NASA SP-2009-4012

NASA HISTORICAL DATA BOOK

Volume VII

NASA Launch Systems, 

Space Transportation/

Human Spaceflight, 

and Space Science

1989–1998

Judy A. Rumerman

The NASA History Series

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

NASA History Division

Office of External Relations

Washington, D.C. 2009
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

(Revised for vol. 7)

NASA historical data book.

(The NASA historical series) (NASA SP ; 2009-4012)

Vol. 1 is a republication of: NASA historical data book, 

1958–1968./ Jane Van Nimmen and Leonard C. Bruno.

Vol. 7 in series: The NASA history series.

Includes bibliographical references and indexes.

Contents: v. 1 NASA resources, 1958–1968 / Jane Van 

Nimmen and Leonard C. Bruno — v. 2. Programs and projects, 

1958–1968 / Linda Neuman Ezell — v. 3. Programs and projects, 

1969–1978 / Linda Neuman Ezell — v. 4. NASA resources, 1969–

1978 / Ihor Gawdiak with Helen Fedor — v. 5. NASA launch 

systems, space transportation, human spaceflight, and space 

science, 1979–1988 / Judy A. Rumerman — v. 6. NASA Space 

Applications, Aeronautics and Space Research and Technology, 

Tracking and Data Acquisition/Support Operations, Commercial 

Programs, and Resources 1979–1988 

1. United States. National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration—History. I. Van Nimmen, Jane. II. Bruno, 

Leonard C. III. Ezell, Linda Neuman. IV. Gawdiak, Ihor. V. 

Rumerman, Judy A — v. VI. 

VI. Series. VII. Series. VIII. Series: NASA SP; 4012.

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office

Internet: bookstore.gpo.gov Phone: toll free (866) 512-1800; DC area (202) 512-1800

Fax: (202) 512-2104 Mail: Stop IDCC, Washington, DC 20402-0001

ISBN 978-0-16-080501-1
CONTENTS

List of Figures and Tables ......................................................................v

Preface and Acknowledgments ......................................................... xvii

About the Author.................................................................................xix

Notes on Sources.................................................................................xxi

Chapter One: Introduction......................................................................1

Chapter Two: Launch Systems.............................................................17

Chapter Three: Space Transportation/Human Spaceflight.................187

Chapter Four: Space Science..............................................................571

Index...................................................................................................989

The NASA History Series ................................................................1041

LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES

Chapter One: Introduction

Table 1–1 Programs Within the R&D Appropriation 

Table 1–2 Centers of Excellence 

Table 1–3 Program Office Functional Areas 

Chapter Two: Launch Systems

Figure 2–1 NASA’s Fleet of Launch Vehicles 

Figure 2–2 Office of Space Flight 

Figure 2–3 Office of Space Flight 

Figure 2–4 Office of Space Systems Development 

Figure 2–5 Office of Advanced Concepts and Technology 

Figure 2–6 Office of Space Access and Technology, September 1994 

Figure 2–7 Office of Space Flight 

Figure 2–8 Office of Space Flight 

Figure 2–9 Expendable Launch Vehicle Success Rate 

Figure 2–10 Athena I and Athena II 

Figure 2–11 Atlas I Components 

Figure 2–12 Atlas IIAS Launch Vehicle 

Figure 2–13 Delta II Components 

Figure 2–14 Delta II 7925 

Figure 2–15 Delta 3920/PAM-D, Delta II 6925, and Delta II 7925 

Figure 2–16 Delta II Mission Profile 

Figure 2–17 Pegasus Mounted Under B–52 Wing 

Figure 2–18 Pegasus Vehicle 

Figure 2–19 Pegasus XL Mission Profile 

Figure 2–20 Taurus Launch Vehicle Configuration 

Figure 2–21 The First Stage of the Titan IV ELV 

Figure 2–22 Drawing of Space Shuttle External Tank 

Figure 2–23 Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster 

Figure 2–24 Space Shuttle Main Engine Components 

Figure 2–25 Ulysses atop the Payload Assist Module-S and 

IUS Combination 

Figure 2–26 Pratt & Whitney RL10 Engine 

Figure 2–27 Atlas-Centaur Upper Stage 

Figure 2–28 The Magellan Spacecraft with its Attached Inertial 

Upper Stage Booster 

Figure 2–29 First Test Flight of the DC-XA 

Figure 2–30 The X–34 Testbed Demonstrator 

Figure 2–31 Aerospike Engine 

Figure 2–32 The X–33 and VentureStar 

Table 2–1 Authorized/Appropriated Budget (FY 1989–FY 1998) 

Table 2–2 Programmed Budget (FY 1989–FY 1998) 
Table 2–3 Space Transportation Capability Development/

Payload and Utilization Operations 

Table 2–4 Upper Stages 

Table 2–5 Engineering and Technical Base 

Table 2–6 Payload Operations and Support Equipment 

Table 2–7 Advanced Programs 

Table 2–8 Advanced Projects 

Table 2–9 Tethered Satellite System 

Table 2–10 Orbital Maneuvering Vehicle 

Table 2–11 Advanced Concepts and Technology/Space Access 

and Technology 

Table 2–12 Advanced Space Transportation 

Table 2–13 Advanced Transportation Technology/New Launch System 

Table 2–14 Reusable Launch Vehicle–Systems Engineering and Analysis 

Table 2–15 Reusable Launch Vehicle–Technology Program 

Table 2–16 Reusable Launch Vehicle–Initial Flight 

Demonstration Program (FDP) 

Table 2–17 X-33 Advanced Technology Demonstrator 

Table 2–18 X-34 Technology Demonstration Program 

Table 2–19 Transportation Technology Support 

Table 2–20 Space Shuttle Production and Operational Capability/

Safety and Performance Upgrades 

Table 2–21 Orbiter (Orbiter Operational Capability) 

Table 2–22 Systems Integration (Orbiter Operational Capability) 

Table 2–23 Orbiter Improvements 

Table 2–24 Extended Duration Orbiter (Orbiter Operational Capability) 

Table 2–25 Structural Spares (Orbiter Operational Capability) 

Table 2–26 Orbiter Spares (Orbiter Operational Capability) 

Table 2–27 Flight Operations Upgrades 

Table 2–28 Launch Site Equipment (Launch and Mission Support) 

Table 2–29 Mission Support Capability (Launch and Mission Support) 

Table 2–30 Mission Operations Capability (Launch and 

Mission Support) 

Table 2–31 Mission Operations and Support Capability Funding History 

Table 2–32 Space Shuttle Main Engine Upgrades 

Table 2–33 Solid Rocket Booster (Propulsion Systems) 

Table 2–34 Solid Rocket Booster Improvements 

Table 2–35 External Tank (Propulsion Systems) 

Table 2–36 Super Lightweight Tank 

Table 2–37 Construction of Facilities 

Table 2–38 Advanced Solid Rocket Motor (Propulsion Systems) 

