a

GAO

United States General Accounting Office

Report to Congressional Requesters

May 2003 COMBATING 

TERRORISM

Interagency 

Framework and 

Agency Programs 

to Address the 

Overseas Threat

GAO-03-165

Page i GAO-03-165 Combating Terrorism

Contents

Transmittal Letter 1

Executive Summary 4

Purpose 4

Background 4

Results in Brief 5

GAO’s Analysis 6

Agency Comments and Our Evaluation 10

Chapter 1

Introduction: 

Terrorism Overseas 

and the Federal 

Government’s Role

12

Definitions for Terrorism and Combating Terrorism 12

The Threat of Terrorism Overseas 15

The Federal Government’s Role and Resources for Combating 

Terrorism Overseas 30

Objectives, Scope, and Methodology 34

Chapter 2

The Interagency 

Framework for 

Combating Terrorism 

Overseas

38

Policies, Plans, and Legislation 38

Roles and Responsibilities of Key Federal Agencies 52

Interagency Coordination Mechanisms 60

Agency Comments and Our Evaluation 64

Chapter 3

Federal Efforts to 

Detect and Prevent 

Terrorism

66

Intelligence Gathering and Analysis Help Detect 

Terrorist Activities 66

Protecting U.S. Government Facilities and Americans Abroad 77

Public Diplomacy Builds International Support for 

U.S. Foreign Policy 89

Visa and Border Controls Are Intended to Prevent Terrorists and 

Their Materials from Entering the United States 91

Coalition Capabilities Are Enhanced through Bilateral Programs 

and Activities 105

Agency Comments and Our Evaluation 127
Contents

Page ii GAO-03-165 Combating Terrorism

Chapter 4

Federal Efforts to 

Disrupt and Destroy 

Terrorist Organizations

128

Diplomatic Initiatives Strengthen International Cooperation 128

Law Enforcement Efforts to Disrupt Terrorist Organizations 135

Identifying and Freezing Terrorists’ Financial Assets Disrupts 

Terrorist Organizations 145

Military Operations Provide Means to Destroy Terrorist 

Organizations 154

Covert Actions Can Be Used to Disrupt and Destroy Terrorist 

Organizations 168

Agency Comments and Our Evaluation 169

Chapter 5

Federal Efforts to 

Respond to Terrorist 

Incidents Overseas

170

Advance Preparations for Terrorist Incidents 170

Response to a Terrorist Incident Overseas 173

Evaluations in the Aftermath of a Terrorist Incident 182

Agency Comments and Our Evaluation 183

Appendixes

Appendix I: Matrix of Department of Defense Programs and Activities to 

Combat Terrorism Overseas 184

Appendix II: Matrix of Department of Homeland Security Programs and 

Activities to Combat Terrorism Overseas 209

Appendix III: Matrix of Department of Justice Programs and Activities to 

Combat Terrorism Overseas 215

Appendix IV: Matrix of Department of State Programs and Activities to 

Combat Terrorism Overseas 225

Appendix V: Matrix of Department of the Treasury Programs and 

Activities to Combat Terrorism Overseas 239

Appendix VI: United Nations Protocols, Conventions, and Resolutions 

Related to Terrorism 243

Appendix VII: Organizations Visited or Contacted 249

Appendix VIII: Comments from the Department of Defense 253

Appendix IX: Comments from the U.S. Agency for International 

Development 254

Appendix X: GAO Contacts and Staff Acknowledgments 255
Contents

Page iii GAO-03-165 Combating Terrorism

Related GAO Products 256

Tables Table 1: Fiscal Year 2004 President’s Request for Funding to 

Combat Terrorism Domestically and Overseas 

(Gross Budget Authority) 32

Table 2: National Strategies Related to Combating Terrorism 43

Table 3: Goals and Objectives in the National Strategy for 

Combating Terrorism 49

Table 4: NSC-Sponsored Interagency Working Groups Under the 

Counterterrorism Security Group to Coordinate Efforts to 

Combat Terrorism Overseas 61

Table 5: Selected Members of the Interagency Intelligence 

Committee on Terrorism 75

Table 6: U.S. Nonproliferation Assistance Programs 117

Table 7: Federal Agencies’ Roles in Investigating Terrorist-Related 

Incidents Overseas 137

Table 8: Reported Extraditions and Renditions of Terrorists to the 

United States, 1987-2001 140

Table 9: Significant Military Contributions by Selected Coalition 

Partners in and around Afghanistan in Support of 

Operation Enduring Freedom 164

Table 10: Department of Defense Programs and Activities to Combat 

Terrorism Overseas 184

Table 11: Department of Homeland Security Programs and Activities 

to Combat Terrorism Overseas 209

Table 12: Department of Justice Programs and Activities to Combat 

Terrorism Overseas 215

Table 13: Department of State Programs and Activities to Combat 

Terrorism Overseas 225

Table 14: Department of the Treasury Programs and Activities to 

Combat Terrorism Overseas 239

Table 15: UN Conventions and Protocols Related to Terrorism 243

Table 16: UN Security Council Resolutions Related to Terrorism 244

Table 17: UN General Assembly Resolutions Related to 

Terrorism 246

Figures Figure 1: The Pentagon in Flames Moments after International 

Terrorists Crash a Hijacked Aircraft into the Building on 

September 11, 2001 14

Figure 2: Total International Terrorist Attacks, 1981-2001 17
Contents

Page iv GAO-03-165 Combating Terrorism

Figure 3: Types of International Terrorist Attacks Against 

Americans by Percentage, 1988-2001 18

Figure 4: Terrorist Attacks Against U.S. Targets during 2001 by 

Type of Targets Attacked 20

Figure 5: Terrorist Attacks Against U.S. Targets during 2001 by 

Region 21

Figure 6: Aftermath of the al Qaeda Terrorist Bombing of the U.S. 

Embassy in Dar es-Salaam, Tanzania, in August 1998 23

Figure 7: Relationships Between and Among National Strategies 

Related to Combating Terrorism Overseas 47

Figure 8: Host Nation Police Use Buses to Cordon off a U.S. 

Embassy during a Heightened Threat Period 81

Figure 9: 2nd Company, Georgian Commando Battalion, Perform a 

Combat Off Load With Members of the U.S. Army’s 10th 

Special Forces Group (Airborne) at a Training Range at 

Krtsanisi, Republic of Georgia 124

Figure 10: U.S. Special Forces Soldier Shows a Filipino Soldier How 

to Adjust the Sights on His M-16 Rifle during 

Marksmanship Training in Tipo-Tipo Town, Basilan 

Island, Philippines 125

Figure 11: UN Security Council Unanimously Adopts Resolution 

1373, Calling for Wide-Ranging International Cooperation 

to Combat Terrorism 132

Figure 12: Air Force B-52H Bomber Drops a Load of M117 750 lb. 

Bombs 157

Figure 13: U.S. Special Forces Troops Riding Horseback in 

Afghanistan With Members of the Northern Alliance 

during Operation Enduring Freedom 158

Figure 14: British Troops Prepare to Board an Oil Tanker as Part of 

the Coalition’s Maritime Interception Operations in the 

Arabian Sea 160

Figure 15: Camp X-Ray Used as a Temporary Holding Facility for 

Detainees Held at U.S. Naval Air Station Guantánamo 

Bay, Cuba 162

Figure 16: NATO Member France Provided Six Mirage 2000 Aircraft 

to Fly Reconnaissance Missions in Support of Operation 

Enduring Freedom 166

Figure 17: USS Cole Damaged by a Terrorist Bomb Explosion While 

Refueling at the Port of Aden, Yemen 176

Figure 18: Federal Response Teams That Could Respond to a 

Weapons of Mass Destruction Incident Overseas 181
Contents

Page v GAO-03-165 Combating Terrorism

Abbreviations

ATF Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives

CIA Central Intelligence Agency

CLASS Consular Lookout and Support System

DARPA Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency

DOD Department of Defense

DOE Department of Energy

FARC Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia 

(Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia)

FBI Federal Bureau of Investigation 

FEMA Federal Emergency Management Agency

FEST Foreign Emergency Support Team

FinCEN Financial Crimes Enforcement Network

FISA Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act

FLETC Federal Law Enforcement Training Center

G-8 Group of Eight

GAO U.S. General Accounting Office

ICITAP International Criminal Investigative Training 

Assistance Program

ILEA International Law Enforcement Academy

INS Immigration and Naturalization Service

INTERPOL International Police Organization

NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization

NSC National Security Council

OMB Office of Management and Budget

OPDAT Overseas Prosecutorial Development, Assistance 

and Training

USAID U.S. Agency for International Development

USA PATRIOT Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing 

Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and 

Obstruct Terrorism

PDD Presidential Decision Directive

RDT&E research, development, test, and evaluation

UN United Nations

WMD weapons of mass destruction

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Contents

Page vi GAO-03-165 Combating Terrorism
Page 1 GAO-03-165 Combating Terrorism

United States General Accounting Office

Washington, D.C. 20548

A

May 23, 2003 TranLsmraelti

The Honorable Henry J. Hyde

Chairman

The Honorable Tom Lantos

Ranking Member

Committee on International Relations

House of Representatives

The Honorable Christopher Shays

Chairman

Subcommittee on National Security, 

Emerging Threats, and International Relations

Committee on Government Reform

House of Representatives

Coordination of federal programs to combat terrorism overseas became 

even more critical as a result of the terrorist attacks against the United 

States on September 11, 2001. In response to these attacks, the federal 

government has taken unprecedented political, diplomatic, legal, law 

enforcement, financial, military, and intelligence actions to combat 

terrorism abroad. Among these actions is the publication of a series of new 

national strategies to combat terrorism.

You asked that we develop baseline information identifying and describing 

federal programs and activities to combat terrorism overseas. As agreed 

with your offices, this report describes the interagency framework and 

policies for planning and coordinating federal efforts to counter 

international terrorism. It identifies the relationships between and among 

the new national strategies to combat terrorism. It also describes the 

federal programs and activities governmentwide to detect and prevent 

terrorism, disrupt and destroy terrorist organizations, and respond to 

terrorist incidents overseas. Finally, it provides detailed matrices of 

selected departments’ programs and activities to combat terrorism 

overseas. We briefed your staffs previously on the preliminary results of 

our work and, at your request, issued an interim report on Combating 

Terrorism: Department of State Programs to Combat Terrorism Abroad

(GAO-02-1021, Sept. 6, 2002). This report contains the final results of 

our review.

The scope of this report was on combating terrorism overseas and did not 

include a comprehensive review of homeland security efforts within the 
Page 2 GAO-03-165 Combating Terrorism

United States or federal agencies’ efforts to combat terrorism domestically. 

However, for this report, we did perform limited work on border security, 

where homeland security and overseas efforts overlap. Also, we included 

certain efforts to combat terrorism overseas that actually occur within the 

United States, such as interagency coordination, intelligence analysis, and 

law enforcement investigations and prosecutions. Further, our analysis was 

performed before the Department of Homeland Security began operations 

in January 2003. Thus, many of the agencies, bureaus, offices, and federal 

response teams discussed in this report had not yet transferred to the new 

department from the Departments of Health and Human Services, Justice, 

Transportation, and the Treasury.

Because of the large number of federal agencies and wide spectrum of 

efforts involved in combating terrorism overseas, this “landscape” report 

describes the governmentwide framework and programs and activities 

rather than evaluating their effectiveness. Therefore, this report contains 

no recommendations. We recognize that the effectiveness of the new 

strategies and related programs that we describe will only be determined 

through time as they are implemented. Some of our recent work on 

combating terrorism indicates there are many implementation challenges 

and we have designated some of these programs as high risk. Where we 

have done evaluative work on relevant programs, we have identified the 

appropriate GAO products and summarized their results in footnotes. In 

addition, we include a comprehensive list of related GAO products at the 

back of this report.
Page 3 GAO-03-165 Combating Terrorism

We are sending copies of this report to other interested congressional 

committees. We also are sending copies to the Secretaries of Defense, 

Energy, Homeland Security, State, Transportation, and the Treasury; and 

the Attorney General. In addition, we are sending copies to the Director, 

U.S. Agency for International Development; the Director of Central 

Intelligence; the Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs; the 

Director, Office of Homeland Security; and the Director, Office of 

Management and Budget. We will make copies available to other interested 

parties upon request. This report also will be available on GAO’s Web site at 

http://www.gao.gov.

If you or your offices have any questions about matters discussed in this 

report, please contact me at (202) 512-6020 or by e-mail at 

deckerrj@gao.gov. Contacts and key contributors are listed in appendix X.

Raymond J. Decker, Director

Defense Capabilities and Management
Page 4 GAO-03-165 Combating Terrorism

Executive Summary

Purpose In response to the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, the federal 

government has taken unprecedented political, diplomatic, legal, law 

enforcement, financial, intelligence, and military actions to combat 

terrorism abroad. Combating terrorism is now at the top of the national 

security agenda, and many changes have occurred in the government’s 

organization and strategies related to these matters. GAO was requested to 

produce this report to assist congressional committees with their 

responsibilities to oversee federal programs to combat terrorism overseas. 

Specifically, this report describes the interagency framework for planning, 

executing, and coordinating related federal efforts. In addition, this report 

identifies and describes the programs and activities to detect and prevent 

terrorist attacks, disrupt and destroy terrorist organizations, and respond 

to terrorist incidents.

Given the number of federal agencies and the wide spectrum of activities 

involved in combating terrorism overseas, GAO limited its work to 

describing the interagency framework and programs and activities and did 

not evaluate their effectiveness. While there are several new strategies to 

combat terrorism, many of the programs they incorporate are longstanding. The strategies by themselves, no matter how cohesive and 

comprehensive, will not ensure an integrated and effective set of programs 

to combat terrorism overseas. The ability to ensure these things will be 

determined through time as the strategies and programs are implemented. 

Some of GAO’s recent work on combating terrorism demonstrates some of 

the challenges ahead.

Background Although agencies have slightly different definitions, terrorism generally is 

defined as politically motivated violence to coerce a government or civilian 

population. Efforts to combat terrorism are further broken down into 

homeland security activities (those that occur domestically) and combating 

terrorism overseas (those that occur abroad)—the topic of this report. 

According to the Central Intelligence Agency, the threat of terrorist attacks 

against U.S. personnel, facilities, and interests overseas is greater now than 

ever before. Terrorists attacking the United States employ a variety of 

tactics, target a number of different interests, and strike in regions 

throughout the world. The federal government’s role in combating 

terrorism overseas includes political, diplomatic, legal, law enforcement, 

financial, military, and intelligence efforts. Funding for combating 

terrorism overseas has increased about 133 percent, growing from 

$4.9 billion in fiscal year 2001 to $11.4 billion requested in fiscal year 2004. 
Executive Summary

Page 5 GAO-03-165 Combating Terrorism

In addition, DOD has spent about $30 billion on military operations 

overseas against terrorism in the period roughly equivalent to fiscal year 

2002.

Results in Brief Combating terrorism overseas falls under an interagency framework of 

plans, agency roles, and interagency coordination mechanisms. In general, 

the National Security Council manages this interagency framework. The 

President, National Security Council, and federal agencies have published a 

series of related directives and new national strategies to guide federal 

efforts. To implement the directives and strategies, various federal agencies 

are assigned key roles and responsibilities based on their core missions. 

Given the number of agencies involved, there are also a number of 

interagency mechanisms to coordinate across agencies in both 

Washington, D.C., and overseas. Within this framework, efforts to combat 

terrorism overseas can generally be divided into programs and activities to 

(1) detect and prevent terrorism, (2) disrupt and destroy terrorist 

organizations, and (3) respond to terrorist incidents.

• Efforts to detect and prevent terrorism include activities to gather 

intelligence on terrorist threats and organizations, protect facilities and 

persons overseas, impact foreign opinion through public diplomacy, 

prevent terrorists and their materials from entering the United States, 

and improve other countries’ capabilities.

• Efforts to disrupt and destroy terrorist organizations can occur in many 

ways, to include diplomacy in both bilateral and multilateral forums; law 

enforcement efforts to investigate, arrest, and prosecute terrorists; 

financial and related measures to eliminate terrorist support; military 

actions to destroy terrorists and regimes that harbor them; and covert 

operations by intelligence agencies.

• Efforts to respond to an international terrorist incident consist of 

advance preparations, managing the crisis and consequences of an 

attack, and reviewing incidents to learn lessons and prevent or mitigate 

future attacks.

GAO is making no recommendations in this report.
Executive Summary

Page 6 GAO-03-165 Combating Terrorism

GAO’s Analysis

The Interagency Framework 

for Combating Terrorism

The National Security Council and its Director for Combating Terrorism 

develop and manage the interagency framework for combating terrorism 

overseas. This framework consists of presidential directives, national 

strategies, and related guidance. For example, the National Security 

Council coordinated the overall National Security Strategy of the United 

States of America, and the Director for Combating Terrorism coordinated 

the National Strategy for Combating Terrorism. There are other nationallevel strategies related to combating terrorism. Examples of these include 

the National Strategy for Homeland Security and the National Strategy to 

Combat Weapons of Mass Destruction. The various strategies were 

developed for specific and separate purposes. There is a general hierarchy 

among these overlapping strategies.

Another key element in the interagency framework for combating 

terrorism overseas is the specific roles played by federal organizations and 

agencies. Some play a coordinating role, others serve a lead role in specific 

areas, and many others have support roles for specific activities. Some 

individual agencies have positions designated within them to lead their 

agencies’ terrorism-related programs. In addition, individual agencies have 

their own strategic plans or develop interagency plans and related guidance 

for specific functions. For example, the Department of Justice’s Strategic 

Plan for Fiscal Years 2001-2006 and the Department of State’s 2002

Annual Performance Plan provide department-specific plans and goals 

related to terrorism.

The interagency framework also consists of coordinating mechanisms and 

groups to implement the functions and activities among all the federal 

agencies involved. In Washington, D.C., the National Security Council plays 

a major coordinating role by sponsoring a policy coordinating committee 

called the Counterterrorism Security Group that has several subordinate 

working groups on such topics as interagency exercises and assistance to 

other countries. At U.S. embassies, there are interagency teams that meet 

to coordinate bilateral efforts to combat terrorism. Similarly, regional 

military commands have interagency coordination groups that coordinate 

military operations with non-military tools to combat terrorism.
Executive Summary

Page 7 GAO-03-165 Combating Terrorism

Efforts to Detect and 

Prevent Terrorism

Gathering and analyzing intelligence outside of the United States are the 

major activities to detect and prevent terrorist activities overseas and 

generally are led by the Central Intelligence Agency. Under the overall 

leadership of that agency, U.S. intelligence agencies gather information on 

terrorist organizations, monitor terrorist threats, and share information 

with other nations. The Departments of State, Justice, and Defense collect 

and analyze intelligence through surveillance programs and liaisons with 

foreign police. These intelligence activities support other preventative 

efforts, such as protecting U.S. facilities and Americans overseas, and visa 

and border controls.

Protecting U.S. facilities and Americans overseas is a major part of 

preventing terrorism and is generally led by the Department of State. To 

protect U.S. facilities and personnel abroad, State has programs that 

include facility security, local guard forces, armored vehicles for embassy 

personnel, and Marine Guards to protect sensitive information. The 

Department of Defense has separate programs to protect its military forces 

against terrorist attacks. For American citizens traveling and living abroad, 

the State Department issues public travel warnings and public 

announcements and operates warning systems to convey terrorist-related 

information. State also uses overseas advisory councils—voluntary 

partnerships between State and U.S. businesses—to exchange threat 

information with private companies.

Improving the image of the United States to support U.S. foreign policy is 

another activity to prevent terrorism. For example, in an attempt to reduce 

possible negative perceptions of the United States and foster greater 

understanding of U.S. policy in key international audiences, State conducts 

public diplomacy through various media. Similarly, the Broadcasting Board 

of Governors conducts international broadcasts to worldwide audiences to 

help support U.S. strategic interests.

Keeping terrorists and their materials out of the United States also helps to 

prevent terrorism. The State Department has a role in preventing terrorists 

from entering the United States through its visa programs and related 

efforts to screen out terrorists. Agencies that have recently transferred 

from various departments to the Department of Homeland Security also 

have a role in keeping terrorists and their contraband out of the United 

States. These include the former Immigration and Naturalization Service, 

the U.S. Border Patrol, the former U.S. Customs Service, and the U.S. Coast 

Guard, which monitor the border at and between ports of entry.
Executive Summary

Page 8 GAO-03-165 Combating Terrorism

Improving other countries’ capabilities is another part of preventing 

terrorism and is generally led by the Department of State. The department 

has overall leadership of bilateral relations, including programs to assist 

foreign nations. Such programs consist of training, equipment, and other 

assistance to improve foreign police and military capabilities. While the 

State Department has the overall lead, many of these assistance programs 

are implemented in conjunction with the Departments of Defense, 

Homeland Security, Justice, Energy, and the Treasury. One example is the 

Antiterrorism Assistance program, which is managed by State, but the 

training might be delivered by other agencies, such as the Federal Bureau 

of Investigation or the U.S. Secret Service. These assistance efforts not only 

help to prevent terrorist attacks, they can improve the capabilities of other 

countries to disrupt and destroy terrorists and to respond to terrorist 

incidents.

Efforts to Disrupt and 

Destroy Terrorist 

Organizations

Diplomacy and cooperation with other countries, led by the Department of 

State, enables that department and other federal agencies to undertake a 

number of efforts to combat terrorism. State manages bilateral and 

multilateral relationships to leverage opportunities for cooperation among 

traditional and emerging allies. At the bilateral level, State helps 

orchestrate other nations’ support and assistance for U.S. law enforcement 

activities, financial operations, and military actions against terrorists. At 

the multilateral level, State leads U.S. efforts in the United Nations and in 

other international forums to combat terrorism. For example, State has 

introduced and coordinated the passage of several related United Nations 

Security Council Resolutions to combat terrorism.

Law enforcement efforts are also a key activity to disrupt and destroy 

terrorist organizations and generally are led by the Department of Justice 

and its Federal Bureau of Investigation. These include efforts, in 

conjunction with other nations, to investigate terrorist incidents, make 

arrests, arrange for the return of suspects to the United States, and 

prosecute alleged terrorists. In such investigations, the Departments of 

State and the Treasury and other law enforcement agencies support the 

Department of Justice.

Taking action against the financial structure of terrorist organizations also 

plays a key role in disrupting and destroying the organizations and 

preventing future attacks. Numerous components of the Departments of 

State, the Treasury, Homeland Security, Justice, and other agencies 

participate in efforts to combat terrorist financing. Activities include 
Executive Summary

Page 9 GAO-03-165 Combating Terrorism

blocking or freezing assets of designated individuals and organizations 

linked to terrorism and conducting investigations aimed at identifying, 

tracing, and freezing assets tied to terrorist organizations.

Military operations are important in disrupting and destroying terrorist 

organizations and generally are led by the Department of Defense with 

support at the multilateral level provided by the Department of State. 

Operations in Afghanistan bluntly illustrate the devastating nature of 

military efforts to attack terrorist organizations. Many of the military 

operations are conducted or coordinated with foreign militaries.

Another means of disrupting and destroying terrorists is to strike secretly 

at terrorists through covert action, approved by the President and led by 

the Central Intelligence Agency.

Efforts to Respond to 

Terrorist Incidents

The federal government takes many advance preparations in anticipation 

of a terrorist attack. For example, each diplomatic post has an Emergency 

Action Committee and Emergency Action Plan. The committees are 

required to exercise these plans periodically. To improve the 

governmentwide responses to a terrorist incident, a number of federal 

agencies participate in an interagency exercise program.

Federal efforts to respond to terrorist incidents are organized along a lead 

agency concept. The State Department is the lead agency for responding to 

the crisis and managing the consequences of a terrorist incident overseas. 

In this role, State is responsible for marshaling all federal assets necessary 

to respond. The U.S. ambassador would be the on-scene coordinator for 

the U.S. response in the foreign nation, as was done, for example, after the 

U.S. embassy bombing in Nairobi, Kenya. The State Department, with the 

concurrence of the National Security Council, can lead a rapidly deployable 

interagency advisory group called the Foreign Emergency Support Team.

As part of the response to an incident, the Department of Justice, through 

the Federal Bureau of Investigation, would lead U.S. law enforcement 

investigations in conjunction with local police in the immediate aftermath 

of a terrorist incident overseas. Other federal law enforcement agencies—

such as the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives and the 

State Department’s Bureau of Diplomatic Security—have expertise to 

assist in investigations at the scene of an overseas attack.
Executive Summary

Page 10 GAO-03-165 Combating Terrorism

Depending on the nature of the threat or incident, other federal agencies 

may be called upon to support State in managing the consequences of a 

terrorist attack. For example, the Department of State may request that the 

Department of Defense provide military support as part of the 

U.S. government’s efforts to assist in mitigating the consequences of a 

terrorist incident overseas. The Department of State also may request U.S. 

military support for the evacuation of embassy staff and other Americans, 

should that be necessary in the aftermath of a terrorist incident. Many of 

State Department’s efforts for managing the consequences of a terrorist 

attack have focused on incidents involving weapons of mass destruction—

those involving chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear materials. 

Several federal agencies could assist the State Department in responding to 

such an incident. For example, the Department of Energy has a Nuclear 

Emergency Search Team to provide technical expertise in resolving a 

nuclear or radiological terrorist incident.

After a terrorist incident overseas, the Departments of State and Defense 

generally conduct reviews of the incident, which identify actions to prevent 

or mitigate future attacks. Examples of these include State’s Accountability 

Review Boards for the 1998 bombings of two U.S. embassies in East Africa 

and Defense’s Task Force on the 1996 bombing of the al-Khobar Towers 

military housing facility in Saudi Arabia.

Agency Comments and 

Our Evaluation

GAO provided a draft of the report to several federal agencies in March 

2003 for their review and comment. Such agencies included the Executive 

Office of the President (including the National Security Council, the Office 

of Homeland Security, and the Office of Management and Budget); the 

Departments of Defense, Energy, Homeland Security, Justice, State, 

Transportation, and the Treasury; the Central Intelligence Agency; and the 

U.S. Agency for International Development.

The Department of Defense and the U.S. Agency for International 

Development provided written comments on a draft of this report. These 

comments generally agreed with the accuracy of the report and they are 

reproduced in appendixes VIII and IX, respectively. In addition, these 

agencies provided technical comments, and we made revisions, as 

appropriate. We also received technical comments from the Office of 

Management and Budget; the Departments of Justice and State; Bureau of 

Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives; the U.S. Secret Service; and 

the Bureau for Immigration and Customs Enforcement. We made changes, 

as appropriate, based upon these written and oral technical comments. 
Executive Summary

Page 11 GAO-03-165 Combating Terrorism

Our draft report reflected efforts to combat terrorism overseas just prior 

to the transfer of certain agencies and functions to the new Department 

of Homeland Security in March 2003. Therefore, many of the technical 

comments concerned the creation of the new department and the transfer 

of these agencies and functions from other departments into the 

Department of Homeland Security. The Departments of Energy, Homeland 

Security, Transportation, and the Treasury and the CIA had no comments 

on a draft of this report.
Page 12 GAO-03-165 Combating Terrorism

Chapter 1

Introduction: Terrorism Overseas and the 

Federal Government’s Role Cha1pert

Terrorism generally is defined as politically motivated violence to coerce a 

government or civilian population. Within that definition, there is domestic 

terrorism and international terrorism, depending on the origin of terrorist 

groups, where they launch their attacks, and who their victims are. Efforts 

to combat terrorism are further broken down into homeland security 

activities (those that occur domestically) and combating terrorism 

overseas (those that occur abroad).1

 According to the Central Intelligence 

Agency (CIA), the threat of terrorist attacks against U.S. personnel, 

facilities, and interests overseas is greater now than ever before. Terrorists 

capable of attacking the United States can employ a variety of tactics, can 

hit a number of different targets, and can strike in regions throughout the 

world. Terrorism overseas is aggravated by a series of interrelated factors 

and trends, such as technological advances and alliances with international 

crime. The federal government’s role in combating terrorism overseas 

includes political, diplomatic, legal, law enforcement, financial, military, 

and intelligence efforts. Immediately after the 2001 terrorist attacks, the 

Congress passed and the President signed into law an emergency 

supplemental appropriation that increased funding to combat terrorism 

overseas by at least $2 billion in fiscal year 2002. Funding for combating 

terrorism overseas has increased about 133 percent, growing from 

$4.9 billion in fiscal year 2001 to $11.4 billion requested in fiscal year 2004. 

In addition, the Department of Defense (DOD) has spent about $30 billion 

on military operations against terrorism in the period roughly equivalent to 

fiscal year 2002.

Definitions for 

Terrorism and 

Combating Terrorism

“Terrorism” generally is defined as politically motivated violence to coerce 

a government or civilian population. However, no single definition of 

terrorism has gained universal acceptance by the U.S. government and 

federal agencies’ definitions of terrorism vary somewhat based on their 

functional roles and missions. For example, the Department of State and 

the CIA define terrorism as “premeditated, politically motivated violence 

perpetrated against noncombatant targets by sub-national groups or 

1

 In this report, we refer to programs outside of the United States as combating terrorism 

overseas. This term is consistent with how the Executive Office of the President defines 

terrorism-related programs to distinguish them from programs inside the United States—

also known as homeland security programs. For the purposes of this report, we use the 

terms “overseas” and “abroad” interchangeably to refer to programs and activities that 

occur outside of the United States.
Chapter 1

Introduction: Terrorism Overseas and the 

Federal Government’s Role

Page 13 GAO-03-165 Combating Terrorism

clandestine agents.”2 The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) defines it 

more broadly as “the unlawful use of force and violence against persons or 

property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or 

any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives.”3

 The 

FBI definition reflects its mission, identifying a terrorist incident as a 

violation of the criminal laws of the United States and a suspected terrorist 

would, therefore, be subject to arrest and prosecution. Finally, DOD 

defines terrorism as “the calculated use of violence or the threat of violence 

to inculcate fear; intended to coerce or try to intimidate governments or 

societies in the pursuit of goals that are generally political, religious, or 

ideological.”4

 DOD’s definition of terrorism subsumes both definitions used 

by the Department of State and the FBI. This definition was carefully 

crafted to distinguish between terrorism and other kinds of violence.

Within the definition of terrorism, there is “domestic terrorism” and 

“international terrorism,” depending on the origin of terrorist groups, 

where they launch their attacks, and who their victims are. The FBI defines 

domestic terrorism as the unlawful use, or threatened use, of force or 

violence by a terrorist group or individual based and operating entirely 

within the United States or its territories without foreign direction. The 

1995 bombing of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City, 

for example, was an act of domestic terrorism. The State Department and 

the CIA define international terrorism as terrorism involving citizens or the 

territory of more than one country. International terrorist acts can occur 

either inside or outside of the United States and may transcend national 

boundaries in terms of the means by which they are accomplished, the 

persons they intend to coerce or intimidate, or the locale in which the 

perpetrators operate or seek asylum. The 2001 coordinated terrorist 

attacks against the World Trade Center in New York City and the Pentagon 

in Washington, D.C., for example, were acts of international terrorism. 

Although the attacks occurred within the United States, the perpetrators 

came from other countries and many of the World Trade Center victims 

2

 This definition is derived from 22 U.S.C. § 2656f(d) (2002). “Noncombatant” includes not 

only civilians, but also military personnel who, at the time of the incident, are unarmed 

and/or are not on duty. State also considers as acts of terrorism attacks on U.S. military 

installations or on armed military personnel when a state of military hostilities does not 

exist at the incident site, such as terrorist bombings against U.S. military facilities. Since 

1983, the U.S. government has used this definition for statistical and analytical purposes.

3

 This definition is derived from 28 C.F.R. § 0.85 (2002).

4

 DOD Directive 2000.12, DOD Antiterrorism/Force Protection Program, Apr. 13, 1999.
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were foreign nationals. Figure 1 shows the aftermath of an international 

terrorist attack within the United States.

Figure 1: The Pentagon in Flames Moments after International Terrorists Crash a 

Hijacked Aircraft into the Building on September 11, 2001

“Combating terrorism” refers to the full range of policies, strategies, 

programs, and activities to counter terrorism both at home and abroad. The 

distinction between “homeland security” and “combating terrorism 

overseas” is based on where federal efforts to combat terrorism occur. 

Federal programs and activities directed against terrorism within the 

United States are considered homeland security, which is defined by the 

federal government as “a concerted national effort to prevent terrorist 

attacks within the United States, reduce America’s vulnerability to 
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terrorism, and minimize the damage and recover from attacks that do 

occur.”5

 This is a new term, used since the terrorist attacks on 

September 11, 2001. In contrast, federal programs and activities directed 

against terrorism outside of the United States are considered combating 

terrorism overseas, which is the subject of this report.

Finally, within the term combating terrorism, some federal agencies make a 

further distinction between “antiterrorism” and “counterterrorism” to 

describe their programs and activities within the context of their functional 

roles and missions. Antiterrorism generally refers to defensive measures. 

The Department of State, for example, uses “antiterrorism” in the context 

of law enforcement training, border security, critical infrastructure 

protection, and embassy security. DOD uses the term “antiterrorism” to 

mean the defensive measures, including force protection, taken to reduce 

the vulnerability of individuals and property to terrorist acts. DOD uses the 

term “counterterrorism” to mean offensive measures taken to prevent, 

deter, and respond to terrorism. The FBI, meanwhile, uses the term 

“counterterrorism” to refer to the full range of its activities directed against 

terrorism, including preventive measures, incident response, and 

investigative efforts. Finally, OMB tracks funding to combat terrorism 

overseas, but does not include direct military operations in the figures 

it reports.

The Threat of 

Terrorism Overseas

International terrorists use a variety of tactics in their attacks against the 

United States. The number of terrorist attacks against U.S. citizens, 

facilities, and interests overseas has declined in recent years, but the 

lethality of the attacks has increased. Although terrorists use many 

different tactics and methods to attack Americans, bombings are the 

predominant type of attack in recent years. While the threat to Americans 

varies by region, type of event, and targets attacked, bombing of U.S. 

businesses in Latin America constituted the majority of attacks in 2001. 

Also, international terrorism is aggravated by a series of interrelated 

factors, such as globalization, technological advances, and troubling trends 

that include, for example, a shift in terrorists’ tactics and the use of 

unconventional weapons.

5

 See Office of Homeland Security, National Strategy for Homeland Security, July 16, 2002, 

p. 2.
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Terrorist Organizations Use 

Variety of Tactics to Attack 

American Targets 

Worldwide

According to the CIA, the threat of terrorist attacks against U.S. personnel, 

facilities, and interests overseas is greater now than ever before because of 

the number and types of terrorist organizations, the lethality of terrorists’ 

tactics, and the ability of terrorists to operate worldwide. Terrorist 

organizations that threaten U.S. personnel, facilities, and interests at home 

and abroad come primarily from organized groups that have political, 

ethnic, or religious agendas; from state sponsors of terrorist organizations; 

and from transnational groups with broader goals. Islamic terrorist groups, 

which have become a growing threat in recent years, tend to be loosely 

organized, recruit their membership from many different countries, and 

obtain support from an informal international network.

Number and Lethality of Attacks Worldwide, the number of international terrorist attacks has declined in 

recent years compared to the mid-1980s. However, the level of violence and 

lethality of such attacks have increased. According to the Department of 

State, the number of international terrorist attacks peaked at 666 incidents 

in 1987 and had declined to 348 in 2001. Yet, casualties resulting from 

international terrorist attacks during 2001 were the highest ever 

recorded—3,572 persons killed and 1,083 injured. Figure 2 shows the total 

number of international terrorist attacks over a 21-year period (1981-2001).
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Figure 2: Total International Terrorist Attacks, 1981-2001

The terrorist attacks against the United States on September 11, 2001, 

represented the most lethal international terrorist attack ever. Three of 

four separate, but coordinated aircraft hijackings, carried out by the 

al Qaeda terrorist network, deliberately destroyed predetermined targets 

that represented America’s political, economic, and military strength. (The 

fourth hijacked aircraft crashed in Pennsylvania apparently as a result of 

the passengers overpowering the terrorists, thus preventing the aircraft 

from being used as a missile in the terrorists’ plan.) According to State’s 

Office of International Information Programs, a total of 3,057 people were 

killed in these four incidents.6

 Citizens representing 78 different countries 

perished at the World Trade Center site. These events clearly demonstrated 

not only the lethality, but also the global reach of a terrorist organization 

6

 This figure includes 2,666 persons killed in the coordinated terrorist attacks on 

September 11, 2001, against the World Trade Center Towers in New York City, 125 killed in 

the Pentagon, 92 killed aboard American Airlines flight 11 that crashed into the North Tower 

of the World Trade Center, 65 killed aboard United Airlines flight 175 that crashed into the 

South Tower of the World Trade Center, 64 killed aboard American Airlines flight 77 that 

crashed into the Pentagon, and 45 killed aboard United Airlines flight 93 that crashed in 

rural Pennsylvania.
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beyond any terrorist attack the United States had previously 

experiencedat home or abroad.

Types of Terrorist Attacks Terrorists employ a wide variety of tactics, to include violent 

demonstrations, vandalism, arson, assault, kidnappings, ambushes, sniper 

attacks, murder, and attacks with firearms, grenades, rockets, and bombs. 

However, bombings are the most common type of attack. From 1988 to 

2001, bombings accounted for 67 percent of all terrorist attacks against 

Americans. Figure 3 shows the different types of international terrorist 

attacks by percentage that were perpetrated against Americans over a 

14-year period between 1988 and 2001.

Figure 3: Types of International Terrorist Attacks Against Americans by Percentage, 

1988-2001

Note: "Other" consists of drugging, sabotage, physical harassment, mortar/landmine, bomb/rocket 

hoax, banditry, sit-in, and other/incidental.
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In recent years, the United States and its interests have been the target of 

several terrorist bombings overseas, to include the June 1996 truck 

bombing of the al-Khobar Towers military housing facility near Dhahran, 

Saudi Arabia; the August 1998 truck bombings of the U.S. embassies in 

Dar es-Salaam, Tanzania, and in Nairobi, Kenya; and the October 2000 ship 

bombing of the guided missile destroyer USS Cole during a refueling stop in 

Aden Harbor, Yemen. In 2001 (the most recent year that data is available), 

bombings have become an even more prevalent type of tactic used by 

terrorists against U.S. facilities and interests overseas. Of the 219 terrorist 

attacks against U.S. citizens and facilities overseas during 2001, 207 (or 

about 95 percent) were carried out by bombing the target.

Type of Targets Attacked Terrorists attack American businesses most frequently. Of the 228 attacks 

during 2001 against U.S. targets, 204 (or more than 89 percent) were against 

American businesses. U.S. government, diplomatic, and military targets 

tend to be more protected and represent hard targets; American 

businesses, in contrast, are less protected, making them soft targets. 

Figure 4 shows the number of terrorist attacks against U.S. citizens, 

facilities, and interests overseas during 2001 by type of target attacked. 
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Figure 4: Terrorist Attacks Against U.S. Targets during 2001 by Type of Targets 

Attacked

Terrorism Varies by Region, 

With Most Attacks 

Occurring in Latin America

Terrorism—both in the number of attacks and the nature of the threat—

varies by region. The overwhelming number of attacks have occurred in 

Latin America. Of the 219 terrorist attacks against U.S. citizens and 

facilities overseas during 2001, 191 (or 87 percent) were in Latin America. 

Figure 5 shows the number of terrorist attacks against U.S. citizens, 

facilities, and interests overseas during 2001 by region. 
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Figure 5: Terrorist Attacks Against U.S. Targets during 2001 by Region

The following sections summarize, by region, the international threat of 

terrorism to U.S. citizens and personnel; U.S. business, government, and 

military facilities; and U.S. political, economic, and strategic interests. This 

information is based on a review of key documents and interviews with 

officials in the Departments of State and Defense, U.S. Central Command, 

U.S. European Command, U.S. Southern Command, U.S. Special 

Operations Command, and the CIA.
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Africa In Africa, terrorism is a persistent and increasing threat to U.S. and other 

countries’ personnel, facilities, and interests. Most terrorist attacks in 

Africa, according to the State Department, stem from internal civil unrest 

and spillover from regional wars as African rebel movements and 

opposition groups use terrorist tactics to further their political, social, or 

economic objectives. For example, insurgent groups have used terrorist 

tactics and attacked civilians in recent years in the Democratic Republic of 

the Congo, Liberia, and Sierra Leone. In addition, international terrorist 

organizations with Islamic ties, such as al Qaeda and the Lebanese 

Hizballah, have established footholds in Africa and exploit the continent’s 

permissive operating environment to expand and strengthen their terrorist 

networks. The al Qaeda terrorist bombing of the U.S. embassies in Kenya 

and Tanzania in August 1998 demonstrated how vulnerable “lower risk” 

U.S. diplomatic facilities are on the continent compared with hardened 

embassies in the Middle East and elsewhere. Africa’s ungoverned areas, 

porous borders, regional conflicts, lax or non-existent financial systems, 

and the wide availability of weapons all contribute to an operating 

environment where terrorist organizations thrive. Similarly, terrorist 

organizations breed and find sanctuary in Africa’s “failed states,” such as 

Somalia, or those countries with weak central governments and poor or 

nonexistent law enforcement that cannot monitor, let alone control, the 

activities of terrorists and their supporters. Terrorists also are using the 

illegal trade in Africa in diamonds both to launder money and to finance 

their operations worldwide. 7 Finally, one African nation—Sudan—has 

been designated by the State Department as one of seven countries 

worldwide that sponsors terrorism.8

 Figure 6 shows the aftermath of the 

1998 terrorist bombing of a U.S. embassy in East Africa.

7

 For more information on the illegal diamond trade, see U.S. General Accounting Office, 

International Trade: Critical Issues Remain in Deterring Conflict Diamond Trade, GAO02-678 (Washington, D.C.: June 14, 2002). We reported that the nature of diamonds and the 

operations of the international diamond industry create opportunities for illicit trade, 

including trade in conflict diamonds. We also reported that there are considerable 

challenges in establishing a system that will effectively deter this trade.
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Figure 6: Aftermath of the al Qaeda Terrorist Bombing of the U.S. Embassy in Dar 

es-Salaam, Tanzania, in August 1998

South Asia South Asia currently represents the primary (but by no means the only) 

focus of terrorism directed against the United States. Terrorist 

organizations, such as al Qaeda, continue to operate and garner support in 

the region. Afghanistan became the first military battleground in the “war 

on terrorism” in October 2001. Afghanistan, for example, had been used by 

Islamic extremists from around the world as a training ground and base of 

operations for their terrorist activities. The al Qaeda leadership used 

Afghanistan as a safe haven to recruit and train terrorists, manage 

8

 State sponsors of terrorism are those countries designated by the Secretary of State under 

section 40(d) of the Arms Export Control Act, 22 U.S.C. § 2780(d). Moreover, each year, 

under the provisions of section 6(j) of the Export Administration Act of 1979, as amended 

(50 U.S.C. § 2405(j)), the Secretary of Commerce, in consultation with the Secretary of State, 

provides the Congress with a list of countries that support international terrorism. The 

Secretary of State may designate a government as a state sponsor of terrorism if that 

government has repeatedly provided support for acts of international terrorism, invoking 

economic sanctions. The seven countries currently on the list are Cuba, Iran, Iraq, Libya, 

North Korea, Sudan, and Syria. Various types of sanctions can be imposed on a government 

so designated, as discussed in more detail in chapter 4.
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worldwide fundraising for the terrorist organization, plan terrorist 

operations, and conduct violent anti-American demonstrations to provoke 

extremists in other countries to attack U.S. interests worldwide. These 

activities culminated in the September 11, 2001, coordinated terrorist 

attacks against the United States.

East Asia In East Asia, trafficking in narcotics, persons, and weapons—as well as 

organized crime and official corruption—are serious international crimes 

that terrorist organizations exploit to finance their operations. Southeast 

Asian terrorist organizations that have cells linked to al Qaeda were 

discovered in 2001 in Malaysia and Singapore and their activities, 

movements, and connections traverse the entire region. Multinational 

terrorist organizations and networks operate throughout the region, 

highlighting the lack of an effective regional counterterrorism mechanism. 

Most terrorist activity in East Asia is related to domestic political disputes. 

However, the Abu Sayyaf Group, an Islamic extremist organization in the 

Philippines, kidnapped two Americans and killed one of them in 2002. The 

United States remains concerned about Islamic extremists operating in and 

around western China who have received training, equipment, and 

inspiration from al Qaeda, the Taliban, and others in Afghanistan.

Eurasia In Eurasia, the threat against the United States and its interests stems 

principally from the ongoing threat posed by al Qaeda-linked terrorists 

rather than by the influx of al Qaeda and Taliban fighters following 

coalition operations led by the United States in neighboring Afghanistan. 

The Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan, which is on the U.S. foreign terrorist 

organization list, seeks to overthrow the Uzbek government and create an 

Islamic state. Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and 

Uzbekistan are five of the new U.S. partners in the “war on terrorism” and 

have provided the United States with access to their military facilities for 

U.S. offensive combat operations and/or humanitarian support in 

Afghanistan. Also of U.S. concern in Eurasia is the linkage between 

terrorism and other international crimes (specifically organized crime and 

trafficking in persons and drugs), ethnic separatism, and religious 

extremism. U.S. officials remain concerned about routes through Georgia. 

The international mujahidin with ties to terrorist organizations move 

people, money, and materiel throughout the Caucasus region in support of 

separatist fighters in Chechnya, Russia. Finally, the United States is so 

concerned about the terrorist threat in the region that it has provided 

Georgia with training to help it implement tighter counterterrorism 

controls in the Pankisi Gorge.9

 (Chapter 3 discusses U.S. training to 

improve other countries’ capabilities to combat terrorism.)
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Europe In Europe, U.S. diplomatic and military officials remain concerned about 

the terrorist threat to U.S. military and diplomatic facilities and personnel. 

Potential al Qaeda “sleeper cells” in Germany and elsewhere continue to 

pose a threat to U.S. interests. Domestic terrorist organizations in a number 

of countries (such as Greece, Italy, Spain, Turkey, and the United Kingdom) 

continue to function at varying levels of effectiveness. A wide-range of 

groups and individuals use terrorist tactics to protest globalization, often 

directing their demonstrations toward U.S. businesses. In the Balkans, 

according to the Department of State, although governments generally are 

committed to combating terrorism, terrorists and Islamic extremist groups 

have exploited inadequate border security and institutional weaknesses to 

support their operations. Also, Middle Eastern nongovernmental 

organizations identified as supporting terrorist activities remain in the 

Balkans, providing assistance to Islamic extremist groups. Terrorists also 

exploit some European countries’ liberal asylum laws; open land borders; 

and weaknesses in their investigative, prosecutorial, and procedural 

processes while using these countries as operational staging areas for 

international terrorist attacks. For example, according to the Department 

of State, the theft and forgery of passports in Belgium facilitated terrorists’ 

ability to travel freely. State further reported that, while in the past, lenient 

Greek courts reduced sentences of suspected terrorists and overturned 

guilty verdicts of terrorist cases, Greek authorities are using new 

antiterrorism legislation passed in 2002 to more successfully prosecute 

terrorist cases. Greece effectively neutralized its most lethal terrorist 

group, Revolutionary Organization 17 November, in June 2002, and 19 

suspected members went on trial in March 2003. According to the State 

Department, U.S. and international officials are pleased with Greek 

cooperation on security preparations for the 2004 Olympic Summer Games 

in Athens, Greece.

Latin America In Latin America, the transnational threats of terrorism, drugs and arms 

trafficking, illegal migration, and international organized crime are the 

greatest challenge to U.S. security interests in the region.10 These 

transnational threats are increasingly linked as they share common 

infrastructure, transit patterns, corrupting means, and illicit mechanisms. 

9

 The Pankisi Gorge is a region in northern Georgia that Russia accuses Georgia of allowing 

Chechen terrorists (separatist fighters) and the international mujahidin to use as a safe 

haven.

10 Testimony by General Gary Speer (U.S. Army), Acting Commander-in-Chief, U.S. Southern 

Command, before the Committee on Armed Services, U.S. Senate, Mar. 5, 2002.
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International terrorists groups have established support bases in some 

South American countries that sustain their worldwide operations. For 

example, the triborder area where the borders of Argentina, Brazil, and 

Paraguay converge continues to be a safe haven for Hizballah—the 

Lebanese-based terrorist organization—and other terrorist organizations, 

such as HAMAS, where they raise funds to finance their operations through 

criminal enterprises. According to the Department of State, there are 

unconfirmed reports that al Qaeda support cells and sympathizers also are 

scattered throughout Latin America. A Colombian paramilitary 

organization has been added to the list of Foreign Terrorist Organizations, 

and the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia, known as the FARC 

(Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia), pose a direct threat to 

U.S. personnel, facilities, and interests. Terrorist attacks against Columbia’s 

energy infrastructure (the Cano Limon-Covenas oil pipeline) has a severe 

impact. Even members of the Irish Republican Army were arrested in 2001 

for helping the FARC prepare for an urban terror campaign by providing 

explosives training. Bombings, kidnappings, extortions, and assassinations 

remain the most pervasive terrorism problems in the region. The major 

concern for U.S. officials is the nexus or linkage between the illegal 

narcotics trafficking and terrorism or narco-terrorism. In addition, land, 

maritime, and air smuggling routes and support networks across South 

America, Central America, and the Caribbean once used exclusively by 

criminals trafficking in illegal narcotics and humans are now being used by 

terrorists.

Middle East In the Middle East, the greatest threat to U.S. interests comes from terrorist 

groups and state-sponsored terrorist organizations. Chief among the 

terrorist groups is Osama bin Laden’s al Qaeda terrorist organization. 

According to the Department of State, Syria and Lebanon refuse to 

recognize Hizballah, HAMAS, the Palestine Islamic Jihad, and other 

Palestinian rejectionist groups as terrorist organizations, believing that 

violent activities by these groups represent legitimate resistance. After 

decades of civil war and foreign occupation, Lebanese governmental 

control continues to be weak or non-existent in many areas of the 

country.11 This environment allows for the smuggling of small arms and 

explosives and training activities by terrorist organizations. Financing of 

terrorist organizations remains problematic in the Gulf countries. Joint 

11 According to the State Department, this is not an issue of the Lebanese having the 

capability to enforce its will and choosing not to; it is an issue of Lebanese governmental 

incapacity after decades of Israeli and Syrian occupation of Lebanon.
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efforts by the U.S. and Yemeni governments to disrupt and destroy al Qaeda 

elements in Yemen have been only partially successful, and al Qaeda nodes 

still exist in that country. Protecting U.S. citizens and personnel and 

facilities from terrorist attack is a high priority throughout the region. In 

addition, force protection of U.S. forces transiting the Suez Canal in Egypt 

has increased.

North America In North America, the greatest vulnerability to the United States is the 

porous borders with Canada and Mexico. The lack of adequate border 

security could allow terrorists to enter the United States unnoticed or 

unchallenged to carry out their activities and conduct their operations. 

Another threatening factor facing the United States in North America is a 

lack of effective mechanisms by neighboring countries to prevent terrorist 

from financing their operations. In Mexico, for example, new measures 

taken to counter terrorist financing include monitoring financial 

movements, exchanging information on unusual movements of capital, and 

more effective steps to combat money laundering.

Factors That Aggravate the 

Threat of Terrorism

The increase in the level and severity of international terrorism (and other 

international crimes) in recent years can be traced to a series of 

interrelated aggravating factors. These factors enable terrorist groups to 

operate more effectively. The factors, as identified by the FBI, are as 

follows.

Reduced International Barriers The post-Cold War landscape provides terrorists and terrorist organizations 

with opportunities to exploit the advantages of reduced or collapsed 

political and economic barriers to move people, money, information, and 

materiel—including weapons of mass destruction (WMD)—across 

international borders.

Global Business Networks The globalization of business networks also facilitates international 

terrorism. Like international criminals, international terrorists take 

advantage of global commercial, banking, transportation, and 

communication systems to plan, finance, and carry out their operations. 

Through these networks, terrorists and terrorist organizations often plan 

their operations in third countries, some of which provide safe havens.

Technological Advances Technological advances, particularly in information technology and 

communications, also facilitate terrorist organizations’ global reach. 

Terrorists are becoming more sophisticated in their use of computer and 
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telecommunications technology. For example, there is widespread use of 

cell phones to plan, coordinate, support, and execute terrorist operations, 

making antiterrorism measures challenging. In addition, cyber, or 

computer-based, attacks are a real threat to the nation’s critical computersupported infrastructures, such as telecommunications, power 

distribution, financial services, national defense, and critical government 

operations. Terrorist organizations also are adept at using technology for 

counterintelligence purposes and for tracking law enforcement activities.

Weak Law Enforcement 

Institutions

Institutional shortcomings in foreign countries exacerbate federal efforts 

to combat the spread of international terrorism (and other transnational 

crimes). According to an interagency working group, local police and the 

judicial systems in many countries in which terrorists and terrorist 

organizations operate are ineffective.12 They lack adequate resources, have 

limited investigative authorities, or are plagued by corruption. The working 

group reported that many countries have outdated or even nonexistent 

laws involving extradition, immigration, asset seizure, anti-money 

laundering, computers, and anti-terrorism. According to the interagency 

working group, many countries simply do not have adequate resources, 

training, equipment, expertise, or the political will to carry out complex, 

sustained investigations of international terrorism or to conduct 

counterterrorism operations. Terrorists and terrorist organizations take 

advantage of these institutional limitations and weaknesses to find and 

establish sanctuaries, while governments and law enforcement remain 

constrained by national boundaries.

Trends in International 

Terrorism

In recent years, U.S. intelligence agencies have identified several important 

trends in international terrorism. Some of these trends are the result of 

adaptations that terrorist organizations have made in response to the 

aggravating factors discussed above. These trends are as follows:

12 See International Crime Threat Assessment (Dec. 2000). This global assessment was 

prepared by an interagency working group in support of and pursuant to the President's 

International Crime Control Strategy of the United States (The White House, May 1998). 

The interagency working group included representatives from the Departments of State, the 

Treasury, Justice, and Transportation; the CIA; the FBI; Drug Enforcement Administration; 

U.S. Customs Service; U.S. Secret Service; Financial Crimes Enforcement Network; 

National Drug Intelligence Center; the Office of National Drug Control Policy; and the 

National Security Council.
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Decline in state-sponsorship of 

terrorism

Terrorists have become less dependent on sponsorship by sovereign states. 

State-sponsors in the past had provided terrorists with a safe haven and 

political, financial, and logistical support. They provided intelligence, 

planning, and support for terrorist acts and may have had prior knowledge 

of such attacks. However, the threat of sanctions and retaliation have 

reduced the willingness of most states to sponsor terrorism. By the late 

1990s, according to the Director of Central Intelligence, a completely new 

phenomenon had emerged—a terrorist sponsoring a state. The Taliban 

actively aided Osama bin Laden by assigning him guards for security, 

permitting him to build and maintain terrorist camps, and refusing to 

cooperate with efforts by the international community to extradite him. In 

return, bin Laden invested vast amounts of money in Taliban projects and 

provided hundreds of well-trained fighters to help the Taliban consolidate 

and expand its control of Afghanistan. 13

Move to loosely affiliated groups As dependency on state-sponsored terrorism decreases, terrorist groups 

operating on their own in loosely affiliated groups have increased. The 

resulting transnational and decentralized structure facilitates terrorists’ 

avoiding detection. In particular, Islamic terrorist groups tend to be loosely 

organized, recruit their membership from many different countries, and 

obtain support from an informal international network of like-minded 

extremists.

Use of unconventional weapons Tactics among international terrorists have shifted from aircraft hijackings 

and hostage taking to indiscriminate terrorist attacks that yield maximum 

destruction, casualties, and impact. Although the vast majority of terrorist 

attacks worldwide continue to be carried out with conventional weapons, 

such as firearms and bombs, there is a concern among U.S. intelligence 

community officials about terrorists using unconventional weapons, 

namely weapons of mass destruction to include chemical, biological, 

radiological, or nuclear weapons.

Alliance with transnational crime There has been a coalescence of terrorism and other transnational crimes, 

which provides terrorists with various types of international crime to 

finance their operations. These include, for example, illegal immigration, 

contraband smuggling, visa fraud, piracy, illegal trafficking in human 

13 Written statement for the record by the Director of Central Intelligence before a Joint 

Hearing of the Joint Inquiry Committee of the House Select Committee on Intelligence and 

Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, Oct. 17, 2002, p. 5.
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beings, diamond smuggling, and tobacco diversion and associated tax 

fraud.

The Federal 

Government’s Role and 

Resources for 

Combating 

Terrorism Overseas

The federal government’s role in combating terrorism overseas involves 

many diplomatic, law enforcement, financial, military, and intelligence 

activities. These roles span numerous departments, agencies, bureaus, and 

offices. In fact, no single government agency possesses the authority, 

responsibility, and capability to effectively detect and prevent terrorism, 

disrupt and destroy terrorist organizations, deny terrorists safe haven, and 

respond to terrorist incidents abroad. Therefore, the federal government 

combats terrorism overseas simultaneously on many different fronts by 

attempting to coordinate its interagency efforts. The federal government’s 

interagency framework for combating terrorism overseas, including federal 

agencies’ roles and responsibilities and how they coordinate with each 

other, is discussed in detail in chapter 2 and other chapters, as appropriate. 

The federal government has dedicated substantial resources to combating 

terrorism overseas.

Funding of Federal 

Programs and Activities to 

Combat Terrorism Overseas

Identifying funding to combat terrorism is inherently difficult, but the 

Office of Management and Budget (OMB), as required by law, has reported 

on these funds annually since 1998.14 Funding to combat terrorism overseas 

only recently has been identified separately from other funding to combat 

terrorism (i.e., domestic spending for homeland security). The funding of 

federal programs and activities to combat terrorism overseas has increased 

dramatically since the terrorist attacks against the United States on 

September 11, 2001. Emergency supplemental appropriations increased 

funding by $2 billion in fiscal year 2002. Funding for combating terrorism 

overseas has increased about 133 percent, growing from $4.9 billion in 

fiscal year 2001 to $11.4 billion requested in fiscal year 2004. In addition to 

these amounts, DOD has spent about $30 billion on military operations 

against terrorism in the period roughly equivalent to fiscal year 2002.

Funding to Combat Terrorism Is 

Difficult to Identify

There are inherent challenges in identifying federal funding to combat 

terrorism. First, numerous federal agencies have some role in combating 

terrorism. Second, the agencies’ budgets often include both domestic and 

overseas components. Third, there are no separate appropriation accounts 

14 P.L. 105-85 § 1051, Nov. 18, 1997, as amended by P.L. 105-261 § 1403, Oct. 17, 1998.
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specifically for combating terrorism and the many activities it entails. 

Fourth, funding for these programs may be in accounts authorized to fund 

programs and activities not specific to combating terrorism.

As required by law, OMB has issued an annual report to the Congress since 

1998 on federal funding to combat terrorism. This report is to include such 

information as a description of the programs and activities, the amounts to 

be expended, program priorities, and areas of potential duplication.15 The 

OMB report also has a classified annex providing additional detail on DOD 

and intelligence activity funding. The most recent OMB report, issued in 

June 2002, provides funding and programmatic information on 27 federal 

entities (for example, departments, agencies, bureaus, and offices) that 

have budgeted or spent combating terrorism funds.16 These entities are 

responsible for the federal government’s efforts to combat terrorist activity 

both domestically and overseas, including defense against terrorist 

incidents involving weapons of mass destruction.

Funding to Combat Terrorism 

Overseas Now Identified 

Separately

In the June 2002 report, OMB for the first time separately identified funds 

to combat terrorism domestically (for homeland security) from those to 

combat terrorism overseas. In prior reports, both domestic and overseas 

activities were combined. However, as a result of the terrorist attacks on 

September 11, 2001, and the emphasis on domestic protection, OMB 

included a separate, detailed analysis of homeland security—which OMB 

defined as activities to combat terrorism within the United States. For the 

June 2002 report, OMB defined “overseas combating terrorism” as 

activities outside of the United States, excluding direct military actions, 

such as the war on terrorism in Afghanistan. Of the $52.74 billion budget 

requested to combat terrorism in fiscal year 2004, $11.4 billion (or 

22 percent) was for combating terrorism overseas. The remaining 

$41.35 billion (or 78 percent) was requested for homeland security 

activities (gross budget authority). Table 1 shows the President’s fiscal 

15 For an evaluation of OMB’s annual reports, including an assessment of their usefulness to 

the Congress, see U.S. General Accounting Office, Combating Terrorism: Funding Data 

Reported to Congress Should be Improved, GAO-03-170 (Washington, D.C.: Nov. 26, 2002). 

We reported on the difficulties in coordinating budgets to combat terrorism, limitations to 

OMB’s annual reports, and recommended ways to improve OMB reporting to the Congress 

on programs to combat terrorism.

16 See 2002 Report to Congress on Combating Terrorism, OMB, June 24, 2002. At the time 

this report was being prepared, OMB had not issued the 2003 report.
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year 2004 budget request to combat terrorism both domestically and 

overseas.

Table 1: Fiscal Year 2004 President’s Request for Funding to Combat Terrorism Domestically and Overseas 

(Gross Budget Authority)

Source: GAO analysis of OMB data.

a

The Departments of Homeland Security, Justice, and the Treasury have some funds dedicated 

to activities to combat terrorism overseas. However, OMB includes these funds as part of 

homeland security.

b

National Security combines DOD and selected intelligence activities. These figures are combined to 

prevent the disclosure of classified intelligence spending. In addition, the amounts do not include direct 

military action.

There are several qualifications to the figures reported by OMB. First, OMB 

officials said that there is not always a clear distinction between activities 

to combat terrorism and other related activities, nor between domestic 

activities and overseas activities. The OMB budget examiners must make 

judgment calls about how to characterize the funding. For example, some 

combating terrorism missions have multiple purposes and funding for 

these missions is co-mingled in accounts that can cover multiple purposes. 

OMB reports all of DOD’s military and civilian personnel costs associated 

with security as funds to combat terrorism—even if these individuals spend 

some portion of their time on security matters not related to combating 

terrorism. In contrast, OMB does not report the State Department’s public 

diplomacy activities as funds to combat terrorism—even if these activities 

have a major terrorism focus. As another example, OMB’s reported figures 

Dollars in millions

Department or agency

Fiscal year 2004 request for 

homeland security 

(domestic)

Fiscal year 2004 request for 

overseas combating 

terrorism 

Total fiscal year 2004 

request for combating 

terrorism (domestic and 

overseas)

Energy $1,361 $226 $1,587

Homeland Security 23,890 a 23,890

Justice 2,290 a 2,290

National Securityb 6,717 8,455 15,172

State 811 1,555 2,366

Treasury 91 a 91

International assistance programs 0 1,158 1,158

All other federal agencies 6,187 2 6,189

Total $41,347 $11,396 $52,743
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do not capture overseas law enforcement activities from the Departments 

of Homeland Security, Justice, and the Treasury. Examples of these 

activities include customs, legal and financial attachés stationed overseas,

training and assistance provided to other countries, or these departments’ 

support to International Law Enforcement Academies around the world.17

OMB includes the funding of such activities along with homeland security 

(domestic) programs of the Departments of Homeland Security, Justice, 

and the Treasury. Finally, as stated earlier, OMB’s reported figures for 

combating terrorism overseas do not include direct military actions, 

such as the war on terrorism in Afghanistan. For the purpose of this 

report, we are including military actions against terrorists as part of 

combating terrorism overseas. OMB has estimated military operations 

against terrorism at $30 billion for the period roughly equivalent to fiscal 

year 2002.18

Funding to Combat Terrorism 

Overseas Increased

In response to the terrorist attacks on the United States on September 11, 

2001, the Congress appropriated a supplemental $40 billion to the 

Emergency Response Fund.19 Of this amount, $12.9 billion was provided for 

combating terrorism, including just over $2 billion for combating terrorism 

overseas. The remaining $28 billion from that emergency supplemental 

appropriation was made available to other missions, such as recovery 

efforts at the World Trade Center Towers in New York City and at the 

Pentagon.20 The President’s Budget requested additional funding for federal 

programs and activities to combat terrorism overseas, which increased 

from about $4.9 billion in fiscal year 2001 to almost $11.4 billion (or about 

133 percent) in the President’s fiscal year 2004 budget request.21

17 More details on these activities are provided in chapters 3 and 4.

18 OMB Press Release 2002-61, Sept. 10, 2002.

19 See 2001 Emergency Supplemental Appropriations Act for Recovery from and Response 

to Terrorist Attacks on the United States (P.L. 107-38), Sept. 18, 2001.

20 A second supplemental appropriation totaling $29 billion was signed into law on August 2, 

2002. Of that amount, some $14 billion was allocated to DOD, but none of it was for 

combating terrorism overseas, according to OMB.

21 As discussed earlier, OMB only began reporting the overseas funding for combating 

terrorism separately from domestic (homeland security) in its June 2002 report to the 

Congress. However, in that report they estimated the overseas funding for the previous 2 

years (fiscal years 2001 and 2002).
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While the level of funding for intelligence activities is classified—and 

included with DOD funding to prevent the disclosure of classified data—

recent unclassified statements by the Director of Central Intelligence 

provide information on the magnitude of increases in intelligence programs 

related to terrorism.22According to the Director, intelligence funding to 

combat terrorism tripled between fiscal years 1990 and 1999. The Director 

also said that the percent of the CIA’s budget dedicated to combating 

terrorism increased from less than 4 percent in fiscal year 1994 to almost 

10 percent in fiscal year 2002.

Objectives, Scope, and 

Methodology

Based upon your original requests and in subsequent discussions with your 

offices, our overall objective was to identify and describe federal agencies’ 

programs and activities to combat terrorism overseas. This report 

discusses

• the federal government’s interagency framework to combat terrorism 

overseas (see ch. 2);

• federal programs and activities to detect and prevent terrorism overseas 

(see ch. 3);

• federal programs and activities to disrupt and destroy terrorist 

organizations overseas (see ch. 4); and

• federal programs and activities to respond to terrorist incidents 

overseas (see ch. 5).

In addition, the report discusses how federal agencies coordinate efforts in 

Washington, D.C., and at U.S. missions and other locations abroad to 

combat terrorism overseas. Where appropriate, it also discusses recent 

changes since the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks. Information on 

coordination mechanisms and recent changes is discussed throughout the 

report.

In preparing this report, we limited our scope to developing descriptive 

information rather than conducting evaluations of individual programs and 

activities. This was done, as agreed with our congressional clients, because 

22 See Written Statement for the Record, Director of Central Intelligence, Before the Joint 

Inquiry Committee, Oct. 17, 2002.
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of the large number of departments, agencies, bureaus, and offices as well 

as the multitude of their programs and activities to combat terrorism 

overseas. Where we have conducted related evaluative work, we have 

identified the appropriate GAO products and their results in footnotes. In 

addition, we include a list of related GAO products at the end of this report. 

In addition, to make this report most useful for oversight, we limited our 

discussion in this report to unclassified information.

