AVAILABILITY OF POPULATION SCHEDULES

Microfilmed copies of the Census schedules from 1790 to

1920 (1930 after April 1, 2002) are available at the

National Archives Building, 700 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW,

Washington, DC; at the National Archives Regional Offices

(see Appendix A); and through the National Archives

Microfilm Rental Program.

Title 44, U.S. Code, allows the public to use the National

Archives’ census record holdings after 72 years, thus the

1790 to 1920 records are available to the public on microfilm from the National Archives. After April 1, 2002, individual records from the 1930 census will be made available. The U.S. Census Bureau holds only the records for

1930 through 2000 (after April 1, 2000, the Census

Bureau will hold census records from 1940 to 2000). The

agency’s Personal Census Search Unit, in Jeffersonville, IN,

maintains and searches these records, which are confidential by law (Title 13, U.S. Code).1

As a result of fire, damage, or other loss, census records

on microfilm are not entirely complete. The most notable

gap in coverage is for 1890. As a result of a 1921 fire at

the Department of Commerce, surviving records are limited to portions of Alabama, the District of Columbia,

Georgia, Illinois, Minnesota, New Jersey, New York, North

Carolina, Ohio, South Dakota, and Texas plus the special

1890 schedules enumerating Union veterans of the Civil

War and their widows for Kentucky and Wyoming (See

Appendix C).

Figure 1 shows the decennial population schedules from

1790 through 1920, together with SOUNDEX indexes for

1880, 1900, 1910, and 1920, for which microfilmed copies are available for public use through the National

Archives, its regional branches, and at libraries in various

parts of the country. (Pursuant to Title 44, U.S. Code, the

National Archives will open the 1930 records to the public

after April 1, 2002). The National Archives sells or rents

the microfilm publications listed on the chart to individuals and institutions, and some libraries are willing to

release copies through interlibrary loan. The National

Archives periodically issues catalogs for use in ordering

the microfilm and publishes checklists of institutional

holdings. See the bibliography

Electronic data processing. In the mid-1940s, the Census

Bureau and scientists from the National Bureau of Standards began studying the use of electronic computers for

large-scale data processing. In 1951, the Census Bureau

acquired the UNIVAC 1 built according to the Census

Bureau’s requirements and experimental processing began

following the 1950 census. Together with a second

UNIVAC, tabulations were successfully completed for a

number of programs, including the majority of the 1954

Economic Census.

1

A form BC-600, ‘‘Application for Search of Census Records,’’ is

required to obtain census records still held by the Census Bureau.

This application can be downloaded, using Adobe Acrobat from

the following address: www.census.gov/genealogy/www/bc600.pdf.

110 Measuring America

U.S. Census Bureau
To meet the needs of the 1960 Census, the Census Bureau

obtained two new 1105 computers in October and December, 1959. As a result of a cooperative agreement between

the Census Bureau and the University of North Carolina

and the Armour Research Foundation of the Illinois Institute of Technology, a UNIVAC 1105 was installed at each

university that was compatible with those housed at the

Census Bureau. Each university allocated two-thirds of the

‘‘productive’’ time on its computers to the census, with

additional time (in lesser amount) being afforded the Census Bureau upon completion of the 1960 Census processing.

The Census Bureau also employed the film optical sensing

device for input to computers (FOSDIC). The FOSDIC

scanned microfilm copies of appropriately designed questionnaires, read the marks entered by enumerators, and

transcribed the information to reels of magnetic tape readable by computer. When installed on the computers, the

data on these tapes were reviewed, tabulated, and finally

transferred to other tapes used by high speed

printers2—speeding the compilation of census data and

making the hiring and training of 2,000 people dedicated

to the manual preparation of punch cards obsolete.

Microfilm. In most cases, census schedules and questionnaires were microfilmed many years after they originated,

by which time the ink often had faded and the pages were

brittle. To save valuable storage space after filming, the

paper copies were destroyed or (as was the case with the

1880 census) offered to state archives. While schedules

from the period from 1790 to 1880 usually were stored

flat in binders secured by cloth tape, later ones, such as

the 1890 through 1920, were bound for safekeeping and

ready use (for age search, etc.) in large volumes. When

microfilming began around 1940, it was impractical to

remove and rebind the pages in those volumes, so they

were photographed in place. The pages were turned for

filming, and their legibility, poor at best, sometimes was

reduced even further by the camera’s inability to focus on

the curved surfaces of some pages.

For the years beginning in 1890, when punch card tabulation came into use, clerks used red ink to add alphabetical

or numerical codes in certain schedule columns (such as

the one for veteran status) for the keypunch operators’

guidance. These codes represent occupation, number of

persons in the household, and the like information already

appearing on the schedule. As the microfilm is only in

black and white, this color cannot be distinguished. The

reader should recognize and ignore these codes as extraneous when transcribing or interpreting what appears on

the film.

2

High-speed printers received data for printing from the magnetic tape reels created by the electronic computers. Data represented by the magnetized ‘‘spots’’ on the tape were printed as

tabulations (600 lines per minute) which could be photographed

and reproduced by the offset printing process.

Measuring America 111

U.S. Census Bureau
Figure 1.

Census Microfilm Publication and Roll Numbers

(A dash (—) in the column means that no census was taken or Soundex prepared. ‘‘No’’ in the column means that the census was

taken, but no manuscript copies are known to exist)

State

1790

M637

1800

M32

1810

M252

1820

M33

1830

M19

1840

M704

1850

M432

1860

M653

1870

M593

1880

T9

1880

Soundex

1890*

(M407)

M123

1900

T623

1900

Sound- ex 1910

T624

1910

Soundex or

Miracode1920

T625

1920

Sound- ex

Alabama - No No (1)No 36528 36540 36548 1-36 1-45 1-35 T734

1-74

-1 1-44 T1030

1-180

1-37 T1259

1-14

1-45 M1548

Alaska - - - - - - - - - No No No 1828-

1832

T1031

1-15

1748-

1750

- 2030-

2031

M1597

Arizona - - - - - - See

New

Mexico

468

(2)See

New

Mexico

712

46 36,37 T735

1-2

No 45-48 T1032

1-22

38-42 - 46-52 M1549

Arkansas - - - No 5 17-20 25-32 37-54 47-67 38-60 T736

1-48

No 49-80 T1033

1-132

43-68 T1260

1-139

53-86 M1550

California - - - - - - 33-36 55-72 68-93 61-86 T737

1-34

No 81-116 T1034

1-198

69-111 T1261

1-272

87-154 M1551

Colorado - - - - - - - See

Kansas

348

94-95 87-93 T738

1-7

No 117-

130

T1035

1-68

112-

126

- 155-

173

M1552

Connecticut 1

(T498)1

36527 36527 36527 36687 21-32 37-51 73-93 96-117 94-110 T739

1-25

No 131-

152

T1036

1-107

127-

144

- 174-

199

M1553

Delaware (3)No 4 4 4 36872 33-34 52-55 95-100 199-

122

111-

120

T741

1-9

No 153-

157

T1037

1-21

145-

148

- 200-

204

M1554

District of

Columbia

See

MD&VA

5 No 5 14 35 56-57 101-

105

123-

127

121-

124

T742

1-9

(2)

118

158-

164

T1038

1-42

149-

155

- 205-

213

M1555

Florida - - - - 15 36 58-60 106-

110

128-

133

125-

132

T743

1-16

No 165-

177

T1039

1-59

156-

169

T1262

1-84

214-

232

M1556

Georgia No (4)No No 36686 16-21 37-53 61-96 111-

153

134-

184

133-

172

T744

1-86

-3 178230 T1040

1-211

170-

220

T1263

1-174

233-

286

M1557

Hawaii - - - - - - - - - - - No 1833-

1837

T1041

1-30

1751-

1755

- 2033-

2039

M1598

Idaho - - - - - - - - 185 173 T746

1-2

No 231-

234

T1042

1-19

221-

228

- 287-

295

M1558

Illinois - - (5)No 36841 22-25 54-73 97-134 154-

241

186-

295

174-

262

T746

1-143

-3 235-

356

T1043

1-479

229-

337

T1264

1-491

296-

419

M1559

Indiana - No No 36905 26-32 74-100 135-

181

242-

309

296-

373

263-

324

T747

1-98

No 357-

414

T1044

1-252

338-

389

- 420-

475

M1560

Iowa - - - - See

Missouri

72, 73

101-

102

182-

189

310-

345

374-

427

325-

371

T748

1-78

No 415-

468

T1045

1-198

390-

430

- 476-

521

M1561

Kansas ------ - 346-

352

428-

443

372-

400

T749

1-51

No 469-

505

T1046

1-147

431-

461

T1265

1-205

522-

556

M1562

Kentucky (7)No (7)No 36654 16-29 33-42 103-

126

190-

228

353-

406

444-

504

401-

446

T750

1-83

36527 506555 T1047

1-198

462-

506

T1266

1-194

557-

602

M1563

Louisiana - - 10 30-32 43-45 127-

135

229-

247

407-

431

505-

535

447-

474

T751

1-55

36620 556-

586

T1048

1-146

507-

535

T1267

1-132

603-

636

M1564

Maine 2

(T491)1

36684 36841 33-39 46-52 136-

155

248-

276

432-

455

536-

565

475-

492

T752

1-29

36683 587-

603

T1049

1-79

536-

548

- 637-

651

M1565

Maryland

3

(T498)1 36780 36906 40-46 53-58

156-

172

277-

302

456-

485

566-

599

493-

518

T753

1-47 36747

604-

630

T1050

1-127

549-

570 -

652-

678 M1566

Massachusetts4

(T498)1

36909 17-22 47-55 59-68 173-

202

303-

345

485-

534

600-

659

519-

568

T754

1-70

36845 631-

697

T1051

1-314

571-

633

- 679-

752

M1567

Michigan - - No 56 69 203-

212

346-

366

535-

566

660-

715

569-

614

T755

1-73

17-21 698-

755

T1052

1-259

634-

688

T1268

1-253

753-

821

M1568

112 Measuring America

U.S. Census Bureau
Figure 1.

Census Microfilm Publication and Roll Numbers—Con.

(A dash (—) in the column means that no census was taken or Soundex prepared. ‘‘No’’ in the column means that the census was

taken, but no manuscript copies are known to exist)

State

1790

M637

1800

M32

1810

M252

1820

M33

1830

M19

1840

M704

1850

M432

1860

M653

1870

M593

1880

T9

1880

Soundex

1890*

(M407)

M123

1900

T623

1900

Sound- ex 1910

T624

1910

Soundex or

Miracode1920

T625

1920

Sound- ex

Minnesota - - - - - - 367 567-

576

(1857:

T1175

1-5)

716-

719

(T132)

1-13

615-

638

T756

1-37

(3)

22-25

756-

798

T1053

1-181

689-

730

- 822-

867

M1569

Mississippi - No No 57-58 70-71 213-

219

368-

390

577-

604

720-

754

639-

670

T757

1-69

26 799-

835

T1054

1-155

731-

765

T1269

1-118

868-

901

M1570

Missouri - - No No 72-73 220-

233

391-

424

605-

664

755-

826

671-

741

T758

1-114

27-34 836-

908

T1055

1-300

766-

828

T1270

1-285

902-

966

M1571

Montana - - - - - - - See

Nebraska

827 742 T759

1-2

35 909-

915

T1056

1-40

829-

837

- 967-

978

M1572

Nebraska - - - - - - - 665 828-

833

743-

757

T760

1-22

36-38 916-

942

T1057

1-107

838-

857

- 979-

1003

M1573

Nevada - - - - - - See

Utah

991

See

Utah

1314

834-

835

758-

759

T761

1-3

39 943 T1058

1-7

858-

859

- 1004-

1005

M1574

New

Hampshire

5

(T498)1

20 23-25 59-61 74-78 234-

246

425-

441

666-

681

836-

850

760-

789

T762

1-13

40 944-

952

T1059

1-52

860-

866

- 1006-

1014

M1575

New Jersey (8)No No No No 79-83

247-

263

442-

466

682-

711

851-

892

770-

801

T763

1-49

(3)

41-43

953-

998

T1060

1-203

867-

912 -

1015-

1073 M1576

New Mexico ------ 467-

470

712-

716

893-

897

802-

804

T764

1-6

44 999-

1003

T1061

1-23

913-

919

- 1074-

1080

M1577

New York 6

(T498)2

21-28 26-37 62-79 84-117 263-

353

471-

618

717-

885

898-

1120

805-

949

T765

1-187

(3)

45-57

1004-

1179

T1062

1-766

920-

1094

- 1081-

1281

M1578

North

Carolina

7

(T498)2

29-34 38-43 80-85 118-

125

354-

374

619-

656

886-

927

1121-

1166

950-

988

T766

1-79

(3)

58

1180-

1225

T1003

1-168

1095-

1137

T1271

1-178

1282-

1329

M1579

North

Dakota

- - - - - - - 94 118 (9)11

1-115

T740

1-6

59 1226-

1234

T1064

1-36

1138-

1149

- 1330-

1343

M1580

Ohio - No No 86-95 126-

142

375-

434

657-

741

928-

1054

1167-

1284

989-

1079

T767

1-143

(3)

60-75

1235-

1334

T1065

1-195

1150-

1241

T1272

1-418

1344-

1450

M1581

Oklahoma - - - - - - - See

Arkansas

52-54

No - No (10)76 1335-

1344

T1066

1-43

1242-

1277

T1273

1-143

1451-

1490

M1582

Oregon - - - - - - 742 1055-

1056

36653 1080-

1084

T768

1-8

77 1345-

1353

T1067

1-53

1278-

1291

- 1491-

1506

M1583

Pennsylvania8, 9

(T498)2

35-44 44-57 96-114 143-

166

435-

503

743-

840

1057-

1201

1289-

1470

1085-

1208

T769

1-168

78-91 1354-

1503

T1068

1-590

1292-

1435

T1274

1-688

1507-

1669

M1584

Rhode

Island

10

(T498)3

45-46 58-59 115-

117

167-

168

504-

506

841-

847

1202-

1211

1471-

1480

1209-

1216

T770

1-11

92 1504-

1513

T1069

1-49

1436-

1445

- 1670-

1681

M1585

South

Carolina

11

(T498)3

47-50 60-62 118-

121

169-

173

507-

516

848-

868

1212-

1238

1481-

1512

1217-

1243

T771

1-56

93 1514-

1545

T1070

1-124

1446-

1474

T1275

1-93

1682-

1713

M1586

South

Dakota

- - - - - - - 94 118 (9)11

1-115

T740

1-6

(3)

94

36818 T1071

1-44

1475-

1489

- 1714-

1727

M1587

Tennessee No (11)No 63 (12)

122-

125

174-

182

36670 869-

907

1239-

1286

1513-

1572

1244-

1287

T772

1-86

95-98 1557-

1606

T1072

1-187

1490-

1526

T1276

1-142

1728-

1771

M1588

Texas - - - - (13)- - 908-

918

1287-

1312

1573-

1609

1288-

1334

T773

1-77

(3)

99-102

1607-

1681

T1073

1-286

1527-

1601

T1277

1-262

1772-

1860

M1589

Utah - - - - - - 919 1313-

1314

1610-

1613

1335-

1339

T774

1-7

103 1682-

1688

T1074

1-29

1602-

1611

- 1861-

1869

M1590

Measuring America 113

U.S. Census Bureau
Figure 1.