Table 2–39 Assured Shuttle Availability 

Table 2–40 Space Transportation (Space Shuttle) Operations 

Table 2–41 Mission Support (Flight Operations) 

Table 2–42 Integration (Flight Operations) 

Table 2–43 Support (Flight Operations) 

Table 2–44 Orbiter (Flight Hardware) 

Table 2–45 Space Shuttle Main Engine (Propulsion Systems) 
Table 2–46 Solid Rocket Booster (Flight Hardware) 

Table 2–47 Redesigned Solid Rocket Motor (Flight Hardware) 

Table 2–48 External Tank (Flight Hardware) 

Table 2–49 Launch and Landing Operations 

Table 2–50 Launch Operations (Launch and Landing Operations) 

Table 2–51 Payload and Launch Support (Launch and Landing 

Operations) 

Table 2–52 Expendable Launch Vehicles and Services 

Table 2–53 Small Class (Expendable Launch Vehicles and Services) 

Table 2–54 Medium Class (Expendable Launch Vehicles and Services) 

Table 2–55 Intermediate Class (Expendable Launch Vehicles 

and Services) 

Table 2–56 Large Class (Expendable Launch Vehicles and Services) 

Table 2–57 Launch Services Mission Support 

Table 2–58 Expendable Launch Vehicle Success Rate by Year and

Launch Vehicle 

Table 2–59 Athena Launches (1989–1998) 

Table 2–60 Athena I Characteristics 

Table 2–61 Athena II Characteristics 

Table 2–62 Atlas Launches (1989–1998) 

Table 2–63 Atlas E Characteristics 

Table 2–64 Atlas G Centaur Characteristics 

Table 2–65 Atlas I Characteristics 

Table 2–66 Typical Atlas Launch Events Sequence for a 

Geosynchronous Mission 

Table 2–67 Atlas II Characteristics 

Table 2–68 Atlas IIA Characteristics 

Table 2–69 Atlas IIAS Characteristics 

Table 2–70 Conestoga 1620 Characteristics 

Table 2–71 Delta Launches (1989–1998) 

Table 2–72 Delta 3920/PAM-D Characteristics 

Table 2–73 Delta II 6925 Characteristics 

Table 2–74 Delta 7925 Characteristics 

Table 2–75 Representative Delta II Mission Profile Events 

Table 2–76 Pegasus Launches (1989–1998) 

Table 2–77 Standard Pegasus Characteristics 

Table 2–78 Pegasus XL Characteristics 

Table 2–79 Scout G1 Characteristics 

Table 2–80 Scout Launches (1989–1998) 

Table 2–81 Taurus 2210 Characteristics 

Table 2–82 Taurus Launches (1989–1998) 

Table 2–83 Titan Launches (1989–1998) 

Table 2–84 Titan II Characteristics 

Table 2–85 Space Shuttle Flights (1989–1998) 

Table 2–86 External Tank Characteristics 

Table 2–87 Solid Rocket Booster Characteristics 

Table 2–88 Space Shuttle Main Engine Characteristics 

Table 2–89 Titan Centaur Upper Stage Characteristics 
Table 2–90 Inertial Upper Stage Characteristics 

Table 2–91 Inertial Upper Stage Launches 

Table 2–92 DC-X Characteristics 

Table 2–93 DC-X and DC-XA Flight Tests 

Table 2–94 X-34 Characteristics 

Table 2–95 X-33 Characteristics 

Table 2–96 Reusable Launch Vehicle Chronology 

Chapter Three: Human Spaceflight

Figure 3–1 Space Shuttle Program Organization, December 1997 

Figure 3–2 Space Shuttle Program Elements and Projects, 

December 1997 

Figure 3–3 Headquarters Office of Space Station, December 1988 

Figure 3–4 Tiered Space Station Organizational Structure, April 1989 

Figure 3–5 Marshall Space Flight Center Space Station Organization, 

April 1989 

Figure 3–6 Johnson Space Center Space Station Organization, 

April 1989 

Figure 3–7 Goddard Space Flight Center Space Station 

Organization, April 1989 

Figure 3–8 Lewis Research Center Space Station Organization, 

April 1989 

Figure 3–9 Kennedy Space Center Space Station Organization, 

April 1989 

Figure 3–10 Space Station Freedom Program Office, May 1990 

Figure 3–11 Office of Space Systems Development 

Figure 3–12 Space Station Freedom Three-Level Program 

Management, 1992 

Figure 3–13 Space Station Freedom Work Package and International 

Partner Development Responsibilities 

Figure 3–14 Office of Space Flight, October 1995 

Figure 3–15 Space Shuttle Vehicle Configuration 

Figure 3–16 Orbiter Structure 

Figure 3–17 Spacelab on Orbit 

Figure 3–18 Spacelab Components 

Figure 3–19 Typical SPACEHAB Interior Configurations 

Figure 3–20 SPACEHAB Configuration 1 

Figure 3–21 SPACEHAB Configurations 2 (top) and 3 

Figure 3–22 Extravehicular Mobility Unit (Spacesuit) 

Figure 3–23 Astronaut F Story Musgrave 

Figure 3–24 The Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) 

Figure 3–25 The Gamma Ray Observatory 

Figure 3–26 On Board Space Shuttle Discovery 

Figure 3–27 ATLAS-1 Payload Configuration 

Figure 3–28 Tethered Satellite System (TSS-1) Deployment 

Figure 3–29 TDRS-F (6) On-Orbit Configuration 

Figure 3–30 Space Shuttle Columbia Blasts Off 
Figure 3–31 EURECA Mission Scenario 

Figure 3–32 ORFEUS-SPAS and ACTS/TOS 

Figure 3–33 ORFEUS-SPAS Configuration 

Figure 3–34 The SIR and X-SAR 

Figure 3–35 Payloads on STS-59 

Figure 3–36 IML-2 Module Racks 

Figure 3–37 Mir Space Station with Discovery 

Figure 3–38 SPARTAN-204 

Figure 3–39 Astro-2 Suite of Telescopes 

Figure 3–40 The SPAS-2 

Figure 3–41 The SPACEHAB Double Module 

Figure 3–42 Dave Williams with the Virtual Environment Generator 

on Columbia 

Figure 3–43 Space Station Freedom Configuration 

Figure 3–44 U.S. Laboratory Module 

Figure 3–45 U.S. Habitation Module 

Figure 3–46 European Space Agency Attached Pressurized Module 

Figure 3–47 Japanese Experiment Module 

Figure 3–48 Japanese Experiment Module Exposed Facility 

Figure 3–49 Canada’s Special Purpose Dexterous Manipulator (SPDM) 

