Cover photo: Since 1915, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA), transformed into NASA in 1958,

has performed cutting-edge research to solve the problems of flight. Using a Grumman F4F-3 Wildcat during World

Thirty-three years when astronauts Armstrong and “BAldrin skillfully pithe lunar moduleEagle to a soft laing on the Moonpaid tribute toAmerica’s aviatio

heritage by bringing with them a piecthe original Wright Flyer’s fabric and peller. That incredible summer day in1969, our moonwalkers demonstrateall time that the sky’s no longer the 

As flight’s second century begins, 

United States is still boldly pioneerinair and space frontier. And the NatioAeronautics and Space AdministratioNASA, is a proud leader in this effort

Fittingly, NASA’s roots extend back 

aviation’s infancy. In 1915, our predsor, the National Advisory Committee Aeronautics, NACA, was formed to himprove aircraft performance, efficienand safety. Today, NASA scientists, eneers, and test pilots continue to puthe envelope of flight technology. 

NASA’s vision for the next century 

flight—to improve life here, extend lithere, and find life beyond—compels to improve and create all types of aibetter understand Earth’s climate, prthe universe’s mysteries, and send exers to the planets. This celebration ocentennial of flight reminds all of us 

■ This photograph of the first flight at Kitty

Hawk, North Carolina, on 17 December 1903is one of the most recognized in the world.With Orville Wright at the controls, lying proneon the lower wing with his hips in the cradlethat operated the wing-warping mechanism,the first successful powered flight took place.Wilbur Wright, seen running alongside to balance the machine, has just released his holdon the forward upright of the right wing. Thestarting rail, the wing rest, a coil box, andother items needed for flight preparation arevisible behind the machine. This flight was theresult of years of experiments and design bythe Wright brothers, who were operators of a

bicycle repair shop and factory in Dayton,Ohio. The brothers continued their flyingexperiments in Ohio and in Fort Myer, Virginia,and were granted a patent for the plane in1906. In 1908 and 1909, they traveled toEurope and drew attention to their inventionby flying in France, Italy, England, and Germany.In 1909, they started a company to manufacture Wright airplanes and began their successful fight against patent suits by GlennCurtis and other competitors. Wilbur died oftyphoid fever in 1912, and Orville sold hisinterest in the Wright Airplane Company in1915. The Wright brothers were aware of theimportant relationship of photography to their

work, both scientifically and historically.Accordingly, they recorded their experimentsphotographically and, later, on film. TheWrights asked John T. Daniels of the Kill DevilHills Life Saving Station, who was among thespectators, to snap the camera for them justat the moment the machine had reached theend of the takeoff rail and had risen two feetinto the air. Before attempting the flight,Orville had placed the camera on a tripod,aimed at a point he hoped the machine wouldreach when it left the track. The shot wassuccessful, and the negative was developedby Orville on his return to Dayton. (Courtesy ofthe Library of Congress, Negative LC-W861-35)
1775 American Revolutionary War began

With public enthusiasm approachin

peak, the Montgolfier brothers designa large balloon that carried the firsthuman passengers aloft. On 21 Novem1783, Pilâtre de Rozier and the Mard’Arlandes fed a fire of burning strawthat filled the canopy of the balloon hot air, lifting them about 330 feet inthe Paris skies. Their flight lasted und30 minutes. J. A. C. Charles and a companion, M. N. Robert Millbrook,became the first people to fly aboard gas balloon on 1 December 1783. 

Balloons captured the imagination 

Europeans and Americans alike. PeteCarnes, a lawyer and tavern keeper iBladensburg, Maryland, sent the firstAmerican, thirteen-year-old EdwardWarren, into the air on a tethered fligfrom Baltimore, Maryland, in June 17Early the following year, anotherAmerican, Dr. John Jeffries, accompanied aeronaut Jean-Pierre Blanchard the first flight across the English Chan

Gas balloons continued in use

throughout the nineteenth and twentcenturies, offering scientists a meanexploring the upper atmosphere and viding military officers with an aerialperch from which to observe the eneWinging It■ For hundreds of years, human beiattached all manner of wing-like strutures to their arms, flung themselvesfrom the tops of towers and other hi

3500 B.C.King Etena of Babylonia was pictured on a coin, flying onan eagle’s back.2500 B.C. An Inca Founder (Auca) was “winged and could fly.”

1400 Printing press invented

ThePrehistory of Flight■ Human beings have always wantedto fly. Evidence of our ancient desire tojoin the birds in the sky can be found inour earliest legends of winged gods andheroes, flying horses, and magic carpets. Then there are the hazy tales ofreal human beings who were carriedaloft by kites or who sought to fly withwings of their own design. All too often,these intrepid souls suffered brokenbones or worse. 

When the age of flight finally did arrive,

it came from an unexpected directionthat had nothing to do with wings. Theinvention of the balloon created a waveof excitement that swept across Europeand America. Although the balloon wouldbe put to good use by science and themilitary, it could only travel where thewind blew it. The age-old dream ofwings remained very much alive. Daedalus and Icarus ■ The story of Daedalus and Icarus is themost famous of all flight myths. Minos,the King of Crete, hired the talentedcraftsman Daedalus to design a Labyrinth,or maze, in which to imprison the Minotaur,a half-man, half-bull creature. Each year,

1000 B.C.The Chinese invented kites that carried scouts on reconnaissance missions.1162A man in Constantinople fashioned sail-like wings from afabric gathered into pleats and folds. He plummeted fromthe top of a tower and died. 

1783June 4 Montgolfier brothers launched the first public balloon flight. November 21 Pilâtre de Rozier and the Marquis D’Arlandes

were the first humans to fly in an untethered balloon. 

belonged to one of the leading papermaking families of France. Fascinated bynew discoveries in science, JosephMontgolfier had begun to experimentwith paper and fabric bags filled with hotair in the early 1780s. With his youngerbrother Etienne, he launched a balloonmeasuring ten feet in diameter from thetown square on 4 June 1783. 

When news of what the two brothers

had achieved in distant Annonay reachedParis, a prize was offered to the individual who could repeat the Montgolfierexperiment. Not sure how the brothershad accomplished the feat, J. A. C. Charles,a popular lecturer on scientific topics,constructed the first balloon filled withhydrogen, a gas very much lighter thanair. He launched the first gas balloon in

Paris on 27 August 1783, near

the spot where the Eiffel Tower

now stands. Not to be outdone, the Montgolfiers hurried to the capital and

arranged the flight from

Versailles in September. 

■ Human

beings have

dreamed of flight for

centuries, but the first

creatures to venture aloft

in a balloon were a duck,

a sheep, and a rooster. An

enormous crowd joined the King ofFrance, Louis XVI, his Queen, MarieAntoinette, and their children at theVersailles palace on 19 September1783. The occasion was the flight ofthese three hapless animal passengersaboard a hot-air balloon constructed bybrothers Joseph and Etienne Montgolfier.After an aerial voyage lasting only eightminutes and covering some two miles,the first three air travelers returned safelyto Earth, none the worse for wear.

The Montgolfier brothers, natives of

Annonay, in the south of France,

Up, Up,

and Away...

2560 B.C. Great Pyramid of Khufu built 1100 Gunpowder used to build rockets

Copyright 2001, Jeff Dean, “Big Blue” flown by Above & Beyond Balloon Co., Carmel, Indiana, http://www.intheair-online.com

1784June 4 Elisabeth Thible was the first woman to maballoon flight.June 24 In a tethered flight from Baltimore, Maryla

thirteen-year-old Edward Warren was the first to fly a balloon from American soil.

Daedalus carefully instructed

his son to fly “a middlecourse,” safely between thewater that might weigh downthe feathers if it sprayed onthem and the Sun, which couldmelt the wax that held the feathers in place. Icarus, thrilled by the

Hindu mythology tells of the bird

deity Garuda, often depicted in art
1775 American Revolutionary War began

With public enthusiasm approachin

peak, the Montgolfier brothers designa large balloon that carried the firsthuman passengers aloft. On 21 Novem1783, Pilâtre de Rozier and the Mard’Arlandes fed a fire of burning strawthat filled the canopy of the balloon hot air, lifting them about 330 feet inthe Paris skies. Their flight lasted und30 minutes. J. A. C. Charles and a companion, M. N. Robert Millbrook,became the first people to fly aboard gas balloon on 1 December 1783. 

Balloons captured the imagination 

Europeans and Americans alike. PeteCarnes, a lawyer and tavern keeper iBladensburg, Maryland, sent the firstAmerican, thirteen-year-old EdwardWarren, into the air on a tethered fligfrom Baltimore, Maryland, in June 17Early the following year, anotherAmerican, Dr. John Jeffries, accompanied aeronaut Jean-Pierre Blanchard the first flight across the English Chan

Gas balloons continued in use

throughout the nineteenth and twentcenturies, offering scientists a meanexploring the upper atmosphere and viding military officers with an aerialperch from which to observe the eneWinging It■ For hundreds of years, human beiattached all manner of wing-like strutures to their arms, flung themselvesfrom the tops of towers and other hi

3500 B.C.King Etena of Babylonia was pictured on a coin, flying onan eagle’s back.2500 B.C. An Inca Founder (Auca) was “winged and could fly.”

1400 Printing press invented

ThePrehistory of Flight■ Human beings have always wantedto fly. Evidence of our ancient desire tojoin the birds in the sky can be found inour earliest legends of winged gods andheroes, flying horses, and magic carpets. Then there are the hazy tales ofreal human beings who were carriedaloft by kites or who sought to fly withwings of their own design. All too often,these intrepid souls suffered brokenbones or worse. 

When the age of flight finally did arrive,

it came from an unexpected directionthat had nothing to do with wings. Theinvention of the balloon created a waveof excitement that swept across Europeand America. Although the balloon wouldbe put to good use by science and themilitary, it could only travel where thewind blew it. The age-old dream ofwings remained very much alive. Daedalus and Icarus ■ The story of Daedalus and Icarus is themost famous of all flight myths. Minos,the King of Crete, hired the talentedcraftsman Daedalus to design a Labyrinth,or maze, in which to imprison the Minotaur,a half-man, half-bull creature. Each year,

1000 B.C.The Chinese invented kites that carried scouts on reconnaissance missions.1162A man in Constantinople fashioned sail-like wings from afabric gathered into pleats and folds. He plummeted fromthe top of a tower and died. 

1783June 4 Montgolfier brothers launched the first public balloon flight. November 21 Pilâtre de Rozier and the Marquis D’Arlandes

were the first humans to fly in an untethered balloon. 

belonged to one of the leading papermaking families of France. Fascinated bynew discoveries in science, JosephMontgolfier had begun to experimentwith paper and fabric bags filled with hotair in the early 1780s. With his youngerbrother Etienne, he launched a balloonmeasuring ten feet in diameter from thetown square on 4 June 1783. 

When news of what the two brothers

had achieved in distant Annonay reachedParis, a prize was offered to the individual who could repeat the Montgolfierexperiment. Not sure how the brothershad accomplished the feat, J. A. C. Charles,a popular lecturer on scientific topics,constructed the first balloon filled withhydrogen, a gas very much lighter thanair. He launched the first gas balloon in

Paris on 27 August 1783, near

the spot where the Eiffel Tower

now stands. Not to be outdone, the Montgolfiers hurried to the capital and

arranged the flight from

Versailles in September. 

■ Human

beings have

dreamed of flight for

centuries, but the first

creatures to venture aloft

in a balloon were a duck,

a sheep, and a rooster. An

enormous crowd joined the King ofFrance, Louis XVI, his Queen, MarieAntoinette, and their children at theVersailles palace on 19 September1783. The occasion was the flight ofthese three hapless animal passengersaboard a hot-air balloon constructed bybrothers Joseph and Etienne Montgolfier.After an aerial voyage lasting only eightminutes and covering some two miles,the first three air travelers returned safelyto Earth, none the worse for wear.

The Montgolfier brothers, natives of

Annonay, in the south of France,

Up, Up,

and Away...

2560 B.C. Great Pyramid of Khufu built 1100 Gunpowder used to build rockets

Copyright 2001, Jeff Dean, “Big Blue” flown by Above & Beyond Balloon Co., Carmel, Indiana, http://www.intheair-online.com

1784June 4 Elisabeth Thible was the first woman to maballoon flight.June 24 In a tethered flight from Baltimore, Maryla

thirteen-year-old Edward Warren was the first to fly a balloon from American soil.

Daedalus carefully instructed

his son to fly “a middlecourse,” safely between thewater that might weigh downthe feathers if it sprayed onthem and the Sun, which couldmelt the wax that held the feathers in place. Icarus, thrilled by the

Hindu mythology tells of the bird

deity Garuda, often depicted in art
1813 Steam locomotive invented

1794June 26 The French used a tethered balloon to observea battlefield and direct artillery fire. 1804Sir George Cayley, England’s “father of aeronautics,” builtand flew the world’s first successful model glider.

■ Sir George Cayley, a nineteenthcentury English baronet, richly deservesto be remembered as the “father ofaeronautics.” His insatiable curiosityled him to conduct the first real experiments designed to uncover the basicprinciples of flight. He discovered thatthe arched shape of a bird’s wing wasone of the secrets of bird flight andreasoned that a similar shape on afixed-wing machine might likewiseallow it to fly.

Cayley designed, built, and flew the

world’s first model glider in 1804. Hecontinued his experiments throughouthis long life and is said to have sent

his coachmanon a short glideacross a shallowvalley near hishome, Brompton Hall,in 1853. Legend has it that the frightened servant resigned on the spot,explaining that he had been hired todrive, not to fly. 

Sir George Cayley’s many contributions

to aviation include the understandingthat a successful heavier-than-air flyingmachine would have to feature separatesystems for lift, propulsion, and control.He explained the importance of streamlining, described the way in which stabilityand control could be achieved, andunderscored the need for a lightweightpower plant. The first person to link theevolving processes of science and engineering with aviation, he opened thedoor to the future. 

Otto Lilienthal built on both the experiments and information provided by Sir

George Cayley. He published the resultsof his ground-based research, “Birdflightas the Basis of Aviation,” in 1890; hethen began to apply what he had learnedto the design of the gliders with which hewould continue his work. Between 1890and the time of his death in a glidercrash in August 1896

Lilienthal made as

Inventing Wings■ Early in the nineteenth century, theage of dreams had given way to seriousattempts to understand the principles offlight and to apply the lessons learned tothe design of real flying machines.Cautious experimenters tested theirideas with powered models, while themore daring sampled the delights andthe dangers of gliding flight. Their successes and their failures helped movehuman beings toward what some considered impossible and others consideredinevitable—piloted, powered flight. Above, left to right: Sir George Cayley (1773–1857); Octave Chanute (1832–1910); Otto Lilienthal (1848–1896).Below: Sketch by George Cayley. National Air and Space Museum #96-15394, #A-21147-B, 

SI-A-39013, #00102 ©2002 Smithsonian Institution

Aviation Pioneers

#73-9669

1868 Matthew Boulton obtained a British patent on a defor ailerons as control surfaces.1878Bishop Wright gave his sons, Orville and Wilbur, a thelicopter.

