

the building while the 

canoebuilder was at 

work (figure 15).

Koa wood canoes 

are long and thin and 

require an outrigger 

for stability. An 

outrigger is made up 

of a long float (ama) 

attached to the canoe with two bars of wood 

(iako). An outrigger does more than prevent 

capsizing (figure 16). It keeps the canoe stable 

in even the roughest ocean conditions. Today 

in Hawai‘i, koa canoes are special vessels. They 

Figure 14. The best koa

canoe trees are large, 

straight, and tall.

Figure 15. Koa wood 

canoes. Photo from the 

Bishop Museum, http://

www.bishopmuseum.

org. 

Figure 16. The 

outrigger gives 

the long thin 

canoes incredible 

stability in even 

very rough water. 

Poster courtesy 

of Michael Van 

Dorn, Hawai‘i 

artist, http://www.

vandornart.com. 

Hoe a hoe ka Wa a a me He e nalu i ka waa kahiko 

(Canoeing and Surfing in Ancient Hawai‘i)
39

The Natural Inquirer • Number 16

Figure 18. Surfboards are sometimes paddled 

from a standing position. Photo by Dr. Ken 

Cordell. 

are used for racing and for ceremonies. Koa 

wood canoes are paddled by members of canoe 

clubs (halau wa‘a) during races. These paddlers 

are continuing an ancient practice that is a 

foundation of traditional Hawaiian culture.

Another koa product is traditional surfboards 

(alaia). Koa was one of the three most common 

trees used for surfboards in ancient Hawai‘i. Koa 

wood surfboards are still used today.

Surfboards came in many forms, shapes, 

and sizes. The long surfboards (olo) were carved 

from the wiliwili tree (erythrina sandwicensis). 

The wiliwili tree produces very light but strong 

wood. Surfboards from these trees were 

reserved specifically 

for nobility. 

Ancient Hawaiians 

began using wooden 

boards to surf waves 

very early in Hawaiian 

history (figure 17). 

Although other 

early societies used 

surfboards, Hawaiian 

surfboard styles were 

more varied, and the 

Hawaiian art of surfing 

was more developed. 

Early Hawaiians 

created wood boards 

of various sizes so 

that different styles of 

surfing and different 

sizes of people could 

ride the waves. 

Surfing remains a way of life in Hawai‘i. 

Surfers ride waves today in the traditional 

manner. Paddling surfboards from a standing 

position has also become popular (figure 18). 

Surfing ocean waves is an art that was begun 

thousands of years ago in Hawai‘i and will 

continue into the future.

Why do you think 

canoe travel was 

important to early 

Hawaiians?

Information from the Polynesian Voyaging Society, http://

www.pvs.kcc.hawaii.edu/ike/kalai_waa/koakanu.html, 

and from the Surf History Preservation Collection, http://

www.woodsurfboards.com.

Hawaiian saying: 

E ola ke koa: 

Live like a koa tree; 

Live a long time, like a koa 

tree in the forest. 

(From http://www.bishopmuseum.org.)

Figure 17. Koa wood 

surfboards. Photo 

from the Bishop 

Museum, http://www.

bishopmuseum.org.

Boa constrictors are snakes that live in 

Central and South America. They kill their 

prey by slowly squeezing it until it suffocates. 

Constrict means to stop or inhibit. The three 

things studied by the scientists in this study 

inhibited the fast growth of koa crop trees. 

That makes them koa constrictors!
40

Hawai‘i-Pacific Islands Edition, http://www.naturalinquirer.org

National Science 

Education Standard Where and How the Standard Is Addressed

Abilities Necessary To Do 

Scientific Inquiry

Meet the Scientists: Description of their own scientific inquiry. 

Introduction: Identify questions. Introduction Reflection Section: 

Communicate procedures, critical thinking. Methods: Description 

of methods, What is DBH? Mathematics. Discussion Reflection 

Section: Explanation, critical thinking. 

Understandings About 

Scientific Inquiry

Meet the Scientists: Different methods. Introduction: First and 

last paragraphs. Methods: Experimental design and mathematics. 

What is DBH?, figure 13, and Methods Reflection Section:

Mathematics. Findings: Significant change. 

Reproduction and Heredity Method: Dormant seeds.

Regulation and Behavior Phosphorus sidebar: Tree response to phosphorus.

Populations and Ecosystems Introduction: Obstacles to growth.

History of the Polynesian Voyaging Society:

http://www.pvs-hawaii.com/about_pvshistory.htm

Using Polynesian noninstrument navigation:

http://www.pvs-hawaii.com/navigation/summary.htm

Building ancient koa wood surfboards:

http://www.clubofthewaves.com/surf-culture/ancienthawaiian-board-building.php

Gallery of koa tree photos by Dr. J.B. Friday:

http://www.flickr.com/photos/jbfriday/

sets/72157625383856739/show/

Koa Ethnobotany information: Bishop Museum:

http://data.bishopmuseum.org/ethnobotanydb/ethnobotany.php?b=d&ID=koa

Anatomy of a Tree—Arbor Day Foundation:

http://www.arborday.org/trees/RingsTreeNatomy.cfm

Additional Web Resources

National Education Standards
41

The Natural Inquirer • Number 16

Structure of Earth System Meet the Scientists: Meason’s soil description.

Populations, Resources, 

and Environments

Thinking About the Environment and Introduction: Wood products 

for society. 

Understandings About 

Science and Technology Discussion: Tradeoffs about when to use technology to thin.

Natural Hazards Method: Effects of disturbance.

Science as a Human 

Endeavor

Thinking About Science: How scientists decide what to study.

FACTivity: Reasons scientists like to study what they do.

Nature of Science Findings: Significance sidebar.

National Curriculum 

Standards for Social Studies Where and How the Standard Is Addressed

Culture Thinking About the Environment: Dynamic culture. Canoeing and 

Surfing in Ancient Hawai‘i: Human beings and culture.

People, Places, and 

Environments 

Thinking About the Environment: Relationship between people 

and environment. Canoeing and Surfing in Ancient Hawai‘i: Relationship between people and environment.

Global Connections Figure 4 and Introduction: Demand for koa wood.

Production, Distribution, and 

Consumption

Thinking About the Environment: Demand for koa wood. Introduction Reflection Section: Production of wood, obstacles to meeting 

demand. 
42

Hawai‘i-Pacific Islands Edition, http://www.naturalinquirer.org

How Elevation Change 

and Sea-Level Rise Affect 

Mangrove Forests

Photo courtesy of Brandon Cole Marine Photography.

Mangrove Mania 
43

The Natural Inquirer • Number 16

Meet the Scientists

Dr. Jim Allen, 

Forest Ecologist: 

My favorite science 

experiences 

have been those 

that involve the 

opportunity to 

discover new things 

about forests. I 

enjoy working with 

the people who 

depend on the 

forests I’ve studied. I’ve also enjoyed all the 

travel opportunities that a career in science has 

provided. I have done fieldwork in beautiful 

places like Micronesia and the cypress swamps 

of the Southern United States. I have presented 

my research results at conferences in places like 

Alaska, Italy, and New Zealand. 

Dr. Ken W. 

Krauss, Ecologist: 

My favorite science 

experience is 

working directly 

with land managers 

to communicate 

the results of our 

scientific studies. 

Sharing this 

information helps 

the managers 

make important 

land management decisions. I also enjoy the 

publication process, and I appreciate learning 

from other scientists with different viewpoints. 

Peer review and criticism promote 

excellence in science. In the picture, I am 

scouting for new tidal freshwater forested 

wetland study sites in the Savannah National 

Wildlife Refuge located in South Carolina. 

Dr. 

Katherine 

Ewel, Wetland 

Ecologist: My 

favorite science 

experience 

was working 

with people in 

another culture 

to help them 

see their natural environment from a different 

viewpoint. Making the right management 

decisions often depends on seeing a problem 

from many angles. 

Ms. Nicole Cormier, Ecologist: 

My favorite science experience has 

been traveling and working on tropical 

islands like those in the Federated 

States of Micronesia (FSM). I have been 

fortunate to work in old growth mangrove 

forests. I have also worked in one of the 

largest remaining freshwater Terminalia 

(a type of large tree) forests in the world 

on Kosrae, FSM. I learned a lot about how 

sea-level rise and climate change affect the 

mangrove ecosystem and its links to nearby 

fishing areas and to coral reef health. I have 

also learned how different cultures are linked 

to the forests and are dependent upon these 

mangroves for coastal protection, firewood, 

and fish.

t

t

t

t

Glossary words are in bold and are defined 

on page 49. Hawaiian words are in italics and 

their pronunciation is given on page 106.
Many different types of 

measurement are used in science. 

Measurement helps scientists compare things 

and make predictions. In this study the scientists 

measure several different variables over several 

years. Measuring something over time helps 

scientists figure out what might happen now 

and in the future. 

To take accurate measurements, scientists 

use a lot of different types of instruments. You 

may use different instruments like beakers and 

scales in your science lab at school. Scientists 

Thinking About 

Science use these types of 

instruments as well 

as computers and 

calculators. Using 

the right instruments 

and making accurate measurements is 

important. In this study, you will learn about 

an instrument that scientists used to measure 

changes in the amount of soil on the surface 

of the land on two islands. This instrument 

helped scientists compare the amount of soil 

and sediment on the islands and enabled 

them to make predictions about future 

changes on these islands.

Islands are constantly changing. The islands 

in this study are located in the tropics (figure 

1). The islands started as volcanic islands. Over 

time, rocks and other debris break down and 

sediment is formed. Environmental forces like 

wind and water move the sediment around. 

The amount of sediment 

that is deposited changes the 

elevation of the land. On these 

islands, the change in elevation might be small. 

Even so, small changes could have large effects. 

Changes in elevation may lead to changes on the 

island. In the tropics, the changes in elevation and 

losses of sediment eventually 

cause the volcanic island to 

support a barrier island that 

then becomes an atoll (figure 

2). In this study, scientists were 

interested in how the elevation 

changes due to changes in 

sediment and a rise in sea level 

affect a certain type of forest 

called a mangrove forest. 

Figure 1. The tropics are near the equator. 

Image courtesy of http://upload.wikimedia.org. 

Figure 2 (right). An atoll has a reef 

around a lagoon. This is the Pearl and 

Hermes Atoll, part of the Hawaiian 

Islands National Wildlife Refuge. Photo 

courtesy of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife 

Service.

Thinking About the Environment

44

Hawai‘i-Pacific Islands Edition, http://www.naturalinquirer.org

Be sure to read 

“Unity in 

Diversity”

 on page 52.
45

The Natural Inquirer • Number 16

Figure 4a (top) and figure 4b: Mangrove forests 

provide many benefits to people, animals, and 

land. Give one example of a benefit by looking at 

these pictures. Photos by Brandon Cole Marine 

Photography.

Introduction

The scientists studied two 

islands, Kosrae and Pohnpei, 

in the Federated States of 

Micronesia (figure 3). Both 

of these islands have coastal 

mangrove forests (figures 4a 

and 4b). Mangrove forests 

are trees and shrubs found in 

the tropics that have large root 

structures and create barriers 

that help protect coastlines. 

These mangrove forests provide 

many benefits. The mangrove 

forests provide protection for 

the villages, agricultural areas, 

and other things on the island. 

This protective benefit is one 

way mangrove forests also help 

support the island’s economy. 

These forests provide homes for 

fish and other wildlife. Because 

the mangrove forests are so 

important, the scientists in the 

study wanted to know how 

different elevation changes on 

the islands and sea-level rise 

affect mangrove forests. 

Figure 3. Kosrae and Pohnpei islands are 

located in the Central Pacific Ocean. Photo 

courtesy of USDA Forest Service/The Nature 

Conservancy.
46

Hawai‘i-Pacific Islands Edition, http://www.naturalinquirer.org

Number Crunches

b How many inches did sea-level rise

in the past 20 years? (Hint: Take

amount of millimeters and multiply

it by .039 to find out!)

Methods

The scientists chose to study 

three different types of areas in which 

mangrove forests grow. The three areas 

were fringe, riverine, and interior. Fringe 

areas are on the exterior of the island and 

are subject to more wave action. Riverine 

areas are closer to rivers. The interior 

areas receive more protection from the 

waves, but are more affected by humans. 

On each island, the scientists chose two 

river basins to study. The scientists 

also included a backswamp area on 

Kosrae Island called Pukusruk (figure 5). 

Pukusruk was not directly affected by 

the river and is also protected from 

direct wave action (figure 6). 

Figure 5. Study locations on each island

Figure 6. The location 

of each study site. The 

shaded areas are areas with 

mangrove forests. 

What is sea-level rise?

S ea-level rise is the amount that sea level changes over time. Over the past 20 years, sea level 

has risen 3.302 millimeters a year. The rise in water levels has been linked to several things. 

One possible cause of sea-level rise is melting ice caps, glaciers, and ice sheets. Scientists are now 

studying other possible contributing factors. Scientists are interested in sea-level rise because as 

the sea level rises, some land that was once dry will be covered in water. Sea-level rise can also 

cause more erosion, flooding, loss of habitat, and contamination of aquifers. Sea-level rise 

can impact us in more ways. To learn more, visit http://ocean.nationalgeographic.com/ocean/

critical:issues:sea-level:rise/.

Kosrae Island Pohnpei Island

1) Yela River 1) Enipoas River

2) Utwe River 2) Sapwalap 

River

3) Pukusruk 

(backswamp)

Reflection Section

b Mangrove forests provide homes for fish and

other wildlife. How could this help support the

island’s economy?

b What did the scientists want to

learn in this study?
47

The Natural Inquirer • Number 16

Figure 7a. The surface-elevation tables (SETs) 

helped to measure the vertical changes in the soil. 

Figure 7b. Forest Service Ecologist 

Ken W. Krauss, now with the U.S. 

Geological Survey (USGS), takes 

surface elevation measurements 

in a mangrove forest on the island 

of Kosrae, Federated States of 

Micronesia. Photo courtesy of Dr. 

James A. Allen, Forest Service.

Figure 8. The 

scientists placed 

the markers 

throughout 

the study sites 

to measure 

sedimentation. 

Photo by Dr. Ken 

Krauss, USGS. 

At each of these sites, the scientists installed 

a surface-elevation table (SET) and aluminum 

pipes (figure 7a and 7b). The SET helps 

scientists figure out the vertical changes in 

soil surface. The SET enables the scientists to 

take repeated elevation measurements over 

time. The scientists arranged the SETs in four 

different directions in each measurement area. 

This arrangement enabled the scientists to take 

36 measurements during each measurement 

period. A total of 39 SET pipes on the 2 

islands measured conditions for 5 to 7 years. 

The scientists also measured the amount of 

sedimentation. The scientists placed 99 

markers throughout the study areas (figure 8) 

and used a ruler to measure the sediment layer 

over time.

Reflection Section

b Why do you think the scientists chose

two different islands to study?

b Why do you think scientists measured

the islands for 5 to 7 years instead of

just 1 or 2 years?

The scientists also gathered data on sealevel rise. The scientists had data on sea-level 

rise for Pohnpei but they did not have it for 

Kosrae Island. To be consistent and use the 

best possible data, the scientists used general 

sea-level trend data for the entire area in their 

calculations.
48

Hawai‘i-Pacific Islands Edition, http://www.naturalinquirer.org

Reflection Section

b Why do you think harvesting of

overstory trees may have affected

the soil elevation?

b Why do you think fringe areas generally

lost soil elevation over the time period

studied?

Reflection Section

b Why is it important for tropical land

managers to learn how best to manage

the land around mangrove

forests?

b Why is it important for people

living on the islands to be

concerned about rising sea levels?

Findings

The riverine and interior zones along the 

Utwe River and the interior zone along the Yela 

River built elevation over the 6-1/2-year period 

(figure 9). Soil elevation at Pukusruk increased 

slightly until early 2002 when there was a 

harvest of nearby overstory trees. Then soil 

elevation decreased by 21 millimeters.

Discussion

Understanding how sedimentation affects 

mangrove forests can help people who manage 

tropical forests make better decisions about 

how to use the land surrounding mangrove 

forests. In this study, harvesting had a negative 

effect on soil elevation. The less soil there is, the 

more susceptible an area is to rising sea levels. 

Scientists suggest that mangrove forests may 

need to be protected from nearby harvesting 

so that soil elevation is not negatively affected. 

The scientists in this study thought that this 

protection was particularly true for the fringe 

areas. These areas are more susceptible to sealevel rise and may not gain back the soil that 

would be lost during harvesting. 

The scientists also found that continuous 

soil deposition is very important on these 

islands and helps with elevation levels relative 

to sea-level change. Continuous soil deposition 

means that through different processes such 

as weathering rock, soil is deposited in areas. 

This soil helps build the elevation of the area. 

Higher elevations protect the island from sealevel rise. Sea-level rise can greatly affect 

mangrove forests and other parts of the island 

ecosystem. Therefore, understanding soil 

deposition, elevation change, and sea-level rise 

helps scientists make the best recommendations 

for protecting the mangrove forests on these 

islands.

Figure 9. Yearly elevation change over a 6-1/2- 

year period. 

Location Elevation Change

Yela Interior 0.91 millimeters/year

Utwe Riverine 3.29 millimeters/year

Utwe Interior 4.08 millimeters/year

Overall, sedimentation rates were high over 

the time period that the scientists studied. 

Specifically, riverine and interior areas gained 

elevation over the time period studied. The 

fringe areas in all four river basins, however, 

lost elevation over the time period studied. 

The scientists also found that fringe and 

riverine zones were moderately susceptible

to sea-level rise, with fringe zones being the 

most susceptible. The fringe zones are most 

susceptible to sea-level rise because they are 

closer to the sea and have the greatest amount 

of erosion. If the level of the water changes, it 

affects these areas more quickly.
49

The Natural Inquirer • Number 16

Glossary

Accurate (ak yə rət): Free from error.

Aquifer (ak wə fər): A water-bearing layer of 

rock, sand, or gravel capable of absorbing water.

Atoll (a töl): A coral island consisting of a reef 

surrounding a lagoon.

Barrier island (bar ē ər ī lənd): A long broad 

sandy island lying parallel to a shore that is built 

up by the action of waves, currents, and winds 

and that protects the shore from the effects of 

the ocean.

Backswamp (bak swamp): A wetland area that 

is not directly affected by wave energy. 

Communal (kə myün əl): Shared by a group or 

community.

Contamination (kən tam ə nā shən): The act 

or process of making something harmful or 

unpleasant.

Debris (də brē): The accumulation of fragments 

of rock and wood.

Deposition (dep ə zish ən): The act or process 

of depositing. In this example, soil is deposited 

on the land from different processes like erosion 

and weathering.

Elevation (el ə vā shən): The height above sealevel.

Harvest (här vəst): The act or process of 

gathering in a crop or wood from a forest.

Instrument (in(t) strə mənt): A measuring 

device for determining the present value of a 

quantity under observation. 

Land manager (land man ij ər): A skilled 

individual who takes care of the land.

Matrilineal (ma trə li nē əl): Relating to family 

descent through mothers.

Navigation (nav ə gā shən): The science of 

getting ships, aircraft, or spacecraft from place 

to place.

Overstory (ō vər stōr ē): The layer of tree leaves 

and foliage in the tree canopy.

Peer review (pi(ə)r ri vyü): A process used for 

checking the work performed by one’s equals 

(peers). 

River basin (riv ər bās ən): The land area 

drained by a river and its tributaries.

Sediment (sed ə mənt): Material deposited by 

wind, water, or glacier.

Sedimentation (sed ə mən tā shən): The act or 

process of depositing sediment.

Susceptible (sə sep tə bəl): Easily affected.

Tropics (träp iks): The region that surrounds 

the equator and goes from 23.5 degrees north 

latitude to 23.5 degrees south latitude.

Variable (ver ē ə bəl): Thing that can vary in 

number or amount.

Vertical (vərt i kəl): Going straight up or down 

from a surface.

