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FRONT AND BACK COVERS: Portions of the Las Vegas, 

Nevada-Arizona-Cah'/ornia, color-infrared satellite image 

map, the first to be computer-mosaicked by the U.S. 

Geological Survey from satellite-acquired multispectraJ 

scanner data and printed in a standard l:250,000-scaJe 

quadrangle format. The data were collected in October 198! 

from a height of about 570 miles above the Earth's surface. 

The view of Las Vegas {front cover] includes partially 

vegetated (dark red) and grassy (bright red) urban areas. 

Asphalt-covered roads and airport runways are black. The 

white area to the northeast of the city is a playa. Sparsely 

vegetated rocky and soil-covered areas range in color from 

beige to dark greenish-gray depending on the composition 

and the texture. The view of Toiyabe NationaJ Forest (back 

cover) shows snoiv on Charleston PeaJc above the coniferous 

forests (dark red). The yellow areas east of the La Madre 

Mountain are naturally red rock outcrops.

INSIDE FRONT AND INSIDE BACK COVERS: Corresponding 

sections of l:250,000-scale topographic map of Las Vegas and 

Toiyabe NationaJ Forest areas.

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Yearbook,

United

States

Geological

Survey

Yearbook,

Fiscal

Year

1984
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

DONALD PAUL MODEL, Secretary

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

Dallas L. Peck, Director

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1985

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, 

U.S. Government Printing Office, 

Washington, DC 20402
Contents

1 The Year in Review 

4 Perspectives

4 l:100,000-Scale Digital Cartographic Data 

Base for Federal Requirements

13 Disintegration of the Lower Reach of

Columbia Glacier, Alaska, Now Under 

Way

16 Mineral-Resources Research at the U.S. 

Geological Survey Linking Past Data 

to Current and Future Needs

30 Significant Accomplishments of Research 

Programs: 1984

42 Missions, Organization, and Budget

46 National Mapping Program

58 Geologic Investigations

82 Water Resources Investigations

110 International Activities

116 Information Systems Activities

122 Organizational and Statistical Data 

124 U.S. Geological Survey Offices

130 Guide to Information and Publications

131 Cooperators and Other Financial

Contributors 

138 Budgetary and Statistical Data

v

The Year in Review

Terminus of Columbia 

Glacier, as recorded by 

an automatic camera, on 

June 5, 1984 (top), and 

September 4, 1984 

(bottom). The terminus, 

ice cliff is 3.1 miles wide; 

the cliff was about 200 

feet high on September 4. 

For scale, the dark island 

in the left foreground is 

1,100 feet wide. Floating 

ice, including huge 

icebergs, chokes the water 

of Columbia Bay in front 

of the ice cliff. On June 

5, a floating tongue of ice 

still is attached to the 

grounded glacier. Because 

of the rapid flow, virtually 

all the ice seen in the 

June 5 photograph had 

calved off and been 

replaced by new ice by 

September 4- (Photographs 

by Robert M. Krimmel, 

Water Resources Division, 

U.S. Geological Survey.)

As the Nation's principal earth 

science research agency, the U.S. Geological Survey has a special responsibility to present an annual report of its 

investigations to the public it serves. In 

1984, our endeavors included new 

investigations of natural phenomena, 

responses to urgent public concerns and 

legislation, and special efforts to adapt 

advanced technology that will make us 

more efficient in meeting the challenges 

that lie ahead. As Director, I am 

privileged to highlight here some of the 

results of the Geological Survey's many 

activities that are described in this 

Yearbook.

Natural events have played a crucial 

role throughout the agency's 105 years. 

Our formal earthquake program, for 

example, began 100 years ago in the 

wake of the Charleston, South Carolina, 

earthquake of 1886. In the past few 

years, work with natural hazards has 

become an increasingly significant part 

of our overall program. Since the 

explosive eruption of Mount St. Helens 

in 1980, we have increased greatly our 

monitoring efforts for other volcanoes of 

the Cascade Range. In 1984, we successfully predicted three of the four latest 

eruptions of Mount St. Helens. In 

Hawaii, Mauna Loa Volcano began 

erupting on March 25, 1984, and lava 

moved to a point 5 miles from the city of 

Hilo. Geological Survey scientists 

provided round-the-clock surveillance 

throughout the several weeks of the 

eruption. Earthquakes continue to pose 

a major threat to life and property in 

the United States. During this year, we 

have made considerable progress 

toward more effective automated monitoring networks, advanced our understanding of earthquake mechanisms, 

and begun an important earthquake 

prediction experiment at Parkfield, 

California. In addition to our progress in 

earthquake studies, landslide hazards 

have been the focus of new cooperative 

efforts with the States.

In response to intense droughts in the 

late 1970's, we established a comprehensive program to study the major 

regional aquifer systems of the United 

States. Studies of six of these aquifers

were completed by 1984. The study for 

the High Plains regional aquifer resulted 

in the first accurate mapping of ground 

water depleted from the aquifer by 

irrigation and in a successful model to 

test alternative strategies for mitigating 

the effects of ground-water depletion. In 

striking contrast to the scarcity of water 

in the previous decade, storms and 

flooding were a major problem from 

1982 through 1984. A record rise in the 

Great Salt Lake, for example, caused 

extensive damage to property. The lake 

rose 5 feet from September 1983 to July 

1984, the second largest seasonal rise 

since 1847. These dramatic variations in 

natural processes require intensive 

scientific study for us to better prepare 

the public to cope with such hazards 

now and in the future.

In addition to natural events, public 

concerns and legislation related to earth 

science issues have played a large role 

in the direction of Geological Survey 

activities. Continuing national interest in 

energy supplies has led to important 

new accomplishments by our employees. 

In 1984, our energy studies located highpotential geothermal fluids at Newberry 

volcano, contributed to improved 

methods for estimating remaining oil 

and gas resources from past production 

records, and produced the first maps 

that will be the basis for a new atlas of 

oil and gas data. During the past year, 

we transferred management of the 

Barrow gas fields in Alaska to the North 

Slope Borough. A significant result of 

our North Slope studies before the 

transfer was the development of new 

methods for assessing oil and gas 

resources without damage to the fragile 

environments in cold regions.

During this year, we responded in 

new and positive ways to needs of other 

Federal agencies that deal with the 

national concern for adequate supplies 

of clean water. We provided major 

assistance in the development of the 

hydrologic part of the National Ground 

Water Protection Strategy formulated 

by the Environmental Protection Agency. 

Our investigations in this program 

involved the physical, chemical, and 

biological processes that affect the
movement and fate of hazardous substances in hydrologic systems. The 

effects of high selenium levels associated with irrigation return waters in the 

southwestern San Joaquin Valley of 

California became an issue of intense 

concern in 1984. Our scientists are 

working closely with colleagues in the 

Bureau of Reclamation, the Fish and 

Wildlife Service, and State agencies to 

identify geochemical pathways of the 

selenium in waters of the agricultural 

systems and wildlife lands of that area.

The worldwide availability of 

strategic minerals is another concern of 

critical national interest. In recent 

years, as the United States began to rely 

more on imports to satisfy mineral 

needs, the Geological Survey responded 

with new programs of basic research 

and evaluation of mineral resources. 

These programs have included the 

Conterminous United States Mineral 

Appraisal Program, a similar appraisal 

program of Alaska, and assessments of 

approximately 50 million acres of 

Federal wilderness lands throughout the 

country. The publication in 1984 of 

Professional Paper 1300, Wilderness 

MineroJ Potential, was a significant 

milestone in our long-term efforts to 

thoroughly characterize the mineral 

wealth of the Nation. This comprehensive volume summarizes 20 years of 

cooperative studies with the Bureau of 

Mines and the Forest Service.

The establishment in 1983 of the U.S. 

Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) 200 

nautical miles seaward from the 

Nation's coastline tremendously 

increased the area within which mineral 

and energy resources must be assessed. 

In 1984, the Geological Survey completed detailed geophysical surveys of 

the Juan de Fuca and Gorda Ridges in 

the Pacific in cooperation with the 

Hawaii Institute of Geophysics, completed sonar mapping of 250,000 square 

miles of the west coast EEZ, and 

conducted a major scientific cruise to 

identify likely areas of potential seafloor 

minerals in the zone surrounding United 

States island territories in the Pacific. 

In addition to exploration of the EEZ, 

Geological Survey crews on the Research Vessel Samuel P. Lee accomplished the first comprehensive geophysical survey of the Antarctic continental

margin to be made by an American 

expedition. An intensive multidisciplinary resource appraisal program for 

the EEZ, begun in 1984, will be 

continued, concentrating on specific 

geologic provinces within the zone. The 

Nation must establish a solid scientific 

framework for the exploration and 

development of this new frontier, 

because the beginning of resource 

development by industry in the EEZ will 

depend on there being sufficient 

evidence that a substantial potential 

exists for energy and mineral resources.

By far the most pervasive technological change affecting us in recent years 

has been the greatly expanded use of 

computers. The automation of spatial 

data has made it possible to create 

digital models of the Earth's surface, for 

both natural and manmade features. 

These basic spatial data can be manipulated and combined in any desired 

format in the computer. Products 

designed and prepared on the computer 

have become part of our routine 

mapping processes. Together, the 

various types of digital cartographic 

data that are being assembled constitute 

the National Digital Cartographic Data 

Base. We continue to compile and 

manage large volumes of resource data, 

including data on water, coal, petroleum, and mineral resources, in digital 

data bases. Not only have we developed 

the means to acquire and store these 

diverse data, but we also have 

developed innovative new programs to 

manipulate and effectively use these 

large volumes of data; for example, our 

water simulation models mathematically 

evaluate the effects on water quantity 

and quality from such complex and 

interrelated causes as changes in 

rainfall and irrigation pumping rates.

An essential part of the Geological 

Survey mission has always been the 

dissemination of the results of scientific 

data collection and research. During 

this year, we published more than 4,900 

technical reports and 6,600 new maps, 

which are still our primary channels of 

information dissemination. Our dissemination function has been enhanced by 

the use of digital data and direct 

computer access to make information 

more readily available to the public. The 

National Cartographic Information
Center provides access points across the 

country for machine-readable tapes of 

cartographic and geographic data. The 

National Water Data Exchange 

functions as a clearinghouse for locating 

and facilitating access to water 

resource data. New procedures for 

managing information in the National 

Digital Cartographic Data Base will 

result in significant overall savings to 

the Federal Government. In cooperation 

with the Bureau of the Census, we are 

preparing digital l:100,000-scale map 

data for the entire conterminous United 

States that will provide essential 

support to the 1990 Decennial Census.

An important new publication that 

deserves special mention is the National 

Water Summary, an annual overview of 

water conditions and concerns throughout the Nation. In 1984, we issued the 

first summary, and the second edition is 

now in the advanced stages of preparation. The information in each Summary 

is obtained through research and 

investigations supported by many of the 

800 State and local agencies that are 

cooperators in our Federal-State 

Cooperative Program and by other 

Federal agencies.

Finally, on a more personal note, but 

one that I am certain is shared by all 

my colleagues: The high point of the 

year for me was the opportunity in

September to honor two of the finest 

leaders of the Geological Survey family, 

Dr. Thomas B. Nolan and Dr. Vincent E. 

McKelvey. Tom was presented with a 

60-year pin and a letter from the 

President congratulating him for his 

long service to the Nation. We surprised 

Vince by dedicating our new annual 

forum on energy and mineral resources 

as the McKelvey Forum. These two men 

have between them more than 100 years 

of service as geologists, public servants, 

and Directors of the U.S. Geological 

Survey. We could ask for no finer 

examples to guide us as we pursue our 

second century of providing "earth 

science in the public service."

The foresight of the Geological 

Survey's past leaders in encouraging the 

highest standards in our work and in 

the hiring of highly professional people 

at all levels has enabled us to build on 

their foundation and make a real contribution to the needs and progress of the 

Nation. As we face new challenges in 

future years, we must continue to 

maintain our historic standards of 

excellence and to strive for the highest 

levels of accomplishment. Our success 

will depend on the awareness, enthusiasm, and commitment of our people for 

their strong tradition of serving the 

Nation as its principal source of earth 

science information.

Director
Perspectives

1:100,OOO-Scale Digital Cartographic Data Base 

For Federal Requirements

By Stephen C. Guptill

BACKGROUND

The increasing demand of the Nation's 

natural resource managers for the 

manipulation, analysis, and display of 

large quantities of earth science data 

has necessitated the use of computers 

and the building of geographic 

information systems. Traditional data 

formats and manipulation techniques are 

inadequate to meet the demands of 

today's scientists and information 

analysts. In the past, most data were 

presented as maps, tables, and textual 

reports. Each organization collected data 

in a different way and produced their 

output in various formats. The scales of 

such graphics as maps are different, the 

data codes used to identify certain 

elements differ from agency to agency, 

and the data formats are difficult to 

correlate; for example, geologic data in 

map form are difficult to correlate with 

census tabulations in computer-readable 

form. Such data formats are difficult to 

change, thus slowing the evaluation 

process. Usually, data prepared and 

presented in a form to address specific 

problems do not lend themselves to the 

consideration of alternatives, and it is 

time consuming to incorporate new data 

into out-of-date graphic materials. To 

help overcome these problems, computers and geographic information 

systems can provide a common language. 

These systems require, in digital form, 

the spatial data on map products. Only 

recently has it become technologically 

feasible and cost-effective to assemble 

and use data bases containing large 

amounts of digital spatial data.

For a number of years, the U.S. Geological Survey has been pursuing the 

development of a Digital Cartographic 

Data Base. The initial plans were for the 

data base to consist of boundaries, 

public land net, streams and water 

bodies, and transportation features 

shown on l:24,000-scale maps; elevation

data largely obtained concurrently with 

the orthophotoquad program; planimetric 

features from the l:2,000,000-scale 

sectional maps of the National AtJas of 

the United States of America; elevation 

data obtained from the l:250,000-scale 

map series; land use and land cover and 

associated map data; and geographic 

names. Because of a number of technological developments and programmatic 

opportunities, the scope of the data base 

has been increased to include digital 

cartographic data collected from 

l:100,000-scale base maps. These data 

will provide complete coverage of such 

transportation features as roads, 

railroads, powerlines, and pipelines and 

such hydrographic features as streams, 

rivers, and water bodies. This major new 

effort will attempt to achieve nationwide 

coverage by the end of the decade.

The decision to create this data base 

was reached, in part, through the 

combination of two forces: the maturing 

of efficient and economical data capture 

technology and the requirements 

expressed for a major use of the data. 

The l:100,000-scale map series was 

designed to facilitate automated data 

capture; for example, by raster 

scanners. The methodologies and 

procedures used in the data capture 

process have developed enough so that 

we can take advantage of the design 

features of the l:100,000-scale maps and 

rapidly build a digital cartographic data 

base. Once these data are produced, the 

U.S. Bureau of the Census intends to use 

them as the cartographic framework of 

their geographic support system for the 

1990 Decennial Census. The collaboration of a major data producer with a 

major data user at the inception of this 

project augurs well for the successful 

creation of an intermediate-scale digital 

cartographic data base that will meet 

national needs.
DATA BASE DESCRIPTION

1:100,OOO-Scale Maps

In the mid-1970's, the Geological 

Survey began its program of 1:100,000- 

scale mapping. The level of content was 

determined mainly by evaluating the 

content of the l:24,000-scale maps. Each 

feature shown at 1:24,000 was evaluated 

and designated "include" or "exclude" 

at 1:100,000. The drawing (feature 

separate) on which the feature would be 

shown also was determined. The colorseparation system of map production, in 

which a separate drawing is prepared 

for each color to be printed, was 

expanded to a feature-separation system. 

In the new system, such major components of the map as roads and hydrography are subdivided into classes, and 

separate master scribed drawings are 

prepared for each class (fig. 1).

The framework and content of the 

l:100,000-scale base maps are derived 

primarily from l:24,000-scale maps, with 

updates during the production process. 

This production process generally has 

the following phases: (1) reducing larger 

scale maps to 1:100,000 scale and 

mosaicking on the Universal Transverse 

Mercator projection, (2) updating the 

mosaicked base, (3) scribing the 

planimetric feature separate manuscripts, (4) scribing the contour manuscript, and (5) printing the complete 

metric topographic edition. If the base 

map material is less than 3 years old, 

only major features are updated. 

Material older than 3 years often 

requires more extensive planimetric 

updating. High-altitude aerial photographs are frequently used as the 

source of the update (figs. 2, 3).

A number of design characteristics of 

the l:100,000-scale maps were chosen 

for compatibility with automated 

digitizing techniques. These

Projection grid

U.S. Public Land Net

Miscellaneous culture

Road classes 1, 2

Road classes 3, 4, 5

Sand, gravel (washes, 

dry lakes & ponds)

Drainage

Marsh, swamp

Mangrove 

Water bodies

Inundation

Intermittent water 

bodies Figure 1. Feature separates used 

in preparing l:100,000-scaJe 

digitaJ data base.
Figure 2. Portion of Tallohassee, 

Florida, l:100,000-scale metric 

topographic map, 1977 edition. 

Map compiled from U.S. Geological Survey l:24,000-scale 

topographic maps. Planimetry 

revised from aerial photographs and other source data.

Figure 3. Aerial photograph 

covering the same area as (fig. 

2J used to update information.
characteristics include the feature 

separation of materials during map 

compilation, a decrease or simplification 

of symbolization of linear features, such 

as roads represented by solid road 

symbols instead of cased road symbols, 

and a reduction in the number of 

features represented by discontinuous 

lines, such as intermittent streams 

shown by solid lines instead of dashed 

lines.

The Geological Survey is attempting to 

capitalize on these design characteristics 

and is gathering the bulk of the digital 

data using automated digitizing techniques. A Scitex Response 250 system is 

being used to scan the feature separates 

(fig. 4) for the roads and stream network. 

Interactive editing of the raster data (fig. 

5) is performed on the Scitex and is 

followed by raster-to-vector conversion 

(fig. 6). The vector data are edited

LIFT COVER UP TO STOP, THEN RELEASE

Figure 4. Roads separate being 

scanned on Sdtox scanner.
Figure 5. Scitex edit station dis 

play of roads data as scanned.

Figure 6. Scitex edit station dis 

play of vectorized roads data.

Figure 7. Interactive work station used to add attribute codes.
further and tagged (fig. 7) on an Intergraph edit station, with final structuring 

to a digital line graph format occurring 

on an Amdahl mainframe computer. It is 

believed that this production system will 

enable us to produce, at a high rate, 

large amounts of digital cartographic 

data.

Features Included in the Data 

Base

The data base will provide comprehensive coverage of transportation and 

hydrographic features. A complete list of 

the features to be included is given in 

table 1. These features provide a basic

Table 1. Features included in 1:100,000-scale digital data base

Transportation features 

Airport, airfield, landing strip 

Heliport 

Pipeline

Power substation 

Power transmission line 

Railroads and related features 

Bridge 

Carline 

Ferry

Roundhouse 

Sidings 

Snowshed 

Station 

Tracks, narrow gage

Juxtaposition

Multiple

Multiple, abandoned

Multiple, dismantled

Multiple, under construction

Single

Single, abandoned 

Tracks, standard gage

Juxtaposition

Multiple

Multiple, abandoned

Multiple, dismantled

Multiple, under construction

Single

Single, abandoned

Single, dismantled

Single, under construction 

Tunnel

Underpass, overpass 

Yards

Roads and related features 

Bridge 

Class 1 

Class 2 

Class 3 

Class 4 

Class 5 (trail) 

Dead-end road 

Ferry

Interchange 

Parking area

Paved service and rest areas 

Tunnel

Under construction, class 1 

Underpass, overpass 

Ski lift, tramway, incline

railway

Hydrographic features

Alkali flat

Aqueduct, conduit, flume,

(elevated) 

Aqueduct, flume, and so forth

(underground) 

Aqueduct tunnel 

Area subject to

controlled inundation 

Area to be submerged 

Breakwater, pier, wharf 

Canal, flume, aqueduct,

or perennial ditch 

Canal, intermittent 

Canal lock or sluice gate 

Canal, navigable 

Channel in water area 

Cranberry bog 

Dam, masonry 

Dam with lock 

Ditch, intermittent 

Drydock

Dry lake or pond 

Falls

Filtration plant 

Fish hatchery 

Gaging station 

Glacial crevasses 

Glacial or permanent

snowfield 

Lake or pond,

intermittent 

Lake or pond,

perennial

Lock, shipping canal 

Mangrove 

Marsh or swamp 

Rapids 

Reservoir 

Salt evaporator 

Seawall

Sewage disposal 

Shoreline 

Siphon 

Spring

Stream, braided 

Stream, disappearing 

Stream, intermittent 

Stream, perennial 

Stream, unsurveyed

perennial

Submerged marsh or swamp 

Wash 

Watermill 

Water surface

elevation 

Water well 

Windmill
framework of geographic information 

needed by major users (such as the 

Bureau of the Census) to perform various 

types of spatial analyses.

DATA STRUCTURE

The digital planimetric data are 

produced and distributed in the form of 

digital line graphs. The digital line 

graph concept is based on graph theory 

in which a graph can be represented as 

a set of nodes and links that explicitly 

records the spatial relationships 

inherent in the graph.

The digital line graph's topologically 

structured data file accommodates all of 

the categories of data (that is, point, 

line, and area data types) included in

table 1. Each distinct major data 

category (such as transportation and 

hydrography) is stored as a separate 

data file in the data base. Details on the 

digital line graph structure can be found 

in U.S. Geological Survey Circular 

895-C; listings and explanations of the 

attribute (feature) codes are contained 

in U.S. Geological Survey Circular 

895-G.

This data base, when complete, will 

contain an immense amount of spatial 

information. Not only are a large 

number of features identified and coded, 

but the level of feature portrayal also is 

quite detailed. Figure 8, which is a plot 

of a portion of the road network digitized from the Tallahassee, Florida, 

l:100,000-scale map, provides an indication of this detail.

Figure 8. Plot of digital roads 

data for portion of Tallahassee, Florida, l:100,000-scale 

map.

0 2 Miles

10
ANTICIPATED USES

The U.S. Bureau of the Census has a 

requirement for digital cartographic 

data describing roads, railroads, 

streams, and other geographic features 

to enable it to automate its geographic 

support system for the 1990 census. 

Census is developing its Topologically 

Integrated Geographic Encoding and 

Reference (TIGER) System to automate 

many of the geographically based 

aspects of data collection, processing, 

and publication activities associated 

with a decennial census. According to 

an article by R. W. Marx in American 

Demographics, "TIGER will store and 

identify the hierarchical relationships of 

all geographic areas represented in 

each census or survey: the 50 states, 

3,137 counties, more than 18,000 minor 

civil divisions or equivalent areas, more 

than 20,000 incorporated places, and all 

other areas. . . .TIGER must accurately

portray the boundaries of all political 

and statistical areas recorded in the 

file, plus the streets, roads, and other 

map features needed for field operations." The l:100,000-scale digital cartographic data base will form the cartographic foundation for the TIGER files. 

One example of a geographic product 

that Census will produce from the 

system is shown in figure 9. The Geological Survey and the Bureau of the 

Census have agreed to work jointly in 

the production of this data base.

The l:100,000-scale digital 

cartographic data base will provide the 

geographic framework for geographic 

information systems through the rest of 

the century. The addition of street 

names and census-keyed geocodes by 

Census will allow spatial analysis of 

vast amounts of socioeconomic data. 

The Geological Survey is adding information on land ownership and mineral 

resources to the base categories to form

Figure 9. Proposed enumerator 

map as it will be created by 

the U.S. Bureau of the Census' 

TopoIogicaJJy Integrated 

Geographic Encoding and 

Reference System.

ENUMERATOR MAP

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BUREAU OF THE CENSUS

11
a data base for resource management 

decisions on Federal mineral lands. The 

l:100,000-scale digital cartographic data 

base combines the heretofore elusive 

qualities of sufficient detail, adequate 

content, and nationwide coverage that 

will allow, and perhaps foster, the 

widespread use of spatial analysis 

methods. Digital dashboard road maps 

and automated yellow pages based on 

the information in this data base are 

two futuristic concepts that could 

become a reality.

A synergistic effect will be realized 

through the combination of the 

l:100,000-scale data base with digital 

remote sensing data. The new generation of higher resolution, multispectral 

remote sensing satellites (Landsat 4 

Thematic Mapper, SPOT, and others) are 

providing detailed data about the 

Earth's surface. The cartographic data 

could provide accurate geometric 

control for the remote sensing data. 