1868 First transcontinental railroad 

Octave Chanute, a self-taught Ame

engineer, became interested in aerontics in the 1870s. Corresponding witflying machine experimenters around globe, he quickly emerged as the focpoint of an international community engineers who were attempting to flyadmirer of Lilienthal, Chanute sponsoa series of glider trials on the sanddunes at the southern tip of LakeMichigan in the summer of 1896. Thtrials produced a triplane/biplane hanglider that represented a distinctimprovement over the Lilienthal desigA passionate promoter of aviation whbelieved in the importance of collectinformation about the progress beingInteresting ReadingAbove left: Lilienthal blueprint depicting tAbove: Otto Lilienthal on one of his glide
1813 Steam locomotive invented

1794June 26 The French used a tethered balloon to observea battlefield and direct artillery fire. 1804Sir George Cayley, England’s “father of aeronautics,” builtand flew the world’s first successful model glider.

■ Sir George Cayley, a nineteenthcentury English baronet, richly deservesto be remembered as the “father ofaeronautics.” His insatiable curiosityled him to conduct the first real experiments designed to uncover the basicprinciples of flight. He discovered thatthe arched shape of a bird’s wing wasone of the secrets of bird flight andreasoned that a similar shape on afixed-wing machine might likewiseallow it to fly.

Cayley designed, built, and flew the

world’s first model glider in 1804. Hecontinued his experiments throughouthis long life and is said to have sent

his coachmanon a short glideacross a shallowvalley near hishome, Brompton Hall,in 1853. Legend has it that the frightened servant resigned on the spot,explaining that he had been hired todrive, not to fly. 

Sir George Cayley’s many contributions

to aviation include the understandingthat a successful heavier-than-air flyingmachine would have to feature separatesystems for lift, propulsion, and control.He explained the importance of streamlining, described the way in which stabilityand control could be achieved, andunderscored the need for a lightweightpower plant. The first person to link theevolving processes of science and engineering with aviation, he opened thedoor to the future. 

Otto Lilienthal built on both the experiments and information provided by Sir

George Cayley. He published the resultsof his ground-based research, “Birdflightas the Basis of Aviation,” in 1890; hethen began to apply what he had learnedto the design of the gliders with which hewould continue his work. Between 1890and the time of his death in a glidercrash in August 1896

Lilienthal made as

Inventing Wings■ Early in the nineteenth century, theage of dreams had given way to seriousattempts to understand the principles offlight and to apply the lessons learned tothe design of real flying machines.Cautious experimenters tested theirideas with powered models, while themore daring sampled the delights andthe dangers of gliding flight. Their successes and their failures helped movehuman beings toward what some considered impossible and others consideredinevitable—piloted, powered flight. Above, left to right: Sir George Cayley (1773–1857); Octave Chanute (1832–1910); Otto Lilienthal (1848–1896).Below: Sketch by George Cayley. National Air and Space Museum #96-15394, #A-21147-B, 

SI-A-39013, #00102 ©2002 Smithsonian Institution

Aviation Pioneers

#73-9669

1868 Matthew Boulton obtained a British patent on a defor ailerons as control surfaces.1878Bishop Wright gave his sons, Orville and Wilbur, a thelicopter.

1868 First transcontinental railroad 

Octave Chanute, a self-taught Ame

engineer, became interested in aerontics in the 1870s. Corresponding witflying machine experimenters around globe, he quickly emerged as the focpoint of an international community engineers who were attempting to flyadmirer of Lilienthal, Chanute sponsoa series of glider trials on the sanddunes at the southern tip of LakeMichigan in the summer of 1896. Thtrials produced a triplane/biplane hanglider that represented a distinctimprovement over the Lilienthal desigA passionate promoter of aviation whbelieved in the importance of collectinformation about the progress beingInteresting ReadingAbove left: Lilienthal blueprint depicting tAbove: Otto Lilienthal on one of his glide
1902

Using tables created in 1901, the Wrights built a gliderthat had almost twice the efficiency of their previousones and made more than 1,000 flights that year at KillDevil Hills near Kitty Hawk, North Carolina.

1903December 8 Samuel P. Langley’s man-carrying GreatAerodrome collapsed right after takeoff.December 17 The Wright brothers completed the firstpowered, piloted, heavier-than-air, controlled flight.1903 Ford Motor Company founded

■ Orville Wright

once explained

that he and his

brother, Wilbur,

were lucky to

have grown up 

“in an environment where

there was always

much encouragement to children to pursue intellectual

interests, to investigate whatever arousedcuriosity.” The sons of a church bishopand his mechanically inclined wife, theWright boys first became interested inflight as children when their father presented them with a rubber-band-poweredhelicopter toy of the sort designed byAlphonse Pénaud. Although neither ofthem attended college, Wilbur and OrvilleWright were intellectual, intuitive, confident, and mechanically gifted. As youngmen, they operated both a print shopand a bicycle shop in their hometown of Dayton, Ohio. Still, their curiosity andtechnical skills drove them to pursueother challenges. The death of OttoLilienthal reignited their boyhood passionfor wings. 

The brothers launched their own aeronautical effort in 1899 after corresponding with both the Smithsonian Institution

and Octave Chanute. They realized thattheir first challenge was finding a way to

Disappointed with the performance of

their early gliders, the brothers conducteda series of wind tunnel tests in the bicycleshop during the fall of 1901. On thebasis of those tests and their experiencewith the gliders, they designed and builttheir third full-scale glider in 1902 andcompleted 1,000 flights with it, remainingairborne for as long as 26 seconds andcovering distances of up to 622.5 feet.

Now they were ready to attempt a

piloted, powered flight. With assistancefrom their machinist, Charles Taylor, theydesigned and built the aircraft and afour-cylinder internal combustion enginethat would deliver precisely the amountof power required. They also built thepropellers, based on their wind tunneldata, that proved to be the most efficientof the time. Success came on the morning of 17 December 1903. Orville Wrightmade the first flight at about 10:35 A.M.,

a bumpy and erratic 12 seconds in theair. A few minutes later, Wilbur flew theplane 175 feet—just a few feet shorterthan the wingspan of a Boeing 747.Orville then flew again, a distance of 200 feet. During the final flight of theday, piloted by Wilbur, the Wright Flyerremained airborne for 59 seconds andflew 852 feet.

These four flights marked the first time

that a powered, heavier-than-air machinehad made a sustained flight under the

Two Ordinary Men, One

Extraordinary Dream

1901Using existing aerodynamics tables, the Wright brothersconstructed new wings for a larger glider. However, itsflight was marginal, so they tested the tables by analyzingmodel wings in a wind tunnel. The tables proved to bewrong, and the Wrights painstakingly computed new ones.1901 First transatlantic radio signalSuccess!■ The great moment arrived on a windywinter morning on a North Carolinabeach, the result of the work of twobrothers with a passion for bicycling andan insatiable curiosity. The Wright brothers introduced the era of powered flight,and men and women everywhere were

1904Returning to Ohio, the Wright brothers experimentenew planes and motors and flew an improved Flye1905The Wrights’ Flyer III became the world’s first practairplane but attracted little attention.1905 Albert Einstein published theory of special rewere, for the most part, wild and inarate reports on the front pages of manewspapers from coast to coast. Whthey did not follow up with public fligin 1904, the press assumed that the Hawk story had been an exaggerationot a hoax.

Wilbur and Orville Wright pressed

ahead, moving their experiments clotheir Dayton, Ohio, home. There, in in a meadow called Huffman Prairie, thbuilt the Wright Flyer II, the first airplto fly a circle in the air. The Flyer III flowed in 1905, a plane that could stin the air for over half anhour, turn, bank, and flyfigure eights. TheWrights were determined not to fly inpublic until they hadreceived the protection of a patent and

Above: Facsimile of the telegram sent byOrville Wright on 17 December 1903, reproduced in commemoration of the ninetieth anniversary of piloted, controlled,powered flight. Note the error in the spelling of Orville Wright’s name and the error in listing the air time. The longest flight was actually 59 seconds.

1902 Aswan Dam in Egypt completed
1902

Using tables created in 1901, the Wrights built a gliderthat had almost twice the efficiency of their previousones and made more than 1,000 flights that year at KillDevil Hills near Kitty Hawk, North Carolina.

1903December 8 Samuel P. Langley’s man-carrying GreatAerodrome collapsed right after takeoff.December 17 The Wright brothers completed the firstpowered, piloted, heavier-than-air, controlled flight.1903 Ford Motor Company founded

■ Orville Wright

once explained

that he and his

brother, Wilbur,

were lucky to

have grown up 

“in an environment where

there was always

much encouragement to children to pursue intellectual

interests, to investigate whatever arousedcuriosity.” The sons of a church bishopand his mechanically inclined wife, theWright boys first became interested inflight as children when their father presented them with a rubber-band-poweredhelicopter toy of the sort designed byAlphonse Pénaud. Although neither ofthem attended college, Wilbur and OrvilleWright were intellectual, intuitive, confident, and mechanically gifted. As youngmen, they operated both a print shopand a bicycle shop in their hometown of Dayton, Ohio. Still, their curiosity andtechnical skills drove them to pursueother challenges. The death of OttoLilienthal reignited their boyhood passionfor wings. 

The brothers launched their own aeronautical effort in 1899 after corresponding with both the Smithsonian Institution

and Octave Chanute. They realized thattheir first challenge was finding a way to

Disappointed with the performance of

their early gliders, the brothers conducteda series of wind tunnel tests in the bicycleshop during the fall of 1901. On thebasis of those tests and their experiencewith the gliders, they designed and builttheir third full-scale glider in 1902 andcompleted 1,000 flights with it, remainingairborne for as long as 26 seconds andcovering distances of up to 622.5 feet.

Now they were ready to attempt a

piloted, powered flight. With assistancefrom their machinist, Charles Taylor, theydesigned and built the aircraft and afour-cylinder internal combustion enginethat would deliver precisely the amountof power required. They also built thepropellers, based on their wind tunneldata, that proved to be the most efficientof the time. Success came on the morning of 17 December 1903. Orville Wrightmade the first flight at about 10:35 A.M.,

a bumpy and erratic 12 seconds in theair. A few minutes later, Wilbur flew theplane 175 feet—just a few feet shorterthan the wingspan of a Boeing 747.Orville then flew again, a distance of 200 feet. During the final flight of theday, piloted by Wilbur, the Wright Flyerremained airborne for 59 seconds andflew 852 feet.

These four flights marked the first time

that a powered, heavier-than-air machinehad made a sustained flight under the

Two Ordinary Men, One

Extraordinary Dream

1901Using existing aerodynamics tables, the Wright brothersconstructed new wings for a larger glider. However, itsflight was marginal, so they tested the tables by analyzingmodel wings in a wind tunnel. The tables proved to bewrong, and the Wrights painstakingly computed new ones.1901 First transatlantic radio signalSuccess!■ The great moment arrived on a windywinter morning on a North Carolinabeach, the result of the work of twobrothers with a passion for bicycling andan insatiable curiosity. The Wright brothers introduced the era of powered flight,and men and women everywhere were

1904Returning to Ohio, the Wright brothers experimentenew planes and motors and flew an improved Flye1905The Wrights’ Flyer III became the world’s first practairplane but attracted little attention.1905 Albert Einstein published theory of special rewere, for the most part, wild and inarate reports on the front pages of manewspapers from coast to coast. Whthey did not follow up with public fligin 1904, the press assumed that the Hawk story had been an exaggerationot a hoax.

Wilbur and Orville Wright pressed

ahead, moving their experiments clotheir Dayton, Ohio, home. There, in in a meadow called Huffman Prairie, thbuilt the Wright Flyer II, the first airplto fly a circle in the air. The Flyer III flowed in 1905, a plane that could stin the air for over half anhour, turn, bank, and flyfigure eights. TheWrights were determined not to fly inpublic until they hadreceived the protection of a patent and

Above: Facsimile of the telegram sent byOrville Wright on 17 December 1903, reproduced in commemoration of the ninetieth anniversary of piloted, controlled,powered flight. Note the error in the spelling of Orville Wright’s name and the error in listing the air time. The longest flight was actually 59 seconds.

1902 Aswan Dam in Egypt completed
■ Only eleven years old in August 1914,

the fragile airplane in its role as anobserver contributed significantly to themurderous carnage that characterizedcombat in World War I.

The great killer of the war was artillery,

and aerial reconnaissance vastly increasedartillery’s effectiveness. Observation aircraft photographed and mapped trenches

and military positions, reported transienttargets, and provided direct control forartillery batteries. Further, aircraft photographs and reports enabled commandersto identify the enemy’s position, determine his strength, surmise his intentions,and organize their response to besteffect.

The need to protect one’s own observation aircraft or deny the air to the enemy

quickly led to a quest for control of theair. In 1915, an asynchronization or“interrupter” mechanism allowed machineguns to fire through a spinning propeller,enabling the pilot to aim the entire airplane.This ability gave birth to the “pursuit” orfighter. To gain superiority in the air, theairplane now hunted other airplanes.Over time, this new role demanded more sophisticated machines and combat techniques, and the men who flewthe machines, as well as the machinesthemselves, became famous, dramaticsymbols of knightly combat. 

Soon, the airplane was also used as 

a bomber. Initially, pilots simply tossedsmall, handheld bombs or even darts

1909July 25 The first flight across the English Channel byLouis Blériot.The U.S. Army accepted delivery of the first military planeand paid the Wright brothers $30,000 for it.

1911September 29

Walter Brookins set American record by

flying 192 miles from Chicago to Springfield, Illinois,making two stops.December 10 Cal Rodgers completed the first transcontinental flight in the Wright EX Vin Fiz.

1912April 16 American Harriet Quimby became the firstfemale pilot to fly a plane across the English Channel.May 30 

Wilbur Wright died of typhoid fever.

1909 NAACP founded 1911 Ragtime popularized for mass audiences

from the cockpit. But the potential ofdestruction from the air quickly led to larger,more powerful, often multi-engine airplanes designed specifically for bombing.The size of the bombs themselves grewrapidly, and mechanical sights enabled aircraft to hit targets more accurately andfrom higher altitudes. Most aerial bombardment targeted enemy troops andfacilities along the front, but the airplanealso allowed the war to be carried to manufacturing and population centers far behindthe lines. In 1915, Germany began Zeppelinraids against England. The Zeppelins—large,slow, rigid airships filled with explosivehydrogen gas—ultimately proved vulnerable to aerial defenses and were graduallyreplaced by giant multi-engine strategicbombers, the vanguard of future war. 