Accented syllables are in bold. Definitions and 

marks are from http://www.merriam-webster.com.

Adapted from Krauss, K.W.; Cahoon, D.R.; Allen, J.A.; Ewel, K.C.; Lynch, J.C.; Cormier, N. 2010. Surface 

elevation change and susceptibility of different mangrove zones to sea-level rise on Pacific High Islands of Micronesia. 

Ecosystems. 13: 129–143.
50

Hawai‘i-Pacific Islands Edition, http://www.naturalinquirer.org

FACTivity

In this FACTivity, you will explore the idea 

of sea-level rise. This FACTivity has been 

adapted from the Digital Library for Earth 

Systems (DLESE) and the Deep Earth 

Academy at the Consortium for Ocean 

Leadership. For more information about 

similar activities and extensions, please visit 

http://www.teachingboxes.org/sealevel/

lessons/lesson2.jsp and http://oceandrilling.

coe.tamu.edu/curriculum/Sea_Level/Ice_

Volume/teachers_notes.html.

All the world’s ice can be divided into two 

types: sea ice (icebergs) and sheet ice 

(ice on land). Although both types of ice 

are at risk of melting if the average global 

temperature of the Earth increases, they have 

very different effects on the global sea level. 

In this activity, you will investigate what effect 

land ice will have on sea level. 

Time Needed

1.5 to 2 hours

Materials

•	 Glass baking dish (7 x 11 inches).

•	 Piece of plywood, to fit partially inside

the container at an angle (see picture), 

such as a 4.5-by-10-inch piece.

•	 Ruler.

•	 Ice cubes.

•	 Water.

•	 Small container of playdough or

modeling clay.

•	 Permanent marker or dry erase marker.

•	 Blue food coloring.

•	 Masking tape (optional).
51

The Natural Inquirer • Number 16

Methods 

1. Use the ruler to mark measurements every 2 millimeters 

from the bottom to the top of the glass dish so that you can 

measure any change in water elevation. You may do this on 

masking tape and then put the tape on the outside of the 

container or you may also try dry eraser markers on the 

outside of the dish.

2. Place the wood at an angle in the dish (see picture, 

opposite page). 

3. Fill the dish with enough water to cover the bottom of the 

dish. Mark down this measurement under the “Start” box in 

the table provided. 

4. Put about 3 drops of blue food coloring in the water. 

5. Place playdough or modeling clay in a line just before the 

water. This line of playdough will keep the ice from sliding 

down as it melts. Make sure there are small open spaces 

in between each ball of playdough so the water can move 

through (see picture). 

6. Place the bowl out into the sunlight. 

7. Fill the board with ice cubes (see picture). 

8. Re-check and record the water level and the amount of ice 

remaining every 20 minutes throughout the session. 

Results and Discussion 

Record your observations of the water level in the table below:

1. How did the water level in the bowl change as the ice 

melted? 

2. How can you explain your observation in question 1? 

 

Extension

Visit http://www.

teachingboxes.

org/sealevel/

lessons/lesson2.

jsp to find an activity that 

illustrates what happens 

when icebergs melt. Students can then compare 

and contrast these two 

activities and observe 

how each type of melting may or may not affect the amount that sea 

level will rise. 

In addition, an excellent 

short video simulates 

these two activities can 

be found at http://oceandrilling.coe.tamu.edu/

curriculum/sea_level/

ice_volume/activity.html. 

The video reinforces 

concepts learned after 

the students complete 

the FACTivity.

Start 20 

minutes

40 

minutes

60 

minutes

80 

minutes

100 

minutes

120 

minutes

Water 

level
52

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The Federated States of Micronesia 

(FSM) is made up of 607 islands. 

These islands are located in the Central 

Pacific Ocean (see figure 3 in the article). Four 

states make up the FSM: Pohnpei, Kosrae, 

Chuuk, and Yap. The total population of 

the FSM is approximately 100,000, and the 

official language is English. People living on 

these islands, however, speak eight major 

native languages: Yapese, Ulithian, Woleaian, 

Chuukese, Pohnpeian, Kosraean, Nukuoro, and 

Kapingamarangi. Because large expanses of 

water separate the islands, island groups have 

evolved some distinct cultural traditions. Several 

cultural traditions, however, are similar across 

the islands. 

One cultural tradition that is similar across the 

islands is the maintenance of strong family bonds 

through the large extended family. Another 

common cultural tradition is the importance 

of clans or family groups. Today, however, the 

importance of clans has decreased for the island 

groups of Kosrae. People in Pohnpei, however, still 

emphasize matrilineal clans. 

Micronesian people rely heavily on fishing 

and farming. Farming is focused primarily on 

tree crops like breadfruit, coconut, banana, 

and citrus. Root crops like yam, sweet potato, 

tapioca, and taro are also important. The 

coconut tree is a vital crop for survival on 

isolated islands. This tree is used to provide 

nourishment from the water, milk, and oil; the 

husk is used for fuel to cook food and make 

rope for building homes and canoes; and the 

leaves are woven for mats and roofing material. 

Communal labor and sharing are important 

and the tradition of giving gifts and respect to 

tribal leaders remains.

Even though the states have cultural 

practices that link people across Micronesia, 

each state and even island can have different 

customs and traditions. The people of Yap dress 

in customary clothing. Women wear grass 

skirts or fabric hand woven from banana fibers 

called a “lavalava” and men wear a type of 

loincloth called a “thu.” Fishing, farming, sailing, 

and weaving are a part of daily life. Dancing 

is an important cultural tradition. The dances 

tell their history and legends and are a form of 

entertainment. Children are encouraged at an 

early age to learn these special dances.

The people of Yap are also famous for their 

stone money. This money was carved from 

stone in distant islands and brought to Yap 

through treacherous journeys by traditional 

canoes. The stones are so large that a hole had 

to be carved in the middle of the stone. This 

hole enabled a wooden post to be inserted 

in the middle that would be held by multiple 

people to carry 

it. Today, the 

traditional stone 

money lines 

the pathways 

in front of the 

village cultural 

houses. Here, 

they are held 

just as money 

would be held 

in a bank. Each 

stone holds a 

history that 

impacts its 

value, and the 

owner is known 

by everyone 

in the village. 

Unity in Diversity

Mr. Jermy Uowolo displays traditional Yapese tattoos. He and 

his sons Mykah (left) and Jayden 

(right) are wearing thus. The 

striped belts are made from handwoven fabric called lavalava.” Photo 

courtesy of Amanda Uowolo. 
53

The Natural Inquirer • Number 16

The stone money is 

still used today for 

important exchanges 

of high cultural value.

In the state of 

Chuuk, woodcarvers 

make beautiful masks 

and items for use in 

the home and sea 

craft, among other 

objects. The most 

accomplished wood 

carvers also build canoes and boats high in 

the hills of inner islands and then bring these 

boats down to the sea when they are nearly 

complete. It is common to see women on these 

islands waist deep in mangrove forests looking 

for delicacies among the sea life. The women 

use open-hearth fires to cook daily meals. 

In Pohnpei, communities will come together 

to build a new boathouse or just to complete 

daily chores. The people here are known for 

their energetic cultural dances. They use these 

dances to pass on tradition, language, and 

family unity. 

In Kosrae, native people practice singing 

and chanting as cultural traditions. Weaving, 

woodcarving, canoebuilding, and housebuilding 

are important to the people of Kosrae. 

A special relationship exists between 

Hawaiians interested in traditional ways and 

the FSM. Before navigation instruments were 

available, Polynesians made ocean voyages 

across wide expanses of open ocean. Some 

of these Polynesians settled on the islands of 

Micronesia and some on the islands of Hawai‘i. 

Polynesian sailors used the horizon, stars, 

weather, wind and wave patterns, the feel of 

ocean swells, clouds, ocean and sky colors, 

and wildlife movements to keep track of their 

location, direction, and speed. These sailing 

techniques were passed along in word and song 

and were often kept secret. 

For a lesson plan on noninstrument navigation, visit: 

http://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects/

project_ideas/Astro_p008.shtml. A computer and 

Internet connection is required for this lesson.

Additional Web 

Resources

National Geographic’s Mangrove Page: 

http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2007/02/mangroves/

warne:text

Smithsonian Institution Ocean Portal Site on 

Mangroves: 

http://ocean.si.edu/ocean:life:ecosystems/mangroves

History of the Polynesian Voyaging Society:

http://www.pvs-hawaii.com/about_pvshistory.htm

Using Polynesian non-instrument navigation:

http://www.pvs-hawaii.com/navigation/summary.htm

By 1975, there were 

no Hawaiians who knew 

these ancient navigation 

techniques. At that 

time, Master Navigator 

Mau Piailug of the FSM 

was only one of six 

navigators who still used 

these techniques. Of the 

six, only Mau was willing 

to share his knowledge 

with the Hawaiians. 

He was asked by the Polynesian Voyaging 

Society to teach them how to navigate in the 

ancient manner. Mau’s willingness to share this 

knowledge helped to increase pride in traditional 

Hawaiian and Polynesian culture. This pride 

has led to a growing interest in voyaging, canoe 

building, and noninstrument navigation that 

unites the Pacific Islands.

For more information, visit http://visit:fsm.

org or http://traveltips.usatoday.com/

micronesi:culture:11238.html.

Traditional canoe house on the Yapese island of Fais, which 

has no electricity and no cars. Photo courtesy of Amanda 

Uowolo. 
54

Hawai‘i-Pacific Islands Edition, http://www.naturalinquirer.org

National Education Standards 

National Science 

Education Standard Where and How the Standard Is Addressed

Abilities Necessary 

To Do Scientific 

Inquiry

Thinking About Science: Measurements and instruments used to measure. 

Introduction Reflection Section: State the research question. Methods: 

Technology, observation, measurement. Findings: Evidence. Findings Reflection Section: Drawing conclusions from data.

Understandings 

About Scientific 

Inquiry

Thinking About Science: The importance of measurement and using instruments to make accurate measurements. Introduction Reflection Section: 

Hypotheses and research questions. Number Crunches: Math is important 

in scientific inquiry. Methods: Implementing an experiment, instruments 

used to take measurements. Methods Reflection Section: Understanding 

the importance of using more than one test site, understanding the importance of recording observations, understanding the importance of gathering data over different lengths of time. Discussion Reflection Section: Implications and further study.

Structure and Function in Living Systems Introduction: Structure and function of mangrove forests.

Regulation and 

Behavior

Introduction, Findings, and Discussion: Importance of mangrove forests and 

effects of sea-level rise and sedimentation on mangrove forests.

Populations and 

Ecosystems

Introduction: Importance of mangrove forests in the ecosystem. Method, 

Findings, and Discussion: How soil sedimentation helps stabilize mangrove 

forest areas.

Diversity and Adaptation of Organisms Introduction: Importance of mangrove forests. 

Structure of Earth 

System

Thinking About the Environment: Sediment formation. Methods: Sedimentation, changes in soil elevation, sea-level rise. 

Populations, Resources, and Environments What is sea-level rise? Sea-level rise. Findings: Harvesting.

Science and Technology in Society

Methods: Technology used to study sediment elevation change and sealevel rise. Findings and Discussion: Answers to scientists’ research question 

and implications of those findings.
55

The Natural Inquirer • Number 16

Understandings 

About Science and 

Technology

Methods: Using technology to measure sediment change over time and 

sea-level rise.

Science as a Human 

Endeavor

Meet the Scientists: Personal stories. Thinking About Science, Introduction, 

and Introduction Reflection Section: What the scientists were interested in 

studying.

Nature Of Science

Thinking About Science: Measurement and scientific instruments. Introduction: The applied nature of science (solving a problem). Discussion: Implications and the application of science to solve problems. 

National Curriculum 

Standards for Social 

Studies

Where and How the Standard Is Addressed

Culture The Federated States of Micronesia cultural essay. 

Introduction and Introduction Reflection Section. 

Time, Continuity, and 

Change The Federated States of Micronesia cultural essay.

People, Places, and 

Environments 

Thinking About the Environment. Introduction. Method. Findings. Discussion. The Federated States of Micronesia cultural essay. Figures 1, 2, 3, 4.

Individual Development and Identity The Federated States of Micronesia cultural essay.

Production, 

Distribution, and 

Consumption

Introduction. Discussion. 

Science, Technology, 

and Society

Meet the Scientists. Thinking About Science. Thinking About the Environment. Introduction. What Is Sea-level Rise sidebar. Methods. Findings. Discussion. FACTivity. The Federated States of Micronesia cultural essay. 

Global Connections The Federated States of Micronesia cultural essay. 
56

Hawai‘i-Pacific Islands Edition, http://www.naturalinquirer.org

Beam Me Down, 

Scotty

The Use of 

Airborne 

and Satellite 

Technology 

To Measure 

Carbon in 

Hawaiian 

Forests

Photo courtesy of NASA.

The Use of 

Airborne 

and Satellite 

Technology 

To Measure 

Carbon in 

Hawaiian 

Forests
57

The Natural Inquirer • Number 16

Meet the Scientists

Dr. R. Flint Hughes, Ecologist: My favorite 

science experience was working with local 

villagers in the rain forests of southern Mexico. I 

was working to understand how deforestation

and land use were changing those forests 

and all the incredible insects, birds, and other 

animals living within them. During this time, I 

had the opportunity to see and learn about the 

beautiful, large trees and associated plants of 

those forests. I saw and heard howler monkeys, 

toucans, and multicolored snakes that made 

those forests their home. I also saw first-hand 

how the people living in and around such 

ecosystems–

the people 

who became 

my friends–

profoundly affect 

the ecosystems 

in order to exist 

themselves. 

Working with 

the villagers 

affected me 

deeply. It was 

a real-world 

example of 

the common 

conflict between the livelihoods of people and 

the preservation of valuable tropical forests 

that are in danger of being lost forever. That 

experience fueled my motivation and desire to 

understand and protect native forests in Hawai‘i 

and elsewhere in the world. 

Dr. Greg Asner, Tropical Ecologist: My favorite 

science experience occurred in 2009 when my team 

and I climbed upward from the Amazon forests into 

the Andes mountains in Peru. After we made it to the 

mountain summit, we could look back, eastward, and 

see thousands of lightning strikes in the storms that 

normally occur over the Amazon forest. It made me think 

of standing on the summit of Mauna Loa in Hawai‘i, looking 

down on the incredible Hawaiian rainforests that still exist 

high above where people live along the coast. Photo 

courtesy of Greg Asner, Carnegie Institution for Science. 

Ms. Amanda Uowolo, Forest Ecologist: My 

favorite science experience occurred while 

collecting data on species diversity, density, 

and size in a forest in the Republic of Palau. 

We had our noses to the ground looking at 

tree seedlings. We came across a newborn 

fruit bat that had fallen from his mother’s wing 

in the tree canopy. We rescued the baby 

bat and named him Henry. These types of 

surprises are what make my job exciting. This 

is often how scientific research works: You go 

into a situation expecting to find something 

specific, but end up finding the unexpected. 

t t

t

Glossary words are in bold and are defined 

on page 65. Hawaiian words are in italics and 

their pronunciation is given on page 106.
58

Hawai‘i-Pacific Islands Edition, http://www.naturalinquirer.org

Thinking 

About Science

You know that scientists do 

research to learn new things. 

They also do research to test 

what they believe to be true. Scientists may also 

do research to improve scientific methods. New 

types of technology are available all of the time. 

You can see changes in technology in the way that 

cell phones continue to be improved. Research 

that explores the use of new technologies helps all 

scientists to use the new technologies. Scientists use 

these technologies to tackle important questions in 

new ways that help us better understand our planet. 

In this research, the scientists combined 

three different ways of gathering information: 

Every tree contains carbon. If you remove 

the liquids from a tree, about one-half its weight 

is carbon. When trees are growing, they help 

to combat climate change by absorbing carbon 

from the atmosphere. Trees store carbon in their 

wood. When trees are cut and burned, the carbon 

in them is released back into the atmosphere 

in the form of carbon dioxide (CO2

). There, it 

contributes to climate change by heating our 

planet. It is, therefore, important to protect our 

forests worldwide. When forests 

are left standing and protected, their 

carbon is kept out of the atmosphere 

and the forests are able to collect and 

store even more carbon. 

Scientists want to know how 

much carbon our forests contain. 

Knowing the amount of carbon 

is the only way to keep track of 

any change over time. In a way, 

tracking the amount of carbon 

is like keeping track of your own 

weight. If you never weighed 

yourself, it would be hard to say 

for sure whether or how much 

Without a certain level of carbon dioxide in the 

atmosphere, Earth would be too cold, and life as we know 

it could not exist. Within the past 100 years, however, 

more and more carbon dioxide has been emitted into the 

atmosphere. Too much carbon dioxide causes the planet 

to warm beyond its normal range. This increase in carbon 

dioxide emissions comes from human activities, such as 

burning fossil fuels. Although too much carbon dioxide in 

the atmosphere is contributing to global climate change, 

it is important to remember that a certain level of carbon 

dioxide in the atmosphere is necessary for life on Earth.

Carbon dioxide in the 

atmosphere

an older, traditional method along with two 

new technologies. The older method involved 

going out into the forest to collect information 

by hand. The two new 

technologies involved airplanes, 

satellites, and computers. By 

combining these three methods 

of collecting information, the 

scientists were able to produce 

new information. This new 

information increases our 

understanding about 1 million hectares of land–

an area about the size of Connecticut. This 

research enabled the scientists to test a new 

scientific method that will help other scientists 

do research about large, diverse areas of forest. 

weight you were gaining or losing. 

When you think about the 

amount of carbon in forests, 

you can see what a big job this 

tracking is. Forests cover a lot of land and are 

different in terms of their structure and types 

of species that live there. Scientists need to use 

new tools and technologies, therefore, to help 

them estimate how much carbon large areas of 

forests contain.

Thinking About the Environment

Be sure to read 

“Mālama ‘āina”

 on page 68.

58

The Natural Inquirer • Number 16
59

The Natural Inquirer • Number 16

Introduction

You may have heard about carbon trading 

and carbon credits. These phrases refer to 

programs aimed at reducing carbon dioxide 

emissions to the atmosphere. These programs 

involve balancing an amount of carbon emissions 

with activities that reduce an equal amount of 

emissions. If someone were driving across the 

United States, for example, his or her car would 

emit a certain amount of carbon dioxide during 

the trip. To make up for these emissions, the 

driver might voluntarily contribute money to an 

organization that protects forests. To balance the 

car’s emissions, the driver would have to know 

three things: (1) how much carbon dioxide the car 

would emit during the trip, (2) how much forest 

land would contain that same amount of carbon, 

and (3) how much money it would take to help 

protect that much forest land. 

Figure 1. Hawai‘i is the largest of 

the Hawaiian Islands. 

Figure 2 (at right). Hawai‘i contains a large 

variety of ecosystems. Each shade on this 

map represents a unique ecosystem or 

land cover. Forty types of areas, including 

ecosystems and land covers, are identified. 

To see or download this map in color, go 

to http://www.naturalinquirer.org, open this 

journal and click on this article.

In this study, the scientists were interested in 

the second item. They wanted to test a method 

of calculating the amount of carbon stored by 

plants across a large area of land. They chose 

the island of Hawai‘i to test their method. 

Hawai‘i is the largest island in the Hawaiian 

Islands (figure 1). It contains 1,000,000 

hectares. Hawai‘i has volcanoes, forests, 

pastures, grasslands, developed areas, and many 

types of ecosystems and land cover (figure 2). 

Hawai‘i is one of the most ecologically diverse 

places on Earth. It has areas with high rainfall 

and also deserts with low rainfall. It has areas 

at sea level and at very high elevations. Each 

of these areas contain a different amount of 

carbon. Forests, for example, hold more carbon 

than grasslands.
60

Hawai‘i-Pacific Islands Edition, http://www.naturalinquirer.org

Number Crunches

b How many acres is 1,000,000

hectares? Multiply the number of

hectares by 2.47 to find out.

b How many square kilometers is

1,000,000 hectares? Divide by 100 to

find out.

