What Do I Need to Know
to Protect My Private

Drinking Water Supply?

Approximately 23 million U.S.
citizens rely on their own private
drinking water supplies. Most of
these supplies are drawn from
ground water through wells, but
some households also use water
from streams or cisterns. These
households must take special
precautions to ensure the protec-
tion and maintenance of their
drinking water supplies.

How Can I Test The
Quality Of My Private
Drinking Water Supply?

Private water supplies should be
tested annually for nitrate and
coliform bacteria to detect con-
tamination problems early. They
should be tested more frequently
and for more potential contaminants, such as radon
or pesticides, if a problem is suspected.

Many laboratories are available to test water
quality. Lists of laboratories certified by your state
or the U.S. EPA may be available from your local
or state public health department. Some local health
departments also test private water for free. Phone
numbers for your local, county, or state health
department are available under the government
listings in your phone book.

If you use a private laboratory to conduct the
testing, nitrate and bacteria samples will typically
cost between $10 and $20 to complete. Testing for
other contaminants will be more expensive. For
example, testing for pesticides or organic chemicals
may cost from several hundred to several thousand
dollars.

The laboratory usually supplies sample bottles.
Depending on the type of test to be completed, the

A laboratory technician prepares

1g water sample for analysis

bottles may contain preservatives or include special
instructions for handling the samples. Private water
can most easily be sampled at the drinking water tap
by carefully filling the bottles to avoid spilling or
getting other contaminants into the bottle. For
nitrates and other basic water tests, the bottles can
usually be mailed to the laboratory. Some tests, :
such as those for coliform bacteria, may require that
the sample bottles be kept cool until they are
delivered to the laboratory for analysis. .

Most laboratories mail back the sample results
within days or several weeks. The results typically
indicate whether a particular contaminant was
detected in the sample. If a contaminant is detected,
the results will include the concentration of the
contaminant and an indication of whether this
concentration exceeds a drinking water quality
standard. If a standard is exceeded in your sample,
you should retest the water supply immediately and

contact your public health department for assis-

Jim Walasek


Federal
drinking
water
Standards
protect

the public.

sumer confidence reports at a minimum will pro-
vide:

¢ Information about where your drinking water
comes from,

+ Results of monitoring that the system performed
during the year, and

+ Information on health concerns associated with
violations that occurred during the year.

Beginning in 1999, systems will have to prepare
and distribute the reports annually. Systems serving
fewer than 10,000 persons will, at the Governor’s
option, be able to make the reports available to the
public in ways other than mailing them.

How Often Is My Water Supply
Tested?

EPA has established pollutant-specific minimum
testing schedules for public water systems. To find
out how frequently your drinking water is tested,
contact your water system or state agency in charge
of drinking water.

The table on this page shows the major groups of ~
contaminants and the minimum frequency that
public water systems must test for them. If a
problem is detected, there are immediate retesting
requirements that go into effect and strict instruc-

Sample Monitoring Schedule |

Contaminant Minimum Monitoring
Frequency

Acute Contaminants

Monthly or quarterly,
depending on system size
and type

Continuous monitoring for

turbidity, monthly for total
coliforms, as indicators

Bacteria

Protozoa and
Viruses

Nitrate Annually

Chronic Contaminants

Ground water systems,
annually for 2 consecutive
years; surface water
systems, annually

Volatile Organics
(e.g., benzene)

Larger systems, twice in 3
years; smaller systems,
once in 8 years.

Synthetic Organics
(e.g., pesticides)

Ground water systems, '
once every 3 years; surface
water systems, annually

Inorganics/Metals

Lead and Copper Annually

Radionuclides

Once every 4 years

General requirements may differ slightly based on the size or
type of drinking water system.

tions for how the system informs the public about

the problem. Until

the system can
reliably demonstrate
that it is free of
problems, the
retesting is contin- —
ued.

In 1996, one out of
five CWSs did not
conduct testing or
report the results for
all of the monitoring
required to verify
drinking water
safety. Although
failure to monitor
does not necessarily
suggest safety
problems, conduct-
ing the required
monitoring and


Appendix B
References

American Water Works Association.
Water Quality and Treatment. Fourth
Edition. 1990.

Bowen, Paul T., Jimmy F. Harp, John
W. Baxter, and Robert D. Shull.
Residential Water Use Patterns.
American Water Works Research
Foundation. 1993.

Chanlett, Emil T. Environmental
Protection. McGraw-Hill Book
Company, 1973.

Clark, John W., Warren Veissman Jr.,
and Mark J. Hammer. Water Supply
and Pollution Control. Second
Edition. International Textbook
Company, 1971.

Corbitt, Robert A. Standard Hand-
book of Environmental Engineering.
Chapter 5, Water Supply. McGraw-
Hill, Inc., 1989.

Goodman, Alvin S. Principles of
Water Resources Planning. Prentice-
Hall, Inc., 1984.

Kramer, M.H., et al. Waterborne
Disease: 1993 and 1994. Journal of
the American Water Works Associa-
tion, March 1996.

Metcalf & Eddy, Inc. Wastewater
Engineering: Collection, Treatment,
Disposal. McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1972.

Nalco Chemical Company. The Nalco
Water Handbook. Second Edition
edited by Frank N. Kemmer. Chapters
35 and 40. McGraw-Hill Book
Company, ‘1988.

Pontius, F.W. SDWA: A Look Back.
Journal of American Water Works ~
Association. February 1993.

Pontius, F.W. Federal Drinking
Water Regulation Update. Journal of
American Water Works Association.
February 1993.

Solo-Gabriele, H. and S. Neumeister.
U.S. Outbreaks of Cryptosporidiosis.
Journal of the American Water Works
Association, September 1996.

Symons, James M. Plain Talk About
Drinking Water—Questions and

, Answers About the Water You Drink.

Second Edition, The American Water
Works Association. 1994.

Van der Leeden, Frits, Fred L. Troise,
and David K. Todd. The Water
Encyclopedia. Second Edition. Lewis
Publishers, Inc., 1990. .

Veissman Jr., Warren, and Claire ©
Welty. Water Management: Technol-
ogy and Institutions. Harper & Row,
Publishers, 1985.

U.S. Congress, Office of Technology
Assessment. Are We Cleaning Up? 10
Superfund Case Studies—Special
Report. OTA-ITE-362, June 1988.

U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency Publications

Manual of Individual Water Supply
Systems. EPA-570/9-82-004, October
1982.

Home Water Treatment Units—
Filtering Fact from Fiction. EPA 570/
9-90-HHH. September 1990.

Guidance in Developing Health
Criteria for Determining Unreason-
able Risks to Health. Draft. October
1990.

Is Your Drinking Water Safe? EPA
- 570/9-91-005. September 1991.

National Primary Drinking Water
Standards. EPA 810-F-94-001.
February 1994,

Drinking Water Treatment for Small
Communities—A Focus on EPA’s
Research. EPA/640/K-94/003. May
1994,

Is Your Drinking Water Safe? EPA
810-F-94-002. May 1994.

Safe Drinking Water: Health/Safety
Requirements and Resulting Costs.
EPA 810-K-94-001. November 1994.

Lead And Copper Rule: Fact Sheet.
EPA 570/9-91-400. January 1995.

Surface Water Treatment Rule: Fact
Sheet, EPA 570/9-91-300. January
1995.

The Phase I Rule: Fact Sheet. EPA
570/9-91-026FS. January 1995.

The Phase I Rule: Fact Sheet. EPA
570/9-91-027FS. January 1995.

The Phase V Rule: Fact Sheet. EPA
811-F-92-001. January 1995.