By 11 November 1918, the end of the

war, commanders had explored almostevery role that the airplane would play inthe future except global air transport.Although the airplane was not the decisive weapon of World War I, it haddemonstrated its potential to change theway wars were fought. 

World War I: The First Air War

The Fokker was flown 

by the “Red Baron.”

National Air and Space Museum

#00046729 ©2002 

Smithsonian Institution

Britain’s Sopwith Camel, a single-seat fighter introduced in 1917, was armed with two guns andcould also carry four small bombs. The Camel scored more victories against German aircraft thanany other Allied plane in World War I. National Air & Space Museum #85-11071 ©2002 Smithsonian Institution

The Flying Aces ■ French newsmen crowned AdolphePégoud the first “flying ace” in 1915. InFrance and England, the title came toidentify a pilot who had shot down fiveenemy airplanes. The Germans adopted asimilar system that required ten victories.In any case, the airmen, especially thefighter pilots, quickly emerged as thegreat heroes of an unheroic war. TheGerman airman Manfred von Richthofen,the “Red Baron,” led the pack with a totalof 80 victories. The French ace RenéFonck survived the war with 75 victories.With 58 victories, Edward “Mick”

1914January The St. Petersburg-Tampa Airboat Line bethe world’s first regularly scheduled airline service.Two-way radio contact was accomplished between and ground control.1914 Panama Canal opened 

Flying the MaThe Origins of Airma

NACA: A Tradition of Excellence■ Spurred by the beginning of World Wand a heightened interest in aviation

1912 Girl Scouts chartered

■ One of the first federal agencies torecognize the valuable role airplanes cplay was the U.S. Post Office. Faster delivery and increased reliability werbecoming increasingly important to bness people across the country, and pressed the post office for the service

On 15 May 1918, the first official 

airmail flight in the U.S. left WashingDC, heading for New York with 140 poof mail on board. Although the flight not flawless, it proved the concept.

Within two years, a growing structu

connected cities along the Atlantic seabwith Pittsburgh, Cleveland, and Chicathereby developing a relatively efficient mail system in the eastern United StaIn 1921, a transcontinental airmail rbetween San Francisco and New Yorwas also established.

Although these flights between citi

occurred routinely, the pilots, flying inopen-cockpit aircraft, faced not only dcult weather conditions, but also narr

mountain passes and rugged terrain. Tneeded to climb thousands of feet asea level, heights at which sudden sstorms, erratic winds, subzero temperat
■ Only eleven years old in August 1914,

the fragile airplane in its role as anobserver contributed significantly to themurderous carnage that characterizedcombat in World War I.

The great killer of the war was artillery,

and aerial reconnaissance vastly increasedartillery’s effectiveness. Observation aircraft photographed and mapped trenches

and military positions, reported transienttargets, and provided direct control forartillery batteries. Further, aircraft photographs and reports enabled commandersto identify the enemy’s position, determine his strength, surmise his intentions,and organize their response to besteffect.

The need to protect one’s own observation aircraft or deny the air to the enemy

quickly led to a quest for control of theair. In 1915, an asynchronization or“interrupter” mechanism allowed machineguns to fire through a spinning propeller,enabling the pilot to aim the entire airplane.This ability gave birth to the “pursuit” orfighter. To gain superiority in the air, theairplane now hunted other airplanes.Over time, this new role demanded more sophisticated machines and combat techniques, and the men who flewthe machines, as well as the machinesthemselves, became famous, dramaticsymbols of knightly combat. 

Soon, the airplane was also used as 

a bomber. Initially, pilots simply tossedsmall, handheld bombs or even darts

1909July 25 The first flight across the English Channel byLouis Blériot.The U.S. Army accepted delivery of the first military planeand paid the Wright brothers $30,000 for it.

1911September 29

Walter Brookins set American record by

flying 192 miles from Chicago to Springfield, Illinois,making two stops.December 10 Cal Rodgers completed the first transcontinental flight in the Wright EX Vin Fiz.

1912April 16 American Harriet Quimby became the firstfemale pilot to fly a plane across the English Channel.May 30 

Wilbur Wright died of typhoid fever.

1909 NAACP founded 1911 Ragtime popularized for mass audiences

from the cockpit. But the potential ofdestruction from the air quickly led to larger,more powerful, often multi-engine airplanes designed specifically for bombing.The size of the bombs themselves grewrapidly, and mechanical sights enabled aircraft to hit targets more accurately andfrom higher altitudes. Most aerial bombardment targeted enemy troops andfacilities along the front, but the airplanealso allowed the war to be carried to manufacturing and population centers far behindthe lines. In 1915, Germany began Zeppelinraids against England. The Zeppelins—large,slow, rigid airships filled with explosivehydrogen gas—ultimately proved vulnerable to aerial defenses and were graduallyreplaced by giant multi-engine strategicbombers, the vanguard of future war. 

By 11 November 1918, the end of the

war, commanders had explored almostevery role that the airplane would play inthe future except global air transport.Although the airplane was not the decisive weapon of World War I, it haddemonstrated its potential to change theway wars were fought. 

World War I: The First Air War

The Fokker was flown 

by the “Red Baron.”

National Air and Space Museum

#00046729 ©2002 

Smithsonian Institution

Britain’s Sopwith Camel, a single-seat fighter introduced in 1917, was armed with two guns andcould also carry four small bombs. The Camel scored more victories against German aircraft thanany other Allied plane in World War I. National Air & Space Museum #85-11071 ©2002 Smithsonian Institution

The Flying Aces ■ French newsmen crowned AdolphePégoud the first “flying ace” in 1915. InFrance and England, the title came toidentify a pilot who had shot down fiveenemy airplanes. The Germans adopted asimilar system that required ten victories.In any case, the airmen, especially thefighter pilots, quickly emerged as thegreat heroes of an unheroic war. TheGerman airman Manfred von Richthofen,the “Red Baron,” led the pack with a totalof 80 victories. The French ace RenéFonck survived the war with 75 victories.With 58 victories, Edward “Mick”

1914January The St. Petersburg-Tampa Airboat Line bethe world’s first regularly scheduled airline service.Two-way radio contact was accomplished between and ground control.1914 Panama Canal opened 

Flying the MaThe Origins of Airma

NACA: A Tradition of Excellence■ Spurred by the beginning of World Wand a heightened interest in aviation

1912 Girl Scouts chartered

■ One of the first federal agencies torecognize the valuable role airplanes cplay was the U.S. Post Office. Faster delivery and increased reliability werbecoming increasingly important to bness people across the country, and pressed the post office for the service

On 15 May 1918, the first official 

airmail flight in the U.S. left WashingDC, heading for New York with 140 poof mail on board. Although the flight not flawless, it proved the concept.

Within two years, a growing structu

connected cities along the Atlantic seabwith Pittsburgh, Cleveland, and Chicathereby developing a relatively efficient mail system in the eastern United StaIn 1921, a transcontinental airmail rbetween San Francisco and New Yorwas also established.

Although these flights between citi

occurred routinely, the pilots, flying inopen-cockpit aircraft, faced not only dcult weather conditions, but also narr

mountain passes and rugged terrain. Tneeded to climb thousands of feet asea level, heights at which sudden sstorms, erratic winds, subzero temperat
■ Charles Lindbergh was only 22 months

old in 1903 when the Wright brothers liftedtheir Wright Flyer off the ground at KillDevil Hills, North Carolina. That eventshaped Lindbergh’s life. Twenty-four yearslater, Lindbergh forever changed aviation—and the world’s passion for flying—when he became the first person to flysolo nonstop across the Atlantic Ocean.

When he made the 3,600-mile flight

from New York to Paris, the young manfrom Minnesota became an instant hero.He landed his high-wing monoplane, theSpirit of St. Louis, in Paris on 21 May1927 to the cheers of 100,000 people.Blessed with movie-star good looks,resolute courage, and a passionfor aviation, Lindbergh capturedthe world’s imagination. Hislove for flying was infectious,and its impact on popularculture was legendary.

Lindbergh and his exploits

inspired everything fromclocks and lamps to movies,books, plays, musical compo

TheGoldenAge of Aviation■ Once airplanes became an acceptedpart of both the American and theEuropean landscapes, appreciated primarily for what they could do, a different kind of flying fever began tospread. The focus shifted to practicaluses for airplanes. As adventurous menand women soon learned, planes couldaccomplish a lot of things.

Planes could be very entertaining. They

could spin, dive, and fly upside down.Daredevil men and women walked ontheir wings and hung from underneaththem, tempting fate and thrilling spectators who watched, amazed, from thegrandstands. The skepticism so prevalentjust a few years earlier was over, and therace was on.

Competitions offered cash prizes and

trophies for speed, distance, and altitude.World records were set and broken, oftenby women competing not just against eachother but also against men. A number ofthese men and women were made famousby their flying exploits—Charles Lindbergh,Amelia Earhart, Wiley Post, Jimmy Doolittle,and Jacqueline “Jackie” Cochran.

This new love affair with flying even

inspired songs, poems, posters, and(later) movies. Everyone, it seemed, was caught up in the excitement.

his flight, Lindbergh chose to use hisnewfound fame to promote what he wasmost passionate about—aviation. Afterreturning from Paris, he flew the Spirit ofSt. Louis across the United States forthree months to promote aviation andinspire support for its development.

Later that year, he toured Central and

South America for Pan American Airwayswith the same mission; while in Mexico,he met his future wife, Anne Morrow.

In the mid-1930s, the U.S. government asked Lindbergh to travel to

Germany to learn about German airpower, and the famed aviator sent back

detailed information.

During World War II, he

was a technical advisor

in the South Pacific.

While there, he also

flew in a number of

combat missions and

conducted training sessions for Marine pilots.

After the war,

Lindbergh became a

Lindbergh— An American Eagle

1924September 28 The first round-the-world flight was pleted in Seattle, Washington, by three two-seat DWorld Cruisers of the U.S. Army Air Service.

Lindbergh and his exploits inspired movies, books, plays, musical compositions, and all manner of other memorabilia. Poems were written, and hundreds of songs such as “Lucky Lindy” became popular. Bella Landauer Sheet Music Collection, SIL7-1-023aNational Air and Space Museum ©2002 Smithsonian Institution

1924 First Winter Olympics

The Spirit of St. Louis. NASA Langley Research Center

For the GreateAchievement: ■ The Collier Trophy was established 1911 by Robert J. Collier, publisher aearly president of the Aero Club of AmThe trophy is awarded annually for “thgreatest achievement in aeronautics oastronautics in America, with respect improving the performance, efficiencysafety of air or space vehicles, the vawhich has been thoroughly demonstraby actual use during the preceding yeIt represents the most prestigious awaoffered in the United States for excellin aerospace research and developmeand is administered by the NationalAeronautic Association. It is named aRobert J. Collier, who stated, “The flyimachine should be unselfishly and radeveloped to its potential for Americaeconomic advancement

” As a demon

1923May 2–3 First nonstop coast-to-coast airplane flight took place between New York and San Diego—26 hours,50 minutes.June 27 First in-flight refueling occurred over San Diego, California.

1920February 22 The first transcontinental mail service

arrived in New York from San Francisco.

1921June 15 Bessie Coleman became the first AfricanAmerican woman to receive a Fédération AéronautiqueInternationale (FAI) pilot’s license.
■ Charles Lindbergh was only 22 months

old in 1903 when the Wright brothers liftedtheir Wright Flyer off the ground at KillDevil Hills, North Carolina. That eventshaped Lindbergh’s life. Twenty-four yearslater, Lindbergh forever changed aviation—and the world’s passion for flying—when he became the first person to flysolo nonstop across the Atlantic Ocean.

When he made the 3,600-mile flight

from New York to Paris, the young manfrom Minnesota became an instant hero.He landed his high-wing monoplane, theSpirit of St. Louis, in Paris on 21 May1927 to the cheers of 100,000 people.Blessed with movie-star good looks,resolute courage, and a passionfor aviation, Lindbergh capturedthe world’s imagination. Hislove for flying was infectious,and its impact on popularculture was legendary.

Lindbergh and his exploits

inspired everything fromclocks and lamps to movies,books, plays, musical compo

TheGoldenAge of Aviation■ Once airplanes became an acceptedpart of both the American and theEuropean landscapes, appreciated primarily for what they could do, a different kind of flying fever began tospread. The focus shifted to practicaluses for airplanes. As adventurous menand women soon learned, planes couldaccomplish a lot of things.

Planes could be very entertaining. They

could spin, dive, and fly upside down.Daredevil men and women walked ontheir wings and hung from underneaththem, tempting fate and thrilling spectators who watched, amazed, from thegrandstands. The skepticism so prevalentjust a few years earlier was over, and therace was on.

Competitions offered cash prizes and

trophies for speed, distance, and altitude.World records were set and broken, oftenby women competing not just against eachother but also against men. A number ofthese men and women were made famousby their flying exploits—Charles Lindbergh,Amelia Earhart, Wiley Post, Jimmy Doolittle,and Jacqueline “Jackie” Cochran.

This new love affair with flying even

inspired songs, poems, posters, and(later) movies. Everyone, it seemed, was caught up in the excitement.

his flight, Lindbergh chose to use hisnewfound fame to promote what he wasmost passionate about—aviation. Afterreturning from Paris, he flew the Spirit ofSt. Louis across the United States forthree months to promote aviation andinspire support for its development.

Later that year, he toured Central and

South America for Pan American Airwayswith the same mission; while in Mexico,he met his future wife, Anne Morrow.

In the mid-1930s, the U.S. government asked Lindbergh to travel to

Germany to learn about German airpower, and the famed aviator sent back

detailed information.

During World War II, he

was a technical advisor

in the South Pacific.

While there, he also

flew in a number of

combat missions and

conducted training sessions for Marine pilots.

After the war,

Lindbergh became a

Lindbergh— An American Eagle

1924September 28 The first round-the-world flight was pleted in Seattle, Washington, by three two-seat DWorld Cruisers of the U.S. Army Air Service.

Lindbergh and his exploits inspired movies, books, plays, musical compositions, and all manner of other memorabilia. Poems were written, and hundreds of songs such as “Lucky Lindy” became popular. Bella Landauer Sheet Music Collection, SIL7-1-023aNational Air and Space Museum ©2002 Smithsonian Institution

1924 First Winter Olympics

The Spirit of St. Louis. NASA Langley Research Center

For the GreateAchievement: ■ The Collier Trophy was established 1911 by Robert J. Collier, publisher aearly president of the Aero Club of AmThe trophy is awarded annually for “thgreatest achievement in aeronautics oastronautics in America, with respect improving the performance, efficiencysafety of air or space vehicles, the vawhich has been thoroughly demonstraby actual use during the preceding yeIt represents the most prestigious awaoffered in the United States for excellin aerospace research and developmeand is administered by the NationalAeronautic Association. It is named aRobert J. Collier, who stated, “The flyimachine should be unselfishly and radeveloped to its potential for Americaeconomic advancement

” As a demon

1923May 2–3 First nonstop coast-to-coast airplane flight took place between New York and San Diego—26 hours,50 minutes.June 27 First in-flight refueling occurred over San Diego, California.

