The Natural Inquirer

A Research and Science Education Journal

USDA FOREST SERVICE

Fall 1998, Volume 1, Number 1
Barbara McDonald

Forest Service Research

CO-EDITORS

Florence Fernandez Gabriel M. Romero

Miami-Dade Community College New Mexico Highlands University

CONTRIBUTING SCIENTISTS

Gary L. Achtemeier Boyd M. Edwards

Kerry O. Britton Stephen W. Fraedrich

H. Ken Cordell James H. Hanula

EDITORIAL BOARD

Erin Bergstrom, Age 12 Rachel Horton, Age 11

Lora Bergstrom, Age 11 Anthony Howse, Age 11

Colin Bowker, Age 13 Jessica Mou, Age 16

Rosalina Bowker, Age 10 Stephanie Mou, Age 13

Grace Chambers, Age 9 Sam Sather-Wickster, Age 11

Allison Duncan, Age 11 Shamekia Williams, Age 11

Anthony Hense, Age 11 Leonard Williams, Age 13

Produced by:

Forest Service Research, Washington, DC

Forest Service Civil Rights, Washington, DC

Forestry Sciences Laboratory, Athens, GA

With thanks to:

Cleveland Road Elementary School, Athens-Clarke County, GA

Hispanic Association of Colleges & Universities, Washington DC

Kristen Smith, Design and Layout

Shela Mou, USDA Forest Service, SRS 4901

Southern Research Station, USDA Forest Service, Asheville, NC

SRS 4104 - Management & Properties of SE Species

SRS 4505 - Diseases of Southern Forests

SRS 4901 - Outdoor Recreation and Wilderness Assessment

The College of Education, University of Georgia, Athens, GA
CONTENTS

Teacher's Note......................................................................................................... 2

About The Natural Inquirer .................................................................................... 3

What are Scientists? ................................................................................................. 3

ARTICLES

Wood Roaches for Dinner Again? ............................................................................ 4

Nature: It’s a Jungle Gym Out There ...................................................................... 9

Attack of the Killer Anthracnose! ........................................................................... 13

To Spray or Not to Spray ...................................................................................... 17

Before and After: A Look at Our Land ................................................................... 21

On Top of Old Smokey......................................................................................... 26

What is the Forest Service?......................................................................... back cover

The Natural Inquirer is reproduced on recycled paper
Although students will learn about natural resources by reading these articles, one

of the main purposes of the journal is to introduce the work of scientists to middle school

science students. Our goal is to stimulate an interest in natural resource and life sciences

by presenting the research activities of a variety of scientists. In the articles, reflection

questions are placed at the end of each section. These reflection questions are oriented

toward helping the teacher conduct a class discussion about the problems, methods, and

findings associated with each research article. These questions should stimulate critical

thinking about the research. Critical thinking and discussion may be encouraged by using

small groups, although entire class discussions may also be helpful. Note that the answers

to the questions should not be considered right or wrong. They are only intended to

stimulate critical thinking.

The articles themselves, as well as the journal’s overall format, are designed to

imitate the format of a professional research journal. Prior to publication, this journal’s

articles were reviewed by the primary scientist and by a young reviewer between the ages 9

and 16. When introducing the journal, the teacher may want to bring the students’

attention to the list of youth editors. A discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of

peer review is suggested. Again, there are no right or wrong answers. The purpose of this

discussion would be to consider one of the many activities and procedures of science—In

this case using other scientists to review the completed research.

On first page of each article, we have included three additional sections. The first

section highlights an item having to do with scientific methods or concerns. The second

section presents a Discovery activity, which provides the teacher with a hands-on activity

related in some way to the article. A list of vocabulary words follow the Discovery

activity. Understanding these words will be crucial to the student’s comprehension of the

article.

This journal was created by the Urban Tree House, an education program of the

USDA Forest Service. It was produced as a summer project for college interns, sponsored

by the Forest Service and the Hispanic Association of Colleges and Universities. We want

your comments and suggestions. Also, if you are interested in having your class

participate in research to understand the effectiveness of this journal, please contact

Dr. Barbara McDonald

Social Scientist, USDA Forest Service

320 Green St.

Athens, GA 30602-2044

TEACHER’S NOTE

Natural Inquirer P Fall 1998 P Vol. 1, Number 1, P page 2
Why? Whatifwe...

?

?

?

Scientists report their research in journals, which

are special booklets that enable scientists to share

information with one another. This journal, The

Natural Inquirer, was created so that scientists can

share their information with you and with other

middle school science students. Each article tells

you about scientific research conducted by

scientists in the USDA Forest Service. All of the

research in this journal is concerned with natural

resources, such as trees, forests, wildlife, and

outdoor activities. First, the article will tell you

about a scientific principle, technique, or special

concern of scientists. Then, YOU are the scientist

as you do the Discovery activity. The vocabulary

section will help you understand the article.

At the end of each section of the article, there are

Reflection boxes, questions to help you think

about the research. These questions are not a test!

They are intended to help you think more about

what the scientists did. Your teacher may also use

the questions in a class discussion.

The research in this journal is just a small part of

what scientists study in natural resources. Other

things that are studied are water, soils, wildlife,

and insects. Scientists also study how the various

parts of the forest interact and depend on one

another. In the Forest Service, scientists study

natural resources throughout the United States.

They try to solve problems and advance our

understanding of how to take better care of our

natural resources.

What are Scientists?

Scientists are people who collect and evaluate

information about a wide range of topics.

Scientists have some qualities that you may

have also. To be a successful natural resource

scientist, you must:

Be curious

— You must want to know something, and

be interested in learning.

Be enthusiastic

— You must be very interested in a particular

subject.

Be careful

— You must be accurate in everything you

do.

Be open-minded

— You must be willing to listen to new ideas.

Question everything

— You must think about ideas and what you

read. You must not be willing to accept what

you read without thinking about it yourself.

You must be a reflective person!