The scope of this report included key federal departments and agencies 

with programs and activities to combat terrorism overseas. Review work 

was conducted in Washington, D.C., at the Executive Office of the 

President, including the National Security Council (NSC), Office of 

Homeland Security, and OMB; the Departments of Defense, Energy, Justice, 

State, Transportation, and the Treasury; and at the CIA. We also conducted 

review work at or met overseas with officials from the Bureau of Alcohol, 

Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF); Defense Intelligence Agency; 

Drug Enforcement Administration; the FBI; Federal Law Enforcement 

Training Center (FLETC); the former Immigration and Naturalization 

Service (INS); USAID; the former U.S. Customs Service; U.S. Coast Guard, 

and the U.S. Secret Service. In addition, fieldwork was conducted at the 

U.S. Central Command, MacDill Air Force Base, Florida; U.S. European 

Command, Patch Barracks, Stuttgart/Vaihingen, Germany; U.S. Southern 

Command, Miami, Florida; U.S. Special Operations Command, MacDill Air 

Force Base, Florida; U.S. Embassy in Athens, Greece; and at the 

International Law Enforcement Academy (ILEA) in Budapest, Hungary. We 

included information on other departments and activities based on 

previous and ongoing work by GAO. A complete listing of organizations 

and locations visited or contacted is found in appendix VII.

While our scope was generally limited to combating terrorism overseas, we 

included programs related to border security, which also are considered 

part of homeland security. Also, we included certain efforts to combat 

terrorism overseas that actually occur within the United States, such as 

interagency coordination, intelligence analysis, and law enforcement 

investigations and prosecutions. Our more comprehensive work on 

homeland security is summarized in two recent reports.23 Most of our 

23 See U.S. General Accounting Office, Major Management Challenges and Program Risks: 

Department of Homeland Security, GAO-03-102 (Washington, D.C.: Jan. 1, 2003) and U.S. 

General Accounting Office, Homeland Security: Management Challenges Facing Federal 

Leadership, GAO-03-260 (Washington, D.C.: Dec. 20, 2002).
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analysis for this report was performed before the creation of the 

Department of Homeland Security in December 2002 and its initial 

operations in January 2003. Therefore, when we conducted our review, 

many of the agencies, bureaus, offices, and federal response teams 

discussed in this report had not yet been transferred to the new department 

from the Departments of Health and Human Services, Justice, 

Transportation, and the Treasury.

For each objective, we interviewed agency officials, reviewed supporting 

programmatic and budgetary documentation, and reviewed prior GAO 

work.

To identify and describe the federal government’s interagency framework 

and policies to combat terrorism overseas and how they have changed 

since the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, we conducted a 

qualitative analysis of: (1) the current interagency framework and policies 

for combating terrorism overseas; (2) the relationship between and among 

various national strategies to combat terrorism overseas; (3) the roles, 

responsibilities, and management structure of the NSC and its Policy 

Coordinating Committees for international counterterrorism coordination 

and the role of the Office of Homeland Security; (4) the roles, 

responsibilities, and management structure of the lead federal agency 

(Department of State) for crisis and consequence management of terrorist 

incidents overseas and those of support agencies (Departments of Defense, 

Justice, and the Treasury, and the intelligence community); (5) legislation 

and agency plans, implementing guidance, concepts of operations, and 

contingency plans; and (6) changes in the interagency framework, policies, 

and implementing guidance since September 11, 2001.

To identify and describe federal programs and activities to combat 

terrorism overseas, we conducted a qualitative analysis of these efforts in 

the areas of: (1) preventing and detecting terrorism overseas; 

(2) disrupting and destroying terrorist organizations; and (3) responding to 

a terrorist incident overseas.

To identify and describe how federal agencies coordinate efforts in 

Washington, D.C., and at U.S. missions abroad to combat terrorism 

overseas, we conducted a qualitative analysis of: (1) interagency and 

agencies’ roles and responsibilities; (2) interagency management 

structures, policies, and procedures to coordinate international 

counterterrorism at headquarters and at a selected U.S. mission abroad; 

(3) U.S. missions’ roles, responsibilities, management structures, and 
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procedures to coordinate international counterterrorism with headquarters 

elements; and (4) changes in coordination policies and procedures that 

resulted from the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001.

We faced some limitations to our methodology during our review. For 

example, the NSC’s National Strategy for Combating Terrorism was 

released at the end of our review. In addition, agencies’ reorganizations and 

creation of the Department of Homeland Security affected the 

organization, management structure, roles and missions, programs, and 

activities of numerous agencies involved in combating terrorism overseas. 

Funding to combat terrorism overseas is not always identified as such and 

may not be broken out neatly into specific functions. Additional terrorismrelated funding was appropriated in addition to funds requested in the 

President’s budget, including supplemental appropriations, emergency 

funding, and reprogrammed funding from other accounts. Also, there is not 

always a clear distinction between programs and activities to combat 

terrorism and other transnational crimes, such as money laundering, arms 

trafficking, and piracy. Finally, many DOD and intelligence community’s 

operations, programs, and activities are classified, which limited what we 

could discuss in an unclassified report.

To mitigate these limitations, we relied on other key NSC policy and 

planning documents and interviews with key officials until the national 

strategy was released. Agencies’ reorganization and creation of the 

Department of Homeland Security will have more of an impact on 

combating domestic terrorism than terrorism overseas. OMB requested 

that agencies identify terrorism-related funding and we reviewed that 

process. We gathered information, where available, on funding for 

programs and activities to combat terrorism overseas. Terrorism is one of 

many transnational crimes, which often are used to fund terrorist 

organizations’ operations. Where appropriate, we identified the nexus or 

linkage between terrorism and other transnational crimes. Finally, we 

worked with DOD and the CIA to accurately describe the threat and their 

counterterrorism programs and activities in an unclassified manner. Given 

our efforts to mitigate these factors, we do not believe they had a material 

affect on our work.

We performed our review from December 2001 through March 2003 in 

accordance with generally accepted government auditing standards.
Page 38 GAO-03-165 Combating Terrorism

Chapter 2

The Interagency Framework for Combating 

Terrorism Overseas Cha2pert

The interagency framework for combating terrorism overseas consists of 

policies and plans, agency roles and responsibilities, and interagency 

coordination mechanisms developed and managed by the NSC and its 

Director for Combating Terrorism. The policies and plans are articulated in 

presidential directives, new national strategies, annual plans, and 

operational guidance. These policies and plans lay out the roles and 

responsibilities of individual federal agencies that lead or support specific 

functions. In addition, many individual agencies have their own policies 

and plans that direct their own activities to combat terrorism overseas. The 

interagency framework also includes coordinating mechanisms to 

implement combating terrorism functions and activities across federal 

agencies. For example, the NSC—which plays a major coordinating role—

sponsors a policy coordination committee called the Counterterrorism 

Security Group, which has several subordinate working groups on such 

topics as interagency counterterrorism exercises, and assistance to other 

countries. Overseas, U.S. embassies and regional military commands 

coordinate activities through interagency teams that meet to coordinate 

efforts to combat terrorism across agencies. In addition, interagency 

coordination is facilitated by personnel exchanges and liaisons among 

agencies. The effectiveness of this interagency framework will be 

determined through time as the new strategies and programs are 

implemented.

Policies, Plans, and 

Legislation

U.S. policies and plans for combating terrorism overseas have developed 

over the past 17 years. These policies and plans consist of presidential 

directives, national-level strategies, and operational guidance. Various laws 

also address terrorism.

Subsequent chapters in this report provide details on how agencies are 

implementing and coordinating these policies, plans, and legislation.

Policies and Plans in Place 

before Terrorist Attacks of 

September 11, 2001

According to the Department of State, four enduring policy principles guide 

U.S. strategies to combat terrorism overseas. They are as follows:

• Make no concessions to terrorists and strike no deals.

• Bring terrorists to justice for their crimes.
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• Isolate and apply pressure on states that sponsor terrorism to force 

them to change their behavior.

• Bolster the counterterrorist capabilities of those countries that work 

with the United States and require assistance.

One of the earlier executive-level formalization of counterterrorism policy 

occurred in 1986 under National Security Decision Directive 207. This 

directive was in response to several terrorist attacks on U.S. facilities and 

interests overseas in the early 1980s, and focused primarily on responding 

to terrorism abroad. It designated the Department of State as the lead 

agency for dealing with overseas terrorist incidents, and designated the FBI 

as the lead agency for handling domestic terrorist incidents, unless 

otherwise specified by the Attorney General. It also set up an interagency 

working group on counterterrorism to coordinate efforts across the 

different agencies.

The next major presidential directive on terrorism occurred in 1995 under 

Presidential Decision Directive (PDD) 39. Following the terrorist bombing 

of a federal building in Oklahoma City, this directive had a more domestic 

focus, outlining measures to be undertaken by federal agencies to reduce 

domestic vulnerabilities to terrorism, deter and respond to terrorist acts, 

and develop capabilities to effectively manage the consequences of a 

terrorist attack. The directive designated the Federal Emergency 

Management Agency (FEMA) as the lead agency for managing the 

consequences of a terrorist incident within the United States. This directive 

also detailed the responsibilities of other agencies expected to provide 

support when requested by the lead agencies.

Counterterrorism policy was further developed in 1998 through PDDs 

62 and 63. PDD 62 further clarified agency roles and responsibilities in 

terrorism prevention, terrorist apprehension and prosecution, 

transportation security, and protection of critical infrastructure. PDD 

63 established critical infrastructure protection as a national goal and 

described a strategy for cooperative efforts by government and the private 

sector to protect the physical and cyber-based systems essential to the 

minimum operations of the government and economy—such as 

telecommunications, power distribution, financial services, national 

defense, and critical government operations—from physical and cyber 

attacks. To help manage these issues, these directives established a 

National Coordinator for Security, Infrastructure Protection, and 

Counterterrorism. This Coordinator was meant to coordinate relevant 
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agency programs and activities on behalf of the NSC, as well as take the 

lead in providing guidelines for interagency operations.

The previous administration issued a federal strategy for combating 

terrorism in 1998—the Attorney General’s Five-Year Interagency 

Counterterrorism and Technology Crime Plan.1

 The Congress mandated 

this plan, which was intended to serve as a baseline strategy for 

coordination of national policy and operational capabilities to combat 

terrorism both at home and abroad.2

 It identified several high-level 

counterterrorism goals and described the specific tasks of federal agencies 

in responding to terrorist incidents. Although primarily domestic in focus, 

one of the plan’s five major goals was to facilitate greater international 

cooperation to combat terrorism. The Department of Justice issued annual 

updates to the Five-Year Plan in 1999 and 2000, which did not revise the 

basic plan but tracked agencies’ progress in implementing the original plan. 

Justice Department officials told us they are no longer providing annual 

updates because other interagency plans (discussed later in this chapter) 

have been released.

Operational guidance on combating terrorism overseas (i.e., specific 

agency roles and actions in a crisis) was drafted in 1996 by the Department 

of State. This guidance, known as the International Guidelines, outlines 

procedures for deploying emergency support teams and otherwise 

coordinating federal operations overseas. Although the NSC did not 

formally approve the International Guidelines until January 2001, agencies 

had used them in draft form since 1996. Our previous examination of 

operations to combat terrorism overseas found that agencies generally 

followed the draft International Guidelines when performing their 

1

 Another earlier and related plan was the International Crime Control Strategy, released in 

May 1998. While not specific to terrorism, this plan had 8 overarching goals and 30 

implementing objectives related to international crime. For more information, see U.S. 

General Accounting Office, International Crime Control: Sustained Executive-Level 

Coordination of Federal Response Needed, GAO-01-629 (Washington, D.C.: Aug. 13, 2001).

2

 Conference Committee Report (House Report 105-405), Nov. 13, 1997, accompanying the 

Fiscal Year 1998 Appropriations Act for the Departments of Commerce, Justice, and State, 

the Judiciary, and Related Agencies (P.L. 105-119), Nov. 26, 1997.
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respective roles in diplomacy, law enforcement, military planning, and 

intelligence gathering.3

Current Policies and 

Plans Include New Areas 

of Responsibility and 

National Strategies

Many federal policies and plans changed in the aftermath of the 

September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks. There were changes in both positions 

and offices to manage terrorism-related programs, and changes through the 

publishing of new strategies.

New Areas of Responsibilities 

Established

The President divided the responsibilities of the National Coordinator 

for Security, Infrastructure Protection, and Counterterrorism, created in 

PDD 62, among three new areas of responsibility.

• Efforts to combat terrorism domestically. Executive Order 13228, dated 

October 8, 2001, created a new Assistant to the President for Homeland 

Security, to head a new Office of Homeland Security responsible for 

coordinating efforts to combat terrorism inside the United States. 

Specific responsibilities included working with departments and 

agencies, state and local governments, and private entities to ensure the 

adequacy of the National Strategy for Homeland Security. The order 

detailed a number of other specific responsibilities for the Office of 

Homeland Security.4

• Efforts to combat terrorism overseas. National Security Presidential 

Directive 8, dated October 24, 2001, created a National Director for 

3

 U.S. General Accounting Office, Combating Terrorism: Issues to Be Resolved to Improve 

Counterterrorism Operations, GAO/NSIAD-99-135 (Washington, D.C.: May 13, 1999). We 

reported that with ongoing counterterrorism operations, federal agencies had not 

completed interagency guidance and resolved command and control issues. Also, key 

federal agencies did not capture lessons learned for all field and tabletop exercises in which 

they led or participated.

4

 For information on the situation leading up to the creation of this position, including GAO’s 

recommendations that a similar type of focal point be established, see U.S. General 

Accounting Office, Combating Terrorism: Selected Challenges and Related 

Recommendations, GAO-01-822 (Washington, D.C.: Sept. 20, 2001). We reported on (1) the 

current framework for leadership and coordination of federal agencies’ efforts to combat 

terrorism, (2) progress the federal government made in developing and implementing a 

national strategy to combat terrorism domestically, (3) the federal government’s capabilities 

to respond to a domestic terrorist incident, (4) progress the federal government made in 

helping state and local emergency responders, and (5) progress made in developing and 

implementing a federal strategy for combating cyber-based attacks.
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Combating Terrorism, with responsibilities for activities to combat 

terrorism overseas. The Director is located in the NSC and reports to the 

Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs. Per the 

directive, the Director also serves as the Deputy National Security 

Advisor for Combating Terrorism. The Director chairs a policy 

coordination committee named the Counterterrorism Security Group. 

While not specified in the directive, this group has a number of 

interagency working groups, which are described later in this chapter. 

The director also reports to the Assistant to the President for Homeland 

Security on matters relating to global terrorism inside the United States.

• Efforts to protect critical infrastructure. On February 28, 2003, the 

President signed Executive Order 13286, which maintained “it is the 

policy of the United States to protect against disruption of the operation 

of information systems for critical infrastructure and thereby help to 

protect the people, economy, essential human and government services, 

and national security of the United States, and to ensure that any 

disruptions that occur are infrequent, of minimal duration, and 

manageable, and cause the least damage possible.”5 It also stated that 

“implementation of this policy includes voluntary public-private 

partnership, involving corporate and nongovernmental organizations.” 

In addition, Executive Order 13286 replaced in its entirety Executive 

Order 13231,6

 thus dissolving the President’s Critical Infrastructure 

Protection Board that was to coordinate cyber-related federal efforts 

and programs associated with protecting the nation’s critical 

infrastructures, and the board’s chair—the Special Advisor to the 

President for Cyberspace Security—and related staff.

Series of New Strategies 

Published

A series of new national plans were developed and published to help guide 

U.S. policy. Some of these plans—called national strategies—are specific to 

combating terrorism, while others involve terrorism to lesser degrees. The 

strategies most directly addressing terrorism are the National Security 

Strategy of the United States of America, published in September 2002; the 

National Strategy for Homeland Security, published in July 2002; and the 

National Strategy for Combating Terrorism, published in 

5

 The White House, Executive Order 13286—Amendment of Executive Orders, and Other 

Actions, in Connection With the Transfer of Certain Functions to the Secretary of Homeland 

Security (Washington, D.C.: Feb. 28, 2003).

6

 The White House, Executive Order 13231—Critical Infrastructure Protection in the 

Information Age (Washington, D.C.: Oct. 16, 2001).
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February 2003. Table 2 summarizes the functions of each of the various 

national strategies and how they relate to combating terrorism overseas.7

Table 2: National Strategies Related to Combating Terrorism

7

 There are additional national strategies that have some discussion of terrorism that we 

have not included. For example, the National Drug Control Strategy, issued by the 

President in February 2003, cites the importance of a unified approach to fighting both 

drugs and terrorism, particularly in South America. The 2002 strategy highlighted drug 

revenue as a source of funding for 12 of the 28 international terrorist groups identified by 

the Department of State.

Strategy Description of strategy 

National Security Strategy of the United 

States of America

Issued by the President, September 2002

This document provides a broad framework for strengthening U.S. security in the future. It 

identifies the national security goals of the United States, describes the foreign policy and 

military capabilities necessary to achieve those goals, evaluates the current status of these 

capabilities, and explains how national power will be structured to utilize these capabilities. It 

devotes a chapter to combating terrorism that focuses on the disruption and destruction of 

terrorist organizations, the winning of the “War of Ideas,” the strengthening of homeland 

security, and the fostering of cooperation with allies and international organizations to 

combat terrorism.

National Strategy for Homeland Security

Issued by the President, July 2002

This document addresses the threat of terrorism within the United States by organizing the 

domestic efforts of federal, state, local, and private organizations. Although mostly domestic 

in focus, this strategy mentions various initiatives related to combating terrorism overseas, 

including: negotiating new international standards for travel documents, improving security 

for international shipping containers, enhancing cooperation with foreign law enforcement 

agencies, expanding specialized training and assistance to allies, and increasing the security 

of transnational infrastructure. The strategy stresses the importance of expanding 

international cooperation in research and development and enhancing the coordination of 

incident response. Finally, the strategy recommends reviewing current international treaties 

and laws to determine where improvements could be made.

National Strategy for Combating Terrorism

Issued by the President, February 2003

This document elaborates on the terrorism aspects of the National Security Strategy of the 

United States of America by expounding on the need to destroy terrorist organizations, win 

the “War of Ideas,” and strengthen security at home and abroad. Unlike the National Strategy 

for Homeland Security that focuses on preventing terrorist attacks within the United States, 

the National Strategy for Combating Terrorism focuses on identifying and defusing threats 

before they reach the borders of the United States. In that sense, although it has defensive 

elements, this strategy is an offensive strategy to complement the defensive National 

Strategy for Homeland Security.
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National Military Strategy of the United 

States of America

Issued by the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs 

of Staff, September 1997

This document sets the strategic direction for all aspects of the U.S. Armed Forces. This 

includes force structure, acquisition, and doctrine, as well as the strategic environment. The 

1997 strategy notes the rising danger of asymmetric threats, such as terrorism. The strategy 

stresses the need for the military to adapt its doctrine, training, and equipment to ensure a 

rapid and effective joint and interagency response to these threats.

There is also a more recent Defense Strategy, which was issued by the Secretary of Defense 

in September 2001. This strategy is part of DOD’s Quadrennial Defense Review and has 

relatively little discussion of terrorism.

National Military Strategic Plan for the War 

on Terrorism

Issued by the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs 

of Staff, October 2002

This document provides a framework to guide the conduct of the “war on terrorism” by U.S. 

Armed Forces. It provides specific guidance from which regional commanders, the military 

services, and other agencies can formulate their own individual action plans. Individual 

regional commands drafted their own campaign plans in response to this plan. For example, 

one regional command plans to conduct maritime interception operations to disrupt 

terrorists’ use of commercial shipping to transport people and material.

National Strategy to Combat Weapons of 

Mass Destruction

Issued by the President, December 2002

This document presents a national strategy to combat weapons of mass destruction through 

three major efforts: (1) nonproliferation, (2) counterproliferation, and (3) consequence 

management in WMD incidents. The plan addresses the proliferation of weapons of mass 

destruction among states, as well as the potential threat of terrorists using WMD agents.

National Money Laundering Strategy

Issued by the Secretary of the Treasury 

and the Attorney General, July 2002

This document presents a national strategy to combat money laundering and other financial 

crimes. The strategy sets forth an action plan for how law enforcement, regulatory officials, 

the private sector, and the international community could take steps to make it harder for 

criminals to launder money generated from their illegal activities. In addition to addressing 

general criminal financial activities, the 2002 strategy presents the government’s plan to 

attack financing networks of terrorist entities. The strategy discusses the need to adapt 

traditional methods of combating money laundering to unconventional tools used by terrorist 

organizations to finance their operations.

National Strategy to Secure Cyberspace

Issued by the President, February 2003

This document is intended to provide an initial framework for both organizing and prioritizing 

efforts to protect our nation’s critical cyber infrastructures. Also, it is to provide direction to 

federal departments and agencies that have roles in cyberspace security and to identify 

steps that state and local governments, private companies and organizations, and individual 

Americans can take to improve the nation’s collective cybersecurity. The strategy is 

organized according to five national priorities, with major actions and initiatives identified for 

each. These priorities are: (1) a National Cyberspace Security Response System, 

(2) a National Cyberspace Security Threat and Vulnerability Reduction Program, 

(3) a National Cyberspace Security Awareness and Training Program, (4) Securing 

Governments’ Cyberspace, and (5) National Security and International Cyberspace Security 

Cooperation. In describing the threats and vulnerabilities for our nation’s cyberspace, the

strategy highlights the potential for damage to U.S. information systems by criminals, nationstates, and terrorists.

(Continued From Previous Page)

Strategy Description of strategy 
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Source: Published national strategies.

Note: GAO analysis of published national strategies.

National Strategy for the Physical 

Protection of Critical Infrastructures and 

Key Assets

Issued by the President, February 2003

This document provides a statement of national policy to remain committed to protecting 

critical infrastructures and key assets from terrorist attacks, and it is based on eight guiding 

principles, including establishing responsibility and accountability, encouraging and 

facilitating partnering among all levels of government and between government and industry, 

and encouraging market solutions wherever possible and government intervention when 

needed. The strategy also establishes three strategic objectives. The first is to identify and 

assure the protection of the most critical assets, systems, and functions, in terms of nationallevel public health and safety, governance, and economic and national security and public 

confidence. The second is to assure protection of infrastructures and assets facing specific, 

imminent threats. The third is to pursue collaborative measures and initiatives to assure the 

protection of other potential targets that may become attractive over time.

(Continued From Previous Page)

Strategy Description of strategy 
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New Strategies Provide 

Framework

As we have recently testified, we view the new strategies, and the 

framework they provide, as a positive step.8

 The new strategies are 

organized in some hierarchy, share common themes, and cross-reference 

each other.

The strategies are organized in a hierarchy with the National Security 

Strategy of the United States of America providing the overarching 

strategy related to national security as a whole, including terrorism. 

According to the administration, the National Security Strategy of the 

United States of America and the National Strategy for Homeland 

Security are top-level strategies that together address U.S. security both 

overseas and domestically. According to the administration, these two 

strategies establish a framework that takes precedence over all other 

national strategies, plans, and programs. Our interpretation of the 

hierarchy among strategies is somewhat different from how the 

administration has presented it. We do not view the hierarchy as that 

absolute because we see the National Strategy for Homeland Security and 

the National Strategy for Combating Terrorism as roughly equivalent. 

These two strategies provide, respectively, the strategies to combat 

terrorism related to defensive domestic issues and offensive overseas 

issues.9

Under this hierarchy, the other strategies provide further levels of detail on 

the specific functions related to military operations, money laundering, 

weapons of mass destruction, cyber security, and protection of physical 

infrastructures. Intelligence is one of the critical functions that cuts across 

all the other strategies, but does not have a strategy itself related to 

8

 For a more detailed discussion and evaluation of these collective strategies, see U.S. 

General Accounting Office, Combating Terrorism: Observations on National Strategies 

Related to Terrorism, GAO-03-519T (Washington, D.C.: Mar. 3, 2003). In this testimony, we 

stated that the new strategies show cohesion in that they are organized in a hierarchy, share 

common themes, and cross-reference each other. In addition, the collective strategies are 

more comprehensive than the single strategy they replaced. However, we noted there will be 

many challenges in implementing these strategies.

9

 We recognize that this characterization of the strategies simplifies a complex relationship 

among the two. Both strategies contain both defensive and offensive elements. For 

example, while we characterize the National Strategy for Homeland Security as mainly 

defensive, it includes offensive initiatives to target and attack terrorist financing, and to 

track foreign terrorists and bring them to justice. Similarly, while we characterize the 

National Strategy for Combating Terrorism as mainly offensive, it includes defensive 

objectives to implement the National Strategy for Homeland Security and to protect U.S. 

citizens abroad.
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terrorism, according to CIA officials with whom we spoke. Some of these 

other strategies contain independent elements beyond national security 

that do not overlap with the other strategies. For an example of the latter, 

both the National Strategy to Secure Cyberspace and the National Money 

Laundering Strategy include some domestic criminal elements not 

associated with national security or terrorism. Also, the National Strategy 

to Secure Cyberspace and the National Strategy for the Physical 

Protection of Critical Infrastructures and Key Assets make a distinction 

between threats to national security and threats to national economic 

security and national public health and safety. Further, the National Drug 

Control Strategy has relatively little overlap with these other strategies. 

Figure 7 displays graphically how some of these national strategies fit into 

a hierarchy and overlap.
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Figure 7: Relationships Between and Among National Strategies Related to Combating Terrorism Overseas

Notes: GAO analysis of national strategies.

This graphic is intended to show relationships and overlaps among these national strategies. The sizes 

and shapes of the boxes are not meant to imply the relative importance of the strategies.
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The various strategies also share common themes. Among the strategies 

more relevant to combating terrorism overseassuch as the National 

Security Strategy of the United States of America, the National Strategy 

for Combating Terrorism, the National Strategy to Combat Weapons of 

Mass Destruction, and the National Military Strategy of the United States 

of Americaall contain either goals or objectives relating to strengthening 

international relationships; strengthening intelligence gathering and 

analysis capabilities; and improving capabilities to deter, prevent, and 

respond to weapons of mass destruction.

In addition, the strategies have linkages among them in the form of 

citations and cross-references from one document to another. At least half 

of the strategies cite either the National Security Strategy of the United 

States of America or the National Strategy for Homeland Security. The 

most extensively linked strategies include the National Security Strategy 

of the United States of America, the National Strategy for Homeland 

Security, the National Strategy for Combating Terrorism, and the 

National Strategy to Combat Weapons of Mass Destruction. Strategies that 

cover topics beyond terrorism, such as criminal law enforcement, are less 

extensively linked to these documents. For example, the National Strategy 

to Secure Cyberspace and the National Strategy for the Physical 

Protection of Critical Infrastructures and Key Assets solely cite each 

other and the National Strategy for Homeland Security. The National 

Drug Control Strategy and the National Money Laundering Strategy

contain no explicit linkages to any of the other strategies, but are 

referenced in the National Strategy for Homeland Security. Some 

strategies contain broad themes that are covered in more detail by other 

strategies, but do not cite these documents. For instance, although the 

National Strategy for Combating Terrorism mentions the topic of terrorist 

financing, it does not mention the National Money Laundering Strategy. 

Nevertheless, it mentions the National Drug Control Strategy, a document 

with considerably less thematic overlap in terms of terrorism. The 

National Security Strategy of the United States of America covers many 

broad strategic themes, but refers to no other national strategies, although 

many of the strategies refer back to it.

National Strategy for Combating 

Terrorism

The key strategy for overseas efforts is the National Strategy for 

Combating Terrorism, issued in February 2003. According to this strategy, 

terrorist groups can be categorized as those that operate primarily within a 

single country, those that operate regionally, and those with global reach. 

The document’s strategic intent calls for fighting terrorist organizations of 

global reach and reducing their scope and capabilities to the regional and 
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then local levels. The goal is to reduce the scope of terrorism to make it 

more localized, unorganized, and relegated to the criminal domain. The 

strategy seeks to accomplish this through four goals and 15 subordinate 

objectives. Together, these goals comprise the “4D Strategy” and are shown 

in table 3.

Table 3: Goals and Objectives in the National Strategy for Combating Terrorism

Source: National Strategy for Combating Terrorism, Feb. 2003.

Goal: Defeat terrorist organizations of global reach by attacking their sanctuaries; leadership command, control, and 

communications; material support; and finances.

Objective: Identify terrorists and terrorist organizations.

Objective: Locate terrorists and their organizations.

Objective: Destroy terrorists and their organizations.

Goal: Deny further sponsorship, support, and sanctuary to terrorists by ensuring that other states accept their responsibilities 

to take actions against these international threats within their sovereign territory.

Objective: End the state sponsorship of terrorism.

Objective: Establish and maintain an international standard of accountability with regard to combating terrorism.

Objective: Strengthen and sustain the international effort to fight terrorism.

Objective: Interdict and disrupt material support for terrorists.

Objective: Eliminate terrorists’ sanctuaries and havens.

Goal: Diminish the underlying conditions that terrorists seek to exploit by enlisting the international community to focus its 

efforts and resources on the areas most at risk.

Objective: Partner with the international community to strengthen weak states and prevent the (re)emergence of terrorism.

Objective: Win the War of Ideas.

Goal: Defend the United States, its citizens, and its interests at home and abroad by both proactively protecting the homeland 

and extending defenses to identify and neutralize the threat as early as possible.

Objective: Implement the National Strategy for Homeland Security.

Objective: Attain domain awareness.

Objective: Enhance measures to ensure the integrity, reliability, and availability of critical physical and information-based infrastructures 

at home and abroad.

Objective: Integrate measures to protect U.S. citizens abroad.

Objective: Ensure an integrated incident management capability.
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New Strategies Will Not 

Guarantee Success

As we have testified, the strategies by themselves, no matter how cohesive 

and comprehensive, will not ensure an integrated and effective set of 

programs to combat terrorism.10 The ability to ensure these things will be 

determined through time as the strategies are implemented. In addition, 

these new strategies reflect a host of long-standing themes and programs. 

For example, certain themes and related programs contained in the new 

strategiespreventing and deterring terrorism, maximizing international 

cooperation to combat terrorism, and improving crisis and consequence 

planning and management—were included in the Attorney General’s 1998

Five-Year Interagency Counterterrorism and Technology Crime Plan. 

Some of the related policies and programs have been in place for decades. 

For example, the State Department’s Antiterrorism Assistance program, 

which provides assistance to other countries to improve their capabilities, 

has existed since 1983. Given that these strategies are relatively new, 

GAO has not yet evaluated their implementation, either individually or 

collectively. However, we have done work that demonstrates the federal 

government will face many implementation challenges. For example, we 

have designated the implementation and transformation of the Department 

of Homeland Security—which will have some responsibilities for 

combating terrorism overseas—as a high-risk federal activity.11 We have 

also identified cyber security as a high-risk area.12

Various Laws Address 

Terrorism

While there is no single, comprehensive federal law explicitly dealing with 

terrorism, the Congress passed and the President signed a series of laws 

dealing with various aspects of terrorism before the September 11, 2001, 

terrorist attacks. The Congress passed these laws to ensure that the 

10 GAO-03-519T.

11 We designated the implementation and transformation of the department as a high risk for 

three reasons. First, the size and complexity of the effort make the challenge especially 

daunting, requiring sustained attention and time to achieve the department’s mission in an 

effective and efficient manner. Second, components being merged into the department 

already face a wide variety of existing challenges that must be addressed. Finally, the 

department’s failure to effectively carry out its mission exposes the nation to potentially 

very serious consequences. For more details, see GAO-03-102; GAO-03-260; and U.S. General 

Accounting Office, Highlights of a GAO Forum: Mergers and Transformation: Lessons 

Learned for a Department of Homeland Security and Other Federal Agencies, GAO-03-

293SP (Washington, D.C.: Nov. 14, 2002).

12 See U.S. General Accounting Office, High-Risk Series: Protecting Information Systems 

Supporting the Federal Government and the Nation’s Critical Infrastructures, GAO-03-121

(Washington, D.C.: Jan. 1, 2003).
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perpetrators of certain terrorist acts are subject to punishment no matter 

where the acts occur; require or permit sanctions on countries and 

organizations supporting or sponsoring terrorism; delineate agency roles 

and responsibilities; and authorize and/or appropriate funding for agencies 

to carry our their responsibilities.

Responding to the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, the Congress 

passed and the President signed into law legislation affecting the way the 

United States combats terrorism overseas and domestically. The Congress 

enacted these laws to improve intelligence sharing, enhance airport 

security, and strengthen border control, among other goals. To provide the 

intelligence community and law enforcement with additional means to 

fight terrorism worldwide and prevent future terrorist attacks, the 

Congress enacted the Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing 

Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism (USA 

PATRIOT) Act.13 In addition to broadening the definition of “terrorist 

activity” and “terrorist organization,” and addressing international money 

laundering, the act also authorizes the Secretary of State to share sensitive 

visa information with foreign government officials, where appropriate. In 

addition, the Congress recently enacted legislation to implement the 

obligations of the United States under the International Convention for the 

Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism and the International 

Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings.14

Another major piece of legislation that has greatly impacted the war on 

terrorism, both overseas and domestically, is the Homeland Security Act of 

2002.15 The act created the Department of Homeland Security, an agency 

whose primary mission includes preventing terrorist attacks within the 

United States and reducing the vulnerability of the United States to 

terrorism. The act combined many of the federal agencies involved in 

combating terrorism into the new department, including those discussed in 

this report.16 In addition, the act contains a number of provisions that 

13 P.L. 107-56, Oct. 26, 2001.

14 Terrorist Bombings Convention Implementation Act of 2002 (P.L. 107-197), Jun. 25, 2002.

15 P.L. 107-296, Nov. 25, 2002.

16 See appendix II for the Matrix of Department of Homeland Security Programs and 

Activities to Combat Terrorism Overseas.
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encourage the sharing of information between the intelligence and law 

enforcement communities.17

Recent legislation further addressed the issues of border and aviation 

security. The Enhanced Border Security and Visa Entry Reform Act of 2002 

increased the number of authorized INS inspectors and support staff to 

prevent terrorist suspects from entering the United States.18 It also 

addressed the need for increased interagency data sharing pertaining to the 

admission of and ability to remove aliens. The Aviation and Transportation 

Security Act created the Transportation Security Administration within the 

Department of Transportation to strengthen security at U.S. national and 

international airports.19

Roles and 

Responsibilities of Key 

Federal Agencies

Another key element in the interagency framework for combating 

terrorism overseas is the delineation of roles played by federal 

organizations and agencies. Some play a coordinating role, others serve as 

leads in specific areas, and many others provide various kinds of support. 

Some agencies also have positions designated within them to lead their 

agencies’ terrorism-related programs and have agency-specific plans. The 

roles and responsibilities of the key organizations and agencies are 

described below.

Subsequent chapters provide additional information on these agencies’ 

roles in the areas of diplomacy, law enforcement, intelligence, international 

finance, military operations, and other activities to combat terrorism 

overseas. In addition, appendixes provide further details on selected 

agencies’ programs and activities.

17 For example, Subtitle I of the act, the Homeland Security Information Sharing Act, 

requires that, under procedures prescribed by the President, all appropriate agencies, 

including the intelligence community, shall share homeland security information with 

federal agencies and appropriate state and local personnel, subject to certain protections.

18 P.L. 107-173, May 14, 2002.

19 P.L. 107-71, Nov. 19, 2001.
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National Security Council 

Leads Coordination Across 

Agencies

Located within the Executive Office of the President, the NSC advises and 

assists the President on national security and foreign policy. It serves as a 

forum for the discussion and debate of national security issues between the 

President, presidential advisors, and cabinet officials. It is also the 

President’s instrument for coordinating policy among government agencies 

on crosscutting issues, such as terrorism. Beyond the NSC principals 

committee—consisting of secretaries of the cabinet departments or 

equivalent heads of independent agencies—the Council is composed of a 

professional staff and various policy coordination committees. The policy 

coordination committee that deals with terrorism is the Counterterrorism 

Security Group. The National Director for Combating Terrorism chairs this 

group, which has subordinate working groups discussed later in this 

chapter. The NSC is the lead for developing the National Security Strategy 

of the United States of America and the National Strategy for Combating 

Terrorism—the key strategies that address combating terrorism overseas.

Office of Homeland Security 

Coordinates Related 

Domestic Issues

The Office of Homeland Security, also located within the Executive Office 

of the President, coordinates efforts to detect, prepare for, prevent, protect 

against, respond to, and recover from terrorist attacks within the United 

States. Similar to NSC, the Office of Homeland Security has several 

interagency working groups (called policy coordination committees) to 

manage crosscutting issues.20 Although mainly domestic in scope, the 

Office is involved in functions that intersect with combating terrorism 

overseas, such as border security. The Director for Homeland Security 

heads this office, which developed the National Strategy for Homeland 

Security—the key strategy for combating terrorism domestically.

Office of Management 

and Budget Tracks Funding 

for Combating Terrorism

The Office of Management and Budget, also located in the Executive Office 

of the President, assists the President in overseeing the preparation of the 

federal budget and supervises its administration in Executive Branch 

20 For more information on the Office of Homeland Security and its role and coordination 

mechanisms related to combating terrorism domestically, see U.S. General Accounting 

Office, Homeland Security: Management Challenges Facing Federal Leadership, GAO-03-

260 (Washington, D.C.: Dec. 20, 2002). We reported that additional actions to clarify 

missions and activities across agencies involved in homeland security will be necessary and 

some agencies will need to determine how best to support both homeland security and nonhomeland security missions. Also, more emphasis on collaboration and coordination with 

the state and local governments and the private sector will be needed to meet overall goals.
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agencies. Since 1998, OMB has issued its Annual Report to Congress on 

Combating Terrorism, which provides funding and programmatic 

information on the federal government’s efforts to combat terrorism and, in 

the most recent report, breaks out funding for combating terrorism 

overseas separately from homeland security initiatives. The report 

summarizes data for three fiscal years--the most recent prior year, current 

operating year, and the President’s budget year request—by department, 

agency, and mission area.

Department of State Leads 

Overall Efforts Overseas

Below the Executive Office of the President, the State Department is the 

lead federal agency for U.S. government activities to combat terrorism 

overseas. The activities that State leads include diplomatic efforts on both 

the bilateral and multilateral levels, protecting U.S. facilities and personnel 

abroad, protecting American civilians traveling and working abroad, 

limited law enforcement functions, and providing assistance to other 

countries to improve their capabilities to combat terrorism. The State 

Department also has the lead in responding to terrorist attacks on U.S. 

interests overseas. In such a terrorist incident, State would lead and 

coordinate measures to alleviate damage, protect health, and provide 

emergency assistance. Other federal agencies would provide support under 

State’s direction.

The Coordinator for Counterterrorism—an ambassador rank position—

heads the State Department’s efforts to combat terrorism. The 

department’s objectives for combating terrorism are delineated in the State 

Department’s 2002 Annual Performance Plan. This plan describes the 

State Department’s objective as to reduce international terrorist incidents, 

especially against the United States. Key goals in the plan are to (1) reduce 

the number of attacks, (2) bring terrorists to justice, (3) reduce or eliminate 

state-sponsored terrorist acts, (4) delegitimize the use of terror as a 

political tool, (5) enhance the international response, and (6) strengthen 

international cooperation and operational capabilities to counter terrorism.

Department of Justice Leads 

Arrest and Prosecution of 

Terrorists

The Department of Justice has the lead in law enforcement and criminal 

matters related to terrorism—both domestically and overseas. The 

department has responsibility for investigating, indicting, and prosecuting 

terrorists. In addition, the department administers training for foreign law 

enforcement and security services through a variety of programs. These 

responsibilities are distributed among a number of components within 

Justice. For example, the department’s efforts to prosecute terrorists are 
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led by the Counterterrorism Section of Justice’s Criminal Division, and its 

Office of International Affairs works with the State Department to 

negotiate treaties and agreements with other countries that promote 

international cooperation, including cooperation in terrorism cases. The 

department’s plans and goals for combating terrorism are documented in 

its Strategic Plan for Fiscal Years 2001-2006.

The FBI leads Department of Justice efforts to investigate international 

terrorism. Specifically, the FBI is responsible for the apprehension and 

rendition of foreign terrorists who are suspected of violating U.S. statutes.21

According to the FBI, it also has the primary responsibility to collect 

foreign intelligence and counterintelligence information, including that 

related to terrorism, within the United States. In a terrorist incident 

overseas, the FBI could support the State Department in resolving the 

crisis. Within the FBI, efforts related to international terrorism are led by 

the Counterterrorism Division, which has two International Terrorism 

Operations Sections that investigate terrorist crimes against U.S. interests, 

along with a Terrorism Financing Operations Section that investigates 

terrorism financing. In addition, the FBI legal attachés overseas work with 

foreign services. The FBI’s strategic plan is currently under revision to 

reflect FBI’s recent reorganization, done in part to reflect new priorities to 

include terrorism.22

Other agencies within the department have important roles. For example, 

the ATF leads or supports investigations related to firearms and explosives, 

including terrorist incidents overseas. This bureau transferred from the 

Department of the Treasury to the Department of Justice in January 2003. 

Some of the Department of Justice’s functions related to border security, 

such as those conducted by the former Immigration and Naturalization 

Service, transferred to the new Department of Homeland Security in 

March 2003.

21 According to the FBI, in cases where the United States lacks an extradition treaty, the U.S. 

government can capture suspected terrorists through an overseas arrest called a rendition. 

State’s Office of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism, in conjunction with State’s Office of 

the Legal Adviser, the Department of Justice, and other agencies, would coordinate State’s 

role in negotiating and conducting these arrests. Since 1987, there have been 11 reported 

renditions (see table 8 in ch. 4 for a complete list of reported extraditions and renditions of 

terrorists to the United States between 1987 and 2001).

22 GAO currently has additional work under way to evaluate the FBI’s efforts to reorganize.
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New Department of 

Homeland Security Has 

Variety of Functions to 

Combat Terrorism

The new Department of Homeland Security also has selected 

responsibilities for combating terrorism overseas. It has an Office of 

International Affairs with responsibilities to promote information and 

education exchange with foreign nations with respect to best practices and 

technologies related to homeland security. The department also has the 

responsibility of coordinating the federal government’s lines of 

communications with state and local public safety agencies and the general 

public, including monitoring threats from terrorists (including international 

terrorists) and keeping the nation alerted via the color-coded Homeland 

Security Advisory System.

In addition, the Department of Homeland Security assumed many 

responsibilities for combating terrorism overseas when certain agencies 

and their functions transferred into the department in March 2003. Many of 

these responsibilities relate to border security. For example, the U.S. 

Customs Service (formerly under the Department of the Treasury) and the 

Immigration and Naturalization Service (formerly under the Department of 

Justice) and their functions are now part of the department’s Bureau of 

Customs and Border Protection and Bureau of Immigration and Customs 

Enforcement. The U.S. Coast Guard (formerly under the Department of 

Transportation) is responsible for maintaining border security at certain 

maritime borders between ports of entry. In addition, the U.S. Coast Guard 

tracks suspicious vessels and works with DOD to conduct maritime 

interception operations. The Bureau of Immigration and Customs 

Enforcement also has some responsibilities to track and investigate 

terrorist financing. The Department of Homeland Security has a number of 

other functions as well. For example, the U.S. Secret Service (formerly 

under the Department of the Treasury) protects the President and certain 

other senior officials when they travel abroad. In addition, the department 

has several disaster response teams (formerly with a variety of other 

department and agencies) that have a domestic mission but could be 

deployed abroad in a terrorist incident overseas. Further, the department’s 

responsibilities include enhancing the security of the nation’s cyber and 

physical public and private infrastructures essential to national security, 

national economic security, and/or national public health and safety.

Department of the Treasury 

Identifies and Blocks 

Terrorist Financing

The Department of the Treasury has a number of important roles in 

combating terrorism overseas. The department has a key role, working 

with other agencies, in efforts to prevent money laundering and to disrupt 

and dismantle the financial support of terrorist organizations. The 
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Financial Crimes Network and the Office of Foreign Assets Control provide 

support to the Treasury and other law enforcement agencies in 

investigating and freezing terrorist financial assets. Treasury’s plans for 

financial operations against terrorist finances are included in the National 

Money Laundering Strategy, issued jointly with the Department of Justice. 

Treasury’s Office of International Affairs coordinates the department’s 

assistance to other countries. The Department of the Treasury recently 

transferred selected agencies and functions to the Departments of Justice 

and Homeland Security, as discussed above.

Department of Defense 

Leads Military Operations 

Against Terrorists

DOD is the lead agency for military operations against terrorist 

organizations and states that sponsor them. If directed by the President, 

DOD can use military forces to disrupt and destroy terrorist organizations 

and operations. DOD also is responsible for protecting its worldwide forces 

from terrorist attacks. In a terrorist incident overseas, DOD could support 

the State Department in resolving the crisis. DOD has a broad array of 

capabilities—from tactical units to transportation assets to 

decontamination units—that could help manage a terrorist incident, 

including those involving WMD agents. DOD also leads the U.S. 

government’s international counterterrorist response exercise program. 

DOD agencies are part of the intelligence community and have a mutually 

supportive relationship with the CIA. While DOD provides training and 

equipment to foreign governments to improve their capabilities to combat 

terrorism, the Department of State retains overall statutory authority for 

training and equipping foreign personnel.

The Secretary of Defense establishes policy and guidance for DOD’s 

operations to combat terrorism overseas. The Secretary of Defense’s senior 

policy advisor on terrorism is the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Special 

Operations and Low-Intensity Conflict. The Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of 

Staff ensures implementation of the Secretary’s guidance by issuing 

direction to combatant commanders, defense agencies, and the military 

services as members of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Within the Joint Staff, the 

Chairman has a number of directorates of dedicated staff with expertise to 

conduct the war on terrorism, including the Deputy Director for the War on 

Terrorism in the Directorate for Strategic Plans and Policy (J-5), the War on 

Terrorism Branch within the Special Operations Division of the Directorate 

for Operations (J-3), and several elements within the Directorate for 

Intelligence (J-2).
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Staff representing the Secretary of Defense and Chairman of the Joint 

Chiefs of Staff work together with other agencies to develop and 

implement DOD plans and operations. U.S. military forces, in coordination 

with other U.S. government agencies and/or allied forces, carry out 

operations. These forces are under the command of one of the geographic 

or functional combatant commanders who have specific areas of 

responsibility. DOD’s plans to combat terrorism are included in the 

National Military Strategic Plan for the War on Terrorism, which is 

implemented by the combatant commands’ campaign plans.

Department of Energy Has 

Role in Radiological Issues

DOE is responsible for responding to radiological terrorist incidents and 

preventing the proliferation of WMD materials. DOE’s response programs 

consist of special teams that could deploy overseas to follow State 

Department’s lead in a terrorist crisis. Specifically, these DOE response 

teams could provide threat assessments, search operations, diagnostic and 

device assessments, containment relocation and storage of special nuclear 

material, and post-incident cleanup. DOE’s non-proliferation programs, 

implemented in conjunction with the State Department and other agencies, 

provide assistance and training to foreign countries. These programs are 

primarily focused on nations in the former Soviet Union and are aimed at 

keeping weapons of mass destruction out of the hands of terrorists and 

rogue states by preventing the smuggling of nuclear materials.

No single DOE official is in charge of coordinating the department’s efforts 

to combat terrorism. However, the Administrator of the department’s 

National Nuclear Security Administration is responsible for supervising 

both response and non-proliferation programs. While the department has 

no agency specific strategic plan for combating terrorism, the department’s 

response teams have contingency and operational plans. According to 

officials from the National Nuclear Security Administration, they are 

currently developing plans specific to their counterterrorism and nonproliferation missions.

Central Intelligence Agency 

Leads Overseas Intelligence 

Activities

The CIA has the lead for gathering, analyzing, and disseminating 

intelligence on foreign terrorist organizations. This information is used to 

produce a wide variety of intelligence products for policymakers and 

operational agencies, ranging from quick-reaction briefings to long-term 

research studies. These efforts broadly support diplomatic, legal, financial, 

and military operations against terrorism. Additionally, the CIA Director is 
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charged with promoting coordination and information sharing between all 

intelligence community agencies.23 The CIA also has the lead for covert 

action and other special activities used to disrupt and destroy terrorist 

organizations.

CIA efforts to combat terrorism are coordinated in its Counterterrorist 

Center, which is located at the agency’s headquarters. The center, which 

includes representatives from a number of other federal agencies, is the 

CIA’s central coordination center for agency and governmentwide 

intelligence activities related to foreign terrorists.

U.S. Agency for 

International Development 

Helps with Disasters and 

Institution Building

USAID has roles in providing immediate emergency assistance after a 

terrorist incident and in providing long-term assistance to strengthen other 

countries’ capabilities to combat terrorism. USAID, working under the 

leadership of the Department of State, coordinates U.S. government efforts 

to manage the consequences of a terrorist incident. In the aftermath of a 

terrorist incident, USAID could respond with humanitarian relief and 

rehabilitation activities. Within USAID, the Office of Foreign Disaster 

Assistance leads agency efforts to provide such assistance. In addition, 

several USAID programs provide assistance to other countries in 

developing their law enforcement and judicial systems. For example, 

USAID supports programs to (1) train foreign law enforcement, 

prosecutors, and judges and (2) assist in rewriting legislation and criminal 

sentencing guidelines. These programs, which are discussed in chapter 3, 

could help these countries bring terrorists to justice.

Other Federal Agencies 

Could Provide Specialized 

Assistance

Other federal agencies have more limited roles in combating terrorism 

overseas. These agencies generally have a domestic focus, but have unique 

capabilities to provide technical advice or special response teams. These 

23 The intelligence community includes the Office of the Director of Central Intelligence; 

Central Intelligence Agency; the National Security Agency; the National Imagery and 

Mapping Agency; the National Reconnaissance Office; the Defense Intelligence Agency and 

other offices within the Department of Defense for the collection of specialized national 

intelligence through reconnaissance programs and the intelligence elements of the Army, 

the Navy, the Air Force, and the Marine Corps; the FBI; the Department of the Treasury; the 

Department of Energy; the State Department’s Bureau of Intelligence and Research; and 

such other elements of any department or agency as may be designated by the President or 

jointly by the Director of Central Intelligence and the head of the department or agency 

concerned.
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teams could deploy overseas to support the State Department in managing 

a terrorist WMD incident or in other activities related to terrorism. Such 

agencies include the following:

• The Department of Health and Human Services has expertise and 

capabilities related to the health and medical consequences of terrorist 

WMD incidents, particularly biological agents.

• The Department of Veterans Affairs has expertise and capabilities 

related to the health and medical consequences of radiological agents.

• The Environmental Protection Agency has expertise and capabilities 

related to identifying and cleaning up hazardous materials, including 

chemical agents.

Interagency 

Coordination 

Mechanisms

Another part of the interagency framework to combat terrorism overseas is 

coordination. Interagency coordination is important because of the large 

number of agencies and multiple functions involved. Agencies involved in 

combating terrorism participate in various interagency mechanisms used 

to coordinate their activities. In Washington, D.C., NSC policy coordination 

committees and interagency working groups coordinate higher-level policy 

issues. Overseas, U.S. missions and regional military commands coordinate 

their activities through a combination of working groups and operational 

plans. Agencies also achieve interagency coordination through personnel 

exchanges and cross-agency liaisons.

Subsequent chapters provide more information on how coordination 

occurs in the specific functions of diplomacy, intelligence, law 

enforcement, financial operations, and military operations against 

terrorism overseas.

NSC Oversees Interagency 

Coordination in Washington, 

D.C.

Formal interagency coordination of national policy and operational issues 

to combat terrorism overseas occurs through the NSC. The NSC heads a 

policy coordination committee called the Counterterrorism Security 

Group. 24 The group is comprised of high-level representatives (at the 

24 The Counterterrorism Security Group was formerly known as the Coordinating SubGroup of the NSC Deputies’ Committee.
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assistant secretary level) from key federal agencies that combat terrorism 

such as the Departments of State, Justice, and Defense and other agencies, 

to include the FBI and the CIA. Other departments or agencies might be 

invited to participate in meetings of the group as needed, such as the 

Departments of the Treasury, Transportation, Health and Human Services, 

Energy, and FEMA. The group develops and tries to reach consensus on 

terrorism policy and operational matters and makes recommendations to 

the President. The Counterterrorism Security Group has a number of 

subordinate interagency working groups that coordinate efforts related to 

specific issues in combating terrorism overseas. Table 4 describes these 

subordinate groups and their functions.

Table 4: NSC-Sponsored Interagency Working Groups Under the Counterterrorism Security Group to Coordinate Efforts to 

Combat Terrorism Overseas

Source: GAO discussions with NSC and agency officials.

Note: Until recently, there was also a National Strategy Working Group chaired by NSC. This group 

was formed to develop, write, and coordinate the National Strategy for Combating Terrorism. It 

disbanded when the strategy was published in February 2003.

Working group (Chair) Functions of working group

Exercise and Readiness 

Sub-Group.

Chairs: State Department, the 

FBI, and FEMA

This long-standing group promotes interagency planning, implementation, and evaluation of exercises 

to combat terrorism. The State Department, the FBI, and FEMA co-chair the group, taking 

responsibility for planning exercises. The group has regular meetings where agencies address 

interagency issues, plan future exercises, and compare and resolve schedule conflicts in agency 

exercises.

Terrorist Financing Working 

Group. 

Chair: Treasury Department

This group coordinates U.S. government efforts to identify and deny terrorist financing. It coordinates 

policy, strategy, and operations to disrupt terrorist networks by freezing terrorist accounts. The group 

also helps to develop strategies and activities for working with other countries.

Training and Assistance SubGroup.

Chair: State Department

This group coordinates the different programs to provide terrorism-related training and assistance to 

foreign governments and their officials. This training can include technical assistance, classroom 

courses, or field training. The group works to prioritize countries that should receive assistance. The 

group reviews assistance programs of the various agencies to ensure they are properly sequenced, 

avoid duplication, and ensure that they are implemented in collaboration with or reinforce other efforts, 

as appropriate.

Counterterrorism Finance 

Training and Technical 

Assistance Working Group.

Chair: State Department

This is a subgroup of the above Training and Assistance Sub-Group that focuses on assistance to 

other countries to eliminate terrorist funding. The group focuses on providing related finance training 

and technical assistance to a set of priority countries, and attempts to ensure that the delivery of such 

assistance by different agencies does not conflict and is used effectively and efficiently.

Hostage Crisis Working Group 

Chair: NSC

This group develops and coordinates the U.S. government’s hostage crisis policy. The group meets on 

an emergency basis to monitor and plan actions related to overseas crises or incidents where 

Americans are taken hostage by terrorists.

Technical Support Working 

Group.

Chair: State Department

This long-standing group conducts the national interagency research and development program for 

combating terrorism. It operates under the policy oversight of the State Department and the 

management and technical oversight of DOD. This group coordinates research and development 

across nine categories of terrorism-related products, amounting to $165 million in fiscal year 2003.
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Some terrorism-related groups formerly under the NSC have been 

transferred to the Office of Homeland Security. For example, the NSC had 

interagency working groups related to issues such as WMD consequence 

management, aviation security, and assistance to state and local 

governments. These functions are now covered by the Office of Homeland 

Security, which has its own interagency working groups (called policy 

coordination committees) to coordinate these and other domestic issues. 

Our work in producing this report did not evaluate the implications of the 

new Department of Homeland Security, but it also will participate in some 

of these policy coordination committees under the sponsorship of the 

Office of Homeland Security.

Coordination Occurs 

Overseas through U.S. 

Missions

At U.S. embassies overseas, programs to combat terrorism are coordinated 

through various plans and working groups. Each embassy has a mission 

performance plan to coordinate embassy activities across agencies. The 

mission performance plans list each embassy’s priorities and include 

implementation and budgeting plans. In cases where combating terrorism 

is a priority, the plan might include specific goals and actions to counter 

that threat. For example, one embassy has goals to both reduce the threat 

of terrorists against Americans in that country and to keep the host 

government an active and effective member of the international coalition 

against terrorism.

In addition, embassies have a “country team” that can be used to 

coordinate efforts to combat terrorism. The country team, which includes 

representatives from all of the agencies with representatives at the 

embassy, sometimes have subgroups related to terrorism. For example, 

selected embassies have country team subgroups dedicated to law 

enforcement matters, chaired by the deputy chief of mission. These groups 

consist of agency representatives at the embassy with law enforcement 

duties, such as the regional security officer, FBI legal attaché, Treasury 

Department financial attaché, and officials from other agencies. The 

country teams and their subgroups meet regularly and on an ad hoc basis 

for crises or time-sensitive matters. The ambassador works with the 

country teams in developing the mission performance plan discussed 

above.
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Regional Military 

Commands also Provide 

Interagency Coordination 

Overseas

U.S. regional military commands also have plans and interagency working 

groups to coordinate their military operations with other agencies to 

combat terrorism overseas. These regional commands include the U.S. 

Central Command, U.S. European Command, U.S. Southern Command, and 

U.S. Pacific Command.25 All of these commands have Campaign Plans and 

Theater Security Cooperation Plans to coordinate their activities. The 

Campaign Plans are the regional commanders’ strategies for implementing 

DOD’s National Military Strategic Plan for the War on Terrorism in their 

specific geographic area of responsibility. These plans include efforts to 

coordinate both military and non-military operations. In addition, the 

commands’ Theater Security Cooperation Plans lay out strategies for 

working with other countries in the region to further U.S. foreign policy 

and military goals. Command officials told us that since September 11, 

2001, these plans have additional emphasis on coordinating efforts to 

combat terrorism with other countries.

These regional commands also have new interagency working groups to 

help coordinate activities to combat terrorism across different agencies. 

DOD created these interagency groups on an experimental basis right after 

the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks and NSC formally approved them 

in January 2002. The working groups coordinate military operations with 

nonmilitary activities, to include diplomacy, law enforcement, intelligence, 

and others. The groups include representatives from the Department of 

State, Department of Justice (including the FBI), Department of Homeland 

Security (including the U.S. Secret Service), the intelligence community 

(including the Defense Intelligence Agency, National Security Agency, and 

National Imagery and Mapping Agency), and other agencies (including 

USAID). These interagency working groups include agencies with longstanding representatives at the commands as well as newcomers. For 

example, some of the defense components of the intelligence community 

have long had liaisons at the regional commands. In contrast, law 

enforcement agencies have only recently assigned staff to the regional 

commands on a full- or part-time basis.

25 We did not include the newly created U.S. Northern Command in our review because of its 

domestic focus. The Northern Command is responsible for homeland defense within the 

United States and at its borders.
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Interagency Coordination 

also Facilitated via 

Personnel Exchanges

Agencies also accomplish interagency coordination and information 

sharing through personnel exchanges and agency liaisons. Such exchanges 

occur at all levels and can be extensive. For example, the FBI and the CIA 

routinely detail senior-level officers to the counterterrorism office of their 

counterpart. The Deputy Chief of the CIA’s Counterterrorist Center is an 

FBI official, while the Deputy Section Chief in the FBI’s Counterterrorism 

Division is a CIA official. Additionally, the staff of the newly instituted 

Office of Intelligence at the FBI is headed by a CIA official and includes 

25 staff on detail from the CIA.

The staff exchanges provide a valuable service to both their assigned and 

home agencies. Besides contributing their own expertise, part of the job of 

these detailees is to provide their agency hosts with timely verbal briefings, 

especially during crisis situations when interagency liaison is critical. For 

example, CIA officers detailed to the counterterrorism offices of other 

agencies maintain direct contact with their primary assignments at the 

CIA’s Counterterrorist Center. State Department political advisors detailed 

to U.S. regional military commands help coordinate with both State 

Department headquarters in Washington, D.C., and with U.S. embassies 

overseas.

Personnel also learn about other agencies by taking orientation and 

training courses. One new initiative is a training program where new CIA 

chiefs of station are introduced to FBI perspectives and capabilities. New 

FBI legal attachés receive reciprocal training at the CIA. Through these 

types of initiatives, personnel are able to better understand their 

counterparts’ roles, responsibilities, and authority and thus promote better 

coordination.

Coordination through personnel exchanges also occurs at the international 

level. For example, U.S. officials are detailed to international multilateral 

organizations, such as the International Police Organization (INTERPOL) 

and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).

Agency Comments and 

Our Evaluation

The Departments of Defense, Justice, and State and USAID provided 

technical comments on this chapter, generally relating to their roles in 

combating terrorism overseas. Based upon these comments, we made 

revisions, as appropriate. We also made revisions regarding the creation of 

the Department of Homeland Security and the transfer of various agencies 

and functions from other departments into that department.
Page 66 GAO-03-165 Combating Terrorism

Chapter 3

Federal Efforts to Detect and Prevent 

Terrorism Cha3pert

The federal government has an important mission to protect Americans 

abroad from terrorist attacks. A critical component in performing that 

mission is detecting terrorists and preventing their attacks against 

U.S. interests. By protecting Americans abroad, the federal government 

helps protect the homeland. Federal efforts to detect and prevent terrorism 

involve a wide range of programs and activities. Efforts to detect terrorism 

are led by the CIA and the intelligence community, which gather, analyze, 

and share intelligence on terrorist threats. Efforts to protect U.S. interests 

abroad are led by the State Department and other agencies, which have 

programs to protect U.S. government facilities and personnel as well as 

American civilians living, working, and traveling overseas. Preventing 

terrorism through public diplomacy is led by the State Department, which 

seeks to shape foreign opinion and garner support for U.S. foreign policy. 

Efforts to prevent terrorists from entering the United States are conducted 

by several federal agencies, which operate visa and border controls. Efforts 

to prevent terrorism also include several agencies’ programs to improve 

coalition partners’ capabilities through training, equipment, security, and 

economic assistance, and assistance in providing security for special 

international events. This chapter describes the relevant federal programs 

in place and is not an evaluation of their effectiveness.

Intelligence 

Gathering and Analysis 

Help Detect 

Terrorist Activities

The National Strategy for Combating Terrorism includes objectives to 

identify and locate terrorists and terrorist organizations. There is also an 

objective to attain domain awareness—the knowledge of all activities, 

events, and trends within any specified domain (air, land, sea, and cyber) 

that could threaten the United States. Intelligence gathering and analysis 

are key functions toward these objectives. Intelligence gathering and 

analysis are critical in detecting terrorist activities and generally are led by 

the CIA. Under the overall leadership of that agency, U.S. intelligence 

agencies gather information on terrorist organizations, monitor terrorist 

threats, and share information with other nations. The Departments of 

State and Defense collect and analyze intelligence and participate in 

surveillance programs and liaisons with foreign police at the local level. 

These intelligence activities support other preventative efforts, such as 

protecting U.S. facilities and Americans overseas, public diplomacy, and 

border controls.

Federal efforts to combat terrorism are supported by the work of the 

U.S. intelligence community, which is a group of government agencies that 

play various roles in intelligence gathering, analysis, and distribution. 

That intelligence provides policymakers with valuable information about 
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terrorist organizations and forms the basis for threat assessments and 

warnings. Also, it generally supports operations against terrorist 

organizations. In the wake of September 11, 2001, many intelligence 

agencies have sought to reduce barriers to the flow of such intelligence 

between and within agencies. The CIA and various interagency bodies 

manage the coordination of these agencies.

CIA Leads Intelligence 

Community Collection 

and Analysis of Foreign 

Intelligence from Overseas

The CIA leads the intelligence community in efforts to collect, analyze, 

and disseminate information on terrorist incidents and groups. This 

information and analysis is used to inform government decision makers 

and supports diplomatic, legal, and military operations against terrorism. It 

can include such things as how terrorist groups are organized, who their 

leaders are, what their objectives are, what weapons and tactics they use, 

and whether they receive support from state sponsors of terrorism.

Such information is collected through various means. Signals intelligence 

can be collected through intercepted communications, radar, and telemetry 

signals. Imagery intelligence can be derived from visual photography, 

infrared sensors, lasers, and electro-optics. Human intelligence is collected 

directly from human sources, sometimes through clandestine collection 

operations. Open source intelligence is gathered from media sources open 

to the public, such as foreign newspapers or trade journals. A considerable 

volume of intelligence information has been produced by the current 

military campaign in Afghanistan. According to the CIA, this information 

has provided policymakers with a better understanding of al Qaeda’s 

leadership, structure, and capabilities.

Raw intelligence on terrorist groups, such as the previous example, is 

combined and analyzed by various agencies, but most notably by staff of 

the Counterterrorist Center within the CIA. Dissemination of finished 

intelligence occurs through various intelligence community products, 

including periodicals, daily reports, daily briefings, and warning 

memorandums. The products are delivered to national-level policymakers 

including the President, Cabinet- and sub-Cabinet-level officers, Members 

of Congress, U.S. military commands, and law enforcement agencies. Some 

products are short-range, such as the President’s daily intelligence brief, 

while more long-range forecasts are made through National 

Intelligence Estimates.
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FBI Has Key Role in 

Collection and Analysis of 

Foreign Intelligence from 

Domestic Sources

In addition to law enforcement functions, the FBI is designated as an 

intelligence agency by Executive Order 12333. 1 As such, according to the 

FBI, it has the primary responsibility for the collection of foreign 

intelligence and counterintelligence information within the United States. 

In this role, the FBI monitors the activities of terrorist groups (including 

those of foreign origin) operating within the United States. Within FBI, 

these activities are coordinated through the FBI’s Counterterrorism 

Division. Intelligence information collected by the FBI’s Counterterrorism 

Division is used to protect against international terrorism by identifying 

terrorist groups, their members, their plans, and the means by which they 

communicate and conceal their activities. The FBI gathers this information 

through Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act investigations, recruited 

sources, double agents, and undercover operations. The FBI also monitors 

the activities of terrorist groups operating outside the United States. 

For example, FBI Legal Attachés overseas acquire and disseminate 

information on terrorists through liaison with foreign services. In addition 

to using FBI intelligence, the Counterterrorism Division utilizes 

intelligence information from other agencies such as the CIA, the Defense 

Intelligence Agency, National Security Agency, and the State Department. 

Eighteen federal agencies are represented in the division, including the 

CIA, the U.S. Secret Service, and the Department of State. The FBI’s Threat 

Assessment/Prevention Unit also assists international terrorism personnel 

with assessing the potential threats existing in the short- and long-term 

environments. In addition, the FBI’s Office of Intelligence supports 

counterterrorism and counterintelligence programs through strategic and 

tactical intelligence capacity.

Information from these various sources is collected, analyzed, and shared 

with policymakers and investigators. Raw intelligence collected by the 

intelligence community also is compared with investigative data 

accumulated by the FBI to determine the feasibility and credibility of threat 

information received in various venues. The Counterintelligence Division 

coordinates investigative matters concerning foreign counterintelligence, 

including activities related to investigations into espionage, overseas 

homicide, protection of foreign officials and guests, and nuclear extortion. 

The FBI’s goal in these intelligence activities is to assemble a picture of the 

threats posed by international terrorist groups and provide a basis for 

neutralizing those groups before they commit acts of terrorism.