Networks of linear features (for 

example, major highways) extant in both 

sets could allow for better fit of remote 

sensing data to a cartographic base 

than is now possible through the use of 

isolated control tie points. The digital 

merging of these two types of data could 

allow new methods of imagery analysis

to be developed. Conversely, if the 

resolution of the remote sensing data is 

adequate, direct digital update of 

features in the cartographic data base 

may be possible.

SUMMARY

The Geological Survey is beginning a 

program to create a digital cartographic 

data base containing transportation and 

hydrographic features from its 

l:100,000-scale maps by the end of the 

decade. The Bureau of the Census is 

cooperating in the development of this 

data base and will enhance it through 

the addition of street names and census 

geocodes. The existence of this data 

base will enable the widespread use of 

geographic information systems for a 

host of resource-management, areaanalysis, and planning activities. 

Combined with remotely sensed digital 

data, our ability to study and monitor 

the Earth's surface will be improved. 

This data base will not only meet the 

immediate (1990) needs of the Federal 

community, but it may well serve as the 

catalyst for the widespread use of 

geographic information systems 

technology in the United States.

12
Disintegration of the Lower Reach of Columbia Glacier, 

Alaska, Now Under Way

By Mark F. Meier

The terminus of Columbia Glacier 

as viewed from Heather Island 

on August 14, 3984. Note the 

immense grounded icebergs in 

the foreground. Mount Columbia (left) and Mount Witherspoon (right) are visible in the 

background. (Photograph by 

Mark F. Meier, Water Resources Division, U.S. Geological Survey.)

The Trans-Alaska Pipeline carries 

oil from the North Slope of Alaska, 

where ice problems abound, to Valdez, 

described as "our northernmost ice-free 

port." Here the oil is loaded on 

tankships for delivery to the lower 48 

States. At the time the pipeline terminal 

was built, ice in the shipping lanes of 

Valdez Arm was encountered rarely and 

was not considered to be a problem. 

Now, however, icebergs are seen 

frequently in Valdez Arm, and, occasionally, tankships have to be diverted 

or delayed because of ice. These delays 

can be expensive; oil storage capacity at 

the terminal is limited, and stoppage of 

the flow in the pipeline or pumping of 

the wells can have serious economic 

consequences. And the iceberg problem 

is likely to get worse before it gets 

better.

Why is this happening? It is because 

the nearby Columbia Glacier is beginning to disintegrate, causing a large 

increase in the breaking off (calving) of 

icebergs. This disintegration was, in 

fact, predicted by U.S. Geological 

Survey glaciologists in 1980. The 

prediction followed the development,

also by Geological Survey glaciologists, 

of an understanding of why glaciers that 

end in the sea behave the way they do.

Most glaciers that end on land 

advance or retreat slowly in response to 

fluctuations in climate. Glaciers that end 

in the sea also may advance or retreat 

slowly, but sometimes they make 

extremely rapid and long-continued 

retreats; for instance, Muir Glacier in 

Glacier Bay has retreated 25 miles since 

being mapped by a Geological Survey 

glaciologist in 1892, while neighboring 

glaciers have remained stable or even 

advanced. Even more remarkable, the 

composite Guyot-Yahtse-Tyndall Glacier, 

which terminated on the continental 

shelf of the Gulf of Alaska at the turn of 

the century, has now retreated 29 miles, 

creating the present-day Icy Bay, yet the 

glaciers on either side have remained 

virtually unchanged.

The cause of these unusual rapid 

retreats is now known: It is because the 

speed at which the glacier releases 

(calves) icebergs depends on the water 

depth at the terminus (end) of the 

glacier. The speed of calving is high 

when a glacier terminates in deep water

13
and is low when a glacier terminates in 

shallow water. When a glacier ends in 

shallow water, the rate of ice flow to 

the terminus can match the rate of ice 

discharge from the terminus; the glacier 

is stable. On the other hand, when a 

glacier ends in deep water, the rate of 

discharge of icebergs is very high and 

cannot be matched by ice flow; the 

glacier is unstable and retreats very 

rapidly and irreversibly until it again 

ends in shallow water.

Columbia Glacier, which terminates in 

the waters of Prince William Sound 

near Valdez, Alaska, had been stable 

since first studied in 1899. Survey 

glaciologists, however, realized in the 

mid-1970's that it could make a drastic 

retreat and that the ensuing increase in 

iceberg discharge might pose a problem 

to the shipping of oil from the Valdez 

terminus of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline. 

By 1980, iceberg calving relations had 

been quantified, computer models of the 

glacier's dynamics had been developed, 

and a prediction had been issued (fig. 1). 

This prediction stated that disintegration of the lower reach would, in fact, 

begin in the next few years and that the 

iceberg discharge would increase to 

more than six times the 1977 to 1980 

level.

Disintegration of Columbia Glacier is 

now underway. Since 1980, recession, 

thinning, and iceberg discharge have 

been accelerating. Never before have 

scientists been able to observe the 

beginning of instability and drastic 

retreat, and observations of this glacier 

are adding much new information, some 

of which is surprising and unanticipated; for instance,

 Ice velocity, which had averaged 15 

to 23 feet per day at the terminus 

between 1977 and 1978, rose in 

1983 and averaged more than 50 

feet per day during winter 

1983-84.

 Iceberg calving, which had averaged 

about 3 million tons per day from 

1977 to 1981 and was almost zero 

in winter, rose to 10 million tons 

per day during winter 1983-84 and 

continues at a high rate.

 The rate of retreat has accelerated, 

from an average of 130 feet per 

year from 1976 to 1981 to 600 feet 

per year from 1981 to 1983 to 

1,560 feet from 1983 to 1984, 

referenced to the July 1 position 

each year (fig. 2). From July to midAugust 1984, retreat measured 16 

feet per day averaged over the 

width; in the center, it was 50 feet

Figure 1. Changes in the length 

of Columbia Glacier since 1976. 

Upward trend represents 

advance, downward trend 

represents retreat. Heavy Jine 

is observed behavior of the 

terminus, averaged over the 

width. Light lines labeled (a), 

(b), and (d) show predictions 

using different kinds of numerical models.

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

14
1000 r

500

0

£ -500

-1000

-1500

1974

 * 1981

sea level

. ° ° v"- moraine shoal

I j

1.5 1.0 0.5 0 

Distance from crest of shoal, in miles

per day in spite of a forward ice 

flow of 39 feet per day, so the 

calving in midglacier was averaging 89 lineal feet of glacier ice 

removed each day. As the glacier is 

more than 1,000 feet thick at the 

terminus, this is a huge volume of 

ice discharged each day.

The thickness of the lower reach of 

the glacier decreased 85 feet on 

the average between 1974 and 

1981. During the next 2 years, 

September 1, 1981, to September 1, 

1983, it decreased an additional 

100 feet, and the rate of thinning 

continues to increase. The ice 

reserves of this glacier are being 

depleted in an unsuccessful attempt 

to make up for the ever-increasing 

loss by iceberg calving.

Perhaps most unusual was the fact

that during February and March 

1984, a portion of the glacier 

"surged" out in front of the rest of 

the terminus as a floating tongue, 

and other parts of the terminus 

appeared to be in a near-floating 

condition. This situation had not 

been anticipated, but this is the 

first time that the beginning of 

calving disintegration had been 

subject to close scrutiny by 

scientists.

With the disintegration of the 

Columbia Glacier now underway, 

Geological Survey scientists are 

monitoring the rate of iceberg discharge 

with great care. This monitoring is 

essential because serious economic 

consequences could result from appreciable delays in the delivery of oil from 

the Trans-Alaska Pipeline.

Figure 2. Longitudinal section of 

the terminus of Columbia 

Glacier, as of August 1984; the 

1974 and the 1981 profiles also 

are shown. Although the terminus of the gJacier has retreated into water more than 

900 feet deep, the ice is not 

floating. Also, large icebergs 

are grounded against the 

moraine shoal, trapping other 

floating ice blocks and delaying 

their release to navigable 

waters.

15
Mineral-Resource Research at the U.S. Geological Survey 

Linking Past Data to Cprrent and Future Needs

By John H. De Young, Jr.

INTRODUCTION

Minerals are an essential component 

of our modern industrial society. The 

important role that minerals play in our 

daily lives usually is taken for 

granted from the moment we turn on 

the water faucet in the morning until we 

turn off the light at night. We use 

automobiles, refrigerators, telephones, 

and other necessities of our modern 

lifestyle without thinking of the complex 

processes by which raw materials are 

acquired and these items are made.

These mineral raw materials have 

been provided in bountiful fashion from 

the apparent cornucopia of the Earth's 

resources. In the early days of our 

Nation's history, deposits of metals and 

other mineral materials were found in 

close proximity to the population that 

used those materials and settlements 

often were established in areas undertaking mineral development operations. 

The westward movement of the population brought new mineral discoveries, 

and, in some cases, the mineral 

discoveries spurred more movement to 

the West. As domestic deposits of some 

minerals were depleted, the United 

States turned to international trade to 

satisfy its needs for minerals.

Today, we are dependent, to a significant extent, on foreign sources for at 

least 20 important mineral commodities from manganese, an essential 

ingredient in steelmaking, to cobalt, an 

indispensable component of hightemperature alloys such as those used 

in jet engines. Proposals to lessen U.S. 

mineral-import dependence rely upon 

solutions that include alternative 

sources of domestic production, finding 

new deposits abroad to increase competition in foreign markets, research on 

substitute materials, and investing in 

stockpiles to lessen the effect of our 

import dependence in crisis situations.

Whether or not our mineral raw 

material needs are satisfied from 

domestic or foreign sources, the process 

that moves minerals from the conceptually dimensionless point of undiscovered resources at the tip of the 

cornucopia to the reality of production 

that we see issuing forth from the 

world's mines, quarries, pits, and wells 

involves scientific research. This 

scientific inquiry reaches into the 

physical properties that characterize 

the Earth's resources, the geologic 

processes that are responsible for 

concentrating the rare occurrences of 

mineral wealth that we call ore 

deposits, and the ways to explore 

successfully for these deposits. 

Continued discovery of mineral deposits 

has warded off the exhaustion of 

mineral supplies predicted by some 

popular writers, who reasoned that the 

depletion of nonrenewable resources 

from a fixed number of deposits 

permited the calculation of a day of 

reckoning for mineral resources. In the 

past, however, carefully reasoned 

estimates of remaining resources of 

coal, oil, copper, or other commodities 

later proved to be conservative because 

of new discoveries.

The discovery stage in the mineral 

supply process is the result of inquiry 

driven by the immediate goal of providing information to use in solving 

today's problems. This research usually 

draws upon knowledge accumulated 

from past scientific investigations. In 

addition, a plan for research can 

recognize that solutions to future 

mineral supply problems will be made 

with today's basic research results and 

thus can anticipate potential problems. 

With such a research plan, we shall be 

ready to solve these problems or to 

avoid them entirely.

Highlights of fiscal year 1984 mineralresource research at the U.S. Geological 

Survey include examples of studies 

directed towards immediate problems, 

accumulation and organization of data 

from past investigations, and studies of 

basic research questions that will build 

the analytical tools for tomorrow's

16
exploration and mineral-resource 

assessment. Current Geological Survey 

research programs have responded to 

several of today's most pressing 

mineral-resource problems: (1) the 

availability to the United States of 

minerals from domestic sources, (2) the 

need for systematic, comprehensive 

mineral-resource and geologic information for land use planning and 

mineral exploration, (3) the preservation 

of past knowledge so that it does not 

have to be rediscovered, and (4) the 

development of new tools and methods 

to explore for, assess, and increase our 

understanding of mineral resources and 

the processes that form them. These 

responses have provided continually 

updated summaries of available 

domestic resources of all mineral 

commodities, descriptions of the mineral 

resources on Federal land proposed for 

wilderness preservation or other landuse decisions, summary and storage of 

current mineral-resource information in 

accessible data bases, guidance for 

future research by identification of 

what we do not know, and the development of innovative methods to provide 

answers to as yet unknown resource 

problems. In a 1975 Congressional 

Research Service report about the U.S. 

Geological Survey, Dr. Alien Agnew 

noted that, since its inception, the 

Geological Survey has maintained 

scientific eminence and has produced 

valuable and forward-looking naturalresource programs that have made 

important contributions to the 

formulation of the Nation's mineral 

resource policies. Some of the significant results and current state-of-the-art 

mineral-resource investigations are 

described below.

DOMESTIC SOURCES OF 

MINERAL SUPPLY

Closer looks at some unconventional 

geologic environments offer exciting 

possibilities for new domestic sources of 

minerals. Three areas currently being 

studied by the Geological Survey are the 

midcontinent region, eastern Mesozoic 

basins, and the offshore areas included 

in the Exclusive Economic Zone. Investigations in these areas encompass a

wide range of mineral-deposit types but 

haj/e a special focus on strategic and 

critical minerals. This term, strategic 

and critical, is applied to those minerals 

which are essential to our Nation's 

economic well being and military 

security and for which domestic or 

secure foreign sources are not assured.

Strategic and Critical Minerals 

in the Midcontinent Region 

of the United States

Because favorable geological 

conditions for several types of concealed 

mineral deposits were identified in an 

earlier Geological Survey study of the 

Rolla, Missouri, area, a similar mineralresource study, focussed on a few 

mineral commodities but encompassing 

a larger region, was started in fiscal 

year 1984. An area embracing all or 

part of 12 States between 36 and 46 

degrees north latitude and 88 and 100 

degrees west longitude will be studied 

by the Geological Survey and State 

agencies using geologic mapping, 

geochemical sampling, and measurements by geophysical teams (fig. 1).

The development of new concepts and 

methods for the identification of 

concealed mineral deposits in heretofore 

untested, but possibly mineralized, 

locations has been stimulated by the 

depletion of mineral resources from 

deposits discovered near the surface. 

The midcontinent region is an example 

of this situation because, until recent 

times, the only known mineral deposits 

in that region were those that outcropped. The potential for the occurrence of additional very large and 

economically significant mineral 

deposits in the subsurface of this region 

is excellent. From 1978 through 1982, 

the State of Missouri accounted for 90 

percent of the U.S. mine production of 

lead, 20 percent of its zinc, and smaller 

amounts of copper, silver, and cadmium. 

These metals are produced from vast 

deposits that are concealed under 800 

to 1,200 feet of barren overlying rock.

Historically, mining interest in the 

midcontinent region has centered on the 

near-surface sedimentary rocks (limestones and dolomites), which contain 

deposits of lead and zinc and are called

17
~L

LEGEND

Outcrop of Precambrian basement

 Tectonic margin of midcontinent

 woo Depth to basement in feet

X Eastern Triassic basin that may contain majpr 

cobalt, nickel, platinum and copper deposits

Major mineral deposits in exposed basement

Figure 1. Areas of study /or 

assessing the strategic and 

critical mineral potential of 

the midcontinent and 

eastern Mesozoic basin 

regions.

Mississippi-Valley-type deposits. 

Recently discovered gold depositscontaining over 16 million ounces of gold 

in almost 70 million short tons of 

ore in Precambrian basement rocks 

near Hemlo, Ontario, have demonstrated 

the possible economic importance of the 

Precambrian rocks that underlie the 

midcontinent region. These rocks are 

similar to Precambrian basement rocks 

in Canada that contain, in addition to 

gold, major deposits of copper, nickel, 

lead, and zinc. The Geological Survey's 

midcontinent mineral-resource 

investigations will focus on the potential 

for occurrence of deposits of strategic 

and critical minerals in the Precambrian

basement rocks and in the overlying 

limestone sedimentary rocks.

New resource possibilities for these 

overlying rocks have been indicated by 

recent fluid-inclusion studies and by the 

consideration of plate tectonic theories. 

The examination of trapped bubbles of 

fluid in the hydro thermal, vug-lining 

dolomite collected from mines, quarries, 

and drill cores in Missouri, Kansas, 

Arkansas, and Oklahoma indicates that 

hot, highly saline fluids moved northward from the Ouachita Mountains. The 

similar composition of fluid inclusions 

from many mineral deposits in the 

region suggests a regional migration of a 

common mineral-rich fluid. This fluid

18
migration is believed to be related to 

crustal collision that occurred about 300 

million years ago. Research to determine 

the origin and the location of mineral 

deposits formed during these ancient 

events will aid in the discovery of new 

mineral resources.

Eastern Mesozoic Basins

Mesozoic rift basins, formed between 

205 and 240 million years ago, are 

another potential domestic source of 

minerals, including nickel, cobalt, and 

platinum-group elements for which the 

United States presently depends upon 

imported supplies. In the Soviet Union, 

near the city of Norilsk, similar rift 

basins contain significant deposits of 

nickel, copper, and platinum metals. 

Mesozoic basins of this type also are 

considered to be potential hosts for 

uranium deposits.

Concurrent with the midcontinent 

studies, the Geological Survey is 

investigating 10 Mesozoic rift basins or 

subbasins that are exposed in a belt 

that extends from Massachusetts to 

South Carolina (fig. 1). Many more of 

these basins are buried onshore beneath 

coastal-plain sediments and offshore 

beneath the continental shelf. The goal 

of these field and laboratory studies is 

to identify and outline areas that are 

favorable for the occurrence of basemetal deposits. Descriptions of examples 

of each type of mineral deposit associated with rift-basin environments are 

prepared for use as comparative 

models. The models are important tools 

for identifying favorable terranes for 

mineral deposit occurrence.

Exclusive Economic Zone

The Geological Survey continues to 

investigate the mineral potential of the 

Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) that was 

declared by President Reagan on March 

10, 1983. The EEZ is the offshore area 

that extends 200 nautical miles beyond 

the shorelines of the United States and 

its territories and possessions. Oil and 

gas have been produced from portions 

of the United States EEZ, but the mineral 

resources of this large area (3.9 billion 

acres compared with the 2.3 billion

acres of total onshore area for the 

United States) are virtually unknown. 

Three types of offshore mineral deposits 

that are the subject of current investigations are marine heavy-mineral placer 

deposits, cobalt-bearing manganese 

crusts and nodules, and polymetallic 

sulfides.

Marine Heavy-Mineral 

Placer Deposits

Geological Survey researchers are 

examining the continental shelves of the 

United States for possible sources of 

heavy minerals, which are concentrated 

in placer sand deposits by the action of 

water currents, waves, and winds. 

Titanium minerals, monazite, zircon, 

cassiterite, gold, sillimanite, kyanite, 

andalusite, garnet, staurolite, corundum, 

phosphorite, and other heavy minerals 

have been identified or indicated on the 

Atlantic Continental Shelf, where initial 

investigations are taking place. The 

mineralogy and chemistry of new and 

archived mineral sand samples from the 

Atlantic offshore are being studied 

using methods that represent significant 

improvements in the tools of reconnaissance and in methods of sample 

preparation and analysis. Results of 

preliminary studies have shown high 

concentrations of heavy minerals in an 

offshore area of Virginia where onshore 

deposits contain relatively low heavymineral concentrations. These results, 

although limited to one area of the 

Atlantic Continental Shelf, indicate that 

exploration philosophies linking the best 

offshore target areas with high onshore 

heavy-mineral concentrations may not 

be as reliable as previously thought.

Cobalt-Bearing Manganese 

Crusts and Nodules

Recent studies suggest that cobaltbearing manganese crusts on the flanks 

of seamounts and oceanic islands in the 

central Pacific Ocean may represent a 

significant mineral resource. Cobalt 

content ranges from about 0.4 percent 

for the deeper crusts to 1.2 percent on 

seamount tops shallower than about 

7,500 feet. Some crust material dredged 

from a seamount about 160 miles

19
northwest of the U.S. territorial 

possessions of Palmyra Atoll and 

Kingman Reef contained 2.5 percent 

cobalt, more than twice the concentration indicated by earlier studies.

Polymetallic Sulfides

Deposits of polymetallic sulfides have 

received much publicity in such journals 

as the National Geographic, where 

photographs from the research submersible Alvin have been printed. 

Studies by the Geological Survey of 

sulfide deposits along spreading centers, 

such as the Juan de Fuca Ridge off the 

coast of Washington State, are designed 

to determine how these deposits are 

forming and to assess the mineral 

resources of these areas. This 

information will help scientists to 

understand the environments of 

deposition of similar onshore deposits 

and aid them in locating additional 

terranes that are favorable for the 

occurrence of sulfide-type deposits.

Regional Mineral-Resource 

Studies for Land Use Planning

New understanding of the Nation's 

mineral endowment has been gained 

from the Geological Survey's systematic 

geologic and mineral-resource studies of 

l:250,000-scale quadrangles (an area 

ranging from 5,000 to 8,000 square 

miles) and of mineral-resource surveys 

done with the U.S. Bureau of Mines 

under legislative mandate in those areas 

included or proposed for inclusion in the 

National Wilderness Preservation 

System.

, The systematic quadrangle studies 

are carried out under two programs: the 

Conterminous United States Mineral 

Assessment Program (CUSMAP) for the 48 

conterminous States and the Alaskan 

Mineral Resource Assessment Program 

(AMRAP) for Alaska. These two programs 

are providing a modern, systematic 

mineral-resource assessment of areas 

that have indications of mineral 

resources, especially for strategic and 

critical minerals. Mineral resources of 

the quadrangles are assessed by using 

data gathered during coordinated 

efforts of teams of scientists doing

geologic mapping, geochemical sampling 

of rocks and stream sediments, and 

analysis of measurements from geophysical surveys and satellite imagery. By 

fiscal year 1984, 175,000 square miles 

had been assessed under AMRAP, and 

80,000 square miles under CUSMAP. 

Present plans call for approximately 

600,000 square miles of Alaskan lands 

to be assessed by the year 2000 and for 

almost a million square miles to be 

assessed in the conterminous United 

States during the next several decades.

The responsibility of the Geological 

Survey and the U.S. Bureau of Mines to 

assess the mineral resources of certain 

public lands that are administered by 

the Bureau of Land Management and 

the Forest Service is a provision of the 

Wilderness Act (Public Law 88-577, 

September 3, 1964) and of subsequent 

related legislation. Under the Federal 

Land Policy and Management Act of 

1976, the Geological Survey and Bureau 

of Mines have undertaken mineral 

surveys of Bureau of Land Managementadministered lands for which a preliminary determination of wilderness suitability has been made. The Bureau of 

Land Management has found that 23.2 

million acres deserve further study for 

wilderness consideration. The mineral 

resources of 12 Indian reservations also 

are being assessed by the Geological 

Survey for the Bureau of Indian Affairs.

Mineral-resource assessments from 

the CUSMAP, AMRAP, and public land 

studies can be used along with 

information about other possible land 

uses (timber, agriculture, grazing, 

recreation, and various types of 

development) to plan land uses that are 

in keeping with the Nation's interests. In 

addition, the Geological Survey has, in 

the course of these assessment studies, 

developed new techniques and methods 

of resource assessment which are 

applicable to public and private lands 

and which provide a practical approach 

to the assessment of the mineral 

endowment of the national domain.

Some recent highlights of regional 

mineral-resource assessment studies are 

the completion of the Rolla, Missouri, 

quadrangle under CUSMAP and the 

publication of a summary of the public 

lands mineral-resource studies done 

over the last 20 years under the 

Wilderness Act mandate.

20
Mineral Resources of the 

Rolla, Missouri, Quadrangle

The Rolla quadrangle was chosen as 

one of the first quadrangles for study 

under CUSMAP because it contains 

known mineral occurrences and high 

potential for additional undiscovered 

occurrences of important minerals. The 

quadrangle (an area of about 8,000 

square miles) includes most of the 

southeast Missouri lead-mining district, 

an area which contains the largest lead 

reserves in the world (fig. 2). The 

important mineral deposits of this major 

district occur in geologic formations that 

extend beneath the surface for hundreds of miles to the north and west of 

this area. The Rolla quadrangle is thus 

an excellent field laboratory for the 

development of mineral-resourceassessment methods that can be used 

throughout regions where similar 

geologic environments suggest the 

existence of mineral deposits like those 

that occur in the Rolla quadrangle. The

studies in the Rolla quadrangle were 

done in cooperation with the Missouri 

Division of Geology and Land Survey.

During the Rolla study, an innovative 

geochemical technique was developed 

that has significant possibilities for 

subsurface exploration throughout the 

midcontinent and similar geologic 

regions. This technique is based on the 

chemical and mineralogical analysis of 

whole-rock and insoluble residue 

samples of drill core in the sample 

library of the Missouri Division of 

Geology and Land Survey. The drill 

holes selected for the analysis are not 

industry proprietary, do not intersect 

economically significant mineralized 

ground, and, in most cases, are not 

located in the Old Lead Belt, the 

Viburnum Trend, or other known orebearing localities. The whole-rock 

samples from the drill core were used to 

determine an intrinsic suite of trace 

elements that reflects the types of rocks 

in the geologic formations in the drill 

cores dolomites, limestones, shales,

Figure 2. MineroJ-resource 

assessment of the Rolla 

2-degree quadrangle, 

Missouri.