Care about the environment

— You must have interest in and respect for

the natural world. You must want to protect

the environment.

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Natural Inquirer P Fall 1998 P Vol. 1, Number 1, P page 3
Scientists are often

interested in studying the

relationships between

processes. The scientists

in this study wanted to

know about the

relationship between

insect populations and the

diet of baby woodpeckers.

Scientists realize that there

are connections between

everything in nature.

Therefore, they often

conduct research to better

understand how plants,

animals and other natural

processes vary in

relationship to each other.

For example, if there is a

lot of rain one year, there

may be more vegetation

than usual in the forest.

This vegetation provides more food for deer, who may then

reproduce and survive in greater numbers than usual. Thus,

there is a relationship between rainfall and the number of

deer. The study of relationships in nature is called ecology.

Discovery

You are a scientist who wants to find out what woodpeckers

and other birds eat. Food sources are located on the bark of

pine trees. Get an old bed sheet and put it under a small

pine tree in the woods. Shake the tree vigorously. Collect

the insects that have fallen onto the sheet. These will be used

for Further Discovery, at the end of this article. To complete

this activity you will need a copy of A Golden Guide: Insects.

VOCABULARY

Vocabulary in article marked in italics

Arthropods

Invertebrate animals with jointed

bodies and limbs

Bole

Trunk or stem of a tree

Cavities

Hollowed sections in trees where

woodpeckers make homes

Larva

Immature form of an insect, after it

hatches from its egg

Nestling

A young bird that has not left its nest

Prey

An animal taken by a predator for

food

Pupa

Metamorphic insect which is enclosed

in a cocoon or case

Specimen

An individual or a part considered

representative of the group as a whole

Adapted from:

Hanula, James L. and Kay E.

Franzreb. 1995. Arthropod

prey of nestling Red-cockaded

woodpeckers in the upper coastal

plain of South Carolina.

Wilson Bulletin. 107: 485-495

Wood Roaches for Dinner Again?

The Baby Red-cockaded Woodpecker’s Diet

Natural Inquirer P Fall 1998 P Vol. 1, Number 1, P page 4
Introduction

Red-cockaded woodpeckers are an

endangered species that live in areas from

eastern Texas all the way to the Atlantic coast.

These woodpeckers prefer to live in areas

where pine trees are 80 years old or older.

The reason woodpeckers live in older trees is

because it is much easier to make nesting

cavities, which are hollow holes in the trees.

Old trees are also an ideal place to find an

abundance of food. Not much is known

about what Red-cockaded woodpeckers eat.

Without this information, human activities

in the forest could be reducing the

woodpeckers’ food supply and threatening

their existence even more. To help forest

managers protect the woodpeckers, scientists

Jim Hanula and Kay Franzreb are studying

what the woodpeckers feed their babies.

The scientists are conducting research at the

Savannah River Site in Aiken County,

South Carolina to learn more about the

types of prey that are part of the

woodpeckers’ diet. Little is known as to

what types of prey the woodpeckers eat

except that they find food on branches and

live tree boles, which are the trunks of trees.

Adult woodpeckers provide the best

information because they feed the baby

woodpeckers. Observing the adults as they

feed the nestlings provides good information

on the diet of nestlings without touching

them.

Reflection

1 What are the scientists trying to accomplish by conducting this research on the Red-cockaded woodpecker?

2 If you were the scientists, how would you find out what the nestlings are eating?

Natural Inquirer P Fall 1998 P Vol. 1, Number 1, P page 5
Methods

One problem that the scientists face is that

woodpeckers are difficult to study because

they move very rapidly. Video cameras

cannot be used because the birds are too far

away and the prey cannot be identified. For

this reason, four high-powered automatic

cameras were used so that close-up pictures

of the woodpeckers could be taken from a

distance. The cameras were enclosed in a

waterproof box with two windows through

which cameras could be aimed and focused

on the spot where the woodpeckers would

be returning with food. The boxes were

mounted on stands which were four meters

tall. Each camera could take up to 250

photographs before the film had to be

replaced. Are you wondering how the

cameras knew when to take the pictures?

Monitors were placed two meters above the

cavities on the trunks of the trees. Invisible

infrared light beams were then let out by

the monitors which went down to two

meters above the ground where they were

caught by a device connected to the

cameras. Every time the woodpeckers crossed

the beams, pictures were taken before they

entered the nest cavities. Have you ever seen a

movie where a burglar is trying to break into a

bank or store? You notice that when the

burgler crosses the red or blue beam, an alarm

is set off and the police are alerted about the

burglary. The camera is triggered in the same

way. The scientists wanted to know the time

and date the photographs were taken, and what

bird approached the cavity. The cameras

automatically marked the time and date on the

photographs as they were taken. The bird that

approached the cavity was identified by the

color of leg band it possessed on its legs.

Before the cameras were used to photograph

the woodpeckers, U.S. Fish and Wildlife

Service biologists placed leg bands on each of

them. This information helped the scientists

determine which bird was involved with

feeding the nestlings.

Reflection

1 Why is it important for cameras to record the time and date the photograph was taken?

2 What types of prey do you think the woodpeckers gathered when they fed the nestlings?

Natural Inquirer P Fall 1998 P Vol. 1, Number 1, P page 6
Results

Twenty-eight different types of prey were

identified from over 3,000 photographs

(Figure 1). They consisted of arthropods.

Arthropods are all the invertebrate animals

that have jointed bodies and limbs. These

types of arthropods may include beetles, ants,

and spiders. There can be different stages of

arthropods such as the larva, pupa, and adult

stages. The larvae are the beginning stages of

the arthropod's life span. Pupa are in a stage

of change found in cocoons or cases, such as

a caterpillar before it turns into a butterfly.

Adult stages include those invertebrates that

have reached a mature stage and can no

longer change into another form.

Drs. Hanula and Franzreb took all the

pictures to the Georgia Natural History

Museum where they were able to identify the

different arthropods by using specimens.