Strengthening the Safety of Our
Drinking Water: A Report on

* Progress and Challenges and An

Agenda for Action. EPA 810-R-95-
001. March 1995.

The National Public Water System
Supervision Program. FY 1995
Compliance Report. EPA 812-R-96-
001. October 1996.

Office of Ground Water and Drinking
Water Publications. EPA 810-B-96-
001. June 1996.


Water on Tap: AD
Consumer’s Guide to the
Nation’s Drinking Water

The United States enjoys one of the best supplies of
drinking water in the world. Nevertheless, many of -
us who once gave little or no thought to the water
that comes from our taps are increasingly asking the:
question: “Is my water safe to drink?” While tap
water that meets federal and state standards gener-
ally is safe to drink, threats to drinking water quality
and quantity are increasing: From short-term
disease outbreaks linked to contaminated drinking
water to restrictions on water use during droughts,
we can no longer take our drinking water for
granted.

_ People are asking many questions. How safe is my.
drinking water? Where does my drinking water
come from, and how does it get to niy home? My
water may be safe now, but what about in the
future? What can I do to help protect my drinking
water? ,

This booklet provides answers to these and other

frequently asked questions. It also describes
changes in the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA)
that will make new information available to con-
sumers in the near future. The U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) wants to help consumers
understand this new information and to encourage
these informed consumers to become engaged ~
citizens. The SDWA offers opportunities for
citizens to participate in maintaining high quality
drinking water. It is our shared responsibility,
involving federal, state; and local government;
“water suppliers; and the public to help maintain the
quality and quantity of our drinking water.

This booklet also directs you to more detailed
sources of information to help you become an active
participant in ensuring the quality of your drinking
water. You can check with the resources in the
Appendix, or call the EPA’s Safe Drinking Water
Hotline at (800) 426-4791 for information on how
to get involved with drinking water protection.

The Bull Run
Watershed
provides
drinking water
‘for Portland,
Oregon.

City. of Portland, Oregon Bureau of Water Works



tance. Some problems can be handled quickly. For
example, high bacteria concentrations can some-
times be controlled by disinfecting a well. Filters or
other on-site treatment processes may also remove
some contaminants. Other problems may require a
new source of water, such as a new, deeper well. If
serious problems persist, you may need to rely on
bottled water until a new water source can be
obtained.

How Can I Protect My Private Water
‘Supply?

You can protect your water supply by carefully
managing activities near the water source. For
households using a domestic well, this includes *
keeping contaminants away from sinkholes and the
well itself: Hazardous chemicals also should be kept
out of septic systems.

Several sources of technical assistance are available
to help you protect your water supply. The organi-
zation Farm*A*Syst/Home*A*Syst provides fact
sheets and worksheets to help farmers and rural
residents assess pollution risks and develop man-
agement plans geared toward their circumstances.
For example, Farm*A*Syst helps farmers and
ranchers identify pollution risks from nitrates,
microbes, and toxic chemicals. Home*A*Syst
teaches homeowners who face pollution risks from
faulty septic systems, pesticide use, petroleum,
leaks, and hazardous waste disposal. More informa-
tion about the programs is available from:

Farm*A*Syst/Home*A*Syst Program
B142 Steenbock Library

University of Wisconsin

Madison, WI 53706

608 262-0024

e-mail: farmasyst@macc.wisc.edu

web site: http://www.wisc.edu/farmasyst

Local health departments.and agricultural extension.
agents can also provide general technical assistance.
They can be found under the government listing in
your phone book. The U.S. EPA Safe Drinking
Water Hotline also provides access to publications
and technical assistance over the phone at (800)
426-4791. The Hotline may also be able to direct
you to other sources of state and local assistance.

A main potential source of contaminationc _rivate
water supplies is septic systems or other on-site
wastewater disposal systems. If these systems are

not properly sited, designed, and maintained, they
can leak contaminants into drinking water supplies.
Information on septic system design and mainte-
nance is available from local health departments,
state agencies, and the National Small Flows
Clearinghouse at (800) 624-8301. A septic system
design manual and guidance on system maintenance
are available from EPA.

runoff

Install &





MCLG MCL Potential Health Effects . .
Contaminants + (mg/L) (mg/L) from Ingestion of Water Sources of Contaminant in Drinking Water
Organics (continued)
‘yane-1,2-Dichloroethyiane oa oa Liver, kidney, nervous, circulatory Waste industrial extraction solvents
Dichioromethand zer0 0.008 Cancer Paint stripper, metal degreaser, propellant, extraction
41,2-Dichloropropane zero 0.005 Liver, Kidney effects; Gancer Soll fumigant; waste industrial solvents
Dinoseb 0.007 0.007 ' Thyroid, reproductive organ damage Runoff of herbicide from crop and non-orop applications
Dioxin zero 0.00000003 Cancer ‘Chemical production by-product; impurity in herbicides.
Diquat , 0.02 0.02 Liver, kidney, eye effects Runoff of herbicide on land & aquatic weeds,
240% 0.07 0.07.” Liver and kidney damage Runoff from herbicide on wheat, com, rangelands, lawns
Endothall . oa on Liver, kidney, gastrointestinal Herbicide on crops, land/aquatic weeds; rapidly degraded
Endrin : 0.002 0.002. Liver, kidney, heart dainage Pesticide on insects, rodents, birds; restricted since 1860
Epichlorohydrin zero Tw Cancer Water treatment chémicals; waste epoxy resins, coatings
extyibénzene or 0:7, _Uver,Kdnoy, nervous system Gasoline; insecticides; chercal manuiaturti westes
Ethylene dlbromide zero (0.00005 Cancer . Leaded gasoline additives; leaching of soil fumigant
Glyphosate 07 o7 Liver, kidney damage Herbicide on grasses, weeds, brush
Heptachlor ‘we16 0.6004. Gancer Leaching of insecticide for termites, very few crops
Heptachior epoxide zor0 0.0002 Cancer Biodegradation of eptachlor
Hexachlorobenzene zero 0.001 ' Cancer Pesticide production waste by-product
Hexachlorocyclopentaciene —, 0.08 0.05 —_Kicy, stomach damage » Pesticide production intermediate
Lindane 0.0002 0.0002 Liver, kidney, nerve, immune, circul. Insecticide on cattle, kmiber, gardens; restricted 1983
Methoxychlor 0.04 0.04. Gréwth iver, kidney, nerve effects Insecticide for fits, vegetables, alfalfa, livestodk, pets
Oxamyl (Vydate) 02 02 ‘Kidney damage Insecticide on apples, potatoes, tomatoes
PAHs (benzo(a)pyrene) = 26r0 0.0002; Cancer Goal tar coatings; burning organic matter: voleanoes, fossil fuels
Pops + 2010 0.0005 . Cancer . Coolant oils rom electrical transformers; plasticizers
Pentachlorophenol 220 0.001 _Lver &nd kidney effects, and cancer Wood preservatives, herbicide, cooling tower wastes
Phihalate, (ci (@-ethythexy)) —* - zero 0.006 Gancer . PVC and other plastics
Picloram 05 os. Kidney, ver damage Herbicide on broadléa and woody plats .
Simazine. 0.008 0.004 Cancer Hetbicide on grass sod, some crops, aquatic algae
‘Styrene on oa Liver, nervous system damage Pastis, rubber, resin, drug industries; leachate, from city landils
‘Tetrachloroethylene 0.005 Cancer . "Improper disposal of dry cleaning and other solvents
Toluene 1 1° Liver, kidney, nervous, circulatory Gasoline additive; manufacturing and solvent operations
Toxaphene 2810 0.003 Cancer * Insecticide on cal, cotton, soybeans; cancelled 1962
245-TP : 005° |, 0.05 —_Liverand kidney damage Herbicide on crops, right-of-way, gof courses: cancelled 1988
1.24-Trehlorabenzone 0.07 0.07 Liver, kidney damage Hobicide production; dye cartier
1\1,2-Trichloroethane 0.008 0.005. Kidney, liver, nervous system Solvent in rubber other organic products; chemical production wastes
Xylenes (total) ) 10 Liver, kidney, nervous system By-product of gasoline refining; paint, inks, detergents
‘Lead and Copper
Lead 2010 ‘T+ Kidneys, nervous system damage Naturalindustrial deposits; plumbing, solder, brass alloy fauets,
Copper . 13 Te Gastrointestialiitation NaturaVindustal deposits; wood preservatives, plumbing
Other Interim Standaras .
counemwmn oie “On cnc cna it
Alpha emitters zero 15 pOVl.» Cancer Decay of radionuclides in natural deposits
Combined Radium 226 228 zero SpOi. Bone cancer ‘Natural deposits
Arsenie* 0.05 0.05 Skin, nervous system toxicity Natural deposits; Smelter, glass, electronics wastes; Orchards
Total Tihalomethanes zero 010 Cancer Drinking water chlorination by-products