Figure 3–50 Man-Tended Capability 

Figure 3–51 Permanently Manned Capability Configuration 

Figure 3–52 Space Station Freedom Assembly Stages 

Figure 3–53 Mir Space Station 

Figure 3–54 Atlantis Docked with Mir 

Figure 3–55 Undocking of Atlantis and Mir 

Figure 3–56 Processing of Leonardo, the First Multi-Purpose 

Logistics Module 

Figure 3–57 Commemorative Plaque, ISS Agreements 

Figure 3–58 The Unity Module Inside Endeavour 

Figure 3–59 Diagram of Unity Connecting Module 

Figure 3–60 Construction of the International Space Station 

Figure 3–61 Unity and Zarya Modules 

Figure 3–62 Artist’s conception of Completed ISS 

Figure 3–63 Drawing Showing the Completed ISS and Contributions 

by each of the International Partners, 1998 

Figure 3–64 X-38 Flight Test 

Table 3–1 Percent of NASA’s R&D or HSF Budget Allocated for 

Space Station 

Table 3–2 Authorized/Appropriated Budget (FY 1989–FY 1998) 

Table 3–3 Programmed Budget (FY 1989–1998) 

Table 3–4 Spacelab Funding History 

Table 3–5 Space Station (Total) Funding History 

Table 3–6 U.S./Russian Cooperative Program Funding History 

Table 3–7 Russian Space Agency Contract Support Funding History 

Table 3–8 Mir Support Funding History 

Table 3–9 Russian Program Assurance Funding History 
Table 3–10 Space Station Development Funding History 

Table 3–11 Development–Management and Integration Funding History 

Table 3–12 Development–Pressurized Modules Funding History 

Table 3–13 Development–Assembly Hardware/Subsystem 

Funding History 

Table 3–14 Development–Platforms and Servicing Funding History 

Table 3–15 Development–Power Systems Funding History 

Table 3–16 Development–Operations/Utilization Capability 

Funding History 

Table 3–17 Development–Flight Hardware Funding History 

Table 3–18 Development–Test, Manufacturing and Assembly 

Funding History 

Table 3–19 Development–Operations Capability and Construction 

Funding History 

Table 3–20 Development–Transportation Support Funding History 

Table 3–21 Development–Flight Technology Demonstrations 

Funding History 

Table 3–22 Development–Operations Capability and Construction 

Funding History 

Table 3–23 Shuttle/Spacelab Payload Mission Management and 

Integration Funding History 

Table 3–24 Space Station Integration Planning and Attached 

Payloads Funding History 

Table 3–25 Assured Crew Return Vehicle Funding History 

Table 3–26 Flight Telerobotic System/Servicer Funding History 

Table 3–27 Space Station Utilization Support Funding History 

Table 3–28 Space Station Operations Funding History 

Table 3–29 Space Station Research Funding History 

Table 3–30 Space Station Transition Definition/Advanced 

Programs Funding History 

Table 3–31 Life Sciences Funding History 

Table 3–32 Life Sciences Flight Experiments 

Funding History 

Table 3–33 Human Spaceflight and Systems Engineering 

Funding History 

Table 3–34 Space Biological Sciences Funding History 

Table 3–35 Life Sciences Research and Analysis Funding History 

Table 3–36 Lifesat/Radiation Biology Initiative History 

Table 3–37 Life and Microgravity Sciences (Total) Funding History 

Table 3–38 Centrifuge Funding History 

Table 3–39 Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence Funding History 

Table 3–40 Life Sciences Flight Program Funding History 

Table 3–41 Advanced Human Support Technology Program 

Funding History 

Table 3–42 Biomedical Research and Countermeasures Program 

Funding History 

Table 3–43 Gravitational Biology and Ecology Program 

Funding History 
Table 3–44 Orbiter Characteristics 

Table 3–45 Endeavour Construction Milestones 

Table 3–46 Space Shuttle Payload Accommodation 

Table 3–47 Spacelab Module Characteristics 

Table 3–48 Spacelab Missions 

Table 3–49 SPACEHAB Missions 

Table 3–50 Space Shuttle Extravehicular Activity (1989–1998) 

Table 3–51 Space Shuttle Missions Summary (1989–1998) 

Table 3–52 STS-29 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–53 STS-30 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–54 STS-28 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–55 STS-34 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–56 STS-33 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–57 STS-32 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–58 STS-36 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–59 STS-31 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–60 STS-41 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–61 STS-38 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–62 STS-35 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–63 STS-37 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–64 STS-39 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–65 STS-40 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–66 STS-43 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–67 STS-48 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–68 STS-44 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–69 STS-42 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–70 STS-45 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–71 STS-49 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–72 STS-50 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–73 STS-46 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–74 STS-47 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–75 STS-52 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–76 STS-53 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–77 STS-54 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–78 STS-56 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–79 STS-55 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–80 STS-57 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–81 STS-51 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–82 STS-58 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–83 STS-61 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–84 STS-60 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–85 STS-62 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–86 STS-59 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–87 STS-65 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–88 STS-64 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–89 STS-68 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–90 STS-66 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–91 STS-63 Mission Characteristics 
Table 3–92 STS-67 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–93 STS-71 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–94 STS-70 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–95 STS-69 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–96 STS-73 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–97 STS-74 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–98 STS-72 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–99 STS-75 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–100 STS-76 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–101 STS-77 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–102 STS-78 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–103 STS-79 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–104 STS-80 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–105 STS-81 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–106 STS-82 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–107 STS-83 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–108 STS-84 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–109 STS-94 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–110 STS-85 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–111 STS-86 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–112 STS-87 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–113 STS-89 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–114 STS-90 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–115 STS-91 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–116 STS-95 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–117 STS-88 Mission Characteristics 

Table 3–118 Space Station Freedom Prime Contractor 

Table 3–119 Space Station Freedom Characteristics 

Table 3–120 Shuttle-Mir Flights 

Table 3–121 ISS Contributor 

Table 3–122 ISS Major Milestones (as of April 1994) 

Table 3–123 ISS Assembly Schedule (June 1994) 

Table 3–124 Columbus Characteristics 

Table 3–125 Partial Revised Manifest, Revision C, Through 1999 

(as of 15 May 1997) 