* Saint James

 Hat River

Farrhinqton

Houston O

Some potential 

Fluorine-thorium-rare earth

l< Very high potential deposits 

i'i of major importance

lron ore very high to high potential

deposits of lesser importance 

Tin/Tungsten 

*

Little or no apparent 

mineral potential

Insufficient information 

to determine potential

^f- Color-hachured in overlapping mineralized areas

21
and siltstones. An introduced (or 

epigenetic) suite of trace elements in 

some samples also is present. Concentrations of the introduced-suite elements 

are commonly very low in the wholerock samples, but they are enhanced 

many times in the insoluble residue 

samples. The introduced suite of metals 

and their relative abundances in the 

suite were found to be the same as 

those found in ores of the southeast 

Missouri lead-mining district. By 

"mapping" relative metal abundances 

as well as other relationships of the 

introduced metal suite and correlating 

this information with certain characteristics of the subsurface stratigraphy, the 

scientists discovered that the probable 

extent of the zone that contains basemetal deposits is significantly larger 

than originally thought. These results 

were used by the team of Geological 

Survey and Missouri Division of Geology 

and Land Survey scientists to identify 

three areas in the Rolla quadrangle that 

are highly favorable for the existence of 

base-metal resources. The team also 

estimated the quantity of lead, zinc, 

copper, silver, nickel, and cobalt 

resources in the quadrangle; for 

example, the cobalt present in deposits 

in the quadrangle is estimated to be as 

much as 30 million to 55 million 

pounds equivalent to 2 or 3 years' U.S. 

consumption of this strategic metal.

Mineral Resources and 

Public Lands

A major summary of wilderness 

mineral potential was published in 1984. 

U.S. Geological Survey Professional 

Paper 1300, titled Assessment of 

Mineral-Resource Potential in U.S. Forest 

Service Lands Studied, 1964-1984, a 

two-volume, 1,183-page work, brings 

together the results of a 20-year 

program that was completed by the U.S. 

Geological Survey and the U.S. Bureau 

of Mines under the provisions of the 

Wilderness Act of 1964 and subsequent 

related legislation. The report 

summarizes our current knowledge of 

known mineral and energy resources 

and of the potential for the occurrence 

of undiscovered mineral and energy 

resources in about 45 million acres of 

Federal lands. This acreage is distributed in about 800 individual areas, 

chiefly in national forests (fig. 3).

About two-thirds of the areas studied 

contain zones favorable for the 

occurrence of one or more mineral 

commodities that include base and 

precious metals, strategic and critical 

minerals, and energy resources. Construction materials are plentiful in most 

areas.

Land use planners seek a quantitative 

estimate of mineral resources so that

Figure 3. Distribution of U.S. 

Forest Service wilderness 

Jands studied from 1964 to 

1984 (from U.S. Geological 

Survey Professional Paper 

1300).

22
the mineral-resource value of an area 

can be compared with the estimated 

values of competing land use possibilities. The development and application 

of quantitative regional resourceassessment techniques from AMRAP and 

CUSMAP are being done at the same time 

that the 20-year study of wilderness 

areas was being completed. The 

publication of Professional Paper 1300 

presented a summary of subjective 

evaluations for each area studied and 

references to site-specific information 

about the mineral resources of designated wilderness, roadless, or study 

areas.

In fiscal year 1984, several Geological 

Survey scientists tested a method for 

obtaining quantitative estimates of 

mineral-resource value by using 

computer simulation techniques, gradetonnage models of mineral deposits, and 

the results or referenced studies 

presented in Professional Paper 1300. 

The quantitative estimates, although 

limited to undiscovered resources of 

selected mineral deposit types in areas 

of California, Nevada, Oregon, and 

Washington, are a landmark result for 

subsequent debate on how to resolve 

land use conflicts.

ACCESSIBLE INFORMATION 

BASES A FOUNDATION FOR 

BETTER UNDERSTANDING OF 

MINERAL RESOURCES

To maintain the information bases 

essential to the proper management of 

the Nation's mineral-resource position, 

the Geological Survey continually 

updates its files of minerals information. 

This includes information on commodities such as cobalt, chromium, and 

manganese that are strategic to our 

national defense but also includes information on construction materials sand, 

gravel, building stone, and materials for 

cement manufacture and phosphate 

rock, potash, and other materials used 

in fertilizers. Not only are these 

"nonstrategic" materials absolutely 

necessary to maintain our modern 

standard of living, but they also have a 

role in national security. One might 

ponder the relative importance of cobalt 

in a jet engine, the crushed stone in the

runway, and the agricultural products 

that sustain the pilot. The United States 

does not depend on imports for these 

"nonstrategic" materials, but the 

scarcity of exploitable sand and gravel 

deposits near many cities where industrial and residential developments have 

covered prime deposits points out the 

need for information on the location, 

quantity, and quality of mineral 

deposits.

Information about mineral deposits, 

occurrences, and related geologic 

features is obtained by several types of 

field and laboratory research on 

mineral resources. Examples include 

regional and topical mapping projects in 

the United States and other countries, 

some of which are done in cooperation 

with earth science agencies of State 

governments or foreign countries.

In order that maximum benefit is 

obtainable from this massive stockpile of 

mineral-resource data, the Geological 

Survey maintains the Mineral Resources 

Data System (MRDS) and the 

International Strategic Minerals 

Inventory (ISMI). Some of the plethora of 

information that is obtained from many 

diverse research activities is disseminated in a large number of Geological 

Survey publications, outside journals, 

and professional meetings; other 

information is confined to internal 

reports and files. Through the MRDS, 

some of this information is organized in 

a mineral deposit file so that 

researchers can request information by 

the geographic location, mineral 

commodity, or other attribute of the 

mineral information they seek.

By the nature of the diverse sources 

from which data are gathered for MRDS, 

coverage of regions or commodities is 

not uniform. To improve the comprehensiveness and'comparability of data on 

major mineral deposits, the Geological 

Survey, along with several other 

countries, started the ISMI. Progress and 

activities of MRDS and ISMI during 1984 

are described below.

Mineral Resources Data System

This system was started in 1972 as 

the Computerized Resource Information 

Bank (CRIB). The Mineral Resources Data

23
System (MRDS) evolved from the CRIB to 

become the primary storage system for 

descriptive and archived historical 

mineral data for domestic and international deposits.

It is now a major reference tool for 

Federal, State, and mineral industry 

scientists who seek information on 

commodity locations and associated 

geoscience data. New mineral data are 

received and entered into the system 

from a wide range of technical 

reporters, including Geological Survey 

regional and commodity specialists. All 

data in the MRDS are organized into 

records; each record represents a single 

mine, mineral occurrence, district, or 

region. The master file now contains 

over 64,000 records of mineral deposits 

and occurrences in the United States 

and more than 5,300 records for other 

countries. As the need for rapid access 

to comprehensive mineral data grows 

and many pressing mineral policy 

decisions are being made, the MRDS is 

being refined and streamlined to handle 

national and international needs.

International Strategic 

Minerals Inventory

The easily accessible mineral 

information stored in the MRDS requires 

a complementary, summary inventory to 

complete our present-day knowledge of 

domestic and international strategic and 

critical mineral resources and supplies. 

To satisfy this need, the International 

Strategic Minerals Inventory (ISMI) was 

initiated on the premise that, for many 

mineral commodities, a large proportion 

of current and near-future production 

(as much as 90-95 percent) is or will be 

from a relatively few major deposits and 

that good information on production, 

reserves, and identified resources of 

those major deposits will improve the 

basis for sound mineral policy decisions. 

The ISMI also is based on the realization that many industrialized countries 

maintain extensive global mineral 

commodity files and that a cooperative 

program with these countries would 

avoid a great deal of duplication of 

effort and greatly improve the quality 

and amount of information available to 

each country. The ISMI is supported by 

mineral-resource agencies of the United

States, Canada, West Germany, South 

Africa, Australia, and the United 

Kingdom, with the goals of gathering, 

analyzing, and publishing information on 

major deposits of selected mineral 

commodities. A working group made up 

of representatives of the agencies of 

participating countries meets on a 

regular basis, and a continuing 

compilation of deposit records of 

selected commodities is underway. The 

summary commodity reports for 

manganese, chromium, and phosphate 

were published in fiscal year 1984 as 

Geological Survey Circulars 930-A, 

930-B, and 930-C. Compilations of data 

and summary reports for seven additional commodities nickel, cobalt, 

graphite, vanadium, titanium, tungsten, 

and the platinum-group elements are 

being prepared.

NEW CONCEPTS FOR MINERAL 

EXPLORATION AND 

ASSESSMENT

Basic research that increases our 

understanding of the descriptive 

characteristics of mineral deposits and 

the genetic processes by which they 

form is the foundation for continued 

advances in mineral exploration and 

mineral-resource assessment. Geological 

Survey research on the fundamentals of 

mineral resources includes field and 

laboratory studies of the geologic 

aspects of economic minerals, modeling 

studies of mineral-deposit systems, and 

geochemical and geophysical traits of 

hidden deposits.

Some types of field and laboratory 

studies that will have future applications in mineral exploration are geochemical investigations, such as the 

importance of the role of organic matter 

in the formation of ore deposits, and 

geophysical research, such as the development of a new geophysical instrument, called the "Co-Axial Loop, ExtraLow-Frequency Electromagnetic 

Sounder." This device can detect some 

sulfide mineral deposits at depths of 

more than one-half mile without interference from electrical conductors such 

as fences and electric powerlines.

Included in modelling studies is an 

emphasis by a large number of Geolog24
ical Survey geologists with field 

mapping and other research experience 

in various types of mineral deposits to 

record systematically the chemical and 

mineralogical characteristics and to 

decipher the geologic environments of 

formation of many types of mineral 

deposits. Over 60 such models have 

been constructed; new models are being 

prepared, and existing models are being 

refined with new information. These 

descriptive mineral-deposit models and 

associated quantitative estimates of the 

size (tons and grades) and abundance of 

deposits gives the economic geologist 

broader knowledge to apply to resourceassessment problems. Comprehensive, 

consistent information about types of 

mineral deposits also is needed as input 

to an analysis system that was completed by Stanford Research Institute in 

1980 under Geological Survey sponsorship. This study applied artifical intelligence, the area of computer science 

concerned with computational methods 

for tasks involving reasoning and 

perception, to questions of prospect 

evaluation, regional resource evaluation, 

and drilling site selection. A 

microcomputer-based version of this 

system, designated "muPROSPECTOR," 

recently has been developed to aid 

geologists in mineral-resource assessment. This year, the system was used to 

assess mineral resources in several 

geologic terranes of the SherbrookeLewiston 2-degree quadrangle in New 

England as part of CUSMAP.

Exciting new examples of these types 

of research that were of particular 

interest in fiscal year 1984 are 

paleothermal anomalies and models of 

disseminated gold deposits. Paleothermal studies, using fluid inclusions, 

fission tracks, and maturation of organic 

material, gave new clues that will help 

in locating concealed mineral deposits. 

Disseminated gold deposits recently 

have become the largest source of U.S. 

gold production and were major targets 

of 1984 industry exploration efforts in 

the United States.

Detection of Paleothermal 

Anomalies

Heat plays a role in the formation of 

some mineral deposits and, at the same

time, causes physical and chemical 

changes in rocks that surround the 

deposits. The region around a deposit 

may contain a subtle record of past 

temperatures that were higher than 

those associated with the surrounding 

rocks. This region, in which the rocks 

may have been heated millions of years 

ago, is called a paleothermal anomaly 

(fig. 4A) and is analogous to the visible 

alteration halo sought during traditional 

mineral exploration. To detect paleothermal anomalies, geologists have 

studied several geologic features that 

retain a record of past temperatures. 

Geological Survey researchers have 

been instrumental in the development 

and application of three promising techniques for the detection of paleothermal 

anomalies: fluid-inclusion studies, 

fission-track analysis, and organic 

maturation indices.

Fluid inclusions are small amounts of 

fluid that were trapped within mineral 

grains during crystallization or recrystallization (fig. 4B). These small (0.001- 

to 0.01-millimeter) inclusions may 

contain separate liquid and vapor 

(bubble) phases as a result of cooling 

but can be reheated in the laboratory to 

determine the minimum temperature of 

the fluid at the time it was entrapped. 

Studies of fluid inclusions have been 

used for over a century to determine the 

temperature of mineral deposits at the 

time of their formation, but, recently, 

they have come into wider use in the 

search for paleothermal anomalies 

associated with ore deposits. Fluid 

inclusions provide information about the 

composition, pressure, and flow 

direction of mineralizing fluids. They 

record the paleothermal anomaly well 

beyond the zone of visibly altered rock 

through subtle (differences in temperature and fluid composition relative to 

those of the fluicl inclusions in the 

surrounding rock.

Fission-track dating is one of the 

newer tools used to identify paleothermal anomalies. Fission tracks are 

small paths of radiation damage caused 

by the spontaneous fission of uranium in 

some minerals (fig. 4C). The number of 

tracks present in a mineral crystal is 

proportional to uranium content and to 

the length of time since crystallization. 

These tracks can be partly to completely

25
Figure 4. PaJeothermol 

anomalies. A, Relation of 

paleothermal anomaly, 

visible aJteration halo, and 

heat source. B, 

Photomicrograph of a 

hydrocarbon-bearing fluid 

inclusion in fluorite from 

Cave-in-Rock fluorite-leadzinc district, southern 

IlJinois, showing lighter 

(light-brown color) and 

heavier (oval black globules] 

petroleum fractions and a 

methane vapor bubble (dark 

circular feature). C, Fission 

tracks in a uranium-bearing 

apatite crystal. D, 

Progressive color changes 

in conodonts.

26
annealed, or erased, by reheating. 

Because different minerals anneal at 

different rates, scientists can use 

thermally sensitive minerals, like 

apatite, which anneals at 105 degrees 

Celsius, to record a heating event 

farthest from the heat source. Fission 

tracks from several samples can be 

used to determine the direction of the 

thermal gradient. A recent Geological 

Survey study demonstrated that a major 

5-million-year-old paleothermal anomaly 

was present east of the old mining camp 

of Rico, Colorado. This anomaly is 

believed to be related to a concealed

igneous rock mass associated with 

mineralization at the mining camp. The 

heat source can be sensed more than 3 

miles away in rocks that are not 

changed visibly by using the apatitederived paleothermal data.

Organic material is also a sensitive 

recorder of thermal events. Conodonts, 

the microscopic hard parts of certain 

marine worms (fig. 4D), exhibit a 

systematic color change as they are 

heated through the temperature range 

of about 60 degrees to 550 degrees 

Celsius. This conodont color alteration 

index, which has been used for regional

X . \

\ x *

N i

,A " /

x

-X / I

t ,

D

27
Figure 5. Disseminated gold 

deposits in Nevada and 

Utah.

studies of hydrocarbon generation and 

preservation, is being tested as a 

paleothermal measure for mineral 

exploration. Solid organic matter that is 

dispersed in rocks matures as a function 

of time to become a glassy, coallike 

substance called vitrinite. Increased 

reflectance, as measured by microscope 

studies, indicates increased maturation. 

Vitrinite reflectance is applicable to 

rocks of a wider geologic time span than 

the conodont index and also is being 

applied to the search for paleothermal 

anomalies.

Disseminated Gold-Deposit 

Models

Disseminated gold deposits in 

sedimentary and volcanic rocks 

currently account for the majority of 

gold produced in the United States. 

Total U.S. reserves (identified resources 

that are currently economic to produce) 

are about 20 million troy ounces. These 

reserves are in high-tonnage, low-grade 

deposits attributes which make pos120°

r

c r

118°

GetchelL

116°

sible the use of relatively inexpensive 

bulk-mining techniques. The majority of 

known disseminated gold deposits in the 

United States are located in Nevada and 

Utah (fig. 5). Gold occurs in the deposits 

as micrometer-sized particles generally 

disseminated in either silty to sandy, 

organic-rich dolomites and limestones or 

in organic-rich limey shales. The origin 

and many geologic characteristics of 

these deposits are not well understood. 

The Geological Survey currently is conducting research to determine the zonal 

alteration patterns of these deposits, 

their geochemical and geophysical 

characteristics, regional and local 

structural controls for the ore-forming 

processes, the age of mineralization, the 

role of organic matter in the origin of 

the deposits, the evolution of the oreforming fluids, and the source of the 

gold. The research includes study of the 

mineralogy of the deposits to determine 

genetic relations and age and study of 

the fluid inclusions in quartz within the 

deposits to determine the evolution of 

the ore fluids. The resulting model can 

be used to help industry in its 

exploration efforts.

112°

.Jerritt Canyon

Dee Bootstrap 

ike

Florida Canyon

/ Standard*

Pinson Dee ootstr

Preble* t^Goldstri

BlueStar-VCarlin

fI

i

Bullion Maggie Creek/Gold 

Monarch 'Rain Quarry

.Tenabo

Relief Canyon* Gold Acres^-Horse Canyon 

Cortez Tonkin Springs

0 Alligator Ridge 

Windfall

v-

^Mercur

\ Santa Fe

Northumberland

.Shale Pit 

'White Caps

Atlanta*

\ * Weepah

\ Delmar*

\

\J ^Sterling 

\

\ ,

\ I

t

I

I 

I

J 38°

100 MILES

100 KILOMETERS

28
CONCLUSIONS

The examples described here demonstrate the Geological Survey's commitment to research that addresses several 

objectives. Tied closely to this research 

is an acute awareness of the need for 

exchange of information. This exchange 

is accomplished by publication and 

presentation of results and by 

cooperative programs with other 

research groups. Results of completed 

studies are available for use; reports 

about ongoing research activities 

encourage assistance by and suggestions from others.

A new annual forum for the dissemination of Geological Survey research 

results and information about current 

research activities is to be held in 

Denver in February 1985. The first 

annual McKelvey Forum on Mineral and 

Energy Resources is titled USGS 

Research on Mineral Resources 1985. 

The subject matter of the forum will 

alternate yearly between research on 

mineral resources and research on 

energy resources. The forum, which 

honors Vincent E. McKelvey, Director of 

the U.S. Geological Survey from 1971 to 

1978, provides an opportunity for oral

presentations, poster sessions, and 

laboratory tours that will augment 

communication among scientists from 

the Geological Survey, industry, and 

academic institutions. Directing all 

sectors of the Nation's scientific 

strength towards discussion of the 

multifaceted Geological Survey research 

effort on mineral resources will help 

maintain a research agenda that is 

responsive to present problems, draws 

on a past record of scientific achievement, and plans ahead for future 

demands for mineral-resource 

information.

Geological Survey research on 

mineral resources includes programs 

that are focussed on present national 

problems of maintaining the availability 

of reasonably priced mineral supplies 

and of using today's mineral-resource 

information to set tomorrow's land-use 

priorities. Accessible systems for 

storage and organization of information 

from past studies are essential for 

efficient research. Continued strong, 

basic research in fundamental aspects 

of geological science is essential to 

provide the tools to solve tomorrow's 

problems.

29
Significant Accomplishments of Research 

Programs: 1984

This chapter presents a selected 

number of U.S. Geological Survey 

research accomplishments for 1984. 

More complete discussions of the 

investigations summarized here are 

available in other chapters of the 

Yearbook and in other Geological 

Survey publications on specific topics.

MINERAL-RESOURCE SURVEYS

 New isotopic dating research,

chemical analyses, and structural 

studies have shown that gold veins 

in the Chugach Range, Prince 

William Sound region, southern 

Alaska, formed at the same time 

that the collision of large blocks of 

oceanic crust was forming what is 

now Alaska. The heating caused by 

the collisions, and the resulting

formation of granitic magma, 

provided water-rich fluids that 

leached gold and other elements 

from the host rocks and then 

deposited them in fractures that 

now form the gold-bearing veins.

 Fluid-inclusion, isotope, and

geochemical studies demonstrated 

that the silver- and base-metal 

veins of the Coeur d'Alene district 

of northern Idaho were formed 

from metamorphic fluids produced 

during late Precambrian metamorphism of rocks of the Belt Supergroup. The fluids leached the 

metals from the typical Belt rocks 

and deposited them in fractures in 

the intensely and complexly 

deformed sections of the Belt rocks.

 A study of the nitrate deposits in the 

region of Death Valley, California,

Gold crystals, about 1 mm 

in diameter, from a placer 

deposit near Sacramento, 

California.

30
shows them to be analogous to the 

famed Chilean nitrate deposits, the 

major sources of nitrate for 

fertilizer and explosives for the 100 

years before World War II. The 

deposits in California consist of 

wind-transported saline material 

that accumulated in near-surface 

layers in the so-called clay hills, 

which consist of relatively 

impervious montmorillonite-rich 

lake beds up to 63 million years 

old. These deposits do not contain 

exploitable resources of nitrate, but 

they do provide a new insight on 

the mechanisms of accumulation of 

saline minerals in deserts. 

Geochemical studies of rhyolitic ashflow tuffs in southern Bolivia, 

carried out by the Geological 

Survey in cooperation with the 

National Geological Survey (GEOBOL) 

and National Mining Company 

(COMIBOL) of Bolivia, reveal 

anomalously high values of tin and 

lithium in some tuff units. The high 

tin values indicate that source

magmas were enriched in tin and 

that tin mineralization did not end 

necessarily before eruption of these 

rocks as had been assumed previously. It is now believed that tin 

deposits may be associated with 

buried intrusive bodies within the 

volcanic complex. Also, the high 

lithium values indicate that these 

rocks are now the major source of 

lithium found in the widespread 

and abundant lithium-rich brines in 

salt pans of this region. 

Previous studies have shown that, 

during fractional crystallization of 

silicates from tholeiitic magmas, the 

residual liquids are depleted 

greatly in nickel, depleted slightly 

in cobalt, and enriched in copper. 

Tholeiitic suites from pre-Triassic 

rocks that illustrate this fractionation trend (Palisades sill, New 

Jersey, Dillsburg intrusion, 

Pennsylvania, Great Lake sheet, 

Tasmania, and Aloe lava lake, 

Hawaii) show an increase of 

copper with a decreasing nickelThe Carlin Mine, 

northeastern Nevada, one 

of the largest disseminated 

gold mines in the United 

States.

31
cobalt ratio (trend I). New data on 

tholeiitic dikes and flows in 

Triassic-Jurassic basins in the 

eastern United States show a 

contrasting trend of decreasing 

copper with a decreasing nickelcobalt ratio (trend 2j. Copper 

content in the trend 2 group is as 

much as one-half to one-third lower 

than it is in rocks of virtually 

identical major and stable traceelement composition. Geochemical 

features of trend 2 rocks are 

attributed to the strong partitioning 

of copper and nickel into an 

immiscible sulfide melt that 

separated from the magmas during 

ascent. Most tholeiitic basalts 

showing the largest copper 

depletion are in North and South 

Carolina. These contrasting trends

of nickel-cobalt versus copper can 

be used to identify mafic rocks in 

which fractionation of nickel- and 

copper-bearing sulfide liquids took 

place and thus can be a guide in 

the exploration for magmatic 

nickel-copper deposits.

AERIAL PROFILING OF 

TERRAIN SYSTEM

 The U.S. Geological Survey has developed an airborne surveying system 

that is capable of surveying the 

terrain with very high accuracy 

from a low-flying aircraft using a 

laser profiler and inertial guidance 

technology. The Aerial Profiling of 

Terrain System (APT) consists of an 

inertial measuring unit, a laser

The Twin-Otter aircraft 

performing surveys over 

the Charles River west of 

Boston, Massachusetts, 

during applications testing 

of the Aerial Profiling of 

Terrain System.

32
profiler, a laser tracker, a 

computer, a video imaging system 

and supporting electronics, all 

mounted in a Twin-Otter aircraft. 

The inertial measuring unit 

provides an accurate reference 

frame to the local datum. The laser 

profiler measures the distance from 

the aircraft to the ground. Periodic 

positional updates are provided by 

the laser tracker, which measures 

range and angle from the inertial 

measuring unit to previously placed 

retroreflectors on the ground. The 

computer serves as a system 

controller, data collector, and 

processor, while continuously navigating the aircraft during data collection activities. The video system 

records the ground image below 

the aircraft. In addition to 

measuring accurate terrain profiles 

for flood-plain mapping, however, 

the unique capability of the system 

to provide rapidly survey data of 

centimeter accuracy with a 

minimal requirement for ground 

control offers numerous other 

possible uses, such as monitoring 

subsidence, testing of old maps for 

reliability, establishing control for 

new mapping, measuring volcanic 

swelling, and serving as an airborne gravity mapping instrument. 