1920February 22 The first transcontinental mail service

arrived in New York from San Francisco.

1921June 15 Bessie Coleman became the first AfricanAmerican woman to receive a Fédération AéronautiqueInternationale (FAI) pilot’s license.
In 1937, Earhart

embarked upon a journey that, had it beensuccessful, would havegiven her the distinctionof being the first womanto fly around the world.The mystery of her disappearance during thatflight, along with that ofher navigator and plane,remains to this day amatter of debate. It wasGeraldine Mock who, in1964, flying a single-engine Cessna completed this circumnavigation, becing the first woman to do so.

Amelia Earhart also has the distinc

of being the first president of The NiNines, an organization that was form1929 and still exists today. The namcomes from the total number of the grcharter members, licensed female pwho came together to create an entthat would help advance aviation and vide a vehicle for female pilots to sueach other. Today, The Ninety-Nines, boasts over 6,500 members worldwi

Jackie Cochran, a former beauticia

from Florida, served as president of Ninety-Nines between 1941 and 19She was also the first female pilot to a bomber across the Atlantic, and in1943, she was appointed director of Women’s Airforce Service Pilots (WASThe WASPs were approximately 1,00civilian women who, as the United Sentered World War II, delivered aircracombat areas all over the world. Tho

First Ladiesof Flight■ The role women have played in theprogress of aviation is punctuated by theachievements, many of them “firsts,” ofhundreds of brave and determined aeronautical pioneers.

These pioneers included women like

Juanita Pritchard Bailey, the first womanto fly a plane solo from the United Statesto Panama, and Evelyn “Bobbi” Trout,who, in 1929, became the first womanto complete an all-night flight.

The following year, Amy Johnson, considered by many to be Britain’s most

famous female pilot, became the firstwoman to fly alone from England toAustralia. In 1931, Anne MorrowLindbergh, wife of Charles Lindbergh,

became the first woman to receive aglider pilot’s license.

But even before the considerable

accomplishments of these women,Alabama-born Katherine Stinson was well on her way to a series of “firsts” all her own. In 1912, Stinson becamethe fourth woman to be issued a pilot’slicense. In 1913, she became the firstwoman to carry the U.S. mail; in 1915,she became the first woman to performan aerial loop-the-loop. That same year, Stinson became the first woman to skywrite.

The honor of being the first woman to

fly across the Atlantic belongs to AmeliaEarhart, although on the first trip, shewas a passenger. In 1932, however, shewas at the controls and became the firstwoman to make the trip solo. Later, shewas also the first woman to earn theDistinguished Flying Cross.

1935November 22 Pan American Airways made the firsPacific mail service route, leaving San Francisco wi111,000 letters. 1935

Watson Watt built RADAR device 

1928 June 28–29 Albert Hegenberger and Lester Maitland accomplished the first nonstop crossing of the Pacific. 1929 November 28–29 Commander Richard E. Byrd completed the first flight over the South Pole. 1929

Fritz von Opel of Germany flew the first rocket-poweredplane for 1 minute, 15 seconds.William Green developed the first automatic pilot used onan airliner.

1931June 23–July 1

Wiley Post and Harold Gatty completed

the first circumnavigation of the world by a lone aircraft.1932May 20–21 Amelia Earhart became the first woman tofly solo across the Atlantic.

1929 Great Depression began with stock market crash 1931 Empire State Building completed 

Amelia Earhart, nicknamed “Lady Lindy,” proved her skill by becoming the first woman to fly soloacross the Atlantic. National Air and Space Museum #381-1431 ©2002 Smithsonian Institution

1928 First scheduled television broadcastOrigins of the U.S. Air Force■ U.S. Army leaders were never as backward about accepting aviation as traditionclaims. Many, in fact, had long maintainedan interest in lighter-than-air and heavierthan-air craft. The Signal Corps establisheda balloon section in 1892 and deployed aballoon to Cuba in 1898 during theSpanish-American War. Signal Corps balloonists competed in contests and setrecords. Notably, Lieutenant Frank Lahmwon the first Gordon Bennett balloon racein 1906. The Army also developed semirigid dirigibles beginning with Signal CorpsDirigible No. 1 in 1908.

As for heavier-than-air craft, Army leaders gave Samuel P. Langley $50,000 for

construction of a full-sized “aerodrome” in1898. Langley failed to fly, but Army interest in aviation continued. Its leaders begancorrespondence with the Wright brothers inMay 1907, established an AeronauticalDivision in August, and prepared requirements for a military airplane in December. The Army accepted the Wrights’ bid inFebruary 1908. Trials began later in theyear, but a crash delayed the results. TheU.S. Army ultimately accepted Signal CorpsNo. 1 on 2 August 1909. 

d

l

b

l 

S

i

f

U.S. government accepted the Wright aircraft in1909. © Wright State University
In 1937, Earhart

embarked upon a journey that, had it beensuccessful, would havegiven her the distinctionof being the first womanto fly around the world.The mystery of her disappearance during thatflight, along with that ofher navigator and plane,remains to this day amatter of debate. It wasGeraldine Mock who, in1964, flying a single-engine Cessna completed this circumnavigation, becing the first woman to do so.

Amelia Earhart also has the distinc

of being the first president of The NiNines, an organization that was form1929 and still exists today. The namcomes from the total number of the grcharter members, licensed female pwho came together to create an entthat would help advance aviation and vide a vehicle for female pilots to sueach other. Today, The Ninety-Nines, boasts over 6,500 members worldwi

Jackie Cochran, a former beauticia

from Florida, served as president of Ninety-Nines between 1941 and 19She was also the first female pilot to a bomber across the Atlantic, and in1943, she was appointed director of Women’s Airforce Service Pilots (WASThe WASPs were approximately 1,00civilian women who, as the United Sentered World War II, delivered aircracombat areas all over the world. Thoth

d

ti

t

d 

l

i

First Ladiesof Flight■ The role women have played in theprogress of aviation is punctuated by theachievements, many of them “firsts,” ofhundreds of brave and determined aeronautical pioneers.

These pioneers included women like

Juanita Pritchard Bailey, the first womanto fly a plane solo from the United Statesto Panama, and Evelyn “Bobbi” Trout,who, in 1929, became the first womanto complete an all-night flight.

The following year, Amy Johnson, considered by many to be Britain’s most

famous female pilot, became the firstwoman to fly alone from England toAustralia. In 1931, Anne MorrowLindbergh, wife of Charles Lindbergh,

became the first woman to receive aglider pilot’s license.

But even before the considerable

accomplishments of these women,Alabama-born Katherine Stinson was well on her way to a series of “firsts” all her own. In 1912, Stinson becamethe fourth woman to be issued a pilot’slicense. In 1913, she became the firstwoman to carry the U.S. mail; in 1915,she became the first woman to performan aerial loop-the-loop. That same year, Stinson became the first woman to skywrite.

The honor of being the first woman to

fly across the Atlantic belongs to AmeliaEarhart, although on the first trip, shewas a passenger. In 1932, however, shewas at the controls and became the firstwoman to make the trip solo. Later, shewas also the first woman to earn theDistinguished Flying Cross.

1935November 22 Pan American Airways made the firsPacific mail service route, leaving San Francisco wi111,000 letters. 1935

Watson Watt built RADAR device 

1928 June 28–29 Albert Hegenberger and Lester Maitland accomplished the first nonstop crossing of the Pacific. 1929 November 28–29 Commander Richard E. Byrd completed the first flight over the South Pole. 1929

Fritz von Opel of Germany flew the first rocket-poweredplane for 1 minute, 15 seconds.William Green developed the first automatic pilot used onan airliner.

1931June 23–July 1

Wiley Post and Harold Gatty completed

the first circumnavigation of the world by a lone aircraft.1932May 20–21 Amelia Earhart became the first woman tofly solo across the Atlantic.

1929 Great Depression began with stock market crash 1931 Empire State Building completed 

Amelia Earhart, nicknamed “Lady Lindy,” proved her skill by becoming the first woman to fly soloacross the Atlantic. National Air and Space Museum #381-1431 ©2002 Smithsonian Institution

1928 First scheduled television broadcastOrigins of the U.S. Air Force■ U.S. Army leaders were never as backward about accepting aviation as traditionclaims. Many, in fact, had long maintainedan interest in lighter-than-air and heavierthan-air craft. The Signal Corps establisheda balloon section in 1892 and deployed aballoon to Cuba in 1898 during theSpanish-American War. Signal Corps balloonists competed in contests and setrecords. Notably, Lieutenant Frank Lahmwon the first Gordon Bennett balloon racein 1906. The Army also developed semirigid dirigibles beginning with Signal CorpsDirigible No. 1 in 1908.

As for heavier-than-air craft, Army leaders gave Samuel P. Langley $50,000 for

construction of a full-sized “aerodrome” in1898. Langley failed to fly, but Army interest in aviation continued. Its leaders begancorrespondence with the Wright brothers inMay 1907, established an AeronauticalDivision in August, and prepared requirements for a military airplane in December. The Army accepted the Wrights’ bid inFebruary 1908. Trials began later in theyear, but a crash delayed the results. TheU.S. Army ultimately accepted Signal CorpsNo. 1 on 2 August 1909. 

Today’s global U

S

Air Force grew from

U.S. government accepted the Wright aircraft in1909. © Wright State University
1941 Cheerios invented

1941June 20 The United States Army Air Forces were formed.The Tuskegee Airmen, the first Black fighter squadron inthe United States Armed Forces, was formed. Until thattime, Blacks had been forbidden to receive pilot training.

1942July 19 The Messerschmitt 262, the world’s first otional jet-powered fighter, took to the air with FritzWendel at the controls.

1942 Electronic computer developed in U.S. 

General Motors FM-1 Wildcat.National Air and Space Museum #76-1722©2002 Smithsonian Institution

attacked the Third Reich, with B-17s, B24s, and RAF Lancasters and Wellingtonspounding Germany’s industry, transportation, and communications around theclock. The strategic bombing campaigndevastated the Nazi transportation systemand cut the enemy’s oil production. InFebruary 1944, during “Big Week,” theLuftwaffe contested the European skies,and as a result, the American escort fighters took a heavy toll on the GermanAir Force—a turning point in the air warover Europe.

Moreover, allied strategic and tactical

air forces, as Supreme CommanderDwight D. Eisenhower emphasized, madesafe the invasion of the Continent on 6 June 1944 by defeating the Luftwaffeprior to D-Day and by reducing theenemy’s ability to reinforce the battlefield.In his words, “Unless we had faith in airpower as a fighting arm to intervene andmake safe that landing, it would havebeen more than fantastic, it would havebeen criminal.” 

In addition to the strategic bombing

campaign, the Allied tactical air forcesmade a major contribution to the Europeanvictory through their enormous support ofthe ground forces as they fought their wayeastward into Germany. Victory in Europeon 8 May 1945 was in so many ways a

National Air and Space ©2002 Smithsonian In

Air Power in 

World War II

Although outnumbered in the early

months of the war in the Pacific, Ameairmen of the USAAF and U.S. Navyfought gallantly against the Japanese the Philippines and the Southwest PaOn 18 April 1942, the U.S. struck bawhen Lieutenant Colonel Jimmy Dooliled sixteen USAAF B-25s from the deof an aircraft carrier and bombed JapMeanwhile, in China, the AmericanVolunteer 

Group, the “Flying Tigers,”

under General Claire Chennault, flyinshark-mouthed Curtiss P-40s, bestedthe Japanese air force. It was in Chintoo, that U.S. transport aircraft flew “Hump” over the highest mountains of world, keeping China in the war anddramatizing the importance of global transport, perhaps the greatest develoment of air power during the war. In J1942, the Japanese suffered a keydefeat in the Battle of Midway Island, which U.S. Navy dive bombers sank fJapanese aircraft carriers. The Battle Midway and subsequent fighting atGuadalcanal, which broke the back ofJapanese air power, proved decisive.

During the first

week of March1943, Japan wasdealt a crushing blowin the Battle of the Bismarck Sea,when aircraft of General George KennFifth Air Force destroyed an entireJapanese convoy. The Japanese neve

Tokyo Raiders: The Doolittle Raid■ After the surprise attack on Pearl Harbor,War Department planners hit upon the ideaof bombing Japan by launching B-25bombers from an aircraft carrier. In April1942, as flight crews boarded the carrierUSS Hornet, planes were being lashed to

the decks. When Navy radar spottedJapanese ships ahead of the carrier,Lieutenant Colonel Jimmy Doolittle wasordered to launch even though the shipwas 700 miles from Japan, instead of theplanned 400.

The mission successfully hit targets in

Tokyo, Yokohama, Kobe, and Nagoyabefore turning toward landing fields inChina. With low fuel reserves and stronghead winds, the crews knew they wouldn’treach the designated landing fields. Fifteenof the sixteen planes crashed or ditched atsea with one diverting to Russia. Of theeighty fliers, three died in landings, eightwere captured by the Japanese,and the crew that landed inRussia was interned beforeeventually escaping. All the others bailed out over China andeventually found their way to safe

■ Air power played a crucial role in almostevery aspect of World War II. Germany’sair force, the Luftwaffe, supported the Naziground forces early in the war as they devastated western Europe. The scream ofStuka dive-bombers heralded Blitzkrieg,which dominated the early war conflict.The Luftwaffe was ill-equipped to fightEngland, however, and the tide began toturn when Britain’s Royal Air Force (RAF)defeated it during the now-famous Battleof Britain. “Achtung, Spitfire!” became terrible words for German pilots. 

The United States entered World War II

on 7 December 1941, when the Japaneseconducted a surprise air attack on theAmerican naval base at Pearl Harbor,Hawaii. However, although the Japanesedrew the U.S. into the war, early planningmade Germany the primary foe.

The RAF began with a bombing campaign conducted mostly at night against

German cities. It was soon joined by themighty Eighth Air Force of the U.S. Army

Air Forces (USAAF),

which specialized in

high-altitude, daylight

attacks on German

industrial targets. Over

the skies of northwest

Europe, great bomber

fleets of the Combined
1941 Cheerios invented

1941June 20 The United States Army Air Forces were formed.The Tuskegee Airmen, the first Black fighter squadron inthe United States Armed Forces, was formed. Until thattime, Blacks had been forbidden to receive pilot training.