Notes: “Contaminants with interim standards which have been revised. TT=Special treatment techniques required

‘+=Action Level 0.015mg/t. #=Action,Level 1.2mg/L pCispicocuries

“EB }



What Can I Do If There Is
A Problem With My
Drinking Water?

Local incidents, such as spills and treatment prob-
lems, can lead to short-term needs for alternative
water supplies or in-home water treatment. In
isolated cases, individuals have needed to rely on
alternative supplies for the long term because of
their individual health needs or problems with
obtaining new drinking water supplies.

Local water suppliers are required to notify you if
there is a problem with your drinking water. In
addition, if you suspect a problem, you can hire a
laboratory to analyze your drinking water.

Are Alternative Water Supplies’
Available? What About Bottled
Water?

Yes, alternative sources of water are available.
Bottled water is sold in supermarkets and conve-
nience stores. Some companies lease or sell water
dispensers or

bubblers and

regularly deliver

large bottles of

water to homes and

businesses, Bottled

water is very

expensive com-

pared to water from

a public water

system. Bottled

water quality varies

among brands,

because of varia-

tions in the source

water used, costs,

and company

practices.

The U.S. Food and
Drug Administra-
tion (FDA) regu-
lates bottled water

used for drinking. FDA imposes quality standards
that are equivalent to EPA’s drinking water stan-
dards. Source water and product water must be
periodically sampled and analyzed for compliance
with quality standards for microbiological contami-
nants, radionuclides, organics and inorganics. FDA
has adopted regulations to ensure fair labeling
practices. These include standard definitions for
sources such as mineral water, artesian water,
ground water, and distilled water. Requirements are
also established for the nutritional content of bottled
water, as part of normal food labeling regulations.
As an additional safeguard, FDA.recommends that
bottled water be handled like other food products
and refrigerated after opening.

A shopper purchases bottled water during

Milwaukee, Wisconsin’s 1993 Cryptosporidiosis outbreak.

AP/World Wide Photos.



know what types of treatment are used for your
water supply, contact your local water supplier
or public works department.

Flocculation/Sedimentation

Flocculation refers to water treatment processes that
combine small particles into larger particles, which
settle out of the water as sediment. Alum and iron
salts or synthetic organic polymers (alone, or in
combination with metal salts) are generally used to
promote coagulation. Settling or sedimentation is
simply a gravity process that removes flocculated
particles from the water.

Filtration

Many water treatment facilities use filtration to
remove remaining particles from the water supply.
Those particles include clays and silts, natural
organic matter, precipitants from other treatment
processes in the facility, iron and manganese, and
microorganisms. Filtration clarifies water and
enhances the effectiveness of disinfection.

Ton Exchange

Ton exchange processes are used to remove inor- _
ganic constituents if they cannot be removed

adequately by filtration or sedimentation. Ion
exchange can be used to treat hard water. It can also
be used to remove arsenic, chromium, excess
fluoride, nitrates, radium, and uranium.

Adsorption

Organic contaminants, color, and taste- and odor-
causing compounds can stick to the surface of
granular or powdered activated carbon (GAC or
PAC). GAC is generally more effective than PAC
in removing these contaminants. Adsorption is not
commonly used in public water supplies.

Disinfection (chlorination, ozonation)

Water is often disinfected before it enters the
distribution system to ensure that dangerous mi-

" crobes are killed. Chlorine, chloramines, or chlorine

dioxide most often are used because they are very
effective disinfectants,-and residual concentrations
can be maintained to guard against biological
contamination in the water distribution system.
Ozone is a powerful disinfectant, but it is not
effective in controlling biological contamninants in
the distribution pipes.

EPA is in the process of developing regulations
limiting the amount of disinfection by-products
(DBPs). DBPs are contaminants that form when

ifectants react with organic matter that is in
treated drinking water. Long-term exposure to some
DBPs may increase the risk of cancer or other
adverse health effects.

How Much Does It Cost
To Treat And Deliver
My Drinking Water?

On a per gallon basis, water is
cheap. On average, water costs
are slightly more than $2 per
1,000 gallons, although the costs
tend to be lower for large water
systems. Treatment accounts for
about 15 percent of that cost.

Other costs are for equipment

(such as the treatment plant and
distribution system) and labor
for operation and maintenance
of the system.

tustration adapted with permission from a publication of the East Bay Municipal Utility District, Oakland, California



linked to contamination by bacteria or viruses,
probably from human or animal waste. In 1993 and
1994, for example, there were 30 reported disease
outbreaks associated with drinking water, 23

associated with public drinking water supplies and 7

with private wells.

Certain pathogens, such as Cryptosporidium, may
pass through water treatment filtration and disinfec-
tion processes in sufficient numbers to cause health
problems. Cryptosporidium is a protozoa that
causes the gastrointestinal disease cryptosporidiosis.
The most serious, and sometimes deadly, conse-
quences of cryptosporidiosis tend to be focused
among sensitive members of the population, such as
individuals with immune system deficiencies.

A 1993 outbreak of cryptosporidiosis in Milwaukee,
Wisconsin, is the largest outbreak of waterborne
disease in the United States. Lake Michigan is the
source of Milwaukee’s water, which is treated by
filtration and disinfection. Due to an unusual
combination of circumstances during a period of
heavy rainfall and runoff the treatment plant was
ineffective, resulting in an increase in the turbidity
of the treated water. Increased turbidity can be, and
was in this case, an indicator-of higher levels of
Cryptosporidium. Over 400,000 persons were
affected by the disease, more than 4,000 were
hospitalized, and over 50 deaths (some counts are as
high as 100) have been attributed to the disease. The
original source of contamination is uncertain.

Nitrate in drinking water at levels above the na-

tional standard poses an immediate threat to young ©

children. Excessive levels can result in a condition
known as “blue baby syndrome.” If untreated, the
‘condition could be fatal.

Boiling water contaminated with nitrate increases the
nitrate concentration and the potential risk. Persons
worried about nitrate should talk: with their doctor

about alternatives to using boiled water in baby
formula.

Naturally occurring contaminants also are being
found in drinking water. For example, the radioac-
tive gas radon-222 occurs in certain types of rock:
and can get into ground water. People can be ‘
exposed to radon in water by drinking it, while
showering, or when washing dishes. The primary
source of exposure to radon in the home is radon
seeping out of the soil and into the basement air.

Where Can I Get More Information
About My Water?

Information on water quality in your area is avail-
able from several sources, including your local
public health department and your water supplier.
You can determine whom to contact by checking
your water bill or by calling your local town hall.

