Front and back covers: A perspective view of the geology around Butte, 

Montana. The position and field of view of the observer are indicated by the 

triangle on the wire-frame rendition (above) and the geologic map (facing page). 

Inside front cover: Wire-frame rendition of the topographic data for a portion of 

the Butte, Montana, quadrangle.

Facing page: Shaded relief image of the generalized geologic map for a portion 

of the Butte, Montana, quadrangle. The generalized geologic and topographic 

data were digitally merged to create this image. The data were further processed 

to create the view on the cover.
113°40'W 46°55'N

112°20'W

46°00' N

Key

20km

Quaternary Deposits

Tertiary Sedimentary Rocks

Tertiary-Cretaceous Intrusive and Volcanic Rocks Undifferentiated

Cretaceous-Jurassic Sedimentary Rocks

Cretaceous Augen Gneiss

Permian-Devonian Sedimentary Rocks

Cambrian Sedimentary Rocks

Cambrian-Proterozoic Rocks

Precambrian Undifferentiated Belt Supergroup

Tectonically Disturbed Rocks
U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

Dallas L. Peck, Director

United States Geological Survey Yearbook 

ISSN 0892-3442 

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1988

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, 

U.S. Government Printing Office, 

Washington, DC 20402
United

States

Geological

Survey

Yearbook

Fiscal Year 

1987
\
I -

CONTENTS

VII Message from the Director 

1 Perspectives

1 International Cooperative Program Studies the 

Earth's Crust Beneath the Great Lakes

8 Cooperative Efforts in Ground-Water 

Protection A Connecticut History

19 Geographic Information System Applications in 

the Earth Sciences

23 Significant Accomplishments of Research 

Programs: 1987

45 National Mapping Program

55 Geologic Investigations

79 Water Resources Investigations

107 Information Systems Division

121 Administrative and Facilities Support

131 International Activities

143 U.S. Geological Survey Missions and Programs

S

Indiana Dunes National 

Lakeshore. (Photograph by 

Mark A. Hardy, U.S. Geological 

Survey.)

Contents
 :*
Message from the Director

Each year as I review the highlights 

and accomplishments of the past 12 months 

for this introduction, I am reaffirmed in the 

basic commitment of the U.S. Geological 

Survey to provide "Earth Science in the 

Public Service." We are both proud of that 

motto and mindful of the vigilance and 

cooperation necessary to produce quality 

earth science that serves the public need 

and the public good.

It is easy sometimes for us as scientists to get wrapped up in our research and 

investigations and to forget that we are 

public servants as well as scientists. We 

must be ready with our science and with 

our time to meet the needs of legislators, 

policymakers, and the public for earth science information. Through this Yearbook, 

we have an opportunity to present our 

science as a public service and to fulfill our 

responsibility as public servants.

Perhaps the most telling theme of the 

pages in this volume is that of cooperation. 

Only by working together across lines of 

scientific disciplines and across lines of governmental responsibility can we achieve 

the level of excellence needed to provide 

earth science for the common good.

Through our extensive cooperative 

efforts with more than 1,000 other agencies 

and organizations we achieved some impressive results during the year. At the 

Federal level, we completed a four-year 

cooperative project between our bureau 

and the U.S. Bureau of the Census to help 

them prepare enumerator maps for the 

1990 Decennial Census, and, in the process, 

we completed a computerized data base of 

our l:100,000-scale map series far ahead of 

scheduled expectations.

Our cooperative effort to provide the 

basic hydrologic information for Connecticut's ground-water protection program, 

described in one of the lead essays, is just 

one example of how the Survey's broadscale national earth-science programs also 

serve State and local needs.

The USGS also has a vital program of 

international cooperation. The essay that 

describes our efforts with Canada to understand the geology beneath the Great Lakes

is an excellent example of how effectively 

science can reach across international borders. For nearly half a century now, the 

USGS has provided technical assistance in 

foreign countries and has conducted training in geology, hydrology, and cartography 

for visiting scientists from around the 

world. In the coming years, our international view will become more intense as the 

United States hosts the 28th International 

Geological Congress in Washington, B.C., 

in July 1989, which will bring the most 

prestigious earth scientists from more than 

100 nations to the United States. We are 

also looking forward to several new initiatives getting underway to provide scientific 

expertise and assistance to other nations in 

dealing with natural hazards and their 

effects on a worldwide scale.

Exciting new applications of geographic information systems have afforded 

us an opportunity to conduct cooperative 

science that crosses discipline and organizational lines. Our geographic information 

systems laboratory has become an exciting 

arena where scientists from every field of 

the geosciences have access to an extensive 

array of earth-science data in computergenerated format for analyzing a host of 

natural-resource and land-use problems. 

Here too, cooperation has been the hallmark of this effort's success. We have 

conducted demonstration projects with 

several State agencies and have a regular 

program for training other interested agencies in this new technology.

We continue to conduct research that 

is on the cutting edge of science seismic 

imaging that is revealing the structure of 

the deep crust of the Earth, advanced 

cartographic systems that are producing 

modern maps of incredible accuracy more 

rapidly than ever before, and complex computer modeling and sampling of organic 

compounds in water that is giving us a 

much better and much needed understanding of the fate and transport of these constituents in water systems.

USGS research is also at the forefront 

of many issues of national concern 

assessing the Nation's strategic and critical

Message from the Director VII
minerals to help ensure our domestic economic security, assessing the quality of the 

Nation's surface- and ground-water resources, and applying our extensive knowledge of cartography and remote sensing 

to develop innovative approaches to the 

solution of many land- and resourcemanagement concerns.

Conducting the research and investigations of our multidisciplinary programs is 

only half of our mission. Our work is not 

done until we disseminate the results of our 

investigations and research to those who 

need earth-science information to solve 

land-use problems, to better develop and 

manage the Nation's natural resources, and 

to understand and mitigate the effects of 

natural hazards. Through these efforts to 

effectively communicate earth-science 

information, the USGS remains committed 

to conducting science that serves the 

Nation.

Few Federal agencies can claim the 

longevity of service or the stability of mission of the U.S. Geological Survey. For 109

years now we have been the Nation's earth 

scientists, fulfilling our original mission to 

conduct systematic and scientific "classification of the public lands, and examination 

of the geological structure, mineral 

resources, and products of the national 

domain." We are aware of the trust which 

has been placed in us by the taxpayers and 

legislators of this country to fulfill that 

mission.

With that primary mission and that 

trust in mind, the USGS dedicated itself 

during the year to the activities documented in the following pages. As much as 

this volume is an opportunity to look back, 

it is also a challenge to look to the future 

and to recommit ourselves and our science 

to providing to the Nation the information 

by which the public and its officials make 

informed decisions concerning the wise use 

of our Nation's resources. It is with pride of 

accomplishment and dedication of purpose 

that I present to you this Yearbook of the 

U.S. Geological Survey.

Dallas L. Peck 

Director

Lake Huron at Light House 

Park, Huron County, Michigan. 

(Photograph by Michael J. 

Sweat U.S. Geological Survey.)

VIII U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987


Perspectives

International Cooperative Program 

Studies the Earth's Crust Beneath 

the Great Lakes

By William F. Cannon

The Great Lakes cover about 98,000 

square miles of the Earth's surface, an area 

approximately equal to the combined land 

areas of the States of Wisconsin and Michigan. Because the waters of the lakes conceal the bedrock beneath them from direct, 

conventional geologic mapping and study, 

the lakes represent a large gap in our 

understanding of the geologic nature and 

evolution of the central part of the North 

American Continent. Many major geologic 

features, well studied on land, project 

beneath the lakes, and many key areas 

where these major features meet or intersect are beneath the lakes. Geologists and 

geophysicists have realized for many years 

that the geologic relationships hidden 

beneath the lake waters hold important 

keys to unraveling the geologic evolution of 

both the immediate region and the North 

American Continent in general.

In addition to the scientific questions, 

many practical problems can be better 

addressed by defining the geology beneath 

the lakes. Geological data can be used to 

identify the distribution and magnitude of 

energy and mineral resources, the location 

and severity of geologic hazards, and the 

suitability of areas for specialized development, such as nuclear plants and toxicwaste isolation sites. All of these issues are 

major societal concerns, especially in view 

of the many large and expanding population centers along the lake shores in both 

the United States and Canada. The geology 

beneath the lakes, immediately adjacent to 

these population centers, is probably the 

least well known of any place in the United 

States.

GLIMPCE

Because of these scientific and practical concerns, a consortium of U.S. and 

Canadian scientists was organized in 

November 1986 to renew efforts to study 

the subsurface beneath the Great Lakes. 

The consortium, called the Great Lakes 

International Multidisciplinary Program 

on Crustal Evolution-GLIMPCE, for 

short was organized by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) and the Geological Survey of Canada (GSC). It includes a wide 

variety of earth scientists from the two 

organizing agencies, from State and Provincial geological surveys, and from many 

U.S. and Canadian universities. The members represent an enormous source of information and expertise on the geology surrounding the lakes, as well as the geology 

as it is inferred beneath the lakes as a 

result of geophysical surveys. The members have agreed to share existing expertise and, more significantly, to share 

capabilities, equipment, and costs for conducting critically needed new surveys.

1986-87 Surveys

In August and September of 1986, the 

first major surveys of GLIMPCE were 

conducted. They consisted of "marine" seismic surveys in Lake Superior, Lake 

Huron, and Lake Michigan, and aeromagnetic surveys of Lake Huron. Aeromagnetic surveys of Lake Superior were 

conducted in the summer of 1987.

Perspectives 1
Figure 1. Generalized geologic 

map of the Great Lakes region 

showing location of seismic reflection profiles in the lakes 

and location of stations where 

seismic refraction data were recorded on land and on the lake 

bottom. Surveys were designed 

to examine major crustal features such as the Mid-Continent 

Rift (Lines C, B, A, F, G, H), the 

Grenville Front (line J), and the 

Penokean fold belt (lines H 

and I).

The USGS and GSC jointly contracted 

the services of a commercial seismic surveying vessel that had been performing 

surveys off the Atlantic coast and brought 

it into the lakes. The ship acquired 850 

miles of seismic reflection profiles (fig. 1). 

In this technique, air guns that release 

blasts of compressed air beneath the lake 

surface generate strong sound waves, 

which propagate to the lake bottom and are 

transmitted deep into and through the 

Earth's crust. Portions of these waves are 

reflected from contacts of rock bodies that 

have contrasting acoustic properties, and 

these "echoes" are recorded on a series of 

hydrophones towed behind the ship (fig. 2).

50'

48'

Sophisticated computer processing of 

these recorded echoes at USGS facilities in 

Denver, Colorado, and at GSC facilities in 

Ottawa, Ontario, reconstructed a picture of 

the distribution of rock bodies at depths as 

great as 36 miles. From this picture, scientists were able to construct the first cross 

sections of the geology beneath the lakes.

At the same time the reflection profiles were being acquired, teams of geophysicists were recording the air gun signals on the land around the lakes, on 

islands, and with special seismometers 

deployed on the lake bottom. This phase 

of the experiment was conducted by per46

0 100 200 300 MILES

EXPLANATION

PHANEROZOIC (570 m.y. ago to present)

Sedimentary Strata

MIDDLE PROTEROZOIC (1600-900 m.y. ago)

Grenville Province

Keweenawan rocks

EARLY PROTEROZOIC (2500-1600 m.y. ago)

Southern Province

ARCHEAN (before 2500 m.y. ago)

Superior Province

Reflection Line 

Refraction Station

U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
Figure 2. A, Seismic "streamer" 

cable being deployed behind 

survey ship. The almost 2-milelong cable contains a series of 

hydrophones, which record 

echoes of acoustic waves reflected from the lake bottom 

and from rock layers in the subsurface and transmit the signals 

to recording equipment 

onboard. B, The seismicreflection surveying system in 

operation on Lake Superior. Air 

guns in four arrays marked by 

the orange floats are towed behind the ship about 30 feet beneath the surface. Powerful 

blasts (equivalent to the detonation of about 30 pounds of 

dynamite) of compressed air are 

released from the guns to generate sound waves. These 

sound waves, under suitable 

conditions, can penetrate to 

depths of 40 miles or more into 

the crust beneath the lakes and 

be reflected so that their echoes are recorded by hydrophones along the streamer 

cable that stretches for almost 

2 miles behind the ship about 

30 feet below the surface. Large 

masses of bubbles visible just 

behind the orange floats mark 

the position of an air gun blast.

sonnel from the USGS, the GSC, and 

the universities of Wisconsin-Madison, 

Wisconsin-Oshkosh, Southern Illinois, 

Western Ontario, and Saskatchewan. In 

this case, the acoustic signals recorded 

from the air gun blasts were refracted 

waves, that is, waves that were bent and 

redirected by changes in acoustic velocities

in the subsurface and measured at distances as much as 120 miles laterally from 

the air gun. The refraction surveys provide 

important information on the velocity 

structure of the crust and, especially when 

used together with the reflection results, 

permit tightly constrained interpretations 

of the subsurface geology.

Perspectives
Figure 3. Aeromagnetic map of 

part of Lake Huron and 

surrounding areas prepared by 

the Geological Survey of Canada. This map, which portrays 

the differing magnetic attraction 

of rocks in the subsurface, is 

colored so that areas of strongest attraction are shown in 

warm colors and areas of progressively lower attraction are 

shown by progressively cooler 

colors (see explanation on facing page; in nanoteslas). The 

data are further processed by 

computer to generate a false 

shaded-relief image in which 

areas of greatest attraction are 

shown as "hills" and "ridges" 

and areas of low attraction are 

shown as "valleys" and 

"basins." This "topography" is 

displayed as if it were being 

illuminated from the east. This 

technique enhances the visual 

display of the magnetic grain 

and gradients (slopes) in the 

magnetic field. Some of the 

more prominent features shown 

by the map are the Crenville 

Front, a major boundary between the Crenville Province on 

the east, about 7.7 billion years 

old, and older provinces on the 

west; major masses of intrusive 

granites (shown as outlined circular and elliptical features labeled CP) believed to have 

been formed about 7.5 billion 

years ago; and the boundary 

between the Hudsonian Province and the Central Plains 

Province.

Aeromagnetic surveying over Lake 

Huron and Lake Superior was conducted 

by an aircraft system owned and operated 

by the GSC, with support by the USGS. 

This type of surveying detects subtle 

changes in the Earth's magnetic field 

caused by differing magnetic properties in 

rocks beneath the aircraft. An area is 

mapped as the plane flies a series of parallel 

traverses and the plane's location and the 

measured magnetic field are recorded on 

magnetic tape. Later, computer processing 

and plotting are used to produce maps (fig. 

3). The magnetic properties and other 

geophysical information can be used to

infer the distribution of various rock types 

in the relatively near subsurface.

Results

Seismic Reflection Profiling

The seismic reflection profiling was 

successful in detecting structures both in 

the near subsurface and at great depth. In 

some areas, the profiles produced startlingly clear images of structures in great 

detail throughout the total crustal thickness. In a profile from eastern Lake Superior (fig. 4; see fig. 1 for location), layered

4 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
ABOVE

1000.0

750.0

500.0

400.0

350,0

300.0

275.0

250.0

225.0

200.0

175.0

150.0

125.0

100.0

75.0

50.0

25.0

0.0

-25.0

-50.0

-75.0

-100.0

-125.0

-150.0

-175.0

-200.0

-225,0

-250.0

-275.0

-300,0

-325.0

-350.0

-400.0

-500.0

-750.0

lOOOVO

-1500.0

BELOW

1500.0

- 1500.0

- 1000.0

- 750.0

- v 500 0

- 400.0

3500

3000

2750

250 0

-' 225.0

2000

175.0

150.0

- 125.0

100.0

- 75.0

- 50.0

25.0

0.0

- -25.0

-500

- -75.0

- -1000

- -125.0

- -1500

 -1750

- -200.0

- -2250

- -250.0

--2750

- -300.0

- -3250

- -350.0

- -400 0

- -500.0

- -7500

- -1000.0

-15000

"packages" of reflective rock units were 

detected to depths as great as 18 miles.

Projection of these rock units onto land 

shows that they are volcanic flows of basalt 

alternating with layers of sedimentary 

rocks. Study of these units on land indicates they were deposited in a feature 

known as the Mid-Continent Rift, a major 

continental-scale structure that curves in a 

broad arc from Kansas through Lake Superior and into southern Michigan. The rift 

formed about 1.1 billion years (b.y.) ago as 

the North American Continent began to 

break apart along a line coincident with the 

current location of the rift. Rocks older 

than 1.1 b.y. were thinned by stretching 

and fracturing, and the basalts and sediments were deposited into the resulting 

depressions. The rifting process, had it 

continued, would have caused total separation of the continent on either side of the 

rift and the formation of an ocean basin like 

the present-day Atlantic Ocean. For reasons not yet fully understood, the rifting 

stopped before complete continental separation occurred, and as a result, the process of continental separation was "frozen 

into" the crust. Because of these circumstances, the seismic profiles not only are 

important in deciphering the geology of the 

immediate area but have much broader 

application in understanding the processes 

of continental rifting in general. The 18- 

mile-thick rift fill shown on figure 4 is the 

greatest thickness of such rocks ever identified anywhere on Earth, and, therefore, 

the area seems to represent a unique preserved example of the later stages of continental rifting.

A general interpretation of the rift 

shows that it formed in 2.6-b.y.-old Archean rocks, which were originally about 25 

miles thick but then were greatly thinned 

to current thicknesses of no more than 6 

miles beneath the center of the rift (fig. 5). 

During attenuation, the enormous thickness of basalt and sedimentary rocks was 

deposited into the developing rift basin. 

The contact between the crust and underlying mantle, called the Mohorovicic discontinuity (commonly referred to as 

"Moho"), is also well shown in this profile 

(fig. 4) as an essentially horizontal contact 

across the entire rift.

This profile and others in Lake Superior and northern Lake Michigan have provided remarkable new data on the structure of the rift. The ongoing interpretation 

of the data by a large number of participants in GLIMPCE is revolutionizing our

Perspectives
o

0 

Ul

en

10

I

20 MILES

10 20 30 KILOMETERS

Sedimentary rocks

Sedimentary rocks and interlayered 

 basalt flows

Basalt flows and interlayered 

sedimentary rocks

Crust of Archean Superior province 

Granitic and metavolcanic rock 

near surface

Figure 4. A portion of seismic 

reflection section F (see fig. 7 

for location) that crosses the 

Mid-Continent Rift. The heavy 

black lines represent locations 

of rock interfaces that strongly 

reflect sound waves. The data 

are recorded as travel times 

(left-hand scale) that indicate 

the elapsed time, in seconds, 

from an air-gun blast to the recorded echo. These times can 

be approximately converted to 

kilometers (right-hand scale) by 

assuming an average sonic velocity of 6 kilometers per second. The section reveals an 

enormous graben (downdropped fault-bounded block) 

beneath the lake, far larger than 

previously predicted. The strongest reflections are caused by 

basalt flows and interlayered 

sedimentary rocks within the 

graben. Weaker but still prominent reflections are caused by 

sedimentary rocks. The prerift 

Archean rocks are largely transparent, producing strong reflections only locally. The crustmantle boundary (Moho) is 

clearly visible as a band of 

nearly horizontal reflections 

about 25 miles (40 km) deep.

understanding both of the geologic history 

of the Lake Superior region and of continental rifts in general.

Aeromagnetic Mapping in Lake Huron

The geology of Precambrian (more 

than 570 million years old) rocks beneath 

Lake Huron is critical to understanding the 

evolution of the Precambrian basement in 

North America because three major geologic provinces intersect beneath the lake. 

The Precambrian rocks are covered not 

only by the lake waters but also by a 

southwestward-thickening sheet of nearly 

flat-lying younger Paleozoic strata that 

increase in thickness from zero near the 

north shore to more than 9,000 feet in the 

southwest. Fortunately for our purposes, 

these rocks have almost no magnetic properties and are therefore "transparent" to 

the aeromagnetic technique. The strong 

magnetic character of rocks in Lake Huron 

(fig. 3), therefore, shows the nature of the 

underlying Precambrian rocks, although 

the general loss of detail toward the southwest is caused by increasing thickness of 

Paleozoic rocks and the consequent greater 

vertical distance between magnetic rocks

and surveying instruments. The new aeromagnetic map (fig. 3) clearly shows the 

boundaries of the three major provinces, as 

well as a variety of features within each 

province.

The Grenville Front, a sinuous northsouth feature, separates the l.l-b.y.-old 

Grenville Province on the east from the 

Central Plains Province and Hudsonian 

Province on the west. The Central Plains 

Province underlies a large area of the midwestern United States but is nearly everywhere covered by younger strata. This 

province is generally poorly understood, 

because it has been studied only from drill 

cores and by aeromagnetic and other 

geophysical techniques. In general, it consists of a variety of metamorphic and igneous rocks roughly 1.7 b.y. old. Beneath 

Lake Huron, the Central Plains Province 

seems to be further complicated by the 

intrusion of large masses of granitic rocks 

that appear as circular to elliptical anomalies on the aeromagnetic map (fig. 3). At 

the two northernmost anomalies, where 

Paleozoic strata are thin to absent, the 

bedrock has been known for many years to 

consist of granitic and related rocks about 

1.5 b.y. old. Similar-appearing anomalies

6 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
farther south are therefore interpreted to 

be similar bodies of 1.5-b.y.-old granite.

Along the northern shore of the lake, 

sedimentary rocks of the Huronian Supergroup, more than 2.2 b.y. old, are exposed 

in a fold belt known as the Hudsonian 

Province. These rocks are generally weakly magnetic but, nevertheless, produce a 

distinct magnetic signature that can be 

traced southward beneath the lake. The 

contact between the Hudsonian and Central Plains Provinces can be located by the 

distinct change in magnetic signature 

between the two provinces.

Thus, a first step has been made at 

constructing a geologic map of Precambrian rocks beneath Lake Huron. Additional geologic and geophysical data gathered during planned future surveys will 

add additional detail and constraints to the 

interpretations that are now based solely 

on the aeromagnetic data.

Further GLIMPCE Activities

GLIMPCE has made remarkable scientific progress in its first full year of 

operations, largely because of outstanding 

cooperation and coordination of efforts 

among many government and academic 

institutions in both the United States and 

Canada. Much work remains for the future, 

however, in order to complete interpretations of existing data, as well as to perform 

new surveys and mapping. At a planning 

workshop with 75 participants, long-range 

research goals were identified, and plans 

and objectives are being developed. Future 

surveys could include additional seismic

EXPLANATION

__ _~ Post volcanic sedimentary rocks

"~ Sedimentary rocks with some interlayered 

~ basalt flows

Basalt flows and interflow sedimentary 

rocks

Archean crystalline rocks 

Fault

and aeromagnetic investigations and other 

types of geophysical surveys. Geological 

and geophysical studies are also needed on 

land to correlate exposed rocks near the 

shore with those inferred beneath the lakes 

in order to achieve a comprehensive understanding of the geologic evolution of the 

Great Lakes region.

Figure 5. Generalized 

sequence of events that formed 

the Mid-Continent Rift as it appears on line F. A, About 1.1 

billion years ago, Archean rocks 

of the Superior Province, about 

2.6 billion years old, began to 

pull apart laterally. Steep faults 

developed, and the area 

between the faults subsided. 

Eruption of large basalt flows 

began so that flows generally 

filled the graben as it subsided. 

B, The graben subsided uniformly for about 9 miles and 

was filled by basalt flows and 

interflow sedimentary rocks. C, 

The graben floor broke up as 

further subsidence continued 

so that older flows were folded 

and tilted. Volcanism ceased, 

but subsidence of as much as 6 

miles continued as a thick, 

postvolcanic sedimentary section filled the graben.

Perspectives 7
Cooperative Efforts in 

Ground-Water Protection 

A Connecticut History

By Robert L. Melvin, Hugo F. Thomas, and Robert E. Moore

Ground water accounts for 12 percent 

(144 million gallons per day) of all freshwater withdrawals in Connecticut and supplies drinking water to a third of the State's 

population (fig. 1). Water is withdrawn 

through 1,200 community wells (public 

supply), 3,300 non-community wells (restaurants, hospitals, schools, and so forth), 

and more than 250,000 individual home 

wells. Efforts to protect ground water go 

back at least 20 years to passage of the 

Connecticut Clean Water Act in 1967. Connecticut today has a comprehensive groundwater protection strategy. In developing 

this strategy, the State has relied heavily 

upon natural-resource information, largely 

developed through cooperative efforts with 

the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). Modern topographic, geologic, and hydrologic 

maps, long-term basic data and statistics 

on water quality and use, quantitative eval42'

uations of aquifers, and process-oriented 

hydrologic research are essential components of the natural-resource information 

base on which the State relies.

The goal of Connecticut's groundwater protection strategy is, wherever feasible, to restore all ground water to or to 

maintain it at drinking-water quality without treatment. The strategy for achieving 

this goal is based on a partnership between 

the State and its 169 municipalities for the 

management of this resource. The goal and 

strategy are derived from the Connecticut 

Clean Water Act of 1967, which mandated 

the prevention and control of water pollution through a system of water-quality 

standards and permit and enforcement 

authorities. The purpose of the Act is to 

protect and enhance the waters of the State 

for public health and welfare, water supplies, fisheries, recreation, and all similar 

uses (fig. 2).

Figure 1. Population distribution 

in Connecticut. (Each dot represents 1,000 people.)

41°30

8 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
Figure 2. Land-use diversity in 

Connecticut. A, The uplands of 

eastern and western Connecticut consist mainly of undeveloped woodland. This view is of 

the Housatonic River Valley in 

northwestern Connecticut. 

(Photograph by Leslie Mehrhoff, 

Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection.)

Figure 2B. The Connecticut Valley Lowland contains some of 

the best agricultural land in 

New England. This scene of tobacco land (foreground) is rapidly disappearing in the face of 

urban development. Steep basalt ridges within this lowland 

(background) remain undeveloped. (Photograph by Michael 

Bell, Connecticut Department 

of Environmental Protection.)

Perspectives 9
Figure 2C. The City of Hartford, 

adjacent to the Connecticut 

River, is typical of the State's 

urban areas. Land use includes 

commercial, industrial, institutional, and residential. (Photograph by Leslie Mehrhoff, Connecticut Department of 

Environmental Protection.)

Although the State's Clean Water Act 

was passed in 1967, a ground-water strategy was not defined until 1980 when Connecticut's Water-Quality Standards and 

Classifications were revised. Until that 

time, information on the ground-water flow

system and other relevant factors, such as 

waste-disposal activities, was inadequate 

to develop an overall strategy and a statewide system of quality standards and classifications for ground water. Supported by 

State Drinking-Water Standards that

Drainage Divide Drainage Divide~_^

MAJOR GROUND-WATER FLOW SYSTEM *-

Figure 3. Schematic diagram of 

ground-water circulation in 

stratified drift and bedrock in 

Connecticut. (Modified from 

Connecticut Water Resources 

Bulletin 21, p. 41.)

Stratified drift

EXPLANATION

Minor flow system

Direction of ground-water flow

Crystalline rocks

10 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
define potability, the Water-Quality Standards are used to set and control water 

uses. Ground water in all areas of the State 

has been mapped and classified in one of 

four standards of use. This system is the 

keystone for all ground-water management 

programs. The system provides the highest 

levels of protection for over 90 percent of 

Connecticut's ground water, prohibits 

many activities in areas that overlie those 

waters, and establishes the basis for the 

siting and cleanup of land-based wastedisposal facilities. As a final key element, 

the ground-water strategy in Connecticut 

is not considered a distinct entity. Owing to 

the hydrologic setting, this strategy is 

looked upon as a component of a more 

comprehensive water-quality strategy that 

includes both ground water and surface 

water. The hydraulic connection between 

ground water and surface water, the localized nature of most ground-water flow systems, and the fact that the divides between 

ground-water and surface-water drainage 

basins coincide in many areas have all 

played an important role in the development of the State's ground-water protection programs (fig. 3).

The ground-water strategy developed 

from the Water Quality Standards encompasses a series of State- and locallyadministered programs that were designed 

on the basis of the hydrogeology, potential 

pollution sources, and ground-water uses of 

the State. The management elements that 

are part of the strategy cover a broad range 

of activities. Most of these elements, however, rely to some degree on a general 

understanding of the probable impacts 

of different human activities on water quality; the relations between ground water 

and surface water; the hydrodynamics of 

ground-water flow, including the effects of 

pumping water from wells; and the transport and fate of chemical substances in the 

saturated zone.

Resource Information

Today, in Connecticut, it is common 

practice for State and local agencies to 

support water-quality and related land-use 

decisions with a wealth of natural-resource 

information. Such information also provides the physical and conceptual framework for most of the ground-water protection programs that have been developed

(fig. 4). The source of that wealth of information can largely be attributed to almost a 

century of cooperation between the State 

and the USGS. Equally valuable contributions were also made through informal collaboration between the State, USGS, and 

the university community, including the 

first modern-era bedrock geologic map of 

Connecticut, compiled in 1907, and the first 

map of the glacial geology of the State, 

prepared in 1929.

Cooperative Programs

Connecticut State agencies had some 

of the earliest formal cooperative programs 

with the USGS. An agreement to produce 

topographic maps of the State was concluded in 1890, and in 1911 a cooperative 

program to inventory ground-water resources was initiated. In 1972, the State of 

Connecticut created the Department of 

Environmental Protection and formed a 

central unit, the Natural Resources Center, to be responsible for the integration of 

all natural-resource data collection. Since 

then, this unit has been responsible for 

managing almost all cooperative programs 

and for disseminating the resulting information to the user community. The naturalresource information most widely used in 

ground-water protection programs was 

largely obtained through mapping, monitoring, and process-oriented hydrologic research conducted during the past 40 years.

It is only natural that the earliest 

cooperative program produced topographic 

maps of the State. Besides the inherent 

information on hydrography, relief, and 

culture, these maps provide the standard 

base necessary for resource inventories 

and field-oriented research.

In 1985, consistent with a philosophy 

that led to the partnership 95 years earlier, 

Connecticut entered into a cooperative 

agreement with the USGS to produce and 

maintain statewide coverage of standard 

digital data of the l:24,000-scale-series 

maps. The digital data will be used in a 

computerized geographic information system that will serve as the predominant 

source of digital maps in Connecticut.

After nearly a half century of informal 

relations, the Connecticut Geological and 

Natural History Survey, USGS, and other 

members of the geological community met 

in 1948 to develop a unified long-range

Perspectives 11
Figure 4. Principal aquifers in 

Connecticut.

42°

41*30' -I

10

1Q 20

20 MILES

I

1

30 KILOMETERS

EXPLANATION

Stratified-drift aquifers

Sedimentary-aquifer system Includes 

interbedded .sedimentary and volcanic 

rocks (basalt)

Crystalline-bedrock aquifer 

(noncarbonate rocks)

Carbonate-rock aquifer

program of geologic research. Seven years 

later, in 1955, a formal cooperative program to conduct bedrock and surficial geologic mapping of the State began. Over the 

next 30 years, Federal and State geologists, including several also affiliated with 

universities, worked to complete the program, which led to publication in 1985 of a 

1:125,000-scale bedrock geologic map of the 

State that synthesized the results of the 

bedrock mapping. Cooperative efforts are 

presently underway to digitize the geologic 

data and incorporate them in Connecticut's 

geographic information system.

The modern era of cooperative hydrologic studies began in 1960 with State adoption of the "Long Range Plan for Connecticut." This plan was prepared, at the 

request of the State, by the Connecticut 

Water Resources Division Council, and 

it called for a series of comprehensive 

hydrologic studies for each major drainage 

basin in the State. A cooperative program 

for these studies was initiated in 1961 and 

completed in 1975. In each basin, hydrologists defined streamflow and water-quality 

characteristics; mapped the extent, lithology, and hydraulic properties of stratifieddrift aquifers; evaluated water quality 

in streams and aquifers; identified and 

described existing water-supply and wastedisposal systems; and analyzed the potential for additional development of surfaceand ground-water resources. These interdisciplinary basin studies benefited 

considerably from the modern topographic 

and geologic maps that were produced 

through the other cooperative programs. 

In turn, the hydrologic studies contributed 

to the completion of geologic mapping and 

set priorities for the revision of topographic 

maps.

Integrating Hydrogeologic Data 

To Protect Ground Water

Between 1970 and 1980, there was a 

significant transition in the USGS cooperative programs in Connecticut. Although

12 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
map inventories and research continued, a 

major part of the programs was devoted to 

interdisciplinary efforts to provide products that were directly applicable to landuse and related water-resources planning 

and management, including ground-water 

protection. This new direction had its roots 

in the 1960's, in response to increasing 

public demand that future development 

and growth should be in harmony with the 

environment. The State of Connecticut, 

which by 1980 had a relative abundance of 

natural-resource data, provided an ideal 

laboratory for determining how those data 

could be integrated into planning and management activities.

The Connecticut Geology-Soil Task 

Force, an informal volunteer group that 

included members of the USGS, U.S. Soil 

Conservation Service, and five State agencies, was created in 1969 to "help resolve 

conflicts between limitations imposed by 

the natural environment and the requirements of our expanding population." As 

part of their activities, members of the 

Task Force selected the area covered by 

the Ellington 7.5-minute quadrangle map 

in north-central Connecticut as a demonstration area for studying ways to develop 

flexible interpretation systems for planners 

and those empowered to regulate land and 

water use. The report on this work showed 

how geologic, hydrologic, and soil data 

could be integrated to provide a base for 

land- and water-use planning and management. Single-factor maps were the key tool 

used in evaluating intended land or water 

use. These maps, developed at a common 

scale, included existing inventory products, such as topographic maps, and derivative products, such as depth-to-bedrock 

maps, that aggregated information from 

soil surveys, geologic mapping, and hydrologic studies (table 1). The Ellington example demonstrated how the relevant singlefactor maps could be selected from 

management guidelines or regulations and 

used, either singly or stacked together as 

overlays, in order to rule out areas unsuitable for a particular use or to locate areas 

where characteristics may be suitable or 

even ideal for a particular use. These 

single-factor maps were in a sense paper 

forerunners of the integrated, on-line data 

bases that form the geographic information 

system now being developed.

In 1971, the USGS began the Connecticut Valley Urban Area Project (CVUAP).

The goal, similar to that of the Connecticut 

Geology-Soils Task Force, was to provide 

"earth-resource information in a form that 

is readily understandable and readily available to planners and other decision makers 

responsible for land use and resource management." The CVUAP study area included about 5,000 square miles in parts of 

Connecticut, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Vermont, and was selected 

owing to the availability of naturalresources information (particularly in Connecticut) and the success of the methodology developed for the Ellington area. The 

study was conducted in cooperation with 

the States of Connecticut and Massachusetts. During a 6-year period, more than 

200 single-factor maps were produced. 

After 1976, in order to finish selected 

hydrologic products, the study was continued in Connecticut as part of that State's 

cooperative program. During the CVUAP, 

demonstrations on the applications of the 

map information were given continuously 

to groups of State, regional, and local planners in order to encourage the subsequent 

use of natural-resource information in decisionmaking. The NRC has continued this 

dialogue with the user community through 

workshops, guidebooks, and other outreach programs for local land-use commissions.

The final phase of the integration process, the use of natural-resource information 

in ground-water protection programs, 

began in 1977 with the State "208" program, mandated by Section 208 of the 

Federal Clean Water Act. The Connecticut 

program included cooperative studies with 

the USGS to assess areas of existing and 

potential ground-water contamination and 

to develop methods for defining recharge 

areas of major aquifers and areas contributing flow to major pumping centers. This 

work used much of the information on 

ground-water flow systems and aquifer 

boundaries obtained through earlier cooperative inventories and hydrologic research, the techniques of single-factor map 

production and aggregation developed by 

the CVUAP, and new techniques of simulation modeling of stratified-drift aquifer 

systems that were developed through 

USGS research.

As an example of the use of naturalresource information for ground-water protection that was developed through the 

"208" program, researchers were able to

Perspectives 13
Table 1. Matrix of single-factor 

maps, used in the Ellington 7.5- 

minute quadrangle example, 

derived from basic-data 

sources. This example shows 

the types of single-factor maps 

used in planning for domestic 

municipal solid-waste disposal 

and placement of utility corridors.

 !

f»

SOIL

^

-

fc[GEOLOGY

I

-,

T

Land 

And 

Water 

Planning

^^^

J % r. ~-L T;-

HYDROLOGY ... -L_ {fj -ia< 11 %

^=T?54 §

LAND USE 2F

1 HI

t

01 

01

SINGLE-FACTOR MAPS w

1. Topography

2. General slope map

3. Slope greater than 15%

4. Slope less than 3% and soil seldom 

saturated

5. Bedrock type

6. Structural characteristics of bedrock

7. Outcrops

' 8. Depth to bedrock: 0-2 feet

9. Depth to bedrock: 0-10 feet

10. Depth to bedrock: 50-foot intervals

11. Unconsolidated materials

12. Sand and gravel deposits

13. Unified soil classification of substratum

14. Soil saturated with water within 3 feet 

of the surface for 2 to 12 months

15. Soil saturated with water within 3 feet 

of the surface for less than 2 months

16. Peat and muck deposits

17. Percolation rate classes

18. Agricultural land use capability

19. Drainage areas

20. Floodprone areas

21. Low flow of streams

22. Saturated thickness of stratified 

unconsolidated deposits

23. Availability of ground water

24. Location of existing sanitary and water 

related facilities, services and uses

25. Land use: 1970

26. Zoning: 1970

supplies-surface Water 1.

supplies-subsurface Water of2.areas 

favorable supply

Domestic municipal solid disposal waste 

co

 >

 

Industrial andsanitary plantwastes treatment ,

t

On-site sepic disposal sites

in

Injection well-liquid disposa

CO

excavation Aggregate 

r^

Earth workuses

00

deposits Economic 

O>

Density building development

o

Utility corridors*

.«-

2

2

1

1

1

1

2

2

1

1

1

3

3

2

1

2

2

1

1

1

1

Transportation corridors

CM

Recreation corridors andopen space

CO

Recreation impoundment water 

*t

opment

field dvel Recreation 

in

Agricultural uses

(O

* 1 = Primary importance; 2 = Secondary importance; 3 = Indirectly related

delineate the three land areas that are 

sources of recharge for a stratified-drift 

aquifer in western Connecticut (fig. 5). 

The first area includes land overlying the 

aquifer where recharge is derived from 

precipitation that percolates to the water 

table. The limits of this area were determined from surficial geologic maps and 

hydrogeologic maps. Adjacent till and bedrock areas that are not drained by perennial streams also contribute recharge,

either from subsurface inflow or from infiltration of runoff near the margins of the 

aquifer. Finally, studies of this aquifer and 

others elsewhere in Connecticut show that 

they are hydraulically connected to the 

streams that traverse them. Pumping is 

therefore likely to induce recharge from 

the stream, and the entire upstream drainage area that contributes runoff will constitute a third recharge area. The limits of 

this area can also be defined by the drain14 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
age divides as determined from topographic maps. This three-fold division of 

recharge areas and the technique for estimating their extent are applicable to most 

of the stratified-drift aquifers in Connecticut, and this knowledge can provide a 

framework for local aquifer-protection programs. Many towns in Connecticut have 

adopted programs that regulate activities 

in the recharge areas through zoning and 

site-plan review. For large stratified-drift 

aquifers, flow modeling has been used to 

limit the protection to the area that contributes flow to a specified pumping center. 

The concepts and products developed 

from the CVUAP, the drainage-basin studies, and the "208" cooperative programs 

influenced the Department of Environmental Protection to extend standards and classifications to ground water. The drainagearea maps provided a suitable physical 

framework for classifying both surface and 

ground water in most of the State. Within 

each basin unit, existing information on 

aquifer boundaries, locations of publicsupply wells and known or potential contaminant sources, water quality, and land 

use was plotted, tabulated, and updated 

where necessary. To identify areas of the 

State where hydrogeologic conditions were 

most favorable for the discharge of wastes, 

criteria were first developed for factors 

such as the lithology and thickness of materials above and below the water table and 

their proximity to ground-water discharge 

zones. Single-factor maps of these features 

were developed and used to aid in identifying suitable areas.

Ground-Water Protection in the 

Future

Today Connecticut has a comprehensive ground-water protection strategy, an 

abundance of natural-resources information to aid in protecting this resource, and, 

in the State's Natural Resources Center 

(NRC), a central facility for disseminating 

this information to the user community. 

But where will the State go from here? 

What natural-resources information will be 

needed in the future? The general direction 

is clearly toward basinwide management of 

all water in order to satisfy competing 

demands for this resource. This demand for 

water will result in the continued integration of surface- and ground-water quality

protection programs and will require a 

thorough understanding of the hydrology 

of each major drainage basin.

Cooperative programs are continuing 

to move from natural-resource inventories to monitoring and process-oriented 

research. Current ground-water protection activities include monitoring of 

surface-water quality, streamflow, and 

ground-water levels to characterize dynamic changes; a comprehensive water-use 

program; investigations of the hydraulic 

characteristics of till; and studies of the 

occurrence of natural radionuclides and 

pesticides in ground water. In two other 

studies that are funded by the Federal 

program, hydrologists are investigating 

relations between ground-water quality

1 2 MILES

1 2 3 KILOMETERS 

EXPLANATION 

Aquifer area

Till and bedrock area that 

recharges the aquifer

Drainage area upstream 

of the aquifer

Figure 5. Delineation of 

recharge areas for a stratifieddrift aquifer near Cannondale in 

southwestern Connecticut. (Information retrieved and plotted 

through the Connecticut Geographic Information System.)

Perspectives 15
Figure 6. High- and moderateyield aquifer areas. 42]

__________________73"

GRANBY

D a

ENFIELD

/FJU _____

SOWERS

,| f°

ELLINGTON

/^E^;

D

UPPER 

HOUSATONIC

0 n

S

FARMINGTON

^ ..... .. n P| 

I I __ / / O i I i

n i i ° nwiLUMANTic n p. n

-,U I__ISIMSBURY U C\ n / / KILLING!^ 

~ HAVON ^ k\ VJ^ D

MANCHESTER \\ \\ Q rc . ITCQ

\l I I I \\\ \ CENTER

V> \ \ VILLAGE

, / > I I n NATCHAUG\\ Q

 1 D//PLAINVILLE U SHETUCKET \^ I I--""" ,

5n ROCK HILL ^ D / / CWYV| U-E,

D

SOUTHINGTON GLASTONBURY NX. / mCKE LLl

U I__I \> /\ p M U D

r~, pWATERBURY DART H YANTIC\\ g []

/ / HANOVER R 'SLANDl I I I i V ,

POMPERAUG/ / pi pQ^o U /\ LJ^ I PAWCATUCK J

41°30'l / /NAUGATUCKy ^U ( X ^ ' ^

| / / I I

M 

SEYMOUR I 

D LP

DWALLINGFORD ^

NORTHL 

HAVEN

D D

" AD n n 6 LL\

n \\ n LJRESERVOJR D u A\ U L-1 ^.(JkTVxi

and land use in stratified-drift aquifers and 

the factors that control induced recharge.

Two State management programs that 

are in their infancy illustrate the general 

direction of future cooperative efforts to 

protect ground water. The development of 

an Aquifer-Wellhead Protection Program 

for high- and moderate-yield aquifers proposes several management measures that 

range from land acquisition of well sites to 

regulatory prohibitions and zoning controls. Successful implementation will be 

highly dependent upon hydrogeologic data, 

maps, and analytical methods for accurately defining aquifer boundaries, areas of 

aquifers contributing water to pumped 

wells, potential well sites, and aquifer 

recharge areas. Some information exists 

for all of the 158 high- and moderate-yield 

stratified-drift aquifer areas identified in 

Connecticut (fig. 6), but this information is 

often insufficient to meet the needs of this 

program. Providing comprehensive scientific information needed for each area in a 

reasonable time frame presents a significant challenge. Through the cooperative 

program, new applications of geophysical 

methods for characterizing stratified-drift 

aquifers are presently being tested.

The State's Water Use and Allocation 

Program presents another challenge for 

the cooperative program. Competition for

EXPLANATION

Moderate-yield aquifer study area

High-yield aquifer study area

finite water resources has already caused 

degradation in the quality of surface waters 

in some basins to the extent that careful 

monitoring will be required to prevent further degradation of these waters to the 

point where they fail to meet water-quality 

criteria. As more ground water that would 

normally discharge to these streams is 

diverted by pumping from wells, the 

water-quality problems will intensify. The 

Department of Environmental Protection 

(DEP) has instituted a permit system for 

water use and withdrawal in order to make 

the best use of the available resources. 

Permit decisions will rely heavily on flow 

models of stream-aquifer systems, longterm streamflow data (particularly lowflow characteristics), water-quality data, 

and predictive water-quality models. 

Water-use information will also be relied 

upon to quantify existing water use in each 

basin and to estimate future uses and 

demands.

The DEP, using data from USGS cooperative studies, has identified other major 

information needs that are essential for 

managing ground water and will develop a 

new long-range plan to meet these needs. 

Foremost among these are information on 

the nature of the ground-water flow system 

in fractured bedrock; relations between 

land use and ground-water quality in bed16 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
72°37'30" 

42°00'r

72°30'

41°52'30"

Figure 7. Map of the Broad 

Brook quadrangle in 

north-central Connecticut 

showing selected information 

for water-supply planning. (Information retrieved and plotted 

through the Connecticut Geographic Information System.)

2 MILES

\ I

1 2 KILOMETERS

EXPLANATION

Stratified drift-letter C indicates coarse grained 

(sand and gravel), letter F indicates fine grained 

(very fine sand, silt, and clay). Yellow overprint 

indicates areas with potential for large-scale 

ground-water development within the Enfield 

study area

Till

(I) Public-supply well

ffi Waste-disposal site

^-^^- Contact between unconsolidated units

rock aquifers; the transport and fate of 

chemical contaminants in the subsurface; 

and the suitability of fine-grained glacial 

deposits for waste disposal.

How will all the existing and new 

information be managed, analyzed, integrated, and disseminated? Through the 

cooperative program, a USGS/NRC pilot 

project in 1985 demonstrated the efficiency 

and flexibility of computerized geographic 

information systems for such tasks. This 

pilot project led to the creation of the

Perspectives 17
18 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987

Connecticut Geographic Information System, which is being developed by the NRC 

with support from the USGS and State 

agencies. The Connecticut Geographic Information System is already being used for 

statewide water-supply planning and, 

when fully operational, is expected to be 

one of the most powerful tools for groundwater protection programs (fig. 7).

The USGS cooperative program will 

continue to provide the science, data management concepts, and predictive tools for 

Connecticut to further develop and fullv 

implement the ground-wate, 

programs that are essential elements ui uie 

State strategy for ground-water protection. The ground-water strategy that has 

been such a productive Federal-State cooperative effort in Connecticut may be a 

model for other States; perhaps it will 

serve as a springboard to other similar 

programs elsewhere in protecting the 

Nation's vital ground-water resources.

Robert L. Melvin, U.S. Geological Survey; 

Hugo F. Thomas, Connecticut State Geologist; and 

Robert E. Moore, Assistant Deputy Commissioner, 

Connecticut Department of Environmental Protec-
Geographic Information System 

Applications in the Earth Sciences

By John L Place and David A. Nystrom

Introduction

A geographic information system 

(GIS) is a computer hardware and software 

system designed to collect, manage, analyze, and display spatially referenced data. 

In the simplest sense, a GIS automates the 

manual process of gathering and analyzing 

the wide variety of data needed to make 

land-use and resource-management decisions and solve earth-science problems.

Because GIS capabilities allow scientists to process and interrelate many more 

kinds of data than before, it is now possible 

to examine problems and to broaden scientific understanding in new ways. For example, scientists might combine and analyze 

data on vegetation, soils, surficial geology, 

rainfall, and runoff measurements within 

the same hydrologic drainage basin to 

study soil permeability or soil erosion.

The growing urban population has 

placed increased demands on the Nation's 

natural resources and the environment. 

Frequently, Federal and State agencies 

must respond quickly to complicated problems involving the assessment and management of natural resources or the monitoring or mitigation of natural and manmade 

hazards. The U.S. Geological Survey, for 

example, is often called upon to provide 

earth-science information quickly to aid in 

mitigating the effects of hazards such as 

earthquakes and landslides. A GIS is a 

valuable tool that helps USGS scientists to 

provide this information more rapidly, efficiently, and effectively.

Geographic Information Systems 

at the U.S. Geological Survey

The USGS and the State of Connecticut initiated a joint demonstration project 

in 1984 to evaluate the effectiveness of 

using a GIS in ongoing data collection, 

maintenance, and analytical programs of 

the Connecticut Natural Resources Center. The project solved several problems 

related to the quality of existing digital and 

mapped data, the mechanics of processing 

large natural-resource data bases, and the 

compatibility of digital data among different systems. The project successfully demonstrated GIS effectiveness for industrial 

site selection and determination of groundwater availability.

Encouraged by the results of the Connecticut demonstration project and other 

application studies, the Director of the 

USGS issued a bureauwide GIS policy 

statement to establish a sound GIS research base, to conduct cooperative application projects, to exchange digital data 

bases, and to provide a funding mechanism 

for encouraging the use of this new tool in 

USGS investigations.

Specific goals in the policy statement 

include:

 GIS research Investigate advanced 

techniques to exchange digital spatial data; 

explore advanced computer-system architectures and techniques using improved 

data structures; apply knowledge-based 

inference models, expert systems, and natural query languages to multiple digital 

data bases and existing spatial datahandling techniques; and apply GIS technology to major missions of the Survey.

 Multidisciplinary demonstration projects Develop projects that involve the 

USGS and local, State, and other Federal 

agencies, and provide those agencies with 

training and assistance in GIS technology 

and applications. Implement interdivisional 

application projects within the Survey to 

broaden GIS expertise and expand the 

existing network of shared resources 

(hardware, software, and data bases) and 

technique development.

 Federal government coordination 

Encourage governmentwide GIS education, technology transfer, and definition of 

GIS research requirements through committees such as the Interior Digital CartogFacing page photograph by 

Mark A. Hardy, U.S. Geological 

Survey

Perspectives 19
Figure 1. The users' area of the 

U.S. Geological Survey CIS Research Laboratory in Reston, 

Virginia. The laboratory is designed for multidisciplinary cooperative research.

raphy Coordinating Committee and the 

Federal Interagency Committee on Digital 

Cartography.

 Exchange of earth-science and other 

spatial data Develop automated interfaces among various earth-science data 

bases and GIS's and make it easier to 

access and exchange digital spatial data 

bases by developing standards for earthscience data.

In fiscal year 1987, the USGS established a GIS Research Laboratory in 

Reston, Virginia (fig. 1), to provide an 

interdivisional, multidisciplinary environment for research, development, and application of GIS technology. Additional GIS 

facilities are being established in Denver, 

Colorado, and Menlo Park, California, and 

capabilities are being increased in an existing facility in Sioux Falls, South Dakota. 

Future expansion of GIS capability is 

planned for Survey offices in Rolla, Missouri, and Anchorage, Alaska. This concentration of GIS technology and resources at 

key locations will make available a broader 

range of computer-based hardware and 

software than is now available at dispersed 

field locations.

Figure 2. Location of CIS 

projects underway in FY 1987.

At present, GIS activities in the Survey represent a broad-based, bureauwide 

approach to developing GIS technology in 

support of national earth-science information needs. The Information Systems Division is assessing GIS hardware capabilities 

and microcomputer applications, developing the Earth Science Information' Network and the Earth Science Data Directory, and studying the merging of artificial 

intelligence and GIS technologies. The 

Geologic Division is using GIS software 

capabilities such as gridding, contouring, 

feature extraction, overlay, and display to 

manipulate and analyze geologic data. The 

Water Resources Division, the largest 

user, has GIS facilities in 40 of its State 

locations and has linked them with a distributed information system called GEONET. The National Mapping Division is 

developing advanced techniques for spatial 

data manipulation, analysis, and display.

Cooperative Projects Using Geographic Information Systems

In addition to the GIS projects underway within the Survey, the bureau is also 

working with other Federal and State 

agencies on a number of cooperative GIS 

projects (fig. 2). The projects are geographically dispersed and the objectives 

are varied, ranging from the study of pollution in the Elizabeth River, Virginia, to 

the determination of potential landslide 

areas in California. The following descriptions of several of the projects illustrate 

how GIS technology can be used to combine, analyze, and display a variety of 

digital data to suit a broad range of 

objectives.

In the Elizabeth River Project, more 

than 30 earth-science and natural-resource 

data bases are being integrated in a GIS to 

study pollution problems in and near Norfolk, Virginia, in cooperation with the U.S. 

Environmental Protection Agency. The 

Elizabeth River basin, in southeastern Virginia, drains approximately 205 square 

miles of some of the most heavily industrialized and developed areas on the Chesapeake Bay watershed. A GIS will be used 

to study and analyze the interaction 

between the ground-water system and the 

river, including the relationship of groundwater flow to the potential movement of 

toxic chemicals.

20 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook T987
The San Mateo County Project, on the 

San Francisco Peninsula, California, combines geologic, hydrologic, cartographic, 

and geographic data to model changes in 

land use relative to geologic constraints. 

GIS technology will help scientists analyze 

the relationship of topography to landslides 

and other processes and develop methods 

to determine hydraulic and ridge-line networks. Using data on land use, debris flow 

susceptibility, rate of rainfall infiltration, 

slope, earth materials, transportation, and 

drainage, scientists will be able to identify 

areas in San Mateo County subject to 

potential flooding or landslide problems.

In a recently completed cooperative 

effort with the Bureau of Reclamation, 

specialized GIS software was used to 

manipulate digital elevation data to derive, 

display, and analyze hydrologic characteristics in glaciated pothole terrain in North 

Dakota (fig. 3). The hydrologic characteristics were incorporated into a watershed 

model that will allow the Bureau of Reclamation to compute the probable maximum 

flood volume for the James River basin 

upstream from the dam at Jamestown, 

North Dakota, and to evaluate the need for 

structural changes to the dam.

N47°38'45", W99»44'00

N47°37'10"

Elevation classes: 

J|< 1585 ft. |Hj 1605 ft. [Jl625ft. 

| 1590 ft. UJ1610 ft. Q1630 nS1595 ft. H1615 ft- l~]1635 ft1600 ft. II1620 ft. Ol640 ft.

_ LEGEND: 

| _ | > 1645 ft. I Pothole locations 

T Drainage basin bounds -NI Overflow points >

I' ^ 1

POTHOLE DOWNSTREAM DEPTH POUR POINT POTHOLE VOLUME 

POTHOLE IN FEET ELEVATION IN FEET IN ACRE-FEET 

83 100 3.9 1608.3 93.5 

100 0 5.4 1606.3 110.9 

121 83 5.8 1610.3 80.2 

129 173 5.2 1612.2 55.6

Figure 3. Analysis of test site 3 

from the James River Hydrology 

Project. Above, Computerdelineated potholes are shown 

in red draped on a shaded-relief 

presentation of elevation data. 

Below, Potholes that were selected for runoff modeling are 

shown with their watersheds 

and pour points and sample 

tabular information.

Perspectives 21
Figure 4. Bedrock geologic map 

of test area in western Maine 

near Kingfield. Map was digitized from the Maine Geological Survey's 7985 Bedrock Geologic Map of Maine.