1942July 19 The Messerschmitt 262, the world’s first tional jet-powered fighter, took to the air with FritzWendel at the controls.

1942 Electronic computer developed in U.S. 

General Motors FM-1 Wildcat.National Air and Space Museum #76-1722©2002 Smithsonian Institution

attacked the Third Reich, with B-17s, B24s, and RAF Lancasters and Wellingtonspounding Germany’s industry, transportation, and communications around theclock. The strategic bombing campaigndevastated the Nazi transportation systemand cut the enemy’s oil production. InFebruary 1944, during “Big Week,” theLuftwaffe contested the European skies,and as a result, the American escort fighters took a heavy toll on the GermanAir Force—a turning point in the air warover Europe.

Moreover, allied strategic and tactical

air forces, as Supreme CommanderDwight D. Eisenhower emphasized, madesafe the invasion of the Continent on 6 June 1944 by defeating the Luftwaffeprior to D-Day and by reducing theenemy’s ability to reinforce the battlefield.In his words, “Unless we had faith in airpower as a fighting arm to intervene andmake safe that landing, it would havebeen more than fantastic, it would havebeen criminal.” 

In addition to the strategic bombing

campaign, the Allied tactical air forcesmade a major contribution to the Europeanvictory through their enormous support ofthe ground forces as they fought their wayeastward into Germany. Victory in Europeon 8 May 1945 was in so many ways a

E

National Air and Space ©2002 Smithsonian I

Air Power in 

World War II

Although outnumbered in the early

months of the war in the Pacific, Ameairmen of the USAAF and U.S. Navyfought gallantly against the Japanese the Philippines and the Southwest PaOn 18 April 1942, the U.S. struck bawhen Lieutenant Colonel Jimmy Doolled sixteen USAAF B-25s from the deof an aircraft carrier and bombed JapMeanwhile, in China, the AmericanVolunteer 

Group, the “Flying Tigers,”

under General Claire Chennault, flyinshark-mouthed Curtiss P-40s, bestethe Japanese air force. It was in Chintoo, that U.S. transport aircraft flew “Hump” over the highest mountains oworld, keeping China in the war anddramatizing the importance of global transport, perhaps the greatest develment of air power during the war. In J1942, the Japanese suffered a keydefeat in the Battle of Midway Islandwhich U.S. Navy dive bombers sank fJapanese aircraft carriers. The Battle Midway and subsequent fighting atGuadalcanal, which broke the back oJapanese air power, proved decisive.

During the first

week of March1943, Japan wasdealt a crushing blowin the Battle of the Bismarck Sea,when aircraft of General George KennFifth Air Force destroyed an entireJapanese convoy. The Japanese neve

Tokyo Raiders: The Doolittle Raid■ After the surprise attack on Pearl Harbor,War Department planners hit upon the ideaof bombing Japan by launching B-25bombers from an aircraft carrier. In April1942, as flight crews boarded the carrierUSS Hornet, planes were being lashed to

the decks. When Navy radar spottedJapanese ships ahead of the carrier,Lieutenant Colonel Jimmy Doolittle wasordered to launch even though the shipwas 700 miles from Japan, instead of theplanned 400.

The mission successfully hit targets in

Tokyo, Yokohama, Kobe, and Nagoyabefore turning toward landing fields inChina. With low fuel reserves and stronghead winds, the crews knew they wouldn’treach the designated landing fields. Fifteenof the sixteen planes crashed or ditched atsea with one diverting to Russia. Of theeighty fliers, three died in landings, eightwere captured by the Japanese,and the crew that landed inRussia was interned beforeeventually escaping. All the others bailed out over China andeventually found their way to safe

■ Air power played a crucial role in almostevery aspect of World War II. Germany’sair force, the Luftwaffe, supported the Naziground forces early in the war as they devastated western Europe. The scream ofStuka dive-bombers heralded Blitzkrieg,which dominated the early war conflict.The Luftwaffe was ill-equipped to fightEngland, however, and the tide began toturn when Britain’s Royal Air Force (RAF)defeated it during the now-famous Battleof Britain. “Achtung, Spitfire!” became terrible words for German pilots. 

The United States entered World War II

on 7 December 1941, when the Japaneseconducted a surprise air attack on theAmerican naval base at Pearl Harbor,Hawaii. However, although the Japanesedrew the U.S. into the war, early planningmade Germany the primary foe.

The RAF began with a bombing campaign conducted mostly at night against

German cities. It was soon joined by themighty Eighth Air Force of the U.S. Army

Air Forces (USAAF),

which specialized in

high-altitude, daylight

attacks on German

industrial targets. Over

the skies of northwest

Europe, great bomber

fleets of the Combined
1947

September 18 United States Air Force formed as a separate service.October 14 Captain Charles E. Yeager flew faster than the speed of sound for the first time in the rocketpowered Bell X-1.

1948The Berlin Blockade and airlift proved the power of airplanes to help resolve diplomatic crises.1949March 2 Lucky Lady II: This Boeing B-50A made the firstnonstop around-the-world flight.

1945

World War II ended 1950 Korean War began

■ No matter what nickname they go by,modern helicopters are amazingly versatile aircraft with the ability to lift directlyoff the ground and fly without the needfor a runway.

The concept of vertical flight can be

traced to the Chinese top, a toy firstused around 400 B.C. By the mid1500s, Leonardo da Vinci was sketchinghelicopter-like machines.

In 1907, French engineer Paul Cornu

managed to lift a helicopter he designedinto the air for 20 seconds. Though not along flight, it was enough to stimulateother designers, who made greatadvances in helicopter design.

It was not until 1939 that the first successful helicopter flight took place in the

1953November 20 Scott Crossfield became the first pifly at Mach 2 in the D-558 research plane.Jackie Cochran became the first woman to fly fastethan sound. 1953 Color television introduced in the U.S. 

In 1939, the first successful flight of a helicopter was accomplished in the United States by Igor Sikorsky.National Air and Space Museum #00089138 ©2002 Smithsonian Institution

1944V-2 rocket first used in combat.1945August 6 B-29 Enola Gay dropped an atomic bomb 

on Hiroshima.

■ Air Force Test Pilot Captain Charles “Chuck” Yeager broke the “sound bafor the first time by flying Mach 1.06 14 October 1947. This first supersonabove Mach 1, flight occurred at 43,feet above California’s Mojave Deserthe bright orange air-launched,

Breaking 

PassengerJets■ Through the 1940s, theU.S. led the passenger transport busness; however, in 1952, British Airwachallenged that lead with the introduof the world’s first jet airliner.

The Comet was designed to fly at

35,000 feet and higher, thus dramatreducing fuel consumption. But at thaltitudes, there was another problem be solved: creating a pressurized cabwhich passengers could breathe withoxygen masks. Once the issue of cabpressurization was resolved, the Comwas ready to be introduced to the puand they loved it. The original Comet’slifespan was cut short because of sttural problems. 

The Boeing 707, based on a jet ta

design built for the U.S. Air Force, follo

United States. Igor Sikorsky, a Russianborn U.S. citizen who is known as the“Father of the Helicopter,” flew his VS300 and launched a lucrative businessthat provided helicopters for World War II,Korea, and Vietnam.

Today, helicopters are used for transporting accident victims, crop seeding,

traffic reports, aerial photography, fightingforest fires, rescues at sea, lifting heavyconstruction materials for skyscraper construction, and hundreds of other practicalapplications. This fascinating machinethat can take off and land vertically;hover in midair; and fly forward, backward, sideways, or straight up and downis as indispensable as it is versatile.

Into the Jet Age■ 

With the advent of jet technology, the

world of aviation was again on the edge ofchange. This time, the changes would revolutionize military as well as civilian aircraft and turn the business of passengertransport into a race to see which airlinecould carry the most people the greatestdistance in the least amount of time.

Both the Allies and the Germans were

engaged in building jets as World War IIwas drawing to a close; by the time theKorean conflict began in 1950, the speedof jet fighters was considered a necessityto win air combat engagements.

Engineers continually worked to modify

these planes, each change allowing theaircraft to fly higher and faster while alsoimproving its stability and maneuverability.These developments eventually led tosupersonic bombers like the B-58 andwide-body cargo planes with the capacityto carry troops, tanks, and tons of supplies into battle

F86-Sabre.

Choppers.Copters.Whirlybirds. 
1947

September 18 United States Air Force formed as a separate service.October 14 Captain Charles E. Yeager flew faster than the speed of sound for the first time in the rocketpowered Bell X-1.

1948The Berlin Blockade and airlift proved the power of airplanes to help resolve diplomatic crises.1949March 2 Lucky Lady II: This Boeing B-50A made the firstnonstop around-the-world flight.

1945

World War II ended 1950 Korean War began

■ No matter what nickname they go by,modern helicopters are amazingly versatile aircraft with the ability to lift directlyoff the ground and fly without the needfor a runway.

The concept of vertical flight can be

traced to the Chinese top, a toy firstused around 400 B.C. By the mid1500s, Leonardo da Vinci was sketchinghelicopter-like machines.

In 1907, French engineer Paul Cornu

managed to lift a helicopter he designedinto the air for 20 seconds. Though not along flight, it was enough to stimulateother designers, who made greatadvances in helicopter design.

It was not until 1939 that the first successful helicopter flight took place in the

1953November 20 Scott Crossfield became the first pifly at Mach 2 in the D-558 research plane.Jackie Cochran became the first woman to fly fastethan sound. 1953 Color television introduced in the U.S. 

In 1939, the first successful flight of a helicopter was accomplished in the United States by Igor Sikorsky.National Air and Space Museum #00089138 ©2002 Smithsonian Institution

1944V-2 rocket first used in combat.1945August 6 B-29 Enola Gay dropped an atomic bomb 

on Hiroshima.

■ Air Force Test Pilot Captain Charles “Chuck” Yeager broke the “sound bafor the first time by flying Mach 1.06 14 October 1947. This first supersonabove Mach 1, flight occurred at 43,feet above California’s Mojave Deserthe bright orange air-launched,

Breaking 

PassengerJets■ Through the 1940s, theU.S. led the passenger transport busness; however, in 1952, British Airwachallenged that lead with the introduof the world’s first jet airliner.

The Comet was designed to fly at

35,000 feet and higher, thus dramatreducing fuel consumption. But at thaltitudes, there was another problem be solved: creating a pressurized cabwhich passengers could breathe withoxygen masks. Once the issue of cabpressurization was resolved, the Comwas ready to be introduced to the puand they loved it. The original Comet’slifespan was cut short because of sttural problems. 

The Boeing 707, based on a jet ta

design built for the U.S. Air Force, follo

United States. Igor Sikorsky, a Russianborn U.S. citizen who is known as the“Father of the Helicopter,” flew his VS300 and launched a lucrative businessthat provided helicopters for World War II,Korea, and Vietnam.

Today, helicopters are used for transporting accident victims, crop seeding,

traffic reports, aerial photography, fightingforest fires, rescues at sea, lifting heavyconstruction materials for skyscraper construction, and hundreds of other practicalapplications. This fascinating machinethat can take off and land vertically;hover in midair; and fly forward, backward, sideways, or straight up and downis as indispensable as it is versatile.

Into the Jet Age■ 

With the advent of jet technology, the

world of aviation was again on the edge ofchange. This time, the changes would revolutionize military as well as civilian aircraft and turn the business of passengertransport into a race to see which airlinecould carry the most people the greatestdistance in the least amount of time.

Both the Allies and the Germans were

engaged in building jets as World War IIwas drawing to a close; by the time theKorean conflict began in 1950, the speedof jet fighters was considered a necessityto win air combat engagements.

Engineers continually worked to modify

these planes, each change allowing theaircraft to fly higher and faster while alsoimproving its stability and maneuverability.These developments eventually led tosupersonic bombers like the B-58 andwide-body cargo planes with the capacityto carry troops, tanks, and tons of supplies into battle

F86-Sabre.

Choppers.Copters.Whirlybirds. 
1958 Public schools integrated in Little Rock, Arkansas

1958January 31 Explorer 1 successfully orbited Earth.October 1 NASA was established.December 19 First voice radio broadcast from space occurred.Dawn of theSpace Age■ The National Aeronautics and SpaceAdministration (NASA) was formed withPresident Dwight D. Eisenhower’s signingof the National Aeronautics and Space Actof 1958. The NACA and parts of otheragencies formed its core; its purpose wasresearch and development for the exploration of space. NASA also emerged insome measure because of the pressures of national defense during the Cold Warwith the Soviet Union, a broad contest over the ideologies and allegiances of thenonaligned nations of the world in whichspace exploration emerged as a major area of contest.

The space age actually began before the

creation of NASA. From the latter 1940s,the Department of Defense pursuedresearch, rocketry, and upper atmosphericsciences as a means of ensuring Americanleadership in technology. A major step forward came when President Eisenhowerapproved a plan to orbit a scientific satelliteas part of the International GeophysicalYear (IGY), a cooperative effort to gatherscientific data about Earth, for an eighteenmonth period from 1957 to 1958. TheSoviet Union quickly followed suit,announcing plans to orbit its own satellite.

The Naval Research Laboratory’s Project

Vanguard was chosen on 9 September1955 to support the IGY effort, largelybecause it did not interfere with high-priorityballistic missile development programs,while an Army proposal to use theR

d

b

lli

i

i

il

h

l

h

■ Surprisingly enough, many aspects typical day in the life of an astronaut quite similar to those of a typical day more Earthly job. Being in orbit doescourse, present some different challenges, as well as different perks. Ththe weightlessness to consider, but tviews are amazing. 

According to former astronaut Dr. G

G

l

f

d

h

fi

f

i

i

1960 John F. Kennedy elected U.S. President

The X-15: Bridging the Gap■ In the X-15 program, the Air Force,NASA, Navy, and North American Aviationembarked upon a new frontier—exploringthe possibilities of a piloted, rocketpowered, air-launched aircraft capable of speeds about five times that of sound.

Between 1959 and 1969, in 199 flights,

the X-15 program demonstrated the humandesire to fly higher, faster, and beyondEarth’s atmosphere. On 22 August 1963,

the X-15 set an altitude record of354,200 feet (67 miles). Four years later,the aircraft set a speed record of Mach6.7 (4,520 miles per hour). 

The vehicle provided the platform for

many scientific and technological studies.With an exterior skin of a nickel-chromealloy that could withstand extreme heat,(over 1,000 ̊F) and a structure speciallydesigned for the harsh unknown environment encountered at hypersonic speeds,the vehicle was able to carry out scientificresearch and survive. This research helpedprove that a pilot could master the skillsrequired for flight into space, even the

bili

f

i

i

i

h

l

i

gap, and provided the impetus forincreased spending for aerospace endeavors, technical and scientific educationalprograms, and the chartering of new federal agencies to manage research anddevelopment.