1

 Executive Order 12333, United States Intelligence Activities, Dec. 4, 1981.
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Other Agencies also Have 

Important Intelligence Roles

The State Department also has a major role in gathering, analyzing, and 

disseminating intelligence on terrorist groups. The department’s Bureau for 

Intelligence and Research prepares intelligence reports and related policy 

guidance for the Secretary of State and other department officials. In 

addition, this bureau provides intelligence products, such as threat 

information, to ambassadors at U.S. embassies. This bureau also conducts 

foreign public opinion surveys related to terrorism. For example, it 

conducted surveys in several Arab countries to gauge public reaction to the 

September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks and public perceptions of Osama bin 

Laden. The department’s Bureau of Diplomatic Security gathers 

information through its contacts with foreign police, security, and 

intelligence officials. Through these contacts and related investigations, 

this bureau’s regional security officers—located at U.S. embassies—may be 

the first to recognize potential terrorist activities and threats. The bureau 

also analyzes terrorist and related threats and publishes their results in 

Significant Incidents of Political Violence Against Americans, and 

Terrorist Tactics and Security Practices: Lessons Learned and 

Issues in Global Crime. In addition, the departments’ Coordinator for 

Counterterrorism, in conjunction with the intelligence community, studies 

terrorist groups and state sponsors of terrorism, and provides a review of 

the international terrorism situation in the annual publication Patterns of 

Global Terrorism.

2

 These publications are disseminated to, among others, 

department offices and U.S. embassies for their use in developing policies 

and programs to combat terrorism.

DOD also plays a significant role in intelligence collection and analysis. 

The Defense Intelligence Agency provides military intelligence to 

warfighters, policymakers, and force planners involved in combating 

terrorism. The National Security Agency collects and processes foreign 

signals intelligence for national leadership and warfighters. The National 

Reconnaissance Office coordinates collection and analysis of information 

from space and airborne reconnaissance by the CIA and the military 

services. In addition, the Army, the Navy, the Air Force, and the Marine 

Corps intelligence agencies each collect and process intelligence relevant 

to their particular service’s needs. Regional command officials told us that 

DOD’s combined intelligence activities are increasingly focused on 

protecting deployed military forces, supporting military operations against 

2

 The State Department prepares this annual publication for the Congress as 

required by 22 U.S.C. § 2656f (2002).
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terrorists, and providing intelligence to other federal agencies that combat 

terrorism overseas.

The Department of Homeland Security also has a role in analysis of 

information related to terrorism threats because the nation’s critical cyber 

and physical infrastructures are vulnerable to attack from international 

sources. According to the Homeland Security Act, the Department of 

Homeland Security’s Information Analysis and Infrastructure Protection 

Directorate is responsible for accessing, receiving, and analyzing law 

enforcement information, intelligence information, and other threat and 

incident information from respective agencies of federal, state, and local 

governments and the private sector and for combining and analyzing such 

information to identify and assess the nature and scope of terrorist threats.3

The directorate also is tasked with coordinating with other federal agencies 

to administer the Homeland Security Advisory System to provide specific 

warning information along with advice on appropriate protective measures 

and countermeasures.

Threat Assessments 

Allow Government to 

Take Preemptive or 

Preventive Actions

Threat assessments and warnings play a crucial role in the dissemination 

effort, helping to inform and prioritize security planning. When the threat of 

terrorism becomes pronounced, warnings are issued to the public and 

policy community. One of the more visible threat assessments by the 

intelligence community is the Homeland Security Advisory System. The 

warning function for the counterterrorism community is housed within the 

Community Counterterrorism Board, which produces Terrorist Alerts and 

Advisories on a need-to-know basis for a wide government audience.

“Strategic warning” is used to describe instances in which the intelligence 

community has very broad indications that an attack may occur but does 

not have the specifics as to where, when, or how the attack will be 

carried out. Strategic warning enables policymakers and government 

decision makers to take steps to strengthen anti-terrorist defenses and 

initiate other counterterrorist actions. Strategic warnings could include, for 

example, the Department of Homeland Security adjusting its threat levels 

and DOD adjusting its Force Protection Conditions. “Tactical warnings” 

may be issued when the intelligence community has more detailed 

information on where, when, or how an attack might be carried out. 

3

 Section 201, P.L. 107-296, Nov. 25, 2002.
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Tactical warnings can lead to immediate, direct preventive action against 

specific individuals who may be involved in the planned attack and to 

implement appropriate protective action for specific targets. For instance, 

in early September 2002, the State Department was able to act on credible 

and specific threat information by closing many U.S. embassies in Asia and 

reviewing their security postures.

Intelligence Supports 

Diplomatic, Law 

Enforcement, and 

Military Actions

Intelligence information supports the efforts of other agencies involved in 

combating terrorism overseas. It enhances the diplomatic efforts of the 

Department of State, for example, by providing essential information to the 

TIPOFF database intended to prevent terrorists from obtaining entry visas 

into the United States. Intelligence information also augments the security 

of U.S. military facilities abroad, for instance through the CIA’s 

Counterterrorist Center. The center maintains a liaison staff to provide 

military commands worldwide with up-to-date information on the modus 

operandi of terrorist groups in their geographic areas of responsibility. 

Investigations by the FBI and other law-enforcement agencies also derive 

support from intelligence information. Finally, military operations against 

terrorist organizations often rely on intelligence information. For example, 

the 1998 cruise missile attack against an al Qaeda training camp in 

Afghanistan relied on data from the intelligence community.

Actions undertaken by the U.S. diplomatic, law enforcement, financial, 

military, and intelligence communities supported by intelligence 

information are discussed further in chapter 4.

Efforts to Reduce 

Barriers to Information 

Sharing Within the 

Federal Government

Before September 11, 2001, much information sharing was handled through 

staff detailed to other agencies and interagency liaison. For example, in 

early 2001, 10 percent of the CIA Counterterrorist Center’s staff 

complement had been detailed from outside agencies. Recent efforts to 

improve data sharing have focused primarily on data access and 

availability. According to recent testimony by the Director of Central 

Intelligence, the State Department currently is working with the CIA to 

renovate the current TIPOFF all-source watchlist into a National Watchlist 

Center that will serve as a base for all watchlists in the U.S. government.4

 In 

4 Written Statement for the Record of the Director of Central Intelligence before the 

Joint Inquiry Committee, Oct. 17, 2002.
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the interim, the Community Counterterrorism Board is providing secure 

access to State’s current watchlist database via a secure system known as 

“CT Link.” Furthermore, the CIA currently is developing a multi-agency, 

common repository for classified and unclassified information accessible 

to the entire intelligence community as well as to state and local 

law enforcement.

To improve intelligence sharing both within and among agencies, 

intelligence agencies are reevaluating their own internal data management 

procedures. The FBI plans to fully convert to a new data management 

system by December 2003 and currently is in the process of consolidating 

its various databases. The CIA also is attempting to improve its database 

procedures. These improvements include: consolidating terrorist identity 

information, lowering the threshold for nominating individuals for 

watchlist status, lowering the threshold for dissemination of information 

previously regarded as “operational,” and increasing managerial oversight 

through periodic reviews of the system.

Efforts also are under way to improve information sharing between 

members of the intelligence community and the law enforcement 

community. The FBI’s Criminal Division develops evidence for possible 

prosecution, while the CIA and other intelligence agencies develop 

intelligence to assess and counter threats. The collection and use of 

intelligence information on individuals for domestic law enforcement 

purposes is constrained by the application of constitutional protections, 

statutory controls, and rules of evidence. For instance, to obtain a search 

warrant in a criminal investigation, the government, in general, is required 

to establish probable cause to believe that an individual has committed, is 

committing, or is about to commit a particular predicate offense.5

 The rules 

are different for domestic collection of foreign intelligence. In general, the 

Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act of 1978 (FISA) requires that a FISA 

Court judge find probable cause to believe that a suspect target is a foreign 

power or an agent of a foreign power, and that the places at which the 

surveillance is directed are being used, or are about to be used, by a foreign

5

 Title III of the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968 (P.L. 90-351), 

Jun. 19, 1968, as amended.
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power or an agent of a foreign power.6 As a result of these different 

standards, there are situations in which it is possible to obtain a foreign 

intelligence surveillance order that would not satisfy the standards for a 

criminal search warrant or electronic surveillance order.7

 FISA has been 

interpreted as requiring a separation or “wall” that limits coordination 

between domestic law enforcement and foreign intelligence investigations 

and the use of information collected by foreign intelligence agents in 

criminal prosecutions.8 Various provisions of the USA PATRIOT Act seek to 

improve the sharing of information between the intelligence and law 

enforcement communities.9

 For example, the USA PATRIOT Act amended 

FISA to provide more flexibility to federal investigators in sharing 

information obtained under FISA.10

International Intelligence 

Sharing and Cooperation

U.S. intelligence operations also are augmented by the efforts of 

U.S. friends and allies. Historically, the United States often has participated 

in beneficial bilateral intelligence cooperation with other countries. The 

Director of Central Intelligence formulates policy governing the liaison, 

coordination of relationships, and cooperative intelligence arrangements 

between members of the intelligence community and the intelligence or 

security branches of foreign governments. These relationships can take the 

form of reciprocating collection and analysis activities, joint collection 

operations, exchange of analysts or technicians, or even training furnished 

by the United States in return for services rendered by the foreign 

intelligence service. In one such training program, the CIA’s 

Counterterrorist Center is involved in training foreign agencies to better 

prevent terrorist attacks. According the Director of Central Intelligence, 

6

 P.L. 95-511, Oct. 25, 1978, as amended.

7

 See U.S. General Accounting Office, FBI Intelligence Investigations: Coordination Within 

Justice on Counterintelligence Criminal Matters Is Limited, GAO-01-780 (Washington, 

D.C.: July 16, 2001).

8

 A second type of “wall” continues to limit the use of foreign intelligence information in 

criminal prosecutions. In this respect, intelligence analysts are concerned that primary 

sources and methods could be disclosed, namely in criminal court. This may cause them to 

release intelligence information to the FBI for lead purposes only, rather than fully share 

information that could be used for evidentiary purposes.

9

 P.L. 107-56. For example, see sections 203, 218, and 504.

10 Also see the recent decision of the United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court 

of Review In re: Sealed Case No. 02-001, Nov. 18, 2002, which addresses these issues.
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these foreign security services arrest terrorists on the basis of 

U.S. intelligence. For example, terrorist groups planning attacks on 

American and local interests in Europe were identified and disrupted 

through cooperation between the CIA and various European governments. 

Intelligence liaison has also greatly augmented U.S. efforts against 

al Qaeda.

Coordination Mechanisms 

for Intelligence Activities

Executive responsibility for coordination and information sharing among 

the intelligence community agencies lies with the Director of Central 

Intelligence.11 The Director serves as the President’s principal 

intelligence advisor and serves as both head of the CIA and the greater 

U.S. intelligence community. The Director’s coordination duties include 

being the intelligence community’s spokesman to the Congress, 

establishing services of common concern within the intelligence 

community, and promoting common administrative practices—most 

notably on classification issues. The Director also has full responsibility for 

the production, interagency sharing, and timely dissemination of foreign 

intelligence information, and carries the authority to assign specific 

analytical tasks to specific intelligence community member agencies. The 

Director also governs requirements and priorities for the collection of 

foreign intelligence.

Interagency Intelligence 

Committee on Terrorism

The lead forum for coordination of intelligence activities across agencies is 

the Interagency Intelligence Committee on Terrorism. The committee, 

established in 1990, advises and assists the Director of Central Intelligence 

in coordinating the intelligence community over the long term. It facilitates 

the Director’s use of intelligence resources to resolve long-term policy 

coordination issues in combating terrorism. It is composed of 

representatives of the intelligence, law enforcement, and regulatory 

communities, and it also oversees several subcommittees. These 

subcommittees conduct research and develop solutions to intelligence 

issues, including Intelligence Requirements, Information Handling, 

Technical Countermeasures, Training, Warning, and Unconventional 

Weapons. Leadership within the committee is provided by the Community 

Counterterrorism Board, which serves as the committee’s executive 

secretariat. The board also manages “CT Link,” a secure network for 

counterterrorism research, coordination, and communication available on 

11 See Executive Order 12333, United States Intelligence Activities, Dec. 4, 1981.
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the individual desktops of all member agencies. Committee members 

assess indications of terrorist threats and share information on the 

activities of terrorist groups and countries that sponsor terrorism. Table 5 

shows selected members of the Interagency Intelligence Committee 

on Terrorism.

Table 5: Selected Members of the Interagency Intelligence Committee on Terrorism

Source: CIA.

Organization Organization

Central Intelligence Agency Department of State

Department of Defense

• Office of the Secretary of Defense

• Defense Intelligence Agency

• National Security Agency

• National Reconnaissance Office

• National Imagery and Mapping Agency

• Defense Information Systems Agency

• Defense Threat Reduction Agency

• Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency

• White House Communications Agency

• White House Military Office

• Joint Chiefs of Staff

• Unified Commands

• U.S. Army

• U.S. Air Force

• U.S. Marine Corps

• U.S. Navy

• Chemical, Biological Incident Response Force

Department of Justice

• Criminal Division

• Federal Bureau of Investigation

• Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives

• Drug Enforcement Administration

• U.S. Marshals Service

Department of Transportation

• Federal Aviation Administration

• Department of Homeland Security

• U.S. Secret Service

• U.S. Coast Guard

• Bureau of Immigration and Customs Enforcement

• Bureau of Customs and Border Protection

• Federal Emergency Management Agency

Environmental Protection Agency

Executive Office of the President

• National Security Council

• Office of Homeland Security

• Executive Office of the Vice President

U.S. Postal Service

Federal Reserve Board

National Communications System

Nuclear Regulatory Commission

Department of Commerce U.S. Capitol Police

Department of Energy

Department of Health and Human Services
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Counterterrorist Center at CIA The primary link between the long-term interagency coordination needs 

of the Interagency Intelligence Committee on Terrorism and the more 

immediate coordination needs of intelligence operations is the Director of 

Central Intelligence’s Counterterrorist Center. The center was established 

at CIA Headquarters in 1986 to coordinate intelligence operations across 

agencies. Many agencies represented in the center are also members of the 

Interagency Intelligence Committee on Terrorism. All information on 

terrorists is channeled to the center. This intelligence collection is fused 

with analysis and operational capabilities to give the center the speed to 

seize fleeting opportunities. The center is, therefore, somewhat unique 

among intelligence “centers,” in that it combines intelligence analysis, 

planning, operational support, and also serves as a general platform for 

carrying out general U.S. counterterrorism policy.

The interagency coordination managed by the Counterterrorist Center is 

intended to support U.S. efforts to penetrate, preempt, disrupt, and 

ultimately destroy terrorist organizations worldwide. The center carries 

out a number of responsibilities against terrorism: analysis, warning, and 

activities in support of diplomatic, legal, and military operations against 

terrorism. For example, it often plays a key role in the tracking and 

rendition of terrorist suspects, usually in concert with the FBI or foreign 

law enforcement agencies. The center also prepares intelligence reports on 

terrorist groups and countries that support terrorism that are made 

available to other intelligence and law enforcement agencies. For example, 

the center issues a monthly, classified review of international terrorism 

developments and provides other analysis on terrorist groups, capabilities, 

or incidents as needed. Smaller units within the center develop specialized 

intelligence on specific terrorist groups. As mentioned earlier, the center 

makes extensive use of personnel exchanges to facilitate greater 

coordination. Counterterrorist Center staff work closely with other agency 

counterparts in Washington, D.C., and with intelligence assets in the field.

Beyond the operational coordination of the Counterterrorist Center and the 

long-term coordination initiatives of the Interagency Intelligence 

Committee on Terrorism, the intelligence community uses no overarching 

strategic plan to coordinate its efforts. There are, however, operational 

plans for intelligence campaigns against specific targets, such as Osama 

bin Laden.
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New Terrorist Threat 

Integration Center

In January 2003, the President announced the creation of a Terrorist Threat 

Integration Center to coordinate intelligence activities across agencies. The 

President instructed the leaders of the FBI, CIA, and Departments of 

Defense and Homeland Security to develop the center to merge and analyze 

all threat information in a single location. The center is to have access to all 

terrorist threat information available to the U.S. government and will seek 

to minimize any seams between analysis of terrorism intelligence collected 

overseas and in the United States. It is to conduct threat analysis, 

institutionalize information sharing across agency lines, and provide 

comprehensive threat assessments. The center also is intended to play a 

lead role in tasking the intelligence community to gather intelligence and it 

will maintain an up-to-date database of known and suspected terrorists. It 

will not conduct intelligence collection or operations. The Terrorist Threat 

Integration Center will eventually be collocated with the Director of 

Central Intelligence's Counterterrorist Center and the FBI's 

Counterterrorism Division to improve collaboration among agencies. 

However the Director of Central Intelligence's Counterterrorist Center and 

the FBI's Counterterrorism Division will retain their distinctive operational 

capabilities. The head of the center will report to the Director of Central 

Intelligence. The Director of Central Intelligence will appoint the head of 

the center in consultation with the Attorney General, the Secretaries of 

Defense and Homeland Security, and the Director of the FBI. In February 

2003, the President announced a plan for implementing the new center, 

starting in May 2003.

Protecting 

U.S. Government 

Facilities and 

Americans Abroad

The National Strategy for Combating Terrorism includes an objective to 

integrate measures to protect U.S. citizens abroad. According to the 

strategy, the Department of State will take the lead and, in conjunction with 

appropriate agencies, partner with industry to establish cost-effective best 

practices and standards to maximize security. Toward this objective, the 

Department of State conducts multifaceted activities in its effort to prevent 

terrorist attacks on Americans abroad. For example, to protect 

U.S. officials, property, and information abroad, State operates programs 

that include local guards for U.S. missions, armored vehicles for embassy 

personnel, U.S. Marine security guards to protect sensitive information, 

and plans to evacuate Americans in emergencies. DOD has similar 

programs to protect its military forces against terrorist attacks. The 

U.S. Secret Service and State’s Bureau of Diplomatic Security protect 

senior U.S. government officials when traveling overseas. For Americans 

traveling and living abroad, State issues public travel warnings and public 

announcements and operates warning systems to convey terrorism-related 
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information. For U.S. businesses and universities operating overseas, State 

uses the Overseas Security Advisory Councils—voluntary partnerships 

between the State Department and the U.S. private sector—to foster the 

exchange of security and threat information, implement security programs, 

and provide a forum to address security concerns. These efforts are 

coordinated both at the headquarters level in Washington, D.C., and at 

individual U.S. missions abroad.

U.S. Mission Security The Department of State’s Bureau of Diplomatic Security is responsible 

for providing a secure environment worldwide for the conduct of 

American diplomacy. The bureau manages a broad range of programs 

to create and maintain appropriate levels of security for more than 

50,000 U.S. government personnel, staff, and dependents, who work and 

live at 260 embassies, consulates, and other U.S. missions overseas. The 

bureau can dispatch Diplomatic Security teams to threatened overseas 

missions. At each U.S. mission, the regional security officer is responsible 

for implementing Diplomatic Security measures and coordinating 

protection with host government authorities.

The Bureau of Diplomatic Security also reviews standards and risk 

management. It develops, evaluates, and applies security standards for a 

broad range of categories. These include (1) physical protection for office 

and residential buildings, (2) access to communication equipment, 

(3) intrusion detection devices, (4) secure conference rooms, and 

(5) armored vehicles. These standards are intended to allow the bureau 

to identify and address threats posed by terrorism, political violence, 

human intelligence, and technical intelligence penetration of facilities. 

The bureau uses these elements to target resource allocations to identified 

threats at each mission or location. The bureau is required to provide to the 

Congress each year a ranking of the U.S. missions abroad most vulnerable 

to terrorist attack.12 These standards also help target additional security 

funding to the highest threat missions, as in the case of Emergency Security 

12 See U.S. General Accounting Office, Embassy Construction: Better Long-Term Planning 

Will Enhance Program Decision-Making, GAO-01-11 (Washington, D.C.: Jan. 22, 2001). In 

this report, we note that the Department of State has ranked the more than 180 facilities that 

it proposes to replace and/or provide with major security enhancements into groups or 

“bands” of 20 in order from the most vulnerable to the least vulnerable to terrorist attack. 

The ranking, which is provided to the Congress annually, is intended to serve as a guide for 

which embassies and consulates State would replace first.
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Supplemental and Worldwide Security Upgrade funds to meet the most 

pressing security needs.

The State Department conducts multifaceted activities in an effort to 

prevent terrorist attacks against U.S. missions. Following the August 1998 

bombings of the U.S. Embassies in Nairobi, Kenya, and Dar es-Salaam, 

Tanzania, State upgraded security for all of its missions. As we have 

reported previously, there are a number of U.S. embassy security programs 

and activities to prevent terrorism overseas, which generally are managed 

by State’s Bureau of Diplomatic Security.13

Embassy threat assessments This Bureau of Diplomatic Security program helps the Bureau of Overseas 

Buildings Operations develop embassy security measures. The Bureau of 

Diplomatic Security develops, with other elements in State, threat 

assessments that State uses to prioritize which U.S. missions are most in 

need of new, safer embassy buildings.

Embassy construction program This Bureau of Overseas Buildings Operations program is attempting to 

replace State Department’s less secure facilities on an accelerated basis 

with new, secure embassies and consulates that meet current security 

standards, such as having a 100-foot setback from streets surrounding 

embassies. State has a 6-year Long-Range Overseas Buildings Plan, which 

includes both new construction and the major renovation and 

rehabilitation of existing facilities.

Worldwide Security 

Upgrade Program

The Bureau of Diplomatic Security and Bureau of Overseas Buildings 

Operations jointly are responsible for the Worldwide Security Upgrade 

Program, which provides a physically secure environment for all 

U.S. government personnel under the jurisdiction of the chief of mission. 

The Bureau of Diplomatic Security, through its physical security program, 

strengthens building exteriors, lobby entrances, and the walls and fences 

around embassies and consulates.14 Inside an embassy or consulate, 

closed-circuit television monitors, explosive-detection devices, 

walk-through metal detectors, and hard-line walls and security doors 

provide protection. These are intermediate measures—only new embassies 

will address all security concerns.

13 See U.S. General Accounting Office, Combating Terrorism: Department of State 

Programs to Combat Terrorism Abroad, GAO-02-1021 (Washington, D.C.: Sept. 6, 2002).
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Residential Security program The Residential Security program provides for security upgrades to the 

residences of U.S. employees assigned to overseas diplomatic and consular 

missions. Prior to occupancy, all newly acquired residential facilities are 

equipped with appropriate security features, such as locks, alarms, shatterresistant window film, and reinforced doors, based on the level of the 

threats.

Overseas Protection of 

Information program

The Overseas Protection of Information program implements a 

comprehensive set of information protection programs. These programs 

are intended to protect national security information discussed at meetings 

in secure conference rooms or on secure telephones, processed and stored 

on computers, and preserved and communicated on paper documents. This 

program includes (1) personnel investigations for security clearances, 

(2) courier protection for diplomatic pouches, (3) construction security 

and access control equipment, (4) U.S. Marine security guards controlling 

access to embassies at 130 U.S. missions overseas, (5) locks for containers 

holding classified material, (6) secure conference rooms, (7) detection and 

containment of emanations from processing equipment, 

(8) counterintelligence investigations and briefings, and 

(9) computer security.

Surveillance Detection Program The Surveillance Detection Program utilizes plainclothes security agents 

to provide surveillance detection measures around U.S. embassies, 

consulates, and residences of embassy employees. The program is used 

to identity suspicious activity, such as terrorists’ casing embassy 

facilities or personnel, and includes capabilities intended to resolve all 

suspicious activity.

Local Guard Services Local Guard Services augment host government resources for protecting 

overseas diplomatic and consular office facilities and residences of 

U.S. government employees and dependents of all agencies under the chief 

of mission.

14 The USAID Overseas Management Office is responsible for ensuring security at all 

USAID facilities that are not collocated with U.S. missions (approximately 58 of 95, as of 

January 2002), although it coordinates these security arrangements with the Bureau of 

Diplomatic Security in Washington and with the regional security officers in country. 

Additionally, the Office of Security handles USAID building construction issues, 

coordinating extensively with State’s Bureau of Overseas Buildings Operations, which 

constructs buildings for USAID’s tenancy.
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Overseas Protective Vehicles The Overseas Protective Vehicles program provides light and heavy armor 

vehicles to protect embassy personnel. Currently, all chief-of-mission 

vehicles have been ordered and are being armored and 94 percent of 

these vehicles already have been delivered to missions.

Host Nation Security Support Host nations also provide critical support in preventing terrorist attacks 

against U.S. missions. Based on its capabilities—and sometimes 

willingness—host nation security support could include, for example, 

sharing intelligence about threats with the regional security officer, 

providing bodyguards for U.S. officials, stationing local police guards 

outside of a U.S. mission, closing roads adjacent to a U.S. mission, 

controlling crowds, responding first to a terrorist incident, and conducting 

an investigation of a terrorist attack. Figure 8 shows how a host 

government provides perimeter security for a U.S. embassy.

Figure 8: Host Nation Police Use Buses to Cordon off a U.S. Embassy during a 

Heightened Threat Period
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Military Force 

Protection Efforts

The threat of terrorism is one of the most pervasive challenges facing DOD, 

making the protection of U.S. forces against terrorist attacks a top priority 

for the department.15 The June 1996 truck bombing of the al-Khobar Towers 

military housing facility near Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, killing 19 Americans 

and wounding hundreds of others prompted DOD to reexamine its 

programs to protect both its forces and installations overseas. However, 

U.S. forces remained vulnerable to terrorist attacks as demonstrated by the 

October 2000 al Qaeda bombing of the USS Cole in Yemen that killed 

17 U.S. sailors.

Overall Management at DOD, 

Joint Staff, and Service Levels

The Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Special Operations and 

Low-Intensity Conflict is responsible for developing antiterrorism 

guidance, providing policy oversight, and ensuring compliance with these 

policies. In June 2001, the Principal Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense 

for Special Operations and Low-Intensity Conflict established standards 

addressing antiterrorism planning, training requirements, physical security 

measures, and related issues.16 This office had earlier issued a handbook in 

1993 containing detailed guidance on antiterrorism policies and practices, 

including guidance on assessment methodology.17

The Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff and the Deputy Director for 

Global Operations in the Joint Chiefs of Staff Directorate for Operations 

(J-3) help implement the policy of the Assistant Secretary by reviewing 

services’ budgets, developing standards, making vulnerability assessments, 

and representing regional commands on force protection issues. The Joint 

Staff issued an installation-planning template to help installations prepare 

their antiterrorism plans in July 1998 and currently manages the Integrated 

Vulnerability Assessment Program. This program has teams, also consisting 

of staff from the Defense Threat Reduction Agency, that travel to military 

15 For a more detailed discussion and our evaluation of DOD force protection efforts, see 

U.S. General Accounting Office, Combating Terrorism: Actions Taken but Considerable 

Risks Remain for Forces Overseas, GAO/NSIAD-00-181 (Washington, D.C.: July 19, 2000); 

Combating Terrorism: Actions Needed to Improve DOD Antiterrorism Program 

Implementation and Management, GAO-01-909 (Washington, D.C.: Sept. 19, 2001); and 

Combating Terrorism: Actions Needed to Guide Services’ Antiterrorism Efforts at 

Installations, GAO-03-14 (Washington, D.C.: Nov. 1, 2002).

16 DOD Instruction 2000.16, DOD Antiterrorism Standards, June 14, 2001.

17 DOD Handbook O-2000.12-H, Protection of DOD Personnel and Activities 

Against Acts of Terrorism and Political Turbulence, Feb. 19, 1993.
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installations (including those overseas) to conduct vulnerability 

assessments and support installation commanders and local 

anti-terrorism/force protection managers in writing force protection 

and WMD response plans.

Each military service headquarters is responsible for implementing the 

DOD antiterrorism program with assistance from the Joint Staff. Although 

regional commands and installations directly implement force protection 

policy, service headquarters control funding and personnel resources for 

individual installations overseas. The services base their final funding and 

staffing decisions on a review of the antiterrorism priorities and 

requirements submitted by each combatant commander. The majority of 

funding for force protection activities is for personnel, operations, and 

maintenance appropriations for each service. The Chairman of the Joint 

Chiefs of Staff’s Combating Terrorism Readiness Initiative Fund provides 

additional funding. This fund is managed by the Joint Staff and supports 

emergency or other unforeseen high-priority combating terrorism needs. 

The services also issue regulations, orders and instructions to establish 

their own specific antiterrorism policies and standards.

Regional and Installation 

Commander Responsibilities

Regional commands merge and prioritize the antiterrorism requirements 

submitted by their respective installation commanders. They use this 

information to develop general antiterrorism policy for installations in their 

geographic areas of responsibility. Such guidance takes precedence over 

broader DOD or service guidance from Washington. They also determine 

the type of threats their forces face, identifying the money and manpower 

needed to achieve sufficient force protection, and work with the services to 

provide the necessary resources.

Local installation commanders assume primary responsibility for the 

protection of the forces, assets, and installations under their command 

from terrorist attacks. They combine, adapt, and implement the force 

protection standards established by DOD, combatant commanders, and the 

service headquarters into an installation antiterrorism plan. Local 

installation commanders, in concert with the installation’s designated 

anti-terrorism/force protection manager, compose a prioritized list of 

antiterrorism requirements that they submit to their respective 

major commands.
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DOD Uses Risk 

Management Approach

When making these plans and listing their requirements, installation 

commanders employ a “risk management” approach.18 This approach is a 

systematic, analytical process to determine the likelihood that a threat will 

negatively impact physical assets, individuals, or operations and identify 

actions to reduce risk and mitigate the consequences of an attack. The 

principles of risk management acknowledge that although risk generally 

cannot be eliminated, it can be significantly reduced by enhancing 

protection from known or potential threats. Installation commanders also 

rely on annual DOD assessments of threat, vulnerability, and criticality 

of assets.

• Threat Assessment. This identifies and evaluates potential terrorist 

threats on the basis of such factors as threats’ capabilities, intentions, 

and past activities. It represents a systematic approach to identify 

potential threats before they materialize. It is performed by the services’ 

investigative and intelligence agencies, which compile and examine all 

available information concerning potential terrorist groups and criminal 

activity that could affect the installation. The threat assessment may not 

adequately capture all emerging threats, even in cases where the 

assessment is frequently updated. The risk management approach, 

therefore, uses vulnerability and criticality assessments as additional 

inputs to the risk management decision-making process.

• Vulnerability Assessment. This identifies weaknesses that may be 

exploited by terrorists and suggests options that address those 

weaknesses. Teams of multidisciplinary experts in such areas as 

structural engineering, physical security, and installation preparedness 

review the installation’s antiterrorism program, including antiterrorism 

plans, counterintelligence, law enforcement liaison, physical security, 

and incident response measures.

• Criticality Assessment. This evaluates and prioritizes assets and 

functions to identify which assets and missions are relatively more 

important to protect from attack. They might consider a number of 

factors, such as importance to the military mission, significance as a 

target, accessibility by terrorists, construction, ease of reconstruction, 

and monetary value.

18 See GAO-03-14.
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The risk management approach and these annual assessments form the 

foundation of each installation’s antiterrorism plan and support decisionmaking to improve resource allocations.

DOD Personnel at 

Diplomatic Posts

Some DOD personnel overseas do not fall under the direct command of the 

regional commands. For example, DOD personnel assigned to diplomatic 

post would be protected as part of U.S. mission security (discussed in the 

previous section). To clarify who is responsible for the protection of these 

military personnel, DOD and State have signed a Memorandum of 

Understanding, and regional commands have signed over 146 country-level 

Memorandums of Agreement with their local U.S. ambassadors.

U.S. Programs and Activities 

to Protect Senior-Level 

Officials

Federal agencies also have programs to protect senior-level officials from 

terrorism during international travel. The U.S. Secret Service, which 

recently transferred from the Department of the Treasury to the 

Department of Homeland Security, provides protection to a limited number 

of senior-level U.S. officials (for example, the President) at all times, which 

includes travel overseas. In addition, the Secret Service protects official 

representatives of the United States performing special missions abroad.19

The U.S. Secret Service has advance teams that work with host countries to 

coordinate security of these U.S. officials that travel overseas. In addition, 

if a protected person attends a special event abroad, such as a bilateral or 

multilateral political or athletic event, then the U.S. Secret Service works 

with the event security coordinators. Even in cases where the President is 

not necessarily going to attend but a number of other U.S. citizens will, the 

U.S. Secret Service also provides consulting to help host nations provide 

for event security. For example, the U.S. Secret Service, working with the 

State Department’s Bureau of Diplomatic Security, is assisting the Greek 

and Chinese governments in preparing for upcoming Olympic Summer 

Games in Athens in 2004 and Beijing in 2008, respectively. To support this 

protective mission, as well as other missions, the U.S. Secret Service 

maintains 18 offices overseas.

19 The U.S. Secret Service is authorized under 18 U.S.C. § 3056(a) to protect the President, 

Vice President, their immediate families, former Presidents, visiting heads of state, and 

other distinguished foreign visitors as directed by the President, among others.
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The U.S. Secret Service also provides security for heads of foreign 

governments and other foreign distinguished guests while visiting the 

United States. In addition, the U.S. Secret Service provides security for 

foreign visitors when they attend certain international events in the United 

States.20 An example would be the 50th anniversary NATO summit held in 

Washington, D.C., in April 1999, which included foreign heads of state, 

ministers, and military leaders. For this one event, there were over 1,000 

escorts for dignitary motorcades. The U.S. Secret Service, through its 

Uniformed Division’s Foreign Mission Branch, provides exterior security 

for over 400 foreign diplomatic facilities (embassies, chanceries, 

consulates, and ambassador residences) in the Washington, D.C., area. To 

support its protective mission, the U.S. Secret Service has an Intelligence 

Division that oversees the identification, assessment, and management of 

threats in support of domestic and foreign protectee visits and events of 

national significance.

The State Department’s Bureau of Diplomatic Security also provides 

protection to senior-level officials during international travel. These 

officials are less senior than those protected by the U.S. Secret Service and 

include the Secretary of State, Deputy Secretary, selected ambassadors, 

and others U.S. officials overseas. Diplomatic Security agents provide 

protection to other foreign dignitaries (other than heads of state and 

certain others protected by the U.S. Secret Service) when they visit the 

United States. These agents participate in more than 150 foreign and 

domestic dignitary details each year, protecting such diverse individuals as 

the Secretary General of NATO, President of the Palestine National 

Authority, and the Dalai Lama. Also, the bureau provides security to 

selected foreign officials residing in the United States. These protective 

details are based upon the level of threat. The bureau also provides for 

security in special international events in the United States. For the 50th 

anniversary NATO summit (discussed above), the bureau’s Dignitary 

Protective Division was part of the security preparations and provided 

48 protective details. For the 1996 Olympic Summer Games in Atlanta, the 

bureau protected 14 foreign individuals from Israel, India, and 

Saudi Arabia.

20 PDD 62 established a process to designate certain special events as National Security 

Special Events, which warrant greater federal planning and protection than other special 

events. This designation is based upon the nomination of the National Security Council and 

certified by the Attorney General and the Secretary of Homeland Security. In these events, 

the U.S. Secret Service, the FBI, and Federal Emergency Management Agency have specific 

roles for preventing and responding to a terrorist incident.
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According to State Department officials, the Bureau of Diplomatic Security 

is providing protective assistance to two heads of government in their own 

countries—President Hamid Karzai in Afghanistan and President Alvaro 

Uribe Velez in Colombia. According to bureau officials, they are providing 

security and/or advisors and training to these leaders because of the 

extreme threat of assassination from terrorist groups and the relatively 

weak capabilities for senior official protection in each country.

Protecting American 

Civilians Living, Working, 

and Traveling Abroad

The Department of State has several programs to help warn Americans 

living and traveling abroad against potential threats, including those posed 

by terrorists. State’s Bureau of Consular Affairs provides travel warnings, 

public announcements, and Consular Information Sheets to American 

civilians who are living, working, and traveling abroad. The bureau seeks to 

provide important threat warnings and security information to U.S. citizens 

and assets abroad in a timely and effective manner based on the “No 

Double Standard” policy on dissemination of specific, credible terrorist 

threat information that has not or cannot be countered (i.e., it is the policy 

of the U.S. government that official Americans cannot benefit from receipt 

of information that might equally apply to the public, but is not available to 

the public).

In fiscal year 2001, for example, the bureau issued 64 travel warnings, 

134 public announcements, and 189 Consular Information Sheets. The 

bureau’s Internet Web site received 117.9 million inquiries, 30.7 million 

more than in fiscal year 2000. According to bureau data, 90 percent of the 

users found the information helpful. The bureau also held 69 briefings for 

stakeholder groups, including international student program participants, 

travel agents, and others.

The bureau also maintains a warden system for notifying Americans who 

have registered with the U.S. embassy or consulate of potential terrorist 

threats. Warden networks consist of telephone-calling trees, e-mails, fax 

systems, and other systems, as appropriate. The warden system covers 

both U.S. embassy and consulate personnel and other registered 

Americans. The system usually works by alerting major employers or 

compounds with high concentrations of Americans. It is used for a variety 

of communications purposes, from passing out voter information to 

notifying wardens and their wards of U.S. embassy evacuations.

The Bureau of Diplomatic Security manages the Overseas Security 

Advisory Councils, which provide security support to U.S. businesses and 
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private-sector organizations worldwide. The councils are a joint effort 

between State and the private sector. They foster exchange of security and 

threat information, implement security programs, and provide a forum to 

address security concerns. Embassy regional security officers coordinate 

with council headquarters in Washington, D.C., to set up, develop, and 

maintain councils in country. Presently, councils are active in 47 countries 

worldwide.

Coordination Mechanisms 

for Protecting 

U.S. Government Facilities 

and Americans Abroad

The Department of State is responsible for maintaining an effective 

security program at U.S. diplomatic missions worldwide and for 

coordinating all federal agencies’ efforts to protect U.S. government 

facilities and Americans abroad. At U.S. missions, the country team is the 

primary coordinating mechanism. It typically consists of the ambassador, 

deputy chief of mission, and key functional personnel, including 

representatives from other federal agencies represented at the 

U.S. mission. The regional security officer has primary coordinating 

responsibility for security programs and activities at U.S. missions.

In addition, the Bureau of Diplomatic Security provides security liaison 

officers to DOD’s regional military commands: the U.S. Central Command 

at MacDill Air Force Base, Florida; U.S. European Command in StuttgartVaihingen, Germany; U.S. Pacific Command at Camp H.M. Smith, Hawaii; 

and U.S. Southern Command in Miami, Florida. These officers coordinate 

with the commands on theater threat assessments, contingency planning, 

and implementation of Department of State and DOD agreements on 

overseas security support.

In Washington, D.C., the Overseas Security Policy Board considers, 

develops, coordinates, and promotes standards and agreements in overseas 

security operations, programs, and projects, which affect all federal 

agencies under an ambassador’s authority abroad. The board, which is 

chaired by the Director of State’s Bureau of Diplomatic Security, consists 

of representatives from the Departments of Agriculture, Commerce, 

Defense, Justice, State, Transportation, and the Treasury; USAID; the CIA; 

Peace Corps; Federal Aviation Administration; and OMB. Since 1990, the 

board has issued 37 standards for U.S. missions overseas. The standards 

address the full spectrum of security programs pertaining to terrorism 

and other threats. These standards range from armored vehicles and 

protective details for ambassadors to emergency plans and exercises and 

residential security.
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Public Diplomacy 

Builds International 

Support for 

U.S. Foreign Policy

The National Security Strategy of the United States of America and the 

National Strategy for Combating Terrorism call for the United States to 

wage a “War of Ideas” against international terrorism, through effective 

public diplomacy. Toward these objectives, the State Department and 

Broadcasting Board of Governors conduct efforts to improve the image of 

the United States and support U.S. foreign policy. For example, to forestall 

possible negative perceptions of the United States and foster greater 

understanding of U.S. policy for key international audiences, State 

conducts public diplomacy through various media. Similarly, the 

Broadcasting Board of Governors conducts international broadcasts to 

worldwide audiences to help support U.S. strategic interests.

State Department 

Programs Promote 

Anti-Terrorism Support

The State Department helps build and influence international opinion in 

support of U.S. foreign policy objectives. Since the terrorist attacks on the 

United States on September 11, 2001, State has encouraged international 

support for efforts to combat terrorism overseas. For example, its 

programs have generated over 240 newspaper, 100 radio, and 150 television 

interviews, and over 300 opinion-editorial articles in newspapers either 

signed or prepared for U.S. ambassadors. Almost 60 U.S. speakers have 

traveled abroad on State-funded programs addressing September 11, 

2001-related issues. U.S. embassies have sponsored over 100 panel 

discussions and over 220 speeches on combating terrorism. In addition, 

Network of Terrorism, a department-produced print and electronic 

pamphlet, is available in 36 languages and 1.3 million print copies are 

in circulation.

Broadcasting Board of 

Governors Promotes 

U.S. Foreign Policy on 

Combating Terrorism

The Congress passed the United States International Broadcasting Act of 

1994 with the goal of reorganizing and consolidating U.S. international 

broadcast efforts.21 The act created a bipartisan Broadcasting Board of 

Governors (the Board) to oversee and coordinate the efforts of all 

nonmilitary international broadcasting. The Board manages the operations 

of three federal broadcast entities—the Voice of America, WORLDNET 

Television and Film Service, and the Office of Cuba Broadcasting. The 

board also has supervisory authority over two non-profit corporations—

Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty and Radio Free Asia. These broadcast 

21 Title III, P.L. 103-236, Apr. 30, 1994. 
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entities reach more than 125 markets worldwide in 65 different languages. 

With a fiscal year 2003 appropriated budget of $514 million, the Board 

employs 3,400 journalists, producers, technicians, and support personnel in 

Washington, D.C., and throughout 90 news bureaus and offices worldwide.

The Board’s over-arching goal is to reach significant audiences worldwide 

in areas of strategic interest to the United States where freedom of the 

press does not fully exist. The board’s strategic plan includes an objective 

to “pioneer anti-terrorism broadcasting” to counter terrorists use of 

media coverage that inflict fear and panic in the public.22 One project 

supporting anti-terrorism is the Middle East Radio Network (known as 

“Radio Sawa” in the region) that broadcasts and analyzes news and 

explains U.S. policies. Other recent initiatives in the region include the 

Afghanistan Radio Network and a service targeted at young adults in Iran 

called Radio Farda. Finally, the Congress has approved an initial round of 

funding for a new Middle East Television Network, which is expected to 

launch later in 2003.

Coordination of Public 

Diplomacy Activities

The newly created Office of Global Communications was designed to 

coordinate public diplomacy activities, including those related to terrorism. 

The Office was established under Executive Order 13283 on January 21, 

2003, and will advise the President, heads of offices within the Executive 

Office of the President, and senior government officials on the most 

effective means of promoting the interests of the United States abroad. 

According to the Executive Order, the office will coordinate messages that 

reflect the strategic communications framework and priorities of the 

United States. The office is designed to facilitate the development of a 

strategy among federal agencies to help communicate such messages. The 

office will coordinate the deployment of “information teams” worldwide in 

areas of high global interest and media attention. These teams are intended 

to disseminate information to the on-site news media and assist media 

personnel in obtaining access to information, individuals, and events. Prior 

to any deployments abroad, the office is to consult with the Departments of 

State and Defense and notify the NSC.

22 Marrying the Mission to the Market: Strategic Plan 2002-2007, Broadcasting 

Board of Governors.
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Visa and Border 

Controls Are Intended 

to Prevent Terrorists 

and Their Materials 

from Entering the 

United States

Visa and border controls are additional tools that are designed to help 

detect and prevent terrorism by keeping terrorists and their materials out 

of the United States. The National Strategy for Homeland Security has an 

objective to ensure the integrity of borders and prevent the entry of 

unwanted persons. It also has an objective to increase the security of 

international shipping containers. According to the strategy, of the annual 

500 million people who enter the United States legally, 330 million are not 

citizens.23 Some of these non-citizens need visas to enter the United States. 

The Department of State uses various tools to screen visa applicants to 

identify potential terrorists. Intelligence and law enforcement agencies 

support this visa screening process by maintaining databases and watch 

lists of suspected terrorists and making that information available to the 

State Department. Factors such as a visa applicant’s country of origin can 

affect the level of scrutiny they receive. Visitors from certain countries 

(known as visa waiver countries) are not required to have visas because the 

Departments of State and Homeland Security have determined that they 

represent a low risk. State investigates visa and passport fraud to help 

maintain the integrity of travel documents and thus prevent terrorists from 

receiving visas or entering the country under false names. Further, the 

United States shares a 5,525-mile border with Canada, a 1,989-mile border 

with Mexico, and possesses 95,000 miles of shoreline. The Department of 

Homeland Security guards the borders at and between almost 400 ports of 

entry, seeking to interdict terrorists and their materials at the border. 

Finally, international cooperation is an important factor in strengthening 

international visa and border controls. For example, the State Department 

shares information on suspected terrorists with other countries to enhance 

their border controls.

23 The actual number of different travelers into the United States is unknown 

because some people enter the country many times a year.
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Visa Controls Designed 

to Keep Terrorists Out of the 

United States

State’s Bureau of Consular Affairs, provides overall supervision to consular 

officers at U.S. missions overseas. Consular officers adjudicate visa 

applications from foreign citizens who wish to visit the United States.24

These consular officers aim to facilitate travel for those eligible to receive 

visas and deny visas to those who are ineligible. For the most common 

categories of nonimmigrant visas, an applicant must demonstrate that 

they (1) have a residence abroad, which they do not intend to abandon, 

(2) intend to leave the United States after a limited period of time, and 

(3) intend to engage in legitimate activities related to that nonimmigrant 

category. The most common nonimmigrant visas are those for temporary 

stays for business or pleasure (79 percent), special worker visas 

(4.6 percent), student visas (4.2 percent), and exchange visas (4 percent).

All applicant information is entered into the Consular Consolidated 

Database before it is reviewed. The Bureau of Consular Affairs manages 

this database. After being entered into the database, applicant information 

is reviewed by a consular officer at a U.S. embassy or consulate. At that 

point, the consular officer may call the applicant in for an interview. The 

consular officer will conduct a name check on all applicants who ultimately 

receive a visa. In addition, some applicants may undergo a special security 

review if they fall into one of many special categories of visa applicants. A 

visa can be refused at any stage after it is entered into the database.

Besides supporting the bureau’s visa mission, the Consular Consolidated 

Database also supports the work of law enforcement agencies. In fiscal 

year 2002, for example, the bureau performed numerous searches of 

nonimmigrant visa records at the request of federal law enforcement task 

forces investigating the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001. In 

addition, the bureau’s Passport Services office provided law enforcement 

with 305 records. The bureau used facial recognition software to compare 

the photographs on the visa applications of the September 11, 2001, 

hijackers in the database against other visa photographs.

24 A visa enables a person to apply at a port of entry to enter the United States, but it does 

not guarantee that a person will be able to enter the United States. For a more detailed 

discussion of the nonimmigrant visa application process, see U.S. General Accounting 

Office, Border Security: Visa Process Should Be Strengthened as an Antiterrorism Tool, 

GAO-03-132NI (Washington, D.C.: Oct. 21, 2002). This report evaluates the visa process 

before September 11, 2001, and what changes have been made since then. It makes several 

recommendations to strengthen the visa process.
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Various Databases Are Used to 

Screen for Terrorists

The Consular Lookout and Support System (CLASS) name check system 

is the primary means through which consular officers determine if a visa 

applicant is suspected of being a terrorist or could pose other security 

risks. Sources for information in CLASS include the State Department’s 

database of visa refusals, the State Department’s interagency watch list 

for terrorists, known as TIPOFF, and several other law enforcement and 

intelligence sources. CLASS also uses Arabic and Russian/Slavic language 

algorithms to help increase the likelihood that the name check will find 

a person’s name if it is in the database. Consular officers must run an 

applicant’s name through CLASS before issuing a visa.

The CLASS name check system includes information from the TIPOFF 

terrorist watch list, which is managed by State’s Bureau of Intelligence and 

Research. This list contains declassified biographical information, such as 

name, birth date, or passport number on thousands of suspected terrorists. 

This information is drawn from sensitive all-source intelligence and law 

enforcement data provided by the FBI, the CIA, and other intelligence 

community agencies. When a consular officer using CLASS receives a 

TIPOFF “hit” on an applicant’s name, the officer refers the case to the 

TIPOFF staff at the Department of State. The TIPOFF staff will then make 

available the classified information supporting the TIPOFF entry to 

authorized consular and legal experts within the Department of State, who 

then determine whether the evidence is sufficient to deny the visa request. 

The consular officer may not issue a visa until the Bureau of Consular 

Affairs has responded with its security advisory opinion. TIPOFF “hits” 

through the CLASS system are coordinated with the FBI and other 

agencies. Foreknowledge of pending terrorist travel has, in the past, 

enabled authorities to arrest terrorist suspects at ports of entry, or to 

conduct surveillance of them inside the United States.

The Secretary of State, in consultation with the Attorney General, also 

updated the Terrorist Exclusion List and the Foreign Terrorist Organization 

lists, which designate groups as terrorist organizations. Members or 

supporters of these organizations are to be denied entrance at U.S. ports of 

entry and deported if found within the United States.
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The State Department also strengthened its oversight over visa operations 

by instituting new inspection measures. An embassy’s nonimmigrant visa 

chief, the visa chief, or the consular section chief is now required to 

periodically conduct spot checks of approved visa applications, in addition 

to the spot checks for CLASS name check compliance that are already 

in place.25

Level of Visa Screening Varies by 

Risk Level of Country of Origin

Depending on their nationality, a visa applicant may require a special 

security review. Special clearance procedures and interagency name 

checks for visa applicants from certain countries were originally designed 

during the Cold War to screen out individuals who could pose a threat to 

U.S. interests, primarily through espionage. After the September 11, 2001, 

terrorist attacks, the Departments of State and Justice revised these 

procedures. As a result, all male visa applicants aged 16 through 45 from 

certain national groups received a 20-day computerized hold on their 

applications, during which a visa physically could not be issued. The 

application information was then electronically submitted to the FBI for 

the actual name check. Once 20 days had passed, the computer unlocked 

the applicant case. If a negative response had not been received from either 

the State Department or the FBI by this time, then the consular officer was 

permitted to issue a visa. This 20-day computerized hold requirement 

ended in October 2002, when another program—the Visa Condor 

program—became fully functional.

The Visa Condor program is a name check procedure that is initiated when 

an applicant fulfills certain classified criteria. To help the consular officer 

determine whether Visas Condor criteria have been met, the State 

Department, in January 2002, began to require all 16- to 45-year old males 

from certain national groups to fill out a supplemental visa application 

form. This new form provides additional information such as an applicant’s 

travel and educational history, employment information, and military 

service. Under the Visas Condor process, the post sends an applicant’s 

information to the FBI National Name Check Program, where it is run 

against FBI databases. Some of the information in these databases comes 

from the FBI’s Foreign Terrorist Tracking Task Force.26 In the event of a 

possible match, the information is sent back to the State Department. The 

consular officer cannot issue a visa to an applicant meeting Visas Condor 

criteria without an affirmative response from the Department of State. In 

25 See GAO-03-132NI.
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July 2002, the Visas Condor procedure became mandatory for all applicants 

over the age of 16 from countries listed as state sponsors of terrorism.

Visitors from Selected Countries 

Do Not Need Visas

The Visa Waiver Program allows persons to enter the United States for 

tourism or business for 90 days or less without applying for a visa if they 

are a citizen from one of 27 participating countries.27 Citizens from 

participating countries would still be required to have a passport from their 

home country and, upon arrival, pass through standard border controls 

(discussed below). This program was created to improve U.S. foreign 

relations and encourage foreign travel to the United States without posing a 

threat to national security.28 It also allowed the State Department to 

perform greater visa screening in high-risk countries, while scaling back its 

visa operations in low-risk countries. Country participation is contingent 

upon a Department of Homeland Security and Department of State review 

of the country’s political, social, and economic situation; the quality and 

security of its passport system; its border controls and immigration laws; 

its law enforcement policies and practices; as well as other relevant 

matters. (Prior to March 1, 2003, the Department of Justice performed this 

review with State.) Visa waiver countries also must have a low 

nonimmigrant visa refusal rate for their citizens, the ability to supply 

machine-readable passports, and must offer visa-free travel for 

U.S. citizens and nationals. The Secretary of Homeland Security, in 

consultation with the Secretary of State, may terminate a country’s 

participation in the program in the event of an emergency that threatens 

U.S. security or law enforcement interests, such as severe economic

26 The FBI Foreign Terrorist Tracking Task Force is composed of personnel from a range of 

agencies, including the Department of Justice’s FBI and the Department of Homeland 

Security’s Bureau of Immigration and Customs Enforcement. It coordinates a multi-agency 

effort to identify, locate, and deny entry to or remove terrorists and their supporters from 

the United States.

27 The 27 countries are Andorra, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Brunei, Denmark, France, 

Finland, Germany, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Monaco, the 

Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, San Marino, Singapore, Slovenia, Spain, 

Sweden, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom.

28 For a more detailed discussion and our evaluation of this program, see U.S. General 

Accounting Office, Border Security: Implications of Eliminating the Visa Waiver 

Program, GAO-03-38 (Washington, D.C.: Nov. 22, 2002). We reported on the process used to 

assess countries’ eligibility to participate in the Visa Waiver Program and the implications in 

eliminating the program. Such implications could affect U.S. relations with other countries, 

U.S. tourism, and State Department resources abroad; however, the impact on national 

security is unclear.
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collapse or a breakdown of the rule of law within a country.29 Previously, 

the Attorney General, in consultation with the Secretary of State, had this 

authority. While the Justice Department has not systematically collected 

data on how frequently potential terrorists and other criminals have 

entered the United States, anecdotal information indicates that such 

individuals have entered the United States under the Visa Waiver Program 

as well as with valid U.S. visas. Participating countries must certify by 

October 26, 2004, that they have a program to issue tamper-resistant, 

machine-readable passports that contain biometric and document 

authentication identifiers.30 This is required by the Enhanced Border 

Security Act of 2002, which also conditioned participation on a country’s 

timely reporting of its stolen blank passports to the United States.31

State Department 

Investigates Visa and 

Passport Fraud

The National Strategy for Homeland Security has an objective to combat 

fraudulent travel documents. Toward this objective, the State Department 

attempts to impede terrorist entry into the United States through its 

investigations of visa and passport fraud. The Bureau of Diplomatic 

Security investigates more than 3,500 passport and visa fraud cases 

annually, resulting in more than 500 arrests each year. A number of 

suspects have been linked to terrorism. The bureau has 450 special agents 

in over 160 countries and approximately 700 special agents assigned 

throughout the United States. State’s Office of the Inspector General also 

conducts visa and passport investigations.

29 GAO-03-38.

30 For a more detailed description and evaluation of biometrics in this context, see 

U.S. General Accounting Office, Technology Assessment: Using Biometrics for Border 

Security, GAO-03-174 (Washington, D.C.: Nov. 15, 2002). In this report, we identified 

important policy trade-offs between increasing security and the impact on areas such as 

privacy, economy, traveler convenience, and international relations. Also, we reported that 

biometric technology can play a role in associating a person with travel documents such as 

visas and passports. When used at a border inspection, biometrics can help determine 

whether to admit a traveler into the United States.

31 Enhanced Border Security and Visa Entry Reform Act of 2002 (P.L. 107-173), 

May 14, 2002.
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Border Controls Attempt to 

Deter Entry of Terrorists 

and Their Materials

Border controls staffed by officers from the Department of Homeland 

Security also play a role in deterring terrorists and their materials from 

entering the United States. All visitors, whether they have visas or are 

seeking to enter the United States under the Visa Waiver Program, are 

to undergo inspections at U.S. ports of entry. The Border Patrol and 

U.S. Coast Guard work between U.S. ports of entry to detect and 

prevent terrorists and their materials from entering the United States. 

On March 1, 2003, the Immigration and Naturalization Service, Border 

Patrol, U.S. Customs Service and U.S. Coast Guard became part of the 

new Department of Homeland Security.

Immigration Controls Department of Homeland Security immigration inspectors are to conduct a 

primary inspection of travelers arriving at a U.S. port of entry. During these 

inspections, the immigration inspector observes the applicant, examines 

their passport, and utilizes automated databases to judge admissibility. The 

inspector should either permit travelers to enter or refer them to secondary 

inspection, where a more detailed examination of travel documents or 

further questioning can be conducted. People may be refused entry for the 

same reasons they may be refused a visa. Immigration inspectors use the 

Interagency Border Inspection System—a multi-agency database of 

lookout information that alerts inspectors of conditions that may make 

travelers inadmissible to the United States. It also provides information 

about warrants for U.S. citizens who may be wanted by U.S. law 

enforcement. Data sharing between this system and the TIPOFF database 

began in 1991 and, since then, it has enabled immigration inspectors to 

intercept 290 terrorists from 82 countries at 84 different ports of entry. In 

fiscal year 2001, immigration inspectors using TIPOFF through the 

Interagency Border Inspection System had 86 matches from the terrorism 

database at ports of entry. Of these, 38 were denied entry and 1 was 

arrested. During primary inspection, the tools used by immigration 

inspectors differ according to type of entry.

• Air Ports of Entry. At the 155 air ports of entry, commercial airline 

carriers are required to transmit passenger and crew manifests to 

immigration inspectors through the Advance Passenger Information 

System for flights into the United States. This information includes a 

passenger’s name, date of birth, nationality, and passport number. With 

this information, immigration inspectors can analyze intelligence on 

passengers before flights arrive and identify passengers who will require 

referral to secondary inspection. Immigration inspectors at air ports of 

entry have access to the Interagency Border Inspection System.
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• Sea Ports of Entry. At the 86 sea ports of entry, primary inspection at 

stations equipped with the Interagency Border Inspection System 

functions much the same as airports. Where this system is not available, 

immigration inspectors board ships with the Portable Automated 

Lookout System. This system contains lookout information, which 

immigration inspectors use to conduct name checks and examine 

documents of all aliens aboard a vessel.

• Land Ports of Entry. At the 154 land ports of entry, immigration 

inspectors can query the Interagency Border Inspection System with a 

traveler’s name, passport, or license plate number. Documents and 

names of a vehicle’s driver are checked randomly or when an inspector 

suspects that something is wrong.

An immigration inspector can refer a traveler to secondary inspection at 

any port of entry. In secondary inspection, inspectors are to review a 

traveler’s documents for accuracy and validity and check various databases 

for any information that could affect the traveler’s entry, including criminal 

history information from the FBI and non-immigrant visa issuance data 

from State Department. An immigration inspector conducting a secondary 

inspection can also utilize a fingerprint identification system to determine 

whether a traveler has been previously apprehended for an immigration 

offense or is wanted by U.S. law enforcement. As mentioned above, a 

traveler may be refused entry for the same reasons they can be denied 

a visa.32

A number of new immigration initiatives were started after September 11, 

2001. The predominant focus of these initiatives has been to establish 

relationships with other countries to coordinate with their border, law 

enforcement, and intelligence officials on immigration matters.

• Operation Global Shield. For this operation, the former Immigration and 

Naturalization Service deployed “immigration control officers” to a 

number of overseas transit points around the world to push out the 

32 For a more detailed discussion and our evaluation of INS border security processes, see

GAO-03-174 and U.S. General Accounting Office, Illegal Aliens: INS’ Processes for Denying 

Aliens Entry into the United States, GAO-02-220T (Washington, D.C.: Nov. 13, 2001). In this 

testimony, we discussed INS’ processes for denying aliens entry at land and airports of 

entry, including the expedited removal and credible fear processes. In addition, see our 

testimony Weaknesses in Screening Entrants into the United States, GAO-03-438T

(Washington, D.C.: Jan. 30, 2003).
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U.S. line of defenses against illegal immigration related to terrorism. 

These officers, who have no law enforcement authority in these foreign 

countries, have an advisory and consultative role. The specific functions 

of Operation Global Shield are to disrupt and deter the smuggling of 

select aliens, prevent the movement of persons who are security risks, 

provide advance notice of passengers warranting closer inspection upon 

arrival, collect law enforcement intelligence, cooperate on 

apprehensions and prosecutions, and provide training on fraudulent 

travel documents.

• Operation Southern Focus. For this operation, the former Immigration 

and Naturalization Service deployed special agents and intelligence 

analysts abroad to target key smuggling organizations in Latin America 

and the Caribbean. These U.S. personnel have been working with 

authorities in Mexico, Guatemala, Panama, and the Dominican 

Republic, as well as other U.S. personnel stationed overseas to identify, 

investigate, and prosecute regional smuggling organizations. According 

to officials, undercover operations are ongoing in several areas to 

capture key smugglers and return them to the United States.

Customs Controls At ports of entry, Department of Homeland Security customs inspectors 

look for illegal materials, such as drugs, currency, and explosives, whether 

or not the contraband is intended for terrorism. While most of the customs 

inspection equipment was developed and acquired to detect drugs, the 

majority of this equipment does not detect specific substances but detects 

anomalies in general. For example, X-ray machines may alert an inspector 

to something unusual about an item being examined and, therefore, the 

possible concealment of materials.33

The Department of Homeland Security also utilizes export controls to 

prevent illegal exporters, terrorist groups, and international criminal 

organizations from (1) trafficking in weapons of mass destruction and their 

components; (2) obtaining and illegally exporting controlled commodities, 

technologies, conventional munitions, and firearms; (3) exporting stolen 

property from the United States; and (4) engaging in financial and other 

33 For a more detailed description and evaluation of these efforts, see U.S. General 

Accounting Office, Container Security: Current Efforts to Detect Nuclear Materials, New 

Initiatives and Challenges, GAO-03-297T (Washington, D.C.: Nov. 18, 2002). In this 

testimony, we reported that programs in place to detect certain terrorist materials were 

limited in a number of respects and rely heavily on the availability of quality information for 

targeting those cargoes posing the greatest risk.
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transactions that support these activities or that violate U.S. sanctions 

and embargoes.

A number of new customs initiatives were started after September 11, 2001. 

The predominant focus of these initiatives has been to establish additional 

lines of security in the supply chain of international commerce. Examples 

of these initiatives are below.

• Container Security Initiative. This program, initiated by the former 

U.S. Customs Service, seeks to extend customs inspections beyond 

U.S. ports of entry rather than waiting for these goods to arrive in 

U.S. ports for screening and inspection. Begun in January 2002, its goal 

is to place U.S. customs personnel at ports of origin or transit to screen 

cargo containers and select high-risk containers for inspection by the 

host country’s customs administration. As one of its first steps, the 

United States entered into negotiations with governments of the top 20 

“mega-ports” that handle 66 percent of the containers destined for the 

United States. As of the end of January 2003, 11 governments 

representing 16 of the top 20 mega-ports have signed arrangements, and 

the United States has placed customs officers in 2 of these ports.34 The 

United States also has placed customs officers at 3 ports in Canada, 

which are not among the top 20 mega-ports. Other elements of the 

Container Security Initiative include improving security criteria to 

identify high-risk containers, expanding the use of technology in the 

United States and foreign ports to examine high-risk containers, and 

developing the use of smart and secure containers.

• Customs Trade Partnership Against Terrorism. This program, also 

initiated by the former U.S. Customs Service, focuses on efforts by 

importers and others to enhance security procedures along their supply 

chains in exchange for certain benefits, such as reduced likelihood of 

inspections. As part of this initiative, which began in April 2002, 

importing businesses, freight forwarders, carriers, and other logistics 

providers enter into agreements with the United States to voluntarily 

undertake measures that will reduce security vulnerabilities.

34 The 11 governments and their ports are Belgium (port of Antwerp), France (port of Le 

Havre), Germany (ports of Bremerhaven and Hamburg), China (port of Hong Kong), Italy 

(ports of Genoa and La Spezia), Japan (ports of Tokyo, Nagoya, Kobe, and Yokahama), the 

Netherlands (port of Rotterdam), Singapore, South Korea (port of Pusan), Spain (port of 

Algeciras), and United Kingdom (port of Felixstowe). As of January 2003, the Department of 

Homeland Security had placed customs officers at the ports of Rotterdam and Le Havre.
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• Project Shield America. This industry outreach program was launched 

by the former U.S. Customs Service in December 2001 and seeks the 

cooperation of companies involved in the manufacture, sale, and/or 

export of U.S.-origin technology and munitions items in identifying 

suspicious or unusual inquiries or orders. Customs agents have visited 

over 5,000 companies since the inception of Project Shield America and 

have initiated dozens of criminal investigations based on information 

gathered during these visits.

Border Patrol Between Ports 

of Entry

Between U.S. ports of entry, the Department of Homeland Security’s 

Border Patrol has the mission to detect and apprehend illegal aliens and 

smugglers (including potential terrorists). The Border Patrol, formerly part 

of the Immigration and Naturalization Service, has a workforce of about 

9,500 agents and is responsible for patrolling about 6,000 miles of Mexican 

and Canadian international land borders and 2,000 miles of coastal waters 

surrounding the Florida Peninsula and the island of Puerto Rico. Agents 

patrol these borders utilizing various vehicles, including aircraft, marine 

vessels, all-terrain vehicles, and horse units. Border Patrol agents also 

conduct traffic checks on selected major highways leading away from the 

border. They also maintain bike patrols in some urban areas near ports of 

entry. In fiscal year 2002, Border Patrol agents made nearly 1 million 

apprehensions of aliens attempting to enter or reside in the 

country illegally.

Maritime Controls Outside Ports 

of Entry

The U.S. Coast Guard, which transferred from the Department of 

Transportation to the Department of Homeland Security in March 2003, 

participates in efforts to detect terrorists and their materials outside 

maritime ports of entry. Shortly after the September 11, 2001, terrorist 

attacks, the U.S. Coast Guard modified its ship arrival notification 

requirements as part of its screening process for identifying and boarding 

vessels of special interest or concern. The modification requires all vessels 

over 300 gross tons to contact the U.S. Coast Guard 96 hours—up from 

24 hours—before they are scheduled to arrive at a U.S. port. Each vessel 

must provide information on its destination, its scheduled arrival, the cargo 

it is carrying, and a roster of its crew. This information, which is processed 

and reviewed by the U.S. Coast Guard’s National Vessel Movement Center, 

is used in conjunction with intelligence data to identify “high interest” 

vessels. Decisions on appropriate actions to be taken with respect to such 

vessels, such as whether to board, escort, or deny entry are based upon 

established criteria and procedures.
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International Cooperation 

Efforts to Strengthen Visa 

and Border Controls

International cooperation is an essential tool in restricting terrorist 

movements around the globe. State’s Office of the Coordinator for 

Counterterrorism uses the Terrorist Interdiction Program to enhance 

border security by providing participating foreign governments with a 

computerized database that allows border control officials to identify and 

detain or track individuals of interest. The program currently is installed 

in 2 foreign countries, with another 60 countries under consideration. 

State plans to install the program in up to five new countries per year. 

Additionally, the USA PATRIOT Act authorizes the Secretary of State to 

share sensitive visa information with foreign government officials 

where appropriate.