Figure 5. Color composite image of same area with digitized 

geologic contacts and faults superimposed. The image, centered on the Lexington batholith, combines magnetic and 

gravity data to show subsurface 

details. Coincident magnetic 

and gravity lows produce blue 

or black areas, such as over the 

Lexington batholith. The batholith is probably thickest beneath 

the blue area. Coincident highs 

produce yellow or white areas 

and commonly indicate mafic 

rocks. Coincident magnetic 

highs and gravity lows produce 

magenta areas and commonly 

indicate pyrrhotite-rich metamorphic rocks. The image represents one of many combinations of geophysical and 

geologic data of the area.

The San Juan Basin Project, located in 

the Four Corners region of Arizona, New 

Mexico, Utah, and Colorado, will use GIS 

technology to develop the general automated data compilation, data analysis, and 

map-production capabilities needed for 

regional geologic and hydrologic resources 

studies. GIS capabilities will be applied 

specifically to complete the analysis of the 

San Juan basin regional aquifer system. 

The development of new GIS program 

interfaces to high-accuracy automated cartographic drafting systems also will allow 

direct generation of publication-quality cartographic products.

One of the objectives of the John Day 

River Basin Project in northeastern Oregon is the development of a prototype GIS 

for use by State agencies in the management of water resources. A central repository of spatial information about the river 

basin will provide query, analysis, and display capabilities for developing watersupply and water-management alternatives. In a second phase, the GIS will be 

used to prepare a management document 

that will describe existing conditions of 

natural resources, predict future conditions, and suggest management alternatives for achieving various levels of development in the basin.

The Quebec-Maine-Gulf of Maine Global Geoscience Transect Project will use a 

number of different GIS's to integrate geologic, topographic, magnetic, gravity, and 

seismic reflection and refraction data to 

create three-dimensional models of the 

Earth's crust. The transect is approximately 880 km (500 miles) long, 100 km (60 

miles) wide, and as much as 50 km (30 

miles) deep, beginning in southeastern 

Quebec, crossing Maine to Penobscot Bay, 

and continuing from Penobscot Bay across 

the Gulf of Maine to Georges Bank and the 

continental edge. Digital data for a test 

area approximately 50 by 75 km (30 by 45 

miles) near Kingfield, Maine, have been 

used to evaluate the models and processes 

that will be applied to the larger study area 

(figs. 4, 5).

GIS for the Future

In addition to the projects mentioned, 

numerous other projects are underway, 

including the application of GIS technology 

to resource management in the greater 

Yellowstone area in Wyoming, Montana, 

and Idaho; the assessment of irrigationdrainage quality near Dakes, North 

Dakota; and the geochemical interpretation 

of soil, shallow aquifer material, and 

ground water in the Carson River basin, 

Nevada-California.

The powerful capabilities of GIS's offer 

new possibilities for integrating, analyzing, 

combining, and comparing earth-science 

data obtained from a variety of sources. 

The USGS will continue to investigate new 

ways to apply this tool in mission-oriented 

studies and in the generation of digital and 

graphic products to fulfill earth-science 

information needs.

22 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
Significant Accomplishments 

of Research Programs: 1987

Variability Within 

Ore-Deposit Models 

An Example From the 

Red Dog Zinc Deposit, 

Northwestern Alaska

By Jeanine M. Schmidt

The Red Dog deposit is the second 

largest known zinc deposit in the world, 

with announced reserves of 11 million metric tons of 17.1 percent zinc, 5 percent lead, 

and 82 grams per metric ton of silver. 

When production begins in 1990, Red Dog 

will be the largest, predominantly basemetal lode mine operating in Alaska.

The discovery of the Red Dog deposit 

by I.L. Tailleur of the USGS was first 

published in 1970. The USGS, in cooperation with the operating partners of the Red 

Dog deposit, Cominco American, Inc., has 

been conducting detailed geologic studies 

in the area since 1984. The Red Dog 

deposit, located about 85 miles north of 

Kotzebue in the DeLong Mountains of 

Alaska, is owned by the Northwest Alaska 

Native Corporation.

Red Dog is a member of the 

"sediment-hosted massive sulfide" or 

"sedex" zinc-lead class of deposits. The ore 

is stratabound and hosted in black shales 

and subordinate black limestones of Mississippian to Pennsylvanian age (290 to 360 

million years (m.y.) old). The deposit was 

subjected to intense faulting and moderate 

folding during the Jurassic to Early Cretaceous (63 to 205 m.y. ago) formation 

of the Brooks Range fold-and-thrust belt. 

Because of this tectonic setting, previous 

geologic investigations focused on identifying the local stratigraphic and structural 

complexities of the deposit and defining 

portions that are repeated by thrusting or 

removed by faulting and erosion. The 

USGS completed extensive relogging of

drill cores from the deposit in fiscal year 

1987; petrographic, fluid-inclusion, and 

stable-isotope studies of the sulfide mineralization and host rocks in order to determine the mineralogy, textures, and genesis 

of the deposit are ongoing.

These new data suggest that Red Dog 

differs in many ways from a classic sedex 

model. In the classic model (fig. 1), sheetlike bodies of laminated, fine-grained and 

pyrite-rich massive sulfides, often with 

monomineralic layers, are usually thinly 

interbedded with sediment. In contrast, 

ore from the Red Dog Main deposit (fig. 2) 

is very rarely laminated, is low in pyrite, 

has very abundant finely dispersed silica 

gangue in a predominantly semimassive 

sulfide rock without significant sedimentary interbeds, and is overlain by a thick 

and extensive barite layer.

Classic sedex deposits are interpreted 

to form directly on the sea floor by the 

exhalation of basinal brines or convected 

hydrothermal fluids into seawater. Precipitation and gravity settling of sulfides are 

produced by the mixing of this fluid with 

seawater near the vent area and subsequent dilution, pH change, and cooling. 

Subsurface mineralization in the sedex 

model shown on figure 1 is limited to minor 

iron-sulfide-rich stringers and veins within 

the vent area and minor associated silica or 

carbonate alteration of wall rocks. In contrast, the Red Dog deposit contains few 

sedimentary/clastic or exhalative type 

ores, and contains very common replacement and multistage ore textures, in which 

earlier stages of sulfide mineralization are 

overprinted by sulfide veining and solution 

breccias. A zonation of ore types is 

observed in much of the main deposit, and 

a baritic cap, often containing sulfides in 

the lower portion, overlies siliceous semimassive to massive sulfides. These latter 

sulfides laterally grade into silica rock containing only disseminated sulfides and then 

outward into silicified shale. Diagenetic 

barite blades and nodules, carbonate 

rhombs, and radiolaria and sponge spicules 

(fossils) within the host shale are replaced

Significant Accomplishments of Research Programs: 1987 23
Figure 1. Idealized sec/ex 

(sediment-hosted massive sulfide) deposit model.

Mixing with seawater

Zinc-lead ratio increases

^Cross-cuttingj-^j 

--feeder zprie,-^ 

r^_-brecciationr-_rV

r50 m

100m

by silica and (or) sulfides toward the center 

of the orebody. Preserved pyrite framboids, sponge and crinoid fragments, barite 

blade pseudomorphs, and other textures in 

the semimassive and massive ores suggest 

that a large portion of the deposit formed 

by growth in and replacement of unconsolidated sediment, rather than by precipitation of sulfides in the water column.

The unusually high lead and zinc 

grades and large size of the Red Dog 

deposit may be a direct result of processes

such as infiltration, dissolution and replacement of sediment and early mineralization, 

and continued upward growth of the 

deposit beneath an impermeable barite 

cap. None of these characteristics or processes, however, are considered to be typical of sedex lead-zinc deposits. Thus, the 

Red Dog deposit emphasizes the need for 

conducting detailed site investigations in 

order to construct deposit models that 

reflect the multitude of diversified features 

found in mineralized areas.

Seawater

Figure 2. Idealized model of 

Red Dog lead-zinc deposit, 

northwest Alaska.

\Silicified and mineralized host rock

24 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
New Midcontinent 

Basement Geologic 

Map Provides Basis for 

Evaluation of Hidden 

Mineral Resources

By Paul K. Sims

Background

The midcontinent region of the United 

States is renowned for its world-class basemetal mining districts, including the Upper 

Mississippi Valley lead-zinc district, the 

Illinois-Kentucky fluorspar district, the 

Southeast Missouri lead-zinc district, and 

the Tri-State (Missouri-Kansas-Oklahoma) 

lead-zinc district. All these districts are 

hosted by flat-lying carbonate rocks of 

Paleozoic age (as old as 570 million years).

Hidden beneath these well-known 

mines may be mineral resources of comparable value. The complex Precambrian 

rocks (more than 570 million years old), 

which come to the surface in Minnesota and 

Wisconsin and in the St. Francois Mountains of southeastern Missouri, are now 

being investigated for their resource potential. The Precambrian rocks exposed in 

Minnesota and Wisconsin contain the 

famed iron ores of the Lake Superior district and other valuable unmined metal 

deposits; those exposed in Missouri host 

significant iron ore bodies, some of which 

have associated base metals, principally 

copper. The rocks in these exposed segments extend into the subsurface. Drilling 

also has shown that the basement contains 

several other Precambrian terranes that 

have potential for other kinds of mineral 

deposits.

As part of the USGS Midcontinent 

Strategic and Critical Minerals Project, a 

Precambrian basement map of the northern midcontinent was compiled in cooperation with the Geological Surveys of Arkansas, Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, 

Missouri, Nebraska, Oklahoma, South 

Dakota, Tennessee, and Wisconsin (fig. 3). 

The map is based primarily on rock types

encountered by 1,500 drill holes that penetrated the Precambrian basement. Goodquality aeromagnetic and gravity data, 

which generally were not available until 

fairly recently, were used to infer the 

structural trends, extent, and boundaries 

of the rock bodies identified in the drill 

holes. The geology was interpreted in 

terms of the tectonostratigraphic terrane 

concept, which has been successfully 

applied to delineate groups of closely 

related rocks in exposed areas in the Lake 

Superior region.

Known and potential mineral 

resources

The Precambrian basement of the 

northern midcontinent has a high potential 

for undiscovered mineral resources because many of the terranes are favorable 

for ore generation. Exposed parts of the 

region the Lake Superior district in the 

north and the southwest Missouri district 

in the southeast have a combined production of iron and copper ores valued at 

several tens of billions of dollars. Recent 

discoveries of as yet unmined deposits that 

contain large zinc-copper and coppernickel-cobalt-platinum resources in the 

Lake Superior region are further encouragement for exploration in this area. The 

relatively shallow depth of much of the 

buried basement in about two-thirds of 

the midcontinent area the basement is less 

than 3,000 feet below the surface is 

another positive factor.

Another intriguing possibility is that 

the Middle Proterozoic anorogenic St. 

Francois and Spavinaw granite-rhyolite 

terranes may contain deposits of the Olympic Dam type. The Olympic Dam deposit, 

at Roxby Downs, South Australia, is one of 

the world's premier metal deposits, which 

is now being developed for production. It is 

reported to contain at least 2,000 million 

metric tons of ore that has an average 

grade of 1.6 percent copper, 0.06 percent 

uranium oxide, 0.6 grams per metric ton of 

gold, and 3.5 grams per ton of silver. The 

deposit occurs within an area dominated by 

Middle Proterozoic anorogenic magmatism, 

and the ores are hosted by coarse clastic 

sedimentary rocks, which are interpreted 

mainly as breccias. Such an ore-forming 

environment could be present in southwestern Missouri and adjacent parts of

Significant Accomplishments of Research Programs: 1987 25
Figure 3. Geologic map of basement rocks in the midcontinent 

region. -Potential mineral 

resources are listed for specific 

major terranes.

100

I

200,MILES

100 200 300.KILOMETERS

0 O O

a o Q i

MIDDLE PROTEROZOIC (1600-900 million years old)

Midcontinent rift system (1.0-1.2 billion years old) Favorable for copper-nickel-platinum deposits and 

petroleum

Rhyolite and granite (1.35-1.48 billion years old) Favorable for Olympic Dam-type iron-copperurahium-gold deposits

Anorogenic anorthosite and rapakivi granite (1.48 billion years old)

EARLY PROTEROZOIC (2500-1600 million years old)

Quartzite of "Baraboo interval" Favorable for unconformity-type uranium deposits 

Metamorphic and granitoid rocks of Central Plains orogen 

Rhyolite and granite(1.76 billion years old) 

Granite and associated rocks (age uncertain) 

Granite (1.8 billion years old)

Wisconsin magmatic terrane of Penokean orogen (1.8 2.1 billion years old) Favorable for copper-zinc 

deposits

ARCHEAN (2500 million years old and older)

Greenstone-granite terrane of Superior craton (2.6-2.75 billion years old)

Gneiss of central Wisconsin (2.8-3.0 billion years old)

Gneiss terrane (3.0-3.6 billion years ;old ); includes granite (2.6 billion years old)

Limit of outcrop 

Fault or shear zone

26 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
Arkansas and Kansas. This area in particular and other areas in the granite-rhyolite 

terranes merit serious consideration for 

exploration.

Early Mesozoic Basins 

Workshop

By Gil pin R. Robinson, Jr., 

and Albert J. Froelich

Approximately 110 participants from 

government institutions, eastern universities, and the petroleum and mining industries gathered at a workshop on the geology of the early Mesozoic (180-230 million 

years (m.y.) old) basins of eastern North 

America, held at the USGS National Center during May 1987. The workshop was 

designed as a forum where scientists could 

meet to present results and exchange 

ideas, with the goal of developing a geologic framework to support mineral and 

energy resource studies. Significant results 

include the following:

Organic geochemical analyses and 

thermal maturity indices of Mesozoic 

orgam'c-matter-rich shales show, in the 

Newark basin of New Jersey and Pennsylvania, that Triassic shales (approximately 

225 m.y. old) are overmature with respect 

to petroleum generation but that Jurassic 

shales (approximately 195 m.y. old) contain 

both mature and immature sections. Triassic shales in the Taylorsville and Richmond 

basins of Virginia are mature with respect 

to hydrocarbon generation, and hydrocarbon shows are reported from oil test holes. 

Migration of liquid hydrocarbon in many 

other basins is directly indicated by its 

occurrence in fluid inclusions and as bitumen in veins. The basinwide continuity, 

thickness, and high organic-carbon content 

of the mature Triassic and Jurassic shales 

indicate a petroleum source of potential 

commercial interest in some cases. Stratigraphic and structural traps for hydrocarbons may be present in early Mesozoic 

basins buried beneath the Coastal Plain 

and Atlantic Continental Shelf and in some 

exposed basins.

Platinum-group-element chemistry 

has been measured in a number of Jurassic

diabase sheets. Results indicate that, 

under silicate fractionation conditions, platinum (Pt) is enriched slightly relative to 

palladium (Pd) in the early cumulate stage, 

whereas Pd is enriched relative to Pt 

in late-stage differentiates. Late-stage 

ferrogabbro-ferrodiorite bodies in two diabase sheets in Pennsylvania and New Jersey show anomalous Pd and chlorine (Cl) 

abundances that are an order of magnitude 

greater (as much as 207 parts per billion 

(ppb) Pd and 3,500 parts per million (ppm) 

Cl) than values in most other diabase 

bodies.

Some copper-rich hornfels associated 

with diabase sheets in Pennsylvania are 

reported to be enriched in gold (as much as 

7 ppm) and other rare metals such as 

molybdenum, arsenic, and bismuth.

Sediment-hosted, stratabound basemetal enrichment (as much as 2.8 percent 

copper, 6,000 ppm zinc, 1,000 ppm lead, 

and 40 ppm silver) is observed in black 

root-disrupted mudstones, which underlie 

laminated lacustrine shales in the Culpeper 

basin of Virginia. This mineralization 

appears to be largely restricted to specific 

sedimentary fades that occur repetitively 

as part of sedimentary cycles that are controlled, in part, by climatic variation. Four 

metal-enriched horizons have been identified from one locality in the Culpeper basin.

Epithermal base-metal and barite 

veins, which are associated with many of 

the early Mesozoic basins, are reported to 

have high silver contents. Fluid-inclusion, 

isotope, and other studies indicate that the 

veins are associated with the transport of 

moderate temperature (100-250 °Celsius) 

and salinity (10-16 weight percent sodium 

chloride) brines from within the basins and 

adjacent basement to shallow sites of mineral precipitation. Fluid migration may be 

due to a seismic pumping process that was 

active during the Middle Jurassic (about 

175 m.y. ago) during the separation of 

North America from Africa.

40Ar/39Ar analyses of feldspar separates from diabase bodies in the Culpeper 

basin, Virginia, and Newark basin, New 

Jersey, give argon closure ages of approximately 175 m.y., which are at variance 

with the igneous crystallization age of 

approximately 200 m.y. The argon closure 

age represents the age at which all argon 

produced by radioactive decay of potassium 

remains trapped in the mineral and is not

Significant Accomplishments of Research Programs: 1987 27
Figure 4. Panorama of the platinum mining operation in the 

Stillwater Complex, Montana. 

Right foreground mine office; 

center foreground-tailings 

pond; lower left-mill and concentrator; three portals that provide access to the ore deposit 

are hidden by trees in the area 

to the right of the tailings 

pond.

lost by diffusion; this closure age is interpreted to be the age at which the mineral 

last cooled below a temperature at which 

argon diffusion is nil (approximately 200 

°Celsius in this case). The 175 m.y. apparent age of the feldspars is interpreted as 

being due to a heating event (>200 

"Celsius), which affected these and probably the other basins. The most likely source 

of heat is hydrothermal fluids, possibly 

migrating in response to regional deformation. The 175-m.y. argon closure age may 

reflect the formation age of some of the 

vein and stratabound base-metal deposits 

described above.

Platinum Mining in 

the Stillwater 

Complex, Montana

By Norman J Page

The only mine for platinum-group metals in the United States, the Minneapolis 

Adit mine, shipped its first concentrate in 

March 1987. The ore to produce the concentrate comes from the J-M Reef of the 

Stillwater Complex, Montana, and is mined

by the Stillwater Mining Company, a joint 

venture of Chevron Corporation, Lac Minerals Limited, and Manville Corporation 

(fig. 4). The J-M Reef was discovered in 

1973 and has been extensively explored 

since then. This reef is similar to the 

Merensky Reef of the Bushveld Complex in 

South Africa, which is the major supplier 

for the annual U.S. consumption of about 

3.9 million ounces. Annual production from 

the mine is expected to be approximately 

2.5 percent and 7.5 percent of the annual 

U.S. consumption of platinum and palladium, respectively.

A cooperative study by the USGS and 

the Stillwater Mining Company was initiated to examine the spatial geometry and 

geochemistry of platinum-group-element 

(PGE) mineralization of the J-M Reef by 

using drillhole and underground information from the Minneapolis Adit mine. These 

investigations are in part continuations of 

many earlier investigations in various parts 

of the Stillwater Complex during the last 

century by the USGS, industry, and academia. PGE mineralization in the J-M Reef 

appears to be very irregularly distributed. 

Characterizing and understanding the type 

of distribution are critical to mining and 

thus are being investigated by use of threedimensional display systems and statistical 

analysis.

Detailed mineralogical studies of the 

residence of the platinum-group elements,

28 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
using the scanning electron microscope in 

combination with other techniques, demonstrated that minerals containing tellurium, 

arsenic, sulfur, antimony, bismuth, tin, and 

mercury are important in controlling the 

distribution of the platinum-group elements. In order to examine the relations of 

platinum-group minerals to their stratigraphic setting, it was necessary to develop 

rapid, precise, and extremely sensitive 

analytical techniques. Two techniques 

were evaluated that determine tellurium 

down to 10 parts per billion in solid geological samples. One of these techniques has 

an ion exchange preconcentration step, and 

the other has a solvent extraction preconcentration step. Both of these techniques 

were followed by a graphite furnace atomic 

absorption measurement. Techniques to 

determine tin and bismuth at similar low 

levels are being developed based on the 

ion-exchange procedure. Procedures have 

also been developed for determining the 

lower limits of arsenic and antimony. The 

development of these techniques with 

lower levels of determination is necessary 

because the platinum-group elements that 

are being mined occur at the part per billion 

to part per million level. Preliminary evaluation of a limited data set indicates correlations between the trace elements and 

platinum-group elements.

In addition to providing the data 

required for understanding the setting of 

the J-M Reef, these new techniques will 

increase the accuracy and reliability of 

other assessment programs for precious 

metals.

Answers from Deep 

Inside the Earth: 

Continental Scientific 

Drilling at Cajon Pass, 

California

By David P. Russ

Drilling of a 12,000-foot-deep scientific 

well has been completed at Cajon Pass in 

southern California to measure crustal

properties, to determine crustal structure, 

and to better understand the generation of 

earthquakes along the San Andreas fault. 

A joint effort of the National Science Foundation (NSF) and the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), the well was begun in November 1986, and is one of the first projects to 

be undertaken in the new national Continental Scientific Drilling Program. This 

program aims to enhance our knowledge of 

the composition, structure, dynamics, and 

evolution of the continental crust and of 

how these factors affect the origin and 

distribution of mineral and energy 

resources and natural phenomena such as 

volcanic eruptions and earthquakes.

Most of the world's earthquakes occur 

in relatively narrow bands that mark the 

boundaries between sections of the outer 

shell of the Earth. These sections, known 

as plates, are driven by the internal heat of 

the Earth and move slowly and inexorably 

with respect to one another. The boundary 

between the Pacific Plate and the North 

American Plate is located in California and 

forms the San Andreas fault system (fig. 

5). The relative motion between these two 

plates is horizontal, and the rate of movement is about 2 inches per year. In other 

words, each year Los Angeles moves about 

2 inches closer to San Francisco. Along the 

San Andreas fault the plates move past 

each other at a steady rate, but at many 

places in the upper 5-10 miles of the crust 

the brittle character of the rocks causes the 

fault to lock, preventing motion and producing a buildup of stresses. When the 

accumulating stress exceeds the strength 

of the rocks bounding the fault, the rocks 

suddenly slip. This slipping action allows 

the surface rocks to snap to a new position, 

in effect catching up with the subsurface 

rocks and, at the same time, producing the 

strong shaking that constitutes an earthquake.

Though field and laboratory studies of 

fault slip have been underway for years, 

the mechanics of the slip process are still 

not well understood. For instance, a longstanding question exists concerning the 

significance of low levels of heat flow along 

the trace of the San Andreas fault where 

friction associated with fault motion might 

be expected to produce relatively higher 

geothermal levels than those measured 

from the rocks in the surrounding region. 

Generally referred to as the stress-heatflow paradox, the measured levels of heat

Significant Accomplishments of Research Programs: 1987 29
Figure 5. (Above) Surface trace 

of the San Andreas fault in 

western California. Arrows show 

direction of plate motion. 

(Below) Parker Drilling Company rig on site at Cajon Pass.

Locked sections

Cape 

Mendocino

 ---- Free sections

-38° N

San Francisco ^ Redwood Gt V NORTH 

. V-,\ . V AMERICAN \T\ X 36° N

PACIFIC 

PLATE

0 100 200 MILES

I h '

0 100 200 KILOMETERS

flow would suggest that the fault slips at 

low-shear stresses, on the order of 200 bars 

(1 bar is approximately equal to 1 atmosphere) or less, thus implying a weak fault. 

Basic faulting theory, laboratory experimentation, and in-situ stress measurement 

by the hydraulic fracturing method suggest, in contrast, that the average shear 

stress resisting plate motion is about 750 

bars, suggesting a strong fault.

Resolving this paradox is important to 

the fundamental understanding of the 

physics governing fault mechanics, the 

magnitude of the stresses that drive the 

crustal plates, and the generation of earthquakes. To address these and other scientific questions, NSF-supported university 

scientists and USGS scientists and engineers are collaborating in a two-phase program of deep drilling into rocks adjacent to 

the San Andreas fault at Cajon Pass, California, northwest of San Bernardino (fig. 

5). This location was chosen because of the 

availability of a site close to the fault with a 

relatively unfractured and unaltered body 

of rock in which to make important measurements and because of its critical location 

as the end point of the fault rupture during 

the last great earthquake in southern California (1857).

Funds for the drilling and overall project management were provided by Deep 

Observation and Sampling of the Earth's 

Continental Crust, Inc. (DOSECC), a nonprofit university consortium under contract 

to the National Science Foundation. The 

principal investigator for the project is Dr. 

Mark D. Zoback of Stanford University; 

co-investigators are from the USGS and 

other universities.

The first phase of drilling of the Cajon 

Pass well was completed in April 1987 at a 

depth of 6,938 feet. Samples of rock cuttings were collected every ten feet, and 33 

rock cores, totaling 269.5 feet in length, 

were recovered (fig. 6). The USGS has 

provided sample and core handling, distribution, and curatorial facilities and personnel. Working in an on-site laboratory constructed especially for this project, USGS 

technicians have marked and tested samples and photographed the rock core. 

Under the direction of the California Institute of Technology, scientists have prepared a comprehensive descriptive log of 

the cuttings and core. Geophysical logs 

have been obtained through both commercial contract and university and USGS 

researchers.

The logs and rock cuttings show that 

the well first penetrated 1,625 feet of sandstone, siltstone, and clay stone of Tertiary 

age (2-63 million years old), followed by a 

complex assortment of crystalline basement rocks composed largely of sheared 

granite, granodiorite, and gneiss. Analyses 

of these rocks, of the geophysical logs, and 

of seismic-reflection profiles are central to 

broadening our understanding of the history and interrelationship of basement terranes, particularly the nature and extent of

30 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook T987
Figure 6. Rock cores are 

washed, measured, photographed, and slabbed at the 

USGS sample-handling facility 

at Cajon Pass, California. Segments of the core are distributed to university and government scientists for analysis and 

testing, and the remainder of 

the core is shipped to the 

USCS Drill Core Repository in 

Lakewood, Colorado.

microplate accretion and associated lowangle structures along the western margin 

of North America and the degree of uplift 

and exposure of deeper levels of the crust 

in the California Transverse Ranges.

Hydrofracture stress measurements, 

conducted jointly by scientists and engineers from the USGS and Stanford University during phase one of the drilling, have 

resulted in the determination of in-situ 

stress magnitudes and orientations (fig. 7). 

The measurements show that the orientation of the maximum principal stress is 

perpendicular to the San Andreas fault and 

that there is a transition from a nearsurface extensional stress regime to a more

Figure 7. In-situ measurements 

at the Earth's stress field at Cajon Pass have required the development of special highpressure hydraulic equipment 

in order to artificially crack the 

rocks at depths of more than 

10,000 feet. Stress measurements made by the USCS and 

university scientists provide 

data for determining the 

strength of the San Andreas 

fault in the deep Earth zones 

where earthquakes begin.

Significant Accomplishments of Research Programs: 1987 31
compressional regime at depth. This stress 

orientation is quite different from that 

expected for a fault that slips horizontally, 

but it is consistent with the orientation of 

stress-induced borehole elongations identified in the well and with the orientation of 

stresses that have produced many of the 

recent earthquakes in the region. The 

stress orientation also accounts for the 

widespread occurrence of geologically 

youthful folds and reverse faults that parallel the San Andreas fault. Scientists propose that crustal compression perpendicular to the fault is the result of "extremely 

low shear strength of the San Andreas 

fault, consistent with the observation of 

low heat flow in the area of the fault. 

Temperature and heat-flow measurements 

have been made in the well and do not show 

a geothermal anomaly. Stress and heatflow measurements will provide critical 

information for establishing data trends 

necessary to resolve the stress-heat-flow 

paradox.

In addition to stress and heat-flow 

studies, hydrologic and geochemical studies are being conducted on fluid samples 

collected in the well. Preliminary measurements are being made of rock pore 

pressure and permeability. Analyses of the 

fluid samples indicate that the well has 

penetrated two separate fracture systems 

that are only slightly interconnected. Measurement of fluid flow through the rocks 

will provide the data needed to determine 

the role of water in reducing the frictional 

resistance of rocks to faulting and in dissipating subsurface heat generated by earthquakes.

Phase two drilling of the Cajon Pass 

well deepened the drillhole from 6,938 to 

about 12,000 feet. About 10 percent of the 

well will be cored at specified intervals, and 

more rock cuttings and fluid samples will 

be collected. Samples will be examined for 

evidence of subhorizontal faults and will be 

analyzed to reconstruct the area's geologic 

and tectonic history. Hydrofracture and 

holographic stress measurements will be 

made to calculate the amount of stress and 

to determine whether or not the orientation of the stress field changes with depth 

or has been affected by the presence of 

nearby shallow faults. Geological, hydrological, and geophysical measurements will 

continue to be made to resolve the many 

remaining scientific questions.

The USGS will assume control of the 

well sometime in the future and, in collaboration with university scientists, will 

begin to develop equipment to establish a 

permanent deep Earth observatory primarily for earthquake prediction purposes. 

This monitoring will provide a long baseline 

of reliable scientific data valuable for identifying precursors of the next large southern California earthquake.

International 

Inventory of 

Platinum-GroupMetals Resources 

and Production

By David Sutphin

In March 1987, the Minneapolis Adit 

mine began producing platinum-group metals from the Stillwater Complex in Montana. This mine, which is the first major 

platinum-group-metals mining operation in 

the United States, could eventually supply 

about 10 percent of annual U.S. consumption of approximately 3.9 million ounces. 

The U.S. currently relies on foreign 

sources for 98 percent of this annual consumption. The platinum-group metals, 

platinum, palladium, rhodium, ruthenium, 

iridium, and osmium, are of strategic 

importance to the Nation because their 

unique chemical, physical, and mechanical 

properties are essential to many industrial 

processes. The current U.S. dependence on 

foreign sources for these much-needed 

metals makes domestic resource research 

and production an important national 

priority.

The U.S. Geological Survey and the 

U.S. Bureau of Mines participated with 

earth-science and mineral-resource agencies of Australia, Canada, Germany, South 

Africa, and the United Kingdom in a cooperative effort that reviewed worldwide 

platinum-group-metal resources and production. This study was undertaken by the 

International Strategic Minerals Inventory 

(ISMI), which has as its goal the collection,

32 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
analysis, and dissemination of information 

on major world deposits of selected strategic mineral commodities. Through this 

effort, the six participating nations obtain 

reliable information on production and 

resources that improves the basis for sound 

policy decisions, avoids duplication of 

effort, and encourages scientific exchange 

between countries.

The study found that of the world's 

23,000 metric tons of known economically 

minable resources of platinum-group metals, more than 98 percent are in South 

Africa and the Soviet Union. The U.S. and 

Canada combined have most of the remainder of the economic resources of these 

metals. Colombia and Zimbabwe also have 

economic deposits. Another 62,300 metric 

tons of platinum-group metals are estimated to occur in deposits that are uneconomic to recover or in less well-known 

extensions of identified deposits. Additional minor or less well-known deposits 

have been discovered in several countries 

including Australia, Brazil, Chile, China, 

Finland, and Zaire.

The platinum-group metals are chemically inert, have high melting points and 

high ductility, and exhibit extraordinary 

catalytic activity. They are used in processing petroleum and other fossil fuels, in 

ammonium oxidation to produce nitric acid

for fertilizers, and in other chemical processing, as well as in emission controls for 

automobiles and industrial processes. 

Other uses are in fuel cells, electrical and 

electronic hardware, jewelry, and medical 

and dental applications. Over 95 percent of 

these metals consumed in the U.S. are used 

for industrial applications. To date, the 

scientific effort that has gone into finding 

substitutes has met with little success, and 

demand for platinum-group metals is likely 

to increase as a result of Australia, Europe, 

and South Korea implementing automobile 

emission standards similar to those in the 

United States.

The world's most important deposits 

(fig. 8) of platinum-group metals are associated with magmatic intrusions of mafic or 

ultramafic rocks and fall in three main 

categories: stratiform deposits such as the 

Bushveld Complex in South Africa and the 

Stillwater Complex in the U.S.; a unique 

intrusion at Sudbury, Canada, which was 

probably initiated by the impact of a meteorite; and nickel-copper-bearing dikes and 

sills, which are found in association with 

rift structures such as Noril'sk-Talnakh 

district in the Soviet Union. Placer deposits, such as those in the Upper San Juan 

and Atrato Rivers in Colombia, in the past 

contributed a major part of platinum-group 

metal production. Stratiform deposits are

 f>.

SOVIET UNION 

Noril'sk-Talnakh district (1) 

Pechenga district (1)

. J,_>>;H_. i 'r/rx'-f V"*# 

crV^^-0

Base Irom Bundesanstall liii Geowissenschalien und RohsioTI 

Boundary and names representation not necessarily aulhociiai

, SOUTH AFRICA 

Bushveld Complex (6) 

NWltwatersrand (1)

Symbol

EXPLANATION

Geologic deposit type 

Placer

Resources (metric tons) 

Unreported

Magmatic 

Symbol Resources (metric tons)

 >10,000

 1,000-10,000

 <1,000

Figure 8. Location, deposit type, 

and estimated resources of major platinum-group-metal deposits and districts in the world. 

Numbers in parentheses indicate number of deposits and 

districts for each location.

Significant Accomplishments of Research Programs: 1987 33
mined principally for their platinum-group 

metals, with nickel, copper, and cobalt 

being by-products. In other deposit types, 

except for some placers, platinum-group 

metals are byproducts of nickel and copper 

mining.

The six countries having major 

platinum-group-metal deposits have accounted for 99.5 percent of world production of over 4,250 metric tons from 1735 to 

1983 (the latest year for which international production statistics are available). 

The Soviet Union has accounted for nearly 

one-half of this production and 56 percent 

of the 202 metric tons of platinum-group 

metals marketed in 1983. Soviet sales do 

not reflect world demand but do reflect the 

relative independence of the Soviet Union 

in the world market at a particular time. 

About one-third of cumulative production 

and 41 percent of 1983 production took 

place in South Africa.

Sharp increases in production from 

South Africa and the Soviet Union from 

1940 to 1980 caused the proportion of 

platinum-group-metal production accounted for by other countries including Canada, 

Colombia, and the United States to fall 

from 53 percent in 1940 to 7 percent in 

1980. Canada's proportion alone went from 

43 percent in 1940 to 6 percent in 1980 

despite a two-fold increase in output.

On the basis of identified resources, it 

is apparent that through the year 2020, the 

Sudbury Complex, NoriPsk-Talnakh district, and Bushveld Complex will probably 

continue to be significant producers, and 

the Stillwater Complex will become a significant producer. However, continued 

exploration and development of deposits, 

such as the Penikat layered intrusion (Finland) and Jinchuan deposit (China), and the 

potential discovery of other stratiform 

deposits could dramatically change the supply situation by 2020.

Orthophotographs 

From Digitally 

Processed Images

By Leonard Gaydos

Orthophotographs combine the image 

qualities of a photograph with the geometric qualities of a map and serve a variety of 

purposes, from interim maps to field references for forest firefighters. Since 1985, 

the Survey has been developing a new 

method for producing Orthophotographs 

using completely digital techniques.

A digital image is created by scanning 

a color-infrared aerial photograph through 

blue, green, and red filters on a film scanner. These data are matched with a digital 

elevation model of the same area. Computer software then rectifies the image by 

comparing measurements from the original 

photograph and the digital elevation model 

data to remove relief displacement. The 

software used is DPSOR (Digital Photogrammetric System Orthophoto), which is 

installed on a Gould 32/9780 computer at 

the Survey's Western Mapping Center in 

Menlo Park, California.

After rectification, the digital orthophotographs are further processed at the 

Survey's Earth Resources Observation 

Systems Data Center in Sioux Falls, South 

Dakota. There, the images are enhanced to 

improve color balance, and the adjoining 

digital Orthophotographs are mosaicked 

together to complete map quadrangle coverage. The final product is generated on 

film, then enlarged on a copy camera to 

either 1:12,000 or 1:24,000 scale.

Research continues into the use of 

the technology in the map revision process 

and as high-resolution multispectral 

data sources for geographic information 

systems.

34 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
An example of an experimental 

digital orthophotograph produced by the U.S. Geological 

Survey. The area shown is in 

the southwest quarter of the 

McCall, Idaho, 7.5-minute 

quadrangle. The image is color 

infrared and shows the north 

fork of the Payette River flowing 

south out of Payette Lake. The 

McCall Airport south of the lake 

and the municipal golf course 

east of the lake are clearly visible. The wakes of many boats 

can be seen on the lake.

Significant Accomplishments of Research Programs: 1987 35
Geographic 

Information Systems 

Aid Mineral 

Investigations

By John L. Place, Lawrence 

G. Batten, and Charles M. 

Trautwein

The U.S. Geological Survey has been 

automating its mapmaking procedures and 

in the process is creating base category 

data for inclusion in geographic information 

systems. A geographic information system 

is a computer hardware and software system designed to collect, manage, analyze, 

and display spatially referenced data. Data 

features may be points (wells, schools), 

lines (roads, streams), or polygons (counties, forests).

There has been a marked increase in 

the use of geographic information systems 

for interdivisional research within the Survey. Recently, a 5-year program of research, development, and application of 

geographic information systems for processing geoscience data was completed 

through a cooperative investigation conducted by the Survey's Geologic and

National Mapping Divisions. The investigation required the definition and development of sophisticated data processing algorithms to digitally compile, analyze, and 

combine the various geological, geochemical, and geophysical data that are used to 

assess mineral resources. The resulting 

technology was then used to evaluate several I°x2° quadrangles selected from the 

Conterminous United States Mineral 

Appraisal Program. In each of the quadrangles, quantitative models based on the 

characteristics of different types of mineral 

deposits and spatial relationships between 

the digitally compiled data sets and known 

mineral occurrences were used to describe 

favorable areas for the occurrence of additional reserves (fig. 9).

Geographic information systems are 

particularly useful in processing large 

amounts of geographically referenced 

earth-science data because of the systems' 

ability to efficiently analyze, overlay, and 

graphically display a variety of related 

data. In the cooperative investigation, 

USGS scientists were able to develop and 

successfully demonstrate the systems' 

automated, computer-based capabilities to 

(1) construct complex geoscience models 

that describe regional mineral resource 

potential; (2) apply mineral resource models to large, multivariate, digital data sets; 

(3) edit, modify, and reevaluate assessed 

mineral potential on the basis of updated or

Figure 9. Computer-generated 

map showing the results of 

modeling geological, geochemical, geophysical, and mineralresource data within a geographic information system to 

describe favorable environments for base- and preciousmetal mineralization in the OilIon, Montana-Idaho, 7°x2° 

quadrangle. The color-coded 

summary classifies areas as having very high (red), high 

(green), moderate (blue), or low 

(gray) potential for undiscovered vein-type mineral deposits.

36 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
new types of geoscience data; and (4) generate products in digital (computercompatible), tabular, and cartographic 

formats.

On the basis of these findings and 

associated benefits, geographic information 

system technology is being installed at 

USGS regional centers for operational use 

in mineral-resource-related and allied geoscience investigations.

Advancements In Data 

Structures

By Stephen C. Cuptill

The keystone of making maps with 

computers lies in having a set of information in the computer that represents, in a 

digital form, the information to be shown

Table 1. Example information for the map shown in figure 10

Areas

ID#

1 

2 

3

4 

5 

6

7

Attribute

Map exterior 

Park 

Null 

Null 

Null 

Lake 

Null

Lines

Node

ID#

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

Attribute

Map border

Map border

Map border

Map border

Map border

Map border

Map border

Map border

Map border

Map border

Boundary

River

Road

Road

River

Shoreline

Coordinates

5,65....,

25,65...,

35,65...,

65,65...,

65,53...,

65,5....,

55,5....,

5,5.......

5,23....,

5,45....,

25,65...,

35,65...,

5,23....,

38,40....

38,40...,

35,55....

..25,65

..35,65

,.65,65

,.65,53

..65,5

..55,5

5 5

..5,23

,.5,45

..5,65

..5,45

..38,40

,.38,40

,.65,53

,.55,5

,.35,55

Start

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

2

3

9

11

11

14

End

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

1

10

11

11

5

7

14

Area

Left

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

3

5

3

5

7

7

Right

2

3

5

5

7

7

4

4

3

2

2

3

4

7

4

6

Nodes

ID#

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

Attribute

Null

Null

Null

Null

Null

Null

Null

Null

Null

Null

River

House

House

Null

Coordinates

5,65

25,65

35,65

65,65

65,53

65,5

55,5

5,5

5,23

5,45

38,40

28,28

33,31

35,55

Significant Accomplishments of Research Programs: 1987 37
Figure 10. A sample map is 

shown divided into its component node, line, and area features.

1 2 3

Table 2. Description of map features

Features

ID#

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

Attribute

Park

Lake

River

Road

Shoreline

Park boundary

Map border

Houses

Bridge

Composed of

Area 2

Area 6

Lines 12, 15

Lines 13, 14

Line 16

Line 11

Lines 1-10

Nodes 12, 13

Node 14

on a map. This set of information includes 

not only the coordinate data required to 

draw a graphic product but also information about the various features shown on 

the map (for example, the number of lanes 

of a highway) and their relationships to 

each other (for example, that the railroad 

tracks lie between the stream and the 

highway). This collection of information 

forms the heart of a digital cartographic 

data base. Once the information is in the 

data base, computers provide the capabilities to handle geographic data in ways that 

were previously impossible.

Mathematically, a map can be treated 

as a graph and the elements of that graph

can be defined using graph theory. The 

various elements of a map are subdivided 

into nodes, lines, and areas. Nodes represent the beginning or ending of every line 

in the graph and occur at the intersection of 

linear features. Lines are ordered sets of 

points that describe the location and shape 

of a linear feature or boundary on the map. 

Areas are portions of the map that are 

bounded by lines. Figure 10 illustrates 

these components, and table 1 lists the 

types of information that are encoded in a 

computer to represent these data. This 

example illustrates how information is 

stored in the present digital line graph data 

structure.

Recently some advancements have 

been made to the data structure. The 

changes involve removing the attribute 

information from the area, line, and node 

components and placing it with the feature. 

The features then describe the various 

components of which they are composed. 

Table 2 illustrates this.

The new design allows users of the 

data to more readily access the descriptions 

of the features contained in a cartographic 

data base. For example, the various parts 

of the feature "Potomac River," such as the 

Georgetown Channel, Tidal Basin, and 

Washington Channel, would all be 

retrieved when a user requested the Potomac River.

Thematic Mapping 

Using Automated 

Processes

By Donald C. Orr

Information needs within the U.S. 

Geological Survey and the Department of 

the Interior require the ability to handle a 

wide variety of disparate data. Several 

cooperative projects are underway that 

make use of digital data bases, spatial data 

analysis techniques, and sophisticated 

automated systems to create thematic displays and custom products for a wide range 

of applications (fig. 11).

The Survey's National Mapping Division and Water Resources Division have

38 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
Geodata Sets

Topographic

Cartographic

Remote Sensor

Geologic

Geophysical

Geochemical

Pedologic

etc.

Digital Data Base Spatial Data Analysis Applications

 Evaluation of mineral 

resource potential

 Assessment of 

irrigation potential

 Alternate management 

opportunities on 

arid lands

 Wildlife habitat 

assessment

 etc.

Figure 11. Flow diagram illustrating input of various types of 

data, development of a data 

base of registered data sets, 

and spatial data analysis used in 

generating thematic information 

and products for multiple 

applications.

been cooperating in the development of 

automated processing procedures for 

deriving hydrologically related terrain 

characteristics from digital elevation model 

data for an area in the James River basin in 

North Dakota. The high-resolution data 

were processed to identify surface depressions, depth-area-volume relationships, 

drainage basin boundaries, drainage lines, 

and land surface elevations in glaciated 

pothole terrain for use in a rainfall runoff 

model being developed by the Bureau of 

Reclamation.

The USGS and the Soil Conservation 

Service are conducting a cooperative 

research project to incorporate the Soil 

Conservation Service's State General Soil 

Geographic data base (STATSGO) into a 

geographic information system to develop 

techniques and procedures to archive, 

reproduce, and distribute l:250,000-scale 

digital soils data. Other types of data being 

incorporated into the geographic information system data base include land use and 

land cover data, hydrographic data, political boundaries, transportation, and digital 

topographic data. The Chesapeake Bay 

watershed was selected as the study area 

to demonstrate the soils data base concept 

and to produce a variety of thematic displays and products.

During the past 5 years, the Survey's 

office in Anchorage, Alaska, has worked 

cooperatively with Federal and State 

resource management agencies to produce 

land cover and terrain maps for 245 million 

acres of Alaska. This land cover mapping 

effort integrates digital Landsat data, terrain data, aerial photographs, and field 

data by using advanced spatial data processing techniques. The land cover and terrain maps and associated data bases produced from this effort are used for resource 

assessment, management, and planning by 

the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, the 

U.S. Forest Service, the Bureau of Land 

Management, and the Alaska Department 

of Natural Resources. The digital data

bases are used in a variety of applications 

from comprehensive refuge planning to 

multiphase sampling procedures for statewide vegetation inventories.

Hydrologic

Development of Playa 

Lake Basins in the 

Southern High Plains

By Warren W. Wood

Most of the more than 25,000 shallow 

playa lake basins on the southern High 

Plains of Texas and New Mexico probably 

have developed by subtle hydrologic processes of dissolution and micropiping (erosion below the land surface that is caused 

by water moving through the aquifer). 

Recognition that these basins were developed by, and are related to, hydrologic 

processes illustrates the dynamic role of 

ground water in geomorphic processes and 

provides insight into mechanisms of 

recharge and potential contamination pathways of a major aquifer system in the 

United States.

Hypotheses about the origin of these 

playa lake basins include buffalo wallows, 

meteorite impacts, dissolution of deeply 

buried salt, and wind blowouts. Hydrologists of the USGS studying geochemistry 

of gases in the unsaturated zone in 

the southern High Plains observed a 

carbon-dioxide-concentration distribution, 

a carbon-isotope composition, and carbondioxide outflow that could only be 

explained by particulate organic materials 

entering the unsaturated zone along with 

recharging surface water.

This conclusion ultimately led to a 

hypothesis that playa basins developed by

Significant Accomplishments of Research Programs: 1987 39
Aerial photograph of the p/aya 

lake area in the Southern High 

Plains of West Texas in early 

spring. (Photograph by Warren 

W. Wood, U.S. Geological 

Survey.)

movement of clay and silt-sized organic and 

inorganic material from the surface into the 

unsaturated zone, thus enlarging the volume of the basin. The organic material 

introduced into the unsaturated zone oxidized to form carbon dioxide, which reacted 

with water to form carbonic acid. The acid 

in turn dissolved calcium carbonate cement 

in the aquifer. Dissolution of carbonate 

minerals provided additional void space for 

material transported from the surface and 

also caused the destabilization of the skeletal framework of the aquifer that promotes subsidence and micropiping, which 

further enlarged the catchment area of the 

basin.

The proposed hydrologic model of the 

development of the basins explains their 

distinct alignment along lineaments, their 

presence in an active drainage system, 

their propensity to form a circular shape, 

and the lack of saline-mineral buildup in the 

lacustrine sediment. The model also 

explains their development anywhere on a 

hillslope, the absence of leeward dunes at 

most of the basins, the dissolution of caliche 

below many of the basins, and other features that have been difficult to explain 

with other hypotheses.

The measurement of seemingly unrelated gases in the unsaturated zone has 

provided a solution to a vexing geomorphic 

problem and useful insight into the hydrology of a major aquifer system. The recognition that as much as 80 percent of the 

water that collects in the basin is recharged 

to the aquifer, rather than evaporating as 

had been previously assumed, provides 

insight on how the Ogallala aquifer receives 

recharge in the Texas-New Mexico area 

and calls for care in using playa lake basins 

for the disposal of waste products.

Earthquakes and 

Ground Water: Water 

Wells as Strainmeters

By John D. Bredehoeft

As part of an extensive earthquake 

prediction experiment that the U.S. Geological Survey is conducting in the Park40 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
field, California, area, scientists drilled a 

network of water wells at seven sites in the 

vicinity of Parkfield to monitor water levels. These wells, which are being continuously monitored, have turned out to be 

very sensitive volume strainmeters.

At all of these sites, water levels are 

monitored at depths ranging from approximately 289 to 820 feet. Six of the deeper 

wells show clearly identifiable tidal signals 

that range from one to several inches in 

amplitude. A shallower water level, less 

than 164 feet in depth, is also measured at 

five of the sites. At these seven sites, 

barometric pressure, rainfall, and water 

levels are measured every 15 minutes. 

Data are accumulated for 4 hours and then 

transmitted, via GOES satellite, over a 

USGS data network to the Survey offices 

in Menlo Park, California, where the data 

are analyzed with the intent of using this 

information as an indicator for predicting 

the next Parkfield earthquake, which has 

been forecast to occur between 1985 and 

1993 and most probably in 1988.

The clearest tectonic event observed 

to date, using water-level data, was an 

earthquake at Kettleman Hills near Coalinga, California, that occurred in August 

1985. This earthquake epicenter was about 

23 miles to the east of the four Parkfield 

wells that were in operation at the time. A 

coseismic drop in water level was observed 

in each of the four wells. Using a simple 

computer model, USGS hydrologists calculated what the expected water-level change 

would have been in the four wells. The 

simple-model calculations computed a 

response within a factor of 2 for all of the 

wells. This close correlation was a pleasant 

surprise, since the geology between Kettleman Hills and the four wells is quite 

complex; in fact, one of the wells is situated 

across the active trace of the San Andreas 

fault from Kettleman Hills.

In addition to the Kettleman Hills coseismic water-level changes, a number of 

water-level changes have been observed 

that correlate with observed surface-creep 

events. One of these events, in February 

1987, was followed in the next 12 hours by 

a sequence of small earthquakes in the 

vicinity of the wells. These correlated 

events, along with similar well-documented 

experience of the Chinese and calculations 

from a number of fault-mechanics computer 

models, suggest strains may well be precursors to earthquakes. Interestingly, the

water-well strain information from several 

creep events suggests that the strains may 

be larger at depth than the surface creepmeters can register.

The water-well strain network at 

Parkfield is gradually being expanded. 

Four or five more wells, in addition to the 

seven currently being monitored, are 

planned for the network. One well, a 5,250- 

foot-deep exploratory oil well (no significant oil found), is being reopened by the 

USGS. It is located less than a mile east of 

the fault near Parkfield. This well has a 

substantial well-head pressure of approximately 125 bars (1,800 pounds per square 

inch).

The water well is proving to be an 

interesting and sensitive volume strainmeter. Wells drilled in any number of geologic settings can have good Earth-tide 

fluctuations, indicating good sensitivity to 

strain. The only requirement is a confined 

aquifer and enough permeability so that 

the well will fluctuate at tidal frequencies 

twice daily. The success of water wells as 

strainmeters is an encouraging and exciting development for earthquake prediction, 

as well as for other aspects of engineering 

geology and rock mechanics.

Topographically 

Influenced Air 

Circulation in Open 

Boreholes at Yucca 

Mountain, Nevada

By Edwin P. Weeks

Topographically influenced air circulation may occur through the fractures in 

unsaturated rocks that form Yucca Mountain in Nevada. These highly fractured 

rocks are under consideration by the U.S. 

Department of Energy as the host medium 

for a potential high-level radioactive waste 

repository, and this circulation phenomenon may affect their suitability for such 

usage.

During winter, cold, dry air enters the 

highly fractured outcrops along hillsides, 

picks up heat and moisture, and then exits 

through the hillcrests because the warm,

Significant Accomplishments of Research Programs: 1987 41
moist air in the rocks is less dense than the 

air in the surrounding atmosphere. During 

summer, the flow reverses to some extent, 

with hot, dry air entering the rocks at the 

hillcrest, losing heat to the cooler rocks, 

and exiting through the hillside outcrops. 

In each case, the air entering the mountain 

is generally drier than the air exiting, 

resulting in a net drying effect. This effect 

may be sufficient to dry the rocks to below 

the moisture content at which water drains 

by gravity, reducing the potential for 

deeply percolating water to leach radionuclides from the wastes and transport them 

to the ground-water reservoir. A negative 

aspect of this air circulation process is that 

gaseous radionuclides would be transported to the atmosphere more quickly 

than if gaseous diffusion were the only 

transport mechanism for such releases.

The potential for this effect was first 

recognized from dramatic air exhaust 

observed in two boreholes drilled in unsaturated rock at the crest of Yucca Mountain. During winter, these wells typically 

discharge warm, moist air into the atmosphere at a velocity of about 10 feet per 

second. These discharges varied with time 

but were continuous from the two wells to 

the atmosphere over a 10-day observation 

period in February 1986. Net water-vapor 

discharge from the formation through the 

wells was calculated to be about 66 gallons 

of water per day. Although summertime 

circulation was much less, oscillating 

between air intake to the wells and exhaust 

from the wells at velocities no greater than 

5 feet per second, summer drying effects 

are substantial.

Research Related to 

Radioactive-Waste 

Disposal in BeddedSalt Environments

By Peter B. Davies

Current USGS research on radioactive-waste disposal in bedded-salt environments is focusing on understanding the 

ground-water flow system in the vicinity of 

a waste-repository site in southeastern 

New Mexico. The Waste Isolation Pilot

Plant (WIPP) is a U.S. Department of 

Energy project that is intended to provide 

a facility both for the permanent disposal of 

approximately 6 million cubic feet of transuranic waste from defense-related activities and for research on the interaction of 

high-level waste with a bedded-salt environment. In the event of a repository 

breach, ground-water flow would provide 

the primary method for transporting radionuclides beyond the immediate site area.

Ground-water flow in bedded-salt 

environments is complex. Dissolution of 

highly soluble evaporite minerals creates 

substantial spatial variation in fluid density. Under these conditions, ground-water 

flow is driven not only by fluid-pressure 

differentials but also by gravitational 

forces. Standard techniques for analyzing 

and simulating ground-water flow are 

based on the assumption that the effects of 

density-related gravity are insignificant.

Recent Survey research has produced 

an analytic technique for assessing the relative magnitude of such gravity effects in 

variable-density flow systems. Application 

of this new technique to the bedded-salt 

environment in the WIPP area, coupled 

with variable-density computer simulations, has revealed significant errors in the 

flow patterns predicted by standard techniques. In a critical area along the flow 

paths leaving the site, flow directions predicted in previous studies may be in error 

by as much as 170 degrees and flow magnitudes may be underestimated by as much 

as a factor of 10.

The primary conduit for ground-water 

flow in the WIPP area is a 26-foot-thick 

dolomite unit. Until recently, this dolomite 

unit was thought to be vertically isolated 

from other components of the flow system. 

Transient cross-sectional flow simulations 

have demonstrated the importance of small 

but significant vertical fluxes in the dynamics of flow within both the dolomite unit and 

the total flow system. In addition to simulating ground-water flow, USGS personnel 

are currently assessing the geochemical 

characteristics of the ground-water flow 

system using a recently developed computer program specifically designed to 

characterize chemical variations in the 

highly saline waters that are characteristic 

of bedded-salt environments.

As a result of the WIPP project 

research, techniques have been developed 

that have broader application to the under42 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
standing of ground-water flow in other 

bedded-salt environments and to the commercial radioactive-waste disposal program. The research on variable-density 

ground-water flow also is applicable to the 

evaluation of localized hazardous-waste 

sites in which high concentrations of 

dissolved-waste constituents produce significant changes in fluid density.

Removing Organic 

Contaminants from 

the Subsurface by 

Inducing Air-Phase 

Transport

By Arthur L Baehr

Toxic organic liquids such as gasoline 

and industrial solvents enter the subsurface in a variety of ways, including leakage 

from underground storage tanks and accidents involving pipelines and tank trucks.