Arthropods that were found included wood

roaches, wood borer beetles, moths, spiders,

ants, centipedes, insect larvae, and

grasshoppers. These are just several types of

arthropods that were identified.

Seventy percent of the woodpeckers’ diet

consisted of wood roaches. Wood borer

beetles and moth larva accounted for five

percent each while spiders made up four

percent of the diet. As you can see, wood

roaches made up a very large percentage of

the diet. According to Dr. Hanula, this

could be due to a very large population of

wood roaches in the forest at the time of the

feeding cycle which lasts from the end of

May until the beginning of July. About

twenty other studies have been conducted to

see if the woodpeckers really rely on the

wood roach for their diet, or if other

arthropods are just as important. Most of the

studies have indicated that wood roaches do

make up most of the diet. Percentages may be

lower in other areas but wood roaches are

apparently fed to baby Red-cockaded

woodpeckers most of the time.

70%

Wood Roaches

Prey of the Red-Cockaded Woodpecker

(Percentage of Arthropods Gathered)

Figure 1: As you can see, 70% of the woodpeckers' diet consisted

of wood roaches. Why might the percentage be so high?

Reflection

1 What might be other reasons that wood

roaches are fed more than other arthropods?

2 What do you think forest managers can do to

protect the food sources of Red-cockaded

woodpeckers?

Natural Inquirer P Fall 1998 P Vol. 1, Number 1, P page 7
Further Discovery

Count the number of arthropods that you collected on the bed sheet. Using A Golden Guide:

Insects try to identify the arthropods that you have collected. List or draw as many arthropods

as you can identify.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Thinking Like a Scientist

Natural resource scientists use many

different skills to uncover information.

One of the most important skills a

scientist uses is observation.

Scientists observe the world around

them and keep a record of their

observations. Observations can be

recorded with numbers (such as

counting the number of birds at a

bird feeder every day), with words

(such as writing about the behavior of

baby wolves as they grow up), or with

pictures (such as photographing a rose every

day as it blooms). You can be a scientist

too, and record your observations of

something. For example, you can

observe and record your dog’s

behavior at the same time every

morning and evening, you can

observe your classmates’

interactions as they play on the

playground, or you can observe the

cloud patterns and weather every day.

Scientists usually wonder why or how

something is or becomes the way it is. How

can you think like a scientist every day?

Observe the world around you!

There’s a lot to see and learn!

Natural Inquirer P Fall 1998 P Vol. 1, Number 1, P page 8
VOCABULARY

Vocabulary in article marked in italics

Outdoor recreation

An activity done outdoors for enjoyment

Questionnaire

Printed or written form of questions

used to gather information

Random Draw

To pick someone or something

without showing preference

Sample

A small subset group, representative

of the entire group

Trend

A behavior pattern occurring and

developing over a period of time

Adapted from:

Cordell, H. K., B. L. McDonald,

B. Lewis, M. Miles, J. Martin, and J.

Bason. 1996. "United States of

America". In Cushman, G., Veal, A. J.,

and J. Zuzanek, Eds. World Leisure

Participation in the Global Village,

Wallingford, Oxon, UK: CAB

International.

The scientists in this study used the random draw

approach to select a sample of people for the study.

Because scientists cannot study everyone or everything

in the United States or even everyone or everything in

a particular group, they pick a sample. A sample is a

number of people or things carefully selected because

they are similar to the larger population. They are

picked randomly, which means that everyone or

everything in the whole population has an equal chance of being

picked without showing preference. For this study, scientists used a

computer-generated random list of household phone numbers

from across the entire United States. Once a household was

contacted by phone, a person in that household was asked a series

of questions about their outdoor recreation activities.

Discovery

Brainstorm: Make a list of ten of your favorite things to do outside,

such as bicycle riding, nature activities, and sports. A student

volunteer can be picked to list these activities on the board. Each

activity should be listed once, even if more than one person chose

it. Then, go through the list and count the number of students

who said they have done each of the activities in the past year.

Calculate the percent of students who said they did each. (See

page 20 for help with calculating percentages.) Save this list. You

will be creating your own chart to show how you and your

classmates participate in outdoor recreation

Introduction

Do you like to play outside? If you are like most Americans, you

answered yes! Almost everyone in the United States enjoys outdoor

recreation, which is an activity that is done outside for fun and

enjoyment. But what if you couldn’t go swimming, because there

were no pools to swim in? Unless we understand what kinds of

outdoor recreation activities people like, we cannot provide facilities

and places for them to do the things they like to do. So that

government and private businesses can provide the kinds of places

and things that people want to do for outdoor recreation, scientist

H. Ken Cordell and his colleagues studied what people across the

It’s a Jungle Gym Out There!

An Introduction to Outdoor Recreation

Natural Inquirer P Fall 1998 P Vol. 1, Number 1, P page 9
United States like to do for outdoor

recreation. Their study was a kind of

science called social science. Social science

helps scientists to describe people’s

attitudes and behaviors. Understanding

people's attitudes and behaviors helps to

better meet their needs.

Methods

To find out what kinds of outdoor

recreation people like, Dr. Cordell and his

colleagues developed a questionnaire that

included questions about what people do

for fun outdoors, and how often they do

those activities. Many of the same

questions had been asked in past

questionnaires, enabling the scientists to

look at outdoor recreation trends. By

understanding trends, scientists can begin to

predict what might happen in the future. The

scientists also asked people where they most

often did outdoor recreation activities. For

example, you might play most often in your

backyard, but sometimes your family takes a

vacation to a national park or to the beach.

Dr. Cordell and his colleagues asked these

questions by telephone. They asked over

17,000 people over the age of 15 years these

questions, and entered their responses into a

computer. The computer calculated how many

people did different outdoor recreation

activities. It also enabled the scientists to tell

park and forest managers what kind of outdoor

recreation activities people like you and your

family enjoy doing.