International cooperation is also important in preventing terrorist materials 

from entering the United States. As mentioned, the Department of 

Homeland Security is working with other countries to place its customs 

agents overseas as part of the Container Security Initiative. In addition, the 

United States is working with several international organizations in setting 

standards and procedures for cargo security.

International Maritime 

Organization

The International Maritime Organization is responsible for improving 

maritime safety, including combating acts of violence or crimes at sea. 

Following the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, the organization 

started drafting new regulations needed to enhance ship and port security 

and to prevent shipping from becoming a target of international terrorism. 

The International Maritime Organization adopted port and ship security 

measures in December 2002 at its conference of the parties to the 

International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea.35

World Customs Organization The World Customs Organization is an independent, intergovernmental 

body whose mission is to enhance the effectiveness and efficiency of 

35 The International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea amendments and its 

accompanying International Ship and Port Facility Security Code include a number of 

measures, such as (1) shipboard automatic identifier systems; (2) ship-to-shore alert 

systems; (3) port state control over ships; (4) continuous maintenance of ship registry, 

ownership, and operational control information; and (5) clear responsibilities for threat 

assessments and security plans. In November 2002, the President signed the Maritime 

Transportation Security Act of 2002 (P.L. 107-295), Nov. 25, 2002, that, according to the State 

Department, tracks very closely with these international measures. The U.S. Coast Guard 

currently is developing regulations to implement the International Convention for the Safety 

of Life at Sea, International Ship and Port Facility Security Code, and the Maritime 

Transportation Security Act.
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customs administrations. In September 2002, the organization established a 

task force to develop new guidelines for supply chain security. 

U.S. customs agents are participants in this task force, which is scheduled 

to complete its work in June 2003. The task force will examine numerous 

security related topics, including enhancing in-transit controls, improving 

technology, and better data for selecting which cargoes to inspect.

International Organization 

for Standardization

The International Organization for Standardization is another important 

international body involved in improving supply chain security. It is a 

worldwide nongovernmental federation of national standard bodies from 

more than 140 countries that attempts to standardize various activities and 

products related to international trade. The organization currently is 

participating in a pilot project dealing with electronic seals on 

cargo containers.

International Labor Organization The International Labor Organization is a United Nations (UN) agency that 

sets requirements for seafarer identification documents. Such documents 

are important for checking on the background of crewmembers who are 

transporting cargo destined for the United States. Since February 2002, this 

organization and the International Maritime Organization have been 

working on the issue of seafarer documents.

UN Subcommittee of Experts on 

Transportation of 

Dangerous Materials

The UN Subcommittee of Experts on Transportation of Dangerous 

Materials provides advice on international regulations concerning the 

transport of dangerous materials. U.S. Department of Transportation 

delegates to the subcommittee have worked collaboratively with other 

governments to develop a consensus on new security requirements.

International Civil 

Aviation Organization

The International Civil Aviation Organization is working to set improved 

security standards for travel documents, such as passports and visas.

Coordination Mechanisms 

Related to Border Security

Border security is an issue that crosses both homeland security and 

combating terrorism overseas. The Office of Homeland Security (the 

domestic equivalent of the NSC with respect to terrorism) coordinates 

issues across agencies through a number of policy coordination 

committees. The office has a specific policy coordination committee for 

Key Asset, Border, Territorial Waters, and Airspace Security. In addition, 

the overall strategy for border security is described in the National 

Strategy for Homeland Security and includes ensuring the integrity of 

borders and preventing the entry of unwanted persons. In addition, the new 
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Department of Homeland Security serves a coordination role by 

consolidating several agencies that were formerly under separate 

departments including the Immigration and Naturalization Service, 

U.S. Border Patrol, U.S. Customs Service, and U.S. Coast Guard. The 

new department has a Directorate of Border and Transportation Security 

charged with preventing the entry of terrorists and securing the borders: 

territorial waters; ports; terminals; waterways; and air, land, and sea 

transportation systems of the United States.

Agencies also attempt to coordinate border security activities by sharing 

selected information on their various watch lists. Nine federal agencies 

develop and maintain 12 watch lists of suspected and known criminals and 

terrorists.36 As mentioned above, the Department of State provides 

information from CLASS to the Interagency Border Inspection System. This 

enables State, law enforcement and intelligence agencies, and immigration 

officials to share information on individuals who should not receive 

U.S. visas. State also provides information on lost and stolen U.S. passports 

to the Department of Homeland Security.

Efforts to prevent terrorist materials from entering the United States are 

coordinated through an Interagency Container Working Group. This group 

is co-chaired by the Departments of Transportation and the Treasury. The 

Secretary of Transportation established this group to address the security 

issues surrounding the movement of marine cargo containers through the 

international transportation system. For example, the group has made 

recommendations to improve the security of container transportation. 

These recommendations include such measures as improving the 

coordination of government and business container security activities, 

enhancing cargo data collection, and improving the physical security 

of containers.

36 For a more detailed description and evaluation of these watch lists, see 

U.S. General Accounting Office, Information Technology: Terrorist Watch Lists 

Should Be Consolidated to Promote Better Integration and Sharing, GAO-03-322

(Washington, D.C.: Apr. 15, 2003). We reported that the federal government’s 

approach to using watch lists in performing its border security mission is 

decentralized and nonstandard and recommended that the Secretary of the 

Department of Homeland Security, in collaboration with the heads of other 

agencies that have and use watch lists, lead an effort to consolidate and 

standardize the federal government’s watch list structures and policies.
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Coalition Capabilities 

Are Enhanced through 

Bilateral Programs 

and Activities

One of the enduring policy principles that guides U.S. strategies to combat 

terrorism overseas is bolstering the counterterrorist capabilities of those 

countries that work with the United States and require assistance. The 

National Security Strategy of the United States of America calls for 

ensuring that other nations have the political, law enforcement, financial, 

and military tools to combat terrorism within their borders. In addition, the 

National Strategy for Homeland Security calls for the United States to help 

foreign nations combat terrorism. These efforts to improve other countries’ 

capabilities are another part of preventing terrorism led by the Department 

of State. The department has overall leadership of bilateral relations, 

including programs to assist foreign nations. Such programs consist of 

training, equipment, and other assistance to improve foreign police and 

military capabilities. While State has the overall lead, many of these 

assistance programs are implemented in conjunction with the Departments 

of Defense, Justice, and the Treasury. For example, the Antiterrorism 

Assistance program is managed by State while some training is provided by 

other agencies, such as the FBI, Drug Enforcement Administration, and 

U.S. Secret Service. Such training by other agencies is provided under 

the direction and oversight of the Bureau of Diplomatic Security’s 

Antiterrorism Assistance program. These assistance efforts seek to not 

only prevent terrorist attacks, but also improve the capabilities of other 

countries to disrupt and destroy terrorists and to respond to 

terrorist incidents.

Training to Improve Other 

Countries’ Law 

Enforcement Capabilities to 

Combat Terrorism

Many U.S. coalition partners that want to eliminate terrorism in their own 

countries do not have the capability to combat terrorism effectively in the 

areas of law enforcement and security. Many are developing countries 

that lack human and other resources needed to establish and maintain an 

effective antiterrorism program and infrastructure. U.S. law enforcement 

training programs and facilities help build the capacity of coalition 

partner nations to combat terrorism overseas and augment their 

existing capabilities by providing training, relevant support equipment, 

and technical advice. These programs and facilities include the 

(1) Antiterrorism Assistance program, (2) International Criminal 

Investigative Training Assistance Program (ICITAP), (3) Office of 

Overseas Prosecutorial Development, Assistance and Training (OPDAT), 

(4) Countering Terrorist Financing, (5) FLETC, and (6) International Law 

Enforcement Academies (ILEA).
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Antiterrorism Assistance 

Program

The Bureau of Diplomatic Security’s Office of Antiterrorism Assistance 

designs, manages, implements, provides oversight, and evaluates the 

Antiterrorism Assistance program. The program provides training to 

approved foreign national participants in five areas: (1) law enforcement, 

(2) protection of national leadership, (3) control of borders, (4) protection 

of critical infrastructure, and (5) crisis management. Since its inception in 

1983 as a major initiative against international terrorism, the program 

through fiscal year 2001 has trained more than 28,000 foreign law 

enforcement and security personnel representing 124 countries in crisis 

management, dignitary protection, bomb detection, airport security, border 

control, kidnap intervention, terrorist financing, pipeline security, and 

response to incidents involving weapons of mass destruction. These 

foreign law enforcement and security personnel can help protect 

Americans living, working, and traveling abroad, because they are 

responsible for taking offensive action against international terrorist cells 

and networks that target Americans overseas and in the United States. 

They also have the primary responsibility for responding to and mitigating 

the impact of terrorist attacks—including those directed against 

U.S. targets—that occur in their home countries.

State’s Office of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism provides policy 

guidance to the program and ensures that the training assistance reflects 

U.S. national objectives and priorities. According to State’s Office of the 

Coordinator for Counterterrorism, antiterrorism assistance is considered 

on a priority basis for countries that meet one or more of the following 

criteria: (1) the country is categorized as a critical or high-threat for 

terrorism and cannot adequately protect U.S. facilities and personnel in the 

country with their own resources, (2) a substantial U.S. presence exists in 

the country, (3) the country is served by a U.S. air carrier or is the last point 

of departure for airline flights to the United States, (4) important bilateral 

policy interests are at stake, and/or (5) the country is not in violation of 

human rights legislation. Training may be initiated by the U.S. government 

or requested by the potential participant government. Once State makes a 

policy determination that antiterrorism assistance is needed, the 

U.S. mission in that country determines if such assistance is feasible. A 

Bureau of Diplomatic Security-led team of experts assesses the country’s 

civil police antiterrorism capabilities and identifies specific training needs. 

The team considers five basic areas that are fundamental in any nation’s 

defense against terrorism. Collectively, they establish the framework for 

determining a country’s ability to deter and/or respond to terrorist threats. 

The team assesses the host government’s ability to (1) enforce the law, 

preserve the peace, and protect life and property; (2) protect its national 
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leadership, the seat and functions of government, and the resident 

diplomatic corps; (3) control its international borders; (4) protect its 

critical infrastructure; and (5) manage crises having national implications.

Finally, State’s Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor helps 

determine a country’s eligibility to participate in the program based on the 

country’s human rights record. U.S. missions abroad screen each training 

candidate to ensure that no human rights abusers or foreign officials 

involved in corrupt practices are included.

Most of the antiterrorism assistance involves U.S.-based training, technical 

consultations, seminars, in-country training, exercises, and program 

reviews. Training is tailored to meet a country’s specific needs in various 

police and internal security disciplines. While the program does not 

provide basic police training, it does provide courses designed to improve 

functional police skills, mid-level supervisory skills, and senior-level 

management and leadership skills. Training is provided at various federal, 

state, local, and private contractor venues in the United States. In addition, 

the Antiterrorism Assistance program proposes to build a Center for 

Antiterrorism and Security Training at the U.S. Army’s Aberdeen Proving 

Ground, Maryland, which would be a consolidated state-of-the-art facility 

for training in antiterrorism disciplines. In addition to meeting the 

program’s growing demands for classroom space, the facility, if approved 

by the Congress, would include shooting and explosives ranges, a tactical 

driving track, and an extensive urban tactical training complex. Overseas 

training is conducted in the participant country to help sustain program 

effectiveness. Training is done by a variety of federal agencies. For 

example, the ATF supports the Antiterrorism Assistance program through 

its explosives enforcement officers, who have traveled to more than 

43 countries to evaluate foreign governments explosives incidents 

countermeasures and response capabilities, and ability to neutralize 

explosives threats.

The program also provides non-standard assistance—if there is a 

compelling need. Courses, consultations, or advisory assistance to address 

significant security threats can include police administration, management, 

and organizational effectiveness; police instructor training; police academy 

development; judicial security; interview and investigative techniques; and 

integrated exercises. Recent technical consultations, for example, focused 

with Egypt on explosive detector dogs, with Greece on security 

preparations for the 2004 Olympic Summer Games in Athens, and with 

Yemen on investigations.
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The Antiterrorism Assistance program also provides participant countries 

with grants to purchase equipment directly related to the training. For 

example, grants might be used to procure airport passenger and baggage 

screening equipment, crime scene investigation kits, bomb render-safe 

tools, and tactical and communication equipment. To provide control over 

the transfer of such equipment, the regional security officer at the 

U.S. mission provides the equipment to the appropriate foreign government 

end-user(s). Once a participant country has received a significant amount 

of assistance and has had sufficient opportunity to incorporate it into its 

security operations, State conducts a program review to determine if the 

assistance should be expanded, refocused, or curtailed.

The effectiveness of the Antiterrorism Assistance program, according to 

the Department of State, rests in its ability to reduce the threat of terrorism 

toward U.S. facilities overseas and U.S. personnel living, working, and 

traveling abroad. U.S. missions operating in participant countries 

experience a close working relationship with the host nation’s law 

enforcement and security forces. The program also is intended to provide 

the participant country police and security forces with a cadre of trained 

officers, familiar with American values and thinking, with whom the 

regional security officer and other U.S. mission personnel can rely on 

during a crisis. For example, in preparation for the 2004 Olympic Summer 

Games in Athens, Greek law enforcement officials have used the 

Antiterrorism Training program and equipment grants to improve their 

security preparations by participating in explosive ordnance and vital 

installation security training. Antiterrorism Assistance program-trained 

explosive detection dogs also are being requested from surrounding 

countries to assist the Greek police. These K-9 units have the potential to 

assist with the protection of U.S. interests during the 2004 Olympic 

Summer Games.

Mobile Emergency 

Training Team

After the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, Antiterrorism Assistance 

program officials realized that key “front line” states in the war on 

terrorism often did not have adequate personnel to send anyone to the 

United States for training at the program’s U.S.-based facilities. Pakistan, 

for example, declined all Antiterrorism Assistance training offers for 

months for that reason. In response to the urgency surrounding training 

support requirements of “front line” countries, program officials decided to 

forego the U.S. training experience and provide more in-country training, 

because participants may have to be withdrawn to handle operational 

crises. Thus, the program established the Mobile Emergency Training Team 

that can be airborne on 72 hours notice to provide this training in the 
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participant country. Instructors will be trained in four key disciplines: VIP 

protection, critical response team (special weapons and tactics) 

operations, bomb disposal operations, and high-risk police patrol/firearms 

instructor training.

International Criminal 

Investigative Training 

Assistance Program

The purpose of ICITAP, which is located in Justice’s Criminal Division, is to 

provide training and development assistance to foreign police agencies 

worldwide in the form of technical advice, training, mentoring, equipment 

donation, and internships with criminal justice organizations. The mission 

of ICITAP is to support U.S. foreign policy and criminal justice goals by 

helping foreign governments develop the capacity to provide modern 

professional law enforcement services based on democratic principles and 

respect for human rights. ICITAP also has direct antiterrorism applications, 

which are discussed below.

Specific ICITAP activities or projects are initiated at the request of the 

NSC, Department of State, and/or USAID in agreement with the foreign 

governments requesting the assistance. Priority is to be given to countries 

in transition to democracy, where unique opportunities exist for major 

restructuring and refocusing of police and investigative resources toward 

establishment of the rule of law. Currently, ICITAP is managing programs in 

18 countries and a regional program in the Newly Independent States.37

Although focused primarily on supporting U.S. criminal justice goals 

internationally, according to the Department of Justice, ICITAP also has a 

number of direct antiterrorism applications to include: (1) infrastructure 

development training and technical assistance, (2) criminal investigator 

training, (3) training academy development, (4) information acquisition, 

management, and analysis, (5) forensics technical assistance and training, 

(6) professional responsibility, (7) border control, (8) civil disorder 

management and control, and (9) managing significant events.

37 ICITAP’s Newly Independent States Regional Assistance Program includes 

Belarus, Georgia, Moldova, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, and 

Uzbekistan.
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Office of Overseas Prosecutorial 

Development, Assistance 

and Training

Created in 1991, OPDAT provides justice-sector institution-building 

assistance, including training of foreign judges and prosecutors in 

coordination with various government agencies and U.S. embassies. 

Although part of Justice’s Criminal Division, OPDAT programs are funded 

principally by the Department of State and USAID.38

OPDAT programs take place in South America, the Caribbean, Central and 

Eastern Europe, Russia, the new independent states of the former Soviet 

Union, Africa, the Middle East, Asia, and the Pacific region. In many of 

these countries, OPDAT has placed resident legal advisors. The advisors 

are experienced prosecutors who are intended to interact with local 

justice-sector officials and direct OPDAT assistance projects. These 

projects seek to strengthen the legislative and regulatory criminal justice 

infrastructure within the host country, and enhance the capacity of that 

country to investigate and prosecute crime more effectively, consistent 

with the rule of law.

USAID’s Center for Democracy and Governance has an agreement with 

Justice that allows USAID missions around the world to access OPDAT for 

help in activities such as conducting justice sector assessments, reviewing 

laws and legislation, designing rule of law programs, and providing other 

technical assistance.

In response to the August 1998 terrorist bombings of the two 

U.S. embassies in East Africa—and at the suggestion of State’s Office of the 

Coordinator for Counterterrorism, the Bureau of Diplomatic Security’s 

Antiterrorism Assistance program sponsored (in cooperation with OPDAT, 

Justice’s Counterterrorism Section, and the FBI) the development of the 

Financial Underpinnings of Terrorism Program specifically to assist 

U.S. coalition partners in identifying and attacking terrorism’s financial 

aspects. Because the motive behind terrorist crimes is often political or 

ideological rather than financial, terrorists’ revenues, expenditures, and 

methods of moving funds differ from profit-oriented organized crime 

networks. Thus, this program takes a somewhat different approach to 

combating money laundering and organized criminal activity. The program 

conducts one session for senior policy level officials and a second session 

38 USAID also supports programs to train foreign law enforcement, prosecutors, and judges 

and to assist in rewriting legislation and criminal sentencing guidelines. USAID missions 

and State’s Bureau for Democracy, Conflict, and Humanitarian Assistance have rule-of-law 

and governance programs in about 60 of the 85 countries where USAID has a presence.
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for front-line investigators, analysts, judges, and prosecutors. Senior 

officials receive training on the methods of financing terrorism, financial 

investigation as a means of combating terrorism, and legal and operational 

impediments, while the front-line officials conduct practical exercises and 

receive training focused on developing best practices for investigating and 

prosecuting those engaged in providing financial support to terrorists. 

According to OPDAT, sessions to date, for example, have helped strengthen 

Philippine money-laundering laws, which enhance the Philippine’s ability 

to detect and disrupt terrorist financing; provided assistance to Azerbaijan 

on counter-terrorist legislation; and helped State conduct a counterterrorism assessment in Pakistan.

Working with the State Department’s Office of the Coordinator for 

Counterterrorism and the Antiterrorism Assistance program, OPDAT 

organized a series of seven seminars in Washington, D.C., to help provide 

guidelines to countries in strengthening their counterterrorism legislation 

and regulations and in complying with UN Security Council Resolution 

1373. U.S. government experts, as well as presenters from the United 

Nations, Australia, Canada, Germany, and the United Kingdom, conducted 

the seminars for 36 participating countries. The Office of the Coordinator 

for Counterterrorism and OPDAT also provided a similar seminar in 

Botswana in March 2003 to southern African countries.

A key element in protecting Americans against the threat of terrorism is 

U.S. assistance to its coalition partners in strengthening their capacity to 

investigate terrorist activity and prosecute and adjudicate overseas 

terrorist criminal acts, consistent with the rule of law. OPDAT’s CounterTerrorism Project takes a comprehensive, institution-building approach 

seeking to strengthen a country’s capability to investigate, prosecute, and 

adjudicate terrorist activity. To meet that goal, OPDAT’s Counter-Terrorism 

Project tries to (1) assist the host country in building or strengthening the 

legislative and regulatory infrastructure necessary to address threats from 

terrorist activity; (2) enhance, through development of relevant skills, the 

capacity39 of host country officials to counter terrorist groups; 

(3) strengthen the capacity of host country to prevent, investigate, and 

prosecute terrorist groups through team building, cooperative and regional 

39 The term “capacity” means the potential of the host country’s justice sector 

human resources—its prosecutors and judges, police and other investigative 

personnel, and court and penal system officials.
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approaches; and (4) sustain results achieved through the development of 

permanent structures.

Countering Terrorist Financing State’s Office of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism and Bureau for 

International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs, along with the 

Departments of Justice and the Treasury, have a program called Countering 

Terrorist Financing. This program provides training and assistance to 

foreign governments to strengthen their financial and regulatory regimes to 

reduce terrorist financing.

Federal Law Enforcement 

Training Center

The Department of Homeland Security’s FLETC, headquartered in Glynn 

County (“Glynco”), Georgia, serves as an interagency law enforcement 

training organization for federal law enforcement agencies. The center also 

provides services to state and local and international law enforcement 

agencies. FLETC offers selected, specialized training programs for foreign 

law enforcement personnel through its International Programs Division. 

These offerings are designed to meet training needs not generally available 

to these agencies and to enhance networking and cooperation throughout 

the law enforcement community. The Department of Homeland Security 

supervises FLETC’s administrative and financial activities, while FLETC’s 

partner organizations40 have considerable input regarding training issues 

and operational and functional aspects of the center. Representatives from 

these agencies take part in regular curriculum review and development 

conferences as well as the development of FLETC policies and directives.

As administered under FLETC’s International Programs Division, training 

is provided at the center through State’s Antiterrorism Assistance program 

and overseas through the U.S. government’s Law and Democracy Program 

and the International Law Enforcement Academies. To date, law 

enforcement officials from the Middle East, Africa, Central and South 

America, and Asia have attended antiterrorism courses at the center. 

However, since September 11, 2001, the center has placed its emphasis on 

training U.S. law enforcement officials at its Glynco, Georgia, facility. 

Since that time, training of foreign law enforcement officials is conducted 

primarily overseas through the Law and Democracy Program, 

40 Federal partner organizations are made up of 31 departments and independent agencies. 

Selected partner organizations include the Departments of Defense, Energy, Health and 

Human Services, Justice, State, and the Treasury; the CIA; and the Federal Emergency 

Management Agency, among others.
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Antiterrorism Assistance program, and the International Law Enforcement 

Academies.

International Law 

Enforcement Academies

Much of the technical assistance that the United States provides to other 

nations for fighting international crime—including terrorism—involves 

training at law enforcement academies established abroad. International 

Law Enforcement Academies provide law enforcement training to foreign 

governments. State’s Bureau for International Narcotics and Law 

Enforcement Affairs funds and manages the U.S. government’s interagency 

regional ILEAs in Europe (in Budapest, Hungary), Southeast Asia (in 

Bangkok, Thailand), and Southern Africa (in Gaborone, Botswana) and a 

graduate-level ILEA (in Roswell, New Mexico), in a cooperative effort with 

the Departments of the Treasury and Justice, including the FBI. In addition, 

the bureau plans to establish another regional ILEA in the Western 

Hemisphere (in San Jose, Costa Rica). In fiscal year 2003, the bureau is 

scheduled to provide law enforcement training to some 12,000 officials, 

doubling the number trained in fiscal year 2001. The National Strategy for 

Combating Terrorism calls for broadening the scope and strength of 

the ILEAs.

To achieve overall coordination of the ILEAs domestically, a Policy Board 

was established that is comprised of members from each department and 

appointed by the Secretary of State, the Attorney General, and the 

Secretary of the Treasury. The mission of these academies has been to 

support emerging democracies; help protect U.S. interests through 

international cooperation; and promote social, political, and economic 

stability by combating crime. ILEAs also are to encourage strong 

partnerships among regional countries to address common problems 

associated with criminal activities.

• ILEA Europe. In 1995, the United States and the Government of Hungary 

cooperated to create the first ILEA in Budapest, Hungary, under FBI 

leadership. ILEA Budapest’s purpose is to train law enforcement officers 

from Central Europe and the newly independent states of the former 

Soviet Union. The academy offers two categories of courses. An 8-week 

core course—a personal and professional development program—

focuses on leadership, personnel and financial management issues, 

ethics, the rule of law, and management of the investigative process. 

According to the State Department, approximately 250 to 300 mid-level 

police officers and managers receive this training annually, which is 

provided by various U.S. agencies and Hungarian and Western European 

law enforcement agencies. Specialized short-term courses provide law 
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enforcement officers with training on combating various types of crime, 

such as organized crime, financial crime, corruption, nuclear smuggling, 

illegal migration, and terrorism—including training on prosecuting 

criminal cases. According to the State Department, about 850 police, 

prosecutors, immigration specialists, and others participate in these 

courses annually.

• ILEA Southeast Asia. ILEA Southeast Asia—located in Bangkok, 

Thailand—opened in March 1999 under Drug Enforcement 

Administration leadership. Like the ILEA Budapest program, the 

purpose of ILEA Bangkok is to strengthen regional law enforcement 

cooperation and improve performance. According to the State 

Department, this academy’s curriculum and structure are similar to 

those of ILEA Budapest, with the exception of a shorter core course (6 

weeks). In 1999, over 700 law enforcement personnel representing 10 

countries participated in courses at the academy.

• ILEA Southern Africa. In July 2000, the State Department announced an 

agreement with the Government of Botswana to establish the ILEA for 

Southern Africa in Gaborone, under the leadership of FLETC. Similar in 

overall format to the other academies, ILEA Gaborone is to follow the 

model developed for ILEAs in Budapest and Bangkok by providing 

courses on a wide range of law enforcement skills, including police 

survival, forensics, basic case management, fighting organized crime, 

supervisory police training, police strategy, narcotics identification and 

evidence handling, customs interdiction, illegal migration, and public 

corruption. ILEA Gaborone’s curriculum also addresses special topics, 

such as stolen vehicles, money laundering, crimes against women, 

domestic violence, terrorism, and other critical topics such as human 

rights and policing.

• ILEA Roswell, New Mexico. In September 2001, State opened a new 

ILEA in Roswell, New Mexico. This new facility, which will be open to 

graduates of the regional ILEAs, will offer shorter-term (4 weeks versus 

8 weeks) advanced training with a greater focus on an academic versus 

practical or operational curriculum. 

• ILEA Western Hemisphere. Tailored to the regional needs of officials 

from Central and South America and the Dominican Republic, pilot 

courses of a new Western Hemisphere ILEA already have been 

conducted at a temporary site in Panama. However, activities were 
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suspended until a permanent location could be selected. State plans to 

establish ILEA San Jose in Costa Rica.

U.S. Assistance to 

Other Countries to 

Detect Weapons of 

Mass Destruction

The National Strategy to Combat Weapons of Mass Destruction calls for 

active nonproliferation diplomacy. It also discusses the importance of 

international cooperation in reducing threats and controlling nuclear 

materials. Toward these efforts, the United States has a number of 

programs that provide assistance to other countries to prevent the 

proliferation of weapons of mass destruction. These nonproliferation 

programs are intended to, among other things, keep terrorists from 

acquiring and using weapons of mass destruction. Currently, these 

programs are divided among several federal agencies including the 

Departments of State, Defense, Energy, Homeland Security, and Justice. 

U.S. assistance began in the mid-1990s under DOD’s Cooperative Threat 

Reduction program and then expanded to the Departments of State and 

Energy and other DOD programs.

The agencies have provided a range of assistance, including installing 

security equipment around nuclear facilities, conducting research and 

development on nonproliferation and verification technologies, as well 

as providing conventional equipment and training. DOE has been leading 

many of these efforts. For example, over the last 7 years, Energy has 

worked cooperatively with Russia to install modern nuclear security 

systems at Russia's nuclear material sites. These security upgrades consist 

of (1) physical protection systems, such as fences and metal doors; 

(2) material control systems, such as seals attached to nuclear material 

containers and badge systems that only allow authorized personnel into 

areas containing nuclear material; and (3) material accounting systems, 

such as inventories of nuclear material and computerized databases. In 

addition, Energy’s National Nuclear Security Administration has been 

conducting research and development on new technologies that are 

intended to improve U.S. capabilities in nuclear explosion monitoring, 

proliferation detection, and response to chemical or biological attacks. 

Furthermore, as part of their nonproliferation assistance programs, Energy 

and the other five agencies have been providing equipment and training to 

Russia and other countries—mostly in Central and Eastern Europe. 

Radiation detection equipment is one of the many types of assistance that 

the U.S. agencies are providing. Other equipment ranges from simple hand 

tools for taking apart and searching different compartments of a vehicle for
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hidden contraband to boats and vehicles for conducting patrols. 

Similarly, training ranges from hands-on instruction in using the 

equipment and conducting searches to high-level technical exchanges on 

establishing the legal and regulatory basis for preventing illicit trafficking 

and trade in sensitive goods and materials that terrorists could use in a 

nuclear weapon.41

While the Departments of Defense, Energy, and State receive their own 

funding for their assistance programs, the Departments of Homeland 

Security and Justice receive their funding from State and/or DOD. Energy 

also receives part of its funding from State. Table 6 lists each specific 

U.S. nonproliferation assistance program and activity.

41 For a more detailed discussion and an evaluation of these programs, see U.S. General 

Accounting Office, Nonproliferation R & D: NNSA's Program Develops Successful 

Technologies, but Project Management Can Be Strengthened, GAO-02-904 (Washington, 

D.C.: Aug. 23, 2002). We reported that research areas of the Nonproliferation and 

Verification Research and Development Program lack a formal process to identify users’ 

needs. See U.S. General Accounting Office, Nuclear Nonproliferation: U.S. Efforts to Help 

Other Countries Combat Nuclear Smuggling Need Strengthened Coordination and 

Planning, GAO-02-426 (Washington, D.C.: May 16, 2002). We reported that U.S. assistance is 

not effectively coordinated and lacks an overall governmentwide plan to guide it, because 

agencies do not always coordinate their efforts through an interagency group chaired by the 

Department of State. U.S. General Accounting Office, Nuclear Nonproliferation: Security of 

Russia’s Nuclear Material Improving; Further Enhancements Needed, GAO-01-312

(Washington, D.C.: Feb. 28, 2001). We reported that hundreds of metric tons of nuclear 

material continue to lack improved security systems and no mechanism is in place to 

monitor the effectiveness of the systems once they are installed.
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Table 6: U.S. Nonproliferation Assistance Programs

Agency Program Activity description

Department of Energy Material Protection, Control, and Accounting 

program

Installs improved security systems for nuclear material at civilian 

nuclear sites, naval fuel sites, and nuclear weapons laboratories 

throughout Russia. These security upgrades have consisted of 

(1) physical protection systems, such as fences and metal doors; 

(2) material control systems, such as seals attached to nuclear 

material containers and badge systems that only allow authorized 

personnel into areas containing nuclear material; and (3) material 

accounting systems, such as computerized databases. In 

addition, Energy is providing sites with long-term assistance 

through equipment warranties, operating procedure development, 

and training.

Second Line of Defense program Provides and installs radiation detection equipment, such as 

portal monitors, at Russian border crossings, including a Moscow 

airport. Energy may expand the program beyond Russia to 

include countries of the former Soviet Union.

International Export Control program Provides funds to help countries of the former Soviet Union 

control the export of goods and technologies that could be used in 

the development of nuclear weapons. The program provides 

assistance to prevent legitimate enterprises, such as businesses 

that were affiliated with the Soviet Union's nuclear weapons 

complex, from intentionally or unintentionally engaging in illicit 

trade in such goods and technologies.

Nonproliferation and Verification Research 

and Development program

Manages projects that cover a wide spectrum of activities to 

improve U.S. capabilities in the areas of nuclear explosion 

monitoring, proliferation detection, and chemical and biological 

response. Projects range from manufacturing specialized satellitebased sensors that detect nuclear explosions to developing and 

delivering sensor technologies that detect the spread of nuclear, 

chemical, and biological weapons, materials, and technologies 

worldwide.

Installs radiation detection equipment in countries of the former Soviet Union (other than Russia) and Central 

and Eastern Europe.

Department of State Nonproliferation and Disarmament Fund Provides radiation detection equipment and other assistance for 

interdicting nuclear smuggling to the former Soviet Union and 

Central and Eastern Europe.

Export Control and Related Border Security 

Assistance program

Provides radiation detection equipment, such as vans equipped 

with radiation detectors, and other assistance for interdicting 

nuclear smuggling to countries of the former Soviet Union and 

Central and Eastern Europe. (The program took over 

Nonproliferation and Disarmament Fund radiation detection 

assistance beginning in fiscal year 2002.)

Republic of Georgia Border Security and 

Law Enforcement program

Provides a wide range of assistance to the Republic of Georgia's 

border guards and customs service to interdict nuclear smuggling; 

fight other crimes, such as drug smuggling; and develop border 

infrastructure.
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Source: Departments of Defense, Energy, and State; U.S. Coast Guard; and the FBI.

Department of 

Defense

Cooperative Threat Reduction program Provides funds to various countries for the (1) purchase of 

radiation detection equipment, such as pedestrian portal monitors 

to screen people and (2) handheld radiation detection monitors 

and other equipment to enable the countries to better patrol their 

borders, conduct searches for smuggled contraband, and equip 

their border posts.

International Counterproliferation program Provides funds to the Department of Homeland Security and the 

FBI for training and equipment for countries of the former Soviet 

Union and Central and Eastern Europe.

Department of Homeland Security, Bureau of Customs and Border 

Protection (formerly run by the U. S. Customs Service under the 

Department of the Treasury)

With funding provided by the Departments of Defense and State, 

provides training and equipment to customs agencies and border 

guards in other countries. The equipment includes radiation 

pagers (small detectors that can be worn on a belt to continuously 

monitor radiation levels or used as a handheld device to pinpoint 

the location of radioactive material detected by a portal monitor) 

as well as a variety of other high- and low-technology tools to 

conduct searches and detect sensitive goods and materials. 

Training includes assistance in operating the x-ray vans equipped 

with radiation detectors and providing hands-on instruction in 

using equipment to detect nuclear smuggling.

Department of Homeland Security, U.S. Coast Guard Through funding provide by the State Department's Export 

Control and Related Border Security Assistance program, 

provides assistance for maritime interception of nuclear smuggling 

to countries of the former Soviet Union. Assistance provided has 

included boats with spare parts and the stationing of an in-country 

U.S. Coast Guard advisor.

Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation Through DOD's International Counterproliferation program, trains 

and equips foreign law enforcement agencies to investigate and 

respond to actual seizures of smuggled nuclear or other material. 

Training has included seminars for high-level officials and courses 

on conducting investigations and managing a crime scene where 

a seizure has taken place. Equipment provided as part of the 

training has included hazardous material suits to make handling of 

seized material safer, evidence collection and sampling kits, and 

chemical detection equipment.

(Continued From Previous Page)

Agency Program Activity description
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U.S. Security and Economic 

Assistance Seeks to 

Enhance 

Coalition Capabilities

U.S. security and economic assistance programs, which are managed by 

the Department of State, can enhance the capabilities of coalition partners 

in combating terrorism overseas. Long-standing U.S. security and 

economic assistance programs have attempted to support the “global war 

on terrorism” in general and Operation Enduring Freedom in particular. 

They include the following:

Foreign Military Financing The Foreign Military Financing program provides financial grants through 

the Department of State to foreign governments to purchase U.S.-made 

weapons and military training. It is intended to promote U.S. national 

security interests by contributing to global and regional stability, 

strengthening military support for democratically elected governments, 

and containing transnational threats, including terrorism. As such, the 

program can be a key economic assistance tool in supporting U.S. coalition 

partners in combating terrorism overseas. The Department of State 

provides grants for the acquisition of U.S. defense equipment, services, and 

training that enable key allies and friends to improve their defense 

capabilities. Improved capabilities are expected to (1) strengthen 

multilateral coalitions with the United States and its allies, (2) improve 

bilateral military relationships between the United States and the recipient 

nations, and (3) allow U.S. friends and allies increased interoperability with 

U.S. forces. Many of the grants during fiscal year 2003 will be used to help 

combat terrorism overseas. For example, grants will be used to (1) target 

security requirements linked to the “war on terrorism” in Jordan, Oman, 

and Yemen; (2) assist Colombia’s effort to defend its economy by 

supporting a brigade to protect its oil pipeline; (3) support India and 

Pakistan in their efforts in the war on terrorism; (4) continue efforts to 

integrate recent NATO members and sustain support for Partnership for 

Peace countries in Central Europe, the Baltics, the Caucasus (especially 

Georgia), and in the Central Asian countries; and (5) sustain the 

Philippine’s military capability, particularly in its effort to address the 

terrorist threat.

Foreign Military Sales The Foreign Military Sales program is used by the United States to sell 

weapons, weapons systems, and military equipment to foreign countries to 

maintain close ties with neighbors and key allies, maintain stable and 

secure regional partners, and ensure regional stability. Additionally, State’s 

Bureau of Political-Military Affairs, through FMS and other security 

assistance, helps new members of NATO upgrade their military capabilities 

and achieve greater interoperability with U.S. and other alliance forces and 

helps to strengthen the security and defense capabilities of key Central 
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Asian and Caucasus partners, whose support is crucial to combating 

terrorism.

International Military Education 

and Training

The International Military Education and Training program was established 

in 1976 as a low-cost security assistance program intended to foster the 

development of more professional militaries around the world through 

training and education of foreign military and civilian personnel.42 The 

program provides training on a grant basis to some 10,000 students 

annually from 133 allied and friendly countries. Formal instruction is 

provided through more than 2,000 courses taught at about 150 U.S. military 

schools and installations. In many of these countries, it is the only military 

engagement tool available to the United States. According to the 

Department of State, the program advances U.S. interests in furthering 

regional stability by enhancing military alliances, building coalitions, and 

strengthening efforts to combat terrorism abroad. State determines the 

political advisability of providing training to individual countries and funds 

the program through its International Affairs budget. DOD plans and 

manages the program through its Defense Security and Cooperation 

Agency, which works with the various military departments and unified 

military commands to implement the program. Coordination of the 

program overseas is handled by DOD’s security assistance offices located 

in U.S. embassies around the world, which field requests from their host 

countries to participate in the program. All foreign applicants are screened 

before being admitted to the program. Enhancing military professionalism 

is intended to make militaries more efficient, effective, and interoperable 

with U.S. and NATO forces as well as regional coalitions. Also, it seeks to 

foster a better understanding of democratic values, including civilian rule 

of the military, belief in the rule of law, and respect for internationally 

recognized civil and human rights. Finally, the program’s development of 

professional and personal military-to-military relationships provide 

U.S. access and influence to a critical sector of society that can help 

support U.S. access to foreign military bases and facilities—a critical 

component in efforts to combat terrorism overseas.

Economic Support Funds Economic Support Funds are used to promote security and stability 

overseas, particularly in emergency situations, where the United States has 

vested interests. The funds are provided to foreign nations in grant form, 

42 The International Military Education and Training program was established as part of the 

International Security Assistance and Arms Export Control Act of 1976 (22 U.S.C. § 2751 et 

seq.), Jun. 30, 1976.
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often without restrictions on the money’s use. Though not intended for 

military use, the money allows foreign governments to free up other funds 

for military use or other purposes. The Economic Support Fund is intended 

to promote the economic and political foreign policy interests of the United 

States by providing assistance to allies and countries in transition to 

democracy, supporting the Middle East peace negotiations, and financing 

economic stabilization programs, frequently in a multi-donor context. 

USAID, with overall foreign policy guidance from the Department of State, 

implements most Economic Support Fund programs. By promoting 

economic growth, good governance, and strong democratic institutions, 

the Economic Support Fund is intended to eradicate the economic and 

political disparity that often underlies social tension and can lead to 

radical, violent reactions against government institutions. Thus, these 

economic assistance programs focus on mitigating the root causes of 

terrorism.

Peacekeeping Operations In addition to its contributions to UN peacekeeping operations, the United 

States maintains a Peacekeeping Operations program of its own that is 

designed to promote increased involvement of regional organizations and 

some individual countries in regional and international peacekeeping 

operations. Peacekeeping operations support U.S. national interests by 

promoting human rights, democracy, and regional security. They facilitate 

humanitarian responses to crisis situations. Also, they support the 

increased involvement of regional organizations in conflict resolution, 

multilateral peace operations, and sanctions enforcement through 

provision of logistics support, peacekeeping training, and peacekeeping 

equipment. The United States has a strong interest in enhancing the ability 

of other nations to lead or participate in voluntary peacekeeping and 

humanitarian operations in order to reduce the burden on the United 

States. Finally, peacekeeping operations can help address the root causes 

of terrorism by reducing the likelihood of hostile interventions by other 

powers, preventing the proliferation of small conflicts, facilitating the 

stability necessary for the establishment and growth of new market 

economies, containing the cost of humanitarian emergencies, and limiting 

refugee flows. This is accomplished through the separation of adversaries; 

facilitation of the delivery of humanitarian relief; repatriation of refugees 

and displaced persons; demobilization, disarmament, and reconciliation of 

combatants; and creation of conditions under which political reconciliation 

may occur and democratic elections may be held.
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Additional Assistance 

through Military-to-Military 

Training

In addition to the security and economic assistance programs mentioned, 

DOD provides military-to-military training to other countries to improve 

their abilities to prevent and detect terrorism and, if necessary, disrupt and 

destroy terrorist organizations. These bilateral programs are part of the 

regional commands’ Theater Security Cooperation Plans to improve 

U.S. allies’ capabilities to combat terrorism.

Joint Combined Exchange 

and Training

DOD’s Joint Combined Exchange and Training program provides 

U.S. special operations forces opportunities to develop and maintain their 

skills and to train foreign militaries and other groups to combat terrorism 

overseas, among other missions. U.S. special operations forces generally 

are organized into small units for military action focused on strategic or 

operational goals. They are tasked with a variety of missions ranging from 

training, advising, and organizing foreign groups for unconventional 

warfare to training coalition forces for multinational military operations, 

including combating terrorism overseas. These missions require special 

skills that conventional forces do not have, such as the ability to speak 

foreign languages, understand regional cultural and environmental 

characteristics, and quickly deploy and operate unsupported in sometimes 

hostile or politically sensitive areas. The U.S. Special Operations Command 

believes that the best way its forces can train for these types of missions is 

to train with the people in the places where they may have to operate.

In 1991, the Congress clarified DOD’s authority to spend training funds in 

connection with special operations forces training overseas with friendly 

foreign forces, as long as the primary purpose was to train U.S. forces.43

Since the enactment of this legislation, such training has commonly been 

referred to as Joint Combined Exchange Training.44 Special operations 

forces are charged with nine principal missions and, on the basis of their 

unique capabilities, conduct a variety of other activities. The principal 

missions are to (1) train and otherwise assist foreign militaries to combat 

insurgency and other threats to stability (foreign internal defense); 

43 National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Years 1992 and 1993 (P.L. 102-190), 

Dec. 5, 1991.

44 For a more detailed description and GAO’s evaluation of the JCET program, see 

U.S. General Accounting Office, Military Training: Management and Oversight of Joint 

Combined Exchange Training, GAO/NSIAD-99-173 (Washington, D.C.: July 23, 1999). We 

reported that DOD had complied with the statutory requirement for conducting JCETs. 

However, DOD had not accurately reported to the Congress the number of JCETs that were 

conducted, their costs, or their relationship to counternarcotics and counterterrorism.
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(2) train, advise, and otherwise assist local forces for guerilla warfare 

(unconventional warfare); (3) protect against and prevent the spread of 

nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons (counterproliferation); (4) use 

offensive and defensive measures to prevent or resolve terrorist incidents 

(combating terrorism); (5) obtain information concerning capabilities and 

activities of actual or potential adversaries (special reconnaissance); 

(6) inflict damage on an adversary or recover personnel or material (direct 

action); (7) target an adversary’s information system while defending 

U.S. systems (information operations); (8) establish, maintain, or 

strengthen relations between U.S. and allied governments to facilitate 

military operations (civil affairs); and (9) influence attitudes of foreign 

audiences (psychological operations). Specific Joint Combined Exchange 

and Training operations and activities are classified.

U.S. Special Operations 

Forces Training for the Republic 

of Georgia

The U.S. European Command initiated the Georgia Train and Equip 

Program to enhance Georgia’s counter-terrorism capabilities. The 

program’s goal is to build strong effective staff organizations capable of 

creating and sustaining standardized operating procedures, training plans, 

operational plans, and a property accounting system. The curriculum 

consists of performance-oriented training and exercises. The time-phased 

training will be conducted by U.S. Special Forces to build upon the 

military-to-military relationship developed between the two countries. The 

program will consist of command center staff training for members of the 

Georgian Ministry of Defense as well as training for units of the Land 

Forces Command. Border Guards and other Georgian security agencies 

will be included to ensure interoperability among Georgia’s security forces. 

Almost 200 Georgians have completed the staff-training phase and about 

500 Georgians are completing the light-infantry tactics training. Military 

equipment to be provided will include uniform items, small arms and 

ammunition, communications gear, training gear, medical gear, fuel, and 

construction material.

Figure 9 shows members of 2nd Company, Georgian Commando Battalion, 

performing a combat off load at a training range at Krtsanisi, Republic of 

Georgia. The U.S. Army’s 10th Special Forces Group (Airborne) is in 

Georgia conducting the Georgia Train and Equip Program, which will 

enhance Georgian soldiers' abilities in various battlefield techniques.
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Figure 9: 2nd Company, Georgian Commando Battalion, Perform a Combat Off Load 

With Members of the U.S. Army’s 10th Special Forces Group (Airborne) at a Training 

Range at Krtsanisi, Republic of Georgia

U.S. Special Operations Forces 

Training for the Philippines

The U.S. Pacific Command is assisting the Republic of the Philippines in 

developing a counter-terrorist capability within their armed forces through 

the Foreign Military Financing program. The U.S. Pacific Command 

deployed a Joint Task Force advisory team to the southern Philippines to 

begin preparations. The Joint Task Force advisory team, composed of 

U.S. Special Operations personnel is providing training at the command 

level at headquarters down through the company level in the field. The 

training emphasizes joint operations and tactics to help eliminate terrorist 

threats. Training includes counter-terrorism campaign planning, 

intelligence fusion, psychological operations, civil-military operations, and 

field tactics. U.S. Special Operations personnel completed training with 

25 field companies and provided equipment that included aircraft, 

U.S. Coast Guard cutters, and helicopters.
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Figure 10 shows a U.S. Special Forces soldier demonstrating to a Filipino 

soldier how to adjust the sights on his M-16 rifle during marksmanship 

training in Tipo-Tipo Town, Basilan Island, Philippines. U.S. forces 

currently are in the Philippines participating in joint combating-terrorism 

training with their Filipino counterparts.

Figure 10: U.S. Special Forces Soldier Shows a Filipino Soldier How to Adjust the 

Sights on His M-16 Rifle during Marksmanship Training in Tipo-Tipo Town, Basilan 

Island, Philippines

Assisting Other Countries 

with International 

Security Events

Some special events overseas, such as presidential summit meetings 

and the Olympic games, have international significance and thus may 

attract terrorist attacks. These international special events receive 

U.S. security protection, whether through the U.S. Secret Service providing 

protective security to senior U.S. officials, Diplomatic Security protecting 

U.S. personnel and facilities, or the military standing by to respond, if 

needed, to terrorist incidents involving weapons of mass destruction or 

to evacuate Americans.

Source: Jason Carter of the Pacific Stars and Stripes. © 2003 Stars and Stripes.
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Unlike domestic special security events, there is no process to coordinate 

federal agencies’ roles and responsibilities for special security events held 

outside of the United States.45 Nevertheless, the United States can provide 

assistance to other countries for special security events. For example, the 

Department of State coordinated and managed federal agencies’ assistance 

for the 1992 Olympic Summer Games in Barcelona, Spain; the 1994 Olympic 

Winter Games in Lillehammer, Norway; and the 1994 Commonwealth 

Games in Victoria, British Columbia, Canada. For the upcoming 2004 

Olympic Summer Games in Athens, Greece, the Department of State is 

coordinating federal agencies’ assistance at the headquarters level in 

Washington, D.C., and at the U.S. Embassy in Athens, Greece. In 

Washington, D.C., the State Department’s Office of the Coordinator for 

Counterterrorism and Bureau of Diplomatic Security established an 

interagency group and at the U.S. Embassy in Athens, the bureau 

established an Olympic Security Coordinator and an Olympic Security 

Advisory Team to coordinate federal assistance. The advisory team is 

composed of agency officials from DOD, the FBI, the CIA, and the Federal 

Aviation Administration. As discussed earlier in this chapter, one initiative 

includes counterterrorism training for Greek law enforcement authorities 

through State’s Antiterrorism Assistance program.

Security planning for the 2004 Olympic Summer Games in Athens is a 

multilateral effort. The Government of Greece requested Olympic security 

expertise from seven countries: the United States, the United Kingdom, 

France, Spain, Israel, Germany, and Australia. These countries make up the 

Olympic Security Advisory Group, which reports to the Greek Minister of 

Public Order on security issues at the strategic level. The group also 

provides advice on technical support issues at the operational level. The 

range of issues includes intelligence, planning, training and exercises, 

technology, command and control coordination, and venue security.

45 For domestic situations, PDD 62 created a category of special events called National 

Special Security Events, which are events of such significance that they warrant greater 

federal planning and protection than other special events. For these events, the directive 

reaffirmed the FBI’s lead federal agency role for crisis management and designated the U.S. 

Secret Service as lead federal agency for security design, planning, and implementation. The 

directive also reaffirmed the Federal Emergency Management Agency as responsible for 

consequence management.
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Coordination Mechanisms 

for Assistance to Enhance 

Coalition Capabilities

Programs to assist other countries are coordinated through a variety of 

forums. For those aimed at improving other countries’ capabilities to 

combat terrorism, coordination across agencies is done in working groups 

under the NSC’s Counterterrorism Security Group (discussed in chapter 2). 

Specifically, the State Department chairs a Training and Assistance SubGroup that coordinates the different programs to provide terrorism-related 

training and assistance to foreign governments and their officials. The 

group works to prioritize countries that should receive assistance. The 

group reviews assistance programs of the various agencies to ensure they 

are properly sequenced, avoid duplication, and ensure that they are 

implemented in collaboration with or reinforce other efforts as 

appropriate. This group has a subordinate group, also chaired by the 

Department of State, called the Counterterrorism Finance Training and 

Technical Assistance Working Group. This group focuses on providing 

related finance training and technical assistance to a set of priority 

countries and attempts to ensure that the delivery of such assistance by 

different agencies does not conflict and is used effectively and efficiently. 

Within the State Department, the Bureau of Diplomatic Security and the 

Office of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism work with other agencies to 

decide how to spend Antiterrorism Training Assistance funds. In the field, 

the embassy country teams are also involved in coordinating programs 

from the various agencies with headquarters and negotiating the assistance 

packages with the foreign government.

Agency Comments and 

Our Evaluation

The Departments of Defense, Justice, and State and the former 

Immigration and Naturalization Service provided technical comments on 

the matters covered throughout this chapter. Based upon these comments, 

we made revisions, as appropriate. We also made revisions (primarily to the 

section on border security) based upon the creation of the Department of 

Homeland Security and the transfer of various agencies and functions from 

other departments into that department.
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Chapter 4

Federal Efforts to Disrupt and Destroy 

Terrorist Organizations Cha4pert

Federal agencies attempt to disrupt and destroy terrorist organizations 

through diplomatic initiatives, law enforcement efforts, financial 

operations to freeze assets, military operations, and covert action. 

Diplomatic initiatives, led by the Department of State, strengthen 

international cooperation and capabilities through bilateral and 

multilateral agreements. The State Department’s diplomatic leadership 

and agreements allow other agencies to cooperate more closely with 

foreign countries on specific types of efforts. Other multilateral 

agreements, including UN resolutions and conventions, also help to 

strengthen international cooperation. Law enforcement efforts, led by 

the Department of Justice, disrupt terrorist organizations through 

investigations, arrests, and prosecutions of terrorists. As a principal 

investigative agency of the federal government, the FBI conducts 

investigations on acts of terrorism against U.S. persons and property 

overseas. Operations to identify and freeze terrorists’ financial assets 

are conducted by the Departments of the Treasury, Justice, and State 

and involve tracking monies, accounts, and wire transfers of terrorist 

organizations. Military operations, led by DOD, destroy terrorist 

organizations and complement other methods—diplomatic, legal, and 

economic—to prevent or disrupt terrorist organizations. DOD and its 

coalition partners are conducting Operation Enduring Freedom in 

Afghanistan and surrounding regions to destroy al Qaeda and the Taliban 

regime. Captured combatants—who are not considered prisoners of war 

by the U.S. government—have been detained and interrogated to provide 

intelligence information. Finally, covert actions, led by the CIA, have 

been used to disrupt and destroy terrorist organizations. This chapter 

describes the relevant federal programs in place and is not an evaluation 

of their effectiveness.

Diplomatic Initiatives 

Strengthen 

International 

Cooperation

The National Strategy for Combating Terrorism includes an objective to 

strengthen and sustain international efforts to combat terrorism. There is 

also an objective to establish and maintain an international standard of 

accountability with regard to combating terrorism. The strategy also gives 

the Department of State the lead in developing specific regional strategies 

for combating terrorism overseas, as well as policy action plans to deal 

with state sponsors of terrorism. Diplomatic initiatives, led by the 

Department of State, are key to achieving these objectives. Such diplomatic 

efforts help strengthen international cooperation in the effort to disrupt 

and destroy terrorists and their organizations. State helps to orchestrate 

other nations’ bilateral support to assist the United States in conducting 

law enforcement cooperation, financial operations, and military 
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operations. State negotiated a number of bilateral and multilateral 

agreements with foreign countries to support these operations. State 

also solicited international cooperation by actively trying to enlist 

multilateral organizations in the fight against terrorism. These efforts 

include multilateral agreements and conventions, resolutions, and 

international summits involving the United Nations and other international 

organizations. Various State Department offices, bureaus, and missions 

overseas—in conjunction with other federal agencies—coordinate these 

diplomatic initiatives.

U.S. officials, from several agencies at both the headquarters and overseas, 

told us that bilateral agreements with individual nations are the most 

productive type of cooperation. However, they noted that multilateral 

agreements provide an important framework that, in the eyes of other 

countries, legitimizes their bilateral cooperation with the United States.

Bilateral Cooperation 

Supports Variety of 

Activities by U.S. 

Government Agencies

The Department of State strengthens international cooperation through 

agreements, consultations, and negotiations with other countries to assist 

other U.S. government agencies in their efforts to enforce laws, deny 

terrorist financing, and carry out military operations against terrorists 

and their organizations. The Department of State leads periodic 

U.S. delegations—consisting of a number of U.S. agencies—that meet 

with other nations to discuss and cooperate on terrorism issues of mutual 

bilateral concern. For example, State Department’s Coordinator for 

Counterterrorism recently led one of these U.S. delegations to meet with 

French officials. Through its diplomacy, the department facilitates 

cooperation in a variety of areas.

Law enforcement The Department of State negotiates formal bilateral agreements to 

strengthen law enforcement cooperation with other individual countries. 

For example, there are a number of law enforcement-related treaties 

negotiated by the Department of State, in conjunction with the Department 

of Justice, related to legal assistance and extradition. These agreements 

promote increased cooperation with foreign law enforcement authorities 

for the exchange of evidence and apprehension of terrorist suspects.

Terrorist financing The Departments of State and the Treasury have worked with a number of 

countries on a bilateral basis to strengthen measures to deny terrorists 

access to financial support. Since September 11, 2001, the United States, in 

conjunction with other countries, designated a number of individuals and 
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organizations as sponsors of terrorism. At individual embassies, State 

Department economic officers work with their counterparts to improve 

joint efforts to disrupt terrorist financing.

Military operations The State Department worked to negotiate a number of bilateral 

agreements for military cooperation to combat terrorism. In the wake of 

the September 11, 2001, attacks, State worked with DOD to establish 

bilateral agreements to support military operations in Afghanistan and 

surrounding regions. Ultimately, 89 countries agreed to provide over-flight 

rights for U.S. military aircraft and 76 agreed to provide landing and/or 

bed-down rights for U.S. military aircraft. In addition, 23 countries 

agreed to host U.S. and coalition forces involved in military operations in 

Afghanistan. These later agreements, reached with neighboring countries, 

such as Pakistan and the Central Asian republics, were particularly 

significant in that they provided secure staging areas for U.S. and coalition 

military forces to carry out their missions. These bilateral agreements are 

in addition to other countries actually conducting military operations with 

the United States.

Multilateral Cooperation 

through the UN Provides 

Political Support for 

Coalition Efforts

The Department of State works with international organizations to 

enhance multilateral support to disrupt and destroy terrorists and their 

organizations. Foremost of these organizations is the United Nations. Its 

Counterterrorism Committee reviews international efforts to combat 

terrorism. The State Department works with the United Nations and its 

member states to establish a broad array of resolutions and conventions 

to create a multilateral framework for combating international terrorism. 

This UN-based multilateral framework falls into three broad categories of 

documents or agreements (as described below). Appendix VI provides a 

listing of protocols, conventions, and resolutions that the United Nations 

has identified as related to terrorism.1

UN Conventions and Protocols There are 10 UN conventions and 2 protocols dating back to 1963 that 

are related to terrorism. An example of these is the 1997 International 

Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings. The State 

1

 In addition to those listed in appendix VI, there are other UN efforts indirectly related to 

terrorism. According to ATF, these include efforts to combat illicit trafficking in firearms, 

ammunition, and explosives used not only by common criminals but also terrorists. UN 

efforts include the UN Protocol Against the Illicit Manufacturing of and Trafficking in 

Firearms and the UN Programme of Action on Small Arms and Light Weapons.
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Department, through its diplomatic efforts in Washington and around the 

world, has urged countries to agree to these conventions and protocols. 

Before September 11, 2001, only 2 countries were parties to all 

12 instruments. As of November 2002, 16 countries, including the 

United States, are a party to each of the 12 conventions and protocols.

UN Security Council Resolutions The UN Security Council consists of 5 permanent members with veto 

authority (China, France, Russia, the United States, and the United 

Kingdom) and 10 rotating members.2

 Under Chapter VII of the UN Charter, 

mandatory provisions in resolutions adopted by the UN Security Council 

form a legal basis for taking actions against terrorists. There are numerous 

UN Security Council Resolutions dating back to 1970 that are related to 

terrorism. For example, UN Security Council 1373, which is a wide-ranging 

measure calling for international cooperation against terrorist financing. 

Among other things, this resolution calls for member nations to report back 

on their activities to combat terrorism. According to the National Strategy 

for Combating Terrorism, UN Security Council Resolution 1373 is one 

example of the United States enlisting the international community to 

establish and maintain an international standard of accountability with 

regard to combating terrorism.

Figure 11 shows the UN Security Council voting on a terrorism-related 

resolution in the aftermath of the terrorist attacks against the United States 

on September 11, 2001.

2

 The current 10 rotating members of the UN Security Council are Angola, Bulgaria, 

Cameroon, Chile, Germany, Guinea, Mexico, Pakistan, Spain, and Syria.
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Figure 11: UN Security Council Unanimously Adopts Resolution 1373, Calling for 

Wide-Ranging International Cooperation to Combat Terrorism

UN General Assembly 

Resolutions

The UN General Assembly consists of the entire membership, currently 

numbering 189 nations. Resolutions from the General Assembly are 

adopted based upon the votes of the entire UN membership but, unlike UN 

Security Council Resolutions, are not binding. There are numerous UN 

General Assembly resolutions dating back to 1972 related to terrorism. An 

example of these is UN General Assembly Resolution 39/159 from 1984, 

which condemned all policies and practices of terrorism between states as 

a method of dealing with other states.

State Department Works 

With Variety of Other 

International Multilateral 

Organizations

In addition to the United Nations, the State Department is working with 

a number of other international organizations to promote multilateral 

cooperation to combat terrorism. The memberships of these other 

international organizations overlap, with several nations (including 

the United States) belonging to several of them. Examples of these 

international organizations and some of their related activities are 

as follows.
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North Atlantic Treaty 

Organization

The North Atlantic Treaty Organization is a political and security alliance 

of 19 nations from North America and Europe.3

 In the wake of the 

September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, NATO members invoked Article V—a 

collective defense provision of the 1949 Washington Treaty. The provision, 

invoked for the first time in NATO’s history, states that an armed attack on 

any ally is considered an attack against all. NATO approved eight measures 

to expand its options in the campaign against terrorism, including the 

deployment of its Standing Naval Forces to the Eastern Mediterranean Sea 

and its Airborne Early Warning force.

European Union The European Union is a group of 15 countries forming a political and 

economic union. The European Union has taken steps to improve 

cooperation between European and U.S. law enforcement officials, 

coordination of the freezing of terrorist assets, and to provide a framework 

for cooperation on border security issues.

The Group of Eight The Group of Eight (G-8) is a group of major industrialized democracies 

that meet periodically on a number of political, economic, and security 

issues.4

 The G-8 has been an active forum for supporting measures against 

terrorists and their organizations. Several of the group’s summits have 

resulted in joint declarations that condemn terrorism and pledge to 

improve member countries individual and collective efforts to combat 

terrorism, including endorsing international recommendations to combat 

terrorist financing.

The Organization for Security 

and Cooperation in Europe

The Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe consists of 

55 nations from Europe, Central Asia, and North America that discuss 

human rights, economic development, and security issues. The 

organization has incorporated combating terrorism financing into its 

work plan and agenda, urging its members to implement certain 

recommendations to combat terrorist financing.

3

 NATO’s current membership includes Belgium, Canada, the Czech Republic, Denmark, 

Estonia, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, 

Norway, Poland, Portugal, Spain, Turkey, the United Kingdom, and the United States. In 

addition, Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania, Slovakia, and Slovenia have been 

invited to begin accession talks to join NATO in May 2004.

4

 G-8 members include Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia, the United Kingdom, 

and the United States.
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The Organization of American 

States

The Organization of American States consists of 35 nations from the 

Western Hemisphere. The organization adopted the Inter-American 

Convention against Terrorism requiring, among other things, that each 

signatory state establish a legal and regulatory regime to combat the 

financing of terrorism. Parties also agreed to improve controls at banks and 

other financial institutions.

Other international groups Other international groups provide collective support to specific functions 

related to terrorism. These include the Financial Action Task Force and the 

Egmont Group, which both are involved in disrupting terrorist financing. 

The membership of these groups overlaps with many of the other groups 

mentioned above. In addition, the State Department has sponsored and/or 

attended a number of international meetings to discuss terrorism outside 

the forums described above. An example includes terrorism summits at 

Sharm el-Sheikh, Egypt, in 1994. These international summits resulted in 

declarations of support for national and international efforts to combat 

terrorism.

Coordination Mechanisms 

for Bilateral and Multilateral 

Diplomacy

The State Department generally is in charge of efforts to coordinate 

diplomatic initiatives related to combating terrorism overseas. Overall, the 

department’s Coordinator for Counterterrorism coordinates both bilateral 

and multilateral initiatives. Within the coordinator’s office, officers are 

assigned specific regional areas to coordinate activities. The department’s 

regional and functional bureaus also are involved in coordination of 

diplomatic initiatives, as are other federal agencies, as appropriate.

For bilateral diplomatic initiatives, the department’s regional bureaus, 

functional bureaus, country desks, and U.S. embassies play a major role in 

coordination. For example, U.S. efforts with the Philippines to combat 

terrorism would involve the Coordinator for Counterterrorism, the Bureau 

of East Asian Affairs, the Bureau of Political Military Affairs, the 

Philippines country desk, and the U.S. Embassy in Manila. Other federal 

agencies with specific programs would also be involved in coordination, 

such as DOD in the case of military assistance to the Philippines related to 

combating terrorism. Another example would the Department of Justice’s 

involvement in negotiations of bilateral agreements related to mutual legal 

assistance or extradition, which is discussed later in this chapter.

For multilateral diplomatic initiatives, the department’s Bureau of 

International Organization Affairs, working with the Coordinator for 

Counterterrorism, has the lead in coordinating activities with international 
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organizations. Similar to regional bureaus, the bureau has individual desks 

for individual international organizations. Similar to U.S. embassies, the 

United States maintains diplomatic missions to international organizations, 

such as the U.S. Mission to the United Nations in New York; the U.S. 

Mission to NATO in Brussels, Belgium; and the U.S. Mission to the 

European Union, also in Brussels, Belgium. The department’s Bureau of 

International Narcotics and Law Enforcement coordinates multilateral law 

enforcement programs, such as the International Law Enforcement 

Academies. Again, other federal agencies with specific programs also are 

involved in coordination, such as the Department of the Treasury’s 

programs to disrupt terrorist financing and DOD’s European Command 

involvement in the case of NATO naval support to maritime operations in 

the Mediterranean. The State Department also participates in multilateral 

negotiations of treaties and other agreements relating to terrorism.

Law Enforcement 

Efforts to Disrupt 

Terrorist Organizations

One of the enduring policy principles that guides U.S. strategies to combat 

terrorism overseas is to bring terrorists to justice for their crimes. The 

National Strategy for Combating Terrorism has an objective to destroy 

terrorists and their organizations, in part, by expanding law enforcement 

efforts to capture, detain, and prosecute known and suspected terrorists. In 

addition, the National Strategy for Homeland Security has an objective to 

intensify international law enforcement cooperation.

Such law enforcement efforts are led by the Department of Justice and 

attempt to disrupt and destroy terrorist organizations overseas. The 

Department of Justice, working with the Department of State, will expand, 

where appropriate, its law enforcement presence abroad to further 

counterterrorism interdiction, investigation, and prosecution. The 

Department of State coordinates U.S. efforts to improve international 

counterterrorism cooperation, including the diplomatic aspects of law 

enforcement. United States law enforcement efforts overseas involve 

investigating terrorism-related crimes and the apprehension and 

prosecution of terrorists. The Department of Justice, through the FBI, leads 

U.S. investigations of terrorist incidents overseas. Such investigations, 

although conducted by FBI, are done under the authority of the 

ambassador at the relevant U.S. embassy. Depending upon the nature of the 

terrorist incident, other federal agencies, such as the State Department and 

its embassies, also may participate in or support terrorism investigations. 

The Department of Justice, in conjunction with the State Department, leads 

the federal government’s efforts to apprehend terrorists overseas for 

prosecution. Suspected terrorists who are apprehended overseas are 
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brought back to the United States for prosecution through extraditions and 

renditions. Foreign governments, through both bilateral and multilateral 

devices, provide key assistance with investigations, arrests, and 

prosecutions of terrorists. The Department of Justice coordinates its 

efforts to combat terrorism overseas through various mechanisms, 

including its legal attachés located in U.S. missions overseas, Joint 

Terrorism Task Forces, and Anti-Terrorism Task Forces. Efforts to identify, 

disrupt, and freeze terrorist assets are a related law enforcement activity 

and are covered in more detail in the next section.

Investigations of Terrorist 

Incidents Overseas Are Led 

by the FBI

As a principal investigative agency of the federal government for terrorism 

matters, the FBI is responsible for detecting and investigating acts of 

terrorism committed against U.S. citizens and property overseas. 

According to the FBI, extraterritorial jurisdiction is the principle that 

allows the bureau to expand its investigative authority outside U.S. borders 

and deploy FBI personnel to work in conjunction with host government 

law enforcement agencies to make arrests and prosecutions. The FBI 

undertakes these investigations under the authority of the ambassador at 

the relevant U.S. embassy abroad.