Table 3–126 ISS Assembly Sequence Revision D, Through 1999 

Table 3–127 Functional Cargo Block (Zarya) Specification 

Table 3–128 Unity Characteristic 

Table 3–129 Zarya-Unity Orbital Events Summary 

Table 3–130 Science Laboratories Accommodations 

Table 3–131 Space Station Chronology 

Chapter Four: Space Science

Figure 4–1 Office of Space Science and Applications, 1981–1993 

Figure 4–2 Office of Space Science, 1993 

Figure 4–3 Office of Space Science, November 1995 

Figure 4–4 COBE Configuration 
Figure 4–5 COBE’s Infrared View of the Universe 

Figure 4–6 EUVE Spacecraft 

Figure 4–7 SAMPEX Spacecraft 

Figure 4–8 Rossi X-Ray Timing Explorer 

Figure 4–9 FAST Small Explorer Satellite 

Figure 4–10 ACE L1 Orbit 

Figure 4–11 Expanded View of ACE 

Figure 4–12 SNOE Spacecraft Structure 

Figure 4–13 Filament Eruption Observed by TRACE 

Figure 4–14 SWAS Telescope 

Figure 4–15 ROSAT Spacecraft 

Figure 4–16 ROSAT Spacecraft Configuration 

Figure 4–17 HST’s “First Light” Image 

Figure 4–18 Images of Spiral Galaxy M100 

Figure 4–19 Light Path for the Main Telescope 

Figure 4–20 Hubble Space Telescope Configuration 

Figure 4–21 First Servicing Mission of HST 

Figure 4–22 Close-up of HST 

Figure 4–23 HST Image of Jupiter 

Figure 4–24 Ring Structure Around Supernova 1987A 

Figure 4–25 HST Image of Eta Carinae 

Figure 4–26 HST Image of Supernova 1987A Debris 

Figure 4–27 G1 Orbits the Andromeda Galaxy 

Figure 4–28 Black Holes 

Figure 4–29 Collision of Two Galaxies 

Figure 4–30 Quasar Host Galaxies 

Figure 4–31 Spiral Galaxy NGC 4603 

Figure 4–32 Image of Gamma-Ray Burst GRB 970228 

Figure 4–33 Supernovae 

Figure 4–34 Release of the GRO Spacecraft 

Figure 4–35 Compton Gamma Ray Observatory 

Figure 4–36 Chandra Optical Bench Assembly at TRW 

Figure 4–37 Chandra X-Ray Observatory 

Figure 4–38 Ulysses Primary Mission 

Figure 4–39 Ulysses Configuration 

Figure 4–40 Deep Space 1 Spacecraft 

Figure 4–41 Geotail Spacecraft Configuration 

Figure 4–42 Wind Spacecraft 

Figure 4–43 Location of Polar Spacecraft Instruments 

Figure 4–44 SOHO Images 

Figure 4–45 Yohkoh Images of the Solar Cycle 

Figure 4–46 IUE Images 

Figure 4–47 The Four-Stage Black Brant 

Figure 4–48 A Scientific Balloon Ready for Launch 

Figure 4–49 Magellan Earth-to-Venus Trajectory 

Figure 4–50 Magellan Venus Orbital Operations 

Figure 4–51 Magellan Spacecraft 

Figure 4–52 Magellan Radar Image of Venusian Volcano 
Figure 4–53 Magellan Radar Image of Venusian Crater 

Figure 4–54 Galileo Spacecraft 

Figure 4–55 Galileo Trajectory 

Figure 4–56 Galileo Image of Asteroid 951 Gaspra 

Figure 4–57 Galileo Image of Asteroid 243 Ida 

Figure 4–58 Comet Collides with Jupiter 

Figure 4–59 Galileo Probe Mission to Jupiter 

Figure 4–60 Galileo’s Primary Mission Orbits 

Figure 4–61 Lunar Prospector Mission Profile 

Figure 4–62 Artist’s Conception of Lunar Prospector About to 

Impact the Moon 

Figure 4–63 South Pole of the Moon 

Figure 4–64 Mars Global Surveyor 

Figure 4–65 Martian “Face” 

Figure 4–66 Light and Dark Layers in Martian Canyon Walls 

Figure 4–67 Mars Pathfinder Entry, Descent and Landing 

Figure 4–68 Mars Pathfinder’s Sojourner Microrover 

Figure 4–69 Mars Pathfinder Lander 

Figure 4–70 Mars Climate Orbiter 

Figure 4–71 Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator 

Figure 4–72 Cassini Interplanetary Trajectory 

Figure 4–73 Cassini Spacecraft 

Figure 4–74 Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11 Pictorial Plaque 

Figure 4–75 Voyager 2 Image of Neptune’s Rings 

Figure 4–76 The SPARTAN 201–04 Satellite 

Figure 4–77 ORFEUS-SPAS II 

Figure 4–78 ORFEUS-SPAS I Configuration 

Table 4–1 Space Science Launched Missions (1989–1998) 

Table 4–2 Attached/Retrieved NASA Space Science Missions 

Table 4–3 Authorized Budget (FY 1989–FY 1998) 

Table 4–4 Programmed Budget (FY 1989–1998) 

Table 4–5 Physics and Astronomy Funding History 

Table 4–6 Hubble Space Telescope Development Funding History 

Table 4–7 Gamma Ray Observatory Funding History 

Table 4–8 Global Geospace Science Funding History 

Table 4–9 Advanced X-Ray Astrophysics Facility Funding History 

Table 4–10 Payload and Instrument Development Funding History 

Table 4–11 Shuttle/Spacelab Payload Mission Management and 

Integration Funding History 

Table 4–12 Explorer Development Funding History 

Table 4–13 Physics and Astronomy Mission Operations and 

Data Analysis Funding History 

Table 4–14 Physics and Astronomy Research and Analysis 

Funding History 

Table 4–15 Space Science Supporting Research and Technology 

Funding History 
Table 4–16 Space Infrared Telescope Facility (SIRTF) 

Funding History 

Table 4–17 Thermosphere, Ionosphere, Mesosphere Energetics 

and Dynamics (TIMED) Funding History 

Table 4–18 Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy 

Funding History 

Table 4–19 Suborbital Program Funding History 

Table 4–20 Gravity Probe-B Development/Relativity Mission 

Funding History 

Table 4–21 Information Systems Funding History 

Table 4–22 Planetary Exploration Funding History 

Table 4–23 Galileo Development Funding History 

Table 4–24 Ulysses Funding History 

Table 4–25 Magellan Funding History 

Table 4–26 Mars Observer Funding History 

Table 4–27 Planetary Exploration Mission Operations and Data 

Analysis Funding History 

Table 4–28 Planetary Exploration Research and Analysis 

Funding History 

Table 4–29 Comet Rendezvous Asteroid Flyby (CRAF)/Cassini 

Funding History 

Table 4–30 Mars Balloon Relay Experiment Funding History 

Table 4–31 Mars ‘94 Funding History 

Table 4–32 Discovery Funding History 

Table 4–33 Mars Surveyor Funding History 

Table 4–34 Space Science New Millennium 

Funding History 

Table 4–35 Advanced Space Technology Funding History 

Table 4–36 Explorer Missions (1989–1998) 

Table 4–37 Cosmic Background Explorer Mission Characteristics 

Table 4–38 Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer Mission Characteristics 