The United States launched its first

Earth satellite on 31 January 1958, whenExplorer 1, launched atop a modifiedRedstone, documented the existence ofradiation zones encircling Earth. Thesezones, shaped by Earth’s magnetic field,came to be called the Van Allen RadiationBelt. This mission began a series of flightsto the Moon and planets.JPL Director William Pickering, astrophysicistJames Van Allen, and rocketeer Wernher vonBraun hold up a mock-up of Explorer 1. A Typical DThe X-15 rocket-powered aircraft under thewing of a B-52, waiting to be air-launched.This photo was taken from an observation window in the B-52 shortlybefore dropping the X-15.

1959September 15 Scott Crossfield first flew thefastest and highest flying aircraft in history, the rocet-powered X-15.1960May 17 YF4H-1 Phantom fighter and Douglas DC-8 were unveiled.UnconventionalMethods of Flig■ A bird’s ability to fly, powered by itown unique musculoskeletal system, has, for thousands of years, inspiredhumanity’s desire to fly and especialto achieve flight without the use of athing other than muscle power.

Paul B. MacCready envisioned, desi

and built the human-powered GossaCondor, a 70-pound craft with a wingof 96 feet, made of aluminum, mylacorrugated cardboard, and styrene foIn 1977, the Condor flew 1.35 miles just under eight minutes, its average sbetween 10 and 11 miles per hour. 

In 1979, the Gossamer Albatross w

“pedaled” from England to France, ming it the first completely human-powaircraft to cross the English Channel

Inspired by the Greek myth of Daed

and Icarus, the Daedalus Project was ceived to fly a human-powered aircra
1958 Public schools integrated in Little Rock, Arkansas

1958January 31 Explorer 1 successfully orbited Earth.October 1 NASA was established.December 19 First voice radio broadcast from space occurred.Dawn of theSpace Age■ The National Aeronautics and SpaceAdministration (NASA) was formed withPresident Dwight D. Eisenhower’s signingof the National Aeronautics and Space Actof 1958. The NACA and parts of otheragencies formed its core; its purpose wasresearch and development for the exploration of space. NASA also emerged insome measure because of the pressures of national defense during the Cold Warwith the Soviet Union, a broad contest over the ideologies and allegiances of thenonaligned nations of the world in whichspace exploration emerged as a major area of contest.

The space age actually began before the

creation of NASA. From the latter 1940s,the Department of Defense pursuedresearch, rocketry, and upper atmosphericsciences as a means of ensuring Americanleadership in technology. A major step forward came when President Eisenhowerapproved a plan to orbit a scientific satelliteas part of the International GeophysicalYear (IGY), a cooperative effort to gatherscientific data about Earth, for an eighteenmonth period from 1957 to 1958. TheSoviet Union quickly followed suit,announcing plans to orbit its own satellite.

The Naval Research Laboratory’s Project

Vanguard was chosen on 9 September1955 to support the IGY effort, largelybecause it did not interfere with high-priorityballistic missile development programs,while an Army proposal to use theR

d

b

lli

i

i

il

h

l

h

■ Surprisingly enough, many aspects typical day in the life of an astronaut quite similar to those of a typical day more Earthly job. Being in orbit doescourse, present some different challenges, as well as different perks. Ththe weightlessness to consider, but tviews are amazing. 

According to former astronaut Dr. G

G

l

f

d

h

fi

f

i

i

1960 John F. Kennedy elected U.S. President

The X-15: Bridging the Gap■ In the X-15 program, the Air Force,NASA, Navy, and North American Aviationembarked upon a new frontier—exploringthe possibilities of a piloted, rocketpowered, air-launched aircraft capable of speeds about five times that of sound.

Between 1959 and 1969, in 199 flights,

the X-15 program demonstrated the humandesire to fly higher, faster, and beyondEarth’s atmosphere. On 22 August 1963,

the X-15 set an altitude record of354,200 feet (67 miles). Four years later,the aircraft set a speed record of Mach6.7 (4,520 miles per hour). 

The vehicle provided the platform for

many scientific and technological studies.With an exterior skin of a nickel-chromealloy that could withstand extreme heat,(over 1,000 ̊F) and a structure speciallydesigned for the harsh unknown environment encountered at hypersonic speeds,the vehicle was able to carry out scientificresearch and survive. This research helpedprove that a pilot could master the skillsrequired for flight into space, even the

bili

f

i

i

i

h

l

i

gap, and provided the impetus forincreased spending for aerospace endeavors, technical and scientific educationalprograms, and the chartering of new federal agencies to manage research anddevelopment.

The United States launched its first

Earth satellite on 31 January 1958, whenExplorer 1, launched atop a modifiedRedstone, documented the existence ofradiation zones encircling Earth. Thesezones, shaped by Earth’s magnetic field,came to be called the Van Allen RadiationBelt. This mission began a series of flightsto the Moon and planets.JPL Director William Pickering, astrophysicistJames Van Allen, and rocketeer Wernher vonBraun hold up a mock-up of Explorer 1. A Typical DThe X-15 rocket-powered aircraft under thewing of a B-52, waiting to be air-launched.This photo was taken from an observation window in the B-52 shortlybefore dropping the X-15.

1959September 15 Scott Crossfield first flew thefastest and highest flying aircraft in history, the rocet-powered X-15.1960May 17 YF4H-1 Phantom fighter and Douglas DC-8 were unveiled.UnconventionalMethods of Flig■ A bird’s ability to fly, powered by itown unique musculoskeletal system, has, for thousands of years, inspiredhumanity’s desire to fly and especialto achieve flight without the use of athing other than muscle power.

Paul B. MacCready envisioned, desi

and built the human-powered GossaCondor, a 70-pound craft with a wingof 96 feet, made of aluminum, mylacorrugated cardboard, and styrene foIn 1977, the Condor flew 1.35 miles just under eight minutes, its average sbetween 10 and 11 miles per hour. 

In 1979, the Gossamer Albatross w

“pedaled” from England to France, ming it the first completely human-powaircraft to cross the English Channel

Inspired by the Greek myth of Daed

and Icarus, the Daedalus Project was ceived to fly a human-powered aircra
1963 President Kennedy assassinated 1968 Civil rights activist Martin Luther King assassinated 1969

Woodstock Pop Festival held in upstate New 

1963August 22 The X-15 aircraft set an altitude record of 67 miles.1966March 16–17 Neil Armstrong and David Scott performedthe first orbital docking.

1967Astronauts Gus Grissom, Roger Chaffee, and Ed Whitedied in the Apollo 1 capsule fire during a ground test inpreparation for their launch.1968 December Apollo 8 circumnavigated the Moon.

1969 The Concorde prototype and Boeing 747 first flew.July 20 Apollo 11 landed on the Moon.March 2 The first Concorde flight occurred.

To the Moon:Apollo■ As an effort to offset world perceptionof Soviet leadership in space and technology, President John F. Kennedy made apublic commitment on 25 May 1961 toland an American on the Moon by the endof the decade. Following the devastatingApollo 1 capsule fire in January 1967, thefirst Apollo mission of public significance

was the circumlunar flight of Apollo 8.

As that mission orbited the Moon on

Christmas Eve 1968, the nation united asone, if only for a few moments, to witnessthis epochal event. 

The flight of Apollo 11, lifting off on 16

July 1969, made the epic voyage to landon the Moon. On 20 July 1969, theLunar Module, with astronauts Neil A.Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin aboard, landedon the lunar surface while Michael Collinsorbited overhead in the Apollo commandmodule. These astronauts were the firsthumans ever to reachanother world. Armstrongwas first to set foot on

Higher and Fast■ Flight has fired the world’s imaginawith two words: speed and altitude, tpantheon of flying. The attainment of feats depends on multiple complex faGenerally, the reasons to strive for faplanes capable of greater altitude arepractical, rather than heroic or poetic

After the first successful supersonic 

in 1947 by the X-1, a series of milestwere accomplished by research pilots aircraft designed to test the boundariespeed and altitude. Later, the Navy anNACA developed the D-558, which first 

Mach 2 on 30 November 1953.

With the Bell X-2 of the mid-1950s

pilots had a vehicle whose powerful roengine could reach speeds in excess Mach 3. At such high speeds, air frictheats the aircraft’s skin to high tempetures; therefore, it was made of an advalightweight, heat-resistant steel alloy. Th

1960April 1 Tiros I was the first weather satellite launched.1961April 12 The first human being to travel in space (Major Yuri Gagarin) completed one full orbit of Earth.May 5 Alan Shepard was the first American in space.

Air Power and the Cold War■ The Cold War began in the aftermaof World War II as a struggle between Soviet Union and the United States ovthe future of Europe, and ultimately sto most parts of the globe. The opponsought to influence events through nomilitary means, but at times, as in Koin the early 1950s and Vietnam in the1960s, it flared into armed conflict. Throout, air power played a defining role.

U

S

air power and its ability to deliv

Test Pilot School ■ The U.S. Air Force Test Pilot School atEdwards Air Force Base in the MojaveDesert was established to improve weaponsystems testing. The fundamental key tosuccess in aerospace flight testing andevaluation is the capability, knowledge, andskill of the flight test pilot. Without him—and, increasingly, her—the work of the AirForce Flight Test Center would be impossible. 

It is through flight testing that test pilots

determine whether an aircraft will be suitable for its intended mission. The schoolteaches flight test techniques for evaluating aircraft performance, flying qualities,and systems characteristics. Today’s testpilots are responsible for determining theviability of a new generation of extremelysophisticated aircraft weapon systems thatinclude lasers capable of destroying missiles, unpiloted craft that drop bombs andeavesdrop inside enemy lines, and aircraft that fly like cargo planes but take off like helicopters. USAF test pilot school in the 1950s. (USAF)1961 DNA molecule structure determined

the surface, telling millions on Earth whosaw and heard him that it was “one smallstep for [a] man—one giant leap formankind.” Aldrin soon followed him out,and the two plodded around the landingsite in the lunar gravity (1

/6 of Earth’s) and

planted an American flag. 

Five more landing missions followed at

approximately six-month intervals throughDecember 1972 (in addition to the abortedApollo 13 flight), each of them spendingan increasing amount of time on theMoon. The scientific experiments placedon the Moon and the lunar soil samplesreturned have provided grist for scientificinvestigations ever since. 

Apollo left several important legacies: 

it accomplished its political goals; it wasa triumph of management in meeting theenormously difficult systems engineeringand technological integration requirements;and it enabled the people of the world,

for the first time, to see their home fromafar—a tiny, lovely, and fragile “blue marble”hanging in the blackness of space. 

Buzz Aldrin on the Moon during the Apollo 11 mission, July 1969.
1963 President Kennedy assassinated 1968 Civil rights activist Martin Luther King assassinated 1969

Woodstock Pop Festival held in upstate New 

1963August 22 The X-15 aircraft set an altitude record of 67 miles.1966March 16–17 Neil Armstrong and David Scott performedthe first orbital docking.

1967Astronauts Gus Grissom, Roger Chaffee, and Ed Whitedied in the Apollo 1 capsule fire during a ground test inpreparation for their launch.1968 December Apollo 8 circumnavigated the Moon.

1969 The Concorde prototype and Boeing 747 first flew.July 20 Apollo 11 landed on the Moon.March 2 The first Concorde flight occurred.

To the Moon:Apollo■ As an effort to offset world perceptionof Soviet leadership in space and technology, President John F. Kennedy made apublic commitment on 25 May 1961 toland an American on the Moon by the endof the decade. Following the devastatingApollo 1 capsule fire in January 1967, thefirst Apollo mission of public significance

was the circumlunar flight of Apollo 8.

As that mission orbited the Moon on

Christmas Eve 1968, the nation united asone, if only for a few moments, to witnessthis epochal event. 

The flight of Apollo 11, lifting off on 16

July 1969, made the epic voyage to landon the Moon. On 20 July 1969, theLunar Module, with astronauts Neil A.Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin aboard, landedon the lunar surface while Michael Collinsorbited overhead in the Apollo commandmodule. These astronauts were the firsthumans ever to reachanother world. Armstrongwas first to set foot on

Higher and Fast■ Flight has fired the world’s imaginawith two words: speed and altitude, tpantheon of flying. The attainment of feats depends on multiple complex faGenerally, the reasons to strive for faplanes capable of greater altitude arepractical, rather than heroic or poetic

After the first successful supersonic 

in 1947 by the X-1, a series of milestwere accomplished by research pilots aircraft designed to test the boundariespeed and altitude. Later, the Navy anNACA developed the D-558, which first 

Mach 2 on 30 November 1953.

With the Bell X-2 of the mid-1950s

pilots had a vehicle whose powerful roengine could reach speeds in excess Mach 3. At such high speeds, air frictheats the aircraft’s skin to high tempetures; therefore, it was made of an advalightweight, heat-resistant steel alloy. Th

1960April 1 Tiros I was the first weather satellite launched.1961April 12 The first human being to travel in space (Major Yuri Gagarin) completed one full orbit of Earth.May 5 Alan Shepard was the first American in space.

Air Power and the Cold War■ The Cold War began in the aftermaof World War II as a struggle between Soviet Union and the United States ovthe future of Europe, and ultimately sto most parts of the globe. The opponsought to influence events through nomilitary means, but at times, as in Koin the early 1950s and Vietnam in the1960s, it flared into armed conflict. Throout, air power played a defining role.

U

S

air power and its ability to deliv

Test Pilot School ■ The U.S. Air Force Test Pilot School atEdwards Air Force Base in the MojaveDesert was established to improve weaponsystems testing. The fundamental key tosuccess in aerospace flight testing andevaluation is the capability, knowledge, andskill of the flight test pilot. Without him—and, increasingly, her—the work of the AirForce Flight Test Center would be impossible. 

It is through flight testing that test pilots

determine whether an aircraft will be suitable for its intended mission. The schoolteaches flight test techniques for evaluating aircraft performance, flying qualities,and systems characteristics. Today’s testpilots are responsible for determining theviability of a new generation of extremelysophisticated aircraft weapon systems thatinclude lasers capable of destroying missiles, unpiloted craft that drop bombs andeavesdrop inside enemy lines, and aircraft that fly like cargo planes but take off like helicoptersUSAF test pilot school in the 1950s. (USAF)1961 DNA molecule structure determined

the surface, telling millions on Earth whosaw and heard him that it was “one smallstep for [a] man—one giant leap formankind.” Aldrin soon followed him out,and the two plodded around the landingsite in the lunar gravity (1

/6 of Earth’s) and

planted an American flag. 

Five more landing missions followed at

approximately six-month intervals throughDecember 1972 (in addition to the abortedApollo 13 flight), each of them spendingan increasing amount of time on theMoon. The scientific experiments placedon the Moon and the lunar soil samplesreturned have provided grist for scientificinvestigations ever since. 