The new system represents a revolutionary combination of advanced 

inertial guidance and laser technologies, by providing an airborne 

remote sensing platform that is 

unprecedented not only in precision 

but in mobility and speed of data 

acquisition as well. Operational 

testing of the system now is 

complete, and further efforts will 

focus on applications testing to 

demonstrate various uses in earth 

science data-collection activities.

SCREENING OF GEOHYDROLOGIC 

ENVIRONMENTS IN THE BASIN 

AND RANGE PROVINCE FOR 

HIGH-LEVEL RADIOACTIVE 

WASTE DISPOSAL

 Deeply buried repositories in

specially constructed mines offer 

several properties suitable for

disposal of high-level radioactive 

waste. Principal among these 

properties are adequate shielding, 

isolation from the environment, 

absorption and dispersion of heat 

generated by the radioactive waste, 

and protection from intrusion by 

man. The potential for migration of 

high-level radioactive wastes from 

the repository demands that attention be given not only to the selection of a suitable host material for 

the waste but also to the selection 

of the geohydrologic environment of 

the repository. The U.S. Geological 

Survey's program for identifying 

potential environments suitable for 

locating acceptable repositories in 

the Basin and Range province was 

an outgrowth of a plan developed 

jointly with the U.S. Department of 

Energy, which has the responsibility for selecting, building, and 

operating the repositories. Although 

this is a Geological Survey study, 

earth scientists from the particular 

States involved are participating 

actively.

OFFSHORE GEOLOGIC SURVEYS

 Seafloor sonar imaging of the Pacific 

conterminous Exclusive Economic 

Zone (EEZ) produced a spectacular 

mosaic revealing new underwater 

volcanos, faults, meandering river 

channels, and previously unknown 

aspects of spreading centers, deep 

sea fans, and major fracture zones. 

This activity, conducted in cooperation with the Institute of Oceanographic Sciences of England and 

using their Geologic Long Range 

Inclined Asdic (GLORIA) system, is 

the first such investigation to be 

completed under the U.S. Geological Survey's program that is being 

implemented in response to the 

President's proclamation of the EEZ. 

The results, to date, along the west 

coast have already had a profound 

effect on geologic theory regarding 

the evolution of the area, its energyand mineral-resource potential, and 

potential geologic hazards.

 "Operation Deep Sweep" took the 

Research Vessel Samuel P. Lee 

from pole to pole across the Pacific

33
Research Vessel Samuel P. 

Lee escaping from ice 

channel at McMurdo 

Sound, Antarctica. 

(Photograph by Steve 

Eittreim.)

where new information was obtained on cobalt-rich seafloor 

encrustations and on the geologic 

setting and potential oil resources 

of the South Pacific islands. Additional information on the preliminary results of this cruise is found 

in the "Geologic Investigations" 

chapter.

GEOLOGIC HAZARDS STUDIES

 The northern Rocky Mountains were 

strongly shaken on October 28, 

1983, by a magnitude 7.3 earthquake located near Borah Peak, 

Idaho the largest magnitude event 

in the conterminous United States 

since 1959. The U.S. Geological 

Survey earthquake-investigation 

teams discovered that the earthquake was caused by movement on 

the Lost River fault. A fault rupture 

nearly 21 miles in length, with 

almost 9 feet of vertical offset, was 

discovered in the epicentral area.

In 1975, the Geological Survey had 

identified the Lost River fault as 

potentially active; in 1982, 

Geological Survey scientists had 

calculated that the area including 

the Lost River fault could generate 

an earthquake of magnitude 7.

A remarkable set of strong-ground 

motion recordings was obtained for 

the Morgan Hill, California, 

earthquake of April 24, 1984. The 

moderate-sized (magnitude 6.1) 

earthquake occurred on the Calaveras fault east of San Jose, within 

a dense network of U.S. Geological 

Survey earthquake-monitoring 

instruments that had been deployed 

earlier along the fault. The 

1.3-gravity acceleration registered 

at a station near Morgan Hill was 

one of the largest horizontal 

accelerations ever recorded.

Evidence of at least two, and possibly 

three, large prehistoric earthquakes has been discovered in the 

Charleston, South Carolina, area.

34
Buried liquefaction-related ground 

failures, apparently induced by 

earthquake shaking, have been 

found in sediments of late Quaternary age. The discoveries greatly 

lengthen the known seismic record 

of the Southeastern United States 

and indicate that the 1886 

Charleston earthquake was not a 

unique event. 

Analyses of the association of

precipitation and changing groundwater levels during episodes of 

damaging debris flow ("mudslide") 

activity in California in 1982 and in 

Utah in 1983 and 1984 confirm that 

debris-flow activity is triggered 

when intense rainfall or rapid 

snowmelt creates temporary nearsurface water tables in soils and 

bedrock. Monitoring of rainfall and 

soil-moisture conditions may permit 

forecasts of increased landslide 

potential.

Landslide at Love Creek, 

near Ben Lomond, 

California, January 4, 

1982.

35
Reduced version of the image 

from Landsat 4 Thematic 

Mapper data used to 

prepare the Washington, 

D.C., and Vicinity image 

map at 1:100,000 scale. It 

is printed here at 

approximately 1:550,000 

scale.

SATELLITE IMAGE MAPPING

 The U.S. Geological Survey has long 

recognized the need for image 

maps as tools for resource analysis 

and as map supplements, as well as 

a means to provide coverage of 

unmapped areas. After Landsat 1 

was launched in 1972, the Geological Survey began to produce multicolor maps from the multispectral 

scanner imagery, and earth 

scientists quickly recognized the 

global application of small-scale, 

image-base maps for compiling and 

analyzing land use, geologic, and 

hydrologic data over large regions. 

The Survey continued to develop 

optimum techniques for producing 

color-image maps at 1:250,000 

scale from multispectral scanner 

imagery. Imagery from the higher 

resolution Landsat 4 Thematic

Mapper recently has made possible 

the production of color-image maps 

at 1:100,000 scale. Advances in 

image-mapping science at the Geological Survey include the development of innovative techniques for 

geodetic control extension, 

computer processing for enhancement of digital image data, photographic and digital mosaicking, and 

calibrated lithographic printing. 

Current research includes (1) 

refining computer technqiues for 

digital mosaicking of Landsat image 

data over areas as large as 6° in 

latitude and longitude and extracting individual quadrangles for more 

efficient image-map production, (2) 

developing methods for preparing 

map separates directly from computer tapes, (3) improving digital 

techniques for geometric correction 

and image enhancement, and (4)

36
combining Landsat data with other 

digital data sets, such as elevation 

data, for analysis in automated geographic information systems.

HIGH PLAINS REGIONAL AQUIFER 

SYSTEM ANALYSIS PROJECT

 The High Plains, a 174,000-squaremile area of flat to gently rolling 

terrain east of the Rocky Mountains, is underlain by unconsolidated alluvial deposits that form a 

water-table aquifer capable of 

sustaining well yields of 100 to 

more than 1,000 gallons per minute. 

Irrigation from this aquifer has 

made the High Plains one of the 

Nation's leading agricultural areas. 

In 1978, as part of the Regional 

Aquifer System Analysis (RASA) 

Program, the U.S. Geological 

Survey began a study of the High 

Plains aquifer to understand the 

flow system and to evaluate the 

effects of the irrigation development on a regional scale. This 

study indicated that data on pumpage for irrigation and recharge to 

the aquifer from irrigation return 

flow are essential to evaluate 

water-level declines due to irrigation development; these data, however, were not readily available. To 

develop a method of estimating 

these data with an acceptable confidence level, a follow-up project to 

the RASA Program, Phase II, was 

started in 1983, and two areas, one 

in the southern High Plains of 

Texas and the other in the northern 

High Plains of Nebraska, are being 

studied currently.

ENERGY GEOLOGIC STUDIES

 During fiscal year 1984, several

geological and hydrological studies 

at Newberry Volcano, Oregon, 

were completed under the Geothermal Research Program. Results of 

these studies provided (1) evidence 

from hydrothermal alteration 

analyses that a hot, young hydrothermal system still is evolving 

beneath the volcano, (2) a conceptual model of the shallow hydrothermal system that estimates fluid

recharge to the system, and (3) a 

related numerical model of conductive heat flow that refines estimates of the age and size of a 

shallow magma chamber which 

would be the heat source for the 

hydrothermal system. These studies 

followed test drilling by the U.S. 

Geological Survey at Newberry 

Volcano in 1981 that demonstrated 

that high-temperature geothermal 

fluids exist in permeable rocks 

beneath a cool zone of hydrologic 

masking. The investigations at 

Newberry have substantiated the 

concept that the potential for 

exploitable geothermal energy in 

the Cascade Range of the Pacific 

Northwest is high and have provided incentives for additional 

industry exploration in the region.

 Assessment of the undiscovered oil 

and gas resources of the United 

States and worldwide continued in 

fiscal year 1984. A major focus has 

been on the pattern of worldwide 

hydrocarbon exploration drilling, 

and methods of predicting oil and 

gas reserves from past production 

records are being developed. 

Results of this research indicate 

that areas for new exploration still 

are expanding at the relatively 

rapid rate of 50,000 square miles 

per year (now covering 1.5 million 

square miles outside North America and Communist countries), but a 

large fraction of new additions to 

reserves may be generated from 

already discovered fields. Another 

topic being studied is the pattern of 

oil and gas field size distributions 

in mature basins. The results of 

this study will allow future regional 

resource estimation methods to be 

expanded to include predictions of 

field size distributions as well as 

aggregate amounts of petroleum.

 Two maps showing the location and 

names of basins and the total thickness of sedimentary rocks in the 

conterminous United States and 

two maps showing the location of 

wells drilled for oil and gas deeper 

than 15,000 and 20,000 feet, 

respectively, in the onshore and offshore conterminous United States 

were released January 1984. These 

maps are now being refined and,

37
when formally published, will be 

the first components of an Atlas of 

Oil and Gas Data.

DIGITAL SYSTEMS

 Digital systems used by the U.S. 

Geological Survey to collect, 

process, edit, and display digital 

cartographic data are in a state of 

rapidly changing technology. 

During the 1970's, such systems 

were simply tools to digitize 

manually features from maps and 

aerial photographs and to store the 

data onto magnetic tapes. Currently, systems are available which 

not only collect data but have the 

interactive capability to display 

and edit the data, greatly improving 

the accuracy and economy of producing digital data with a high 

level of data integrity and completeness. One type of digital 

system is used to scan maps automatically and uniformly, to digitize 

features of a particular overlay or 

of a certain color, and to store the 

data in a televisionlike format. An 

associated computer and an edit 

station then are used to correct 

errors, to label features, and to 

reformat the data. Another type of 

digital system is used to trace lines 

and to digitize their coordinates 

directly, with feature labels or 

attributes being added concurrently. The digitizing may be 

accomplished manually and then 

viewed and edited interactively, or 

it may be accomplished automatically by a line-following sensor with 

some interactive assistance. Edit 

systems now have color capability 

to aid in complex interpretation 

and computers large enough for 

extensive processing and analysis. 

As digital systems continue to 

evolve, the economic acquisition of 

digital data, the plotting of 

cartographic products, and the 

application of data in geographic 

information systems for resource 

analysis will increase dramatically. 

These evolving capabilities will 

revolutionize map production and 

geographically based resource 

analyses.

MOVEMENT AND FATE

OF CONTAMINANTS FROM

TREATED SEWAGE

INFILTRATED

TO GROUND WATER,

CAPE COD, MASSACHUSETTS

 Since 1936, secondarily treated 

domestic sewage has been 

discharged to the ground on 

surface sand beds at a sewagetreatment plant at Otis Air Force 

Base, Massachusetts. Infiltration of 

the sewage through sand beds to 

an underlying sand and gravel 

aquifer and the subsequent 

movement of the sewagecontaminated ground water in a 

southerly direction have caused a 

plume of contamination to form that 

is 3,000 feet wide, 75 feet thick, 

and more than 11,000 feet long. 

Most contaminants move readily 

through the sand and gravel that 

make up the aquifer on Cape Cod, 

and little discernible attenuation by 

sorption of solutes on the aquifer 

material is evident. Transverse and 

longitudinal spreading of the plume 

is significant, but little vertical 

mixing occurs. After 10,000 feet of 

movement, the plume is only about 

75 feet thick, with a core zone 20 

to 30 feet thick where the 

contaminants remain at concentrations more than one-fourth of what 

they are in the treated sewage.

LAND-RESOURCE 

INVESTIGATIONS

 An extensive subduction melange 

complex, the Macon melange, 

which underlies at least 5,000 

square miles in Georgia, has been 

recognized through detailed 

geologic mapping conducted under 

the Geologic Framework Program in 

the Georgia Piedmont. A melange is 

a deformed mixture of rocks made 

up of slabs and blocks, some of 

them miles in length, that have 

been mixed together by movements 

between the continent-sized plates 

that form the Earth's crust. The 

Macon melange may be comparable

38
in size to the Franciscan melange 

complex in California, which is one 

of the best known in North America. Evidence from structures preserved in the rocks indicates that 

this mixture of diverse rock materials formed above an "African" 

subduction zone at which the 

crustal plate that formed the floor 

of the ocean at that time was 

pushed beneath the African continent, and sediments resting on the 

plate were scraped off and piled up 

on or near Africa. This event 

occurred when Africa, North 

America, and South America were 

joined together as a single continent about 225 million years ago. 

Geologic mapping and chronological 

studies conducted under the Geologic Framework Program continue 

to increase our knowledge of past 

and present interaction between 

the huge plates that make up the 

Earth's crust. These studies have 

extensive practical applications for 

industry and government in such 

diverse fields as mineral and 

energy exploration and geologic 

hazard studies.

 Continued detailed geologic mapping 

in California is redefining the origin 

of the San Andreas and other 

faults and the amount and rate of 

displacement on them. This 

mapping bears heavily on regional 

multidisciplinary syntheses which 

are documenting the accretion of 

exotic terranes (microcontinents 

that did not originate in North 

America) from around the Pacific 

onto the western margin of North 

America. Mapping older rocks in 

areas adjacent to the San Andreas 

fault system has increased our 

understanding of its evolution. 

Geologists doing the geologic 

mapping have reconstructed the 

distribution pattern of these older 

rocks before to their offset by the 

San Andreas and related faults 

that transect the mountain ranges 

of southern California.

 An early 20th century uplift of a 

major part of southern California 

closely matches a mid-20th century 

uplift in areal extent and magnitude, as well as in its history of

episodic growth and partial collapse. The detection of this earlier 

uplift, together with the previous 

recognition of its modern analogue 

in southern California, demonstrates that a very large part of 

southern California, including the 

major mountain ranges bounding 

the north side of Los Angeles, has 

sustained cyclic deformation over a 

period of about 50 years. This 

finding is critical to an assessment 

of the tectonic evolution of the 

boundary between the actively 

moving North American and Pacific 

crustal plates and will be an 

important consideration for any 

tectonic model used for earthquake 

prediction in this heavily populated 

and economically vital region. 

Exciting new analytical techniques 

are being employed which now 

make it possible to determine the 

ages of rocks and sediments that 

previously could not be dated. An 

example is the laser argon40-argon-39 method, by which ages 

of single grains of mica can be 

measured without having to go 

through the time-consuming and 

expensive process of separating the 

mineral from the rock. This dating 

process aids greatly in understanding the chronology of mineralized zones where micas are present 

in such small quantities or are so 

small that they cannot be 

separated for conventional dating.

Research and development are 

underway to implement laser 

optical disk storage technology for 

the storage, retrieval, and maintenance of the rapidly expanding 

National Digital Cartographic Data 

Base. Optical disk technology 

involves the use of laser beams to 

read and record digital information 

onto and from the surface of a 

rotating reflective disk. The optical 

disk unit records information on the 

reflective surface by burning 

microscopic patterns of digitally 

encoded pits with a high-powered 

laser. The unit reads the information from the disk with a second

39
laser which illuminates the burned 

areas, reflects the encoded pattern 

to a photoelectric sensor, and 

converts the resulting electrical 

impulses to digital signals for data 

processing. This promising technology offers significant advantages 

over conventional storage and 

retrieval devices. For instance, 

magnetic tapes and disks normally 

degrade after 2 or 3 years, while 

optical disks are expected to last at 

least 10 years. Optical technology 

also offers far higher data storage 

capability. A single disk can store 

up to 4 X 109 characters of 

data an amount equivalent to 40 

magnetic tapes. When the new software is developed, the use of 

optical disks will reduce significantly the costs of the National 

Digital Cartographic Data Base and 

other archival storage. Current 

research and development efforts 

are moving toward improving data 

structures, data access methods,

and data processing procedures to 

efficiently use the technology.

DISINTEGRATION OF THE LOWER 

REACH OF COLUMBIA GLACIER, 

ALASKA, Now UNDER WAY

 During the time in the mid 1970's 

when the Trans-Alaska Pipeline 

terminal was being built, ice in the 

shipping lanes of Valdez Arm was 

encountered rarely and was not 

considered to be a problem. Now, 

however, icebergs are seen 

frequently in Valdez Arm, and, 

occasionally, tankships have to be 

diverted or delayed because of ice. 

Icebergs in Valdez Arm are increasing because the Columbia 

Glacier is beginning to disintegrate 

rapidly, resulting in a large 

increase in the breaking off 

(calving) of icebergs. This rapid 

disintegration was predicted by 

U.S. Geological Survey glaciologists

17.S. Geological Survey 

scientist with ablatograph 

that will record ice melt 

on Columbia Glacier, 

(Photograph by Mark E. 

Meier, U.S. Geological 

Survey.)

40
in 1980. Never 

tists been able 

ning of glacier 

drastic retreat, 

vations of this 

much valuable 

some of which 

unanticipated.

before have sciento observe the begininstability and 

and careful obserglacier are adding 

new information, 

is surprising and

 Research in the use of multispectral 

Landsat digital data has proved 

that this type of data can be used 

to estimate indirectly water withdrawal from irrigated cropland 

acreage. The High Plains aquifer, 

covering parts of eight Midwestern 

States, supplies water for onequarter of the Nation's irrigated 

agriculture, and the aquifer is 

being depleted rapidly with little 

natural recharge. A computerized 

hydrologic model is being developed 

by staff members of the U.S. Geological Survey's High Plains 

Regional Aquifer Systems Analysis 

Project to assist in evaluating 

effects of future ground-water 

pumpage. The key evaluation factor 

is current water pumpage, which is 

estimated from measuring the 

amount of land that is irrigated and 

knowing how much water is used to 

irrigate an average acre. Multispectral Landsat digital data were 

used to map rapidly the irrigated 

cropland over the aquifer. The data 

were computer processed to 

establish spectral classes, and, 

through a clustering process, each 

Landsat scene was classified to 

identify accurately irrigated cropland. In some areas, the variation 

in crops required scenes spanning 

several seasons. The final area

measurements were combined with 

estimated pumpage rates to successfully provide input to the 

hydrologic model. This method 

provided classification of the cropland rapidly and accurately.

PLANETARY GEOLOGY

 The first in a series of three

l:15,000,000-scale geologic maps of 

Mars made from Viking Orbiter 

spacecraft images has been completed for the National Aeronautics 

and Space Administration. The 

series will supersede the Geologic 

Map of Mars (1:25,000,000 scale) 

completed in 1978 from Mariner 9 

spacecraft pictures. The new map 

of the Western Equatorial Region 

shows 60 individual rockstratigraphic units and includes 

descriptions of major tectonic, 

volcanic, and fluvial (river 

development) episodes interpreted 

from the spacecraft image data. 

The expanding Martian data base 

includes a new series of photomosaics and a new planetwide 

topographic data control net.

 Evidence of prehistoric, large-scale 

climate change was observed from 

space shuttle orbit. Ground investigation of buried ancient stream 

channels in the eastern Sahara 

dicovered by U.S. Geological Survey 

and other scientists resulted from 

analysis of images made by the 

Imaging Radar System in an early 

1982 shuttle flight. The field 

observations, in addition, are 

providing important new data to 

evaluate subsurface radar 

responses for water and mineral 

resource potential, and for defining 

habitation patterns and migration 

paths of early stone age man about 

200,000 years ago.

41
Missions, Organization, and Budget

MISSIONS

The U.S. Geological Survey was 

established by an Act of Congress on 

March 3, 1879, to answer the need for a 

permanent agency at the Federal level 

to conduct, on a continuing, systematic, 

and scientific basis, investigations of the 

"geological structure, mineral 

resources, and products of the national 

domain." Although a number of laws 

and executive orders have expanded 

and modified the scope of the Survey's 

responsibilities over its 104-year history, 

the Survey has remained principally a 

scientific and technical investigation 

agency as contrasted with a developmental or regulatory one. Today, the 

Survey is mandated to assess onshore 

and offshore energy and mineral 

resources; to provide information for 

society to mitigate the impact of floods, 

earthquakes, landslides, volcanoes, and 

droughts; to monitor the Nation's 

ground- and surface-water supplies; to 

study the impact of man on the Nation's 

water resources; and to provide mapped 

information on the Nation's landscape 

and land use. The Survey is the 

principal source of scientific and 

technical expertise in the earth sciences 

within the Department of the Interior 

and the Federal Government. This 

Yearbook provides highlights of the wide 

range of earth science research and 

services in the fields of geology, 

hydrology, and cartography.

ORGANIZATION

The U.S. Geological Survey is 

headquartered in Reston, Virginia. Its 

activities are administered through the 

major program divisions of National 

Mapping, Geologic, and Water Resources. These program operations are 

supported by the Administrative and the 

Information Systems Divisions. The 

Survey conducts its functions through 

an extensive field organization of offices 

located throughout the 50 States and 

Puerto Rico. At the national level, the 

functions of the Survey are coordinated 

through assistant directors for administration, program analysis, research,

information systems, intergovernmental 

affairs, and engineering geology.

BUDGET

In fiscal year 1984, the U.S. 

Geological Survey had obligational 

authority for $579.9 million, of which 

$367.1 million came from direct appropriations, $30.3 million came from 

transfers of the unobligated balance 

($24.0 million) from the National 

Petroleum Reserve in Alaska account as 

required in the appropriation language 

and from the Office of Water Policy for 

the Water Resources Research Institutes ($6.35 million), $8.5 million came 

from estimated receipts from map sales, 

and $174.0 million came from reimbursements. The Survey also received 

funds for reimbursable work performed 

under agreements with other Federal 

agencies, State and local governments, 

international organizations, and foreign 

governments. The Survey performs 

services under these agreements when 

earth science expertise is required by 

other agencies and their needs complement Survey program objectives. Work 

done for State, county, and municipal 

agencies is almost always done on a 

cost-sharing basis.

Most of the appropriations and reimbursements received by the Survey in 

fiscal year 1984 are distributed through

General 

Administratio Facilities

Percentage allocation of funds, by Division

42
budget activities that roughly correspond to its mapping, geologic, hydrologic, and administrative areas of 

responsibility.

U.S. Geological Survey budget authority for

fiscal year 1984, by appropriation 

(Dollars in thousands)

Activity/Subactivity/ 

Program Element

Fiscal year

19841 

enacted

Surveys, Investigations, and

Research: 

National Mapping, Geography,

and Surveys 90,985 

Primary Quadrangle

Mapping 32,999 

Primary Quadrangle

Mapping 29,145 

Modernization of 

Mapping

Technology 3,854 

Map Revision and

Orthophotoquads 12,497

Revision 8,207

Orthoquads 4,290

Digital Mapping 8,103

Small, Intermediate, and

Special Mapping 13,699 

Intermediate-Scale

Mapping 5,477 

Small-Scale and Other

Special Mapping 2,106 

Federal Mineral Land

Information 1,000 

Land Use and Land Cover

Mapping 3,425 

Airborne Profiling of

Terrain System 1,691 

Earth Resources

Observation Systems 9,667 

Cartographic and 

Geographic

Information 4,020 

Receipts for Printing and

Distribution 8,500 

Side-Looking Airborne

Radar 1,500 

Geologic and Mineral Resource

Surveys and Mapping 164,354 

Geologic Hazards Surveys - 52,495 

Earthquake Hazards

Reduction 35,568 

Volcano Hazards 11,651 

Ground Failure and 

Construction

Hazards 2,076 

Reactor Hazards

Research 3,200

Land Resource Surveys 17,419

Geologic Framework 14,233

Geomagnetism 2,174

Climate Change 1,012

Mineral Resource

Surveys 45,355 

Alaska Mineral Surveys 9,435 

Conterminous U.S.