Release to atmosphere

Remedial action generally includes an 

effort to physically recover the spilled 

product; however, significant quantities of 

the spill can remain trapped between soil 

particles. Unfortunately, the threat posed 

to ground water may persist even if the 

organic liquid is immobilized in the unsaturated zone because the solubilized portion 

of the spill can later enter ground water 

during recharge or during high stages of a 

fluctuating water table. Thus, in environmentally sensitive areas, a secondary 

recovery method is required to reduce the 

possibility of ground-water contamination. 

Many organic substances exhibit significant volatility; thus they could be 

removed by inducing air movement in the 

unsaturated zone. An air-flow field can be 

established in the unsaturated zone by 

using paired boreholes through which air 

can be injected and withdrawn. Air laden 

with organic vapors moves along the 

induced flow path toward boreholes where 

it is withdrawn, analyzed, treated, and (or) 

released to the atmosphere, thus removing 

the contaminant from the subsurface. This 

fledgling technology has been successfully 

used to remove gasoline hydrocarbons and 

chlorinated solvents from unconsolidated 

unsaturated zones. Further research is

Injected 

air

1,^-Ly) Injected 

Air

Immiscible plume

Vapor 

transport ''W#i

to' iiiiiiliii;!:;:;:;:;

borehole

 V- Water Schematic of an air vent

table system.

Significant Accomplishments of Research Programs: 1987 43
required, however, to advance the understanding of processes that govern the 

transport of organic vapors, to predict cost 

effectiveness, and to design optimal venting systems.

The USGS is currently pursuing a collaborative research effort with the Department of Civil Engineering at the University of Connecticut. Sand columns 

residually saturated with gasoline were 

vented under steady flow conditions. A 

mathematical-transport model analysis of 

the hydrocarbon removal rates from these 

columns supports the conclusion that the 

success of venting technology will not be 

limited by local rates of phase transfer 

(from a liquid to a vapor phase) but rather 

will ultimately depend on the ability to 

establish an air-flow field that intersects 

the distributed contaminant. A mathematical model of compressible-fluid flow 

through unsaturated porous media has 

been developed and is currently being 

applied to evaluate unsaturated-zone permeability so that design of optimal borehole 

configurations can be determined.

Portion of a color composite of 

Landsat Thematic Mapper bands 

2, 4, and 7, showing area near 

Lake Powell, Arizona-Utah

44 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
National Mapping Program

Highlights

Digital Mapping 

Supports the 1990 

Census

By Patricia P. Dunham and 

Bruce Y. McKenzie

When the Nation's census takers set 

out to gather information for the 1990 

Decennial Census of Population and Housing, they will be assisted by the results of a 

cooperative effort between the U.S. Geological Survey and the U.S. Bureau of the 

Census.

In June 1987, the Survey completed a 

4-year cooperative effort with the Bureau 

of the Census to establish a l:100,000-scale 

digital cartographic data base of hydrography and transportation information. The 

Bureau of the Census will use these digital 

cartographic data .files as the cartographic 

base for their automated geographic support system, the Topologically Integrated 

Geographic Encoding and Reference 

(TIGER) System, to support data collection for the 1990 Decennial Census. The 

TIGER System will also support future 

demographic and economic data collection, 

processing, and tabulation activities of the 

Bureau.

The Survey will make the 1:100,000- 

scale hydrography and transportation digital data available to users through the 

National Digital Cartographic Data Base. 

The completion by the Survey of the 

l:100,000-scale digital data provides a 

framework for use in other geographic 

information systems. The nationwide digital data coverage at this scale combines the 

qualities of sufficient detail and adequate 

content for use in regional applications, 

such as mineral resource analyses, hydrologic analyses, and management planning. 

When the census information becomes 

available in the 1990's, researchers will also 

have access to vast amounts of socioeconomic data, which may serve as a catalyst

for the widespread use of geographic information systems technology in the United 

States.

Preliminary discussions between the 

USGS and the Bureau of the Census began 

in late 1981, and, following a series of 

research projects, the Survey's 1:100,000- 

scale cartographic data in digital form was 

selected as the most suitable base for the 

Census enumerator data-collection maps 

(fig. 1). In early 1983, a cooperative digital 

pilot project was initiated that enabled the 

two agencies to develop and test new software and equipment, expand production 

capacities, and enhance data processing 

techniques to collect and use the digital 

data. The success of the pilot project led 

to the commitment by both agencies to 

complete the collection of l:100,000-scale 

hydrography and transportation digital 

data for the conterminous United States by 

mid-1987. Meeting this stringent deadline 

required both agencies to implement complementary digital production systems.

The base graphic product to be used 

for digital data collection was the Survey's 

l:100,000-scale map series. When the cooperative digital effort began in 1983, this 

series consisted predominantly of topographic (contour) editions, and only 960 of 

the required 1,823 maps were available for 

digitizing. To provide the remaining base 

maps, the compilation emphasis was 

shifted to produce planimetric (without 

contours) editions. This change, coupled 

with increased personnel resources, 

enabled conterminous United States 

l:100,000-scale planimetric coverage to be 

achieved in October 1986, 5 years ahead of 

the original goal for this map series.

To meet the digital production deadline, both agencies implemented highvolume digital production systems. The 

USGS had the responsibility for digitizing 

all hydrographic and transportation features from the l:100,000-scale graphic 

maps and assigning feature classification 

codes to all data except roads. The Bureau 

of the Census was responsible for assigning 

feature classifications to roads. To handle

National Mapping Program 45
1990 DECENNIAL CENSUS PRELIST MAP ARA 1008

BASE MAP GENERATED USING DIGITAL DATA OBTAINED AT 1'100,000-SCALE THROUGH A COOPERATIVE PRDCRAr 

WITH THE UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR.

MAP CREATED- 05-03-88

N

HOP 1600 laOO 2000 FEET 

^-1 r I h-J > < I I" I-H h-J

ARA 1008

D. 0. 2533

BNA 9702

Lagrange County (087)

Indiana (18)

SHEET I OF I

Figure 1. A section of a U.S. Geological Survey l:WO,000-scale base map and the corresponding area on a Bureau of the Census enumerator map. The enumerator maps will 

be used by Census field staffs to construct the address lists and geographic codes required for distribution and tabulation of the 1990 Decennial Census questionnaires.

46 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
the massive production workload, the Survey purchased, installed, and customized 

state-of-the-art automated digital cartographic data collection systems in four 

regional mapping centers. Additionally, 

quality-control procedures were established to ensure that the final digital product met both the standards of the Bureau of 

the Census and the standards of the USGS 

for entry into the National Digital Cartographic Data Base.

The cooperative effort was completed 

in mid-1987, and both agencies are using 

the digital data to meet individual shortand long-term national requirements. The 

successful completion of the effort, in which 

two agencies worked together to achieve 

an ambitious goal, represented Federal 

cooperation at its finest.

New Aerial

Photography Program 

Underway

By Donald L Light

The growing interest in highresolution, color-infrared photography for 

a wide variety of applications such as agriculture, forestry, soils, land and resource 

management, mapping, and numerous 

earth science studies has led to a reassessment of Federal and State agency needs for 

this type of photography. As a result, a 

new program, called the National Aerial 

Photography Program (NAPP), was begun 

in 1987 to provide higher resolution and

larger scale photographs of uniform quality 

for the 48 conterminous United States.

A predecessor program, the National 

High-Altitude Aerial Photography Program, was established in 1980 by Federal 

agencies to acquire l:80,000-scale blackand-white and l:58,000-scale color-infrared 

photography at a flying height of 40,000 

feet. Aerial photography under this program has now been acquired, and complete 

uniform coverage of the conterminous 

United States will be available in 1988.

Photography under the new program 

will be acquired from a flying height of 

20,000 feet with a single 6-inch-focal-length 

camera exposing color-infrared film at a 

scale of 1:40,000. The resulting photographs will be centered on quarter sections 

of standard USGS 7.5-minute quadrangles. 

In 1987, eight contractors began to acquire 

249,207 square miles of aerial photography 

in Maryland, Ohio, Kentucky, Pennsylvania, Indiana, Nebraska, Utah, and Idaho. 

The first NAPP photographs became available in the fall of 1987.

A plan has been developed for acquiring photographic coverage of a State or 

sector of a State approximately every 5 

years (fig. 2). The intent of this 5-year cycle 

is to enable Federal and State agencies to 

acquire photographs to meet and maintain 

individual management goals. Some revisions to the plan are anticipated depending 

on availability of funds and the priority 

expressed by State and Federal contributors to the program. The new program 

promises to meet the aerial photography 

needs of State and Federal organizations 

engaged in key projects of national 

interest.

Figure 2. National Aerial Photography Program 5-year cycle. Colors indicate the proposed fiscal 

year in which photography will 

be obtained.

National Mapping Program 47
Maps Of An Emerging 

Nation

By John H. Wittmann

A special-edition map sheet was prepared 

to commemorate the bicentennial of the signing of the United States Constitution. The 

special edition includes, on one side, a map of 

the young Nation at about the time of the 

signing of the Constitution and, on the reverse 

side, a series of maps portraying the country's 

territorial development up to the present time.

U.S. Geological Survey researchers 

reviewed several historical maps in the collection of the Library of Congress' Geography 

and Map Division and sought recommendations from eminent historical cartographers 

for the most appropriate map to portray the

young Nation. The map published in 1784 by 

Abel Buell was chosen, primarily because it is 

the first map of the fledgling United States that 

was produced by an American. Only a few 

copies of Buell's water-colored map survive. 

The version selected for reproduction is in the 

collection of the New Jersey Historical Society.

A series of 14 maps recently produced as 

part of the USGS National Atlas was chosen to 

illustrate the territorial growth of the Nation. 

The maps show the extent of the British colonies and the expansion of the United States, its 

possessions, and outlying areas for selected 

years between 1775 and 1987. A depiction of 

the flag of the United States appropriate to 

each year was added to the chronological 

series.

The special-edition map sheet was 

granted recognition by the Commission on the 

Bicentennial of the United States Constitution 

as a project of exceptional merit with national 

significance and substantial educational and 

historical value. It serves as the Survey's proud 

contribution to the celebration of this milestone in American history.

-.EM ;/«,/,,« ,/.A/'.-MP

!V 11' ! : O S T A TT! S

^ X- ,-. . ~N ^

48 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
B

^T'Vl.N S I I,V A,-\' 1 A

1 I R \1 T 1 H' 1 R V. ( . ,

. ^ . .' '--,, I ' *' j ' ' ' ';.

:'4"' ' '. -S: ' ''TV;/ «-'

A

';& 1 y/f>-

Maps of an emerging Nation. A, 

Portion of the Buell 1784 map. 

B, One of the series of 14 maps 

depicting the growth of the 

Nation.

National Mapping Program 49
Satellite Data 

Acquisition and 

Processing System 

Becomes Operational

By Wayne A. Miller

The U.S. Geological Survey, together 

with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration (NOAA), has developed a 

system to receive, process, and archive 

Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) data acquired from NOAA's 

series of polar-orbiting meteorological satellites. Located at the Survey's facility in 

Sioux Falls, South Dakota, the AVHRR 

Data Acquisition and Processing System 

became operational on May 15, 1987, and

has been routinely acquiring and processing AVHRR data over the conterminous 

United States to support a variety of Federal research activities. The system can 

provide data that are screened for cloud 

cover, registered to various map projections, calibrated for brightness level and 

temperature, processed to calculate a 

greenness index, merged with other data 

or user-supplied line work, and shipped in 

digital form within 1 to 2 working days 

after acquisition and in photographic form 

within 7 to 10 working days after the data 

set is produced. All data acquisitions are 

archived temporarily for 90 days. A 

selected data set is permanently archived 

to support future research efforts.

Survey scientists have been investigating various applications of AVHRR 

data to support a variety of Department of 

the Interior resource management and 

planning activities, such as fire-fuels mapping, image mapping, rainfall monitoring,

Figure 3. An AVHRR digital 

mosaic of the conterminous 

United States with State 

boundaries.

50 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
and vegetation monitoring. The results of 

these studies have shown that analyses of 

AVHRR data can be used for monitoring 

seasonal changes in vegetation over large 

areas. AVHRR data have also been used 

successfully to map different types of fire 

fuels in support of the Bureau of Land 

Management's national fire management 

program. Investigations being conducted 

with the Bureau of Indian Affairs show 

that AVHRR-derived data of rangelands in 

the southwestern United States can be 

grouped into categories related to herbage 

production. In other studies, research conducted with the Nebraska Forest Service 

found that AVHRR data can be used for 

computing fire-danger ratings to aid in fire 

prevention at the county or fire-district 

level. AVHRR data also have been useful 

in monitoring food and fiber production on 

range and agricultural lands in Montana 

and in monitoring floods in eastern South 

Dakota. In each of these research investigations, the AVHRR data were merged 

with other types of data, such as USGS 

digital line graph data, arc-second digital 

terrain data, and other digitized map data.

A satellite-image mosaic of the conterminous United States (fig. 3) has been 

prepared using portions of 15 NOAA 

AVHRR images acquired over a 2-year 

period, 1984-1986. Large-area mosaicking 

software and a set of 200 ground-control 

points automatically generated for each 

image were used to digitally mosaic and 

register all 15 images to a 1,500-meter 

Albers Equal Area Grid. After the image 

was registered, mosaicked, smoothed, and 

enhanced, it was merged with a map collar 

containing the State boundaries and produced on film using a color-film recorder at 

a scale of 1:25,000,000. This effort has 

helped to define techniques for using 

AVHRR data for other continentwide 

image maps at scales of less than 

1:2,000,000 and to guide future AVHRR 

research activities.

The system will continue to provide 

the Survey and other Federal agencies 

with ready access to AVHRR data for use 

in monitoring the growth of vegetation, 

mapping snow cover, producing enhanced 

image maps, and conducting time-series 

analysis to support a wide variety of geologic, hydrologic, and land management 

applications.

Advanced

Cartographic System 

Developments

By Paul E. Needham

The advent of the computer has 

changed the focus of mapping requirements 

in the United States. For more than 40 

years, the U.S. Geological Survey has provided map users with primary topographic 

quadrangle map coverage of the United 

States at 1:24,000 scale in the lower 49 

States and at 1:63,360 scale in Alaska. By 

the end of fiscal year 1987, primary quadrangle maps and related map products 

were available for about 93 percent of the 

country. Initial national coverage of these 

graphic map products is scheduled for completion by 1990. In recent years, however, 

it has become apparent that we must also 

produce digital versions of these graphic 

products to support the needs of our 

computer-oriented society.

In 1979, the Survey received funding 

appropriations that formally initiated the 

National Mapping Division's Digital Cartography Program. More recently, the 

Division began a major new development 

effort called Mark II that will implement 

both advanced cartographic technologies 

and production procedures to satisfy 

National Mapping Program requirements 

through the year 2000. By 2000, the 

National Digital Cartographic Data Base 

(NDCDB) is scheduled to contain digital 

data representing the content of the primary map series and other smaller scale 

series. This data base will serve two major 

functions: a central archive for the dissemination of digital data to the user community for information systems analysis, and a 

working data base for production of standard graphic map products. As initial coverage of the Nation at 1:24,000 scale 

approaches completion and the need for 

map revision and digital cartographic data 

increases, the traditional National Mapping 

Program is in transition. With this transition come the attendant problems of implementing new technologies and developing 

appropriate hardware and software to 

meet the mapping needs of the next 

century.

National Mapping Program 51
To achieve the digital data base goal 

by the year 2000, a number of development 

tasks must be accomplished. The Survey 

will need to expand and improve mass 

digitizing capabilities; modify data structures to support increased content and 

access requirements; develop digital revision capabilities; develop the capability to 

generate standard, derivative, and digital 

products; improve quality control; and support advanced analysis and applications.

Specific requirements for the NDCDB 

contents and related production processes 

were also identified. These requirements 

cover sources of data, categories of data, 

levels of data integration, data revision, 

data quality, and both digital and graphic 

products to be produced from the NDCDB.

To evaluate the existing systems and 

to facilitate the identification of new and 

improved capabilities, Mark II was divided 

into four functional components, each 

addressing a specific part of the production 

process. Each of the four components was 

further divided into a series of modules 

designed to develop a specific part of the 

production system.

The data-production component addresses all phases of data collection, editing, data processing, and quality control 

prior to entry into the NDCDB. The database component is designed to develop two 

levels of data bases: an operational data 

base to support ongoing mapping center 

production and product-generation requirements and an archival data base to 

provide a central repository for data to 

support the operational data bases. The 

product-generation component is designed 

to provide the cartographic products required to support the National Mapping 

Program, as well as to provide an interface 

between the production system and 

geographic information systems. The 

production-management component is designed primarily as an interface between 

the production system and the National 

Mapping Program requirements and authorization systems.

Implementation of digital revision and 

maintenance of primary quadrangle mapping through digital techniques will require 

major changes in the National Mapping 

Program production process. An overall 

production strategy has been developed, 

and efforts are now underway to meet 

identified goals.

Developing Digital 

Cartographic Data 

Standards

By Frank J. Beck

The U.S. Geological Survey has been 

developing digital techniques to collect, 

manipulate, analyze, and display cartographic and geographic data. Part of this 

development effort has included defining 

and implementing digital standards. 

Standards-related activities can be separated into two general types, those internal 

to the Survey or to other Federal agencies, 

and those at the national level affecting the 

public as well as government sectors.

The Survey established and published 

digital standards for cartographic data several years ago as separate chapters in a 

circular (U.S. Geological Survey Circular 

895,1983) that described various aspects of 

the digital cartography program and types 

of data being gathered, processed, stored, 

and distributed. The information contained 

in these chapters is being updated and 

separated into two distinct yet related 

series of documents. Information on data 

standards and specifications is being 

included in the Survey's National Mapping 

Division "Manual of Technical Instructions." Information on data characteristics 

or applications is being converted into a 

series of seven data users guides.

A Data Standards Committee within 

the USGS considers earth science data 

standards suggested by USGS divisions or 

other agencies. Standards adopted by the 

Survey are submitted to other standards 

groups, such as the National Bureau of 

Standards and the American National 

Standards Institute, for their consideration. A Survey standard, "Representation 

of Geographic Point Locations for Information Interchange," for example, has been 

recently adopted by both of these organizations.

The definition and application of digital 

standards for cartographic data within the 

Survey has had a significant impact on the 

map user community as well. A major 

effort to coordinate standards within the 

Federal government is underway in the 

Federal Interagency Coordinating Corn52 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
mittee on Digital Cartography. This committee was chartered by the Office of Management and Budget to reduce the 

duplication of effort by Federal agencies in 

digitizing map data and developing geographic data files. The Department of the 

Interior chairs this committee through a 

representative from the Survey.

A Standards Working Group within 

the committee has been testing methods of 

exchanging digital data to help reduce or 

avoid unnecessary costs of data conversion. 

This working group has proposed the Federal Geographic Exchange Format as a 

standard format for the exchange of digital 

cartographic and geographic data among 

Federal agencies.

A National Committee for Digital Cartographic Data Standards, which includes 

representatives from Federal, State, and 

local governments and private companies, 

has been undertaking similar investigations at the national level. This committee, 

funded by the USGS, is under the auspices 

of a professional society, the American 

Congress on Surveying and Mapping. 

USGS representatives on this committee 

have served as a coordinating element 

between the national and Federal efforts.

During 1987, the digital standards 

activities of the Federal and national committees have been combined into a task 

force. The goal of the task force is to merge 

the draft proposed standard produced by 

the national committee and the data 

exchange format developed by the Federal 

committee. The merged document will be 

reviewed by both parent committees and 

then published for public review and comment. After review and testing, the USGS 

will submit the standard through the formal Federal Information Processing Standard approval process as defined by the 

National Bureau of Standards.

Progress in Ongoing 

Program Activities

Major activities in support of the 

National Mapping Program are: 

 Primary mapping and revision, which 

include the production and revision of 7.5- 

minute l:24,000-scale topographic maps in 

the conterminous United States and 

Hawaii and 15-minute l:63,360-scale topographic maps in Alaska. A few maps have 

been prepared at 1:25,000 scale in selected 

areas. During fiscal year 1987, about 1,190 

revised and 1,050 new primary quadrangle 

maps were completed and made available. 

Topographic maps are available for about 

96 percent of Alaska and for 92 percent of 

the other 49 States (fig. 4). Thirty-one 

States have complete 7.5-minute series 

map coverage.

 Intermediate-scale, small-scale, and 

special mapping, which includes the preparation of maps and map products from the 

intermediate-scale (1:50,000 and 1:100,000) 

series to the small-scale (1:250,000) series 

and other smaller scale U.S. base maps. 

Complete topographic coverage of the 

United States is available at 1:250,000 scale 

and in State base format (except for 

Alaska) at 1:500,000 scale. The State of 

Alaska is covered by four smaller scale 

State base maps ranging in scale from 

1:1,584,000 to 1:12,000,000. Planimetric 

base coverage of the conterminous United 

States in quadrangle format at 1:100,000 

scale became available in 1986. Topographic coverage is available for at least 50 

percent of the conterminous United States 

and Hawaii in one or more of the following 

intermediate-scale series: l:50,000-scale 

quadrangle maps, 1:50,000- or 1:100,000- 

scale county maps, and 1:100,000-scale 

quadrangle maps (fig. 5). More than 200 

topographic-bathymetric maps have been 

published for coastal area planning. Land 

use and land cover maps are complete for 

the conterminous United States and 

Hawaii and are available in the 1:250,000- 

scale or, in selected areas, in the 1:100,000- 

scale quadrangle format.

 Digital cartography, which includes the 

production of base categories of cartographic data at standard scales, accuracies, 

and formats suitable for computer-based 

analyses. Categories include hypsography, 

hydrography, transportation, boundaries, 

Public Land Survey System, and digital 

elevation model data from 7.5-minute and 

1:100,000-scale quadrangle maps; boundaries, census tracts, hydrologic units, Federal and State land ownership, land use and 

land cover, and digital elevation model data 

compiled at 1:250,000 scale; and boundaries, transportation, and hydrography 

data from l:2,000,000-scale National Atlas 

sectional maps.

 Information and data services, which 

include the acquisition and dissemination of

National Mapping Program 53
Figure 4. Status of availability of 

primary topographic quadrangle 

maps (1:24,000 scale; in Alaska, 

1:63,360 scale). Some maps will 

initially be available in manuscript form only.

Figure 5. Status of 1:100,000- 

scale topographic mapping program (Hawaii not shown). 

Alaska and Puerto Rico are not 

currently included in the 

1:100,000-scale program. Black 

areas indicate map availability.

information about U.S. maps, charts, aerial 

and space photographs and images, geodetic control, cartographic and geographic 

digital data, and other related information; 

distribution of earth science information to 

the public; and sale of maps and maprelated products directly and through commercial map dealers.

 Cartographic and geographic research 

and development, which include efforts to

improve the quality of standard products, 

to provide new products, to reduce costs 

and increase productivity, to acquire innovative and more useful equipment, and to 

design and develop techniques and systems 

to advance the mapping of the country. 

 International activities, which include 

the coordination of Division participation in 

international cartographic, geographic, 

surveying, remote sensing, and other maprelated activities.

54 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
Geologic Investigations

Highlights

Applications of 

Mineral Deposit 

Models to Resource 

Assessments

By Donald A. Singer and 

Dennis P. Cox

A major step in identifying and assessing areas favorable for mineral resource 

exploration is the assembly of a comprehensive group of mineral deposit models. 

The U.S. Geological Survey, through its 

own conterminous U.S. and Alaska mineral 

assessment programs, and in cooperation 

with the U.S. Bureau of Land Management 

and the U.S. Forest Service, is continually 

working to improve its capabilities in mineral resource assessment.

Resource assessments are performed 

to help plan economic development, consider alternative uses of land, plan exploration, and estimate the availability of minerals. In order to respond to each of these 

diverse problems and to use a variety of 

information and resource assessment methods, a three-step assessment process, 

including the use of deposit models, is 

described below and in figure 1.

Step 1. Areas are delineated according to 

the types of deposits their geology will permit;

Step 2. The number of deposits of each 

type within each delineated tract 

is estimated; and,

Step 3. The amount of metal and some 

characteristics of ore are estimated by means of grade-tonnage 

models. 

Areas or domains are delineated that

may contain particular deposit types as

inferred by analogy with deposits in similar

geologic settings elsewhere. In order to 

construct the boundaries, it is necessary to 

have a geologic map and it is desirable 

to have mineral-occurrence, geophysical, 

exploration, and geochemical information 

(fig. 2). This information must be integrated with information about the geologic 

environment of different types of mineral 

deposits to perform the delineation. The 

keystone to combining the diverse information is the mineral deposit model. Documented deposit models have been published in USGS Bulletin 1693; this 

publication allows many geologists to link 

deposit types to geologic environments.

The Bulletin contains 87 descriptive 

models and 60 grade-tonnage models compiled by 38 authors. The models are based 

on data from over 3,900 individual deposits 

located in 110 countries. Because every 

mineral deposit, like every fingerprint, is 

different from every other in some way, 

models have to progress beyond the purely 

descriptive in order to represent more than 

single deposits. Deposits sharing a relatively wide variety and large number of 

attributes come to be characterized as a 

"type," and a model representing that type 

can evolve. The organization of the models 

constitutes a classification of deposits. The 

arrangement used emphasizes easy access 

to the models by focusing on host-rock 

characteristics and tectonic setting the 

features most apparent to the geologist 

preparing a map.

The descriptive models have two 

parts. The first, the "Geological Environment," describes the environments in 

which the deposits are found. The headings 

"Rock Types" and "Textures" cover the 

favorable host rocks of deposits as well as 

source rocks believed responsible for some 

deposits. "Age" refers to the age of the 

event responsible for the formation of the 

deposit. "Tectonic Setting" is concerned 

with major features or provinces. "Associated Deposits" are listed as deposit types 

whose presence might indicate suitable 

conditions for deposits of the type

Geologic Investigations 55
Figure 1. The three-step process 

required to produce a mineral 

resource assessment.

Mineral Resource Map

STEP 1

Estimated Number of 

Undiscovered deposits

Tract 1

NUMBER OF DEPOSITS

STEP 2

Worldwide Data on 

Grade and Tonnage of Deposits

P Porphyry 1.0

-E K oopper g{2

E| 0.5

o_ w

M

100 1000 

LLIONS METRIC TOf

UK Porphyry 

Copper 20

II

1.0

0

30.5

*

5 °( 

A\

 \-A

1.2 0.6 1.8 

/E. COPPER GRADE

STEP 3

portrayed by the model. Thus, this part 

uses information from the geologic map, 

the geophysical maps, and the known 

deposits and occurrences.

The second part of the descriptive 

model, the "Deposit Description," provides 

the identifying characteristics of the deposits themselves, particularly emphasizing 

aspects by which the deposits might be 

recognized through their geochemical and 

geophysical anomalies. For 25 models, a 

cartoon-style map or cross section illustrates ore controls, zoning patterns, or 

other features of the model. Thus this part 

is primarily used to classify the known 

deposits and occurrences in and near the 

area being assessed. In appendixes to the 

Bulletin, the models are extensively

MINERAL RESOURCE 

ASSESSMENT

TRACT DEPOSITS

PORPHYRY COPPEF 

KUROKO

Land

use

decisions

Guidelines 

for new 

research

Exploration

and

development 

strategy

indexed by frequency of occurrence of minerals and associated geochemical anomalies. The 3,900 individual deposits referred 

to in the models are also indexed, and their 

model classification is shown.

Frequency distributions of tonnages 

and average grades of well-explored deposits of each type are employed as models 

for grades and tonnages of undiscovered 

deposits of the same type in geologically 

similar settings (fig. 2). These models are 

useful for correctly identifying known 

deposits in an area being assessed and for 

providing information about the potential 

value of undiscovered deposits in the area. 

The grade-tonnage models are presented in 

graphical format to make it easy to compare deposit types and to display the data.

56 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
GEOLOGIC MAP

KNOWN DEPOSITS 

AND OCCURRENCES

 1

 2 *5

'4 

 3

*6 

 7

GEOCHEMISTRY

Figure 2. Mineral deposit models and other sources of information can be combined to 

produce a mineral resource 

map.

MINERAL DEPOSIT 

MODELS

GEOPHYSICS

Deposit Environment

Felsic intrusive

Porphyry copper 

Felsii

Mai 

Ki

Descriptive Modelsl

Porphyry Copper | 

G 

D(

G( 

E> 

Kur< 

Gi 

D(

GradeP

tonnage Models 

orphyry Copper

\

Tonnes

MINERAL RESOURCE MAP

EXPLORATION 

HISTORY

This publication (Bulletin 1693) represents 

the largest collection of models that can be 

used for resource assessments.

The current version of models has 

been used as a framework for organizing 

mineral deposit compilations and interpretations for 2-degree quadrangles in Alaska 

and the conterminous United States. 

Explorationists have benefited by the new 

recognition of significant differences in 

some gold deposit types associated with 

volcanic rocks. The models are also providing a basis for economic analysis for land 

and policy planning in cooperative projects 

with other Federal agencies.

Deposit models tie together diverse 

information on geology, mineral occurrences, geochemistry, and geophysics that 

is used in mineral resource assessments. 

The Survey's ability to make better 

resource assessments, therefore, depends 

directly on the quality of the models available. The present 3-step mineral resource 

assessment mode represents an important 

step in the improvement of these models.

A New Approach to 

Determining How 

Much Coal is Available 

for Mining

By Jane R. Eggleston and M. 

Devereux Carter

According to many energy forecasts, 

the United States currently has over 400 

billion tons of coal available for mining. 

This estimate was determined by applying 

bed thickness, mining depth, and reliability 

factors to a geologically derived coalresource base. However, this methodology 

for calculating "available" coal, defined as 

coal which could be removed by mining, 

ignores many geologic, land-use, engineering, and economic factors that restrict the 

minability of coal. When these factors are

Geologic Investigations 57
considered, the forecast of a 200-year coal 

supply for the United States is overly optimistic. Although some attempts have been 

made to quantify available coal, none have 

used a comprehensive geologic data base 

and considered all of the restrictions now 

placed on coal mining.

A new methodology is necessary to 

determine coal actually available for mining. This methodology must be specific 

enough to consider the key factors that 

would limit coal mining but flexible enough 

to be applied in any coal region in the 

United States. The USGS is currently 

developing such a methodology, which 

relies on cooperative efforts with State 

geological surveys to develop a comprehensive geologic data base. The National Coal 

Resource Data Base (NCRDS) is the repository for all data, in digital form, and these 

data can be manipulated to eliminate 

restricted coal and quantify that which is 

available for mining.

To test this methodology, a pilot 

study, in cooperation with the Kentucky 

Geological Survey, was conducted on the 

Mate wan quadrangle, Pike County, in eastern Kentucky (fig. 3). Restrictions that 

limit the availability of coal for surface and 

underground mining have been defined and 

mapped, and all data were entered in the 

NCRDS. For surface mining, environmentrelated restrictions are surface features 

that cannot be moved and generally required that barriers be left. These restrictions include (1) major powerlines and 

pipelines, (2) town and public buildings, (3) 

Federal highways, (4) cemeteries, (5) oil and 

gas wells, (6) railroads, and (7) environmentally sensitive areas, such as endangered species habitats, protected rivers, 

game lands, and parks. In addition, surface 

mining is restricted by economic factors,

UPPER ELKHORN NO. 2 RESOURCE SUMMARY

[mst = millions of short tons]

Table 1. Summary of Upper Elkhorn No. 2 resources, Matewan 

quadrangle, Kentucky

RESTRICTED

RESOURCES

(64 mst)

AVAILABLE

 »

RESOURCES

DEEP* 

 Q RESC

(5

SURFACE MINEABLE

RESOURCES

(23 mst)

which are indicated by the limiting strip 

ratio that can be achieved and still make a 

profit.

Restrictions on underground mining 

are primarily economic and technological, 

and a coal bed will not be mined when (1) it 

is too shallow or too deep, (2) it is within a 

certain distance above or below an abandoned mine or a coal bed that is more likely 

to be mined, (3) it is located in highly folded 

or faulted areas or areas where roof conditions would be too problematic, or (4) it is 

too thin to be mined by conventional technology. Coal quality also may restrict coal 

availability if it does not meet compliance 

standards for sulfur or if it does not meet 

user specifications.

An accurate geologic base upon which 

to apply these restrictions is vital to the 

study. For the Mate wan quadrangle, the 

most recent geologic maps and data were 

supplied by Kentucky Geological Survey 

geologists familiar with the geology of the 

area. Coal map data in computerized form 

and sampling and drilling data were 

entered in the NCRDS, which supplemented data already in the system for this 

quadrangle. By combining these data with 

a computerized USGS digital elevation 

model for the quadrangle, original and 

remaining coal resources were mapped and 

calculated for the 22 major coal beds. Figure 4A shows the original extent of occurrence of one coal bed, the Elkhorn No. 2. 

Restrictions to surface and (or) deep mining were then delineated on the basis of 

local environmental regulations and mining 

practices. By mapping these restrictions 

and applying them to maps of remaining 

coal resources, available coal was mapped 

and quantified for each of the coal beds. 

Figure 45 shows the coal available for 

surface and deep mining in the Upper Elkhorn No. 2 bed after restrictions were 

applied.

Calculations for the Upper Elkhorn 

No. 2 coal bed indicate that of the 92 million 

short tons of total coal resource remaining 

after subtracting what has already been 

mined, only 30 percent, or 28 million tons, 

is actually available for future mining (table 

1). If recovery factors are applied to future mining of this remaining available 

resource, the available coal would be fur58 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
,-~--*.,^fS FA

* «?"« \

iC.f«»"y-oweN --< ;' /*$&'* VEW1!

5^'^^«5¥5,_ ' N>-« i'a- II? 7- * I 

)LD«»WS.___ ,4- }f -^HiiVt'"" 1 ""^"'1

^>'?tpB»6c^.^ «»,' S^rt,,. ., » *. ,.;.r. p ( , . RB '>^lO*.««>v.*I»^ifc

^ T* ~>^-.«-^.'.-.^ O-.vr^,..-, --. ,---'*. ^ BATH''-'.

r ^^.' t

MMiKS ^^* V-.

KrffAtO / / M ON B O E Jfrc . f ,

Figure 3. Location map of Matewan quadrangle within the central Appalachian region.

ther reduced. Additional studies will indicate whether these preliminary calculations are representative of this coal region. 

If so, these results could dispel some of the 

optimism that is commonly engendered by 

coal resource forecasts that are expressed 

in billions and trillions of tons.

The data developed for a portion of 

Pike County may be extrapolated some 

distance provided the geologic conditions, 

the topography, and the general coal economy are relatively uniform. Coals are found 

in a variety of geologic settings, and it will 

therefore be necessary that similar studies 

be done in the other major coal-producing 

areas where coal characteristics differ significantly from those in the area of the pilot 

study. Parts of southern West Virginia and

western Virginia may be well represented 

by the Pike County study. Conditions in 

other areas, some not too distant from Pike 

County, however, are sufficiently different 

that they must be individually investigated 

in order to evaluate available coal 

resources. Coal-producing regions of central and northern West Virginia, Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Alabama are among these 

economically competitive but geologically 

different locales. Investigations will also be 

required in the mid-continent and western 

United States in order to complete the 

study of the Nation's available coal 

resources, particularly the amount of available low-sulfur coal resources. Results of 

this continuing research could have farreaching implications for United States 

coal policy and energy planning.

Geologic Investigations 59
Figure 4A. Original occurrence 

of the Upper Elkhorn No. 2 coal 

seam (colored area), Matewan 

quadrangle, Kentucky, before 

mining.

60 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
Figure 4B. Areas where the Upper Elkhorn No. 2 coal seam is 

available for surface or underground mining, after applying 

restrictions.

Surface Mineable 

Underground Mineable

Geologic Investigations 61
62 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
/.afce Huron near White Rock, 

Huron County, Michigan. (Photograph by Michael J. Sweat, 

U.S. Geological Survey.)

Geologic Investigations 63
Mapping the EEZ: 

The First Million 

Square Miles

By Bonnie A. McGregor

The USGS effort to map the seafloor of 

the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) 

reached a major milestone in 1987. The 

GLORIA (Geologic Long-Range Inclined 

Asdic) sidescan sonar system has now 

mapped over a million square nautical miles 

of seafloor in 3 years. One-third of the EEZ 

has been mapped completely, including the 

seafloor adjacent to the lower 48 States, to 

Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, 

and to Alaska in the Bering Sea region (fig. 

5). The mapping is continuing on the 

Research Vessel M/V Farnella. The EEZ 

south of Alaska and around the Hawaiian 

Islands will be completed next, which will 

culminate the EEZ mapping for the 50 

States by 1990. Efforts will then focus on 

the U.S. territories and possessions in the 

Pacific.

The M/V Farnella began the mapping 

of the Bering Sea in summer 1986 and 

completed it in July 1987. As in earlier 

EEZ mapping ventures, the mosaics are 

showing scientists geologic features that 

they had not imagined. The sonar mosaic of 

the floor of the Bering Sea shows extensive 

dissection of the continental margin and the 

northern slope of the Aleutian Ridge by 

some of the largest submarine canyon systems ever identified. Large, well-defined 

channel systems that emanate from submarine canyons in the southeastern corner of 

the.Bering Sea extend for several hundred 

miles across the abyssal plain. Flow patterns on the seafloor appear to have formed 

by sheet flow as sediment is transported 

across the Aleutian Basin. The dominant 

erosional and transport processes active 

along the margins of the Bering Sea are a 

variety of types of mass movement ranging 

from small debris flows to massive submarine landslides and slumps of blocks of 

sediment measuring miles in diameter and 

thickness. Within the Bering Sea, Bowers 

Ridge is a crescent-shaped ridge, which 

was believed to be inactive because of its 

lack of seismicity and its flat crest. GLORIA images provided a new perspective of

Figure 5. Status of the GLORIA 

mapping program and location 

of CONMAP parcels.

UNITED STATES

-1864A

0 400 800 NAUTICAL MILES 

EXPLANATION

Completed GLORIA surveys

Published GLORIA atlas, and 

number in USGS Miscellaneous 

Investigations Map Series

Continental Margin Map 

(CONMAP) Series panels 

BC Baltimore Canyon 

GB Georges Bank

- Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) 

boundary

64 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
the ridge. Large (6-mile-wide) volcanoes, 

and what are interpreted as numerous 

smaller volcanic features, were identified 

as being associated with Bowers Ridge and 

its extension. Recent uplift is also occurring along the ridge.

Besides providing new insights, the 

GLORIA data occasionally provide geologists with inexplicable puzzles. One of 

these is an interference pattern that resembles the characteristic pattern light makes 

on taffeta cloth. Speculation on the origin of 

the interference ranges from density differences in the water column to correlation 

with subseafloor features; the latter seems 

the most likely. An area was resurveyed 1 

year later, and almost the identical pattern 

was again present on the image, implying 

that the interference is not transient.

In February through May 1987, the 

East Coast GLORIA survey was completed except for a shallow-water southern 

portion of the Blake Plateau. Striking 

regional differences were identified all 

along the East Coast. The area south of 

Cape Hatteras on the Blake Plateau, which 

is composed of limestone rocks, shows a 

seafloor that has been eroded by the northflowing Gulf Stream. Differences in the 

reflectivity can be correlated with the varied rock units that crop out on the seafloor. 

The seaward edge of the plateau is marked 

by an escarpment having over 13,200 feet 

of relief that has been carved by ocean 

currents aided by biochemical erosion. 

North of Cape Hatteras to Long Island, the 

continental margin is cut by several large 

submarine canyons and channels that cross 

the EEZ for over 100 miles. Seaward of 

New Jersey, a vast dendritic pattern of 

canyons merge on the continental rise to 

form a single large channel that extends 

across the EEZ, and immense areas are 

marked by bottom failure and landslide 

deposits. A field of "mud waves" was 

mapped near the seaward edge of the EEZ, 

off North and South Carolina. The presence of these massive ripplelike features, 

250 feet high with a spacing of 3 miles, 

suggests that some sediments in the deep 

water of the continental rise are being 

moved toward the northeast. Off Georges 

Bank, the GLORIA mosaic shows an 

extensively dissected continental slope 

with most canyons terminating in sheets of 

debris. Groups of canyons converge to form 

single channels; however, only six of the 

canyons that indent the shelf extend from

the upper slope to the outer margin of the 

EEZ. Mass movement of sediment has 

obliterated some channels, burying them in 

debris. Five of the New England seamounts show up strikingly, and it appears 

that they influence the paths of submarine 

channels and the distribution of sediments 

on the continental rise.

Image processing of the Bering Sea 

and East Coast GLORIA data is already 

underway. The data are being digitally 

mosaicked to produce the image maps for 

the respective atlases that will be published for each area mapped. The second 

atlas of the EEZ was published in October 

1987 as USGS Miscellaneous Investigations 

Map I-1864-A and I-1864-B. This atlas 

covers the EEZ in the Gulf of Mexico and 

around Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin 

Islands. The atlas presents sonar-imagery 

mosaics (25 maps, at 1:500,000 scale) of the 

EEZ seafloor, along with generalized geologic interpretations and bathymetry, 

seismic-reflection-profile data collected 

during the surveys, and bathymetry and 

residual-magnetic-anomaly profiles in the 

survey areas.

The long-range- sidescan sonar 

(GLORIA) images provide a striking view 

of the seafloor in the deep water of the Gulf 

of Mexico and in the Puerto Rico-U.S. 

Virgin Islands area. A better understanding of the morphology, surficial geology, 

and sedimentary processes is important for 

developing energy and mineral resources 

(fig. 6) and for siting seafloor structures. 

The GLORIA data provide information on 

depositional environments and geologic 

processes that is important in developing 

depositional models useful as analogs in 

understanding the rock record and resource distribution.

In the western Gulf of Mexico the most 

striking feature on the imagery is the

Figure 6. Photograph from Alvin 

of an active hypersaline seep 

from the fractured limestone in 

10,000 feet of water at the base 

of the Florida Escarpment. 

Crabs, tube worms, mussels, 

and snails are part of the community of organisms living 

around the seeps. (Photograph 

by R.F. Commeau.)

Geologic Investigations 65
0 the MSI iktot. Qutttne >

it imagery in tht.' w*r>

Figure 7. Digital mosaic of the GLORIA sidescan sonar data from the western Gulf of 

Mexico. Salt deformation controls the slope in the western Gulf. Numbered boxes refer 

to map sheets in the Atlas of the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone Gulf of Mexico and 

Eastern Caribbean areas.

66 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
MISSISSIPPI ALABAMA

ith jjixfi trf data tpprewnls 2flOm

Figure 8. Digital mosaic of the GLORIA sidescan sonar data from the eastern Gulf of 

Mexico. The Mississippi channel and fan are striking features on the floor of the eastern 

Gulf. Numbered boxes refer to map sheets in the Atlas of the U.S. Exclusive Economic 

Zone Gulf of Mexico and Eastern Caribbean areas.

Geologic Investigations 67
Sigsbee Escarpment, which marks the seaward edge of the salt deformation province 

(fig. 7). The extensively deformed continental slope is an important frontier for oil 

and gas exploration. In the central Gulf, 

the Mississippi Canyon and fan system is 

the dominant morphologic feature (fig. 8). 

Understanding the processes contributing 

to the development of the modern Mississippi Fan is important in developing exploration models for ancient fan systems. The 

GLORIA data provide a unique regional 

perspective of a deep-water-frontier region 

important for its oil and gas resource 

potential.

The first prototype digital map in the 

Continental Margin Map (CONMAP) 

Series, a digital compilation of information 

on the EEZ (fig. 5), has been completed. 

The first sheet (topography/bathymetry) 

for the Baltimore Canyon Trough was prepared by combining the coastline topography in digital format from the National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

with onshore topography data from the 

National Mapping Division of the USGS 

and digitized bathymetry data. The first 

thematic map (tectonic) for the Baltimore 

Canyon Trough area is in preparation. The 

first thematic map for the Georges Bank 

area, which depicts information on the 

sediments in the area, is in review, and 

a topography/bathymetry map for the 

Georges Bank area is presently being prepared. The digital maps, of both the GLORIA sonar imagery and the CONMAP thematic maps, provide a regional perspective 

of our knowledge of the EEZ the Nation's 

underwater frontier.

Hawaiian Volcano 

Observatory 75th 

Anniversary

By Thomas L Wright and 

Robert W. Decker

The 75th anniversary of the founding 

of the U.S. Geological Survey Hawaiian 

Volcano Observatory (HVO) was celebrated in January 1987. The festivities 

began on January 9 with the opening in

Hilo of a major exhibit at the Wailoa Center 

on the current work of HVO, its history, 

and its special relationship to the Hawaii 

Volcanoes National Park. In addition to 

spectacular photographs of volcanic activity and HVO fieldwork, the exhibit featured continuous showings of underwater 

footage taken during the recent eruptive 

activity (December 1986) and a computer 

monitor that displayed the island's earthquake activity in real time.

A new HVO facility and an adjoining 

Thomas A. Jaggar Museum (fig. 9) were 

dedicated by the U.S. Geological Survey 

and the National Park Service the following week in an impressive ceremony 

marked by a Hawaiian oli (blessing) in 

honor of Pele, the Hawaiian volcano goddess. Dedication remarks were made by 

Wayne Marchant (Acting Assistant Secretary for Water and Science), Dallas Peck 

(USGS Director), William Penn Mott, Jr. 

(National Park Service Director), Congressman Daniel Akaka (Hawaii), Dante 

Carpenter (Mayor, County of Hawaii), and 

Gudmundur Sigvaldason (head of the 

World Organization of Volcano Observatories; University of Iceland, Reykjavik). 

Additional remarks were made by Howard 

Mimaki, who represented Governor John 

Waihee of Hawaii, and by representatives 

of other members of Hawaii's congressional 

delegation (Senators Daniel Inouye and 

Spark Matsunaga and Representative Pat 

Saiki) and the Hawaii County Council. Gordon Eaton, former Scientist-in-Charge at 

HVO (now president of Iowa State University) delivered an inspiring keynote 

address, relating HVO and its work to the 

origins of the Hawaii-Emperor Volcano 

Chain. Thomas Wright, current HVO 

Scientist-in-Charge, presided. All of the 

former Scientists-in-Charge who are still 

living were in attendance (with the exception of Howard Powers, who was ill). The 

three deceased Scientists-in-Charge were 

all represented by a family member. The 

dedication was followed by a tour of HVO 

and the Jaggar Museum.

The following week (January 19-25, 

1987), 420 scientists from 21 countries met 

in Hilo to discuss problems and the remarkable progress in the discipline of volcanology at the Hawaii Symposium on "How 

Volcanoes Work." The convenors of the 

symposium were Robert Decker, Thomas 

Wright, and Reginald Okamura (all of the 

USGS) and Joseph Halbig and Richard

68 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
Hazlett (University of Hawaii at Hilo). 

Sponsors of the meetings were the U.S. 

Geological Survey, University of Hawaii at 

Hilo, International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior, 

Circum-Pacific Council for Energy and 

Mineral Resources, Hawaii Institute of 

Geophysics, American Geophysical Union, 

Geological Society of America, and World 

Organization of Volcano Observatories. 

The meeting began with a summary of 

Kilauea's current eruption; three other 

keynote speakers then presented their 

thoughts on subduction volcanoes, rift volcanoes, and hot-spot volcanoes.

Presentations at the Symposium represented the international character of the 

delegates and the worldwide concern for 

and interest in volcanoes and their effects:

Shigeo Aramaki (Earthquake Research Institute, University of Tokyo, 

Japan), speaking about Japanese volcanoes, noted that dehydration of the 

descending Pacific plate begins at a depth 

of about 62 miles. The volatiles and other 

elements leached from the descending slab 

contaminate a mantle layer above the slab, 

which at 80 to 110 miles depth begins to 

melt and forms diapirs that rise toward the 

Moho (the boundary that separates the 

Earth's crust from the underlying mantle). 

Basaltic liquids separate from the diapirs 

and accumulate in reservoirs in the lower 

crust. Magmas evolved from these deeper 

reservoirs rise periodically through the 

crust to form shallow magma chambers, 

from which periodic eruption of lavas and 

tephra of basaltic andesite, andesite, and 

dacite occur. Stress fields and subduction 

rates are the major factors affecting the 

character of volcanism at individual centers.

Sigvaldason (Iceland) noted that the 

velocity structure beneath Iceland differs 

from that at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. He 

attributed this difference to diapiric rise of 

magma generated in the upper mantle into 

multiple horizontal reservoirs that are 

located within the thin crust beneath the 

young volcanic zones of Iceland. Sigvaldason pointed out that eruption rates in Iceland were higher near the beginning of 

Holocene time (10,000 years ago) and suggested that removal of the ice load from 

Iceland and (or) rise in sea level around 

Iceland may have caused this increased 

eruptive activity.

Robert Christiansen (USGS, United 

States) proposed that the classification of 

volcanoes into two categories, those associated with converging or diverging plate 

margins and those found within plates, 

might be too simplistic. He suggested that 

the Earth's crust, upper mantle, and 

deeper mantle may interact as a dynamic 

feedback system that includes the generation and transport of fluid phases. Magmatism in the Earth's crust has long-term rates 

that appear to be coupled to tectonic displacement rates. In addition, original 

magma composition, degree of partial melting, and changes in composition are all 

influenced by stress distributions and 

ascent rates. In this view, plate-margin 

processes may simply act to focus general 

magmatic processes of the same types that 

produce intraplate magmas. Christiansen 

also warned that the terms "hot spot" and 

"mantle plume" are becoming too closely 

associated. The cause of hot spots is still 

largely unknown.

Nearly 300 papers were presented on 

the following major topics:

 Conceptual models of how volcanoes 

work

 Internal and deep structure of volcanoes

 Physical and chemical dynamics of magma chambers

 Physical and chemical dynamics of 

intrusion and eruption processes

 Exploration of submarine volcanoes

Figure 9. (Above) The first Hawaiian Volcano Observatory 

(HVO), located near the site of 

the present Volcano House Hotel, as it appeared around 1922. 

(Photographer unknown; courtesy of the Bishop Museum, 

Honolulu, Hawaii.) (Below) 

HVO at its present site, after 

the addition of a new wing 

(with observation tower) and 

renovation in 1986. (Photograph 

byJ.D. Griggs.)

Geologic Investigations 69
 Earthquakes and tremors related to 

volcanism

 Monitoring of volcanic activity

 Assessment of volcanic hazards

 Reduction of volcanic risk.

In addition to this formal program, the 

attendees viewed newly released sonar 

images of the 200-mile-wide underwater 

U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone bordering 

the island of Hawaii. Japanese scientists 

provided an update on the recent major 

eruption on Oshima, Japan; and there was a 

panel discussion on the 1986 gas cloud 

eruption in Cameroon.

Much progress has taken place in the 

study of volcanic processes in the past 

several years, but the symposium also 

served to emphasize that many problems 

remain. The symposium helped somewhat 

in removing the question mark in "How do 

volcanoes work?".

Assessing the 

Earthquake Hazards of 

Urban Areas

By Walter W. Hays, Paula L 

Cor/, and William J. 

Kockleman

Major urban areas in widely scattered 

geographic locations across the United 

States are at varying degrees of risk from 

earthquakes. The locations of these urban 

areas include Charleston, South Carolina; 

Memphis, Tennessee; St. Louis, Missouri; 

Salt Lake City, Utah; Seattle-Tacoma, 

Washington; Portland, Oregon; and 

Anchorage, Alaska; even Boston, Massachusetts, and Buffalo, New York, have a 

history of large earthquakes. Cooperative 

research during the past decade has 

focused on assessing the nature and degree 

of the risk or seismic hazard in the broad 

geographic regions around each urban 

area. The strategy since the 1970's has 

been to bring together local, State, and 

Federal resources to solve the problem of 

assessing seismic risk. Successful cooperative programs have been launched in the 

San Francisco Bay and Los Angeles

regions in California and the Wasatch 

Front region in Utah. In each of these 

areas the research efforts were directed to 

finding answers to the following questions:

 Where have earthquakes occurred in 

the past?

 Where are they occurring now?

 How often do moderate-, large-, and 

great-magnitude earthquakes occur?

 What physical effects (seismic hazards) 

have been triggered by past earthquakes, 

and what was the nature and extent of the 

losses they caused?

 What are the most effective options for 

mitigating losses from future earthquakes, 

as determined from the knowledge of past 

events and current technology?

The first phase of a 5-year program to 

assess the seismic hazards of the Wasatch 

Front, Utah, region, for example, was concluded in fiscal year 1986. This assessment 

was conducted over a 3-year period and 

focused on the 10-county Brigham CitySalt Lake City-Ogden urban corridor. This 

urban corridor, with more than 1 million 

people and great building wealth, lies adjacent to the 220-mile-long active Wasatch 

fault zone (fig. 10). Scientists and engineers 

from the U.S. Geological Survey, the Utah 

Geological and Mineral Survey, universities, and the private sector joined together 

to estimate the recurrence rates and maximum size of potential earthquakes, to calculate the nature and severity of the 

expected ground shaking, and to identify 

and map areas of potential surface fault 

rupture, landslides, liquefaction, and other 

ground failures. Their findings include the 

following:

 The Wasatch fault zone is composed of 

at least 10 segments (see fig. 10) having 

surface traces that are 9 to 36 miles in 

length. Each segment has been the source 

of repeated large-magnitude earthquakes, 

of about magnitude 6.5 to 7.5, occurring on 

the average every several hundred to several thousand years.

 Ancient Lake Bonneville may have 

played an important role in increasing 

earthquake activity along the Wasatch 

fault. Recent studies of the slip rates on the 

Wasatch fault have revealed that the rate 

of earthquake activities accelerated with 

the formation of the Pleistocene-age lake 

and apparently has declined since its disappearance.

 Measurements of small-amplitude 

ground motions, representing a low-strain

70 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
environment at sites in the Salt Lake CityOgden-Provo urban corridor underlain by 

soil and rock, showed that urban areas built 

in the middle of valleys filled with thick, 

soft deposits of clays and silts may experience severe levels of ground shaking 

in moderate- to large-magnitude earthquakes. These effects are 3 to 4 units of 

intensity (Modified Mercalli Intensity 

Scale) higher than those at sites on thin 

gravel and sand deposits on the edges of 

the valleys. Although these groundshaking effects may not be as serious as 

those that produced damage in the lake-bed 

zone of Mexico City in the September 19, 

1985, Mexico earthquake, they are significant enough to be incorporated in the 

earthquake-resistant design of highoccupancy buildings and critical structures.

 Potential losses to buildings and life 

from ground shaking in future earthquakes 

in the Salt Lake City region may reach $1 

billion (1985 dollars) or more, depending on 

the location of the earthquake relative to 

the urban area and the time of day the 

earthquake occurs.

 The potential for earthquake-induced 

liquefaction and landslides is high along the 

Wasatch Front. These phenomena will significantly increase the overall loss.

 Geographic information system (GIS) 

technology was applied in a pilot study of 

the Sugar House 7.5-minute quadrangle 

and proved useful in managing and analyzing multiple geologic and geophysical data 

bases required for assessing regional seismic hazards.

In Utah, the USGS created strong 

partnerships with the Utah Geological and 

Mineral Survey; the Utah Division of Comprehensive Emergency Management; the 

counties of Weber, Davis, Salt Lake, and 

Utah; universities; the private sector; and 

the Federal Emergency Management 

Agency. These partnerships are being used 

to foster implementation of earthquakepreparedness plans and mitigation measures in Utah. This second phase of the 

5-year program will receive high priority in 

fiscal years 1987 and 1988.