State agencies also can provide extensive informa-

tion on your water supply and its quality. Each state

has a department responsible for drinking water
quality.

EPA maintains general water resources information
at its headquarters and in its 10 regional offices: -
Other groups, such as environmental organizations,
also may be able to provide information. Appen-
dix C lists organizations that can answer your
questions and provide additional information.

How Does EPA Set Drinking Water
Standards? | :

EPA has issued drinking water standards, or Maxi-
mum Contaminant Levels (MCLs) for more than 80
contaminants. (See Appendix A.) The standards
limit the amount of each substance allowed to be
present in drinking water.

A process called risk assessment is used to set
drinking water quality standards. When assessing
the cancer and non-cancer risks from exposure to a
chemical in drinking water, the first step is to
measure how much of the chemical could be in the
water. Next, scientists estimate how much of the
chemical the average person is likely to drink. This
amount is called the exposure. In developing
drinking water standards, EPA assumes that the
average adult drinks 2 liters of water each day
throughout a 70-year life span.

Risks are estimated separately for cancer and non-
cancer effects. For cancer effects, a risk assessment
estimates a measure of the chances that someone
may get cancer because they have been exposed to a
drinking water contaminant. EPA generally sets
MCLs at levels that will limit-an individual’s risk of

cancer from that contaminant to between 1 in

10,000 and 1 in 1,000,000 over a lifetime. For non-
cancer effects, the risk assessment estimates an
exposure level bélow which no adverse effects are
expected to occur.



How Safe Is My Drinking
Water? | |

Most community water suppliers deliver high
quality drinking water to millions of Americans
every day. Of the more than 55,000 Community
Water Systems in the United States, only 4,769 or
8.6 percent reported a violation of one or more
drinking water health standards in 1996. (See pages
3 and’4 for more information about what constitutes
a violation.)

Nationwide, drinking water systems have spent
hundreds of billions of dollars to build drinking
water treatment and distribution systems, and they
spend an additional $22 billion per year to operate
and maintain them. Additional monies became
available in 1997 to upgrade drinking water systems
and implement local source water protection
activities. (See page 12 for more details.)

In addition, there is a network of government
agencies whose job is to ensure that public water
supplies are safe. Nonetheless, problems with local
drinking water can, and do, occur.

Why Does EPA Allow Any
Contaminants in Drinking Water?

All sources of drinking water contain some natu-
rally occurring contaminants. Because water is the
universal solvent, many materials are easily dis-'
solved upon contact. At low levels, these contami-
nants generally are not harmful in our drinking
water. Removing all contaminants would be ex-
tremely expensive and in nearly all cases would not
provide greater protection of health. A few of the
naturally occurring substances may actually im-
prove the taste of drinking water and may have
nutritional values at low levels.

What Problems Can Occur?

As development in our modern society increases,
there are growing numbers of threats that could
contaminate drinking water. Suburban sprawl has

Community Water Systems Violating
Maximum Contaminant Levels or
Treatment Standards in 1996

[50% - 6% of Systems
% ~ 11% of Systems|
11+ % of Systems

encroached upon once-pristine watersheds, bringing
witlvit all of the by-products of our modern life
style. Actual events of serious drinking water
contamination occur infrequently, and typically not
at levels posing near-term health concern. Nonethe-
less, with the threats of such events increasing, we
cannot take drinking water safety for granted.
Greater vigilance by you, your water supplier, and

* your government is vital to ensure that such events

do not occur in your water supply.

Microbiological and chemical contaminants can
enter water supplies. These materials can be the
result of human activity or can be found in nature.
For instance, chemicals can migrate from disposal
sites and contaminate sources of drinking water.
Animal wastes and pesticides may be carried to
lakes and streams by rainfall runoff or snow melt.
Human wastes may be discharged to receiving
waters that ultimately flow to water bodies used for
drinking water. Coliform bacteria from human and
animal wastes may be found in drinking water if the
water is not properly treated or disinfected. These
bacteria are used as indicators that other harmful
organisms may be in the water.

The potential for health problems from drinking
water is illustrated by localized outbreaks of water-
borne disease. Many of these outbreaks have been



Can I Do Anything In My House To
Improve The Safety Of My. Drinking
Water?

You can choose to install a home water treatment
device to add a factor of safety, or to address
concerns about the taste of your water. Point-of-use
(POU) systems treat water at a single tap. Point-of-
entry (POE) systems treat water used throughout a
house. POU systems can be installed in various
places in the home, including on the counter top, at
the faucet itself, or under the sink. POE systems are
installed where the water line enters the house.

POU and POE devices are based on various con-
taminant removal technologies. Filtration, ion
exchange, reverse osmosis, and distillation are some
of the treatment methods used. All types of units are
generally available from retailers, or by mail order.
Prices can range well into the hundreds of dollars.

* Depending on the method and location of installa-
tion, plumbing changes can also add to costs.

Home filtration units use activated carbon filters,
which adsorb organic contaminants and constituents
that cause taste and odor problems. Depending on
their design, some units can remove chlorination
by-products, some cleaning solvents, and pesticides.
To maintain the effectiveness of these units, the
carbon canisters must be replaced periodically.
Activated carbon filters are not efficient in remov-
ing metals such as lead and copper.

Because ion exchange units can be used to remove
minerals from your water, particularly calcium and
magnesium, they are sold for water softening. Some
ion exchange softening units remove radium and
barium from water. Ion exchange’ systems that
employ activated alumina are used to remove
fluoride and arsenate from water. These units must
be regenerated periodically with salt.

Reverse osmosis treatment units generally remove a
more diverse list of contaminants than other sys-
tems. They can remove nitrates, sodium, other

' dissolved inorganics, and organic compounds.

Distillation units boil water and condense the
resulting steam to create distilled water. Depending
on their design, some of these units may allow ~
vaporized organic contaminants to condense back
into the product water, thus minimizing the removal
of organics.

You may choose to boil your water to remove
microbial contaminants. Keep in mind that boiling
reduces the.volume of water by about 20 percent, .
thus concentrating other contaminants not affected
by the temperature of boiling water, such as nitrates
and pesticides.

properly, con
and actually 1f

some vend

Where Can I Learn About the
Effectiveness Of These Devices?

Your local library has articles; such as those found
in consumer magazines, on the effectiveness and
cost of these devices.

Copies of a booklet Drinking Water: Inadequate
Regulation of Home Treatment Units Leaves
Consumers at Risk (December 1991) are available
from the U.S. General Accounting Office, P.O. Box
6015, Gaithersburg, MD 20884-6015 (phone: (202)
512-6000).

Organizations you can.contact for more information
on home treatment units are:;

The National Sanitation Foundation
3475 Plymouth Road

P.O. Box 1468

Ann Arbor, MI 48106

(800) 673-8010

web: http://www.nsf.org

The Water Quality Association.
Consumer Affairs Department
P.O. Box 606

Lisle, IL:60532

(800) 749-0234

web: http://www.wqa.org



|

Where Does My Drinking
Water Come From? —

Drinking water comes from surface water and
ground water. Large-scale water supply systems
tend to rely on surface water resources, and smaller
water systems tend to use ground water. Including
the approximately 23 million Americans who use
ground water as a private drinking ‘water source,
slightly more than half of the population receives its
drinking water from ground water sources.

Surface water includes rivers, lakes, and reservoirs.
Ground water is pumped from wells that are drilled
into aquifers. Aquifers are geologic formations that
contain water. The quantity of water in an aquifer
and the water produced by a well depend on the
nature of the rock, sand, or soil in the aquifer where
the well withdraws water. Drinking water wells may

+ be shallow (50 feet or less) or deep (more than
1,000 feet). Your water utility or your public works
department can tell you the source of your public
drinking water supply.