Table 4–39 Solar Anomalous and Magnetospheric Particle 

Explorer Mission Characteristics 

Table 4–40 Rossi X-Ray Timing Explorer Mission Characteristics 

Table 4–41 Fast Auroral Snapshot Explorer Mission Characteristics 

Table 4–42 Advanced Composition Explorer Mission Characteristics 

Table 4–43 Student Nitric Oxide Explorer Mission Characteristics 

Table 4–44 Transition Region and Coronal Explorer 

Mission Characteristics 

Table 4–45 Submillimeter Wave Astronomy Satellite 

Mission Characteristics 

Table 4–46 Roentgen Satellite Mission Characteristics 

Table 4–47 Combined Release and Radiation Effects Satellite 

Mission Characteristics 

Table 4–48 Hubble Space Telescope Mission Characteristics 

Table 4–49 Compton Gamma Ray Observatory Mission Characteristics 

Table 4–50 Advanced X-Ray Astrophysical Facility (Chandra) 

Mission Characteristics 
Table 4–51 Ulysses Milestones Characteristics 

Table 4–52 Ulysses Mission Characteristics 

Table 4–53 ASCA/Astro-D Mission Characteristics 

Table 4–54 BeppoSAX Mission Characteristics 

Table 4–55 Deep Space 1/SEDSAT Mission Characteristics 

Table 4–56 High Energy Transient Experiment, Satelite de Aplicaciones 

Cientificas-B Dual Mission Characteristics 

Table 4–57 Geotail Mission Characteristics 

Table 4–58 Wind Mission Characteristics 

Table 4–59 Polar Mission Characteristics 

Table 4–60 Solar and Heliospheric Observatory Mission Characteristics 

Table 4–61 Solar-A/Yohkoh Mission Characteristics 

Table 4–62 NASA Sounding Rocket Launches (1989–1998) 

Table 4–63 NASA Balloon Flights (1989–1998) 

Table 4–64 Magellan Mission Events 

Table 4–65 Magellan Mission Characteristics 

Table 4–66 Galileo Major Mission Events (1989–1999) 

Table 4–67 Galileo Encounters at Jupiter (1995–1999) 

Table 4–68 Galileo Mission Characteristics 

Table 4–69 Discovery Missions Approved by NASA, 1993–1998 

Table 4–70 Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous Mission Characteristics 

Table 4–71 Lunar Prospector Mission Characteristics 

Table 4–72 Clementine Mission Characteristics 

Table 4–73 Mars Observer Mission Characteristics 

Table 4–74 Mars Global Survey Mission Characteristics 

Table 4–75 Mars Pathfinder Mission Characteristics 

Table 4–76 Mars ‘96 Instruments 

Table 4–77 Mars Climate Orbiter Mission Characteristics 

Table 4–78 Mars Polar Lander Mission Characteristics 

Table 4–79 Cassini-Huygens Mission Characteristics 

Table 4–80 Voyager Events 

Table 4–81 Astro Mission Characteristics 

Table 4–82 Astro-2 HUT Scientific Achievements 

Table 4–83 Spartan 201 Mission Characteristics 

Table 4–84 ORFEUS-SPAS Science Payload 
PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This volume of the NASA Historical Data Book is the seventh 

series that describes NASA’s programs and projects. Covering the years 

through 1998, it includes the areas of launch systems, human spacefligh

space science, continuing the volumes that addressed these topics d

NASA’s previous decades. Each chapter presents information, much 

statistical, addressing funding, management, and details of program

missions. This decade, which followed the Agency’s return to flight aft

Challenger accident, was especially productive. Upgraded expendable l

vehicles sent missions into Earth orbit and toward the outer reaches of 

66 Space Shuttle missions were successfully launched; the Space S

received its first components; and 30 space science missions, most of 

met their scientific goals, began returning scientific data to Earth. 

events took place in an environment both of international cooperation an

in which NASA learned to make the best use possible of its resources.

A forthcoming companion volume will describe NASA’s Earth sc

missions; aeronautics and space research activities; tracking and 

operations; facilities; resources; and personnel areas.

A large group of people assisted in preparing this volume and shou

recognized. Most valuable and essential was my research assistan

Edwards, who gathered material, organized it superbly, entered data 

tables, and proofed and edited draft chapters, all while attending gra

school and getting married. It would have been impossible to deal wi

quantity of information I faced without her help. The NASA History Di

archivists, Colin Fries, John Hargenrader, Liz Suckow, and chief arc

Jane Odom, helped gather information. Stephen Garber managed the p

and dealt with contractual matters. Interns Matt Barrow and Clare Kim

helped shepherd this project through the production cycle. Nadine Andre

assisted in a myriad of ways. 

On the production end, special thanks go to the NASA Headqu

Communications Support Services Center: Shelley Kilmer-Gaul carefull

out this volume; Andrew Jarvis edited the layout; and Hanta Ralay oversa

critical final step of printing. Many thanks are due to all these professiona

Many people at NASA and in the NASA community gladly pro

information and helped explain events and resolve discrepancies. 

members at every NASA Center willingly offered their assistanc

supplied material. Individuals in the program offices at Headquarters a

the various projects at Goddard Space Flight Center spent hours talking 

me and finding documents. Graphics personnel both at Headquarters a

the Centers regularly filled my requests for “high resolution graphics.”
A special thanks goes to the reviewers of the draft chapters. They to

the arduous job of reading drafts that often numbered in the hundre

pages, finding errors, and making valuable suggestions. 

Their work improved the quality of this document immensely.

I’d also like to thank my husband, Howard, who provided con

support, would listen to my concerns, and frequently resolved computer 

that could have proven disastrous.
 ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Judith A. Rumerman is a professional technical writer who has writ

contributed to numerous documents for the National Aeronautics and 

Administration. She has written documents describing various space

programs, in-house procedures used at Goddard Space Flight Center

various materials used for training. She was also the compiler of U.S. H

Spaceflight: A Record of Achievement, 1961–1998, a monograph for the N

History Office detailing NASA’s human spaceflight missions, and volume

and six of the NASA Historical Data Book, 1979–1988. In the years prec

the 2003 Centennial of Flight, Ms. Rumerman served as technical lea

prime author of the series of essays written for the Centennial of 

Commission describing all aspects of aviation and spaceflight aimed at 

people of high-school age.

Ms. Rumerman has degrees from the University of Michigan and G

Washington University. She grew up in Detroit and presently lives in 

Spring, Maryland.

NOTES ON SOURCES

The bulk of sources used in preparing this volume are official N

documents and references. Whenever possible, the author attempted t

primary sources prepared by the organizations or individuals most di

involved in a program or mission. NASA Web sites were also used exten

Secondary sources were most often used to provide perspective rather tha

The following paragraphs describe major sources. Detailed footnote

located in each chapter.

Annual Budget Estimates: These documents are issued each year b

NASA Office of the Chief Financial Officer when the annual budget requ

presented to Congress. These lengthy documents, filling several loos

binders each year, contain breakdowns of three fiscal years of budgets: th

just ending, the next fiscal year, and the fiscal year two years out. Budget f

are presented by appropriation, program office, installation, program, and 

other way that may be of interest to budget preparers. Toward the end o

decade, “full cost” accounting was adopted, and budget figures for 

programs were presented in both the traditional way and in “full-cost” fi

The budget estimate documents also provided comprehensive nar

descriptions of programs and activities, describing both what had oc

during a prior fiscal year (and occasionally farther back) and what the Age

plans were for the next two years. These descriptions provide a useful ac

of a program’s evolution.