Reflection

1 What question are the scientists trying to answer?

2 How would you find out what Americans like to do for outdoor recreation?

Natural Inquirer P Fall 1998 P Vol. 1, Number 1, P page 10
Results

Dr. Cordell and his colleagues found that 94.5% of Americans said

they participated in some form of outdoor recreation. Then the

participants told them exactly which activities they took part

in. Most activities are enjoyed by both males and females,

but for some activities, males participate more than

females. The scientists also found some differences in

participation between younger and older people. What do

you think they found? What they found was that for

activities that take a lot of energy, younger people participate

more often. For activities that don’t require as much energy,

older people participate as much as younger people. For example, older

people don’t do outdoor team sports very much, but they like to watch birds

and wildlife, visit historic areas, go sightseeing, and visit nature centers. Another

factor that influences what people do and where they go includes income. How and

why do you think income influences participation?

Dr. Cordell and his colleagues found that outdoor recreation activities are becoming more diverse

and more popular. Activities like snowboarding, roller-blading, and bungee jumping were

unknown 20 years ago. They found that Americans continue to participate in outdoor recreation,

and Dr. Cordell predicts that participation will continue to increase in the future.

Further Discovery

Using the bar chart at above as a guide, draw bars on the empty chart below that match five of

the activities you listed at the beginning of this article. On the left side of the chart, you see

percentages marked from 10% to 100%. Your teacher will help you construct the bar chart

using those percentages. Use colored pencils to color each bar a different color. Compare your

bar chart with your classmates'. Do they look the same? Why or why not? What does your chart

tell you about your classmates' outdoor recreation activities?

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

66.7%

Walking

61.8%

Family

Gathering

62.1%

Visit

Beach/

Waterside

Team

Sports

24.4%

Outdoor

49.1%

Picnicking

44.2%

Swim/

in Pool

36.9%

Play in

Yard

28.6%

Bicycling

Total Activity Participation in USA for 1994

Natural Inquirer P Fall 1998 P Vol. 1, Number 1, P page 11
Reflection

1 What are the advantages of using the telephone to ask people questions?

2 What are the disadvantages of using the telephone to ask quesitons?

3 What other ways could scientists find out what people like as outdoor recreation?

4 Do you agree with Dr. Cordell’s prediction that participation in outdoor recreation will increase in the future?

 Why or why not?

100%

90%

80%

70%

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

Activities

Natural Inquirer P Fall 1998 P Vol. 1, Number 1, P page 12
Attack of the Killer Anthracnose!

Control of Dogwood Anthracnose

VOCABULARY

Vocabulary marked in article in italics

Anthracnose (an thrak’ nose)

Plant disease identified by dark spots and blisters;

caused by imperfect fungi

Conidia (ka nid' e a)

A spore which develops into Anthracnose

Control

Organism or object used for comparison in an

experiment

Dogwood

A type of deciduous tree with flowers

Fungicide

An agent that destroys fungi or prevents its growth

Fungus

Organism that contains no chlorophyll and is

parasitic; for example, mold, mushrooms, mildew

Landscape

The visual land, such as trees, water, and sky

Photosynthesis

Formation of carbohydrates when chlorophyll is

exposed to light; refers to the ability of plants to

make their own food with the use of sunlight

Takeanythingbutdon’t

hurtmydogwood!

The scientist in this study used a popular scientific

technique to compare experimental treatments to

normal conditions. In this study, the scientist

compared trees sprayed with chemicals (the

experimental treatment) to trees that were not sprayed

with chemicals. The trees which were not sprayed are

called controls. Controls are used in many types of

experimental research. They help scientists to evaluate

the usefulness of the experimental treatments.

Discovery

Mix flour, water, and sugar in the proper proportions to

make bread dough. Add a package of dry bread yeast (a

type of fungi) which has been dissolved in a glass of

water. Divide the dough into three equal parts and put

each part in a pan. Put one pan in a hot place (such as a

400 degree oven), one in a cold place (such as a

refrigerator), and one in a warm place (such as your

classroom). Observe and compare the three loaves after

a couple of hours.

Under which environmental condition is the yeast the

most active (that is, which loaf has expanded the most

in size)? Does this experiment use a control? Why do

you think a control is or is not needed for this

experiment? What can you conclude from this

experiment?

Adapted from

Britton, Kerry O. 1995. Epidemiology and control of

Dogwood Anthracnose. IUFRO Working Group. In

Caprettig P. et al. eds., Shoot and Foliage Disease in

Forest Trees, Party Proceedings. pp. 96-99.

Natural Inquirer P Fall 1998 P Vol. 1, Number 1, P page 13
Reflection

1 What problem is the scientist trying to

 solve?

2 Why do you think the disease spreads much

more rapidly when there is a lot of moisture? (HINT: Do mushrooms and mildew,

other types of fungi, grow better in wet or

dry conditions?)

Introduction

Many diseases affect the health of trees

throughout the United States. One species

affected in the eastern part of the country is

the Dogwood. The Dogwood is affected by a

disease called Dogwood Anthracnose. The

symptoms of Dogwood Anthracnose include

leafspots that begin at the tips of leaves (Fig.

1, page 15). If the weather is hot and dry,

the disease will not spread. If the weather is

warm, wet, and humid, however, the disease

is likely to spread. Conidia are like the

seeds of the fungus which are responsible for

spreading the disease. Conidia are spread

by splashing rain and can infect other leaves

if they remain wet for up to 48 hours.

The lower branches of the tree are the first

victims of the disease. The fungus enters

through the leaves on the sprouts and grows

into the tree trunk. This can cause the tree

to die quickly. Conidia can survive on twigs

and dead leaves over the winter. Once the

leaves die, the tree's health is in danger

(Fig. 2). Without leaves, photosynthesis does

not take place and the tree eventually dies.

The Dogwood is one of people’s favorite

trees in the south. Many homeowners use

the Dogwood for landscaping around their

homes. For this reason, Kerry O. Britton

studies Dogwood Anthracnose to find out

what is most effective for preventing it.