In the past, people working directly on the 

land estimated the amount of carbon stored in 

plants. This method, although fairly accurate for 

the actual trees being measured, was expensive 

and took a long time to get enough samples. In 

addition, this method could estimate only the 

amount of carbon in small areas of land. This 

information was not enough to understand 

forests across large areas. Remember that there 

is now a need to understand how much carbon 

large areas of forest and other types of land 

cover store. To meet this need, the scientists 

decided to combine the old method with new 

technologies.

The scientists used new laser technology 

called Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR). 

The scientists also used satellite technology that 

estimates how much land has certain types of 

vegetation. Combining old and new methods 

enabled the scientists to estimate the amount of 

carbon stored in different types of forests. They 

could then create a carbon map of the whole 

island of Hawai‘i.

What is LiDAR?

LiDAR stands for Light Detection and 

Ranging. Light beams, or laser pulses, 

are sent from an airplane towards Earth. 

When the light beams reach something 

on Earth, they are reflected back to the 

airplane. A computer onboard calculates 

how long it takes the light beam to return. 

Because we know the speed of light 

and the technology can measure time 

accurately, the computer can calculate 

the distance between the airplane and 

the object on Earth that was hit by the 

light beam. Using LiDAR, scientists can 

calculate the height of many trees across 

large areas. When LiDAR is used in 

forests, some of the light beams travel 

through the leaves before being reflected 

back. This characteristic of LiDAR enables 

scientists to estimate the amount of 

vegetation between the ground and the 

treetops (figure 3).

Reflection 

Section

b Why did the scientists study Hawai‘i?

b What was the problem the scientists

were trying to solve?

Figure 3. LiDAR enables scientists 

to measure vegetation over large 

areas of land.
61

The Natural Inquirer • Number 16

Figure 4. The National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration, or NASA, uses satellites to take 

photographs of Earth from space. This satellite 

is called Landsat. Scientists use Landsat to study 

Earth’s land cover. Image courtesy of NASA. 

Figure 5. A Landsat photograph of Hawai‘i. 

Image courtesy of http://geology.com. 

Figure 6. This map shows forests and other 

areas on Hawai‘i. A computer program called 

CLASlite, which stands for Carnegie Landsat 

Analysis System-Lite, created this map. 

Methods

The scientists used four steps to test their 

method for carbon mapping. First, they used 

existing maps of the land cover of Hawai‘i. People 

working on the land created some of these existing 

maps, and satellites and computers created others 

(figures 4 and 5). Using these maps, the scientists 

identified the land cover of different areas. Using 

information from the satellite and a computer 

program, they identified areas that had forests 

and areas with no forests or those that might 

have been deforested (figure 6). Have you used 

Google Earth to see objects on Earth close up? If 

you have, you can see how the scientists identified 

conditions of forests and other areas on Hawai’i 

using satellite photos. Google Earth uses Landsat 

photos, just like the scientists did.

The scientists then used LiDAR to better 

understand the vertical structure of the plants 

and trees (figure 7). About 25 percent of the 

island was sampled. The areas sampled included 

a wide variety of land cover and ecosystems.
62

Hawai‘i-Pacific Islands Edition, http://www.naturalinquirer.org

Figure 7. The vertical structure of a forest is the way the vegetation looks from the ground up to the 

treetops. Compare the vertical structure of these four different forests. What is similar and what is 

different about the vertical structure of these forests?

Number Crunches

b What was the diameter of each of the

126 plots?

b What was the area of each plot? Area is

calculated using this formula: A=π*(r*r),

where A=area, π=3.14, and r=radius. This

formula is also written A= πr

2

.

The third step was to identify areas on land 

to study in person. The scientists identified 126 

areas for sampling where they established plots. 

Each plot was an imaginary circle with a radius 

of 30 meters. Each of these 126 plots had also 

been sampled using LiDAR. In each plot, the 

scientists identified and measured all trees that 

were 5 centimeters or larger diameter at breast 

height (DBH) (see sidebar). The scientists then 

used existing equations that related DBH to 

the amount of carbon in the tree. For example, 

trees with a DBH of 5 to7 centimeters were 

already known to contain a certain amount of 

carbon. In this way, the scientists were able to 

estimate the amount of carbon contained in 

each of the 126 plots.
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The Natural Inquirer • Number 16

Findings

The scientists discovered that the amount of 

carbon in an area was related to the type of soil 

and climate conditions in the area. Areas with 

older Hawaiian soils contained more carbon 

than areas with young soils. Areas of Hawai‘i 

with high rainfall contained more carbon than 

areas with lower rainfall. The scientists also 

found dry areas, whether they were warm 

or cool, contained smaller amounts of carbon 

(figure 9).

The scientists discovered that areas with little 

or no forest land contained less carbon than 

forested areas. Forests that had been planted in 

the 1930s in areas where rainfall was plentiful 

contained the highest amount of carbon.

In Step 4, the scientists looked at the LiDAR 

information on vertical structure in each of 

the 126 plots. They compared this information 

with their direct measurements of the plants’ 

carbon content. The scientists discovered that 

the amount of carbon in each plot was related 

to the center of the vertical height of the trees. 

If the scientists could calculate the center of the 

vertical height of any forested area in Hawai‘i, 

they could estimate the amount of carbon being 

held in that area. Plots with taller trees, for 

example, held more carbon. In other words, the 

scientists found that by using LiDAR to identify 

the average height of the trees in an area, they 

could accurately estimate the amount of carbon 

stored by plants in that area. 

What is DBH?

DBH stands for diameter at breast height. 

In the United States, this distance is 

1.4 meters (about 4.6 feet) from the 

ground. This method is a standard way 

to measure the size of trees (figure 8). 

When the tree is growing on a hill, DBH is 

measured on the uphill side of the tree.

Figure 8. One way to measure the size 

of a tree is to measure its diameter at 

breast height. Photo by Paul Scowcroft. 

Reflection 

Section

b How was the old method of

estimating carbon in person

combined with new technologies?

b What if the scientists wanted to map

the carbon contained in the State

of West Virginia? Should they use

the same estimate of carbon related

to the vertical center as they did in

Hawai‘i? Why or why not?

The scientists then combined the vegetation 

maps that they used in Step 1 with the carbon 

estimates made using LiDAR in Step 4. If 

they identified an area as being deforested or 

degraded (Step 1), they reduced their estimate 

of the amount of carbon in that area. This 

method enabled them to apply the carbon 

estimates to each of the land cover areas in the 

existing maps. By applying carbon estimates to 

each area of land, they were able to create a 

carbon map of Hawai‘i. 
64

Hawai‘i-Pacific Islands Edition, http://www.naturalinquirer.org

Figure 9. Carbon map of Hawai‘i. In these two 

colors, the areas with the highest and lowest 

levels of carbon appear the same. In full color, 

however, these differences would be visible. 

To see the map in color, look at the cover of 

this journal. You may also visit http://www.

naturalinquirer.org and click on this journal and 

this article to view the map in color. The inset 

shows the level of detail in carbon mapping 

available prior to this method being tested. What 

differences do you see? Compare this map with 

the Landsat image in figure 5. 

Reflection 

Section

b Why would areas with old soils

contain more carbon than areas

with young soils?

b Why do you think the amount of

carbon was related to the amount of

rainfall in different areas of Hawai‘i?
65

The Natural Inquirer • Number 16

Discussion

The scientists concluded that the use of 

LiDAR to estimate carbon is as accurate as 

making the estimates in person. Because LiDAR 

can be used over a large area, the cost of using 

LiDAR is much less than trying to make inperson estimates over the same large area. 

Using LiDAR, moreover, enables scientists to 

make carbon estimates in remote areas people 

would have a hard time visiting. 

The scientists also concluded that after they 

made an initial carbon map, they can easily 

update it using Landsat photographs that show 

changes in land cover over time. In particular, 

Landsat photographs will show the locations of 

new deforestation and degradation as well as 

new forest growth. Existing carbon maps can 

be updated to show the decrease or increase in 

carbon storage due to these conditions.

Glossary

Deforest (dē for əst): The act or process of 

clearing forests.

Degrade (di grād): To lower the character of.

Density (den(t) sə tē): The quantity of something 

per a particular space, length, or volume. A 

measure of how close things are to one another.

Diverse (di vərs): Differing from one another.

Diversity (də vər sə tē): The condition of having 

or being composed of differing elements; variety.

Ecological (ē kə läj i kəl): Having to do with 

ecology. Ecology is the study of the relationship 

of living things with each other and their 

environment.

Ecosystem (ē kō sis təm): A system made up 

of an ecological community of living things 

interacting with their environment especially 

under natural conditions. 

Elevation (el ə vā shən): The height above the 

level of the sea.

Emit (ē mit): To throw or give off or out.

Land cover (land kəv ər): The observed cover 

of Earth’s surface, such as vegetation and 

manmade features.

Land use (land ūs): The way the land is being 

used, such as for homes, agriculture, roads, or 

forests.

Sample (sam pəl): A part (as a set of individuals 

chosen from a whole population) used for 

investigating the whole.

Species (spē sēs): A class of individuals having 

common characteristics and designated by a 

common name.

Transpiration (tran(t)s pə rā shən): The process 

by which plants give off water vapor through the 

stomata in their leaves.

Vertical (vərt i kəl): Going straight up or down 

from a level surface.

Accented syllables are in bold. Definitions and 

marks are from http://www.merriam-webster.com.

Reflection 

Section

b Would you say that the scientists’

test of their new method to estimate

the amount of carbon in Hawai‘i was

successful? Why or why not?

b Do you think that this method could be

used for other large areas of forest and

other land cover? Why? 

Adapted from: Asner, G.P.; Hughes, R.F.; Mascaro, J.; 

Uowolo, A.; Knapp, D.E.; Jacobson, J.; Kennedy-Bowdoin, 

T.; Lark, J.K. 2011. High-resolution carbon mapping on the 

million-hectare Island of Hawai‘i. Frontiers in Ecology and 

the Environment: 110301094720075 DOI: 10. 1890/100179. 

http://www.fs.fed.us/psw/publications/hughes/psw_2011_

hughes(asner)001.pdf.
66

Hawai‘i-Pacific Islands Edition, http://www.naturalinquirer.org

FACTivity

Time Needed

1 class period

Materials

•	 This article.

•	 The article, “The GLAS Is Half Full,” from

the Climate Change edition of the Natural 

Inquirer. You may download this article at 

http://www.naturalinquirer.org/satellitesand-changing-tropical-forests-a-109.html 

or order the Climate Change edition from 

http://www.naturalinquirer.org. 

•	 Graphic organizers on pages 66-67.

In this FACTivity, you will answer the question, 

“What are the similarities and differences 

of two recent studies of carbon storage in 

tropical forests?” It is your job to identify how 

these studies are alike and how they are 

different.

The method you will use to answer this 

question is: Read “Beam Me Down, Scotty.” 

Then read “The GLAS Is Half Full” from 

“Thinking About the Environment” through 

the “Discussion” section. You do not need to 

do the Reflection Sections. 

Now, compare and contrast “Beam Me 

Down, Scotty” with “The GLAS Is Half Full” 

by completing the first graphic organizer 

on page 67. After you have completed the 

graphic organizer, hold a class discussion 

about your findings. Then, summarize your 

findings by completing the second graphic 

organizer below.

Graphic Organizer: Summarize

What are three differences 

between these two studies?

What are three similarities 

between these two studies?

Write a research question 

that all of the scientists in 

these two studies could 

answer together.
67

The Natural Inquirer • Number 16

Graphic organizer: Compare and contrast the two studies.

Beam Me Down, Scotty The GLAS Is Half Full

What question did 

the scientists want to 

answer?

How was carbon involved in the research?

Name four characteristics of the land being 

studied.

What was the role of 

in-person information 

collection?

How were Landsat 

photographs used?

How was LiDAR used? 

(GLAS is a type of 

LiDAR)

What did the scientists 

conclude about the use 

of technology to collect 

information?
68

Hawai‘i-Pacific Islands Edition, http://www.naturalinquirer.org

This research highlights the importance of 

Hawaiian forests as places where carbon 

is stored on Earth. When forests are healthy, 

more carbon is stored on Earth. This can 

prevent more carbon dioxide, or CO2

, from 

entering the atmosphere. Most CO2

 enters 

the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels. Too 

much of this gas contributes to the planet’s 

warming. Reducing CO2

 in the atmosphere, 

therefore, will slow climate change. 

Forests also provide other benefits. They 

provide homes for animals, protect soil and 

water, and provide places for people to enjoy. 

Forests provide wood and nontimber products 

for buildings, furniture, musical instruments, 

medicine, food, and art. We recognize 

these benefits of forests today. Because we 

recognize these benefits, we take action to 

protect our forests. Did early Hawaiians 

understand the benefits they received from 

their forests? If so, did they take action to 

protect their forests? What did they do?

In 1987, Marion Kelley concluded that early 

Hawaiians had a strong tradition of caring 

(mālama) for the land (‘āina). They had an 

unwritten rule to take only what was needed 

from the island forests. This unwritten rule 

was explained by the following proverb: 

“Hahai no ka ua i ka ulula‘au,”–“The rains 

always follow the forests.” Early Hawaiians 

observed that rains were associated with 

forests. We know now that tropical forests 

Mālama ‘Āina (Care for the Land)

are dense and trees are tall where rain is 

plentiful. We also know that tree growth 

results in transpiration that can create mist 

and clouds that encourage rain. Because 

water is critical to life, the early Hawaiian 

observations about the relationship between 

rain and trees served them well. They cut 

down only the trees they needed. By cutting 

only what they needed, they made sure that 

rains would continue coming to their forests. 

Because they took only what they needed, 

the forests were available for generations of 

Hawaiians to use and enjoy. 

The forests of Hawai‘i are still loved and 

cared for today. In the Hawaiian Islands, 

the concept of mālama ‘āina is passed from 

parents to children. For example, Kamuela 

Meheula-Naihe of the First Nations’ Futures 

Program, wrote “As a keiki, I spent most of 

my time outdoors. My parents taught me 

the concept of mālama ‘āina at a young age. I 

grew up always having a garden, spending a 

lot of time at the ocean and in the mountains. 

Because of these experiences...I am deeply 

connected to the environments around me.” 

(From http://www.fnfp.org/.)

How do the people in your family and 

community feel about the land? How do you 

feel about using forests and protecting them? 

What can we learn from the concept of 

mālama ‘āina? 

The title of this article is based on the TV show, Star Trek. “Beam me up, Scotty” is the 

command Captain Kirk reportedly gave to his chief engineer, Montgomery “Scotty” Scott, 

when he needed to be transported back to the Starship Enterprise. Although this phrase 

is close to what was said on the show, these actual words were never used on the show. 

In this research article, light beams were sent down to Earth from an airplane using 

LiDAR and reflected back to the airplane. In a way, these light beams were being beamed 

down from and back up to a “starship.”
69

The Natural Inquirer • Number 16

NASA Landsat Resources for Educators:

http://landsat.gsfc.nasa.gov/education/resources.html

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

Carbon Cycle Education Resources:

http:// www.education.noaa.gov/climate/carbon_cycle.

html

National Science 

Education Standard Where and How the Standard Is Addressed

Abilities Necessary To 

Do Scientific Inquiry

Introduction: Use of math in science. Introduction Reflection Section: 

Communicate scientific procedures, identify questions. Method Number 

Crunches and What Is DBH?: Mathematics. Methods Reflection Section: 

Develop explanations, use appropriate tools and techniques. Findings Reflection Section and Discussion Reflection Section: Develop explanations. 

FACTivity: Identify questions, communicate procedures.

Understandings 

About Scientific 

Inquiry

Thinking About Science: Investigations generate new methods, use of 

technology. Thinking About the Environment: Technology improves data 

collection and analysis. Figures 3 and 4: Using technology in the investigation. Methods: Type of method used, method fits the problem, math 

is important, technology is used. Discussion: Conclusions about using 

technology. FACTivity: Analysis of methods used. 

Structure and Function In Living Systems Figure 6: The vertical structure of a forest.

Populations and 

Ecosystems Introduction and figure 2: Diversity of ecosystems in Hawai‘i.

Structure of Earth 

System

Thinking About the Environment: Carbon in trees. Carbon Dioxide in the 

Atmosphere: Function of carbon dioxide. Findings: Relation of carbon to 

soil. Findings Reflection Section: Soil structure and volcanic eruptions.

Understandings 

About Science and 

Technology

What is LiDAR?: Technology provides access to otherwise unobservable 

phenomena. Discussion: Technology has tradeoffs.

Natural Hazards Thinking About the Environment and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere: 

Hazards of rising carbon dioxide.

Additional Web Resources

National Education Standards 

First Nations’ Futures Program:

http://fnfp.org/

World’s Forest edition of the Natural Inquirer:

http://www.naturalinquirer.org/
70

Hawai‘i-Pacific Islands Edition, http://www.naturalinquirer.org

Science and 

Technology in Society Thinking About Science: Technology can cause change in society.

Science as a Human 

Endeavor Meet the Scientists: Science requires different abilities.

Nature of Science Methods: The use of existing information (land cover maps, DBH-carbon 

equations).

National Curriculum 

Standards for Social 

Studies

Where and How the Standard Is Addressed

Time, Continuity, and 

Change

Malama ‘āina: Comparison of historic attitudes towards forest use, comparison of forest values over time.

People, Places, and 

Environments Malama ‘āina: Reasons for early Hawaiian views.

Individual Development and Identity Malama ‘āina: Reflection on current values.

Production, 

Distribution, and 

Consumption

Introduction: Balancing carbon emissions (production, distribution, and 

consumption).

Science, Technology, 

and Society Entire article: How might this technology affect society?

Global Connections Entire article: Global climate change concerns.
71

The Natural Inquirer • Number 16

An Invasive Tree Species and 

a Hawaiian Stream Food Web

Don’t Litter 

the Stream! 

Photo courtesy of Richard MacKenzie.

Don’t Litter 

the Stream! 
72

Hawai‘i-Pacific Islands Edition, http://www.naturalinquirer.org

Meet the Scientists

Dr. Tracy 

Wiegner, Aquatic 

Biogeochemist (bī 

ō gē ō kəm ist): My 

favorite science 

experience was 

hiking along the 

Waipi‘o Valley 

rim in the cloud 

forest to collect 

samples from the 

streams dropping 

into the valley. I lay in the streambed on my 

stomach and looked over the waterfall cliff 

into the valley below (hundreds of feet). It was 

breathtaking. The stream was also beautiful. It 

was a blackwater stream and the water looked 

like concentrated iced tea. The streambank 

was lined with brilliant green moss and the 

riparian forest was comprised of pygmy ohia

trees. This stream is one of the prettiest I have 

ever seen. Photo by Mike Gomes. 

Dr. Trisha 

Atwood, Food 

Web Ecologist of 

Marine and Aquatic

Ecosystems: My 

favorite science 

experience was 

when I was collecting 

a tissue/DNA sample 

from a dead whale 

floating off the coast 

of Hawai‘i so that we 

could try and identify 

what species it was. 

I had to collect the 

sample with a pocket knife by hanging off the 

side of a tiny boat while about 10 of Hawai‘i’s 

most dangerous sharks swam underneath me 

eating the whale. This experience was super 

scary, but also very fun! 

Dr. Jason Turner, 

Marine Ecologist: I think 

every day is my greatest 

science day because, 

in this field, you never 

know what is around 

the corner. Last week, I 

helped recover the lower 

jaw of a 55-foot sperm 

whale; this week, I am 

scuba diving doing fish 

and coral surveys; next 

month, I will be studying sharks. As a scientist, 

every day is a new adventure! 

Dr. Richard MacKenzie, Aquatic 

Ecologist: When I was little, I used to 

come home from the creek behind 

our house covered in mud. I still do. I love 

that I get to study fish, insects, and shrimp 

in really amazing streams, wetlands, and 

mangrove forests. It is always exciting to put 

on my mask and snorkel and stick my face 

in the water to see some brightly colored 

fish or shrimp looking back at me (unless it’s 

an eel). One particular moment I remember 

was when we were sampling fish from a 

mangrove out on Yap Island in the Federated 

States of Micronesia. The moon was not 

visible that night, and it was pitch black as 

we kayaked out to the mangrove forest. 