Census Microfilm Publication and Roll Numbers—Con.

(A dash (—) in the column means that no census was taken or Soundex prepared. ‘‘No’’ in the column means that the census was

taken, but no manuscript copies are known to exist)

State

1790

M637

1800

M32

1810

M252

1820

M33

1830

M19

1840

M704

1850

M432

1860

M653

1870

M593

1880

T9

1880

Soundex

1890*

(M407)

M123

1900

T623

1900

Sound- ex 1910

T624

1910

Soundex or

Miracode1920

T625

1920

Sound- ex

Vermont 12

(T498)3

51-52 64-65 126-

128

183-

188

538-

548

920-

931

1315-

1329

1614-

1629

1340-

1350

T775

1-15

105 1689-

1696

T1075

1-41

1612-

1618

- 1870-

1876

M1591

Virginia (T498)3 (14)No 66-71 129-

142

189-

201

549-

579

932-

993

1330-

1397

1630-

1682

1351-

1395

T776

1-82

106-

107

1697-

1740

T1076

1-164

1619-

1652

T1278

1-183

- 1877-

1919

M1592

Washington - - - - - - 742 1398 1683 1396-

1398

T777

1-4

108 1741-

1754

T1077

1-70

1653-

1675

- 1920-

1946

M1593

West

Virginia

See

Virginia

See

Virginia

See

Virginia

See

Virginia

See

Virginia

See

Virginia

See

Virginia

See

Virginia

1684-

1702

1399-

1416

T778

1-32

109-

110

1755-

1776

T1078+

1-92

1676-

1699

T1279

1-108

1947-

1974

M1594

Wisconsin - - - See

Michigan

See

Michigan

580 994-

1009

1399-

1438

1703-

1747

1417-

1453

T779

1-51

111-

116

1777-

1825

T1079

1-188

1700

1744

- 1975-

2024

M1595

Wyoming - - - - - - - See

Nebraska

1748 1454 T780

1

117 1826-

1827

T1080

1-14

1745-

1747

- 2025-

2029

M1596

Military &

Naval

- - - - - - - - - - - 104 1838-

1842

T1081

1-32

1784 - 2040-

2041

(15)

M1600

Indian

Territory

- - - - - - - - - - - 76 1843-

1854

T1082

1-42

See

Oklahoma

See

Oklahoma

Institutions

T1083

1-8

M1601

Puerto Rico - - - - - - - - - - - - - No 1756-

1783

No 2043-

2075

Guam ------ - --- - -- -- -- M1605

American

Samoa ------ - --- - -- -- -- M1603

Virgin

Islands ------ - --- - -- -- - 2076 M1604

Canal Zone ------ - --- - -- -- - 2042 M1599

1. Extant part in State Department Archives and History, Montgomery, AL.

2. 1864 territorial census schedules are in the custody of the Secretary of State, Phoenix, AZ; Those for 1866, 1867, and 1869 are at the National

Archives.

3. See reconstruction in Leon de Valinger, Reconstructed 1790 Census of Delaware, Genealogical Publications of the National Genealogical

Society, Vol. 10, Washington, DC, 1954.

4. Schedules for Ogelthorpe County are in the Georgia Department of Archives and History, Atlanta, GA.

5. Schedules for Randolph County are in the Illinois State Library, Springfield, IL.

6. See reconstruction in Charles Brunk Heinermann and Gaius Marcus Brumbaugh, First Census of Kentucky, 1790, Washington, DC, 1940.

7. See reconstruction in Garrett Glenn Clift, comp., Second Census of Kentucky, 1800, Frankfurt, KY, 1954.

8. County tax lists for 1783 exist on microfilm.

9. 1885 Dakota Territory census schedules are at the State Historical Society Library, Bismark, ND.

10. 1890 territorial census records are at the Oklahoma Historical Society Library, Oklahoma City, OK.

11. 1885 Dakota Territory census schedules are in the State Historical Society Library, Bismark, ND.

12. See reconstruction in Pollyanna Creekmore, Early East Tennessee Tax Payers, The East Tennessee Historical Society Publications 23, 24, 26,

27, 28, 30, and 31 (1951-1959).

13. See also Compilation of Tennessee Census Reports, 1820 (microfilm publication T911, 1 roll).

14. The Texas State Archives, Austin, TX, has extant Texas census schedules for 1829-1836, reprinted in Marion Day Mullins, ‘‘The First Census

of Texas, 1829-1836,’’ National Genealogical Society Quarterly, Vol. 40, No. 49 (June 1952) and following.

15. Schedules for Accomack County only in the Virginia State Library, Richmond, VA. 16. Overseas.

114 Measuring America

U.S. Census Bureau
AVAILABILITY OF THE 1930 CENSUS RECORDS

The 1930 census and all existing soundex indexes will

become available after April 1, 2002, at the National

Archives in Washington, DC, and its thirteen regional facilities. Indexes using the soundex indexing system will be

available for the states of Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky (Bell, Floyd, Harlan, Kenton, Muhlenberg,

Perry, and Pike counties only), Louisiana, Mississippi, North

Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia, and West Virginia (Fayette, Harrison, Kanawha, Logan, McDowell, Mercer, and Raleigh counties only). Additional information

about the 1930 census records, soundex index, and ordering information will be available from the National Archives

after April 1, 2002.

FINDING GUIDES

All decennial census schedules are arranged geographically,

not by name, so an address or an index generally is necessary to find a particular record. In 1908, the U.S. Census

Bureau prepared a 12-volume work entitled Heads of Families at the First Census of the United States Taken in the

Year 1790 [state] that reproduces the completed 1790

schedules in printed form with indexes. Various individuals

and organizations have compiled alphabetical indexes for

19th century censuses, generally through 1870, and these

can be found in many libraries and genealogical collections.

There are SOUNDEX or MIRACODE indexes for 1880 (only

households with children 10 years of age or younger),

1900, 1910 (21 states only, mainly in the South), and 1920.

These indexes, based on the sound of the surname, originally were prepared to assist the Census Bureau in finding

records for persons who needed official proof of age from a

period before all states had a uniform system of registering

births. There is a separate index for each of the above years

for each state or territory. The U.S. Census Bureau also created an index for selected cities in the 1910 census that

translates specific street addresses into the appropriate

enumeration district number and corresponding volume

number of the schedules.

The 1840 Census. This census included a special enumeration of military pensioners. The names and ages listed were

printed in A Census of Pensioners for Revolutionary or Military Services; With Their Names, Ages, Places of Residence,

Washington, DC: Department of State, 1841 (reprinted by

the Genealogical Publishing Co., Baltimore, MD, in 1967)

and reproduced at the end of roll 3 in National Archives

microfilm publication T498.

The 1885 Census. Five states and territories chose to take

an 1885 census with federal assistance. The schedules

show the same type of information as those for 1880, but

in many cases the initial letters of enumerated persons’

given names appear instead for the names themselves. The

relevant National Archives microfilm publication numbers

are as follows:

• Colorado M158, 8 rolls

• Florida M845, 13 rolls

• Nebraska M352, 56 rolls

• New Mexico M846, 6 rolls

• Dakota Territory

• North Dakota In the collection of the state historical society not on microfilm

• South Dakota GR27, 3 rolls

The 1890 Records. The majority of 1890 census records

were destroyed as a result of a fire in January 1921. The

smoke, water, and other damage to the bound volumes was

such that only fragments remained to be microfilmed in

later years. The surviving records are available on three

rolls, National Archives Publication M407. The three rolls

cover the following areas:

1. Alabama. Perry County (Perryville Beat No. 11 and

Severe Beat No. 8).

2. District of Columbia. Blocks bounded on the East and

West by 13th and 15th streets, Northwest, on the South

by Q Street, and on the North by S Street.

3. Georgia. Muscogee Country (Columbus).

Illinois. McDonough County (Mound Twp.).

Minnesota. Wright County (Rockford).

New Jersey. Westchester County (Eastchester), Suffolk

County (Brookhaven Twp.).

North Carolina. Gaston County (South Point and River

Bend Twps.), and Cleveland County (Twp. No. 2).

Ohio. Hamilton County (Cincinnati) and Clinton

County (Wayne Twp.).South Dakota. Union County (Jefferson Twp.).

Texas. Ellis County (J.P. No. 6, Mountain Peak ad Ovilla

Precinct), Hood County (Precinct No. 5), Rusk County

(No. 6 and J.P. No. 7), Trinity County (Trinity town and

Precinct No. 2), and Kaufman County (Kaufman).

A number of the special schedules of Union veterans of the

Civil War and their widows were saved, including those for

U.S. vessels and Navy yards. These were microfilmed as

National Archives Publication M123.

State and Territorial Censuses

In addition to the 1885 censuses discussed above, many

states and territories took their own censuses at various

times. Some were fairly detailed; others contained little

more than counts. They are not within the scope of this

document, but they are described in State Censuses: An

Annotated Bibliography of Census of Population Taken After

the Year 1790 by States and Territories of the United States,

prepared by Henry J. Dubester, Library of Congress, Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1948, 73 pages

Measuring America 115

U.S. Census Bureau
(reprinted by Burt Franklin, New York, NY; ISBN 0-83370-

927-5). Also see, Lainhart, Ann S. State Census Records.

Genealogical Publishing Company, 1992 (ISBN 0-8063-1362-

5). Extant schedules are available on microfiche from KTO

Microform, Millwood, NY.

Mortality Schedules

In 1850, 1860, 1870, 1880, and 1885 (where applicable),

the census included inquiries about persons who had died

in the year immediately preceding the enumeration (Figure

2). In general, the questions covered these topics—

• Name

• Age at last birthday

• Sex

• Race

• Marital Status

• Profession, occupation, or trade

• State, territory, or country of birth of person and parents

• Length of residence in county

• Month in which person died

• Disease or cause of death

• Place where disease contracted (if not at place of death)

• Name of attending physician

The following chart (Figure 2) is a checklist of existing

schedules.

116 Measuring America

U.S. Census Bureau
Figure 2.

Mortality Schedules

(This listing provides, by state and year, the available mortality schedules. Where the schedule has a National Archives publication

number (M, T, GR, A, etc.) that number is listed. If the publication was issued by a state archives or other organization, that

organization is listed as the originator. Where there is no microfilm publication and the mortality schedule is available in book form

only, that is indicated in the individual entry. If ‘‘manuscript’’ is indicated, the schedule has not been published and is available only

at the holding institution)

State 1850 1860 1870 1880 1885

Alabama Alabama Dept. Of

Archives and

History (ADAH)

ADAH ADAH ADAH

Arizona New Mexico State

Records Center and

Archives (NMSRCA)

T655 T655

Arkansas Arkansas History

Commission (AHC)

AHC AHC AHC

California UC Berkeley Bancroft

Library (BL)

BL BL BL

Colorado T655 T655 M158

Connecticut Connecticut State

Library (CSL)

CSL CSL CSL

Delaware A1155 A1155 A1155 A1155

District of Columbia T655 T655 T655 T655

Florida T1168 T1168 T1168 T1168 M845

Georgia T655 T655 T655 T655

Idaho (book form) Idaho State

Historical Society

(ISHS)

ISHS

Illinois T1133 T1133 T1133 T1133

Indiana Indiana State Library (ISL) ISL ISL ISL

Iowa A1156 A1156 A1156 A1156

Kansas T1130 T1130 T1130

Kentucky T655 T655 T655 T655

Louisiana T655 T655 T655 T655

Maine Maine State

Archives (MSA)

MSA MSA MSA

Maryland Maryland State

Law Library

(MSLL)

MSLL MSLL MSLL

Massachusetts GR19

T1204

GR19

T1204

GR19

T1204

T1204

Michigan T1163 T1163 T1163 T1163

Minnesota Minnesota

Historical Society

(MHS)

(manuscript)

MHS MHS MHS

Mississippi Mississippi Dept. of

Archives and History

(MDAH)

MDAH MDAH MDAH

Missouri State Historical

Society of Missouri

(SHSM)

SHSM SHSM SHSM

Montana GR6 GR6

Measuring America 117

U.S. Census Bureau
Figure 2.

Mortality Schedules—Con.