[go to the Reflection Questions on this page]

Methods

The scientist put two-year-old, healthy

dogwood seedlings into pots and placed

them under an infected tree in

southwestern North Carolina. By doing

this, Dr. Britton could be sure the healthy

seedlings would be at risk for infection from

Dogwood Anthracnose. Remember the

disease is spread during rainy weather. The

seedlings were sprayed with two types of

fungicides, which we call F1 and F2 for short.

Spraying occurred at different time intervals

to determine how long the fungicides worked.

Dr. Britton also observed untreated seedlings

to measure how quickly the disease spread.

The seedlings that were not sprayed are

known as “controls,” and they show the

difference between treated and untreated trees.

Dr. Britton counted the dead leaves on each

tree to determine which type of fungicide was

more effective and economical to use.

[go to the Reflection Questions on page 15]

Natural Inquirer P Fall 1998 P Vol. 1, Number 1, P page 14
Fig. 1:

Displays the

beginning

stages of

Dogwood

Anthracnose.

Notice the

leaf spots

beginning to

develop.

Fig. 2:

Here, leaves

are rotted

and killed as

a result of

being

heavily

infected

with

Dogwood

Anthracnose

Reflection

1 Why do you think the scientist used many

different time intervals for spraying the

trees?

2 Why do you think scientists use a control

(untreated seedlings) in their research?

3 What do you think would have happened to

the healthy seedlings if there had been no

rain during the experiement?

Results

Dr. Britton found that F1 and F2 were equally

effective in the treatment of Dogwood

Anthracnose. The only difference between the

two fungicides was that it took fewer

applications of F1 to prevent the disease. The

scientist found that six treatments throughout

the summer stopped the disease very well. It

took twelve treatments of F2 to equal the

effectiveness of F1. Dr. Britton also found

that treating infected leaves which had been

wet for over a 48 hour period with F1 proved

to be very effective. F1 can kill the fungus

even after the fungus gets inside the leaves. It

only took two applications during wet weather

throughout the whole summer to stop the

disease. Natural Inquirer P Fall 1998 P Vol. 1, Number 1, P page 15
Reflection

1 Why do you think it is important to find the most effective chemical and at the same time make sure it is not too

expenisive?

2 Which fungicide, if any, would you use on your own Dogwood trees to kill the disease? Why?

Homeowners might favor F1 because it requires fewer applications. F1 fungicide is more

expensive, but usually equals the price of F2 after the additional applications of F2 have been

applied for effective results. With proper timing during wet weather, the disease can be

prevented with fewer applications of F1.

Confirmed dogwood

anthracnose infections by county.

Natural Inquirer P Fall 1998 P Vol. 1, Number 1, P page 16
VOCABULARY

Vocabulary marked in article in italics

Fumigant

An agent used in fumigation

Fumigation

To apply smoke, liquid vapor, or gas to

destroy harmful organisms

Fungicide

An agent that destroys fungi or prevents

fungal growth

Herbicide

An agent that destroys plants or prevents

plant growth

Methyl Bromide

Poisonous gas used to kill plants, worms, or

insects

Nurseries

Area where plants and trees are grown from

seed

Ozone Layer

Upper layer of atmosphere which protects

earth’s surface from harmful solar radiation

Questionnaire

Printed or written form of questions used to

gather information

Seedlings

Small, young trees

Adapted from: Fraedrich, Stephen W. 1994. Soil

fumigation in southern forest tree nurseries:

Current status and future needs for pest

management. Diseases and Insects in Forest

Nurseries, Dijon (France),October 3-10, 1993.

Ed. INRA, Paris, 265-280.

Sometimes scientists use methods from both social and

biological sciences. This is called using mixed methods.

This scientist wanted to know about people’s use (social

science) of a chemical before he began to explore

alternatives to the chemical (biological science). With

the results of the social science research, the scientist was

better prepared to explore alternatives that would meet

the needs of the people who use the chemical.

Discovery

You are a scientist who would like to develop a

biodegradable plastic container for soft drinks.

You want to know how many people prefer

using recyclable plastic bottles as

compared with aluminium cans. You

also want to know if people would

use a biodegradable container, even

if it would cost more. As a class,

develop a short questionnaire that

would answer these questions.

When you go home, ask your

family, friends, and neighbors

the questions your class has

developed and record their

answers. Keep these answers! You

will use them after you read this article.

To Spray or Not to Spray

Soil Fumigation in Southern Forests

❑ Yes

❑ No

Wouldyoubuyabiodegradablesoftdrinkcontainer?

Whatifitcostmorethanaregular

plasticcontainer?

Natural Inquirer P Fall 1998 P Vol. 1, Number 1, P page 17
Introduction

Forestry operations depend on the

continuous supply of healthy tree

seedlings. Seedlings are small trees grown

from seeds in nurseries. To provide

healthy seedlings, chemicals are applied to

the soil in a procedure called soil

fumigation. The chemicals

kill weeds, insects, and

diseases. One of the

most effective

chemicals used is

methyl bromide.

Although methyl

bromide is

effective in helping

healthy seedlings

grow, it is also believed

to damage the earth’s

ozone layer. The ozone layer helps to

protect the earth’s surface from the sun’s

harmful rays. Some people feel that

methyl bromide should not be used by the

nursery operators because it may be

causing problems with the ozone layer.

Because of these concerns, restrictions are

being placed on the future use of methyl

bromide as a fumigant. Nursery operators

will no longer be able to use methyl

bromide after the year 2002. Scientist

Stephen W. Fraedrich has begun studying

potential alternatives to the use of methyl

bromide. But before he could begin

studying the alternatives, he needed to

know about the current use of methyl

bromide.

(Now do the Reflection at right!)

Methods

To help him understand the current use

of methyl bromide, Dr. Fraedrich mailed

a questionnaire to nursery operators in the

southern United States. The purpose of

the questionnaire was to determine how

Reflection

1 Why do you think the scientist needed to

study the current use of methyl bromide?