A new 5-year effort, identical to that 

along the Wasatch Front, was initiated in 

fiscal year 1987 in the Puget Sound, 

Washington-Willamette Valley, Oregon, 

region. Although the rate of damaging 

earthquakes in the Pacific Northwest 

appears to be low relative to that in California, earthquakes of magnitude 7.1 in

44'

114° 112° 110° W

__ IDAHO

40°

38'

Malad 

City

.Ogdenl

*tSalt Lake City

Prove

t

Nephi 

Gunnison

WYOMING r

18

UTAH

I ARIZONA

 H100 

I

200 MILES 

_I

100 200 KILOMETERS

1949 and magnitude 6.5 in 1965 caused 

damage collectively in excess of $200 million (1984 dollars), many injuries, and 15 

deaths. Both of these earthquakes occurred 

at intermediate depths. The potential for 

two other types of events shallow, 

moderate- to large-magnitude earthquakes 

on inland intraplate faults and a shallow, 

great-magnitude subduction zone event in 

the Cascadia subduction zone (fig. 11) is 

poorly understood. Three factors may 

change the current assessment of the 

earthquake risk in the Seattle-Portland 

region:

 A growing body of scientific data suggests that great earthquakes may be possible in the Cascadia subduction zone.

 The population and urban development 

in the region have grown significantly; 

approximately 2.6 million people and about 

$93 billion in property are now vulnerable 

to the earthquake threat.

 The interplay between earthquake hazards and secondary effects such as fires, 

chemical spills, and technological hazards 

may have significantly increased the potential for life and property loss.

Figure 10. Map showing the 220- 

mile-long Wasatch fault zone, a 

major zone of active normal 

faulting. The largest urban centers of Utah are located along 

the fault zone. Geologic and 

geomorphic evidence shows 

that earthquakes of magnitude 

7 or greater have occurred on 

the fault in the past 10,000 

years. One of the most important recent research results indicates that the fault may be 

composed of as many as 10 independent segments, each of 

which has been the source of 

repeated large-magnitude earthquakes.

Geologic Investigations 71
Figure 11. Schematic illustration 

of the physical processes taking 

place in a subduction zone 

where one tectonic plate is 

slowly being thrust over 

another. In the Puget Sound 

area, the North American plate 

is being thrust over the Juan de 

Fuca plate at a rate of approximately 7.2 inch/year. Many 

aspects of this process are still 

controversial. Technical issues 

that remain unresolved include 

(V the present rate of convergence, (2) the physical features 

and seismic coupling of the 

Juan de Fuca and North American plates, (3) the capability of 

the subduction zone to rupture 

and produce large to great 

earthquakes, and (4) the range 

of magnitudes, recurrence intervals, and physical effects of potential earthquakes.

Trench\

Oceanic f 

lithosphere < 

plate

100-

Zone of easy shearing in 

rock near melting temperature

Plate sinks 

because it is 

relatively cool 

and dense

I Continental 

|-lithosphere 

J plate

700-

To carry out the research and to foster 

implementation of earthquake preparedness plans and mitigation measures in 

Washington and Oregon, the USGS has 

formed partnerships with the State Geological Surveys, the State offices of emergency services, universities, the private 

sector, and the Federal Emergency Management Agency. Efforts are being made 

to develop geographic information systems 

to manage and analyze geological, geophysical, topographical, and land-use data created by the various researchers. These 

efforts will collectively add to the knowledge base and ultimately lead to enactment 

of damage- and loss-control measures 

appropriate for mitigating the seismic hazard of the Pacific Northwest. In fiscal year 

1990, another region of the United States 

will be selected for a comprehensive 

regional seismic hazard assessment.

Pacific Proving 

Grounds Revisited

By Thomas W. Henry

Atmospheric nuclear testing was conducted by the United States Government

on isolated atolls in the Pacific Ocean from 

1946 through 1958. The United States carried out its only near-surface tests of 

megaton-range (high-yield), nuclear-fusion 

devices on Enewetak (fig. 12) and Bikini. 

Most of these shots were detonated on the 

small atoll islands, from towers, or from 

vessels anchored in the shallow lagoons. 

Most craters formed are now water filled, 

some of them with as much as 200 feet of 

water.

The U.S. Geological Survey completed 

in 1987 a cooperative, multidisciplinary 

program with the Defense Nuclear Agency 

(DNA) and other groups within the 

Department of Defense (DOD). The program was designed to produce geologic, 

geophysical, and material-properties data 

and interpretations to resolve a series of 

critical questions involving the craters 

formed in the Pacific Proving Grounds 

(PPG). Known to the DOD by the acronym 

PEACE (Pacific Enewetak Atoll Crater 

Exploration), the program was part of a 

larger research initiative by the DNA to 

better understand high-yield, strategicscale nuclear. bursts and how the PPG 

craters relate to the basing and targeting 

of nuclear-weapon systems and related 

national defense issues.

Beyond DOD's strategic concerns, 

data gathered during the Enewetak Program are helping to address many subjects 

of broad concern, including the geologic

72 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
- 11°40*

Bokaldrlk o

,

TelteTrlpucchl (QENE 

Elugelab (FLORA) 

Sanlldetowso (EDNA)

LouJ 

Klrunu 

Bokombako 

Bokoluo (ALICE)

(HELEN)

O

o

o 

o

CM

Boken (IRENE) "*" 

Enjebl (JANET) 

MlJIkadrek (KATE) 

Kldrlnen (LUCY) 

Bokenelab (MARY) 

Elle (NANCY) 

Aej (OLIVE)

Lujor (PEARL) 

Eleleron (RUBY) 

Aomon (SALLY)

 BIJIle (TILDA) 

Lojwa (URSULA) 

Alembel (VERA)

-Blllae (WILMA)

-» HAWAIIAN 

± ENEWETAK ISLANDS

o 

o

o 

o 

<o

f 160000

wv

GRID 

(FT)

PREVAILING MIND

120000

Blken (LEROY)

SOUTHWEST 

PASSAGE

11°20'

Kidrenen (KEITH)' 

Rlbewon (JAMES)'

Boken (IRWIN)-

Mut (HENRYT / 

Ikuren (GLENN)

Runlt (YVONNE)

' M* (ZONA)

Jlnedrol (ALVIN)

 f- 80000 

Analj (BRUCE)

Jlmlnl (CLYDE) 

Japtan (DAVID)

BAST (DEEP) CHANNEL

Medren (ELMER)

+ 40000

Enewetak (FRED)

30,000 

I

50,000 

J_____I

r

NAUTICAL MILES 

162°00'

FEET KILOMETERS

162°10' 162°20' 162°30'

history and evolution of the west-central 

part of the Pacific Basin, the detailed structure and evolution of a coral atoll, the rise 

and fall of sea level in response to global 

climatic changes and the measurement of 

the magnitude of these events, speciation 

and migration of microscopic marine life, 

and chemical and physical changes in atoll 

carbonate rocks. In addition, data from this 

program are applicable to such practical 

issues as the potential use of an atoll as 

a safe repository for high-level nuclear 

waste.

Two submarine craters, KOA and 

OAK (fig. 12), that were formed in 1958 

near the northern perimeter of Enewetak 

Atoll by 1.4- and 8.9-megaton bursts, 

respectively, were selected for the USGS 

to investigate. A basic problem in the 

investigation was that data from the PPG 

craters were sparse. The PPG high-yield 

craters appeared to differ in a number of

strategically critical ways from craters produced by both non-nuclear and low-yield 

nuclear bursts in dry, continental test 

sites, such as the Nevada Test Site. The 

high-yield craters appeared to have very 

broad, shallow saucer-shaped profiles and 

consequent large volumes of excavated 

materials. In contrast, the continental test 

craters, far easier to directly measure and 

sample, had smaller bowl-shaped profiles 

and small volumes of excavated materials. 

For many years, the conclusion generally 

was accepted that the high-yield devices 

were more efficient in the excavational 

process than the low-yield ones that formed 

the continental craters. However, research 

undertaken by the DNA in the 1970's suggested that physical processes operating on 

a scale greater than hours and gravity 

effects in "special" geologic environments 

such as a coral atoll might play a more 

important role in the final crater size and

Figure 12. Map of Enewetak 

Atoll showing location of KOA, 

OAK, and MIKE craters, native 

names of principal islands (military site names shown in capital 

letters in parentheses). Deep 

borehole drilled in 7952 used 

for pilot borehole gravity measurements located on Medren 

Island. Location of Enewetak 

Atoll shown by asterisk on index map.

Geologic Investigations 73
Figure 13. View of starboard 

side of drill ship Knut Constructor in OAK crater in June 7985.

morphology than in dry continental sites. 

By the end of the last decade, computational models were capable of simulating 

accurately an array of phenomena associated with high-explosive and low-yield 

nuclear shots. However, the PPG craters 

(as observed and measured) formed by the 

high-yield events and scaled to their continental and meteor-impact counterparts 

were anomalous and could not be modeled 

confidently. The marked difference between these simulations and existing 

observations from the PPG were of considerable concern to the DOD. In fact, the lack 

of confidence in these data cast doubt on 

the DOD's ability to predict how effective 

nuclear weapons would be against hardened targets and how well strategic 

defense systems would survive in the event 

of nuclear attack.

Participation of the USGS in fieldwork 

on Enewetak was divided into two major 

parts. The first, the marine phase, began in 

April of 1984 with a pilot borehole-gravity 

study by the USGS and DNA in a deep 

borehole drilled in 1952 on Medren Island 

(fig. 12). Most of the marine phase was 

conducted during the summer and early fall 

of 1984 by USGS personnel, but scientific 

advisors from DNA and logistic support 

from the Pacific Area Support Office of the 

Department of Energy (DOE) also participated in the marine phase. The second 

phase, the drilling phase, was conducted

from late winter through the summer of 

1985 and was conducted jointly by personnel from the USGS, DNA, and DOE, which 

contracted the 245-foot drilling vessel, the 

Knut Constructor (fig. 13). The DOE also 

obtained necessary cooperation of the officials of the Republic of the Marshall Islands 

to conduct the fieldwork on Enewetak and 

to provide extensive logistic support.

The marine phase concentrated on 

mapping seafloor features and profiling 

subbottom characteristics of KOA and 

OAK using shipboard geophysical techniques and scuba and submersible surveys 

(figs. 14, 15). Most of these analyses are 

reported in USGS Bulletin 1678. The 

geophysical studies incorporated data from 

sidescan-sonar images, single-channel and 

multichannel seismic surveys, and refraction surveys; the geologic investigations 

included seafloor observations, collection of 

bottom (benthic) samples, and shallow 

boreholes drilled by scuba teams.

Thirty-two deep boreholes were completed in the vicinity of KOA and OAK 

during the drilling phase. These provided 

information on the stratigraphic framework of the upper 1,200 feet of the carbonate cap of the atoll and ground-truth for the 

geophysical profiles and other marine 

phase data. The deepest hole was drilled 

about 1,800 feet below sea level in roughly 

200 feet of water near OAK ground zero. 

Samples of rock and sediment from the

74 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
500 METERS 8

s

SCO FEET *> 

_J

ENHANCED SEAFLOOR IMAGE 

OAK CRATER

TERRACE 

INNER TERRACES 

OUTER TERRACES

I2SCJOO

CRATER FLOOR 

RIM SCARP

RIM SLOPI

: DEBRIS BLANKET

OUTER SLOPE " , -" 

OUTER TERRACES '"'

DEBRIS BLANKET'>r /

PATCH REEFS"'

ZOOOO IVY...CRIO..(ftj

I62"5'30"E I6E°6'E

 3630 N

II-36N

Figure 14. Airbrush-enhanced 

sidescan-sonar image of waterfilled OAK crater (lighting from 

southeast) showing major crater 

and natural features. Lagoonward edge of reef plate is 

darker gray area to northwest; 

natural lagoon floor (see arrow 

on southeast side of image) is 

about 150 feet deep with patch 

(pinnacle) reefs rising to nearly 

sea level; ground zero (CZ) is in 

almost 200 feet of water. (The 

imagery techniques and airbrush enhancement employed 

by USCS laboratories at Flagstaff were basically those developed by the USCS for the National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration to process images from Mars.)

I62°6'30"E I62°7'E

boreholes were used for lithostratigraphic 

and biostratigraphic (geologic) analyses for 

strontium-isotope dating by the USGS, for 

stable carbon- and oxygen-isotope analyses (Brown University), for shockmetamorphic studies (California Institute 

of Technology), for material-properties 

(engineering) studies (DNA), and for radiochemical analyses (DNA). Geophysical logs 

were run and shipboard gravity measurements were made in selected boreholes 

on one of the OAK transects by DNA 

personnel cooperating with the USGS and 

Los Alamos National Laboratory.

The collaborating teams from the 

USGS, DNA, DOE, and McClelland Engineers, Inc. (the drilling contractor), produced a number of major technologic and 

scientific "firsts":

 The first boreholes successfully drilled 

from shipboard through the highly disturbed materials within a high-yield 

nuclear crater. This was done with a high 

degree of recovery of sample and core.

 The first detailed biostratigraphic analyses using microfossils (ostracodes and foraminifers) of near-reef facies of an atoll, 

which provided the first demonstration 

that microfossils could be used to determine the depth of origin (provenance) and 

extent of mixing in the crater-fill materials 

of layers excavated by the nuclear device. 

This provided critical information about the 

chronology of the crater formation and its 

evolution since the nuclear tests.

 The first use of data from strontiumisotope geochemistry as a high-precision 

stratigraphic tool for atoll carbonates and 

its application to determine the source 

depths of crater debris and ejecta.

 The first sidescan sonar maps of a 

water-filled nuclear crater.

Geologic Investigations 75
Figure 75. Two-man research 

submersible Delta, operated by 

MARFAB, Inc., used extensively 

for direct observation and photography of crater features and 

surrounding area during both 

phases of the Enewetak Program. Photograph taken in OAK 

crater in June 1985.

 The first borehole gravity measurements made on a coral atoll and the first 

successful application of a slimline borehole 

gravity tool from aboard ship. These measurements provided essential bulk density 

and porosity data for the computational 

modeling.

The multidisciplinary approach confirmed that the original excavational craters of KOA and OAK were transient features significantly smaller than originally 

thought and far more compatible with DOD 

predictions. Processes operating on a scale 

of hours to years greatly enlarged the size 

and modified the configuration of the initial 

craters in the water-saturated test beds. 

These processes included major failure of 

the sidewalls of the excavational crater, 

shock-induced liquefaction, consolidation, 

upward piping of material (partly from 

beds far below the excavational crater), 

and subsidence of the materials below and 

adjacent to the initial crater.

Federal/State 

Cooperative Geologic 

Mapping 1985-1987

By Wayne L. Newell

COGEOMAP, the Federal/State Cooperative Geologic Mapping program, is 

proving to be an effective program for 

providing geologic maps of high-priority 

areas in a timely manner that meet the 

varied needs of geologic map users. In its 

third year of activity in fiscal year 1987, 

COGEOMAP has grown to encompass 30 

Federal/State cooperative projects (fig. 

16). When the program began in fiscal year 

1985, 18 State-proposed cooperative 

projects were accepted and funding was at 

the $1 million level. Congress increased 

funding to the $1.5 million level in fiscal 

year 1986 and fiscal year 1987.

During fiscal year 1987, major projects 

under the program included continuing 

work on new State geologic maps for Arizona, Hawaii, Montana, New Hampshire, 

New Jersey, New Mexico, Virginia, and 

Washington. Detailed mapping projects 

were carried out in Alabama, Alaska, 

Arkansas, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Maine, 

Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, Nevada, 

North Carolina, North Dakota, Oklahoma, 

Oregon, Rhode Island, Tennessee, Texas, 

Utah, Vermont, Wisconsin, and Wyoming 

to identify mineral, energy, and water 

resources and delineate geological hazards. 

Significant results from the overall program include

 Discovery of new high-BTU coal seams 

and fluorspar exploration targets in 

Illinois.

 Development of land-use plans for the 

southern coast of Maine that will protect 

ground water in this urbanized area.

76 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
 Completion of detailed geologic mapping of four mountain ranges in the Phoenix, Arizona, region, which has stimulated 

mineral exploration and aided in the planning for construction of a major earth-fill 

dam.

 Stimulation of mineral exploration in 

the Wind River Mountains area of Wyoming and of petroleum exploration in the 

Ouachita Mountains of Oklahoma and 

Arkansas.

Beginning in fiscal year 1988, the 

COGEOMAP program becomes a major 

component of the new National Geologic 

Mapping (NGM) program, which will seek 

to accelerate geologic mapping to meet the 

continuing strong demand for modern geologic maps from the public and private 

sectors. Other major goals of the NGM 

program are

 Identifying, on a province-by-province 

basis, critical earth-science data needs that 

require new or additional intermediate- to 

large-scale geologic mapping.

 Establishing national geologic mapping 

priorities by province in order to focus 

future mapping on critical areas.

 Increasing the coverage of the United 

States by intermediate- and large-scale 

geologic maps in provinces or portions of 

provinces of highest national priority.

 Coordinating and integrating subsurface studies, particularly geophysical, geochemical, and hydrologic investigations, 

with surface geologic mapping.

 Preparing and maintaining a system for 

an annual nationwide inventory of current 

geologic mapping and published map 

coverage.

 Encouraging greater production and 

public availability of geologic maps.

 Cooperating with the State geological 

surveys and the National Academy of Sciences to set standards for future geologic 

maps.

 Evaluating and implementing new technologies and methodologies for geologic 

map compilation.

Within the broad program goals of 

NGM, COGEOMAP will continue to link 

USGS geologists possessing regional experience and technical expertise with the 

staffs of State geological surveys who possess detailed local information.

IBH i < /" LEGEND

^^ / _ i _.__..\_ _ _.;4 I I State with project

"' '"''-- " ~" n ^- Location of active

mapping 

__ Location of 

E"1 completed 

\ } mapping 

\j e%. State geologic 

^d map

State geophysical 

maps Figure 16. Status of COGEOMAP cooperative geologic mapping program, 1985 to early 

7988.

Geologic Investigations 77
Lake Huron at a Delaware 

County park north of Forrestville, 

Sanilac County, Michigan. 

(Photograph by Michael /. Sweat, 

U.S. Geological Survey.)

78 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
Water Resources 

Investigations

Highlights

Creosote

Contamination of a 

Surficial Sand 

Aquifer A Case Study

By Bernard J. Franks

Since 1982, teams of U.S. Geological 

Survey researchers have been studying 

selected ground-water contamination sites 

to advance the understanding of hydrologic 

processes affecting the movement of contaminants in ground water. Over 400 commercial wood-treatment plants are active 

in the United States; many of them discharge their wastes into onsite impoundments that, in turn, leak into underlying 

surficial aquifers. Contaminants commonly

stored in potentially leaky surface impoundments include organic chemicals from 

wood-preservative processes; most of these 

wastes contain creosote, a complex distillate of coal tar, and pentachlorophenol 

(PCP).

Owing to the large volume of creosote 

potentially contaminating local groundwater systems, a wood-preserving plant at 

Pensacola, Florida, was chosen by the 

USGS for detailed investigations (fig. 1). 

The plant was chosen because of its long 

uninterrupted history (from 1902 to 1981) 

of discharging wastewaters into unlined 

surface impoundments, the availability of 

preliminary data collected by the USGS in 

cooperation with the Florida Department 

of Environmental Regulation, and the high 

probability of transferring the findings to 

other sites where similar problems exist.

The plant site is located near downtown Pensacola in Escambia County,

Figure 1. View of the woodpreserving plant at Pensacola, 

Florida, in 7987; onsite impoundments in the foreground. 

(Photograph by E. Michael 

Godsy, U.S. Geological Survey.)

Water Resources Investigations 79
Figure 2. Aerial photograph of 

the Pensacola site, 7982. (Photograph courtesy Florida Department of Transportation.)

Florida, and consists of about 18 acres 

about 1,500 feet north of Pensacola Bay 

near the entrance to Bayou Chico (fig. 2). It 

is underlain by a surficial sand and gravel 

aquifer that is the sole source of water 

supply for the city of Pensacola. The site, 

which lies within a recharge area, has all of 

the characteristics that contribute to a high 

vulnerability for aquifer contamination: a 

thin unsaturated zone overlying an unconfmed, highly permeable, surficial sand 

aquifer in a humid climatic zone. One factor 

that limits the extent of contamination at 

the Pensacola site is the presence of a 

shallow confining layer along the coast, 

which inhibits contaminant movement 

downgradient from the impoundments.

Downward movement of water in the aquifer is limited both by the physical presence 

of the confining layer, which acts as a 

barrier to vertical movement, and by 

higher water pressures below the confining 

layer than above the layer.

During the years of plant operation, 

the wood-treatment wastes were discharged into unlined ponds hydraulically 

connected to the surficial aquifer. Over the 

years, large but unknown quantities of the 

waste have infiltrated through the soil 

down to the water table. The wastes have 

separated into two distinct phases: a 

denser-than-water hydrocarbon phase that 

moves vertically downward until intercepted by a confining layer, and an

80 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
aqueous phase that includes the watersoluble components of creosote.

Movement of the water-soluble contaminants in the subsurface is controlled 

by ground-water flow that is generally 

directed southward toward Pensacola Bay. 

Flow velocities range from 0.1 to 3.0 feet 

per day. Flow paths and velocities are 

locally influenced by the distribution of the 

confining silts and clays. A small drainage 

ditch south of the two unlined impoundments intercepts shallow ground-water 

flow and has a marked effect on the configuration of the water-table surface and also 

on contaminant transport.

The U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency included the Pensacola site on the 

Federal "Superfund" list of hazardous 

waste sites in 1982 owing to phenolic compound concentrations in excess of 10 milligrams per liter (mg/L). In 1983, an EPA 

Emergency Response Team drained the 

ponds, treated the liquid, and placed a clay 

cap over the former impoundments (figs. 3, 

4). This was done to alleviate a potential 

public health hazard caused by abnormally 

high water levels that caused contaminated 

water to spill over the embankments and 

flow southward along natural drainage 

paths, directly into Pensacola Bay. The 

primary source of subsurface contamination, the dense hydrocarbon phase that had 

already entered the aquifer, was not 

affected by this cleanup operation.

Extent and Character of 

Contamination

Contamination from the woodpreserving plant has resulted in the generation of anaerobic (oxygen-free) leachate 

that has had a significant effect on the 

water chemistry of the aquifer. In the 

contaminated water, the pH is about 5.4, 

the dissolved-solids concentration is about 

350 mg/L, and many of the water-soluble 

components of creosote are found in concentrations near their limits of water solubility. In addition, hydrogen sulfide, methane, ammonia, iron, nitrogen, and 

dissolved organic carbon all show marked 

increases in concentration in the aqueous 

phase downgradient from the impoundments. In contrast, the uncontaminated 

ground water has a pH of about 6.0, concentrations of dissolved solids generally 

less than 150 mg/L, and dissolved oxygen 

concentrations greater than zero. Uncontaminated water is free of organic contaminants, hydrogen sulfide, methane, and 

ammonia and contains low concentrations 

of iron, nitrogen, and dissolved organic 

carbon.

Contamination exists in two of the 

three permeable zones present in the upper 

300 feet of sediments. A plume in the 

water-table zone is 15 to 30 feet below land 

surface and above a shallow clay lens, and a

Figure 3. Part of the EPA Emergency Response Team, shown 

flocculating the pond 

sediments after draining the 

impoundments before capping 

the ponds in 1983. (Photograph 

by Bernard J. Franks, U.S. Geological Survey.)

Water Resources Investigations 81
Figure 4. Clay cap overlying the 

dewatered impoundments. 

Since the photograph was 

taken, the cap has been sodded 

and revegetated. (Photograph 

by Bernard J. Franks, U.S. Geological Survey.)

Figure 5. Vertical extent of 

ground-water contamination, as 

measured by total phenol, in 

milligrams per liter, at the Pensacola site.

deeper plume is 50 to 100 feet below land 

surface and below the clay lens (fig. 5). The 

contamination extends about 1,200 feet 

downgradient from the impoundments and 

includes the water-soluble components of 

creosote, as well as inorganic compounds 

and gases resulting from degradation of the 

organic compounds within the aquifer. The 

waste plumes are much less extensive, 

both areally and vertically, than expected 

from calculations based on measured 

ground-water gradients. For the plume in 

the water-table zone in particular, this 

attenuation is partly a result of ground 

water discharging into a drainage ditch 

that in turn discharges directly into Pensacola Bay.

Ongoing research at the site includes 

evaluation of the hydrogeology and groundwater flow system, definition of the extent 

of organic compounds found in the aquifer, 

investigations of microbial and inorganic 

processes active in the subsurface, and a

>20f

0 500 1000 FEET 

I_____\_____l

1-20-<v1 .01-1

study of the effects of contaminants on the 

ecology of Pensacola Bay. These studies 

and concurrent Superfund-related activities at the site are being used to document 

the extent of contamination and to support 

discussion of feasible restoration activities 

at the site. Results to date include the 

following:

 The hydrogeology of the underlying 

aquifer can be represented by three horizontal layers corresponding to permeable 

zones within the sand and gravel aquifer: a 

water-table zone, a shallow confined zone, 

and a deeper confined zone. Contamination 

is limited to the upper two zones because of 

a combination of the distribution of the clay 

layers and the upward hydraulic gradient 

that prevails near the coast south of the 

impoundments. The simulated movement 

of ground water is relatively rapid (as much 

as 3 feet per day) through the surficial 

sands.

 The aquifer is highly contaminated by 

organic compounds, including organic 

nitrogen compounds such as quinoline (as 

much as 90 mg/L), double-ring aromatic 

compounds such as naphthalene (as much 

as 15 mg/L), and phenolic compounds such 

as 3,5-dimethylphenol (as much as 13 

mg/L). The organic nitrogen compounds 

undergo extremely rapid attenuation to 

virtually nondetectable levels (less than 

0.01 mg/L) within 400 feet of the source. 

Most of the other compounds persist to

82 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
about 1,200 feet downgradient before being 

eliminated from the aqueous phase.

 Microbial degradation processes, both 

aerobic and anaerobic, are probably the 

most significant mechanisms in contaminant attenuation. Sequential degradation 

of phenolic compounds has been documented, and continuing research is describing anaerobic degradation of the substituted aromatic compounds. Most of the 

compounds composing the water-soluble 

fraction of creosote appear to be degradable, through intermediate organic compounds, into methane and carbon dioxide.

 Dissolved gases (methane and carbon 

dioxide) and inorganic constituents (hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, and iron) are indicative of some of the byproducts resulting 

from breakdown of selected organic contaminants. In contaminated parts of the 

water-table zone, water is anaerobic within 

a few feet of the water table. Unusually 

high values of stable isotope ratios of carbon and sulfur are byproducts of microbial 

degradation. For instance, the lighter 

carbon-12 isotope preferentially forms 

methane (a gas), whereas the heavier 

carbon-13 enriches the inorganic carbon 

(aqueous) phase. The 13C/12C ratio is greatest beneath the impoundments and 

decreases with distance away from the 

source of contamination. The presence of 

an iron-rich clay in the contaminated aquifer possibly is a result of interactions 

between the clay and organic contaminants.

 Sorption does not appear to be a significant process in most of the aquifer, which 

is composed of clean quartz sands. Interactions, including sorption, between minerals 

in the clay lenses and organic contaminants 

may be quite important in the attenuation 

of selected compounds.

 Organic compounds have been found in 

sediments beneath Pensacola Bay. Benthic 

organisms and sediments from near the site 

have been collected and analyzed for bioaccumulation of organic compounds indicative 

of creosote contamination. Some evidence 

of bioaccumulation has been found, although at very low concentrations.

Conclusions

Interrelated physical, chemical, and 

microbial processes must all be evaluated 

when attempting to understand and predict

the effects of contamination on the subsurface environment. Because some combination of these processes will occur in all 

aquifers, there may be significant transfer 

value from this investigation to other sites 

of ground-water contamination. Data on 

wastewater migration from surface impoundments into the subsurface clearly 

indicate that surficial aquifers are highly 

susceptible to contamination from a variety 

of sources. The wide variety of potential 

contaminants, combined with the locally 

complex subsurface geohydrologic environment, however, results in uniquely 

contaminated systems that are difficult to 

document. After contaminants leak into a 

surficial aquifer (a relatively rapid 

process), the generally slow rates of attenuation, chemical reactions, and physical 

mixing, combined with the large volumes of 

contaminants in the subsurface, indicate 

that, after the source of contamination is 

removed, hundreds of years would pass 

before the water in the aquifer would be 

restored, by natural processes, to its precontamination quality. Both the investigation of the extent of organic contaminants 

in a contaminated ground-water system 

and the cleanup and restoration of that 

aquifer are complex and time-consuming 

tasks.

Fate and Transport of 

Organic Compounds 

in the Lower Calcasieu 

River, Louisiana

By Charles R. Demas

The presence and effects of hazardous 

organic compounds in the aquatic environment have been documented nationwide in 

recent years. These compounds are released to the environment from a variety 

of sources such as industry, agriculture, 

urban runoff, oil and gas exploration activities, and atmospheric fallout. The lower 

Calcasieu River in southwestern Louisiana 

(fig. 6) is a prime example of an aquatic 

system that has been affected by hazardous 

organic compounds.

Water Resources Investigations 83
The lower Calcasieu River is a tidally 

affected stream that lies within Louisiana's 

Coastal Plain. The upper reach of the Calcasieu River is characterized by hardwood 

forests, cypress, and related vegetation. 

Rice and soybeans are the principal crops 

grown in the upper and middle basin, 

including the upper part of the study area. 

Long-term water-quality data (1968 to 

present) collected at the National Stream 

Quality Assessment Network (NASQAN) 

site at Kinder (fig. 6) indicate that the 

upper reach of the Calcasieu River is a 

dilute, colored-water stream. Specific conductance ranges from 13 to 187 microsiemens per centimeter ((juS/cm) at 25°C. Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) concentrations are 5 to 6 milligrams per liter (mg/L).

Streamflow at the Kinder site ranges from 

less than 200 to 182,000 cubic feet per 

second (ft3/s) and averages 2,500 ft3/s, 

October 1938 to present. Runoff of agricultural chemicals into this reach of the river 

appears to be minor; however, some chlordane, diazinon, and aldrin have been 

detected in river water collected at the 

Kinder site.

The lower reaches of the Calcasieu 

River basin are bordered by swamp and 

marshland and can be subdivided into two 

sections. The first section is bordered 

upstream by a saltwater barrier and downstream by the Intracoastal Waterway. The 

Lake Charles urban and industrial complex 

dominates land use in this section of the 

study area. Approximately 32 industrial

93°30' 93°15' 93°00: , 92°45'

Figure 6. Study area and waterquality sampling sites of the 

lower Calcasieu River, 

Louisiana.

30°30' -

30°15 : -

30°00' -

29°45'

10 15 MILES

10 15 KILOMETERS

84 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
plants are located in this 14-mile section of 

the river. The specific conductance of river 

water in this section ranges from 200 to 

33,000 nS/cm. The DOC ranges from 3 to 4 

mg/L in the middle reach of the river. 

Petrochemical and agrichemical plants use 

the lower Calcasieu River in this section for 

water supply, navigation, and disposal of 

wastes. Byproducts such as oil and grease, 

phenols, and metals are discharged into the 

river by chemical industries in the Lake 

Charles area. The second section is bordered upstream by the Intracoastal Waterway and downstream by the Gulf of Mexico. Commercial and sport fishing and oil

and gas drilling support facilities are major 

industries in this reach of the river.

Previous studies have attributed the 

occurrence of hazardous organic compounds in the water, bottom material, and 

aquatic organisms of the lower Calcasieu 

River to industrial activity in the basin. 

However, none of the studies determined 

the processes that control the fate and 

transport of these organic compounds in 

relation to the physical characteristics of 

this river. The U.S. Geological Survey 

began a study in 1985 of the lower Calcasieu River, therefore, to determine the 

processes that control the fate and transport of organic compounds in the industrial

Sediment Transport of Pollutants in the 

Mississippi River

A multidisciplinary project to investigate 

the movement, mixing, and storage of 

sediment-related pollutants in the Mississippi 

River was begun in 1987. This project is 

focused on the 1,243 miles of the river 

between St. Louis, Missouri, and New 

Orleans, Louisiana, and will require at least 3 

years (1988-90) of intensive field sampling.

In addition to providing a comprehensive 

assessment of the water quality of the Mississippi River, the project will improve understanding of the ways in which rivers process 

sediments and the pollutants associated with 

sediments. Among the specific research issues 

to be addressed are the partitioning of pollutants between particulate, adsorbed, and dissolved phases; the mixing of different types of 

pollutants and mineral suites that are contributed by the major tributaries; and the storage 

and remobilization of sediments and their 

associated pollutants at seasonal and longer 

time scales.

Samples will be collected during repeated 

cruises that will begin at a section of the river 

above St. Louis and will cover a 1,119-mile 

reach of the Mississippi and its major tributaries, including the Ohio. Laboratory analyses 

will be conducted on a wide range of organic 

and inorganic constituents (natural and pollutants) of the suspended sediment as well as the 

river water. By repeating measurements and 

samplings every 4 months or so, data will be 

obtained on the downriver routing and mixing 

of water, sediment, and pollutants and on how 

water-quality conditions of the Mississippi 

River vary seasonally.

The Mississippi River drains about 40 percent of the conterminous United States and 

discharges an average of 650,000 cubic feet per 

second (420,000 billion gallons per day) into 

the Gulf of Mexico. Nearly half of the water in

the system comes from the Ohio River drainage (and half of the Ohio contribution is 

provided by the combined discharges of the 

Tennessee, Cumberland, and Wabash Rivers). 

The Upper Mississippi and Missouri Rivers 

contribute only 10 to 15 percent each of the 

total water discharged to the Gulf. The most 

striking feature of the lowermost part of the 

Mississippi system is the diversion of part of 

the discharge out of the mainstem and down 

the Atchafalaya distributary. The proportion of 

the discharge that goes down the Atchafalaya 

is held at 30 percent of the total by the Old 

River Control Structures, completed by the 

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers in 1963 and 

1987.

The present-day discharge of suspended 

sediment to the Gulf of Mexico by the Mississippi River (including the Atchafalaya) averages about 210 million tons per year. Although 

most of the principal tributary sediment loads 

have been measured to a reasonable degree of 

accuracy, the estimate of the sediment discharge of the Ohio River represents a major 

uncertainty. No comprehensive suspendedsediment data have ever been collected from 

the Ohio mainstem.

The sediment regime in the Mississippi 

has been altered drastically during the last 200 

years, especially during the last 40 years when 

large dams were built across the major western tributaries. The greatest changes have 

been the reductions in the sediment loads of 

the Missouri, Arkansas, and Red Rivers that 

followed the construction of dams and reservoirs. The greatest apparent increase has been 

in the sediment load of the Ohio; if this 

increase is real, it may represent the accelerated erosion brought about by deforestation, 

crop farming, and coal mining in the Ohio 

basin.

Water Resources Investigations 85
Figure 7. Concentration of bromoform under moderate wind 

conditions, May 1985, and low 

wind conditions, August 1985, 

in the lower Calcasieu River.

1000

5

ccO oc 

u. uj

UJ

oz

o

o

50-

10 r

3-

EXPLANATION

Wind speed, in 

miles per hour

15.3 7.5 

(Moderate)(Low)

5678 

SAMPLING SITE

reach and in the transition zones between 

brackish water and freshwater.

Two classes of organic compounds, 

volatiles and acid-base/neutral extractables, were selected for study on the basis 

of results of reconnaissance sampling trips 

at lower Calcasieu River sites completed in 

1985 (sites sampled are listed in table 1). 

The two classes of organic compounds were 

found to move in distinctly different ways 

in the aquatic environment and were associated with different media.

Volatile organic compounds (VOC's) 

were found primarily in the river water and 

were selected for study on the basis of the 

widespread odor of organic compounds 

detected in the air during the first reconnaissance sampling trip. Detection of these 

compounds at low concentrations in water 

samples collected during this trip led the 

USGS to investigate the effects of wind 

speed, sampling techniques, and compound 

density on the presence and concentration 

of these compounds in the lower Calcasieu 

River. The presence and movement of 

VOC's in the lower Calcasieu River appear 

to be a function of wind speed and water 

density.

Analysis of river-water samples collected under different wind conditions during four sampling trips indicated that wind 

speed, and the turbulence it created, was a 

primary factor in controlling the concentrations of VOC's. For example, water samples were collected during moderate (15.3

Table 7. Location of water-quality sampling sites for 

the lower Calcasieu River, Louisiana

Sampling

site no. Location 

(See fig. 6)_______________________

1 Calcasieu River east of Moss Bluff

2 Bayou Serpent east of Moss Bluff

3 West Fork Calcasieu River westnorthwest of Goosport

4 Calcasieu River at Buoy 130 at 

Lake Charles

5 Calcasieu River at Buoy 114 at 

Lake Charles

6 Calcasieu River at Bayou d'lnde

7 Calcasieu River 3.9 miles south of 

Hollywood

8 Calcasieu River at Burton Landing

9 Calcasieu River at Devil's Elbow

10 Calcasieu Lake northeast of Hackberry

11 Calcasieu River at buoy 47 southwest of Cameron

12 Bayou d'lnde 0.25 mile upstream 

from an industrial outfall

13 Industrial outfall at Bayou d'lnde

14 Bayou d'lnde 0.25 mile downstream 

from an industrial outfall

15 Bayou d'lnde 0.50 mile downstream 

from an industrial outfall

miles per hour) and low .(7.5 miles per hour) 

wind conditions in May and August 1985 

from a reach of the lower Calcasieu River 

extending from Lake Charles to Burton 

Landing (fig. 6). Samples were collected 

throughout the water column under similar 

temperature and specific-conductance profiles in the water column. Results showed 

that only four VOC's were detected at two 

sites (sites 5 and 6) during moderate wind 

conditions, compared with six compounds 

detected at four sites (sites 5 through 8) 

during low wind conditions. Also, VOC's 

such as bromoform (fig. 7), chloroform, 

1,2-dichloroethane, and chlorodibromomethane were found in concentrations as 

much as 5 times greater during low wind 

conditions than during moderate wind conditions. Thus, sampling for volatile organics during moderate to strong wind conditions can lead to erroneous conclusions 

about the presence and potential impact of 

these compounds in the aquatic environment.

Water samples also were collected at 

different depths in the water column from 

the same reach to determine the effects of 

different densities of organic compounds 

and specific-conductance profiles on the 

distribution of VOC's in the lower Calcasieu River. This sampling was conducted to

86 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
ascertain if the density of a VOC determines where in the water column that 

compound might be concentrated. Position 

of a compound in the water column is very 

important in determining the type of sampling gear and methods needed to accurately describe the presence and concentration levels of organic compounds in the 

river. For example, VOC's such as bromoform, which has a density of 2.9, would be 

expected to be found in greater concentrations lower in the water column than 

lighter VOC's such as 1,2-dichloroethane, 

which has a density of 1.3. If this in 

fact occurred in the river, then depthintegrated samples collected throughout 

the water column or from near the surface 

would indicate an abnormally low concentration of bromoform in the river, while 

water samples collected at specific depths 

(point samples) would tell where the bromoform was concentrated in the water column and therefore would have the greatest 

environmental impact.

Accordingly, point samples were collected in May 1986 during low wind conditions (6.9 miles per hour) and April 1987 

during moderate wind conditions (17.0 

miles per hour). Results from the May 1986 

sampling (fig. 8) indicated that the different densities of organic compounds had 

little effect on the vertical distribution of 

these volatiles in the water column. Concentrations of VOC's at different depths 

were similar for the six sampling sites (fig. 

8), except for site 4. Bromoform, for example, showed vertical distribution similar to 

1,2-dichloroethane and trichloroethylene 

(density 1.5) and occurred in similar concentrations at all three depths sampled. 

This observation indicates that, under most 

conditions, samples collected throughout 

the water column and from surface water 

can accurately represent the concentration 

levels of VOC's in the Calcasieu River.

The exception to the above observation occurred at site 4. Vertical differences 

in concentrations observed at site 4 can be 

explained by the results of flow, dye, and 

specific-conductance profile studies. Flow 

studies indicate that the slow-moving 

water currents in the river preclude much 

vertical mixing in the water column owing 

to the small vertical-velocity gradients. 

Therefore, during periods of saltwater 

intrusion, the denser saltwater moves 

almost exclusively near the bottom. The 

saltwater migrates some distance upstream owing to the longitudinal salinity 

gradient between the relatively freshwater 

upstream and the denser saltwater in the 

Gulf of Mexico. Dye studies completed in 

1979 and 1987 indicate slow vertical mixing 

in the water column when differences exist 

between surface and bottom specificconductance values. These differences in 

specific-conductance profiles were most 

pronounced at site 4, where the bottom 

sample had the highest concentration of 

VOC's. This high concentration of volatiles 

occurred in a part of the water column that 

had a specific-conductance value (12,500 

|xS/cm) similar to that of downstream sites. 

In contrast, surface samples that had lower 

concentrations of VOC's occurred in relatively low specific-conductance water 

(2,500 (xS/cm) compared with downstream 

sites (sites 6, 13, and 14). This phenomenon 

also was observed in samples collected during moderate wind conditions (17.0 miles 

per hour) in April 1987. These results indicate that (1) longitudinal movement of 

VOC's occurs along the bottom when salinity gradients exist in the lower Calcasieu 

River, (2) VOC's detected in the bottom 

water sample at site 4 originated downstream, and (3) presence of the salinity 

gradient at site 4 inhibited movement of 

VOC's from the bottom of the water column to the top of the water column. Data 

from dye and volatile-organic studies also 

indicate that salinity gradients inhibit vertical movement of VOC's in the water column. Presence of VOC's at site 4 and their 

movement upstream with the salt wedge 

could not have been determined without 

point samples. Thus, sampling for VOC's in 

areas where salinity gradients exist, especially freshwater-saltwater, should include 

some point samples to determine an accurate picture of the vertical distribution of 

these compounds in the water column.

Acid-base/neutral extractable organic 

compounds also were studied in the lower 

Calcasieu River. One group of compounds 

detected in water, bottom material, and 

biotic samples was the halogenated organic 

compounds (HOC's), which include the haloarenes, a class of chlorinated aromatic compounds that are hydrophobic (nearly insoluble in freshwater) and toxic to aquatic 

organisms. These compounds attach 

strongly to sedimentary organic material 

and accumulate in fatty tissues of aquatic 

organisms. Haloarenes are even less soluble in saltwater and precipitate out as

Water Resources Investigations 87
Figure 8. Vertical distribution of 

four volatile organic compounds of different densities 

collected in May 1986, lower 

Calcasieu River.

100

10:

5'-

1

05-

01

10,000

DENSITY OF 1.46

200 -

cc 

Otr

HO 

<QC 

OCCJ

"

3 -

13 14

CC O cc

LL. LU Ob s-1

Oo=

CC LU m a.

U. (/)

Z<

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52

zl

LU

uzz 

O

1000i

1001

50-

DENSITY OF 2.90

1

100

DENSITY OF 1.50

13 14

50-

§b 10

5 tt

CM (/)

U- DC

Oo

Ou

0.1

DENSITY OF 1.30

13 14 6 7 

SAMPLING SITE

f 

13 14 6 7

SAMPLING SITE

EXPLANATION

DEPTH

Surface

 Mid-depth

 Near Bottom

salinity increases in the water in the lower 

Calcasieu River (a phenomenon termed 

"salting out").

Other organic compounds, such as naturally occurring humic and fulvic compounds, show similar "salting out" tendencies. This is shown in the decrease in DOC 

from the freshwater reach of the river, 

where DOC values ranged from 5 to 6

mg/L, to the brackish and saltwater 

reaches of the river, where DOC values 

decreased to 3 to 4 mg/L. This decrease in 

DOC occurred in the fraction that has an 

affinity for suspended sediment, while the 

fraction that has an affinity for water 

remained constant. In the process of 

"salting out," the sediment-loving fraction 

of the DOC may also facilitate the removal

88 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
of HOC's from the water column to bottom 

material by providing additional organic 

material for the HOC to attach to in the 

bottom material. Therefore, owing to the 

decrease in solubility of HOC's in saltwater 

and the presence of natural organic carbon, 

bottom material in the lower Calcasieu 

River serves as a major trap for these 

compounds.

The "salting-out" effect in the lower 

Calcasieu River also moderately enhances 

the concentration of the organic compounds 

into biota and bottom material. Concentrations of HOC's in biota and water were well 

below their equilibrium values relative to 

concentrations in bottom material. This 

lack of equilibrium between HOC concentrations in bottom material and the water 

column suggests a limited amount of 

exchange that may result from the slow 

diffusion of the sorbed contaminants from 

bottom sediments. In contrast, HOC concentrations in water, biota, and suspended 

sediments were much closer to equilibrium 

values. Concentration factors of HOC's in 

four fish and shellfish species (Atlantic 

croakers, spotted sea trout, blue catfish, 

and blue crabs) indicated that these compounds passively entered the tissues of the 

fish and shellfish, owing to diffusion of the 

compounds throughout their habitat. More 

information is needed, however, to determine if the compounds enter the tissues by

other routes, such as actively through the 

digestive tract of the species.

The molecular configuration of haloarenes and hexachlorobutadiene also provides an explanation for the longitudinal 

differences in concentrations of compounds 

observed in bottom material collected from 

the lower Calcasieu River. The higher 

weight molecular compounds, such as 

hexachlorobenzene, are more insoluble in 

water, and readily adhere to particulate 

matter compared with the more soluble 

lighter weight molecular compounds such 

as 1,3-dichlorobenzene. Therefore, the 

more chlorinated compounds (hexachlorobutadiene and hexachlorobenzene) accumulate in bottom material closer to the source 

than the less chlorinated compounds (dichlorobenzenes and trichlorobenzenes) do. 

In both cases, however, solubilities are low 

and transport is localized, so distribution of 

these compounds in the lower Calcasieu 

River bottom material is not widespread.

Current (1987) work with organic compounds includes studies of possible mechanisms for remobilization of these compounds into the water column from bottom 

material under different environmental 

conditions and of the long-term uptake of 

organic contaminants by aquatic organisms 

to determine the extent of passive uptake 

in these organisms. Results from the lower 

Calcasieu River project will provide State 

and Federal environmental agencies with

Appmaching storm in the Gulf 

of Mexico. (February 1987 photograph courtesy H. William 

Hadfield.)

Water Resources Investigations 89
the information necessary to assess permit applications and formulate restoration schemes for this complex aquatic 

environment.

Arsenic Contamination 

of the Cheyenne River 

System, Western 

South Dakota

By Kimball E. Goddard

The 1960's brought an awareness of 

the serious environmental hazards and economic damage that could result if our 

Nation's rivers and streams continued to be 

used for disposal of waste. Resulting legislation, such as the Federal Water Pollution 

Control Act Amendments of 1972 (P.L. 

92-500), the Toxic Substances Control Act 

of 1976 (P.L. 94^69), and the National 

Pollutant Discharge Elimination System 

(NPDES) Permit Program, provided the 

impetus for a nationwide cleanup. As a 

result, the quality of the Nation's rivers 

and streams has improved substantially in 

several respects, reflected by increased 

dissolved-oxygen concentrations and decreased bacterial contamination. These 

improvements are largely attributable to 

measures for controlling point-source discharges and the construction or improvement of wastewater-treatment facilities. 

Numerous other water-quality issues remain, however, and the focus of concern is 

now shifting from sewage disposal to the 

control of potentially more hazardous 

wastes such as toxic metals and synthetic 

organic compounds.

Recent studies of the geochemical 

behavior of toxic metals and synthetic 

organic compounds in river and stream 

systems have demonstrated that these constituents are commonly associated with 

river or stream sediments. The extremely 

low solubilities of some metals, such as 

mercury and lead, in stream water and the 

affinity of many synthetic organic compounds to adhere to or adsorb to sediments 

generally result in undetectable dissolved 

concentrations of these constituents in surface water. At the same time, the geochemical behavior of these constituents may 

cause large enough concentrations to accumulate in bottom sediments that the constituents can be absorbed and (or) ingested 

by aquatic plants, benthic organisms, or 

bottom-feeding fish. Although toxic constituents concentrated and buried in bottom sediments may be isolated from the 

environment for long periods, they can be 

resuspended into the water column and 

transported during floods. The adsorption 

of hazardous constituents onto channelbottom sediments exacerbates the difficulty of understanding the processes responsible for the movement and fate of 

these constituents in river systems.

In 1985, the USGS began to investigate how hazardous substances associated 

with river sediments react in surface-water 

systems. The Cheyenne River System in 

western South Dakota was one area 

selected for detailed study (fig. 9). Whitewood Creek and downstream reaches of the 

Belle Fourche and Cheyenne Rivers have 

been extensively contaminated by mine 

tailings and mill wastes from gold mining 

operations located in the northern Black 

Hills of South Dakota.

Gold was discovered in the Black Hills 

in 1874 and, by 1876, full-scale hardrock 

mining was underway. Although mining 

and milling technology have changed over 

the last 100 years, the basic approach 

remains the same: ore is pulverized to fine 

sand- and silt-size particles and then 

treated with elemental mercury or sodium 

cyanide solutions to remove the gold. The 

remaining tailings slurry, along with 

wastewater from the mills and water 

pumped from mines, is discharged to a 

stream. The practice of discharging mine 

and mill wastes to Whitewood Creek or its 

tributaries in the Lead and Deadwood area 

continued until 1977, when a tailings dam 

was completed. No tailings solids have 

been discharged to the streams since that 

time.

About 100 million tons of mill tailings 

are estimated to have been discharged to 

Whitewood Creek. The mill tailings were 

transported by natural surface-water flow 

down Whitewood Creek to the Belle 

Fourche River, to the Cheyenne River, and 

finally to the Missouri River. Alluvium in 

the channel and along the floodplains of 

Whitewood Creek and the downstream 

reaches of the Belle Fourche and Cheyenne

90 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
Figure 9. Map showing the river 

system under investigation. The 

study area includes river 

reaches upstream from tailingscontaminated reaches in order 

to define background concentrations. The tailings were discharged at Lead.

Rivers is contaminated by the mill tailings. 

Some alluvium is nearly 100 percent mill 

tailings. Although the tailings are composed largely of silicate minerals, they also 

contain the metallic sulfide minerals pyrite, 

pyrrhotite, and arsenopyrite. The primary 

contaminant of interest is arsenic, derived 

from arsenopyrite, a matrix mineral common in the gold-bearing ore. Owing to the 

substantial concentrations of arsenopyrite 

present in the mill tailings, alluvium in the 

channels and along the floodplains of Whitewood Creek and the downstream reaches of 

the Belle Fourche and Cheyenne Rivers 

contains large concentrations of arsenic, as 

much as 11,000 micrograms per gram 

(fjug/g). This contrasts with arsenic concentrations measured in uncontaminated sediments in the Cheyenne River basin that 

average about 10 |xg/g. Arsenic concentrations measured in sediment samples randomly collected from the floodplain of the 

downstream reach of the Belle Fourche 

River are shown in figure 10, and the 

marked contrast between the uncontaminated (above Whitewood Creek) and contaminated reaches is apparent.

The large variation in arsenic concentrations within the contaminated reach of 

the Belle Fourche River floodplain demonstrates the difficulty of studying the distribution of contaminants associated with 

alluvium. That the collection of a few samples provides little information on how the 

contaminant (in this case arsenic) is distributed in the system is clear. These variations are a cumulative result of physical 

dispersion of the mill tailings and their 

uneven intermixing with uncontaminated 

alluvium, geochemical transformations 

between various solid and aqueous phases 

of arsenic, bias caused by variations in 

grain-size distributions in individual samples, and analytical imprecision resulting 

from differences in mineral composition of 

individual samples.

Physical dispersion of the mill tailings 

is considered to be the primary cause of 

contaminant variation. During downstream 

transport, the mill tailings are intermixed 

with natural alluvium to varying degrees 

depending on flow regime and the tributary 

contribution of uncontaminated sediments. 

Deposits of intermixed mill tailings and 

natural sediments formed during periods of 

low discharge, when the concentration of 

naturally occurring suspended sediment is 

minimal, consist almost entirely of tailings. 

Conversely, deposits formed during flood 

flow, when huge quantities of natural suspended sediment are available for intermixing, contain only a small amount of 

tailings.

Geochemical transformations, between 

various solid forms of arsenic and between 

its solid and aqueous forms, create additional pathways for the transport of 

arsenic. Although the entire arsenic mass 

originally was present in the mineral 

arsenopyrite, onsite observations and

Water Resources Investigations 91
10V

Figure 10. Arsenic concentrations measured in alluvium collected from the floodplain of 

the Belle Fourche River. The 

sampling locations were 

setected following a stratified 

random sampling design. The 

expected background concentration shown was evaluated by 

using a data set that included 

samples from the background 

reach of Whitewood Creek.

O)

gicc

z 

o 

o

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z

LU 

C/5

cc

< 10

BELLE FOURCHE RIVER

WHITEWOOD . CREEK

« j

5«-I :i:M ! - ; :' ;:is ,

: . : :

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: :' -?' 

 

 

: V

Background

100 80

i 60 40' 

FLOODPLAIN MILES ABOVE MOUTH

20

mineralogic data indicate that a substantial 

proportion of the existing arsenic coprecipitated with or adsorbed onto iron oxide 

and other metallic oxides. The transformation from a reduced form (arsenopyrite) to 

an oxidized form (sorbed onto ferric 

hydroxide) determines the stability of 

arsenic in the environment.

Arsenopyrite is relatively unstable in 

an oxidizing environment, such as in active 

stream sediments or in shallow floodplain 

soils or sediments. In these environments, 

arsenopyrite will oxidize and form ferric 

hydroxide and arsenic ions. Arsenic ions 

produced by the oxidation of arsenopyrite 

will always be precipitated out or be sorbed 

by the ferric hydroxide and will not be 

available for solute transport. If deeply 

buried in floodplain deposits, however, 

arsenopyrite can remain unaltered for long 

periods.

Ferric hydroxide is quite stable in an 

oxidizing environment. If ferric hydroxide 

is buried in a reducing environment such as 

a thick, organic-rich floodplain deposit, 

however, it will dissolve and release sorbed 

arsenic into the ground water. Reducing 

conditions commonly exist in large deposits 

of contaminated sediment, suggesting that 

the reduction of ferric hydroxides, rather 

than the oxidation of arsenopyrite, causes 

the large dissolved-arsenic concentrations 

present in water in some alluvium.

Dissolution of ferric hydroxides in alluvium forms a pathway for arsenic migration. Instead of being adsorbed on solids,

the released arsenic moves with the ground 

water and eventually discharges to rivers 

and streams. The dissolved arsenic released to the rivers and streams is again 

adsorbed, this time onto sediments present 

in the active channel. The release of arsenic 

from floodplain deposits, arsenic transport 

through the ground-water system, and 

arsenic discharge to rivers and streams are 

currently (1987) under intensive investigation (fig. 11).