(This listing provides, by state and year, the available mortality schedules. Where the schedule has a National Archives publication

number (M, T, GR, A, etc.) that number is listed. If the publication was issued by a state archives or other organization, that

organization is listed as the originator. Where there is no microfilm publication and the mortality schedule is available in book form

only, that is indicated in the individual entry. If ‘‘manuscript’’ is indicated, the schedule has not been published and is available only

at the holding institution)

State 1850 1860 1870 1880 1885

Nebraska T1128 T1128 T1128 M352

Nevada Nevada Historical

Society (NHS)

(manuscript)

NHS

(manuscript)

New Hampshire New Hampshire

State Library

(NHSL)

NHSL NHSL NHSL

New Jersey GR21 GR21 GR21 GR21

New Mexico NMSRCA NMSRCA NMSRCA NMSRCA M846

New York New York State

Archives (NYSA)

NYSA NYSA NYSA

North Carolina GR1 GR1 GR1 GR1

North Dakota South Dakota

State Historical

Society (SDSHS)

SDSHS SDSHS State Historical

Society of North

Dakota

(manuscript)

Ohio T1159 T1159 T1159 T1159

Oregon Oregon State

Library (OSL)

OSL OSL OSL

Pennsylvania T956 T956 T956 T956

Rhode Island Rhode Island

State Archives

(manuscript)

South Carolina GR22 GR22 GR22 GR22

South Dakota SDSHS SDSHS SDSHS GR27

Tennessee T655 T655 T655

Texas T1134 T1134 T1134GR7 T1134

Utah (book form) (book form) GR7 State

Vermont Vermont Dept. of

Libraries (VDL)

(manuscript)

VDL

(manuscript)

GR7 VDL

(manuscript)

Virginia T1132 T1132 T1132 T1132

Washington OSL A1154 A1154 A1154

West Virginia West Virginia

Dept. of Archives

and History

(WVDAH)

WVDAH WVDAH WVDAH

Wisconsin State Historical

Society of

Wisconsin

(SHSW)

SHSW SHSW SHSW

Wyoming (book form) (book form)

118 Measuring America

U.S. Census Bureau
Population Items on Principal Census Questionnaires: 1790 to 1890

(Excludes identification items, screening questions, and other information collected, but not intended for tabulation)

Demographic characteristics 1790 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890

Age - 1

X 1XXXXXXXX X

Sex 1

X 1X 1XXXXXXXX X

Color or Race X X X X X X X X X X X

Ancestry/Ethnic Origin ---------- -

If American Indian, proportions of

Indian or other blood - - - - - - - - - - -

If American Indian, name of Tribe ---------- -

Relationship to head of family or

household - - - - - - - - -X X

Married in the past year ------ 2

X 2XXX X

Marital status - - - - - - - - -X X

Number of years married ---------- -

Age at or date of first marriage ---------- -

Married more than once ---------- -

If remarried, was first marriage

terminated by death? ---------- -

Number of years widowed, divorced, or

separated ---------- -

Social Characteristics

Free or slave X X X X X X X X - - -

Per slave owner, number of fugitives - - - - - -XX - - -

Per slave owner, number of

manumitted - - - - - -XX - - -

Physical and mental handicaps and

infirmities:

Deaf or deaf mutes ---- XXXXXX X

Blind - - - - XXXXXX X

Insane - - - - - XXXXX X

How supported (insane and idiotic

only) - - - - - X - - - † †

Feeble-minded (idiotic) - - - - - ‡X X X X X †X

Ill or disabled - - - - - - - - - ‡X †X

Duration of disability - - - - - - - - - - †X

Paupers ------ 2

X 2X - † †X

Convicts ------ 2

X 2X - † †X

Homeless children - - - - - - - - - † †X

Education:

Literacy - - - - - 1

X 2X 2XXX X

School attendance ------ 2

X 2XXX X

Educational attainment ---------- -

Public or private school ---------- -

Measuring America 119

U.S. Census Bureau
Population Items on Principal Census Questionnaires: 1790 to 1890—Con.

(Excludes identification items, screening questions, and other information collected, but not intended for tabulation)

Social characteristics 1790 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890

Vocational training ---------- -

Place of birth ------ 2

X 2XXX X

Place of birth of parents -------- 5

XX X

Citizenship - - - X X - - - 6

X-X

Year of naturalization ---------- -

Eligibility to vote -------- 6

X- -

If foreign born, year of immigration ----------X

Language ----------X

Language of parents ---------- -

Spanish origin or descent ---------- -

Number of children living ----------X

Number of children ever born to

mother - - - - - - - - - - X

For Grandparents’ households

Are grandchildren under 18 living

within the household? ---------- -

Are grandparents responsible for

Grandchild’s basic needs? ---------- -

Length of responsibility of grandchild ---------- -

Veteran status - - - - - X - - - - †X

Length of service ---------- -

In service date - - - - - - - - - - -

Whether wife or widow of veteran - - - - - - - - - - †X

If child of veteran, is father dead? ---------- -

Farm residence ----------X

Farm residence in a previous year ---------- -

Place of residence in a previous year ---------- -

Year moved to present residence ---------- -

Economic Characteristics

Industry - - - X - X ---- -

Occupation ------ 2

X 2XXX X

Class of worker - - - - - - - - - - -

Private or public nonemergency work,

or public emergency work ---------- -

Employment status ---------- -

Duration of unemployment - - - - - - - - -X X

Year last worked - - - - - - - - - - -

Weeks worked in preceding year ---------- -

Hours worked in preceding week ---------- -

120 Measuring America

U.S. Census Bureau
Population Items on Principal Census Questionnaires: 1790 to 1890—Con.

(Excludes identification items, screening questions, and other information collected, but not intended for tabulation)

Economic characteristics 1790 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890

Activity 5 years ago ---------- -

Industry 5 years ago - - - - - - - - - - -

Occupation 5 years ago ---------- -

Class of worker 5 years ago ---------- -

Value of real estate - - - - - - 2

X 2XX - -

Value of personal property ------- 2

X-- -

Income - - - - - - - - - - -

Social Security: ---------- -

Registered ---------- -

Deductions from all or part of wages

or salary - - - - - - - - - - -

Place of work - - - - - - - - - - -

Means of transportation to work ---------- -

† Available on supplemental questionnaires at the National Archives and Records Administration.

s Sample question.

(1) Free White persons only.

(2) Question only asked of free inhabitants.

(3) Question was whether insane or idiotic.

(4) In 1960, place of birth was asked on a sample basis generally, but on a 100-percent basis in New York and Puerto Rico. Citizenship was asked

only in New York and Puerto Rico, where it was a 100-percent item.

(5) Question was only whether parents were foreign born.

(6) For males 21 years of age or over.

(7) Whether person could speak English. In 1900, this was the only question; in 1920 and 1930 this question was in addition to request for mother

tongue.

(8) Asked only outside cities.

(9) On housing portion of questionnaire.

Measuring America 121

U.S. Census Bureau
Population Items on Principal Census Questionnaires: 1900 to 2000

Demographic characteristics 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

Age X X X X X X X X X X X

Sex X X X X X X X X X X X

Color or Race X X X X X X X X X X X

Ancestry/Ethnic Origin -------- s

X sX sX

If American Indian, proportions of

Indian or other blood † † - X - † - - - - -

If American Indian, name of Tribe † † - X - † - X X X X

Relationship to head of family or

household XXXXXXXXXX X

Married in the past year ---------- -

Marital status XXXXXXXXXX s

X

Number of years married X X - - - s

X---- -

Age at or date of first marriage - - - X s

X - sX sX sX- -

Married more than once ---- s

X sX sX sX sX - -

If remarried, was first marriage

terminated by death? ------- s

X sX- -

Number of years widowed, divorced,

or separated ----- s

X---- -

Social Characteristics

Free or slave - - - - - - - - - - -

Per slave owner, number of slaves ---------- -

Per slave owner, number of fugitives ---------- -

Per slave owner, number of

manumitted ---------- -

Physical/mental handicaps and

infirmities:

Deaf or deaf mute † †X † †------ s

X

Blind † †X † † - - - - - - s

X

Insane - † - - - - - - - - -

How supported (insane and idiotic

only) - - - - - - - - - - -

Feeble-minded (idiotic) - †-------- -

Ill or disabled - †----- s

X sX sX sX

Duration of disability - †----- s

X-- -

Paupers - †-------- -

Convicts † †-------- -

Homeless children - †-------- -

Education:

Literacy X X X X ------ -

School attendance XXXXX s

X sX sX sX sX sX

Educational attainment - - - -X s

X sX sX sX sX sX

122 Measuring America

U.S. Census Bureau
Population Items on Principal Census Questionnaires: 1900 to 2000—Con.

Social characteristics 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

Public or private school ------ s

X sX-- -

Vocational training ------- s

X-- -

Place of birth XXXXXX s 4X s

X sX sX sX

Place of birth of parents XXXX s

X sX sX sX-- -

Citizenship XXXXXX 4

X sX sX sX sX

Year of naturalization - - X ------- -

Eligibility to vote ---------- -

If foreign born, year of immigration XXXX - - - s

X sX sX sX

Language 7

X X 7X 7X sX - sX sX sX sX sX

Language of parents - X X ------- -

Spanish origin or descent ------- s

X sX sX sX

Number of children living X X -------- -

Number of children ever born to

mother X X - - s

X sX sX sX sX sX -

For Grandparent households:

Are grandchildren under 18 living

within the household? - - - - - - -‘ - - - s

X

Are grandparents Responsible for a

Grandchild’s basic needs? ---------- s

X

Length of responsibility for grandchild ---------- s

X

Veteran status - X - X s

X sX sX sX sX sX sX

Length of service --------- s

X sX

Whether wife or widow of veteran ---- s

X----- -

If child of veteran, is father dead? ---- s

X----- -

In service date - - - - - - - - s

X sX sX

Farm residence XXXXXX s89X 9

X-- -

Farm residence in a previous year - - - -X s

X---- -

Place of residence in a previous year - - - -X s

X sX sX sX sX sX

Year moved to present residence ------ s

X sX s 9X s 9X s 9X

Industry - XXXXX s

X sX sX sX sX

Occupation XXXXXX s

X sX sX sX sX

Class of worker - X X X X X s

X sX sX sX sX

Private or public nonemergency work,

or public emergency work - - - -X - - - - - -

Employment status - - - †X X X sX s

X sX sX sX

Duration of unemployment X X - † X s

X-- sX sX sX

Year last worked - - - - - - s

X sX sX sX sX

Economic Characteristics

Weeks worked in preceding year - - - † X s

X sX sX sX sX sX

Hours worked in preceding week - - - † X X s

X sX sX sX sX

Activity 5 years ago ------- s

X-- -

Measuring America 123

U.S. Census Bureau
Population Items on Principal Census Questionnaires: 1900 to 2000—Con.

Economic characteristics 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

Industry 5 years ago - - - - - - - - - - s

X

Occupation 5 years ago ------- s

X-- -

Class of worker 5 years ago ------- s

X-- -

Value of real estate - - - - - - - - s 9X s 9X s 9X

Value of personal property ---------- -

Income - - - - X s

X sX sX sX sX sX

Social Security:

Registered ---- s

X----- -

Deductions from all or part of wages

or salary - - - - s

X----- -

Place of work - - - - - - s

X sX sX sX sX

Means of transportation to work ------ s

X sX sX sX sX

See also supplemental questionnaires.

† Available on supplemental questionnaires at the National Archives and Records Administration.

s Sample question.

1

Free White persons only.

2

Question only asked of free inhabitants.

3

Question was whether insane or idiotic.

4

In 1960, place of birth was asked on a sample basis generally, but on a 100-percent basis in New York and Puerto Rico. Citizenship was asked

only in New York and Puerto Rico, where it was a 100-percent item.

5

Question was only whether parents were foreign born.

6

For males 21 years of age or over.

7

Whether person could speak English. In 1900, this was the only question; in 1920 and 1930 this question was in addition to request for mother

tongue.

8

Asked only outside cities.

9

On housing portion of questionnaire.

124 Measuring America

U.S. Census Bureau
A note about microfilmed schedules for genealogy.

Please note that the microfilmed images of schedules completed by an enumerator can have abbreviations, titles,

comments, and even ‘‘doodles,’’ that do not correspond to

any information contained in the instructions given to each

enumerator. In such cases, the meaning of this entry has

been lost with the enumerator. Furthermore, schedules will

frequently have entries (within the schedule or its margins)

that seem to have no relation to the question asked. The

meaning of these entries have been lost so many years

since the marks were made. Although these entries may

indeed relate to the household, they often are related to the

administrative duties conducted during receipt and tabulation of the schedules by Census Bureau clerks. For example,

the letters ‘‘JGG’’ (or any other letters, numbers, or words)

next to or within an entry may have been the initials of a

Census Bureau clerk, used to indicate where he/she

stopped for lunch or the end of the workday, or a manager

making an administrative note, such as a shift change.

Thus, abbreviations/marks found on the microfilms that are

not explicitly identified within the instructions to the enumerators are impossible to definitively understand.

A HISTORY OF THE DECENNIAL CENSUSES:

1790-2000

Censuses of 1790 to 1840

A nationwide population census on a regular basis dates

from the establishment of the United States. Article I, Section 2, of the United States Constitution required that—

‘‘Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned

among the several states which may be included

within this union, according to their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the

whole number of free persons, including those bound

to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians

not taxed, three-fifths of all other persons. The actual

Enumeration shall be made within three Years after

the first Meeting of the Congress of the United States,

and within every subsequent term of ten years, in

such manner as they shall by law direct.3’’

Starting with the 1800 census, the Secretary of State

directed the enumeration and, from 1800 to 1840, the marshals reported the results to him. From 1850 through 1900,

the Interior Department, established in 1849, had jurisdiction.