Press and Media Kits: NASA prepares press or media kits for every 

Shuttle mission and for a number of major robotic missions. They de

launch events, payloads, planned experiments, astronaut biographies, and 

mission-unique information. Designed for non-technical audiences an

media, they provide a comprehensive description of NASA mission

Shuttle press kits and most other press kits are available online.

Mission Operation Reports: Every NASA mission is required to pre

pre-launch and post-launch mission operation report. These reports are des

for the use of senior management and, while they are part of the N

Historical Reference Collection, they may not always be available to the p

They provide material similar to that found in the press kits but may also in

more technical information, and the post-launch reports may in

assessments of the success of various mission elements.

Aeronautics and Space Reports of the President: These annual r

describe the aeronautics and space activities of all government agencie

engage in these types of activities. They provide a good overview a

excellent starting point for research.

Press Releases: NASA Headquarters and each NASA Center regularly 

press releases describing newsworthy events.They provide the current sta

various events including scientific missions, management and organiza
changes, contract awards, and changing Agency priorities. They are oft

only source of current, detailed information about a mission. Headquarters 

releases have been posted on the NASA Web site since the early 1990

Centers began posting their press releases in the mid-1990s.

Exploring the Unknown, Selected Documents in the History of the U.S

Space Program, Volume V: Exploring the Cosmos and Volume VI: Spac

Earth Science, edited by John Logsdon: Particularly in the space science 

the introductory essays preceding the documents in these two volumes, w

by eminent individuals in their fields, provide outstanding descriptions 

major events in the history of the space program.

International Reference Guide to Space Launch Systems, Third Editio

Fourth Edition, by Steven J. Isakowitz, Joseph P. Hopkins, Jr., and Josh

Hopkins: Published by the AIAA, the two editions of this reference c

thorough descriptions of every launch vehicle used during this decade, as w

information related to performance, cost, flight history, vehicle design, pa

accommodations, production and launch operations, and vehicle history.

Faster, Better, Cheaper: Low-Cost Innovation in the U.S. Space Progra

Howard McCurdy: This book offers an excellent introduction to NA

management approach, describing what very likely was the dom

philosophy at NASA during this decade.

Web Sites: The past few years have seen an explosion of material pos

the Internet. Every NASA program has a Web site (too many to list her

posts a wide variety of information about a project. This has had both po

and negative consequences. On the positive side, official documents su

legislation, policies, Agency reports, and directives are readily available. N

programs post huge amounts of material describing all phases of mi

including: mission parameters and specifications, instrument descrip

scientific results, implications, etc. This information enables research

acquire a great deal of information without the need to cull through fi

archives. However, it is also very easy for errors to be perpetuated, even 

information is located on NASA Web sites. Information is easily copied 

one Web site to the next, often without question, and errors are inadver

introduced when material is not carefully edited. It is necessary fo

researcher to verify information carefully before using it. Another issue 

removing of information from Web sites because of storage consider

without archiving the information. Information “disappears” or is mov

another location on the internet. This happens especially when inform

becomes “out-of-date” without concern for the historical value of the ma

Broken links, due both to technical difficulties and the removal or mov

Web pages without revising the referring link, are also a problem. Web m

has been used extensively in this volume, but care has been taken to ens

reliability. An “access” date is always included, and a printed copy of al

pages used has been provided to the NASA History Division.
Space Shuttle Mission Chronologies: These short mission descri

provide launch and landing information, a crew list, and mission high

They originally existed as individual pages for each Space Shuttle m

available from the main Human Spaceflight Web page at Kennedy 

Center. Half way through preparing this volume, these disappeared from th

and were replaced by very brief mission descriptions with much 

information. No link was provided to the new location of the original ma

The original individual mission files were combined into two PDF files 

1999 and from 2000) and a link to a set of HTML files for each missio

placed at a different location http://www-paokscnasagov/kscpao/nasafa

1981-99Volume1pdf; http://www-paokscnasagov/kscpao/nasafact/pdf/Vo

pdf; and http://sciencekscnasagov/shuttle/missions/missionshtml. Most 

within the HTML files do not work. This experience is indicative o

difficulties encountered when using the internet for research.

Space Science Project Web Sites: Each NASA project has a Web s

varying levels of detail and quality. Some provide extensive information 

the mission and science results while others provide only basic inform

Some missions have more than one Web site—one dealing with m

elements and a second dealing primarily with the science. The Web sit

the Hubble Space Telescope are particularly useful. The NASA We

describes the mission, and the Web site sponsored by the Space Tele

Science Institute provides a great deal of detail concerning the sc

Universities that co-sponsor or provide instruments to missions often 

their own Web sites.

National Space Science Data Center: While not easy to navigate, the M

Catalog on the NSSDC database often provides the only available sou

basic information for each mission. While not lengthy, the pages for 

mission supply a basic mission description, orbital information, and a li

description of each instrument often with the names and affiliations 

Principal Investigators.

CHAPTER O

INTRODUCTIO

3

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

NASA began operating as the nation’s civilian space agency in 1958 

passage of the National Aeronautics and Space Act. It succeeded the Na

Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA). The new organization 

charged with preserving the role of the United States “as a lead

aeronautical and space science and technology,” expanding our knowled

Earth’s atmosphere and space, and exploring flight both within and o

the atmosphere.

The decade from 1989 to 1998 was extremely productive, as NASA 

to its already considerable list of achievements. The decade was mark

assembly of the first orbiting Space Station components, launch of th

two Great Observatories, and an outstanding record of safe and fr

missions. This volume addresses NASA’s activities during the decade 

areas of launch systems, human spaceflight, and space science. 

A number of groups influenced NASA’s direction. Congress influ

the Agency through authorization and appropriation bills. The Exe

Branch articulated the President’s views on space exploration 

development through the annual budget submission, other legislation

policy directives. During the administration of President George H. W. 

as in the administration of President Ronald Reagan before him, the Na

Space Council shaped and articulated “national” space policy (as defin

the administration). Chaired by the Vice President, the Council consis

the heads of all departments or other offices with a programmatic r

concern in federal space activities. In November 1993, President Willi

Clinton established the National Science and Technology Council, a ca

level council serving as the principal means for the President to coor

science, space, and technology and coordinate the diverse parts of res

and development at the federal level.
In addition, a series of advisory committees, task groups

commissions, often formed by the NASA Administrator to address sp

Agency concerns, advised the Agency on the direction it deemed 

advantageous and worthwhile to take and how it could solve iden

problems and improve the way “it did business.” These advisory comm

and commissions typically consisted of individuals, both experts and 

experts in fields related to space, from diverse backgrounds such as ind

academia, the military, Congress, NASA, and other government age

Proceedings of these groups, as well as national policy directives, are ci

the following chapters where relevant.