Apollo left several important legacies: 

it accomplished its political goals; it wasa triumph of management in meeting theenormously difficult systems engineeringand technological integration requirements;and it enabled the people of the world,

for the first time, to see their home fromafar—a tiny, lovely, and fragile “blue marble”hanging in the blackness of space. 

Buzz Aldrin on the Moon during the Apollo 11 mission, July 1969.
The Future of Flight■ 

Today, visionaries around the world are

working on innovative technologies thatwill determine the future of flight. Thisexciting work is leading to new types ofaircraft and aircraft systems and will greatly improve the way we fly. 

Working with airlines and industry leaders,

NASA is developing new technologies thatwill bring about improved safety and largeraircraft that transport more passengersusing less fuel. New systems and tools forpilots and air traffic controllers will enableairlines to increase the number of flights

while dramatically decreasing delays.Business and personal travel could benefitfrom this change with more choices andlower fares. Improvements to systems thatsupport small and personal aircraft couldlead to a future in which personal planesare used much like today’s automobiles.

At the other end of the spectrum are

unpiloted aerial vehicles such as theHelios Prototype (p. 19) and uncrewedcombat air vehicles whose use could prevent losses of personnel in extremely hazardous situations. Additionally, the“M

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P

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t” i

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i

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hl

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1977 The movie Star Wars was released

1970 April Apollo 13 became a “successful failure” when,despite a ruptured oxygen tank that crippled the spacecraft, the crew returned safely.October 24 The X24A lifting body exceeded Mach 1.

1971 April 19 Soviet Union placed the world’s first space station, Salyut 1, in orbit.1972 NASA launched Landsat 1, the first remote sensing satellite.

1973 NASA launched the Skylab orbital workshop into orbit.1975Soviet and American spacecraft docked in orbit during theApollo-Soyuz Test Project.

1977 The Gossamer Condor became the first human-powairplane.1978October 30 The Airline Deregulation Act was signed in

fluids for control. NASA and industryresearchers are looking closely at thecharacteristics of flight in birds to developa new generation of flying machine thatchanges itself to fly more efficiently. Thisnew type of aircraft would be capable ofvarious modes of flight from supersonicto hover.

Some of the current areas of research

include developing smart materials, adaptive structures, and biologically inspiredflight systems. Instead of the traditionaljet engine location on an aircraft’s bodyor wings, scientists are investigating the

effects of using multiple small

engines to power these aircraft. The

results from thisresearch may provide

currently involved in a research project todetermine the possibility of using small,personal aircraft to create a safe alternative for both business and personal airtravel. At the 99 percent of all airports thatare currently underused, small aircraftcould be used to carry people and products safely and affordably from one localcommunity airport to another. Delays andtravel time would be reduced as a result of

creating greater air access into more communities in less time.

This provides the flying

public with jet-like performance at an affordable cost.

Small, Personal AircraftMorphing Aircraft■ The future of flight may include aircraftcapable of responding to changes inspeed or environmental conditions byaltering or “morphing” their shape. Thewings of these aircraft would sweep backand reconfigure to minimize drag andsonic boom. The engine inlets and nozzles would change to adapt to new conditions. Small jets of air and feather-likesurfaces would provide additional control.

Morphing would include small and large

changes using

structures and 

■ Imagine being able to plan an entiretrip, home to destination, on the Internet:you drive to your local airport—not themajor hub of today; board a small jet aircraft; and, in a matter of hours, arrive atyour destination. NASA and industry are

The future: new small, efficient jet airplanes that are easy to fly like the Eclipse 500. © Eclipse

F-22 Rapto■ The most advanced fighter aircraft world, the F-22 Raptor, is now being tat Edwards Air Force Base. The Raptorevolutionary leap in aircraft technolothat unites advanced capability withreduced maintenance costs and supprequirements. The F-22’s combination stealth, advanced avionics, and maneability will give pilots a first-look, first-sfirst-kill capability against the aircraft any potential enemy. 

The F-22 combines advanced super

flight with the ability to fly at slow speF22 Raptor. (USAF)

1970 Bar codes introduced for retail use in England 

X-45 Uncrewed Combat Air Vehicle (UCAV).

1972 2.5-million-year-old human skull discovered 1973 TCP/IP (Internet protocol) designed
The Future of Flight■ 

Today, visionaries around the world are

working on innovative technologies thatwill determine the future of flight. Thisexciting work is leading to new types ofaircraft and aircraft systems and will greatly improve the way we fly. 

Working with airlines and industry leaders,

NASA is developing new technologies thatwill bring about improved safety and largeraircraft that transport more passengersusing less fuel. New systems and tools forpilots and air traffic controllers will enableairlines to increase the number of flights

while dramatically decreasing delays.Business and personal travel could benefitfrom this change with more choices andlower fares. Improvements to systems thatsupport small and personal aircraft couldlead to a future in which personal planesare used much like today’s automobiles.

At the other end of the spectrum are

unpiloted aerial vehicles such as theHelios Prototype (p. 19) and uncrewedcombat air vehicles whose use could prevent losses of personnel in extremely hazardous situations. Additionally, the“M

hi

P

j

t” i

l

i

hi

hl

d

t

1977 The movie Star Wars was released

1970 April Apollo 13 became a “successful failure” when,despite a ruptured oxygen tank that crippled the spacecraft, the crew returned safely.October 24 The X24A lifting body exceeded Mach 1.

1971 April 19 Soviet Union placed the world’s first space station, Salyut 1, in orbit.1972 NASA launched Landsat 1, the first remote sensing satellite.

1973 NASA launched the Skylab orbital workshop into orbit.1975Soviet and American spacecraft docked in orbit during theApollo-Soyuz Test Project.

1977 The Gossamer Condor became the first human-powairplane.1978October 30 The Airline Deregulation Act was signed in

fluids for control. NASA and industryresearchers are looking closely at thecharacteristics of flight in birds to developa new generation of flying machine thatchanges itself to fly more efficiently. Thisnew type of aircraft would be capable ofvarious modes of flight from supersonicto hover.

Some of the current areas of research

include developing smart materials, adaptive structures, and biologically inspiredflight systems. Instead of the traditionaljet engine location on an aircraft’s bodyor wings, scientists are investigating the

effects of using multiple small

engines to power these aircraft. The

results from thisresearch may provide

currently involved in a research project todetermine the possibility of using small,personal aircraft to create a safe alternative for both business and personal airtravel. At the 99 percent of all airports thatare currently underused, small aircraftcould be used to carry people and products safely and affordably from one localcommunity airport to another. Delays andtravel time would be reduced as a result of

creating greater air access into more communities in less time.

This provides the flying

public with jet-like performance at an affordable cost.

Small, Personal AircraftMorphing Aircraft■ The future of flight may include aircraftcapable of responding to changes inspeed or environmental conditions byaltering or “morphing” their shape. Thewings of these aircraft would sweep backand reconfigure to minimize drag andsonic boom. The engine inlets and nozzles would change to adapt to new conditions. Small jets of air and feather-likesurfaces would provide additional control.

Morphing would include small and large

changes using

structures and 

■ Imagine being able to plan an entiretrip, home to destination, on the Internet:you drive to your local airport—not themajor hub of today; board a small jet aircraft; and, in a matter of hours, arrive atyour destination. NASA and industry are

The future: new small, efficient jet airplanes that are easy to fly like the Eclipse 500. © Eclipse

F-22 Rapto■ The most advanced fighter aircraft world, the F-22 Raptor, is now being tat Edwards Air Force Base. The Raptorevolutionary leap in aircraft technolothat unites advanced capability withreduced maintenance costs and supprequirements. The F-22’s combination stealth, advanced avionics, and maneability will give pilots a first-look, first-sfirst-kill capability against the aircraft any potential enemy. 

The F-22 combines advanced super

flight with the ability to fly at slow speF22 Raptor. (USAF)

1970 Bar codes introduced for retail use in England 

X-45 Uncrewed Combat Air Vehicle (UCAV).

1972 2.5-million-year-old human skull discovered 1973 TCP/IP (Internet protocol) designed
The InternationalSpace Station■ From virtually the beginning of the twentieth century, those interested in exploration of space viewed as centrabuilding of a massive Earth-orbital spastation to serve as the jumping-off pofor travel to other planets and to theMoon. Always, space exploration enthasts believed, a permanently occupiedspace station was a necessary outposthe new frontier of space.

NASA deferred this dream during Pr

Apollo, but on 14 May 1973, it launca small orbital space platform, SkylabSkylab became home to three crews d1973–74 for periods of 28, 59, and 84days, respectively. In orbit, the crew ducted solar astronomy and Earth resoexperiments, as well as medical studiethe conclusion of the Skylab 4 missiothe orbital workshop was powered dowand allowed to burn up on reentry in 19

Skylab served as a predecessor for a 

fledged space station. In 1984, as par

Flying to and from Earth Orbit: The Space Shuttle

The Space Shuttle has launched numerous

scientific satellites and undertaken scientificand technological experiments rangingfrom Spacelab to a dramatic three-personspacewalk to retrieve a multimillion-dollarcommunications satellite and deploy it foruse. The Shuttle is also instrumental in theservicing of the Hubble Space Telescope.Between April 1981 and the end of 2002,the Space Shuttle carried approximately2.9 million pounds of cargo and more than800 major payloads into orbit.

In the beginning of the twenty-first century,

the Space Shuttle is still the only vehicle inthe world with the capability to deliver andreturn large payloads to and from orbit. Itis the most reliable launch system now inservice, with a success rate of better than99 percent. The Space Shuttle remainsone of the most successful and impressivetechnologies in American history. It is a reliable, mature, and flexible system on whichstunning scientific experiments arelaunched and conducted. 

Future Launch Systems■ In the early days of flight in the twentiethcentury, the U.S. government fostered aviation. As the nation marks the hundredthanniversary of powered flight, NASA is continuing this historic tradition with an investment in the development of future launchsystems. This will ultimately help move thenation from the pioneering era of the Mercury, Gemini, Apollo, and Space Shuttleprograms to a future in which people aremore routinely traveling, working, and livingin space. 

NASA’s goal is to design a safe, more

affordable, more reliable reusable space

transportation system that can accommodate the needs of the nation’s space-sciencedriven missions and provide technologies

beneficial to commercial industry and theDepartment of Defense. The Shuttle hasbeen flying for more than twenty years,and it will continue to fly until a new systemis ready. This research will lead to a newgeneration of launch technologies for a

■ As the Apollo lunar landing missionscame to a close, NASA’s major effort inhuman spaceflight involved the development of a reusable Space Shuttle thatcould travel back and forth between Earthand space more routinely and economicallythan had ever been done before. Afternearly a decade of development, on 12 April 1981, the first operational orbiter,Columbia, was launched from the KennedySpace Center, Florida. Five short yearslater, in 1986, NASA had chalked uptwenty-four successful Shuttle flights.With each flight, NASA increased thenumber of people who could fly in spaceand contribute to a revolution in scientificunderstanding of the effects of long-duration, near-weightless conditions on alltypes of organisms. 

Unfortunately, during the twenty-fifth

Shuttle launch on 28 January 1986, aleak in the joints of a Solid Rocket Boosterattached to the Challenger orbiter detonated

the main liquid fuel tank. Seven astronautsdied in this tragic accident. Out of thistragedy, an extensive evaluation andredesign effort placed the Space Shuttle onthe road to becoming the safest and mostreliable space system.

The redesigned Space Shuttle system

returned to flight on 29 September 1988.Since returning to flight, the four orbiters,Atlantis, Columbia, Discovery, and

Endeavour, have made more thaneighty-five flights into space

Space Frontiers■ There are certain ideas that manybelieve to be inherent in the human psand integral to American culture: ambfor progress, curiosity about the unknothe need to pose profound questions ato answer them, the concept of new frtiers that—once achieved—promise a ter quality of life for all people. Space such a frontier: Earth orbit, the Moon,

1981 April 12–14 The first Space Shuttle orbiter, Columbia, flewinto Earth orbit.1983 Sally Ride became the first American woman to fly in space;Guy Bluford became the first African American to fly in space.

1984 December 14 The X-29 forward swept wing aircraft’smaiden flight occurred.1986 January 28 Space Shuttle Challenger exploded

73 seconds into its flight, killing seven crewmembers.

1986December 23 Voyager aircraft completed the first nonstop flight around the world.1988April 22 Daedalus 88, human-powered aircraft, flew fromCrete to Santorini.

1989 The B-2 Stealth bomber made its first flight.1990 September 29 The first flight of the YF22 fighter prototype was made by Lockheed test pilot Dave FergOctober 11 The first flight of the X-31, YF22, and YF23 took place.1989 Berlin wall opened; torn down in 1990

1988 CDs outsold vinyl records for the first time

Artist’s conception of a proposed launch vehicle.

1984 Macintosh computer with mouse released

1981 IBM introduced the first personal computer
The InternationalSpace Station■ From virtually the beginning of the twentieth century, those interested in exploration of space viewed as centrabuilding of a massive Earth-orbital spastation to serve as the jumping-off pofor travel to other planets and to theMoon. Always, space exploration enthasts believed, a permanently occupiedspace station was a necessary outposthe new frontier of space.

NASA deferred this dream during Pr

Apollo, but on 14 May 1973, it launca small orbital space platform, SkylabSkylab became home to three crews d1973–74 for periods of 28, 59, and 84days, respectively. In orbit, the crew ducted solar astronomy and Earth resoexperiments, as well as medical studiethe conclusion of the Skylab 4 missiothe orbital workshop was powered dowand allowed to burn up on reentry in 19

Skylab served as a predecessor for a 

fledged space station. In 1984, as par

Flying to and from Earth Orbit: The Space Shuttle

The Space Shuttle has launched numerous

scientific satellites and undertaken scientificand technological experiments rangingfrom Spacelab to a dramatic three-personspacewalk to retrieve a multimillion-dollarcommunications satellite and deploy it foruse. The Shuttle is also instrumental in theservicing of the Hubble Space Telescope.Between April 1981 and the end of 2002,the Space Shuttle carried approximately2.9 million pounds of cargo and more than800 major payloads into orbit.

In the beginning of the twenty-first century,

the Space Shuttle is still the only vehicle inthe world with the capability to deliver andreturn large payloads to and from orbit. Itis the most reliable launch system now inservice, with a success rate of better than99 percent. The Space Shuttle remainsone of the most successful and impressivetechnologies in American history. It is a reliable, mature, and flexible system on whichstunning scientific experiments arelaunched and conducted. 