The 1800 and 1810 population censuses were similar in

scope and method to the 1790 census. However, the Congress, statisticians, and other scholars urged that while the

populace was being enumerated, other information the new

government needed also should be collected. The first

inquiries on manufacturing were made in 1810 and, in later

decades, censuses of agriculture, mining, governments,

religious bodies (discontinued after 1946), business, housing, and transportation were added to the decennial census.

(Legislation enacted in 1948 and later years specified that

the various economic, agriculture, and government censuses would be taken at times that did not conflict with

those in which the population and housing censuses

occurred.)

The 1830 census related solely to population. The marshals

and their assistants began using uniform printed schedules;

before that, they had to use whatever paper was available,

rule it, write in the headings, and bind the sheets together.

The census act for the 1840 census authorized the establishment of a centralized census office during each enumeration and provided for the collection of statistics pertaining to ‘‘the pursuits, industry, education, and resources

of the country.’’ The new population inquiries included

school attendance, illiteracy, and type of occupation.

From 1790 through the 1840 census, the household, not

the individual, was the unit of enumeration in the population census, and only the names of the household heads

appeared on the schedules. There was no tabulation

beyond the simple addition of the entries the marshals had

submitted, and there was no attempt to publish details uniformly by cities or towns, or to summarize returns for each

state, other than by county, unless the marshals had done

so.

Censuses of 1850 to 1890

The act governing the Seventh, Eighth, and Ninth Decennial

Censuses (1850-1870) made several changes in census procedures: Each marshal was responsible for subdividing his

district into ‘‘known civil divisions,’’ such as counties, townships, or wards, and for checking to ensure that his assistants’ returns were completed properly. The number of

population inquiries grew; every free person’s name was to

be listed, as were the items relating to each individual enumerated. Beginning in 1850, marshals collected additional

‘‘social statistics’’ (information about taxes, schools, crime,

wages, value of estate, etc.) and data on mortality. [Decennial mortality schedules for some states and territories exist

for 1850-1880 and for a few places in 1885; see Table 2.]

Noteworthy features of the 1870 census included the introduction of a rudimentary tally device to help the clerks in

their work and the publications of maps, charts, and diagrams to illustrate the most significant census results.

The general scope of the 1880 census was expanded only

slightly over that of 1870, but much greater detail was

3

In subsequent decades, the practice of ‘‘service for a term of

years’’ died out. ‘‘Indians not taxes’’ were those not living in settled

areas and paying taxes; by the 1940s, all American Indians were

considered to be taxed. The 13th Amendment abolished slavery in

1865, and the 14th Amendment to the Constitution, ratified in

1868, officially ended Article 1’s ‘‘three-fifths rule.’’ Thus, the original census requirements were modified. Direct taxation based on

the census never became practical.

Measuring America 125

U.S. Census Bureau
obtained for many of the items—so much more that,

beyond the basic counts, which were released promptly,

publication of these data was not completed until nearly

1890.

The census act of 1880 replaced the marshals and their

assistants with specially appointed agents (experts

assigned to collect technical data, such as on manufacturing processes), supervisors, and enumerators, every one of

whom was forbidden to disclose census information. Maintaining the confidentiality of the data was a result of what

some people regarded as the census’ invasion of privacy,

especially since prior to the 1880 census, there was no law

limiting the extent to which the public could use or see the

information on any schedule. (Subsequent demographic and

economic censuses, as well as most surveys, have been carried out according to statutes that make compliance mandatory, with penalties for refusal; and responses confidential,

with penalties for disclosure. Congress codified these laws

in 1954 as Title 13, U.S. Code.) For the first time, enumerators were given detailed maps to follow, so they could

account for every street or road and not stray beyond their

assigned boundaries. (The National Archives’ Cartographic

and Architectural Branch maintains this map collection.4)

Again, in 1890, there was an extension of the decennial

census’s scope, and some subjects were covered in even

greater detail than in 1880. Data were collected in supplemental surveys on farm and home mortgages and private

corporations’ and individuals’ indebtedness. The 1890 census also used, for the first time in history, a separate schedule for each family.

Herman Hollerith, who had been a special agent for the

1880 census, developed punch cards and electric tabulating

machines to process the 1890 census returns, considerably

reducing the time needed to complete the clerical work.

(Hollerith’s venture became part of what is now the IBM Corporation.) Both the cards and the machines were improved

progressively over the next 50 years.5

The 1890 census was historic in another way. In the first

volume of the results, the Superintendent of the Census

wrote—

‘‘Up to and including 1880, the country had a frontier

of settlement, but at present the unsettled area has

been so broken into by isolated bodies of settlement

that there can hardly be said to be a frontier line. In

the discussion of its extent, its westward movement,

etc., it can not, therefore, any longer have a place in

the census reports.6

Commenting on this statement, historian Frederick Jackson

Turner wrote in 1893 that, ‘‘up to our own day, American

history has been in a large degree the history of the colonization of the Great West. The existence of an area of free

land, its continuous recession, and the advance of American

settlement westward, explain American development.’’7 The

censuses that followed 1890 reflected the filling in, rather

than the expansion of, the colonized areas; symbolizing a

turning point in America’s development as a Nation.

Censuses of 1900 to 2000

Although the censuses in the early 1900s did not witness

the expansion of inquiries as had been witnessed in the late

nineteenth century, geographic coverage of the census

reflected the Nation’s growing status as a political and military power. As a result of the country’s expanding global

influence, the following areas saw their first censuses

administered by the United States in the early 1900s:

• Following its annexation in 1898, Hawaii (where the local

government took a census every 6 years from 1866

though 1896) was included in the 1900 census, which

also had the first count of the U.S. population abroad

(Armed Forces and Federal civilian employees, and their

households).

• The War Department carried out an enumeration in Puerto

Rico in 1899 following that island’s acquisition from

Spain in 1898 (there were periodic censuses from 1765

to 1887 under Spanish rule), and there have been decennial censuses conducted in Puerto Rico from 1910 to the

present.

• The U.S. Census Bureau compiled and published one census of the Philippine Islands following their accession by

the United States in 1898; this census was taken under

the direction of the Philippine Commission in 1903.

(Under Spanish rule, there had been censuses in 1818

and 1876. The Philippine legislature directed in 1918,

and the Commonwealth’s statistical office began periodic

enumerations in 1939. The Philippines became an independent republic in 1946).

• The Isthmian Canal Commission ordered a general census

of the Panama Canal Zone when the United States took

control of the area in 1904; there was another general

census in 1912 and several special censuses at various

4

The National Archives Cartographic and Architectural Branch,

8601 Adelphi Road, College Park, MD 20740-6001, 301-713-7040. 5

For more information, see ‘‘100 Years of Data Processing: The

Punch card Century.’’ U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the

Census, January 1991.

6

U.S. Census Office, Compendium of the Eleventh Census: 1890.

Part 1.—Population. Washing, DC: Government Printing Office,

1892, p. xlviii.

The Frontier in American History. New York: H. Holt & Company,

1958, p. 1.

126 Measuring America

U.S. Census Bureau
times. The Canal Zone was included in the U.S. censuses

from 1920 to 1970. (Sovereignty over the Zone was

transferred to the Republic of Panama in 1979.)

• Following the United States’ occupation of Guam in 1899,

the local governor conducted a census there in 1901. The

island has been included in U.S. censuses from 1920

onward.

• The governors of American Samoa conducted censuses at

various times after the United States acquired the islands

in 1900, and the population was enumerated in U.S. censuses from 1920 onward.

• Prior to the acquisition of the Danish Virgin Islands by the

United States in 1917, the Danish government took periodic censuses between 1835 and 1911. The U.S. census

was conducted in 1917 and the islands appeared in the

1930 and subsequent U.S. censuses.

• A census of Cuba was conducted under a provisional U.S.

administration in 1907. There were earlier censuses

under Spanish rule (which ended in 1898). The U.S. War

Department conducted an enumeration in 1899, and subsequent censuses were overseen by the Republic (established in 1901) beginning in 1919.

• There had been quinquennial Japanese censuses from

1920 to 1940 for the islands that became the U.S. Trust

Territory of the Pacific Islands. The U.S. Navy conducted a

census in 1950, and the U.S. High Commissioner carried

out a census in 1958, the results of which appeared in

the 1960 U.S. census reports. The U.S. Census Bureau

conducted the 1970 and 1980 censuses8; in 1980, 1990,

and 2000, there was a separate census of the Northern

Mariana Islands, which had been part of the Trust Territory.

A number of the censuses noted above collected data on

agriculture, housing, and economic subjects and included

enumerations on isolated islands, such as Truk and Yap,

mainly in the Pacific.

Stateside Developments

From the 1840 through the 1900 censuses, a temporary

census office had been established before each decennial

enumeration and disbanded as soon as the results were

compiled and published. Congress established a permanent

Bureau of the Census in 1902, in the Department of the

Interior, so there would be an ongoing organization capable

of carrying out censuses throughout the decades instead of

concentrating all the work in those years ending in ‘‘0.’’ The

Census Bureau moved to the new Department of Commerce

and Labor in 1903, and remained within the Department of

Commerce when the Department of Labor was split off in

1913.

The 1910 census was the first for which prospective census

employees took open competitive examinations throughout

the country (since 1880, appointees had been given noncompetitve tests). The way in which results were published

also was changed, with those statistics that were ready

first—especially those in greatest demand (such as the total

population of individual cities and states, and of the United

States as a whole)—issued first as press releases, then in

greater detail as bulletins and abstracts, the latter appearing 6 months to 1 year before the final reports were issued.

In 1920 and 1930, there were minor changes in scope. A

census of unemployment accompanied the 1930 census

—data were collected for each person reported to have a

gainful occupation, but who was not at work on the day

preceding the enumerator’s visit.

Sampling. In many ways, 1940 saw the first modern census. One of its major innovations was the use of statistical

techniques, such as probability sampling, that had only

been experimented with previously, such as in 1920s crop

sampling, a Civil Works Administration trial census and surveys of retail stores conducted in the 1930s, and an official

sample survey of unemployment in 1940 that covered

about 20,000 households. Sampling in the 1940 census

allowed the addition of several questions for just 5 percent

of the persons enumerated, without unduly increasing the

overall burden on respondents and on data processing.

Sampling also made it possible to publish preliminary

returns 8 months ahead of the complete tabulations. The

Census Bureau was able to increase the number of detailed

tables published and review of the quality of the data processing was more efficient.

Most population and housing inquiries included in the 1940

census were repeated in later years, and a few were added,

including—

• Place of work and means of transportation to work

(1960).

• Occupation 5 years before the census (1970 and 1980

only).

• Housing costs (1980).

• Inquiries relating to childcare by grandparents (2000).

In 1940 and 1950, the sample population questions were

asked only for those persons whose names fell on the

schedules’ sample lines. Sampling was extended to the

housing schedule in 1950, with a few questions asked on a

cyclic basis: One pair of questions for household 1, another

pair for household 2, etc., until household 6, when the

cycle was started again with the first pair of questions.

In the 1960 census, the sampling pattern was changed for

population and housing questions alike: If a housing unit

8

In 1986, compacts of free association were implemented

between the Federated States of Micronesia and the Marshall

Islands, and the United States. Under the terms of Title 13, U.S.

Code, the United States was no longer authorized to take the

decennial censuses in those areas that were formerly part of the

Trust Territory.

Measuring America 127

U.S. Census Bureau
was in the sample, all of the household members were in

the sample, too. This scheme yielded sufficient data for

accurate estimates of population and housing characteristics for areas as small as a census tract (an average of

4,000 people). The only population questions asked on a

100-percent basis (name and address, age, sex, race, and

since 1980, Hispanic origin, marital status, and relationship

to householder), were those necessary to identify the population and avoid duplication.

The sampling pattern changed in later censuses. For 1970,

some sample questions were asked of either a 15-percent

or a 5-percent sample of households, but some were asked

for both, thus constituting a 20-percent sample. There was

no ‘‘split sample’’ for 1980, but it was used at every other

household (50 percent) in places with fewer than 2,500

inhabitants and at every sixth household (17 percent) elsewhere. For Census 2000, the overall sampling rate was

1-in-6 households, but the actual sampling rate for any

given geographic entity depended on its estimated population density and included four rates: 1-in-2, 1-in-4, 1-in-6,

and 1-in-8 households.

Reflecting the concerns of the Depression years, the 1940

census asked several questions to measure employment

and unemployment, internal migration, and income. It was

also the first to include a census of housing that obtained a

variety of facts on the general condition of the Nation’s

housing and the need for public housing programs. (Prior to

this, the housing data collected as part of the population

censuses were generally limited to one or two items.)

At the time of the 1950 census, a survey of residential

financing was conducted as a related, but separate, operation with information collected on a sample basis from

owners of owner-occupied and rental properties and mortgage lenders. Similar surveys accompanied subsequent censuses. There also were surveys of components of housing

change with the 1960, 1970, and 1980 censuses (but not

1990, when the survey was scheduled for 1989 and 1991).

These measured the quantitative and qualitative impact of

basic changes that occurred in the Nation’s housing stock

during the previous decade. The survey also offered a measure of ‘‘same’’ units, i.e., the preponderant part of the

housing inventory that was not affected by the basic

changes. (The first survey of this type had been a key part

of the National Housing Inventory in 1956.)

Processing. The major innovation of the 1950 census was

the use of an electronic computer—the Universal Automatic

Computer I (UNIVAC I)—the first of a series delivered in

1951 to help tabulate some of the census data. Nearly all of

the data processing was done by computer in the 1960 census. Beginning in 1960, census data were tabulated with

the aid of the film optical sensing device for input to computers (FOSDIC)—an electronic device for ‘‘reading’’ the data

on questionnaires. Special questionnaires were designed on

which the answers could be indicated by marking small

circles. The completed questionnaires were photographed

onto microfilm with automatic cameras. The FOSDIC then

‘‘read’’ the blackened dots (which appeared as clear holes

on the negative film) and transferred the data they represented to magnetic tape to be processed by computer at

speeds that ranged from 3,000 items a minute in 1960 to

70,000 items per minute by the time the 1990 census data

were tabulated.9

Collecting the data. The 1960 census was the first in which

population and housing data were extensively collected by

mail. The field canvass was preceded by the delivery to

every occupied housing unit of a questionnaire that contained the 100-percent questions (those asked for all persons and housing units). Householders were asked to complete the questionnaire and hold it until an enumerator

visited.