According to the FBI, its role in investigating terrorist crimes overseas was 

expanded through a series of congressional acts in the mid-1980s. For 

example, the FBI cited the Comprehensive Crime Control Act of 19845

 and 

the Omnibus Diplomatic Security and Antiterrorist Act of 1986,6 which 

expanded the federal jurisdiction of the United States to terrorist crimes, 

including hostage taking, homicide, conspiracy to commit homicide, or 

physical violence committed against U.S. national or interest anywhere in 

the world. The FBI also noted that the Antiterrorism and Effective Death 

Penalty Act of 19967

 granted authority to designate foreign terrorist 

organizations, prohibits the providing of material support or resources to a 

foreign terrorist organization, and makes it a federal crime to participate in 

certain international terrorism activities. These changes were the result of 

concerns that terrorists who committed the attacks against U.S. nationals 

5

 P.L. 98-473, Oct. 12, 1984.

6

 P.L. 99-399, Aug. 27, 1986.

7

 P.L. 104-132, Apr. 24, 1996, as amended.
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overseas would escape justice and flee to countries that oppose the 

United States.

Other Federal Law 

Enforcement Agencies 

Support Terrorism 

Investigations

Depending upon the nature of a terrorist incident, other federal agencies 

also may participate in or support terrorism investigations overseas. For 

example, several agencies in the Department of the Treasury might support 

the FBI in conducting overseas investigations and in combating terrorism. 

Table 7 shows key federal investigative agencies that have a role in 

investigating acts of terrorism overseas.

Table 7: Federal Agencies’ Roles in Investigating Terrorist-Related Incidents Overseas

Federal agency Agency role

Department of Justice Leads law enforcement and criminal matters related to terrorism both domestically 

and overseas. Responsible for investigating, indicting, and prosecuting terrorists.

Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of 

Investigation

Leads efforts to investigate terrorist crimes domestically and overseas. Responsible 

for the apprehension, extradition, and rendition of foreign terrorists who are 

suspected of violating U.S. statutes.

Department of Justice, Bureau of Alcohol, 

Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (formerly under 

the Department of the Treasury)

Investigates terrorist bombings and explosive blasts overseas using its International 

Response Team and explosive experts. Special agents with post-blast expertise, 

forensic chemists, and bomb technicians are used to overcome difficulties inherent 

in investigations of large-scale fire or explosives crime scenes.

Department of State, Bureau of Diplomatic 

Security

Leads investigations of selected incidents involving U.S. diplomatic facilities and/or 

personnel. Participates in investigations of terrorist incidents against U.S. diplomatic 

personnel and other persons under its protection. Also investigates passport and 

visa fraud.

Department of the Treasury, Financial Crimes 

Enforcement Network

Supports lead investigative agencies in determining actual or suspected terrorist 

financial transactions and money laundering.

Department of Homeland Security, Bureau of 

Customs and Border Protection (includes parts of 

former U.S. Customs Service under the 

Department of the Treasury)

Investigates suspected terrorists or materials crossing U.S. borders, including illegal 

movement of arms, munitions, and WMD components. Also investigates violations 

of economic sanctions, embargoes, and money laundering related to financing 

designated international terrorist organizations.

Department of Homeland Security, Bureau of 

Immigration and Customs Enforcement (includes 

parts of former Immigration and Naturalization 

Service under the Department of Justice)

Investigates cases of terrorists crossing U.S. borders. Also, it investigates cases of 

terrorists using transnational smuggling organizations, using illicit document 

vendors, and entering the United States illegally. Has officers stationed intermittently 

for flexible periods of time at key choke point airports to disrupt the smuggling and 

trafficking of persons, including terrorists, to the United States.
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Source: Departments of Defense, Justice, State, and the Treasury.

Note: GAO analysis of agency documents.

United States Works With 

Other Countries in 

Conducting Investigations

In conducting terrorist investigations, the United States works with other 

countries to gather or share evidence. Much information and evidence are 

exchanged informally through law enforcement channels. When a formal 

request for assistance is necessary, and where there is no bilateral treaty, 

executive agreement, or applicable multilateral convention with another 

country, the United States often must rely upon letters rogatory to obtain 

international assistance. A letter rogatory is a request from a judicial 

official in one country to a judicial official in another country seeking 

assistance. Letters rogatory usually include background on the nature and 

targets of the criminal investigation, relevant facts about the case or 

investigation, the type of assistance needed, statutes alleged to have been 

violated, and a promise of reciprocity.

Department of Justice officials said that they prefer to use the more 

modern, more reliable, and more expeditious Mutual Legal Assistance 

Treaty process than the more cumbersome letters rogatory process. Mutual 

Legal Assistance Treaties strengthen law enforcement by permitting direct 

communication between appropriate executive branch law enforcement 

officials in the United States and foreign countries rather than relying upon 

the letters rogatory process with its judge-to-judge communications 

transmitted through the diplomatic channel. Mutual Legal Assistance 

Treaties provide for the exchange of valuable evidence, often in a form that 

is admissible at trial. They enable the Justice Department to obtain foreign 

financial records, obtain statements or testimony of foreign witnesses, 

conduct search and seizure of foreign evidence, and in some cases, freeze 

and recover the forfeiture of proceeds of U.S. crimes committed abroad. 

The Department of State, in conjunction with the Department of Justice, is 

responsible for negotiating the treaties. Once a Mutual Legal Assistance 

Treaty is in force, the Department of Justice is responsible for making 

specific requests to other countries for assistance under the treaty. As of 

January 2003, the United States had bilateral Mutual Legal Assistance 

Treaties covering 47 foreign jurisdictions. In addition, many modern 

Department of Homeland Security, United States 

Secret Service (formerly under the Department of 

the Treasury)

Investigates terrorists' threats against officials under its protective mission overseas, 

including the President and Vice President.

Department of Defense Investigates acts of terrorism committed against DOD personnel or facilities 

overseas.

(Continued From Previous Page)

Federal agency Agency role
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multilateral law enforcement conventions, including those dealing 

with terrorism and terrorist financing, contain broad mutual legal 

assistance articles.

Return of Overseas 

Terrorists via Extraditions 

and Renditions

The Department of Justice, in coordination with the Department of State, 

is responsible for obtaining the arrest and return of accused persons who 

commit acts of terrorism against U.S. persons and property overseas. The 

United States sometimes uses extradition treaties to obtain custody of 

accused terrorists. Extradition treaties provide for the request by one party 

to the treaty to the other party for the arrest and surrender of a person 

accused or convicted of a crime in the country making the request. The 

Department of Justice is currently working with the Department of State 

to renegotiate a number of extradition treaties to further broaden their 

coverage of terrorist-related crimes. Modern extradition treaties contain a 

“dual criminality” clause, which makes any offense considered a crime in 

both countries extraditable under the treaty. Thus, such modern treaties 

provide for growth and development in the criminal law, so that when 

countries criminalize new activity (including terrorist activity), those new 

crimes will be extraditable without the need to renegotiate the existing 

treaty. Often, before an alleged terrorist can be formally extradited to the 

United States, a number of factors must exist. Specifically: 

• An extradition treaty must usually be in force between the United States 

and the country in which the fugitive terrorist is located.

• The extradition treaty must cover the crime or crimes for which the 

terrorist is wanted in the United States (either because it is an offense 

“listed” in the treaty, or because it meets the “dual criminality” 

requirement set out in the treaty; i.e., it is considered a crime in both 

countries). 

• All requirements of the applicable extradition treaty must have been met 

(for example, the quantum of evidence required by the treaty has been 

provided in the formal extradition documents).

• The fugitive terrorist is otherwise extraditable (e.g., a national of a 

third country).

Once the extradition proceedings in the foreign country are complete and 

the fugitive terrorist is ready for surrender, the Justice Department sends 

escort agents, usually from the United States Marshals Service, to collect 
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and return the fugitive to the United States. As shown below in table 8, the 

U.S. government has obtained the extradition of six terrorists operating 

overseas since 1987, one of the most recent being an accused terrorist 

who was extradited from Germany in December 1998 for his role in the 

August 1998 U.S. Embassy bombings in East Africa. As of January 2002, 

the United States had extradition treaties in force with more than 

100 foreign jurisdictions.

The United States also can obtain custody of an individual without the 

formalities of an extradition treaty by agreeing to have the host nation 

render the individual to the United States for trial or deport the individual 

out of the country. The United States used renditions in 11 cases since 1987 

to obtain custody of suspected terrorists operating overseas. As shown in 

table 8, the most recent reported rendition used by the United States to 

apprehend a suspected terrorist was in September 2001 when a terrorist 

suspect was taken into custody from an undisclosed country for 

perpetrating the hijacking of Pan American flight 73 in Karachi, Pakistan. 

That individual will stand trial in the United States for the terrorist attack 

in which 22 persons, including two U.S. citizens, were killed and at least 

100 persons were injured. Table 8 shows reported extraditions and 

renditions of terrorist suspects to the United States over the last 15 years, 

as reported by the State Department and the FBI.

Table 8: Reported Extraditions and Renditions of Terrorists to the United States, 1987-2001

Month and year Name and crime(s)

Extradition or 

rendition Country

September 1987 Viken Tcharkhutian

(May 1982 bombing of an Air Canada aircraft) 

Extradition Greece

September 1987 Fawaz Younis

(June 1985 hijacking of a Royal Jordanian Airlines 

aircraft)

Rendition Cyprus

January 1991 Khalid al Jawary

(March 1973 bombing of three vehicles in New York City)

Extradition Italy

March 1993 Mahmoud Abu Halima

(February 1993 bombing of the World Trade Center in 

New York City)

Extradition Egypt

July 1993 Mohammed Ali Rezaq

(November 1985 hijacking of Egyptair flight 648)

Rendition Nigeria
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Source: Patterns of Global Terrorism 2001, Department of State, May 2002 and Terrorism in the United States, 1999, the FBI, 1999. There may be additional renditions since September 11, 2001, that have 

not been reported because they are classified.

INTERPOL is a multilateral organization that, among other things, 

facilitates the arrest of terrorist suspects to bring them to the United States 

(or elsewhere) for trial. INTERPOL was established to promote 

international police cooperation to help officers from different police 

forces, countries, languages, and cultures work with each other to solve 

crimes. Although INTERPOL has a world headquarters in Lyon, France, 

every member country has its own INTERPOL office called a National 

February 1995 Ramzi Ahmed Yousef

(January 1995 Far East bomb U.S. airlines plot; 

February 1993 bombing of the World Trade Center in 

New York City)

Extradition Pakistan

April 1995 Abdul Hakim Murad

(January 1995 Far East U.S. airlines bomb plot)

Rendition Philippines

August 1995 Eyad Mahmoud Ismail Najim

(February 1993 bombing of the World Trade Center in 

New York City)

Extradition Jordan

December 1995 Wali Khan Amin Shah

(January 1995 Far East U.S. airlines bomb plot)

Rendition Country not disclosed

September 1996 Tsutomu Shirosaki

(May 1986 attack on the U.S. Embassy in Jakarta, 

Indonesia)

Rendition Country not disclosed

June 1997 Mir Aimal Kansi

(January 1993 shooting at CIA headquarters in Langley, 

Virginia)

Rendition Country not disclosed

June 1998 Mohammed Rashid

(August 1982 bombing of a Pan American aircraft)

Rendition Country not disclosed

August 1998 Mohamed Rashed Daoud al-Owhali 

(August 1998 bombing of the U.S. Embassy in Nairobi, 

Kenya)

Rendition Kenya

August 1998 Mohamed Sedeek Odeh

(August 1998 bombing of the U.S. Embassy in Nairobi, 

Kenya)

Rendition Kenya

December 1998 Mamdouh Mahmud Salim

(August 1998 bombing of the U.S. Embassy in Nairobi, 

Kenya)

Extradition Germany

October 1999 Khalfan Khamis Mohamed

(August 1998 bombing of the U.S. Embassy in 

Dar es-Salaam, Tanzania)

Rendition South Africa

September 2001 Zayd Hassan Abd al-Latif Masud al-Safarini

(1986 hijacking of Pan American flight 73 in Karachi, 

Pakistan)

Rendition Country not disclosed

(Continued From Previous Page)

Month and year Name and crime(s)

Extradition or 

rendition Country
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Central Bureau. This bureau is the single point-of-contact for foreign 

governments requiring assistance with overseas investigations. Each 

member country employs its own officers to operate on its own territory in 

accordance with its own national laws. INTERPOL provides criminal 

intelligence with its member countries and plays a number of roles in 

information exchange, such as encouraging member countries to use 

shared automated systems and issuing international wanted notices for 

fugitives. When the whereabouts of a suspected terrorist is unknown or the 

United States seeks an immediate arrest of a terrorist suspect, the 

Department of Justice can request their arrest through a “Red Notice.” 

These notices are issued through INTERPOL with the intent to follow up 

with an extradition. While law enforcement authorities in some countries 

are authorized to make an immediate arrest of a suspected terrorist based 

on a Red Notice, other countries require an official provisional arrest or 

formal extradition request.

Rewards for Justice 

Program Leads to Arrests 

and Prosecutions

The State Department’s Rewards for Justice Program provides a tool to law 

enforcement for arresting and prosecuting terrorist suspects. The program 

was established under the 1984 Act to Combat International Terrorism8

 and 

is administered by the Department of State’s Bureau of Diplomatic Security. 

The program generally offers rewards up to $5 million for information that 

leads to the arrest or conviction in any country of any individual for 

conspiring, aiding, abetting, or committing an act of international terrorism 

against U.S. persons or property or the prevention, frustration, or favorable 

resolution of such an act. The USA PATRIOT Act of 2001 authorizes the 

Secretary of State to offer or pay rewards of greater than $5 million if the 

Secretary determines that a greater amount is necessary to combat 

terrorism or to defend the United States against terrorist acts. The 

Secretary authorized a reward of up to $25 million for information leading 

to the capture of Osama bin Laden and other key al Qaeda leaders.

Information provided through the Rewards for Justice Program has been 

used to apprehend and arrest suspected terrorists. In the past 7 years, the 

United States has paid over $9.5 million to 23 individuals who provided 

credible information leading to the arrest of international terrorists. The 

program played a significant role in the arrest of a suspected terrorist in 

February 1995 for the bombing of the World Trade Center in 1993. In 

8

 P.L. 98-533, Oct. 19, 1984.
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addition, the program provided key information about a planned terrorist 

attack against airline ticket counters. As a result, the United States and the 

host nation prevented the terrorist act from being carried out.

Department of Justice 

Prosecutes Suspected 

Terrorists

Suspected terrorists apprehended and arrested overseas for crimes 

committed against U.S. citizens or interests are prosecuted in the United 

States by the Department of Justice. The U.S. Attorney for the District of 

Columbia, together with the Department of Justice’s Counterterrorism 

Section, ordinarily prosecute the offense. In some cases, the prosecutions 

are led by other U.S. Attorneys. For example, on October 18, 2001, the 

Department of Justice successfully prosecuted four al Qaeda members in 

the Southern District of New York for their roles in the bombings of two 

U.S. Embassies in Kenya and Tanzania, which killed 224 persons, including 

12 U.S. citizens. The court sentenced the four suspects to life in prison.

Coordination Mechanisms 

for Law Enforcement

Investigations of terrorist incidents, including those related to international 

terrorism, are coordinated through the National Joint Terrorism Task 

Force. This task force serves as a coordinating mechanism for sharing 

information on suspected terrorists, including those of foreign origin. It 

operates out of the FBI’s Strategic Information Operations Center in 

Washington, D.C. In addition, such investigations also are coordinated 

through the FBI’s 66 local Joint Terrorism Task Forces. The FBI established 

these task forces to coordinate law enforcement efforts among federal, 

state, and local law enforcement agencies. Depending on the nature of 

terrorist activities in each location, the task forces may include 

representatives from other federal agencies such as the ATF, CIA, the 

Department of Homeland Security (to include the U.S. Secret Service, 

U.S. Coast Guard, the Bureau of Immigration and Customs Enforcement, 

and the Bureau of Customs and Border Protection) and the State 

Department’s Bureau of Diplomatic Security. One of the most robust Joint 

Terrorism Task Forces is in Washington, D.C., which has representatives 

from 15 federal agencies. These task forces serve as the coordinating 

mechanisms that combine the international and national investigative 

resources of the federal government with the street-level expertise of local 

law enforcement agencies. This “cop-to-cop” relationship enables law 

enforcement agencies to share information on suspected terrorists, 

including those of foreign origin.
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To coordinate strategic long-term planning and policy in areas related to 

national security efforts to combat terrorism, the Department of Justice 

established the National Security Coordination Council.9

 In areas related to 

prosecutions, the Department of Justice also established Anti-Terrorism 

Task Forces to integrate and coordinate the anti-terrorism activities in 

each of the judicial districts within the United States. The task forces are 

comprised of federal prosecutors from the U.S. Attorney’s Office, members 

of the federal law enforcement agencies, as well as the primary state and 

local enforcement officials in each district. They are intended to serve as 

a national network that coordinates closely with the Joint Terrorism 

Task Forces in the collection, analysis, and dissemination of information. 

The Anti-Terrorism Task Forces also are intended to develop the U.S. 

investigative and prosecution strategy in terrorism cases.

Overseas, coordination within the federal government and with foreign 

governments is led by the Department of Justice, in coordination with 

Justice officials stationed at U.S. embassies. The FBI has legal attachés at 

overseas posts that work closely with law enforcement agencies of the 

host country on common crime problems. They also play a large role in 

facilitating the international battle against terrorism by enlisting the 

cooperation of foreign law enforcement, enabling the arrest of U.S. 

terrorist suspects, and solving crimes against U.S. citizens. For example, 

in the aftermath of the August 1998 bombings of two U.S. embassies in 

East Africa, the FBI was able to take immediate steps to initiate a joint 

investigation with local law enforcement authorities and to preserve the 

crime scene and critical evidence. The legal attachés also played a key 

role in the investigation, in that they were the first FBI agents to arrive in 

Nairobi, Kenya, and Dar es-Salaam, Tanzania, in the immediate aftermath 

of the terrorist bombings. The legal attachés also assist in coordinating 

investigations with federal law enforcement overseas by disseminating 

information to key U.S. federal agencies stationed abroad. They routinely 

share information on investigations with liaisons serving with DOD 

components overseas. Currently, there are FBI legal attachés stationed 

at 45 overseas posts, and additional positions have been approved. They 

sometimes serve multiple countries in a region. For example, the legal 

attaché at the U.S. Embassy in Athens not only covers Greece but also 

Turkey, Cyprus, Lebanon, Syria, and Jordan.

9

 This is separate from the NSC, which is part of the Executive Office of the President and 

was discussed in more detail in chapter 2.
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The State Department’s regional security officers at U.S. embassies also 

play a key role overseas in coordinating with federal law enforcement 

agencies and with foreign governments. These officers, part of the 

department’s Bureau of Diplomatic Security, are stationed at all 

U.S. embassies. The regional security officers work with foreign law 

enforcement officials at the national, regional, and local level. They often 

serve as liaisons when other federal law enforcement agencies request 

assistance with investigations. They play a particularly important role at 

U.S. embassies not served by FBI legal attachés. They also work with 

foreign officials to monitor terrorist threats in the host country, and take 

preemptive measures as appropriate. For example, if the threat level 

increases against U.S. interests in a particular country, the regional security 

officer could request that local police forces adopt a higher threat posture 

around the U.S. embassy.

Identifying and 

Freezing Terrorists’ 

Financial Assets 

Disrupts Terrorist 

Organizations

The National Security Strategy of the United States of America calls for 

the United States to work with its allies to disrupt the financing of 

terrorism by identifying and blocking the sources of funding for terrorists 

and denying them access to the international financial system. In addition, 

the National Strategy for Combating Terrorism includes an objective to 

interdict and disrupt material support for terrorists, including their 

financial support. Moreover, one of the enduring policy principles that 

guides U.S. strategies to combat terrorism overseas is isolating and 

applying pressure on states that sponsor terrorism to force them to change 

their behavior. The Departments of State, the Treasury, Homeland Security, 

and Justice conduct activities to deny terrorists and their sponsors access 

to financial assets. In some cases, the federal government designates 

terrorists and terrorist organization before the Departments of the 

Treasury, Justice, and State attempt to deny them financing and financial 

services. The United States also works with several international 

organizations to disrupt terrorist financing. Coordination occurs through 

interagency working groups or operations sponsored by the NSC and 

various departments. As of November 2002, the government reported that 

over $113 million in terrorist related assets had been frozen, including 

$35 million in the United States and $78 million in other countries.
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Designation of Terrorist 

Organizations and Their 

Sponsors and Supporters 

Permits Action to Block 

Assets

As a prelude to freezing terrorist assets, the U.S. government can designate 

a terrorist organization as a Foreign Terrorist Organization and the states, 

organizations, and individuals that sponsor or support them as Statesponsors of terrorism, or organizations or individuals that support 

terrorism, respectively. Different processes exist for designating such 

organizations and states and those who support them. Those processes and 

related sanctions are described below.

Foreign Terrorist Organizations Under the authority provided by the Antiterrorism and Effective Death 

Penalty Act of 1996, as amended by the USA PATRIOT Act of 2001, the 

Secretary of State, in consultation with the Attorney General and the 

Secretary of the Treasury, designates foreign terrorist organizations.10 The 

Secretary is authorized to designate an organization as a foreign terrorist 

organization if it is (1) a foreign organization, (2) the organization engages 

in terrorist activity or retains the capability and intent to engage in terrorist 

activity or terrorism,11 and (3) the terrorist activity or terrorism of the 

organization threatens the security of U.S. nationals or the national security 

of the United States. Designating these organizations allows the Treasury to 

block the assets of these organizations in U.S. financial institutions. It also 

makes it a crime to knowingly provide funds and other forms of material 

support to the designated groups and allows the blocking of visas for their 

members without having to show that the individual was involved in 

specific terrorist activities. As of April 2003, 36 groups had been designated 

as foreign terrorist organizations.

State Sponsors of Terrorism The Secretary of State designates a government as a State Sponsor of 

Terrorism if that government has repeatedly provided support for acts of 

international terrorism. The United States imposes various sanctions on 

designated state sponsors of terrorism, such as (1) a ban on defense-related 

exports and sales, (2) certain controls over exports of dual use items, 

(3) restrictions on foreign assistance, and (4) imposition of financial and 

other restrictions, including U.S. opposition to loans by or other use of 

funds by the World Bank and other international financial institutions and 

amendments to the Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act to lift sovereign 

immunity in civil litigation in U.S. courts. The Secretary of State has 

10 P.L. 104-132, Apr. 24, 1996, as amended.

11 For the purposes of this designation, “terrorist activity” as defined in 8 U.S.C. 

1182(a)(3)(B) (the Immigration and Nationality Act) or “terrorism” as defined in 22 U.S.C. 

2656f(d)(2).
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designated seven countries as State Sponsors of Terrorism: Cuba, Iran, 

Iraq, Libya, North Korea, Sudan, and Syria. All of these countries have held 

such a designation for several years.

Organizations and Individuals 

That Support Terrorism

Executive Order 13224 establishes policies and procedures for designating 

terrorists, their organizations, and others who provide financial support or 

other services to them.12 The executive order authorizes the Department of 

the Treasury, in consultation with the Department of State and the Attorney 

General, to block assets of individuals and organizations supporting 

terrorists in any financial institution in the United Sates or assets held by 

any U.S. person. As of September 2002, provisions under Executive Order 

13224 had identified 236 organizations and individuals that support 

terrorism.

Department of the Treasury 

Efforts to Identify, Track, 

and Block Terrorist 

Financial Assets

Since PDD 39 in June 1995, the Secretary of the Treasury has been 

responsible for identifying and blocking terrorist financing. These efforts 

were stepped up after the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, when the 

President signed Executive Order 13224. This order directed the Secretary 

of the Treasury, in consultation with the Secretary of State and the Attorney 

General, to deny financing and financial services to terrorists and terrorist 

organizations. The executive order authorizes the blocking of assets of 

those designated individuals and organizations linked to global terrorism. It 

also prohibits transactions with designated terrorist groups, leaders, and 

corporate and charitable fronts. The Department of the Treasury also is 

working with key federal agencies in implementing key statutory 

provisions of the USA PATRIOT Act to permit more information sharing 

among law enforcement entities and financial institutions. A number of 

organizations within the Department of the Treasury are involved in these 

efforts.

12 Executive Order 13224 “Blocking Property and Prohibiting Transactions with Persons 

Who Commit, Threaten to Commit, or Support Terrorism,” Sept. 23, 2001.
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Executive Office for Terrorist 

Financing and Financial Crimes

The Executive Office for Terrorist Financing and Financial Crimes was 

created in March 2003 and assumed selected functions of the former Office 

of Enforcement.13 The office is charged with coordinating Treasury 

Department’s efforts to combat terrorist financing both in the United States 

and abroad. The new office is responsible for the following specific duties: 

(1) developing and implementing U.S. government strategies to combat 

terrorist financing domestically and internationally, (2) developing and 

implementing the National Money Laundering Strategy, (3) participating 

in the department’s development and implementation of U.S. government 

policies and regulations in support of the USA PATRIOT Act, (4) joining in 

representation of the United States in international bodies dedicated to 

fighting terrorist financing, and (5) developing U.S. government policies 

related to financial crimes. The office will work with other Treasury 

elements to include the International Affairs Task Force on Terrorism, the 

Office of Foreign Assets Control, and the Financial Crimes Enforcement 

Network (all described below).

International Affairs Terrorist 

Financing Task Force

The International Affairs Terrorist Financing Task Force works with other 

countries in an effort to implement and improve mechanisms for blocking 

terrorist assets globally and thereby deny terrorists access to formal and 

informal financial systems. The task force tracks global progress in 

blocking terrorist assets and attempts to coordinate these efforts with 

various international organizations.

Office of Foreign Assets Control The Office of Foreign Assets Control administers economic sanctions and 

embargo programs against specific foreign countries or groups (including 

designated terrorists, terrorist organizations, state sponsors, and 

individuals supporting those organizations) to further U.S. foreign policy 

and national security objectives. The office imposes control on financial 

transactions and freezes foreign assets, denying the targeted country, 

individual, or organization.

Financial Crimes Enforcement 

Network

The Financial Crimes Enforcement Network (FinCEN) has a mission is to 

(1) support law enforcement investigative efforts and foster interagency 

and global cooperation against domestic and international financial crimes 

13 The Department of the Treasury’s Office of Enforcement had been responsible for the 

policy, development, guidance, and coordination of Treasury’s law enforcement entities to 

combat money laundering, including terrorists financing. The office had also been involved 

in negotiating international agreements to engage in joint law enforcement operations and 

exchange financial information and records.
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and (2) provide U.S. policymakers with strategic analyses of domestic and 

worldwide money-laundering developments, trends, and patterns. The 

network supports law enforcement investigations to prevent and detect 

terrorist financing, money laundering and other financial crimes.

Department of Homeland 

Security Has Role Related to 

Terrorist Financing

The new Department of Homeland Security also has a role in tracking 

terrorist financing and conducting related investigations. The department’s 

Bureau of Immigration and Customs Enforcement and the U.S. Secret 

Service are involved in these activities.

Bureau of Immigration and 

Customs Enforcement

The Bureau of Immigration and Customs Enforcement, consisting in part of 

the former U.S. Customs Service, has a mission to target current terrorist 

funding sources and identify possible future sources. The bureau has a 

multi-agency entity called Operation Green Quest to bring together federal 

agency expertise across departments and bureaus to identify systems, 

individuals, and organizations that serve as sources of terrorist funding. 

According to Operation Green Quest officials, their investigations have 

resulted in a number of arrests, indictments, convictions, and seizures. 

Operation Green Quest is working in tandem with other federal law 

enforcement agencies in pursuing several specific cases related to terrorist 

financing.

U.S. Secret Service The U.S. Secret Service is responsible for enforcement of laws relating to 

securities of the United States and financial crimes. Its efforts to combat 

international terrorism rest primarily on the investigation of counterfeiting 

of currency and securities.

Department of Justice and 

the FBI also Track and 

Investigate Terrorist Assets

The Department of Justice and the FBI also have efforts under way to 

disrupt terrorist financing. According to the department, the FBI has the 

lead in law enforcement and criminal matters related to terrorism, and 

terrorist financing is one element of overall terrorist investigations and 

prevention efforts. There are two major organizations within the 

department that are involved in these efforts.

Terrorist Financing Task Force The Department of Justice established a Terrorist Financing Task Force to 

coordinate the terrorist financing enforcement efforts. Within Justice’s 

Criminal Division, the task force works with prosecutors around the 

country as well as with the FBI’s Foreign Terrorist Tracking Task Force and 
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Terrorist Financing Operation Section to disrupt groups and individuals 

representing terrorist threats.

Terrorist Financing Operations 

Section

In response to the events of September 11, 2001, the FBI established the 

interagency Terrorist Financing Operations Section within its 

Counterterrorism Division to work jointly with the law enforcement and 

intelligence communities to identify, investigate, disrupt, dismantle, and 

prosecute, as appropriate, terrorist-related financial and fund-raising 

activities. With access to FBI and CIA intelligence and criminal databases 

and connectivity to terrorism investigations, the section is a focal point for 

efforts to identify and target terrorist financing. According to the FBI, the 

Terrorist Financing Operations Section brings the bureau’s financial 

expertise to bear in identifying terrorist financing methods and movement 

of money into and out of the United States in support of terrorist activity. 

The section works with other agencies and partners in the law 

enforcement, intelligence, financial, and international sectors. To help 

prevent terrorist attacks, the section developed a centralized terrorist 

financial database to identify potential terrorist-related activity in the 

United States and abroad. This database is utilized in conjunction with a 

number of initiatives, which include working with the financial sector in 

developing predictive models and conducting data mining analysis to 

facilitate a proactive approach in identifying previously unknown “sleeper” 

terrorist suspects. According to the FBI, information developed by the 

section is shared within the law enforcement and intelligence community.

International Cooperation 

to Identify and Freeze 

Terrorist Assets

The Departments of State, the Treasury, and Justice work with other 

countries on a bilateral and multilateral basis to identify and freeze 

terrorist assets. At the State Department, the Office of the Coordinator for 

Counterterrorism and the Office of International Narcotics and Law 

Enforcement have the lead in coordinating capacity building to combat 

terrorist financing in other countries. Offices from other agencies lend their 

expertise on a bilateral and multilateral basis to provide technical 

assistance and training to countries to assist these countries in meeting 

international standards to combat terrorist financing. For example, the 

Treasury’s Office of International Affairs takes the lead in working with 

other countries. Treasury’s Office of Technical Assistance is working with a 

number of countries to assess their capabilities and provide technical 

support to disrupt terrorist financing. In another example, the Department 

of Justice’s Asset Forfeiture and Money Laundering Section provides 

assistance to other countries in drafting money-laundering legislation. 

Types of U.S. government technical assistance and training cover both the 
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legal aspects (from drafting laws and implementing regulations to training 

prosecutors and judges) and financial aspects (from developing financial 

intelligence units to conducting financial investigations). Additional 

information on training and assistance was provided in chapter 3.

As of November 2002, 208 countries and jurisdictions have pledged their 

support for the financial war on terrorism and 165 countries and 

jurisdictions have issued orders in force to freeze terrorist assets. Since 

September 11, 2001, the international community has frozen millions of 

dollars in terrorist-related assets under UN Security Council Resolutions 

1267, 1390, 1373, and 1455. Other countries improved their legal and 

regulatory systems to help block terrorist funds.

On a bilateral basis, U.S. embassy officials representing the Departments 

of State, the Treasury, and Justice work with individual host countries on 

matters of terrorist financing. State economic officers, Treasury financial 

attachés, and FBI legal attachés all play roles in this type of bilateral 

cooperation. In 2002, the State Department required that each U.S. embassy 

establish a Terrorist Financing Task Forces, an initiative to further 

coordinate the activities of these agencies. The Department of Homeland 

Security’s Bureau of Immigration and Customs Enforcement (formerly 

U.S. Customs Service) provides expertise on import/export issues. The 

Embassy’s Deputy Chief of Mission generally leads these task forces.

On a multilateral basis, the U.S. government works with several 

international organizations, to increase international cooperation to 

combat terrorist financing. Examples of these include:

United Nations Several UN Security Council Resolutions call on UN member states to take 

actions against terrorist financing. Resolution 1373 is the broadest of these 

and it, among other things, obligates member states to prevent and 

suppress the financing of terrorist acts, freeze funds and other financial 

assets or economic resources of persons who commit or attempt to commit 

terrorist acts, and criminalize the collection or provision of funds intended 

for use in carrying out terrorist acts. In addition, UN Security Council 

Resolution 1455 requires member states to continue sanctions against the 

Taliban, Osama bin Laden, and al Qaeda. It requires states to implement 

sanctions to include freezing economic resources, preventing the supply or 

sale of weapons, and preventing members of al Qaeda or the Taliban from 

entering or traveling through their territories.
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Financial Action Task Force The Financial Action Task Force is another international group that 

cooperates in efforts against terrorist financing and support. The task 

force—consisting of 31 members—has served as the preeminent 

multilateral organization to combat money laundering since 1989. The 

Financial Action Task Force established a Terrorist Financing Working 

Group, which is co-chaired by Spain and the United States (through the 

Department of the Treasury). The working group is to identify members 

that will need assistance to come into compliance with the 

recommendations on terrorist financing. The task force issued eight special 

recommendations on terrorist financing, requiring all members to (1) ratify 

the UN International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of 

Terrorism and implement relevant UN Security Council Resolutions against 

terrorist financing; (2) criminalize the financing of terrorism, terrorist acts, 

and terrorist organizations; (3) freeze and confiscate terrorist assets; 

(4) require financial institutions to report suspicious transactions linked to 

terrorism; (5) provide the widest possible assistance to other countries’ 

law enforcement and regulatory authorities for terrorist financing 

investigations; (6) impose anti-money laundering requirements on 

alternative remittance systems; (7) require financial institutions to include 

accurate and meaningful originator information in money transfers; and 

(8) ensure that non-profit organizations cannot be misused to finance 

terrorism. The task force also requires members to provide closer scrutiny 

of transactions with non-cooperative countries and prohibits financial 

transactions with these members’ jurisdictions.

Egmont Group The Egmont Group is an international group that cooperates in efforts 

against terrorist financing and support. There are 69 members, with each 

member designating one of its agencies as its Financial Intelligence Unit to 

act as a central resource for collecting information and cooperating with 

the other Egmont members. For the United States, the Department of the 

Treasury has designated FinCEN as the Financial Intelligence Unit. The 

intelligence units work collectively to (1) eliminate impediments to 

information exchange, (2) make terrorist financing a form of suspicious 

activity to be reported by all financial sectors to their respective 

intelligence unit, and (3) undertake joint studies of money laundering 

vulnerabilities, especially those having some bearing on terrorism. The 

intelligence units foster interagency global cooperation in the efforts to 

combat international financial crimes. This includes sharing information on 

training and expertise with foreign law enforcement officials. FinCEN 

maintains country specific expertise of financial crimes, promotes the 

development of Financial Intelligence Units in other countries, and 

facilitates investigative exchanges with them.
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International Organization of 

Supreme Audit Institutions

International cooperation related to money laundering also occurs through 

the International Organization of Supreme Audit Institutions, which 

represents 184 UN member nations’ top accountability organizations 

related to government audit and oversight. The U.S. General Accounting 

Office and its counterparts from all parts the world are working 

cooperatively to improve their oversight capacity for government 

departments and regulatory financial institutions. This work takes the 

form of publishing and disseminating standards and guidelines in critical 

areas such as auditing, internal control, financial reporting, information 

technology, and public debt. In addition, the organization recently 

established a task force charged with studying the national audit offices’ 

role in helping prevent and detect money laundering and sharing 

information and experiences with each other. The organization also has 

established partnerships with organizations such as the World Bank and 

the International Federation of Accountants to strengthen its impact in 

these areas.

Coordination Mechanisms 

for Efforts to Disrupt 

Terrorist Financing and 

Support

At the strategy and policy level, interagency coordination of U.S. 

government efforts to deny terrorists financing is intended to occur 

through a NSC-sponsored working group chaired by the Department of the 

Treasury. The interagency group helps to coordinate operations to disrupt 

terrorist networks by freezing terrorist accounts and seizing assets. The 

interagency group also helps to develop strategies and activities to deny 

terrorist financing with other countries. The highest-level interagency 

planning document is the National Money Laundering Strategy. The 

Departments of the Treasury and Justice jointly published this July 2002 

strategy. The strategy sets forth an action plan for how law enforcement, 

regulatory officials, the private sector, and the international community 

could take steps to make it harder for criminals to launder money 

generated from their illegal activities. In addition to addressing general 

criminal financial activities, the 2002 strategy presents the government’s 

plan to attack financing networks of terrorist entities. The strategy 

discusses the need to adapt traditional methods of combating money 

laundering to unconventional tools used by terrorist organizations to 

finance their operations.

At the operations level, interagency coordination occurs through the 

Department of Homeland Security’s Operation Green Quest and the FBI’s 

Terrorist Financing Operations Section and Joint Terrorism Task Forces. 

These organizations, particularly Operation Green Quest and the Terrorist 

Financing Operations Section, were established to investigate and pursue 
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terrorist cells and networks, including the financing of such networks. 

They act as both operational units and coordination mechanisms by 

pooling information and expertise from participating agencies, such as the 

Department of Homeland Security’s Bureau of Immigration and Customs 

Enforcement and U.S. Secret Service; the Department of Justice’s FBI and 

ATF; the Department of the Treasury’s Internal Revenue Service, FinCEN, 

and Office of Foreign Assets Control; and the CIA.

Overseas coordination occurs at U.S. embassies through recently 

established Terrorist Financing Task Forces. The U.S. embassy’s deputy 

chief of mission leads these task forces with important roles also being 

played by Department of State economic officers, Department of the 

Treasury financial attachés, FBI legal attachés, and Department of 

Homeland Security customs attachés.

Military Operations 

Provide Means to 

Destroy Terrorist 

Organizations

The National Strategy for Combating Terrorism includes objectives to 

destroy terrorists and their organizations and to deny them sanctuaries 

and havens. According to the strategy, the intelligence community, in 

conjunction with the Departments of State and Defense, will conduct an 

annual review and assessment of international terrorist sanctuaries and 

develop plans to address them. Military operations, led by DOD, provide a 

means to meet these objectives that complement other means—political, 

diplomatic, legal, economic, and financial. Following the coordinated 

terrorist attacks against the United States on September 11, 2001, DOD 

has deployed forces worldwide in military operations against terrorists 

and their supporters. As part of those deployments, DOD led Operation 

Enduring Freedom with its coalition partners to disrupt and destroy global 

terrorist organizations. U.S. Special Operations Forces worked on the 

ground in Afghanistan with the Northern Alliance to help coordinate naval 

and air attacks against the Taliban regime and al Qaeda in Afghanistan. 

U.S. and coalition maritime interception operations disrupt terrorist 

organizations’ transport of terrorists and shipping of materiel and illegal 

contraband to help support their operations. Members of al Qaeda and 

Taliban forces captured during Operation Enduring Freedom have been 

designated as combatants without prisoner of war status and are being 

detained by the United States and its coalition partners for interrogation 

and potential prosecution. A number of military contributions made by the 

U.S. coalition partners helped support Operation Enduring Freedom. Some 

of these contributions included aircraft to support the air campaign over 

Afghanistan, ground troops inside the country, including special operations 
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forces, and naval forces dispatched to the North Arabian Gulf and 

Indian Ocean.

DOD Deployed Worldwide 

in Military Operations 

Against Terrorists and Their 

Supporters

According to the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, U.S. forces now 

are deployed to an unprecedented number of locations in the wake of 

the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks.14 One of the most visible 

deployments relate to operations in and around Afghanistan, discussed 

in more detail below. In addition, military forces have been deployed on 

missions related to terrorism in a number of other countries, including 

Colombia, Cuba, Georgia, the Philippines, and Yemen.

DOD Leads Operation 

Enduring Freedom and 

Topples Taliban Regime

Following the attacks on September 11, 2001, the Secretary of Defense 

directed the preparation of “credible military options” to respond to 

international terrorism. The U.S. Central Command—DOD’s regional 

military command whose area of responsibility includes Afghanistan and 

surrounding geographic areas—devised a plan to destroy the al Qaeda 

network inside Afghanistan along with the Taliban regime, which was 

harboring and protecting terrorists. On October 7, 2001, 26 days after the 

attacks on the World Trade Center in New York City and the Pentagon, 

Operation Enduring Freedom was launched on a global scale as a broad 

and sustained campaign to disrupt and destroy terrorists and terrorist 

organizations. According to the Secretary of Defense, the objectives of the 

military operations were as follows:

• Make clear to the Taliban leaders and their supporters that harboring 

terrorists is unacceptable and carries a price.

• Acquire intelligence to facilitate future operations against al Qaeda and 

the Taliban regime that harbors the terrorists.

• Develop relationships with groups in Afghanistan that oppose the 

Taliban regime and the foreign terrorists that they support.

• Make it increasingly difficult for the terrorists to use Afghanistan freely 

as a base of operations.

14 Posture Statement of General Richard B. Myers, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, 

before the Committee on Armed Services, House of Representatives, February 5, 2003.
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• Alter the military balance over time by denying to the Taliban the 

offensive systems that hamper the progress of various opposition 

forces.

• Provide humanitarian relief to Afghans suffering oppressive living 

conditions under the Taliban regime.

Military operations were conducted in Afghanistan in conjunction with 

U.S. coalition with the goal of removing the Taliban from power and 

destroying the al Qaeda network within Afghanistan. U.S. forces and its 

coalition partners combined operations with the Northern Alliance fighters 

(primarily from the Tajik and Uzbek ethnic groups) and the Southern 

Alliance fighters in the defeating the Taliban forces.

A series of bombing sorties were launched against the Taliban’s air defense, 

command and control, and mobility capabilities. U.S. Special Operations 

Forces on the ground worked with the Northern Alliance fighters to 

identify targets for a coordinated air attack. Long-range air strikes using 

advanced laser-guided weapons were launched from aircraft carriers in the 

Arabian Sea, Indian Ocean, and from regional land bases. U.S. Navy, 

Marine, and Air Force pilots delivered in excess of 18,000 munitions, of 

which more than 10,000 were precision-guided bombs. As shown in 

figure 12, B-52 long-range bombers launched from Diego Garcia (a British 

archipelago in the Indian Ocean) also were used during the air campaign.
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Figure 12: Air Force B-52H Bomber Drops a Load of M117 750 lb. Bombs
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U.S. forces conducted surveillance of Afghanistan and the movement of 

enemy forces through a combination of intelligence assets. U.S. Special 

Operations Forces on the ground provided human intelligence while 

manned and unmanned surveillance aircraft patrolled the skies, providing 

information on sites, facilities, and troop concentrations. Figure 13 shows 

U.S. Special Operations Forces adapting to their environment by riding on 

horseback to conduct operations in northern Afghanistan.

Figure 13: U.S. Special Forces Troops Riding Horseback in Afghanistan With 

Members of the Northern Alliance during Operation Enduring Freedom

These operations have resulted in the destruction of the Taliban regime, 

although U.S. forces continue to locate and engage remaining pockets of 

terrorists and their supporters to improve security and stability in 

Afghanistan. According to U.S. Central Command officials, many al Qaeda 

members, including their operational planners, facilitators, and 

logisticians, have been captured or killed. In addition, al Qaeda training 
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facilities in Afghanistan have been destroyed, command and control 

capabilities have been disrupted, and the remaining al Qaeda leaders are on 

the run.

As of April 2003, according to the U.S. Central Command, the initial 

objectives of Operation Enduring Freedomto destroy the base of the 

al Qaeda terrorist organization in Afghanistan and replace the Taliban 

regime that supported al Qaedalargely have been met. Combined Joint 

Task Force 180, which took direct control of operations in Afghanistan in 

June 2002, continues this mission. It also is conducting operations to 

ensure that Afghanistan will not again be a safe haven for terrorists and to 

facilitate the reintroduction of Afghanistan into the community of nations.

The U.S. Central Command’s operations in Afghanistan have been 

complemented by cooperative efforts with Pakistan to eliminate the 

al Qaeda organization in that country. According to the U.S. Central 

Command, these efforts have led to the capture of hundreds of al Qaeda 

and Taliban members, including very senior members of the al Qaeda 

organization. This cooperation continues to degrade the al Qaeda 

organization and is a critical component in the terrorist organization’s 

destruction.

DOD and U.S. Coast Guard 

Conduct Maritime 

Interception Operations

The National Strategy for Combating Terrorism includes an objective to 

interdict and disrupt material support for terrorists. As part of this 

objective, U.S. military forces, in conjunction with coalition partners, 

conduct maritime interception operations to disrupt shipping by terrorist 

organizations. According to the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the 

President approved expanded maritime interception operations in July 

2002, authorizing commanders to stop, board, and search merchant ships 

identified to be transporting terrorists and/or terrorist-related material.15

These operations have been concentrated in the areas of responsibility of 

the U.S. European Command and U.S. Central Command. In support of 

Operation Enduring Freedom, U.S. naval forces conducted maritime 

interception operations with a number of coalition partners. Operations by 

the U.S. European Command include NATO maritime and air forces. These 

operations resulted in more than 16,000 vessels being queried and about 

200 vessels being boarded and searched. One operation led to the detention 

15 Posture Statement of General Richard B. Myers, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, 

before the Committee on Armed Services, House of Representatives, Feb. 5, 2003.
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of four suspected al Qaeda members in the Gulf of Oman as navy vessels 

and aircraft from Canada, France, Italy, and the Netherlands targeted, 

intercepted, and boarded two vessels. The four captured al Qaeda 

members were transported to the detainee facility at Bagram Air Base, 

Afghanistan. Figure 14 shows coalition forces conducting such operations 

in the Arabian Sea.

Figure 14: British Troops Prepare to Board an Oil Tanker as Part of the Coalition’s 

Maritime Interception Operations in the Arabian Sea

The U.S. Coast Guard also participates in maritime interception operations. 

In its role as a military service, the U.S. Coast Guard supports regional 

military commands, which have requested and received U.S. Coast Guard 

cutters to conduct such operations. A 1995 Memorandum of Agreement 

between the Departments of Defense and Transportation identified the 

appropriate roles, missions, and functions of the U.S. Coast Guard to 

support the national military and naval strategies of the United States. The 

agreement recognized that the U.S. Coast Guard maintains many 

proficiencies and platforms directly applicable to maritime interception 

operations and that is it appropriate and desirable for the U.S. Coast Guard 
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to participate in such operations. To accomplish its missions to combat 

terrorism, both domestic and overseas, the U.S. Coast Guard developed a 

U.S. Coast Guard Maritime Strategy for Homeland Security. This strategy 

puts a premium on identifying and intercepting threats well before they 

reach U.S. shores by conducting layered, multi-agency, maritime security 

operations that include surveillance and reconnaissance, tracking, and 

interception.

Detainees Held by DOD for 

Intelligence Gathering

Throughout the military operations in Afghanistan, U.S. forces and military 

coalition partners captured over 5,000 Taliban and al Qaeda forces and 

confiscated laptop computers and cell phones. DOD holds some al Qaeda 

fighters who had information about operational methodology and future 

operations in Kandahar and Bagram, Afghanistan. DOD transported other 

detainees to detention facilities at Naval Air Station Guantánamo Bay, 

Cuba. Over 500 detainees from 44 countries were transported to 

Guantánamo Bay. Figure 15 shows part of the newly constructed detention 

facility at Naval Air Station Guantánamo Bay, Cuba.
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Figure 15: Camp X-Ray Used as a Temporary Holding Facility for Detainees Held at 

U.S. Naval Air Station Guantánamo Bay, Cuba

The U.S. Southern Command activated Joint Task Force 160 to staff the 

maximum-security installation and provide security and support functions 

at Naval Air Station Guantánamo Bay. The detainees, originally housed in 

the wire enclosures at Camp X-Ray, are now housed in a more permanent 

facility, known as Camp Delta. The U.S. Southern Command also 

established Joint Task Force 170 to coordinate U.S. military and 

government agency interrogation efforts in support of Operation Enduring 

Freedom. A Joint Interagency Interrogation Facility was established to 

support interrogations focused on intelligence collection, force protection, 

and planned terrorist activities. These efforts also support law enforcement 

agencies and military tribunal efforts.

The detainees are not considered to be prisoners of war. The President 

determined that the Geneva Convention of 1949 applies to the conflict with 

the Taliban in Afghanistan because Afghanistan is a state and signatory of 

the Geneva Convention. However, the President determined that the 

Taliban detainees do not have prisoner of war status because they fail to 

meet the criteria under article 4 of the Geneva Convention. For example, 
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throughout combat in Afghanistan, the Taliban did not wear distinctive 

signs, insignias, symbols, or uniforms, and were not organized into military 

units with identifiable chains-of-command. In addition, the President 

determined that the Geneva Convention of 1949 does not apply to al Qaeda 

detainees because they are considered to be a non-state terrorist network.

DOD’s Military Order issued on November 13, 2001, permits military 

commissions to try non-U.S. citizens accused of terrorism against the 

United States and DOD has announced procedural draft guidelines for 

those commissions. Non-U.S. citizens selected by the President, to include 

al Qaeda and Taliban members, those involved in acts of international 

terrorism against the United States, and those members or actors who 

knowingly harbor such terrorist may be tried. According to the order, the 

Secretary of Defense will appoint members to each commission, which will 

have three to seven members. One commission memberthe presiding 

officerwill ensure discipline and the decorum and dignity of the 

proceedings. As of March 2003, no trials have been held.

Coalition Partners Support 

U.S. Military Operations

Following the attacks on September 11, 2001, the Department of State led 

efforts to build a coalition to support the global war on terrorism. About 90 

nations made contributions to Operation Enduring Freedom including 

intelligence, personnel, equipment, and military assets. In the U.S. Central 

Command’s area of responsibility, coalition partners deployed more than 

16,000 troops. In Afghanistan, coalition partners contributed more than 

8,000 troops to both Operation Enduring Freedom and to the UN-mandated 

International Security Assistance Force in Kabul, which represented over
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half of the 15,000 non-Afghan forces in Afghanistan.16 Some 9 countries 

provided ground forces to serve in Afghanistan and 21 countries deployed 

forces to support the International Security Assistance Force in 

Afghanistan. Other key military contributions included support to aircraft 

in the air campaign over Afghanistan, ground troops inside Afghanistan, 

including special operations forces, and naval forces dispatched to the 

North Arabian Gulf and Indian Ocean for maritime surveillance and 

interception operations. Table 9 summarizes the military contributions 

made by selected coalition partners to support Operation Enduring 

Freedom. These contributions are in addition to the basing and overflight 

agreements negotiated by the State Department and discussed under 

diplomatic initiatives at the beginning of this chapter.

Table 9: Significant Military Contributions by Selected Coalition Partners in and around Afghanistan in Support of Operation 

Enduring Freedom

16 UN Security Council Resolution 1386 (Dec. 20, 2001) authorized the establishment of the 

International Security Assistance Force to provide assistance and maintain security in 

Kabul, Afghanistan, and its surrounding areas.

Type of operations Contributions in support of Operation Enduring Freedom

Ground operations

Special operations forces Australia, Canada, Denmark, Germany, New Zealand, Norway, and the United Kingdom 

deployed special operations forces in Afghanistan and surrounding regions to perform the full 

spectrum of missions.

Infantry support Canada, France, Italy, Pakistan, Turkey, and the United Kingdom deployed infantry and 

equipment in Afghanistan and surrounding regions to perform security and combat operations.

Naval operations

Maritime interception

operations

Australia, Canada, France, Italy, the Netherlands, Poland, and the United Kingdom deployed 

ships, aircraft, and forces in the Arabian Gulf and surrounding areas to support maritime 

interception operations.

Logistical support Japan, India, and Poland deployed ships for logistical support, such as refueling and escort 

assistance.

Combat operations France, Italy, Turkey, and the United Kingdom deployed ships to support combat operations in 

the region. Denmark and the Netherlands also deployed naval ships to relieve U.S. units in the 

U.S. Southern Command.
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Source: DOD.

Note: GAO analysis of DOD data.

Forces from NATO countries played a key role in the effort to end 

Afghanistan’s role as a safe haven for terrorists and terrorist organizations 

by providing direct and indirect military support to the United States. As 

shown above, NATO members providing support included Belgium, 

Bulgaria, Canada, the Czech Republic, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, 

Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Spain, Turkey, and the 

United Kingdom. In addition, forces under direct NATO control were 

deployed to support U.S. forces. For example, NATO deployed five 

airborne warning and control systems aircraft to the continental United 

States to patrol the skies and free up similar U.S. aircraft for missions over 

Afghanistan. The alliance also sent its Standing Naval Force to the 

Mediterranean Sea to establish a NATO presence in the region. NATO’s 

support in the region helped provide enhanced intelligence sharing, access 

Air operations

Combat air patrol Denmark, France, and Norway deployed fighter aircraft in Afghanistan and surrounding regions 

to support combat air patrol missions. Australia deployed fighter aircraft to perform combat air 

patrol missions at Diego Garcia in support of the U.S. Pacific Command. The Czech Republic 

and the United Kingdom deployed personnel and aircraft in support NATO airborne warning 

and control systems missions.

Strategic airlift Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, and Norway deployed aircraft in Afghanistan and 

surrounding regions to support strategic airlift operations. Japan also deployed aircraft to 

support re-supply and transport requirements within the U.S. Pacific Command’s area of 

responsibility.

Logistical support Australia, France, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Turkey, and the United Kingdom 

deployed aircraft to Afghanistan and surrounding regions to conduct logistical support, 

including aerial refueling. 

Surveillance and reconnaissance France and United Kingdom deployed aircraft in Afghanistan and surrounding regions to 

provide support to intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance missions.

Other support

Mine clearing operations Denmark, Jordan, Norway, Poland, and the United Kingdom deployed personnel and 

equipment in Afghanistan to conduct mine clearing missions.

Civil-military support Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Netherlands, New Zealand, 

Norway, Portugal, Romania, Spain, Sweden, Turkey, and the United Kingdom deployed civil 

military personnel, aircraft, and equipment to support the UN International Security Assistance 

Force in Afghanistan.

Humanitarian support Belgium, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Jordan, Kyrgyzstan, the 

Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Russia, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, Turkmenistan, and the 

United Kingdom provided humanitarian support to Afghanistan.

Consequence

management support

Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, and the United Kingdom provided consequence management 

teams (nuclear, biological, and chemical teams) in Afghanistan and surrounding regions. 

(Continued From Previous Page)

Type of operations Contributions in support of Operation Enduring Freedom
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to ports and airfields, increased security for U.S. bases on allied territory, 

and backfill for selected U.S. and allied military assets withdrawn from 

NATO’s area of responsibility. Figure 16 shows aerial reconnaissance 

support provided by a NATO country.

Figure 16: NATO Member France Provided Six Mirage 2000 Aircraft to Fly 

Reconnaissance Missions in Support of Operation Enduring Freedom

Coordination Mechanisms 

for Military Operations

At the headquarters level, military operations are coordinated at DOD. 

Within the Joint Staff’s various directorates for intelligence, operations, 

logistics, and planning, there are sections dedicated to military operations 

against terrorism. For example, the Joint Staff’s Directorate for Planning 

(J-5) has a special section for planning the worldwide campaign against 

terrorism. This section developed DOD’s National Military Strategic Plan 

for the War on Terrorism. DOD currently coordinates its worldwide, 

military operations through various regional and functional commands. 

The regional commands—responsible for a specific geographic area of
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responsibility—include the U.S. Central Command, the U.S. European 

Command, the U.S. Northern Command, the U.S. Pacific Command, and 

the U.S. Southern Command.17 DOD’s functional commands include the 

U.S. Joint Forces Command, the U.S. Special Operations Command, 

U.S. Strategic Command, U.S. Space Command, and U.S. Transportation 

Command. The U.S. Special Operations Command is preparing to take a 

lead role in the war on terrorism in future operations and will transition 

from a “supporting” to a “supported” command in this role. As discussed 

previously, the State Department’s Bureau of Political-Military Affairs and 

various regional bureaus are involved in headquarters coordination of 

military operations with other countries, particularly when diplomatic 

negotiations are required to obtain coalition support.

At the field level, military operations are coordinated by DOD’s regional 

commands. Depending on the operation, the regional and functional 

commands are either “supported commands” (having the lead for that 

operation) or “supporting commands” (providing support to the lead 

command). For example, for operations in Afghanistan, the U.S. Central 

Command was the supported command, in charge of planning and 

executing operations. It got help from supporting commands to include the 

U.S. Transportation Command (which supplies airlift), the U.S. Special 

Operations Command (which supplies special operations forces), and 

other commands. These commands also have subordinate headquarters or 

forward operating bases overseas to coordinate military operations in 

the field.

The regional commands also coordinate their activities through 

interagency working groups and various plans. DOD created interagency 

working groups following the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks on the 

United States and they include agencies representing diplomacy, 

intelligence, and law enforcement. Some of the agencies had long-standing 

liaisons at the commands, while other agencies established liaisons for the 

first time. An example of a long-standing liaison would be State 

Department political advisors with the rank of ambassador, who help the 

commands coordinate diplomatic activities with the department in 

Washington, D.C., and with U.S. embassies in the command’s area of 

responsibility. Regional military commands also have command-specific 

17 The U.S. Northern Command became operational in October 2002. Its focus is on 

homeland security and, therefore, was not covered in this report on efforts to combat 

terrorism overseas.
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campaign plans to implement DOD’s National Military Strategic Plan for 

the War on Terrorism in their geographic area of responsibility. They also 

have Theater Security Cooperation Plans to lay out the command’s 

strategies for working with other countries in the region to further U.S. 

foreign policy and military goals.

Covert Actions Can 

Be Used to Disrupt 

and Destroy Terrorist 

Organizations

Another tool that can be used to disrupt and destroy terrorist organizations 

is covert action by the intelligence community.18 By executive order and 

statute, the CIA specifically is authorized to initiate such actions that are 

individually authorized by the President.19 Other federal agencies and 

departments also may be tasked to support covert action, with a separate 

presidential authorization. The Intelligence Authorization Act of 1991 

allows the President to authorize covert actions if they are necessary to 

support the foreign policy objectives of the United States. According to the 

act, any new covert action must be justified according to this standard in a 

written finding that the President must submit to the House and Senate 

Select Committees on Intelligence, unless the President determines that it 

is necessary to limit access to the finding to meet extraordinary 

circumstances affecting vital U.S. interests. This finding must specify the 

government agencies participating in the action, can never be retroactive, 

and may not authorize any action that would violate the U.S. Constitution 

or U.S. statute. In extraordinary circumstances, the President may restrict 

access to findings to certain congressional officials, but such reasons for 

the restriction must be submitted to the committees. Finally, the President 

must notify the committees of any significant change to a previously 

approved covert action. The Congress has supported such actions in the 

past, urging the President to “use all necessary means, including covert 

action, to disrupt, dismantle and destroy infrastructure used by 

international terrorists, including overseas terrorist training facilities and 

safe havens.”20

18 Covert action is an operation designed to influence governments, events, organizations, or 

persons in support of foreign policy in a manner that is not necessarily attributable to the 

United States. It may include political, economic, propaganda, or paramilitary activities.

19 Executive Order 12333, Dec. 4, 1981 and P.L. 102-88, Aug. 14, 1991.

20 P.L. 104-132 § 324, Apr. 24, 1996.
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The Director of Central Intelligence, in discussing covert actions in an 

unclassified forum, provided several examples of CIA efforts to disrupt 

terrorist organizations.21 By 1993, the U.S. intelligence community already 

had recognized al Qaeda as a significant threat and began operations 

to reduce its capabilities. These efforts included hitting al Qaeda’s 

infrastructure, working with foreign security services, disrupting and 

weakening Osama bin Laden’s businesses and finances, and recruiting or 

exposing operatives. By 1999, these efforts had coalesced into a concerted 

offensive disruption campaign against the al Qaeda network. During the 

millennium threat period, CIA and FBI disruption operations identified 36 

terrorist agents and successfully targeted 21. A parallel operation in East 

Asia led to the arrest or detention of 45 members of Hizballah. Later, during 

the Ramadan threat period (winter of 2000), terrorist cells planning attacks 

on U.S. and foreign military and civilian targets in the Persian Gulf were 

broken up and their equipment seized. This equipment included hundreds 

of pounds of explosives as well as anti-aircraft missiles. The operation also 

netted proof that some Islamic charitable organizations had been either 

hijacked or created to provide support to terrorists operating in other 

countries. Finally, in the spring and summer of 2001, the CIA helped break 

up a terrorist cell in Jordan, disrupted a plan to attack U.S. facilities in 

Yemen in concert with a foreign partner, and mounted a broad disruption 

effort that substantially delayed attacks, including one planned on the 

U.S. military in Europe.

Agency Comments and 

Our Evaluation

The Departments of Defense, Justice, and State and ATF provided technical 

comments on the matters covered throughout this chapter. Based upon 

these comments, we made revisions as appropriate. We also made revisions 

(primarily to the sections on law enforcement and terrorist financing) 

based upon the creation of the Department of Homeland Security and the 

transfer of various agencies and functions from the Department of the 

Treasury into that department.

21 These unclassified examples are from the Written Statement for the Record of the 

Director of Central Intelligence before the Joint Inquiry Committee, Oct. 17, 2002.
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Chapter 5

Federal Efforts to Respond to Terrorist 

Incidents Overseas Cha5pert

The National Strategy for Combating Terrorism includes an objective to 

ensure a fully integrated incident management capability. In addition, the 

National Strategy for Homeland Security calls for the United States to 

improve international cooperation in response to terrorist attacks. Further, 

the National Strategy to Combat Weapons of Mass Destruction calls for 

the United States to be prepared to manage the consequences of a WMD 

attack, including those that occur overseas. Federal efforts to respond to 

terrorist incidents overseas consist of actions taken before, during, and 

after a terrorist incident. Advance preparations include contingency plans 

and exercises in anticipation of terrorist attacks. Incident response is 

managed by the State Department through interagency task forces at 

agencies’ headquarters, the ambassador at a U.S. embassy, and special 

emergency support teams. The FBI leads law enforcement aspects of crisis 

management to investigate incidents and obtain evidence for prosecution. 

The State Department, in conjunction with USAID and other agencies, 

manages the consequences of an attack—including those involving WMD 

agents. After a terrorist attack, federal agencies review the incident to 

determine whether security procedures were followed, establish 

accountability within the government, and provide lessons learned to 

prevent or mitigate future attacks. This chapter describes the relevant 

federal programs in place and is not an evaluation of their effectiveness.

Advance Preparations 

for Terrorist Incidents

In anticipation of terrorist incidents overseas, the federal government takes 

a number of preparations in advance. The State Department requires that 

overseas posts prepare and exercise emergency contingency plans. In 

addition, a number of other agencies participate in exercises—generally 

sponsored by DOD—to test their responses to an overseas terrorist 

incident.

Contingency Planning at 

Overseas Posts

As lead agency for interagency coordination of international terrorist 

incidents, the Department of State has prepared a variety of contingency 

arrangements and plans in the event of a terrorist attack. State’s 

Emergency Planning Handbook serves as a consolidated source of 

guidance for overseas posts on how to plan for and deal with emergencies 

abroad. The handbook explains post mechanisms for crisis management, 

identifies post emergency management responsibilities, discusses 

emergency and crisis management mechanisms within State and with 

other U.S. government agencies; highlights the kinds of information 

the post will need to plan for specific emergencies; and provides 
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action-oriented checklists that posts may use to ensure rapid, clear, and 

complete responses in emergencies.

Every diplomatic post overseas is required to have an operative Emergency 

Action Plan designed to provide procedures on how to deal with 

foreseeable contingencies specific to the post. The post plan is written by 

members of the Emergency Action Committee, which translate guidance 

issued by State into a post-specific action plan for managing a crisis event. 

The ambassador establishes the Emergency Action Committee and 

designates personnel responsible for specific crisis-related functions. 

Every U.S. diplomatic post is required to have an Emergency Action 

Committee.

Exercises Practice Incident 

Response

PDD 39 requires key federal agencies to maintain well-exercised 

capabilities to combat terrorism. Exercises test and validate policies and 

procedures, test the effectiveness of response capabilities, increase the 

confidence and skill levels of personnel, and identify strengths and 

weaknesses in responses before they arise in actual incidents.

The State Department conducts internal exercises at overseas posts to 

test their Emergency Action Committees and Emergency Action Plans, and 

to generally prepare them for crisis management. The department 

conducts exercises designed to expose posts to issues of decision-making, 

contingency planning, implementation of plans and formulation, and 

interpretation and coordination of policy. These exercises may cover a 

wide range of contingencies related to terrorism, such as hostage 

barricades, terrorist threats, and bombings. The State Department has been 

running these at post exercises since 1983. In addition to these departmentled exercises, the post-level Emergency Action Committee is to prepare, 

execute, and evaluate post-level crisis exercises. These exercises are 

designed to test individuals’ understanding of their roles under all 

foreseeable crises. They seek to identify gaps or ambiguities in the plan or 

in department guidance.
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The Department of State, in conjunction with other federal agencies, also 

coordinates an interagency exercise program to combat terrorism 

overseas.1

 Coordination of the exercises program is done through NSC’s 

Counterterrorism Security Group and its Exercise and Readiness 

Subgroup. The interagency exercise program is designed to strengthen the 

U.S. government’s overall ability to deal with terrorist attacks. On an 

annual basis, about four to six full-scale interagency overseas field 

exercises are conducted. The exercises involve the actual movement of 

response teams in a scenario that simulates a realistic overseas terrorist 

incident. In addition, tabletop exercises are held periodically to practice 

the coordination and management of a terrorism crisis without the expense 

of actually deploying special teams of people. The scenarios and agencies 

differ from exercise to exercise to develop and improve U.S. capabilities to 

deal with a variety of situations. Some exercises are conducted in overseas 

location with host government participation.

DOD sponsors many interagency exercises to prepare for terrorist 

incidents overseas. For example, every year DOD sponsors no-notice 

interagency field exercises. These exercises require regional commanders 

to execute their own response plans and test interagency interoperability. 

DOD also sponsors periodic senior-level interagency tabletop exercises. 

These exercises emphasized interagency coordination among agency 

officials for a crisis incident. DOD’s exercises also have included the 

Departments of State, Health and Human Services, and Energy; the FBI; 

the Environmental Protection Agency; and USAID.