2 If you were the scientist, how would you

find out about the current use of methyl

bromide?

many nurseries used methyl bromide, and how

often they used it. Although 95 questionnaires

were sent, not all of the operators responded.

Fifty-seven, or 60 percent of the questionnaires,

were returned to the scientist. After the

questionnaires were returned, the scientist

calculated the percentage of the responses to

each of the questions. This research provided

the scientist with a way of learning about the

use of methyl bromide as a fumigant. Natural Inquirer P Fall 1998 P Vol. 1, Number 1, P page 18
Results

Dr. Fraedrich found that soil fumigation is

practiced at 96 percent of the nurseries that

responded to the questionnaire. Between 65

percent and 79 percent of the operators

fumigate either before each crop or before

every other crop of seedlings are planted.

Methyl bromide is the most commonly used

chemical for soil fumigation. Only one

nursery operator said he or she had never tried

methyl bromide. Ninety-four percent of the

operators said that the main

reason they used methyl

bromide was because it is

more effective than other

chemicals at killing weeds.

Herbicides are also chemicals

used to kill weeds. According

to operators, the weeds soon

grow resistant to herbicides

and more of the herbicide is

needed for effective results.

Other types of chemicals used

Reflection

1 What does the scientist know about the fumigation practices of the nursery operators who did not respond to the

questionnaire? Why is this important?

2 What are some other ways to find out about the fumigation practices of nursery operators?

as alternatives are fungicides. Most operators

prefer not to use fungicides because they are

too expensive and can harm the

environment. Even the best alternatives

were not as effective as methyl bromide.

Because known alternatives are not as

effective, and little is known about effective

alternatives, operators will be faced with a

dilemma when the use of methyl bromide is

restricted.

Soil is

fumigated

by pouring

liquid into

the soil and

covering it

with plastic.

Natural Inquirer P Fall 1998 P Vol. 1, Number 1, P page 19
Reflection

1 What dilemma will be faced by operators when they can no longer use methyl bromide?

2 Although methyl bromide may possibly hurt the earth’s ozone layer, we also need healthy seedlings that can grow into

healthy trees. What are some solutions to this problem?

Further Discovery

As a class, combine all of your answers

together and calculate the percentage of

responses you found for each question. Here

is how you calculate percentages:

Assume your class has asked 60 people the

questions in your questionnaire. Twenty-five

of them prefer plastic, 30 prefer aluminum,

and five do not prefer one over the other. To

calculate the percentage of people who prefer

plastic:

60 people total

25 prefer plastic

Divide 25 by 60 total people. You get an

answer of .416, which you should round to

.42. To get the final answer, multiply .42 by

100. This gives you a final answer of 42%.

25/60=.416, rounded to .42

.42 X 100= 42%

100%

90%

80%

70%

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

Labels for your questions:

Use the following to create your bar chart

After you have finished calculating

percentages, create a bar chart to show your

results. If you need help with creating the bar

chart, go to page 10 to see an example.

Natural Inquirer P Fall 1998 P Vol. 1, Number 1, P page 20
VOCABULARY

Vocabulary in article indicated in italics

Climatology records

Historical records describing the weather of a

region

Elevation

Height; altitude

Land Use

Ways humanity has used the land

Natural history

Historical chain of natural events; development of

a natural object

Oral history

History passed down through word of mouth

Productivity

The quality or state of being productive

Site

A place

Social history

History of what people have done, including how

people used land

Soil Surveys

Maps depicting soil types throughout a geographic region

Soil erosion

The depletion of soil by water, wind, glacial ice,

and human activities

Vegetative cover

Plants which cover the earth

Before & After:

A Look at Our Land

Land Use History of Jones County, GA

Most scientists use numerical data or information to

measure and understand their research. However, not

all data are numerical. Some data may be in the form

of words and pictures. These data are called qualitative

data. The scientist in this study used qualitative data to

study the history of a particular piece of land.

Qualitative data help social scientists to understand

things in more depth than they could understand by

using numbers.

Discovery

Go outside and look at the land surrounding your

school. Imagine how the land that makes up your

schoolyard could have looked two hundred years ago.

Observe the different plant and animal species around

the playground. Look at the land itself. Is it hilly, or is

it flat? Are there man-made structures surrounding the

school, or is it a natural setting? Use your sense of sight,

scent, and hearing to observe. Record your findings.

What do you think the land looked like 10 years ago?

Find 10 ways the land has changed in the past 10 years.

Why has it changed? In what ways has the land

remained the same?

Adapted from:

Edwards, Boyd M. 1983.

Land-use in Jones County, Georgia: An historic

perspective. Georgia Journal of Science, 41:71-78.

Natural Inquirer P Fall 1998 P Vol. 1, Number 1, P page 21
Introduction

Much of what humans do depends on the

land that we live on. As humans have

become more technologically and

scientifically advanced, we have modified

the land in so many ways that sometimes it

is hard to imagine what the land used to be

like. No matter how much humans change

the land, it is still important to understand

the history and characteristics of land. If

scientists can help us understand how our

activities have impacted the

land, we can act more

carefully in the future to

protect the health of the

land.

Throughout time, land

has transformed in many

ways. Many changes occur

naturally. The earth is

constantly changing by means

of volcanoes, earthquakes, and

other natural phenomena.

Can you name other natural

ways the earth changes?

In addition to the natural

changes, there are changes

that humans have caused.

For example, think of

different towns and cities

that you have seen. Now think of how the

land where the cities now stand must have

looked two hundred years ago. Chances are

the land was cleared of most plants and

wildlife. Wildland has been and continues

to be cleared for farmland and other

human activities.

The relation between humans and land

has existed since the beginning of mankind.