Overview of the Agency

NASA is an independent federal government agency consisting 

headquarters in Washington, DC, nine Centers or installations located a

the United States, and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, a government-o

contractor-occupied facility in Pasadena, California, operated under co

to NASA and staffed by the California Institute of Technology. N

Headquarters consists of program and staff offices providing overall pro

management and administrative functions for the Agency. During the 1

the Agency adopted a thematic strategic enterprise approach to supplem

traditional program office structure. These strategic enterprises, le

Associate Administrators, developed strategy and policy, form

programs, and assigned lead Centers for specific projects and acti

Although the focus and content of the enterprises changed at times, 

their names, they generally fell into the areas of aeronautics, h

spaceflight, Earth science, and space science. To provide continuity 

dealing with Congress, NASA retained its program office designations 

annual budget submissions to Congress. Table 1–1 shows NASA’s pro

offices and their major functional areas as stated in the annual b

submissions broken down by appropriation.

NASA Centers operated fairly autonomously to implement Agency 

programs, and activities as part of a program office or strategic enter

Each Center focused on particular types of projects, technology

discipline areas, indicated by its designation as a Center of Excellenc

table 1–2). Installations were assigned the role of Lead Center for pro

based on the Center’s mission and Center of Excellence capabilities. 

Center was responsible for day-to-day program management and exec

hiring its own personnel, and awarding its own procurements. 
Program and Project Development

NASA called most of its activities “programs” or “projects.” The A

defined programs as “major activities within an enterprise that have d

goals, objectives, requirements, and funding levels, and consist of one or 

projects.” Projects were “significant activities designated by a program 

characterized as having defined goals, objectives, requirements, life

costs, a beginning, and an end.”1

NASA’s programs and projects followed a sequence of events, ca

life cycle, consisting of program formulation, program implementation

several approval milestones needing to be passed. For most of the decad

life cycle consisted of six phases (with corresponding letter designat

Formulation included Advanced Studies (Pre-Phase A), Preliminary An

(Phase A), and Definition (Phase B). Program implementation inc

Design (Phase C), Development (Phase D), and Operations (Phase E).2

In 1998, NASA replaced this structure with one consisting of the sam

major stages—program formulation and program implementation—neit

these divided into formal phases. Program formulation included pro

planning, systems analysis, and technology requirements synthesis. Pro

implementation included program control, technical requirements manage

and the design and development of technology and systems. Several re

and evaluations took place at specific points within each stage. 

Typically, funding for project formulation activities came out of res

and technology funding held at the Headquarters level. Congressional fu

for a specific program was received after a major review was conducted 

end of program implementation. At all stages, a prescribed set of docum

performance metrics, and evaluations were a large part of the proc

ensure that requirements were achieved.3

NASA’s Budget

NASA depends on a reasonable level of funding from Congress each 

to finance its programs.4

 The federal budget process is complex and re

foresight and planning by everyone involved with the allocation of reso

This section provides an overview of the budget process. More de

information can be found in chapter 7 of Volume VIII of the NASA Hist

Data Book, 1989–1998.

1 NASA Procedures and Guidelines (NPG) 7120.5A, “NASA Program and Project Man

Processes and Requirements,” Effective April 3, 1998 (canceled).

2 NASA Handbook (NHB) 7120.5, “Management of Major System Programs and Projects Han

November 8, 1993 (canceled).

3 NPG 7120.5A. 4 The government operates on a “fiscal year” basis that runs from October 1 through September 3

following year. The fiscal year is called by the year in which it ends, e.g., FY 1993 runs from October 

through September 30, 1993.
Congress funded NASA’s activities each year by means of 

appropriations categories. Through fiscal year (FY) 1994, four 

appropriations funded the Agency. The Research and Development (R

appropriation funded most of NASA’s programs and projects. Space

Control, and Data Communications (SFC&DC) funded operation of the 

Shuttle, some Space Station activities, and tracking and data acqui

activities. The Research and Program Management (R&PM) appropr

funded civil service salaries, regardless of the project or office in whi

individual worked, as well as related expenses such as benefits, trainin

travel. Construction of Facilities (C of F) funded design and construct

facilities, purchase of land, and similar activities. The Office of Insp

General appropriation funded this independent office.

In FY 1995, the appropriations categories changed to a 

appropriation structure. The new categories were Human Space Flight (

Science, Aeronautics, and Technology (SAT), and Mission Support 

HSF funded most Space Station and Space Shuttle activities. The 

appropriation funded most research and development programs wit

exception of the Space Station and Space Shuttle. MS funded the civil s

workforce, space communication services, safety and quality assu

activities, maintenance, and most activities formerly funded by the C 

appropriation. The Office of Inspector General retained its appropr

arrangement, as it had before. 

NASA was required to spend its funds according to the way Con

allocated funds among the appropriation categories. Although a pro

office could administer activities from more than one appropriation cat

the Agency could not transfer funds from one appropriation catego

another without congressional notification. Table 1–3 shows the 

programs within each appropriation category.

NASA’s budget planning cycle lasted two years. Two years befo

beginning of a fiscal year, NASA Headquarters sent programmatic and b

guidelines to each Center based on the Agency’s long-range plans and b

forecasts from the Office of Management and Budget (OMB). Each C

then prepared a detailed budget, or Program Operating Plan, for the fisca

beginning two years in the future. The Center also refined the budget f

remainder of the current fiscal year and revised the budget request for th

fiscal year that it had submitted the year before. Additionally, it pro

budget figures for future years. Upon approval from each Center’s comp

and Director, this budget was forwarded to the appropriate Headqu

program or enterprise office, the NASA comptroller, and the N

Administrator. The comptroller and Administrator finalized the b

request and submitted it to the OMB. After OMB review and f

discussion with NASA, the OMB formally submitted the NASA b

request to Congress as part of the President’s budget request in Febru

each year.
NASA prepared and submitted a draft authorization bill that we

NASA’s House and Senate science committees that authorized NA

budget. Ideally, each committee held hearings and discussed the bill wi

NASA Administrator and heads of specific programs. These program 

often testified before Congress in preparation for a vote on the bill. The 

bill was sent to the full House and Senate and, if necessary, a confe

committee reconciled any differences between the House and Senate ver

When both houses of Congress passed the same bill, it went to the Pre

for signature. The authorization bill limited how much could be approp

and could set conditions on how funds were to be spent. 

In some years, however, Congress did not pass an authorization b

those years, although Congress held authorization hearings and discus

only an appropriations bill was passed.5

 The appropriations bill was req

for NASA to actually spend funds. Without an appropriations bill at th

of a fiscal year, Congress must pass a continuing resolution allowing age

to continue operating at a particular level of funding.