DOD also has exercises for its forces outside the interagency exercise 

program. Some require the regional commander to exercise all levels of 

their response capabilities—tabletop sessions with their staff, response 

forces, and integration with Special Operations Forces. In addition, DOD 

runs exercises related to evacuations of U.S. diplomatic personnel and 

1

 For a more detailed description and evaluation of these exercises, see GAO/NSIAD-99-135

and U.S. General Accounting Office, Combating Terrorism: Analysis of Federal 

Counterterrorist Exercises, GAO/NSIAD-99-157BR (Washington, D.C.: June 25, 1999). In 

this report, we reported that federal agencies had increased the number of counterterrorism 

exercises, but only a few included no-notice deployments of personnel and equipment. More 

than two-thirds of the exercises had WMD scenarios, while others had more likely scenarios 

involving conventional arms and explosives. Also, very few exercises dealt with the likely 

situation of both crisis and consequence management occurring simultaneously. Also, we 

found that State Department used DOD- and DOE-led exercises to practice its leadership 

role. These exercises were well developed and enhanced the preparedness of the federal 

government to respond to terrorist incidents overseas.
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other Americans. Some of these may include some participation of other 

agencies. For example, since 1991, the State Department has 

participated in the U.S. Marine Corps’ Special Operations Capable Exercise 

Program to help train Marine Expeditionary Units in Noncombatant 

Evacuation Operations.

Response to a Terrorist 

Incident Overseas

PDD 39 divided incident response into crisis management and consequence 

management. Crisis management includes efforts to stop a terrorist 

attack, respond to the attack itself, and arrest and prosecute terrorists. 

Consequence management includes efforts to provide medical treatment 

and emergency services and evacuate people from dangerous areas. When 

terrorist attacks occur without threat warning, crisis and consequence 

management will be concurrent activities. The presidential decision 

directive specified that the Department of State is the lead federal agency 

for interagency coordination of international terrorist incidents, to include 

both crisis and consequence management.2

 The State Department is to 

manage the incident through interagency task forces at headquarters and 

through the ambassador at the appropriate U.S. embassy. The Department 

of Justice, through the FBI, would lead the law enforcement aspects of 

crisis management, potentially deploying its response teams to investigate 

incidents and obtain evidence for prosecution purposes. As the lead agency 

for a terrorist incident, State also is responsible for marshaling the federal 

assets necessary to manage the consequences of an attack. A number of 

other federal agencies have response teams that can be deployed overseas 

to support the response. State, in conjunction with other agencies, has 

capabilities and contingency plans for WMD incidentsthe kind of 

incident most likely to overwhelm host government capabilities.

Incident Management at 

Headquarters

In managing a crisis overseas, the Department of State coordinates 

operations through its 24-hour global Operations Center at the department 

in conjunction with the NSC. During a crisis, the department’s Operations 

Center establishes a 24-hours task force to coordinate the flow of 

2

 For international incidents, the distinction between crisis management and consequence 

management is less significant than for domestic incidents. In a domestic incident, the FBI 

leads crisis management and FEMA leads consequence management. As a domestic 

incident progresses, federal leadership in an incident can transfer from the FBI to FEMA. In 

an international incident, the State Department leads both crisis and consequent 

management, thus there is no transfer of command from one agency to another.
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communication and instructions between the department, relevant 

agencies involved, overseas posts, and foreign governments. The task force 

would be chaired by the Coordinator for Counterterrorism and would 

include relevant State bureaus as well as other U.S. government agencies. 

The global watch is the initial point of contact for posts experiencing 

emergency crises overseas. The 24-hour global watch and crisis 

management support staff is maintained within the Operations Center.

Incident Management at 

Overseas Posts

In an overseas incident, the ambassador—working with the Emergency 

Action Committee—would act as the on-scene coordinator for the 

U.S. government. Interagency and State Department teams could 

provide assistance. For example, the Department of State can deploy an 

interagency Foreign Emergency Support Team (FEST) in coordination 

with the NSC to assist the host government and the ambassador at the 

post. The FEST primarily is an advisory team and serves as the single 

point-of-contact for the ambassador in coordinating all U.S. government 

support during a terrorist incident. The FEST will not enter the host 

country unless requested by the ambassador, with the host government’s 

permission. Depending upon the type of incident overseas and the host 

governments’ capabilities, the FEST can be tailored with expertise to 

manage the crisis. The FEST can tailor its team to include experts on 

managing specific types of WMD incidents, such as nuclear, biological, and 

chemical threats. For example, the FEST can provide (1) guidance on 

terrorist policy and incident management, (2) dedicated secure 

communications to support the U.S. embassy throughout the incident, and 

(3) special expertise and equipment not otherwise available, including a 

professional hostage negotiations adviser. According to the National 

Strategy for Combating Terrorism, the Departments of State and Defense 

(and other relevant agencies) will ensure adequate staffing for the FEST. 

Procedures for deploying the FEST are outlined in the interagency 

International Guidelines, which were issued in January 2001.

State also maintains its own security response teams that can deploy in 

anticipation of a terrorist crisis. The Bureau of Diplomatic Security has 

Mobile Training Teams and Security Support Teams to respond to 

increased threats or critical security needs at posts. These teams can 

provide special training or assistance to plan or implement a draw down or 

evacuate post personnel. These teams are to provide supplemental support 

to regional security officers and stand ready for immediate deployments to 

any post worldwide.
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Law Enforcement 

Investigations for Overseas 

Incidents

Crisis management has an important law enforcement function, including 

efforts to gather evidence, and arrest and prosecute terrorists. PDD 39 and 

PDD 62 affirmed the role of the Department of Justice, through the FBI, to 

coordinate the efforts of law enforcement agencies in preventing terrorist 

attacks and investigating those attacks when they occur in international 

waters or against U.S. persons and interests overseas.

According to the FBI, the bureau has a number of capabilities it can deploy 

overseas to coordinate large scale investigations. In cases when an incident 

occurs overseas, the FBI initially deploys its legal attachés to respond to 

the crime scene to communicate initial reports to the FBI’s main 

deployment team. In the interim, an advance team will depart from 

Washington, D.C., and will include (1) a command element, (2) an 

investigative component, (3) logistics personnel, (3) Critical Incident 

Response Group, (4) physical security specialists to report on the 

continuing threat to responding FBI personnel, and (5) communicators. 

And, if needed and allowed by the host nation, the FBI will deploy a Rapid 

Deployment Team overseas to provide additional investigative support, 

including language specialists and expert forensics personnel from an FBI 

laboratory. The Rapid Deployment Teams were established following the 

1998 bombings of the two U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania so that 

more capabilities and additional personnel could be deployed to crime 

scenes in nations that are receptive to joint investigations. Based on the 

needs at the incident site and with the concurrence of the host nation, the 

FBI will deploy additional agents to assist with the investigation. Figure 17 

shows the damage inflicted to the USS Cole by a terrorist bomb explosion. 

The FBI deployed its response teams to Aden to investigate the bombing.
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Figure 17: USS Cole Damaged by a Terrorist Bomb Explosion While Refueling at the 

Port of Aden, Yemen

As discussed in chapter 4, other federal agencies may assist the FBI in its 

terrorism investigations overseas. For example, the ATF has significant 

explosives investigation capability, which can support FBI investigations of 

bombings. When needed, the bureau can deploy its International Response 

Team to help gather evidence and identify the cause and origin of an 

explosion or fire.

Managing the Consequences 

of a Terrorist Incident

PDD 39 affirmed State as the lead agency for consequence management 

overseas, responsible for ensuring that the U.S. government is prepared to 

respond to a foreign incident. Consequence management predominantly is 

an emergency management function and includes efforts to provide 

medical treatment and emergency services, evacuate people from 

dangerous areas, and restore services. The responsibility for managing the 

consequences of a terrorist incident remains with the host nation, although 
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the United States may provide assistance under certain circumstances. If 

the ambassador determines that the host government is unable to cope 

with managing the incident without outside help, the United States can 

provide assistance if it is requested and it is in U.S. interests to provide it.

A foreign consequence management event is an incident that occurs abroad 

and involves chemical, biological, radiological, or nuclear contamination. It 

is not limited to a terrorist incident; it also can be caused by a war, natural 

cause, or accident. In other words, a consequence management event is not 

defined by how the release of a WMD agent occurred, only that a release 

occurred. The terrorist bombings of the USS Cole and the U.S. embassies 

in East Africa, for example, were not foreign consequence management 

events. In addition, a foreign consequence management event must 

threaten to overwhelm existing host-nation response capabilities and 

prompt a host-nation request for immediate international assistance. 

According to the Department of State, the release of chemical, biological, 

radiological, or nuclear contaminants is required by international 

agreements to be reported, regardless of how the agent was released. 

Finally, consequence management of an incident is the sole responsibility 

of the host nation. The United States may be asked to provide assistance 

only.

Depending upon the type of incident overseas, the Department of State 

may also deploy a Consequence Management Support Team. The team is 

tailored to meet the specific emergency situation or condition in the host 

country and may deploy as an integral part of the NSC-directed FEST. The 

team leader normally would be from State’s Bureau of Political-Military 

Affairs and would be responsible for coordinating consequence 

management activities and for keeping the ambassador informed about 

ongoing relief activities. The team leader serves as a primary liaison 

between the ambassador, FEST, and team’s technical experts. The team 

also would coordinate U.S. government consequence management 

activities with the authorities of the host country. According to the 

Department of State, the Consequence Management Support Team 

deployed several times, most recently to the Persian Gulf, but had not yet 

deployed with the FEST.

Role of USAID PDD 39 designated USAID’s Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance as the 

lead agency for coordinating the U.S. government humanitarian relief and 

rehabilitation activities overseas for incidents involving weapons of mass 

destruction. The office facilitates a coordinated U.S. government response 

for an incident through the U.S. ambassador in support of the affected host 
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country. The office responds to these incidents at the request of the 

U.S. ambassador to the affected country and works through the host 

nation, U.S. government, international organizations, other donor 

governments, and nongovernmental organizations. In a crisis incident 

overseas, the State Coordinator for Counterterrorism may request an 

Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance representative to deploy as part of 

the FEST and assist in the development of a consequence management 

strategy for the humanitarian response. Also, if necessary, the office will 

provide guidance and liaison to the Bureau of Political-Military Affairs-led 

Consequence Management Support Team and work in conjunction with the 

team in the development of a humanitarian strategy.

The Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance can respond to virtually any type 

of disaster abroad, including a terrorist incident. USAID is the focal point 

for U.S. government disaster relief and humanitarian assistance overseas. 

After a U.S. ambassador’s disaster declaration, the Office of Foreign 

Disaster Assistance can respond with humanitarian relief items or by 

providing funds to the United Nations, international organizations, or local 

and international non-governmental organizations to perform humanitarian 

relief activities. The office can also provide damage and needs assessment 

specialists and a wide variety of disaster management consultants, should 

the post require them. The office has stockpiles of basic disaster relief 

items, such as tents, plastic sheeting, and blankets. These stockpiles 

are strategically located around the world and can be used to provide 

humanitarian assistance in the event of a terrorist incident, as is the 

procedure for any other humanitarian disaster that overwhelms local 

capacity. These stockpiles are used frequently, and due to changing stock 

levels, the office determines how to best support a specific disaster and 

when to release stockpile material. To help manage the humanitarian relief 

activities on the ground, the office can deploy its Disaster Assistance 

Response Team to carry out sustained response activities in the field and a 

Response Management Team in Washington, D.C., that is responsible for 

providing support to the Disaster Assistance Response Team and assisting 

with the information management and coordination of the event from an 

interagency operations center. The activities of these teams will vary 

depending upon the type, size, and complexity of the disaster.

Role of DOD Is Unique If ongoing military operations permit, DOD supports the Department of 

State for crisis and consequence management functions overseas in the 

event of a terrorist incident. DOD is unique in that it has the greatest depth 

and breadth of worldwide response capabilities. Specific types of support 

include threat assessments, technical advice, operational support, tactical 
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support, and transportation. In the event of a terrorist incident overseas, 

DOD also provides force protection to the Department of State. DOD and 

State have memorandums of understanding on the coordination and 

implementation of plans for the protection of U.S. citizens abroad in 

emergencies, and on the protection and evacuation of U.S. citizens and 

designated aliens abroad. A pending or actual terrorist crisis may require 

the evacuation of U.S. government employees, as well as other Americans 

in the area. These evacuations—known as Noncombatant Evacuation 

Operations—may be necessary in the face of continued terrorist attacks or 

in an attack involving weapons of mass destruction.

DOD support for the Department of State for a foreign consequence 

management operation is not automatic and is either approved or 

disapproved by the Secretary of Defense. DOD assets, albeit unique and 

robust compared to those of other U.S. government agencies, are finite. 

According to DOD, ongoing military operations may preclude DOD support 

for a foreign consequence management operation.

Weapons of Mass Destruction U.S. government efforts to provide consequence management overseas 

have focused on WMD incidents, which are the most likely to overwhelm 

host nation capabilities. In PDD 39, the President directed the State 

Department, in coordination with DOD and USAID’s Office of Foreign 

Disaster Assistance, to develop a plan to provide assistance to foreign 

populations that are victims of terrorist WMD attacks. In response, the 

State’s Bureau of Political-Military Affairs wrote draft guidelines for a 

consequence management response to an international WMD incident. 

The guidelines provide a framework of planning guidance for all types of 

deliberate or accidental chemical, biological, radiological, or nuclear 

incidents. They outline operational concepts for a U.S. response overseas 

and provide a foundation for operational plans and procedures. They also 

identify procedures by which the United States, partner nations, host 

nations, and international response agencies can most effectively unify and 

synchronize their response actions. The guidelines require that State (along 

with the Departments of Defense, Energy, and Health and Human Services 

and USAID) maintain the capability to respond rapidly to any incident 

when approved by the NSC. The response would be authorized subject to 

the concurrence of the ambassador and host government.
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The guidelines also identify various federal response teams and detail 

their deployment and employment considerations. As discussed above, 

State maintains a standing Consequence Management Support Team 

that would manage the consequences of a WMD emergency overseas. 

The Consequence Management Support Team, through its USAID 

representative, would coordinate all U.S. government consequence 

management activities with the appropriate authorities of the host country, 

as well as the international organizations, private voluntary organizations, 

and non-government organizations that may be involved in the emergency. 

The same federal agencies that would provide consequence management in 

a domestic WMD incident could also respond overseas. While some of 

these agencies have a more domestic focus, they have unique capabilities 

that could be deployed overseas.3

 Figure 18 shows federal agency response 

teams that could be called upon in an overseas WMD incident. Several of 

these response teams transferred into the Department of Homeland 

Security on March 1, 2003, from a variety of other departments.

3

 For more details on these teams, see U.S. General Accounting Office, Combating 

Terrorism: Federal Response Teams Provide Varied Capabilities; Opportunities Remain 

to Improve Coordination, GAO-01-14 (Washington, D.C.: Nov. 30, 2000). We reported that 

federal response teams do not duplicate one another; however, agencies lack a coherent 

framework to develop and evaluate budget requirements for teams. Because most response 

teams have multiple missions, federal agencies do not track the resources for their teams 

based on their roles in combating terrorism.
Chapter 5

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Incidents Overseas

Page 181 GAO-03-165 Combating Terrorism

Figure 18: Federal Response Teams That Could Respond to a Weapons of Mass Destruction Incident Overseas
Chapter 5

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Evaluations in the 

Aftermath of a 

Terrorist Incident

After a terrorist attack, the federal government reviews the facts leading 

up to the incident. These reviews are done to determine whether security 

procedures were followed; to establish accountability within the 

government, if appropriate; and to provide lessons learned to prevent or 

mitigate future attacks.

Reviewing Terrorist 

Incidents Against 

Diplomatic Posts

The Secretary of State convenes an Accountability Review Board in cases 

involving acts of terrorism against U.S. diplomatic installations and 

personnel abroad that involve serious injury, loss of life, or significant 

destruction of property.4

 These boards investigate the facts and 

circumstances surrounding the damage to determine whether security 

measures systems and procedures were adequate and implemented. The 

boards also propose recommendations aimed at saving lives and improving 

security systems and procedures, including those aimed at improving crisis 

management. Each board consists of five membersfour appointed by the 

Secretary of State and one appointed by the Director of Central 

Intelligence.

State convened two Accountability Review Boards following the August 

1998 bombings of the U.S. Embassies in Nairobi, Kenya, and Dar es-Salaam, 

Tanzania, to examine the facts and circumstances surrounding the near 

simultaneous bombings. The boards examined a number of security 

measures and procedures including (1) whether the incidents were 

security related, (2) whether security systems and procedures were 

adequate and implemented properly, (3) the impact of intelligence and 

information availability, (4) whether any employee of the U.S. government 

or member of uniformed services breached his or her duty, and (5) whether 

any other facts or circumstances in these cases may be relevant to security 

management of U.S. missions abroad.

4

 Required by the 1986 Omnibus Diplomatic and Anti-Terrorism Act (P.L. 99-399), Aug. 27, 

1986.
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Reviewing Incidents 

Against Military Targets

DOD also has convened ad hoc commissions to evaluate terrorist incidents 

aimed at its overseas military facilities. For example, following the June 

1996 truck bombing of the al-Khobar Towers military housing facility near 

Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, the Secretary of Defense directed a task force to 

assess facts and circumstances surrounding the attack, including the 

security policies, infrastructures, and systems.5

 The Secretary also asked 

the team to recommend measures to minimize casualties and damage from 

such attacks in the future. The task force’s report made a number of 

recommendations to improve security at military facilities overseas.

Past Incidents Studied to 

Provide Lessons Learned

In addition to reviewing individual incidents, the State Department’s 

Bureau of Diplomatic Security analyses numerous past incidents and 

related exercises to provide more general lessons learned. Since 1987, the 

bureau has analyzed various threats and incidents, including terrorist 

attacks, and published its results. This annual publication, done with the 

assistance of other federal agencies, is called Political Violence Against 

Americans. It focuses on major incidents based upon, among other things, 

their lethality, property damage, and use of unusual tactics or weapons. The 

publication is designed to provide a comprehensive picture of political 

violence against U.S. interests. In addition, the bureau conducts an annual 

longer-term analysis covering a number of years that provide lessons 

learned in crisis management.6

 These promote awareness of basic crisis 

management principles.

Agency Comments and 

Our Evaluation

The Departments of Defense and State and USAID provided technical 

comments on the matters covered throughout this chapter. Based upon 

these comments, we made revisions, as appropriate. We also made 

revisions (primarily to the figure on WMD response teams) based upon the 

creation of the Department of Homeland Security and the transfer of 

various response teams and functions into that department.

5

 The Downing Assessment Task Force, also known as the Downing Commission because it 

was headed by General Wayne Downing, issued its report on Aug. 30, 1996.

6

 For example, see U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Diplomatic Security, Lessons 

Learned in Crisis Management 1983-1994, Feb. 1995, and Terrorist Tactics and Security 

Practices: Lessons Learned and Issues in Global Crime, 1994.
Page 184 GAO-03-165 Combating Terrorism

Appendix I

Matrix of Department of Defense Programs Apendxeis

and Activities to Combat Terrorism Overseas ApenIdxi

The Department of Defense (DOD) supports the Department of State, 

which is the lead federal agency for coordinating U.S. government efforts 

to combat terrorism overseas. Within the department, the military services 

as well as multiple offices and agencies manage various programs and 

activities to combat terrorism abroad. DOD also works with other 

U.S. government agencies, foreign government military organizations and 

agencies, and international organizations in carrying out these programs 

and activities. Some of these activities directed at combating terrorism 

overseas (e.g., coordination) may actually occur in the United States.

Appendix I identifies and describes the following:

• the strategic framework of DOD’s efforts to combat terrorism overseas;

• DOD’s programs and activities to detect and prevent terrorism overseas;

• DOD’s programs and activities to disrupt and destroy terrorist 

organizations overseas; and

• DOD’s programs and activities to respond to terrorist incidents 

overseas.

Table 10: Department of Defense Programs and Activities to Combat Terrorism Overseas

Department of Defense 

office or military service Program or activity Description of program or activity

STRATEGIC FRAMEWORK

Agency head’s role in combating terrorism

Office of the Secretary of 

Defense

The Secretary of Defense is 

the principal defense policy 

advisor to the President.

The Office of the Secretary of 

Defense is the principal staff 

element of the Secretary of 

Defense in the exercise of 

policy development, planning, 

resource management, fiscal, 

and program evaluation 

responsibilities.

The Secretary of Defense is responsible for supporting (1) the lead 

federal agency—the Department of State—in responding to a terrorist 

incident overseas, (2) the Department of Justice (through the Federal 

Bureau of Investigation (FBI)) for crisis management of a domestic 

terrorist incident, and (3) the Federal Emergency Management Agency 

(FEMA) for consequence management of a domestic terrorist incident.
Appendix I

Matrix of Department of Defense Programs 

and Activities to Combat Terrorism Overseas

Page 185 GAO-03-165 Combating Terrorism

Special agency official or office in charge of combating terrorism

Office of the Assistant 

Secretary of Defense for 

Special Operations and LowIntensity Conflict

Special operations and 

low-intensity conflict

Serves as the principal staff assistant and advisor to the Secretary of 

Defense and to the Under Secretary of Defense for Policy for the broad 

spectrum of combating terrorism policy and support.

Office of the Assistant to the 

Secretary of Defense for 

Homeland Defense

Civil support Serves as the focal point for the coordination of DOD efforts in 

preparation for requests from civilian agencies on weapons of mass 

destruction (WMD) consequence management. The Assistant to the 

Secretary of Defense for Homeland Defense provides civilian oversight 

for the Joint Task Force for Civil Support.

Chairman of the Joint Chiefs 

of Staff

Principal military advisor to 

the President, Secretary of 

Defense, and the National 

Security Council

Serves as the principal advisor and focal point to the Secretary of 

Defense for all DOD antiterrorism issues.

Office of the Under Secretary 

of Defense for Acquisition, 

Technology and Logistics

Acquisition, technology, and 

logistics

Responsible for the development, application, testing, and evaluation of 

new and commercial-off-the-shelf technology for combating terrorism.

Office of the Assistant 

Secretary of Defense for 

Command, Control, 

Communications, and 

Intelligence

Command, control, 

communications, and 

intelligence

Provides policy guidance and oversight for information, information 

technology and physical security programs, security and investigative 

matters, counterintelligence, DOD foreign counterintelligence, 

intelligence, and information operations programs.

Office of the Assistant 

Secretary of Defense for 

Reserve Affairs

Reserve affairs Provides policy direction and oversight of the military departments’ 

Reserve Component readiness/training policies and funding for Reserve 

Component domestic and overseas combating terrorism preparedness. 

The Assistant Secretary of Defense for Reserve Affairs also exercises 

policy direction and oversight for the Domestic Preparedness Program.

Office of the Assistant 

Secretary of Defense (Health 

Affairs)

Health affairs Supports the federal interagency process with medical research and 

development programs and interfaces with the National Disaster Medical 

System.

Service Secretaries 

(Secretaries of the Army, the 

Navy, and the Air Force)

Military services Establish and provide resources for combating terrorism programs, 

incorporating existing physical security, base defense, and law 

enforcement initiatives, which address terrorism as a potential threat to 

DOD elements and personnel, to include the Reserve Components.

Office of the Assistant to the 

Secretary of Defense for 

Homeland Defense

Domestic Preparedness 

Program and Consequence 

Management Program 

Integration Office

Develops and implements the Domestic Preparedness Program’s “first 

responder” training and exercise missions and manages the 

Consequence Management Program Integration Office.

Commanders of the 

combatant commands

Command policies and 

programs

Establish command policies and programs for the protection of all forces 

(military, civilian, and family members) and facilities in their area of 

responsibility to include assigned personnel, those under operational 

control, and individuals that fall under memorandums of understanding.

Joint Task Force for Civilian 

Support

Support to civilian agencies Responsible, through the Commander, Joint Forces Command, for 

marshalling the capabilities of the Armed Forces in support of civilian 

agencies responding to domestic consequence management 

contingencies involving weapons of mass destruction.

(Continued From Previous Page)

Department of Defense 

office or military service Program or activity Description of program or activity
Appendix I

Matrix of Department of Defense Programs 

and Activities to Combat Terrorism Overseas

Page 186 GAO-03-165 Combating Terrorism

Directors of defense agencies 

and field activities

Providing resources for 

combating terrorism programs

The directors establish and provide resources for combating terrorism 

programs, incorporating existing physical security programs with 

antiterrorism awareness, which address terrorism as a potential threat to 

DOD elements and personnel.

Agency plans or strategies to combat terrorism

Chairman of the Joint Chiefs 

of Staff

National Military Strategy of 

the United States of America

(Sept. 1997)

Sets the strategic direction for all aspects of the Armed Forces for 3-5 

years. This document includes objectives, force structure, capabilities, 

and the strategic environment. The most recent strategy (issued in 

September 1997) notes the rising danger of asymmetric threats, 

including terrorism. It stresses the need for the military to adapt its 

doctrine, training, and equipment to ensure a rapid and effective joint 

and interagency response to these threats.

Chairman of the Joint Chiefs 

of Staff

National Military Strategic 

Plan for the War on Terrorism

(Oct. 19, 2002)

Provides the strategic framework to guide the conduct of the global war 

on terrorism by the U.S. Armed Forces. This classified plan discusses 

the strategic environment and outlines national guidance to (1) defeat 

terrorists and terrorist organizations; (2) deny sponsorship, support, and 

sanctuary to terrorists; (3) diminish the underlying conditions that permit 

terrorism; and (4) defend the United States, its citizens, and its interests 

at home. This plan also provides defense guidance, including the 

national defense strategy and concept for the global war on terrorism. It 

lays out the strategic approach for the war on terrorism, identifies 

strategic military objectives, and provides the strategic military approach 

to carry out the war on terrorism over an extended period of time. The 

plan addresses planning for and establishing administrative and logistics 

systems and command and control for each contingency.

Rather than prescribing specific battle plans or future operations, the 

plan provides combatant commanders with principles for planning their 

military operations as well as specific tasks and initiatives to combat 

terrorism overseas. Also, it provides a framework from which regional 

commanders, the military services, and other agencies can formulate 

their own individual action plans. In response to this plan, individual 

regional commands have drafted their own classified campaign plans to 

combat terrorism overseas. 

Office of the Assistant 

Secretary of Defense for 

Special Operations and 

Low-Intensity Conflict

Combating Terrorism Program Includes all actions—(1) antiterrorism (defensive measures taken 

to reduce vulnerability to terrorist acts), (2) counterterrorism 

(offensive measures taken to prevent, deter, and respond to terrorism), 

(3) terrorism consequence management (preparation for and response 

to the consequences of a terrorist incident/event), and (4) intelligence 

support (collection and dissemination of terrorism-related information as 

the first line of defense)—taken to oppose terrorism throughout the entire 

threat spectrum, to include terrorist use of weapons of mass destruction 

and/or high explosives.

(Continued From Previous Page)

Department of Defense 

office or military service Program or activity Description of program or activity
Appendix I

Matrix of Department of Defense Programs 

and Activities to Combat Terrorism Overseas

Page 187 GAO-03-165 Combating Terrorism

Office of the Assistant 

Secretary of Defense for 

Special Operations and LowIntensity Conflict

DOD Directive 2000.12, DOD 

Antiterrorism/ Force 

Protection Program (Apr. 13, 

1999)

This directive (1) changes the name of the DOD Combating Terrorism 

Program to the DOD Antiterrorism/Force Protection Program, 

(2) updates DOD policies and assigns responsibilities for implementing 

the program, (3) authorizes publication of DOD standards and related 

guidance, (4) establishes the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff as the 

principal advisor and focal point for antiterrorism/force protection issues, 

and (5) defines antiterrorism/force protection responsibilities of the 

military departments, commanders of the combatant commands, and 

defense agencies.

This directive also establishes DOD policy, among other things, (1) to 

protect DOD elements and personnel from terrorist acts, (2) that 

antiterrorism/force protection is the commander’s responsibility, (3) to 

maintain a Combating Terrorism Readiness Initiatives Fund to respond 

to emergent, unforeseen requirements, and (4) to comply with the “No 

Double Standard” policy on dissemination of specific, credible terrorist 

threat information that has not or cannot be countered (i.e., it is the 

policy of the U.S. government that official Americans cannot benefit from 

receipt of information that might equally apply to the public, but is not 

available to the public).

Also, this directive established the Antiterrorism Coordination Committee 

and its Senior Steering Group to reduce vulnerabilities to terrorist 

attacks. Both act as a clearinghouse for policy recommendations and 

facilitate coordinating antiterrorism/force protection actions and taskings.

Office of the Assistant 

Secretary of Defense for 

Special Operations and 

Low-Intensity Conflict

DOD Instruction 2000.16, 

DOD Antiterrorism Standards

(June 14, 2001)

This instruction (1) reissues DOD Instruction 2000.16, DOD 

Antiterrorism Standards (Jan. 8, 2001), (2) updates policy 

implementation, (3) assigns responsibilities, (4) prescribes procedures 

under DOD Directive 2000.12, DOD Antiterrorism/Force Protection 

Program, for protection of personnel and assets from acts of terrorism, 

and (5) assists DOD components in implementing this instruction and 

DOD Directive 2000.12. It references DOD Instruction 5210.84, Security 

of DOD Personnel at U.S. Missions Abroad, which provides guidance for 

the security of DOD personnel at overseas locations. It also refers to 

specific guidance for DOD elements and personnel under the 

responsibility of the Department of State in the Memorandum of 

Understanding Between the Department of State and the Department of 

Defense on Overseas Security Support. Finally, it refers to specific 

common criteria and minimum construction standards to mitigate 

antiterrorism vulnerabilities and terrorist threats. 

This instruction reaffirms DOD’s policy to (1) protect DOD personnel, 

their families, installations, facilities, information, and other material 

resources from terrorist acts; (2) establish primary standards for 

antiterrorism efforts; and (3) provide commanders at all levels with the 

authority to enforce security measures and the responsibility for 

protecting persons and property under their control.

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Department of Defense 

office or military service Program or activity Description of program or activity
Appendix I

Matrix of Department of Defense Programs 

and Activities to Combat Terrorism Overseas

Page 188 GAO-03-165 Combating Terrorism

Office of the Assistant 

Secretary of Defense for 

Special Operations and 

Low Intensity Conflict

DOD Instruction 2000.14, 

DOD Combating Terrorism 

Program Procedures

(June 15, 1994)

This instruction establishes policy, assigns responsibility, and prescribes 

procedures under DOD Directive 0-2000.12, DOD Combating Terrorism 

Program, for implementation and use in the DOD Antiterrorism Program.

This instruction establishes DOD policy to (1) protect DOD personnel 

and their families, facilities, and other material resources from terrorist 

acts and, in the event of a terrorist attack, to respond with properly 

trained, organized, and equipped personnel (including local law 

enforcement or host nation assets) to terminate the incident or reduce 

the effects of the attack; (2) provide guidance on the conduct of DOD 

personnel and their families if seized by terrorists; (3) ensure actions to 

combat terrorism outside of the United States will comply with applicable 

Status of Forces Agreements, other international agreements, and 

memoranda of understanding, as well as coordinate with the U.S. 

embassy and host nation; and (4) coordinate defense attaché and 

security assistance organization antiterrorism programs overseas with 

the chief of mission at the U.S. embassy and comply with Department of 

State standards.

Office of the Under Secretary 

of Defense for Acquisition, 

Technology and Logistics

Unified Facilities Criteria 

4-010-01, DOD Minimum 

Antiterrorism Standards for 

Buildings (July 31, 2002)

Sets standards to minimize the possibility of mass casualties in buildings 

or portions of buildings owned, leased, privatized, or otherwise occupied, 

managed, or controlled by DOD. The standards provide a level of 

protection against terrorist attacks for all inhabited DOD buildings where 

no known threat of terrorist activity currently exists.

Office of the Under Secretary 

of Defense for Acquisition, 

Technology and Logistics

Unified Facilities Criteria 

4-010-10, DOD Minimum 

Antiterrorism Standoff 

Distances for Buildings

(July 31, 2002)

Identifies the minimum standoff distances and separation for new and 

existing buildings and expeditionary and temporary structures.

Office of the Under Secretary 

of Defense for Policy

DOD Directive 5200.8, 

Security of DOD Installations 

and Resources (Apr. 25, 

1991)

Outlines the requirements of DOD’s physical security program. 

Commanders at the unit, activity, installation, and major command levels 

use the standards outlined in this and other guidance documents to 

determine their physical security equipment requirements.

Office of the Under Secretary 

of Defense for Policy

DOD Regulation 5200.8-R, 

Physical Security Program

(May 13, 1991)

This regulation, in accordance with DOD Directive 5200.8, Security of 

DOD Installations and Resources, prescribes DOD policies and 

minimum standards for the physical protection of DOD personnel, 

installations, operations, and assets. The physical security program 

involves both active and passive measures designed to prevent 

unauthorized access to personnel, equipment, installations, material, 

and documents, and to safeguard them against espionage, sabotage, 

damage, and theft. The regulation provides policy and guidance on 

installation access and circulation control, security of weapons systems 

and platforms, protection of bulk petroleum products, security of 

communications systems, and security of material.

(Continued From Previous Page)

Department of Defense 

office or military service Program or activity Description of program or activity
Appendix I

Matrix of Department of Defense Programs 

and Activities to Combat Terrorism Overseas

Page 189 GAO-03-165 Combating Terrorism

Assistant to the Secretary of 

Defense (Atomic Energy)

DOD Directive 3150.3, 

Nuclear Force Security and 

Survivability (S2) (Aug. 16, 

1994)

This directive (1) reissues DOD Directive 3150.3, Survivability and 

Security (S2) of Nonstrategic Nuclear Forces (NSNF), to add strategic 

nuclear weapons and forces to the existing DOD Nonstrategic Nuclear 

Forces Program and update policy and responsibilities for nuclear force 

survivability and security; (2) describes the DOD program to develop 

concepts, procedures, equipment, facilities, and training programs that 

ensure the survivability and security of nuclear weapons systems 

throughout the threat spectrum, including terrorism; and (3) requires the 

military services to maintain nuclear force survivability and security 

programs.

Assistant Secretary of 

Defense for Command, 

Control, Communications, and 

Intelligence

DOD Directive 

C-5210.41-M, Nuclear 

Weapon Security Manual (U) 

(Apr. 1994)

This manual is a classified document.

Assistant Secretary of 

Defense for Command, 

Control, Communications, and 

Intelligence

DOD Regulation 5200.1-R, 

Information Security Program

(Jan. 14, 1997)

This regulation implements Executive Order 12958, Classified National 

Security Information, within DOD and establishes the DOD Information 

Security Program to promote proper and effective classification, 

protection, and downgrading of official information requiring protection 

and the declassification of information no longer requiring such 

protection.

Office of the Assistant 

Secretary of Defense for 

Special Operations and 

Low-Intensity Conflict

DOD Worldwide Combating 

Terrorism Conference

Serves as a continuing forum to communicate guidance, exchange 

ideas, and generate policy recommendations that will reduce DOD 

vulnerability to terrorism. The 2001 conference established seven 

working groups (Intelligence, Operations, Policy, Research and 

Development, Consequence Management, Resources, and Interagency 

Community).

Assistant Secretary of 

Defense for Command, 

Control, Communications, and 

Intelligence

DOD Directive 5240.2, DOD 

Counterintelligence (May 22, 

1997)

This directive, among other things, (1) integrates DOD 

counterintelligence capabilities and coordination procedures into a 

national counterintelligence structure under the direction of the National 

Security Council (NSC) under Presidential Decision Directive/NSC-24, 

U.S. Counterintelligence Effectiveness; (2) establishes and maintains a 

comprehensive, integrated, and coordinated counterintelligence effort 

within DOD; (3) assigns responsibilities for the direction, management, 

coordination, and control of DOD counterintelligence activities; and 

(4) establishes the Defense Counterintelligence Board.

This directive establishes DOD policy that, among other things, 

counterintelligence activities be undertaken to detect, identify, assess, 

exploit, and counter or neutralize the intelligence collection efforts, other 

intelligence activities, sabotage, terrorist activities, and assassination 

efforts of foreign powers, organizations, or persons directed against 

DOD, its personnel, information, materiel, facilities, and activities.

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Assistant Secretary of 

Defense for Command, 

Control, Communications, and 

Intelligence

DOD Instruction 5240.10, 

DOD Counterintelligence 

Support to Unified and 

Specified Commands

(Apr. 8, 1992)

This instruction (1) establishes policies, assigns responsibilities, and 

prescribes procedures to ensure that the counterintelligence 

requirements of the combatant commanders of the Unified and Specified 

Commands are met under the parameters established by law, Executive 

order, and DOD directives and (2) provides general principles for the 

command relationships and support requirements between the 

counterintelligence organizations of the military departments and the 

Unified and Specified Commands during peacetime, exercises, 

contingencies, and through the spectrum of armed conflict.

This instruction establishes DOD policy that, among other things, the 

counterintelligence mission is provided to all DOD components with the 

necessary counterintelligence support (the functions of collection and 

production, operations, and investigations) to gather information and 

conduct activities to protect against espionage and other intelligence 

activities, sabotage, international terrorist activities, or assassinations 

conducted for, or on behalf of, foreign powers, organizations, or persons.

DETECT AND PREVENT TERRORISM ABROAD

Antiterrorism/force protection

Local commander Antiterrorism/Force Protection 

(defensive measures)

Defensive measures (to include force protection) used to reduce the 

vulnerability of individuals and property to terrorist acts, to include limited 

response and containment by local military forces. Combatant 

commanders, military services, and defense agencies, working in close 

cooperation with the intelligence community and law enforcement 

agencies, will use all authorized means to deter, detect, defend, respond 

to, and mitigate terrorist attacks. These antiterrorist measures include 

increased security and vigilance for key personnel, installations, and 

equipment. Established Antiterrorism Coordination Committee and its 

Senior Steering Group.

Antiterrorism/force protection categories

Local commander Physical security equipment Any item, device, or system that is used primarily for the protection of 

assets, personnel, information, or facilities, to include alarms, sensors, 

protective lighting and their control systems and the assessment of the 

reliability, accuracy, timeliness, and effectiveness of those systems, 

such as (1) exterior surveillance and/or intrusion detection systems 

(wide-area security and surveillance systems); (2) lighting systems; 

(3) access controls and alarm systems; (4) residential security 

equipment; (5) equipment for executive protection, to include added 

doors, increased ballistic protection at offices and residences, personal 

body armor and protective equipment, and armored vehicles; and 

(6) detection devices (under vehicle surveillance systems) and 

canine systems.

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Local commander Physical security site 

improvements

Facility improvements using operations and maintenance or military 

construction funding, new construction, or new construction design, 

whose purpose is to protect DOD assets, personnel, or information 

from terrorist threats. The improvements may include walls, fences, 

barricades, or other fabricated or natural impediments used to restrict, 

limit, delay, or deny entry into a DOD installation or facility. Improvements 

may include (1) primary facility modifications/features that include 

special structural improvements to walls, doors, windows, and ceilings; 

interior barriers; and any land acquisition for standoff distances; 

(2) supporting facility modification/features, such as site improvements 

in fencing, perimeter/area lighting, blast mitigation barriers, vehicle 

barriers, and special landscaping; (3) safe havens; (4) evacuation 

facilities; and (5) surveillance platforms.

Local commander Physical security 

management and planning

Includes all personnel who manage physical security programs, 

resources, and assets, such as headquarters staff and headquarters 

staff elements performing such functions.

Local commander Security forces/technicians Personnel and operating costs associated with protective forces whose 

primary or supporting mission is to safeguard assets, personnel, and 

information. Security forces/technicians include personnel engaged in 

such activities as (1) dedicated response forces and security forces; 

(2) locksmiths; (3) perimeter, installation, or facility access control; 

(3) inspection and maintenance of barriers and security system 

components; (4) antiterrorism training for security forces; and 

(5) antiterrorism awareness programs and training.

Local commander Law enforcement Personnel and operating costs associated with any law enforcement 

activity, such as (1) protective service details, including advance work; 

(2) response forces; and (3) military police.

Local commander Security and investigative 

matters

Includes DOD criminal investigative resources, conduct of vulnerability 

assessments (periodic high-level reviews and physical security 

assessments), security and intelligence activities, and any crossdiscipline security functions, such as (1) terrorism investigations; 

(2) executive antiterrorism training; (3) surveillance and countersurveillance teams; (4) protective service details, including advance 

work; (5) route surveys; (6) antiterrorism awareness programs and 

training; and (7) Joint Staff Integrated Vulnerability Assessments.

Local commander Research, development, test, 

and evaluation (RDT&E)

Includes any RDT&E resources expended in the area of antiterrorism 

and force protection to provide new and enhanced capabilities to combat 

terrorism. The two primary programs are the Counterterror Technical 

Support Program and the Physical Security Equipment Development 

Program.

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Technical Support Working 

Group

Counterterror Technical 

Support Program

A fast-track research and development program for advanced 

technologies and state-of-the-art prototype equipment that addresses 

both interagency and international combating terrorism requirements. 

The Technical Support Working Group (TSWG)—the research and 

development arm of the National Security Council’s (NSC) Interagency 

Working Group on Counterterrorism— provides resources and program 

management. The Department of State provides policy oversight to 

TSWG, which is co-chaired by the Departments of Defense and 

Energy and the FBI. TSWG consists of over 50 federal government 

organizations that identify operational needs and coordinate research 

and development for combating terrorism. Typical TSWG projects 

include (1) stand-off explosive detection of terrorist devices, (2) large 

vehicle bomb countermeasures (detect and disable), (3) entry point 

screening, (4) structural blast mitigation, (5) national infrastructure 

assurance and protection, and (6) advanced sensor detection 

and defeat.

Physical Security Equipment 

Action Group

Physical Security Equipment 

Development Program

A research and development program designed to support the rapid 

acquisition and quick field integration of state-of-the-art security 

technology to deployed forces, in particular commercial off-the-shelf 

equipment. The Physical Security Equipment Action Group funds 

and provides resources to the program. The group consists of 

representatives from the Army, the Navy, the Air Force, the Joint Staff, 

and the Defense Threat Reduction Agency. The program evaluates, 

develops, and integrates equipment and systems related to (1) intrusion 

detection, (2) entry control, (3) access control, (4) waterside security, 

(5) delay/denial, (6) interior and exterior robotics, and (7) explosive 

detection systems. 

Vulnerability assessments

Chairman of the Joint Chiefs 

of Staff

Integrated Vulnerability 

Assessment Team

Ensures that commanders at all levels have an accurate awareness of 

the existing vulnerabilities and readiness of antiterrorism programs 

within their command. The assessments assist commanders in 

implementing risk management practices when allocating resources in a 

uniform and complementary fashion that are adaptable to changing 

terrorist threats. Approximately 96 assessments are planned for fiscal 

year 2003.

Antiterrorism activities

Office of the Deputy Assistant 

Secretary of Defense for 

Chemical and Biological 

Defense

Chemical, biological, and 

radiological monitoring, 

detection, and identification

Based on an assessment by the Strategic Deterrence Joint Warfighting 

Capabilities Assessment, a monitoring, detection, and identification 

package was developed for protection of the Pentagon and other 

strategic U.S. sites within the United States and in forward threat areas, 

including Northeast Asia and Southwest Asia. Equipment is to detect 

chemical and radiological agents. Systems include the Automatic 

Chemical Agent Detection Alarm and the Personnel and Vehicle Entry 

Radiological Detectors. According to DOD, detection capability for 

biological agents currently is limited to “detect to treat.” Emphasis is 

placed on monitoring, sampling, confirmatory analysis, and medical 

surveillance through such systems as Portal Shield, Joint Bio Point 

Detection System, Portable Bio Aerosol Sampler, Dry Filter Units, and 

Polymerase Chain Reaction Identification Devices.

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Military security assistance

Defense Security Cooperation 

Agency

Foreign Military Financing The Department of State provides grants to foreign governments for the 

acquisition of U.S. defense equipment, services, and military training, 

which enable key U.S. allies and friends to improve their defense 

capabilities. It promotes U.S. national security interests by contributing 

to global and regional stability, strengthening military support for 

democratically elected governments, and containing transnational 

threats, including terrorism. This security assistance is a key tool in 

supporting U.S. coalition partners in combating terrorism overseas. It 

reduces the likelihood of conflict and war that could threaten the United 

States. The Department of State’s Bureau of Political-Military Affairs sets 

policy for the program, while the Defense Security Cooperation Agency 

manages the program on a day-to-day basis. Security assistance offices 

within U.S. embassies abroad play a key role in managing the program 

within recipient countries.

Defense Security Cooperation 

Agency

Foreign Military Sales A U.S. security assistance program used to sell defense articles or 

services to authorized governments. The program is used to maintain 

close ties with neighbors and key allies, maintain stable and secure 

regional partners, and ensure regional stability. This program helps 

countries, such as the new members of the North Atlantic Treaty 

Organization (NATO), upgrade their military capabilities and achieve 

greater interoperability with U.S. and other alliance forces. Also, it helps 

strengthen the security and defense capabilities of recipient countries, 

whose support is crucial to combating terrorism. These countries 

include, for example, the new U.S. Central Asian and Caucasus partners 

in the war on terrorism. The Department of State’s Bureau of PoliticalMilitary Affairs approves foreign military sales, while security assistance 

offices at U.S. embassies abroad promote the sale of U.S.-produced 

defense items and carry out most of the tasks associated with foreign 

military sale cases. An implementing agency within DODthe Army, the 

Navy, the Air Force, or the Defense Logistics Agency, depending upon 

the type of item being considerednegotiates the terms of the sale. The 

Defense Security Cooperation Agency buys the items from U.S. 

manufacturers for the recipient country.

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Defense Security and 

Cooperation Agency

International Military 

Education and Training

Serves as a low-cost security assistance program intended to foster the 

development of more professional militaries around the world through 

training and education of foreign military and civilian personnel. The 

program provides training on a grant basis to some 10,000 students 

annually from 133 allied and friendly countries. Formal instruction is 

provided through more than 2,000 courses taught at about 150 U.S. 

military schools and installations. The program advances U.S. interests 

in furthering regional stability by enhancing military alliances, building 

coalitions, and strengthening efforts to combat terrorism abroad.

DOD plans and manages the program through the Defense Security and 

Cooperation Agency, which works with the various military departments 

and unified military commands to implement the program. Coordination 

of the program overseas is handled by DOD’s security assistance offices 

located in U.S. embassies around the world, which field requests from 

their host countries to participate in the program.

Enhancing military professionalism is intended to make militaries more 

efficient, effective, and interoperable with U.S. and NATO forces as well 

as regional coalitions. Also, it fosters a better understanding of 

democratic values, including civilian rule of the military, belief in the rule 

of law, and respect for internationally recognized civil and human rights. 

Finally, the program’s development of professional and personal militaryto-military relationships provide U.S. access and influence to a critical 

sector of society that can help support U.S. access to foreign military 

bases and facilities—a critical component in efforts to combat terrorism 

overseas.

Embassy security

U.S. Marine Corps Protection of information at 

U.S. diplomatic missions 

overseas

U.S. Marine security guards control access to 130 U.S. embassies and 

missions worldwide.

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Military training (with foreign governments)

U.S. Special Operations 

Command

Joint Combined Exchange 

and Training

Provides U.S. special operations forces opportunities to develop and 

maintain their skills and to train foreign militaries and other groups 

to combat terrorism overseas, among other missions. U.S. special 

operations forces are tasked with nine principal missions to (1) train 

and otherwise assist foreign militaries to combat insurgency and 

other threats to stability (foreign internal defense); (2) train, advise, 

and otherwise assist local forces for guerilla warfare (unconventional 

warfare); (3) protect against and prevent the spread of nuclear, chemical, 

and biological weapons (counterproliferation); (4) use offensive and 

defensive measures to prevent or resolve terrorist incidents (combating 

terrorism); (5) obtain information concerning capabilities and activities of 

actual or potential adversaries (special reconnaissance); (6) inflict 

damage on an adversary or recover personnel or material (direct action); 

(7) target an adversary’s information system while defending U.S. 

systems (information operations); (8) establish, maintain, or strengthen 

relations between U.S. and allied governments to facilitate military 

operations (civil affairs); and (9) influence attitudes of foreign audiences 

(psychological operations). Specific Joint Combined Exchange and 

Training operations and activities are classified.

U.S. European Command Republic of Georgia Train and 

Equip Program

Enhances the Republic of Georgia’s counter-terrorism capabilities. The 

program’s goal is to build strong effective staff organizations capable of 

creating and sustaining standardized operating procedures, training 

plans, operational plans, and a property accounting system. The 

curriculum consists of performance-oriented training and exercises. The 

time-phased training will be conducted by U.S. Special Forces to build 

upon the military-to-military relationship developed between the two 

countries. The program will consist of command center staff training for 

members of the Georgian Ministry of Defense as well as training for units 

of the Land Forces Command. Border guards and other Georgian 

security agencies will be included to ensure interoperability among 

Georgia’s security forces. Almost 200 Georgians have completed the 

staff-training phase and about 500 are completing the light-infantry 

tactics training. Military equipment to be provided will include uniform 

items, small arms and ammunition, communications gear, training gear, 

medical gear, fuel, and construction material.

U.S. Pacific Command U.S. Special Operations 

Forces Training for the 

Philippines

Develops a counter-terrorist capability within the Philippines armed 

forces through the Foreign Military Financing program. The U.S. Pacific 

Command deployed a Joint Task Force advisory team to the southern 

Philippines to begin preparations. It is composed of U.S. Special 

Operations personnel and provides training at the command level at 

headquarters through the company level in the field. The training 

emphasizes joint operations and tactics to help eliminate terrorist 

threats. Training includes counterterrorism campaign planning, 

intelligence fusion, psychological operations, civil-military operations, 

and filed tactics. U.S. Special Operations personnel completed training 

with 25 field companies and provided equipment that included aircraft, 

Coast Guard cutters, and helicopters.

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U.S. Special Operations 

Command

U.S. Special Operations 

Forces Training for Yemen

U.S. Special Forces trained approximately 200 Yemeni military forces in 

counterterrorism tactics.

Border security

U.S. Air Force Combat Air Patrols Provides protection of U.S. air space.

DISRUPT AND DESTROY TERRORIST ORGANIZATIONS ABROAD

Counterterrorism

Office of the Assistant 

Secretary of Defense for 

Special Operations and LowIntensity Conflict

Counterterrorism (offensive 

measures)

Offensive measures taken to prevent, deter, and respond to terrorism. 

The Nunn-Cohen Amendment of the Goldwater-Nichols Act of 1986 

established the (1) U.S. Special Operations Command, (2) Assistant 

Secretary of Defense for Special Operations/Low-Intensity Conflict, 

(3) coordinating board for low-intensity conflict within the NSC, and 

(4) created a new Major Force Program for special operations forces 

resources. Also, the act included counterterrorism activity for special 

operations.

Counterterrorism categories

U.S. Special Operations 

Command

Special Operations Forces U.S. Special Operations Forces conduct offensive counterterrorism 

measures and operations directed at preventing, deterring, and 

responding to terrorist acts against U.S. interests worldwide. 

U.S. Special Operations Forces receive the most advanced and 

diverse training available and exercise continually, often with foreign 

counterparts, to maintain proficiency and develop new skills.

Regional Special Operations 

Commands

Special Operations Forces 

and Geographic Combatant 

Commands

Regional Special Operations Commands are subordinate unified 

commands assigned to the Geographic Combatant Commands. The 

Regional Special Operations Commands plan, prepare, and conduct 

special operations, including counterterrorism, within the Geographic 

Combatant Commander’s area of responsibility. The Regional Special 

Operations Commands also provide a trained, operationally ready, and 

deployable Joint Special Operations Task Force headquarters that can 

respond rapidly to terrorism using forces assigned permanently or 

temporarily to the Geographic Combatant Commander.

U.S. Army Special Operations 

Command

Special Operations Forces The command is responsible to the U.S. Special Operations Command 

for the readiness of Special Forces, Rangers, special operations aviation 

units, psychological operations units, and civil affairs personnel for 

deployment worldwide in support of unified combatant commanders. The 

command is headquartered at Fort Bragg, N.C., and has both active and 

U.S. Army Reserve special operations forces. 

Naval Special Warfare 

Command

Special Operations Forces The command is responsible to the U.S. Special Operations Command 

for the readiness of active and reserve naval special warfare forces. The 

command deploys SEAL, Special Boat, SEAL Delivery Vehicle teams, 

and other Naval Special Warfare Detachments worldwide and 

administratively supports forward-based naval special warfare units. The 

command is located at the Coronado Naval Amphibious Base in 

Coronado, Calif.

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U.S. Air Force Special 

Operations Command

Special Operations Forces The command is responsible to the U.S. Special Operations Command 

for the readiness of Air Force active, reserve, and National Guard special 

operations forces for deployment worldwide. The command consists of 

three special operations wings, two special operations groups, and one 

special tactics group. The command is located at Hurlburt Field, Fla.

U.S. Air Force Transportation support to the 

Foreign Emergency Support 

Team

Provides transport capability to the Foreign Emergency Support Team 

(FEST) through use of two C-32B (Boeing 757-200) aircraft. The U.S. Air 

Force supports worldwide operations to select U.S. government 

agencies on the recommendation of the Deputies Committee and 

approval by the Secretary of Defense.

Office of the Assistant 

Secretary of Defense for 

Special Operations and 

Low-Intensity Conflict

RDT&E Like the antiterrorism component, the counterterrorism component has 

two RDT&E programs as well: (1) Counterterror Technical Support 

Program (renamed the Combating Terrorism Technology Support 

Program) and (2) Counterproliferation Support to Special Operations 

Forces program. Program management is provided by the Combating 

Terrorism Technology Support Office, which is staffed through the 

U.S. Navy.

Office of the Assistant 

Secretary of Defense for 

Special Operations and LowIntensity Conflict

Counterterror Technical 

Support Program (renamed 

the Combating Terrorism 

Technology Support Program)

Originally established to help fund research and development 

activities of the TSWG, this program was renamed and enlarged to 

fund its international component and to better focus DOD’s research 

and development efforts on counterterrorism, which includes 

countermeasures for weapons of mass destruction. In addition to the 

research and development initiatives discussed above, this program 

also encompasses counterterrorism requirements. Projects include 

(1) improved audio and video surveillance of terrorists; (2) advanced 

night vision capabilities; (3) through-wall-imaging capability for use by 

tactical forces; (4) small, hand-held gamma and neutron radiation 

detector; and (5) diagnostic equipment for improvised devices.

Office of the Assistant 

Secretary of Defense for 

Special Operations and LowIntensity Conflict

Counterproliferation Support 

to Special Operations Forces

A specialized RDT&E program to develop and demonstrate special 

operations forces unique devices. These projects enable Special 

Operations Forces and special mission units to detect, disable, and 

neutralize weapons of mass destruction and their associated facilities 

under the direction of a geographic combatant commander in support of 

a Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Concept Plan. These devices are 

employed by Special Operations Forces units with direct application 

to the nation’s efforts to counter the spread of weapons of mass 

destruction. Efforts include (1) defeat of hard and deeply buried targets; 

(2) explosive ordnance disposal (biological, chemical, and nuclear); and 

(3) maritime efforts to prevent the spread of WMD technology or systems 

using the sea lanes.

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Defense Advanced Research 

Projects Agency

Counterterrorism research 

and development

Conducts research and development on ways to counter asymmetric 

threats and an unconventional, yet highly lethal attack by a loosely 

organized group of transnational terrorists or other factions seeking to 

influence U.S. policy. Such attacks occur using equipment that has a 

smaller mass, exhibit fewer observables, and are more lethal than a 

conventional military attack. Consequently, such evidence is more 

difficult to detect, correlate, and understand. Specific needs include the 

capability to (1) automatically recognize and identify humans at a 

distance; (2) detect an enemy agent conducting surveillance of a 

U.S. target; (3) automatically discover, extract, and link together sparse 

evidence of a group’s intentions and activities from vast amounts of 

classified and unclassified information and sources that lead to the 

discovery of additional relationships and patterns of activity that 

correspond to unusual events, potential threats, or planned attacks; 

(4) more precisely model the beliefs and organizational behavior of small 

terrorist groups to better simulate and wargame such adversaries; and 

(5) provide more effective collaborative reasoning and decision aids to 

improve the speed and effectiveness of teams of analysts and 

decision makers in ever-changing situations.

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Military operations

U.S. Central Command Operation Enduring Freedom Since the coordinated terrorist attacks against the United States on 

September 11, 2001, the U.S. Central Command has been conducting 

Operation Enduring Freedom with its coalition partners, which now 

number 51 other countries, to disrupt and destroy global terrorist 

organizations. The initial focus of Operation Enduring Freedom was 

on Afghanistan to destroy the base of the al Qaeda terrorist organization 

and replace the Taliban regime that supported al Qaeda. These 

objectives largely have been met in Afghanistan. 

Combined Joint Task Force 180 (see below), which took direct control of 

operations in Afghanistan in June 2002, continues this mission. It also is 

conducting operations to ensure that Afghanistan will not again be a safe 

haven for terrorists and to facilitate the reintroduction of Afghanistan into 

the community of nations.

The U.S. Central Command’s operations in Afghanistan have been 

complemented by cooperative efforts with Pakistan to eliminate the 

al Qaeda organization in Pakistan. According to the U.S. Central 

Command, these efforts have led to the capture of hundreds of al Qaeda 

and Taliban members, including very senior members of the al Qaeda 

organization. This cooperation continues to degrade the al Qaeda 

organization and is a critical component in its ultimate defeat.

Operation Enduring Freedom also involves numerous other activities, 

including bilateral cooperation with most of the countries within the 

U.S. Central Command’s area of responsibility, Maritime Interception 

Operations to intercept al Qaeda movement and communications, and 

maintaining a quick strike capability against fleeing al Qaeda targets 

within the command’s area of responsibility. Maritime Interception 

Operations involve a high-level of coalition cooperation. The entire 

Maritime Interdiction Operation in the Horn of Africa region is a coalition 

operation under Combined Task Force 150.

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U.S. Central Command Combined Joint Task Force−

Horn of Africa

To detect, disrupt, and defeat terrorists who pose an imminent threat to 

coalition partners in the Horn of Africa region (Kenya, Somalia, Ethiopia, 

Sudan, Eritrea, Djibouti, and Yemen). In November 2002, Combined 

Joint Task Force−Horn of Africa was established to carry out Operation 

Enduring Freedom in that portion of the U.S. Central Command’s area of 

responsibility that previously was conducted directly by the command. 

Particular attention is focused on U.S. cooperation with Yemen.

The Combined Joint Task Force−Horn of Africa acts on credible 

intelligence to attack, destroy, and/or capture terrorists and their support 

networks in the region. It also works with host nations to deny the 

reemergence of terrorist cells and activities by supporting international 

agencies working to enhance long-term stability for the region. Currently, 

the headquarters element has about 400 members representing each 

military service, civilian personnel, and coalition force representatives 

afloat aboard the USS Mount Whitney, which operates in the Gulf of 

Aden. An additional 900 personnel are stationed ashore at Camp 

Lemonier in Djibouti. The headquarters element will transition ashore to 

Camp Lemonier, Djibouti, in the spring of 2003.

U.S. Central Command Combined Joint Task Force 

150

Constitutes a flotilla of coalition warships from France, Germany, Spain, 

the United Kingdom, and the United States in searching for terrorist 

operatives and contraband while patrolling the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, 

and Indian Ocean areas around the Horn of Africa. Combined Joint Task 

Force 150 is based in Djibouti.

U.S. Central Command Combined Joint Task Force 

180

Serves as the forward headquarters of the primary U.S. force in 

Afghanistan. Combined Joint Task Force 180 is located at Bagram 

Airfield outside of Kabul, Afghanistan. (See Operation Enduring Freedom 

above.)

U.S. Central Command Operation Iraqi Freedom Ongoing operations in Iraq are designed to eliminate potential sources of 

weapons of mass destruction for international terrorists as well as 

eliminating the regimea long-time supporter of terrorism. As part of 

Operation Iraqi Freedom, a group directly related to al Qaeda in northern 

Iraq already has been largely eliminated. The full impact of successful 

operations in Iraq in the war on terrorism will not be known until the 

operation is over. However, as a result of the operations, the U.S. Central 

Command expects to significantly enhance its ability to defeat 

international terrorism.

Intelligence on terrorist groups and threat assessments

Defense Intelligence Agency Intelligence Support to 

Combating Terrorism (first line 

of defense)

Collection, analysis, and dissemination of all-source intelligence on 

terrorist groups and activities intended to protect, deter, preempt, or 

counter the terrorist threat to U.S. personnel, forces, critical 

infrastructures, and interests.

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DOD National Foreign Intelligence 

Program

This program has two mission areas: (1) Support to Military 

Operations, Force Protection, and (2) Support to Law Enforcement, 

Counterterrorism.

The Support to Military Operations, Force Protection, mission area 

includes the personnel and funding for intelligence activities associated 

with protecting lives and property, reducing risks, and expanding 

opportunities for operation success through early detection and 

definition of threats to U.S. forces. Its focus is on gathering information 

on terrorist activities aimed at U.S. personnel, forces, critical 

infrastructures, and interests.

The Support to Law Enforcement, Counterterrorism, mission area 

includes the personnel and funding for intelligence activities associated 

with gathering information on any foreign terrorist activity aimed at U.S. 

personnel or interests, in support of a well-coordinated use of diplomatic, 

intelligence, law enforcement, and military assets.

U.S. Army, Deputy Chief of 

Staff for Intelligence, 

Counterintelligence/ Human 

Intelligence Division, and U.S. 

Marine Corps, Headquarters, 

Intelligence Department, 

Director of Intelligence

Tactical Counterintelligence Defense intelligence support to combating terrorism includes personnel 

and funding associated with U.S. Army and U.S. Marine Corps tactical 

counterintelligence resources, U.S. Army security and intelligence 

activities, Tactical Intelligence and Related Activities, and Joint Military 

Intelligence Program activities.

Counterintelligence activities include, for example, (1) terrorism 

investigations, (2) surveillance and countersurveillance teams, 

(3) counterterrorism analysis and production, (4) force protection source 

operations, (5) threat assessments, (6) counterterrorism collection, 

(7) route surveys, and (8) intelligence staff support to deployed task 

forces.

U.S. Army Counterintelligence activities Conducts comprehensive and coordinated counterintelligence activities 

worldwide to detect, identify, assess, counter, neutralize, and/or exploit 

threat intelligence and international terrorist collection efforts and 

activities. The U.S. Army’s counterintelligence mission is to support force 

protection and antiterrorism efforts. It supports the command’s 

responsibility to protect personnel, equipment, and facilities against 

foreign intelligence services and international terrorist threats. The U.S. 

Army’s Deputy Chief of Staff for Intelligence, Counterintelligence/Human 

Intelligence Division has management oversight of the U.S. Army’s 

program.

U.S. Marine Corps Counterintelligence activities Collects, produces, and disseminates counterintelligence information 

and conducts activities to protect commands against espionage, other 

intelligence activities, sabotage, assassinations, or terrorist activities 

conducted by or on behalf of foreign governments, foreign organizations, 

or foreigners. Counterterrorism support is provided to the service, joint 

combatant, and operational commanders through counterintelligence 

investigations; operations; collections and reporting; and analysis, 

production, and dissemination. The Director of Intelligence, Intelligence 

Department, Headquarters, U.S. Marine Corps, Washington, D.C., 

provides program and policy guidance.

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RESPOND TO TERRORIST INCIDENTS ABROAD

Terrorism consequence managementa

U.S. Army, Office of the 

Director, Operations, 

Readiness, and Mobilization; 

Military Support Division, 

Operation Directorate; and the 

U.S. Army Soldier and 

Biological Chemical 

Command, Aberdeen Proving 

Ground, Md.

U.S. Marine Corps, Marine 

Corps Systems Command, 

Quantico, Va.

U.S. Navy, Combatant 

Commander, Atlantic 

Command, Norfolk, Va.

U.S. Air Force, Readiness and 

Installation Support Division, 

Air Force Deputy Chief of Staff 

for Installations and Logistics, 

and Force Protection Division, 

Office of the Air Force 

Surgeon General

Assistant Secretary of 

Defense for Health Affairs, 

Services’ Surgeon General’s 

Offices, and local 

commanders

Terrorism Consequence 

Management Response

Terrorism consequence management is an emerging component in 

DOD’s efforts to combat terrorism. DOD focuses its terrorism 

consequence management activities in two areas: (1) installation 

preparedness and (2) support to the lead federal agency. Under this 

component, DOD brings to the interagency arena a wide variety of 

unique warfighting technical and operational support capabilities that 

could be used to provide assistance to state and local authorities, if 

requested by the lead federal agency. DOD’s response assets are found 

in both its Active and Reserve Components. DOD’s role is to support 

the lead federal agency: the Department of State for terrorist incidents 

overseas, the Department of Justice (through the FBI) for crisis 

management of domestic terrorist incidents, and FEMA for consequence 

management of domestic terrorist incidents. DOD’s focus is to provide 

assistance using its unique resources and capabilities, which are not 

found in the other federal agencies. These include the ability to mass 

mobilize and provide extensive logistical support. Because DOD’s assets 

are structured, manned, and equipped for a warfighting mission, the 

Secretary of Defense must first determine that DOD’s special capabilities 

and expertise are both necessary and critical to respond to an act of 

terrorism and that the provision of such assistance will not adversely the 

military preparedness of the U.S. Armed Forces.

In foreign consequence management, DOD cooperates closely with the 

Department of State. Regional combatant commands are conducting 

exercises of their functional consequence management plans, both in 

combined capacity with partner nations in their areas of responsibility 

and with interagency counterparts.

Terrorism consequence management-installation preparedness

Office of the Assistant 

Secretary of Defense for 

Special Operations and LowIntensity Conflict

Deputy Secretary of Defense 

Memorandum, Preparedness 

of U.S. Military Installations 

and Facilities Worldwide 

Against Chemical, Biological, 

Radiological, Nuclear, and 

High-Yield Explosive Attack

(Sept. 5, 2002)

Establishes the DOD policy to protect personnel on military installations 

and DOD-owned or leased facilities against chemical, biological, 

radiological, nuclear, and high-yield explosive attacks; to respond to 

these attacks with trained and equipped emergency responders; and 

to ensure installations are able to continue critical operations during 

an attack and to resume essential operations after an attack. The 

memorandum also promulgated the actions necessary to accomplish 

this policy in terms of (1) installation preparedness, (2) personnel 

protection, (3) concept of operations, (4) standards and guidelines, and 

(5) budget and programs.

Military services Installation First Response 

Preparedness

This was a new initiative in fiscal year 2001. The military services 

were directed to develop requirements, train personnel, and procure 

equipment for first response preparedness at DOD installations and 

facilities.

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U.S. Army Deputy Chief of 

Staff for Operations and Plans

Installation Preparedness 

Program (planned)

Conducts a complete assessment of U.S. Army installations WMD 

preparedness. Also included are training, exercise, and equipment 

packages to prepare installation first responders for WMD incidents on 

and off post. The Director of Operations, Readiness, and Mobilization is 

the U.S. Army’s Action Agent for this program.

U.S. Navy First Responder 

Preparedness

Provides planning, training, medical equipment, and non-medical 

equipment for personnel who will respond to chemical, biological, and 

radiological incidents.