Mineral Surveys 5,776 

Wilderness Mineral

Surveys 8,399 

Strategic and Critical

Minerals 9,310 

Development of 

Assessment 

Techniques 12,435

Energy Geologic

Surveys 30,389

Coal Investigations 11,283 

Onshore Oil and Gas

Investigations 6,619 

Oil Shale Investigations 547 

Geothermal

Investigations 7,284 

Uranium-Thorium

Investigations 4,155 

World Energy Resource

Assessment 501 

Offshore Geologic

Surveys 18,696 

Offshore Geologic

Framework 18,696 

Water Resources Investigations 129,441 

National Water Data SystemFederal Program 61,063 

Data Collection and

Analysis 16,443 

National Water Data

Exchange 1,288 

Regional Aquifer Systems

Analyses 15,197 

Coordination of Water

Data Activities 932 

Core Program Hydrologic

Research 7,271 

Improved Instrumentation - 1,955 

Water Resources

Assessment 1,346 

Supporting Services 3,344 

Toxic Wastes Ground

Contamination 8,586 

Acid Rain 3,050 

Environmental Affairs 748 

Water Resources

Scientific Information 

Center 903 

Federal-State Cooperative

Program 50,001 

Data Collection and 

Analysis, Areal 

Appraisals, and

Special Studies 42,800 

Water Use (Cooperative) 3,886 

Coal Hydrology

(Cooperative) 3,315 

Water Resources Research

Institute 6,353

Energy Hydrology 12,024

Coal Hydrology 4,443

Nuclear Energy Hydrology - 7,274

Oil Shale Hydrology 307

General Administration 15,642

Executive Direction 4,970

Administrative Operations 8,633

Reimbursements to the

Department of Labor 2,039 

Facilities 10,463 

National Center Standard Level

User's Charge 8,762 

National Center Facilities

Management 1,701 

TOTAL, Surveys, Investigations,

and Research 410,885 

Barrow Area Gas Operation 13,000 

TOTAL, U.S. Geological Survey 423,885

'Funding shown represents appropriated 

dollars and does not include reimbursable 

funding from Federal, State, and other nonFederal sources.

43
PERSONNEL

At the end of fiscal year 1984, the 

U.S. Geological Survey had 7,911 permanent full-time employees on board. 

The Survey's diversified earth science 

research programs and services are 

reflected in its workforce which is 

composed of personnel in over 170 

disciplines, with more than 50 percent 

possessing a Bachelor's or higher level 

degree. More than one-half of the 

Survey's staff are professional scientists, and approximately one-fourth are 

technical specialists. Hydrologists, 

geologists, and cartographers predominate among the professional group 

which includes members of more than 

30 other disciplines, such as geophysicists, chemists, and engineers.

The permanent employees are supported by other than full-time permanent employees which include many 

students and faculty members from 

colleges and universities as well as parttime personnel. The Survey has profited 

greatly from its relations with the 

academic community. The expertise of 

many eminent specialists has become 

available to the Survey in this manner 

and has provided great flexibility in 

solving problems and meeting surges in 

workload, especially during the field 

season. Those associations also have 

been an invaluable channel for recruiting young professionals of demonstrated 

ability for permanent full-time positions 

upon the completion of their studies.

AWARDS AND HONORS

Each year, employees of the U.S. 

Geological Survey receive awards that 

range from modest monetary awards to 

recognition of their achievements by 

large professional societies. The large 

number of these awards attests to the 

quality of the individuals who are the 

U.S. Geological Survey. This year, the 

Survey wishes to acknowledge those 

individuals who either received high 

honors from or were elected to high 

office in professional societies.

Honors

Paul B. Barton, Geologist, was the recipient 

of the Roebling Medal of the Mineralogical 

Society of America for his pioneering work 

in ore petrology.

Thomas J. Buchanan, Associate Chief 

Hydrologist for Operations, was named 

Engineer of the Year for the U.S. Geological 

Survey, Department of the Interior, by the 

National Society of Professional Engineers.

Steven M. Colman, Geologist, received the 

Kirk Bryan Award of the Geological Society 

of America for his highly significant 

research on chemical weathering of volcanic 

rocks.

Frederick J. Doyle, Research Cartographer, 

was awarded the Brock Gold Medal for 

outstanding contributions to the evolution of 

photogrammetry by the International Society 

for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing.

Edwin B. Eckel, Geologist, received the 

Geological Society of America Engineering 

Geology Division's Distinguished Practice 

Award.

David L. Jones, Geologist, was appointed a 

Distinguished Lecturer by the American 

Association of Petroleum Geologists.

Mary C. Rabbitt, Geophysicist, was honored 

by the Geological Society of America with 

its History of Geology Award for her 

authorship of the first two volumes of the 

history of the U.S. Geological Survey.

Eugene M. Shoemaker, Geologist, was 

awarded the Barringer Medal of the 

Meteoritical Society, in recognition for his 

pioneering research in the physics of impact 

cratering phenomena and the role of 

impacts in the history of the planets; he also 

received the Kuiper Prize of the American 

Astronomical Society for his fundamental 

contribution to planetary science.

Laurence A. Soderblom, Geologist, was the 

recipient of the Public Service Award, 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration, for meritorious personal contributions 

to their space science programs.

Charles V. Theis, Hydrologist, received the 

Horton Medal of the American Geophysical 

Union for his outstanding contributions to 

groundwater hydrology.

Edwin P. Weeks, Hydrologist, received the 

O. E. Meinzer Award of the Geological 

Society of America for his paper entitled 

Field Determinations of Vertical Permeability

44
to Air in the Unsaturated Zone, published as 

U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 

1051.

Donald E. White, Geologist, was awarded 

the Penrose Medal of the Geological Society 

of America in recognition of his outstanding 

research on hydrothermal systems.

Presidents and Chairmanships 

of Professional Societies

Service in professional societies is one of 

the important professional contributions a 

scientist can make. Societies play a 

fundamental role in distributing new 

knowledge, as well as providing a forum in 

which new ideas are tested. The active 

participation of Survey scientists in 

professional societies attests to the scientific 

vitality of the Bureau. The Bureau is particularly proud of those individuals who have 

been elected to society presidencies, or 

chairmanships of major sections of societies, 

by their professional peers.

G. Brent Dalrymple

Joel L. Morrison

R. Anthony Novotny, Jr.

David A. Rickert

Laurence A. Soderblom

Volcanology, 

Geochemistry, 

and Petrology 

Section, 

American 

Geophysical 

Union

International 

Cartographic 

Association

American 

Cartographic 

Association

American Water 

Resources 

Association

Planetology 

Section, 

American 

Geophysical 

Union

45
National Mapping Program

Figure 1. Status of primary 

quadrangle mapping and 

revision program. 

[Reduced version of 1984 

status map. Full-size 

map available from Public 

Inquiries Offices.]

MISSION

The National Mapping Division 

conducts the National Mapping 

Program, which provides graphic and 

digital cartographic and geographic 

products and information for the United 

States, Territories, and U.S. possessions. 

The products include several series of 

topographic maps, photoimage maps, 

land use and land cover maps and associated data, geographic names information, geodetic control data, and remotely 

sensed data.

The products are generated by four 

regional mapping centers and the Earth 

Resources Observation Systems Data 

Center. The Division's Printing and 

Distribution Center prints, stores, and 

distributes all Geological Survey maps 

and texts. The Division also operates 

Public Inquiries Offices and National 

Cartographic Information Centers 

which, along with the Earth Resources 

Observation Systems Data Center, 

provide information about and fill

orders for cartographic, geographic, 

earth science, and remotely sensed 

data.

MAJOR PROGRAMS AND 

ACTIVITIES

In support of the National Mapping 

Program, the Division concentrates its 

efforts on the following major activities:

 Primary quadrangle mapping and 

revision, including the production 

and revision of 7.5-minute 

1:24,000- and, in selected areas, 

l:25,000-scale topographic maps in 

the conterminous United States and 

Hawaii and the 15-minute 1:63,360- 

scale topographic maps in Alaska. 

During fiscal year 1984, about 

1,300 revised and 1,600 new 

primary quadrangle maps were 

published, mostly in the 7.5-minute 

series. Published topographic maps

46
are available for about 85 percent 

of Alaska and for 84 percent of the 

other 49-State area (fig. 1). Sixteen 

States have complete 7.5-minute 

series map coverage.

Small-scale and special mapping, 

including the preparation of maps 

and map products from the 

intermediate-scale (1:50,000 and 

1:100,000) series to the small-scale

(1:250,000) series and other smaller 

scale U.S. base maps. Complete 

topographic coverage of the United 

States is available at the scale of 

1:250,000. More than 75 percent of 

the conterminous United States is 

mapped in one or more of the 

intermediate-scale series (fig. 2), 

which include l:50,000-scale 

topographic quadrangle maps, 

1:50,000- or l:100,000-scale

Figure 2. Status o/intermediatescale mapping program.

EXPLANATION

In program

Published

47
topographic or planimetric county 

maps, and l:100,000-scale topographic or planimetric quadrangle 

maps. More than 150 topographicbathymetric maps have been published for coastal area planning. 

Land use and land cover maps are 

complete for 2.5 million square 

miles and are available in the 

l:250,000-scale or, in selected 

areas, in the l:100,000-scale 

quadrangle format.

 Digital cartography, including the 

production of base categories of 

cartographic data at standard 

scales, accuracies, and formats 

suitable for computer-based 

analysis. The Geological Survey 

chairs a Department of the Interior 

committee to coordinate digital 

cartography activities within the 

Department. Additionally, the 

Office of Management and Budget 

issued a memorandum to foster 

better coordination of digital 

cartography activities in all Federal 

agencies. The Geological Survey 

has been delegated the lead role in 

this activity and chairs the Federal 

Interagency Coordinating Committee on Digital Cartography.

 Information and data services, 

including the acquisition and 

dissemination of information about 

U.S. maps, charts, aerial and space 

photographs and images, geodetic 

control, cartographic and geographic digital data, and other 

related information; distribution of 

earth science information to the 

public; and sale of maps and maprelated products directly and 

through over 3,300 commercial 

dealers.

 Advanced development and

engineering to improve the quality 

of standard products; to provide 

new products, such as digital 

cartographic data, that make maps 

and map-related information more 

useful to users; to reduce costs and 

to increase productivity of mapping 

activities; to acquire innovative and 

more useful equipment; and to 

design and develop techniques and

systems to advance the mapping of 

high-priority areas of the country.

 Cartographic and geographic

research with particular emphasis 

on spatial data techniques for studies using modern geographic 

analysis with new and improved 

cartographic concepts and 

techniques.

 International activities, including the 

coordination of the Division's participation in international cartographic, geographic, surveying, 

remote sensing, and other maprelated activities.

BUDGET AND PERSONNEL

For fiscal year 1984, National 

Mapping Division funding totaled about 

$110 million. Funding sources included 

direct congressional appropriations, 

funds transferred from other Federal 

agencies, joint funding agreements 

through the Federal-State Cooperative 

Program, funds transferred from local 

agencies, and funds received from the 

sale of published maps.

The permanent full-time personnel 

strength of the Division at the end of 

fiscal year 1984 was 1,904, representing 

a work force skilled in cartography, 

geography, computer science, engineering, physical science, photographic and 

remote sensing technology, and information sciences.

HIGHLIGHTS

In the following sections, highlights 

from some of the major activities are 

described.

Provisional Maps

In 1982, the Geological Survey 

initiated a series of provisional edition 

topographic maps to expedite completion of the 8,500 7.5-minute quadrangle 

areas not covered by l:24,000-scale 

mapping. Under this accelerated 

mapping program, almost all of the 

unmapped areas are targeted for 

provisional mapping, which will allow 

completion of 7.5-minute map coverage 

of the conterminous United States in

48
fiscal year 1989. Provisional maps of 

unmapped 15-minute quadrangle areas 

in Alaska also will be produced allowing 

l:63,360-scale map coverage of Alaska 

to be completed concurrently with the 

l:24,000-scale coverage of the conterminous United States.

Provisional maps are prepared to the 

same map accuracy standards and 

contain essentially the same level of 

content as standard topographic maps 

but reflect a provisional rather than a 

finished map appearance. They are 

printed in four or five colors and are 

made available through standard distribution procedures. The maps can be 

produced manually or with automated 

techniques. The first maps in the 

provisional series were produced 

manually using standard compilation 

techniques, with some linework and 

lettering done by hand.

Computer technology is the basis for 

the automated processing of provisional 

maps. Maps are produced in the following stages: (1) information collection: 

aerial photographs are used in plotting 

equipment to record information from 

the photographs on computer tapes, (2) 

information editing: appropriate map 

symbols are applied to represent 

properly the features on the map, and 

errors and deficiencies are corrected, 

and (3) cartographic plotting: newly 

developed computer programs produce 

and position certain descriptive 

lettering, contour labels, and control 

elevations on the maps. These automated processes further shorten the 

map production cycle for provisional 

maps and place the product in the 

hands of the user at an earlier date.

After completion of the provisional 

mapping program, the provisional maps 

will be republished as standard editions 

in conjunction with the revision of these 

maps.

Digital Cartography

Map data in digital form are being 

applied to an increasing number of 

complex problems. Applications are not 

limited to the earth sciences but address 

many diverse and complex problems. An 

important factor in the growth of digital 

cartographic data applications is the 

development of geographic information

systems. These systems have the capability to compare rapidly and sort 

through large amounts of digital data on 

multiple topics about the land and its 

resources. Maps depicting the results of 

the analysis can be prepared quickly 

and more accurately using automated 

procedures.

To meet the demand for standardized 

digital cartographic data, the Geological 

Survey is digitizing base categories of 

cartographic information from its topographic maps and making these data 

available from the National Digital 

Cartographic Data Base. The digitized 

data, available in two forms, are digital 

line graphs and digital elevation models 

(fig. 3). The digital line graphs are 

digital data files consisting of planimetric (line map) information. Currently, 

the following four categories of digital 

line graphs are being collected from 

l:24,000-scale maps: the public land net, 

boundaries, hydrography, and transportation. The digital elevation models are 

digitized elevations shown at 30-meter 

intervals horizontally throughout a 

quadrangle. Hydrography and transportation features also are being digitized 

from l:100,000-scale maps. Boundary, 

hydrography, and transportation 

features from the l:2,000,000-scale 

sectional maps of the National Atlas of 

the United States of America are 

available in digital form for the entire 

United States. The data base also 

includes elevation data from the 

l:250,000-scale map series, land use 

and land cover data, and geographic 

names data.

In a related area of activity, the 

coordination of Federal digital 

cartographic data programs, the 

Geological Survey expanded its 

coordination activities within the 

Department of the Interior by chairing 

the Interior Digital Cartography 

Coordination Committee. Also, the 

Geological Survey was delegated the 

lead role in implementing the Office of 

Management and Budget objective of 

fostering better coordination of all 

Federal digital cartography programs. 

In that role, the Geological Survey 

chairs the Federal Interagency 

Coordinating Committee on Digital 

Cartography. The Geological Survey 

continues to identify and respond to

49
Figure 3. Digital cartographic 

mapping. A, Status of digitaJ 

line graph production. B, Status 

of digital elevation mode] 

production.

Federal digital cartographic data 

requirements, to provide a mechanism 

for the development of data standards, 

to serve as a forum for exchange of 

information on digital technology and 

methods, and to facilitate private sector 

use of the data.

Through this expanded Federal 

coordination activity, significant new 

requirements for digital cartographic 

data have been identified. The most 

pressing of these requirements is the 

development of a 1:100,000-scale digital 

cartographic data base to support the

1990 Decennial Census of Population. 

Accordingly, a major project is 

underway by the Geological Survey in 

cooperation with the Bureau of the 

Census to digitize transportation and 

hydrography data by mid-fiscal year 

1987 for the 1,807 l:100,000-scale 

quadrangles covering the conterminous 

United States.

Image Mapping

The Geological Survey recognizes a 

national need for image products as

50
valuable mapping tools, map supplements, and as alternatives to standard 

maps. As a result, it responds to these 

needs through the image mapping 

program.

Image mapping in the form of orthophotoquads provides relatively low-cost 

products that can be prepared in about 

one-third of the time required for line 

maps. For areas of the conterminous 

United States unmapped at the 

1:24,000 scale, black-and-white orthophotoquads serve as interim maps until 

new 7.5-minute topographic maps 

become available. For areas with 

7.5-minute map coverage, orthophotoquads serve as map supplements. 

Orthophotoquads have been prepared 

for about 57 percent of the conterminous United States. During fiscal year 

1984, the Geological Survey prepared 

about 1,900 orthophotoquads.

In Alaska, 15-minute orthophotoquads 

are being prepared at the 1:63,360 scale 

in cooperation with the Bureau of Land 

Management and the State of Alaska. In 

fiscal year 1984,140 quadrangles were 

produced. Coverage of most portions of 

the State is anticipated over the next 

decade.

Responding to requirements of the 

U.S. Customs Service and the International Boundary and Water Commission, the Geological Survey is preparing 

maps of the international boundary 

between the United States and Mexico. 

Currently, 48 of the projected 201 

photoimage maps in simulated natural 

color at 1:25,000 scale have been 

published.

The Geological Survey has been 

experimenting with Landsat imagery to 

assess its utility in the production of 

image maps which can be used in a 

variety of earth science applications. 

Landsat image mapping products which 

have been completed are the experimental Las Vegas Landsat 3 multispectral scanner l:250,000-scale image 

map (as shown on the Yearbook cover), 

the Dyersburg, Tennessee-MissouriKentucky-Arkansas l:100,000-scale 

image map, and the Washington, B.C., 

and Vicinity Landsat 4 Thematic 

Mapper l:100,000-scale image map. The 

National Mapping Division will prepare 

about 25 Landsat image products 

annually in fiscal years 1985 and 1986 

to meet emerging requirements.

On July 2,1984, the Great Salt Lake, 

Utah, crested at a peak elevation of 

4209.25 feet above mean sea level, the 

highest lake elevation since July 1,1878. 

This recent high lake level was recorded 

successfully on Landsat imagery 

acquired on June 25, on July 2, and on 

July 11. During August and September 

1984, the National Mapping Division, in 

cooperation with the Water Resources 

Division, prepared a Landsat image map 

of the Great Salt Lake and vicinity at 

1:125,000 scale from Thematic Mapper 

data. The four-color image map is 

printed on the reverse side of the 1974 

Great Salt Lake and Vicinity topographic map. In addition to the high lake 

level, the image map shows the major 

cultural changes that have taken place 

within the past 10 years. This project 

demonstrated that a transitory 

phenomenon, such as the unusual rise of 

the Great Salt Lake, can be mapped 

within a relatively short period of time. 

With the use of space imagery and the 

computer processing of digital data, the 

time required for such mapping can be 

reduced from the several years of a 

normal mapping project to a few weeks.

The Geological Survey continues to 

evaluate side-looking airborne radar 

imagery for use in geoscience mapping. 

Twelve controlled l:250,000-scale 

quadrangle image mosaics of the 

Aleutian Islands in Alaska have been 

printed by screenless lithography and 

are available with or without updated 

topographic maps on the reverse side. 

Thirty-eight l:250,000-scale radar image 

mosaics of the Appalachian region from 

Alabama to Maine are being compiled 

from data acquired in 1984.

Information Services

The Geological Survey disseminates 

much of the Nation's earth science 

information through its Public Inquiries 

Offices, National Cartographic Information Center offices, and Earth Resources 

Observation Systems Data Center. The 

National Mapping Division operates 

these public access points for the 

Survey and sells the Survey's books, 

maps, map-related products, aerial 

photographs, and digitized cartographic 

and earth science data on tapes. Survey 

maps also are sold through a network of

51
/. Schubert uses a planetabie 

alidade on a field project in 

the Alabama Hills area 

near Lone Pine, California. 

Mount Whitney is in the 

background (above the 

truck grill, to the right of 

the twin cones).

authorized dealers, and map information 

is available from offices in 37 States 

that are affiliated with the National 

Cartograhic Information Center.

Information efforts during fiscal year 

1984 were concentrated on further 

implementation of a modern product 

distribution system, improvement of 

existing public access offices and 

services, initiation of a public service 

announcement program, conversion of 

State map indexes to a booklet format, 

and sponsorship of a national tour for 

the map exhibit Maps and Minds.

In the area of product distribution, 

the existing computer-based system for 

inventory control was enhanced to 

include order processing and customer 

accounting features for the public sale 

and distribution of the various types of 

Survey maps and books. Telecommunication facilities linking the major Survey 

warehouses in Arlington and Alexandria, Virginia, and Denver, Colorado, to 

the host computer were upgraded to 

accommodate an increase in the number 

of terminals required to handle the 

thousands of orders received each year.

The activities of the Public Inquiries 

Offices were expanded to meet the need 

of heightened public interest in earth 

science information. A new information 

and sales office was opened in Anchorage, Alaska; facilities and equipment in 

other offices were upgraded; and

intraoffice references were put on 

microcomputers.

The Public Inquiries Offices also 

made significant progress in applying 

the Earth Science Information Network 

to the dissemination of information. This 

network is a computer-based system 

that electronically links the Survey's 

information offices to various data 

bases. At present, the network provides 

access to data bases relating to 

geographic names, sources of water 

resources data, news releases of the 

Geological Survey, status of digital 

mapping, and bibliographies of geologic 

and water resources publications. In the 

future, the Public Inquiries Offices will 

be able to use the network technology to 

access information from many additional sources.

The Applications Assistance Facility, 

located at the National Space Technology Laboratories in Bay St. Louis, 

Mississippi, has put into operation an 

annex designed to provide greater 

capacity for its regularly scheduled 

cartographic and geographic workshops. 

The workshop facility contains eight 

surge-protected microcomputer workstations for hands-on digital demonstrations, a remote information processing 

system linked to the Earth Resources 

Observation Systems Data Center in 

Sioux Falls, South Dakota, and a 

terminal with access to the Survey's

52
Earth Science Information Network. 

Ample work space is provided for 18 to 

20 participants. An adjoining multimedia 

room with full video editing capacities 

adds to the effectiveness of the facility 

as a training-public awareness center. 

The new facility was inaugurated with a 

3-day seminar on the new Geological 

Survey digital cartographic standards, 

which was attended by faculty and 

graduate students from six southern 

universities.

The Applications Assistance Facility, 

working closely with personnel from 

each of the field mapping centers, also 

coordinated a series of five workshops 

on modern mapping methods for the 

Department of Transportation's Federal 

Highway Administration. These workshops emphasized new digital cartographic techniques and introduced 

participants to the Survey's digital 

cartographic programs. A series of 

video training modules illustrating 

digital techniques was prepared to 

provide uniformity in presentations at 

different locations and to build a file of 

representative digital cartographic 

applications for use in workshops 

scheduled in other Federal Highway 

Administration regions during fiscal 

year 1985.

The Division initiated a program of 

brief public service announcements 

focusing on maps and outdoor safety. 

An outdoor safety theme was chosen 

because nearly 1,000 people each year 

get lost in wilderness areas of national* 

parks and forests. Using the phrase, "Be 

safe, carry a map," a series of public 

service announcements were sent to 15 

nationally distributed outdoor and 

sports magazines. Within an 8-month 

period, more than 3,000 people responded to the published announcements and requested more information. 

The inquiries were answered with a 

brochure on how to use a topographic 

map, a State index of topographic maps, 

and a list of private map dealers in the 

inquirer's local area who could give 

additional information. On the basis of 

the success of this initial test, the 

Division plans to start testing public 

service announcements on radio and 

television next year and to expand distribution of the printed announcements.

To show all of the various types of 

published topographic maps and map

products on each State index (up to 30 

different map and product lines for 

some States), the Division is converting 

its single-sheet map indexes to an index 

booklet and companion catalog for each 

State. The new multicolor indexes are 

designed so as not to need an annual 

updating; the preparation of the 

companion one-color catalogs is fully 

automated so they can be efficiently 

updated and reissued on an annual 

basis. When the conversion is fully 

completed in late 1985, the indexcatalog format for each State will help 

to keep the public and Federal, State, 

and local government agencies informed 

of newly published topographic maps 

and map products as they become 

available.

In cooperation with the National 

Geographic Society, the Survey 

sponsored a major exhibit, Maps and 

Minds, on the history of mapping from 

prehistoric times to the satellite age. 

The exhibit focuses on the Federal 

Government's role in American cartographic history and the role of mapping 

in the opening of the American West. 