The occurrence and magnitude of 

arsenic contamination in Whitewood Creek 

and the Belle Fourche and Cheyenne Rivers are now controlled by natural processes 

acting on the tailings-contaminated sediments. The contamination of alluvium 

affects the surface-water system by direct 

introduction of arsenic-rich sediments from 

bank collapse, from overland runoff, or 

from channel scouring. Transformations 

between solid and aqueous forms in the 

alluvial aquifer also contribute arsenic to 

rivers and streams and to active channel 

sediments. Although the contamination 

was caused originally by the direct discharge of mill tailings to Whitewood Creek 

and its tributaries, which ceased 10 years 

ago, continued contamination of the rivers 

and streams cannot be completely mitigated. Unlike many surface-water contamination problems of the past that have been 

mitigated or eliminated by controlling contaminant discharge and construction of new 

treatment facilities, widespread contamination of river and stream sediments by

92 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
toxic metals or nondegradable synthetic 

organic compounds is a long-term hazard. 

In this case, arsenic will continue to be a 

contaminant in the Cheyenne River basin 

for many years.

Great Lakes Water-Use 

Data Base Planning 

for the 21st Century

By Deborah S. Snavely

The Great Lakes form the largest volume of unfrozen freshwater in the world 

(5,000 cubic miles of water) and supply 

drinking water for 26 million people in the 

United States and Canada. This international resource is important to the economy 

and the quality of life of millions of people. 

One-seventh of the total population of the 

United States and about one-third of the 

total population of Canada reside within 

the Great Lakes basin, and its people and

industries produce one-sixth of the United 

States' national income and nearly half of 

the Canadian national income. The Great 

Lakes have been the subject of numerous 

studies, many of which have led to the 

passage of local and Federal laws regulating lake-shore development and the storage and discharge of toxic materials.

As the 21st century approaches, 

efforts to protect the water quality of the 

Great Lakes have been extended to include 

the issue of water quantity, to ensure an 

adequate supply of freshwater. One solution to local shortages is the interbasin 

diversion of water from the point of plenty 

to the point of need, but whether a largescale diversion of Great Lakes waters for 

use in other regions could be adequately 

regulated through individual State laws, 

interstate compacts, or international treaties is uncertain.

This realization prompted the eight 

States and two Canadian Provinces of the 

Great Lakes-St. Lawrence River basin to 

officially declare the Great Lakes an essential international resource and, by signing 

the Great Lakes Charter in February 1985, 

to implement a method of protecting the

Figure 11. U.S. Geological Survey hydrolog/sts collecting water and alluvium samples from a 

large deposit of tailings along 

Whitewood Creek. Alluvial 

ground water containing large 

concentrations of arsenic and 

iron is discharging to Whitewood Creek at the base of the 

deposit. (Photograph by Kimball 

E. Coddard, U.S. Geological 

Survey.)

Water Resources Investigations 93
quantity of water. This good-faith agreement calls for equitable decisions between 

individual States and Provinces to preserve 

the region's ecological integrity, formulates 

procedures to determine water-data needs, 

and establishes communication and cooperative programs among jurisdictions.

The Great Lakes Charter mandates 

collection of water-use data as a prerequisite to dialogue among authorities on the 

advisability of proposed water-use projects 

discussed in the context of regional interests. These data are to be stored in the 

Great Lakes Regional Water-Use Data 

Base, which was designed by the U.S. 

Geological Survey as part of a project outlined by the Great Lakes Charter and supported by the Council of Great Lakes Governors.

The signing of the Great Lakes Charter authorized formation of the Water 

Resources Management Committee, which 

is composed of representatives appointed 

by the governors and premiers of each 

Great Lakes State and Province. The Committee was charged with the responsibility 

of identifying specific common water-data 

needs; developing and designing a system 

for the collection and exchange of comparable water-resources-management data; recommending institutional arrangements to 

facilitate the exchange and maintenance of

such information; and developing procedures to implement the prior-notice and 

consultation process established in this 

Charter.

Economic Importance and Water 

Use

The drainage area of the Great 

Lakes-St. Lawrence River basin at the 

streamflow-gaging station on the St. Lawrence River at Cornwall, Ontario (fig. 12), 

is 299,000 square miles. The drainage area 

of the St. Lawrence River upstream from 

Trois-Rivieres, Quebec, including 1 the 

Ottawa River, is 100,000 square miles. In 

the United States, the Great Lakes basin 

includes most of Michigan and parts of 

Minnesota, Wisconsin, Illinois, Indiana, 

Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York. The 

Canadian part of the Great Lakes basin is 

entirely within the Province of Ontario. 

The St. Lawrence drainage includes the 

Province of Quebec.

Historically, the economy of the Great 

Lakes basin has been largely industrial. 

One-fifth of the United States' manufacturing is based along Great Lakes shores, 

including 70 percent of the Nation's steel 

production, more than 50 percent of its 

automobile and machine-parts manufacturFigure 12. Major geographic features of the Great Lakes-St. 

Lawrence River basin.

St. Paul*' WISCONSIN

TORONTO ^^--^..AC 1 

 X^ONTARIOJ ^

'S

) \ 

( Milwaukee

40V

/ /

.____...___200 MILES V inr-^-*'

0 100 200 300 KILOMETERS 1 / '

. \s-^

DRAINAGE ^""""^'BASIN BOUNDARY

Base from U.S. Geological Survey, The National Atlas, 1:7,500,000,1970.

94 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
PUBLIC WATER SUPPLY 

5,105 Mgal/d

9.8%

THERMOELECTRIC POWER

35,850 Mgal/d

68.7%

THERMOELECTRIC POWER 

8,820 Mgal/d

59.5%

Figures may not add to totals because of independent rounding

ing, and more than 25 percent of its chemical production. Almost 50 percent of the 

Canadian manufacturing is on the Great 

Lakes shoreline.

Power generation represents the largest demand on water resources within the 

Great Lakes basin. In 1983, 23.7 billion 

kilowatt-hours of hydroelectric power were 

generated in the United States and another 

20 billion in Ontario by water flowing 

through the lakes.

The Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Seaway is the world's largest and one of its 

most important waterways. It is navigable 

for 2,400 miles, from the Atlantic Ocean to 

the head of Lake Superior, and is being 

continually developed and maintained by 

both the United States and Canada.

The withdrawals of water in the 

United States and Ontario, by major 

water-use category (fig. 13), are presented 

only for general comparison. Water that is 

withdrawn can either be consumed or 

returned to the hydrologic system. Most of 

the water withdrawn to cool thermoelectric 

powerplants is returned, for example, 

whereas only a small percentage of that 

withdrawn for irrigation is returned (fig. 

14).

"Consumptive use" means rendering 

water unavailable through evaporation, 

transpiration, incorporation into products, 

or removal from the water environment by 

other means. In the U.S. part of the Great 

Lakes basin (fig. 15), industrial water use, 

irrigation, and public supply each represent approximately equal amounts of consumptive use and together account for 

more than 80 percent of the total used.

Great Lakes Project

The Council of Great Lakes Governors 

in 1985 formally entered into a cooperative 

agreement with the U.S. Geological Survey to conduct the Great Lakes Project, 

the objectives of which are to:

 Analyze and describe the water-use 

data-collection activities in each State and 

Province in the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence 

River basin and describe the types of data 

collected and the methods of data collection, transfer, storage, and reporting;

 Design the Great Lakes Regional 

Water-Use Data Base by specifying the 

categories and determining the methods by 

which each State and Province could best 

transmit data to the data base;

 Identify gaps in each State's and Province's data programs and document inconsistencies; and

 Suggest methods of collecting missing 

data, including institutional arrangements.

Design and Operation

The USGS Great Lakes project chief, 

based in Albany, New York, enlisted the 

support of USGS water-use specialists in 

the other Great Lakes States to document 

the programs in their State and to act as 

liaisons between the Great Lakes project 

chief and the agencies that collect waterFigure 13. Total water withdrawals from the Great Lakes basin, 

1980, by category: A, Entire basin; B, Province of Ontario. 

(Data from U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1001, 1983, and Ontario Ministry of Natural 

Resources, 1984.)

Water Resources Investigations 95
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The project chief also held interviews 

in each State and Province to verify that all 

appropriate agencies and ministries had 

been identified and that the data-collection 

programs were accurately described. A 

second questionnaire was circulated to 

obtain a description of how the data are 

entered in the agencies' computerized-data 

files.

Results

From the questionnaires, the USGS 

researchers learned that the data-collection 

programs in the participating States and 

Provinces differ widely in definitions of 

categories of water use and in methods of 

estimating data. The most complete datacollection records are in the category of 

public water supply; the least complete are 

for hydroelectric power generation and 

mining. Most agencies can provide estimates of withdrawals in the categories of 

domestic self-supplied and agricultural, 

and a few have data-collection programs 

that document consumptive use. Estimates 

range from county or drainage basin at 

5-year intervals to site-specific data collection yielding daily values.

Gaps and inconsistencies in datacollection programs were identified by 

water-use category for each State and 

Province, and methods of rectifying them 

were suggested. Institutional arrangements were suggested as a method for 

various data-collection activities to complement one another.

The Great Lakes Charter mandates, 

as a goal, that each State and Province be 

able to supply the information required by 

the Great Lakes Regional Water-Use Data 

Base. Much remains to be done in meeting 

this goal; as of 1987, no State or Province 

could provide complete records in all 

water-use categories.

Great Lakes Regional Water-Use 

Data Base

The Great Lakes Charter states, in 

regard to the "common base of data," that 

"In order to provide accurate information 

as a basis for future water resources planning and management, each State and 

Province will establish and maintain a system for the collection of data on major 

water uses, diversions, and consumptive 

uses in the Basin."

Structure and Operation

The Great Lakes Regional Water-Use 

Data Base is designed to store withdrawal, 

diversion, and consumptive-use data for 

the following categories: public supply, 

hydroelectric power generation, domestic 

self-supplied, industrial self-supplied, irrigation, agricultural, thermoelectric powerplant cooling, commercial self-supplied, 

and mining. Data are to be updated annually and stored as an average daily amount 

for each category for the year, in million 

gallons per day. Other data to be submitted 

are type of withdrawal, level of data accuracy, drainage basin, level of data aggregation, annual amount of withdrawal, number 

of facilities withdrawing 100,000 gallons 

per day or more, amount diverted from 

Great Lakes basin, total amount withdrawn by such facilities, and amount of 

diversion into Great Lakes basin.

The purpose of the data base is to 

provide the water-use information necessary to make sound management decisions. 

The Charter requires that each State or 

Province develop the ability to provide 

accurate information on water withdrawals 

that average more than 100,000 gallons per 

day in any 30-day period. Initially, the data 

base will accept a wide variety of water-use 

data supplied by the participating States 

and Provinces.

Selection of Repository

More than 30 agencies and ministries 

were polled by letter to determine interest 

in writing, storing, and maintaining the 

regional data base. After review of the 11 

proposals received, the Water Resources 

Management Committee recommended to 

the governors and premiers of the Great 

Lakes region that the Great Lakes Commission in Ann Arbor, Michigan, be 

selected.

States and Provinces that do not have 

all of the required data are initiating programs or legislation to acquire such data. 

The ability to submit data at the 100,000 

gallon-per-day trigger level is also one of 

two requirements for participation in the 

"Prior Notice and Consultation" process, 

described below.

Water Resources Investigations 97
Prior Notice and Consultation System

The Prior Notice and Consultation 

procedure (proposed by the Great Lakes 

Charter) would provide each State and 

Province in the basin an opportunity to 

review, discuss, and support or oppose any 

major new or increased diversion or consumptive use of the water resources of the 

Great Lakes basin. The Prior Notice and 

Consultation rule would apply to any new 

or increased diversion or consumptive use 

of the Great Lakes basin water resources 

that exceeds 5 million gallons per day in 

any 30-day period. To participate in the 

process, the State or Province must have 

authority to manage (permit, regulate, or 

allocate) water withdrawals involving a 

total diversion or consumptive use of Great 

Lakes basin water in excess of 2 million 

gallons per day in any 30-day period. This is 

in addition to the ability to provide accurate and comparable information on water 

withdrawals that average more than 

100,000 gallons per day in any 30-day 

period. Since the Charter was signed, New 

York State, for example, has written legislation to meet these criteria.

Applications

The regional water-use data base is 

designed to provide accurate and timely 

data on withdrawals, diversions, and consumptive uses in the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence River basin. It may also be used to 

predict the effects on lake levels of proposed withdrawals, diversions, and consumptive use. Hydrologic models currently 

operated by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Environment Canada, the Great 

Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory, and the University of Wisconsin, for 

example, could incorporate data from the 

regional data base for use in other predictive studies. If the participants choose to 

develop the regional data base into a sitespecific program, more options will be 

available for using the data base as a waterresources management tool.

Conclusions

The Great Lakes Charter is a significant document that proclaims the joint 

desire of the United States and Canada to 

preserve, conserve, and manage the water

resources of the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence River basin. This good-faith agreement calls for use of the rights and responsibilities of individual States and Provinces 

for the good of the whole region.

The proposed Prior Notice and Consultation procedure would permit group 

review of major withdrawals and diversions in relation to competing interests, 

future plans, and environmental considerations. An integral part of this procedure, 

and also a prerequisite to participation, is 

the collection and transmittal of water-use 

data to the Great Lakes Regional WaterUse Data Base. The data base is intended 

to gradually become a reliable source of 

current water-use data available for waterresources planning, management, and forecasting.

Effects of Acid Rain on 

Limestone and Marble 

Building Materials at 

Research Sites in the 

Eastern United States

By Michael M. Reddy and 

Milan Pavich

Background

The various manmade and naturally 

occurring materials that are used in construction are subjected to changing natural 

factors that include temperature, wind, 

humidity, rain, dew, snow, and solar radiation, all of which may contribute to the 

gradual deterioration of these construction 

materials. At many locations, these materials are also subjected to varying quantities of pollutants, including oxidants (such 

as ozone), acid precursor gases (such as 

oxides of sulfur and nitrogen), particulate 

matter, and acid rain. Depending on their 

concentration, some of these pollutants 

may significantly increase the rate of deterioration of certain materials. Damage to 

limestone and marble building materials by 

air pollution and acid rain has been

98 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
reported by a number of investigators. 

Such damage may occur in many places in 

the Eastern United States. The balusters 

on the west face of the Pan American Union 

Building, located at 17th and C Streets 

Northwest, Washington, B.C., for example, have been damaged by air pollution 

(fig. 16). On other parts of the west face of 

the Pan American Building that receive 

direct rainfall, rainfall appears to be dissolving the stone. This stone damage process appears to be accelerated in areas 

affected by acid rain.

One major question that remains to be 

resolved is: What are the relative contributions of air pollution and acid rain to 

observed stone damage? In order to understand and predict the pollution-caused 

damage, two tasks need to be addressed. 

First, the extent of damage to a particular 

material caused by exposure to pollutants 

needs to be measured during conditions 

that are equivalent to actual commercial 

and cultural use. Second, whether this 

effect causes earlier replacement than 

usual or frequent repair must be determined. If this is the case, an economic value 

can be placed on reducing the pollutant. 

This analysis is a complicated one and, to 

date (1987), has not been completed for any 

building material. The work of the U.S.

Geological Survey, in conjunction with the 

National Acid Precipitation Assessment 

Program's Materials Effects Task Group, 

primarily is to assess the incremental damage to building materials caused by the 

presence of acid rain and oxidizing pollutants. At present, scientists are unable to 

differentiate materials degradation caused 

by pollutants from that caused by natural 

weathering. Such information is essential 

to establish a satisfactory inventory of 

materials at risk and to analyze the economic effect of materials degradation. The 

ultimate goal of the USGS contribution to 

the Materials Effects Task Group is to 

provide an understanding of the incremental damage of acidic pollutants.

Onsite Exposure Studies

During onsite experiments that began in 1982, all limestone and marble samples were subjected to similar exposure at 

five research sites: Research Triangle 

Park, North Carolina; Washington, B.C.; 

Chester, New Jersey; Newcomb, New 

York; and Steubenville, Ohio. In 1984, 

Indiana limestone and Vermont marble 

were added to the onsite study. A typical

Figure 16. Balusters on the west 

face of the Pan American Union 

Building, 17th and C Streets 

Northwest, Washington, D.C. 

Balusters are of Georgia marble 

and were installed in 7970. 

(September 1987 photograph by 

William A. Dize, Jr., U.S. Ceological Survey.)

Water Resources Investigations 99
Figure 17. Research site located 

at the West End Library at 23rd 

and I Streets Northwest, Washington, D.C.

site, located in Washington, D.C., is shown 

in figure 17. A rack used to hold the 

exposed stone is illustrated in figure 18.

Material samples are analyzed annually by a variety of techniques to measure 

physical and chemical changes on the sample surfaces. In addition, runoff is collected 

from the limestone and marble (carbonate 

rocks) and roughened glass (control) surfaces. When rainfall runs off a marble surface, minimal porosity restricts acid reaction with the carbonate mineral to the 

surface moisture zone. Chemical analysis of 

the runoff water provides immediate measurements of the material removed by dissolution of the stone sample. Chemical 

analysis of the runoff solution also provides 

a measure of the solubility of deposition 

and corrosion products under various environmental conditions. Surface moisture

Figure 18. Isometric projection 

of a single stone-exposure rack; 

racks are mounted in pairs and 

there are four sets per research 

site.

alone may be a major factor in limestone 

and marble deterioration. Two other processes, which also involve moisture on the 

stone surface, that may also be important 

are the direct dissolution of the stone surface by sulfuric acid present in the rain and 

the adsorption of sulfur dioxide gas by the 

surface moisture layer and subsequent 

chemical reaction. Reactions of sulfur dioxide adsorbed at the stone surface are not 

well understood at the present time. The 

stone surface can be damaged by sulfur 

dioxide even before the gas oxidizes.

Air quality, meteorological conditions, 

chemical substances in rain, and chemical 

composition of particulate matter are monitored simultaneously at all sites. Results 

of these measurements are added to a large 

data base. The data base will provide 

annual, monthly, and seasonal averages; 

maximum and minimum concentrations 

during storms; and hourly records of gaseous pollutants.

Damage to Stone Surfaces

The mineralogy of the limestone and 

marble samples used during the test program has been determined by petrographic 

and surface chemical-analysis techniques. 

These techniques are used initially and 

again after each year of exposure to identify the reaction products (for example,

TOO U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
0.6

E

a. z" 

g

(/> to

LU

u

LU 

QC

o

U

(D

o

0.4

0.2

0.0

I I 

 Limestone, 39 cases 

A Marble, 42 cases

 

t A

 A

A 

HYDROGEN ION LOADING, meq/m2

gypsum) of limestone and marble and acidic 

pollutants. These techniques also provide 

information on the variation and depth of 

chemical change across the stone surface. 

The top and bottom surfaces of the stone 

specimens are sampled in 0.01-inch layers 

and are chemically analyzed to determine 

chemical changes caused by exposure to 

pollutants.

Gypsum forms on the stone surfaces 

when calcium in the stone reacts with 

sulfur-containing pollutants in the atmosphere. Initial onsite experiments indicate 

that little gypsum accumulates on the 

exposed upper surface; the amounts accumulated probably represent only the most 

recent atmospheric conditions (since the 

last intense rain). Significant accumulations of gypsum were observed on the 

sheltered underside of the test specimens. 

Mass-spectrographic analyses of the sulfur 

in the gypsum indicate that the sulfur 

resembles atmospheric sulfur, not sulfur 

indigenous to limestone and marble.

Chemical-dissolution effects are also 

determined by analyzing runoff collected 

from stone samples. The types and rates of 

reaction involved in the degradation of 

limestone and marble are being determined 

by collecting and chemically analyzing runoff from slabs exposed at each of the 

research sites. Initial results indicate that 

increased dissolution depends on the volume and the hydrogen ion concentration of

the rain. The product of these two variables, hydrogen ion loading, can be 

expressed in milliequivalents of hydrogen 

ion deposited per unit area of stone surface. 

A plot of stone surface recession values 

(per rain event) as a function of hydrogen 

ion loading for both limestone and marble 

samples at the New York, New Jersey, and 

North Carolina research sites, acquired 

during summer and fall 1984, demonstrates 

the direct relation between surface recession and hydrogen ion loading (fig. 19). 

However, no differences in recession rate 

for the two types of stone could be discerned from these data. Weight-loss measurements indicate that additional damage 

to limestone occurs because of granular 

disaggregation.

Limestone and marble exposed for 1 

year and for several years are characterized as to weight loss and color change. 

These materials are also spectroscopically 

studied to determine surface recession and 

roughening caused by weathering. Initial 

experiments on freshly quarried stone indicate surface recession rates ranging from 

0.0004 to 0.0007 inch per year. These recession rates agree with mass-loss estimates 

inferred from runoff studies, specifically 

for marble, indicating that surface recession by mechanical grain loss is probably 

small compared with recession by chemical 

dissolution. These results were determined 

for materials exposed at the four research

Figure 19. Stone surface recession for limestone and marble 

versus hydrogen ion loading (in 

milliequivalents per square 

meter) at Newcomb, New York; 

Chester, New Jersey; and Research Triangle Park, North 

Carolina, during summer and 

fall 1984.

Water Resources Investigations 101
sites (including Washington, B.C.) and are 

not indicative of the higher rates that 

might be expected in more polluted environments.

Nondestructive near-infrared spectroscopic methods have been developed for 

measuring gypsum accumulation on surfaces of buildings and monuments. The 

method has been calibrated by measuring 

the buildup of gypsum on the samples at 

the research sites. Measurements over the 

past 2 years have demonstrated that the 

technique can accurately measure the gypsum accumulation on the protected surfaces of the test materials. This method 

ultimately can be used to assess the differential accumulation of gypsum on buildings 

and monuments and will be useful in translating the results from the onsite and laboratory experimental program samples to 

verify measurements of gypsum on real 

structures.

An atmospheric reaction chamber is 

currently under construction to determine 

the environmental factors that influence 

the delivery of gaseous pollutants to carbonate stone. The chamber is designed to 

deliver radioactively labeled sulfur dioxide 

to stone surfaces under controlled conditions of relative humidity, pollutant gas 

concentration, temperature, and gas-flow 

velocity. The chamber experiments should 

provide good estimates of the drydeposition flux of sulfur dioxide to stone 

surfaces as a function of the controllable 

environmental parameters. The effects of 

changes in stone textures, composition, 

and weathering on the delivery of pollutants to carbonate surfaces will also be 

determined. In the future, the experiment 

will expand to determine the drydeposition flux of labeled nitrogen oxides.

The experimental investigations currently underway within USGS laboratories 

are expected to define mathematical relationships that quantify the effects of acid 

deposition on carbonate stone that are in 

addition to natural background rates of 

degradation. These functions are to be used 

for the development of an economic model 

for materials degradation as required by 

the National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program, which ends in fiscal year 

1990.

Concentrations, 

Sources, and 

Transport of Selenium 

in the San Joaquin 

River During Low 

Flow, October 1985 to 

January 1986

By Robert J. Gilliom 

Introduction

Agricultural drainage problems in the 

western San Joaquin Valley of central California have attracted national attention 

since 1983, when selenium in water from 

subsurface tile-drain systems was found to 

have toxic effects on waterfowl at Kesterson Reservoir. Kesterson Reservoir received drain water containing an average of 

about 300 micrograms per liter (jxg/L) of 

selenium from about 8,000 acres of tiledrained farmland from 1981 to 1986. Drain 

water from about 77,000 acres of additional 

tile-drained farmland, north of the area 

that contributed drain water to Kesterson, 

eventually flows to the San Joaquin River. 

Flow of this drain water to the river occurs 

mainly through two tributaries, Mud and 

Salt Sloughs. Recent U.S. Geological Survey studies indicate that water from individual drainage systems, which discharge 

to waterways that eventually reach these 

sloughs or smaller tributaries, contains 

selenium concentrations ranging from less 

than 10 to 4,000 M-g/L, with mixtures of 

these waters containing concentrations 

generally ranging from 20 to 100 jj-g/L.

Future decisions on how to manage 

subsurface drain water in the area, and on 

how to protect the water quality of the San 

Joaquin River, depend on understanding 

the sources, concentrations, and transport 

of selenium in the river. This study, a first 

step toward achieving this goal, was done 

during low-flow conditions when dissolved 

contaminants, such as selenium, often have 

their greatest effect on water quality.

102 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
Study Design and Methods

Below its Sierra Nevada headwaters, 

the San Joaquin River extends 192 miles 

from Friant Dam in the foothills, to Vernalis, just upstream from backwater influence of the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta 

(fig. 20). The first 65 miles of river between 

Friant Dam and Mendota generally has 

intermittent flow, and often no river water 

at all reaches Mendota Pool near Mendota. 

Most of the next 67 miles of river between 

Mendota and Stevinson is also intermittent. Flow in the remaining 60 miles of 

river from Stevinson to Vernalis is perennial and increases downstream as Salt and 

Mud Sloughs enter from the west, the 

Merced, Tuolumne, and Stanislaus Rivers 

enter from the east, and smaller tributaries, irrigation-return flows, and ground 

water enter along the entire reach. This 

study focused on the San Joaquin River 

between site 1 near Stevinson and site 11 at 

Vernalis.

During the study period, streamflow 

at Vernalis was below normal for October 

to January. The average of the monthly 

mean flows for October 1985 to January 

1986 was in the lower 20 percent of flows 

for the same months for 1970-85. The

monthly mean flow at Vernalis was 2,126 

cubic feet per second (ft3/s) in October, 

1,892 ft3/s in November, 2,125 ft3/s in 

December, and 1,935 ft3/s in January.

Samples were collected twice monthly 

at each of the 11 study sites (fig. 20) for 

analysis of dissolved and total-recoverable 

selenium, as well as many other constituents. At each site, continuously recorded 

measurements were used to compute daily 

mean streamflow throughout the study 

period.

Selenium sources and transport were 

evaluated from selenium loads computed 

for each site and sampling. The method 

used to compute selenium load at each site 

is based on the concept of evaluating water 

at each site that will arrive at the farthest 

downstream site (Vernalis) at the same 

time as water from all other sites. Ideally, 

if the time of travel for water from each site 

to Vernalis were known, then samples 

could be collected at each site the same 

amount of time before the sample was 

collected at Vernalis. However, logistical 

constraints prevented this from being 

accomplished on a regular basis. Instead, 

the order of site sampling within each sampling week was generally matched with the 

order of travel times. Travel times were

120°30'

37°30'

36M5' -

Firebaugh Friant Dam*

(20 MILES) 

endota Poo

 Location and study 

site number

5 10 15 20 MILES 

I i____I I

0 5 10 15 20 25 KILOMETERS

Figure 20. Location of study 

sites along the San Joaquin 

River, central California.

Water Resources Investigations 103
Table 2. Site names and summary of dissolved-selenium concentrations

Dissolved selenium concentration (|xg/L)

Site No.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

Site name

San Joaquin River near Stevinson

Salt Slough at State Highway 165

San Joaquin River at Fremont Ford Bridge

Mud Slough near Gustine

Merced River near Stevinson

San Joaquin River near Newman

San Joaquin River near Patterson

Tuolumne River at Modesto

San Joaquin River at Maze Road Bridge

Stanislaus River at Ripon

San Joaquin River near Vernalis

Minimum

0.1

1.4

.9

1.1

<.l

.6

.6

<.l

.4

<.l

.3

Median

0.3

5.2

4.6

3.6

.1

2.4

1.6

.1

.9

.1

.8

Maximum

2.3

16

9.9

13

.2

5.4

4.2

.2

1.7

.2

1.4

estimated from measured velocities and 

distances between sites. Daily mean 

streamflow was determined for each site at 

the time necessary to result in the simultaneous arrival at Vernalis of water from all 

sites. We assumed that the selenium concentration was constant at each site during 

the typical 1- to 2-day period of time 

between the actual sampling date and the 

date on which the flow was measured.

The dissolved-selenium load was computed at each site, for each sampling, by 

multiplying the flow at the time estimated 

for simultaneous arrival of water from all 

sites at Vernalis by the concentration measured in the sample collected the same 

week. By estimating the load in this way, 

the sum of selenium loads at each site on 

primary tributaries to Vernalis (sites 1, 2, 

4, 5, 8, and 10) is expected to equal the 

selenium load computed for Vernalis, if 

there are no gains or losses of selenium 

between these sites and Vernalis. (Similarly, loads from any other combination of 

upstream and downstream sites would be 

additive if there are no within-reach gains 

or losses.) In reality, analytical errors, 

errors in travel-time estimates, and natural 

variability will prevent perfect agreement 

between sites even when there are no 

within-reach changes. Therefore, such calculations are best used to identify broad 

patterns of gains and losses and to estimate 

only the larger within-reach changes. Consistent with these applications, median values of flows and loads relative to Vernalis 

are emphasized for characterizing sources 

and transport during the study period. 

Streamflow and selenium load for each site 

and sampling were divided by the corresponding value at Vernalis and multiplied 

by 100 to convert to percentage, and then

the median percentage was used to characterize the relative importance of each site.

Concentrations of Selenium

Selenium in samples from all sites generally was in dissolved forms, and there 

was usually no measurable amount in particulate forms. Concentrations of dissolved 

selenium were highest in Salt and Mud 

Sloughs (sites 2 and 4), and in the San 

Joaquin River downstream of Salt Slough 

(site 3) (table 2, fig. 20). Among these three 

sites, median concentrations ranged from 

3.6 to 5.2 |xg/L with a minimum of 0.9 |xg/L 

and a maximum of 16 |xg/L. Concentrations 

were lowest in the three eastside tributaries, the Merced (site 5), Tuolumne (site 8), 

and Stanislaus (site 10) Rivers. The median 

dissolved-selenium concentrations in all 

three of these streams, which contribute 

most of the San Joaquin River streamflow 

during low flow, was 0.1 |xg/L. The minimum was less than 0.1 jxg/L and the maximum was 0.2 jxg/L for all three sites. 

Selenium concentrations in the San Joaquin 

River at sites 6, 7, 9, and 11 decrease 

downstream of the Merced River as the 

selenium from Mud and Salt Sloughs is 

diluted by low-selenium water from the 

eastside tributaries. At Vernalis, the site 

farthest downstream, the median selenium 

concentration was 0.8 |xg/L, with a minimum of 0.3 |JLg/L and a maximum of 1.4

|JLg/L.

Sources and Transport

The sources and transport of selenium 

in the San Joaquin River depend on 

streamflow and dissolved-selenium concen104 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
Site 10 EXPLANATION Figure 21. Streamf/ow and

dissolved-selenium loads in the 

San Joaquin River, October 

1985-January 7986. Values are 

the median percentage of 

streamflow and load at Vernalis 

(site 11).

tration, which determine selenium load. 

Figure 21 shows streamflow and selenium 

load at each site expressed as a median 

percentage of streamflow and load at Vernalis, site 11. Some key relations for the 

study period shown by these data are given 

below:

 Most selenium loading to the San Joaquin River comes from Salt and Mud 

Sloughs. Salt Slough contributes about 55 

percent and Mud Slough about 17 percent 

of the Vernalis selenium load, even though 

their combined flow was only about 9 percent of the Vernalis flow;

 By the time flow reaches site 6, downstream of Salt and Mud Sloughs and other 

possible smaller sources of selenium, 88

percent of the selenium load at Vernalis is 

already present in the San Joaquin River. 

This selenium seems to be transported 

from site 6 to Vernalis with little or no 

within-stream loss along the way;

 The Merced, Tuolumne, and Stanislaus 

Rivers contribute about 57 percent of the 

Vernalis flow but only 7 percent of the 

selenium load at Vernalis;

 Within-reach gains of flow are substantial, particularly between sites 6 and 9. In 

this area, irrigation-return flows and groundwater inflow appear to be substantial; and

 Within-reach gains of selenium downstream from the Merced River are small, as 

shown by the median values in figure 21.

Water Resources Investigations 105
Conclusions

Salt and Mud Sloughs were the main 

sources of selenium transported to the San 

Joaquin River from October 1985 to January 1986, even though they contributed 

less than 10 percent of the streamflow at 

Vernalis. Water flowing into the river 

downstream of Salt and Mud Sloughs

diluted selenium in the river from a median 

of about 5 jJLg/L between the sloughs to less 

than 1 jxg/L at Vernalis. Effective management of selenium concentrations in the San 

Joaquin River depends on managing 

sources of both selenium and dilution 

water, which will require detailed information on seasonal patterns and annual variability in streamflow and on the loading and 

transport of selenium.

Effects of Glen Canyon Dam Operations on 

Sand Bars and Rapids of the Colorado River in 

Grand Canyon National Park, Arizona

The USGS is carrying out a program of 

sediment studies, in cooperation with the U.S. 

Bureau of Reclamation and the National Park 

Service, designed to determine the effects of 

flow regulation at Glen Canyon Dam on the 

sediment-related resources of Grand Canyon 

National Park. Studies have defined geometric 

and hydraulic characteristics at major rapids, 

provided insight into the effects of debris 

flows in ungaged tributaries on sand supply 

and on changes in river form, led to a description of change in sand bars during various 

streamflow conditions, and provided an 

understanding of the controls on sand transport and storage in the main channel.

Although sand bars (which are used as 

campsites) are less susceptible to erosion 

than are other types of deposits, all sand 

deposits in narrow reaches are very susceptible to erosion by high flows. Powerplant 

releases are generally less than 31,500 cubic 

feet per second; frequent flows higher than 

these will deplete the sand stored in the main

channel and will result in significant loss of 

sand from the bars. Sand bars probably will 

remain relatively stable as long as the flows 

remain within the powerplant-release range. 

Rapids, which are formed by coarse debris, 

change with the introduction of new debris 

and with the adjustment of older debris due to 

river flow. Therefore, rapids may become 

more difficult to navigate, because flows much 

greater than powerplant releases may be 

required to move the coarse debris that has 

been deposited by tributaries since construction of the dam.

These studies provide new insights into 

the behavior of both coarse and fine sediment 

in rivers in which much of the bed and banks 

are composed of boulders and bedrock. 

Results of these studies, together with results 

of studies of terrestrial and aquatic biology 

and recreation, will form a report that will be 

used as the basis for a Secretarial decision 

concerning future operations of the Glen Canyon Dam.

106 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
Information Systems 

Division

Highlights

Communications

By Jim Hott and Dan 

Devereaux

Two major communications projects 

continued to grow during fiscal year 1987, 

in support of the U.S. Geological Survey 

mission: a local-area network, GEOLAN, 

began operation at Reston headquarters 

and the GEONET wide-area network came 

into use on a nationwide and departmentwide basis.

GEOLAN was developed to promote 

standardized data bases and to share information resources within USGS headquarters through communication between computers and computer systems. GEOLAN 

permits high-speed local area connections 

between terminals and between connected 

information resources such as minicomputers. This technology permits independent 

heterogeneous local-area networks (LAN) 

that are part of GEOLAN to be combined 

via the common foundation of the Ethernet 

LAN protocol. As compatibility standards 

for LANs are refined and implemented, the 

USGS will be able to use a common electronic communicating vehicle to the maximum benefit in accomplishing its critical 

missions.

GEONET has replaced a number of 

services that formerly connected users in 

two locations. Now, users not only may use 

GEONET to communicate with a single 

destination site but may reach more than 

140 Department of the Interior host computers of various sizes, plus computers 

attached to various public networks. GEONET has delivered to USGS users an 

unprecedented capability that can be used 

to accomplish everyday data processing

and mission-related responsibilities. GEONET permits the Survey to save $1 million 

annually on data communications services, 

while providing a high degree of computer 

communications capability for the Survey 

and for other bureaus of the Department of 

the Interior. As more non-Survey activities 

use the network, the overall costs to the 

Survey, both for individual characters 

transmitted and total data transmitted, are 

declining.

GEONET also supports the electronic 

transfer of earth science information from 

the Earth Science Data Directory and 

Earth Science Information Network to various public sources. GEONET support also 

includes electronic transfer of information 

among other agencies, such as the National 

Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration and the National Aeronautics and 

Space Administration, and various State 

agencies.

Information Systems Division 107
Computing 

Technologies: The 

Role of Mainframe 

Computing in the U.S. 

Geological Survey

By Gayle Gordon, Tom 

Faulds, and Joe Aquilino

Mainframe computers have played a 

significant role in the U.S. Geological Survey since the first computing equipment 

was installed in 1947. That role has shifted 

over the years as new and powerful alternative computers have become available. 

Despite that shifting focus and the proliferation of minicomputers and desktop microcomputers, the computing technology 

requirements study, conducted by the 

USGS in 1986-87, reaffirmed the bureau's 

continuing need for mainframe computers.

In 1956, the Survey procured its first 

mainframe computer to process scientific 

data. Over the years administrative applications, as well as scientific work, were 

transferred to computers, where the functions could be performed faster. Research 

that had previously been laborious or even 

unimaginable was now possible. Computers were able to process large quantities of 

data, rapidly perform complex calculations, 

and provide storage and retrieval of large 

volumes of data. These same functions can 

be and are performed on the Survey's current mainframe computer, but now they 

are done faster, and a significantly larger 

amount of data is processed and stored. 

Computer technology has changed so rapidly that today many microcomputers 

located on desktops throughout the organization can perform better than those first 

Survey computers, which occupied many 

square feet of space.

Large mainframe computers, however, still offer advantages to USGS scientists and administrators. First, they have 

sophisticated software such as data base 

management systems that are able to take 

advantage of both the power of the mainframe processor and its capacity to store 

and process large quantities of data. For 

example, the mainframes in the National

Center, Reston, provide storage and 

retrieval for two of the Survey's largest 

data bases, the Water Data Storage and 

Retrieval System and the National Digital 

Cartographic Data Base. Providing access 

to large data bases is a key role for the 

mainframe computers today and will probably continue to be so into the future. By 

having these data bases stored and maintained in a central location available 

through a communications network, scientists and administrators throughout the 

organization are able to access the data and 

either manipulate the data on the central 

computer or download it to their own minicomputers or microcomputers.

Mainframe computers provide highspeed processing. A model that takes hours 

to run on a minicomputer or a microcomputer, for example, can often be run in a 

fraction of the time on a mainframe. Also, 

many jobs can be run at the same time 

without one affecting the performance of 

the others. During prime-time working 

hours, for example, the Reston mainframes 

average more than 50 concurrent interactive sessions. The shift from the former 

single-job, batch processing to the current 

interactive computing is one of the most 

significant changes in the last ten years of 

mainframe computing, and its effect is 

expected to increase in the future.

Another glimpse into the future suggests that even higher capacity storage 

devices will be added to mainframe computers. In 1987, the Information Systems 

Division (ISD) installed a tape cartridge 

system on one of the mainframes. This 

technology is more reliable than magnetic 

tape and provides great savings in the 

amount of space required to store a comparable amount of data. It is anticipated that 

in the future more powerful storage 

devices such as optical disks will be added 

to ISO's mainframe configuration. This 

example of sophisticated peripheral devices 

illustrates another advantage of centralized 

computing. That is, advanced and costly 

technology such as storage devices, printers, and plotters can be made accessible to 

a large number of people through computer 

communications capabilities.

ISO's Data Center in Reston each 

month processes 35,000 jobs, mounts and 

processes 10,000 magnetic tapes, and 

prints and distributes 1 to 1.5 million pages 

of print. Because of a predicted 10-fold 

workload increase from 1987 to 1992, and

108 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
because the existing systems are old and 

expensive to maintain, the bureau-wide 

Information Systems Council, with the concurrence of the Director and Executive 

Committee, has agreed to proceed in fiscal 

year 1988 with the acquisition of a new 

computer processing unit to replace the 

existing systems. The new system will significantly improve processing of today's 

workload and will help ISD support USGS 

computing needs in the future.

Applied Technology 

Activities

By Tod Huffman

An important aspect of the Information Systems Division's support services is 

providing systems analysis and developing 

applications software to the U.S. Geological Survey. During fiscal year 1987, ISD 

provided automated systems and technology development services to the full range 

of administrative and scientific, research, 

and technical programs of the Survey. 

These automated systems and development services included:

 Developing and implementing a nationwide automated system to initiate, monitor 

progress, and complete action for all Survey 

requests for Personnel Actions, SF-52's.

 Developing and implementing an automated system that permits the Survey's 

personnel office to compile a data base of 

nationwide vacancy announcement information, and to index, query, and automatically distribute those vacancy announcements nationwide.

 Modelling the use of modern relational 

data base management systems for the 

storage, processing, and retrieval of 

National Mapping Division digital cartographic index data and Geologic Division 

geophysical/geochemical coal resource 

data.

 Staffing and equipping the division's 

Graphics Laboratory, which provides the 

USGS with a wide selection of graphics 

hardware and software and offers support 

and consultation services on the use, 

design, and preparation of computerrelated graphics.

 Developing a system to provide detailed tracking, accounting, and reporting 

of foreign travel for the Office of International Geology.

 Cooperating with other Department of 

the Interior bureaus on projects involving 

forestry management, environmental impact, and safety management accounting 

and reporting.

 Providing continued assistance to the 

Department of the Interior Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement 

and their contractors in the application and 

use of the Model 204 data base management system supporting Office of Surface 

Mining development of a large data base 

for lease applications, administration and 

control, and mining violations.

 Experimenting in the use of standard 

statistical and graphics software for performing geographic information system 

manipulation and analysis of geographically 

referenced data, such as land use and land 

cover, and radon level measurements.

The Compact Disc 

Revolution

By Rick MacDonald

A remarkable new technology is about 

to revolutionize the way in which the U.S. 

Geological Survey disseminates its vast 

archives of earth-science data. That technology CD ROM (compact disc read-only 

memory) embodies some noteworthy characteristics with respect to data storage and 

data distribution. First, the disc itself is 

small, compact, and virtually indestructible. It is physically identical to the audio 

compact disc, which is currently revolutionizing the consumer audio marketplace. 

The disc itself can hold between 550 and 600 

megabytes of data and can provide random 

access to any block of that data in less than 

a second. Figure 1 shows equivalent storage capacities of the CD ROM and of more 

traditional media. The disc drive that holds 

the CD ROM disc can be physically connected to a personal computer and costs 

between $500 and $600.

Data to be placed on the CD ROM can 

come from many sources. Data can be

Information Systems Division 109
Figure 1. Equivalent storage capacities of the CD ROM and 

traditional media.

created exclusively for it, scanned from 

non-magnetic documents or images, or copied from existing data sets that are currently processed by computers. The data, 

for example, can be text or byte data 

associated with cartographic products or 

seismological processes. The information is 

first accumulated onto magnetic tapes in a

Original 

Data

Data Presentation

Data Premastering

CD ROM

Master

Tape

Mini 

Computer

Disc Mastering

:::::::::::::::::::::::

CD

Master

Code

Cutter

Disc Replication

I

I^H8%a

I

Figure 2. The overall process of 

mastering and duplicating.

CD ROM

prescribed format, then "mastered" onto a 

glass CD ROM disc (in much the same 

manner as an audio recording) at a cost of 

about $3000. Once the master is created, 

duplicate CD ROM discs can be "stamped 

out" at a cost ranging from $30 down to $5 

each, depending on quantity. Both the mastering and duplicating are available at over 

half a dozen CD ROM mastering plants 

open in the United States. The overall 

process is depicted in figure 2.

Several successful prototype projects 

conducted by the USGS over the past year 

have proven that CD ROM is a costeffective means for distributing digital 

data. The first of these prototype projects 

was developed to assess the usefulness of 

CD ROM technology to a broad spectrum 

of users. The prototype CD ROM disc that 

the Survey produced contained samples of 

both administrative and scientific data 

bases, including the Cartographic Catalog, 

Earth Science Data Directory, Federal 

Information Resources Management Regulations, Federal Acquisition Regulations, 

geographic reference database, Geographic 

Names Information System, geologic 

index, Geological Long-Range Inclined 

Asdic (GLORIA), Geographic Information 

System (GIS) Files, Mineral Resource 

Data System, National Uranium Resource 

Evaluation, PUBMANUS (listing of published USGS reports and maps), Rock 

Analysis Sample System, Seismic Data, 

the USGS Manual, WRSIC (Water 

Resources Scientific Information Center 

abstracts), National Water Summary data, 

and streamflow gaging station data.

The USGS is currently investigating 

microcomputer-based search and retrieval 

software that lends itself to use with CD 

ROM. Related to this investigation, part of 

the first prototype CD ROM disc was 

devoted to testing a half dozen of the 

leading software products, all of which use 

the same pair of reference data bases provided by the General Services Administration. Both the data bases and the retrieval 

software packages were placed on the prototype discs, which were then distributed, 

along with the necessary readers and 

instructions, to a broad cross section of 

USGS scientists and other professionals. 

Testimonial information was collected on 

the usefulness and effectiveness of this new 

technology.

This initial experience and the testimonies from the users enabled the developers

no U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
of the prototype disc to establish some 

basic guidelines. If a data base is relatively 

large and relatively static, has a potentially 

large audience of users, and lends itself to 

processing on a microcomputer, it may be 

an excellent candidate for CD ROM technology. With these criteria in mind, marine 

geologists from the Survey's deep sea-floor 

mapping project agreed to place their data 

from the GLORIA sidescan sonar system 

onto a CD ROM disc for data access and 

distribution.

An important consideration in placing 

any scientific data base onto CD ROM is 

the potential market that can be created for 

the data. When the GLORIA data base of 

digitally captured sea floor mosaics is available on CD ROM, the potential community 

of users will no longer be restricted to those 

individuals or organizations who have 

access to minicomputers or mainframe 

computers but instead would also be open 

to those who have desktop microcomputer 

workstations.

The CD ROM that contains the GLORIA data not only exhibits the ideal characteristics of a candidate for this technology but also exemplifies the opportunities 

for interagency cooperation afforded by 

such a large-capacity, inexpensive storage 

medium. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration is a welcome partner in the project as they develop indexing 

software for the disc, and the National

Aeronautics and Space Administration has 

contributed image processing software to 

the effort.

As the USGS continued to develop its 

expertise in CD ROM, it became clear that 

other Federal agencies could benefit from 

the Survey's experience. Therefore, the 

USGS formed a special interest group 

called SIGCAT (Special Interest Group on 

CD ROM Applications and Technology) to 

pursue the many aspects of this technology 

and, in doing so, to establish a forum for the 

exchange of ideas, information, and experiences for the benefit of all concerned.

SIGCAT, which held its first official 

meeting in 1986, now has close to 1,000 

members, representing over 120 different 

Government organizations. About 75 percent of the membership is from government and 25 percent from private industry. 

Several individual working groups have 

been formed under SIGCAT to focus on the 

issues of search software, drives and 

media, library and educational applications, and CD ROM projects ongoing in the 

Federal sector. Recently, the USGS 

together with the National Bureau of Standards established a CD ROM Lab, where 

the organizations involved in SIGCAT can 

evaluate the various CD ROM hardware 

components available in the marketplace. 

Such evaluation should prove useful to 

agencies that are in the process of investigating CD ROM technology.

Information Systems Division 111
Figure 3. An 8-bit RGB color 

space. A, Color cube for cube 

number 255. B, Color cube for 

cube number 727, which is theoretically inside cube number 

255.

91

61

B

112 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
A Color

Communications 

Scheme for Digital 

Imagery

By Alex Acosta

Color pictures generated from digital 

images are frequently used by geologists, 

foresters, range managers, and other 

professionals. These color products are 

preferred over black-and-white pictures 

because the human eye is more sensitive to 

color differences than to various shades of 

gray.

s Color discrimination is a function of 

perception; because the colors in these 

color composites can be described subjectively, ambiguous color communication 

may result. Numerous color-coordinate 

systems are available that quantitatively 

relate amounts of red, green, and blue 

(RGB) in the form of digital triplets to the 

parameters of hue, saturation, and intensity perceived by the eye. Most of these 

systems implement a complex transformation of the RGB parameters to a color space 

that is hard to visualize, thus making it 

difficult to relate the triplets to perception 

parameters. Research at the USGS ADP 

Service Center in Flagstaff, Arizona, has 

developed a color-communication scheme 

that allows for accurate color communication and easy association of RGB triplets to 

the color generated by these triplets.

The color-communication scheme transforms RGB color space (fig. 3) into a chromaticity diagram (fig. 4). The diagram uses 

the (x,y) chromaticity diagram coordinates 

along with a third coordinate, z=l-x-y,

Figure 4. Chromaticity diagram 

with "hue" and "saturation." 

The chromaticity diagram is the 

area enclosed by the right triangle. The x chromaticity coordinate ranges from 0 to 1.0 on the 

horizontal side of the triangle. 

The y chromaticity coordinate 

ranges from 0 to 1.0 on the vertical side of the triangle. The 

hue is an angular value ranging 

clockwise from 0 to 360 degrees 

as indicated on the hue wheel. 

The hue wheel is centered at 

chromaticity coordinates 

(1/3,1/3). The saturation is a relative ratio measure along a hue 

spoke. Various values of saturation are given for hue=240.

Information Systems Division 113
Figure 5. Color triangle for cube 

number 255.

Figure 6. Chromaticity color triangle with "hue" and "saturation ". This figure, called a 

CCTHS, enables the user to 

graphically associate perceived 

colors with quantitative parameters (x,y,H,S). Grids are 

explained in figure 4.

114 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
to generate a color triangle (fig. 5) and 

merges the color triangle, the chromaticity 

diagram, and a "hue" wheel, which is centered at chromaticity coordinates (1/3,1/3), 

to form a figure called a Chromaticity Color 

Triangle with Hue and Saturation 

(CCTHS) (fig. 6). This figure defines several parameters (x, y, "hue", and "saturation") that may be used in conjunction with 

other parameters (z and "cube number") to 

produce derivative digital images that can 

be used in various ways. For example, the 

(x,y,z) coordinates can be scaled in an 8-bit 

range to generate image files that produce 

enhanced color products (fig. 7). As 

another example, a fourth image file can

B

D

act as the associated "cube number" of an 

RGB color set to produce a color composite 

that depicts the merging of the fourth 

image with the color set (fig. 8).

Research in digital image color processing that has led to the development of 

the CCTHS has given scientists a tool that 

can be used for color-composite analysis, 

accurate color communication, and improved color processing. The CCTHS 

allows the user to relate graphically 

defined parameters to visually perceived 

colors. Because these parameters can be 

mathematically defined, they can be calculated and made available from RGB digital 

images for further processing.

Figure 7. Examples of color enhancement of a Landsat Multispectral Scanner subscene (ID 

2279-19361) near McMurdo 

Sound, Antarctica, obtained 

October 18, 1975. Band 

4 = blue, band 5 = green, and 

band 7= red. A, False-color 

composite. A 1-percent linear 

stretch (which linearly transforms the original data between 

the 1-percent and 99-percent 

cumulative frequency points 

into the entire 8-bit data range 

(0-255)) was applied to the data 

to enhance the color. B, Each 

band was stretched with digital 

number (DN) 0 mapped to DN 

63 in an attempt to lighten the 

dark areas. C, Cube number (C) 

image file of A was stretched 

with DN 0 mapped to DN 63; 

the result was recombined with 

the original data. D, The (x,y,z) 

parameter image files of A were 

stretched with a 1-percent linear 

stretch; the result was 

combined with the C image file 

used in C and inversely transformed to RGB color space.

Information Systems Division 115
Figure 8. Image merging using 

the cube number parameter. A, 

Shuttle Imaging Radar-A image 

of the Eastern Sahara at Bir Safsaf, Egypt. B, False-color composite of Landsat Thematic 

Mapper scene 5025-80801; 

bands 1 (blue), 4 (green), and 7 

(red). C, Landsat TM scene 

merged with the radar image. 

The radar image was used as 

the cube number of the falsecolor data sets.

B

 %*. -, '

i.jr

Landsat Multispectral 

Images of Antarctica

By Baerbel K. Lucchitta and 

Jo-Ann Bowell

Scientists at the USGS Image Processing Facility in Flagstaff, Arizona, are conducting a program to provide enhanced 

multispectral scanner (MSS) Landsat 

images of Antarctica. From these images, 

the scientists will be able to furnish accurate planimetric, false-color compositeimage maps in polar stereographic projection. In turn, these image maps can be used 

to locate and delineate blue-ice areas for 

the collection of meteorites, to produce 

special-purpose maps showing selected features, and to provide synoptic views that 

aid in the detection and interpretation of 

glaciological features associated with ice 

sheets, outlet glaciers, ice streams, and ice 

shelves. Researchers will also be able to 

monitor changes in coastlines and glacial 

features, to correlate different types of 

digital cartographic data, and to provide 

structural information in areas of limited 

bedrock outcrop to aid in regional geologic 

interpretation.

About 170 false-color composite 

images of Antarctica, covering Victoria 

Land, the coastline of West Antarctica, the 

Antarctic Peninsula, and other selected 

areas have been produced. These images 

cover about 10% of the continent. Digitally 

enhanced color images composed of bands 

4, 5, and 7 of Landsat MSS data are superior to the commonly used black-and-white 

images of MSS band 7. The color images 

show considerably more detail of the land 

surface. The images have undergone routine geometric correction and some noise 

removal. Because the data in many scenes 

are saturated in bands 4 and 5, new algorithms were devised to restore the saturated snow and ice information and to

116 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
Figure 9. Landsat 7 false-color 

image of Lambert Glacier (Path 

135 Row 772 Scene ID 

1236-03155 76 March 7973) 

showing restored saturated 

snow and ice formation and 

enhanced fine surface features.

enhance fine surface features (fig. 9). A 

six-image mosaic of the McMurdo Sound 

region, where the American station is 

located, has been prepared in Lambert 

Conformal projection. The mosaic covers 

five complete and three partial 1:250,000- 

scale topographic quadrangles. Additionally, thematic maps were produced that 

show rock outcrops and blue-ice area of the 

Byrd Glacier region.

Managing and 

Accessing Geoscience 

Data Base Systems

By Denise A. Wiltshire

In today's information society, massive amounts of data are collected to

Information Systems Division T17
support scientific research. As an indication of the rapid proliferation of computerized data bases, the 1987 Directory of 

Online Databases listed a total of 3,369 data 

bases accessible to the public through 

national and international telecommunications networks. The number of data bases 

listed has increased eightfold since the 

Directory was first published in 1980.

The U.S. Geological Survey itself has 

experienced a steady increase in the number of data bases designed and maintained 

by its employees to promote earth science 

research. In addition, many of the organizations that conduct joint research projects 

with the USGS are experiencing a rapid 

growth in data bases of earth science information. Sophisticated geographic information systems (GIS) are being designed to 

collect, manage, and analyze large volumes 

of spatial data. Through the use of GIS 

technology, scientists are able to merge 

geologic, hydrologic, and cartographic data 

sets to study complex interrelationships 

and to solve vexing earth science problems. 

Before the tool of GIS technology can be 

used to its fullest extent, however, there 

must first be a means to locate the existing 

data sets that are needed. There also must 

be an efficient way to locate and access the 

data bases to reduce costs of geoscience 

investigations when possible.

Both the current trend in proliferating 

data bases and the emerging spatial-data 

analytical technologies, such as geographic 

information systems, have fostered a growing need for information-management

tools. The USGS continues to respond to 

this need by maintaining the Earth Science 

Data Directory. Created in 1985, the Earth 

Science Data Directory contains references 

to USGS data bases and a growing number 

of available data sources maintained by 

other Federal and State agencies, academia, and the private sector. The Earth 

Science Data Directory is designed to 

assist researchers in identifying and locating data bases that are either automated or 

nonautomated and that contain naturalresources information. Each entry in the 

directory contains detailed information on 

the scope and availability of data bases. 

The information contained in the directory 

assists researchers in determining compatibility of data sets for use with analytical 

tools such as geographic information 

systems.