U.S. Air Force Disaster Response Force Provides planning, training, exercise, and response equipment for the 

Disaster Response Force to respond to a WMD incident. First 

responders include security forces, fire department, medical personnel, 

and Explosive Ordnance Disposal personnel. The U.S. Air Force 

program includes conducting and evaluating training and exercises for 

base and headquarters personnel, support for formal and supplemental 

training courses, developing and evaluating response plans, and other 

associated activities required to implement the WMD Threat Response 

Program. Only 11 U.S. Air Force installations will be funded over 7 years 

(beginning in fiscal year 2001).

Defense Advanced Research 

Projects Agency

RDT&E Like the antiterrorism and counterterrorism components, the 

consequence management component has its own RDT&E programs: 

(1) Counterterror Technical Support Program and (2) Defense Advanced 

Research Projects Agency (DARPA) Biological Warfare Defense 

Program.

Defense Advanced Research 

Projects Agency

Counterterror Technical 

Support Program

Research and development initiatives to support all facets of combating 

terrorism. Projects that specifically address consequence management 

requirements include (1) protective clothing, (2) forensics equipment for 

on-scene analysis, (3) responder databases, and (4) urban modeling.

Defense Advanced Research 

Projects Agency

Biological Warfare Defense 

Program

Applied research program to develop and demonstrate technologies to 

thwart the use of biological warfare agents (including bacterial, viral, and 

bio-engineered organisms and toxins) by both military and terrorist 

opponents (against U.S. assets at both home and abroad). DARPA’s 

primary strategy is to create technologies applicable to broad classes of 

pathogens and toxins. The program is focused on supporting the 

warfighter; however, many of the technologies also have applicability as 

a supporting element of DOD’s combating terrorism activities.

Projects include (1) real-time environmental sensing; (2) external 

protection (including novel methods of protection, air and water 

purification, and decontamination); (3) consequence management tools; 

(4) advanced medical diagnostics for the most virulent pathogens and 

their molecular mechanisms; (5) pre- and post-exposure medical 

countermeasures; and (6) pathogen genomic sequencing.

The program collaborates with pharmaceutical, biotechnology, 

government, and academic centers of excellence. The program also is 

closely coordinated with the Defense Threat Reduction Agency, the Food 

and Drug Administration, the Centers for Disease Control and 

Prevention, the Department of Energy (DOE), and the intelligence 

community.

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DOD terrorism consequence management support to lead federal agency and response assets

DOD Joint Task Force for Civil 

Support

Plans and carries out military assistance to civil authorities for 

consequence management of WMD incidents. It supports the lead 

federal agency, establishes command and control of designated DOD 

forces, and provides military assistance to civil authorities to save lives, 

prevent human suffering, and provide temporary critical life support. It 

consists of a headquarters element with an operational focus, but has no 

assigned forces. The Joint Task Force for Civil Support could deploy 

overseas 60 dedicated personnel, who are located at Fort Monroe, Va.

U.S. Army Chemical-Biological Rapid 

Response Team

Coordinates and integrates DOD’s technical assistance for the detection, 

neutralization, containment, dismantlement, and disposal of weapons of 

mass destruction containing chemical, biological, or related materials. 

Assists first responders in dealing with consequence management. 

Operational control is exercised by the (1) supported commander, 

(2) Joint Special Operations Task Force, (3) Joint Task Force for Civil 

Support, or (4) Response Task Force. The Chemical-Biological Rapid 

Response Team could deploy overseas 14 dedicated personnel. They 

are located at Aberdeen Proving Grounds, Md.

Defense Threat Reduction 

Agency

Defense Nuclear Advisory 

Team

Provides unique nuclear-related technical assistance to the Response 

Task Force or the lead federal agency. Teams consist of health 

physicists, radiation physicians, legal advisors, and other related 

professionals. The team can deploy within 4 hours.

Defense Threat Reduction 

Agency

Consequence Management 

Advisory Team

Assists other DOD organizations in matters involving weapons of mass 

destruction and radiological accidents and incidents. The agency 

maintains a deployable Consequence Management Advisory Team that 

provides technical, consequence management planning, weapons 

effects modeling, general counsel, public affairs, and health physics 

expertise to augment commanders’ staffs. The team also has a reachback capability to more robust technical resources within the agency. 

The team is a formal part of the Joint Forces Command Joint Technical 

Augmentation Cell for continental United States consequence 

management response. It also augments the Joint task Force-Civil 

Support for U.S.-based response. Because team members are assigned 

additional full-time duties within the Defense Threat Reduction Agency, 

no dedicated manpower is associated with this team.

U.S. Air Force Radiological Assessment 

Team

A rapidly deployable team with the personnel and equipment necessary 

to respond to accidents or incidents involving radioactive materials. The 

team can provide in-depth technical assistance in identifying the 

immediate health risks associated with radiological threats. The team is 

located at Brooks Air Force Base, Tex., and could deploy within 72 hours.

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U.S. Army 52nd Ordnance Group 

(Explosive Ordnance 

Disposal)

Provides military explosive ordnance disposal/bomb squad units to 

defeat or mitigate the hazards from conventional, nuclear, or chemical 

military munitions and weapons of mass destruction. Three Explosive 

Ordnance Disposal companies have unique counter booby trap 

equipment and are trained to operate specialized equipment provided by 

the Department of Energy (DOE) for diagnostics and rendersafe/mitigation of a nuclear device. The 52nd Ordnance Group’s three 

companies could be deployed overseas. They are located in San Diego, 

Calif.; San Antonio, Tex.; and at Fort Belvoir, Va.

U.S. Army Technical Escort Unit Provides worldwide, no-notice capability to provide advice, detection, 

field sampling, field verification, assessment, monitoring, render-safe, 

decontamination, recovery, packaging, transportation, and escort of 

weaponized and non-weaponized chemical and biological materials, 

devices, or hazards. The Technical Escort Unit has approximately 190 

military and civilian personnel that could be deployed overseas. They are 

located at Aberdeen Proving Grounds, Md.; Fort Belvoir, Va.; Pine Bluff 

Arsenal, Ark.; and Dugway Proving Grounds, Utah.

U.S. Army Edgewood Chemical and 

Biological Forensic Analytical 

Center Modular On-site 

Laboratory

Provides on-site laboratory capability to analyze chemical safety 

materials, foreign chemical warfare agents, and other hazardous 

industrial chemicals. The laboratory consists of a series of transportable 

modules that contain analytical instruments and their own electrical 

generators. Five personnel accompany the laboratory, including 

chemists and sampling technicians. The on-site laboratory can be 

deployed within 4 hours.

U.S. Army U.S. Army Medical Research 

Institute of Chemical Defense, 

Medical Chemical Biological 

Advisory Team

Provides the primary source of medical information dealing with the 

management of chemical warfare agent casualties for the federal 

government. The team assists the WMD incident commander by 

identifying the medical implications to military and/or civilian operations 

and advising on the initial and long-term management of chemical 

casualties at the incident site. The team also supervises the collection of 

biological samples (bodily fluids) for subsequent verification of chemical 

agent exposure that can be used to facilitate confirmation, diagnosis, 

and treatment.

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U.S. Army U.S. Army Medical Research 

Institute of Infectious 

Diseases

Conducts research to develop strategies, products, procedures, and 

training programs for medical defense against biological warfare threats 

and infectious diseases. Also, it develops vaccines, drugs, diagnostic 

tests, and medical management procedures to protect military personnel 

against biological attack or endemic infectious diseases. It provides 

medical and scientific experts and technical guidance to commanders on 

the prevention and treatment of hazardous diseases and management of 

biological casualties. It serves as DOD’s reference center for the 

identification of biological agents. Primary capabilities are technical 

expertise, extensive laboratory facilities, and the Aeromedical Isolation 

Team, which is a rapid response unit that can deploy to any area of the 

world to transport and provide patient care under high containment of 

contagious and dangerous diseases. The team has a limited capability, 

equipment, and staff and is not geared to handle mass casualties. No 

personnel are assigned directly to the Aeromedical Isolation Team. 

When deployed, the team would consist of two elements, each capable 

of transporting only one patient. The institute is located at Fort Detrick, 

Md.

U.S. Army Special Medical Augmentation 

Response TeamNuclear/ 

Biological/Chemical

Provides technical advice in the detection, neutralization, and 

containment of chemical, biological, or radiological hazardous materials 

in a terrorist event. The Special Medical Augmentation Response 

TeamNuclear/ Biological/Chemical has six teams, located at various 

sites, which could be deployed overseas. Six members per team have 

these collateral duties.

U.S. Army Special Medical Augmentation 

Response Team AeroMedical Isolation

Provides a rapid response evacuation unit to any area of the world to 

transport and provide patient care under conditions of biological 

containment to service members or U.S. civilians exposed to certain 

contagious and highly dangerous diseases. The Special Medical 

Augmentation Response TeamAero-Medical Isolation includes 

approximately 20 personnel who have this collateral duty that could be 

deployed overseas. They are stationed at Fort Detrick, Md.

U.S. Army Radiological Advisory Medical 

Team

Assists and furnishes radiological health hazard guidance to the onscene commander, U.S. Army Response Task Force (discussed below), 

or local medical authorities at an incident site and the installation medical 

authority. The Radiological Advisory Medical Team has 8-10 personnel 

who have these collateral duties and could be deployed overseas. They 

are located at Walter Reed Army Medical Center in Washington, D.C.

U.S. Army and U.S. Navy Radiological Control Teams Provides radiological monitoring support and advice to the U.S. Army 

Response Task Force (discussed above). The teams are capable of 

deploying within several hours. The teams are located at Fort 

Monmouth, N.J., and Norfolk, Va.

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U.S. Marine Corps Chemical-Biological Incident 

Response Force

A highly trained, rapid response force that is capable of providing 

consequence management for terrorist-initiated chemical and biological 

attacks to mitigate the effects of multiple/mass casualty incidents. It also 

provides force protection in the event of a terrorist incident, domestically 

or overseas. Capabilities include threat identification, casualty extraction, 

personnel decontamination, and medical triage/treatment/ stabilization. 

The force also maintains an information “reach-back” capability to 

chemical/biological subject matter and disaster response experts for 

consultation. The Marine Corps Systems Command at Quantico, Va., 

manages the program. The force is a national asset that operationally 

falls under the Joint Forces Command. The Chemical-Biological Incident 

Response Force has 373 dedicated personnel who could be deployed 

overseas. They are located at Indian Head, Md.

U.S. Navy U.S. Navy Environmental and 

Preventive Medical Unit, 

Chemical, Biological, 

Radiological, Environmental 

Defense Response Team

Provides doctors, industrial hygienists, environmental health officers, 

microbiologists, preventive medical technicians, and other related 

professional who could be deployed in response to an incident. Teams 

remain on alert for a rapid response and can advise the Chemical/ 

Biological Rapid Response Team and local public health authorities and 

augment other Chemical/Biological Rapid Response Team medical 

assets.

U.S. Navy U.S. Navy Medical Research 

Institute

Provides a transportable biological field laboratory that is capable of 

rapid identification of biological warfare agent. With a team of two 

operators, the laboratory can be ready to deploy within 4 hours.

Assistant Secretary of 

Defense (Health Affairs)

Response Teams Provide short-duration medical augmentation to federal and defense 

agencies responding to disaster, humanitarian, and emergency 

incidents. Response Teams are composed of medical experts who can 

be deployed to assist in emerging medical situations. Such situations 

include medical operational threat assessment and risk communication; 

surveillance; investigation; intervention and control of occupational 

environmental illnesses, injuries, and disease; advance diagnostic 

testing; and health hazard assessments and surveillance detection and 

identification of chemical, biological, radiological, or environmental 

agents. Management oversight is provided by the Assistant Secretary of 

Defense (Health Affairs), each military service’s Office of the Surgeon 

General, and military installation commanders, who act as host to tenant 

commands.

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Source: DOD.

Notes: Although DOD’s terrorism consequence management response assets are geared primarily to 

respond to a domestic terrorist incidentif requested by the Department of Justice through the FBI or 

by FEMA, these same assets could be deployed overseas to respond to an international terrorist 

incidentif requested by the Department of State.

For a detailed description of military service-specific categories of equipment, activities financed, 

program management, planned activities, funding, and personnel levels, see Office of the Secretary of 

Defense, Congressional Report: DOD Combating Terrorism Activities, January 14, 2000, and 

Combating Terrorism Activities, Fiscal Year 2003 Budget Estimates, March 2002.

a

The response to a terrorist incident involves managing the immediate crisis as well as its 

consequences. “Crisis management” involves efforts to prevent and deter a terrorist attack, protect 

public health and safety, arrest terrorists, and gather evidence for criminal prosecution. 

“Consequences management” involves efforts to provide medical treatment and emergency services, 

evacuate people from dangerous areas, and restore government services.

Military assistance to other countries for international special security events

Regional military 

commanders

International special security 

events

Provides a military response, if needed, to a terrorist incident overseas 

involving weapons of mass destruction or to evacuate Americans during 

an international special security event, such as a presidential summit 

meeting or the Olympic Games. For example, DOD representatives 

participate in the Olympic Security Advisory Team at the U.S. Embassy 

in Athens to coordinate federal assistance to the Government of Greece 

in preparation for the 2004 Olympic Summer games in Athens. The team 

provides advice to the Greek Ministry of Public Order on security issues 

at the strategic level and advice on technical support issues at the 

operational level. Issues include intelligence, planning, training and 

exercises, technology, command and control coordination, and Olympic 

venue security.

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Appendix II

Matrix of Department of Homeland Security 

Programs and Activities to Combat Terrorism 

Overseas ApenIdxi

The Department of Homeland Security is primarily focused on combating 

terrorism within the United States. However, for selected overseas 

activities, it supports the Department of State, which is the lead federal 

agency for coordinating U.S. government efforts to combat terrorism 

overseas. Within the department, multiple bureaus, offices, and agencies 

manage various programs and activities to combat terrorism abroad. 

Department of Homeland Security also works with other U.S. government 

agencies, foreign government organizations and agencies, and international 

organizations in carrying out these programs and activities. Some of these 

activities directed at combating terrorism overseas (e.g., coordination) may 

actually occur in the United States.

Appendix II identifies and describes the following:

• the strategic framework of Homeland Security’s efforts to combat 

terrorism overseas;

• Homeland Security’s programs and activities to detect and prevent 

terrorism overseas;

• Homeland Security’s programs and activities to disrupt and destroy 

terrorist organizations overseas; and

• Homeland Security’s programs and activities to respond to terrorist 

incidents overseas.

Table 11: Department of Homeland Security Programs and Activities to Combat Terrorism Overseas

Department of Homeland 

Security office or bureau Program or activity Description of program or activity

STRATEGIC FRAMEWORK

Special agency official or office in charge of counterterrorism

Secretary of Homeland 

Security

Serves as head of the 

department

Responsible for preventing terrorist attacks within the United States and 

reducing vulnerability to those attacks. The Secretary also is responsible 

for minimizing damage and assisting in the recovery from terrorist attacks 

that occur within the United States.
Appendix II

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Overseas

Page 210 GAO-03-165 Combating Terrorism

Agency plans or strategies to combat terrorism

Department of Homeland 

Security

National Strategy for 

Homeland Security

(September 2002)

The strategy addresses the threat of terrorism within the United States, but 

does mention various initiatives related to combating terrorism overseas. 

These initiatives include (1) negotiating new international standards for 

travel documents, (2) improving security for international shipping 

containers, (3) enhancing cooperation with foreign law enforcement 

agencies, (4) expanding specialized training and assistance to allies, and 

(5) increasing the security of transnational infrastructure. The strategy 

stresses the importance of expanding international cooperation in research 

and development and enhancing the coordination of incident response. 

Finally, the strategy recommends reviewing current international treaties 

and law to determine where improvements could be made.

DETECT AND PREVENT TERRORISM ABROAD

Critical infrastructure protection

Information Analysis and 

Infrastructure Protection 

Directorate

Implementation of the 

Homeland Security Act of 

2002

Helps implement Department of Homeland Security critical infrastructure 

protection responsibilities in (1) developing a comprehensive national plan 

for securing the key resources and critical infrastructure of the United 

States; (2) recommending measures to protect the key resources and 

critical infrastructure of the United States in coordination with other federal 

agencies and in cooperation with state and local government agencies and 

authorities, the private sector, and other entities; and (3) disseminating, as 

appropriate, information analyzed by the department both within the 

department and to other federal agencies, state and local government 

agencies, and private sector entities to assist in the deterrence, prevention, 

preemption of, or response to terrorist attacks.

The Homeland Security Act of 2002 created the directorate within the new 

department and transferred to it the functions, personnel, assets, and 

liabilities of several existing organizations with critical infrastructure 

protection responsibilities, including the National Infrastructure Protection 

Center (other than the Computer Investigations and Operations Section) 

and the Critical Infrastructure Assurance Office.

Law enforcement training (with foreign governments)

Federal Law Enforcement 

Training Center

Glynn County (“Glynco”), 

Georgia, facility

Serves as an interagency law enforcement training organization for federal 

law enforcement agencies. The center provides facilities, equipment, and 

support services for conducting training of federal law enforcement 

personnel. It also has a reimbursable program to accommodate the training 

requirements of various federal agencies, state, local, and foreign law 

enforcement personnel on a space-available basis. As a result of increased 

domestic interest in training, it does not have the capacity to train foreign 

nationals at its Glynn County (“Glynco”), Georgia, facility.

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Federal Law Enforcement 

Training Center

International Programs 

Division

Under agreement with the Department of State, the Federal Law 

Enforcement Training Center’s (FLETC) International Programs Division 

provides specialized training focused in three areas: (1) the U.S. 

government’s Law and Democracy Program, with a focus on white-collar 

crime, illegal narcotics, and building democratic institutions; 

(2) Antiterrorism Assistance program, with a focus on combating 

international terrorism; and (3) International Law Enforcement Academies 

(ILEA), with a focus on law enforcement skills.

Recently, the division’s focus has been on ILEA training, including leading 

assessments to identify training needed by participating countries and 

teaching the rule of law. The division also has focused on bilateral 

programs with specific countries. FLETC instructors teach needed 

skills/techniques in, for example, money laundering and investigations. 

Presently, FLETC is finalizing a course on the Financing of Terrorism, 

which will soon be offered to foreign nationals. Since its inception in 1994, 

FLETC has helped train 1,900 law enforcement officials representing 34 

countries.

Bureau of Customs and 

Border Protection

Nunn-Lugar Cooperative 

Threat Reduction Program

Provides basic and specialized border control training and equipment to 

customs and law enforcement agencies with a focus on Russia, Belarus, 

Kazakhstan, and the Ukraine. This program is funded through the 

Department of Defense.

Bureau of Customs and 

Border Protection

Project Amber Provides basic border control training and advanced courses on 

cross-country tracking, targeting of high-risk shipments, and proper 

utilization of Department of State-provided x-ray vans to detect nuclear 

materials.

Bureau of Customs and 

Border Protection

Service Counter-proliferation 

Program

Cooperative effort with the Department of Defense that provides border 

control training and equipment, including large consignments of high- and 

low-tech interdiction and detection tools and advanced investigative 

techniques.

Bureau of Customs and 

Border Protection

Export Control/Border 

Security Program

Provides on-site technical assistance by 13 customs advisors in 9 offices 

who cover 25 countries. Focuses on delivery of training, technical 

assistance, and equipment; coordinates the delivery of assistance from 

other federal agencies; and fosters host country interagency cooperation 

and cross-border and regional cooperation.

Border Security 

Bureau of Immigration and 

Customs Enforcement

Customs Air and Marine 

Interdiction

Responsible for protecting the nation’s borders and the American people 

from smuggling of narcotics and other contraband terrorist activity with an 

integrated air and marine interdiction force.

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Bureau of Customs and 

Border Protection

Operation Shield America Cooperative initiative with American companies to help prevent 

international terrorist groups from obtaining sensitive U.S. technology, 

weapons, and equipment. Operating internationally, customs attaché 

offices have begun reaching out to foreign law enforcement counterparts to 

help raise awareness among businesses in their countries. Operation 

Shield America tracks inquiries and orders for technology to be shipped 

outside the United States; ensures export specialists know export controls 

and follow appropriate screening and licensing; ensures employees 

understand certain technologies are restricted from export; and 

investigates suspicious customers attempting to obtain sensitive 

technologies.

Bureau of Customs and 

Border Protection

Advanced Passenger 

Information System

Provides mandatory information on arriving airline passengers that is 

submitted to the immigration inspectors for review. Failure to transmit 

arriving passenger data could result in penalties ranging from monetary 

fines for the pilot up to the revocation of landing rights for the airline.

Bureau of Customs and 

Border Protection

Automated Manifest System Provides extensive data to customs inspectors on the shipping industry, its 

patterns, and all who participate. Customs officials report that they receive 

information on 98 percent of all containers entering the United States.

Bureau of Customs and 

Border Protection

Trade Partnership Against 

Terrorism

Cooperative agreement to work with the trade community to improve border 

security. Based on a model designed to prevent smuggling of illegal drugs, 

the initiative was proposed to improve security along the entire supply 

chain, from the factory floor, to foreign vendors, to U.S. ports of entry.

Bureau of Customs and 

Border Protection

Smart Border Declaration Cooperative agreement between the United States and Canada whereby 

customs officials in both countries target and pre-screen cargo headed to 

each country. The agreement focuses on four areas: (1) secure flow of 

people, (2) goods, (3) investments in technology to expedite trade and 

minimize threats, and (4) coordination and information sharing to defend 

common borders. A similar agreement is being negotiated between the 

United States and Mexico.

Bureau of Customs and 

Border Protection

NEXUS Program Allows low-risk Canadian and U.S. citizens to travel across the U.S.-

Canadian border with minimal customs or immigration processing by either 

country. This is a pilot program.

Bureau of Customs and 

Border Protection

Container Security Initiative Protects the use of ocean-going sea containers in international trade. 

Initially the focus will be on the largest ports of entry and focus on prescreening of cargo prior to shipment to the United States. The initiative is 

expected to (1) establish criteria for identifying high-risk containers, (2) prescreen containers before they are shipped to the United States, (3) use 

technology to pre-screen high-risk containers, and (4) develop and use 

smart/secure containers.

U.S. Coast Guard Maritime border controls 

between ports of entry

The U.S. Coast Guard participates in efforts to detect terrorists and their 

materials outside maritime ports of entry. The U.S. Coast Guard has a 

National Vessel Movement Center that identifies and tracks “high interest” 

vessels. Decisions on appropriate actions to be taken with respect to such 

vessels, such as whether to board, escort, or deny entry are based upon 

established criteria and procedures.

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Matrix of Department of Homeland Security 

Programs and Activities to Combat Terrorism 

Overseas

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U.S. Border Patrol Land border controls 

between ports of entry

The U.S. Border Patrol has the mission to detect and apprehend illegal 

aliens and smugglers between U.S. ports of entry. The Border Patrol is 

responsible for patrolling about 6,000 miles of Mexican and Canadian 

international land borders and 2,000 miles of coastal waters surrounding 

the Florida Peninsula and the island of Puerto Rico. Agents patrol these 

borders utilizing various vehicles, including aircraft, marine vessels, allterrain vehicles, and horse units.

DISRUPT AND DESTROY TERRORIST ORGANIZATIONS ABROAD

Law enforcement Investigations

Bureau of Immigration and 

Customs Enforcement

Customs Attachés Work closely with host government customs services and other law 

enforcement agencies to coordinate law enforcement actions domestically 

and internationally against terrorists cells and networks.

Bureau of Immigration and 

Customs Enforcement

Operation Global Shield Immigration Control Officers deployed at transit points around the world to 

serve as the front line of defense against those individuals who might well 

cause harm to the security of the United States. The control officers work 

closely with host country government agencies to gather law enforcement 

intelligence and information on migrant smuggling and trafficking 

organizations. 

Bureau of Immigration and 

Customs Enforcement

Operation Oasis Operation is directed at identifying, detecting, and halting the illegal 

exportation of unreported currency to terrorist activity.

Bureau of Immigration and 

Customs Enforcement

Customs investigations Responsible for investigating a range of issues including terrorist financing, 

export enforcement, money laundering, smuggling, fraud, and cyber 

crimes. 

U.S. Secret Service Investigates terrorists’ 

threats

Investigates terrorists’ threats against officials under its protective mission 

overseas, including the President and Vice President.

Identifying, freezing, and seizing terrorist organizations’ assets

Bureau of Immigration and 

Customs Enforcement

Operation Green Quest Multi-agency financial enforcement initiative intended to augment existing 

counter-terrorist efforts by bringing the full scope of the government's 

financial expertise to bear against systems, individuals, and organizations 

that serve as sources of terrorist funding. Operation Green Quest is aimed 

at identifying, freezing, and seizing the accounts and assets of terrorist 

organizations that pose a threat to the United States and other nations. 

U.S. Secret Service Investigates

financial crimes 

Responsible for enforcing laws related to securities of the United States 

and financial crimes. Its efforts to combat international terrorism rest 

primarily on the investigation of counterfeiting of currency and securities. 

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Source: Department of Homeland Security.

a

The response to a terrorist incident involves managing the immediate crisis as well as its 

consequences. “Crisis management” involves efforts to prevent and deter a terrorist attack, protect 

public health and safety, arrest terrorists, and gather evidence for criminal prosecution. 

“Consequences management” involves efforts to provide medical treatment and emergency services, 

evacuate people from dangerous areas, and restore government services.

Military Operations 

U.S. Coast Guard Maritime interception 

operations

Conducts maritime interception operations. In its role as a military service, 

the U.S. Coast Guard supports regional military commands, which have 

requested and received U.S. Coast Guard cutters to conduct such 

operations. To accomplish its missions to combat terrorism, both domestic 

and overseas, the U.S. Coast Guard is developing a U.S. Coast Guard 

Maritime Strategy for Homeland Security. This strategy puts a premium on 

identifying and intercepting threats well before they reach U.S. shores by 

conducting layered, multi-agency, maritime security operations that include 

surveillance and reconnaissance, tracking, and interception.

Protection of Americans abroad

U.S. Secret Service Protection of senior officials 

overseas

Responsible for the security of the President and Vice President, as well as 

other designated individuals under its protective mission overseas.

RESPOND TO TERRORIST INCIDENTS ABROAD

Crisis and consequence management domestic and abroada

Department of Homeland 

Security

Emergency Response 

Teams

Includes a number of response teams with unique capabilities that are 

primarily used in a domestic capacity, but could respond overseas to a 

terrorist incident. 

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Appendix III

Matrix of Department of Justice Programs and 

Activities to Combat Terrorism Overseas ApenIdxi

The Department of Justice supports the Department of State, which is the 

lead federal agency for coordinating U.S. government efforts to combat 

terrorism overseas. Within the department, multiple bureaus and offices 

manage various programs and activities to combat terrorism abroad. The 

Department of Justice also works with other U.S. government agencies, 

foreign government law enforcement organizations and agencies, and 

multinational organizations in carrying out these programs and activities. 

For many of these activities, there may be no clear boundary between 

combating terrorism domestically and overseas. Some of these activities 

directed at combating terrorism overseas (e.g., coordination) may actually 

occur in the United States.

Appendix III identifies and describes the following:

• the strategic framework of Justice’s efforts to combat terrorism 

overseas;

• Justice’s programs and activities to detect and prevent terrorism 

overseas;

• Justice’s programs and activities to disrupt and destroy terrorist 

organizations overseas; and

• Justice’s programs and activities to respond to terrorist incidents 

overseas.

Table 12: Department of Justice Programs and Activities to Combat Terrorism Overseas

Department of Justice 

office or bureau Program or activity Description of program or activity

STRATEGIC FRAMEWORK

Agency head’s role in counterterrorism

Justice, Attorney General Head of the Department of 

Justice and chief law 

enforcement officer of the 

federal government

Represents the United States in legal matters related to terrorism and 

gives advice and opinions to the President and to the heads of the 

executive departments of the government. Also, the Attorney General, 

through the Department of Justice, has the lead federal role for crisis 

management in a domestic terrorist incident and a support role to the 

Department of State during a terrorist incident overseas.

Special agency official or office in charge of counterterrorism
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and Activities to Combat Terrorism Overseas

Page 216 GAO-03-165 Combating Terrorism

Justice, Deputy Assistant 

Attorney General

Criminal Division, 

Counterterrorism Section

This section is responsible for the design, implementation, and support 

of law enforcement efforts to combat international terrorism, including 

legislative initiatives and policies. This includes investigating and 

prosecuting suspected terrorists for acts of terrorism against U.S. 

interests worldwide.

Justice, U.S. Attorney District 

Offices 

Anti-Terrorism Task Forces Integrates and coordinates the anti-terrorism activities in each of the 

judicial districts within the United States. The task forces are comprised 

of federal prosecutors from the U.S. Attorneys Office, members of federal 

law enforcement agencies, as well as the primary state and local 

enforcement officials in each district. They serve as part of a national 

network that coordinates closely with the Joint Terrorism Task Forces in 

the collection, analysis, and dissemination of information. The AntiTerrorism Task Forces also develop the U.S. investigative and 

prosecution strategy throughout the country.

Justice, Deputy Attorney 

General

National Security 

Coordination Council 

Coordinates policy, resource allocation, operations, long-term planning, 

and information sharing related to national security efforts to combat 

terrorism. Membership includes the Deputy Attorney General, who 

heads up the council, Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation 

(FBI), and other department officials.

Agency plans or strategies to combat terrorism

Justice, U.S. Attorney General Five-Year Interagency 

Counterterrorism and 

Technology Crime Plan (Sept. 

1999)

Serves as a baseline strategy for coordination of national policy and 

operational capabilities to combat terrorism in the United States and 

against American interests overseas.

Justice, U.S. Attorney General Strategic Plan for Fiscal Years 

2001-2006 (Sept. 2000)

Provides a multi-year plan for carrying out the department’s mission. The 

plan is oriented toward achieving the vision of securing equal justice for 

all, enhancing respect for the rule of law, and making America a safer 

and less violent nation. The plan includes goals, objectives, and 

strategies for the next 5 years. It also describes key interagency 

programs and summarizes the external factors that may affect goal 

achievement.

Justice, U.S. Attorney General National Money Laundering 

Strategy, jointly issued by the 

Attorney General and the 

Secretary of the Treasury in 

July 2002

The strategy includes, for the first time, a comprehensive national plan to 

attack the financing of terrorist groups. Goal 2 of the Strategy focuses 

law enforcement and regulatory resources on identifying terrorist 

financing networks by (1) implementing a multi-pronged operational 

strategy to combat terrorist financing, (2) identifying and targeting the 

methods used by terrorists financiers, and (3) improving international 

efforts to dismantle terrorist financial networks. The strategy is an 

interagency plan, which draws on the expertise and resources of the 

Departments of Justice and the Treasury, and other federal agencies as 

well as foreign partners and the private sector.

FBI Strategic Plan 1998-2003

(May 1998) 

Concentrates on specific 5-year strategic goals and key functional 

strategies in areas related to operations, intelligence, information 

technology, applied science and engineering, management, and state 

and local services. The plan guides the direction, priorities, and 

resources of the FBI. The plan currently is under revision to reflect the 

FBI’s recent reorganization, done in large part to provide additional 

resources to combat terrorism.

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DETECT AND PREVENT TERRORISM ABROAD

Law enforcement training (with foreign governments)

FBI International Law 

Enforcement Academy 

(ILEA)

Budapest, Hungary

Trains law enforcement officers from Central Europe and the newly 

independent states of the former Soviet Union. The academy provides 

specialized short-term courses and an 8-week professional development 

program focusing on law enforcement issues, rule of law, investigation 

process, leadership, and ethics. It also serves as a cooperative effort 

between the Departments of State, Justice, and the Treasury.

FBI, Training Division International Training and 

Assistance Unit

Conducts worldwide in-country training through the International Training 

and Assistance Unit for foreign law enforcement entities. The unit 

responds to training requests from the legal attachés for foreign police 

agencies. The training emphasizes crisis management and major case 

management as well as the investigation of transnational organized 

crime groups. The training also enhances the FBI’s international 

investigative mission by creating “cop-to-cop” relationships with foreign 

law enforcement agencies.

Justice, Criminal Division, 

International Training and 

Development Programs

International Criminal 

Investigative Training 

Assistance Program

Provides training and development assistance to police organizations 

worldwide. The training also helps foreign governments develop the 

capacity to provide modern professional law enforcement services based 

on democratic principles and respect for human rights. Activities include 

the development of police forces in the context of international 

peacekeeping operations and enhancing the capabilities of existing 

police organizations in emerging democracies.

Justice, Criminal Division, 

International Training and 

Development Programs 

Office of Overseas 

Prosecutorial Development 

Assistance and Training

Provides justice-sector institution building assistance, including training 

of foreign judges and prosecutors, in coordination with various 

government agencies and U.S. embassies. The training is intended to 

strengthen the legislative and regulatory criminal justice infrastructure 

within the host country, and enhance the capacity of the country to 

investigate and prosecute crime more effectively, consistent with the rule 

of law.

Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, 

Firearms and Explosives

International Programs 

Branch training

Trains foreign nationals in conjunction with the Department of State’s 

Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs and/or 

Bureau of Diplomatic Security’s Antiterrorism Assistance program. 

Programs include: International Post Blast Investigation, International 

Firearms and Explosives Identification, Tax and Revenue Training, and 

Explosives Detection Canine Training. The branch also serves as 

technical and legal experts with the Department of State on the 

negotiation of several international instruments.

The ATF currently is establishing a Center for Explosive Research and 

Training in Virginia. The ATF anticipates that training supplied there for 

domestic and international law enforcement officials will become part of 

the international fight against terrorism and violent crime.

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Border security (including visa processing issues)

Justice National Security Entry-Exit 

Registration System

Tracks up to 200,000 foreign visitors each year and stops suspected 

terrorists prior to entry into the United States. The system verifies 

visitor’s activities and whereabouts while in the country. Future plans will 

include efforts to track up to 35 million foreign visitors entering the United 

States annually. The system has three components that include 

(1) fingerprinting and photographing at the border, (2) periodic 

registration of aliens who stay in the United States 30 days or more, and 

(3) exit controls that will help the Immigration and Naturalization Service 

(INS) to remove those aliens who overstay their visas.

Justice Foreign Terrorist Tracking 

Task Force

Coordinates a multi-agency effort to identify, locate, and deny entry to, or 

remove terrorists and their supporters from, the United States. The task 

force includes a number of agencies, including the FBI, INS, and the U.S. 

Customs Service.

DISRUPT AND DESTROY TERRORIST ORGANIZATIONS ABROAD

Law enforcement cooperation

FBI, Executive Assistant 

Director for Law Enforcement 

Services

Office of Law Enforcement 

Coordination

Establishes relationships and enhances information sharing with state 

and local police professionals. In addition, helps the FBI tap into the 

strengths and capabilities of its partners. 

FBI, Counterterrorism 

Division

National Joint Terrorism Task 

Force

Serves as the national coordinating mechanism for sharing information 

on suspected terrorists, including those of foreign origin. Also, it 

complements the local Joint Terrorism Task Forces to improve 

collaboration and information sharing with other federal, state, and local 

agencies. The task force operates out of the FBI’s Strategic Information 

Operation Center in Washington, D.C.

FBI, Field Offices Joint Terrorism Task Forces Serves as a coordinating mechanism that combines the international and 

national investigative resources of the federal government with the 

street-level expertise of local law enforcement agencies. This “cop-tocop” relationship enables law enforcement agencies to share information 

on suspected terrorists, including those of foreign origin. One of the most 

robust Joint Terrorism Task Forces is in Washington, D.C., which has 

representatives from 15 federal agencies. Throughout its field offices, the 

FBI has 56 task forces in place.

Justice, Criminal Division Terrorist Financing Task Force Coordinates the terrorist financing enforcement efforts within Justice’s 

Criminal Division. The task force works with prosecutors around the 

country as well as with the FBI’s Foreign Terrorist Tracking Task Force 

and Terrorist Financing Operation Section to disrupt groups and 

individuals representing terrorist threats.

FBI, Executive Assistant 

Director for Law Enforcement 

Services

International Operations Promotes relations with both foreign and domestic law enforcement 

agencies and security services and facilitates investigative activities. 

Also provides managerial support of the Legal Attaché Program. 

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FBI, International Operations Legal Attaché Program Provides Senior Special Agents stationed at U.S. missions overseas who 

work closely with law enforcement agencies of host countries on 

common crime problems. They also play a large role in facilitating the 

international battle against terrorism by enlisting the cooperation of 

foreign law enforcement, enabling the arrest of U.S. terrorist suspects, 

and solving crimes against U.S. citizens. 

Legal Attachés also assist in coordinating investigations with federal law 

enforcement overseas by disseminating information to officials of key 

U.S. federal agencies stationed abroad. They routinely share information 

on investigations with liaisons serving with Department of Defense 

(DOD) components overseas. The FBI currently operates 44 legal 

attaché offices worldwide.

Justice, Criminal Division, 

Office of International Affairs

Negotiates bilateral and 

multilateral agreements

In conjunction with the Department of State, the Office of International 

Affairs negotiates extradition and mutual legal assistance treaties with 

foreign governments. As of July 2002, the United States had bilateral 

Mutual Legal Assistance Treaties covering 46 jurisdictions and over a 

120 extradition treaties in force with foreign jurisdictions.

Justice U.S. National Central Bureau 

of the International Criminal 

Police Organization 

(INTERPOL)

Represents the United States as a member of INTERPOL. It facilitates 

international law enforcement cooperation by transmitting law 

enforcement-related information between the National Central Bureaus 

of INTERPOL, member countries, and U.S. law enforcement agencies. It 

also coordinates information relevant to international investigations and 

identifies patterns and trends in criminal activities.

Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, 

Firearms and Explosives

Law enforcement cooperation Works directly and in cooperation with other agencies to enforce federal 

laws and regulations related to firearms, explosives, and fire-related 

violent crimes. 

Law enforcement investigations

FBI, Counterterrorism 

Division

Lead agency in charge of 

investigating international 

terrorist incidents

As principal investigative agency of the federal government, it serves as 

lead agency for international counterterrorism investigations. The FBI 

has extraterritorial jurisdiction to expand its investigative authority 

outside U.S. borders. Its investigations include incidents involving 

bombings, hostage taking, homicides of U.S. citizens overseas, 

sabotage, and extortion by threatening the use of weapons of mass 

destruction.

Justice Attorney General Guidelines 

for FBI Foreign Intelligence 

Collection and Foreign 

Counter-intelligence 

Investigations

Establishes prediction levels and limits on international counterterrorism 

investigations involving U.S. persons or foreign nationals overseas.

FBI National Crime Information 

Center Database

Provides the names and identifying information of terrorist suspects 

under domestic and international investigations. The data is accessible 

to state and local law enforcement officers.

FBI Integrated Automated 

Fingerprint 

Identification System

Provides the capability to search and match fingerprints of suspected 

terrorists against millions of fingerprints contained in the criminal 

fingerprint repository.

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FBI National Center for the 

Analysis of Violent Crime 

Provides investigative and operational support functions to federal, state, 

local, and foreign law enforcement agencies investigating unusual or 

repetitive violent crimes. The center also can provide support through 

expertise and consultation for non-violent matters related to national 

security.

Justice, Criminal Division, 

Office of International Affairs

Mutual legal assistance 

treaties

Provides for the exchange of evidence between parties to a treaty, often 

in a form that is admissible at trial. The treaties enable the Department of 

Justice to obtain foreign financial records and testimonial statements of 

foreign witnesses. In addition, they allow for the search and seizure of 

foreign evidence, and, in some cases, the right to freeze and recover the 

forfeiture of proceeds.

Justice, Criminal Division, 

Office of International Affairs

Letters rogatory Letters rogatory are requests that come from judicial officials in one 

country to judicial officials in another country seeking assistance with an 

investigation. The letters usually include background on the nature and 

targets of the criminal investigation, relevant facts about the case or 

investigation, type of assistance needed, statutes alleged to have been 

violated, and a promise of reciprocity.

Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, 

Firearms and Explosives

International Programs 

Branch

Combats the illegal movement of firearms, explosives, and ammunition 

to prevent such arms from being used to commit acts of terrorism, 

among other international crime. The responsibilities of the International 

Programs Branch include: (1) supervising and coordinating the utilization 

of ATF Country Attachés in support of International Trafficking in Arms 

Investigations, (2) developing international firearms programs and policy, 

(3) performing/conducting international firearms trafficking assessments, 

and (4) and performing/conducting firearms trafficking studies 

concerning foreign countries.

According to the ATF, since September 11, 2001, its International 

Programs Branch has been inundated with requests for assistance from 

numerous foreign law enforcement agencies. Most of these requests 

have been for assistance in the area of explosives investigations, 

explosives tracing, and post-blast evidence recovery.

Law enforcement renditions and extraditions 

Justice, Criminal Division, 

Office of International Affairs 

Extradition treaties Enables parties to a treaty to obtain custody of accused terrorists. The 

agreement provides for the request of one party to the treaty to the other 

party for the arrest and surrender of an individual accused or convicted 

of a crime in a country making the request. Modern extradition treaties 

contain a “dual criminality” clause, which makes any offense considered 

a crime in both countries extraditable.

FBI Renditions Escort agents apprehend and obtain custody of suspected terrorists 

without the formalities of an extradition treaty. This occurs when the 

asylum nation agrees to render the individual to the United States for trial 

or deports the individual out of the country.

Justice, U.S. Marshals 

Service

Extraditions-prisoner custody 

and transportation

Escort agents apprehend and transport suspected terrorists to the 

United States for prosecution once the extradition proceedings in a 

foreign country are complete and the suspected terrorist is ready for 

surrender.

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Law enforcement arrests and prosecutions

Justice, Criminal Division, 

Counterterrorism Section

Prosecutions Prosecutes suspected terrorists for acts of terrorism against U.S. citizens 

or interests through the Department of Justice, Criminal Division’s 

Terrorism Section.

Intelligence on terrorist groups and threat assessments

FBI, Executive Assistant 

Director for Counterterrorism 

and Counterintelligence

Counterterrorism Division Centralizes operational and analytical functions to combat terrorism on 

three fronts: (1) international terrorism operations both within the United 

States and in support of extraterritorial investigations, (2) domestic 

terrorism operations, and (3) countermeasures relating to both 

international and domestic terrorism. The division enhances the level of 

analytical support to the counterterrorism program, increases the 

capability to electronically share information and intelligence, and 

creates additional field office capacity to respond to terrorist issues. 

Includes the National Joint Terrorism Task Force and the “Flying 

Squads.”

FBI, Counterterrorism 

Division

“Flying Squads” Enables agents with specific counterterrorism knowledge to rapidly 

access knowledge and expertise in the field to ensure it is relayed to FBI 

headquarters for analysis.

FBI, Counterterrorism 

Division

Information Integration 

Initiative

Improves interagency terrorism-related information sharing by facilitating 

the warehousing of law enforcement and public safety agencies data in a 

single secure database. Also facilitates terrorism information sharing 

between the FBI and the law enforcement and public safety 

communities.

FBI, Counterterrorism 

Division

Terrorist Financing 

Operations Section

The Terrorist Financing Operations Section works jointly with the law 

enforcement and intelligence communities to identify, investigate, disrupt, 

dismantle, and prosecute as appropriate, terrorist-related financial and 

fund-raising activities. According to the FBI, the Terrorist Financing 

Operations Section brings the bureau’s financial expertise to bear in 

identifying terrorist financing methods and movement of money into and 

out of the United States in support of terrorist activity.

FBI, Executive Assistant 

Director for Counterterrorism 

and Counterintelligence

Counter-intelligence Division Coordinates investigative matters concerning foreign counterintelligence, 

including activities related to investigations into espionage, overseas 

homicide, protection of foreign officials and guests, and nuclear extortion. 

The division also works with other government agencies and the private 

sector to identify and protect U.S. secrets from being compromised by 

foreign agents and spies.

FBI, Counterintelligence 

Division

Counter-Espionage Section Manages espionage investigations and evaluates and prioritizes all 

existing espionage cases to ensure effective allocation of human 

resources and expertise.

FBI, Executive Assistant 

Director for Counterterrorism 

and Counterintelligence

Office of Intelligence Serves as a strategic and tactical intelligence and analytical mechanism 

for pulling information from various sources. Also supports 

counterterrorism and counterintelligence programs through strategic and 

tactical intelligence initiatives. In addition, the office ensures intelligence 

within the law enforcement and intelligence communities in cases when it 

is appropriate to do so.

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FBI, Counterterrorism 

Division

Threat Assessment/

Prevention Unit

Assesses the potential threats existing in short- and long-term 

environments, both domestically and outside the United States. The unit 

also determines the feasibility and credibility of threat information by 

comparing intelligence collected by the intelligence community with 

investigative information.

FBI, Counterterrorism 

Division

National Threat Warning 

System

Provides threat warning information to the law enforcement and 

intelligence communities. The system also enables the FBI to 

communicate threat information directly to U.S. citizens.

FBI Terrorism Watch List Serves as a single integrated listing of suspected terrorists who are of 

interest to FBI investigations. The watch list is accessible to the law 

enforcement and intelligence communities. Information is derived from 

the Joint Terrorism Task Force investigations, the intelligence community, 

DOD, and foreign governments.

FBI, Counterterrorism 

Division, Counterterrorism 

Threat Assessment and 

Warning Unit

Publishes annual report on 

Terrorism in the United States

The annual report, Terrorism in the United States, is published to provide 

a comprehensive picture of the security threats that American citizens 

and interests have encountered in the United States.

FBI, Counterintelligence 

Division

Awareness of national 

security issues and response

Serves as the public voice of the FBI for espionage, counterintelligence, 

counterterrorism, economic espionage, cyber and physical infrastructure 

protection, and all national security issues. It also provides unclassified 

national security threat and warning information via e-mail to U.S. 

corporate physical and information security directors and executives, law 

enforcement, and other government agencies.

FBI, Counterterrorism 

Division

National Infrastructure 

Protection Center

Serves as the focal point for interagency efforts to warn of and respond 

to cyber intrusions, both in the United States and overseas. The center 

also gathers information on threats to the infrastructure and provides the 

principal means of facilitating the coordination of the federal 

government’s response to the incident. The center’s programs have been 

established in each of the FBI’s field office divisions.

FBI, Counterterrorism 

Division

Information Sharing and 

Analysis Center

Increases security for the nation’s critical infrastructures through a twoway sharing of information with the private sector. The center was 

established through the National Infrastructure Protection Center to 

enhance private sector cooperation and trust and information sharing.

Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, 

Firearms and Explosives

National Firearms Tracing 

Center

Traces crime guns taken into police custody in the United States as well 

as U.S.-source firearms recovered in foreign countries. The center is an 

effort to curb the flow of illegal firearms.

Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, 

Firearms and Explosives

Transnational Intelligence 

Branch

In response to the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, the ATF 

created the Transnational Intelligence Branch to manage the classified 

intelligence it received. The Department of the Treasury determines the 

requirements and classifications.

RESPOND TO TERRORIST INCIDENTS ABROAD

Crisis and consequence managementdomestic and abroada

FBI, Counterterrorism 

Division

WMD Operations Unit Coordinates the interagency threat assessment process and determines 

the (1) credibility of the threat received, (2) immediate concerns involving 

health and safety of the responding personnel, and (3) requisite level of 

response warranted by the federal government.

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FBI Strategic Information and 

Operations Center

Serves as a focal point for information management, coordination, and 

operational support. The center provides the facilities, information 

systems, and communications equipment to support special events and 

crisis operations. Also, during major crises, investigations, or special 

events, the center is fully activated as a headquarters command center.

FBI, Executive Assistant 

Director for Law Enforcement 

Services

Laboratory Division Provides forensic and technical services to federal, state, and local law 

enforcement agencies. The division collects and conducts analysis of 

physical evidence ranging from biological materials to explosives. 

Through its trained teams of FBI Special Agents and support personnel, 

it can assist international law enforcement agencies with large-scale 

investigations and disasters.

FBI, Executive Assistant 

Director for Law Enforcement

Investigative Technologies 

Division

Provides technical and tactical services in support of investigators and 

the intelligence community. Some of the services provided by the division 

include electronic surveillance, physical surveillance, cyber technology, 

and wireless radio communication. The division also is working on 

developing new investigative technologies and techniques as well as 

training the agents and personnel with the new technologies.

FBI, Laboratory Division, 

Enforcement Services

Mobile Crime Laboratory Provides the capability to collect and analyze a range of evidence at the 

crime scene. The laboratory also has analytical instrumentation for rapid 

screening and triage of explosives and other trace evidence recovered at 

the crime scene.

FBI, Laboratory Division, 

Enforcement Services

Flyaway Laboratory Provides the capacity to rapidly respond to criminal acts involving the 

use of chemical or biological agents with the mobile, self-contained lab. 

The laboratory allows for the safe collection of hazardous materials, 

sample preparation, storage, and analysis in a field setting.

FBI, Laboratory Division Explosives Unit Examines evidence associated with bombings, including the 

identification and function of the components used in the construction of 

the explosive device. The unit also performs chemical analysis to help 

identify the type of explosive used in the device.

FBI, Laboratory Division Firearms Unit Examines evidence related to firearm and ammunition components. The 

division also provides support with investigations involving the collection, 

preservation, and processing of evidence at crime scenes. If needed, the 

unit can serve as a liaison with international forensic laboratories.

FBI, Laboratory Division, 

Enforcement Services

Evidence Response Team FBI Special Agents who specialize in conducting major evidence 

recovery operations. The unit is the laboratory representative to the 

Critical Incident Response Group. The unit responds to crisis situations 

and coordinates the mobilization of the Emergency Response Team.

FBI, Enforcement Services, 

Critical Incident Response 

Group

Critical Incident Response 

Group

This group facilities the rapid response toand the management 

ofcrisis incidents. The group deploys investigative specialists to 

respond to terrorist activities, hostage taking, child abductions, and other 

high-risk repetitive violent crimes.

FBI, Enforcement Services, 

Critical Incident Response 

Group

Crisis Negotiation Unit Maintains an immediate operational response capability to conduct and 

manage on-scene negotiations during any significant crisis event in 

which the FBI is involved. The unit deploys overseas to assist in the 

management of kidnapping situations involving U.S. citizens.

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office or bureau Program or activity Description of program or activity
Appendix III

Matrix of Department of Justice Programs 

and Activities to Combat Terrorism Overseas

Page 224 GAO-03-165 Combating Terrorism

Source: Departments of State, Defense, Justice, and the Treasury.

a

The response to a terrorist incident involves managing the immediate crisis as well as its 

consequences. “Crisis management” involves efforts to prevent and deter a terrorist attack, protect 

public health and safety, arrest terrorists, and gather evidence for criminal prosecution. 

“Consequences management” involves efforts to provide medical treatment and emergency services, 

evacuate people from dangerous areas, and restore government services.

FBI, Enforcement Services, 

Critical Incident Response 

Group

Crisis Management Unit Operationally supports FBI field and headquarters entities during critical 

incident or major investigations. The unit conducts crisis management 

training and related activities for the FBI, and other international, federal, 

state, and local agencies or department. It also conducts several regional 

field-training exercises each year.

FBI, Enforcement Services, 

Critical Incident Response 

Group

Rapid Deployment Logistics 

Unit

Coordinates administrative and logistical matters for deploying the Rapid 

Deployment Team. The unit also coordinates military and commercial 

airlift deployment requirements for the Crisis Incident Response Group 

and other FBI entities. In addition, it coordinates all Rapid Start 

Information Management System matters in support of major 

investigations and operations.

FBI Rapid Deployment Team Provides the capability to deploy large numbers of personnel to crime 

scenes in nations that are receptive to ongoing joint investigations. The 

team enables the FBI to arrive on the scene with pre-constituted 

investigative, administrative, and logistical support elements needed to 

conduct a major investigation. The teams are designed to be fully 

deployed in response to bombings of U.S. interests and are augmented 

by a cadre of special agent bomb technicians. Evidence Response 

Teams and security specialists also join the team.

FBI, Enforcement Services, 

Critical Incident Response 

Group

Hostage Rescue Team Conducts rescues of U.S. persons and others held illegally by a hostile 

force, either terrorist or criminal in nature. The team is capable of 

performing other law enforcement activities related to dive searches, 

hurricane relief operations, dignitary protection missions, and tactical 

surveys. And, on occasion, the team pre-positions itself in support of 

special security events.

FBI, Enforcement Services, 

Laboratory Division

Hazardous Materials 

Response Unit

Provides the capability to safely and effectively respond to incidents 

involving the use of hazardous materials. The unit also develops 

technical proficiency and readiness procedures for crime scene and 

evidence-related operations.

Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, 

Firearms and Explosives

International Incident 

Response Team

Responds with investigative assistance and laboratory support to assist 

foreign law enforcement authorities and governments in responding to 

explosives and fire incidents. The response team was created in 1993 

with the Department of State as a result of the 1993 bombing of the 

U.S. Embassy in Buenos Aires, Argentina. The response team is in a 

constant state of readiness. Since 1993, it has been deployed 22 times.

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Appendix IV

Matrix of Department of State Programs and 

Activities to Combat Terrorism Overseas ApenVIdxi

The Department of State is the lead federal agency for coordinating U.S. 

government efforts to combat terrorism overseas. Within the department, 

multiple bureaus and offices manage various programs and activities to 

combat terrorism abroad. State also works with other U.S. government 

agencies, foreign government agencies, and international organizations in 

carrying out these programs and activities. Some of these activities 

directed at combating terrorism overseas (e.g., coordination) may actually 

occur in the United States.

Appendix IV identifies and describes the following:

• the strategic framework of State’s efforts to combat terrorism overseas;

• State’s programs and activities to detect and prevent terrorism overseas;

• State’s programs and activities to disrupt and destroy terrorist 

organizations overseas; and

• State’s programs and activities to respond to terrorist incidents 

overseas.

Table 13: Department of State Programs and Activities to Combat Terrorism Overseas

Department of State office 

or bureau Program or activity Description of program or activity

STRATEGIC FRAMEWORK

Agency head’s role in counterterrorism

Office of the Secretary Directs State Department, the 

lead U.S. agency for 

counterterrorism activities 

abroad

The Secretary of State is responsible for the coordination of all U.S. 

civilian departments and agencies that provide counterterrorism 

assistance overseas. The Secretary also is responsible for the 

management of all U.S. bilateral and multilateral relationships intended to 

promote activities to combat terrorism abroad.

Since the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks on the United States, 

the Office of the Secretary has made its counterterrorism activities a 

top priority. The Office helps manage the U.S. “war on terrorism” by 

(1) building the global coalition against terrorism; (2) building diplomatic 

support for military operations in Afghanistan and other countries; 

(3) helping coordinate intelligence to detect terrorist networks; 

(4) imposing economic sanctions to reduce terrorist financing; 

(5) supporting international law enforcement efforts to identify, arrest, 

and bring terrorists to justice; and (6) leading multinational efforts 

through the United Nations (UN) and other organizations to reduce 

the terrorist threat.
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Page 226 GAO-03-165 Combating Terrorism

Special agency official or office in charge of counterterrorism

Office of the Coordinator for 

Counterterrorism

Coordinates all State 

Department counterterrorism 

activities and leads U.S. 

government efforts to improve 

counterterrorism cooperation 

with foreign governments

Coordinates U.S. overseas counterterrorism policy and response to 

international terrorist incidents that take place outside of U.S. territory.

Engages in bilateral, multilateral, and public diplomacy to deter terrorism 

through a policy of making no concessions to terrorists, prosecuting or 

extraditing international terrorists, opposing state-sponsored terrorism, 

and curbing terrorist resources.

Provides the lead in conducting interagency bilateral counterterrorism 

consultation with about 20 foreign governments and participates in 

multilateral negotiations and meetings.

Identifies and develops justification for the U.S. government’s biennial 

designation of foreign terrorist organizations.

Chairs the State Department's terrorism task forces to coordinate 

responses to major international terrorist incidents, including those that 

may occur domestically.

Coordinates U.S. counterterrorism research and development, including 

consultations and cooperation with selected countries.

Each U.S. ambassador Responsible for the full array 

of counterterrorism activities 

at each U.S. mission

See below for descriptions of counterterrorism activities at U.S. missions.

Agency plans or strategies to combat terrorism

Office of the Secretary State Department’s Annual 

Performance Plan

The State Department’s 2002 Annual Performance Plan highlights its 

counterterrorism objective to “reduce international terrorist incidents, 

especially against the United States.” Key goals are to (1) reduce the 

number of attacks, (2) bring terrorists to justice, (3) reduce or eliminate 

state-sponsored terrorist acts, (4) delegitimize the use of terror as a 

political tool, (5) enhance the international response, and (6) strengthen 

international cooperation and operational capabilities to counter 

terrorism.

U.S. embassies 

(ambassador)

Mission Performance Plan Lists each embassy’s priorities and includes implementation and 

budgeting plans. If counterterrorism activities are an embassy priority, 

then the plan should include specific goals and actions to counter 

the threat.

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DETECT AND PREVENT TERRORISM ABROAD

Military security assistance

Bureau of Political-Military 

Affairs

Regional security and arms 

controls to enhance regional 

stability

Supports the war on terrorism and Operation Enduring Freedom with 

security assistance programs such as (1) foreign military financing, 

(2) foreign military sales, (3) International Military Education and Training, 

and (4) peacekeeping operations. 

For Operation Enduring Freedom, Political-Military Affairs stated that 

arms transfers and security assistance policies have enhanced 

cooperation with the states of the region and influenced operations in 

Afghanistan. For example, arms transfers helped enhance security 

cooperation with such key U.S. strategic partners as Egypt, Saudi Arabia, 

Bahrain, and the United Arab Emirates.

Embassy security

Bureau of Diplomatic 

Security

Responsible for providing a 

secure environment for the 

conduct of American 

diplomacy worldwide

Manages a broad range of programs to create and maintain the 

highest appropriate levels of security possible for more than 50,000 

U.S. government personnel, staff, and dependents who work and live at 

260 embassies, consulates, and other missions overseas. Diplomatic 

Security can dispatch its teams to threatened overseas missions. 

Diplomatic Security activities include protection of the Secretary of State 

and other high-level U.S. government officials on official government 

business abroad. At each U.S. mission, the regional security officer is 

responsible for implementing the Bureau’s security measures and 

coordinating protection with host government authorities.

Diplomatic Security Review of standards and risk 

management 

Develops, evaluates, and applies security standards for a broad range of 

categories. These include (1) physical protection for office and residential 

buildings, (2) access to communication equipment, (3) intrusion detection 

devices, (4) secure conference rooms, and (5) armored vehicles.

These standards are intended to allow Diplomatic Security to identify and 

address threats posed by terrorism, political violence, human intelligence, 

and technical intelligence penetration of facilities. Diplomatic Security 

uses these elements to target resource allocations to identified threats at 

each mission or location. Diplomatic Security is required to provide to the 

Congress each year a ranking of the U.S. missions abroad most 

vulnerable to terrorist attack. These standards also help target additional 

security funding to the highest threat missions, as in the case of 

Emergency Security Supplemental and Worldwide Security Upgrade 

funds to meet the most pressing security needs.

Bureau of Overseas 

Buildings Operations

Embassy construction 

program

Replaces State Department’s less secure facilities on an accelerated 

basis with new, secure embassies and consulates.

State has a 6-year Long-Range Overseas Buildings Plan, which includes 

both new construction and the major renovation and rehabilitation of 

existing facilities.

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Diplomatic Security Embassy construction 

program

Participates with Overseas Buildings Operations in developing embassy 

security measures. 

Develops, with other elements in State, threat assessments that it uses to 

prioritize which U.S. missions are most in need of new, safer embassy 

buildings.

Diplomatic Security and 

Overseas Buildings 

Operations

Worldwide Security Upgrade 

Program

Provides a physically secure environment for all U.S. government 

personnel under the jurisdiction of the Chief of Mission. Diplomatic 

Security, through the physical security program, strengthens building 

exteriors, lobby entrances, and the walls and fences around embassies 

and consulates. Inside an embassy or consulate, closed-circuit television 

monitors, explosive-detection devices, walk-through metal detectors, and 

hard-line walls and security doors provide protection. Diplomatic Security 

and Overseas Buildings Operations have joint responsibility for this 

program.

Diplomatic Security Residential security Provides for security upgrades to the residences of U.S. employees 

assigned to overseas diplomatic and consular missions. Prior to 

occupancy, all newly acquired residential facilities are equipped with 

appropriate security features, such as locks, alarms, shatter-resistant 

window film, and reinforced doors, based on the level of the threats to be 

addressed. 

Diplomatic Security Overseas Protection of 

Information

Implements a comprehensive set of information protection programs. 

These programs are intended to protect national security information 

discussed at meetings in secure conference rooms or on secure 

telephones, processed and stored on computers, and preserved and 

communicated on paper documents. This program includes (1) personnel 

investigations for security clearances, (2) courier protection for diplomatic 

pouches, (3) construction security and access control equipment, (4) U.S. 

Marine security guards controlling access to embassies at 130 U.S. 

missions overseas, (5) locks for containers holding classified material, 

(6) secure conference rooms, (7) detection and containment of 

emanations from processing equipment, (8) counterintelligence 

investigations and briefings, and (9) computer security.

Diplomatic Security Surveillance Detection 

Program

Utilizes plainclothes security agents to provide surveillance detection 

measures around U.S. embassies, consulates, and residences of 

embassy employees. The program is used to identity suspicious activity, 

such as terrorists’ “casing” of embassy facilities or personnel, and 

includes capabilities intended to resolve all suspicious activity.

Diplomatic Security Local Guard Services Augments host government resources for protecting overseas diplomatic 

and consular office facilities and residences of U.S. government 

employees and dependents of all agencies under the Chief of Mission.

Diplomatic Security Overseas Protective Vehicles Provides light and heavy armor vehicles to protect embassy personnel. 

One hundred percent of the Chief of Mission vehicles have been ordered 

and are in the armoring phase, with 94 percent delivered to missions.

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Diplomatic Security Security Liaison Officers Provides Security Officers to selected DOD Unified Commands (U.S. 

Central Command, MacDill Air Force Base, Florida; U.S. European 

Command, Stuttgart-Vaihingen, Germany; and U.S. Pacific Command, 

Camp H.M. Smith, Hawaii). These officers coordinate with the 

commands on theater threat assessments, contingency planning, 

and implementation of Department of State and Department of Defense 

(DOD) agreements on overseas security support.

Warnings to and information-sharing with Americans abroad

Bureau of Consular Affairs Travel warnings, public 

announcements, and 

Consular Information Sheets

Ensures that important threat warnings and security information reach 

U.S. citizens and assets abroad in a timely and effective manner.

In 2001, Consular Affairs issued 64 travel warnings, 134 public 

announcements, and 189 Consular Information Sheets. Consular Affairs’ 

Internet Web site received 117.9 million inquiries, 30.7 million more than 

in fiscal year 2000. According to Consular Affairs data, 90 percent of 

the users found the information helpful. Consular Affairs also held 

69 briefings for stakeholder groups, including international student 

program participants, travel agents, and others.

Consular Affairs Warden system for notifying 

registered Americans of 

threats

Notifies Americans who have registered with the U.S. embassy or 

consulate of potential terrorist threats. Warden networks consist of 

telephone-calling trees, e-mails, fax systems, and other systems, 

as appropriate. The warden system covers both U.S. embassy and 

consulate personnel and other registered Americans. The system 

usually works by alerting major employers or compounds with high 

concentrations of Americans. It is used for a variety of communications 

purposes, from passing out voter information to notifying wardens and 

their wards of U.S. embassy evacuations.

Diplomatic Security Overseas Security Advisory 

Council

Provides security support to U.S. businesses and private-sector 

organizations worldwide through Overseas Security Advisory Councils. 

A joint effort between State and the private sector, Overseas Security 

Advisory Councils foster the exchange of security and threat information 

and implementation of security programs and provides a forum to 

address security concerns. Regional security officers coordinate with 

Overseas Security Advisory Council headquarters to set up, develop, 

and maintain councils in country. Overseas Security Advisory Councils 

coordinate with U.S. embassies and are active in 47 countries.

Law enforcement training (with foreign governments)

Diplomatic Security Antiterrorism Assistance Provides training to approved foreign national participants in five areas: 

law enforcement, protection of national leadership, control of borders, 

protection of critical infrastructure, and crisis management. Antiterrorism 

Assistance has trained 28,000 foreign national participants from 

124 countries since its inception.

Diplomatic Security Antiterrorism Assistance’s 

proposed Center for 

Antiterrorism and Security 

Training

Antiterrorism Assistance proposes to build the Center for Antiterrorism 

and Security Training, a consolidated facility for training in various 

antiterrorism disciplines. 

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Diplomatic Security Antiterrorism Assistance’s 

Mobile Emergency Training 

Team

Provides quick in-country training to allied nations. 

Bureau for International 

Narcotics and Law 

Enforcement Affairs

International Law 

Enforcement Academy

Provides law enforcement to foreign governments. International Narcotics 

and Law Enforcement Affairs manages the U.S. government’s 

interagency regional International Law Enforcement Academies 

(Budapest, Hungary; Bangkok, Thailand; Gaborone, Botswana; and 

Roswell, New Mexico), in conjunction with the Departments of the 

Treasury and Justice, including the FBI. In fiscal year 2003, International 

Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs is scheduled to provide law 

enforcement training to 12,000 officials, doubling the number trained in 

fiscal year 2001.

International Narcotics and 

Law Enforcement Affairs

Law enforcement and police 

science

Provides training and technical assistance to foreign law enforcement 

personnel to combat crime and advance U.S. interests in international 

counterterrorism cooperation. Law enforcement and police science 

training is managed and funded by International Narcotics and Law 

Enforcement Affairs and carried out by the Departments of Justice and 

the Treasury, among other federal agencies. The International Criminal 

Investigative Training Assistance Program (ICITAP) and the Office of 

Overseas Prosecutorial Development and Training are examples of these 

types of programs.

Office of the Coordinator for 

Counterterrorism and 

International Narcotics and 

Law Enforcement Affairs

Countering terrorist financing Provides, with the Departments of Justice and the Treasury, training and 

assistance to foreign governments to strengthen their financial and 

regulatory regimes to reduce terrorist financing.

Border security (including visa processing issues)

Consular Affairs Visas Processes applications for visas from foreign citizens who wish to visit the 

United States. Consular Affairs is to facilitate travel for those eligible to 

receive visas and to deny visas to those who are ineligible. A visa enables 

a person to apply at a port of entry to enter the United States, but it does 

not guarantee that a person will be able to enter the United States.

Consular Affairs Consular Consolidated 

Database (visa data, including 

photographs)

Supports the antiterrorist task forces since September 11, 2001. In fiscal 

year 2002, Consular Affairs performed numerous searches of visa 

records and photographs at the request of federal law enforcement task 

forces investigating the terrorist attacks. In addition, Passport Services 

provided law enforcement with 305 records. Consular Affairs used facial 

recognition software to compare the photographs on the visa applications 

of the September 11 hijackers in the database against other visa 

photographs. According to State, the review found no evidence that 

the hijackers had applied for visas using different names.