The colorful 120-panel exhibit is a 

collection of more than 500 photographic images, with extensive text and 

captions. Maps and Minds is on a 

10-site national tour, including stops at 

science and technology centers and 

museums in Tampa, Florida, Atlanta, 

Georgia, St. Paul, Minnesota, Dallas, 

Texas, and San Francisco, California.

Research, Investigations, and 

Developments

INVESTIGATION AND ASSESSMENT OF 

AUTOMATED CARTOGRAPHIC 

CAPABILITY

For the past several years, the 

National Mapping Division has been 

involved in the process of collecting and 

processing cartographic data in digital 

form to support the development of a 

digital cartographic data base. The data 

base provides basic categories of data 

for computer-based information and 

management systems and also provides 

the framework to streamline the 

mapping process for preparing revised 

and derivative map products.

53
In a dry salt bed, J. Hanchett 

records while L. Lindahl 

uses electronic distancemeasuring equipment 

during field activities in the 

Saline Valley area, 

California, near Death 

Valley National Monument.

In August 1983, the National Mapping 

Division and the Defense Mapping 

Agency established a joint working 

group to investigate and assess the 

feasibility of applying automated 

cartographic techniques to the production of l:50,000-scale topographic 

maps from 1:24,000- and l:25,000-scale 

quadrangles.

The working group reviewed current 

production procedures employed by the 

National Mapping Division in the 

manual production of these 1:50,000- 

scale topographic maps, as well as the 

capabilities of private companies to 

support the production of these products 

using digital cartographic techniques.

Upon completion of the initial investigation, the work group determined that 

it was feasible for private industry to 

develop the procedures and software to 

support this production effort. A 

statement of work was prepared to 

cover the development and subsequent 

production of these products and was 

distributed to private contractors in 

February 1984. Proposals from 

interested contractors have been 

received and on-site demonstrations 

conducted.

AERIAL PROFILING OF TERRAIN SYSTEM

The Aerial Profiling of Terrain 

System, under development since 1974,

is a precision airborne surveying system 

capable of measuring elevation profiles 

across various types of terrain from a 

relatively light aircraft at flight heights 

of up to 3,000 feet above the ground. A 

laser profiler measures the distance 

from the aircraft to the terrain, an 

inertial measuring unit continuously 

monitors the aircraft's position, and a 

laser tracker updates the position by 

measuring distances to ground-based 

reflectors.

Performance evaluation flights were 

completed in June 1984 with the 

accumulation of 54 profiles at three 

different test sites. The data indicate 

the system does meet the design accuracies of ± l/2 foot vertically and ± 2 

feet horizontally when tracker updates 

are acquired at 3-minute intervals. 

Flight testing is now directed toward 

developing more efficient system operation and performing application tests for 

several different earth science 

programs.

RADAR STUDIES

In 1980, the Geological Survey began 

a Side-Looking Airborne Radar program 

as a result of the Congressional request 

to "begin the use of side-looking 

airborne radar imagery for topographic 

and geologic mapping, and geologic 

resource surveys in promising areas,

54
particularly in Alaska." Since the 

program began, more than 400,000 

square miles of radar data have been 

acquired in the contiguous United States 

and Alaska for entry into the public 

domain, and approximately 150,000 

square miles are planned for acquisition 

in fiscal year 1985. In addition, the 

Survey has supported over 60 studies 

addressing the geologic, hydrologic, 

cartographic, and engineering applications of this technology.

Side-looking airborne radar systems 

contain a transmitter that provides a 

pulse of microwave energy that is 

emitted from an antenna. The energy 

pulse travels to the ground, is reflected, 

and returns to a receiving antenna. This 

reflected energy then is collected 

and used to make an image on film, 

analogous to the photographic process. 

Because imaging radar is an active 

sensor that provides its own source of 

illumination, imagery can be obtained 

through clouds and rain, day or night. 

Therefore, side-looking airborne radar 

can be used to prepare image-based 

maps of persistently cloud-covered 

areas where conventional aerial photography is very difficult to obtain.

High-resolution x-band (3-centimeter) 

imagery from both real- and syntheticaperture radar systems was acquired 

for selected areas of the Alaskan 

Peninsula. A set of several radar image 

products of the l:250,000-scale Ugashik, 

Alaska, quadrangle is being prepared to 

provide comparative imagery between 

the two systems. The set includes four 

mosaics depicting real- and syntheticaperture imagery from four different 

look angles, radar image strips from 

both systems for stereo viewing, and one 

radar mosaic overprinted with information from the corresponding topographic 

map to serve as a shaded relief map 

with color tints to enhance land and 

timber areas. The set also will include 

descriptive text on the geology of the 

Ugashik area and on the principles of 

radar imaging.

The all-weather capability of radar 

also provided the opportunity to obtain 

cloud-free imagery of the Aleutian Arc 

in Alaska. The Survey recently published twelve l:250,000-scale radar 

image mosaics of the Aleutian Islands. 

The mosaics were prepared by enlarging and mosaicking the l:400,000-scale 

radar image strips and matching the 

imagery to geodetic control points and 

map points on the corresponding 

l:250,000-scale topographic maps. The 

topographic maps were published originally in the 1950's and classified as 

reconnaissance editions in recognition of 

the technology prevalent at that time. 

The radar mosaics are printed back-toback with the corresponding topographic maps, which are updated to 

show the latest feature names, township 

and range lines, and locations of 

offshore leasing tracts. The mosaics and 

topographic maps are also available 

separately.

The unique geometric characteristics 

of radar present certain problems in 

attempting to merge radar imagery with 

other image data, such as from Landsat. 

To better understand the geometry and 

registration problems inherent in radar 

data acquired at varying depression 

angles over steep terrain, a research 

project is underway to generate a 

shaded relief image from digital 

elevation model data processed to 

simulate the geometry of radar imagery 

using a variety of radar parameters. 

Part of the research will include 

registering digital elevation model data 

to radar data and correcting the radar 

image for major relief displacements.

GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS 

DEVELOPMENT

Geographic information systems are 

emerging as a new tool for a wide range 

of scientific disciplines. These systems 

provide the capability to combine statistical and tabular data with map information from digital data bases. The 

power and speed of the computer then 

can be applied to manipulate and 

analyze these data. Techniques of 

computer graphics can be utilized to 

display the data and the results of the 

analyses. Geographic information 

systems provide rapid and powerful 

analytical techniques, combined with 

the ability to automatically produce the 

results on maps, and will be of major 

benefit to many users, especially natural 

resource planners and land managers.

The central role of map information in 

geographic information systems has led 

the National Mapping Division to under55
take the development and application of 

these systems for diverse uses. Among 

the objectives of the present program 

are as follows:

 To ensure a high degree of diversity 

and flexibility in the Division's ability to handle, process, and analyze 

vector and raster formatted data to 

be responsive to a wide variety of 

Division, Bureau, and Department 

requirements.

 To maintain, improve, and utilize the 

Department's Map Overlay and 

Statistical System to support information requirements for resource 

management and planning.

 To define, develop, implement, and 

operate an integrated information 

system that can handle, process, 

and analyze data about land ownership and about mineral, energy, 

water, soil, forest, range, and 

wildlife resources on a national 

scale to support Department policy 

decisions.

 To provide leadership and coordination between Federal agencies and 

Department bureaus in development and application of digital 

cartographic data and geographic 

information systems.

REMOTE INFORMATION PROCESSING 

SYSTEM

In 1980, the Earth Resources 

Observation Systems Data Center 

initiated development of a Remote 

Information Processing Station capable 

of generating a continuous-tone color 

display. The station was connected to a 

host minicomputer through a standard 

telephone line and was configured so 

that image processing software could be 

developed efficiently for stand-alone 

operation. Experimental software was 

written to demonstrate the system's 

unique capabilities. Highlights of the 

early project work included the design 

and assembly of three prototype units, 

development of a package of conversational applications software containing 

more than 40 image processing functions, and development of a prototype 

communications protocol with provisions

for image data compression and error 

detection-correction.

In early 1982, specifications were 

written for competitive procurement of 6 

to 12 systems to be used in technique 

development, training, and applications 

project activities. Later, the total 

number of systems was increased to 18.

In April 1983, a plan was drafted for 

the transition of the system from 

research to operational support. In 

January 1984, the first users conference 

was held for 30 users to exchange 

ideas, discuss applications, and make 

recommendations. By this time, the total 

number of systems in the field (prototype and operational) had increased to 

about 80.

Highlights of the transition project 

included acceptance, checkout, and 

installation of 11 systems at user sites; 

release of 69 applications programs, 100 

support routines, and more than 500 

pages of documentation; and definition 

of standard products and services.

In July 1984, software was released 

which included new routines for 

performing topographic analysis and 

display of digital elevation model data 

products. Also released was software 

for two-way file transfer of binary 

image data from the Remote Information 

Processing System to the VAX and 

HP3000 systems. With the increased 

emphasis on operational development, 

applications software is now beginning 

to appear from a larger user community 

which has learned to program the 

machine for specialized applications.

IMAGE MAP RESEARCH

The Survey has developed experimental image maps from the Landsat 

program at the 1:250,000 (from the 

multispectral scanner) and the 1:100,000 

scale (from the Thematic Mapper). 

During 1984, this research was continued and resulted in two image products 

of the Washington, D.C., area, both 

derived from the Thematic Mapper. The 

first was a l:100,000-scale map which 

utilized the blue (band 1), red (band 3), 

and near infrared (band 5) printed in 

yellow, magenta, and cyan, respectively.

The second product was the Landsat 

Thematic Mapper (TM] Color Combina56
tions, Washington, D.C., and Vicinity, 

published as Geological Survey Miscellaneous Investigation 1616. 

This report graphically illustrated the 

various color combinations and permutations that are possible from the six 

spectral bands selected for this project. 

The report quantitatively described the 

rationale behind spectral band selection 

to present the maximum information for 

a given scene.

One significant finding of this 

research is, the establishment of a 

picture-element (pixel)-to-scale relationship criterion of 3.3 pixels per millimeter at map scale. This means that the 

75- to 80-meter pixels of the Landsat 

multispectral scanner are suitable for 

l:250,000-scale image mapping. The 

30-meter pixels of the Thematic Mapper 

are suitable for 1:100,000 scale, and 

15-meter pixels are needed for 1:50,000 

scale.

ORBITAL MAPPING SYSTEM

During the past several years, a 

space system for mapping the Earth's 

surface topography has been defined. 

This system, called Mapsat, was 

patented in 1982. During 1983 and 1984, 

the International Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing activated a 

committee to define an optimum system 

for mapping from space and requested 

Geological Survey personnel to organize 

and chair the committee. The committee's report, Acquisition and Processing 

of Space Data for Mapping Purposes, 

was submitted to the International 

Society for Photogrammetry and Remote 

Sensing during their XV Congress in Rio 

de Janeiro, Brazil, in June 1984. The 

report was accepted and is being 

forwarded to the various space agencies 

and the 73 national societies that make 

up the international society.

57
Geologic Investigations

MISSION AND OUTLOOK

During fiscal year 1984, the Geologic 

Division continued its programs to 

assess energy and mineral resources 

onshore and offshore, to identify and 

investigate geologic hazards, and to 

determine the Nation's geologic framework, the geologic processes that have 

shaped it, and their relation to long-term 

climatic changes.

The articles in this chapter of the 

Yearbook describe some of the most 

significant accomplishments of the 

Geologic Division during fiscal year 

1984. We believe that these articles, 

while representing only a select few of 

the activities of the Division, show how 

basic geologic research simultaneously 

provides the opportunity for new developments in the geosciences and provides 

the basic information needed to conduct 

missions that are central to the national 

welfare.

MAJOR PROGRAMS

The Geologic Division program is 

presented to Congress under five major 

program headings. A discussion of 

accomplishments under these subactivities during this last fiscal year follows.

Geologic Hazards Surveys

As a result of earthquake prediction 

research of the U.S. Geological Survey, 

the location and the magnitude of the 

1984 Morgan Hill, California, earthquake were anticipated successfully. In 

1980, the Geological Survey had forecast that an earthquake comparable to 

the 1979 Coyote Lake, California, earthquake (magnitude 5.9) might occur on 

the Calaveras fault in the area near 

Morgan Hill. Geological Survey studies 

had suggested that complexities [bends 

and offsets) in the trace of the 

Calaveras fault control where earthquakes start and that these barriers, 

when broken, produce large shocks.

The Geological Survey and the Utah 

Geological and Mineral Survey are 

conducting a joint Federal-State

earthquake hazards assessment of the 

Salt Lake City-Wasatch Front corridor. 

The 3-year study began in fiscal year 

1984 and will establish the earthquake 

potential of the Wasatch fault zone, 

which is inhabited by 85 percent of 

Utah's population.

Landslides again were triggered by 

rapid melting of record mountain 

snowpacks in April and May 1984 and 

caused widespread damage in Utah 

along the Wasatch Front and on the 

Wasatch Plateau. Geological Survey 

landslide specialists assisted the Utah 

Geological and Mineral Survey during 

the emergencies in the search for and 

the identification of landslides that 

posed an immediate threat to public 

safety.

Short-term warning and monitoring of 

each of the numerous phases (24 as of 

September 1984) of the long-lived 

eruption of Kilauea Volcano in Hawaii 

that began in January 1983 continued in 

fiscal year 1984 under the Volcano 

Hazards Program. The March 25 to 

April 15, 1984, eruption of Mauna Loa 

volcano in Hawaii was forecast 

successfully in late 1983 by the 

Geological Survey. The forecast was 

based on monitoring results that showed 

high seismic activitiy and active 

deformation taking place near the 

summit of Mauna Loa.

A computer-enhanced monitoring 

system for Spirit Lake and other debrisdammed lakes near Mount St. Helens 

was installed in fiscal year 1984. The 

system utilizes satellite and radiotelemetry units for transmitting realtime 

water-level data for immediate warning 

of any failure of the debris dams.

Land-Resource Surveys

During fiscal year 1984, State 

geologic maps for Wyoming and 

Massachusetts were published or 

approved for publication. These maps 

are the syntheses of hundreds of man 

years of research under the Geologic 

Framework Program and join the 

Kentucky State geologic map as 

indispensable tools for mineral- and

58
energy-resource studies, regional 

tectonic syntheses, and as "state-of-theart" models for other State map 

compilations.

Research on the "accreted terrane" 

theory resulted in the completion of 

maps showing the lithotectonic terranes 

(microcontinents) of western North 

America including map explanations 

and descriptive pamphlets. This study 

incorporated geologic mapping, 

paleontologic, paleomagnetic, and 

isotopic research to treat the areal 

extent, characterization, and interrelation of more than 200 terranes that 

were accreted to western North 

America during the past 250 million 

years. As an example, studies of certain 

fossil groups found in rocks from one of 

these terranes suggest that it was 

probably once attached to what is now 

Eurasia or Indonesia. Measurement of 

the magnetic properties of rocks in 

many of the terranes have enabled 

geologists to calculate the latitude and 

longitude at which the rock formed; in 

many cases, the calculated location is 

thousands of miles from where the 

terrane currently is located. Preparation 

of these maps resulted from international collaboration of Geological 

Survey personnel with scientists from 

Mexico and Canada.

Continued stratigraphic studies of 

deep sea cores, cores from lakes, and 

terrestrial outcrops under the Climate 

Program are building a more complete 

understanding of climatic events. 

Identification of diverse paleoclimates 

that existed over the last 1 or 2 million 

years is being aided by comparing dated 

volcanic ash layers from onshore sites 

with those collected from deep-sea 

cores. This information, combined with 

oxygen-isotope analyses of microfossils 

found in the marine deposits, has been 

used to determine temperatures and 

climatic conditions through the time 

periods dated by the ashes. Of 

particular importance are several 

widespread, well-dated ash beds found 

in a 990-foot core at Tulelake in 

northeastern California. These ashes 

were formed by volcanic eruptions in 

the Cascade Range of the Northwestern 

United States, the Yellowstone area of 

western Wyoming, and the Sonoma 

volcanic field in the central Coast Range

of California. Several of the ash layers 

have been found in marine deposits 

west of Tulelake and in deep-sea cores.

Mineral-Resource Surveys

Emphasis on the location of additional 

domestic strategic and critical mineral 

deposits, including the development of 

exploration and assessment techniques, 

continued to have a high priority in 

fiscal year 1984. Such investigations led 

to the recognition of a close association 

between concordant tourmaline-rich 

rocks (tourmalinites) and stratabound 

deposits of base metals, gold, tungsten, 

cobalt, and tin. This association 

demonstrates that tourmaline can be 

used as a pathfinder for these deposits.

A multidisciplinary study was 

initiated to assess the mineral potential 

of the Mesozoic basins in the Eastern 

United States and the buried crystalline 

basement of the midcontinent. Geologic 

theory predicts that these two relatively 

unexplored terranes have high potential 

for discoveries of chromium, cobalt, 

platinum, nickel, gold, and other 

strategic and critical minerals.

Estimates of world bauxite resources 

have been updated by the Geological 

Survey, in cooperation with the U.S. 

Bureau of Mines. Bauxite is the primary 

ore mineral of aluminum. World bauxite 

reserves are estimated to be 21 billion 

tons. Total world bauxite resources 

(reserves plus subeconomic and undiscovered resources) are estimated to be 

55 to 75 billion tons, an increase of 5 to 

25 billion tons over the previous 

estimate of a maximum of 50 billion 

tons.

Preliminary results of mineralresource assessments under the 

Conterminous United States Mineral 

Assessment Program (CUSMAP) in the 

Sherbrooke-Lewiston area of Vermont, 

New Hampshire, and Maine were presented at a public meeting in September 

1984. New CUSMAP regional mineral 

resource assessments were initiated in 

the Joplin area, Missouri-Kansas, the 

Harrison area, Arkansas-Missouri, the 

Roseau-International Falls area, 

Minnesota, and the Redding area, 

California.

Mineral-resource assessments of 

twenty-nine 1- x 2-degree quadrangles

59
(an area ranging from 4,580 to 8,669 

square miles) in Alaska have been 

completed to date. Projected plans for 

the Alaska Mineral Resource Assessment Program (AMRAP) are to complete a 

total of 100 quadrangles by the year 

2000. Major mineral deposit discoveries 

that have been made under AMRAP 

include copper, zinc, tin, tungsten, lead, 

silver, and other base metals.

During fiscal year 1984, continuing 

mineral resource assessments of roadless areas of the U.S. Forest Service 

revealed a moderate potential for 

volcanogenic massive sulfide, and 

possibly gold, deposits. This discovery 

was made in the Bread Loaf Roadless 

Area in the Green Mountains of 

Vermont, a region without previously 

known mineral occurrences.

Energy Geologic Surveys

An exploration technique for the 

discovery of very young uranium-rich 

peat deposits has been developed and 

tested in Stevens County, Washington, 

where uranium in peat is being mined 

for the first time in the United States. 

The technique involves the preparation 

of maps showing suitability for the 

occurrence of uranium. These are made 

by synthesizing selected data from 

bedrock, structural, and surficial 

geology combined with data from soil 

and vegetation types and with hydrological data.

During fiscal year 1984, the Department of Energy and the Geological 

Survey successfully accomplished the 

transfer to the Survey of the data that 

were collected, and the analyses that 

were conducted, under the Department 

of Energy's National Uranium Resource 

Evaluation (NURE) Program. The Survey 

also concluded an agreement with the 

Energy Information Agency to provide 

up-to-date estimates of the Nation's 

uranium resources based on research 

investigations, such as the discovery of

the uranium potential in the peat 

deposits in Stevens County, Washington. 

The Survey has integrated the NURE 

information into its ongoing programs to 

make earth science data available to the 

public.

Program planning and methodology 

development for compiling energyresource maps for all federally owned 

land were initiated in fiscal year 1984 

to supplement the oil and gas potential 

maps for wilderness lands in 11 

Western States that were published 

earlier.

The Coal Investigations Program 

continues to place a high priority on 

coal-quality research and on making the 

National Coal Resources Data System 

(NCRDS) more accessible and responsive 

to the needs of Federal, State, and local 

land managers. A series of presentations to demonstrate the type of graphs, 

maps, and coal-quality data available 

through NCRDS is being planned for 

fiscal year 1985. Additional information 

on the coal-quality research of the 

Geological Survey is found elsewhere in 

this chapter.

Offshore Geologic Surveys

Initial studies in support of the 

President's proclamation of the 

"Exclusive Economic Zone" (EEZ) were 

underway in fiscal year 1984, including 

the completion of "Operation Deep 

Sweep," a cruise that included surveys 

"from pole to pole." Additional 

information on this cruise is found 

elsewhere in this chapter. A detailed 

plan for preliminary sonar image and 

multichannel geophysical surveys and 

bottom sampling of the entire 6 million 

square miles of the frontier EEZ within a 

10-year period are being developed. This 

research will provide the "road maps" 

for the development of the vast energy 

and strategic and critical mineral 

resources of the EEZ, which is truly 

America's last frontier.

60
Research in Earthquake Prediction 

The Parkfield Prediction Experiment

Location of (1) the "preparation 

zone," (2) the epicenter of the 

1966 Parkfield earthquake, (3) 

the rupture zone, and (4) the 

location of some of the monitoring devices along the San 

Andreas fault (a number of 

other experimental monitoring 

devices also are being maintained in the Park/ieJd area).

The 15-mile-long Parkfield, California, 

section of the San Andreas fault is the 

best understood earthquake source 

region in the world. Moderate-sized 

earthquakes of local magnitude (ML) 5 3/4 

occurred at Parkfield in 1881, 1901, 

1922, 1934, and 1966. The only 

exception to an approximate 21- to 

22-year recurrence time is the 1934 

shock. The 44 years between 1922 and 

1966 is just twice the usual time 

between the shocks. Thus, the Parkfield 

earthquake in 1966 reestablished the 

regular timing pattern of the Parkfield 

earthquakes. If the next Parkfield 

earthquake conforms to the pattern, it

will occur in the next few years, most 

likely in 1987 or 1988.

In addition to the predictable 22 

years between shocks, Parkfield 

earthquakes share remarkably similar, 

or characteristic, features. These 

similar features magnitude, length, 

location of rupture along the San 

Andreas fault (rupture zone), and 

epicenter define the characteristic 

Parkfield earthquake. The concept of a 

characteristic earthquake with predictable features means that the design of 

an earthquake-prediction experiment 

can be tailored to these specific 

characteristic features. Because the

PREPARATION ZONE

EXPLANATION

 TWO-COLOR LASER STATION 

A SEISMOMETER 

" CREEPMETER 

O DILATOMETER

61
expected recurrence of the next 

Parkfield earthquake is near and the 

historic Parkfield earthquakes have 

been so similar, Parkfield provides a 

unique opportunity to prepare an 

experiment to observe the final stages of 

the process leading up to the 

earthquake.

The observations and accounts 

available for the last characteristic 

Parkfield earthquake, on June 28, 1966, 

serve as a template for anticipating the 

features of the next Parkfield earthquake. In the 6 months before June 28, 

all earthquakes near Parkfield occurred 

on the San Andreas fault northwest of 

the rupture zone. The foreshocks, 

smaller earthquakes occurring near the 

rupture zone shortly before the main 

shock, occurred within a mile or so of 

the main shock epicenter, which was 

located at the northwest end of the 

rupture zone; this area has been named 

the "preparation zone." A similar 

foreshock and characteristic earthquake 

pattern occurred in 1934 within this 

preparation zone. Although many small 

earthquakes occur on the San Andreas 

fault northwest of the rupture zone, 

earthquakes within the critical 

preparation zone are infrequent. The 

U.S. Geological Survey has established a 

very dense network of seismograph 

stations near Parkfield to monitor the 

seismicity within and near the 

preparation zone; any increase in

seismic activity will be scrutinized 

closely.

Some geologists think that earthquakes are preceded by fault creep 

(movement on a fault without detectable 

earthquakes). An irrigation pipeline that 

crosses the San Andreas fault near 

Parkfield broke without detectable 

earthquakes about 9 hours before the 

1966 earthquake. Unfortunately, the 

history of the movement that resulted in 

the broken pipe is unknown; although 

geologists infer 1 to 2 feet of 

displacement from the broken pipe, 

perhaps only a very small part of the 

displacement occurred in the days and 

weeks just before the 1966 earthquake. 

Also, fresh cracks of uncertain origin 

were observed along the San Andreas 

fault 12 days before the 1966 earthquake. The broken pipeline and the 

fresh cracks are consistent with fault 

creep near Parkfield just before the 

characteristic earthquake in 1966.