A scientist named Boyd Edwards is very

interested in this topic. He believes that by

knowing land’s past and present, we can

better understand it, and therefore, take

better care of it. His belief led to a study in

which Dr. Edwards researched land use, which

simply means how humans use land. He

studied Jones County, Georgia (Fig. 1). While

he focused on different ways people used the

land, Dr. Edwards also researched the land

itself.

Methods

To understand what Jones County is like

today, Dr. Edwards traced its natural history

and its social history from the past until the

present. Much like knowing the history of the

United States helps us to understand our

country, knowing the history of land

helps us to understand how to take

care of the land so that it can

continue to be healthy into

the future.

Dr. Edwards first

studied the natural

history of Jones

County. He gathered

most of his data from

existing sources, such

as soil surveys, books,

and from climatology

records. Dr. Edwards

described the natural history

in terms of what kind of soils

are found in Jones County, the

makeup of its rocks, its elevation, its water

systems, its normal climate including average

temperature and rainfall, and its vegetative cover.

Then Dr. Edwards began studying the

social history of Jones County. The social

history is the history of how people used and

changed the land. The social history of Jones

County began with the American Indians, the

area’s first human inhabitants. Much of what

we know about the American Indians was first

passed down through word of mouth, which

is called oral history. Therefore, it is difficult

for a scientist to find much information on

early American Indian life.

Jones County

Figure 1. Jones, County, GA

Natural Inquirer P Fall 1998 P Vol. 1, Number 1, P page 22
To find out about how White American

settlers used the land, Dr. Edwards went to

the library, visited museums and county

government offices, and talked to people who

were told by their parents, grandparents, and

great-grandparents about life in Jones County.

Dr. Edwards also used photographs to help

him understand how the land was changed

over the years. In all these different ways Dr.

Edwards was able to gather a wealth of

information on land use in Jones County.

Results

Dr. Edwards discovered that the American

Indians did not change the land very much,

even though they did use it and they did

make some changes. White settlers had a

much bigger impact on the land, and because

the land was good for farming, most of the

forest in Jones County was cut down for

raising crops. In the early 1800’s, cotton

plantations brought prosperity to White

farmers. After the Civil War, farming

changed considerably and almost everyone

was forced to start over. At this time, much

of the forests in Jones County began to grow

again. In the 1920’s, the remaining

cotton crops were killed by the boll weevil

(Figure 2). Forestry became important as

forests began to replace cotton fields.

Because of the intensive farming that

occurred in Jones County, much of the

once-rich topsoil had been eroded (Figure

3). Landowners worked with government

scientists, including scientists from the

United States Forest Service, to restore

the land’s health. After World War II,

people moved from rural areas to cities,

and even more of Jones County became

forested again. [Now do the Reflection

Questions above]

Today, 87% of the land is forested.

Dr. Edwards believes that we can do a

better job of protecting the land’s health

and productivity in the future if we

understand its natural and social history.

He hopes that we will not only think

about our uses of the land today, but that

an understanding of land use history will

help us to think about protecting the land

for future generations.

Reflection

1 What kinds of things do you think make up a piece of land’s natural history?

2 What kinds of things do you t hink make up a piece of land’s social history?

Natural Inquirer P Fall 1998 P Vol. 1, Number 1, P page 23
Reflection

1 How does knowing the history of your own family—where you used to live and now live, knowing your sisters and

brothers and family over the years—help you to understand who you are today?

2 If you wanted to find out what the land was like before your own house and yard were there, where would you go

to find the information or whom would you ask?

3 What kind of natural and social changes might be caused by building a new elementary school on a piece of forest

land?

4 In what ways can students and teachers help protect the health of the land surounding a school?

Figure 3. Land after it has been used for crops. Notice

how much the soil has eroded. With all the top soil

depleted (used up), much work will be required before

this land can be farmed again.

Natural Inquirer P Fall 1998 P Vol. 1, Number 1, P page 24
Further Discovery

It is now the year 2020 (How old are you now?)

In small groups, pretend you are writing the land use history of the land surrounding your

school. What kind of physical and social changes have taken place since the current year?

Discuss the land use history your group has written with the whole class. What are the

similarities and differences in your histories? Use the space below to describe the changes in

words and drawings.

Natural Inquirer P Fall 1998 P Vol. 1, Number 1, P page 25
VOCABULARY

Vocabulary in article indicated in italics

Complexity

The condition of being highly complicated, a situation where many different

factors are affecting what happens

Computer model

The use of a computer to simulate real

life conditions

Debris

Scattered remains left after destruction

Drainage

The gradual emptying of liquid or

moisture

Landscape

The visual land, such as trees, water,

and sky

Nocturnal

Active or occurring at night

Prescribed Burns

Controlled fires used to improve forest

habitat

Simulate

To look like or act like a natural process

Topography

Relative position or elevation of land

Wildland

Land that is not cultivated or used for

civilization

Adapted from:

Achtemeier, Gary L. and James T. Paul.

1994. A computer model for predicting

smoke movement. Southern Journal of

Applied Forestry, 18:60-64.

The natural world is very complex. This makes it hard to

study. In the past, scientists had to investigate only one part

of nature at a time because they could not study the

complexity and interaction of all of nature’s functions at the

same time. Computers are better able to handle the

complexity of studying natural functions. Computers can be

programmed in such a way that they mimic the conditions

in nature. The scientists in this research are working on

developing a computer model of how forest fire smoke moves

across the land. Computer models may not be perfect, but

they help scientists understand the interaction of many

different natural functions such as the movement of air

because of temperature and pressure changes.

Discovery

When air cools, more molecules can be packed into the same

amount of space. This gives the air more mass, and it has

higher pressure. To discover whether cool air is heavier than

warm air, try this experiment. Go to a refrigerator and open

the door. Observe, using your sense of feeling, whether there

is a difference in the temperature of the air between the top

and the bottom areas of the refrigerator. Can you feel air

coming out of the refrigerator? Does it come from the top

or the bottom? Think about how the air moves from the

refrigerator as you read about how air moves during the

night in mountain valleys.