Bureau of Intelligence and 

Research

TIPOFF program Manages the TIPOFF program, a database of sensitive intelligence 

and law enforcement information contributed by the Central Intelligence 

Agency (CIA), National Security Agency, and the FBI. TIPOFF contains 

information on some 68,000 suspected terrorists and international 

organized crime figures. TIPOFF alerts consular officers at 

U.S. embassies and INS officers at ports of entry when potential 

terrorists try to enter the United States. 

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Consular Affairs/Visa 

Services

TIPOFF to impede terrorist 

entry into the United States

Uses TIPOFF in the visa program to identify and stop potential terrorists 

trying to enter the United States. In fiscal year 2001, Consular Affairs 

indicated that there had been 178 TIPOFF matches for visa applicants; of 

those, 81 were denied, 14 abandoned their applications, and 4 withdrew 

their applications. TIPOFF, used by the INS, yielded 86 matches from the 

terrorism database at ports of entry in fiscal year 2001. Of these, 38 of 

the individuals were denied entry, and 1 was arrested.

Diplomatic Security Investigation of visa and 

passport fraud

Impedes terrorist entry into the United States. Diplomatic Security 

investigates more than 3,500 passport and visa fraud cases annually, 

resulting in more than 500 arrests each year. A number of suspects have 

been linked to terrorism. Diplomatic Security has 450 special agents in 

over 160 countries and approximately 700 special agents assigned 

throughout the United States.

Office of the Coordinator for 

Counterterrorism

Terrorist Interdiction Program Enhances border security by providing participating foreign governments 

with a computerized database that allows border control officials to 

identify and detain or track individuals of interest. The Terrorist 

Interdiction Program currently is installed in 2 foreign countries, with 

another 60 countries under consideration. The Program is scheduled to 

be installed in up to five new countries per year.

Office of the Inspector 

General

Investigation of visa and 

passport fraud

Conducts visa and passport investigations. The Office of the Inspector 

General conducted several joint investigations with the INS in fiscal year 

2001. In one case, the Office found that defendants took in $21 million by 

defrauding the visa program.

Public Diplomacy

Office of International 

Information Programs

Build international support for 

U.S. foreign policy

Influence international opinion in support of U.S. foreign policy objectives. 

Since the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, the Office of 

International Information Programs has encouraged international support 

for the war on terrorism. For example, its initiatives have generated over 

240 newspaper, 100 radio, and 150 television interviews, and over 

300 opinion-editorial articles in newspapers either signed or prepared for 

ambassadors. Almost 60 U.S. speakers have traveled abroad on Office of 

International Information Programs-funded programs addressing 

September 11-related issues. U.S. embassies have sponsored over 

100 panel discussions and over 220 speeches on the issue. In 

addition, Network of Terrorism, an Office of International Information 

Programs-produced print and electronic pamphlet, is available in 

36 languages, and 1.3 million print copies are in circulation.

DISRUPT AND DESTROY TERRORIST ORGANIZATIONS ABROAD

Military operations

Political-Military Affairs State’s primary liaison with the 

Department of Defense

Facilitates Defense-State actions concerning military operations.

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Political-Military Affairs Supporting U.S. military war 

on terrorism

Assists in developing and maintaining the global military coalition against 

terrorism and serves as main point of contact for coalition matters.

Assists in negotiating with foreign governments for deployment orders, 

requests for coalition forces, fly-over rights, and bed-down rights. 

Between September 11, 2001, and the end of January 2002, PoliticalMilitary Affairs processed 120 deployment orders and 72 requests for 

coalition forces in support of Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan.

Political-Military Affairs Political Advisor to U.S. 

regional military commands

Political-Military Affairs provides personnel to DOD and the principal 

military commands to improve cooperation between State and the U.S. 

military. For example, the Political Advisor at the U.S. Central Command 

provides liaison services between State, the command, and the 

representatives of the 31 nations located at U.S. Central Command 

headquarters that provide assets for Operation Enduring Freedom.

International relations

Office of the Secretary Worldwide diplomatic support 

for war on terrorism and 

Operation Enduring Freedom

Received offers of military assistance for the war on terrorism from 

136 countries.

Secured over-flight rights from 89 countries.

Secured landing rights for U.S. military aircraft from 76 countries.

Secured NATO support to invoke article V of the NATO charter, which 

states that an attack on one is an attack on all.

Developed new U.S. relationships with key countries against terrorism.

U.S. embassies 

(ambassador) 

Bilateral diplomatic support for 

war on terrorism and 

Operation Enduring Freedom

Implements the above activities of the Office of the Secretary, in support 

of the war on terrorism and Operation Enduring Freedom.

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Bureau of International 

Organization Affairs

Works with international 

organizations on 

counterterrorism issues

Develops and implements U.S. counterterrorism policy in the UN and 

other international organizations, serving as State’s primary liaison.

Helped craft and aided in the adoption of United Nations Security Council 

Resolution (UNSCR) 1373, obligating all member nations to fight 

terrorism and report to the Security Council on their counterterrorism 

efforts.

Assisted in the creation of a UN Counterterrorism Committee to oversee 

the implementation of UNSCR 1373. Through bilateral and multilateral 

efforts, International Organization Affairs encourages all nations to 

comply with UNSCR 1373 and has offered the services of the U.S. 

government to other nations to aid in their compliance.

Assisted with resolutions extending UN sanctions on (1) al Qaeda and 

the Taliban, (2) Iraq (including gaining passage of new “smart sanctions”), 

(3) Libya, and (4) certain African regimes, including those whose 

activities benefit terrorists.

Assisted in the lifting of UN sanctions on Sudan, which has cooperated 

with the international community and the United States in its war on 

terrorism.

Aided in the UN International Atomic Energy Association’s reevaluation of 

its response to the threat of nuclear terrorism.

Assisted in the UN International Civil Aviation Organization’s passing an 

antiterrorism resolution.

Office of the Coordinator for 

Counterterrorism, 

International Narcotics and 

Law Enforcement Affairs, and 

the Economic Bureau, in 

coordination with the 

Department of the Treasury 

and other agencies

Reduce the flow of money and 

other material support to 

terrorists. 

Blocks terrorism-related financing. The Office of the Coordinator for 

Counterterrorism, with the concurrence of the Departments of Justice 

and the Treasury, designates foreign terrorist organizations, individuals, 

and groups for a variety of purposes, including to block terrorism-related 

financing. The Economic Bureau is responsible for leading the effort to 

build international coalition support to also block these assets. According 

to State, since September 11, 2001, the United States has blocked 

$34.3 million in terrorist-related assets. 

Office of the Legal Adviser Negotiates international 

agreements

Pursues extradition and mutual legal assistance treaties with foreign 

governments and works with the UN and with other nations in drafting 

multilateral agreements, treaties, and conventions on counterterrorism.

Office of the Legal Adviser Works with Department of 

Justice on international law 

enforcement issues

Works closely with the Department of Justice’s Office of International 

Affairs on specific cases and on building consensus on broad 

international counterterrorism and crime issues.

Office of the Legal Adviser Drafts U.S. counterterrorismrelated legislationThe Office of the Legal Adviser works with the Office of the Coordinator 

for Counterterrorism, the Economic Bureau, and the Department of 

Justice when U.S. legislation is needed to combat terrorism abroad.

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Law enforcement

Diplomatic Security and 

Regional Security Officer

Law enforcement cooperation Cooperates with local intelligence, security, and law enforcement entities 

to track and capture terrorists in country and to block attempted terrorist 

attacks on U.S. citizens and U.S. assets abroad.

Diplomatic Security Investigations of terrorist 

incidents

Conducts investigations of terrorist incidents involving U.S. diplomatic 

personnel and other persons under its protection. These investigations 

are conducted for the purpose of preventing or deterring future incidents. 

Diplomatic Security supports the FBI in its extra-territorial investigations 

into the criminal prosecution of the perpetrators. 

Office of the Coordinator for 

Counterterrorism

Coordinates State’s role in 

negotiating and conducting 

renditions

Captures suspected terrorists overseas. In cases where the United 

States lacks an extradition treaty, the U.S. government can capture 

suspected terrorists through an overseas arrest called a rendition. The 

Office of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism, in conjunction with the 

Office of the Legal Adviser, the Department of Justice, and other 

agencies, would coordinate State’s role in negotiating and conducting 

these arrests. Since 1987, there have been 11 reported renditions.

Diplomatic Security Rewards for Justice Program Provides payments for information leading to the arrest and prosecution 

of individuals involved in international terrorism and for information that 

thwarts a terrorist attack. Rewards have been offered for terrorists 

involved in the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, the African 

embassy bombings, and the USS Cole bombing. The program awards 

payments of up to $25 million for this information. In fiscal year 2001, 

State spent $113,000 for cases concerning terrorist acts, $1.7 million for 

cases concerning narcotics traffickers, and $14,000 for cases concerning 

war crimes. In the past 7 years, the United States has paid over 

$9.5 million to 23 individuals who provided credible information leading to 

the arrest of international terrorists.

Intelligence on terrorist groups and threat assessments

Intelligence and Research Intelligence support for 

Secretary of State and for U.S. 

missions

Prepares intelligence reports for the Secretary of State, department 

officials, and ambassadors at U.S. missions. Monitors governmentwide 

intelligence activities to ensure their compatibility with U.S. 

counterterrorism foreign policy objectives. Seeks to expand interagency 

data sharing on known terrorist suspects.

Intelligence and Research Intelligence assessments and 

policy guidance

Conducted the first public opinion survey inside Taliban-controlled 

Afghanistan to determine public reaction to the Taliban government. 

Results were used in U.S. counterterrorism briefings to State, the NSC, 

the CIA, DOD, and U.S. Central Command officials.

Conducted “flash surveys” immediately after September 11, 2001, in 

Syria, Jordan, Lebanon, the United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, 

and the Palestinian Authority to gauge Arab public reaction to the attacks 

on the United States and public perceptions of Osama bin Laden for use 

in policy formulation.

Intelligence and Research Electronic Read-and- Burn 

Pilot Project

Provides intelligence products, especially threat information, to chiefs of 

mission who could not previously receive this type of highly classified 

material.

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Appendix IV

Matrix of Department of State Programs and 

Activities to Combat Terrorism Overseas

Page 235 GAO-03-165 Combating Terrorism

Office of the Coordinator for 

Counterterrorism

Studies terrorist groups 

worldwide

Publishes an unclassified report called Patterns of Global Terrorism, as 

called for under 22, U.S.C. § 2656f (a).

Diplomatic Security Publishes annual security 

reports

The annual reports, Significant Incidents of Political Violence against 

Americans and Terrorist Tactics and Security Practices: Lessons 

Learned, and Issues in Global Crime, are intended to provide a 

comprehensive picture of the broad spectrum of political violence and 

security threats to American citizens and interests abroad.

Diplomatic Security and 

Regional Security Officer

Threat and intelligence 

assessments

Interacts with police and intelligence contacts in other countries. A 

mission’s regional security officer often is the first to recognize, through 

investigative work, possible terrorist activities. Diplomatic Security agents 

frequently are requested to follow up on leads for other law enforcement 

agencies not represented at the mission.

Intelligence information sharing (with foreign governments)

Diplomatic Security and 

Regional Security Officer

Information sharing and 

cooperation with host country 

governments

Cooperates with foreign governments and their law enforcement and 

security forces in sharing threat and security information.

Conducts extensive liaison with foreign police and security and 

intelligence services, which allows regional security officers to assist 

other U.S. government law enforcement agencies. Such activities include 

criminal record checks, tracing fugitives, interviewing informants and 

suspects, and processing extradition requests.

RESPOND TO TERRORIST INCIDENTS ABROAD

Crisis and consequence management domestic and abroada

Office of the Coordinator for 

Counterterrorism

Headquarters leadership of 

the U.S. government response 

to a terrorist incident overseas

Serves as the lead for crisis and consequence management in directing 

the U.S. government response to a terrorist incident overseas. The Office 

of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism would lead a task force and work 

through the State Department Operations Center (discussed below).

State Department 

Operations Center

Headquarters task force for 

coordinating the U.S. 

government response to a 

terrorist incident overseas

State’s Operations Center maintains a 24-hour global watch and crisis 

management support staff. The watch is the initial point of contact for 

posts experiencing emergency crises, including terrorist attacks. In a 

crisis, the Operations Center would establish a 24-hour task force to 

coordinate the flow of communications and instructions between the 

Department of State, other involved agencies, overseas posts, and 

foreign governments. This task force would be led by the Office of the 

Coordinator for Counterterrorism and, in addition to relevant State 

Department bureaus, may include other U.S. government agencies with 

action responsibilities.

U.S. embassies 

(ambassador)

Serves as the U.S. 

government on-scene 

coordinator for terrorist 

incidents overseas

In a given country, the ambassador would act as the on-scene 

coordinator in a terrorist incident. The ambassador would lead the 

Emergency Action Committee to manage the response. The ambassador 

could request a Foreign Emergency Support Team (discussed below) for 

assistance and to help coordinate the U.S. government’s interagency 

response.

(Continued From Previous Page)

Department of State office 

or bureau Program or activity Description of program or activity
Appendix IV

Matrix of Department of State Programs and 

Activities to Combat Terrorism Overseas

Page 236 GAO-03-165 Combating Terrorism

Office of the Coordinator for 

Counterterrorism

Foreign Emergency Support 

Team to provide on-scene 

support

In coordination with the NSC, the Office of the Coordinator for 

Counterterrorism would lead an interagency Foreign Emergency Support 

Team to assist the ambassador and host government to manage a 

terrorist incident. The team is advisory and will not enter the host country 

unless requested by the ambassador, with the host government’s 

permission. The team provides the ambassador a single point of contact 

to coordinate all U.S. government on-scene support during a terrorist 

incident. Each team is tailored to the specific incident and can provide 

guidance on terrorist policy and incident management, dedicated secure 

communications, and special expertise.

Diplomatic Security Special Diplomatic Security 

teams to assist and 

investigate crisis situations

Deploys its Mobile Support Teams and Security Support Teams to 

respond to increased threats or critical security needs at U.S. missions in 

crisis, including providing special training or draw down/evacuation 

assistance. These teams provide supplemental support to regional 

security officers and stand ready for immediate deployment to any U.S. 

mission where conditions require the reestablishment of a secure 

environment.

Political-Military Affairs Consequence

management; Consequence 

Management Support Team

Serves as the lead for consequence management in directing the U.S. 

government response to a terrorist incident outside of U.S. territory. The 

U.S. government provides assistance overseas when a U.S. ambassador 

has determined that the host government is unable to cope with a 

problem, when the host government seeks U.S. assistance, and when it 

is in the U.S. interest to provide such assistance.

Provides a standing Consequence Management Support Team designed 

to help manage the consequence of a WMD emergency overseas. The 

multi-agency team is tailored to manage the specific emergency situation 

or conditions of the host nation. The team coordinates and facilitates the 

flow of critical requirements and information necessary to respond, 

advise, and assist foreign government and U.S. decision makers. The 

team would deploy as an integral part of FEST operations and would take 

the lead for the consequence management response.

Overseas Buildings 

Operations

Emergency Response Team Helps secure embassy grounds and restore communications following a 

crisis.

Consular Affairs Medical needs Assists American victims with medical needs. Also, assists in the process 

of identifying victim remains, notifying the next of kin, and shipping home 

the remains.

Consular Affairs Liaison with U.S. citizens 

under duress

Provides assistance for Americans stranded overseas by the closure of 

U.S. air space.

Consular Affairs Liaison with foreign nationals 

in the United States

Provided assistance to New York City officials handling the deaths of 

foreign nationals in the September 11, 2001, terrorist attack on the World 

Trade Center.

Works with the Department of Justice to address foreign embassy 

concerns regarding the large number of aliens detained on a variety of 

charges as part of the war on terrorism.

(Continued From Previous Page)

Department of State office 

or bureau Program or activity Description of program or activity
Appendix IV

Matrix of Department of State Programs and 

Activities to Combat Terrorism Overseas

Page 237 GAO-03-165 Combating Terrorism

Planning and exercises at headquarters and abroad

Office of the Coordinator for 

Counterterrorism

Counterterrorism Security 

Group, Exercise and 

Readiness Subgroup

Manages the interagency exercise program for combating terrorism 

overseas and coordinates these exercises with other departments. The 

exercise program is designed to strengthen the U.S. government’s ability 

to deal with terrorist attacks.

Office of the Coordinator for 

Counterterrorism

International Senior Officials 

Workshops

Conducts Senior Policy Workshops with friendly foreign governments. 

These workshops are generally tabletop simulations with no actual 

physical deployment of troops. Coordinates training programs to help 

other countries develop and coordinate responses to a WMD event. 

Political-Military Affairs Contingency planning Has responsibility for preparing U.S. forces, foreign governments, and 

international organizations to manage the consequences of a chemical, 

biological, radiological, or nuclear incident overseas.

Political-Military Affairs Consequence management 

exercises

Sponsors consequence management exercises, in conjunction with other 

U.S. government agencies. Exercises can be directed at select 

department and agency components, for example, regional military 

commands, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, or partner 

nations.

Diplomatic Security Emergency Planning 

Handbook

Serves as a consolidated source of guidance for overseas missions on 

how to plan for and deal with emergencies abroad. The handbook is used 

as the principal reference when a mission prepares its Emergency Action 

Plan.

U.S. embassies Emergency Action Committee Every foreign service mission is required to have an Emergency Action 

Committee. In organizing for emergency action, the Chief of Mission 

establishes a committee and designates personnel responsible for 

specific crisis-related functions. The Emergency Action Committee is 

responsible for developing and testing the mission’s Emergency Action 

Plan.

U.S. embassies Emergency Action Plan Every foreign service mission requires an Emergency Action Plan, which 

is written by members of the Emergency Action Committee and provides 

mission-specific procedures for responding to terrorist and other crises. 

The plan translates worldwide guidance for dealing with emergencies into 

a mission-specific action plan.

Foreign Service Institute Emergency Action Committee 

exercises

Trains Emergency Action Committee members in their emergency action 

plan using various scenarios. Exercises are designed to expose mission 

officials to issues of decision-making, contingency planning, 

implementation of plans, and interpretation and coordination of policy.

Deputy Chief of Mission and 

Regional Security Officer

Emergency Action Committee/ 

Emergency Action Plan 

exercises

Tests its Emergency Action Plan to prepare for management of crises, 

including terrorist attacks. The Emergency Action Committee at each 

mission is responsible for periodic drills, including their preparation, 

execution, and evaluation.

(Continued From Previous Page)

Department of State office 

or bureau Program or activity Description of program or activity
Appendix IV

Matrix of Department of State Programs and 

Activities to Combat Terrorism Overseas

Page 238 GAO-03-165 Combating Terrorism

Source: Departments of State, Defense, Justice, and the Treasury.

a

The response to a terrorist incident involves managing the immediate crisis as well as its 

consequences. “Crisis management” involves efforts to prevent and deter a terrorist attack, protect 

public health and safety, arrest terrorists, and gather evidence for criminal prosecution. 

“Consequences management” involves efforts to provide medical treatment and emergency services, 

evacuate people from dangerous areas, and restore government services.

U.S. embassies 

(ambassador) 

Plans and coordinates 

evacuations and military 

noncombatant evacuation 

operations

The Secretary of State is responsible for the protection and evacuation of 

U.S. citizens. In a crisis such as a terrorist incident, an ambassador can 

order the evacuation of U.S. government personnel and dependents. The 

preferred method of evacuation is through normal commercial 

transportation or commercial charter. However, to assist State in some 

cases, DOD may execute military Noncombatant Evacuation Operations. 

Ambassadors can request the assistance of the appropriate unified 

military command to assist planning such operations. State, and in urgent 

cases the ambassador, will make the determination as to when such 

evacuation plans should be implemented.

Alternative command centers

Office of the Secretary Alternate operations center Transformed State's Alternate Operations Center from a part-time facility 

to a full-time alternate site to carry out critical State functions.

Overseas Buildings 

Operations

Alternate operations centers Maintains an alternate operations center for its headquarters operations 

and maintains facilities or the ability to establish alternate operations 

centers for its overseas U.S. mission operations.

Post-incident law enforcement investigation

U.S. embassies 

(ambassador)

Point of contact during any 

investigation

Serves as the point of contact for any post-incident law enforcement 

investigation. The ambassador would serve as the official liaison between 

the host country government and the U.S. government investigation.

(Continued From Previous Page)

Department of State office 

or bureau Program or activity Description of program or activity
Page 239 GAO-03-165 Combating Terrorism

Appendix V

Matrix of Department of the Treasury 

Programs and Activities to Combat Terrorism 

Overseas ApenVdxi

The Department of the Treasury supports the Department of State, which is 

the lead federal agency for coordinating U.S. government efforts to combat 

terrorism overseas. Within the department, multiple bureaus, offices, and 

agencies manage various programs and activities to combat terrorism 

abroad. The Treasury also works with other U.S. government agencies, 

foreign government organizations and agencies, and international 

organizations in carrying out these programs and activities. While these 

activities are generally directed at combating terrorism overseas, some of 

the activities (e.g., coordination) may actually occur in the United States.

Appendix V identifies and describes:

• the strategic framework of the Treasury’s efforts to combat terrorism 

overseas;

• Treasury’s programs and activities to detect and prevent terrorism 

overseas;

• Treasury’s programs and activities to disrupt and destroy terrorist 

organizations overseas; and

• Treasury’s programs and activities to respond to terrorist incidents 

overseas.

Table 14: Department of the Treasury Programs and Activities to Combat Terrorism Overseas

Department of the 

Treasury office or 

bureau Program or activity Description of program or activity

STRATEGIC FRAMEWORK

Agency head’s role in counterterrorism

Office of the Secretary of the 

Treasury

The Secretary of the 

Treasury is the principal 

economic advisor to the 

President

The Secretary of the Treasury plays a critical role in policy-making by 

bringing an economic and government financial policy perspective to 

issues facing the government. Among other duties, the Secretary is 

responsible for overseeing the department’s activities in carrying out its 

major law enforcement responsibilities, including (1) preventing money 

laundering, (2) disrupting and dismantling terrorist organizations’ financial 

support, and (3) investigating and freezing terrorists’ financial assets. 

The Secretary also has a support role to the Department of State during 

a terrorist incident overseas.
Appendix V

Matrix of Department of the Treasury 

Programs and Activities to Combat Terrorism 

Overseas

Page 240 GAO-03-165 Combating Terrorism

Special agency official or office in charge of counterterrorism

Agency plans or strategies to combat terrorism

Department of the Treasury National Money Laundering 

Strategy, jointly issued by the 

Secretary of the Treasury 

and the Attorney General in 

July 2002

The strategy includes, for the first time, a comprehensive national plan to 

attack the financing of terrorist groups. Goal 2 of the National Money 

Laundering Strategy focuses law enforcement and regulatory resources on 

identifying terrorist financing networks by (1) implementing a multi-pronged 

operational strategy to combat terrorist financing, (2) identifying and 

targeting the methods used by terrorists financiers, and (3) improving 

international efforts to dismantle terrorist financial networks. The strategy is 

an interagency plan that draws on the expertise and resources of the 

Departments of the Treasury and Justice, and other federal agencies as 

well as foreign partners and the private sector.

DETECT AND PREVENT TERRORISM ABROAD

Diplomacy

Treasury, Office of 

International Affairs

Maintain international 

coalition against terrorist 

finances

The Office of International Affairs works bilaterally and multilaterally to build 

and maintain the international coalition against terrorist finances along with 

other federal agencies, including the Departments of State and Justice, the 

Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), and the intelligence community.

Treasury, Office of 

International Affairs

Financial Action Task Force 

on Money Laundering

Consists of an international group of 31 member-states, which focuses on 

terrorist financing. The task force provides its members with an action plan 

that includes eight special recommendations, which are viewed as a 

standard to address terrorist financing.

Treasury, Office of 

International Affairs

Task Force on Terrorist 

Financing

Works with countries and monitors their efforts to track and block terrorists' 

financial assets. This task force, established by the Department of the 

Treasury in the wake of the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001, is 

composed of international economists and financial analysts from the 

International Affairs and Enforcement's Office of Foreign Asset Control. 

The department enlisted support from ministries of finance and central 

banks worldwide to assist efforts to immobilize and/or confiscate the 

financial assets of terrorist organizations and deny such organizations use 

of the international banking system.

Treasury, Office of 

International Affairs

Financial Attachés Develop extensive contacts with foreign finance ministries, foreign 

regulatory authorities, central banks and financial market participants. 

Financial Attachés explain new U.S. policies to their foreign counterparts. 

They also collect, report, interpret, and forecast macroeconomic and 

financial developments and policies in their assigned countries.

(Continued From Previous Page)

Department of the 

Treasury office or 

bureau Program or activity Description of program or activity
Appendix V

Matrix of Department of the Treasury 

Programs and Activities to Combat Terrorism 

Overseas

Page 241 GAO-03-165 Combating Terrorism

Prevent undermining of economic reforms

Treasury, Office of 

International Affairs

Office of Technical 

Assistance/Enforcement 

Policy and Administration 

Program

Provides specialist teams to countries through an advisor-based program 

to help prevent corruption, organized criminal enterprises, and other 

criminal activities that were undermining Treasury’s economic reforms.

Law enforcement training (with foreign governments)

DISRUPT AND DESTROY TERRORIST ORGANIZATIONS ABROAD

Identifying, freezing, and seizing terrorist organizations’ assets

Treasury Executive Office for Terrorist 

Financing and Financial 

Crimes

This office was created in March 2003 and assumed the main 

functions of the former Office of Enforcement. The office is 

charged with coordinating Treasury Department’s efforts to 

combat terrorist financing both in the United States and abroad. 

The office is responsible for the following specific duties: 

(1) developing and implementing U.S. government strategies 

to combat terrorist financing domestically and internationally, 

(2) developing and implementing the National Money Laundering 

Strategy, (3) participating in the department’s development and 

implementation of U.S. government policies and regulations in 

support of the USA PATRIOT Act, (4) joining in representation of 

the United States in international bodies dedicated to fighting 

terrorist financing, and (5) developing U.S. government policies 

related to financial crimes.

Treasury Financial Crimes 

Enforcement Network

Supports law enforcement investigations to prevent and detect money 

laundering and other financial crimes. FinCEN’s network links law 

enforcement, financial, and regulatory communities into a single 

information-sharing network. Using Bank Secrecy Act information reported 

by banks and other financial institutions, FinCEN serves as the national’s 

central clearinghouse for broad-based financial intelligence and information 

sharing on money laundering. This information helps illuminate the 

financial trail for investigators to follow as they track criminals and their 

assets.

Through investigative analysis efforts, FinCEN provides support for the 

investigation and prosecution of law enforcement cases at the federal, 

state, local, and international levels, using financial data collected under the 

Bank Secrecy Act, as well as other commercial and law enforcement 

information. FinCEN serves as a catalyst for research, analysis, and 

dissemination of information on money laundering methods and trends 

through joint case analysis with law enforcement, integration of all source 

information, and the application of state-of-art data processing techniques. 

Internationally, FinCEN maintains in-depth, country-specific expertise 

concerning money laundering and other financial crimes around the world 

to assist decision makers in developing and promoting U.S. government 

anti-money laundering policies. FinCEN uses this expertise to promote the 

development of Financial Intelligence Units in other countries, which 

facilitate investigative exchanges.

(Continued From Previous Page)

Department of the 

Treasury office or 

bureau Program or activity Description of program or activity
Appendix V

Matrix of Department of the Treasury 

Programs and Activities to Combat Terrorism 

Overseas

Page 242 GAO-03-165 Combating Terrorism

Source: Department of the Treasury.

a

The response to a terrorist incident involves managing the immediate crisis as well as its 

consequences. “Crisis management” involves efforts to prevent and deter a terrorist attack, protect 

public health and safety, arrest terrorists, and gather evidence for criminal prosecution. 

“Consequences management” involves efforts to provide medical treatment and emergency services, 

evacuate people from dangerous areas, and restore government services.

Treasury, Office of Foreign 

Assets Control

Administers Economic 

Sanctions

This office administers economic sanctions and embargo programs against 

specific foreign countries or groups (including designated terrorists, 

terrorist organizations, state sponsors and individuals supporting those 

organizations) to further U.S. foreign policy and national security objectives. 

The office imposes control on financial transactions and freezes foreign 

assets, denying the targeted country, individual, or organization.

RESPOND TO TERRORIST INCIDENTS ABROAD

Crisis and consequence management domestic and abroada

Treasury Counter-terrorism Fund In its fiscal year 2003 budget, the Department of the Treasury proposed 

that $40 million remain available until expended to reimburse any federal 

agency for costs of responding to the U.S. Secret Service’s request to 

provide security at designated National Special Security Events and only 

be provided after notice to appropriate congressional committees. The 

proposed $40 million would (1) provide support to counter, investigate, or 

prosecute domestic or international terrorism, including payment of 

rewards in connection with these activities and (2) re-establish the 

operational capability of an office, facility or other property damaged or 

destroyed as a result of any domestic or international terrorist incident. 

Treasury bureaus have important counterterrorism responsibilities, 

including (1) protecting the President; (2) designing and implementing 

security at National Special Security Events; (3) investigating arson, 

explosives, and firearms incidents; (4) conducting financial investigations 

relating to terrorism; (5) preventing weapons of mass destruction from 

entering the United States; and (6) implementing sanctions against terrorist 

organizations. 

(Continued From Previous Page)

Department of the 

Treasury office or 

bureau Program or activity Description of program or activity
Page 243 GAO-03-165 Combating Terrorism

Appendix VI

United Nations Protocols, Conventions, and 

Resolutions Related to Terrorism ApenVdxiI

This appendix is a representative list of United Nations (UN) documents 

related to combating terrorism overseas. The Department of State works 

with international organizations, such as the United Nations, to enhance 

multilateral support to disrupt and destroy terrorists and their 

organizations. The United Nations and its member states established a 

broad array of resolutions and conventions to create a multilateral 

framework for combating international terrorism. This UN-based 

multilateral framework falls into three broad categories of documents or 

agreements: (1) UN conventions or protocols related to terrorism, (2) UN 

Security Council Resolutions, and (3) UN General Assembly Resolutions. 

The following conventions, protocols and resolutions were identified by 

the United Nations as related to terrorism. According to the Department of 

State, the United States is a party to all 12 international conventions and 

protocols relating to terrorism.

Table 15: UN Conventions and Protocols Related to Terrorism

UN convention or protocol Purpose

International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of 

Terrorism, New York

Dec. 9, 1999

Commits member states to prevention and counteraction of the 

financing of terrorists; holds those who finance terrorists liable; and 

provides for the identification, freezing and seizure of funds for 

terrorist activities.

International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist 

Bombings, New York

Dec. 15, 1997

Creates a regime of universal jurisdiction over the use of explosives 

and other lethal devices.

Convention on the Marking of Plastic Explosives for the Purpose 

of Detection, Montreal

Mar. 1, 1991

Combats aircraft sabotage. Designed to control and limit the use of 

undetectable plastic explosives.

Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety 

of Fixed Platforms located on the Continental Shelf, Rome

Mar. 10, 1988

Obligates member states to establish jurisdiction over unlawful acts 

and punish offences with appropriate penalties.

Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the 

Safety of Maritime Navigation, Rome

Mar. 10, 1988 

Establishes a legal regime applicable to acts against international 

maritime navigation. Makes it an offence for a person to unlawfully and 

intentionally seize or exercise control over a ship by force.

Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts of Violence at 

Airports Serving International Civil Aviation, supplementary to 

the Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the 

Safety of Civil Aviation, Montreal

Feb. 24, 1988

Extends provisions of the Montreal Convention to include terrorist acts 

at international airports.

Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material, 

Vienna

Mar. 3, 1980

Criminalizes the unlawful possession, use, transfer, of nuclear 

material, the theft of nuclear material, and threats to use nuclear 

material to cause death or serious injury.
Appendix VI

United Nations Protocols, Conventions, and 

Resolutions Related to Terrorism

Page 244 GAO-03-165 Combating Terrorism

Source: United Nations.

Table 16: UN Security Council Resolutions Related to Terrorism

International Convention Against the Taking of Hostages, New 

York

Dec. 17, 1979

Defines the taking of hostages and requires state parties to make this 

offense punishable by appropriate penalties.

Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes Against 

Internationally Protected Persons, including Diplomatic Agents, 

New York

Dec. 14, 1973

Defines internationally protected persons; requires appropriate 

penalties for those who commit attacks against internationally 

protected persons and for those who support them.

Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the 

Safety of Civil Aviation, Montreal

Sept. 23, 1971

Outlaws acts of violence on aircraft, placement of explosives on 

aircraft, and supporting those who attempt such acts.

Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft, 

The Hague

Dec. 16, 1970

Outlaws the use of intimidation to take control of aircraft; hijackers 

must be prosecuted or extradited.

Convention on Offences and Certain Other Acts Committed on 

Board Aircraft, Tokyo

Sept. 14, 1963

Applies to acts affecting in-flight safety; authorizes pilot to take 

measures to protect aircraft; requires contracting states to take 

custody of offenders and return aircraft to pilot.

UN Security Council 

Resolution Key provisions

1465

Feb. 13, 2003

Condemns the bomb attack in Bogota, Colombia, on February 7, 2003. Also, urges all states, in accordance 

with resolution 1373, to cooperate with and provide support and assistance to the Colombian authorities in 

their efforts to bring to justice the perpetrators, organizers, and sponsors of this terrorist attack.

1456

Jan. 20, 2003

Calls on states to prevent and suppress all active and passive support to terrorism and comply with UN 

Security Council resolutions 1373, 1390, and 1455. Also, calls on states to become a party to all relevant 

international conventions and protocols relating to terrorism, in particular the 1999 international convention for 

the suppression of the financing of terrorism.

1455

Jan. 17, 2003

Calls on all states to enforce and strengthen measures, where appropriate, against their nationals or other 

individuals or entities operating in their territory, to prevent and punish violations. Also calls upon states to 

submit an updated report to the Committee no later than 90 days from adoption of this resolution on steps 

being taken to implement the measures.

1452

Dec. 20, 2002

Decides that the provisions of resolution 1267 and 1390 do not apply to funds and other financial assets or 

economic resources that have been determined by the state to be necessary for basic expenses and 

extraordinary expenses.

1450

Dec. 13, 2002

Condemns the terrorist bomb attack at the Paradise Hotel in Kikambala, Kenya, and the attempted missile 

attack on Arkia Israeli Airlines flight 582, departing from Mombasa, Kenya, on November 28, 2002. Also, urges 

all states in accordance with resolution 1373 to bring to justice the perpetrators, organizers, and sponsors of 

these terrorist attacks.

1440

Oct. 24, 2002

Condemns the act of taking hostages in Moscow, Russia, on October 23, 2002. Also, urges all states, in 

accordance with resolution 1373, to cooperate with the Russian authorities in their efforts to find and bring to 

justice the perpetrators, organizers, and sponsors of this terrorist attack.

(Continued From Previous Page)

UN convention or protocol Purpose
Appendix VI

United Nations Protocols, Conventions, and 

Resolutions Related to Terrorism

Page 245 GAO-03-165 Combating Terrorism

1438

Oct. 14, 2002

Condemns the bomb attacks in Bali, Indonesia, on October 12, 2002. Also, urges all states, in accordance with 

resolution 1373 to cooperate with and provide support and assistance to the Indonesian authorities in their 

efforts to find and bring to justice the perpetrators, organizers, and sponsors of these terrorist attacks.

1390

Jan. 16, 2002

Calls on member states to continue sanctions against the Taliban, Osama bin Laden, and al Qaeda. Requires 

states to take a number of steps against the two regimes, including freezing economic resources, preventing 

the supply or sale of weapons, and preventing members from entering or traveling through their territories. 

Also, directs states to report to the Sanctions Committee on actions taken to implement the sanctions.

1377

Nov. 12, 2001

Calls on member states to implement UN Security Council Resolution 1373 and to assist each other in doing 

so. Also, invites states to inform the Counterterrorism Committee of areas where they require support.

1373

Sept. 28, 2001

Calls on member states to work together to prevent and suppress terrorist acts, through cooperation and 

implementation of the international conventions relating to terrorism. Also, obligates states to prevent and 

suppress the financing of terrorist acts and to freeze funds and other financial assets or economic resources of 

persons who commit or attempt to commit terrorist acts.

1372

Sept. 28, 2001

Recalls UN Security Council Resolution 1044 and notes steps taken by the Government of Sudan to comply 

with UN Security Council Resolutions 1044 and 1070. Terminates the measures brought against Sudan in UN 

Security Council Resolutions 1054 and 1070.

1368

Sept. 12, 2001

Calls on member states to bring to justice the perpetrators and sponsors of the terrorist attacks on 

September 11, 2001. Also, calls on the international community to increase cooperation and implementation of 

anti-terrorist conventions and UN Security Council Resolutions.

1363

July 30, 2001

Establishes a mechanism to monitor the implementation of the measures imposed by UN Security Council 

Resolutions 1267 and 1333.

1333

Dec. 19, 2000

Calls on member states to freeze funds and other financial assets of Osama bin Laden and individuals and 

entities associated with him, including those in the al Qaeda organization. Also, demands that the Taliban 

comply with UN Security Council Resolution 1267 and turn over Osama bin Laden to authorities in a country 

where he has been indicted. 

1269

Oct. 19, 1999

Calls on member states to implement the international anti-terrorist conventions to which they are a party and 

encourages the speedy adoption of the pending conventions.

1267 

Oct. 15, 1999

Calls on member states to freeze funds and other financial resources owned or controlled directly or indirectly 

by the Taliban. 

1214

Dec. 8, 1998

Demands that the Taliban stop providing sanctuary and training for international terrorists and their operations, 

and that all Afghan factions cooperate with efforts to bring indicted terrorists to justice.

1189

Aug. 13, 1998

Calls on member states and international institutions to cooperate with and provide support to the 

investigations in Kenya, Tanzania, and the United States, to apprehend the perpetrators of the criminal acts 

and bring them to justice.

1070

Aug. 16, 1996

Demands the Government of Sudan comply with UN Security Council Resolutions 1044 and 1054 and also 

decides that member states shall deny Sudanese aircraft permission to take off, land, or over fly their 

territories. 

1054

Apr. 26, 1996

Demands the Government of Sudan extradite three suspects to Ethiopia who are wanted for the assassination 

attempt on the President of the Arab Republic of Egypt. Also demands the Government of Sudan desist from 

providing shelter and sanctuary to terrorist elements.

1044

Jan. 31, 1996

Calls upon the Government of Sudan to extradite three suspects wanted in the connection with assassination 

attempt on the President of the Arab Republic of Egypt.

883

Nov. 11, 1993

Demands that the Libyan government comply with UN Security Council Resolutions 731 and 748 and decides 

that member states freeze the funds and financial resources of the government of Libya and all Libyan 

undertakings.

(Continued From Previous Page)

UN Security Council 

Resolution Key provisions
Appendix VI

United Nations Protocols, Conventions, and 

Resolutions Related to Terrorism

Page 246 GAO-03-165 Combating Terrorism

Source: United Nations.

Table 17: UN General Assembly Resolutions Related to Terrorism

748

Mar. 31, 1992

Decides that the Libyan government must commit itself to cease all forms of terrorist action and all assistance 

to terrorist groups. Also decides that states shall prohibit the provision of weapons to Libya.

731

Jan. 21, 1992

Condemns the destruction of Pan American flight 103 and urges the Libyan government to provide a full and 

effective response to UN member states’ requests to eliminate international terrorism.

687

Apr. 3, 1991

Recalls the International Convention Against the Taking of Hostages, which categorizes all hostage-taking acts 

as manifestations of international terrorism.

635

June, 14, 1989

Condemns all acts of unlawful interference against the security of civil aviation. Calls upon all member states 

to implement measures to prevent acts of terrorism, including those involving explosives. Urges the 

International Civil Aviation Organization to intensify its work on devising an international regime for the marking 

of plastic explosives for the purpose of detection.

337

Aug. 15, 1973

Condemns the Government of Israel for the forcible diversion and seizure of a Lebanese airline from 

Lebanon’s air space.

286

Sept. 9, 1970

Appeals to all parties concerned for the immediate release of all passengers and crews held as a result of 

hijackings. Calls on member states to take legal steps to prevent hijackings or other interference with 

international civil air travel.

UN General Assembly 

Resolution Key provisions

56/1

Sept. 18, 2001

Condemns the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks and expresses condolences and solidarity with the 

people and Government of the United States. Calls for urgent international cooperation to bring the 

perpetrators to justice.

55/158

Jan. 30, 2001

Reiterates General Assembly Resolution 54/110. Welcomes the efforts of the Terrorism Branch of the Centre 

for International Crime Prevention. Continues the previous work of the Ad Hoc Committee.

54/164

Feb. 24, 2000

Recalls General Assembly Resolution 52/133. Commends those governments that supplied the Secretary 

General with their views on the implications of terrorism. Welcomes the Secretary General’s report and 

requests that he continue to seek views of member states.

54/110

Feb. 2, 2000

Recalls General Assembly Resolution 53/108. Notes the establishment of the Terrorism Prevention Branch of 

the Centre for International Crime Prevention in Vienna, Austria. Invites states to submit information on their 

national laws, regulations, or initiatives regarding terrorism to the Secretary General. Invites regional 

intergovernmental organizations to do likewise. Continues the previous work of the Ad Hoc Committee.

54/109

Feb. 25, 2000

Adopts the International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism and urges all states to 

sign and ratify, accept, approve, or accede to the Convention.

53/108

Jan. 26, 1999

Recalls General Assembly Resolution 52/165. Reaffirms that actions by states to combat terrorism should be 

conducted in conformity with the Charter of the United Nations, international law, and relevant conventions. 

Decides to address the question of convening a UN conference to formulate a joint response to terrorism by 

the international community. Decides the Ad Hoc Committee shall continue to elaborate on a draft convention 

for the suppression of terrorist financing and will continue developing a draft convention for the suppression of 

acts of nuclear terrorism. 

(Continued From Previous Page)

UN Security Council 

Resolution Key provisions
Appendix VI

United Nations Protocols, Conventions, and 

Resolutions Related to Terrorism

Page 247 GAO-03-165 Combating Terrorism

52/165

Dec. 15, 1997

Reiterates General Assembly Resolution 51/210. Reaffirms the Declaration on Measures to Eliminate 

International Terrorism. Requests the Ad Hoc Committee established by UN General Assembly Resolution 

51/210 continue its work. Requests the Secretary General to invite the International Atomic Energy Agency to 

assist the Ad Hoc Committee.

52/133

Dec. 12, 1997

Recalls General Assembly resolution 50/186. Condemns incitement of ethnic hatred, violence, and terrorism. 

Requests the Secretary General seek the views of member states on the implications of terrorism in all its 

forms and manifestations.

51/210

Dec. 17, 1996

Calls upon states to adopt further measures to prevent and combat terrorism. Some of these include: 

accelerating research and development of explosive detection and marking technology; investigating the 

abuse of charitable, social, and cultural organizations by terrorist organizations; and developing mutual legal 

assistance procedures to facilitate cross-border investigations. Further calls upon states to become parties to 

relevant international anti-terrorism conventions and protocols. Also establishes an Ad Hoc Committee to 

elaborate an international convention for the suppression of terrorist bombings and acts of nuclear terrorism. 

Approves a supplement to the 1994 declaration on measures to Eliminate International Terrorism, which, 

among other things, reaffirms that asylum seekers may not avoid prosecution for terrorist acts and encourages 

states to facilitate terrorist extraditions even in the absence of a treaty.

50/186

Dec. 22, 1995

Recalls General Assembly Resolution 49/185. Requests the Secretary-General continue to seek the views of 

member states on the possible establishment of a UN voluntary fund to aid victims of terrorism, as well as 

ways and means to rehabilitate and reintegrate such victims back into society. Requests the Secretary General 

submit a report to the General Assembly containing the views of member states on these topics.

50/53

Dec. 11, 1995

Reaffirms the Declaration on Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism. Urges all states to cooperate in 

eliminating terrorist safe-havens and in further developing international law regarding terrorism. Recalls the 

role of the Security Council in combating terrorism. Requests the Secretary-General submit an annual report 

on the implementation of paragraph 10 of the declaration.

49/185

Dec. 23, 1994

Recalls General Assembly Resolution 48/122. Expresses solidarity with the victims of terrorism. Requests the 

UN Secretary General seek views of member states on the establishment of a UN voluntary fund for victims of 

terrorism.

49/60

Dec. 9, 1994

Approves the Declaration on Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism, which, among other things, 

unequivocally condemns all acts of terrorism, demands that states take effective and resolute measures to 

eliminate terrorism, and charges the Secretary General with various implementation tasks. Some of these 

tasks include collecting data on the status of existing international agreements relating to terrorism and 

developing an international legal framework of conventions on terrorism.

48/122

Dec. 20, 1993

Condemns terrorism as an activity aimed at the destruction of human rights, fundamental freedoms, and 

democracy. Also condemns terrorism for threatening state security, destabilizing legitimate governments, 

undermining civil society, and obstructing economic development. Calls upon states to take effective measures 

to combat terrorism in accordance with international standards of human rights. Urges the international 

community to enhance cooperation against terrorism at many levels.

46/51

Dec. 9, 1991

Recalls General Assembly Resolution 44/29. Welcomes the recent adoption of the Convention on the Marking 

of Plastic Explosives for the Purpose of Detection.

44/29

Dec. 4, 1989

Recalls General Assembly Resolution 42/159. Expresses concern at the growing link between terrorist groups, 

drug traffickers, and paramilitary gangs. Calls upon member states to use their political influence to secure the 

safe release of all hostages. Also urges the International Civil Aviation Organization to intensify its work on 

devising an international regime for the marking of plastic explosives for purposes of detection. Welcomes the 

recent adoption of aviation and maritime security conventions and protocols.

(Continued From Previous Page)

UN General Assembly 

Resolution Key provisions
Appendix VI

United Nations Protocols, Conventions, and 

Resolutions Related to Terrorism

Page 248 GAO-03-165 Combating Terrorism

Source: United Nations.

42/159

Dec. 7, 1987

Reaffirms General Assembly Resolution 40/61. Urges all states to (a) prevent the preparation and organization 

of terrorist acts from their territories; (b) ensure the apprehension, prosecution, or extradition terrorist 

perpetrators; (c) conclude bilateral and multilateral agreements to that effect; (d) cooperate with other states in 

exchanging terrorist information; and (e) harmonize their domestic legislation with existing international 

conventions to prevent terrorism. Also welcomes the air and maritime-security conventions being drafted by 

the International Civil Aviation Organization and the International Maritime Organization. 

40/61

Dec. 9, 1985

Recalls General Assembly Resolution 38/130. Unequivocally condemns all acts of terrorism. Urges all states 

not to obstruct the application of appropriate law enforcement measures against terrorist suspects provided for 

in the conventions to which these states are a party. Urges states to eliminate underlying causes of terrorism, 

including colonialism, racism, and situations involving massive human rights violations. Also, calls upon all 

states to follow the recommendations of the International Civil Aviation Organization to prevent terrorist attacks 

against civil aviation transport. Requests the International Maritime Organization study the problem of 

terrorism against ships. 

39/159

Dec. 17, 1984

Condemns policies and practices of terrorism between states as a method of dealing with other states and 

peoples. Demands that states refrain from taking action aimed at undermining other states. Urges all states to 

respect and observe the sovereignty and political independence of states. 

38/130

Dec. 19, 1983

Recalls General Assembly Resolution 34/145. Deeply deplores the loss of innocent human lives and the 

pernicious impact of international terrorist acts on friendly relations among states as well as on international 

cooperation. Re-endorses the recommendations of the Ad Hoc Committee on International Terrorism.

36/109

Dec. 10, 1981

Re-endorses the recommendations made to the General Assembly by the Ad Hoc Committee on International 

Terrorism and calls upon all states to observe and implement these recommendations. 

34/145

Dec. 17, 1979

Unequivocally condemns all acts of international terrorism. Adopts the recommendations of the Ad Hoc 

Committee relating to cooperation for the elimination of international terrorism. Calls upon states to refrain 

from organizing, instigating, assisting or participating in acts of civil strife or terrorism in another state. Appeals 

to states to become parties to existing international conventions relating to terrorism. Invites states to 

harmonize their domestic laws with international conventions on terrorism and cooperate with each other more 

closely in the areas of information sharing, terrorist extradition, and terrorist prosecution. 

31/102

Dec. 15, 1976

Urges states to continue to seek just and peaceful solutions to the problem of international terrorism. Reaffirms 

the inalienable right to self-determination of all people, and condemns the continuation of repressive and 

terrorist acts by colonial, racist, and alien regimes. Continues the work of the Ad Hoc Committee on Terrorism 

in studying the underlying causes of terrorism and requests that it submit practical measures to combat 

terrorism to the Secretary General.

30/34

Dec. 18, 1972

Urges states to devote their immediate attention to the growing problem of international terrorism. Reaffirms 

the inalienable right to self-determination of all people under colonial regimes and upholds the legitimacy of 

national liberation movements. Also, establishes an Ad Hoc Committee on terrorism to study the root causes 

and devise solutions to terrorism.

(Continued From Previous Page)

UN General Assembly 

Resolution Key provisions
Page 249 GAO-03-165 Combating Terrorism

Appendix VII

Organizations Visited or Contacted ApenVdxiI

During the course of our review, we visited and/or contacted officials from 

the following organizations.

Cabinet Departments 

and Related Agencies

Department of Defense • Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Special Operations and 

Low-Intensity Conflict, Washington, D.C.

• Office of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Washington, D.C.

• Unified Combatant Commands

• U.S. Central Command, MacDill Air Force Base, Florida

• U.S. European Command, Patch Barracks, Stuttgart-Vaihingen, 

Germany

• U.S. Southern Command, Miami, Florida

• U.S. Special Operations Command, MacDill Air Force Base, Florida

• Defense Intelligence Agency, Washington, D.C.

• Defense Attachés at selected U.S. embassies (see Department of 

State)

Department of Homeland 

Security

• Bureau of Immigration and Customs Enforcement, Washington, D.C.

• Bureau of Customs and Border Protection, Washington, D.C.

• U.S. Secret Service, Washington, D.C.

• Headquarters, Federal Law Enforcement Training Center, Glynco, 

Georgia
Appendix VII

Organizations Visited or Contacted

Page 250 GAO-03-165 Combating Terrorism

Department of Justice • Criminal Division, Washington, D.C.

• Terrorism Section, Washington, D.C.

• Federal Bureau of Investigation, Washington, D.C.

• Counterterrorism Division, Washington, D.C.

• Investigative Services Division, Washington, D.C.

• International Operations Branch, Washington, D.C.

• Legal Attaché Program, Washington, D.C.

• Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives, Washington, D.C.

• International Law Enforcement Academy, Budapest, Hungary

• Legal Attaché at a selected U.S. embassy (see Department of State)

Department of State • Bureau of Administration, Washington, D.C.

• Bureau of Consular Affairs, Washington, D.C.

• Bureau of Diplomatic Security, Washington, D.C.

• Bureau of Economic and Business Affairs, Washington, D.C.

• Bureau of Intelligence and Research, Washington, D.C.

• Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs, 

Washington, D.C.

• Bureau of International Organization Affairs, Washington, D.C.

• Bureau of Overseas Buildings Operations, Washington, D.C.

• Bureau of Political-Military Affairs, Washington, D.C.

• Geographic Bureaus, Washington, D.C.
Appendix VII

Organizations Visited or Contacted

Page 251 GAO-03-165 Combating Terrorism

• African Affairs, Washington, D.C.

• East Asian and Pacific Affairs, Washington, D.C.

• European and Eurasian Affairs, Washington, D.C.

• Near Eastern Affairs, Washington, D.C.

• South Asian Affairs, Washington, D.C.

• Western Hemisphere Affairs, Washington, D.C.

• Office of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism, Washington, D.C.

• Office of International Information Programs, Washington, D.C.

• Office of the Legal Adviser, Washington, D.C.

• Overseas Security Advisory Council, Washington, D.C.

• U.S. Agency for International Development, Washington, D.C.

• Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance, Washington, D.C.

• U.S. Embassy, Athens, Greece

Department of the Treasury • Office of Foreign Assets Control, Washington, D.C.

• Financial Crimes Enforcement Network, Washington, D.C.

• Treasury personnel at a selected U.S. embassy (see Department of 

State)
Appendix VII

Organizations Visited or Contacted

Page 252 GAO-03-165 Combating Terrorism

Other Agencies

Central Intelligence Agency • Counterterrorist Center, Langley, Virginia

Executive Office of the 

President

• National Security Council, Washington, D.C.

• Office of Homeland Security, Washington, D.C.

• Office of Management and Budget, Washington, D.C.
Page 253 GAO-03-165 Combating Terrorism

Appendix VIII

Comments from the Department of Defense ApenVdxiI
Page 254 GAO-03-165 Combating Terrorism

Appendix IX

Comments from the U.S. Agency for 

International Development ApenXIdxi
Page 255 GAO-03-165 Combating Terrorism

Appendix X

GAO Contacts and Staff Acknowledgments ApenXdxi

GAO Contacts Raymond J. Decker (202) 512-6020

Stephen L. Caldwell (202) 512-9610

Acknowledgments In addition to those named above, Mark A. Pross; James C. Lawson; Lori L. 

Kmetz; David W. Hancock; Cheryl L. Goodman; Edward J. George, Jr.; 

J. Addison Ricks; Susan K. Woodward; Rebecca Shea; Harry L. (Lee) Purdy; 

Michael S. (Shawn) Arbogast; John W. Van Schaik; Michael C. Zola; and 

Douglas E. Cole made key contributions to this report. 
Page 256 GAO-03-165 Combating Terrorism

Related GAO Products

Information Technology: Terrorist Watch Lists Should Be Consolidated to 

Promote Better Integration and Sharing. GAO-03-322. Washington, D.C.: 

April 15, 2003.

Combating Terrorism: Observations on National Strategies Related to 

Terrorism. GAO-03-519T. Washington, D.C.: March 3, 2003.

Weaknesses in Screening Entrants into the United States. GAO-03-438T. 

Washington, D.C.: January 30, 2003.

High-Risk Series: Protecting Information Systems Supporting the 

Federal Government and the Nation’s Critical Infrastructures. 

GAO-03-121. Washington, D.C.: January 1, 2003.

Major Management Challenges and Program Risks: Department of 

Homeland Security. GAO-03-102. Washington, D.C.: January 1, 2003.

Homeland Security: Management Challenges Facing Federal Leadership. 

GAO-03-260. Washington, D.C.: December 20, 2002.

Combating Terrorism: Funding Data Reported to Congress Should Be 

Improved. GAO-03-170. Washington, D.C.: November 26, 2002.

Border Security: Implications of Eliminating the Visa Waiver Program.

GAO-03-38. Washington, D.C.: November 22, 2002.

Container Security: Current Efforts to Detect Nuclear Materials, 

New Initiatives, and Challenges. GAO-03-297T. Washington, D.C.: 

November 18, 2002.

Technology Assessment: Biometrics for Border Security. GAO-03-174. 

Washington, D.C.: November 14, 2002.

Combating Terrorism: Actions Needed to Guide Services' Antiterrorism 

Efforts at Installations. GAO-03-14. Washington, D.C.: November 1, 2002.

Border Security: Visa Process Should Be Strengthened as an 

Antiterrorism Tool.GAO-03-132NI. Washington, D.C.: October 21, 2002.

Combating Terrorism: Department of State Programs to Combat 

Terrorism Abroad. GAO-02-1021. Washington, D.C.: September 6, 2002.
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Page 257 GAO-03-165 Combating Terrorism

Homeland Security: Effective Intergovernmental Coordination Is Key 

to Success. GAO-02-1013T. Washington, D.C.: August 23, 2002.

Nonproliferation R & D: NNSA's Program Develops Successful 

Technologies, but Project Management Can Be Strengthened. GAO-01-904. 

Washington, D.C.: August 23, 2002.

Port Security: Nation Faces Formidable Challenges in Making New 

Initiatives Successful. GAO-02-993T. Washington, D.C.: August 5, 2002.

Combating Terrorism: Preliminary Observations on Weaknesses in 

Force Protection for DOD Deployments Through Domestic Seaports.

GAO-02-955TNI. Washington, D.C.: July 23, 2002.

International Trade: Critical Issues Remain in Determining Conflict 

Diamond Trade. GAO-02-678. Washington, D.C.: June 14, 2002.

Nuclear Nonproliferation: U.S. Efforts to Help Other Countries 

Combat Nuclear Smuggling Need Strengthened Coordination and 

Planning. GAO-02-426. Washington, D.C.: May 16, 2002.

Federal Funding for Selected Surveillance Technologies. GAO-02-438R. 

Washington, D.C.: March 14, 2002.

Department of State: Status of Achieving Key Outcomes and 

Addressing Major Management Challenges. GAO-02-42. Washington, D.C.: 

December 7, 2001.

European Security: U.S. and European Contributions to Foster 

Stability and Security in Europe. GAO-02-174. Washington, D.C.: 

November 28, 2001.

Illegal Aliens: INS’ Processes for Denying Aliens Entry into the 

United States. GAO-02-220T. Washington, D.C.: November 13, 2001.

Combating Terrorism: Selected Challenges and Related 

Recommendations. GAO-01-822. Washington, D.C.: September 20, 2001.

Combating Terrorism: Actions Needed to Improve DOD 

Antiterrorism Program Implementation and Management. GAO-01-909. 

Washington, D.C.: September 19, 2001.
Related GAO Products

Page 258 GAO-03-165 Combating Terrorism

International Crime Control: Sustained Executive-Level Coordination of 

Federal Response Needed. GAO-01-629. Washington, D.C.: August 13, 2001.

FBI Intelligence Investigations: Coordination Within Justice on 

Counterintelligence Criminal Matters Is Limited. GAO-01-780. 

Washington, D.C.: July 16, 2001.

Combating Terrorism: Observations on Options to Improve the Federal 

Response. GAO-01-660T. Washington, D.C.: April 24, 2001.

Combating Terrorism: Comments on Counterterrorism Leadership and 

National Strategy. GAO-01-556T. Washington, D.C.: March 27, 2001.

Nuclear Nonproliferation: Security of Russia's Nuclear 

Material Improving; Further Enhancements Needed. GAO-01-312. 

Washington, D.C.: February 28, 2001.

Embassy Construction: Better Long-term Planning Will 

Enhance Program Decision-making. GAO-01-11. Washington, D.C.: 

January 22, 2001.

State Department: Serious Problems in the Anthrax 

Vaccine Immunization Program. GAO-01-21. Washington, D.C.: 

December 13, 2000.

Combating Terrorism: Federal Response Teams Provide Varied 

Capabilities: Opportunities Remain to Improve Coordination.

GAO-01-14. Washington, D.C.: November 30, 2000.

No Information to Link Irish Terrorist Organizations to 

International Narcotics Trafficking. GAO/OSI-00-18R. Washington, D.C.: 

September 29, 2000.

Combating Terrorism: Linking Threats to Strategies and Resources.

GAO/T-NSIAD-00-218. Washington, D.C.: July 26, 2000.

Combating Terrorism: Action Taken but Considerable Risks Remain for 

Forces Overseas. GAO/NSIAD-00-181. Washington, D.C.: July 19, 2000.

Observations on the Department of State's Fiscal Year 1999 Performance 

Report and Fiscal Year 2001 Performance Plan. GAO/NSIAD-00-189R. 

Washington, D.C.: June 30, 2000.
Related GAO Products

Page 259 GAO-03-165 Combating Terrorism

Weapons of Mass Destruction: DOD’s Actions to Combat Weapons Use 

Should Be More Integrated and Focused. GAO/NSIAD-00-97. Washington, 

D.C.: May 26, 2000.

Combating Terrorism: Comments on Bill H.R. 4210 to Manage Selected 

Counterterrorist Programs. GAO/T-NSIAD-00-172. Washington, D.C.: 

May 4, 2000.

Combating Terrorism: How Five Foreign Countries Are Organized to 

Combat Terrorism. GAO/NSIAD-00-85. Washington, D.C.: April 7, 2000.

Combating Terrorism: Issues in Managing Counterterrorist Programs.

GAO/T-NSIAD-00-145. Washington, D.C.: April 6, 2000.

State Department: Overseas Emergency Security Program 

Progressing, but Costs Are Increasing. GAO/NSIAD-00-83. 

Washington, D.C.: March 8, 2000.

State Department: Progress and Challenges in Addressing Management 

Issues. GAO/T-NSIAD-00-124. Washington, D.C.: March 8, 2000.

Chemical and Biological Defense: Observations on Actions Taken to 

Protect Military Forces. GAO/T-NSIAD-00-49. Washington, D.C.: 

October 20, 1999.

Combating Terrorism: Observations on the Threat of Chemical and 

Biological Terrorism. GAO/T-NSIAD-00-50. Washington, D.C.: 

October 20, 1999.

Combating Terrorism: Need for Comprehensive Threat and Risk 

Assessments of Chemical and Biological Attacks. GAO/NSIAD-99-163. 

Washington, D.C.: September 7, 1999.

Military Training: Management and Oversight of Joint Combined 

Exchange Training. GAO/NSIAD-99-173. Washington, D.C.: July 23, 1999.

Combating Terrorism: Analysis of Federal Counterterrorist Exercises.

GAO/NSIAD-99-157BR. Washington, D.C.: June 25, 1999.

Combating Terrorism: Issues to Be Resolved to Improve 

Counterterrorism Operations. GAO/NSIAD-99-135. Washington, D.C.: 

May 13, 1999.
Related GAO Products

Page 260 GAO-03-165 Combating Terrorism

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Combating Terrorism: Observations on Federal Spending to Combat 

Terrorism. GAO/T-NSIAD/GGD-99-107. Washington, D.C.: March 11, 1999.

Major Management Challenges and Program Risks: Department of State.

GAO/OCG-99-12. Washington, D.C.: January 1, 1999.

Combating Terrorism: FBI's Use of Federal Funds for CounterterrorismRelated Activities (FYs 1995-1998). GAO/GGD-99-7. Washington, D.C.: 

November 20, 1998.

Combating Terrorism: Observations on Crosscutting Issues.

GAO/T-NSIAD-98-164. Washington, D.C.: April 23, 1998.

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April 9, 1998.

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Requires Better Management and Coordination. GAO/NSIAD-98-39. 

Washington, D.C.: December 1, 1997.

Combating Terrorism: Efforts to Protect U.S. Forces in Turkey and the 

Middle East. GAO/T-NSIAD-98-44. Washington, D.C.: October 28, 1997.

Combating Terrorism: Federal Agencies' Efforts to Implement 

National Policy and Strategy. GAO/NSIAD-97-254. Washington, D.C.: 

September 26, 1997.

Combating Terrorism: Status of DOD Efforts to Protect Its Force 

Overseas. GAO/NSIAD-97-207. Washington, D.C.: July 21, 1997.

State Department: Efforts to Reduce Visa Fraud. GAO/T-NSIAD-97-167. 

Washington, D.C.: May 20, 1997.

Aviation Security: FAA's Procurement of Explosives Detection Devices.

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Aviation Security: Commercially Available Advanced Explosives 

Detection Devices. GAO/RCED-97-119R. Washington, D.C.: April 24, 1997.

Terrorism and Drug Trafficking: Responsibilities for Developing 

Explosives and Narcotics Detection Technologies. GAO/NSIAD-97-95. 

Washington, D.C.: April 15, 1997.

Terrorism and Drug Trafficking: Technologies for Detecting 

Explosives and Narcotics. GAO/NSIAD/RCED-96-252. Washington, D.C.: 

September 4, 1996.

Aviation Security: Immediate Action Needed to Improve Security.

GAO/T-RCED/NSIAD-96-237. Washington, D.C.: August 1, 1996.

Passports and Visas: Status of Efforts to Reduce Fraud.

GAO/NSIAD-96-99. Washington, D.C.: May 9, 1996.

Terrorism and Drug Trafficking: Threats and Roles of Explosives and 

Narcotics Detection Technology. GAO/NSIAD/RCED-96-76BR. 

Washington, D.C.: March 27, 1996.

Nuclear Nonproliferation: Status of U.S. Efforts to Improve Nuclear 

Material Controls in Newly Independent States. GAO/NSIAD/RCED-96-89. 

Washington, D.C.: March 8, 1996.

Nonimmigrant Visa Processing. GAO/NSIAD-95-122R. Washington, D.C.: 

April 17, 1995.

Aviation Security: Additional Actions Needed to Meet Domestic 

and International Challenges. GAO/RCED-94-38. Washington, D.C.: 

January 27, 1994.

Foreign Assistance: Meeting the Training Needs of Police in New 

Democracies. GAO/NSIAD-93-109. Washington, D.C.: January 21, 1993.

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Related GAO Products

Page 262 GAO-03-165 Combating Terrorism

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Washington, D.C.: July 27, 1992.

Foreign Aid: Police Training and Assistance. GAO/NSIAD-92-118. 

Washington, D.C.: March 5, 1992.

Economic Sanctions: Effectiveness as Tools of Foreign Policy.

GAO/NSIAD-92-106. Washington, D.C.: February 19, 1992.

State Department: Management Weaknesses in the Security Construction 

Program. GAO/NSIAD-92-2. Washington, D.C.: November 29, 1991.

Preliminary Inquiry into Alleged 1980 Negotiations to Delay Release 

of Iranian Hostages until after November Election. GAO/T-OSI-92-4. 

Washington, D.C.: November 21, 1991.

Preliminary Inquiry into Alleged 1980 Negotiations to Delay Release 

of Iranian Hostages until after November Election. GAO/T-OSI-92-1. 

Washington, D.C.: November 7, 1991.

State Department: Status of the Diplomatic Security Construction 

Program. GAO/NSIAD-91-143BR. Washington, D.C.: February 20, 1991.

International Terrorism: FBI Investigates Domestic Activities to Identify 

Terrorists. GAO/GGD-90-112. Washington, D.C.: September 7, 1990.

Aviation Security: Training Standards Needed for Extra Security 

Measures at Foreign Airports. GAO/RCED-90-66. Washington, D.C.: 

December 15, 1989.

International Terrorism: Status of GAO's Review of the FBI's 

International Terrorism Program. GAO/T-GGD-89-31. Washington, D.C.: 

June 22, 1989.

Embassy Security: Background Investigations of Foreign Employees.

GAO/NSIAD-89-76. Washington, D.C.: January 5, 1989.

Security Assistance: Update of Programs and Related Activities.

GAO/NSIAD-89-78FS. Washington, D.C.: December 28, 1988.
Related GAO Products

Page 263 GAO-03-165 Combating Terrorism

Aviation Security: FAA's Assessments of Foreign Airports.

GAO/RCED-89-45. Washington, D.C.: December 7, 1988.

Passports: Implications of Deleting the Birthplace in U.S. Passports.

GAO/NSIAD-87-201. Washington, D.C.: August 27, 1987.

Terrorism: Laws Cited Imposing Sanctions on Nations Supporting 

Terrorism. GAO/NSIAD-87-133FS. Washington, D.C.: April 17, 1987.

Obstacles to U.S. Ability to Control and Track Weapons-Grade Uranium 

Supplied Abroad. GAO/ID-82-21. Washington, D.C.: August 2, 1982.

(350092)
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