If significant and unusual fault creep 

precedes the next characteristic 

Parkfield earthquake, the sophisticated, 

sensitive devices deployed near 

Parkfield should record it. Surface fault 

movement is monitored continuously by 

several creepmeters, 30-foot-long 

devices that cross the fault trace. Also, 

approximately 2- to 5-mile-long lines of 

sight which cross the fault will be 

measured each night on a two-color 

laser distance-measuring geodimeter

62
that can resolve changes of less than 

one-half of an inch over a distance of 6 

miles. Volumetric strainmeters, balloonlike instruments installed in boreholes, 

will measure minute changes in strain. 

The two-color laser geodimeter and the 

borehole strainmeter observations 

should corroborate changes in seismicity 

and fault creep. On a more fundamental 

basis, they will define the deformation 

process leading up to the next 

characteristic Parkfield earthquake.

The Parkfield, California, earthquake 

prediction experiment is an important 

element of the Geological Survey's

earthquake prediction strategy for the 

United States. The Parkfield experiment 

is providing important experience in the 

design and operation of strainmonitoring instruments that ultimately 

may be adapted for use in a prototype 

earthquake-prediction network. An 

understanding of the earthquake 

process at Parkfield may yield data 

fundamental to the successful design of 

earthquake prediction strategies for 

southern California and other 

earthquake-prone areas of the United 

States.

MAGNITUDE

Earthquake magnitude is a measure of the 

strength of an earthquake, or the strain 

energy released by it, as calculated from the 

instrumental record made by the event on a 

calibrated seismograph. In 1935, seismologist 

Charles F. Richter first defined local 

magnitude (ML), or Richter magnitude, as 

the logarithm (to the base 10) of the 

amplitude in micrometers of the

maximum amplitude of seismic waves 

that would be observed on a standard 

torsion seismograph at a distance of 

about 60 miles from the epicenter. The 

seismic waves used for local magnitude 

have periods ranging from approximately 0.1 to 2 seconds, equivalent to a 

wavelength of 1,000 feet to 3.8 miles.

63
The 1984 Eruption of Mauna Loa Volcano

Veniaminof Volcano in 

eruption, January 1984. 

The Java flow down the 

volcano's south flank has 

melted a large pit in the 

surrounding glacier ice. 

(U.S. Geological Survey 

photograph by T. P. Miller.)

March 30, 1984, was an historic day 

for the United States and a busy one for 

the U.S. Geological Survey four volcanoes were in simultaneous eruption in 

the United States! About 50 volcanoes 

are active in the United States (those 

known to have erupted in historic times), 

but, until this date, no more than two of 

them had been known to erupt on the 

same day.

The circumstances leading up to this 

historic day began in June 1983, when 

Veniaminov Volcano, on the Alaskan 

Peninsula, began a series of eruptions, 

which continued at a low level into 

spring 1984. Then, on March 25, Mauna 

Loa Volcano, on the island of Hawaii, 

began a long-expected major eruption. 

This was followed on March 29 by the 

beginning of another eruptive phase at 

Washington State's Mount St. Helens 

Volcano, which has been active 

intermittently since March 1980. The 

final actor in this volcanic drama burst 

into action early on the morning of

March 30 as Kilauea Volcano, also on 

the island of Hawaii and frequently 

active since January 1983, began a 

short episode of high fountaining.

So, on this date, U.S. Geological 

Survey field crews were at work at 

three volcanoes in the tropical rain 

forest of Kilauea, high above the 

timberline on Mauna Loa, and within 

the snow-covered crater of Mount St. 

Helens. Poor weather on that day 

prevented access to the remote, largely 

ice-covered Veniaminov, although 

villagers 20 miles away reported that a 

steam cloud rose to 7,500 feet above the 

volcano.

The largest of these four eruptions, 

and the one of greatest concern to 

public safety, was that of Mauna Loa, 

the largest volcano on Earth. The 

eruption, which began suddenly at 

1:30 a.m. on March 25, climaxed 10 

years of increasing seismicity and 

accompanying inflation of the volcano. 

This long period of premonitory activity

64
Mauna Loa's "curtain of fire" 

advances in en echelon 

steps down the upper northeast rift zone early on the 

morning of March 25. (U.S. 

Geological Survey photograph by /. D. Griggs.)

Mount St. Helens Volcano in 

eruption, March 29, 1984. 

The fresh avalanche from 

the central dome, which 

overlies the snow/ield, fell 

that morning and hearalded 

the beginning of this eruption. (U.S. Geological Survey 

photograph by Lyn 

Topinlca.j

65
had allowed detailed monitoring by 

Geological Survey scientists from the 

Hawaiian Volcano Observatory (HVO), 

who were concerned by the threat 

posed to the city of Hilo, located at 

Mauna Loa's base. Forecasts of an 

impending eruption were published in 

1983, stating that an eruption was likely 

within "the next one or two years."

The eruption began within Mauna 

Loa's summit crater (Mokuaweoweo), at 

the 13,000-foot elevation but eruptive 

fissures quickly migrated out of the 

crater as a subterranean dike was 

injected down the northeast rift zone. 

Where this dike reached the surface, 

lava fountains (Mauna Loa's celebrated 

"curtains of fire") extended eastward

Kilauea Volcano in eruption, 

March 30, 1984. The Java 

fountains within the spatter 

cone (Pu'u O) are about 300 

feet high. (U.S. Geological 

Survey photograph by E. W. 

WoJfe.J

Hawaiian Volcano

Observatory geologists at 

lava fountains on Mauna 

Loa. Helicopters provided 

access to remote areas of 

the eruption and were 

essential for safety. (U.S. 

Geological Survey photograph by R. B. Moore.)

66
along en echelon fractures. As new 

fountains opened downrift, ones higher 

upslope shut down.

By nightfall, the principal eruptive 

vents were located near the 9,400-foot 

elevation, over 12 miles from the initial 

summit outbreak, in a mile-long zone 

that was to feed lava flows to the east 

for the next 3 weeks. These vents 

erupted at very high rates (producing 

over 1 million cubic yards of frothy lava

per hour!), and lava flows moved 

downslope very quickly. Vital high 

voltage powerlines were cut early on 

March 26, and a large prison complex 

was threatened on that first day, but 

those flows slowed dramatically 

because most of the erupted lava fed a 

narrow flow that moved rapidly to the 

northeast. This flow moved 9 miles in 

the first 24 hours and, by March 29, 

had travelled over 15 miles to the

Aerial view of Java rivers 

below the 9,400-foot vents. 

Lava stream filling channel 

on March 26. U.S. Geological Survey scientists in the 

lower left corner give scale. 

(U.S. Geological Survey 

photograph by J. D. Griggs.j

Night view of lava flow

advancing on Hilo, showing 

the city lights in the foreground and the flow in the 

background, March 27. The 

flow is actually about 10 

miles from the outskirts of 

Hilo at this time. (Photograph by R. M. Sasaki.j

67
3,000-foot elevation, destroying several 

square miles of native rain forest and 

moving to within 5 miles of the nearest 

homes on the outskirts of Hilo. Public 

concern mounted within that city, and 

HVO scientists continued to maintain 

round-the-clock surveillance.

Temperatures of the molten lava were 

measured repeatedly during the 

eruption because temperature changes 

would indicate changes in lava 

composition and fluidity, which could 

cause significant changes in the style 

and potential hazard of the eruption. 

Lava temperatures remained fairly 

constant during the eruption, around 

2,080 degrees Fahrenheit, which is 

relatively "cool" for Hawaiian lavas.

On March 29, a levee of the principal 

flow channel collapsed at the 5,700-foot 

elevation, 8 miles upslope from the flow 

front that was threatening Hilo. Lava 

was diverted northward at this point to 

form a second flow parallel to the first, 

and most of the supply to the initial lava 

flow was cut off. This second flow also 

moved rapidly downslope at first but 

began to slow and did not overtake the 

first flow until April 4. A second 

channel collapse and diversion occurred 

at 6,800 feet on April 5, and a third 

flow headed rapidly downslope north of 

the others.

This flow moved only a short distance, however, as the rate of lava 

extrusion at the 9,400-foot vents began 

to decrease slightly, the lava feeding the 

flows appeared to become steadily more 

viscous, and numerous channel blockages and levee collapses occurred 

further and further upslope. This completely cut off lava being supplied to the 

lower flow fronts, easing the threat to 

Hilo. By April 14 no active lava flows 

extended more than a mile from the 

9,400-foot vents, and the eruption ended 

on April 15.

About 250 million cubic yards of lava 

were erupted by Mauna Loa during this 

eruption, which buried about 12 square 

miles of the volcano's surface. This was 

the first eruption of Mauna Loa for 

which detailed monitoring was possible, 

and much more has been learned during 

this eruption than in all previous 

historic eruptions combined. Geological 

Survey crews spent the remainder of 

1984 compiling eruption data and 

making detailed field observations of 

what had actually transpired as well as 

continuing studies of ongoing Kilauea 

activity. This information will be used to 

refine our understanding of Mauna Loa 

and to provide more acurate eruption 

predictions in the future at this and at 

similar volcanoes.

Geologists measuring lava 

temperatures alongside a 

]ava river. The intense heat 

(over 2,000 degrees Fahrenheit) requires use of heat 

shields and protective 

clothing. (U.S. Geological 

Survey photograph by T. A. 

Duggan.J

68
---v 

»( Northeast 

i Rift Zone

1984 Eruptive vert

Mokuoweoweo 

13,000-

' HawaiiaV^V, March 30 A 

Volcano IX Eruption '""'* 

Observatory

1984 Eruptive vert 

*l 1984 Lava flow

STATUS OF U.S. VOLCANOES, AS OF DECEMBER 19,1984

Mauna Loa volcano has been in repose 

since its March-April 1984 eruption. 

Currently, no significant changes have 

occurred in summit tilt or seismicity.

Veniaminov erupted as an ashcloud on 

November 29, 1984, interrupting a 

7-month period of relative quiescence.

The most recent dome-building eruption at 

Mount St. Helens occurred between

September 9 and 11, 1984, adding a 

new lobe to the crater dome. As lava 

was intruded into the dome, it caused 

remarkably rapid dome deformation. 

Phase 28 of Kilauea's east-rift eruption 

took place from December 3 to 4, 1984. 

Harmonic tremor remains at high background levels, suggesting that a 29th 

phase is likely.

Map showing eruptive vents, 

Java flow distribution, and 

relation to Hi]o.

69
Sulphur Lava Lakes on Jupiter's Moon lo

Figure 1. Voyager 1 full 

hemisphere color image of 

lo, the voJcanically active 

moon of Jupiter; arrow 

indicates the iocation of the 

Loki Patera volcanic vent 

feature shown in figure 3.

lo is a strange and facinating world. 

Tidal heating caused by the gravitational pulls of Jupiter and the other 

large Jovian moons result in ID'S having 

the greatest volcanic activity and heat 

flow that is known in the solar system 

today (fig. 1). The average heat flow 

from its surface is about 19 times 

greater than that of the Earth and 50 

times greater than that of the Moon. 

How is this tremendous amount of 

energy carried from within the moon to 

the surface of lo? Research by scientists 

from the U.S. Geological Survey and the 

Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, 

California, supported by funding from 

the National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration (NASA), leads them to 

believe that the heat is transferred 

primarily through lava lakes composed 

of liquid sulfur. The studies by these 

scientists are based on a continuing 

analysis of the data returned by the

Voyager spacecraft and on new data 

gathered at NASA'S Infrared Telescope 

Facility atop Mauna Kea Volcano in 

Hawaii.

Seven hot spots on lo were located by 

the infrared spectrometer on the 

Voyager 1 spacecraft, and all correspond to relatively dark features on the 

moon's surface, much darker than the 

average reflectivity of the surface as a 

whole. These dark features make up 

only about one-tenth of 1 percent of the 

total surface area of lo, but they 

coincide with at least part of the seven 

hot spots seen by the Voyager infrared 

spectrometer. Earth-based observations 

from the Infrared Telescope Facility 

have enabled scientists to map the heat 

from the hot spots as lo rotates, so that 

the heat measured when the moon is in 

a certain position can be compared with 

the amount of dark areas showing at 

that same position (fig. 2). The
comparison shows that at any given 

position during rotation, the heat is 

greatest when the proportion of viable 

dark areas is greatest (fig. 2). If these 

dark features are assigned temperatures ranging from 242 degrees to 350 

degrees Fahrenheit (appropriate for 

liquid sulfur), then the calculated heat is 

consistent with the Earth-based measurements. Furthermore, the albedos 

(relative ability to reflect light) and 

colors of the dark features match the 

reflectance spectra of liquid sulfur (fig. 

3). Where high-resolution images are 

available, many of these dark features 

have characteristics suggestive of lava 

lakes, such as islands, floating debris, 

and chilled crusts (fig. 4). The most

energetic of these dark features has 

been named Loki Patera. These probable lava lakes may be efficient 

convecting systems for the transfer of 

tidally generated heat to the surface, 

where the energy is radiated into space.

The stage is now set for an exciting 

scientific mission when NASA's Galileo 

orbiter spacecraft arrives at Jupiter in 

1989. After delivering a probe into the 

Jovian atmosphere, the spacecraft will 

spend several years in orbital tour of 

the Jovian system. The Galileo Solid 

State Imaging Experiment, involving 

several Geological Survey scientists, will 

record changes in ID'S appearance since 

Voyager and may even produce movies 

of active eruptions. Also on board will

0.25

lO'S GLOBAL HEAT FLOW

 INFRARED TELESCOPE FACILITY 

OBSERVATIONS

0.20

Q in

DC

D

0.15

LJJ I 

gO.10

<

cc

LLJ

0.05

DC

QO 

°1

UJ^

I I

360 270 180 90

ROTATION POSITION, IN DEGREES W. LONGITUDE

Figure 2. Ground-based 

measurements of lo's heat 

flux made as the moon 

rotates (top) coincide with 

the concentration of dark 

features exposed at the 

same rotation position 

(bottom). Note the similar 

form of the two graphs; 

where the highest heat 

value is measured, the 

greatest percentage of dark 

areas is showing.

71
0.5

0.4

u

z

H0.3

<0.2 

u

UJ 

QC/)

0.1

I I 

 CALCULATED REFLECTANCE FOR 

350 DEGREES FAHRENHEIT MOLTEN 

SULFUR IN DARK PATCH IN LOKI PATERA

REFLECTANCE MEASURED 

FOR TYPICAL DARK 

CALDERA FLOORS

MEASURED REFLECTANCE 

OF LIQUID SULFUR AT 

242 DEGREES AND 350 

DEGREES FAHRENHEIT 240° -

FAHRENHEIT

O.O 1 

0.3 0.4 0.5

WAVELENGTH (UM)

0.6

Figure 3. The spectra) 

reflectance of liquid sulfur 

closely matches that of 

many of the dark features 

on lo. The filled circles are 

values for the dark patch in 

the lower left of Loki Patera 

(fig. 4).

be a new class of instrument, the 

Galileo Near Infrared Mapping Spectrometer (NIMS). A Geological Survey 

team was instrumental in the conception, development, production, and 

testing of this new instrument. These 

scientists also will participate in

analyzing the images or maps of Jupiter 

and its satellites that will be produced 

by the instrument. NIMS will provide a 

wide range of new diagnostic compositional and thermal data that will help 

answer more of ID'S mysteries.

Figure 4. This feature, named 

Loki Patera, was the most 

energetic hot spot detected 

by Voyager 1. When this 

image was acquired, volcanic plumes driven by 

sulfur dioxide gas were 

erupting from both ends of 

the narrow linear fissure 

(curved arrows). Note the 

large chilled crust islands 

and floating debris within 

the 102-mile-diameter black 

lake of suspected molten 

sulfur (straight arrow].

72
Microbiology A New Approach in Mineral Exploration

Figure 1. Percent of Bacillus 

species (pastuerized 

isolates] resistant to the 

seven lowest test concentrations of penicillin. A significant increase in percent 

penicillin-resistant Bacillus 

species coincides with the 

barren metalliferous soil 

over the porphyry copper 

deposit.

U.S. Geological Survey researchers 

are investigating the use of a simple 

microbiological test as an aid in mineral 

exploration. Preliminary studies have 

shown that the dormant spores of a 

common species of soil bacteria, Bacillus 

cereus, are present in elevated numbers 

in soils over several types of mineral 

deposits, including vein-type and disseminated gold deposits, tested so far.

During the last decade, environmental 

studies indicated that different heavy 

metals somehow create a selective 

pressure for various antibiotic resistances in bacteria living in metal-polluted 

sediments. In other words, bacteria 

resistant to metals and antibiotics may 

be indicative of metal-containing 

environments. However, studies of 

bacterial antibiotic resistance had never 

been conducted in naturally metalliferous soils associated with ore deposits.

When Geological Survey researchers 

tested the penicillin resistance of a 

normally penicillin-sensitive group of 

bacteria (the aerobic, spore-forming 

genus Bacillus) in soils near a porphyry 

copper deposit, they found a much 

larger percentage of the bacteria of this 

genus resistant to penicillin in the metalrich soils directly over the deposit than 

in more normal soils adjacent to the 

deposit (fig. 1). Significant correlations 

were found between the detailed distribution pattern of many different heavy 

metals in these soils and the pattern of 

penicillin resistance in Bacillus species.

Further investigation showed that the 

numbers of one particular organism, 

Bacillus cereus, the most penicillinresistant member of the genus, statistically explained the penicillin-resistance 

data. In fact, the distribution of this 

species correlated better with the distribution of heavy metals than did the 

penicillin-resistance pattern. The more 

laborious penicillin-resistance test, 

therefore, was dropped and replaced by 

a rapid assay method for Bacillus 

cereus. Tests now underway are 

providing some clues as to why this 

species colonizes soils over certain ore 

deposits.

In soils at a current "test" deposit, a 

weathering, 50-million-year-old copper 

deposit, the most representative type of 

microfungus is a Peniciliium mold that 

produces penicillin and other antibiotics. This variety of mold has long been 

recognized as a problem in metalelectroplating vats and in laboratory 

jars of Fehling's solution (17 percent 

copper sulfate). These molds, which are 

among the most metal-tolerant organisms on Earth, may owe this special 

trait in part to the extraordinary metalbinding properties of penicillamine, a 

principal breakdown product of penicilPoorman Creek soil: 

Percentage of 68-degree, 

12-minute isolates resistant 

to seven concentrations of 

penicillin

COPPER PORPHYRY ZONE

10

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26

Soil sites at 10-foot intervals

73
lin. Other fungal antibiotics, such as 

kojic acid, also form strong complexes 

with heavy metals. The ore deposit 

apparently provides conditions in which 

microorganisms that produce strong 

metal-binding agents, such as penicillin, 

have an advantage over other 

microorganisms.

Pure strains of Bacillus cereus were 

isolated from soils over and adjacent to 

the test deposit. These pure strains then 

were tested for their resistance to 32 

different antibiotics and the salts of 21 

metals. A pattern of elevated multipleantibiotic resistance in these isolates 

coincided well with the area over the 

ore deposit. Surprisingly, the metalresistance pattern showed a much 

poorer correlation with the deposit than 

the antibiotic-resistance pattern. 

Apparently, multiple antibiotic resistance is a far more important survival 

characteristic for Bacillus cereus in 

polymetallic soils than is metal resistance. In addition, the isolates from the 

deposit area were significantly more 

resistant to penicillin than isolates from 

adjacent areas, a finding which strongly 

suggests that penicillin is an important 

selective agent for bacteria over the

deposit at the genus and the species 

levels.

These different findings correlated 

very strongly with results of other 

experiments that showed that highly 

penicillin resistant Bacillus cereus 

isolates from the deposit area could 

grow in ultrapure water with no other 

nutrient than bits of colonies of the 

representative penicillin-producing mold. 

Penicillin resistance is apparently a kind 

of "meal ticket" for this bacterium. 

Thus, Bacillus cereus is better suited 

than other Bacillus species to obtain 

nutrients in a polymetallic soil.

After finding that Bacillus cereus 

populations are concentrated over veintype gold deposits, Geological Survey 

scientists are trying to learn if 

distributions of the spores can help 

locate the current number-one mineral 

target large-tonnage, disseminated gold 

deposits. Encouraged by these recent 

results, these scientists have begun 

investigations to determine the details of 

the ecology and the indicator potential 

of this organism in soils overlying a 

wide variety of economic mineral 

deposit types.

74
Research on the Quality of the Nation's Coal

In 1973, the oil embargo emphasized 

to the United States its economic 

vulnerability to supplies of foreign 

energy resources. As a result, the 

Nation has begun to use more of its 

abundant coal resources. This substitution has not been without cost. The 

environmental impact of acid precipitation and toxic metals, the pollution of 

ground water by scrubber sludge, 

reduced boiler efficiency, and excess 

slagging problems caused by the use of 

a fuel other than the one for which 

systems were designed are but a few of 

the penalties to be paid for fuel 

switching. The discussions surrounding 

acid precipitation and other environmental impacts, substitution of western 

coal for eastern coal, boiler efficiency, 

and improved export markets are 

national and international concerns. In 

these discussions, the use of scientific 

knowledge and skills to mitigate or 

improve the situation must be 

addressed. Coal quality is the common 

denominator in all of these problems 

and, thus, is the principal avenue of 

research that will lead to their solution.

The Clean Air Act, enacted in 1970, 

was intended to lower commercial boiler 

sulfur emissions into the atmosphere to 

no more than 1.2 pounds of sulfur 

dioxide per million British thermal units 

from any powerplant built or modified 

after August 17, 1971. Coal capable of 

meeting these requirements without 

flue-gas scrubbers has become known 

as compliance coal. Recent proposals to 

lower the compliance coal requirement 

to 0.6 pound sulfur dioxide per million 

British thermal units do not address 

properly the availability of coal that can 

meet this standard or the economic 

impact it will have on the U.S. coal 

industry. The considerations in the 

compliance coal discussions are How 

much sulfur is there in U.S. coal? How 

much will meet various emission 

standards? What is its variability? Can 

sulfur and other contaminants be 

cleaned from coal? Can high-sulfur coal 

be blended with lower sulfur coal to 

meet various standards? Most available 

data are based on coal that has been or 

is being mined and not on coal to be 

mined. Thus, answers to these questions

are difficult to obtain because little 

reliable data on the sulfur content of 

unmined U.S. coal are available. However, decisions and regulations based on 

these inadequate data continue to be 

made.

The conversion of powerplants from 

eastern to western coal or from oil to 

coal is technically difficult. Most 

powerplants generally are built for a 

particular "design fuel." The plant 

boiler and attendant combustion processes are engineered around the 

physical and chemical properties of the 

"design fuel." Thus, such properties as 

British thermal units, sulfur and ash 

contents, volatile matter, and the 

content of many of the inorganic 

elements in the coal are critical 

elements in the plant design. Switching 

from a higher to lower British-thermalunit coal, which contains less sulfur, 

may appear, on the surface, to be an 

ideal solution to meeting the standards 

required by the Clean Air Act; however, 

other coal-quality characteristics for 

which the plant was not designed may 

cause problems. The amounts of such 

elements as silicon, aluminum, iron, 

sodium, potassium, magnesium, and 

calcium and of such minerals as quartz, 

clays, and sulfides in the coal will 

determine some of the chemical reactions in the combustion chamber. Some 

coal-quality problems which are critical 

to the environment are not confined to 

the combustion chamber but are more 

widely distributed. Volatile minor and 

trace elements such as mercury, 

selenium, and arsenic are emitted 

through the stack into the air either as 

gases or absorbed on particulates. 

Many of these elements also may be 

concentrated in the bottom ash or in the 

scrubber sludge and, upon disposal, can 

be released into the environment by 

weathering, leaching, and oxidation 

processes.

The Federal Government owns 

approximately 70 percent of the coal 

west of the Mississippi River, and many 

tracts of Federal coal have been leased 

for mining by the Department of the 

Interior. In the 1950's and 1960's, only 

the heat content and ash values were 

deemed important coal-quality prop75
erties; more recently, toxic trace 

elements and sulfur contents of the coal, 

major and minor constituents of the ash, 

and ash-fusion temperatures and coking 

properties have become critical to the 

marketability and royalties paid for 

Federal coal. In recent years, coal 

quality also has become a critical 

component of the U.S. coal export 

market. Foreign buyers and investors 

are requiring coal-quality certification. 

Their quality requirements are focused 

on the content of sulfur, ash, phosphorus, fluorine, chlorine, mercury, 

arsenic, silicon, aluminum, calcium, 

potassium, sodium, and other elements. 