Every time I put my paddle in the water, it 

would light up with bioluminescence from 

all the little microbes in the water.

t

t

t

t

Glossary words are in bold and are defined 

on page 80. Hawaiian words are in italics and 

their pronunciation is given on page 106.
Thinking About 

Science

Most of the time, it seems 

that environmental scientists 

study the natural world that 

we can see. Some of them, 

however, also study parts of 

the natural world that are too 

small for us to see. Atoms, for 

example, are too small to be seen by the naked 

eye. As the building blocks of all matter, however, 

they are important for scientists to understand.

The scientists in this study used special 

technology to study nitrogen atoms. All living 

and once-living things contain nitrogen atoms. 

Nitrogen atoms can be different from one 

another. Living things, for example, contain two 

types of nitrogen atoms. The difference is slight 

but gives scientists the ability to learn interesting 

things. 

Scientists can identify the proportion of 

different kinds of nitrogen atoms in living and 

once-living things. The scientists in this study 

used this ability to better understand a stream’s 

food web. 

Thinking 

About the 

Environment

A food web is the pattern of 

consumption in an ecosystem. A food web 

describes what eats what in an ecosystem. Food 

webs begin with primary producers. These are 

mostly green plants and some bacteria. Primary 

producers convert the Sun’s energy into organic

energy. Some kinds of animals eat only plants 

or bacteria. Many animals (and a few plants) 

consume animals. Some animals eat both plants 

and animals. All these animals (and some plants) 

are called consumers. When a consumer eats a 

plant or an animal, the atoms that made up the 

plant or animal are transferred to the consumer. 

Over many years, plant and animal species 

adapt to their environment. Their role in the food 

web helps to sustain a healthy ecosystem. This 

means that the types of atoms a consumer receives 

from eating a plant or an animal help to maintain 

the food web as it has adapted over the years. 

In this study, the scientists were interested 

in learning about the food web in a Hawaiian 

stream. They wanted to know if the amount of 

nitrogen in the stream’s food web was changing 

because of an invasive tree species growing along 

the stream’s edge. 

What kind of 

scientists did this 

research? 

Aquatic Biogeochemist: This kind of 

scientist studies the movement of chemical 

elements, such as carbon and nitrogen, through 

marine and freshwater aquatic ecosystems. 

These scientists also study how chemical 

elements relate to and become a part of living 

things over time.

Aquatic Ecologist: This kind of scientist 

studies the relationship of species living in 

marine, stream, or lake environments with their 

living and nonliving environments.

Be sure to read 

“Water Is Wealth” 

on page 85.

73

The Natural Inquirer • Number 16

Food Web Ecologist of Marine and 

Aquatic Ecosystems: This kind of scientist 

studies the structure of marine (saltwater/ocean) 

and freshwater aquatic (including streams, lakes, 

wetlands) food webs and includes the plant and 

animal species that make up those food webs. 

Marine Ecologist: This kind of scientist 

studies the relationship of species living in 

marine environments with their living and 

nonliving environments. 
74

Hawai‘i-Pacific Islands Edition, http://www.naturalinquirer.org

Introduction

From 1920 to 1950, a tree species called albizia 

(Falcataria moluccana) was brought to Hawai‘i 

from islands located north and northeast of 

Australia (figures 1 and 2). Albizia trees were 

planted to grow new forests and for landscaping. 

A fast-growing tree, albizia now grows all over 

Hawai‘i. Albizia has been so successful, it is taking 

over the places where native trees have grown.

The scientists in this study had observed an 

increase in nitrogen in some Hawaiian streams. 

The places where nitrogen was increasing 

were areas with albizia trees growing along the 

streams. When albizia leaves fall to the ground, 

they eventually decay. The nitrogen in the leaves 

goes into the soil. Over time, this nitrogen can 

get into streams. Some of the albizia leaves fall 

directly into the stream. The scientists wondered 

if aquatic organisms were eating these albizia 

leaves. If the organisms were eating the albizia 

leaves, then albizia trees may be changing the 

nature of Hawaiian stream food webs. This is 

because, naturally, Hawai‘i has little nitrogen in its 

plants, soil, and streams.

Nitrogen is the most abundant gas 

in the atmosphere. Some atmospheric 

nitrogen gets into soil and organic 

matter on the ground. Although all 

plants need nitrogen, most plants 

cannot use it in its atmospheric or free 

form. Bacteria found in soil, organic 

matter, and in the roots of certain plants 

like the albizia tree can change free 

nitrogen into forms of nitrogen that 

other plants can use. This change is 

called nitrogen fixation. Because albizia 

trees are able to fix nitrogen themselves, 

they grow quickly. 

When albizia leaves fall to the ground, 

they contribute nitrogen to the nitrogenpoor Hawaiian soil. Hawaiian soils are 

low in nitrogen because they were 

formed from recent volcanic eruptions. 

Over tens or hundreds of thousands of 

years, nitrogen fixation by bacteria and 

plants causes Hawaiian soils to become 

slowly richer in nitrogen. Because 

Hawai‘i is still a young island, however, it 

does not have much nitrogen in its soils.

Figure 1. Albizia growing on the island of Hawai‘i. 

Figure 2. Albizia was brought to Hawai‘i from 

islands located north and northeast of Australia. 

What is the most likely form of transportation 

used to move albizia to Hawai‘i? Why do you 

think that is so? 
75

The Natural Inquirer • Number 16

Usually, aquatic organisms 

in Hawaiian streams eat algae 

(figure 3). Algae are aquatic 

primary producers (See “Thinking 

About the Environment”). The 

scientists thought that albizia leaf 

litter might be replacing algae 

as the base of the food web. 

They wanted to know whether 

organisms living in Hawaiian 

streams with albizia trees growing 

nearby were eating albizia leaf 

litter instead of native algae. 

Figure 3. Algae in St. Marks National Wildlife Refuge, Florida. 

The stream studied by the scientists had algae in it as well. Photo 

courtesy of Steve Hillebrand and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

Figure 4. This upstream area was not invaded by 

albizia trees. 

Figure 5. This downstream area was invaded by 

albizia trees. 

Reflection Section

b State what the scientists wanted to know in the form of a question.

b Review “Thinking About Science.” How do you think the scientists might have answered their

question?

Methods

The scientists had to find streams to study that 

were alike in almost every way. To answer their 

question, the presence of albizia trees growing 

nearby should have been the only difference 

between the streams. The scientists located two 

different areas of one stream. This stream had 

an upstream area that had no albizia trees and a 

downstream area that was invaded by albizia trees 

(figures 4 and 5). The scientists measured three 

times the amount of nitrogen in the stream’s water 

where the albizia trees were growing. Otherwise, 

the stream areas were similar. 
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Figure 6. Caddisfly larvae live in the water. 

Caddisflies are not native to Hawai‘i. 

Figure 8. Crayfish, not native to Hawai‘i, also 

live in the water. You might have found crayfish 

in streams near your home or school. Photo 

courtesy of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

Figure 9. Swordtails, a popular aquarium fish, are 

found in Hawaiian streams but are not native to 

Hawai‘i.

Figure 10. Guppies are a popular aquarium fish 

found in Hawaiian streams. Guppies are not 

native to Hawai‘i. 

Figure 7. Amphipods, native to Hawai‘i, look like 

shrimp.

The scientists collected samples of the 

following from each area:

•	 Particulate organic matter, or POM 

(small bits of organic matter in the water)

•	 Algae 

•	 Caddisfly larvae (moth-like organisms 

whose larvae are aquatic) (figure 6)

•	 A species of amphipod (small, 

shrimplike organisms) (figure 7)

•	 American swamp crayfish (figure 8)

•	 Swordtails (figure 9) 

•	 Guppies (figure 10)
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The Natural Inquirer • Number 16

In the downstream area, the scientists also 

collected albizia leaves from the shore. All of the 

samples were collected within a few weeks of each 

other in August 2006.

Using technology called an isotope ratio mass 

spectrometer (spek trä mə tər), the scientists 

identified which kind of nitrogen atoms and what 

Figure 11. A ratio mass 

spectrometer. 

Reflection Section

b Why did the scientists have to find

streams that were alike in every way

except for the albizia trees growing

nearby?

b Finding higher-than-normal levels of

nitrogen in the tissues of consumers

might lead the scientists to what

conclusion about albizia leaves as a

food source?

b Reading the captions of figures 6–10,

what might you conclude about the

aquatic organisms in this

stream?

Findings

Recall from “Thinking About Science” that 

living things contain two kinds of nitrogen. The 

scientists found that the plants and animal species 

living in the stream area with no albizia contained a 

smaller proportion of one type of nitrogen than the 

species living in the area with albizia (figure 12).

In a food web, some animals eat plants and 

some eat plants and other animals. These animals 

may themselves become food for other animals. 

Tables 1 and 2 show the estimated percentage 

of each food source for each consumer. Note that 

in table 2, albizia is included as a food source.

proportion of each was present in everything 

but the albizia leaves (figure 11). They did 

this identification by testing small pieces of the 

consumers’ tissues. Then the scientists used a 

special computer program to identify the source of 

food in the consumers’ diets.
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Figure 12. The 

scientists found a 

greater proportion of 

one type of nitrogen 

in the plant and animal 

species living in the 

stream area with 

albizia. Although the 

pattern was similar for 

every plant and animal 

species studied, not 

all the differences can 

be considered certain. 

When scientists are 

fairly certain that an 

observed or measured 

difference is not caused 

by chance, they say it is 

a significant difference. 

In this figure, significant 

differences are shown 

by the addition of an 

asterisk (*) above the bar.

Table 1. The estimated percentage of food source for consumers in the stream area with no 

albizia trees. (Note: < means “less than,” > means “greater than,” and ≈ means “approximately”)

Consumer

Amphipods 

(% of diet)

Caddisfly 

larvae

(% of diet)

Swordtails 

(% of diet)

Guppies 

(% of diet)

Young 

guppies 

(% of diet)

Young 

crayfish

(% of diet)

Crayfish 

(% of diet)

Diet

POM 

(Particulate 

Organic 

Matter)

<10 ≈50 0-5 0-5 0-15 0-48 0-14

Algae >90 ≈60 0-10 0-8 0-31 0-83 0-24

Amphipods 15-39 0-14 12-83 8-100 73-100

Caddisfly 

larvae 61-85 86-100 17-88 0-49 0-15

Swordtails 0-13 0-4

Guppies 0-11 0-3

Young 

guppies 0-13 0-4
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The Natural Inquirer • Number 16

Reflection Section

b Look at the way the numbers occupy the cells in tables 1 and 2. Both

show a pattern from left to right. Why do the cells increase from left to right?

b Compare the first row in tables 1 and 2. What does this row reveal about albizia

as a food source?

Discussion

The fallen leaves of trees growing along 

streams can be a source of food for aquatic 

consumers. When the leaves are from an 

invasive species, the food web may change. In 

the case of this Hawaiian stream food web, 

the invasive albizia tree changed the diet of 

amphipods and caddisfly larvae living in the 

stream. The leaves, which became their 

preferred food, provided more nitrogen to these 

animals than is found under natural conditions. 

Because amphipods and caddisfly larvae are a 

food source for other animals, the higher levels 

of nitrogen will be passed up the food web. 

If albizia continues to spread across Hawai‘i 

and especially along streams, the natural stream 

food web could change from one of native 

origin to one of invasive origin. If albizia trees 

invade across Hawai‘i, many other changes 

could occur that would change the stream food 

webs across Hawai‘i. 

Consumer

Amphipods 

(% of diet)

Caddisfly 

larvae

(% of diet)

Swordtails 

(% of diet)

Guppies 

(% of diet)

Young 

guppies 

(% of diet)

Young 

crayfish

(% of diet)

Crayfish 

(% of diet)

Diet

Albizia 

leaves 73-81 31-73 0-3 0-4 0-4 4-7 0-13

POM 

(Particulate 

Organic 

Matter)

0-20 0-49 0-33 0-24 0-24 85-96 43-83

Algae 0-27 0-69 0-36 0-26 0-26 0-10 0-53

Amphipods 0-20 0-20 0-19 0-4 0-17

Caddisfly 

larvae 64-87 75-100 74-100 0-2 0-15

Swordtails 0-2 0-16

Guppies 0-2 0-13

Young 

guppies 0-2 0-16

Table 2. The estimated percentage of food source for consumers in the stream area with albizia trees.
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Glossary

Aquatic (ə kwät ik ): Growing or living in or 

often found in water.

Bioluminescence (bī ō lü mə ne sən(t)s): The 

light coming from living organisms; the light so 

produced. 

Consumption (kən səm(p) shən): The act of 

eating or drinking.

DNA (D N A): Acronym that stands for 

Deoxyribonucleic (dē äk si rī bō n(y)u klē ik) acid. 

DNA is found in cells and determines traits. 

Different animal species have unique DNA 

sequences, making it possible to identify the 

species from a small sample of tissue.

Ecosystem (ē kō sis təm): A system made up 

of an ecological community of living things 

interacting with their environment, especially 

under natural conditions.

Endemic (en dem ik): Found especially and 

often only in a certain locality or region.

Invasive (in vā siv): Tending to spread. In this 

case, a nonnative species that takes over the 

habitat of native species. 

Larva (lär və): A young, wingless, often 

wormlike form (as a grub or caterpillar) that 

hatches from the egg of many insects.

Leaf litter (lēf lit ər): Fallen and decaying 

leaves. 

Medicinal (mə dis nəl): Tending or used to cure 

disease or relieve pain.

Native (nā tiv): Living or growing naturally in a 

particular region.

Organic (ör gan ik): Of, relating to, or obtained 

from living things.

Pygmy (pig mē): A person or thing very small for 

its kind.

Riparian (rə per ē ən): Relating to or living or 

located on the bank of a natural watercourse (as 

a river).

Sample (sam pəl): A part (as a set of individuals 

chosen from a whole population) used for 

investigating the whole.

Species (Spē sēs): A class of individuals having 

common characteristics and designated by a 

common name.

Sustain (sə stān): To give support to.

Sustenance (səs tə nən(t)s): Supplying or being 

supplied with the necessaries of life.

Summit (sə mət ): The highest point.

Accented syllables are in bold. Definitions and 

marks are from http://www.merriam-webster.com.

Reflection Section

b If the stream food webs change across Hawai‘i because of albizia, do you think

the food webs that exist on the land beside streams could change as well? Why

or why not? 

b An increase in nitrogen in Hawaiian streams may cause more algae to grow. If more algae

grow, how might the stream be further changed by albizia?

Adapted from Atwood, T.B.; Wiegner, T.N.; Turner, J.P.; MacKenzie, R.A. 2010. Potential effects of an invasive nitrogenfixing tree on a Hawaiian stream food web. Pacific Science. 64(3): 367–379. http://www.fs.fed.us/psw/publications/

mackenzie/psw_2010_mackenzie(atwood)001.pdf.
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FACTivity

Time Needed 

One class period (50 minutes).

Materials

•	 The food web circles on pages 83-84.

(copied on card stock if possible).

•	 Sheet of plain paper for calculations.

•	 Pencil.

•	 String or yarn.

•	 Tape or glue.

•	 Scissors.

In this FACTivity, you will answer the question: 

What are some ways that albizia leaves may 

be changing the Hawaiian stream food web? 

The method you will use to answer this 

question is:

Using the information in tables 1 and 2 (in 

the article you have just read), complete the 

tables below. To do this, use plain paper to 

calculate the average percentage in each 

cell of tables 1 and 2. Because a range 

is given, you will use only two numbers 

to calculate the average. Then, round the 

average percentage to the nearest whole 

percentage and write it in the cell below. If 

a range is not given, round the percentage 

or use the percentage given. The first row is 

completed as an example. Leave the white 

columns blank for now.

Upstream area without albizia (Calculate from table 1, page 78) Amphipods (average whole %) Caddisfly larvae (average whole %) Swordtails (average whole %) Guppies (average 

whole %)Young guppies (average whole %)Young crayfish (average whole %)Crayfish (average whole %)

POM 

(Particulate 

Organic 

Matter)

Less 

than 

10 1 50 5 3 0 3 0 8 1 24 3 7 1

Algae

Amphipods

Caddisfly 

larvae

Swordtails

Guppies

Young 

guppies
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Using the formula below, write a 

number in the white columns for 

each cell of each table:

Using the numbers from 1 to 10, you will 

complete the food web tables on pages 81-

82. For example, in the first table, less than 10 

percent of the amphipods’ diet is POM. About 

50 percent of the caddisfly larvae’s diet is POM. 

Taking the string or yarn, cut and tape or glue 

pieces to connect each animal with its food 

source. The number of strings connecting 

each should correspond to a number from 

0 to 10. This number is based on your 

calculations and the formula used on the left. 

For example, glue one piece of string between 

POM and young guppies. Do this exercise for 

both food webs on page 81-82. 

Notes: A ruler and pencil may be substituted 

for string and glue.

FACTivity continues on page 85.

Downstream area with albizia (Calculate from table 2, page 79) Amphipods (average whole %) Caddisfly larvae (aver- age whole %) Swordtails (average whole %) Guppies (average 

whole %)Young guppies (average whole %)Young crayfish (average whole %)Crayfish (average whole %)

Albizia leaves

POM

Algae

Amphipods

Caddisfly 

larvae

Swordtails

Guppies

Young 

guppies

If the percentage is: You write:

Between 0 and 5 0

Between 6 and 10 1

Between 11 and 20 2

Between 21 and 30 3

Between 31 and 40 4

Between 41 and 50 5

Between 51 and 60 6

Between 61 and 70 7

Between 71 and 80 8

Between 81 and 90 9

Between 91 and 100 10
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After you have completed both food web 

circles, take a moment to compare and 

contrast them. What does each string 

represent? In the first web, what do you 

notice about the relationship of algae to the 

rest of the web? What happens when albizia 

is introduced into the food web? What are 

the differences between the two food webs? 

Answer the question posed at the beginning 

of this FACTivity. Think about other food webs, 

such as those in a natural area near you. Do 

you think the introduction of an invasive plant 

or animal species could change these other 

food webs? Why?

Water–Wai

For early Hawaiians, life revolved 

around water (wai). Wai was the 

source of land and man. It gave life to 

food, plants, and vegetation. For most 

Hawaiians, water also produced the staff 

of life—kalo (or taro, a root crop) (figure 

13). Having an abundance of water on your 

land demonstrated your wealth. The word 

Waiwai means wealth, prosperity, ownership, 

possession. Literally it is “water-water.” Wai

was the possession of no man, even chief 

(ali‘i) or king (mō‘ī). Every family that lived on 

and cultivated the land used a given water 

source. To have a right to use the water, 

the family would help to maintain the water 

source. If the family did not use or help to 

maintain the water source, they had no right 

to claim it.

 Dividing

Wai–Ahupua‘a

System

In old Hawai‘i, districts, lands, and lots were 

subdivided into ahupua‘a, the chief political 

system. Each ahupua‘a stretched from the 

seashore up into the mountains. Ridges, rocks, 

stream channels, and sometimes a tree would 

mark the boundaries. At the seashore of 

each ahupua‘a, an altar of rocks (ahu) would be 

placed with a wooden image of a pig (pua‘a) to 

mark the boundaries; thus, the word ahupua‘a. 

Offerings were also placed on the ahu for 

the rain god or to pay tax to the chief of the 

ahupua‘a. This system assured sustenance

and survival through the exchange and sharing 

of food, fish, water, firewood, house timbers, 

Water Is Wealth

Figure 13. Taro growing in a wetland in Waipi‘o 

Valley. Taro has been an important food crop for 

Hawaiians. Photo by Dr. J. B. Friday.