The sample items were on a different questionnaire. In

urban areas, containing about 80 percent of the Nation’s

population, the enumerators carried questionnaires containing the sample population and housing questions for every

fourth housing unit. If the units were occupied, the householders were asked to fill out the sample questionnaires

themselves and mail them to the census district office. The

enumerators completed the questionnaires for vacant units.

When these questionnaires were received in the district

offices, the responses were transcribed to the special FOSDIC schedules. In rural areas, the enumerators obtained the

sample information during their visits, and they recorded it

directly on FOSDIC schedules.

The 1970 census marked the use nearly everywhere of

separate, FOSDIC-readable household questionnaires—approximately 70 million of them—rather than the large

schedules that contained information for four or more

households. Thus, respondents could mark the appropriate

answer circles on their questionnaires, which then could be

processed directly without transcription.

Subsequent censuses were taken principally by

mail—approximately 60 percent of the population in 1970,

90 percent in 1980, and 94 percent or more in 1990 and

2000. The questionnaires contained the 100-percent and,

where appropriate, sample questions. In areas where the

mailout/mailback procedure was used, enumerators contacted, either by telephone or personal visit, only those

households that had not returned questionnaires or had

given incomplete or inconsistent answers. For the remainder of the population, most of which was located in rural

areas or small towns, postal carriers left a census form containing the 100-percent questions at each residential housing unit on their routes. An enumerator visited each of

these households to collect the completed questionnaires

9

The FOSDIC was replaced for Census 2000 with mark and optical character recognition (OMR and OCR) equipment.

128 Measuring America

U.S. Census Bureau
and ask the additional questions for any household or housing unit in the sample. These procedures were continued,

with modifications, for 1990 and 2000. In many rural areas,

the enumerators, rather than the postal carriers, delivered

the questionnaires and asked that they be completed and

mailed back. In some inner-city areas, the enumerators took

address lists with them, checked for additional units, and

enumerated any persons they found living there.

Publishing. For 1970, extensive discussions with census

data users led to a major increase in the amount of statistics tabulated, especially for small areas. As part of the

1970 census program, the Census Bureau published 100-

percent (but not sample) data for each of 1.5 million census

blocks (including all blocks in urbanized areas), as compared with 1960, when block data were provided for

750,000 blocks within the city limits of places with 50,000

or more inhabitants. For 1980, there were data for 1.8 million blocks, with the population limit lowered to include

incorporated places with populations of 10,000 or more;

several states were ‘‘blocked’’ in their entirety. For 1990 and

2000, the block statistics program was expanded to cover

the entire country, or approximately 7.5 million blocks.

The 1970, 1980, and 1990 population and housing census

data appear in series of printed reports—either on paper or

microfiche, or both—similar to those issued after the 1960

census, with accompanying maps, where appropriate. In

addition, the U.S. Census Bureau issued public-use microdata tapes, usually containing much more detail than the

printed reports, for users with computer access. After 1980,

some data were made available on diskettes, online,

through commercial computer networks, and by 1990, on

CD-ROMs. Following Census 2000, data were released via

the Internet, on CD-ROMs, computer-assisted ‘‘print-ondemand,’’ and for some publications, the traditional printed

volumes.

INDIVIDUAL HISTORIES OF THE UNITED STATES

CENSUSES

The First Census: 1790

The first enumeration began on Monday, August 2, 1790,

little more than a year after the inauguration of President

Washington and shortly before the second session of the

first Congress ended. The Congress assigned responsibility

for the 1790 census to the marshals of the U.S. judicial districts under an act that, with minor modifications and

extensions, governed census-taking through 1840. The law

required that every household be visited and that completed census schedules be posted in ‘‘two of the most public places within [each jurisdiction],there to remain for the

inspection of all concerned . . .’’ and that ‘‘the aggregate

amount of each description of persons’’ for every district be

transmitted to the President. The six inquiries in 1790

called for the name of the head of the family and the number of persons in each household of the following descriptions: Free White males of 16 years and upward (to assess

the country’s industrial and military potential), free White

males under 16 years, free White females, all other free persons (by sex and color), and slaves.

It is presumed that the Secretary of State (Thomas Jefferson), acting under the authority of the President, sent the

marshals within each state, copies of the census act, and

the required inquiries10. The marshals then incorporated

these inquiries into ‘‘schedules’’ of their own design.

The Second Census: 1800

A February 28, 1800, act provided for the taking of the second census of the United States, which included the states

and territories northwest of the Ohio River and Mississippi

Territory. The guidelines for the 1800 enumeration followed

those of the first enumeration, except that the work was to

be carried on under the direction of the Secretary of State.

The enumeration was to begin, as in 1790, on the first Monday in August, and conclude in 9 calendar months. The

marshals and secretaries were required to deposit the

returns of their assistants, which were to be transmitted to

the Secretary of State (not the President as in 1790), on or

before September 1, 1801.

The Third Census: 1810

The third census, taken by the terms of an act of March 26,

1810, stipulated that the census was to be ‘‘an actual

inquiry at every dwelling house, or of the head of every

family within each district, and not otherwise’’ and commenced on the first Monday of August.

The results of the 1810 census were published in a 180-

page volume. Data for the population were presented by

counties and towns in the northern sections of the country

(except New York, which was by counties only), and in

Ohio, Kentucky, and Georgia. The returns for the southern

states were limited to counties. Territories were generally

returned by counties and townships.

No additional details concerning the population were collected by the census; however, an act of May 1, 1810,

required marshals, secretaries, and assistants to take (under

the Secretary of the Treasury), ‘‘an account of the several

manufacturing establishments and manufactures within

their several districts, territories, and divisions.’’ The marshals collected and transmitted these data to the Secretary

of the Treasury at the same time as the results of the population enumeration were transmitted to the Secretary of

State. No schedule was prescribed for the collection of

industrial data and the nature of the inquiries were at the

discretion of the Secretary of the Treasury.

An act of May 16, 1812, provided for the publication of a

digest of manufactures containing data on the kind, quality,

10Carrol D. Wright and William C. Hunt, The History and Growth

of the United States Census. Government Printing Office: Washington, DC, 1900. p.17.

Measuring America 129

U.S. Census Bureau
and value of goods manufactured, the number of establishments, and the number of machines of various kinds used

in certain classes of manufactures. The report, containing

incomplete returns covering these items for more than 200

kinds of goods and included several items that were principally agricultural, was published in 1813.

The Fourth Census: 1820

The fourth census was taken under the provisions of an act

of March 14, 1820. The enumeration began on the first

Monday of August, and was scheduled to conclude within 6

calendar months; however, the time prescribed for completing the enumeration was extended to September 1, 1821.

The 1820 census act required that enumeration should be

by an actual inquiry at every dwelling house, or of the head

of every family within each district.

As in 1810, the 1820 census attempted to collect industrial

statistics. Data relating to manufactures were collected by

the assistants, sent to the marshals, and then transmitted

to the Secretary of State at the same time as the population

returns. The report on manufactures presented the data for

manufacturing establishments by counties, but the results

were not summarized for each district and an aggregate

statement was compiled as a result of incomplete returns.

(The poor quality of manufacturing data was blamed partly

on insufficient compensation for the collection of the data

and the refusal of manufacturers to supply it).

The Fifth Census: 1830

Prior to the passage of the census act authorizing the fifth

census in 1830, President Adams, in his fourth address to

the U.S. Congress on December 28, 1828, suggested the

census commence earlier in the year than August 1. He also

proposed that the collection of age data should be

extended from infancy, in intervals of 10 years, to the

‘‘utmost boundaries of life’’. These changes were incorporated into the census act of March 23, 1830. As in the previous census, the enumeration was made by an actual inquiry

by the marshals or assistants at every dwelling house, or,

as the law stated, by ‘‘personal’’ inquiry of the head of every

family, and began on June 1 (instead of the first Monday of

August as in previous censuses.) The assistants were

required to transmit their returns to the marshals of their

respective districts by December 1, 1830. Marshals filed

these returns and the aggregate counts for their respective

districts to the Secretary of State, by February 1, 1831.

However, because of delays in the compilation of the census returns, the filing date was extended to August 1,

1831.

The 1830 census concerned the population only. No

attempt was made to collect additional data on the Nation’s

manufactures and industry.

The Sixth Census: 1840

The sixth census was governed by the same general provisions of law as in 1830. Under the provisions of an act of

March 3, 1839 (and amended by an act of February 26,

1840), the enumeration began on June 1, 1840. Marshals

were to receive two copies of the census receipts from enumerators by November 1, 1840, one of which was to be

sent to the Secretary of State by December 1, 1840. Again,

as a result of delays, the deadlines for assistants and marshals were extended to May 1 and June 1, 1841, respectively. (The January 14, 1841 act extending these deadlines

also provided for the re-enumeration of Montgomery

County, Maryland, [due to discrepencies in the reports], to

begin on June 1, 1841, and to be completed, with receipts

returned, by October 1, 1841.)

No population questionnaire was prescribed by the

Congress—the design of the questionnaire was left to the

discretion of the Secretary of State, and closely followed

that used in 1830. The law did specify the inquiries to be

made of each household.

The Seventh Census: 1850

In March 1849, Congress enacted a bill establishing a census board, whose membership consisted of the Secretary of

State, the Attorney General, and the Postmaster General.

This board was ‘‘to prepare and cause to be printed such

forms and schedules as may be necessary for the full enumeration of the inhabitants of the United States; and also

proper forms and schedules for collecting in statistical

tables, under proper heads, such information as to mines,

agriculture, commerce, manufactures, education, and other

topics as will exhibit a full view of the pursuits, industry,

education, and resources of the country.’’

The Congress also authorized the creation of the Department of the Interior in March 1849, and part of the enabling

act provided that the Secretary of the Interior should ‘‘exercise all the supervisory and appellate powers now exercised

by the Secretary of State in relation to all acts of marshals

and others in taking and returning the census of the United

States.’’

The seventh census was governed by the provisions of an

act of May 23, 1850, which directed that six schedules be

used to collect the information requested by the Congress.

The enumeration began on June 1, 1850, and was to be

completed, with the results returned to the Secretary of the

Interior by November 1, 1850.

The Census Board prepared and printed six schedules for

the 1850 census as follows:

• Schedule No. 1 - Free Inhabitants.

• Schedule No. 2 - Slave Inhabitants.

• Schedule No.3-Mortality. This schedule collected data—

including name, age, sex, color, and place of birth—on

persons having died during the year ending June 1, 1850.

Additional data were collected on constitutional and marital status; profession, occupation, or trade; month of

death; disease or cause of death; number of days ill; and

any suitable remarks.

130 Measuring America

U.S. Census Bureau
• Schedule No. 4 - Production of Agriculture. This schedule

collected data on agricultural production for the year

ending June 1, 1850.

• Schedule No. 5 - Products of Industry. This schedule collected data on the products of industry for the year ending June 1, 1850, and applied to all forms of productive

industry, including manufactures (except household

manufactures), mining, fisheries, and all kinds of mercantile, commercial, and trading businesses.

• Schedule No. 6 - Social Statistics. This schedule collected

aggregate statistics for each subdivision enumerated on

the following topics: valuation of real estate; annual

taxes; colleges, academies, and schools; seasons and

crops; libraries; newspapers and periodicals; religion;

pauperism; crime; and wages.

Each of these schedules was supplemented by printed

instructions in which the intention of each inquiry was

explained. In addition, each assistant was supplied with a

‘‘sample’’ schedule that had been completed the way the

Census Board had intended. Each schedule included a space

at the head for the entry of the name of the civil division for

which the enumeration was made and the date on which

the inquiries were completed. Assistants were required to

sign each completed schedule.

Joseph C.G. Kennedy supervised the enumeration and compilation of census data at the end of the 1850 Census. He

served as ‘‘Secretary’’ of the Census Board from May 1,

1849 to May 31, 1850, before being appointed Superintendent Clerk, by the Secretary of the Interior. Kennedy was

succeeded as Superintendent Clerk by James D. B. De Bow,

on March 18, 1853. Upon completing the compilation of

census results, De Bow resigned the office on December 31,

1854, and the census office was disbanded.

The Eighth Census: 1860

The Eighth Census of the United States was authorized by

the previous census May 23, 1850 act. On the recommendation of the Secretary of the Interior, the provisions of this

act were to be ‘‘adhered to, following the requirement for

the taking of the eighth, or any subsequent census under

its provisions, if no law, therefore, was passed before January 1 of the year in which the census was required.11’’ By an

act of May 5, 1860, a clerical force was provided for the

census office and on June 1, 1860, and Joseph C. G.

Kennedy was appointed Superintendent.

The census office, and the position of Superintending Clerk

were (for all practical purpose) abolished in May 1862. A

portion of the clerks engaged in census work were transferred to the General Land Office, where the work of the

1860 census was completed, including the publication of a

two-volume census report, under the direction of the Commissioner of the General Land Office.

The Ninth Census: 1870

The 1870 census commenced on June 1, 1870, and was

taken under the provisions of the census act of May 23,

1850.12

The Secretary of Interior appointed General Francis A.

Walker Superintendent of the Ninth Census on February 7,

1870.13 Although the 1870 Census was under the 1850 act,

a new bill approved on May 6, 1870, made the following

changes:

• The marshals were to submit the returns from ‘‘schedule

1’’ (free inhabitants) to the Census Office by September

10, 1870. All other schedules were to be submitted by

October 1, 1870.