Percentage of Population Using
Ground Water and Surface Water

Ground Water
539%

IP” Suxtace Wat
7” Sistaco Viator

Source: USGS 1986 National Water Summary

What is a Public Water System?

The SDWA defines a public water system as one
that serves piped water to at least 25 persons or 15
service connections for at least 60 days per year.
Such systems may be owned by homeowner asso-
ciations, investor-owned water companies, local
governments, and others. Water that does not come
from a public water supply, and which serves one ot

only a few homes, is called a private supply.

Community water systems are public systems that
serve people year-round in their homes. EPA also
regulates other kinds of public water systems—such
as those at schools, factories, carhpgrounds, or
restaurants—that have their own water supply. The
data shown in this report cover only community

- water systems because they are the source of most

drinking water.

How. Does Water Get To My Faucet?

Ina typical community water supply system, water
is transported under pressure through a distribution
network of buried pipes. Smaller pipes, called house
service lines, are attached to the main water lines to
bring water from the distribution network to your
house. In many community water supply systems,
water pressure is provided by pumping water up
into storage tanks that store water at higher eleva-
tions than the houses they serve. The force of
gravity then “pushes” the water into your home
when you open your tap. Houses on a private supply
usually get their water from a private well. A pump
brings the water out of the ground and into a small
tank within the home, where the water is stored
under pressure. ‘

How Do Public Water Suppliers
Treat My Water To Make It Safe?

Water suppliers use a'variety of treatment processes
to remove contaminants from drinking water. These
individual processes may be arranged in a “treat-
ment train” to remove undesirable contaminants
from the water. The most commonly used processes
include filtration, flocculation and sedimentation,
and disinfection. Some treatment trains also include
ion exchange and adsorption. A typical water
treatment plant would have only the combination of
processes needed to treat the contaminants in the
source water used by the facility. If you want to



Appendix C
Sources of Additional |
Information

American Water Works

Association

Public Affairs Department

6666 West Quincy Avenue
* Denver, CO 80235

Phone: (303) 347-6284

Web: http://www.awwa.org.

Association of Metropolitan Water
Agencies

1717 K Street, NW; Suite 1102
Washington, DC 20036

Phone: (202) 331-2820

Fax: (202) 785-1845

Association of State Drinking
Water Administrators

1120 Connecticut Avenue, NW
Suite 1060 1
Washington, DC 20036

Phone: (202) 293-7655

Fax: (202) 293-7656

Environmental Working Group
1718 Connecticut Avenue, NW
Suite 600

Washington, DC 20009

Phone: (202) 667-6982

Fax: (202) 232-2592

Web: http://www.ewg.org

Friends of the Earth

1025 Vermont Avenue, NW
Suite 300

Washington, DC 20005
Phone: (202) 783-7400

Fax: (202) 783-0444

Groundwater Foundation
P.O. Box 22558

Lincoln, NE 68542

Phone: (800) 858-4844

Fax: (402) 434-2742

‘Web: http://groundwater.org

Know Your Watershed

1220 Potter Drive, Room 170
West Lafayette, IN 47906-1383
Phone: (317) 494-9555

Fax: (317) 494-5969

League of Women Voters
Education Fund

1730 M Street, NW
Washington, DC 20036
Phone: (202) 429-1965
Fax: (202) 429-0854

National Association of Water
Companies

1725 K Street, NW; Suite 1212
Washington, DC 20006

Phone: (202) 833-8383

Fax: (202) 331-7442

National Drinking Water Clearing-

house

West Virginia University

P.O. Box 6064

Morgantown, WV 26506-6064
Phone: (800) 624-8301

E-mail: webmaster @estd.wvu.edu
Web: http://www .ndwe.wvu.edu

* Natural Resources Defense Council

1200 New York Avenue, NW
Suite 400

Washington, DC 20005

Phone: (202) 289-6868

Web: http://www.igc.apc.org/nrde/

National Rural Water Association
2915 South 13th Street

Duncan, OK 73533

Phone: (405) 252-0629

Web: http://www.cais.com/nrwainfo/

U.S. Department of Agriculture
Rural Utility Service

1400 Independence Avenue, SW
Washington, DC 20250

Phone: (202) 690-2670

Web: http:/Awww.usda.gov/rus

US. Geological Survey
Hydrologic Information Unit
419 National Center

Reston, VA 22092

Phone: (703) 648-6818

U.S. EPA.

401 M Street, SW

Washington, DC 20460

Water Resource Center

Phone: (202) 260-7786

SDWA Hotline: (800) 426-4791.
Web: http://www.epa.gov/OGWDW

EPA Regional Offices
EPA Region 1

(CT, ME, MA, NH, RI, VT)
Phone: (617) 565-3478

‘EPA Region 2

(NJ, NY, PR, VI)
Phone: (212) 637-3725

EPA Region 3
(DE, DC, MD, PA, VA, WV)

‘Phone: (215) 566-5701

EPA Region 4
(AL, FL, GA, KY, MS, NC, SC, TN)
Phone: (404) 562-9424

EPA Region 5
(IL, IN, MI, MN, OH, WD)
Phone: (312) 353-4919

EPA Region 6
(AR, LA, NM, OK, TX)
Phone: (214) 665-7155

EPA Region 7
(IA, KS, MO; NE)
Phone: (913) 551-7030

EPA Region 8
(CO, MT, ND, SD, UT, WY)
Phone: (303) 312-6260

EPA Region 9
(AZ, CA, HI, NV, AS, GU)
Phone: (415) 744-1818

EPA Region 10
(AK, ID, OR, WA) _
Phone: (206) 553-1230

zy.



Environmental Protection Washington, DC 20460 July 1997

United States Office of Water (4601) EPA 815-K-97-002
Agency

SEPA Water on Tap:

A Consumer's Guide to the Nation's
Drinking Water

Lon. Recycled Paper il



How Do Water Utilities Ensure
Adequate Drinking Water Supplies?

Water utilities forecast water source availability,
growth in population, and water demand to ensure
adequate future water supplies during normal
conditions and periods of drought. When water
shortages are predicted or experienced, water
utilities have many options for conserving water.
Temporary cutbacks or permanent operating
adjustments can help conserve water. Permanent
conservation measures may include:

* Subsidizing use of water-efficient faucets, toilets,
and showerheads ‘

* Public education and voluntary use reduction

* Billing practices that impose higher rates for
higher amounts of water use

* Building codes that require water-efficient
fixtures or appliances

+ Leak detection surveys and meter testing, repair,
and replacement

¢ Reduction in use and increase in recycling of
industrial water

Temporary cutbacks may include:

. * Reduction of system-wide operating pressure

« Water use bans, restrictions, and rationing

How Can I Reduce The Amount Of
Drinking Water I Use?: .

There are many ways to conserve water that result
in significant reductions. For example, residential
water consumption can be reduced by using water-
efficient fixtures (faucets, toilets, and showerheads)
and appliances, and through better managed lawn
watering. The graphic at the lower left shows the
relative effectiveness of residential techniques used
to reduce water use. Possible water savings are
indicated as a percentage of total interior water use
for conservation methods such as low-water use
toilets, water-efficient faucets, and low-water use
appliances.

Can Business Also Reduce Water
Use? .