Future Launch Systems■ In the early days of flight in the twentiethcentury, the U.S. government fostered aviation. As the nation marks the hundredthanniversary of powered flight, NASA is continuing this historic tradition with an investment in the development of future launchsystems. This will ultimately help move thenation from the pioneering era of the Mercury, Gemini, Apollo, and Space Shuttleprograms to a future in which people aremore routinely traveling, working, and livingin space. 

NASA’s goal is to design a safe, more

affordable, more reliable reusable space

transportation system that can accommodate the needs of the nation’s space-sciencedriven missions and provide technologies

beneficial to commercial industry and theDepartment of Defense. The Shuttle hasbeen flying for more than twenty years,and it will continue to fly until a new systemis ready. This research will lead to a newgeneration of launch technologies for a

■ As the Apollo lunar landing missionscame to a close, NASA’s major effort inhuman spaceflight involved the development of a reusable Space Shuttle thatcould travel back and forth between Earthand space more routinely and economicallythan had ever been done before. Afternearly a decade of development, on 12 April 1981, the first operational orbiter,Columbia, was launched from the KennedySpace Center, Florida. Five short yearslater, in 1986, NASA had chalked uptwenty-four successful Shuttle flights.With each flight, NASA increased thenumber of people who could fly in spaceand contribute to a revolution in scientificunderstanding of the effects of long-duration, near-weightless conditions on alltypes of organisms. 

Unfortunately, during the twenty-fifth

Shuttle launch on 28 January 1986, aleak in the joints of a Solid Rocket Boosterattached to the Challenger orbiter detonated

the main liquid fuel tank. Seven astronautsdied in this tragic accident. Out of thistragedy, an extensive evaluation andredesign effort placed the Space Shuttle onthe road to becoming the safest and mostreliable space system.

The redesigned Space Shuttle system

returned to flight on 29 September 1988.Since returning to flight, the four orbiters,Atlantis, Columbia, Discovery, and

Endeavour, have made more thaneighty-five flights into space

Space Frontiers■ There are certain ideas that manybelieve to be inherent in the human psand integral to American culture: ambfor progress, curiosity about the unknothe need to pose profound questions ato answer them, the concept of new frtiers that—once achieved—promise a ter quality of life for all people. Space such a frontier: Earth orbit, the Moon,

1981 April 12–14 The first Space Shuttle orbiter, Columbia, flewinto Earth orbit.1983 Sally Ride became the first American woman to fly in space;Guy Bluford became the first African American to fly in space.

1984 December 14 The X-29 forward swept wing aircraft’smaiden flight occurred.1986 January 28 Space Shuttle Challenger exploded

73 seconds into its flight, killing seven crewmembers.

1986December 23 Voyager aircraft completed the first nonstop flight around the world.1988April 22 Daedalus 88, human-powered aircraft, flew fromCrete to Santorini.

1989 The B-2 Stealth bomber made its first flight.1990 September 29 The first flight of the YF22 fighter prototype was made by Lockheed test pilot Dave FergOctober 11 The first flight of the X-31, YF22, and YF23 took place.1989 Berlin wall opened; torn down in 1990

1988 CDs outsold vinyl records for the first time

Artist’s conception of a proposed launch vehicle.

1984 Macintosh computer with mouse released

1981 IBM introduced the first personal computer
■ Why do weather patterns function asthey do? Why are there cycles of hot andcold, wet and dry seasons? How is theclimate changing over time? What are the causes and consequences? Theseand myriad other questions have motivatedscientific study about this planet for centuries. With the advent of the space age,however, new space-based instruments—especially remote sensing satellites—haveallowed humans to monitor Earth asnever before. 

Using Earth-observing satellites, scientists

have produced immense benefits to thenation, yielding new knowledge for improvedweather forecasting, agriculture, urbanand land-use planning, and many otherrelated areas. In concert with other agencies, the global research community, andcommercial partners, space-based resourceshave provided the scientific foundationneeded for complex policy choices leadingto sustainable development.

Meteorological science has also benefited greatly from the opportunity to study

the Earth with satellites. The perspectiveafforded by satellite imaging was a greatboon to scientists, who were then able to locate distribution and types of cloudformations, find and measure weather

■ Since the dawn of the space age, NASAhas sent numerous scientific probes to allof the planets of the solar system (exceptPluto) and peered into the depths ofspace to discover galaxies, black holes,and planets outside our solar system.These explorations will change how science textbooks are written.

The first probes went to the Moon,

Mars, and Venus in the 1960s; since thattime, succeeding generations of scientificspacecraft have made revolutionary discoveries. For instance, Mars has been thetarget of several missions, including twoViking spacecraft landings in 1976 thatyielded a wealth of scientific information,the 1996 analysis of the Martian meteorite that suggests that past life mighthave existed on Mars, and the MarsPathfinder mission that landed on 4 July1997. Pathfinder’s rover provided thefirst-ever in situ measurements of Marsrocks and raised questions about otheraspects of the planet’s global system oftransporting volatiles such as water vapor,clouds, and dust. Later Mars probes,especially Mars Global Surveyor (1997)and Mars Odyssey (2001), have confirmedthat the red planet was once a wateryplace where life may have flourished.

NASA has also been involved in several

robotic expeditions to the outer planets.For example, Voyagers 1 and 2, launchedin 1977, conducted a “grand tour” of oursolar system, returning stunning knowledge about those giant worlds and theirmoons. They discovered rings aroundJupiter, volcanoes on Io, shepherding

of humanity’s understanding of the largestplanet in our system and its moons. 

More recently, the Hubble Space

Telescope, although initially impaired, hasreturned exceptional images providing critical data on the origins and developmentof the universe. As only one example ofthe Hubble’s important contributions, inearly 1997, NASA scientists announcedthe discovery of three black holes in threenormal galaxies, suggesting that nearly allgalaxies may harbor supermassive blackholes which once powered quasars(extremely luminous nuclei of galaxies).

At the beginning of the twenty-first 

century, several key spaceflight missionsare seeking to answer age-old astronomical questions. As part of the “NASAOrigins Program,” a series of missions 

Revolution in Space Science

disturbances, and track movements patterns. It provided new levels of prsion to the evaluation of pressure froand air masses that are so critical inweather forecasting. Likewise, meteoical research beyond weather forecastook on new life as climatological rescontributed significant insights to ourunderstanding of Earth.

NASA launched the first Earth scie

satellite, Landsat 1, on 23 July 1972 provide data on vegetation, insect intions, crop growth, and associated lause information. Since that time, six Landsat spacecraft have been placed orbit, each with greater capabilities t

Understanding the Changing 

HST Cone Nebula. NASA, H. Ford [JHU/APL], G. Illingworth

1994 Jeannie Flynn, the first female combat pilot in the U.S. AirForce, finished flight training in the F-15.1995Norm Thagard was the first American astronaut to serveon the Russian space station Mir.

1996January 4 The Boeing Sikorsky Comanche helicopter was unveiled.March 22 Shannon Lucid began her historic journey to Mir.Her stay established the United States single-mission spaceflight endurance record.

1997May 17 The first flight of a subscale remotely piloted X36 tailless research aircraft took place.1998The first elements of the International Space Station wereassembled in orbit.

1999March 20 The first nonstop circumnavigation of the via a balloon took place.2000 The first crew of the International Space Station arrin orbit.

1997 First Harry Potter book published in the U.K.

1998 Frank Sinatra died 2000 Closest presidential election in U.S. history

1994 South Africa held first interracial national election

Space Resear■ Throughout most of history, we hubeings viewed gravity as an inescapaconstant in anything we designed or Even from the start, gravity profoundaffected the way life on Earth evolvedwith the dawn of the space age, accthe microgravity environment of Earth allowed scientists to cancel most of greffects and conduct unprecedentedresearch, thus providing a new tool tapply to long-standing questions in sence and technology. Space also posphysical challenges to explorers, whomust find ways to withstand space eronment hazards for which our evoluon Earth never prepared us.
■ Why do weather patterns function asthey do? Why are there cycles of hot andcold, wet and dry seasons? How is theclimate changing over time? What are the causes and consequences? Theseand myriad other questions have motivatedscientific study about this planet for centuries. With the advent of the space age,however, new space-based instruments—especially remote sensing satellites—haveallowed humans to monitor Earth asnever before. 

Using Earth-observing satellites, scientists

have produced immense benefits to thenation, yielding new knowledge for improvedweather forecasting, agriculture, urbanand land-use planning, and many otherrelated areas. In concert with other agencies, the global research community, andcommercial partners, space-based resourceshave provided the scientific foundationneeded for complex policy choices leadingto sustainable development.

Meteorological science has also benefited greatly from the opportunity to study

the Earth with satellites. The perspectiveafforded by satellite imaging was a greatboon to scientists, who were then able to locate distribution and types of cloudformations, find and measure weather

■ Since the dawn of the space age, NASAhas sent numerous scientific probes to allof the planets of the solar system (exceptPluto) and peered into the depths ofspace to discover galaxies, black holes,and planets outside our solar system.These explorations will change how science textbooks are written.

The first probes went to the Moon,

Mars, and Venus in the 1960s; since thattime, succeeding generations of scientificspacecraft have made revolutionary discoveries. For instance, Mars has been thetarget of several missions, including twoViking spacecraft landings in 1976 thatyielded a wealth of scientific information,the 1996 analysis of the Martian meteorite that suggests that past life mighthave existed on Mars, and the MarsPathfinder mission that landed on 4 July1997. Pathfinder’s rover provided thefirst-ever in situ measurements of Marsrocks and raised questions about otheraspects of the planet’s global system oftransporting volatiles such as water vapor,clouds, and dust. Later Mars probes,especially Mars Global Surveyor (1997)and Mars Odyssey (2001), have confirmedthat the red planet was once a wateryplace where life may have flourished.

NASA has also been involved in several

robotic expeditions to the outer planets.For example, Voyagers 1 and 2, launchedin 1977, conducted a “grand tour” of oursolar system, returning stunning knowledge about those giant worlds and theirmoons. They discovered rings aroundJupiter, volcanoes on Io, shepherding

of humanity’s understanding of the largestplanet in our system and its moons. 

More recently, the Hubble Space

Telescope, although initially impaired, hasreturned exceptional images providing critical data on the origins and developmentof the universe. As only one example ofthe Hubble’s important contributions, inearly 1997, NASA scientists announcedthe discovery of three black holes in threenormal galaxies, suggesting that nearly allgalaxies may harbor supermassive blackholes which once powered quasars(extremely luminous nuclei of galaxies).

At the beginning of the twenty-first 

century, several key spaceflight missionsare seeking to answer age-old astronomical questions. As part of the “NASAOrigins Program,” a series of missions 

Revolution in Space Science

disturbances, and track movements patterns. It provided new levels of prsion to the evaluation of pressure froand air masses that are so critical inweather forecasting. Likewise, meteoical research beyond weather forecastook on new life as climatological rescontributed significant insights to ourunderstanding of Earth.

NASA launched the first Earth scie

satellite, Landsat 1, on 23 July 1972 provide data on vegetation, insect intions, crop growth, and associated lause information. Since that time, six Landsat spacecraft have been placed orbit, each with greater capabilities t

Understanding the Changing 

HST Cone Nebula. NASA, H. Ford [JHU/APL], G. Illingworth

1994 Jeannie Flynn, the first female combat pilot in the U.S. AirForce, finished flight training in the F-15.1995Norm Thagard was the first American astronaut to serveon the Russian space station Mir.

1996January 4 The Boeing Sikorsky Comanche helicopter was unveiled.March 22 Shannon Lucid began her historic journey to Mir.Her stay established the United States single-mission spaceflight endurance record.

1997May 17 The first flight of a subscale remotely piloted X36 tailless research aircraft took place.1998The first elements of the International Space Station wereassembled in orbit.

1999March 20 The first nonstop circumnavigation of the via a balloon took place.2000 The first crew of the International Space Station arrin orbit.

1997 First Harry Potter book published in the U.K.

1998 Frank Sinatra died 2000 Closest presidential election in U.S. history

1994 South Africa held first interracial national election

Space Resear■ Throughout most of history, we hubeings viewed gravity as an inescapaconstant in anything we designed or Even from the start, gravity profoundaffected the way life on Earth evolvedwith the dawn of the space age, accthe microgravity environment of Earth allowed scientists to cancel most of greffects and conduct unprecedentedresearch, thus providing a new tool tapply to long-standing questions in sence and technology. Space also posphysical challenges to explorers, whomust find ways to withstand space eronment hazards for which our evoluon Earth never prepared us.
Aviatio

11"

8.5"

4

4. Curl the ends of the paper t

make a ring and tuck one einto the fold of the other.

Scavenger Hun

• Why was Kitty Hawk, North • What type of flying vehicle i• Who was the first African Am

Internationale (FAI) license?

• Who pioneered rubber-band• What total distance did the • What is the name of the re

a long duration?

Wanted:

Online Adventure Seekers

http://spacelink.nasa.gov/celebratingflight

Do You Wonder Wh1. Why do they push the plane 2. Why do we need oxygen ma3. Why do my ears pop as we 4. Why do we need to have tra(Find answers at bottom of page.)

Ring Wing G
Aviatio

11"

8.5"

4

4. Curl the ends of the paper to

make a ring and tuck one eninto the fold of the other.

Scavenger Hun

• Why was Kitty Hawk, North • What type of flying vehicle is • Who was the first African Am

Internationale (FAI) license?

• Who pioneered rubber-band• What total distance did the • What is the name of the rem

a long duration?

Wanted:

Online Adventure Seekers

http://spacelink.nasa.gov/celebratingflight

Do You Wonder Why1. Why do they push the plane 2. Why do we need oxygen ma3. Why do my ears pop as we 4. Why do we need to have tra(Find answers at bottom of page.)

Ring Wing G
http://www.nasa.gov

http://www.centennialofflight.gov

http://www.centennialofflight.af.mil

NASA Publication SP-2002-09-511-HQ

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Office of Aerospace Technology

NASA Headquarters

Washington, DC 20546

In its more than 50 years

of existence, the Air Force

has become the world’s

premier aerospace force.

Its mission is simple in

words, yet awesome in

meaning—defend the

nation through the control

and exploitation of air and space. To learn more

about opportunities within the Air Force, call 

1-800-423-USAF or visit http://www.airforce.com

NASA and its predecessor,

the National Advisory

Committee for Aeronautics,

have charted the course of

aviation and space technology since 1915. NASA’s

world-renowned achievements, representing a successful investment in the future of all Americans,

are accomplished using less than one percent of

the Federal budget. http://www.nasa.gov

The U.S. Centennial of

Flight Commission was

created by Congress to

expand interest in the

commemoration of the

centennial of powered

flight and the Wright

brothers’ achievement.

The Commission is coordinating a national outreach

campaign and advising the President, Congress,

and federal agencies on the most effective ways to

encourage participation in 2003. 

http://www.centennialofflight.gov