• The 1850 law authorizing penalties for refusing to reply

to the inquiries was expanded to apply to all inquiries

made by enumerators.

Redesigned schedules used for 1870 and the omission of a

‘‘slave’’ schedule made possible several additional inquiries

as follows:

Schedule No.1-General Population Schedule. This

schedule collected data from the entire population of

the United States.

Schedule No.2-Mortality. This schedule collected

data on persons who died during the year. In addition

to the 1860 inquiries, inquiries were modified to

include Schedule 1’s additions to collect data on parentage and to differentiate between Chinese and

American Indians. Inquiries concerning ‘‘free or slave’’

status and ‘‘number of days ill’’ were discontinued.

Schedule No. 3 - Agriculture. The 1860 inquiries were

used with additional requests for (1) acreage of woodland, (2) production of Spring and Winter wheat, (3)

livestock sold for slaughter, (4) total tons of hemp produced, (5) total wages paid, (6) gallons of milk sold,

(7) value of forest products, and (8) estimated value of

all farm productions.

Schedule No. 4 - Products of Industry. Using the 1860

schedule as a basis, additional information was

requested on (1) motive power and machinery, (2)

11Wright and Hunt, p. 50.

12Although a Congressional committee stated that the 1860

Census had been ‘‘the most complete census that any Nation has

ever had,’’ it was recognized that the 1850 act was inadequate to

meet the changing conditions in which the 1870 Census would

need to be conducted. A special committee of the U.S. House of

Representatives (Second Session, Forty-First Congress) investigated

and reported on the need for a new census act. The committee’s

report was submitted as a bill on January 18, 1870. This bill was

passed by the U.S. House of Representatives, but defeated in the

Senate, compelling the use of the 1850 Census act. 13General Walker was one of several ‘‘experts’’ participating in

the U.S. House of Representatives’ Committee deliberations on the

1870 Census. Prior to being appointed Superintendent of the Ninth

Census, Walker was Chief of the Bureau of Statistics, which then

was an agency within the Treasury Department.

Measuring America 131

U.S. Census Bureau
hands employed by sex and specified age groups, (3)

total annual salaries paid, and (4) time of full- and

part-time operation.

Schedule No. 5 - Social Statistics. The 1860 schedule

was modified to incorporate the questions on (1)

bonded and other debt of counties, cities, towns, and

townships, parishes, and boroughs, (2) pauperism and

crime by race (‘‘native black’’ and ‘‘native white’’); (3)

number of church organizations and church buildings;

(4) number of teachers and students; (5) kinds of

schools, libraries, and taxes, by type.

The 1870 enumeration was completed on August 23, 1871.

The work of compiling the census data, a portion of which

was tallied using a machine invented by Charles W. Seaton,

was completed in 1872.

The Tenth Census: 1880

The 1880 census was carried out under a law enacted

March 3, 1879. Additional amendments to the law were

made on April 20, 1880, and appropriations made on June

16, 1880—16 days after the actual enumeration had begun.

The new census law specifically handed over the supervision of the enumeration to a body of officers, known as

supervisors of the census, specifically chosen for the work

of the census, and appointed in each state or territory, of

which they should be residents before March 1, 1880.

Each supervisor was responsible for recommending the

organization of his district for enumeration, choosing enumerators for the district and supervising their work, reviewing and transmitting the returns from the enumerators to

the central census office, and overseeing the compensation

for enumerators in each district.

Each enumerator was required by law ‘‘to visit personally

each dwelling house in his subdivision, and each family

therein, and each individual living out of a family in any

place of abode, and by inquiry made of the head of such

family, or of the member thereof deemed most credible and

worthy of trust, or of such individual living out of a family,

to obtain each and every item of information and all the

particulars.’’ In case no one was available at a family’s usual

place of abode, the enumerator was directed by the law ‘‘to

obtain the required information, as nearly as may be practicable, from the family or families, or person or persons, living nearest to such place of abode.’’

The 1879 census act also provided for the collection of

detailed data on the condition and operation of railroad corporations, incorporated express companies, and telegraph

companies, and of life, fire, and marine insurance companies (using Schedule No. 4 - Social Statistics). In addition,

the Superintendent of Census was required to collect and

publish statistics of the population, industries, and

resources of Alaska, with as much detail as was practical.

An enumeration was made of all untaxed Indians within the

jurisdiction of the United States to collect as much information about their condition as possible.

The following five schedules were authorized by the 1880

census act:

Schedule No. 1 - Population. The 1880 schedule was

similar to that used previously, with a few exceptions.

Schedule No.2-Mortality. The schedule used the

same inquiries as in 1870, and added inquiries to

record marital status, birthplace of parents, length of

residence in the United States or territory, and name

of place where the disease was contracted, if other

than place of death.

The Superintendent of Census was authorized to withdraw the mortality schedule in those areas where an

official registration of death was maintained, and the

required statistics were then collected from these

administrative records.

Schedule No. 3 - Agriculture. In addition to greatly

expanded inquiries concerning various crops (including acreage for principal crop), questions were added

to collect data on farm tenure, weeks of hired labor,

annual cost for fence building and repair, fertilizer

purchases, and the number of livestock as of

June 1, 1880.

Schedule No. 4 - Social Statistics. Section 18 of the

March 3, 1879, census act made the collection of

social statistics the responsibility of experts and special agents, not the enumerators. Although some data

were collected by enumerators using the general

population schedule (Schedule No. 1), the majority of

the data were collected through correspondence with

officials of institutions providing care and treatment of

certain members of the population. Experts and special agents also were employed to collect data on valuation, taxation, and indebtedness; religion; libraries;

colleges, academies, and schools; newspapers and

periodicals, and wages.

Schedule No. 5 - Relating to Manufactures. In addition

to the inquiries made in 1870, this schedule contained

new inquiries as to the greatest number of hands

employed at any time during the year, the number of

hours in the ordinary work day from May to November

and November to May, the average daily wages paid

to skilled mechanics and laborers, months of full- and

part-time operation, and machinery used.

Special agents were charged with collecting data on

specific industries throughout the country, and

included the manufactures of iron and steel; cotton,

woolen, and worsted goods; silk and silk goods;

132 Measuring America

U.S. Census Bureau
chemical products and salt; coke and glass; shipbuilding; and all aspects of fisheries and mining, including

the production of coal and petroleum.

Interdecennial Censuses of States and Territories:

1885

In addition to the 1880 Census, the 1879 census act also

provided for interdecennial censuses by any state or

territory, through their duly appointed officers, during the

2 months beginning with the first Monday of June 1885

(State Censuses: An Annotated Bibliography of Census of

Population Taken After the Year 1790 by States and Territories of the United States, Prepared by Henry J. Dubester).

The schedules used were to be similar in all respects to

those used by the federal census. Upon completion of a

state or territorial census, certified copies of the returns

were to be forwarded to the Secretary of the Interior by

September 1 of the interdecennial year. States or territories

opting to conduct these censuses were provided 50 percent

of the total cost to cover census operations. As a result, the

states of Florida, Nebraska, and Colorado, and the territories of New Mexico and Dakota conducted censuses in

1885. Copies of the returns were sent to the Department of

the Interior, but the data were not published.

The Eleventh Census: 1890

The census of 1890 was taken, under the supervision of

Robert P. Porter,14 according to an act of March 1, 1889, and

modeled after that used for the 1880 Census.

The enumeration began on June 2, 1890, because June 1

was a Sunday. The census employed 175 supervisors, with

one or more appointed to each state or territory, exclusive

of Alaska and Indian territory. Each subdivision assigned to

an enumerator was not to exceed 4,000 inhabitants. Enumeration was to be completed in cities with populations

under 10,000 (according to the 1880 Census results) was to

be completed within 2 weeks. Enumerators were required

to collect all the information required by the act by a personal visit to each dwelling and family.

As in 1880, experts and special agents were hired to make

special enumerations of manufactures,15 Indians living

within the jurisdiction of the United States, and a separate

enumeration of Alaska. Furthermore, the schedule collecting social statistics was withdrawn from enumerators; the

work of obtaining statistics concerning mines and mining,

fisheries, churches, education, insurance, transportation,

and wealth, debt, and taxation, also was conducted by

experts and special agents.

Robert B. Porter served as Superintendant of Census until

his resignation on July 31, 1893. On October 3, 1893, Congress enacted a law that directed census-related work to

continue under the direction of the Commissioner of Labor.

On March 2, 1895, a further act of Congress closed the census office and transferred the unfinished work to the office

of the Secretary of the Interior, where it continued until

July 1, 1897.16

The results of the 1890 Census are contained in 25 volumes, plus a three-part compendium, statistical atlas, and

an abstract. The complete results from the special enumeration of survivors of the Civil War were not published (the

schedules of which were turned over to the Bureau of Pensions); however, the special inquiry on Schedule 1 (general

population schedule) regarding Union and Confederate veterans were published in the report on population.

The Twelfth Census: 1900

The twelfth census of the United States was conducted

under the terms of the census act of March 3, 1899, and

supervised by the Director of the Census, William R. Merriam. The enumeration was conducted in each state and

organized territory, including Washington, DC, Alaska,

Hawaii, and ‘‘Indian Territory.’’17 The census was taken as of

June 1, 1900, and was to be completed in 2 weeks in places

of 8,000 inhabitants or more (as of the 1890 Census) and

1 month in rural districts. The United States and its territories were divided into 297 supervisors’ districts, which were

subdivided into 52,726 enumeration districts.

The enumeration of military and naval personnel (within the

country and abroad) was conducted through the Departments of War and the Navy. Similarly, the enumeration of

the ‘‘Indian Territory’’ was carried out in cooperation with

the Commissioner of Indian Affairs. Large institutions (prisons, hospitals, etc.) were enumerated through the appointment of special ‘‘institution’’ enumerators.

Enumerators were much more closely supervised during the

1900 Census. In large cities, special agents were appointed

to assist the census supervisor. Enumerators used ‘‘street

books,’’ in which a record of each enumerator’s work was

made on a daily basis. Enumerators used individual census

slips for obtaining a correct return for any person (particularly lodgers and boarders) absent at the time of the enumerator’s visit. Additionally, ‘‘absent family’’ schedules were

used for securing a complete record for any person residing

within the enumeration district, but temporarily absent.

14Robert P. Porter was appointed as Superintendent of Census

by the President on April 17, 1889. He resigned the position on

July 31, 1893. 15In 1890, the manufactures schedules were withdrawn from

the general enumeration for 1,042 ‘‘important’’ manufacturing centers (opposed to 279 in 1880). Special agents were responsible for

collecting the detailed data in these areas.

16The Commissioner of Labor continued his supervisory role of

census-related work until October 5, 1897 (serving since October

1, 1865 without compensation), when upon his request, he was

relieved by the Secretary of Interior. 17Censuses were not conducted until 1890 of Indian Territory.

Alaska’s first census was conducted in 1880. Hawaii was annexed

by the United States on August 12, 1898. Therefore, the 1900 Census was the first census of the islands taken under the supervision

of the United States. The Hawaiian Government, however, did conduct censuses every 6 years, from 1866 to 1896.

Measuring America 133

U.S. Census Bureau
The Thirteenth Census: 1910

Under the provisions of the census act of July 2, 1909, the

thirteenth census was administered. In accordance with the

provisions of the act, general population and Indian population schedules were prepared. The schedules used for

Hawaii and Puerto Rico, although similar to the general

population schedule, differed slightly from those used

within the United States.

Census enumerators began canvassing the Nation on

April 15, 1910.18 The law gave census takers 2 weeks to

complete their work in cities of 5,000 inhabitants or more,

while enumerators in smaller and rural areas were allotted

30 days to complete their task.

The Fourteenth Census: 1920

The Fourteenth Census Act of July 2, 1909, provided for the

1920 and subsequent censuses; however, numerous minor

changes were sought prior to the census, so a new law was

enacted on March 3, 1919. This act designated a 3-year

decennial census period, beginning July 1, 1919. During

this 3-year period, the act provided for an increased work

force at the Census Bureau’s headquarters in Washington,

DC, and for the creation of a special field force to collect

census data.

Section 20, of the Fourteenth Census Act, provided that the

enumeration of the population should be made as of January 1, 1920.19 Under the direction of the Director of the

Census, Samuel L. Rogers, the work of actual enumeration

began on January 2, 1920. The census covered the United

States, the outlying possessions (excluding the Philippines

and the Virgin Islands, the military, Red Cross, consular services abroad, and the naval service abroad or in American

waters, but not on a fixed station.)20

For the country as a whole and for states and political subdivisions within the country, the population enumerated

was the resident population. The enumerators (according to

the census law), were instructed to enumerate persons at

their ‘‘usual place of abode’’—i.e., their permanent home or

regular lodging place. Persons were not always counted in

the places where they happened to be found by the enumerators or where they transacted their daily business. Persons temporarily absent from their usual places of abode

(i.e., on business, traveling, attending school, or in hospitals) were enumerated at the places where they habitually

resided and the information for these people was obtained

from relatives or acquaintances. Persons having no fixed

place of abode were required by the census law to be enumerated where they slept on the night of January 1, 1920.

The Fifteenth Census: 1930

Under the direction of William M. Steuart, Director of the

Census, and in accordance with the Fifteenth Census Act,

approved June 18, 1929, ‘‘a census of population, agriculture, irrigation, drainage, distribution, unemployment, and

mines [was] taken by the Director of the Census’’ on April 1,

1930. The census encompassed each state and Washington,

DC, Alaska, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico. A census of Guam,

Samoa, and the Virgin Islands was taken in the same year

by the islands’ respective governors, and a census of the

Panama Canal Zone was taken by the governor of that area.