Water can be conservéd in the industrial and
commercial sectors -

Low-Flow Showerheads e—
(or Flow Restrictors), 12%

Low-Water Use
Clothes Washers, 5% 7

Ways To Save Water At Home*
(‘Water Savings as Percent of Total Interior Water Use) “

through recycling and
waste reduction.
Industry has imple-
mented conservation
measures to comply
with state and federal
water pollution con-

Low-Water Use Toilets (or trols. Evaluation of

Plastic Bottles or Water : ,
Damsin Toilet Reservoir), | industrial plant data
18% may show that a

particular process or
manufacturing step

Low-Flow Aerators on uses the most water or

Faucets (or! Replace- causes the greatest
ment Faucets), contamination. Such
Low-Water Use

areas can be targeted
for water conservation,
thus saving on plant-
wide water use. Also,

Dishwasher, 4%

Insulation on water that is contami-
Hot Water Lines, 4%
nated by one process
may be usable in other

plant processes thatdo .
not require high-quality
water.



How Much Drinking

Water Do We Use In Our

Homes?

On average, our society uses almost 100 gallons of
drinking water per person per day. Traditionally,
water use rates are described in units of gallons per
capita per day (gpcd), gallons used by one person in
one day. Of the “drinking water” supplied by public
water systems, only a small portion is actually used
for drinking. As residential water consumers, we
use most water for other purposes, such as toilet
flushing, bathing, cooking, cleaning, and lawn
watering.

The amount of water we use in our homes varies
during the day:

* Lowest rate of use - 11:30 p.m. to 5:00 a.m.

* Sharp rise/high use - 5:00 a.m. to noon. (Peak
hourly use from 7:00 a.m. to 8:00 a.m.)

* Moderate use - noon mito 5:00 p.m. (Lull around
3:00 p.m.)

* Increasing evening use - 5:00 to 11:00 p.m.
(Second minor peak, 6:00 to 8:00 p.m.)

I’ve Heard That ; at Wale
a
Households In rete by Category
The U.S. Use A ware te
4 Capita ‘ Indi yl
pt Of water Couritry "Galtons) Residential agnoutinet
‘ompared To :

Other voted — | sase00 | 0 so

, Countries. Is Canada| 810,000 8 a7
That True? Belgium —| 221,000 6 2%
Yes. The United . India 132,000 3 97°
States uses more China 122000 | 6 o
water than other Poland 112,000 4 86
countries, even those Noareoua =m e 2
that are equally well - -
developed. In the Matta 16,000 _ 100 °
United States, signifi- ‘includes watar used for electrical powerand for cooling.
cant amounts of water | source: van DerLesden , FL Tole, and DX. Toda Tho Wator
are used for lawn and —_ | Enavoveda. Lows Punisher, ne. Second Eaton, 1980.
garden sprinkling, -

automobile washing, and kitchen and laundry
appliances, such as garbage disposals, clothes
washers, and automatic dish washers.

(Gallons per Capita pet Day)
“ Bathing, 20 gped
Toilet Flushing, 24 ped

Lawn Watering
and Pools, 25 gped

Source: Van Der Leede,F,, Fi. Trolee, and
DK. Toad. Lewis
Publishers, inc. Second Edition, 1990. =

Common Household Uses of Drinking Water*

‘inking and Cooking, 2 gpcd
sarbage Disposal, | gpcd
Dishwasher, 4 gpcd

We use tap water for various purposes.
A typical family of four on a public
water supply uses about 350 gallons per
day at home. In.contrast, a typical
household that gets its water from a
private well or cistern uses about 200
gallons for a family of four. In our
communities an additional 35 gallons of
- water per person are used for public
activities such as fire fighting, street
washing, and park maintenance.

Commercial and industrial businesses
may also place heavy demands on public
water supplies in devéloped countries. In
most water supply systems, the predomi-
nant number of user connections are
residences, but the few connections to
nonresidential customers may account
for a significant portion of the system-
wide water use.



MCLs are set based on known or anticipated
adverse human health effects, the ability of various
technologies to remove the contaminant, their
effectiveness, and cost of treatment. All MCLs are
set at levels that protect public health. The limit for
many substances is based on lifetime exposure so,
for most potential contaminants, short-term exceed-
ances pose a limited health risk. The exceptions are
the standards for coliform bacteria and nitrate, for
which exceedances can pose an immediate threat to
health.

To comply with MCLs, public water systems may~
use any state-approved treatment. When it is not
economically or technologically feasible to set an
MCL for a contaminant—for example, when the
contaminant cannot be easily measured—EPA may
require use of a particular treatment technique

instead. The technique specifies the design for part .

of the drinking water treatment process.

How Many Public Water Systems
Have Exceeded The MCLs And
Treatment Requirements? :

Currently, the nation’s approximately 55,000
Community Water Systems (CWSs) must test for
more than 80 contaminants. In 1996, 4,151 systems,
or 7 percent, reported one or moré. MCL violations,
and 681 systems (less than 2 percent) reported
violations of treatment technique standards.

Who Makes Sure That My Drinking
Water Supply Is Safe?

Percentage of CWSs Violating
MCLs or Treatment Techniques,
by systems Size in 1996

104

Large & Very Large. Medium Sra ety ra ‘Small
10,000+- Customers '3,800-10,000
‘Customers

‘Source: Safe Drinking Water Information System

Local governments, public water systems, the
states, and EPA work together towards the goal of
ensuring that all public water supplies are safe, For
households on private wells, state and local health
departments usually have some standards for the
drinking water, but it is generally up to the home-
owner to maintain the quality of the drinking water.

Local governments have a direct interest in protect-
ing the quality of their drinking water source, be it
ground water or surface water. They may be respon-
sible for overseeing land uses that can affect the
quality of untreated source water. Public water
systems have a responsibility to maintain sound
treatment works and water distribution networks.
They are responsible for ensuring that the water ~

they supply does not contain contaminants at levels
higher than the law allows. :

Prior to 1974 each state ran its own drinking water
program and set the standards that had to be met at
the local level. As a result, drinking water protec-
tion standards differed from state to state. Since
1974, when Congress passed the original Safe
Drinking Water Act, EPA has set uniform nation-
wide minimum standards for drinking water. State
public health and environmental agencies have the
primary responsibility for ensuring that these _
federal drinking water quality standards, or more
stringent ones required by the state, are met by each
public water supplier.

When a state water agency or water supplier
announces that the standard for a particular con-
taminant has been exceeded, that may or may not by
itself be a cause for alarm, but it can be a cause for
action. It is a safety precaution required by the law
to alert the public to deficiencies in drinking water
quality.

Boil Water Notices

When microorganisms, such as those that indicate
fecal contamination are found in drinking water,
water suppliers may be required to issue “boil water

r-kills the organisms that can,
cause di: the notices serve as a

precaution for the public.

Boil water notices are being issued more frequently in
recent years. In fact, in 1993 notices were issued by
water suppliers in New’ York City and the District of
Columbia, which together serve more than 7.1 milion
people. At least 725 other communities have also
issued notices affecting almost 3 million people in the
past few years.



Appendix A: National Primary Drinking Water Standards .

MCLG MCL __Potentlal Health Effects from
Contaminants (mg/L) (mg/L) Ingestion of Water Sources of Contaminant in Drinking Water

Fluoride 40 4.0 Skeletal and dental fluorosis, Natural deposits; fertilizer, aluminum industries; Water additive

Volatite Organics
‘Some foods; gas, drugs, pesticide, paint, plastic industries
Solvents and their degradation products

Room and water deodorants, and "mothballs*
Leaded gasoline, fumigants, paints

Plastics, dyes, perfumes, paints

zero Textiles, adhesives and metal degreasers
02 Liver, Nervous system effects Adhesives, aeroso's, textiles, paints, inks, metal degreasors
Vinyl Chloride: zeK0 . Cancer May leach from PVC pipe; formed by solvent break down

Coliform and Surface Water Treatment
Giardia Lambs 010 Gastroenteric disease Human and animal fecal waste
Legionetia NA Legionnaire’s disease: . Indigenous to natural waters; can grow in water heating systems.