FACTivity, 

continued

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and thatch between the tenants and chief. It also 

ensured that the land would be cared for from 

the mountaintops to the sea.

Within the ahupua‘a, streams or kahawai (“the 

place having fresh water”) ran from the upland 

forests and below. To the Hawaiian farmer 

(mahi‘ai), the kahawai was particularly important. 

Along or below the streams, the farmer would 

tap into the water by making an irrigation ditch

(‘auwai). The ‘auwai diverted water into his or 

her taro patch (lo‘i kalo) (figure 13), medicinal

herbs, or flower farm. The ali‘i had a supervisor 

(konohiki) to allocate water fairly and coordinate 

the building of the ‘auwai. 

Law and Water Rights

The law of the land came down to water 

rights. Law in Hawaiian is kānāwai, meaning 

“belonging to the waters.” This law indicated 

an equal sharing of water. Inhabitants of each 

ahupua‘a depended on the water system. The 

Hawaiian farmer would take as much water as 

needed for his farm and then would close the inlet 

so that the next farmer could take his needed 

share. Everyone would get their needed share of 

water, while looking after their neighbors’ rights 

as well, without greed or selfishness. The ali‘i nui

(great chief) of the ahupua‘a had authority and 

power but not a “divine right.” Since wai was 

something that belonged to Kane-i-ka-wai-ola 

(the Hawaiian god of water), the al‘i nui did not 

exercise personal authority but instead provided 

his people with their rights to water and life. Ali‘i 

nui who abused this role were at times rejected 

or killed. These harsh actions demonstrated the 

importance of rights (pono) within the social 

system. 

Streams–Kahawai 

The kahawai provided not only wai, but also 

food. Hawaiians, most often women (wahine), 

regularly used one-person scoop nets in streams 

for catching food. The small nets were used 

to catch crabs, fresh-water shrimp (‘opae), 

and ‘o‘opu, a fresh-water fish known for its ono 

(delicious) taste. The branches of the endemic 

shrub ‘ūlei (Osteomeles anthyllidifolia) are easily 

bendable into a loop. The branches can be 

lashed together with cord, forming a handle to 

the net. Fishers also placed traps (hīna‘i) in the 

streambed to catch ‘opae and ‘o‘opu. The traps 

were more like baskets and were made from 

the roots of ‘ie‘ie or the vines from the ‘āwikiwiki 

(Canavalia galeata). 

Celebrating Water 

Today 

Water remains a valued natural resource 

in Hawai‘i. Hawaiians interested in traditional 

values joined Hawaiian graffiti artists Estria 

Miyashiro and John “Prime” Hina in a special 

project in 2011. Together, they created the third 

Water Writes mural. The artists painted the 

Hawaiian mural, which is over 7.5 meters (25 

feet) high and 70 meters (200 feet) long, in 

Honolulu. The mural celebrates the relationship 

between Hawaiians and water. 

Recently students in Hilo, HI, took a field trip to 

a forested stream. Forest Service scientists taught 

these students about stream ecology and goby 

fish found only in Hawai‘i (figure 14). As a part 

of a program called FOCUS (Forests, Ocean, 

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The Natural Inquirer • Number 16

Figure 14. Students learn about goby fish 

and stream ecology during a field trip. Photo 

courtesy of Richard MacKenzie.
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The Natural Inquirer • Number 16

Climate and Us), the students later painted 

a mural showing the goby fish in their native 

environment (figure 15). Dennis Taniguchi of 

the East Hawai‘i Cultural Center guided the 

mural’s creation. As is usual for Hawaiians 

interested in keeping the traditional culture alive, 

art is used to celebrate aloha ‘āina, or love of the 

land. These two examples, however, show that 

Hawaiians today also like to celebrate their love 

of water. Like Hawaiians throughout history, 

they know that water is wealth.

Figure 15. Detail from the goby mural painted by Hawaiian students. 

References

Handy, E.S.C.; Handy, E.G.; Pukui, 

M.K. 1991. Native planters in 

old Hawaii: their life, lore, and 

environment. Honolulu, HI: Bishop 

Museum Press.

Pukui, M.K.; Elbert, S.H. 1986. 

Hawaiian dictionary: HawaiianEnglish, English-Hawaiian. Honolulu, 

HI: University of Hawaii Press. 

Isabella, A.A. 1992. Lā‘au Hawai‘i: 

Traditional Hawaiian uses of plants. 

Honolulu, HI: Bishop Museum 

Press.

Additional Web Resources

U.S. Geological Survey food web and its function:

http://wwwrcamnl.wr.usgs.gov/isoig/projects/fingernails/foodweb/definition.html (Contains a link to using nitrogen isotopes)

Information about albizia trees in Hawaii:

http://island-trust.com/albizia-the-tree-that-ate-puna.html

Hawai‘i Division of Aquatic Resources—Streams:

http://hawaii.gov/dlnr/dar/streams.html

Hawai‘i Division of Aquatic Resources—Cultural Importance of 

Streams:

http://hawaii.gov/dlnr/dar/streams_cultural_importance.html

FOCUS (Forests, Ocean, Climate, and Us) Program:

http://www.wylandfoundation.org/education-FOCUS.shtml

Water Writes Mural:

http://www.nonstophonolulu.com/blogs/the-making-of-estrias-waterwrites-mural/
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National Science 

Education Standard Where and How the Standard Is Addressed

Abilities Necessary To 

Do Scientific Inquiry

Introduction and Introduction Reflection Section: Identify questions, 

design a scientific investigation. Methods Reflection Section: What the 

scientists did. Findings Reflection Section and FACTivity: Develop explanations from evidence, think critically. Tables 1 and 2 and FACTivity: 

Mathematics.

Understandings 

About Scientific 

Inquiry

Methods: Finding similar stream areas. Tables 1 and 2 and FACTivity: 

Mathematics. Thinking About Science, Methods, and figure 11: Technology in scientific inquiry. 

Populations and 

Ecosystems

Thinking About the Environment: Food webs. Introduction, Findings, Findings Reflection Section, Discussion, Discussion Reflection Section, FACTivity: Food webs.

Populations, 

Resources, and 

Environments

Introduction: Invasive species introduction (albizia).

Structure of Earth 

System

Thinking About Science: All living things contain nitrogen. Nitrogen sidebar: Nitrogen and volcanic soils.

Natural Hazards Introduction: Invasive species introduction (albizia).

Understandings 

About Science and 

Technology

Thinking about Science: Using technology to study atoms. Methods and 

figure 11: Using a ratio mass spectrometer to identify food webs.

Science as a Human 

Endeavor Meet the scientists: The human experience of science.

Nature of Science What kind of scientists did this research? Findings, and figure 12: 

Significance of results.

National Education Standards 
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The Natural Inquirer • Number 16

National Curriculum 

Standards for Social 

Studies

Where and How the Standard Is Addressed

Culture Water as wealth and Streams–Kahawai: Hawaiian view of water.

People, Places, and 

Environments

Introduction and figure 2: The introduction of albizia. Water is wealth: 

Hawaiian view of water. 

Power, Authority, and 

Governance Dividing wai and Law and water rights: Hawaiian view of water.

Production, 

Distribution, and 

Consumption

Dividing wai and Law and water rights: Hawaiian view of water.

Science, Technology, 

and Society

Thinking About Science, Methods, and figure 11: Ratio mass spectrometer.

Global Connections Introduction and Methods: Introduction of nonnative species.
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Left High and Dry? 

Attempting To 

Restore a Tropical 

Dry Forest in Hawai‘i

Photo courtesy of Dr. Susan Cordell.
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The Natural Inquirer • Number 16

Meet the Scientists

Ms. Moana 

McClellan, Ph.D. 

Student: One of 

my favorite things 

about working in the 

Hawaiian tropical 

dry forests is the 

chance to learn 

about endemic plant 

species. These are 

plants that are found 

nowhere else. Hawai‘i has so many endemic 

species. One of my favorite experiences 

working at Ka‘ūpūlehu was my first encounter 

with the ‘ohe makai tree; a magnificently 

beautiful tree that grows out of nothing 

substantial enough to be called soil. For me, 

being a scientist gives me the opportunity to 

ask questions that no one knows the answer 

to. Then, I get to go out to find the answers. 

Dr. Susan Cordell, 

Ecologist: My favorite 

science experience 

is returning to 

our tropical dry 

forest restoration 

experimental plots 

and seeing native 

species thrive. A 

decade ago, most 

people thought we 

were crazy to attempt 

restoration in Hawaiian 

dry forests. They 

believed that fountain grass, a highly invasive 

grass from Africa, would out-compete 

native seedlings. Fountain grass had already 

displaced most of Hawaiian tropical dry 

forests. When we first removed fountain grass 

in areas where goats were kept out, native 

species flourished while the fountain grass 

took a long time to recover. Science allows us 

to ask questions and challenge ideas and, in 

this case, we learned that, with a lot of effort, 

tropical dry forests can be restored. 

Ms. Yvonne Yarber Carter, Outreach 

Education Coordinator: Only 5 percent of 

Hawai‘i’s dry tropical forest remains. A special 

science experience was having two different 

kinds of volunteer groups help with our 

restoration efforts in the dry forest. We had a 

group of intermediate students from Hawai‘i 

from a program called Na Kahumoku. These 

students teamed up with a group from Cornell 

University’s Environmental Earth Sciences 

program. They mentored each other. Because 

Na Kahumoku had worked with us many times 

before, the students had plenty to share about 

dry forest restoration.

The Cornell students shared science that 

applied to the restoration. I could feel their 

excitement about seeing how the trees and 

shrubs they had planted as seedlings were 

thriving. That excitement has grown into real 

commitment, and each year a new Cornell 

group comes. They measure and record growth 

data on those trees planted the year before. 

When two groups come together in 

harmony, the days are filled with aloha,

learning, hope, knowledge, and being part 

of change for the better. It feels like we can, 

one day at a time, heal this dry forest budding 

up out of the lava. In this photo, I am talking 

to students about the dry forest of Ka‘ūpūlehu 

before working on the land. Photo by Keoki 

Apokolani Carter.

t

t

t

Glossary words are in bold and are defined 

on page 99. Hawaiian words are in italics and 

their pronunciation is given on page 106.
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Thinking About 

Science

Sometimes, a research 

project is viewed as a case study. 

A case study is a detailed look 

at one thing as an example of 

similar things. Consider the 

experiences of a student who 

has transferred into a classroom 

in the middle of the school year. A detailed study 

of this student’s experience may be done as a case 

study. The findings from such a study would be 

used as an example of what other students in the 

same situation may experience. 

Thinking About the Environment

The tropical zone of Earth is a band near the Equator (figure 1). 

[continues on page 93]

In the research you are about to read, the 

scientists studied a special kind of tropical forest 

in Hawai‘i. This kind of forest is endangered 

in Hawai‘i and in other tropical regions. The 

scientists wanted to learn how to restore this 

particular forest. They also wanted to share what 

they learned with other people hoping to restore 

this type of forest in other places. They hoped 

that their research would be used as a case study 

of how to restore this special type of tropical 

forest wherever it is found.

Figure 1. The tropical zone of Earth is an area 

between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic 

of Capricorn. 

Be sure to read 

“A Hawaiian View 

of Dry Tropical 

Forests” 

on page 102.
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The Natural Inquirer • Number 16

Figure 2. The windward 

and leeward sides of 

the island of Hawai‘i. 

The inset shows that 

Hawai‘i is a collection 

of five volcanoes. Most 

of Hawai‘i, therefore, 

is mountainous. Inset 

courtesy of the U.S. 

Geological Survey 

(USGS), http://hvo.

wr.usgs.gov/maunaloa/. 

Figure 3. Hawaiian 

trade winds blow 

from the northeast to 

the southwest. 

Islands with mountains in the tropical zone 

usually have two distinct sides (figure 2). One 

side is called the windward side. This side is 

where the winds coming off of the ocean, known 

as the trade winds, approach the island. In 

Hawai‘i, the trade winds blow from the northeast 

to the southwest (figure 3). As the wind travels 

up the mountains, the cooler air causes clouds to 

form. This side of the island has a 

lot of rain. The forests on this side 

are called tropical rain forests. The 

other side of the island is called the leeward side. 

This side of the island has very little rain, because 

all the moisture has been lost on the windward 

side. The forests on the leeward side are called 

tropical dry forests (figure 4). 

t

t
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Figure 6. The Ka‘ūpūlehu dry forest on the island 

of Hawai‘i.

Figure 5. The Ka‘ūpūlehu dry forest is located at 

600 meters elevation. It is 25 hectares in size. 

Average rainfall in the dry forest is less than 750 

millimeters per year. Contrast these measurements 

with rainfall on the windward side of Hawai‘i, which 

is about 3,000 millimeters per year. 

Introduction

The Ka‘ūpūlehu dry forest is located on 

the leeward size of the island of Hawai‘i 

(figures 5 and 6). The forest land is owned 

by Kamehameha Schools, which is dedicated to 

preserving traditional Hawaiian culture through 

education. This forest, like most tropical dry 

forests, was in danger of being lost as a native 

ecosystem. In the past, people had cleared the 

land for agriculture and had allowed cattle and 

horses to graze on it.

What is the 

tropical zone?

The tropical zone is an area north and south of the Equator that is 

warm all year. In the tropical zone, the 

sun is directly overhead at least 1 day 

during the year. Because the climate 

is warm, land in the tropical zone is 

home to more than one-third of Earth’s 

human population. The tropical zone is 

sometimes called the tropics.

Tropical dry forests are one of the most 

endangered tropical forests. In the past, people 

allowed cattle and horses to graze in these 

forests. Wildfires have destroyed many of the 

dry forests, and people have cleared them to build 

homes and for agriculture. Invasive species have 

also come into the dry forests, taking over areas 

that once had native species. The scientists in 

this study wanted to learn how to restore a dry 

tropical forest in Hawai‘i that was in danger of 

being lost. 

Figure 4. Tropical dry forests have little rainfall.
95

The Natural Inquirer • Number 16

With the help of scientists, a group of people 

began trying to restore the dry forest. When 

they began, they were not sure of the best way 

to restore a tropical dry forest. The scientists in 

this study wanted to understand whether the 

things the group did to restore the forest were 

successful. Based on this understanding, the 

scientists then wanted to develop suggestions 

to help others to restore dry tropical forests in 

other areas.

Reflection Section

b Why do you think it is important to save native ecosystems?

b What is one way to restore a native forest?

b What question did the scientists want to answer? What did the scientists want to do after

they answered their question?

Number Crunches

b What is the elevation of Ka‘ūpūlehu dry

forest in feet? Multiply 600 by 3.28 to

find out.

b What is the size of Ka‘ūpūlehu dry forest

in acres? Multiply 25 by 2.47 to find out.

b How much rain falls in Hawai‘i in inches?

Multiply the amount in millimeters by

0.039 to find out.

Methods

The scientists first placed a wire fence 

around the Ka‘ūpūlehu dry forest (figure 7). The 

fence was built to keep cattle and other grazing 

animals out of the forest. Hawai‘i has no native 

ungulates (un gə lāts: mammals with hooves) 

so the native plants are not adapted to them. 

Then, the scientists removed as many invasive 

plant species as they could. When these efforts 

did not cause the native forest to return, the 

scientists decided to try something else.

The scientists removed an invasive grass 

from the forest. This grass was growing thickly 

along the ground. They removed the invasive 

grass by first cutting the grass, then applying 

a chemical to kill it. The scientists collected 

native seeds from trees and plants in Ka‘ūpūlehu

dry forest and other nearby dry forests. They 

Figure 7. A fence kept cattle and other grazing 

animals out of the dry forest. 
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Number Crunches

b What was the total number of native

plants planted between 1999 and 2006?

b What was the average number of plants

planted per year?

Figure 8. The types and numbers of native 

plants planted in the dry forest between 1999 

and 2006.

Figure 9a and 9b. A tag with information on it 

was attached to each plant that was planted (9a, 

top). As the plant grew, the tag remained so that 

the scientists could track its growth (9b, above).

planted the seeds in a greenhouse. As each 

plant grew large enough, the scientists planted 

it in the forest ground. From 1999 to 2006, 

the scientists and others planted almost 5,000 

plants (figure 8).

Type of plant Number planted

Trees 2,996

Shrubs 997

Vines 237

Herbs 33

Sedges 4

When the scientists planted a plant, they 

attached a tag to it (figures 9a and 9b). This 

tag contained information about the species of 

plant and when it was planted. The scientists 

recorded information from each plant on 

paper and then entered it into a computer. 

Unfortunately, 625 plants died before their 

information was recorded. For these 625 

plants, the information was lost. All plants 

were watered for 6 months after planting to 

encourage their growth.

The scientists counted the number of living 

and dead plants and trees according to species 

in every year except 2004.

Reflection Section

b Why do you think the

scientists wanted to keep track

of each plant species and the

date of planting?

b From this method, could the

scientists determine whether it was

necessary to kill the grass with a

chemical after they had cut it?

Why or why not?
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The Natural Inquirer • Number 16

Findings

From 1999 to 2003, 

rainfall was below 

normal. In 2004, 

Ka‘ūpūlehu dry forest 

had the highest rainfall 

ever recorded there 

(1,249 millimeters). 

In 2005 and 2006, 

rainfall was considered 

normal. Of the 4,892 

plants and trees 

planted, 1,487 were 

still alive in 2007. The 

scientists found 3,357 

dead plants and trees 

and could not find 48 

plants (figure 10).

Vines were the 

most successful type 

of plant, with a 63- 

percent survival rate. 

Only 34 percent of the 

trees were still living 

in 2007. The Federal 

Government listed five 

of the species planted 

as endangered 

species. These species 

represented almost 

60 percent of the total 

surviving plants 

(figure 11).

Figure 10. Survival of plants and trees by the year they were planted. The 

numbers in parentheses represent the percentage of surviving plants. 

Figure 11. Increase in Federal endangered plant species as a result of 

the planting effort. When scientists were planting the plants, three koki‘o 

plants were living in the wild. Scientists now believe that no living koki‘o 

plants live in the wild in Hawai‘i.

Scientific name of 

the endangered 

plant

Hawaiian name of 

the plant

Number of plants 

in the State of 

Hawai‘i before the 

planting program

Percent increase 

in the plant population after the 

planting program

Abutilon 

menziesii Ko‘oloa‘ula 450 22

Bonamia 

menziesii No known name 200 75

Caesalpinia 

kavaiensis Uhiuhi 42 20

Colubrina 

oppositifolia Kauila 800 21

Hibiscus 

brackenridgei Ma‘o hau hele 70 146

Kokia 

drynarioides Koki‘o 3 9,733

Nothocestrum 

breviflorum ‘Aiea 100 54

Pleomele 

hawaiiensis Halapepe 300 99

Sesbania 

tomentosa ‘Ohai 100 3
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Discussion

Vines had the highest rate of survival. The 

scientists believe the vines had a high rate of 

survival because vines grow quickly and can 

climb over shrubs and trees. Vines, therefore, 

receive more sunlight and are able to shade out 

grasses and weeds. The scientists recommend 

that future efforts to restore native dry forests 

begin with planting vines. The vines will shade 

out invasive grasses and weeds. They will 

also provide shade for future shrub and tree 

plantings. The shade should increase the rate of 

survival for shrubs and trees.

The most important finding from this study 

is what should be done in the future to help 

Reflection Section

b How is the effect of the drought from 1999 to 2003 reflected in figure 10? How is

the year of high rainfall reflected in figure 10?

b Examine figures 10 and 11. Would you say the planting effort was a success? Why or why not?

Reflection Section

b State in your own words what the most important finding is from this study. How

did the scientists determine this finding?

b How can you apply this finding to your own life?

restore native dry tropical forests. Although 

fewer plants and trees survived than the 

scientists had hoped, they learned many things 

from this project. In the future, they will do a 

better job of planning how to restore the dry 

forest. They will do a better job of keeping 

track of each plant and tree. They will count 

the surviving plants and trees more frequently, 

and they will use technology to help them be 

more accurate and complete in their research. 