In addition to population data, the 1930 census also collected the following statistics:

• Agriculture. Acreage of farm; value of land and buildings;

mortgage debt; expenditures for labor, feed, and fertilizer; farm machinery and facilities; acreage, yield, and

value of crops; quantity and value of livestock.

• Manufacturing (with similar data collected from mines

and quarries). Quantity and value of products; the number of salaried employees and wage earners; aggregate

payments for salaries and wages; the cost of materials

and fuel.

• Distribution. Kind of business; type of operation; net

sales; number of employees; total amount paid in salaries

and wages; stocks on hand.

• Construction. Data was collected from general contractors, subcontractors, and operative builders regarding

value of construction; wage payments; cost of materials;

and subcontract work performed or let.

• Unemployment.

Data from families and establishments were transferred to

punch cards—approximately 300,000,000 in all21— and

were processed by electronic sorting and ‘‘automatic tabulating machine’’ at the rate of approximately 400 per

minute. These tabulations provided the raw data necessary

for the compilation of statistical tables prepared by clerks

and statisticians.22

18The change of ‘‘census day’’ from June 1 to April 15 was made

upon the suggestion of the Census Bureau. It was believed that the

April 15 date would be more desirable, since a large number of

people are away from their homes in June. 19The date was changed upon the request of the Department of

Agriculture and users of agricultural statistics. The new date had

advantages for the agricultural census—the past years work on all

farms had been finished, and the new years work had not yet

begun. The majority of farmers would have been occupying the

farms they had the previous year, whereas, a few months later,

many renters would have moved to other farms. Furthermore, the

birth of livestock increases greatly during the Spring and early

Summer. Therefore, a livestock census referring to January 1, 1920,

would be far more valuable than one taken several months later. 20No provision was made by the Fourteenth Census Act for the

enumeration of the Philippines. Censuses of the Philippines were

conducted by the Philippine Commission in 1903. A second was

conducted by the Philippines Government on December 31, 1918

(but called the ‘‘1919 Census’’). A special census of the Virgin

Islands was conducted by the United States, November 1, 1917.

21Approximately 125,000,000 punch cards were used to tabulate the data for the population. Fifteen or more cards were

required for each farm, thus, the census of agriculture comprised

an additional 150,000,000 cards. 22William L. Austin, ‘‘Bureau of the Census,’’ reprinted from, The

United States Department of Commerce—How it Serves You on

Land, And Sea, And in The Air. Pp. 4-5.

134 Measuring America

U.S. Census Bureau
1930 Census of Unemployment

A Census of Unemployment was conducted, in conjunction

with the 1930 census, by an act of May 3, 1928. This special enumeration collected data on persons who usually

worked for wages or a salary, but were not working at the

time the census was taken.

William M. Steuart, Director of the Census, said ‘‘the results

of the [unemployment] census will furnish a picture of the

unemployment situation as indicated not only by the number of unemployed but by the attendant circumstance of

unemployment. It will bring the answer to certain fundamental questions about which nothing definite is known at

present. Obviously, something more than a mere knowledge of the number of persons out of work is needed, if we

are to measure fairly and accurately, without exaggeration

and without understatement, the gravity of the unemployment situation. We need the census to know the facts.23’’

Enumerators were instructed to complete an unemployment

schedule for every person responding ‘‘No’’ in column 25 of

the general population schedule. The ‘‘unemployed’’ were

grouped into two classes—those having a job but temporarily laid-off on account of a lack of orders, weather, sickness, etc.; and those who were unemployed but want to

work.

The unemployment census provided data concerning the

number of men and women unemployed, the average age

of the unemployed, how many of the unemployed were

married and single, how long they had been out of work,

and the leading reasons for unemployment in the United

States. Data were made available for the Nation, individual

segments of the population (i.e., by age, race, marital status, etc.), and for the foreign-born and native populations.

The Sixteenth Census: 1940

The Sixteenth Census of the United States covered the continental United States, Alaska, American Samoa, Guam,

Hawaii, the Panama Canal Zone, Puerto Rico, the Virgin

Islands of the United States, the military and consular services abroad, and naval services abroad or in American

waters, but not at a fixed station.24 Persons in the military

services were enumerated as residents of the states, counties, and minor civil divisions in which their posts of duty

were located (members of their families were enumerated

at the place in which they resided). The crews of American

merchant marine vessels were enumerated as part of the

population of the port from which the vessel operated.

No apportionment had been done after the 1920 Census—

the 1910 apportionment remained in effect. Consequently,

the 1929 act included provisions that, for the 1930 and

subsequent censuses, (unless the Congress, within a specified time enacted legislation providing for apportionment

on a different basis) the apportionment should automatically be made by the method last used. In accordance with

this act, a report was submitted by the President to the

Congress on December 4, 1930, showing the apportionment computations both by the method of major fractions

(which was used in 1910) and by the method of equal proportions. In 1931, in the absence of additional legislation,

the method of major fractions was automatically followed.25

In the application of this method, the Representatives are so

assigned that the average population per Representative

has the least possible variation as between one

state and any other. As a result, California gained three Representatives between 1930 and 1940 and six other states—

Arizona, Florida, New Mexico, North Carolina, Oregon, and

Tennessee—each gained one. To balance these gains (since

the number of Representatives in the House was not

changed), nine states lost one Representative each—Illinois,

Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Massachusetts, Nebraska, Ohio,

Oklahoma, and Pennsylvania.

Four notable changes were made to the 1940 Census,

including the addition of the housing schedule, the sampling procedure (both discussed in further detail below), the

incorporation of the questions on employment and unemployment onto the general population26 schedule, and

inquiries into migration.27

1940 Census of Housing

On August 11, 1939, a national census of housing was

approved by the Congress, ‘‘to provide information concerning the number, characteristics (including utilities and

equipment), and geographic distribution of dwelling structures and dwelling units in the United States. The Director

of the Census shall take a census of housing in each state,

the District of Columbia, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, the Virgin

Islands, and Alaska, in the year 1940 in conjunction with,

and at the same time, and as part of the population inquiry

of the sixteenth decennial census.’’

The housing inquiries were collected via a separate census,

partly because they were added by legislation late in the

census planning, and partly because the nature of the questions so differed from those of the census of population.

23Undated memorandum, ‘‘The Census of Unemployment.’’ Pp.

3-4.24Again, the Philippine Islands were not included in the United

States decennial census. The commonwealth of the Philippines conducted a census in 1939. The statistics from this census were then

included in the data from the 1940 Census.

25In 1941, this law was amended to the effect that apportionment based on the 1940 and subsequent censuses should be made

by the method of equal proportions. 26These inquiries had been made by special Census of Unemployment in 1930 (See 1930 Unemployment Census). 27A question was added asking, for each person 5 years old and

above, the residence on April 1, 1935. These data were coded and

compared to the place of residence in 1940, thus providing, for the

first time, statistics on population movement.

Measuring America 135

U.S. Census Bureau
The information collected by the two schedules was collected, however, by the same enumerator, at the same time

as those for the population schedule.

Use of Sampling in the 1940 Census. The 1940 sample was

a representative cross-section of the entire population.

Tabulations made from the sample would be as nearly as

possible the same as if information concerning every person had been obtained. The sample enlarged the scope of

the census and facilitated tabulations in the following ways:

• Since the supplementary questions were asked only

1/20th (5-percent sample) as often as they would have in

a complete census, the speed of field work was increased

and carried out at a reduced cost, thus making it possible

to carry more questions on the schedule.

• Tabulations based on the sample could be completed

months ahead of the regular tabulations prepared from

the general population—an especially important feature

in times of national emergency and for obtaining quick

preliminary counts of the distribution of the labor force

by area, sex, age, etc.

• The reduced cost of sample tabulations permitted the

publication of data that otherwise would not be possible.

• Sample cards could be stored for subsequent tabulations

not feasible for the entire population as the need arose.

• Sampling helped to adapt the census to newly developed

needs, and to maintain continuity from one census to

another.

Participants were selected for the sample by designating 2

of the 40 lines on each side of the schedule as sample lines

and instructing the enumerators to ask the supplementary

questions for each person whose name happened to fall on

these lines. This method resulted in a 5-percent sample of

all the lines in each geographic area. The actual percentage

of persons drawn from the sample from any district would

vary by chance, depending on how the names happened to

‘‘line up’’ as the enumerators proceeded with their enumeration.

The Seventeenth Census: 1950

As in 1930 and 1940, the 1950 Census was conducted

according to the terms of the Fifteenth Census Act. The

enumeration began on April 1, 1950, with 90 percent of the

population having been enumerated by the end of the

month (weather delayed enumeration in some areas until

mid-May). All but 1 percent of the population had been enumerated by the end of June 1950.

The 1950 census encompassed the continental United

States, the Territories of Alaska and Hawaii, American

Samoa, the Canal Zone, Guam, Puerto Rico, the Virgin

Islands of the United States, and some of the smaller

islands and island groups within the United States’ possession.28 The census also made special provisions for the enumeration of American citizens living abroad (and their

dependents), including the armed forces of the United

States, employees of the United States Government, and the

crews of vessels in the American Merchant Marine at sea or

in foreign ports.

The census of Americans living abroad was attempted

through cooperative arrangements with the Department of

Defense, the Department of State, the United States Maritime Administration, and other federal agencies concerned.

These agencies took the responsibility for the distribution

and collection of specially designed census questionnaires

for individuals and households. Other persons living abroad

were to be reported by their families or neighbors in the

United States; however, the quality of these data was considered suspect and they were not included in the published statistics.

Procedures to improve coverage. Several aids were

employed to improve the completeness of the 1950 Census

coverage. The most prominent were as follows:

• A longer and better planned period of training was provided for enumerators.

• Each enumerator was furnished with a map of his enumeration district, showing the boundaries of the area for

which they were responsible.

• An infant card had to be completed for each baby born

after January 1, 1950 (since experience had shown that

babies are easily missed).

• A crew leader was assigned to supervise each group of

approximately 15 enumerators. The crew leader was

responsible for helping enumerators with ‘‘problem

cases’’ and for spot-checking a sample of the dwelling

units assigned to them.

• A special enumeration of persons in hotels, tourist

courts, and other places where transients usually pay for

quarters was made the night of April 11, 1950. ‘‘Missed

Person’’ forms were published in newspapers at the end

of the field canvassing operations so persons who

thought they had been missed could complete a form

and mail it to the district supervisors.

• District supervisors made preliminary announcements of

the population counted so that any complaints concerning the completeness of the enumeration could be submitted before the field offices were closed. If the evidence indicated an appreciable undercount, a

re-enumeration of the area was conducted.

28Although some smaller islands and island groups did not participate in the census, data for their populations were collected

from other sources and included in the 1950 census.

136 Measuring America

U.S. Census Bureau
• Rates of population change were studied to evaluate the

enumeration’s completeness.

• Vital and immigration statistics were used in conjunction

with census data. (Since the population at a given census

should represent the population at the previous census,

with additions and subtractions resulting from births,

deaths, and immigration, it is possible to calculate the

expected population on a given census date and compare

the actual total received.)

Following these procedures improved the coverage of the

1950 census over that of the 1940 census.29 (The components of population change were probably estimated more

accurately during the 1940s than for the 1930s because not

all states were consistently registering births and deaths

until 1933.)

Post-Enumeration Survey. The 1950 census was further

checked using a post-enumeration survey, in which a

re-enumeration, on a sample basis, was conducted. The

Census Bureau recanvassed a probability sample of about

3,500 small areas and compared these to the original census listings to identify households omitted from the enumeration. In addition to the check for omitted households,

a sample of about 22,000 households was reinterviewed to

determine the number of persons omitted in cases where

the household had been included.

The Post-Enumeration Survey interviewers were given intensive training and supervision. Efforts were made to limit

respondents to the person who was presumably best

informed regarding the information desired, i.e., the person

themselves. These precautions resulted in an expense per

case in the Post-Enumeration Survey many times that of the

original enumeration, and affordable only on a samplebasis.

The Eighteenth Census: 1960

The 1960 census began on April 1, 1960, in accordance

with the requirements of an act of August 31, 1954

(amended August 1957), which codified Title 13 of the

United States Code. By mid-April, 85 percent of the population of the United States had been enumerated with the

count up to 98 percent by the end of the month.

Several notable changes were made in the procedures for

taking and tabulating the census. These changes were: 1)

the greater use of sampling, 2) the development of procedures enabling most householders an opportunity to consult other members and available records when completing

the questionnaire for their families, and 3) the use of electronic equipment for nearly all data processing work.30

Sampling. In the 1960 census, a 25-percent sample was

used. The greater use of sampling meant that the totals for

some of the smaller areas were subject to a moderate

amount of sampling variation, the usefulness of the statistics was not significantly impaired. Using a 25-percent

sample of households eliminated nearly 75 percent of the

processing expenses otherwise required for the items in the

sample.

Enumeration procedures. The 1960 enumeration was

divided into two stages—the first concentrating on quick

coverage of the population and the collection of a few items

for every person and dwelling unit, and the second devoted

to the collection of the more detailed economic and social

information required for sample households and dwelling

units. Both stages used questionnaires left at the residence

to be filled out by one or more members of the family.

The enumeration began prior to April 1, 1960, when an

advance census form was delivered by the U.S. Postal Service to each household. The time between delivery of the

form and the arrival of an enumerator to collect the household’s information allowed the household to assemble information needed to respond to the census inquiries.

Shortly after April 1, 1960, the second stage of the enumeration began. Enumerators made their rounds to collect

the census data and left an additional form—containing the

sample inquiries—at every fourth house visited. Households

receiving the sample form were asked to complete the form

and mail it to their local census office in the postage-paid

envelope provided by the enumerator. When these mailed

questionnaires were received at the census office, Census

Bureau personnel checked the sample forms for accuracy

and conducted telephone or personal inquiries to complete

unanswered inquiries when necessary.