The appropriation process was similar to the authorization process

the bills going to the proper appropriations committees for discu

revision, and approval. However, in practice, appropriations comm

usually did not review the proposed budget in as great detail a

authorization committees unless its members were especially intereste

particular program. Upon committee approval, the appropriations bills w

the full House and Senate, back to a conference committee if necessar

finally to the President. After approval by the President, the OMB estab

controls on the release of the funds to the Agency.

Once NASA received control over its appropriated funds, it desig

the funds for its various programs, projects, and facilities. An “accoun

each item was set up allowing the Agency to commit, obligate, cos

disburse the funds and track them as they were spent.6

 NASA scrupu

monitored all of its financial activities, first at the project and Center lev

then at the Headquarters level. Its financial transactions were even

reviewed by the congressional General Accounting Office to ensure tha

were legal and followed appropriate procedures. 

In FY 1995, NASA began a “full cost” accounting initiative. 

initiative included all costs (both direct and indirect) associated wi

activity, not just funds spent during a limited part of a program’s life 

(usually the prelaunch development phase). Before full cost was implem

expenses associated with launch and mission operations and the cost o

service salaries were not counted toward project costs but were instea

into a separate “launch support,” or “mission operations” category. Ful

included all of these costs such as civil service salaries, the use of fac

5 An authorization bill is not required for appropriations to be passed. 6 “To cost” funds refers to the process of recording the total value of resources used in producing g

rendering services.
and support services associated with the benefiting activities as part 

project’s expenses, thus providing a more accurate picture of the actual c

a project. Formulating a full cost budget allowed for full disclosure of NA

activities and established a more defined link between funds receive

funds spent. Full cost also provided the Agency with greater accounta

regarding the use of its resources. For FY 1997 and FY 1998, NASA pre

dual budgets: one using full cost and one using traditional budget metho

the next decade, NASA went completely to using full cost.

The budget tables in the following chapters show the initial am

requested by NASA each fiscal year (two years before the start of the fisca

for which the funds were requested) and the revised amounts (one year b

the start of the fiscal year for which the funds were requested). The table

show the programmed amount, or what the program actually had availa

spend. If full cost figures are available for an activity, they are shown.

This volume addresses NASA’s launch systems, human spacefligh

space science activities. Each chapter provides a review of activities 

previous decade, an overview of the topic, budget and funding 

management structure and personnel, and a description of the system

missions of the decade.
Table 1–1. Programs Within the R&D App

1989 1990 1991 

Office of Space Flight• Space Transportation pability Development CaOffice of Space Station Office of Space Flight• Space Station • Space Station Off ce of Si pace Science Office of Space Science and Applications

and Applications • Physics and Astronomy• Physics and Astronomy • Planetary Exploration• Planetary Exploration • L ife Sciences

• Life Sciences • Earth Sciences• Solid Earth • Materials Processing in Space

Observations • Co immunicat ons

• Environment al • Information Systems

Observations

• Materials Processi ng in

Space

• Communications• Information SystemsOffice of Commercial Programs• Technology Utilization• Commercial Use of Space

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Table 1–1. Programs Within the R&D Appropria

1989 1990 1991 

Office of Aeronautics and Space Technology Office of Aeronautics and Space • Aeronautical Research and Technology Technology • Transatmospheric Research and Technology • Aeronautical Research and • Space Research and Technology Technology • Transatmospheric Research and Technology • Space Research and Technology • Exploration Mission Studies Office of Safety, Reliability, Maintainability, and Quality Assurance • Safety, Reliability, and Quality Assurance Office of Space Tracking and Data Systems • Advanced Systems University Space Science Academic Programs and Technology Academic Programs Technology Academic Programs 

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Table 1–2. Centers of Excellence

Designated Center of 

Center Excellence Mission Area

Ames Research Center Information technology Aviation operations 

systems and astrobio

Dryden Flight Research Atmospheric flight Flight research

Center operations

Goddard Space Flight Scientific research Earth science and ph

Center and astronomy

Jet Propulsion Laboratory Deep space systems Planetary science and 

exploration

Johnson Space Center Human operations in Human exploration a

space astro materials

Kennedy Space Center Launch and cargo 

processing systems

Space launch

Langley Research Center Structure and materials Airframe systems an

atmospheric science

Lewis Research Center Turbomachinery Aeropropulsion

Marshall Space Flight Space propulsion Transportation system

Center development and 

microgravity

Stennis Space Center Propulsion testing systems Propulsion test
Table 1–3. Program Office Functiona

Programs Within the R&D/Science, Aeronautics and Tec

1994 1995 1996 

Office of Space Flight Moved to Human Space Flight appropriation • Space Transportation Capability Development Office of Space Systems Moved to Human Space Flight appropriation Development • Space Station Office of Space Science O• Physics and Astronomy w• Planetary Exploration Office of Life & Office of Life & Office of Life & Microgravity 

Microgravity Sciences Microgravity Sciences Applications 

& Applications & Applications • Life Sciences 

• Life Sciences • Life Sciences • Microgravity Science Resear

• Microgravity Science • Microgravity Science • Space Shuttle/Spacelab Payl

Research Research Management and Integration 

• Shuttle/Spacelab • Space Shuttle/ • Space Station Payload Facili

Payload, Mission Spacelab Payload, • Aerospace Medicine/ OccupManagement and Mission Management Integration and Integration 

• Space Station Payload 

Facilities 

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Table 1–3. Program Office Functional Area

Programs With hin t e R&D/Science, Aeronautics and Technolog

1994 1995 1996 

Office of Mission to Planet EarthOffice of Adva nced Office o f Adv cean d

Concepts & T ogy echnol C nceptso & Technology

• Space Research and • Ad ced Cvan oncepts

Technology and Technology 

• Commercial Programs (comb unctined f iona l• Tech gy Trnolo ansfer areas)• Co emm rcial Use o f

Space

Launch Services

Reallocated to Space Access a

Office of Sp s an ace Acces d Te

• S space Acces and Technolog

Included with Space Access an

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Programs Within the R&D/Science, Aeronautics and Technolog

1994 1995 1996 

Office of Aeronautics • Aeronautical Research & Technology • Transatmospheric Research & Technology Safety, Reliability, and Quality Assurance • Safety, Reliability, and Quality Assurance Space Communications • Advanced Systems

Academic Programs

Office of Aeronautics • Aeronautical Research & Technology

Moved to Mission Support appropriationMission Communication Services• Ground Network• Mission Control & Data Systems• Space Network Customer Service 

Academic Programs

• Education • Minority University Research and Education

ORT• • 

Table 1–3. Program Office Functional Area

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Table 1–3. Program Office Functional Area

Programs Within the Spaceflight, Control, and Data Comm

1989 1990 1991 1992 

Office of Space Flight• Shuttle Production and Operational Capability• Space Transportation OperationsOffice of Space Tracking and Data Systems• Space and Ground Network, Communications and Data SystemsSpace StationU.S.-Russian Cooperative ProgramSpace ShuttlePayload & Utilization Operations

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