The scientists concluded that this research was 

a success. It will help them and other scientists 

do a better job of restoring native dry tropical 

forests in the future.

Adapted from Cordell, S.; McClellan, M.; Yarber Carter, Y.; Hadway, L. 2008. Towards restoration of Hawaiian tropical 

dry forests: the Ka‘ūpūlehu outplanting programme. Pacific Conservation Biology. 14: 279–284. http://www.fs.fed.us/psw/

publications/cordell/psw_2008_cordell001.pdf.
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The Natural Inquirer • Number 16

Glossary

Aloha (a lō ha): Hawaiian word meaning love, 

compassion, peace, mercy, or connection. Also 

used today for both hello and goodbye. 

Degraded (dē grā dəd): Being in a worse 

condition than before.

Dense (den(t)s): Marked by compactness or 

crowding together of parts.

Ecosystem (ē kō sis təm): A system made up 

of an ecological community of living things 

interacting with their environment especially 

under natural conditions.

Elevation (el ə vā shən): Height above sea level.

Endangered (en dān jərd): Being in danger or 

peril.

Endangered species (en dān jərd spē sēs): A 

species of animal or plant in danger of becoming 

extinct or dying off.

Hardwood (härd wud): The wood of a tree 

without cones. 

Invasive species (in vā siv spē sēs): A plant or 

animal species not native to an area and with the 

potential to harm the native environment.

Mentor (men tör): To tutor or to teach. 

Native (nā tiv): Plant or animals species living or 

growing naturally in an environment.

Restoration (res tə rā shən): The act of bringing 

back to an earlier condition.

Restore (rē stör): To bring back to an earlier or 

normal condition.

Tropical (träp ə kəl): Of, in, or like the tropics, a 

region of Earth close to the Equator.

Accented syllables are in bold. Definitions and 

marks are from http://www.merriam-webster.com.

FACTivity

Time Needed

1 class period.

Materials 

•	 “Left High and Dry” article, one for each

pair of students (or one per student).

The question you will answer in this 

FACTivity is: If people are able to restore 

degraded ecosystems, is it acceptable to 

destroy them for our temporary use?

You will answer this question by doing a 

case study. See “Thinking About Science” 

for information about case studies. First, 

read the background information below 

for this case study. Then, follow the 

procedure for small group debate and class 

discussion.

Background

There is a small island off of the coast 

of the Southeastern United States that is 

protected by a shore protection law. This 

law protects the beach and sand dunes of 

the island. Signs warn visitors not to walk on 

the dunes, and visitors can be fined if they 

do so. 
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The sand dunes are home to millions of 

species of plant and animal life. They form 

a natural buffer and protect upland homes, 

hotels, and other buildings from the tides, 

winds, waves, and storms. Morning glory 

vines, ghost crabs, sea gulls, Spanish 

bayonets, and sea oats all make their 

home in and around the sand dunes. Many 

shorebirds lay eggs directly on the sand 

in the dune area. Even the threatened 

loggerhead turtles come ashore during 

the summer months to lay their eggs in 

the warm sands. The dunes are extremely 

fragile, and the plants that hold the sand 

in place are easily killed by foot traffic. All 

of these communities are protected by the 

law. It is the goal of the people that own the 

island to promote the preservation of these 

natural habitats.

Recently, however, the people responsible 

for the island allowed a large film company 

to use almost 5 acres of the island’s sand 

dunes to film an action movie. The movie set 

had to look like it was in a tropical location. 

The island is located just north of the tropical 

zone. To make the dune area look tropical, 

the existing dunes had to be changed. The 

film company covered the existing dunes 

with 4 feet of new sand, covering all the 

plants and animals living there. They used 

trucks and machines to create a brand-new 

dune area. They brought in palm trees from 

a tropical area and planted them in the new 

sand. 

The people responsible for the area said 

that it was okay to allow the film company to 

destroy the existing sand dunes. They made 

this decision because the film company said 

they would restore the sand dunes to their 

original condition when they finished filming. 

The people responsible for the area said the 

film company might even make the area better 

than it was before because some invasive 

plant species had been growing on the dunes.

Members of a citizens’ organization that 

opposed the change to the existing dunes 

said that no one had documented what 

the existing area was like before the film 

company changed it. Because of lack of 

evidence, no one knew exactly what they 

had changed. The citizens’ organization did 

not like the fact that plants and animals had 

been covered with new sand in a protected 

area, and that the people responsible for 

the area did not respect a law intended to 

protect the dunes.

Method

For this case study, your teacher will divide 

the class into groups of four students. 

Two students in each group will take the 

managers’ position that the destruction 

of the dunes was acceptable, as long as 

the film company agreed to restore the 

area. The other two students will take the 

citizens’ position that just because a fragile 

natural area that is protected by law can 

be restored, that does not mean it should 

be destroyed in the first place. With your 

partner, you should spend 10 minutes 

thinking about your position and writing out 

your argument. Then, debate and discuss 

your position with the other group.

Thinking about this case study and about the 

restoration of the tropical dry forest, answer 

the question posed at the beginning of this 

FACTivity. In a class discussion, consider the 

restoration of degraded ecosystems. What is 

similar and different about the restoration of the 

dry tropical forest and the sand dunes? From 

these two case studies, what can your class 

conclude about ecosystem restoration?
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The Natural Inquirer • Number 16

Another FACTivity

Using the figure below, calculate the number of endangered plants 

that survived the Ka‘ūpūlehu planting program and then calculate 

the total number of endangered plants of each species growing in 

Hawai‘i. Pretend that you are in charge of taking care of endangered 

species across Hawai‘i following this planting program. Which species 

would be the most important and why? Discuss your decision in a 

classroom discussion.

Scientific name of the 

endangered plant

Hawaiian 

name of the 

plant

Number of 

plants in 

the State of 

Hawaii before 

the research

Percent increase in the 

plant population after 

the planting 

program

Number of 

plants that 

survived the 

planting 

(Number of 

plants before 

times the percent increase; 

remember 

the decimal)

Number of 

plants in the 

State after 

the planting 

program

Abutilon menziesii Ko‘oloa‘ula 450 22

Bonamia menziesii No known 

name

200 75

Caesalpinia kavaiensis Uhiuhi 42 20

Colubrina oppositifolia Kauila 800 21

Hibiscus brackenridgei Ma‘o hau hele 70 146

Kokia drynarioides Koki‘o 3 9,733

Nothocestrum breviflorum ‘Aiea 100 54

Pleomele hawaiiensis Halapepe 300 99

Sesbania tomentosa ‘Ohai 100 3

To read about a tropical dry forest in Puerto Rico, see “Some Things 

Will Always Change” in the Tropical Forest edition of the Natural Inquirer

(http://www.naturalinquirer.org). What are some of the similarities and 

differences between these two tropical dry forests?
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The Hawaiian dry forest was valued in the 

past for its essential natural resources. The 

forest was especially prized for its hardwood

trees. The area where these forests grew 

had intense heat and a dry atmosphere and 

landscape. Native plants, therefore, grew 

slowly. Because of this slow growth, the rings of 

the tree were close together, creating a strong 

and durable wood product. The wood of some 

of these trees was so dense it would sink. 

Traditional Hawaiian ceremonies make use 

of the vines and trees growing in tropical dry 

A Hawaiian View of Tropical Dry Forests

forests of Hawai‘i, such as for leis and for hula. 

A lei is a necklace that is made from bone, 

seeds, leaves, flowers, or vines. The best 

known leis today are made from flowers. Leis 

are a symbol of love, connection, or respect. 

Hula is the traditional dance of Hawaiians. 

It includes chants and traditional musical 

instruments. Figure 12 shows the uses of just 

four of the important trees of Hawaiian dry 

forests.

Before so many people moved to Hawai‘i 

over the past few hundred years, dry forests 

Latin name 

and status

Hawaiian name, 

common name, 

and meaning Traditional use

Diospyros 

sandwicensis

Endemic: Found only 

in Hawai‘i

Lama, Elama

Hawaiian ebony, Hawaiian 

persimmon, enlightenment

Lele (platform above a wooden alter), ho‘okupu 

to Lono (offering to one of the four main akua, or 

gods), placed at kuahu (hula alters), pī‘oi (edible fruit), 

pupupu hale (huts constructed from lama) were used 

as a healing place.

Psydrax odorata

Native

Alahe‘e, Ohe‘e, 

Walah‘e

‘ō‘ō (digging stick for gardening), fragrant flowers or 

seeds used in lei, leaves used for black dye for kapa

(clothes or bed clothes made from bark of native 

plants), ‘au ko‘i (adze handles; handles for a tool 

used to cut wood), kao (fishing spears), makau (fish 

hooks) and ko‘i (adzes), ama (outrigger float)

Dodonaea viscosa

Native

‘a‘ali‘i,

Hawaiian hopseed bush

A reference to the people 

of Ka‘ū, ‘a‘ali‘i, standing in 

the wind

Seeds boiled to make red kapa dye, fruit and leaves 

used in lei, crushed leaves provided relief from 

rashes and contagious diseases, spears for he‘e 

(octopus), bait stick. 

Erythrina 

sandwicensis

Endemic

Wiliwili

Hawaiian coral tree, 

tiger’s claw 

Olo (large surfboard for nobility), fishing gear containers, seeds produced permanent lei, flowers for 

lei.

Figure 12. Some trees of Hawaiian dry forests.
103

The Natural Inquirer • Number 16

References:

http://www2.hawaii.edu/~eherring/hawnprop/dio-sand.htm

http://nativeplants.hawaii.edu/plant/view/Diospyros_sandwicensis

“Left high and dry” was first 

used to refer to a ship that 

was beached. It is now used 

to indicate that someone 

or something has been left 

stranded or abandoned.

Hawaiian dryland forests–Can they be restored?

http://www.hawaiiforest.org/reports/dryland.html

Tropical dry forests of the Pacific–Hawaiian Islands:

http://www.geog.ucla.edu/tdfpacific/hawaii.

html#bigisland

Slideshow of Hawaiian dryland native plants:

http://www.drylandforest.org/home-slideshow-drylandnatives

Additional Web Resources

Native dryland trees and their flowers:

http://www.drylandforest.org/native-dryland-trees-theirflowers

National Geographic Kids—Hawai‘i Tropical Dry 

Forests: 

http://www.nationalgeographic.com/wildworld/profiles/

terrestrial/oc/oc0202.html

could be found in all the leeward coastal areas 

of the islands. Today, only a small percentage of 

tropical dry forest land is left in Hawai‘i.

Throughout time, Hawaiians have viewed the 

island’s natural resources as a source of wealth. 

Native Hawaiians express their kinship with all 

life through their respect for natural resources. 

The lama tree, for example, is recognized as a 

kinolau, the physical form of Lono, one of the four 

main Hawaiian gods (figure 13). The lama tree, 

therefore, is sacred to Native Hawaiians. Notice 

the uses of the lama tree in the figure on page 102.

Hawaiians today recognize the 

importance of dry tropical forests. 

As you read in this article, Hawaiians are taking 

steps to restore these valuable forests. In some 

communities, this restoration has become a 

community celebration. Take a look at the flower 

mural that serves as the background of the 

journal cover and is found at the beginning of this 

article. This mural was painted by Hawaiians age 

7 to 60 who care about the dry tropical forests 

of Hawai‘i. They have used their aloha to create 

a mural to celebrate and learn about dryland 

forests.

Figure 13. Lama tree. Photo by Dr. J.B. Friday.
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National Science 

Education Standard Where and How the Standard Is Addressed

Abilities Necessary To 

Do Scientific Inquiry

Introduction: A research question asked to address a problem. Introduction Reflection Section: Articulating a research question. Methods: What 

the scientists did before collecting data, the use of tags to keep track of 

plants (also figures 9a and 9b), data collection (counting). Methods Reflection Section: Importance of recordkeeping, are data sufficient to draw 

a conclusion? Figure 10: Drawing conclusions from data. Findings Reflection Section: Interpreting data and drawing conclusions. Discussion: 

The importance of planning future studies. Discussion Reflection Section: 

Communicating findings.

Understandings 

About Scientific 

Inquiry

Meet the Scientists: Scientists get to answer new questions. Thinking 

About Science: Case studies. Introduction: Research is done to solve 

problems. Introduction Reflection Section: The importance of keeping 

track through tagging plants. Methods: The loss of information because 

of poor recordkeeping. Figures 9a and 9b: Record keeping. Methods 

Reflection Section: Importance of recordkeeping. Discussion Reflection 

Section: Application of science to one’s own life.

Populations and 

Ecosystems

Thinking About the Environment: Dry tropical forests and invasive species. Introduction Reflection Section: The importance of protecting ecosystems.

Structure of Earth 

System

Thinking About the Environment: The tropical zone, trade winds, and 

tropical forest types. Figures 1–5: Geographic features of Hawai‘i. What is 

the tropical zone?: The tropical zone. 

Populations, Resources, and EnvironmentsThinking About the Environment: Human destruction of native dry forests. 

What is the tropical zone?: Human population in the tropical zone. 

Natural Hazards Thinking About the Environment: Wildfires and dry forest destruction.

Risks and Benefits Thinking About the Environment: People benefitted from grazing but 

risked the destruction of the dry forest.

National Education Standards 
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The Natural Inquirer • Number 16

National Curriculum 

Standards for Social 

Studies

Where and How the Standard Is Addressed

Culture A Hawaiian View of Tropical Dry Forests: Past cultural uses.

People, Places, and 

Environments

Meet the Scientists: People helping the environment. A Hawaiian View of 

Dry Tropical Forests: Historic and contemporary value of dryland forests. 

Global Connections

Meet the Scientists: Outreach with college students. Thinking 

About Science: Research may be used in other areas of the tropics. FACTivity: Case study in Georgia.

Production, Distribution, 

and Consumption

A Hawaiian View of Tropical Dry Forests: Using dryland forest products 

for ceremonies and other uses.

Civic Ideals and 

Practices FACTivity: How should we treat our commonly held natural resources?

Science and 

Technology In Society

Entire article: Student scientists gaining enthusiasm and commitment as a 

result of scientific work. Discussion Reflection Section: Applying results to 

own life.

Science as a Human 

Endeavor

Meet the Scientists: Science as a favorite experience. Discussion 

Reflection Section: Applying scientific findings to one’s own life.

Nature of Science

Meet the Scientists: Proceeded even though some thought their ideas 

would not work. Discussion: Scientists make mistakes and learn from them 

for the future.
106

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The Hawaiian language was an oral language until the 

early 1800s. Western missionaries created a written Hawaiian language in 1820. The Hawaiian language has eight 

consonants and five vowels. The consonants H, K, L, M, 

N, and P are pronounced like English consonants. W is 

sometimes pronounced “V” and sometimes “W,” depending on which vowel it follows. Hawaiian syllables usually 

have only one or two letters each, including the ‘okina (ō 

kē na). 

The vowels are usually (but not always) pronounced in 

this way:

A: As in ah

E: A as in skate

I: E as in meet

O: As in over

U: As in moon

Pronunciation marks used in the glossary below:

 ā ē ī ō ū: As in skate, meet, light, over, use

ow as in owl

oo as in moon

Special characters in the Hawaiian language:

‘Okina: The ‘okina is one of the eight consonants in the 

Hawaiian language. It represents a glottal stop, like the 

quick stop you make in the word, “oh-oh.” The ‘okina is 

usually typed as a backwards single quote mark on computers that do not have Hawaiian fonts.

Kahakō: Each of the Hawaiian vowels can be written with 

a kahakō (ka ha kō), which slightly changes the way the 

vowel is pronounced. A kahakō is the bar over a vowel, as 

the “o” in kahakō. The vowel is pronounced as it is without 

the kahakō except that its sound is held just a little longer. 

The ‘okina and kahakō are important. If either is missing from a word, the pronunciation, as well as the word’s 

meaning, will change. 

As with many languages, one word can have many 

meanings in the Hawaiian language. The word’s meaning depends on how it is being used and to what it refers, 

often called its context. Think of the English word “cool.” 

When it is being used, you automatically know whether 

it is referring to the temperature or to the attractiveness 

of something. In the Hawaiian glossary below, you will 

notice that many words have more than one meaning. 

For more information about the Hawaiian language, visit 

http://www.instanthawaii.com/cgi-bin/hawaii?Language. 

A Hawaiian dictionary can be found at http://wehewehe.

org/gsdl2.5/cgi-bin/hdict?l=en.

Hawaiian Pronunciation English

‘aka‘aka, ‘aka ah ka ah ka Laughter, mirth, merriment, ridicule, laugh

‘awe ah vā Backpack, to carry on back

a‘ole ah o lā No

‘a‘ole pilikia ah ol lā pē lē kē ah No problem

‘ae ī Yes

alaka‘i ah la ka ē Leader

aloha ah lō ha Hello, goodbye, love, peace, care, etc.

haumana how ma na Student

hoo‘olu‘olu, hoo‘olu, 

ho‘ole‘a, ho‘ohoihoi

hoo ō loo ō loo Please

hoaloha hō ah lō ha Friend, beloved companion

hoa kula hō ah koo la Classmate

The Hawaiian Language and 

Hawaiian Glossary

Fun words to use in class
107

The Natural Inquirer • Number 16

Hawaiian Pronunciation English

hoa pili hō ah pē lē Close, intimate, or personal friend

kaikamahine ka (ē) ka ma hē nā Girl, daughter, niece

keiki kāne kā kē ka nā Boy, son, nephew

kumu koo moo Teacher, model, guide, example, base, foundation, root, 

source, reason, flock, herd, etc.

mahalo ma ha lō Thanks, gratitude, admiration, esteem, respect

mahalo nui loa ma ha lō nū ē lō ah Thanks very much

makana ma ka na Gift, award, reward, donation

makuahine ma koo ah hē nā Mother, aunt, female cousin or relative of parents’ generation

makuakane ma koo ah ka nā Father, uncle, male cousin of parents’ generation

mana‘o ma na ō Thought, opinion, intention, meaning, desire, estimate, 

anticipate, suppose, mediate, deem, consider, etc.

pilialoha pē lē ah lō ha Friendship, loving association, relative, romance

pōmaika‘i po mī kī ē Good luck, prosperity, benefits, improvement (pertaining to 

property)

From the journal

‘aiea ī(ē) ā ya Shrub and tree species

‘a‘ali‘i, ‘a‘ali‘i ku makani ah ah lē ē Medium sized shrub, Dodonaea viscosa

‘āina ī na Land

‘akiapōlā‘au ah kē ah pō la ow Rare Hawaiian honey creeper, Hemignathus munroi, commonly known as Swiss army beak bird due to its ability to 

manipulate its beak; occupies woodpecker habitat

‘apapane, ‘akakane ah pa pa nā, ah kah ka nā A Hawaiian honey creeper, Himatione sanguinea

‘au ko‘i ow kō ē Adze (Ax) handle

‘auwai ow vī Irrigation ditch, canal

‘āwikiwiki ah vē kē vē kē Vine species

‘ihi ē hē Respect

‘i‘iwi ē ē wē Scarlet honey creeper, Vestiari coccinea
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Hawaiian Pronunciation English

‘ie‘ie ē ā ē ā Wet forest vine species, kinolau (physical embodiment) of 

the goddess Laka

‘io ē ō Hawaiian hawk

‘ohai ō ha ī Shrub species

‘ohana ō ha na Family connections; kinship with other life forms

‘ohi‘a ō hē ah Tree species

‘o‘o ō ō Digging stick 

‘ō‘ō ō ō Bird species

‘o‘opu ō ō poo Fish

‘okina ō kē na Pronunciation guide for a glottal stop

‘ono ō nō Delicious

‘opae ō pī Fresh water shrimp

‘ūlei oo lā Sprawling woody shrub, rose family 

a‘lahe‘e, walahe‘e ah la hā ā, wah la hā ā Shrub species

ahu ah hoo Alter, heap, pile, cape, cloak

ahupua‘a ah hoo poo ah ah Land division usually running from the mountains to the 

sea, demarked by an ahu (alter) surmounted by the image 

of a pua‘a (pig)

akua ah koo ah God, spirit, natural element, interacting ecosystems

alaia ah la ya Traditional surfboards

ali‘i ah lē ē Chief, chiefess (chieftess), officer, ruler, monarch, aristocrat, commander

ali‘i nui ah lē ē noo ē Great chief, high chief

aloha ah lō ha Hello, goodbye, love, peace, care, etc.

ama ah ma Outrigger float 

E ola ke koa. ā ol la kā kō ah “Live a long time, like a koa tree.”

ha‘aha‘a ha ah ha ah Humility

Hahai no ka ua i ka 

ulaula‘ua. 

ha ha ē no ka oo ah ē ka oo 

la oo la oo ah

“The rain always follows the forests.”
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The Natural Inquirer • Number 16

Hawaiian Pronunciation English

hala pepe ha la pā pā Native tree, Dracaena pleomele, lily family

halau wa‘a how la va ah Canoe club

hāpu‘u ha poo oo Tree Fern, Cibotium glaucum

he‘e hā ā Octopus, slide

hīna‘i hē nī ē Fish trap or fish trap made from braided ‘ie vine, Pandanus 

(palm-like trees or shrubs), or other material (traditionally 

used for shrimp, eels, etc.) 