Indicates water quality, effectiveness of .
treatment

Indicates gastroenteric pathogens Human and animal fecal waste,

Interferes with disinfection, titration Soll runoff

Gastroenteric disease Human and animal fecal waste

Cancer Fire retardants, coramics, electronics, frewiorks, solder

Gancer Natural deposits; asbestos cement in water systems

Cireutatory system effects Natural deposits; pigments, epoxy sealants, spent coal,
Bone, lung damage Electrical, aerospace, defense industries :
Kigney effects Galvanizad pipe corrosion; natural deposits; batteries, paints

Liver, kidney, circulatory disorders ‘Natural deposits; mining, electroplating, pigments,
“Thyroid, nervous system damage Electroplating, steel, plastics, mining, fertiizer

Kicney, nervous system disorders Crop runoff; natural deposits; batteries, electrical switchos

Mothemoglobutineria | Animal waste, fertlizer, natural deposits, septic tanks, sewage
Methemoglebulinemia ‘Same as nitrate; rapidly converted to nitrate

Liver damage Natural deposits; mining, smelting, coal/oil combustion

Kidney, lver, brain, intestinal Electronics, drugs, alloys, glass

Organics
Acrylamide Cancer, nervous system effects Polymers used in sewage/wastewater treatment
Adipata, (& (2-ethythexy)) / Decreased body weight ‘Synthetic rubber, food packaging, cosmetics

Aiachior . Cancer FRunotf from herbicide on cori, soybeans, other crops

Atrazine r Mammary gland tumors Runoff from use as herbicide on corn and non-cropiand
0.04 Nervous, reproductive system effects Soll fumigant on corn and cotton; restricted In some areas

zero 0.002 Cancer Leaching from soil treatment for termites

oa 0.1 Nervous system and liver effects ‘Waste solvent from metal degreasing processes
02 02 Liver and kidney effects Herbicide on orchards, beans, coffee, lawns, road/rallways:
Dibromochtoropropane zero 0.0002» Cancer Soil fumigant on soybeans, cotton, pineapple, orchards

‘o-Dichiorotenzone 08 0.6 Liver, kidney, blood cell damage Paints, engine cleaning compounds, dyes, chemical wastes
68-1,2-Dichloroethylene: 0.07 0.07 Liver, kidney, nervous, circulatory Waste industrial extraction solvents,

Notes: ‘Contaminants with interim standards which have been revised. TT=Special treatment techniques required
MFLemition fibors per liter, +=less than 5% positive samples







reporting is critical to ensure that problems will be’
detected. Consumers can help make certain moni-
toring and reporting requirements are met by. first
contacting their state drinking water agency to
determine if their water supplier is meeting all
requirements. If the water supplier is not meeting
the requirements, consumers can work with local
and state officials and their water supplier to ensure
that the required monitoring gets done,

Can Water Systems Be Excused
From Monitoring For Some
Contaminants? .

In some cases, yes. Over time, public water systems
should better understand the likely threats to their
water supplies by reviewing test results and keeping
a watchful eye on threats to their drinking water
sources. If a system does not have water quality
problems, it can apply to the state for permission to
test less frequently for certain contaminants. If, after
scientific analysis, state regulators believe it is
unlikely that human or natural activities will affect
the system’s water quality in the future, they may
grant the request to avoid unnecessary testing.

A waiver from the monitoring requirements inno
way reduces the water supplier’s responsibility to
provide high-quality water; on the contrary, it is a
privilege awarded only to the suppliers who can
ensure the reliable delivery of safe water to their
customers. Testing continues, but at a reduced
frequency. At the first indication-of any problem —
or likelihood of a problem — the system must
notify the state and the state may instruct the system.
to return to a more rigorous monitoring schedule.

Does This New Safe Drinking Water
Act Do Anything Else To Keep My
Drinking Water Safe In The Future?

The'1996 SDWA includes many new provisions
that will help states and water systems improve the
quality of drinking water by preventing problems
before they occur. Under the new source water
protection provisions, for example, each state must
develop a program to identify potential contamina-
tion threats and determine the susceptibility of

‘drinking water sources such as wells or reservoirs to

activities that may harm the source water. The
source water assessments will provide the informa-
tion necessary for states and localities to protect

‘source water from contamination. Substantial
federal funding is provided to states for assessments
and for source water protection programs if states
choose to operate such a program.

The new law also will help prevent problems by
ensuring that water systems are operated by quali-
fied professionals. Each state must carry out an
“operator certification program,” including training
and certification for individuals responsible for
operating the drinking water plant. Most states
required operator certification before it was man-
dated by federal law. Many very small water
systems that cannot afford a full-time operator use
“circuit riders” who travel from system to system
providing technical assistance and making sure that
the plant is operating correctly. States must estab-
lish programs .to ensure that the water systems have
sufficient technical, managerial, and financial
capacity to reliably deliver safe drinking water.

grants. to,
upgrade

documen

=n



Source water protection works by involving all '
members of the community. Citizens can voice their
support for controlling how land is used near
drinking water intakes. - N

Citizens can also educate their neighbors about the
danger that household chemicals pose to drinking
water supplies. Many communities sponsor house-
hold hazardous waste disposal days to promote
proper handling of waste paints and thinners,
pesticides, used oil, and other hazardous materials.
Your state or local environmental agency should
have information about such programs in your -
community.

What Legal Options Do I Have To
Improve My Drinking Water
Quality?

The 1996 amendments to the Safe Drinking Water
Act provide many opportunities for public involve-
ment. The new law gives states flexibility and
funding to tailor the new program efforts to improve
source water protection and water system capacity

Successful Source Water:
Protection

Elkhart, Indiana in developing a source w:
protection program in the late. 1980s, after being
forced to close one of its drinking water wellfields
when dangerous chemical. solvents were found in
the drinking water supply.

Officials in Elkhart realized that they needed an
efficient way to inventory and map_all of the potential
sources of contamination that could reach their new
drinking water supply. They discovered that retired
senior voluriteers are an excellent: resource - for
conducting the inventories.

By working ‘with the Servi of Retired
Executives and the American Association of Retired
-Persons,. Elkhart recruited 20 senior volunteers,
from a jist of. over. 400 potential. volunteers, to
conduct the inventories. Working with city staff, the
senior volunteers visited homes ‘and businesses
throughout . Elkhart and- mapped 280 potential
contaminant sources: for management. Manage-
ment controls include zoning/land- use control and
technical’ assistance...So far, Elkhart has been
successful in keeping its drinking water sources
clean.

to meet each state’s unique needs and conditions.
The amendments emphasize public participation
and consumer right-to-know to ensure that states’
choices respond to their constituents’ needs and
conditions. States must involve or consult with the
public about key decisions on their source water

. assessment programs, on how states will work with

water systems to improve their operations, on which
specific drinking water improvement projects they
will fund, and on how much money they plan to use
for their source water protection and capacity
programs. Contact your state drinking water pro-
gram for further information on specific opportuni-
ties to participate.

In addition to commenting on proposed drinking
water regulations, citizens may file lawsuits in
federal court under the federal Safe Drinking Water
Act and many state drinking water laws in response
to violations of drinking water standards by water
suppliers. At least 60 days before filing such a suit,
the citizen must provide notice to EPA, the state in
which the violation allegedly occurred, and the
alleged violator. The purpose of the notice is to
encourage the violator to take voluntary action to
fix the violation before the courts get involved. An
individual believed to have been harmed by a
contaminated drinking water supply may also have
rights and remedies under state law.