The U.S. Geological Survey encourages participation in the Earth Science 

Data Directory among the scientific community. Successful accomplishment of the 

Survey's mission to provide geologic, 

hydrologic, and topographic information 

that facilitates managing the Nation's natural resources requires state-of-the-art 

information-management technology. In 

addition to designing and maintaining a 

nationwide data directory, the Survey continues to investigate methods to make it 

easier to access major earth-science data 

bases.

Intermediary, front-end systems, commonly known as gateway systems, have 

emerged in the automation marketplace to

'ISO

EARTH SCIENCE 

DATA DIRECTORY 

(ESDD)

TO OTHER 

AGENCY 

INFORMATION 

SOURCES

ESIN USERS

'NMD

CARTOGRAPHIC CATALOG 

GEOGRAPHIC NAMES INFORMATION

SYSTEM 

NATIONAL DIGITAL CARTOGRAPHIC

DATA BASE

AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY SUMMARY RECORD

SYSTEM

MAIN IMAGE FILE

MAP AND CHART INFORMATION SYSTEM 

NATIONAL JRANiLjM RESOURCE EVALUATION

DATA BASE

'GD

LIBRARY SYSTEM 2OOO

WRD

NATIONAL WATER DATA 

EXCHANGE (NAWDEX)

' NATIONAL 'EARTHQUAKE 

INFORMATION SYSTEM 

HOCK ANALYSIS SYSTEM

Figure 10. Earth Science Information Network (ESIN).

NMD = NATIONAL MAPPING DIVISION 

GD = GEOLOGIC DIVISION 

WRD = WATER RESOURCES DIVISION 

ISO = INFORMATION SYSTEMS DIVISION

= ACCESS

= INFORMATION ONLY

118 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
assist users with the complex protocols for 

accessing data bases far and wide through 

telecommunications networks. The Survey 

has developed its own gateway system 

the Earth Science Information Network 

(fig. 10) which gives users easy access to 

seven major systems and data bases maintained by the USGS. These data bases and 

systems are Earth Science Data Directory 

(inventory of data bases), Cartographic 

Catalog (inventory of cartographic products), Digital Cartographic Data Base (digital elevation models and digital line 

graphs), Geographic Names Information 

System (cultural or physical geographic 

names), National Water Data Exchange 

(NAWDEX) (water data indexing service), 

News (news releases issued by the USGS 

Public Affairs Office), and U.S. Geological 

Survey Library System (automated card 

catalog).

In addition to the Earth Science Information Network, the USGS maintains a 

computer software package that interfaces 

commercial information-retrieval systems. 

The Computer Systems Information Network allows users to access seven major 

information-retrieval systems containing 

more than 250 data bases. The Computer 

Systems Information Network is an intelligent interface, one that is designed to 

translate a user's request for bibliographic, 

factual/numeric, or chemical identification 

information into the appropriate computer 

language for searching complex informationretrieval systems with a minimum of 

effort and frustration for the user.

USGS information scientists are continuing this research on methods for promoting easy access to complex, distributed data bases and information systems 

through the use of intelligent gateways like 

the Computer Systems Information Network.

Information Systems Division 119
120 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
Administrative and Facilities 

Support

Highlights

Facilities Support of 

Mission Operations

For a scientific organization, such as 

the U.S. Geological Survey, the adequacy 

and availability of facilities are critical to 

the type and extent of research that can be 

conducted. It is difficult, for example, for 

hydrologic, geologic, and mapping field 

work teams to operate effectively when 

based in congested downtown locations. 

USGS reliance on large blocks of laboratory and other special-purpose space also 

creates special demands on facility support 

and program budgets. As a consequence, 

ongoing management efforts have focused 

on matching facilities to program needs 

within constrained budgets. Plans are for 

the USGS to assume greater facility management responsibilities over the next several years in order to contain costs and 

improve responsiveness to earth-science 

program needs.

The USGS has begun a number of 

actions to consolidate and improve facilities 

in concert with the General Services 

Administration (GSA), which provides 

over ninety percent of USGS-occupied 

space.

Central Region Headquarters, 

Denver, Colorado

Major consolidations at the Denver 

Federal Center in Lakewood during the 

past 2 years have resulted in over 30 separate transactions that, including space 

acquisitions and releases, accounted for a 

shift of over 1 million square feet of space. 

Consolidations of geologic core library and 

map and publications distribution operations into the Center and the long-awaited 

relocation of Geologic Division laboratories

into a refurbished Building 20 were completed during the year. The new laboratory 

provides state-of-the-art equipment and 

instrumentation housed in an equally modern facility with a full complement of optimum safety and design features.

Changing and expanding mission programs are also affecting USGS space 

needs:

 Automation of traditional cartographic 

production functions at the Rocky Mountain Mapping Center will require relocation 

to a 135,000-square-foot facility (one-third 

larger than the current location) that has a 

specialized structural design.

 Expansion of water-quality research 

programs at the USGS Central Laboratory 

at Arvada, Colorado, just outside of Denver, will require an additional 100,000 

square feet of laboratory, storage, and 

office space.

Western Region Headquarters, 

Menlo Park, California

Top priority in regional planning has 

been reducing dependence on leased space 

by replacing space in Palo Alto with new 

laboratory and support facilities con- 

.structed at the Government-owned Center 

on Middlefield Road in Menlo Park. The 

Center was established on a 17-acre site in 

the mid-1950's. Buildings 1 and 2 on 5 acres 

of the site were acquired by GSA. The 

USGS acquired 12 acres of adjoining 

Government-owned land and constructed 

Building 3 on the site. USGS in collaboration with GSA and a professional services 

consultant developed a master plan and 

predesign program for completion of the 

Center.

Also dominant in the region's planning 

is movement toward an increased USGS 

role in the management of Center facilities, 

now a joint responsibility with GSA. Under

Photograph by Mark A. Hardy, 

U. S. Geological Survey

Administrative and Facilities Support 121
a delegation of authority from GSA, the 

USGS will assume direct management of 

facility operations and maintenance for 

GSA-owned buildings on the Center, and is 

pursuing other options with GSA to 

improve support services for these unique 

special-purpose scientific facilities.

National Center, Reston, Virginia

In August 1987, the USGS assumed 

responsibility from GSA for operation and 

maintenance of the National Center. This 

delegation from GSA involved the transfer 

of 19 employees and a budget of $4.2 million 

for operation and maintenance of the facility, which has over 1 million square feet of 

building space.

Major Facilities 

Improvements

Continuing studies have been underway at various USGS centers to provide 

the best and most efficient facilities in 

which to carry out the current and future 

goals and objectives of the Survey's mission. Included in these efforts are programs to make working conditions safe and

healthy and to develop short- and longrange programs to correct any deteriorating and malfunctioning facilities and to 

replace obsolete facilities. Eliminating fire 

hazards and unsafe and unhealthy working 

conditions continues to be a priority. Special programs are also underway to design 

and implement aids for the handicapped. In 

keeping with its earth-science mission, the 

USGS is working to provide environmental 

controls at many of its facilities that eliminate pollution hazards. The Survey is also 

replacing and updating mechanical and 

electrical systems in existing facilities to 

reduce the use and loss of energy.

The Hawaiian Volcano Observatory (HVO)

The 75th anniversary of the founding 

of the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory, 

America's first and oldest volcano observatory, was commemorated with the dedication of a new HVO building on January 10, 

1987. The new HVO and renovated facility 

and the adjoining Thomas A. Jaggar 

Museum culminated a joint effort of the 

USGS and the National Park Service in 

planning, design, and construction.

The Observatory is operated by the 

U.S. Geological Survey and is located on 

the summit of Kilauea Volcano on the 

Island of Hawaii in Hawaii Volcanoes

New Hawaiian Volcano Observatory building, dedicated January 

10, 1987

122 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
National Park. Scientists at the Observatory monitor the active volcanoes of 

Hawaii, providing warnings of potential 

eruptions and conducting fundamental 

research on volcanic activity. The Hawaiian Volcano Observatory has been responsible for the development of most of the 

volcano-monitoring techniques now used 

worldwide. In addition, the Observatory 

also has served as a training center for 

volcanologists from many countries.

Early in 1978, after an inspection and 

assessment of the overall condition of the 

HVO, its limitations in addressing the current situation in monitoring the active volcanoes of Hawaii, and discussions with the 

National Park Service's local and national 

offices, the USGS entered into a Memorandum of Agreement to develop a phased 

program for the upgrading and expansion 

of the HVO. Also, in the course of remodeling the old facility and constructing new 

facilities, the joint program was to address 

the preparation of comprehensive interpretive displays and other explanatory material, covering both the volcano and Observatory functions. The USGS provided 

funds for preliminary planning, followed by 

design and preparation of drawings and 

specifications. Through the joint efforts of 

USGS and the National Park Service, the 

Congress appropriated $5,000,000 for construction in a Supplemental Appropriation 

in 1984.

In May 1985, the National Park Service, in collaboration with the Survey, 

began construction of a new observatory at 

Uwekahuna. The new two-story building, 

with state-of-the-art instrumentation, 

offices, and an elevated tower to observe 

volcanic activity at Kilauea Volcano and 

neighboring Mauna Loa Volcano, was occupied in April 1986.

The adjacent former observatory 

building has been remodeled as the Thomas 

A. Jaggar Museum, where the National 

Park Service presents the story of Hawaiian volcanism and volcano monitoring to 

the estimated 800,000 visitors who tour the 

park annually.

New Premises for the U.S. Geological Survey in Saudi Arabia

USGS personnel moved into the 

administrative offices, laboratories, and 

residential and recreational facilities of the

Front of main building of the 

new USCS Mission Center in 

Saudi Arabia

new Mission Center that supports the Survey's Mission in the Kingdom of Saudi 

Arabia.

The USGS Mission was established in 

Saudi Arabia in 1962 to assist the Saudi 

Government in the task of mapping and 

cataloging the mineral and other natural 

resources and geological strata of the country. The Mission works directly under the 

Saudi Ministry of Petroleum and Mineral 

Resources while sharing their work with 

geologists from France (Bureau de Recherches Geologiques et Minieres BRGM) and 

Britain (RIOFINEX). All three missions 

are coordinated by the Saudi Directorate 

General of Mineral Resources (DGMR).

The USGS Mission consists of the following technical departments: Geology, 

Geophysics, Petrology Laboratory, Topography, Remote Sensing, and Computer. 

These departments are supported by a 

Technical Reports Unit, Field Operations 

Office and Warehouse, Library, and Electronics and Radio Laboratory.

The U.S., French, and British missions worked in various parts of Jeddah; 

however, with the expansion of the operations, the Ministry considered it preferable 

to locate the three missions in a single area 

for greater efficiency, cooperation, and 

ease of communications.

Atrium of main building of the 

new USCS Mission Center in 

Saudi Arabia

Administrative and Facilities Support 123
The new complex is self-contained, 

with Survey personnel and their families 

living and working on the site. The site has 

its own electric power generating plant and 

sewage treatment facilities. Water treatment facilities have been designed and may 

be constructed later.

The new USGS Mission is about six 

miles northeast of the city center of Jeddah, adjacent to the Jeddah By-Pass for the 

Mecca-Medina Road. The USGS Mission 

occupies roughly 24 acres of a 60-hectare 

master planned site that was developed for 

joint use by the USGS, the French, and the 

British. When planned, the USGS Mission 

had a total operating staff of 450, of whom 

50 were U.S. citizens, while the others 

were Saudi citizens and other nationalities.

The principal facilities include:

 Two-story 78,000-square-foot Mission 

Center and administrative building with air 

conditioning, auditorium, computer room 

and related facilities, atrium, library, 

archives, clinic, radio room, and solar collectors for water heating.

 Single-story laboratory building with 

10,183 square feet of space for petrology 

laboratory, rock cutting and storage, X-ray 

laboratory, specimen preparation, geochemical laboratory, and spectrograph.

 Single-story warehouse and shops building with 19,343 square feet of space for 

carpenter shop, maintenance shop, air conditioning and electrical repair shop, auto 

service shops, and field and housing 

storage.

 Two-level, 21-bedroom Temporary 

Duty Guest House with 13,524 square feet.

 Mosque of 2,734 square feet with prayer area, courtyard, and ceremonial ablution 

area.

 10 single-family homes of 3,574 square 

feet each.

 Security: The business complex is surrounded by a perimeter wall with two 

gatehouses admitting entry to the enclosure. The residential and recreational area 

is also surrounded by a security wall outside the perimeter road, with a single gatehouse access, adjacent to the business complex access.

 Power: The power generation plant, as 

designed, will permit adequate standby 

capacity for maintenance, possible breakdowns, and other forms of interruptions. 

When the city of Jeddah provides this 

power in the future, a transformer building 

will be required on site. Full backup generating capacity is provided by three 625- 

kilowatt generators and a fourth machine 

for standby power.

 Water: A reliable water supply is not 

now available on site. Until connection can 

be made with the Jeddah water system, the 

facility requires a preengineered, package 

water-treatment plant capable of processing 10,000 gallons per day to meet waterquality standards. Water intended for consumption and recreational use will be 

delivered daily to the plant from remote 

sites in a pretreated state for final treatment, which will include softening, chlorination, and cooling. Fully treated water is 

distributed throughout the facility under 

pressure in an underground system of plastic pipes. A separate system is required to 

provide nonpotable water for all other purposes, distributed under pressure in a separate underground system of plastic pipes.

 Sewage: The facility has a bioreactor 

waste-water-treatment system capable of 

treating 35,000 gallons per day of raw 

sanitary sewage or waste. No laboratory 

waste enters the system. Treated effluent, 

after being filtered and disinfected, is used 

to irrigate the landscaped areas in the 

compound.

 Gas: Gas service is tank stored, bottled, 

and supplied to housing and laboratories as 

needed.

EROS Data Center Energy 

Conservation

The EROS Data Center (EDC) continued to lead the way in the Department of 

the Interior's Energy Conservation program. The EDC, located 16 miles northeast 

of Sioux Falls, South Dakota, was constructed in 1972-73. As designed, constructed, and operated with its own support systems, EDC closely conforms to 

current energy standards, which did not 

exist at the time of the Center's inception. 

Designed with energy conservation in 

mind, the Center is a highly sophisticated, special-purpose facility for receiving, 

processing, and disseminating remotely 

sensed high-altitude spacecraft and aircraftacquired imagery. EDC also provides 

assistance in remote sensing applications 

to resource inventory, monitoring, and 

management.

Early in 1975, the EDC launched a 

vigorous energy-management program,

124 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
EROS Data Center, Sioux Falls, 

South Dakota

which began with immediate action on the 

most obvious initiatives that could be 

implemented without added cost or 

replacement with updated systems, such as 

reduced interior and exterior lighting, 

modified zone thermostat settings, discontinuance of snow melting systems, and 

optimum start/stop of heating, ventilating, 

and air conditioning fans during nonworking hours. This was followed with an engineering study of the building and its systems to identify cost-effective retrofit 

projects and development of an overall 

program to be implemented as funds 

become available. In addition, separate 

studies were made to determine the feasibility of installing a solar system for heating water for the photolabs, which are 

large-volume users of tempered water. 

Also, because water is a critical resource in 

South Dakota, the feasibility of recycling 

waste water with treatment and filtration 

was studied. The EROS facility uses 1 

million gallons of water per month. Both 

systems were proven to be cost-effective 

and were installed in 1979. The solar system, with 510 flat plate collectors of 15 

square feet each, is one of the largest in

use. In addition, the facility's computerized 

management system, a Honeywell Delta 

2000, was upgraded with a Delta 1000 to 

enhance management and make possible 

additional savings in energy use.

Complementing an already successful 

10-year energy management program, 

three new energy conservation projects are 

contributing to a 37.2% reduction in energy 

use. These projects are (1) a heat recovery 

system, which captures otherwise wasted 

heat from computers; (2) a trickledown wall 

solar collector connected to a radiant floor, 

which provides above-freezing temperatures in the storage building for heavy 

road-maintenance equipment; and (3) a load 

shedding program to control demand peak 

on the electric boiler. Together these three 

programs resulted in a total annual BTU 

reduction of 19.5% and an estimated continuing annual savings of 4.6 million BTU's. 

The success of these innovations has led to 

the continuing investigation and implementation of other energy projects that will 

produce even greater energy savings in the 

future.

Two most recent innovations are (1) 

using the emergency diesel generator to

Administrative and Facilities Support 125
power one of the 250-ton centrifugal water 

chillers during a peak electric power alert 

and (2) replacing the 65-ton indoor cooling 

tower, used for the past 12 years for condenser water cooling in the computer room 

air conditioning, with a unit and system 

capable of shedding power demand during 

peak alert times by providing chilled water 

directly to all computer room air conditioners.

The EROS energy management program launched in 1975 has not lost its 

momentum. There is continuing emphasis 

on fine-tuning the building systems to 

increase efficiency. Energy management is 

a high-priority consideration in the longrange repair and improvement program for 

the EROS center. National recognition of 

program achievements has furnished an 

added incentive in the search for new 

projects, as evidenced by the following 

recognition and illustrated by the selected 

program for 1987-88.

In addition to a Federal Energy Efficiency Award in 1985, the EROS Data 

Center facility management has been the 

recipient of other State and national recognition. The Heat Recovery Project 

received a Department of Energy award 

for design and installation. It also received 

a third place national award from the 

American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Engineers 

(ASHRAE). Also, the EROS Data Center 

was selected by Honeywell to receive Honeywell's "Energy Management Achievement Award" for outstanding accomplishment in controlling energy and reduction of 

facility operating costs. In addition, the 

Trickle Down Solar Wall/Deep Heat Radiant Floor and Computerized Load Management were two of six South Dakota energy 

conservation projects selected by the State 

to be entered into the Department of 

Energy's 1985 National Awards Program 

for Energy Innovation and were singled 

out for awards.

Top-priority projects in the fiscal year 

1988 program include: 

 Replace two computer room air conditioners, which have reached the end of 

their lifecycle, with more efficient and 

higher capacity units. The added capacity 

will satisfy the need of the Advanced Very 

High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) 

computer and will insure the reliability of 

the computer room air conditioning.

 Replace indoor cooling tower with a 

new 85-ton variable-frequency-drive cooling tower. The tower would be installed 

with its own pump to provide redundant 

free cooling for the computer room. Also, 

the original pump will be free to provide 

heat recovery loop cooling through the heat 

exchanger.

 Shed outdoor lights during peak periods. Since the emergency generator is only 

used for lighting during power outages, it 

is available to use for limiting the demand 

charge. By installing a transfer switch from 

the generator to the existing panels, 105 

kW could be dropped, which would save 

$1,184 per month.

 Place power roof ventilators on the central building control system. Placing the 

control of power roof ventilators on the 

Honeywell Delta 1000 will enable the 

power roof ventilators to be cycled with the 

fans to prevent negative pressure in the 

building.

 Investigate the feasibility of converting 

the ventilation system from cold heat to a 

variable volume system using variable frequency drives on the fan system.

Automation Initiatives

Improving support services through 

automation has been a major thrust of the 

U.S. Geological Survey as it seeks to improve program efficiency and productivity.

The scientific program activities of the 

USGS require an efficient and responsive 

network of support services, in order to 

hire and train staff, procure supplies and 

services, and manage facilities and equipment. These services, which are provided 

by the Administrative Division, are increasingly being provided through automated systems. These systems are used to 

process internal transactions, to provide 

management information, and to meet external reporting requirements. The systems in operation include such administrative support functions as personnel, space 

and personal property management, 

procurement, supply management, and 

accounting.

Four strategic goals are guiding the 

bureau's efforts to improve systems: systems should be easy to access and use, 

computerized processing should replace

126 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
Exploring the use of automated 

technology to enhance work 

methods and procedures, the 

Computer Aided Design (CAD) 

system is shown in operation in 

the Western Region Management Office. CAD captures data 

and produces graphic displays 

of facilities features, with highspeed revision capability, increasing productivity in space 

and facilities management 

activities.

paper processing wherever possible, procedures should be streamlined and standardized, and the various administrative 

systems should be interconnected to minimize duplication.

Highlights of recent accomplishments 

include the following:

 The Survey's new Personnel Action 

System provides online processing for the 

preparation and routing of the Request for 

Personnel Action (Standard Form 52). The 

electronic alternative to the paper form 

used for all job actions (for example, 

recruitment, hiring, promotions, reassignments) eliminates duplicate data entry and 

paperwork and allows improved tracking of 

the status of personnel actions. This system eventually will include performance 

standard and appraisal tracking, online 

model performance standards, online position skill requirements, standard position 

descriptions, and processing of training 

forms.

 Job vacancy announcements are now 

transmitted automatically to USGS locations nationwide every week through the 

Automated Vacancy Announcement Distribution System (AVADS), an electronic 

mail system. In addition to providing 

employees with information on job opportunities on a more timely basis, AVADS 

saves much of the cost of printing and 

mailing vacancy announcements.

 USGS field offices can now transmit to 

the Survey's central finance office the 

information required to process and pay 

selected vendors' invoices. The Field Entry 

of Accounting Data (FEAD) project allows 

remote entry of Blanket Purchase Agreement payment transactions to the bureau 

financial management system. This not 

only speeds processing, ensuring prompt 

payment of bills, but also increases internal 

controls over the payment process. Duplicate data entry, mailing costs, and mail 

delays are reduced or eliminated as well.

 The Property Management System has 

been redesigned to improve the quality and 

timeliness of data pertaining to USGS 

equipment and vehicles. It will provide 

improved reporting capabilities to both 

administrative and program managers 

regarding inventories, transfers, and other 

information and will reduce the need for 

maintaining duplicate information throughout the bureau.

 A selection of off-the-shelf software 

will improve procurement operations by 

allowing the rapid generation of solicitation 

and contract documents tailored to the specific requirements of each acquisition. 

Information processing and document assembly functions will be combined with the 

automatic provision of relevant Federal 

Acquisition Regulation text in this system. 

This initiative will both reduce the lead

Administrative and Facilities Support T 27
As pan of the Administrative 

Division's efforts to replace paper flows with data flows, the 

Field Entry of Accounting Data 

(FEAD) system was implemented in 1987. By allowing 

data entry to the bureau financial management system from 

field locations, FEAD speeds 

the payment of Blanket Purchase Agreement charges and 

increases quality control 

assurance.

time needed to produce a solicitation document and improve the quality of contract 

documents.

USGS Leads the Way 

to New

Department-wide 

Financial System

In September 1987, the Department 

of the Interior announced the selection of 

an "off-the-shelf standardized financial 

management system to be used across 

the department, culminating more than a 

year of work led by the U.S. Geological 

Survey. The nearly $5 million, 10-year contract will allow the Department of the 

Interior to consolidate ten existing accounting and payment systems into one 

efficient system. The decision to seek this 

improvement was made after an extensive 

study of Interior financial systems found 

that most were labor-intensive and expensive, used outmoded technology, and 

lacked compatibility.

The Department chose the USGS to 

lead the acquisition effort because of its 

own existing centralized financial management system, its expertise in telecommunications, its experience with servicing 

widely varying requirements over geographically dispersed operations, and its 

proven track record in major ADP procurements and automation of administrative 

activities. USGS staff were deeply involved in the Department's review of its 

existing systems, assisting in the basic data 

collection and subsequent analysis of findings and consultants' recommendations. 

The Survey was also instrumental in developing and evaluating alternative approaches once the decision was made to improve 

financial operations on a department-wide 

basis. Choices ranged from modifying an 

existing bureau system, to starting a new 

and major inhouse systems development 

effort, to turning to the private sector. The 

recommendation of the Survey-led team of 

bureau representatives was to investigate 

the availability of commercially available 

software designed for Federal Government 

accounting and payment operations. This 

team also developed detailed operating 

characteristics and requirements for a 

departmental system that could meet the

128 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
needs of both large and small bureaus and 

carried out the market survey.

The Department of the Interior 

decided to procure a single departmentwide accounting system based on commercially available technology in December 

1986. The USGS was designated to carry 

out the procurement. The resulting request 

for proposals, developed during early 1987, 

required potential contractors to undergo a 

rigorous 24-hour operational capabilities 

test to demonstrate that their systems 

could meet Interior's requirements; this 

was one of the most comprehensive evaluation efforts ever conducted for such a 

system in the Federal Government.

The contract for the Department of the 

Interior financial management system was 

awarded, ahead of schedule, to American 

Management Systems, Inc. The USGS and 

the Bureau of Reclamation were the first 

Interior bureaus to begin implementing the 

new system in October 1987. The Survey is 

providing assistance to other Interior 

bureaus as they convert to the new system 

over a 2-year period. In addition to 

software, the contract provides for documentation; training of more than 1,000 

accountants, technicians, and managers 

nationwide; maintenance and updates of 

the software over the system's 10-year life; 

and 47,000 hours of technical support 

services.

With this successful contract award, 

the Department of the Interior has taken 

an important step toward its goals 

of improving the efficiency of financial 

management operations, reducing the 

number of accounting systems, standardizing the processing of accounting data and 

payments, and reducing the cost of financial management operations within the 

Department.

Volunteer for Science 

Program Taking Pride 

by Taking Part

Over 300 volunteers contributed more 

than 62,000 hours of their time to the U.S. 

Geological Survey during fiscal year 1987. 

Some of these volunteers are retired USGS 

employees who wish to continue their association with the USGS and its programs. 

Other volunteers are teachers who spend 

their sabbaticals or summers with the 

USGS and contribute to scientific research. 

College students pursuing degrees in the 

earth sciences and other professional fields 

broaden their knowledge and experience as 

they work side by side with USGS personnel. While satisfying their curiosity about 

career possibilities, high-school students

Volunteers and Director Dallas 

Peck after special volunteer 

awards ceremony at USCS 

National Center, August 1987.

Administrative and Facilities Support 129
give valuable aid to scientists and administrators. Other community members volunteer their time and talents because of their 

interest in public service and in the earthscience mission of the USGS. The Volunteer for Science Program is a companion 

program to the national Take Pride in 

America public awareness campaign that 

encourages citizens to help take care of the 

public resources through volunteer efforts. 

After a modest beginning in 1986 with 55 

volunteers, the program, by 1987, had quadrupled in size.

The program is of mutual benefit to 

the USGS and to the volunteers. Some 

volunteers welcome access to the equipment and technology and the opportunity 

for field work because they love earth 

science. Students have been able to 

develop USGS work projects in cooperation with academic institutions that have 

provided college credit in their pursuit of a 

degree. The benefits derived by the USGS 

are even more obvious. The volunteers 

have been involved in such major USGS 

projects as the Mineral Resources Appraisal Project, the Glacier National Park 

Project, the radon project, and the Arctic 

Alaska Project. They have also performed 

project support assignments involving such 

duties as recording rainfall measurements, 

field mapping, constructing streamflow 

gaging stations, and preparing scientific 

reports.

In the first annual special volunteer 

awards ceremony at the National Center in 

August 1987, the Director presented Special Award Certificates to 60 volunteers

who have worked on project assignments 

at the national headquarters of the USGS. 

Similar ceremonies of recognition will be 

held in major USGS field locations.

Pleased with the results of the program so far, the USGS has plans not only to 

increase the number of volunteers but also 

to broaden the scope of their activities 

wherever possible. The U.S. Geological 

Survey is convinced that a quality corps of 

volunteers can make significant contributions to the earth sciences, while giving the 

volunteers the satisfaction of serving the 

public and being part of the Take Pride in 

America campaign.

Unit Award for 

Excellence of Service

Each year the Department of the Interior presents the Unit Award for Excellence of Service to those bureaus and (or) 

offices that have either met or exceeded all 

of its business and economic development 

program goals. The award for fiscal year 

1986 was presented to the Director, U.S. 

Geological Survey, by Secretary of the 

Interior Don Hodel in April 1987, for the 

introduction of new and innovative ideas 

and techniques in areas related to increased staff training, concerted management attention, and special outreach efforts that resulted in significant progress in 

contracts awarded to small, disadvantagedand women-owned business concerns.

130 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
International Activities

Highlights

The 1986 Gas Disaster 

at Lake Nyos, 

Cameroon, West 

Africa

By Michele L. Tuttle, John P. 

Lockwood, and William C. 

Evans

On August 21, 1986, a sudden release 

of gas from Lake Nyos in northwestern 

Cameroon, West Africa (fig. 1), caused the 

death of 1,700 people. Within days of the 

event, the U.S. Office of Foreign Disaster 

Assistance (OFDA) sent three USGS scientists to investigate the geologic and geochemical aspects of the gas release. They

were accompanied by a medical team and, 

later, by a team of environmental specialists.

At 9:30 p.m. on Thursday, August 21, 

rumbling sounds that lasted 15-20 seconds 

were heard from Lake Nyos. In a valley 

below the lake, people in the Nyos village 

suddenly became unconscious. Only four of 

the 1,000 people in the village ever awakened. Survivors in areas beyond Nyos village who came out of their homes later 

reported they felt a warm sensation, 

smelled the odor of rotten eggs or gunpowder, and then fell unconscious. When they 

awakened, weak and confused, 6 to 36 

hours later, they found family members 

and their animals dead. Deaths were 

reported as many as 11 miles north of the 

lake. Bird and insect life virtually disappeared for at least 48 hours but plant life 

remained largely unaffected.

Before the gas release, there were no 

apparent changes in Lake Nyos that might

--0°

A A "Cameroon Volcanic Line"

10'

Figure 1. Location of Cameroon, 

Lake Nyos, and the Cameroon 

Volcanic Line.

International Activities 131
have forewarned of the event. Afterward, 

however, the lake level was noted to have 

dropped about 3 feet, and there was also 

evidence that water had surged up along 

the southern lake shore ripping up or flattening vegetation to a height of 80 feet. 

Water had apparently splashed over a 260- 

foot-high rock promontory on the southwestern side of the lake, and a small volume of water went over a spillway at the 

northern end of the lake.

By Saturday morning, the lake was 

calm but was rusty red in color due to a thin 

surface layer containing iron hydroxide; 

mats of vegetation that had been ripped up 

by the wave were floating on the surface 

(fig. 2). No seismic activity had been 

recorded at a seismic station 137 miles 

southwest of the lake. Household goods in 

the homes surrounding the lake were 

undisturbed, and rocks remained perched 

precariously on the cliffs above the lake.

It soon became apparent from field 

observations that the geologic setting of 

Lake Nyos held important clues to what 

had set the stage for the disaster. Lake 

Nyos occupies a shallow volcanic crater a 

"maar" that formed along a volcanic zone 

that bisects northwestern Cameroon. This 

"Cameroon Volcanic Line," a northeasttrending zone of crustal weakness, extends

1,000 miles from islands in the Atlantic 

Ocean, across northwestern Cameroon into 

northeastern Nigeria. Young basaltic volcanoes with cinder cones and lava flows 

along the numerous circular maars extend 

northeastward across Cameroon. Many of 

the features, including the Lake Nyos 

maar, are unweathered or little eroded, 

having erupted, perhaps, in the last several 

hundred years.

The geology of the region surrounding 

Lake Nyos attests to the violent formation 

of the maar and supports the hypothesis 

that the lake is underlain by a diatreme, a 

near-vertical pipelike conduit (fig. 3). The 

diatreme, filled with collapsed rock and 

permeable volcanic ash, represents the 

zone where a dike of ascending, gas-rich 

basaltic magma from the Earth's mantle 

intersected ground water. The interaction 

of hot lava with water produced a violent 

explosion that formed the maar.

Although the chemical and isotopic 

composition of the gas in Lake Nyos indicates that the gas released on August 21 

came from degassing magma, the gas is not 

volcanic. Volcanic gases contain sulfur and 

chlorine compounds and are associated 

with high-temperature, near-surface eruptions of magma. In contrast, the Lake Nyos 

gas contains extremely low concentrations

Figure 2. Lake Nyos 7 week 

after the disaster showing floating mats of vegetation and the 

rusty-red color of the 

ferric-hydroxide surface layer. 

The lake is 6,316 feet in maximum length (elongated 

NW-SE), and 3,870 feet in maximum width. It is shallow at the 

southern end but drops off 

steeply to a large, flat plain at a 

depth of 682 feet. The spillway 

is on the northern end of the 

lake.

132 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
of carbon monoxide, hydrogen, hydrogen 

sulfide, and sulfur dioxide. Aqueous species of these gases are absent from the lake 

waters as well, and carbon dioxide (C02) 

forms 98 to 99 percent of the gas. The Nyos 

gas is cool; the lake-bottom temperature of 

75 °F is no higher than those in other 

tropical lakes at similar elevation and latitude.

Stratification in lakes is produced by a 

layer of less dense water overlying a layer 

of more dense water. Concentrations of 

dissolved substances in Lake Nyos waters 

show a definite increase with depth, implying that the lake was stratified and that the 

dissolved substances were stored in the 

bottom waters prior to the event. The high 

concentrations of dissolved ferrous iron 

(Fe2+) in the presence of bicarbonate 

(HCOJ) indicate that the lake waters were 

very acidic prior to the event; otherwise, 

the iron would have been removed by 

chemical precipitation of the mineral siderite (FeC03). A large amount of dissolved 

C02 is the only likely candidate for producing the lake's acidity.

Oxygen and hydrogen isotopic compositions of Lake Nyos waters indicate that 

the solutes within the lake were not 

acquired through the normal process of 

evaporative concentration. The solutes, 

including the C02 , likely entered through 

springs near the bottom of the lake where 

confining pressures would be sufficient to 

keep the gas dissolved. The analytical data 

clearly indicate that the Nyos gas, although 

released from magma at great depths 

below the lake, had cooled and lost its 

reactive constituents (such as sulfur and 

chlorine compounds) as it moved upward 

through the permeable diatreme. The gas 

reached the lake as cool, essentially pure 

C02 .

Calculations show that Lake Nyos can 

hold more than a quarter of a cubic mile of 

dissolved C02 when fully saturated. Laboratory measurements indicate that the lake 

currently holds 0.07 mi3 of C02 . The lake 

apparently released up to 0.29 mi3 of C02 , 

an amount sufficient to account for the 

deaths and the drop in lake level immediately following the event. The gas cloud 

most likely was produced by the rapid 

exsolution of large amounts of C02. The gas 

probably made an explosion-like noise and 

caused surface waves to form as it escaped 

from the lake. Because C02 is 1.5 times 

more dense than air, the gas cloud tended

Figure 3. Hypothesized schematic cross section of the diatreme beneath Lake Nyos. This 

structure allowed magmatic gas 

to migrate into the lake where 

it was stored prior to its catastrophic release.

EXPLANATION

Lake sediments

Pyroclastic deposits

Breccia

Alkali basalts

Quartz monzonite

Fault showing movement

to maintain its integrity as it spilled over 

the crater rim into low-lying areas.

The mechanisms that may have caused 

the sudden release of the gas from the 

bottom waters of Lake Nyos include a 

small earthquake, a landslide into the lake, 

or the sudden addition of C02 in the bottom 

of the lake. Essentially any disturbance of 

the unstable, C02-charged bottom waters 

would cause a chain reaction that could 

result in the rapid exsolution and explosive 

release of the C02 .

The people and animals appeared to 

have died quickly of asphyxia (fig. 4). Very 

high concentrations of C02 cause paralysis 

of the respiratory centers in the brain. The 

description by many survivors of the odor 

of "rotten eggs" or "gunpowder," although 

usually associated with sulfur gases, is a 

common "olfactory hallucination" described 

by individuals exposed to high concentrations of C02.

The results of this investigation provided unprecedented insight into the

International Activities 133
Figure 4. Dead cattle littered the 

hillsides around Lake Nyos after 

the event.

conditions associated with the release of 

lethal gas from crater lakes. This insight 

will have application to other crater lakes 

around the world that have the potential 

for similar disasters.

Costa Rican Mineral 

Resource Assessment 

Study

By Richard D. Krushensky

In 1987, the U.S. Geological Survey 

(USGS), the Direccion General de Minas e 

Hidrocarburos, and the Universidad de 

Costa Rica, Republic of Costa Rica, continued a project to assess the non-fuel mineral 

resources of Costa Rica. Grade and tonnage of known deposits were assessed, and 

the probability for the discovery, and 

grade, including quantity, were estimated 

for presently unknown deposits. Such estimates are a major factor in the analysis of 

mineral commodities. The assessment was 

based on an evaluation of existing geologic, 

geochemical, and geophysical data as well 

as on new data gathered during intensive 

field studies. From these data, the team of 

scientists identified several areas, called 

"domains," where the geology is conducive 

to the development of one or more types of 

mineral deposits. Gold and silver are presently mined in Costa Rica. Occurrences of 

copper, lead, zinc, manganese, chromium, 

aluminum, and iron- and titanium-bearing 

sands are also present. Although some of 

these latter commodities have been mined 

in the past, none are now being mined.

Gold, the most important Costa Rican 

metallic mineral resource, is presently 

mined from veins and alluvial deposits. 

Two domains have been delineated for vein 

gold deposits and two for placer gold deposits. Gold production in Costa Rica has been 

primarily from veins emplaced near the 

Earth's surface. USGS scientists predict 

that there is a 90 percent chance of discovering 4 additional but presently unknown 

vein gold deposits, and a 10 percent chance 

of discovering 17 vein gold deposits in a belt 

that extends from Canas, along the Cordillera de Tilaran in the north, to Pueblo

134 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
Figure 5. Location map of Costa 

Rica.

50 MILES

50 KILOMETERS

Nuevo, just within the Cordillera de Talamanca, in the south (fig. 5).

Geologic study indicates a spatial and 

genetic relationship between the intrusion 

of rhyolite and vein gold deposits in the 

Santa Clara Mine. This study has also 

indicated many more rhyolitic intrusions 

than were previously known. As a result, 

the probability for the discovery of more 

vein gold in the Santa Clara deposit is 

greatly increased. Undiscovered vein gold 

deposits would be most likely to occur near 

rhyolitic intrusions, probably localized in 

quartz veins occupying shear or fault 

zones. Although domains for placer gold 

have been well explored in the area of the

Osa Peninsula, two newly delineated 

domains in this area have high potential for 

hosting fossil placer gold deposits.

The mineral resource assessment also 

indicated that resources of copper, lead, 

zinc, manganese, chromium, and aluminum 

also exist in Costa Rica, and domains for 

deposits of these commodities have been 

delineated. Small deposits of podiform 

chromite are known from the Santa Elena 

Peninsula in northwestern Costa Rica, and 

there is a 50 percent probability of 13 more 

and a 10 percent chance of 63 or more 

similar but undiscovered deposits in that 

same domain. Because all known chromite 

deposits in Costa Rica contain less than 43

International Activities 135
metric tonnes, it is assumed that any additional undiscovered deposits will also be 

small.

The study also indicates that there is a 

50 percent probability for the discovery of 

at least three porphyry copper deposits in 

Costa Rica. Such deposits typically contain 

140 million metric tonnes or more of ore 

that ranges from 0.15 to 2 percent copper. 

It is estimated that there is a 90 percent 

chance of one such deposit, a 50 percent 

chance of three, and a 10 percent chance of 

eight porphyry copper deposits being discovered within one domain in the Cordillera de Talamanca in southern Costa Rica. 

Detailed geologic mapping, rock and soil 

sampling, ground geophysical surveys, and 

drilling of defined target areas need to be 

carried out in order to identify these potential new deposits.

Volcanogenic manganese is known in 

more than 90 deposits in two domains in the 

Nicoya Peninsula, and undiscovered deposits like those known at the surface are 

believed to exist at depth. Bauxite, an ore 

of aluminum, has been thoroughly explored 

for in two domains in the area of the Valle 

General (valley of the Rio General) and 

southward, almost to the Panama border. 

There is a distinct possibility of additional 

undiscovered bauxite in a similar domain in 

the area of Guapiles in east-central Costa 

Rica. Three very small massive-sulfide 

deposits, with major copper and minor zinc 

content, occur in the Nicoya Peninsula; 

there is a 50 percent probability that one 

other such deposit exists in this same 

domain.

Other deposit types present in Costa 

Rica for which domains have not been 

identified include low-grade offshore placer 

iron (magnetite), polymetallic veins (veins 

with three or more metals), copper skarn 

(deposits formed at the contact between 

intrusive rocks and sedimentary country 

rock), lead-zinc skarn, and hot-spring sulfur deposits. The mineral-resource assessment of Costa Rica was carried out with 

funds provided by the Agency for International Development through the Los 

Alamos National Laboratory. The assessment supports the President's Caribbean 

Initiative whereby nonmilitary methods 

are sought to assist Central American 

countries in improving their economic 

conditions.

Coal Resource 

Assessment in 

Pakistan

Exploratory drilling during fiscal year 

1987, as a part of the Coal Resource Exploration and Assessment Program (COALREAP), has significantly increased knowledge of the coal resource potential in the 

Sind Province in southern Pakistan. 

COALREAP is a technical assistance venture by the U.S. Geological Survey with 

the Geological Survey of Pakistan under 

the auspices of the Energy Planning and 

Development Project of the U.S. Agency 

for International Development (USAID). 

Drilling is done by a USAID-contracted 

Pakistani company, and geophysical logging of holes is done by a U.S. company, 

also contracted by USAID.

Since April 1986, 32 holes, totaling 

25,306 feet (53 percent cored), have been 

drilled and logged (fig. 6). The holes averaged approximately 800 feet in depth; the 

deepest hole was 1,247 feet, the shallowest 

423 feet. Coal beds that were penetrated 

by drilling range from a few inches to about 

20 feet in thickness; however, in only one 

hole did a coal bed exceed 7 feet in thickness. Coal beds more than 2 feet thick were 

drilled in 17 holes; 2 holes contained 4 such 

beds, 6 holes had 3. Samples of coal were 

collected from all beds that were a foot or 

more thick. In all, 141 coal samples were 

collected from 26 drill holes. The samples 

are presently being analyzed, but early 

analysis of the 20-foot-thick bed indicates 

that it is of good quality. The middle section 

of the 20-foot bed contains an average of 3.3 

percent ash and 0.6 percent sulfur; the 

parts of the bed above and below contain 

somewhat higher ash and sulfur percentages.

Preliminary interpretations of recent 

investigations suggest that:

 The presently known and mined coal 

fields (Lakhra, Sonda-Thatta, MetingJhimpir) are not isolated occurrences but 

rather are in a region apparently completely underlain by coal-bearing strata.

 Several exploratory drill holes did not 

penetrate coal, but regularly occurring 

delimitors for individual coal fields were 

not found.

 Most coal beds appear to be discontinuous layers, and, although many different

136 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
68W 68°30'

25°45' -

25°30' -

25°15' -

25W -

24°45' -

UAL-2 . , »

UAL-3 -UAL-6 UAL-9

LOCATION MAP

fammu 

.and 

Kashmir 

Islamabad

PAKISTAN

Study Area

Boundary representation is 

not necessarily authoritative

Tando 

Muhammed

EXPLANATION

 Drill hole

 Village/City

Figure 6. General location of 

holes drilled during 1986-87 for 

the Coal Resource Exploration 

and Assessment Program in 

southern Pakistan.

coal beds within the region might be 

exploitable, this discontinuous nature will 

significantly affect development of largescale mining.

 The area east of Sonda and Meting and 

continuing east of the Indus River to south 

of Tando Muhammed Khan appears to be 

the most promising for new coal potential 

because of the discovery of consistently 

thick (thicker than 3 feet) coal beds in holes 

of close proximity. Most potentially minable coal beds in this area, however, are 

buried deeper than those presently being 

mined near Lakhra to the north.

 The area between Hyderabad and 

Lakhra surely contains coal beds at minable depths and should be explored.

 Anomalously shallow underground coal 

mines along the western and northwestern 

parts of the Lakhra area suggest stripmine potential that merits exploration.

Compilation and analysis of all available coal geology and resource data, which 

are now underway, will improve current 

understanding of the regional and local 

relationships of stratigraphic and structural frameworks, thereby improving the 

efficiency of future exploration and development of Pakistan's coal resources.

International Activities 137
In order to ensure Pakistan's eventual 

self-sufficiency in all aspects of coal exploration, assessment, development, and production, training and institutional support 

have been emphasized in the current 

COALREAP effort. Consequently, in addition to the intensive on-the-job training 

fostered by the close working relationships 

between the Geological Survey of Pakistan 

and U.S. Geological Survey counterparts, 

Pakistani scientists are participating in 

short-term and long-term training courses 

in the United States. To date, 31 Pakistani 

officers have participated in a coal geology 

and assessment course at the University of 

Southern Illinois. Two Pakistani geologists 

have served an 8-week temporary duty 

assignment at USGS offices to assist in the 

coal resource assessment of the Pakistan 

areas explored during this past year and, in 

the process, to gain familiarity with USGS 

coal-resource assessment procedures. Two 

Pakistani Survey coal petrographers are in 

long-term graduate training at the University of Southern Illinois.

Under the expert guidance of Geoscience Associates Inc., three Pakistani Survey and Pakistani Water and Power Development Authority officers have been 

trained to conduct all aspects of geophysical logging procedures for drill holes. 

Four additional trainees have partially 

completed a training program and have 

been certified as operators.

Pakistan presently has few private 

contractors knowledgeable in the techniques to drill coal-bearing sediments successfully. COALREAP, therefore, has 

been especially beneficial in encouraging 

private-sector participation in future coal 

exploration programs by contracting and 

training a corps of drillers.

Coal samples are presently being analyzed at USGS laboratories, but in the 

future all analytical work will be conducted 

in Pakistan. Consequently, chemists from 

both the Pakistan Geological Survey and 

the Pakistan Council for Scientific and 

Industrial Research are being trained in 

the United States to conduct up-to-date 

coal analyses. Pakistani laboratories are 

being equipped with the necessary analytical equipment to allow processing of the 

coal samples within the country.

A Pakistani Survey scientist received 

training in the U.S. to become a systems

analyst and computer specialist for a 

national geodata center, which is a centralized repository for earth-science information that will be available to all. This specialist is now training several other 

computer technicians. Future training will 

include programs for a library information 

manager, a cartographer, a publications 

manager, and a remote-sensing specialist.

China Digital 

Seismograph Network

Under the auspices of the Protocol for 

Scientific and Technical Cooperation in 

Earthquake Studies between the People's 

Republic of China (PRC) and the United 

States, the USGS and the PRC State Seismological Bureau (SSB) have worked cooperatively to design, construct, install, operate, and maintain a nine-station digital 

seismographic network. The China Digital 

Seismograph Network is one of the most 

advanced seismic systems in the world and 

will provide valuable data for assessing the 

crustal structure and evolution of the Asian 

continent and the location and properties of 

Chinese earthquakes. The network will 

further our understanding of the global 

distribution of earthquakes and will provide important data for ongoing cooperative USGS-SSB earthquake prediction 

studies in China. The data will also be 

incorporated on a continuous basis into the 

global seismic data base, which is distributed nationally and internationally by the 

USGS. The USGS designed and developed 

the hardware and software for the network, including nine field systems, a data 

management system that is located in Beijing, and a depot maintenance center, and 

provided training for SSB engineers and 

technicians. The stations that constitute 

the network began initial operation and 

testing during the summer of 1986 and are 

located in Beijing, Lanzhou, Kunming, 

Mudanjiang, Hailar, Enshi, Sheshan 

(Shanghai), Qiongzhong (Hainan Island), 

and Urumqi.

138 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
Antarctic Topographic 

Surveying and 

Mapping Program

The U.S. Geological Survey continued 

its geodetic and cartographic programs in 

Antarctica in support of the National Science Foundation's U.S. Antarctic Research 

Program.

For the 15th year, the Survey sent a 

two-person team to the South Pole Station 

during the austral winter June through 

September 1987 to make observations and 

collect data in support of several long-term 

research projects. These included Doppler 

satellite observations to measure the precession of the Earth's axis at the Pole and 

the direction and magnitude of polar icecap 

movement and to support geodetic networks and provide positional data for 

cartographic purposes. Other activities 

included operation of the USGS Worldwide Standardized Seismological Network 

Station and gathering data for an earth 

tides and ultra-long-period seismic project 

for the University of California at Los 

Angeles.

Field surveys were conducted during 

the austral summer to obtain Doppler satellite data to recompute older existing geodetic networks on the World Geodetic System 1972 datum and to establish additional 

control for future l:50,000-scale topographic mapping projects in the Dry 

Valley-Minna Bluff-Ross Island area.

The Survey assisted the National Science Foundation, in cooperation with the 

U.S. Navy, in obtaining aerial photography 

for mapping and for various research projects in the Antarctic.

Production of Advanced Very High 

Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) and 

Landsat image maps continued during fiscal year 1987, and three 1:250,000-scale 

reconnaissance maps were submitted to the 

U.S. Board on Geographic Names through 

the Advisory Committee on Antarctic 

Names for names approval. Also, new official Antarctic maps were distributed to 

member nations of the Scientific Committee for Antarctic Research for Geodesy and 

Cartography and to appropriate depositories in the United States.

United States/Mexico 

Border Mapping 

Project

When the current U.S./Mexico border 

mapping project is completed, there will be 

203 color-image maps of the U.S./Mexico 

border from San Diego, California, to the 

Gulf Coast of Texas. Eighty-eight colorimage maps have been published as of 

September 1987. Completion of the entire 

project is scheduled for June 1988.

The U.S. Geological Survey began the 

U.S./Mexico border mapping project at the 

request of the U.S. Customs Service in 

1979. The goal of the project is to produce 

1:25,000-scale U.S./Mexico border maps 

from high-altitude color-infrared aerial 

photographs. In 1981, a similar request 

was made by the International Boundary 

and Water Commission to meet its legislative requirements for updating map coverage of the international boundary along the 

Rio Grande and Colorado Rivers. To accommodate the Commission's particular 

needs, the Survey is producing a separate, 

full-color edition.

The color-infrared images, which do 

not show colors in their "natural" state, are 

being enhanced to produce a simulated 

natural green that makes vegetation and 

other ground features easier to recognize. 

The published maps will provide about 

3 miles of coverage on each side of the 

border.

Technology Transfer 

and Pan American 

Countries

Under the auspices of the Pan American Institute of History and Geography 

(PAIGH), the Survey continued to provide 

assistance in the transfer of cartographic, 

remote sensing, and geographic information system (GIS) technology to Latin 

American member nations.

The PAIGH Test Program to evaluate 

remote sensing for cartographic applications in Latin America is one of the projects 

in which the Survey is playing a major role.

International Activities 139
The project involves the use of Landsat 

Thematic Mapper data, panchromatic data, 

and GIS techniques to produce an experimental map of Viedma, the proposed new 

national capital of Argentina. Another 

PAIGH project in which the Survey has 

been actively involved is the multilingual 

"Glossary of Cartographic and Photogrammetric Terms." The glossary, published in 

1987, contains approximately 1,700 technical terms, each translated into Spanish, 

English, French, and Portuguese.

Training Programs and 

Courses

The USGS planned and administered 

programs for 35 visiting scientists from 16 

countries to conduct research at the USGS 

or at USGS-selected institutions. Formal 

training courses for 94 foreign nationals 

representing 26 countries were provided 

by the Survey during fiscal year 1987:

 "26th International Remote Sensing 

Workshop" in Sioux Falls, South Dakota 

(13 participants).

 "Techniques of Hydrologic Investigations" in Denver, Colorado (13 participants).

 "Training Course in Marine Geology" in 

Moss Landing, California (8 participants).

 On-the-job or academic training for 60 

other foreign nationals either at the Survey 

or at other facilities on behalf of the 

Survey.

The countries where the USGS was 

active during fiscal year 1987 are shown in 

figure 7.

Miscellaneous 

International Activities

 A pilot project using AVHRR and other 

data was conducted to evaluate the location 

and magnitude of locust infestation in Botswana.

 A l:50,000-scale experimental Landsat 

image map of Nairobi West in Kenya was 

prepared by the Environmental Research 

Institute of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, and published by the USGS.

 Plans are underway for the Survey to 

prepare a series of 1:250,000-scale Thematic Mapper image maps of western 

Sudan for a forest inventory project.

 Activities under the Protocol on Scientific and Technical Cooperation in Surveying and Mapping Studies between the PRC 

National Bureau of Surveying and Mapping 

(NBSM) and the USGS are continuing in 

accordance with the work plan for 1987. 

This plan was developed at the second 

meeting of the Joint Working Group in 

Beijing in October 1986. In accordance with 

the work plan for Annex II for developing 

geographic information systems, the 

NBSM and the USGS jointly developed 

and exchanged software packages for map 

digitizing and editing, image display and 

analysis, spatial data processing, and GIS 

applications.

140 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
-

Jllllil

International Activities T41
Famine Predictions

The U.S. Geological Survey, under auspices of the African Bureau in the Agency for 

International Development, is supporting the 

Famine Early Warning System (FEWS), a program to monitor Africa and identify and alert 

populations at risk. The Survey assists in determining the system requirements and provides 

technical advice to implement the spatial data 

base and the geographic information systems 

technology that are used to compile and analyze data pertaining to physical resources, climate and weather, spectral and related monitored information, and health and nutrition in 

order to mitigate the effects of famine. Survey 

staff have formally assessed the FEWS and 

have assisted in designing a 5-year plan for its 

continued implementation. Individual countries, the first being Sudan, are being assisted 

by the Survey in design of systems that will 

integrate with FEWS and also provide for management of information on land assessment, 

land management, and resources monitoring.

Map showing the eight countries (stippled) covered by the 

Famine Early Warning System.

142 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
U.S. Geological Survey 

Missions and Programs

Missions

Our Nation faces some serious questions concerning the availability and use of 

land, water, energy, and mineral resources 

of the Earth. How can we ensure an adequate supply of critical resources in the 

fiiture? In what ways are we irreversibly 

altering our natural environment when we 

use these resources? How can we predict, 

prevent, or mitigate the effects of natural 

hazards? Responses to these and similar 

questions depend on continually increasing 

the knowledge about the structure, resources, and dynamics of the Earth. Collecting, analyzing, and disseminating the 

scientific information necessary to answer 

these questions is the primary mission of 

the U.S. Geological Survey.

The U.S. Geological Survey was established by an Act of Congress on March 3, 

1879, to provide a permanent Federal 

agency to conduct the systematic and scientific "classification of the public lands, 

and examination of the geological structure, mineral resources, and products of 

the national domain."

Since 1879, the research and factfinding role of the USGS has grown and has 

been modified to meet the changing needs 

of the Nation it serves. The USGS, however, has remained principally a scientific 

and technical agency rather than a developmental or regulatory one. Today's programs serve a diversity of needs and users. 

The current mission of the USGS is to 

provide geologic, topographic, and hydrologic information that contributes to the 

wise management of the Nation's natural 

resources and that promotes the safety and 

well-being of the public. This information 

consists of maps, data bases, and descriptions and analyses of the water, energy, 

and mineral resources, the land surface, 

the underlying geologic structure, and the 

dynamic processes of the Earth.

As the Nation's largest earth-science 

research agency, the USGS maintains a 

long tradition of providing accurate and 

impartial information to all, which underscores its continued dedication to "Earth 

Science in the Public Service."

Organization

The USGS is headquartered in 

Reston, Virginia, near Washington, D.C. 

Its scientific programs are administered 

through the Geologic, Water Resources, 

and National Mapping Divisions, supported 

by the Administrative and Information 

Systems Divisions. The Survey conducts 

its research and investigations through an 

extensive organization of regional and field 

offices located throughout the 50 States, 

Puerto Rico, and the Trust Territories.