Hoe a hoe ka Wa a a me 

He e nalu i ka waa kahiko.

hoy ah hoy kah va ah ah 

mā heh eh na loo ē ka va a 

ka hē ko

“Canoeing and surfing in ancient Hawai‘i.”

holomoana hō lō mō ah na Traveling over long distances or voyaging

ho‘okupu hō ō koo poo Offering, to grow, sprout, to increase

hula hoo la Traditional dance

iako ya kō Two wooden bars that attach the outrigger to the canoe

Ka‘ūpūlehu ka ū poo lā hoo Area in western area of the island of Hawai‘i 

kahawai ka ha vī Stream

kalai wa a ka lā va ah The carving and shaping of wooden canoes

kalo ka lō A root crop, taro

Kamehameha ka mā ha mā ha Large school system on Hawai‘i (Statewide), paramount 

chief that united Hawai‘i

kānāwai ka na vī Law, code, rule, rule, stature, ordinance

Kane-i-ka-wai-ola ka nā ē ka vī o la Water god, water cycles, water exchange, layering of water by temperature

kao kow Fishing spear

kapa kuh pa Clothes or bed clothes, blanket

kauila or kauwila ka wē la Dryland forest tree species, one of the densest Hawaiian 

trees, lightning

Kilauea kē la wā ah Volcano in southeast of the island of Hawai‘i 

kinolau kē nō low (ow as in owl) Physical manifestation of akua, kupua, or kupu (varying 

levels of gods and supernatural beings)

kīpuka kē poo ka Forested island surrounded by hardened lava
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Hawaiian Pronunciation English

ko‘i kō ē Adzes (Axes)

ko‘oloa‘ula kō ō lō ah oo la Plant species

koa kō ah Tree species whose wood is used to build canoes and many 

other wood products

koki‘o kō kē ō Shrub species

konohiki kō nō hē kē Supervisor of water rights; individual who manages land 

and water resources in an area

kuahu kū ah hū Alter

kua‘āina kū ah ī na Someone who keeps native Hawaiian cultural practices

kupono kū pō nō Righteousness

kūpuna kū pū na Elders

lama, ēlama la ma, ā la ma Ebony tree 

laulima low lē ma (ow) Many people working

Laupahoehoe la pa hoy hoy Community and school in the northeast of the island of 

Hawai‘i; Ahupua‘a located in the Hamakua district 

lei lā Necklace made of natural materials

lele l l Platform above an ahu, acts as a wooden alter that is an 

extension located above the ahu

lo’i kalo lō ē ka lō Wetlands created for a taro patch

lokahi lō ka hē In unison

Lono lō nō One of four main gods, reigns over Hawaiian agriculture

ma‘o hau hele ma ō ha ō hel ā Plant species

mahalo ma ha lō Thanks; thanksgiving

mahi‘ai ma hē ī Farmer

makau ma (ka-ō) Fish hooks

mālama ‘āina ma la ma ī na Care for the land

e e
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Hawaiian Pronunciation English

Mauna Kea mow na kā ah (ow) Volcano in the north-central area of the island of Hawai‘i

Mauna Loa mow na lō ah (ow) Volcano in the south of the island of Hawai‘i 

mililani mē lē la nē Praise

mō‘ī mō ē King

Na Kahumoku na ka hoo mō koo A certain education program

nēnē n n The Hawaiian State bird

ohe makai ō hā ma kī Tree species

oli ō lē Chant 

olo ō lō Large surfboard for nobility

ōma‘o ō ma ō Bird species

pī‘oi pē oy Edible fruit

pono pō nō Right, righteousness, morality, duty, goodness, just, etc.

Pu‘u ‘O‘o poo oo ō ō Volcano in the southeast of the island of Hawai‘i; current 

house of Pele, goddess of fire, wind, lightning, and volcanoes

pua‘a pū ah ah Pig

pupupu hale poo poo poo ha lā Temporary huts, house

Uhiuhi oo hē oo hē Plant species

wahi kapu va hē kuh pū Sacred

wahi pana wa hē pa na Sacred place

wahine wa hē nā Woman, women

wai vī Water, spirit, liquid, honey

Waipi‘o vī pē ō Valley in northeast Hawai‘i (On the island of Hawai‘i)

waiwai vī vī Wealth (water water), abundance of resources

wiliwili wil ē wil ē Tree species

e e
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Eye Witness!

Each of the following appeared in one of the articles in this journal. 

Explain what each of these means. You may write your explanation 

or hold a class discussion.
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The Natural Inquirer • Number 16
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Hawai‘i–Pacific Islands 

Crossword Puzzle 
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The Natural Inquirer • Number 16

Note to Educators

Reflection Section: Presents questions aimed at stimulating 

critical thinking about what has been read or predicting what 

might be presented in the next section. These are placed at the 

end of each of the main article sections.

Number Crunches: Presents an easy math problem related to 

the research.

Glossary: Defines potentially new scientific or other terms to 

students. The first occurrence of a glossary word is bold in the 

text. A Hawaiian glossary is also provided in this journal. This 

glossary will help you to correctly pronounce the Hawaiian 

words.

Citation: Gives the original article citation with a Web link to the 

original article.

FACTivity: Presents a hands-on activity that emphasizes 

something presented in the article.

National Education Standards and 

Evaluations

In the back of the journal, you will find a matrix that 

enables you to identify articles by the National Science 

Education Standards and National Curriculum Standards for 

Social Studies that they address. Each article also contains 

a list of the standards addressed. Evaluation forms for 

both educators and students are available on our Web site. 

We welcome any feedback, so please visit http://www.

naturalinquirer.org and complete the online evaluation forms. 

In addition, you may contact Dr. Barbara McDonald at the 

address below with any comments you have.

Dr. Barbara (Babs) McDonald

Forest Service, USDA

320 Green St.

Athens, GA 30602-2044

706.559.4224

bmcdonald@fs.fed.us

(Please put “Educator Feedback” in the subject line)

Educator Resources

Visit the Natural Inquirer Web site at http://www.

naturalinquirer.org.

From this site, you can order more editions and read and 

download lesson plans, word games, and other resources 

to help you use the Natural Inquirer in your classroom. You 

can also view and download a year-long lesson plan aimed at 

helping your students learn about the scientific process.

The Forest Service’s mission is to sustain the health, 

diversity, and productivity of the Nation’s forests and 

grasslands to meet the needs of present and future 

generations. For more than 100 years, our motto has been 

caring for the land and serving people. The Forest Service, 

U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), recognizes its 

responsibility to be engaged in efforts to connect youth to 

nature and to promote the development of science-based 

conservation education programs and materials nationwide. 

The Natural Inquirer is a science education resource 

journal to be used by students in grades 5 and up. The 

Natural Inquirer contains articles describing environmental 

and natural resource research conducted by Forest Service 

scientists and their cooperators. These are scientific journal 

articles that have been reformatted to meet the needs of 

middle-school students. The articles are easy to understand, 

are aesthetically pleasing to the eye, contain glossaries, and 

include hands-on activities. The goal of the Natural Inquirer

is to stimulate critical reading and thinking about scientific 

inquiry and investigation while teaching about ecology, the 

natural environment, and natural resources. In this edition of 

the Natural Inquirer, you will find five science articles about 

Hawai‘i and one about the Federated States of Micronesia 

written in the scientific method format. 

The Format of a Natural 

Inquirer Article

Each Natural Inquirer article follows the same format. 

Each Natural Inquirer article is written directly from a 

published science article, and the scientist who wrote the 

scientific article has reviewed the Natural Inquirer article for 

accuracy. Each article contains the following sections, which 

you may introduce to your students as they read: 

Meet the Scientists: Introduces students to the scientists 

who did the research. This section may be used in a 

discussion about careers in science.

Thinking About Science: Introduces something new about 

the scientific process, such as a scientific habit of mind or 

procedures used in scientific studies.

Thinking About the Environment: Introduces the 

environmental topic being addressed in the research.

Introduction: Introduces the problem or question being addressed 

by the research.

Methods: Describes the methods used by the scientists to collect 

and analyze their data.

Findings: Describes the results of the analysis.

Discussion: Discusses the findings and places them into the 

context of the original problem or question.
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Lesson Plan

Just as you know the general format 

of a book or of a Web site, scientists use 

a particular format when they write up 

their research. This format usually follows 

the process they used when they did their 

study. Because this format is widely used, 

other scientists know what to expect 

when they read a scientific paper. Think 

about the format of a Web site. If you go 

to a new Web site that has the elements 

and format that you expect, you can 

much more easily understand how to 

search the Web site and find what you 

want to know. Scientists are able to do 

the same thing when they read the papers 

of other scientists. 

The Natural Inquirer is a science journal 

that was written at your reading level. It 

was written directly from research papers 

that were written by scientists. Because of 

this, the Natural Inquirer follows the same 

format as the actual scientific paper and 

it includes additional sections to help you 

better understand what you are reading. 

The heart of a scientific paper has four 

sections: Introduction, Methods, Findings, 

and Discussion.

•	 Introduction: Introduces the problem or

question the scientists addressed.

•	 Methods: Presents the methods used by

the scientists to collect and analyze their 

data.

•	 Findings: Presents the results ofthe

research.

•	 Discussion: Places the findings into the

context of the original problem or question. 

The extra sections of a Natural Inquirer article:

•	 Meet the Scientists: This section

introduces the scientists whose 

research is presented. 

•	 Thinking About Science: This section

provides one big idea, addressed in the 

article, about the nature of scientific 

inquiry.

•	 Thinking About the Environment:

This section provides background 

information that introduces the topic 

studied by the scientists.

• Reflection Sections: These are

questions placed after the Introduction, 

Methods, Findings, and Discussion 

sections to help you think about what 

you have read.

•	 Number Crunches: These are easy

math problems that provide greater 

understanding about the research. 

•	 Sidebars: These provide additional

information about something in the 

article.

•	 Glossary: This section introduces

potentially new terms used in the 

article.

Note: This generic lesson plan can be used 

with any article in this edition or with any 

Natural Inquirer article. Using the same plan 

is possible because each Natural Inquirer

article follows the same format (See Note to 

Educators, page 115). A lesson plan for the 

Hawaiian cultural essays follows. 

If students have not yet been introduced to 

the Natural Inquirer and the written scientific 

format used by scientists, spend 5 minutes on 

this topic. Below is a sample introduction:
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The Natural Inquirer • Number 16

•	 FACTivity: This activity provides a

chance for you to become a scientist 

as you conduct an inquiry or activity 

related to the article you read.

•	 Cultural Essay: New in this Natural 

Inquirer, this item presents cultural 

information about Hawai‘i and the 

Federated States of Micronesia.

Scientific writing is nonfiction. Nonfiction 

is informational or factual. Although most 

nonfiction writing does not have a plot, 

scientific papers come somewhat close 

to having a storyline. A scientific paper’s 

format generally follows the process that 

scientists use to do their research. To better 

understand a scientific paper, it is best to 

read it in the order it is presented. You can 

think of a scientific paper as a factual mystery 

that unfolds in the four sections outlined 

previously: Introduction, Methods, Findings, 

and Discussion sections. Scientists are like 

detectives who solve scientific mysteries.

Time needed: 1-2 class periods.

Materials needed for each student:

• Natural Inquirer article.

• Templates provided on page 118. 

• Pencil with eraser.

In this lesson, students will increase their 

reading comprehension, critical thinking skills, 

and summarization and explanation skills.

Students will become members of the 

Natural Inquirer Twitter Team, assisting the 

Natural Inquirer with teaching others about 

their article. 

Introduce the Natural Inquirer article using 

the information given above.

Give each student a journal or an article 

and copies of the template given on page 118. 

Note that there is room for two Tweets on 

each page and students will write up to six 

Tweets.

Tell students that their job will be to 

summarize each section of the article. Their 

summarization will take the form of a Tweet, 

consisting of no more than 140 characters, 

including punctuation and spaces. Remind 

them that as they read each section, they 

should be thinking about and identifying the 

most important idea in the section. You may 

want to read this about Twitter: “At the heart 

of Twitter are small bursts of information 

called Tweets. Each Tweet is 140 characters in 

length, but don’t let the small size fool you—

you can share a lot with a little space.” (From 

http://www.twitter.com)

Have each student read their article section 

by section. This can be done as a class with 

students taking turns reading out loud, reading 

in small groups, or silently reading alone.

At the end of each major section, students 

will take 1-2 minutes to identify the most 

important idea and 1-2 minutes to write it as a 

Tweet on the template.

After all sections have been Tweeted, 

hold a class discussion to share Tweets. 

Alternatively, have students work in small 

groups to discuss their Tweets. As a small 

group, have students develop a single group 

Tweet for each section. These group Tweets 

may then be shared with the class in a group 

discussion.

Extension:

Create a class Twitter account and 

enter the Tweets on the account. 

“Friend” the Natural Inquirer on 

Twitter. The Natural Inquirer staff 

will retweet the class Tweets.
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Article:

Section: __________________________________Tweeted by: _______________________________________________

Tweet:

___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ 

___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ 

___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ 

___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ 

___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ 

___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ 

___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ 

Article:

Section: __________________________________Tweeted by: _______________________________________________

Tweet:

___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ 

___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ 

___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ 

___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ 

___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ 

___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ 

___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ 

Natural Inquirer Tweet Sheet
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The Natural Inquirer • Number 16

Cultural Essay Lesson Plan

Time Needed 

30 minutes

Materials

• Hawaiian Articles Cultural Essays

(located at the end of the articles).

Introduce the cultural essay by reading the introductory 

material below. Have students read the cultural essay 

and answer the questions that follow the introduction. 

The introductory material should be used for all articles 

except “Mangrove Mania.” See “Mangrove Mania” 

introductory material and questions to the right.

Hawai‘i Background: The Hawaiian Islands were first 

settled by the Polynesians, who arrived by boat around 

the year 300 CE (Common Era). The descendants of 

these first settlers are considered Native Hawaiian. 

Over time, other groups settled in Hawai‘i, including 

Europeans, North Americans, Chinese, and Japanese, 

among others. Today, only about 10 percent of the 

population is identified as Native Hawaiian. 

Native Hawaiian culture, like most ancient cultures, 

held nature in high esteem. Aware of their dependence 

upon the natural environment for shelter, food, and 

clothing, Native Hawaiians developed political and cultural systems to ensure their survival.

In the cultural essay that you will read, you will search 

for clues to the Native Hawaiian connection with nature. Do this by answering the questions below:

•	 Who is the essay about?

•	 What is unique about the place being described?

•	 How did the place influence what happened?

•	 Could or did this happen in other places? Why? If

so, where and describe how.

•	 What clues tell you that early Hawaiians respected

their natural resources? 

•	 What clues tell you that Hawaiians today respect

their natural resources?

•	 How does the cultural essay relate to the article?

•	 Name two lessons we can learn from Hawaiian

culture.

•	 Write a list of the lessons identified by the class.

• Mangrove Mania Essay

(located on p. 52).

Introductory material: The Federated States of Micronesia, or FSM, was settled up to 3,000 years ago by 

explorers from Asia and Polynesia. Because the nation’s 

more than 600 islands are separated by wide expanses 

of ocean, the culture of each inhabited island has remained distinct from other islands. For example, streams 

on the island of Pohnpei are inhabited by a freshwater 

eel. Pohnpeians believe that the streams and rivers were 

carved out of the land by these eels moving back and 

forth in the streams and are considered sacred animals. 

However, on Kosrae Island, only 300 miles away, eels 

are considered a delicacy and served at special occasions. The people of FSM, however, have things in common. The primary livelihoods across FSM are farming 

and fishing, and all FSM citizens practice singing, dancing, and storytelling. 

Citizens of FSM value their identity as members of 

distinct ethnic groups with diverse cultural traditions and 

values. This sense of “unity in diversity” is embedded in 

the preamble to the FSM constitution: “To make one 

nation of many islands, we respect the diversity of our 

cultures. Our differences enrich us. The seas bring us 

together, they do not separate us. Our islands sustain 

us, our island nation enlarges us and makes us stronger.” 

(From http://www.everyculture.com/Ma-Ni/Federated-States-of-Micronesia.html.)

In the cultural essay that you will read, you will search 

for clues to the native connection with nature. Do this 

by answering the questions below:

•	 Who is the essay about?

•	 What is unique about the place being described?

•	 How did the place influence what happened?

•	 Could or did this happen in other places? Why? If

so, where and describe how.

•	 How does the cultural essay relate to the article?

•	 Name two lessons we can learn from these Pacific

Islanders.

•	 Write a list of the lessons identified by the class.
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Reflection Section Answer Guide

Treasure Islands

Introduction

• Why do you think the scientists were 

interested in learning about the habitat 

of native and nonnative bird species 

in Hawai‘i? If you need a hint, reread 

“Thinking About the Environment.” 

Out of 113 species endemic to Hawai‘i, 

only 42 exist today. Of the 42, only 11 are 

not endangered. If the endemic and native 

bird species of Hawai‘i are to continue into 

the future, scientists must learn about their 

preferred habitats and any threats posed by 

nonnative bird species. 

• State the hypothesis in the form of a 

question. Do larger kīpuka with a greater 

variety of vegetation and taller vegetation have 

a greater number and variety of native and 

nonnative bird species? Another possibility is: 

Is there a relationship between the variety and 

height of kīpuka vegetation and the number 

and variety of native and nonnative bird 

species?

Methods

• How did the large area of forest serve 

as a control? The large area of forest was 

never isolated as a forested island by volcanic 

lava. Therefore, it would serve as a setting 

where, if the volcano had not erupted, the 

number of native and nonnative bird species 

would not be dependent on a limited habitat 

patch size.

• Why did the scientists record the type 

of vegetation and trees found in each 

kīpuka? If the vegetation was different for each 

or even some kīpuka, any differences in the 

number of bird species found could be because 

of the vegetation. The scientists would not 

know whether any differences were related to 

the type of vegetation or the size of the kīpuka.

Findings

• Based on the findings, do you think 

the ‘apapane is likely to be one of the 

endangered bird species? Why or why 

not? Students may have individual answers 

to this question. They should, however, 

suspect that the ‘apapane is not likely to be an 

endangered species because it can successfully 

live in a wide variety of kīpuka habitats as well 

as the large forest. 

• Read the next-to-the-last sentence in 

“Findings” and examine table 1. What 

can you say about the kīpuka and the 

future of native bird species? From this 

finding, it appears that the smaller kīpuka had 

fewer nonnative species in them. From table 

1, it appears that nonnative species may not 

often use smaller kīpuka. Therefore, students 

might conclude that smaller kīpuka appear 

to provide better habitat for native birds than 

for nonnative birds. Smaller kīpuka appear to 

provide a measure of protection for native birds.