Federal and state agencies also may take legal
action to enforce drinking water laws. These legal
actions typically involve public hearings or other
opportunities for citizen comment. The actions can
result in fines or penalties, or in the rare case of
criminal violations, jail time for a water supplier, or
injunctions to prevent further harmful actions by a
water supplier. Citizens can assist with government
enforcement by providing information to states and
the federal government on potential violations of
drinking water laws, or by participating in enforce-
ment proceedings.



Foreword

quality of U.S. drinking water safety, an
variety of concerns that apply to mé
- situations.

The report stresses the need for all ofu
individual and community-level . res
drinking water quality. We urge you
utility officials with questions; read re|

een iS Aizen ‘
entering source waters in the first pla eG Protection Of =

drinking water t that nourishes us all.

The National Drinking Water Adviso



Appendix D

Glossary

Cryptosporidium

A protozoan associated with the
disease cryptosporidiosis in
humans. The disease can be
transmitted through ingestion of
drinking water, person-to-person
contact, or other exposure routes.
Cryptosporidiosis may cause acute
diarrhea, abdominal pain, vomit-
ing, and fever that last 1-2 weeks
in healthy adults, but may be
chronic or fatal in immuno-
compromised people.

Exposure

Contact between a person and a
chemical. Exposures are calcu-
lated as the amount of chemical
available for absorption by a
person.

Giardia lamblia

A protozoan, which can survive in
water for 1 to 3 months, associated
with the disease giardiasis. Inges-
tion of this protozoan in contami-
nated drinking water, exposure
from person-to-person contact,
and other exposure routes may
cause giardiasis. The symptoms of
this gastrointestinal disease may
persist for weeks or months and
include diarrhea, fatigue, and
cramps.

Maximum Contaminant
Level (MCL)

Maximum permissible level of a
contaminant in water which is
delivered to any user of a public
water system.

WU. S GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1997-521-281/00255

Nitrates

Inorganic compounds that can
enter water supplies from fertilizer
runoff and sanitary wastewater
discharges. Nitrates in drinking
water are associated with meth-
emoglobinemia, or blue baby
syndrome, which results from
interferences in the blood’s ability

to carry oxygen.
Organics

Chemical molecules that contain
carbon and other elements such as
hydrogen. Organic contaminants
of concern to drinking water
include chlorohydrocarbons,
pesticides, and others. ~

Per capita

Per person; generally used in
expressions of water use, gallons
per capita per day (gpcd).

Point-of-Use Water
Treatment

Refers to devices used in the home
or office on a specific tap to .

provide additional drinking water

treatment. ,

Point-of-Entry Water
Treatment

Refers to devices used in the home
where water pipes enter to provide
additional treatment of drinking
water used throughout the home.

Radionuclides

Elements that undergo a process
of natural decay. As radionuclides

decay, they emit radiation in the
form of alpha or beta particles and
gamma photons. Radiation can
cause adverse health effects, such
as cancer, so limits are placed on
radionuclide concentrations in
drinking water.

Risk

The potential for harm to people
exposed to chemicals. In order for
there to be risk, there must be
hazard and there must be expo-
sure.

Treatment. Technique

A specific treatment method
required by EPA to be used to
control the level of a contaminant
in drinking water. In specific cases
where EPA has determined it is
not technically or economically
feasible to establish an MCL, EPA
can instead specify a treatment
technique.

Total Coliform
Bacteria that are used as indicators

of fecal contaminants in drinking
water.

Toxicity
The property of a chemical to

harm people who come into
contact with it.

Volatile Organics

Chemicals that, as liquid, evapo-
rate into the air.





How Will I Know If My

Drinking Water Remains
Safe In The Future?

I’ve Heard: That A New Law Was
Passed By Congress. What Will That
Do For My Drinking Water?

President Clinton signed the Safe Drinking Water
Act (SDWA) Amendments of 1996 on August 6,
1996. The 1996 SDWA amendments require that
consumers receive more information about the
quality of their drinking water supplies and what is
being done to protect them. The amendments also
provide new opportunities for public involvement
and provide an increased emphasis on protecting the
sources of local drinking water.

What Information Can I Expect To
Receive?

Water suppliers must promptly tell you if your
water has become contaminated by something that
can cause immediate illness. The 1996 SDWA ~

* The steps that the system is taking to correct the
violation, and

* The need to use alternative water supplies (such
as boiled water or bottled water) until the prob- ,
Jem is corrected.

Systems will inform customers about violations of
less immediate concern in the first water bill sent
out after the violation, in an annual report, or by
mail within a'year,

Beginning in 1998, your state will compile informa-
tion from individual systems so that you can
evaluate the overall quality of drinking water in
your state. EPA must compile and summarize the
state reports into an annual report on the condition
of the nation’s drinking water.

The SDWA amendments also require EPA to
publish regulations that will require systems to
prepare consumer confidence reports. These con-

Amendments specified

new time frames for

notification of violations. The SDWA
Water systems now have Amendments

24 hours to inform their
customers of violations
of EPA standards “that
have the potential to have
serious adverse effects on
human health as a result
of short-term exposure.”
If such a violation
occurs, the system will
announce it through the
media and provide
information‘about:

* The potential adverse *
effects on human
health,

stress efforts to~
protect source
water.



How Can I Help To Protect
My Drinking Water

Supply?

Drinking water protection is a shared responsibility,
involving water suppliers, local and state govern-
ments, business, and individuals. We all have an
important role to play, and as private citizens we
have many opportunities. Environmental protection
activities such as watershed protection projects are
taking place across the United States. Clean and
healthy watersheds are vital to safe drinking water.

Other opportunities to be involved in drinking water
protection are discussed in the rest of this section.

What Programs Are Underway To
Protect Water Supplies?

Wellhead protection is a process for protecting
individual communities’ underground sources of
drinking water. These programs focus on areas
thousands of square feet to a few square miles
immediately surrounding a community water supply
well. State and local governments began developing
wellhead protection programs in the late 1980s, and
more than 10,000 programs have been started
throughout the United States. :

Sole source aquifer protection programs also protect
ground water supplies, but usually over a much .
larger area than that covered by wellhead protection
programs. They focus on government-funded
projects that may affect the aquifer.

EPA is encouraging states and communities to
undertake source water protection programs, which
apply the principles of wellhead protection to
surface water as well as ground water supplies of
drinking water.

Source water protection should be a critical part of
all community water programs. In the past, water
suppliers used most of their resources to treat water
from rivers, lakes, and underground sources of
drinking water before supplying it to our homes as
drinking water. Now, we understand that if we place

greater emphasis on protecting our sources of
drinking water, the need for treatment can be

. reduced.

The general components of a source water protec-
tion program include:

¢ Delineation: Identifying the area of land that
water passes through to reach the drinking water
intake.

¢ Contaminant source inventory: Mapping the
locations of potential sources of drinking water
contamination.

+ Source water protection area management:
Using regulatory controls, such as zoning or
health ordinances, or nonregulatory controls,
such as technical assistance to businesses and
public education, to keep contaminants out of
drinking water supplies.

. Contingency planning: Plan special actions in
case a sudden event (for instance, a flood or spill)
occurs that threatens the drinking water supply.

The Partnership for Safe Water is a voluntary self-
assessment and peer-review process to help water
utilities ensure high drinking water quality. Public
water supply systems that use surface water and that
have filtration treatment are eligible to participate.
Contact the American Water Works Association
(see Appendix C) or your water supplier to find out

’ if they are part of the’ Partnership.

How Can I Get Involved To Protect
Water Supplies?

Many communities are in the process of implement-
ing source water protection programs. Your local
water supplier can tell you whether your community
has a source water protection program.