This two-stage enumeration was believed to be advantageous in that, in the past, enumerators were given only

brief special training and were burdened with more instructions and work than they could effectively manage. By creating a two-stage enumeration the field work and training

were reduced. Approximately one-third of the enumerator

work force was retained for work in the second

stage—receiving additional training that focused solely

upon the content of the sample questions.

In specified areas (about 15 percent of the total population,

characterized as living in areas of low population density

and/or having inferior road networks), the two staged enumeration was combined, so that the enumerator collected

and recorded sample data in the same interview in which

the 100-percent inquiries were recorded.

29For the decade 1930 to 1940, application of these methods

suggests that the total net number of persons missed in the 1940

Census may have been about 1,300,000 more than that missed in

1930.

30A. Ross Eckler, ‘‘Plans for the 18th Decennial Census,’’ presented at the annual meeting of the Rural Sociological Society, Cornell University, August 27, 1959. Pp. 3-6. Morris H. Hansen, ‘‘Procedures for the 1960 Census of Population and Housing,’’ presented

at the annual meeting of the American Statistical Association, Chicago, Il, December 1958.

Measuring America 137

U.S. Census Bureau
The Nineteenth Census: 1970

When planning for the 1970 census, the need for an accurate count of the population was even greater than in the

past because of the increasing tendency for governmental

bodies to use population as a basis for distributing funds,

and the more general awareness by local government officials and others of the potential effects of census undercounts.

Throughout the 1960s, researchers had reported that the

population was increasingly resistant to the census. Studies

had shown more alienation and distrust of government, and

there appeared to be more organized attempts to protest

the census. Furthermore, undercounts following the 1950

and 1960 censuses were blamed upon the enumerators’

failure to follow instructions. Hence, stress was placed on

simplified procedures, training, and quality control. Analysis of the results of the 1960 evaluation program and studies performed in the 1950s and 1960s indicated that the

reasons for the undercounts were more complex. In particular, a substantial part of the undercount appeared to be due

to either deliberate attempts by some segments of the

population to be omitted from the census or the fact that

they did not fit into any households by the ‘‘conventional

rules’’ of residence. Even where the undercount was due to

complete households being missed, the causes were frequently such that additional enumerator training produced

only marginal gains.

This analysis led to a two-phase approach to coverage for

the 1970 census. The first phase was the use of a basic

census methodology that permitted knowledgeable outside

sources to have an offer input into the list of housing units

established by the census, and provided for automatic

checks that enumerators actually completed a questionnaire

for all known units.31 This was done in areas containing

about 60 percent of the population through the creation of

an address register independent of the enumeration phase,

correction and updating of the register by U.S. Post Office

employees familiar with their routes, and checks by Census

Bureau employees to ensure that all housing units on the

address register were accounted for when enumerators had

completed their assignments.

A self-enumeration questionnaire was used in 1970 (as in

1960 for 60 percent of the population). Such questionnaires

were believed to provide better reporting within households, because they provided respondents uniform census

definitions and rules to follow for unusual household residence situations. In the areas containing the remaining 40

percent of the population, more conventional listing procedures were followed, but with self-enumeration features.

The second phase of the 1970 enumeration was to superimpose on the regular census procedures projects specifically designed to increase coverage. Prior to 1970, studies

of the effectiveness of a variety of devices for improving

coverage were made, generally as part of large-scale tests

conducted during the 1960s, which resulted in several coverage improvement initiatives.

The 1970 coverage improvement program included measures to improve coverage by (1) developing a more favorable public view of the census; (2) increasing the public’s

understanding of the importance of the census and its confidentiality; and (3) improving the enumerators’ performance in hard-to-enumerate areas through intensive training and supervision. The specific changes made included—

• A sharp reduction in the number of questions to be asked

of households—the number of inquiries on the questionnaire intended for 3 million households had been reduced

from 66 to 23.

• Questions on the adequacy of kitchen and bathroom

facilities were reworded to remove any implication that

the federal government was trying to ascertain with

whom these were shared.

• The Secretary of Commerce increased his supervision of

the census and retained independent experts as census

advisors.

• A letter accompanied the census questionnaire that

explained the need for data requested and emphasized

the confidentiality of responses.32

Census questionnaires with instruction sheets were delivered by the U.S. Post Office to every household several days

prior to ‘‘Census Day’’—April 1, 1970. In areas with comparatively large populations of Spanish-speaking households, a Spanish-language version of the instruction sheet

also was enclosed. Households either received a short-form

questionnaire, which contained questions asked of 100 percent of the population (80 percent of the population

received this form), or a long-form questionnaire, sent to 20

percent of the population, containing questions asked of 15

and 5 percent of the population.

In larger metropolitan areas and some adjacent counties

(approximately 60 percent of the United States’ population),

households were asked to complete and return the questionnaire by mail on April 1, 1970 (resulting in an 87 percent mailback response rate), which was then reviewed by

an enumerator or census clerk. Telephone or personal

follow-up was made to complete or correct missing, incomplete, or inconsistent questionnaires. For the remaining 40

31Throughout the census history, a small percentage of enumerators completed questionnaires by ‘‘curb stoning.’’ Curb stoning meant the enumerator completed questionnaires for an individual or multiple households from the curb, without actually

conducting an interview or checking the accuracy of their

‘‘guesses.’’ This practice was motivated, in part, by the requirement

to meet quotas or payment for work done on a ‘‘piece-of-work’’

basis.

32United States Department of Commerce News, April 18, 1969.

P.1.

138 Measuring America

U.S. Census Bureau
percent of the United States’ population, instructions asked

that the householder complete the form and hold it for pick

up by an enumerator.

The Twentieth Census: 1980

For most of the United States, ‘‘Census Day’’ for the 1980

enumeration was April 1, 1980.33 As in past censuses, all

questionnaires were to be completed giving information as

of that date, regardless of when the form was actually completed.

The 1980 census also included two small surveys—the

Components of Inventory Change Survey, which obtained

information on counts and characteristics of the housing

units that changed or stayed the same between 1973 and

1980; and the Residential Finance Survey, requesting data

on mortgages, shelter costs, selected housing characteristics, and owner characteristics.

The use of a mailout/mailback questionnaire in 1970 had

proven successful, and eased the follow-up operation burden. Furthermore, tests during the 1970 census indicated

the feasibility of administering a mailout/mailback census

in rural areas and small towns. As a result, the mail census

areas for 1980 covered 95.5 percent of the United States

population.

Field Enumeration. The 1980 field enumeration procedures

were similar to those used in 1970, with the exception of

the greatly expanded use of the mail for questionnaire

delivery and return. Households received a questionnaire in

the mail, completed it, and mailed it back to their local census district office. In those areas enumerated conventionally

(i.e., through enumerator visits to the housing unit), the

U.S. Postal Service delivered a questionnaire to each household 4 days prior to Census Day. Respondents were

instructed to complete their questionnaires, but hold them

until an enumerator visited the household. The enumerators collected the completed short-form questionnaires or

helped the head of the household complete the form at the

time of the visit, or completed a long-form questionnaire at

designated housing units. Enumerators also enumerated

individuals living in group quarters.

Publicity. The 1980 census incorporated an extensive advertising and promotion campaign. The focus of the campaign

was to increase public awareness and cooperation with the

census, i.e., to encourage households to fill out their census forms, and in mail census areas, mail them back to their

census district offices.

The campaign was directed by the Census Bureau’s Census

Promotion Office (CPO), established in the Summer 1978.

The CPO secured the free services of the Advertising Council in directing the advertising campaign. The Council, in

turn, hired the firm of Ogilvy & Mather to develop the campaign.

The promotion campaign incorporated media advertising,

the distribution of information kits to magazines and newspapers and census promotional kits to over 100,000

schools, and the development of an extensive network of

partnerships with corporations and private organizations

interested in supporting the census. In addition, public relations specialists in the Census Bureau’s regional and district

offices handled a variety of more localized promotional

activities, including obtaining time for public service

announcements (PSAs) from local broadcast outlets, advising census managers on working with the press, partnering

with local companies, and serving as liaisons with

complete-count committees (over 4,000 complete count

committees were organized throughout the country in an

effort to generate local publicity and support for the census).

The Twenty-First Census: 1990

The twenty-first census of the United States was taken as of

April 1, 1990. The census covered the 50 states, the District

of Columbia, Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and the Pacific

Island territories (American Samoa, the Commonwealth of

the Northern Mariana Islands, Guam, and by special agreement, the Republic of Palau.)

The 1990 census used two questionnaires—a short-form

containing questions asked of the entire population and a

long-form with additional population and housing questions

asked of approximately 1-in-6 households.

The content of the 1990 census questionnaire was similar

to that for 1980. The short-form questionnaire for households contained the items to be asked of all persons and for

housing units. Those items—plus the population and housing questions to be asked on a sample basis—appeared on

the long-form questionnaire.

For the 1990 census, the Census Bureau introduced the

Topologically Integrated Geographic Encoding and Referencing (TIGER) system, which was developed by the Census

Bureau and the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). The TIGER

system documented all streets, roads, rivers, lakes, railroads, and their attributes (names and address ranges,

where appropriate), as well as the boundaries, names, and

codes of all geographic entities used for data collection and

tabulation for the entire United States, Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and the Pacific Island territories. In addition to

supporting the geocoding requirement, the TIGER system

also provided a means to produce the many different maps

required for data collection and tabulation.

33‘‘Census Day’’ in northern and western Alaska was January 22,

1980, so the enumeration would be completed prior to the Spring

thaw. As part of an agreement with the local governments, Census

Day in the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (excluding the commonwealth of Northern Mariana Islands) was September 15, 1980,

so teachers could be used as enumerators.

Measuring America 139

U.S. Census Bureau
With the mapping capabilities of the TIGER system and the

use of a master address list, developed jointly between the

Census Bureau and U.S. Postal Service, the Census Bureau

mailed pre-addressed short- or long-form questionnaires to

approximately 86.2 million households. The 1990 census

questionnaire packages were mailed to households beginning in February 1990. Most post offices had delivered the

initial mailings by March 23, 1990, followed by a mailed

reminder card on March 30, 1990. Occupants were asked to

complete these questionnaires and return them by mail.

Nonrespondents to the questionnaire mailout received a

personal visit from an enumerator seeking to complete a

census questionnaire for the household.

Publicity. As in 1980, the 1990 census was extensively

advertised in television, radio, print, and public advertising.

The goal of this advertising was to encourage mail

response, reduce differential undercount, and foster a positive atmosphere within which to take the census convincing

people that the census was both important and safe.

Promotion activities included ‘‘complete count’’ committees,

information kits for schools, churches (the Religious Organizations Project), and the media, workshops, ‘‘pro bono’’

PSAs sponsored by the Advertising Council; local government outreach and partnerships; and the Census Education

Project (designed to educate students about the census).

Compared to the estimated $38 million worth of free commercial advertising received in 1980, an audit placed the

1990 figure at about $66.5 million. Local television and

radio stations were responsible for 69 percent of that value,

followed by 21 percent for ethnic media. The PSA campaign

reached a potential audience of 99 percent of the adultaged population, with an average of 68 exposures to census related advertising per person.

The Twenty-Second Census: 2000

The twenty-second decennial census—Census

2000—enumerated the residents of the United States,

Puerto Rico, and the Island Areas, and Federal employees

and their dependents living overseas as of Census Day,

April 1, 2000. The majority of these households participated in the census through a mailout/mailback operation.34

In February 2000, the Census Bureau mailed advance letters

to each household within the U.S. informing them that a

Census 2000 questionnaire would soon be arriving. The letter also included instructions on how to obtain an

in-language questionnaire for non-English speaking households.

Beginning in early March 2000, the U.S. Postal Service

began delivering approximately 98 million questionnaires

to households throughout the U.S. and its territories. The

majority of households (83 percent) received a short-form

questionnaire that asked for information on seven subjects

(name, sex, age, relationship, Hispanic origin, and race).35 A

sample of 1-in-6 households (17 percent) was selected to

receive the long-form questionnaire, which in addition to

the short-form questionnaire inquires, also contained 52

questions requesting more detailed information about housing, social, and economic characteristics of the household.

The questionnaire mailout was followed by the mailing of

‘‘reminder cards’’ to each household receiving a questionnaire.

In total, 65 percent of households responded to the

mailout/mailback census. The remaining 35 percent of

households were visited by enumerators who attempted to

complete a questionnaire via personal interviews.

Census 2000 Advertising Campaign. Census 2000 featured

the first ever paid advertising campaign. So as to reach all

adults living in the United States (including Puerto Rico and

the Island areas), the Census Bureau awarded a contract to

Young & Rubicam, totaling $167 million, for print, television, and radio advertising for its national, regional, and

local advertising campaign.

The advertising campaign consisted of more than 250 TV,

radio, print, outdoor, and Internet advertisements—in 17

languages—reaching 99 percent of all U.S. residents. By the

end of the campaign, the census message—‘‘This is your

future. Don’t leave it blank.’’—had been heard or seen an

average of 50 times per person. At its conclusion the campaign was ranked the second most effective campaign

according to an AdTrack—USA TODAY consumer poll and

for the first-half of 2000, the Census Bureau ranked 53rd in

spending among all advertisers in the United States.

(For additional information on Census 2000 operations, see

‘‘Census 2000 Operational Plan,’’ U.S. Department of Commerce, Economics and Statistics Administration, U.S. Census

Bureau, December 2000.)

34Puerto Rico was enumerated using Update/Leave

methodology—enumerators personally delivered a questionnaire to

each household, after which the household completed the questionnaire and mailed it back to the Census Bureau.

35For the first time, recipients of the short-form questionnaire

had the option of providing their information by submitting electronic responses to the questionnaire via the Internet. Although

this option was not extensively promoted, approximately 66,000

households chose to respond electronically.

140 Measuring America

U.S. Census Bureau