Budget

In fiscal year 1987, the USGS had 

obligational authority for $620.6 million, 

$432.1 million of which came from direct 

appropriations; $7.7 million came from estimated receipts from map sales, and $180.8 

million came from reimbursements. The

PERCENTAGE ALLOCATION OF FUNDS 

BY DIVISION

GENERAL

ADMINISTRATION

3

U.S. Geological Survey Missions and Programs 143
Survey was reimbursed for work performed for other Federal, State, and local 

agencies whose needs for earth-science 

expertise complement USGS program objectives. Work for State, county, and 

municipal agencies is most often conducted 

on a cost-sharing basis.

Most of the appropriations and reimbursements received by the USGS in fiscal 

year 1987 were distributed to geologic, 

hydrologic, mapping, and administrative 

areas of responsibility. Budget tables 

appear at the end of this section.

Personnel

At the end of fiscal year 1987, the 

USGS had 8,192 permanent full-time 

employees. The Survey's diversified earthscience research programs and services are 

reflected in its workforce, more than half of 

which possesses a Bachelor's or higher

BY ORGANIZATION

DIRECTOR'S OFFICE

AND

ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISION

478

INFORMATION 

SYSTEMS 

DIVISION 

148

level degree. Almost half of the USGS 

employees are professional scientists.

Permanent employees are supported 

by other-than-full-time permanent employees, including many university students 

and faculty members as well as part-time 

employees. This relationship with the academic community has made the expertise 

of many eminent scientists available to the 

USGS. Students have also proved valuable 

during times of increased workload, especially during the field season. Academic 

institutions have also provided a means of 

recruiting qualified young professionals for 

permanent full-time positions upon completion of their studies.

Awards and 

Honors

Each year, USGS employees receive 

awards that range from certificates of 

excellence and monetary awards to recognition of their achievements by election to 

membership or office in professional societies. The large number of these awards 

attests to the high caliber of the Survey 

personnel. Of the many who received 

awards, the USGS is pleased to acknowledge here those individuals who became 

members or officers in professional societies or who received awards from those 

organizations. Also acknowledged are 

those who received the Department of the 

Interior's highest honor, the Distinguished 

Service Award, and those in the Senior 

Executive Service who received management awards.

BY OCCUPATION

OTHER

PROFESSIONALS 

276

GEOPHYSICISTS 

260

CARTOGRAPHERS 

500

WAGE BOARD 

117

Honors

Service in professional societies is one 

of the most important contributions a scientist can make. Societies play a fundamental role in disseminating knowledge as well 

as provide a forum in which new ideas are 

tested. The active participation of Survey 

scientists in professional societies attests to 

the scientific vitality of the bureau. The 

bureau is particularly proud of those individuals who have been elected to society 

presidencies or chairmanships of society 

committees by their professional peers.

144 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
P. Robin Brett, Geologist, was named 

President of the Volcanology, Geochemistry and Petrology Section of the American 

Geophysical Union for the period 1986- 

1988.

Frederick J. Doyle, Research Cartographer, National Mapping Division, was 

appointed the Executive Director of the 

newly formed International Union for Surveys and Mapping.

Robert M. Hamilton, Geologist, was 

named President-Elect of the Seismology 

Section of the American Geophysical Union 

for the period 1986-1988. 

Stanley P. Sauer, Regional Hydrologist 

for the Northeastern Region, Water Resources Division, was named Engineer of 

the Year for the U.S. Geological Survey, 

Department of the Interior, by the National Society of Professional Engineers.

Awards

E-an Zen, Geologist, was awarded the Day 

Medal by the Geological Society of America 

for his application of plate-tectonic theory 

to the geologic history of New England and 

his pioneering research in the field of geochemistry.

Joseph I. Ziony, Geologist, was awarded 

the E.B. Burwell, Jr., Award of the Engineering Geology Division of the Geological 

Society of America for his work as editor of 

USGS Professional Paper 1360, Evaluating Earthquake Hazards in the Los 

Angleles Region An Earth-Science Perspective, an integrated set of studies 

describing methods for evaluating geologically controlled earthquake hazards as a 

basis for reducing future losses. 

Mary Lou Zoback, Geologist, was 

awarded the James B. Macelwane Medal 

by the American Geophysical Union for 

significant contributions to the geophysical 

sciences by a young scientist of outstanding 

ability.

Charles R. Bacon, Geologist, was 

awarded the Wager Prize by the International Association of Volcanology and 

Chemistry of the Earth's Interior for his 

landmark work on the Coso Range and the 

Mt. Mazama-Crater Lake igneous systems. 

John A. Barren, Geologist, was awarded 

the Schuchert Award of the Geological 

Society of America for his work in biostratigraphy in solving a broad variety of geologic, paleoceanographic, and paleoclimatologic problems.

Robert L. Smith, Geologist, was awarded 

the Thorarinsson Medal by the International Association of Volcanology and 

Chemistry of the Earth's Interior for his 

contributions to understanding magma 

chamber processes and resurgent caldera 

eruptions.

Alien H. Watkins, Chief of the Earth 

Resources Observation Systems Data Center, National Mapping Division, was 

awarded the 1986 William T. Pecora Award 

in recognition of his outstanding contributions toward the understanding of the 

Earth in the field of satellite remote sensing. The award, which is sponsored jointly 

by the National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration and the U.S. Department 

of the Interior, was conferred at ceremonies held during the Eleventh William T. 

Pecora Memorial Symposium on May 6, 

1987.

Department of the 

Interior Distinguished 

Service Awards

The highest honor given by the 

Department of the Interior to its employees is the Distinguished Service Award. 

Symbolized by a gold medal, this award for 

outstanding achievement was presented by 

Secretary Donald Hodel to nine USGS 

employees:

William Back, Research Hydrologist, for 

outstanding contributions in advancing the 

knowledge of complex geochemical processes in ground-water systems. 

James E. Biesecker, Assistant Director 

for Information Systems and Chief of the 

Information Systems Division, for outstanding leadership and contributions to 

the U.S. Geological Survey in the fields of 

scientific computing and telecommunications services.

James L. Cook, Regional Hydrologist for 

the Southeastern Region, for exceptional 

achievements in program management. 

James F. Devine, Assistant Director for 

Engineering Geology, for outstanding contributions to the solution of critical national 

problems as a scientist and administrator in 

the U.S. Geological Survey.

U.S. Geological Survey Missions and Programs 145
J. David Love, Geologist, for outstanding 

contributions to defining the geology of 

Wyoming and for his exceptional scientific 

leadership for research programs of the 

U.S. Geological Survey. 

David W. Moody, Chief of the Office of 

National Water Summary and Long Range 

Planning, for contributions to the programs 

of the U.S. Geological Survey through 

external liaison and water-resource assessment activities.

Donald R. Poch, a Personnel Management 

Specialist, for outstanding contributions to 

the personnel management program of the 

U.S. Geological Survey and of the Department of the Interior.

Keith V. Slack, Biologist, for an eminent 

career and outstanding service to the 

Nation as a research biologist in the field of 

aquatic biology.

Merle E. Southern, Chief of the Rocky 

Mountain Mapping Center, in recognition 

of his achievements as an engineer, cartographer, manager, and administrator of the 

National Mapping Program.

Presidential Rank 

Awards

Several USGS managers were honored by the Office of Personnel Management with Presidential Rank Awards for 

1987 in recognition of prolonged highquality accomplishments by career members of the Senior Executive Service. The 

highest honor, the distinguished rank 

award, was given to Doyle G. Frederick, 

Associate Director. Meritorious rank 

awards were given to James F. Devine, 

Assistant Director for Engineering Geology, and James L. Cook, Southeastern 

Region Hydrologist.

Information 

Dissemination

Along with its continuing commitment 

to meet the earth-science needs of the 

Nation, the USGS remains dedicated to its 

original mission to collect, analyze, interpret, publish, and disseminate information 

about the natural resources of the Nation. 

The results of USGS investigations are 

published in its scientific reports and in its 

topographic, geologic, and hydrologic 

maps. About 93,000 different maps and 

books are available for purchase. A series 

of general-interest publications is available 

to inform the public about USGS activities. 

Research results and investigations are 

also published in journals of technical and 

scientific organizations and in publications 

of cooperating Federal and State agencies. 

During fiscal year 1987, the USGS produced 5,252 new and revised topographic, 

geologic, and hydrologic maps; printed 

14,196,626 copies of different maps; distributed 7,528,585 copies of maps; and sold 

5,433,488 copies for $8,211,411. The number of reports approved for publication by 

the USGS in fiscal year 1987 was 5,041, 

with 69 percent designated for publication 

in professional journals and monographs 

outside the USGS and the remainder 

scheduled for publication by the Survey. In 

addition, 509,710 copies of technical reports 

were distributed, of which 44,176 were sold 

for $232,844; and 970 open-file reports were 

released, of which 17,062 copies were sold 

for $219,896. Of the 80 active titles in the 

USGS general-interest publications series, 

355,469 copies were distributed during fiscal year 1987 to meet inquiries from the 

general public. Additionally, of the approximately 8.6 million different aerial and 

space images available for sale, about 

200,000 copies are sold annually. USGS 

maps are also currently available from 

more than 3,200 authorized commercial 

map dealers nationwide.

Program 

Descriptions

Geologic Division

Mission

The basic mission of the Geologic Division is to evaluate the Nation's geologic

146 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
structure and the geologic processes that 

have shaped it, to assess the Nation's mineral and energy resources, and to identify 

and investigate geologic hazards.

 Investigations of geologic hazards provide information for predicting and delineating hazards from earthquakes and volcanoes and for identifying engineering 

problems related to ground failure hazards.

 Regional geologic studies provide geologic maps and regional syntheses of 

detailed geologic data essential to mineral, 

energy, and hazard assessments.

 Offshore geologic studies identify and 

describe the mineral and petroleum 

resources of the offshore areas of the 

United States, including the Exclusive 

Economic Zone, an area one-third larger 

than the land area of the United States.

 Mineral resource investigations assess 

the distribution, quantity, and quality of 

the Nation's mineral resources, with particular emphasis on strategic and critical 

minerals.

 Surveys of energy resources provide 

assessments of the Nation's coal, petroleum, uranium, and geothermal resources 

and enhance capabilities to explore for and 

develop new sources of energy.

Organization

The headquarters office of the Geologic Division is located in Reston, Virginia, and consists of the Office of the Chief 

Geologist and six subordinate offices: 

Earthquakes, Volcanoes, and Engineering; 

Regional Geology; Mineral Resources; 

Energy and Marine Geology; International 

Geology; and Scientific Publications. Assistant Chief Geologists in the Eastern, 

Central, and Western Regions act for the 

Chief Geologist in carrying out general 

objectives, policies, and procedures for the 

Division. Project operations are conducted 

by personnel located principally in regional centers at Reston, Virginia; Denver, 

Colorado; and Menlo Park, California; and 

at field centers in Flagstaff, Arizona; 

Anchorage, Alaska; and Woods Hole, 

Massachusetts.

Geologic Hazards Surveys

The Earthquake Hazards Reduction 

Program conducts a national research

effort to reduce hazards and risks from 

future earthquakes in the United States. 

Specific tasks include evaluation of earthquake potential for seismically active areas 

of the United States and operation of global 

seismic networks.

The Volcano Hazards Program conducts research on volcanic processes to 

help reduce the loss of life, property, and 

natural resources that can result from volcanic eruptions and related hydrologic 

events. The Hawaiian Volcano Observatory and the Cascades Volcano Observatory are the principal field research centers 

for this program.

The Landslide Hazards Program emphasizes field and laboratory research into 

the active Earth processes that result in 

ground failures such as landslides, mudflows, and debris flows.

Land Resource Surveys

The Geologic Framework Program 

conducts basic geologic research to acquire 

fundamental data on the Nation's geologic 

structure and the environmental and 

dynamic processes that have shaped it. 

Geologic mapping, geophysical research on 

the properties of Earth materials, age 

determinations of rocks, and deep continental studies to obtain information on the 

composition, structure, formation, and evolution of the middle and lower crust and 

upper mantle of the Earth are key components of this program.

The Geomagnetism Program measures 

and interprets changes in the strength and 

direction of the Earth's magnetic field. 

Eleven geomagnetic observatories provide 

data for continually updating global navigational charts and maps produced by various 

Federal agencies.

The Climate Change Program conducts research on the natural variability of 

past climate, on the extent of human influence on natural patterns of change, and on 

the magnitude of climate change demonstrated in the geologic record.

The Coastal Erosion Program provides geologic information on the nature, 

extent, and cause of coastal erosion that is 

used by various Federal and State agencies 

to mitigate coastal retreat and land loss.

U.S. Geological Survey Missions and Programs 147
Offshore Geologic Surveys

The Offshore Geologic Framework 

Program conducts scientific investigations 

to acquire an understanding of basic geologic and geophysical characteristics of the 

continental margins, adjacent slope and 

deep-ocean areas, and the Exclusive Economic Zone. Results of these studies and 

analysis of new information are essential 

for energy and mineral resource evaluation 

of these areas.

Mineral Resource Surveys

The National Mineral Resource 

Assessment Program provides comprehensive scientific surveys to identify significant new targets for industry exploration 

in the conterminous United States and 

Alaska, and also provides mineral resource 

information for planning the use of public 

lands.

The Strategic and Critical Minerals 

Program provides comprehensive information on domestic and world resources of 

nonfuel minerals that are essential to a 

strong national economy and defense.

The Development of Assessment 

Techniques Program carries out basic and 

applied research on the origin and the 

geologic, geochemical, and geophysical 

characteristics of mineral deposit systems 

in order to develop concepts and techniques 

to improve the capability to identify and 

evaluate mineral resources.

The Oil Shale Investigations Program 

conducts research to assess the Nation's oil 

shale resources, including investigation of 

the structure and chemistry of oil shale 

deposits and identification of oil shale 

deposits suitable for exploitation under 

current environmental and technological 

constraints.

The Uranium/Thorium Investigations 

Program conducts basic research to determine the nature and distribution of uranium and thorium resources, including 

newly forming uranium deposits and 

daughter products, such as radon, that may 

be health hazards.

The Geothermal Investigations Program conducts basic research to determine 

the nature, distribution, and magnitude of 

the Nation's geothermal resources. These 

studies define the geologic and hydrothermal regimes of the various classes of 

geothermal resources and identify the 

crustal, geochemical, and hydrothermal 

processes that produce geothermal systems.

The World Energy Resources Assessment Program provides information on 

worldwide energy resources for use by 

other agencies in the development of 

national-energy, international-trade, and 

foreign policies.

Water Resources 

Division

Energy Geologic Surveys Mission

The Evolution of Sedimentary Basins 

Program studies the tectonic framework 

and depositional, thermal, and diagenetic 

processes of sedimentary basins in the 

United States to develop data essential to 

the successful exploration for and evaluation of mineral and energy resources.

The Coal Investigations Program conducts geologic, geophysical, and geochemical research to develop scientifically based 

assessments of the quality, quantity, and 

availability of the Nation's coal resources.

The Oil and Gas Investigations Program supports basic and applied research 

on the generation, migration, and entrapment of petroleum and natural gas.

The USGS has the principal responsibility within the Federal Government to 

provide the hydrologic information and 

understanding needed by others to achieve 

the best use and management of the 

Nation's water resources. To accomplish 

this mission, the Water Resources Division, in cooperation with State, local, and 

other Federal agencies:

 Systematically collects and analyzes 

data to evaluate the quantity, quality, and 

use of the Nation's water resources and 

provides results of these investigations to 

the public.

 Conducts water-resource appraisals 

describing the occurrence, availability, and

148 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of surface and ground water.

 Conducts basic and problem-oriented 

hydrologic and related research that aids in 

alleviating water-resources problems and 

provides an understanding of hydrologic 

systems sufficient to predict their response 

to natural or human-caused stress.

 Coordinates the activities of Federal 

agencies in the acquisition of waterresources data for streams, lakes, reservoirs, estuaries, and ground water.

 Provides scientific and technical assistance in hydrologic fields to other Federal, 

State, and local agencies, to licensees of the 

Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, 

and to international agencies on behalf of 

the Department of State.

 Administers the State Water Resources Research Institutes Program and 

the National Water Resources Research 

Grants Program.

Organization

Water Resources Division headquarters is in Reston, Virginia. The Chief 

Hydrologist, the Associate Chief Hydrologist, and four Assistant Chief Hydrologists 

are responsible for the overall direction of 

the Division. National water-research programs are developed at Division headquarters under the direction of the Assistant 

Chief Hydrologist for Research and External Coordination.

General direction of the Division's field 

programs is conducted through four 

Regional Hydrologists, located in Reston, 

Virginia; Atlanta, Georgia; Denver, Colorado; and Menlo Park, California. Fortytwo District Offices carry out the waterresources investigations and datacollection programs of the Division in all 50 

States, Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, 

and the Trust Territories.

National Water Summary Program

The National Water Summary Program provides water information on a 

State-by-state and national basis to aid 

policymakers in the analysis and development of water policies, legislation, and 

management actions. Changing patterns in 

availability, quantity, quality, and use of 

water resources are summarized for use by

Government officials, natural resources 

managers, and the general public.

The principal product of the program 

is an annual National Water Summary that 

describes hydrologic events and water conditions for the water year and provides a 

State-by-state overview of specific waterrelated issues.

National Water-Quality Assessment Program

The USGS began a National WaterQuality Assessment Program to (1) provide 

nationally consistent descriptions of the 

correct status of the quality of the Nation's 

water resources over a large, diverse, and 

geographically distributed portion of the 

country; (2) provide a baseline for evaluating future trends in water quality and, 

where possible, define trends in water 

quality over recent decades; and (3) provide an understanding of the factors influencing water quality and thereby provide 

the basis to forecast change and evaluate 

the likely effect on water quality of various 

proposed remedial actions. Initial efforts 

involve four surface-water and three 

ground-water pilot studies.

Hazardous Waste Hydrology 

Programs

The USGS conducts research and 

investigations into the disposal and release 

of hazardous chemical and radioactive 

wastes to provide information that will help 

in alleviating their effects on the Nation's 

water resources. The Survey evaluates the 

existing and potential effects on water 

resources of earth-science considerations in 

hazardous-waste disposal and provides 

baseline data on the chemical contamination of surface and ground water to assist 

the Department of Energy in developing 

procedures and guidelines for identifying 

suitable waste-disposal sites. Radioactivewaste studies are conducted in the Nuclear 

Waste Hydrology Program, the principal 

emphasis of which is a better understanding of radionuclide transport in groundwater systems. Nonradioactive wastes are 

the focus of the Toxic Substances Hydrology Program, which provides research

U.S. Geological Survey Missions and Programs 149
data to mitigate existing and future contamination problems.

Federal-State Cooperative 

Program

Regional Aquifer Systems Analysis 

Program

The Regional Aquifer Systems Analysis Program is a systematic study of a 

number of regional ground-water systems 

that represent a significant part of the 

Nation's water supply. The program includes assessment of discharge-recharge 

dynamics, hydrogeologic and chemical controls governing response of aquifer systems to stress, and development of computer simulation models.

Acid Rain Program

The USGS provides information 

needed to improve the scientific understanding of the occurrence and effects of 

acid rain, so that judgments can be made 

about effective measures for controlling or 

alleviating the problem. Components of the 

acid rain research and monitoring program 

include determination of the effects of acid 

deposition on lakes, streams, and aquifers, 

operation of the National Trends Network, 

and research into more precise methods of 

measurement. The program is coordinated 

through the Interagency Task Force on 

Acid Precipitation.

Hydrologic Data Collection 

Program

The Hydrologic Data Collection Program provides information on the quantity, 

quality, location, and use of the Nation's 

surface and ground water to support the 

needs of Federal, State, and local governments. Data collection stations are maintained at selected locations to provide 

records on streamflow, reservoir and lake 

storage, ground-water levels, and the quality of surface and ground water. These data 

form an information base that supports 

national and regional assessments of water 

resources.

The Federal-State Cooperative Program, which comprises more than 40 percent of overall Division activity, is a partnership for water-resources investigations 

involving 50-50 cost sharing between the 

USGS and State or local government agencies. One of the program's unique characteristics is that the USGS performs most of 

the work on behalf of the cooperators. A 

variety of hydrologic data-collection activities and water-resources investigations are 

included, for which the USGS represents 

national interests and more than 900 cooperating agencies represent State and local 

interests.

National Research Program

Basic research in the Water Resources 

Division focuses on increasing understanding of the fundamental hydrologic processes of the Nation's ground- and surfacewater systems. Knowledge and techniques 

derived from these efforts are directed at 

solving current problems and anticipating 

future problems. Research studies are concentrated in surface-water hydrology, geochemistry, ground-water hydrology, sediment transport and geomorphology, water 

chemistry, and ecology.

State Water Resources Research 

Institutes Program

The State Water Resources Research 

Institutes Program, the costs of which are 

shared by Federal and State governments, 

supports 54 Water Research Institutes at 

land-grant colleges or universities in the 50 

States, the District of Columbia, Puerto 

Rico, the Virgin Islands, and Guam. 

Research projects at the institutes are carried out in all water-related fields including 

engineering, and the physical, biological, 

and social sciences.

150 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
Water Resources Research Grants 

Program

The Water Resources Research 

Grants Program supports research as defined in the Water Resources Research Act 

of 1964. Competitive grants are awarded 

on a dollar-for-dollar matching basis to 

qualified educational institutions, foundations, private firms, individuals, or agencies of local or State governments. Research is supported on water-resourcesrelated problems of national interest.

National Mapping 

Division

departmental Board on Geographic Names. 

The USGS also compiles, publishes, and 

maintains the National Gazetteer of the 

United States of America and manages the 

National Geographic Names Data Base.

Organization

Division headquarters, located in 

Reston, Virginia, is composed of three primary organizational units: Plans and Operations, Research, and Information and 

Data Services. Four mapping centers 

(Reston, Virginia; Rolla, Missouri; Denver, 

Colorado; and Menlo Park, California) and 

the Earth Resources Observation Systems 

Data Center (Sioux Falls, South Dakota) 

perform the operational mapping, remote 

sensing, printing, product distribution, and 

data dissemination activities.

Mission Map Production

The primary mission of the National 

Mapping Division is to conduct the 

National Mapping Program. This program, 

which involves collecting, archiving, and 

disseminating cartographic, geographic, 

and remotely sensed data, produces maps 

and related cartographic information in 

graphic and digital form.

To accomplish this mission, the Division:

 Collects, compiles, and analyzes information about natural and manmade features on the Earth's surface and documents 

changes in those features.

 Produces and maintains a series of accurate, up-to-date, general-purpose base and 

thematic maps.

 Develops and applies advanced cartographic techniques and systems to geographic information systems.

 Develops and maintains a digital cartographic and geographic data base for various purposes.

 Coordinates Federal mapping, digital 

cartographic, and remote sensing activities 

as designated by the Office of Management 

and Budget.

 Represents the national interest 

through participation in international mapping and training activities.

The USGS is responsible for all functions that relate to domestic geographic 

names, including staff support to the interThe USGS prepares, prints, and distributes base, topographic, and selected 

thematic maps of the Nation that are used 

extensively for land planning, land management, and recreation purposes.

Primary topographic maps, including 

7.5-minute maps mostly at 1:24,000 scale 

for almost all areas of the lower 49 States 

and 15-minute maps of Alaska at 1:63,360 

scale, are especially useful where detailed 

information is needed for all types of land 

and resource management. These detailed 

maps are continually updated and revised. 

Current program emphasis is on the production and maintenance of maps of urban 

areas and rapidly developing coastal areas, 

energy areas, and public lands.

Intermediate-scale maps prepared at 

1:100,000 scale are used by the Bureau of 

Land Management for displaying resource 

inventories, by the Bureau of the Census 

for support of the 1990 Decennial Census, 

and by other agencies.

The 1:250,000-scale map series provides complete topographic coverage of the 

United States. These maps are widely used 

by Federal and State agencies for preparing other base and special-purpose maps. 

Other base maps are available, including 

1:500,000-scale State base maps and 

smaller scale U.S. base maps.

The land use and land cover maps, 

produced in graphic and digital form

U.S. Geological Survey Missions and Programs 151
TOPOGRAPHIC MAP SERIES

Series

7.5-minute 

15-minute 

Intermediate-scale 

quadrangle

U.S. 1:250,0003

International Map of 

the World

Scale

1:24,000' 

l:62,500a 

1:100,000

1:250,000

1:1,000,000

One Inch 

Represents

2,000 feet 

about 1 mile 

over 1.5 miles

about 4 miles

about 16 miles

Standard 

Quadrangle 

Size 

(latitude & 

longitude)

7.5 x 7.5 min. 

15 x 15 min. 

30 min. x 1°

I°x2°

4°x6°

Quadrangle 

Area 

(square miles)

49 to 71 

197 to 282 

1,145 to 2, 167

4,580 to 8,669

73,734 to 102,759

'For Alaska, the scale is 1:25,000 and for Puerto Rico, 1:20,000.

2For Alaska, the scale is 1:63,360 (1 inch represents 1 mile) and the quadrangle size is 15 x 20 to 36 minutes.

3Maps of Alaska and Hawaii vary from these standards.

primarily at 1:250,000 scale and at 

1:100,000 scale in selected areas, provide 

the only systematic nationwide inventory 

of land use and land cover data.

The National Atlas program provides 

1:2,000,000- and l:7,500,000-scale maps and 

smaller scale maps, digital cartographic 

data, and other information on key physical, environmental, cultural, socioeconomic, and historical characteristics of the 

Nation.

Image Mapping

The USGS prepares photoimage products in response to specific requirements of 

Federal and State agencies, particularly 

the Bureau of Land Management, the Soil 

Conservation Service, the Forest Service, 

and the Customs Service. These products 

include:

 Orthophotoquads, produced from aerial 

photographs and prepared in standard 

scales and formats meeting National Map 

Accuracy Standards.

 Side-looking airborne radar data for use 

in image mapping, geologic mapping, and 

geologic resource surveys.

 Landsat Multispectral Scanner and 

Thematic Mapper satellite data for use in 

preparing image map products.

Since 1978, the USGS has served as 

the designated lead agency in a Federal 

multiagency National High-Altitude Photography Program to avoid duplication in 

contracting high-altitude photography and 

to achieve a consistent and systematic photographic data base of the conterminous 

United States. Photographic coverage 

under this program is now complete. In 

1987, a new program, the National Aerial 

Photography Program, was initiated to

provide higher resolution and larger scale 

photographs of the conterminous United 

States.

Digital Cartography

The USGS continues to expand and 

improve the National Digital Cartographic 

Data Base to make cartographic and geographic data available in a form suitable for 

computer-based analyses. The Division is 

responsible for coordinating digital cartographic activities throughout the Federal 

Government. The Division chairs the Federal Interagency Coordinating Committee 

on Digital Cartography, which is responsible for the exchange of information and 

ideas on technology and methods for managing and using digital spatial data. Current activities include digitizing geographic 

data from l:24,000-scale maps to meet new 

Federal and State needs and providing 

digital cartographic data for derivative 

maps.

Geographic Information Systems 

Research and Applications

The Division is working with the other 

Divisions in the bureau to establish a sound 

geographic information systems research 

base, to conduct applications projects, and 

to encourage USGS scientists to use this 

powerful tool in their investigations. Current emphasis is on the application of new 

techniques in the generation of thematic 

maps, including microcomputer-based map 

compilation, color separation, and image 

processing. High priority is being given to 

the development of data standards, data 

exchange formats, data base management

152 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
systems, and the definition of an advanced 

geographic information system for earthscience studies.

Earth Resources Observation 

Systems

Remotely sensed data are produced, 

archived, and distributed under the Earth 

Resources Observation Systems (EROS) 

Program. The largest users of the data are 

Government agencies and private firms 

involved with the exploration and assessment of energy, mineral, and renewable 

resources. EROS scientists also conduct 

research leading to new and improved 

remote sensing and spatial data 

applications.

The EROS Data Center in Sioux Falls, 

South Dakota, serves as the repository and 

public distribution facility for a growing 

archive of over 8.6 million aerial photographs and side-looking radar images from 

various Federal programs. The center 

cooperates with the National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration and the Earth 

Observation Satellite Company (the commercial Landsat system operator) to perform final ground processing and distribution of Landsat satellite data.

National Mapping Research

The USGS has pioneered investigations that have led to major developments 

and significant changes in surveying and 

mapping. The Mapping Research Program, 

which is centered on geographic and cartographic research, emphasizes spatial data 

analysis, applications of remote sensing 

and geographic information systems, and 

advanced techniques for producing digital 

cartographic data.

The Division has embarked on a major 

research and development plan (known as 

MARK II) to move from manual to digital 

production and revision of map products. 

The goals of MARK II are to implement the 

advanced cartographic systems and procedures required to automate map production 

and to provide data for the National Digital 

Cartographic Data Base.

The USGS has expanded its production of multicolor satellite image maps and, 

in cooperation with the Defense Mapping

Agency and the National Geodetic Survey, 

is developing applications of the NAVSTAR Global Positioning System, which is 

a satellite navigation and positioning system for attaining positional data to geodetic 

standards.

Information Services

The USGS disseminates much of the 

Nation's earth-science information through 

its Public Inquiries Offices, National Cartographic Information Centers, and the 

Earth Resources Observation Systems 

Data Center. The information comes in 

many forms, from maps and books to 

computer-readable magnetic tapes. About 

93,000 different maps and books and about 

8.6 million aerial and space images are 

available for purchase. USGS maps are also 

currently available from more than 3,200 

authorized commercial map dealers nationwide.

International Activities

The U.S. Geological Survey has been 

involved with earth-science studies in foreign countries for nearly 50 years. Authorization is provided under the Organic Act, 

as revised, and the Foreign Assistance Act 

and related legislation when such studies 

are deemed by the Departments of the 

Interior and State to be in the interests of 

the U.S. Government. Current international program efforts focus on technical 

assistance programs in developing countries and scientific cooperation and research through agreements with other 

countries as an extension and enhancement 

of the Survey's domestic programs. Decisions to undertake international scientific 

activities are based in part on these principal objectives:

 The opportunity for comparative studies of scientific phenomena abroad and 

domestically.

 The opportunity to obtain information 

on existing and potential foreign resources 

of interest to the United States.

 The opportunity to broaden the knowledge, understanding, and expertise of 

USGS scientists.

U.S. Geological Survey Missions and Programs 153
 The opportunity to develop and maintain relations with counterpart institutions 

and to conduct programs that improve scientific cooperation and exchange of information technology.

 The opportunity to support international programs of other Federal agencies, 

particularly the U.S. Department of State, 

in political, economic, and strategic efforts 

that contribute to foreign policy objectives.

Technical assistance programs for foreign nationals use funds from other U.S. 

government agencies, international organizations, or foreign governments for scientific advice, training, demonstration, and 

collaboration. Scientific research with 

foreign counterpart organizations under 

Government-approved bilateral and multilateral cooperative agreements uses both 

funds appropriated for USGS research and 

funds and other resources from the cooperating countries or organizations to achieve 

common research objectives. Such cooperative programs are ordinarily supported on 

the basis that each participant country 

pays its own expenses. Cooperative research activities range from informal communications between scientists, through 

formal, jointly staffed projects, to multinationally staffed and coordinated programs focused on particular problems or 

topics.

Related activities that are integral to 

the international programs include institutional development, exchange of scientists, 

training of foreign nationals, and representation of the Survey or the U.S. Government in international organizations and at 

international conferences and meetings.

tions, including personnel, manpower utilization, finance, administrative management systems, management analysis, 

records management, procurement and 

contract negotiation, property and facilities 

management, motor vehicle management, 

security, and safety. The Division also 

manages the development, maintenance, 

and operation of the financial management 

system for the entire Department of the 

Interior. These functions are carried out at 

the National Center in Reston, Virginia, 

and through Regional Management Offices 

in Denver, Colorado, and Menlo Park, 

California.

Organization

The Division is composed of five headquarters offices. Financial Management 

and Systems Management are centralized 

headquarters functions; Administrative 

Services, Personnel, and Procurement and 

Contracts provide operational support at 

headquarters and at USGS field units 

through the Regional Management Offices.

Information Systems 

Division

Mission

Administrative 

Division

Mission

The Administrative Division provides 

administrative direction and coordination 

in support of the scientific and technical 

programs of the U.S. Geological Survey. 

This support includes policy guidance and 

program direction and provides leadership 

and authority for various administrative 

management and technical support funcThe Information Systems Division 

provides support and advice to the Director 

of the U.S. Geological Survey, the other 

USGS Divisions, the Department of the 

Interior, and other government agencies 

on matters relating to information technology and automated data processing (ADP). 

The Division operates the Survey's mainframe computer located in Reston, as well 

as Technology Information Centers and 

minicomputers in four ADP Service Centers nationwide. The Division assists users 

in acquiring ADP and telecommunications 

equipment and software, coordinates and 

improves information systems through system analysis and design, provides user 

training, and conducts research into better

154 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
ways to use data processing technology to 

solve mission-related problems. The Division is responsible for managing all voice, 

data-, and radio communications in the 

USGS.

Organization

The Information Systems Division has 

its headquarters office in Reston, Virginia. 

Service centers in Reston and in Menlo

Park, California, Denver, Colorado, and 

Flagstaff, Arizona, provide assistance to 

users.

The Assistant Director for Information Systems chairs the Information Systems Council, which is composed of representatives from each Division and each 

field region. The council recommends policies, coordinates computer science research and technology, and provides guidelines for major computer systems and 

information management programs for the 

USGS.

Digitized perspective view of 

McCall, Idaho, from the 

National High-Altitude 

Photography Program

U.S. Geological Survey Missions and Programs 155
156 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
Aspen grove near Bear Lake, 

Rocky Mountain National Park. 

(Photograph by Mark A. Hardy, 

U.S. Geological Survey.)

U.S. Geological Survey Missions and Programs 157
U.S. Geological Survey budget authority for fiscal year 1987, by appropriation for Surveys, Investigations, 

and Research 

[Dollars in thousands]

Activity/Subactivity/Program E lement

Fiscal year

19871 

enacted

Activity/Subactivity/Program Element

Fiscal year

19871 

enacted

National Mapping, Geography, and Surveys.............

Primary Mapping and Revision..........................

Digital Cartography........................................

Small, Intermediate, and Special Mapping............

Intermediate-Scale Mapping.............................

Small-Scale and Other Special Mapping................

Federal Land Information .......................'........

Land Use and Land Cover Mapping ...................

Image Mapping............................................

Advanced Cartographic Systems.........................

Earth Resources Observation Systems .................

Data Production and Dissemination ....................

Applications and Research...............................

Cartographic and Geographic Information............

Side-Looking Airborne Radar............................

Geologic and Mineral Resource Surveys and Mapping. 

Geologic Hazards Surveys.................................

Earthquake Hazards Reduction.........................

Volcano Hazards...........................................

Landslide Hazards ........................................

Land Resource Surveys....................................

Geologic Framework......................................

Geomagnetism .............................................

Climate Change............................................

Coastal Erosion............................................

Mineral Resource Surveys.................................

National Mineral Resource Assessment Program....

Strategic and Critical Minerals..........................

Development of Assessment Techniques...............

Energy Geologic Surveys..................................

Evolution of Sedimentary Basins .......................

Coal Investigations........................................

Oil and Gas Investigations ...............................

Oil Shale Investigations..................................

Geothermal Investigations...............................

Uranium-Thorium Investigations.......................

World Energy Resource Assessment...................

& 88,542

34,420

13,794

14,153

4,238

2,971

1,951

1,510

3,483

12,210

8,971

4,600

4,371

3,494

1,500

169,023

48,283

35,358

10,809

2,116

24,501

19,811

2,173

1,011

1,506

45,086

22,740

9,451

12,895

26,309

5,153

6,164

4,734

570

5,950

3,235

503

Offshore Geologic Surveys .................................. 24,844

Offshore Geologic Framework............................. 24,844

Water Resources Investigations .............................. 141,227

National Water Resources Research and Information

System Federal Program............................. 74,916

Data Collection and Analysis .............................. 19,366

National Water Data and Information Access Program. 1,932 

Coordination of National Water Data Activities........ 981

Regional Aquifer System Analysis ....................... 12,401

Core Program Hydrologic Research...................... 8,479

Improved Instrumentation................................. 1,688

Water Resources Assessment............................. 1,371

Toxic Substances Hydrology............................... 12,037

Nuclear Waste Hydrology ................................. 4,389

Acid Rain..................................................... 2,900

Scientific and Technical Publications ..................... 2,233

National Water-Quality Assessment Program.......... 7,139

National Water Resources Research and Information

System Federal-State Cooperative Program...... 55,170

Data Collection and Analysis, Areal Appraisals, and 

Special Hydrological Studies............................ 46,666

Water Use.................................................... 3,891

Coal Hydrology.............................................. 4,613

National Water Resources Research and Information 

System State Research Institutes and Research 

Grants Program.......................................... 11,141

State Water Resources Research Institutes ............ 5,677

National Water Resources Research and Technical 

Development Grants Program.......................... 4,381

Program Administration ................................... 1,083

General Administration ........................................ 17,084

Executive Direction ........................................... 4,691

Administrative Operations.................................... 10,324

Reimbursements to the Department of Labor............. 2,069

Facilities.......................................................... 15,067

National Center Standard Level User's Charge......... 12,175

National Center Facilities Management.................. 2,892

Total.................................................. $430,943

funding shown represents appropriated dollars and does not include reimbursable funding from Federal, State, and other non-Federal sources.

158 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
U.S. Geological Survey budget for fiscal years 1984 to 1987, by activity and sources of funds 

[Dollars in thousands; totals may not add because of rounding]

Budget activity 1984 1985 1986 1987

Total ....................................................... $596,177

Direct program. ............................................... 423,885

Reimbursable program. ........................................... 172,292

States, counties, and municipalities ................................... 55,801

Miscellaneous non-Federal sources ................................... 21,142

Other Federal agencies ......................................... 95,349

National Mapping, Geography, and Surveys .................................. 112,447

Direct program. ............................................... 90,985

Reimbursable program. ........................................... 21,462

States, counties, and municipalities ................................... 27,000

Miscellaneous non-Federal sources ................................... 2,362

Other Federal agencies ......................................... 16,400

Geologic and Mineral Resource Surveys and Mapping ............................ 217,584

Direct program................................................ 164,354

Reimbursable program............................................ 53,230

States, counties, and municipalities ................................... 988

Miscellaneous non-Federal sources ................................... 15,030

Other Federal agencies ......................................... 37,212

Water Resources Investigations. ........................................ 220,390

Direct program. ............................................... 129,441

Reimbursable program. ........................................... 90,949

States, counties, and municipalities ................................... 52,113

Miscellaneous non-Federal sources ................................... 3,600

Other Federal agencies ......................................... 35,236

General Administration ............................................. 15,962

Direct program. ............................................... 15,642

Reimbursable program (Federal) ...................................... 320

Miscellaneous non-Federal sources ................................... 

Other Federal agencies ......................................... 320

Facilities ..................................................... 10,608

Direct program. ............................................... 10,463

Reimbursable program............................................ 145

Miscellaneous services to other accounts. ................................... 6,186

Reimbursable program. ........................................... 6,186

Miscellaneous non-Federal sources ................................... 150

Other Federal agencies ......................................... 6,036

Barrow Area Gas Operations .......................................... 13,000

Direct program. ............................................... 13,000

Operation and Maintenance of Quarters .................................... 

Direct program. ................................................______ 

'Direct program includes $430,943 for current year, $216 for Contributed Funds, $903 for last year's unobligated balance, and $52 for Operation and 

Maintenance of Quarters. 

Includes $7,706 for map receipts previously shown under direct program column.

U.S. Geological Survey reimbursable program funds from other Federal agencies for fiscal years 1984 to 

1987, by agency 

[Dollars in thousands]

$604,664

417,021

187,643

59,454

26,075

102,114

115,155

85,469

29,686

1,937

9,450

18,299

216,921

169,851

47,070

1,016

13,261

32,793

238,131

133,408

104,723

56,500

3,327

44,896

15,354

15,244

110

110

13,089

13,049

40

6,014

6,014

37

5,977

$600,852

412,667

188,185

59,945

12,111

116,129

112,562

84,117

28,445

1,975

9,568

16,902

206,463

165,585

40,878

1,320

348

39,210

248,598

135,152

113,446

56,650

2,161

54,635

14,515

14,246

269

1

268

13,615

13,567

48

5,099

5,099

33

5,066

$620,585

'432,114

188,471

63,088

13,667

111,716

118,462

88,542

29,921

1,841

2 10,276

17,804

209,553

169,239

40,314

1,365

938

38,011

254,288

142,130

112,158

59,882

2,437

49,839

18,285

17,084

1,201

1

1,200

15,109

15,067

42

4,835

4,835

15

4,820

52

52

Budget activity 1984 1985 1986 1987

Department of Agriculture ...............

Department of Commerce ...............

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

Department of Defense.................

Department of Energy .................

Bonneville Power Administration .........

Department of the Interior...............

Bureau of Indian Affairs ..............

Bureau of Land Management ...........

Bureau of Mines ..................

Bureau of Reclamation...............

Minerals Management Service ...........

National Park Service ...............

Office of the Secretary...............

Office of Surface Mining ..............

Fish and Wildlife Service .............

Department of State ..................

Department of Transportation .............

Environmental Protection Agency ...........

National Aeronautics and Space Administration ....

National Science Foundation ..............

Nuclear Regulatory Commission ............

Tennessee Valley Authority ..............

Miscellaneous Federal agencies.............

Miscellaneous services to other accounts ........

Total ....................

$ 2,770

910

6,139

33,707

13,828

120

16,167

4,299

3,446

56

3,524 

2,347 

1,037

244

95

1,119

700

600 

1,012 

3,999

774 

2,003

250

6,334

6,036

$95,349

$ 3,066

617

6,876

31,883

15,893

132

19,859

5,530

2,900

54

8,510

744

1,122

17

90

892

619

458

1,476

3,979

242

1,236

247

9,554

5,977

$102,114

$ 2,756

104

8,675

27,343

24,341

170

18,852

5,033

2,447

122

8,734

342

1,043

701

129

301

8,625

133

1,878

4,340

162

1,154

264

12,264

5,066

$116,129

$ 1,247

100

7,993

30,551

24,361

274

14,787

4,280

1,748

14

6,647

125

977

538

260

198

4,740

300

2,726

4,380

472

1,834

101

13,030

4,820

$111,716

U.S. Geological Survey Missions and Programs 159
ORGANIZATION OF THE U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

Department of the Interior

I

-<

I

r

ASSISTANT DIRECTORS

Engineering Geology

Programs

Administration

Research

Information Systems

Intergovernmental Affairs

(MATE* MSOtMCf S DIVISION

Chief Hydrotoglst 

Associate Chief Hydrologist

Assistant Chief Hydrologist 

lor Operations

Assistant chief Hydrologist

for Research and External

Coordination

Offices

Hydrologk Research 

Water Data Coordination 

External Research

Assistant Chief Hydrologist 

for Scientific Information 

___Management____

Assistant Chief Hydrologist

for program Coordination

end Technical Support

Offices

Atmospheric Deposition

Analysis 

Ground Water 

Surface Water 

Water Quality 

National Water Summary

and Long-Range

Planning

Geographic and

Cartographic Research 

Systems and Techniques

Development

Assistant Division Chief for

Information and Data

Services

Offices

Product Distribution

Policy 

Publications Liaison and

Review 

National Cartographic

Information Center 

Public Inquiries

Regional Offices

Northeastern-Reston. VA 

Southeastern-Atlanta, GA 

Central-Denver, CO 

Western-MenIo Park, CA

STAf f OFFICES

Washington liaison 

Equal Employment

Opportunity 

Congressional Liaison 

Pubfic Affairs

GEOLOGIC DIVISION

Chief Geologist

Associate Chief Geologist

Assistant Chief Geologist for

Program

ffice of Scjentif tc 

Publications

Branches

Eastern Technical Reports 

Central Technical Reports 

Western Technical Reports 

Library and Information 

Services

Office of Mineral Resources

Alaskan Geology 

Western Mineral Resources 

Central Mineral Resources 

Eastern Mineral Resources 

Geochemistry 

Geophysics 

Resource Analysis

Branches

Coal Geology 

Petroleum Geology 

Sedimentary Processes 

Pacific Marine Geology 

Atlantic Marine Geology

Regional Offices

Eastern Mapping-Reston, VA 

Mid-Continent Mtpping-RoHa. MO 

Printing and Distributlon-Rttton, VA 

Rocky Mountain Mapping-Denver, CO

INFORMATION SYSTEMS DIVISION

Chief 

Deputy Chief

Assistant Chief Geologists

Eastern Region 

Central Region 

Western Region

ADMINISTRATIV

Offices

Management Services 

Customer Services 

Computer and

Communications Services
U.S. Geological Survey Offices

Headquarters Offices

National Center

12201 Sunrise Valley Drive

Reston, VA 22092

Central Region

Denver Federal Center 

Box 25046 

Denver, CO 80225

Western Region

345 Middlefield Rd. 

Menlo Park, CA 94025

Office

Office of the Director

Director

Associate Director

Special Assistant (Washington Liaison) and Deputy

Ethics Counselor 

Assistant Director for Research 

Assistant Director for Engineering Geology 

Assistant Director for Administration 

Assistant Director for Programs 

Assistant Director for Intergovernme:ntal Affairs 

Assistant Director for Information Systems 

Director's Representative Central Region 

Director's Representative Western Region

Congressional Liaison Officer

Chief, Public Affairs Office

Staff Assistant (Special Issues)

Special Assistant to the Director for Alaska

Administrative Division

Chief

Professional Services Specialist

Administrative Operations Officer

Office of Personnel, Chief

Office of Procurement and Contracts, Chief

Office of Financial Management, Chief

Office of Administrative Services, Chief

Office of Systems Management, Chief

Central Region Management Officer

Western Region Management Officer

Information Systems Division

Chief

Deputy Assistant Director for Information Systems

Office of Customer Services, Chief

Office of Computer and Communications Services,

Chief

Office of Management Services, Chief 

Office of Field Services, Chief

National Mapping Division

Chief

Associate Chief

Assistant Division Chief for Research

Assistant Division Chief for Plans and Operations

Assistant Division Chief for Information and Data

Services

Eastern Mapping Center, Chief 

Mid-Continent Mapping Center, Chief

Rocky Mountain Mapping Center, Chief

Name

Dallas L. Peck 

Doyle G. Frederick 

Jane H. Wallace

Bruce R. Doe 

James F. Devine 

Jack J. Stassi 

Peter F. Bermel 

John J. Dragonetti 

James E. Biesecker 

Harry Tourtelot 

George Gryc

Talmadge W. Reed 

Donovan B. Kelly 

Robert L. Houghton 

Philip A. Emery

Jack J. Stassi 

William A. Schmidt 

Timothy E. Calkins 

Maxine C. Millard 

Paul A. Denett 

Roy J. Heinbuch 

William F. Gossman, Jr. 

Phillip L. McKinney 

George A. Honold 

George F. Hargrove, Jr.

James E. Biesecker 

Douglas R. Posson 

Virginia L. Ross 

Gayle F. Gordon

Wendy A. Budd 

Fred B. Sower

Lowell E. Starr 

Roy R. Mullen 

Joel L. Morrison 

Richard E. Witmer 

Gary W. North

K. Eric Anderson 

Lawrence H. Borgerding

Merle E. Southern

Telephone A ,, XT . Address Number

(703) 648-7411 National Center, Stop 101 

(703) 648-7412 National Center, Stop 102 

(202) 343-3888 Rm. 2648, Interior Bldg.

Washington, DC 20240

(703) 648-4450 National Center, Stop 104 

(703) 648-4423 National Center, Stop 106 

(703) 648-7200 National Center, Stop 201 

(703) 648-4430 National Center, Stop 105 

(703) 648-4427 National Center, Stop 109 

(703) 648-7108 National Center, Stop 801 

(303) 236-5438 Denver Federal Center, Stop 406 

(415) 329-4002 Western Region Headquarters,

Stop 144

(703) 648-4457 National Center, Stop 112 

(703) 648-4460 National Center, Stop 119 

(703) 648-7413 National Center, Stop 121 

(907) 271^138 4230 University Drive, Suite 201

Anchorage, AK 99508

(703) 648-7200 National Center, Stop 201 

(703) 648-7221 National Center, Stop 118 

(703) 648-7204 National Center, Stop 203 

(703) 648-7442 National Center, Stop 215 

(703) 648-7373 National Center, Stop 205 

(703) 648-7604 National Center, Stop 270 

(703) 648-7338 National Center, Stop 207 

(703) 648-7256 National Center, Stop 206 

(303) 236-5900 Denver Federal Center, Stop 201 

(415) 329-4150 Western Region Headquarters, 

	Stop 211

(703) 648-7108 National Center, Stop 801

(703) 648-7106 National Center, Stop 801

(703) 648-7178 National Center, Stop 805

(703) 648-7157 National Center, Stop 807

(703) 648-7103 National Center, Stop 802

(303) 236-4944 Denver Federal Center

(703) 648-5748 National Center, Stop 516

(703) 648-5745 National Center, Stop 516

(703) 648-4640 National Center, Stop 519

(703) 64&4611 National Center, Stop 514

(703) 648-5780 National Center, Stop 508

(703) 648-6002 National Center, Stop 567

(314) 341-0880 1400 Independence Rd.,

	Rolla, MO 65401 

(303) 236-5825 Denver Federal Center, Stop 510

U.S. Geological Survey Missions and Programs 161
Office

Western Mapping Center, Chief 

Earth Resources Observation Systems Data Center, 

Chief

Geologic Division

Chief Geologist

Associate Chief Geologist

Assistant Chief Geologist for Program

Manpower Officer for Scientific Personnel

Policy and Budget Officer

Office of Scientific Publications, Chief

Office of Regional Geology, Chief

Office of Earthquakes, Volcanoes, and Engineering,

Chief

Office of Energy and Marine Geology, Chief 

Office of Mineral Resources, Chief 

Office of International Geology, Chief 

Assistant Chief Geologist, Eastern Region 

Assistant Chief Geologist, Central Region 

Assistant Chief Geologist, Western Region

Water Resources Division

Chief Hydrologist

Associate Chief Hydrologist, Acting

Assistant Chief Hydrologist for Scientific Information

Management

Assistant Chief Hydrologist for Research and 

External Coordination

Office of Hydrologic Research, Chief

Office of Water Data Coordination, Chief, Acting

Office of External Research, Chief, Acting 

Assistant Chief Hydrologist for Program Coordination 

and Technical Support

Office of Atmospheric Deposition Analysis, Chief

Office of Ground Water, Chief

Office of Surface Water, Chief

Office of Water Quality, Chief

Office of National Water Summary and Long-Range

Planning, Chief 

Assistant Chief Hydrologist for Operations

Northeastern Region, Chief 

Southeastern Region, Chief

Central Region, Chief

Western Region, Chief

District Offices

Alabama

Alaska

Name

John R. Swinnerton 

Alien H. Watkins

Benjamin A. Morgan III 

William F. Cannon 

David P. Russ 

John D. McGurk 

Norman E. Gunderson 

John M. Aaron 

Eugene H. Roseboom, Jr. 

John R. Filson

Gary W. Hill 

Glenn H. Allcott 

A. Thomas Ovenshine 

Jack H. Medlin 

Harry A. Tourtelot 

Carroll A. Hodges

Philip Cohen 

James F. Daniel 

James F. Daniel

Marshall M. Moss

Roger G. Wolff 

Nancy C. Lopez 

Frank T. Carlson 

John N. Fischer

Ranard J. Pickering 

Eugene P. Patten, Jr. 

Verne R. Schneider 

David A. Rickert 

David W. Moody

William B. Mann IV 

Stanley P. Sauer 

James L. Cook

James F. Blakey

T. John Conomos

D. Briane Adams

Philip A. Emery

Telephone 

Number

(415) 329-4251 

(605) 594-6511

(703) 648-6600 

(703) 648-6601 

(703) 648-6640 

(703) 648-6628 

(703) 648-6650 

(703) 648-6077 

(703) 648-6959 

(703) 648-6714

(703) 648-6470 

(703) 648-6100 

(703) 648-6047 

(703) 648-6660 

(303) 236-5438 

(415) 329-5101

(703) 648-5215 

(703) 648-5216 

(703) 648-5699

(703) 648-5041

(703) 648-5043 

(703) 648-5019 

(703) 648-6807 

(703) 648-5229

(703) 648-6874 

(703) 648-5001 

(703) 648-5301 

(703) 648-6862 

(703) 648-6856

(703) 648-5031

(703) 648-5817

(404) 331-5174

Address

Western Region Headquarters 

EROS Data Center, 

Sioux Falls, SD 57198

National Center, Stop 911 

National Center, Stop 911 

National Center, Stop 911 

National Center, Stop 911 

National Center, Stop 910 

National Center, Stop 904 

National Center, Stop 908 

National Center, Stop 905

National Center, Stop 915 

National Center, Stop 913 

National Center, Stop 917 

National Center, Stop 953 

Denver Federal Center, Stop 911 

Western Region Headquarters, 

Stop 19

National Center, Stop 409 

National Center, Stop 408 

National Center, Stop 440

National Center, Stop 436

National Center, Stop 436 

National Center, Stop 417 

National Center, Stop 424 

National Center, Stop 414

National Center, Stop 416 

National Center, Stop 411 

National Center, Stop 415 

National Center, Stop 412 

National Center, Stop 407

National Center, Stop 441

National Center, Stop 433

Richard B. Russell Federal Bldg.

75 Spring St., SW, Suite 772 

Atlanta, GA 30303

(303) 236-5920 Box 25046, Stop 406

Denver Federal Center 

Denver, CO 80225

(415) 329^403 345 Middlefield Rd., Stop 470 

Menlo Park, CA 94025

(205) 752-8104 520 19th Ave.

Tuscaloosa, AL 35401

(907) 271-4138 4230 University Dr., Suite 201 

Anchorage, AK 99508

162 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
Office

Arizona

Arkansas 

California 

Colorado

Connecticut (See Massachusetts) 

Delaware (See Maryland) 

District of Columbia (See Maryland) 

Florida

Georgia 

Hawaii

Idaho 

Illinois

Indiana 

Iowa

Kansas

Kentucky 

Louisiana

Maine (See Massachusetts) 

Maryland

Massachusetts

Name

Robert D. Mac Nish

Ector E. Gann 

John M. Klein 

Charles A. Pascale

Irwin H. Kantrowitz

Jeffrey T. Armbruster 

William Meyer

Dennis K. Stewart

Richard A. Engberg

Thomas L. Huntzinger, 

Acting

Alfred L. Knight

Darwin D. Knochenmus

Herbert J. Freiberger

Ivan C. James II

Telephone 

Number

(602) 629-6671

(501) 378-6391

(916) 978-4633

(303)

(904) 681-7620

(404) 331-4858 

(808) 541-2653

(317) 290-3333 

(319) 337-4191

(913) 864-4321

(502) 582-5241 

(504) 389-0281

(301) 828-1535 

(617) 565-6860

Address

Federal Bldg., FB-14 

300 W. Congress St. 

Tucson, AZ 85701

2301 Federal Office Bldg. 

700 W. Capitol Ave. 

Little Rock, AR 72201

Room W-2234 Federal Bldg. 