Introduction

Wildland fires occur both purposefully and by accident.

Purposeful fires include fires set by individuals to remove

fallen leaves or other debris. Often, foresters set small

controlled fires on purpose called prescribed burns, to

improve forest health and to reduce the chance of larger,

uncontrolled forest fires. These kinds of fires may be helpful

to some individuals and the environment, but they can also

create hazardous driving conditions due to decreased

On Top of Old Smokey

Computer Wind Model for Predicting Smoke

Movement

Natural Inquirer P Fall 1998 P Vol. 1, Number 1, P page 26
visibility. This situation is especially dangerous

at night, when fog often further decreases

visibility. Unfortunately, the safest weather

conditions for controlled fires during daytime

often also create the worst conditions for

visibility at night. Can you think of why this

might be so?

Foresters are interested in ways to improve

forest health through prescribed burns, but want

to do so in a way that does not put nighttime

drivers and passengers in danger. Because of

this, scientists Gary L. Achtemeier and James T.

Paul study nighttime wind and smoke

movements. Through their research, Drs.

Achtemeier and Paul hope to understand how

wind and smoke move at night. If scientists

better understand nocturnal wind, they can

reduce the chances of putting drivers in danger

by picking safer weather conditions for

prescribed burns.

[Now consider Reflection questions below]

Reflection

1 What problem are the scientists tyring to solve?

2 What are some of the barriers the scientists face when studying nighttime wind and smoke movements?

Methods

Everyone knows how hard it is to predict

the weather. In the same way, it is difficult

to study wind and smoke movements for all

the different land and climate conditions.

To study a variety of weather and landscape

conditions, Drs. Achtemeier and Paul used a

computer to simulate the conditions

associated with nighttime wind movements.

These different conditions include air

temperature and temperature changes, air

pressure, wind speed and direction, land

topography, and other landscape features such

as roads, streams, rivers, and forests. All of

these conditions affect the amount and

direction smoke moves, even hours after a

fire has stopped actively burning.

Drs. Achtemeier and Paul entered weather

and landscape information into a computer.

The weather and landscape information

Natural Inquirer P Fall 1998 P Vol. 1, Number 1, P page 27
matched the conditions from a real

situation. In the real situation, a forest fire

had caused smoke to fill a highway at night.

To test the accuracy of the computer model,

the scientists compared the model with

what actually happened.

Results

By testing the computer model against a real

situation, Drs. Achtemeier and Paul found

that the computer model is not yet advanced

enough to determine the best weather

conditions for prescribed forest fires. They

found that every forest area has unique

characteristics such as topography and

weather conditions that need to be

considered. The scientists found that

smoke seems to follow certain patterns

under certain conditions. For instance,

Reflection

1 Why is it important to compare the computer model with a real situation?

2 What are the advantages of using computers to predict smoke movement?

3 What do you think are the disadvantages of using computers to predict smoke movement?

they determined that when air cools off at

night, it develops drainage patterns that move

in different directions and follows the low areas

of the topography, much like a stream running

downhill. Even when the air feels calm and

still, it is still moving in these patterns. Smoke

will most often move into low places at night.

If foresters burn in a valley, the smoke may stay

in the valley. If they burn toward the higher

mountain ridges, smoke may travel in many

directions as it moves close to the earth.

This study has helped foresters to better

understand the potential movement of smoke

from prescribed burns. But although foresters

have learned a lot about how smoke moves at

night, they still have more to learn. What other

things might affect the movement of smoke at

night?

Natural Inquirer P Fall 1998 P Vol. 1, Number 1, P page 28
Further Discovery

Which is heavier--warm or cold air? To test

which has a higher pressure and is therefore

heavier, get two jars with lids, a yard stick, two

lunch-sized paper bags, two paperclips, and

three pieces of light weight string. Take the

lids off of the jars. Place one in a freezer (or

another cold place) and leave the other in your

classroom. Tie one piece of string to the

middle of the yardstick. You will use this to

hang the yardstick. Tie the other two pieces of

string onto each end of the yardstick, making

sure that they are of equal length. Open the

paperclips and tie one to the end of each of

the strings. Hang the yardstick by the middle

string. Open the bags and hang them on the

paperclips. Make sure that everything is

balanced. When everything is balanced, put

the top on the jar that is in your classroom.

When you have carried the jar to the bag,

take the lid off and tip it over one of the

bags, as if you were pouring water from the

jar and into the bag. What happens to the

bag? Now put the top on the jar that is in

the freezer. When you have carried the jar

to one of the bags, take the lid off and tip it

over one of the bags, as if you were pouring

water from the jar and into the bag. What

happens to the bag? Now, can you answer

the question about which is heavier-warm

or cold air?

Write your answers and conclusions in this space.

Natural Inquirer P Fall 1998 P Vol. 1, Number 1, P page 29
The Forest Service is part of the federal government.

It is made up of thousands of people who care for

the nation’s forest land. The Forest Service manages over

150 National Forests and almost 20 National Grasslands.

National Forests are similar in some ways to National Parks,

except that unlike National Parks, National Forests are used

for many purposes. These purposes include providing clean

water, places for wildlife and fish, places for people to hike,

camp, and do other outdoor activities, healthy soil, trees for

lumber, minerals, and many other uses. Some people in the

Forest Service are natural resource scientists, whose research

is presented in this journal. Forest Service scientists work

to solve problems and provide new information about

natural resources so that we can make sure our environment

is healthy, now and into the future.

The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)

prohibits discrimination in its programs on the basis of

race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability,

political beliefs, and marital or familial status. (Not all

prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with

disabilities who require alternative means of

communication of program information (braille, large

print, audiotape, etc.) should contact the

USDA Office of Communications at (202) 720-2791.

To file a complaint, write the Secretary of Agriculture, U.S.

Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC 20250,

or call (202) 720-7327 (voice) or (202) 720-1127 (TDD).

USDA is an equal employment opportunity employer.

What is the Forest Service?