• Looking over table 1 and figure 14, what 

can you say about the height of trees 

in different size kīpuka? Students should 

conclude that the larger the kīpuka size in 

hectares, the taller the trees.

Discussion

• What is one advantage of restoring 

small forest patches? Students will have 

individual answers, but they should realize that 

it would cost less to restore small forest patches 

than larger patches. In addition, smaller patches 

are less attractive to nonnative species.
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The Natural Inquirer • Number 16

• What is one disadvantage of restoring 

only small forest patches? (Hint: Think 

about the ‘io or Hawaiian hawk.) The 

Hawaiian hawk is endangered, and it was 

found only in the largest kīpuka. If only small 

patches of forest are restored, the Hawaiian 

hawk would be restricted to current areas of 

large forest.

• Why might it be important to begin 

now to restore patches of native forest 

at higher elevations? Students should realize 

that trees take years to grow. The tallest trees 

are often the oldest trees. Because tree height 

is related to the number of bird species living 

in a kīpuka, it would make sense to begin 

restoring small areas of native forest now. This 

restoration would give the trees a chance to 

grow. By the time the climate changes enough 

for mosquitoes to reach the middle elevations, 

native bird species could move to the higher 

elevation forest patches. 

BIG Questions

• Why should humans care about 

endemic and endangered species? 

Should the scientists’ recommendation 

be followed? These questions were posed at 

the beginning of this article. Students should 

be able to draw on their experience and 

knowledge, as well as the information presented 

in this article, to discuss the pros and cons of 

protecting endemic and endangered species.

Koa Constrictors

Introduction

• Explain in your own words why crop 

trees are needed for products such as 

surfboards, body boards, furniture, 

and guitars. If the trunk of a tree is bent or 

twisted, its wood will not be straight enough 

for boards to be cut from it. If the trunk has a 

lot of side branches, the timber will have a lot 

of knots. Lumber with knots is not as strong or 

attractive as lumber without knots.

• Why did the scientists want to study the 

three obstacles to koa crop tree growth? 

These obstacles are slowing the growth of koa

crop trees. Demand for koa wood, which relies 

on koa crop trees, is rising. If the scientists 

could discover ways to overcome these three 

obstacles, landowners could grow koa crop trees 

faster now and into the future. 

• Look at figure 5. Do you see any noncrop koa trees in the photo? How do you 

know? Students should realize that the trees 

to the left and right of the crop tree are noncrop 

koa trees because they have crooked trunks. 

Encourage students to examine this photo so 

that they understand the differences between 

crop trees and noncrop trees.

Methods

• Explain in your own words why 

scientists use a control in which no 

treatment is applied. Students will have 

individual answers to this question. They 

should, however, recognize that without a 

control with which to compare the treatments, 

it would be hard to say what effect the 

treatments have.

• Why did the scientists measure the 

DBH of the koa crop trees before and 

after the treatments? Students should 

realize that to identify which treatments, if any, 

seemed to encourage the growth of koa crop 

trees, scientists would need measurements both 

before and after the treatments. 

Findings

• If you were one of the scientists 

doing this research, what would you 

recommend to managers wanting to 
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increase the growth rate of koa crop 

trees? Students should realize that thinning, 

herbicide use, and the application of phosphorus 

should be recommended to managers wanting 

to increase the growth rate of koa crop trees.

• Is phosphorus important to the growth 

of koa trees? How do you know? Students 

should conclude that phosphorus is important 

to the growth of koa trees because when 

phosphorus was added to the soil, the trees more 

than doubled in diameter. The scientists were so 

sure about the effects of phosphorus on koa tree 

growth that they called the growth significant. 

Discussion

• How are koa wood guitars and 

phosphorus related? Students should be able 

to describe how the fertilizer phosphorus, when 

used in conjunction with herbicide and thinning, 

encourages the growth of koa crop trees in 

Hawai‘i. Some of these crop trees are used to 

make koa wood guitars.

• Why would thinning alone be best done 

when the trees are young? When forests 

are thinned, openings are created that allow 

more sunlight to reach the remaining trees. 

Older trees, however, take more than 3 years 

to respond to the increase in sunlight after 

thinning. Young trees, because they grow faster, 

would respond more quickly to an increase in 

sunlight. If thinning were the only treatment 

used, therefore, it would be better to do it when 

the trees were young.

Mangrove Mania

Introduction

• Mangrove forests provide homes for fish 

and other wildlife. How could this help 

support the island’s economy? Locals 

catch and sell the fish whose habitat is the 

mangrove forests, thus supporting the island’s 

economy. Fish and wildlife viewing attracts 

tourists to the island and helps the economy.

• What did the scientists want to learn 

in this study? The scientists wanted to know 

how sedimentation and sea-level rise affect 

mangrove forests.

Methods

• Why do you think the scientists chose 

two different islands to study? Because 

the scientists could compare their findings and 

see if there are similarities and differences 

between the mangrove forest areas.

• Why do you think scientists measured 

the islands for 5 to 7 years instead 

of just 1 or 2 years? Measuring for 5 to 

7 years enabled scientists to measure shortterm compared with longer term trends in 

sedimentation and sea-level changes.

Findings

• Why do you think harvesting of 

overstory trees may have affected the 

soil elevation? It is possible that, after trees 

were killed, their roots were no longer able to 

help stabilize the soil. It is also possible that 

the loss of the tree canopies, which deflect 

and slow down the rain, allowed hard rains to 

fall directly on the soil and created more soil 

erosion. 

• Why do you think fringe areas generally 

lost soil elevation over the time period 

studied? The fringe areas are subject to more 

wave action and, therefore, may lose more 

sediment and soil.

Discussion

• Why is it important for tropical land 

managers to learn how best to manage 

the land around mangrove forests?

Mangrove forests help protect the island from 
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The Natural Inquirer • Number 16

waves and sea-level rise. The mangrove forests 

are important to the ecology and economy of 

the island.

• Why is it important for people living on 

the islands to be concerned about rising 

sea levels? Rising sea levels can have an 

enormous impact on the island. For example, 

fringe areas could be completely under water. 

The water would impact the mangrove forests 

that provide many benefits to the islanders. 

(Reread the “Introduction” section that lists the 

ways mangrove forests are beneficial.) 

Beam Me Down, Scotty!

Introduction

• Why did the scientists study Hawai‘i?

Because the scientists were testing a method of 

carbon estimation, it would be most helpful to 

test the method with different types of land use 

and ecosystems. Hawai‘i was a perfect place 

to study because it is a large area, it has a clear 

boundary, and it has a variety of land cover 

and ecosystems. 

• What was the problem the scientists 

were trying to solve? The scientists needed 

to be able to estimate the amount of carbon 

being stored across large land areas and in 

different types of land cover. This method for 

estimating needed to be cost effective and fairly 

accurate. The problem was that scientists had 

not yet tested effective methods for estimating 

carbon storage across large and diverse areas.

Methods

• How was the old method of estimating 

carbon in person combined with new 

technologies? The scientists sampled a wide 

variety of ecosystems and land covers in person 

and estimated the amount of carbon contained 

in those areas. Then, they used the advantage 

of LiDAR to calculate the height of trees to 

relate the amount of carbon in an area. The 

scientists compared the more accurate in-person 

method with LiDAR’s ability to sample large 

areas. 

• What if the scientists wanted to map 

the carbon contained in the State of 

West Virginia? Should they use the 

same estimate of carbon related to the 

vertical center as they did in Hawai‘i? 

Why or why not? Students will have 

individual answers to this question. They 

should realize, however, that because some 

of the ecosystems in West Virginia might be 

different than those in Hawai‘i, the scientists 

should follow the same four steps to make sure 

that their estimates are accurate. They should 

not simply take the estimates made in Hawai‘i 

and apply them to West Virginia without testing 

them first.

Findings

• Why would areas with old soils contain 

more carbon than areas with young 

soils? Students will have individual answers 

to this question. They may realize, however, 

that young Hawaiian soils are created from 

lava flow, which only over time become more 

able to support vegetation and trees as organic 

matter is accumulated. Areas with recent lava 

flow have little to no soil and do not support 

vegetation.

• Why do you think the amount of carbon 

was related to the amount of rainfall 

in different areas of Hawai‘i? Students 

will have individual answers to this question. 

They should realize, however, that rainfall is 

necessary for plant growth. Higher rainfall 

leads to more vegetation. More vegetation 

means more carbon storage. 
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Discussion

• Would you say that the scientists’ 

test of their new method to estimate 

the amount of carbon in Hawai‘i was 

successful? Why or why not? Students 

should conclude that the test of this new 

method was successful. They should come to 

this conclusion because scientists were able to 

create an accurate carbon map of the entire 

island of Hawai‘i using their method that 

combines the in-person calculations with new 

technology.

• Do you think that this method could 

be used for other large areas of forest 

and other land cover? Why? Students 

should realize that this method could be used 

for any defined area of land to estimate carbon 

storage as long as land cover maps or Landsat 

photographs, DBH-carbon equations, and 

LiDAR measurements were available or could 

be obtained. 

Don’t Litter the 

Stream!

Introduction

• State what the scientists wanted to 

know in the form of a question. Are 

organisms living in some Hawaiian streams 

eating albizia leaf litter instead of algae? Or, 

has albizia leaf litter replaced algae as the base 

of the food web in some Hawaiian streams?

• Review “Thinking About Science.” 

How do you think the scientists might 

have answered their question? Students 

will have individual answers, but they should 

realize that the scientists would use technology 

to help them understand how much nitrogen 

was in the organisms that might be eating 

albizia leaf litter. Students should also realize 

that the scientists would have to compare 

this amount with the amount of nitrogen in 

organisms in streams with no albizia growing 

nearby.

Methods

• Why did the scientists have to find 

streams that were alike in every way 

except for the albizia trees growing 

nearby? If there were other differences 

between the streams, then the scientists would 

not know if any observed differences in the diets 

of the aquatic consumers were because of the 

albizia or something else.

• Finding higher-than-normal levels of 

nitrogen in the tissues of consumers 

might lead the scientists to what 

conclusion about albizia leaves as a food 

source? That albizia, whose leaves contain a 

lot of nitrogen, was being used as a food source 

for aquatic consumers. 

• Reading the captions of figures 6-10, 

what might you include about the 

aquatic organisms in this stream? 

Students may have other observations, but one 

that stands out is that only one of the aquatic 

organisms is native to Hawai‘i.

Findings

• Look at the way the numbers occupy 

the cells in tables 1 and 2. Both show a 

pattern from left to right. Why do the 

cells increase from left to right? Students 

should realize that these tables are showing a 

food web that includes more consumers being 

consumed as one goes up the food chain. The 

consumers on the right are at a higher level. 

Educators may want to introduce the idea of 

tropic levels to the class at this time.
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The Natural Inquirer • Number 16

• Compare the first row in tables 1 and 2. 

What does this row reveal about albizia 

as a food source? This row indicates that 

albizia is a major food source for amphipods 

and caddisflies where albizia is growing. 

Discussion

• If the stream food webs change across 

Hawai‘i because of albizia, do you think 

the food webs that exist on the land 

beside streams could change as well? 

Why or why not? Because some land-based 

animals eat aquatic animals, the increase in 

nitrogen may be passed to animal species living 

near the streams. 

• An increase in nitrogen in Hawaiian 

streams may cause more algae to grow. 

If more algae grow, how might the 

stream be further changed by albizia?

Students will have individual answers to this 

question. Students may realize that if albizia 

trees continue to be the preferred food, too 

much algae could grow in the stream because 

of the increased nitrogen and fewer consumers 

would be eating it. Too much algae in the 

stream could become a problem. 

Left High and Dry?

Introduction

• Why do you think it is important to 

save native ecosystems? Students will 

have individual answers to this question. They 

should, however, back up their reasons with 

logic. Some possible answers are to preserve the 

habitat of native birds, mammals, and insects; 

to save the few remaining trees or plants of 

a particularly endangered species; to stop the 

spread of invasive species; and to preserve the 

cultural values of native ecosystems.

• What is one way to restore a native 

forest? Students will have individual answers 

to this question. They should, however, back up 

their reasons with logic. Some possible answers 

are to plant seeds of native plant and tree 

species; to plant small native trees and other 

native plants; to remove the invasive plants; 

and to exclude any animal species that are 

destroying the native plants and trees.

• What question did the scientists want 

to answer? What things were done that 

created success in the restoration of the dry 

tropical forest? What did the scientists 

want to do after they answered 

their question? They wanted to develop 

recommendations for others interested in 

restoring dry tropical forests, anywhere they are 

found.

Methods

• Why do you think the scientists wanted 

to keep track of each plant species and 

the date of planting? Students will have 

individual responses, however, they should back 

up their answers with logic. Students should 

realize that it would be impossible to calculate 

how many plants and trees of each species had 

died without the tags, and that the age of the 

plant was needed to determine how long the 

plants and trees had survived.

• From this method, could the scientists 

determine whether it was necessary to 

kill the grass with a chemical after they 

had cut it? Why or why not? Students 

should realize that the scientists could not say 

whether they needed to kill the grass with a 

chemical. They could not say this because they 

killed all of the grass. If the scientists had left 

some areas of grass alive after cutting it, they 

could have compared the areas of cut grass 

with areas of grass that had been cut and had 

the chemical applied.
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Findings

• How is the effect of the drought from 

1999 to 2003 reflected in figure 10? The 

numbers in parentheses indicate the percentage 

of surviving plants. With the exception of 

1999, the last 2 years of the drought had the 

lowest percentage of surviving plants. How 

is the year of high rainfall reflected in 

figure 10? The percentage of surviving plants 

increased from 27 percent in 2003 to 52 percent 

in 2005 following the high rainfall in 2004.

• Examine figures 10 and 11. Would you 

say the planting effort was a success? 

Why or why not? The overall survival rate 

of 30 percent was not high, indicating that the 

planting effort may not have been successful. 

The percentage increase in endangered plant 

and tree populations, however, ranged from 

3 percent to 9,733 percent. This could be 

considered a big success, especially for the 

koki‘o, which is now considered extinct in the 

wild. 

Discussion

• State in your own words what the most 

important finding is from this study.

The steps people should take in the future if 

they want to restore native dry tropical forests. 

How did the scientists determine this 

finding? They learned from their mistakes.

• How can you apply this finding to your 

own life? Students will have individual 

answers to this question, but they should 

understand that success should sometimes be 

measured not by the outcome of an action, but 

by our future action in response to it. If we learn 

from our mistakes, we can consider our effort a 

success.
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The Natural Inquirer • Number 16

Treasure IslandsKoa ConstrictorsMangrove ManiaBeam Me Down, Scotty!Don’t Litter the Stream!Left High and Dry?

Science As Inquiry

 Abilities Necessary To Do Scientific Inquiry

 Understandings About Scientific Inquiry

Life Science

 Structure and Function in Living Systems

 Regulation & Behavior

 Populations & Ecosystems

 Diversity & Adaptations of Organisms

 Reproduction & Heredity

Earth Science

 Structure of Earth System

 Natural Hazards

 Populations, Resources, & Environments

Science & Technology

 Understandings About Science & Technology

Science in Personal & Social Perspectives

 Risks & Benefits

 Science & Technology in Society

History & Nature of Science

 Science As a Human Endeavor

 Nature of Science

Which National Science 

Education Standards 

Can These Articles 

Address?
128

Hawai‘i-Pacific Islands Edition, http://www.naturalinquirer.org

Treasure IslandsKoa ConstrictorsMangrove ManiaBeam Me Down, Scotty!Don’t Litter the Stream!Left High and Dry?

Culture X X X X X

Time, Continuity, & Change X X X

People, Places, & Environments X X X X X X

Individual Development & Identity X X

Power, Authority, & Governance X X

Production, Distribution, & Consumption X X X X X

Science, Technology, & Society X X X

Global Connections X X X X X

Civic Ideals and Practices X

Which National 

Curriculum Standards 

for Social Studies Can 

Be Addressed by These 

Articles? 

128

What Is the Pacific Southwest 

Research Station?

The Pacific Southwest (PSW) Research Station represents 

Forest Service Research and Development in the States of 

California and Hawai‘i and the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands. The 

region has the lowest, driest desert in the country, the highest elevations within the 

48 contiguous States, and the wettest tropical forests. It is the home of an abundant 

diversity of native plants and animals and nearly 50 percent of the Nation’s threatened 

and endangered species. PSW scientists conduct a broad array of natural resources 

research to achieve its mission to “develop and communicate science needed to sustain 

forest ecosystems and their benefits to society.”

http://www.fs.fed.us/psw/
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The Natural Inquirer • Number 16

What Is the Forest 

Service?

The Forest Service 

is a part of the U.S. 

Department of Agriculture 

(USDA). It is made up of 

thousands of people who 

care for the Nation’s forest land. The 

Forest Service manages more than 150 

national forests and almost 20 national 

grasslands. These are large areas of 

trees, streams, and grasslands. National 

forests are similar in some ways to 

national parks. Both are public lands, 

meaning that they are owned by the 

public and managed for the public’s 

use and benefit. Both national forests 

and national parks provide clean water, 

homes for the animals that live in the 

wild, and places for people to do fun 

things in the outdoors. National forests 

also provide resources for people to use, 

such as trees for lumber, minerals, and 

plants used for medicines. Some people 

in the Forest Service are scientists 

whose work is presented in the journal. 

Forest Service scientists work to solve 

problems and provide new information 

about natural resources so that we can 

make sure our natural environment is 

healthy, now, and into the future.

http://www.fs.fed.us

What Is the 

Cradle of Forestry 

in America 

Interpretive 

Association?

The Cradle 

of Forestry 

in America 

Interpretive 

Association 

is a 501(c)3 nonprofit organization 

based out of Brevard, NC. The 

Interpretive Association strives to 

help people better understand ecology 

through recreation and education 

opportunities. Their projects include:

•	 Campground and recreation

area management.

•	 Educational programs and

services, including the Natural 

Inquirer and the Investi-gator.

•	 Sales of forest-related gifts and

educational materials.

•	 Workshops, newsletters, and

publications.

•	 Partnership with the Forest

Service to provide programming 

at the Cradle of Forestry in 

America Historic Site.

http://www.cfaia.org

The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of race, color, national origin, age, 

disability, and where applicable sex, marital status, familial status, parental status, religion, sexual orientation, genetic information, political beliefs, 

reprisal, or because all or part of and individuals’ income is derived from any public assistance program. (Not all prohibited bases apply to all 

programs.) Persons with disabilities who require alternative means for communication of program information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) 

should contact USDA’s TARGET Center at (202) 720-2600 (voice and TDD). To file a complaint of discrimination, write to USDA, Director, Office of 

Civil Rights, 1400 Independence Avenue, S.W. Washington, D.C. 20250-9410, or call (800) 795-3272 (voice) or (202) 720-6382 (TDD). USDA is an 

equal opportunity provider and employer.

 The use of trade, firm, or corporation names in this document is for the information and convenience of the reader and does not constitute an 

endorsement by the Forest Service or U.S. Department of Agriculture of any product or service to the exclusion of others that may be suitable.
130

Hawai‘i-Pacific Islands Edition, http://www.naturalinquirer.org

FS 994

Spring 2012

United States 

Department 

of Agriculture

Forest Service

Natural Inquirer: 

http://www.naturalinquirer.org

Investi-gator:

http://www.scienceinvestigator.org

Forest Service Conservation Education: 

http://www.fs.usda.gov/conservationeducation/

Forest Service Pacific Southwest Research Station: 

http://www.fs.fed.us/psw/

Forest Service Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry: 

http://www.fs.fed.us/psw/locations/hilo/

Hawai‘i Experimental Tropical Forest: 

http://www.hetf.us/

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park: 

http://www.nps.gov/havo/

U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Hawai‘i volcanoes page: 

http://hvo.wr.usgs.gov/

Web Site Resources

Editorial Review Board 

David Pavel’s combined 7th and 8th grade science class

Laupahoehoe High and Elementary School, Laupahoehoe, HI