2800 Cottage Way 

Sacramento, CA 95825

Box 25046, Stop 415 

Denver Federal Center 

Denver, CO 80225

227 North Bronough St. 

Suite 3015 

Tallahassee, FL 32301

6481-B Peachtree Industrial Blvd. 

Doraville, GA 30360

P.O. Box 50166

300 Ala Moana Blvd., Rm. 6110

Honolulu, HI 96850

Jerry L. Hughes 

Larry G. Toler

(208) 334-1750 

(217) 398-5353

230 Collins Road 

Boise, ID 83702

Champaign Coun

102 E. Main St., 4th Floor 

Urbana, IL 61801

5957 Lakeside Blvd. 

Indianapolis, IN 46278

P.O. Box 1230 

Room 269, Federal Bldg. 

400 S. Clinton St. 

Iowa City, IA 52244

1950 Constant Ave. 

Campus West 

University of Kansas 

Lawrence, KS 66046

2301 Bradley Ave. 

Louisville, KY 40217

P.O. Box 66492 

6554 Florida Blvd. 

Baton Rouge, LA 70896

208 Carroll Bldg. 

8600 La Salle Rd. 

Towson, MD 21204

150 Causeway St., Suite 1309 

Boston, MA 02114

U.S. Geological Survey Missions and Programs 163
Office

Michigan

Minnesota 

Mississippi

Missouri 

Montana

Nebraska 

Nevada

New Hampshire (See Massachusetts) 

New Jersey

New Mexico 

New York

North Carolina

North Dakota

Ohio

Oklahoma

Oregon (See Washington) 

Pennsylvania

Puerto Rico

Rhode Island (See Massachusetts)

Name

T. Ray Cummings

Donald R. Albin 

Michael W. Gaydos

Daniel P. Bauer 

Joe A. Moreland

William M. Kastner 

William J. Carswell, Jr.

Donald E. Vaupel 

Robert L. Knutilla 

Lawrence A. Martens 

James F. Turner

L. Grady Moore 

Steven M. Hindall 

Charles R. Burchett

David E. Click 

Alien L. Zack

Telephone ... XT , Address Number

(517) 377-1608 6520 Mercantile Way, Suite 5 

Lansing, MI 48911

(612) 229-2600 702 Post Office Bldg. 

St. Paul, MN 55101

(601) 965^600 Suite 710 Federal Bldg. 

100 W. Capitol St. 

Jackson, MS 39269

(314) 341-0824 1400 Independence Rd. 

Mail Stop 200 

Rolla, MO 65401

(406) 449-5263 Rm. 428 Federal Bldg. 

301 S. Park Ave. 

Drawer 10076 

Helena, MT 59626

(402) 437-5082 Rm. 406 Federal Bldg.

100 Centennial Mall, North 

Lincoln, NE 68508

(702) 882-1388 Rm. 224 Federal Bldg. 

705 N. Plaza St. 

Carson City, NV 89701

(609) 771-3900 Suite 206, Mountain View Office Park 

810 Bear Tavern Rd. 

West Trenton, NJ 08628

(505) 262-6630 Pinetree Office Park, Suite 200 

4501 Indian School Rd., N.E. 

Albuquerque, NM 87110

(518) 472-3107 P.O. Box 1669

343 U.S. Post Office and Courthouse 

Albany, NY 12201

(919) 856^510 P.O. Box 2857, Rm. 436 

Century Postal Station 

300 Fayetteville Street Mall 

Raleigh, NC 27602

(701) 255^011, 821 Interstate Ave. 

ext. 601 Bismarck, ND 58501

(614) 469-5553 975 W. Third Ave. 

Columbus, OH 43212

(405) 231^256 Rm. 621, 215 Dean A. McGee Ave. 

Oklahoma City, OK 73102

(717) 782^4514 P.O. Box 1107, 4th Floor

Federal Bldg., 228 Walnut St. 

Harrisburg, PA 17108

(809) 783^1660 GPO Box 4424

Bldg. 652 GSA Center

Hwy 28, Km. 7.2, Pueblo Viejo

San Juan, PR 00936

164 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
Office

South Carolina

South Dakota 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Utah

Vermont (See Massachusetts) 

Virginia (See Maryland) 

Washington

West Virginia

Wisconsin

Wyoming

Name

Rodney N. Cherry

Richard E. Fidler

Ferdinand 

Quinones-Mrquez

Charles W. Boning

Harvey L. Case

Garald G. Parker, Jr. 

David H. Appel 

Vernon W. Norman 

James E. Kircher

Telephone 

Number

(803) 765-5966 

(605) 353-7176

(615) 736-5424 

(512) 482-5766 

(801) 524-5663

(206) 593-6510 

(304) 347-5130 

(608) 274-3535 

(307) 772-2153

Address

Suite 677A, 1835 Assembly St. 

Columbia, SC 29201

Rm. 317 Federal Bldg. 

200 4th St., SW 

Huron, SD 57350

A-413 Federal Bldg. and 

U.S. Courthouse 

Nashville, TN 37203

649 Federal Bldg. 

300 E. 8th St. 

Austin, TX 78701

Rm. 1016 Administration Bldg. 

1745 W. 1700 South 

Salt Lake City, UT 84104

1201 Pacific Ave., Suite 600 

Tacoma, WA 98402

603 Morris St. 

Charleston, WV 25301

6417 Normandy Ln. 

Madison, WI 53719

P.O. Box 1125

2120 Capitol Ave., Rm. 4006

Cheyenne, WY 82003

U.S. Geological Survey Missions and Programs 165
Guide to U.S. 

Geological Survey 

Information and 

Publications

To buy maps of all areas of the United States and to 

request USGS catalogs, pamphlets, and leaflets 

(limited quantities free), write or visit:

U.S. Geological Survey

Distribution Branch

Building 810

Denver Federal Center, Box 25286

Denver, CO 80225

To buy Alaskan maps, residents of Alaska may 

write or visit:

U.S. Geological Survey 

Alaska Distribution Section 

101 12th Avenue, Box 12 

Fairbanks, AK 99701

To buy USGS book publications, to request USGS 

circulars, or to obtain information on the availability of microfiche or paper-duplicate copies of openfile reports, write:

U.S. Geological Survey 

Books and Open-File Reports Section 

Federal Center, Box 25425 

Denver, CO 80225

To get on the mailing list for the monthly list of

New Publications of the U.S. Geological Survey

(free), write:

U.S. Geological Survey

Distribution Support Section

582 National Center

12201 Sunrise Valley Drive

Reston, VA 22092

To subscribe to Earthquakes and Volcanoes, write:

Superintendent of Documents 

Government Printing Office 

Washington, DC 20402

To obtain information on programs, publications, 

and services or to obtain copies of reports and maps, 

visit the U.S. Geological Survey Public Inquiries 

Offices at the following addresses:

Alaska: 

Room 101

4230 University Dr. 

Anchorage, AK 99508-4664

E-146 Federal Bldg. 

701 C St. 

Anchorage, AK 99513

California: 

7638 Federal Bldg. 

300 N. Los Angeles St. 

Los Angeles, CA 90012

Rm. 3128 

Bldg. 3, Stop 533 

345 Middlefield Rd. 

Menlo Park, CA 94025

504 Custom House

555 Battery St.

San Francisco, CA 94111

Colorado: 

169 Federal Bldg. 

1961 Stout St. 

Denver, CO 80294

District of Columbia: 

2650 Main Interior Bldg. 

18th and ESts.,NW. 

Washington, DC 20240

Utah:

8105 Federal Bldg. 

125 S. State St. 

Salt Lake City, UT 84138

Virginia:

1C402 National Center 

12201 Sunrise Valley Dr. 

Reston, VA 22092

Washington: 

678 U.S. Courthouse 

W. 920 Riverside Ave. 

Spokane, WA 99201

To obtain information on cartographic data, write 

or visit the U.S. Geological Survey National Cartographic Information Centers (NCIC) in the following States:

Alaska:

U.S. Geological Survey 

National Cartographic Information Center 

4230 University Dr. 

Anchorage, AK 99508-4664

California:

Western Mapping Center 

National Cartographic Information Center 

345 Middlefield Rd. 

Menlo Park, CA 94025

Colorado:

Rocky Mountain Mapping Center 

National Cartographic Information Center 

Box 25046, Stop 504 

Bldg. 25, Denver Federal Center 

Denver, CO 80225

Mississippi:

National Space Technology Laboratories. 

National Cartographic Information Center 

U.S. Geological Survey, Bldg. 3101 

NSTL Station, MS 39529

Missouri:

Mid-Continent Mapping Center 

National Cartographic Information Center 

1400 Independence Rd. 

Rolla, MO 65401

Virginia:

National Cartographic Information Center 

1C402 National Center, Stop 507 

12201 Sunrise Valley Dr. 

Reston, VA 22092

To obtain information on aerial photographs and 

satellite and space images, write or visit:

U.S. Geological Survey 

EROS Data Center 

Sioux Falls, SD 57198

To obtain assistance in locating sources of water 

data, identifying sites at which data have been 

collected, and specific data, write:

U.S. Geological Survey 

National Water Data Exchange 

National Center, Stop 421 

12201 Sunrise Valley Dr. 

Reston, VA 22092

To obtain information on ongoing and planned 

water-data acquisition activities of all Federal 

agencies and many non-Federal organizations, 

write:

U.S. Geological Survey 

Office of Water Data Coordination 

National Center, Stop 417 

12201 Sunrise Valley Dr. 

Reston, VA 22092

To obtain information on water resources in general and about the water resources of specific areas 

of the United States, write:

U.S. Geological Survey 

Hydrologic Information Unit 

National Center, Stop 419 

12201 Sunrise Valley Dr. 

Reston, VA 22092

To obtain information on geologic topics such as 

earthquakes and volcanoes, energy and mineral 

resources, the geology of specific areas, and geologic maps and mapping, write:

U.S. Geological Survey 

Geologic Inquiries Group 

National Center, Stop 907 

12201 Sunrise Valley Dr. 

Reston, VA 22092

166 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
Cooperators and 

Other Financial 

Contributors

Cooperators listed are those with whom the U.S. 

Geological Survey had a written agreement cosigned 

by USGS officials and officials of the cooperating 

agency for financial cooperation in fiscal year 1987. 

Parent agencies are listed separately from their subdivisions whenever there are separate cooperative 

agreements for different projects with a parent 

agency and with a subdivision of it. Agencies with 

whom the USGS has research contracts and t;o whom 

it supplied research funds are not listed.

Cooperating office of the U.S. Geological Survey

g Geologic Division

n National Mapping Division

w Water Resources Division

Alabama

Alabama Department of 

Environmental Management (w),

Highways (w);

Alabama Surface Mining Commission (w); 

Alabaster, City of (w); 

Anniston, City of (w); 

Arab Water Works (w); 

Autauga County Commission (w); 

Birmingham, City of (w); 

Calhoun County Commission (w); 

Coffee County Commission (w); 

Dauphin Island Water Authority (w); 

Geological Survey of Alabama (g,n,w); 

Harvest-Monrovia Water and Fire Protection Authority (w);

Heflin, City of (w); 

Huntsville, City of (w); 

Jefferson County Commission (w); 

Mobile, City of (w); 

Montgomery, City of (w); 

Reece City, Town of (w); 

Southwide Water Works (w); 

Tuscaloosa, City of (w); 

University of Alabama (w)

Alaska

Alaska Department of 

Fish and Game (w),

Military and Veterans Affairs, Division of Emergency Services (w),

Natural Resources, Division of 

Geological and Geophysical Surveys (g,w), 

Technical Services (w),

Transportation and Public Facilities (w); 

Alaska Power Authority (g,w); 

Anchorage, Municipality of 

Department of Health and Human Services (w),

Department of Solid Waste Services (w),

Water and Wastewater Service (w); 

Fairbanks North Star Borough (w); 

Juneau, City and Borough of (w); 

Kenai Peninsula Borough (w); 

Matanuska Susitna Borough (w); 

Sitka, City and Borough of (w)

American Samoa

American Samoa, Government of (n,w)

Arizona

Arizona Bureau of Geology and Mineral Technology

(g);

Arizona Department of Water Resources (w); 

Arizona Municipal Water Users Association (w); 

Arizona State Land Department (w); 

Arizona State University (g); 

Gila Valley Irrigation District (w); 

Maricopa County 

Flood Control District (w),

Municipal Water Conservation District No. 1 (w); 

Metropolitan Water District of Southern California

(w);

Pima County Flood Control District (w); 

Safford, City of (w);

Salt River Valley Water Users Association (w); 

San Carlos Irrigation and Drainage District (w); 

Scottsdale, City of (w); 

Show Low Irrigation Company (w); 

The Tohono O'Odham Nation (w); 

Tucson, City of (w);

University of Arizona Board of Regents (w); 

Yuma, City of (w)

Arkansas

Arkansas Department of Pollution Control and Ecology (w);

Arkansas Game and Fish Commission, Fisheries Division (w);

Arkansas Geological Commission (g,n,w);

Arkansas Soil and Water Conservation Commission 

(w);

Arkansas State Highway and Transportation Department (w);

Arkansas-Oklahoma: Arkansas River Compact Commission (w);

Independence, County of (w)

California

Alameda CountyFlood Control and Water Conservation District

(Hayward) (w), 

Flood Control and Water Conservation District,

Zone 7 (Pleasanton) (w), 

Water District (w);

Antelope Valley-East Kern Water Agency (w); 

California Coastal Conservancy (w); 

California Department of 

Boating and Waterways (w), 

Conservation (g), 

Parks and Recreation (g,w), 

Water Resources 

Central District (Sacramento) (w), 

Northern District (Red Bluff) (w), 

San Joaquin District (Fresno) (w); 

California Office of Emergency Services (n); 

Carpinteria County Water District (w); 

Casitas Municipal Water District (w); 

Coachella Valley Water District (w); 

Contra Costa County Department of Health Services

(w);

Contra Costa County Flood Control and Water Conservation District (w);

Crestline-Lake Arrowhead Water Agency (w); 

Desert Water Agency (w); 

East Bay Municipal Utility District (w); 

East Valley Water District (w);

El Dorado, County of (w);

Fr jsno Metropolitan Flood Control District (w); 

Georgetown Divide Public Utility District (w); 

Goleta County Water District (w); 

Humboldt Bay Municipal Water District (w); 

Imperial County Department of Public Works (w); 

Imperial Irrigation District (w);

Indian Wells Valley Water District (w); 

Inyo County Water Department (w); 

Kings River Conservation District (w); 

Los Angeles Department of Water and Power (w); 

Los Penasquitos Lagoon Foundation (w); 

Madera Irrigation District (w); 

Marin County Department of Public Works (w); 

Marin Municipal Water District (w); 

Merced, City of (w); 

Merced Irrigation District (w); 

Mojave Water Agency (w); 

Montecito County Water District (w); 

Monterey County Flood Control and Water Conservation District (w);

Monterey Peninsula Water Municipal District (w); 

Oakdale-South San Joaquin Irrigation District (w); 

Orange County 

Environmental Management Agency (w),

Water District (w);

Oroville-Wyandotte Irrigation District (w); 

Rainbow Municipal Water District (w); 

Rancho California Water District (w); 

Regional Water Quality Lahonton Region (w); 

Riverside County Flood Control and Water Conservation District (w);

Sacramento Department of Health Services (w); 

Sacramento Municipal Utility District (w); 

Sacramento Regional County Sanitation District,

.Department of Public Works (w); 

San Benito County Water Conservation and Flood

Control District (w);

San Bernardino County Flood Control District (w); 

San Bernardino Valley Municipal Water District (w); 

San Diego, City of (w), Water Utility (w); 

San Diego, County of, Department of 

Planning and Land Use (w),

Public Works (w); 

San Francisco, City and County of, Public Utilities

Commission (w);

San Francisco Water Department (w); 

San Luis Obispo County Government Center (w); 

San Mateo County Department of Public Works (w); 

Santa Barbara, City of, Department of Public Works

(w); 

Santa Barbara County 

Flood Control and Water Conservation District 

(w),

Water Agency (w);

Santa Clara Valley Water District (w); 

Santa Cruz County Flood Control and Water Conservation District (w);

Santa Maria Valley Water Conservation District (w); 

Santa Ynez River Water Conservation District (w); 

Scotts Valley Water District (w); 

Siskiyou County Flood Control and Water Conservation District (w); 

Sonoma County 

Planning Department (w),

Water Agency (w); 

Tahoe Regional Planning (w); 

Terra Bella Irrigation District (w); 

Tulare County Flood Control District (w); 

Turlock Irrigation District (w); 

United Water Conservation District (w); 

University of California 

Berkeley (g),

Cooperative Extension (w); 

Ventura County Public Works Agency (w); 

Water Resources Control Board (w); 

Western Municipal Water District (w); 

Westlands Water District (w); 

Woodbridge Irrigation District (w); 

Yolo County Flood Control and Water Conservation

District (w); 

Yuba County Water Agency (w)

U.S. Geological Survey Missions and Programs 167
Colorado

Arkansas River Compact Administration (w);

Arvada, City of (w);

Aspen, City of (w);

Aurora, City of (w);

Boulder, County of, Department of Public Works 

(w);

Breckenridge, Town of (w);

Castle Rock, Town of (w);

Cherokee Water and Sanitation District (w);

Cherry Creek Basin Authority (w);

Colorado Department of 

Health (w), 

Natural Resources (w);

Colorado Division of 

Mined Land Reclamation (w), 

Water Resources, Office of the State Engineer 

(w);

Colorado Geological Survey (g,w);

Colorado River Water Conservation District (w);

Colorado Springs, City of 

Department of Public Utilities (w), 

Office of the City Manager (w);

Delta County Board of County Commissioners (w);

Denver, City and County, Board of Water Commissioners (w);

Denver Regional Council of Governments (w);

Eagle County Board of Commissioners (w);

Englewood, City of, Wastewater Treatment Plant 

(w);

Evergreen Metro District (w);

Fort Collins, City of (w);

Fountain Valley Authority (w);

Fruita, City of (w);

Garfield, County of (w);

Glendale, City of (w);

Glenwood Springs, City of (w);

Grand County Board of Commissioners (w);

Larimer-Weld Regional Council of Governments (w);

Longmont, City of (w);

Lost Creek Ground Water Management District (w);

Lower Fountain Water-Quality Management Association (w);

Metropolitan Denver Sewage Disposal District No. 1 

(w);

Mineral, County of (w);

Moffat, County of (w);

Northern Colorado Water Conservancy District (w);

North Kiowa-Bijou Ground Water Management District (w);

North LaJunta Water Conservancy District (w);

Pikes Peak Area Council of Governments (w);

Pikes Peak Regional Building Department (w);

Pitkin County Board of Commissioners (w);

Pueblo Board of Water Works (w);

Pueblo Civil Defense Agency (w);

Pueblo West Metropolitan District (w);

Purgatoire River Water Conservancy District (w);

Rio Blanco, County of (w);

Rio Grande Water Conservation District (w);

St. Charles Mesa Water District (w);

Southeastern Colorado Water Conservancy District 

(w);

Southwestern Colorado Water Conservancy District 

(w);

Steamboat Springs, City of (w);

Thornton, City of (w);

Trinchera Conservancy District (w);

Uncompahgre Valley Water Users Association (w);

Upper Arkansas River Water Conservancy District 

(w);

Upper Black Squirrel Ground Water Management 

District (w);

Upper Yampa Water Conservancy District (w);

Urban Drainage and Flood Control District (w);

Water Users No. 1 (Rangely) (w);

Yellow Jacket Water Conservancy District (w)

Connecticut

Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection

Fairfield, Town of, Conservation Commission (w); 

New Britain, City of, Board of Water Commissioners

(w); 

South Central Connecticut Regional Water Authority

(w); 

Torrington, City of (w)

Delaware

Delaware Department of Natural Resources and

Environmental Control (w); 

Geological Survey (w)

District of Columbia

Department of Public Works (w);

Metropolitan Washington Council of Governments (w)

Florida

Boca Raton, City of (w);

Bradenton, City of (w);

Brevard County, Board of County Commissioners (w);

Broward County 

Environmental Quality Control Board (w),

Water Resources Management Division (w); 

Cape Coral, City of (w); 

Collier, County of (w); 

Collier Mosquito Control District (w); 

Cocoa, City of (w); 

Cottondale, City of (w); 

Daytona Beach, City of (w);

Englewood Water District Board of Supervisors (w); 

Escambia County Board of County Commissioners

(w);

Escambia County Utilities Authority (w); 

Florida Department of 

Environmental Regulation, Bureau of Water Resources Management (w),

Division of Recreation and Parks (Hope Sound) 

(w),

Division of Recreation and Parks (Tallahassee) 

(w),

Natural Resources (n), Division of Marine Resources (w);

Transportation (w);

Florida Institute of Phosphate Research (w); 

Florida Keys Aqueduct Authority (w); 

Fort Lauderdale, City of (w); 

Fort Walton Beach, City of (w); 

Game and Freshwater Fish Commission (w); 

Hallandale, City of (w); 

Highland Beach, Town of (w); 

Hillsborough, County of (w); 

Hollywood, City of (w); 

Indian River, County of (w); 

Jacksonville, City of (w); 

Jacksonville Electric Authority, Research and Environmental Affairs (w); 

Jacksonville Beach, City of (w); 

Lake County Board of County Commissioners (w); 

Lakeland, City of (w);

Lee County Board of County Commissioners (w); 

Leon County 

Courthouse (w),

Department of Public Works (w); 

Loxahatchee River Environmental Control District

(w); : Madison, City of (w);

Manatee County Board of County Commissioners (w); 

Marion County Board of County Commissioners (w); 

Metropolitan Dade County Department of Environment Resources Management (w); 

Miami-Dade Water and Sewer Authority (w); 

Northwest Florida Water Management District (w); 

Orange County Board of County Commissioners (w);

Palm Beach County 

Board of County Commissioners (w),

Solid Waste Authority (w); 

Perry, City of (w); 

Petersburg, City of (w); 

Pinellas, County of (w);

Polk County Board of County Commissioners (w); 

Pompano Beach, City of, Water and Sewer Department (w);

Quincy, City of (w);

Reedy Creek Improvement District (w); 

Sanibel, City of (w); 

Sarasota, City of (w); 

Sarasota, County of (w);

South Dade Soil and Water Conservation District (w); 

South Florida Water Management District (w); 

Southwest Florida Regional Planning Council (w); 

Southwest Florida Water Management District (w); 

St. Johns, County of (w); 

St. Johns River Water Management District (w); 

Stuart, City of (w); 

Sumter County Recreation and Water Conservation

and Control Authority (w); 

Suwannee River Authority (Trenton) (w); 

Suwannee River Water Management District (w); 

Tallahassee, City ofElectric Department (w),

Streets and Drainage (w),

Underground Utilities (w),

Water Quality Laboratory (w); ' 

Tampa, City of (w); 

Tampa Port Authority (w); 

University of Florida, Center for Wetlands (w); 

Walton, County of (w); 

West Coast Regional Water Supply Authority (w)

Georgia

Albany, City of, Water, Gas, and Light Commission

(w);

Bibb County Board of County Commissioners (w); 

Brunswick, City of (w); 

Claytoh County Water Authority (w); 

Consolidated Government of Columbus (w); 

Covington, City of (w); 

Georgia Department of 

Natural Resources 

Environmental Protection Division 

Water Management Branch (w), 

Water Quality Support Program (w), 

Geologic Survey (n,w); 

Transportation (w) 

Materials and Research (w); 

Gwinnett, County of (w); 

Helena, City of (w);

Macon-Bibb County Water and Sewage Authority (w); 

Moultree, City of (w); 

Thomaston, City of (w); 

Thomasville, City of (w); 

Valdosta, City of (w)

Guam

Guam, Government of (w)

Hawaii

Hawaii Department of 

Land and Natural Resources, Division of Water 

and Land Development (g,w),

Transportation (w); 

Honolulu, City and County of 

Board of Water Supply (w),

Department of Public Works (w)

Idaho '

Boise, City of (w);

Burley Irrigation District (w);

College of Southern Idaho (w);

168 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
Idaho Department of 

Fish and Game (w),

Health and Welfare (w),

Lands (n),

Water Resources (n,w); 

Idaho Falls, City of (w); 

Idaho Geological Survey (g); 

Shoshone, County of (w);

Shoshone-Bannock Tribes, Fort Hall Indian Reservation (w);

Southwest Irrigation District (w); 

Sun Valley Water & Sewer District (w); 

Teton County Board of Commissioners (w); 

Water District No. 01 (Idaho Falls) (w)

Illinois

AVM Lockport Division of Water Resources (w); 

Bloomington and Normal Sanitary District (w); 

Cook County Forest Preserve District (w); 

Decatur, City of (w); 

DeKalb, City of (w); 

DuPage County Forest Preserve (w); 

DuPage County Public Works (w); 

Illinois Department of 

Energy and Natural Resources, State Water Survey Division (w),

Transportation, Division of Highways (n),

Division of Water Resources (n,w); 

Illinois Environmental Protection Agency, Division of

Water Pollution Control (w); 

Illinois State Geological Survey (g,n); 

Metropolitan Sanitary District of Greater Chicago (w); 

Springfield, City of (w); 

University of Chicago (g)

Indiana

Carmel, Town of (w);

Elkhart, City of, Water Works (w);

Indiana Department of 

Environmental Management (w),

Highways (w),

Natural Resources (g,n), Division of Water (w); 

Indianapolis, City of, Department of Public W orks (w)

Iowa

Cedar Rapids, City of (w);

Charles, City of (w);

Clear Lake, City of (w);

Des Moines, City of (w), Water Works (w);

Fort Dodge, City of (w);

Iowa Department of 

Transportation, Highway Division (w), 

Natural Resources (w);

Iowa Geological Survey (n,w);

Iowa State University (w);

Marshalltown, City of (w);

University of IowaInstitute of Hydraulic Research (w), 

Hygienic Laboratory (w), 

Physical Plant (w), 

Sewage Disposal Plant (w);

Sioux City, City of (w);

Union Electric Company (w);

Waterloo, City of (w)

Kansas

Arkansas River Compact Administration (w); 

Equus Beds Groundwater Management District No. 2

(w);

Hays, City of (w); 

Kansas Department of 

Health and Environment (w),

Transportation (w); 

Kansas Corporation Commission (w);

Kansas Geological Survey (n,w);

Kansas State Board of Agriculture, Division of Water 

Resources (w);

Kansas State University (w);

Kansas Water Office (w);

Northwest Kansas Groundwater Management District No. 4 (w);

Olathe, City of (w);

Pawnee Watershed; (w);

Sedgwick, County of (w);

Southwest Kansas Groundwater Management District 

No. 3 (w);

Western Kansas Groundwater Management District 

No. 1 (w);

Wichita, City of (w)

Kentucky

Elizabethtown, City of (w);

Hardin County Water District (w);

Jefferson, County of, Department of Public Works

and Transportation (w); 

Kentucky Department of Natural Resources and

Environmental Protection Cabinet (w); 

Lincoln Trail Health Department (w); 

University of Kentucky, Kentucky Geological Survey

(n,w); 

University of Louisville (w)

Louisiana

Avoyelles Parish (w);

Capital-Area Groundwater Conservation Commission

(w);

East Baton Rouge Parish (w); 

Jefferson Parish Department of Public Utilities (w); 

Louisiana Department of 

Natural Resources, Environmental Quality (w); 

Transportation and Development 

Materials Lab (w), 

Office of Public Works (n,w); 

Wildlife and Fisheries (w); 

Sabine River Compact Administration (w); 

Slidell, City of (w)

Maine

Androscoggin Valley Regional Planning Commission

(w);

Cobbossee Watershed District (w); 

Maine Department of 

Conservation, Geological Survey (g,n,w), 

Environmental Protection (w), 

Inland Fisheries and Wildlife (w); 

North Kennebec Valley Regional Planning Commission (w)

Maryland

Anne Arundel County Planning and Zoning Office (w); 

Baltimore County 

Department of Permits and Licenses (w),

Department of Public Works (w),

Office of Planning and Zoning (w); 

Calvert County Courthouse (w); 

Caroline County Courthouse (w); 

Howard County Department of Public Works (w); 

Maryland Department of Environment (w); 

Maryland Geological Survey (n,w); 

Maryland State Highway Administration (w); 

Maryland Water Resources Administration (w); 

Montgomery County 

Department of Environmental Protection, Division of Environmental Planning and Monitoring 

(w),

Storm Water Management (w); 

Poolesville, Town of (w); 

St. Marys County Commissioners (w);

Upper Potomac River Commission (w); 

Washington Suburban Sanitary Commission (w)

Massachusetts

Barnstable County Commissioners (w); 

Brewster, Town of (w); 

Harwich, Town of (w); 

Massachusetts Department of 

Environmental Management, Division of Water

Resources (w), 

Environmental Quality Engineering 

Division of Water Pollution Control (w), 

Division of Water Supply (w), 

Fisheries, Wildlife, and Environmental Law Enforcement, Division of Fisheries and Wildlife 

(w), 

Hazardous Waste Facility, Site Safety Council

(w); 

Metropolitan District Commission, Water Division

(w); 

Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute (g)

Michigan

Ann Arbor, City of (w);

Battle Creek, City of (w);

Cadillac, City of, Wastewater Treatment Plant (w);

Clare, City of (w);

Coldwater, City of, Board of Public Utilities (w);

Elsie, Village of (w);

Flint, City of, Department of Public Works and Utilities (w);

Genesee County Drain Commission, Division of Water 

and Waste Services (w);

Grand Traverse County Board of Commissioners (w);

Huron-Clinton Metropolitan Authority (w);

Imlay, City of (w);

Kalamazoo, City of, Department of Public Utilities 

(w);

Kalamazoo County Board of Commissioners (w);

Lansing, City of, Board of Water and Light, Water 

and Stream Division (w);

Macomb, County of (w);

Mason, City of (w);

Michigan Department of 

Agriculture (w), 

Natural Resources (w), 

Transportation (w);

Oakland County Drain Commission (w);

Otsego County Road Commission (w);

Portage, City of (w);

Wayne, County of, Division of Environmental Health 

(w);

Ypsilanti, City of (w)

Minnesota

Beltrami County SWCD (w);

Elm Creek Conservation Commission (w);

Fond Du Lac Reservation Business Committee (w);

Leech Lake Reservation Business Committee (w);

Lower Red River Watershed Management District

(w);

Metropolitan Waste Control Commission (w); 

Mille Lacs Reservation Business Committee (w); 

Minneapolis Water Works (w); 

Minnesota Department of 

Natural Resources, Division of Waters (w), 

Transportation (w); 

Minnesota Geological Survey (g); 

Red Lake Tribal Reservation Business Committee

(w);

Rochester Public Utilities (w); 

St. Paul, City of (w), Water Utility (w); 

University of Minnesota, Department of Soil Science

(w);

U.S. Geological Survey Missions and Programs 169
Wes Min Resource, Conservation and Development

Association (w); 

White Earth Reservation Business Community (w)

Mississippi

Gulf Regional Planning Commission (w); 

Harrison, County of 

Board of Supervisors (w),

Development Commission (w); 

Jackson, City of (w); 

Jackson, County of 

Board of Supervisors (w),

Port Authority (w); 

Mississippi Department of 

Highways (w),

Natural Resources 

Bureau of Geology (w), 

Bureau of Land and Water Resources (w), 

Bureau of Pollution Control (w); 

Mississippi Research and Development Center (n); 

Pat Harrison Waterway District (w); 

Pearl River Basin Development District (w); 

Pearl River Valley Water Supply District (w)

Missouri

Little River Drainage District (w); 

Missouri Department of 

Conservation (w), 

Health (w), 

Natural Resources 

Division of Environmental Quality (w), 

Division of Geology and Land Survey

(g,n,w),

Land Reclamation Commission (w); 

Missouri Highway and Transportation Commission

Springfield, City of, City Utilities, Engineering 

Department (w)

Montana

Daniels, County of (w);

Fort Peck Tribes (w);

Helena, City of (w);

Montana Bureau of Mines and Geology (g,w);

Montana Department of 

Fish, Wildlife, and Parks (w),

Health and Environmental Sciences (w),

Highways (w),

Natural Resources and Conservation (w).

State Lands (w); 

Montana State University (w); 

Salish and Kootenai Tribes of Flathead Reservation

(w); 

University of Montana (w)

Nebraska

Central Platte Natural Resources District (w);

Kansas-Nebraska Big Blue River Compact Administration (w);

Lincoln, City of (w);

Little Blue Natural Resources District (w);

Nebraska Department of 

Environmental Control (w),

Water Resources (w);

University of Nebraska, Conservation and Survey 

Division (g,w)

Nevada

Carson City Department of Public Works (w); 

Clark County Department of Public Works (w); 

Clark County Regional Flood Control District (w); 

Douglas County Department of Public Works (w); 

Elko, County of (w); 

Las Vegas Valley Water District (g,w); 

Mackay School of Mines (w);

Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology (g,n,w); 

Nevada Department of 

Conservation and Natural Resources 

Division of Environmental Protection (w), 

Division of Water Resources (w),

Transportation (w);

Nevada Senate Interim Finance Committee (w); 

Nye, County of (w); 

South Lake Tahoe, City of (w); 

South Lake Tahoe Public Utility District (w); 

Summit Lake Paiute Tribe (w); 

Tahoe Regional Planning Agency (w); 

University of Nevada Reno (w)

New Hampshire

New Hampshire Department of Resources and Economic Development (g,w)

New Jersey

Bergen County Department of Public Works (w);

Brick Township Municipal Utilities Authority (w);

Camden County Board of Chosen Freeholders (w);

Cape May, City of (w);

Delaware River Basin Commission (w);

Gloucester County Improvement Authority (w);

Greenwich, Township of (w);

Lower, Township of, Municipal Utilities Authority 

(w);

New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection, Division of Water Resources (g,w);

North Jersey District Water Supply Commission (w);

Passaic Valley Water Commission (w);

Somerset County Board of Chosen Freeholders (w);

West Windsor Township Environmental Commission 

(w);

Wildwood, City of (w)

New Mexico

Alamogordo, City of (w);

Albuquerque, City of (w);

Albuquerque Metropolitan Arroyo Flood Control

Authority (w);

Canadian River Municipal Water Authority (w); 

Costilla Creek Compact Commission (w); 

El Paso Water Utility (w); 

Gallup, City of (w); 

Highlands University (w); 

Las Cruces, City of (w); 

Las Vegas, City of (w); 

Los Alamos, County of (w); 

Navajo Indian Nation (w); 

New Mexico Bureau of Mines and Mineral Resources

(g,w); 

New Mexico Environmental Improvement Division

(w);

New Mexico Department of Highways (w); 

New Mexico Interstate Stream Commission (w); 

Office of the State Engineer (w); 

Pecos River Commission (w); 

Pueblo of Acoma (w); 

Pueblo of Laguna (w); 

Pueblo of Zuni (w); 

Raton, City of (w);

Rio Grande Compact Commission (w); 

San Juan, County of (w); 

Santa Fe Metropolitan Water Board (w); 

Santa Rosa, City of (w); 

Veremejo Conservancy District (w)

New York

Amherst, Town of, Engineering Department (w);

Auburn, City of (w);

Chautauqua, County of, Department of Planning and

Development (w); 

Cheektowaga, Town of (w);

Cornell UniversityDepartment of Natural Resources (w),

Department of Utilities (w); 

Dutchess, County of, Environmental Management

(w);

Hudson-Black River Regulating District (w); 

Monroe, County of, Department of Health (w); 

Nassau, County of 

Department of Health (w),

Department of Public Works (w); 

New York City Department of Environmental Protection, Air and Water Resources-Energy (w); 

New York State Department of 

Environmental Conservation, Division of Water 

(w),

Transportation, Bridge and Construction Bureau

(w); 

New York State Energy Research and Development

Authority (w);

New York State Power Authority (w); 

Nyack, Village of, Board of Water Commissioners (w); 

Onondaga, County of 

Department of Drainage (w),

Water Authority (w);

Orange, County of, Department of Public Works (w); 

Schuyler, County of (w); 

Suffolk, County of 

Department of Health Services (w),

Water Authority (w);

Tompkins, County of, Department of Planning (w); 

Ulster, County of, County Legislators (w); 

Westchester, County of 

Department of Planning (w),

Department of Public Works (w)

North Carolina

Bethel, Town of (w);

Brevard, City of (w);

Chapel Hill, Town of (w);

Charlotte, City of (w);

Durham, City of, Department of Water Resources

(w);

Greensboro, City of (w); 

Guilford County S.W.C.D. (w); 

Jacksonville, City of (w); 

North Carolina State Department of 

Human Resources (w),

Natural Resources and Community Development 

(g,n,w),

Transportation, Division of Highways (w); 

North Carolina State University (w); 

Orange, County of, Water and Sewer Authority (w); 

Raleigh, City of (w); 

Rocky Mount, City of (w)

North Dakota

DicMnson, City of (w);

Lower Heart River Water Resources District (w);

North Dakota Geological Survey (g,w);

North Dakota State University (w);

Oliver County Board of Commissioners (w);

Public Service Commission (w);

State Water Commission (w)

Ohio

Akron, City of (w);

Canton, City of, Water Department (w);

Columbus, City of (w);

Eastgate Development and Transportation Agency

(w);

Fremont, City of (w); 

Geauga County Planning Commission (w); 

Lucas, County of (w); 

Miami Conservancy District (w); 

Northwood, City of (w);

170 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
Ohio Air Quality Development Authority (w); 

Ohio Department of 

Natural Resources (w),

Transportation (n,w);

Ohio Environmental Protection Agency (w); 

Ohio State University (w); 

Ohio Water Development Authority (w); 

Oregon, City of (w); 

Richwood, Village of (w); 

Ross, County of (w); 

Sandusky, County of (w); 

Seneca Soil and Water District (w); 

Wood, County of (w); 

Williams, County of (w)

Oklahoma

Ada, City of (w);

Altus, City of (w);

Central Oklahoma Master Conservancy District (w);

Fort Cobb Reservoir Master Conservancy District

(w);

Foss Reservoir Master Conservancy District (w); 

Lawton, City of (w); 

Lugert-Altus Irrigation District (w); 

Mountain Park Master Conservancy District (w); 

Oklahoma City, City of (w); 

Oklahoma Department of Transportation (n); 

Oklahoma Geological Survey, University of Oklahoma

(g,n,w);

Oklahoma State Health Department (w); 

Oklahoma Water Resources Board (w); 

Tulsa, City of (w)

Oregon

Confederated Tribes of 

Umatilla Indian Reservation (w), 

Warm Springs Indian Reservation (w);

Coos Bay-North Bend Water Board (w);

Douglas, County of, Department of Public Works (w);

Eugene, City of, Water and Electric Board (w);

McMinnville, City of, Water and Light Department 

(w);

Oregon Department of 

Fish and Wildlife (w), 

Geology and Mineral Industries (g,n), 

Transportation, Highway Division (w), 

Water Resources (w);

Portland, City of, Bureau of Water Works (w)

Pennsylvania

Allentown, City of (w);

Bethlehem, City of (w);

Chester, County of, Water Resources Authority (w);

Delaware River Basin Commission (w);

Erie, County of, Department of Health (w);

Harrisburg, City of, Department of Public Works (w);

Indiana, County of (w);

Lancaster County Planning Commission (w);

Letort Regional Authority (w);

Media Borough Water Department (w);

Neshaminy Water Resources Authority (w);

New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (w);

Philadelphia, City of, Water Department (w);

Pennsylvania Department of Environmental ResourcesBureau of Mining and Reclamation (w), 

Bureau of Topographic and Geologic Survey

(g,n,w),

Bureau of Water Quality Management (w), 

Office of Resources Management (w);

Susquehanna River Basin Commission (w);

University Area Joint Authority (w);

Williamsport, City of (w)

Puerto Rico

Puerto Rico Aqueduct and Sewer Authority (w);

Puerto Rico Department of 

Agriculture (w), 

Natural Resources (g,w), 

Transportation and Public Works (w);

Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority (w);

Puerto Rico Environmental Quality Board (w);

Puerto Rico Industrial Development Company (w);

Puerto Rico Mineral Resources Development Corporation (g);

University of Puerto Rico (w)

Rhode Island

Narragansett Bay Water Quality Commission (w);

New Shoreham, Town of (w);

Rhode Island State Department of Environmental

Management, Division of Water Resources (w); 

State Water Resources Board (w); 

University of Rhode Island, Geology Department (g)

South Carolina

Charleston Commission of Public Works (w); 

Cooper River Water Users Association (w); 

Grand Strand Water and Sewer Authority (w); 

Myrtle Beach, City of (w); 

Newberry, City of (w); 

South Carolina State 

Department of Health and Environmental Control (w),

Department of Highways and Public Transportation (w),

Geological Survey (w),

Public Service Authority (w),

Water Resources Commission (w); 

South Carolina Sea Grant Consortium (w); 

South Carolina Wildlife and Marine Resources Department (w);

Spartanburg Sanitary Sewer District (w); 

Spartanburg Water System (w); 

University of South Carolina (w); . Waccamaw Regional Planning and Development Commission (w); 

Western Carolina Regional Sewer Authority (w)

South Dakota

East Dakota Water Development District (w); 

Ogallala Sioux Tribe (w); 

Rapid City, City of (w); 

Sioux Falls, City of (w); 

Sisston-Wahpeton Sioux Tribe (w); 

South Dakota Department of 

Game, Fish and Parks (w),

Transportation (w),

Water and Natural Resources 

Geological Survey Science Center (w), 

Water Quality Division (w), 

Water Rights Division (w); 

South Dakota School of Mines and Technology (w); 

Watertown, City of (w); 

West Dakota Water Development District (w)

Tennessee

Alcoa, City of (w);

Bartlett, City of (w);

Benton, Town of (w);

Dickson, City of (w);

Eastside Utility District (w);

German Town, City of (w);

Government of Nashville and Davidson County (w);

Hyson Utility District (w);

Jackson, City of (w);

Lawrenceburg, City of (w);

Lincoln, County of, Board of Public Utilities (w);

Memphis, City of 

Light, Gas, and Water Division (w), 

Public Works Division (w); 

Murfreesboro Water and Sewer Department (w); 

North Stewart County Utility District (w); 

Shelby County Public Works (w); 

Spring Hill, Town of (w); 

Tennessee Department of 

Conservation, Geology Division (g,w), 

Health and Environment (w) 

Division of Superfund (w), 

Office of Groundwater Protection (w), 

Office of Surface Mining and Reclamation

(w),

Office of Water Management (w), 

Transportation, Division of Structures (w); 

Tennessee Technological University (w); 

Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency (w); 

University of Tennessee, Water Resources Research

Center (w);

Webb Creek Utility District (w); 

West Overton Utility District (w)

Texas

Abilene, City of (w); 

Arlington, City of (w); 

Austin, City of (w);

Bexar-Medina-Atascosa Counties, Water Improvement District No. 1 (w); 

Brazos River Authority (w); 

Carrollton, City of (w); 

Coastal Industrial Water Authority (w); 

Colorado River Municipal Water District (w); 

Corpus Christi, City of (g,w); 

Dallas, City of, Public Works Department (w); 

Dallas-Fort Worth Airport (w); 

Edwards Underground Water District (w); 

El Paso, City of, Public Service Board (w); 

Fort Bend, County of (w); 

Fort Stockton, City of (w); 

Franklin, County of, Water District (w); 

Gainesville, City of (w); 

Galveston, County of (w); 

Garland, City of (w); 

Georgetown, City of (w); 

Graham, City of (w); 

Greenbelt Municipal and Industrial Water Authority

(w);

Guadalupe-Blanco River Authority (w); 

Harris, County of, Flood Control District (w); 

Harris-Galveston Coastal Subsidence District (w); 

Houston, City of (w); 

Lower Colorado River Authority (w); 

Lower Neches Valley Authority (w); 

Lubbock, City of (w); 

Nacogdoches, City of (w);

North Central Texas Municipal Water Authority (w); 

Northeast Texas Municipal Water District (w); 

Orange, County of (w); 

Pecos River Commission (w); 

Red Bluff Water Power Control District (w); 

Runaway Bay, City of (w); 

Sabine River Authority of Texas (w); 

Sabine River Compact Administration (w); 

San Angelo, City of (w); 

San Antonio, City of 

Department of Environmental Management (w),

Public Service Board (w),

Water Board (w); 

San Antonio River Authority (w); 

San Jacinto River Authority (w); 

Tarrant, County of, Water Control and Improvement

District No. 1 (w);

Texas Bureau of Economic Geology (g); 

Texas State Department of Highways (w); 

Texas Water Commission (n,w);

U.S. Geological Survey Missions and Programs 171
Texas Water Development Board (w);

Titus, County of, Fresh Water Supply District No. 1

(w);

Trinity River Authority (w); 

Upper Guadalupe River Authority (w); 

Upper Neches River Municipal Water Authority (w); 

Upper Trinity Basin Water Quality Compact (w); 

West Central Texas Municipal Water District (w); 

Wichita, County of, Water Improvement District No.

2(w); 

Wichita Falls, City of (w)

Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands

Federated States of MicronesiaState of Korsae (w), 

State of Pohnpei (w), 

State of Truk (w), 

State of Yap (w);

Northern Mariana Islands, Government of (w);

Republic of Palau (w)

Utah

Bear River Commission (w); 

Salt Lake, County of 

Board of County Commissioners (w), 

Division of Flood Control and Water Quality (w); 

Utah Department of 

Natural Resources 

Geological and Mineral Survey (g,n,w), 

Oil, Gas and Mining Division (w), 

Water Resources Division (w), 

Water Rights Division (w), 

Wildlife Resources Division (w); 

Transportation (w);

Utah Health Department, Division of Environmental 

Health (w)

Vermont

Agency of Environmental Conservation (n); 

Office of the State Geologist (g); 

Vermont Department of Water Resources and Environmental Engineering (w)

Virginia

Accomack, County of (w);

Alexandria, City of, Department of Transportation 

and Environmental Services (w);

Clark, County of (w);

James City, County of, Department of Public Works 

(w);

James City Service Authority (w);

Lord Fairfax Planning District Commission (w);

Newport News, City of, Department of Public Utilities (w);

Northampton, County of (w);

Northern Virginia Planning District Commission (w);

Prince William Health District (w);

Roanoke, City of, Utilities and Operations (w);

Southeastern Public Service Authority of Virginia 

(w);

Southeastern Virginia Planning District Commission 

(w);

University of Virginia, Department of Environmental 

Sciences (w);

Virginia Department of 

Conservation and Economic Development, Division of Mineral Resources (g,n), 

Highways and Transportation (w), 

Mines, Minerals, and Energy, Division of Mined 

Land Reclamation (w);

Virginia Beach, City of (w);

Virginia Commonwealth University (w);

Virginia State Water Control Board (w);

Williamsburg, City of (w);

York, County of (w)

Washington

Bellevue, City of, Public Works Department (w); 

Centralia, City of, Lights Department (w); 

Chelan, County of, Public Utility District No. 1 (w); 

Cowlitz County Board of Commissioners (w); 

Douglas, County of, Public Utility District No. 1 (w); 

Hoh Indian Tribe (w);

Kitsap, County of, Public Utility District No. 1 (w); 

King, County of (w), Department of Public Works (w); 

King, County of, South, Regional Water Association

(w);

Lewis, County of, Board of Commissioners (w); 

Municipality of Metropolitan Seattle (w); 

Pend Oreille, County of (w); 

Pierce, County of (w); 

Pullman, City of (w); 

Puyallup Indian Nation (w); 

Quinault Business Committee (w); 

San Juan County Board of Commissioners (w); 

Seattle, City ofDepartment of Lighting (w),

Department of Parks and Recreation (w); 

Skagit, County of (w); 

Department of Public Works (w); 

Snohomish, County of (w); 

Tacoma, City of, Public Works Department (w); 

Yakima Tribal Council (w); 

Washington Department of 

Ecology (g,w),

Emergency Management (w),

Fisheries (w),

Natural Resources (g,n,w),

Transportation (w); 

University of Washington (g); 

Whatcom, County of, Department of Public Works (w)

West Virginia

Marshall County Commission (w); 

Morgantown, City of, Water Commission (w); 

Washington Public Service District (w); 

West Virginia Department of 

Energy (w),

Highways (w),

Natural Resources, Division of Water Resources

(w);

West Virginia Geological and Economic Survey (w); 

West Virginia Office of Community and Industrial 

Development (w)

Wisconsin

Bad River Tribal Council (w); 

Beaver Dam, City of (w);

Chippewa, County of, Land Conservation Department (w); 

Dane, County of 

Department of Public Works (w),

Regional Planning Commission (w); 

Delavan, Town of (w); 

Delavan Lake Sanitary District (w); 

Fond Du Lac, City of (w); 

Forest County Potawatomi Community (w); 

Fowler Lake Management District (w); 

Fox Valley Water Quality Planning Agency (w); 

Green Lake Sanitary District (w); 

Hillsboro, City of (w); 

Hills Lake Management District (w); 

Lac Courte Oreilles Governing Board (w); 

Little Muskego Lake District (w); 

Madison Metropolitan Sewage District (w); 

Medford, City of (w); 

Menominee Indian Tribe of Wisconsin (w); 

Middleton, City of (w); 

Morris Lake Management District (w); 

Noquebay Lake District (w); 

Norway-Wind Lake, Town of (w); 

Oconomowoc Lake, Village of (w); 

Okauchee Lake Management District (w);

Oneida Tribe of Indians (w); 

Park Lake Management District (w); 

Peshtigo, City of (w); 

Powers Lake, District of (w); 

Rock, County of (w); 

St. Croix Tribal Council (w); 

Sand Lake, Town of (w);

Slinger, Village of, Wastewater Treatment Plant (w); 

Southeastern Wisconsin Regional Planning Commission (w);

Stockbridge-Munsee Tribal Council (w); 

Thorp, City of (w); 

University of Wisconsin, Extension, Geological and

Natural History Survey (g,n,w); 

Waupun, City of (w); 

Wisconsin Department of 

Natural Resources (w),

Transportation (n), Division of Highways (w); 

Wolf Lake Management District (w)

Wyoming

Attorney General (w);

Cheyenne, City of (w);

Evanston, City of (w);

Sublette, County of (w);

Uinta, County of (w);

Water Development Commission (w);

Wyoming Department of 

Agriculture (w),

Economic Planning and Stabilization Board (w),

Environmental Quality (w),

Highways (w);

Wyoming Geological Survey (g); 

Wyoming State Engineer (n,w); 

Wyoming Water Research Center (w)

Federal Cooperators

Central Intelligence Agency (g)

Department of Agriculture

Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service

(n);

Forest Service (n,w); 

Agricultural Research Service (w); 

Soil Conservation Service (g,n,w); 

Statistical Reporting Service (n)

Department of the Air Force (w)

Air Force Academy (w);

Boiling Air Force Base (g);

Hanscom Air Force Base (g);

Headquarters, AFTAC/AC (g);

Occupational and Environmental Health Laboratory

(w); 

Vandenberg Air Force Base (w)

Department of the Army (w)

Aberdeen Proving Ground (w); 

Army Signals Warfare Laboratory (n); 

Avionics R and D Activity (g); 

Coastal Engineering Research Center (g); 

Corps of Engineers (g,w); 

Fort Carson Military Reservation (w); 

Mobility Equipment Research and Development Command (g);

Picatinny Arsenal (w); 

Research Office, Triangle Park, N.C. (g); 

Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg (g,w); 

White Sands Missile Range (w)

Department of Commerce

Bureau of the Census (n);

Coastal Plains Regional Action Planning Commission

(g);

172 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987
National Bureau of Standards (g);

National Ocean Survey (n);

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

. National Weather Service (g,n,w)

Department of Defense Agencies

Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (g); 

Defense Logistics Agency (w); 

Defense Mapping Agency (g,n); 

Defense Nuclear Agency (g); 

Defense Intelligence Agency (g,n)

Department of Energy (w)

Albuquerque Operations Office (g,w);

Bonneville Power Administration (n,w);

Chicago Operations Office (g,w);

Idaho Operations Office (g,w);

Los Alamos National Laboratory (g);

Lawrence Livermore Laboratory (g);

Nevada Operations Office (g,n,w);

Oak Ridge Operations Office (g,w);

Office of Energy Research (g);

Procurement Operations Office (g);

Richland Operations Office (g,w);

San Francisco Operations (g);

Sandia National Laboratories (g,w);

Savannah River Operations Office (n,w);

United States Arms Control and Disarmament

Agency (g); 

Western Area Power Administration (g,n,w)

Department of the Interior

Bureau of Indian Affairs (g,n,w); 

Bureau of Land Management (g,n,w); 

Bureau of Mines (g,w); 

.Bureau of Reclamation (g,w); 

Minerals Management Service (g,n,w); 

National Park Service (g,w);

Office of the Secretary (g,w); 

Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement (g,n,w);

Smithsonian Institution (w); 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (g,n,w)

Department of Justice (w)

Department of the Navy (w)

Naval Explosive Ordnance Disposal Test Center (g);

Naval Oceanographic Office (g);

Naval Weapons Center, China Lake (g,w);

Office of Naval Research (g);

U.S. Marine Corps (w);

U.S. Marine Corps, Installations and Logistics (n)

Department of State

Agency for International Development (g,w); 

International Boundary and Water Commission, U.S.

and Canada (n); 

International Boundary and Water Commission, U.S.

and Mexico (n,w); 

InternationalJoint Commission, U.S. and Canada (w)

Department of Transportation

Federal Highway Administration (g,n,w); 

U.S. Coast Guard (g,w)

Department of Treasury

U.S. Customs Service (n)

Environmental Protection Agency (w)

Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory (w); 

Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory (g); 

Office of Administration and Resources Management

(n); 

Office of Environmental Engineering and Technology

(g);

Office of Pesticides Programs (w);

Office of Waste Programs Enforcement (w)

Federal Emergency Management Agency (g,w)

Federal Energy Regulating Commission Licensees

(w)

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

(g,w)

National Research Council (n)

National Science Foundation (g,n,w)

Navajo and Hppi Indian Relocation Commission (g)

Nuclear Regulatory Commission (g,n)

Tennessee Valley Authority (n,w)

Veterans Administration (g,w)

Other Cooperators and 

Contributors

Government of Saudi Arabia (g,n,w) 

People's Republic of China (g,w)

United Nations

United Nations Development Program (g,w);

UNESCO (w);

World Meteorological Organization (w)

Use of trade names in this publication is for identification purposes only and does not 

constitute endorsement by the U.S. Geological Survey.

Yearbook Staff

Gail Wendt 

Kathleen Krafft 

Jewel Dickson 

Bonnie D'Agostino 

Sandye Holmes 

Eloise Byrd 

Marti Quigley 

Sandy Jefferson

Coordinating Editor

Editor

Graphic Designer

Geologic Division Coordinator

Water Resources Division Coordinator

National Mapping Division Coordinator

Information Systems Division Coordinator

Administrative Division Coordinator

U.S. Geological Survey Missions and Programs 173
As the Nation's principal conservation agency the Department of the 

Interior has responsibility for most of our nationally owned public lands and 

natural resources. This includes fostering the wisest use of our land and 

water resources, protecting our fish and wildlife, preserving the environmental and cultural values of our national parks and historical places, and 

providing for the enjoyment of life through outdoor recreation. The Department assesses our energy and mineral resources and works to assure that 

their development is in the best interest of all our people. The Department 

also has a major responsibility for American Indian reservation communities 

and for people who live in Island Territories under U.S. Administration.

174 U.S. Geological Survey Yearbook 1987