Reliable data on the chemical constituents have now become essential to 

making wise economic, technologic, and 

environmental decisions. Such data can 

be provided only by characterizing the 

quality of our Nation's coal and by 

developing predictive quality models in 

advance of leasing, development, and 

use of coal. The U.S. Geological Survey 

conducts research in the following coalquality topics to address these 

requirements:

COAL GEOCHEMISTRY

During the last 50 years, tens of 

thousands of U.S. coal samples have 

been analyzed. However, many of these 

analyses are useless because sample 

locations were known inadequately or 

correlated inadequately, samples were 

not collected or prepared properly, or 

samples were not analyzed according to 

standard methods. In addition, many 

analyses are part of the confidential 

records of coal companies and, thus, are 

not available to the public. To correct 

these inadequacies, the Geological 

Survey organized a cooperative collecting and testing program with the geological surveys of the States with coal 

deposits. This effort has resulted in the 

collection and the analysis of more than 

8,000 carefully documented coal 

samples (fig. 1). This coal-quality data 

base contains data for ultimate and 

proximate analyses, coking properties, 

heat content, forms of sulfur, ash-fusion 

temperatures, and more than 50 

inorganic elements for each sample. 

This data base is available and used by

Figure 1. Distribution of coal 

samples collected from U.S. 

coal basins.

USGS COAL QUALITY PROGRAM 

DISTRIBUTION OF SAMPLES

8000 SAMPLES TOTAL

LEGEND

 < 25 SAMPLES

 25 TO 49 SAMPLES

 50 TO 99 SAMPLES 

100 TO 199 SAMPLES

76
many Federal and State agencies, academic groups, and a variety of industry 

and consultant groups. It is the most 

complete, publicly available coal-quality 

data base in the world, and more data 

are being added daily to provide 

detailed regional and basinal coalquality assessments.

COAL MINERALOGY

The mineralogy of U.S. coal is being 

studied to identify and quantify the 

minerals and the mode of occurrence of 

minor and trace elements in the coal. 

These investigations provide data useful 

in the design of coal-cleaning and coalpreparation facilities and contribute to 

understanding and predicting the behavior of various minerals in combustion 

chambers.

COAL PETROLOGY

Coal petrology studies focus on the 

identity, concentration, and distribution 

of inorganic and organic matter. Their 

physical characteristics and the degree 

of coalification of the organic matter 

(rank) determine the properties, 

reactivity, and yield of coal. Changes in 

coal rank, depth of burial, and depositional environment currently are being 

studied, and techniques are being 

developed to describe systematically,

interpret, and predict the occurrence 

and distribution of high-quality coal.

PREDICTIVE COAL-QUALITY MODELS

An important objective of national 

coal-quality studies is the integration of 

basinwide geologic, stratigraphic, and 

sedimentologic data with coal geochemistry, mineralogy, and petrology data to 

develop and test predictive models. 

These models, based in part on investigations of modern peat deposits, will 

lead to a better understanding of the 

origin of high-quality coal and of the 

coalification processes.

Current Geological Survey research 

on coal quality is focused on the 

Appalachian region of the Eastern 

United States and on the Powder River, 

San Juan, Big Horn, Green River, south 

central Utah, and eastern Unita regions 

of the Western United States. These 

studies require the integration of 

geochemical, sedimentologic, tectonic, 

and paleoecologic data with geologic 

framework data on regional and local 

scales. Through the activities described 

above, the coal resources best suited to 

various end uses will be identified and 

quantified, and predictive models will be 

made available to support resource 

information, regulation, and land policy 

decisions.

77
The World Energy Resources Program

Figure 1. Ultimate resources 

of crude oil.

PROGRAM GOALS

The rhetoric of "energy independence" which emerged from the shocks of 

the 1973 oil embargo gradually has been 

replaced by an understanding of the 

complex web of interdependence among 

the world's nations with respect to 

petroleum and other energy resources. 

Consequently, reliable information from 

throughout the world about reserves 

and the probable location and extent of 

undiscovered oil, gas, coal, and uranium 

are indispensable components in 

planning for the Nation's energy 

security. Such understanding allows us 

to distinguish the anomalous and 

temporary fluctuations in world oil 

supply and demand from historically 

and geologically derived trends.

A geological understanding of the 

characteristics of petroleum occurrence 

also offers a base for planning national 

strategies for transition to other forms 

of energy. Development of alternate 

energy sources requires long lead times 

which cannot be supported by marketdetermined forces that limit the focus of 

attention to immediate economic 

viability.

Because of the crucial role of world 

energy-resource assessments in decisionmaking about long-term national

energy strategies and the always controversial nature of such assessments, the 

U.S. Geological Survey program 

concentrates on developing a reliable 

data base that will enable multidirectional analyses of the assessments 

as exploration proceeds.

MAJOR ACHIEVEMENTS

The major achievement of the World 

Energy Resources Program this fiscal 

year has been the completion of a 

report on the distribution and quantitative assessment of world crude oil 

reserves and resources, which was 

presented at the llth World Petroleum 

Congress in London. Important insights 

from this comprehensive report include 

the following:

 Estimates of undiscovered resources,

although large, are, nonetheless, sharply 

reduced relative to some earlier 

assessments because no new, major 

prospective exploration areas have been 

found (fig. 1).

 The geographic distribution of world oil is 

and will remain narrow and highly 

concentrated with respect to producing 

capacity. The Middle East will become 

ever more dominant in world energy 

supply (fig. 2).

 World production of crude oil over the 

past decade has exceeded discoveries

1500 

BARRELS

PRODUCED 

445

RESERVES 

723

DISCOVERED RESOURCES

78
by some 70 billion to 80 billion barrels 

of oil. The deficit derives from reduced 

efficiency in the discovery process not 

less exploration (fig. 3).

These insights suggest that the 

current widespread perception that all 

is well with the world oil supply is

unsupported by data. Petroleum discoveries are decreasing as projected 

demand due to economic recovery is 

rising. The current optimistic concept of 

adequate supply derives from a market 

perspective focused only on the 

marginal excess producing capacity.

H

Hi

500

CO

LU

cc 300

DC

00 

O)

2 100

0

100

Htf

«w

DISCOVERED

PRODUCED

RESERVES

*

5 *< o

lUNDISCOVERED Figure 2. Regional distribution 

of world crude oil.

ANNUAL 

PRODUCTION

MIDDLE EAST

EASTERN 

EUROPE, 

U.S.S.R., 

ASIA OCEANIA

WESTERN EUROPE,

AFRICA, 

WESTERN 

HEMISPHERE

YEARS

Figure 3. World crude oil 

discovery rate averaged 

over 5-year periods.

79
The margin of excess producing 

capacity outside the Persian Gulf (about 

3 million-4 million barrels of oil per 

day) is minimal and could disappear 

with any changes in consumption (currently about 55 million barrels per day) 

derived from economic recovery or 

sudden disruption of supply (7 million-8 

million barrels of oil per day are 

shipped through the Straits of Hormuz). 

Preliminary investigations on the 

distribution and availability of natural 

gas indicate that the picture for world 

gas resources is strikingly similar to 

that for world oil resources in terms of 

British thermal unit equivalent quantities and their distribution. An 

inescapable conclusion is that the world 

remains vulnerable to a renewed and 

sudden energy crisis in terms of availability and deliverability.

FUTURE INVESTIGATIONS

The World Energy Resources Program 

will be suspended in fiscal year 1985. 

However, the Geological Survey will 

retain the capability to provide expert 

advice regarding foreign resources that 

potentially have a bearing on the U.S. 

domestic resource base. Specific

assessment work related to the mission 

responsibilities of other Federal 

agencies will be performed on a reimbursable basis.

CONCLUSION

In decades past, stable price and 

supply of petroleum limited our concern 

to the most obvious geological 

questions Where were the fields likely 

to be found? and How good were they? 

Today, unpredictable prices, political 

upheavals in the world's major oilproducing region, changing economic 

supply-and-demand relations and doubts 

about the long-term availability of 

natural resources require that our 

analyses encompass a more complex 

and varied range of questions. The 

Geological Survey attempts to meet the 

needs of changing times by broadening 

our base of knowledge about the 

distribution and potential future 

availability of energy minerals 

throughout the world. Because so much 

of a nation's economic and social 

welfare is related to a dependable and 

realistically priced energy supply, the 

answers to these questions hold the key 

to a secure and stable future.

80
The Antarctic Leg of "Operation Deep Sweep'

During January and February 1984 

(figs. 1, 2), marine geologists aboard the 

Research Vessel Samuel P. Lee conducted two surveys along the Antarctic 

continental margin south of Australia 

and New Zealand. The purpose of the

Figure 1. The U.S. Geological 

Survey's Research Vessel 

Samuel P. Lee exchanging 

scientific personnel and 

reprovisioning in McMurdo 

Sound, Antarctica.

Figure 2. Map showing the 

regions where the two 

surveys were carried out by 

the U.S. Geological Survey's 

Research Vessel Samuel P. 

Lee during January and 

February 1984 in the waters 

and continental margins 

surrounding Antarctica.

surveys was to define the geologic 

structure and the sedimentary basins of 

the region. The surveys included 

geophysical profiling and seafloor 

sampling to determine the ages and 

physical and geochemical properties of 

the rocks. The Antarctic portion of 

"Operation Deep Sweep" (a year-long, 

pole-to-pole series of surveys to 

investigate seabed oil and gas and 

mineral deposits) was conducted as part 

of the U.S. Antarctic Research Program 

in cooperation with the National Science 

Foundation, the U.S. Coast Guard, and 

the U.S. Navy. In addition to U.S. 

Geological Survey personnel, scientists 

from U.S. universities and from Australia and New Zealand contributed to 

the success of the voyage.

A newly published Geological Survey 

circular describes the types of data 

collected and provides a brief discussion 

of preliminary results based on shipboard analyses of seismic and other 

geophysical data. The report, Marine 

Geological and Geophysical Investigations of the Antarctic Continental 

Margin, 1984, and scientific data 

collected on the Antarctic voyage will 

be made available for exchange under 

the terms of the Antarctic Treaty.

81
Water Resources Investigations

Mission and Organization

The U.S. Geological Survey has the 

major responsibility within the Federal 

Government for assessing the Nation's 

water resources. It collects basic data 

and conducts special investigations to 

provide essential information for 

planners and managers. Increasing 

demands for water from a wide variety 

of users require that planners at 

Federal, State, and local levels establish 

new priorities for use. Sound judgment 

in determining such priorities depends 

on access to accurate hydrologic 

information and impartial expertise.

OFFICE OF WATER DATA 

COORDINATION

A major new responsibility was 

assigned to the Survey in 1964 when it 

was designated the lead agency for 

coordinating water-data acquisition 

activities of all Federal agencies. 

Activities include those that produce 

information on streams, lakes, reservoirs, estuaries, and ground water. This 

coordination effort minimizes duplication of data collection among Federal

agencies and strengthens the data base 

and its accessibility.

PROGRAMS

Water Resources Division programs 

fall into four categories: the Federal 

Program, the Federal-State Cooperative 

Program, Assistance to Other Federal 

Agencies, and the Non-Federal Reimbursable Program.

THE FEDERAL PROGRAM

The data collection, resource 

investigation, and research activities of 

this program are carried out in areas 

where the Federal interest is paramount. These include bodies of water in 

the public domain, river basins and 

aquifers that cross State boundaries, 

and other areas of international or 

interstate concern. Activities include 

operation of surface- and ground-water 

quantity and quality measurement 

stations throughout the country, the 

Divison's Central Laboratories System, 

hydrologic research and analytical 

studies, and a variety of supporting 

services.

Location of principal offices of the 

U.S. GeoIogicaJ Survey's Water 

Resources Division in the 

conterminous United States. 

Cities named are those where 

Regional and District Offices 

are located. Puerto Rico is 

included in the Southeastern 

Region, and Alaska and Hawaii 

are included in the Western 

Region.

*^tfin fi<ne Zone : Central Time Zone. Eastern Time Zone 

NORTHEASTERN REGION

o o o 

HAWAII

 Honolulu

O O

A A A

Alaska-Hawaii 

Time Zone

Regional office

EXPLANATION 

Field office

WRD 

HEADQUARTERS

(*)

SOUTHEASTERN 

REGION

PUERTO RICO 

 San Juan

Atlantic Time 

Zone

T USGS Notional Training Canter

O statewide or L Na1 

Subdiitrict office

82
THE FEDERAL-STATE 

COOPERATIVE PROGRAM

The Cooperative Program is based on 

the concept that Federal, State, and 

local governments have a mutual 

interest in evaluating, planning, developing, and managing the Nation's water 

resources. The immense size of the task 

of appraising the Nation's water 

resources precludes accomplishment by 

Federal efforts only. Similarly, State and 

local agencies working independently 

cannot relate to the sizable regional 

aspects of hydrologic systems. Because 

many water problems begin at the local 

level, the Geological Survey has 

cooperative agreements with all States 

under which each party funds one-half 

of the cost of financing studies of water 

resources. Cooperation through this 

program provides an economical and 

comprehensive system for waterresources assessments.

Most projects under the Cooperative 

Program respond to a recognized 

problem or define a potential one. In 

addition to data collection, programs 

may focus on water use and availability, 

the impact of man's activities on the 

hydrologic environment, and energyrelated water demands that may strain 

available water supplies. In emergency 

situations, such as drought or flood, 

events are extensively monitored, and 

the data accumulated under the 

Cooperative Program prove invaluable.

ASSISTANCE TO OTHER FEDERAL 

AGENCIES

With funds transferred from other 

Federal agencies, the Geological Survey 

performs a wide variety of work related 

to the specific needs of each agency.

NON-FEDERAL REIMBURSABLE 

PROGRAM

Non-Federal reimbursable funds are 

unmatched funds received by the 

Geological Survey from State and local 

agencies in situations where Federal 

and State agencies are interested in 

investigation of water resources but 

where matching Federal funds are 

either unavailable or are not otherwise 

applicable to cost sharing.

Budget and Personnel

At the end of fiscal year 1984, the 

Water Resources Division employed 

3,367 full-time personnel. This number 

included scientists and engineers, who 

represented all fields of hydrology and 

related sciences, technical specialists, 

and administrative, secretarial, and 

clerical employees. An additional 634 

permanent part-time and intermittent 

employees assisted in the work of the 

Division.

The $218.5 million obligated in 1984 

for water resources investigation 

activities came from the following 

sources:

1. Direct Congressional appropriations.

2. Congressional, State, and local

appropriations for 50-50 funding 

in the Federal-State Cooperative 

Program.

3. Funds transferred from other 

Federal agencies.

4. Funds transferred from State and 

local agencies.

Highlights

In the following sections, highlights 

from some of the major programs are 

described.

83
New Merit Proposal Process Sparks the 

Federal-State Cooperative Program

The Federal-State Cooperative 

Program continues to be the largest 

component of the U.S. Geological 

Survey's water-resources activity. This 

Program was carried out in working 

partnership with more than 800 State, 

regional, and local agencies during 

fiscal year 1984. Joint funding in the 

50-50 matching Cooperative Program 

totaled about $100 million and 

comprised almost one-half of the overall 

program of the Water Resources 

Division. Hydrologic data collection and 

interpretive investigations were being 

conducted in every State, Puerto Rico, 

and several United States territories.

Each year, cooperator proposals 

typically exceed Federal funds that are 

available for matching by several 

million dollars. Priorities for data 

collection and hydrologic investigations 

are based on a continuing, detailed 

analysis of water problems and issues. 

This analysis is carried out through 

discussions with State and local 

cooperators, Federal agency officials, 

and the general public. For 1984, the 

principal concerns identified in these 

discussions were ground-water contamination, water supply and demand, 

stream quality, hydrologic hazards, and 

acid precipitation. Most of the Federal 

matching funds are allocated to highest 

priority activities by the Division's four 

Regional Offices after ranking the work 

proposed in their respective geographical areas of responsibility.

The Geological Survey now has a new 

process for funding selected proposals 

for water-resources investigations as 

part of the Federal-State Cooperative 

Program. In brief, part of the Cooperative Program appropriation is identified to undertake investigations chosen 

from a number of proposals on the basis 

of a merit ranking system. The process 

provides for a national level evaluation 

of each proposal based on the potential 

for transferring knowledge to be gained 

to other locations, the originality and 

quality of the scientific approach, and 

the anticipated contribution of the 

investigation to the advancement of 

science and technology. The Federal

support for merit proposals was $1 

million in fiscal year 1983 and a like 

amount in fiscal year 1984; with matching cooperative funds, the total was 

about $2 million each year. In 1983,16 

investigations were selected of the 33 

proposed, and, in 1984,15 of 44 proposals were selected. Plans are to 

identify $1 million of U.S. Geological 

Survey matching funds for investigations 

to be chosen through this process in 

fiscal year 1985.

The new process formalizes existing 

procedures that have been used for the 

past 10 to 15 years to rank candidate 

proposals for the allocation of funds. 

Additional effort is applied, however, to 

ensure that the highest priority work is 

undertaken and that the anticipated 

technical contributions to the science of 

hydrology will be of top quality. Each 

merit proposal is reviewed and evaluated separately by five members of the 

Geological Survey's senior staff. The 

group then consolidates rankings, arbitrates differences, and allocates funds 

to. the investigations in priority order.

Examples of current investigations 

selected through the merit proposal 

process are as follows:

 Hazardous waste, Washington

State. In the State of Washington, 

more than 200 hazardous waste 

sites are located where a high 

probability of leachate impacts 

surface and ground water. The 

State is developing a major program to deal with this problem and 

has asked the Geological Survey for 

technical assistance. The resulting 

investigation consists of the 

following phases: (1) hydrogeologic 

characterization of existing hazardous waste sites, (2) research on 

how the pollutants are moving 

through the hydrologic system and 

on the reaction processes that are 

involved, (3) broad characterization 

of the most and least suitable areas 

within the State for land disposal of 

hazardous waste, and (4) technical 

assistance in the evaluation of the 

hydrogeological aspects of pro84
Water Supply

and Demand

Ground-Water ($385,000)

Contamination

($340,000)

As part of the Cooperative Program, the merit proposal process in fiscal year 1984 focused 

$1 million of Federal matching 

funds on high-priority waterresources issues.

posals and reports being considered by the State.

 Ground water in fractured-limestone 

formations near Brunswick, 

Georgia. The dependence upon 

fractured-rock aquifers to supply 

much of the Nation's ground water 

makes it imperative that methods 

continue to be developed to simulate accurately ground-water movement in these aquifers. The 

primary objectives of this investigation are to evaluate the strengths 

and weaknesses of existing 

mathematical models for simulating 

hydrogeologic flow in a fracturedlimestone aquifer and to develop, if 

necessary, a mathematical model 

capable of simulating flow in a 

fractured-rock aquifer. Results 

from this study will contribute to 

the understanding of the fractured 

and locally faulted limestone 

aquifer in the Brunswick area and 

will have transfer value to

investigations of fractured-rock 

aquifers elsewhere.

 Wastes associated with mining, North 

Dakota. Low grade uranium ore in 

western North Dakota's lignite was 

concentrated by open-pit burning of 

the lignite during the 1950's and 

1960's. Investigations since October 

1983 reveal that base flows in 

streams as far as 4 miles downgradient from the open pit have a 

uranium content in excess of 200 

micrograms per liter, about 10 

times the regional background. 

(Nuclear Regulatory Commission 

regulations allow a maximum 

permissible concentration of 30,000 

picocuries of natural uranium per 

liter for release into water.)

 Precipitation quality, Massachusetts. An investigation of the 

relationships between air-mass 

movement and variations in the 

quality of precipitation has been

85
underway in Massachusetts since 

September 1983. Values of pH in 

precipitation samples range from 

3.7 to 5.4; most are from 4.2 to 4.8. 

The value 5.6 is considered to be 

the dividing line between acid and 

nonacid precipitation. Precipitation 

with a pH of less than 5.6 is called 

"acid rain." Meterological data are 

being obtained from the National 

Weather Service and private 

sources to identify such characteristics as air-mass source, trajectory, storm type, and season. These 

investigations are designed to 

clarify some of the questions 

regarding acid precipitation in the 

Northeastern United States, and

the methods developed in this 

investigation have significant 

transfer value to similar studies in 

other locations.

The new system has produced worthwhile results even though it is highly 

probable that the merit investigations 

could have been funded under traditional procedures. The program development process has been strengthened 

because of the more intensive analysis 

within the Water Resources Division 

during the merit ranking. Incentive has 

been added for the planning and 

development of high-quality proposals, 

and technology transfer has been 

enhanced through closer interaction of 

operational and research programs.

WATER RESOURCES SCIENTIFIC INFORMATION CENTER

Authorized by the Water Resources 

Research Act of 1964, the Water 

Resources Scientific Information Center 

was established in 1967 as a national 

center to increase the availability and 

awareness of water-related scientific 

and technical information. In accomplishing this goal, the Center abstracts 

water-resource publications and makes 

the information available to the waterresources community and the public 

through publications and computerized 

bibliographic information services. The 

Center formerly was located in the 

Office of Water Research and Technology, but, in late 1982, the Secretary of 

the Interior transferred it to the U.S. 

Geological Survey's Water Resources 

Division where it would complement the 

Division's long-standing program of

disseminating water information to the 

public. The Center produces Selected 

Water Resources Abstracts, a monthly 

abstracting and indexing journal now in 

its 17th volume, which covered about 

6,000 abstracts in 1984, with projections 

of 8,000 in 1985. The computerized 

abstracts file contains about 170,000 

abstracts that have appeared in 

Selected Water Resources Abstracts 

since 1968. This file can be searched by 

Federal agencies and their contractors 

by means of the U.S. Department of 

Energy's RECON system and is 

commercially searchable worldwide via 

DIALOG Information Services, Inc. 

Topical bibliographies are produced 

along with the abstracts file such as the 

Abstracting and Indexing Guide and the 

Water Resources Thesaurus.

86
Water-Quality Issues Facing the Nation 

The U.S. Geological Survey's Role

INTRODUCTION

The continued growth and vitality of 

the Nation is linked to the maintenance 

of or improvement in the quality of its 

water resources. Water quality is the 

physical, chemical, and biological 

characteristics of water with regard to 

its suitability for a specified purpose. 

Public awareness of the importance of 

water quality has increased greatly in 

the past two decades. The Congress has 

passed such major pieces of legislation 

as the Clean Water Act, the Safe Drinking Water Act, the Resource Conservation Recovery Act, and the Toxic 

Substances Control Act. State and local 

governments and industry have made 

significant commitments to water-pollution abatement. Through these combined 

efforts, the quality of the Nation's rivers 

and streams has improved significantly 

compared with the quality of 15 years 

ago. This is true even though industrial 

activity and population have increased 

during this period with corresponding 

increases in water use and in the 

volume of wastes discharged. For 

example, 15 years ago, low dissolvedoxygen levels were common in rivers 

and streams because of the discharge of 

large volumes of oxygen-demanding 

wastes. Today, as a result of the 

construction of new waste-treatment 

plants and the upgrading of existing 

plants, this is no longer true. Despite 

progress, several water-quality issues 

still remain. Among them are the 

contamination of surface and ground 

water from nonpoint-source pollution, 

acid precipitation, and the disposal of 

hazardous wastes.

The U.S. Geological Survey's role in 

water-resources management is to provide hydrologic data and understanding 

of hydrologic processes affecting the 

Nation's water resources. The Geological Survey monitors the quality of 

surface and ground water, conducts 

research to increase understanding of 

the processes that affect the quality of 

water, and conducts applied interpretive studies to determine the causes of 

specific observed changes in water

quality and to predict the nature of 

future changes that are likely to occur 

due to changes in land use or uses of 

surface- and ground-water resources. 

The three components monitoring, 

research, and applied interpretative 

studies are highly interactive. For 

example, theories arising from research 

and interpretative studies provide the 

foundation for designing monitoring 

networks and for detecting waterquality trends. Further, today's research 

results may provide increased understanding or new techniques for next 

year's interpretive studies, and monitoring may uncover problems that require 

interpretive investigation or additional 

research.

The following examples of research, 

interpretive investigations, and 

monitoring describe some of the Geological Survey's efforts to provide the 

information needed for addressing the 

water-quality issues facing the Nation.

POTOMAC RIVER ESTUARY STUDY

The Potomac River Estuary Study, 

which began in October 1977, was one 

of seven Geological Survey river-quality 

assessments and the only one to concentrate on estuarine problems. As part of 

the Potomac River Estuary Study, the 

sources and fate of sediments and 

several major nutrients were examined. 

This information is important not only 

for developing water-quality management strategies for the Potomac River 

estuary, it is essential for developing 

management strategies to protect the 

Chesapeake Bay.

Estuaries are potentially the most 

productive as well as the most fragile 

and endangered areas of our Nation's 

coastal environment. Because they are 

the meeting place of saltwater and 

freshwater, estuaries are complex 

hydrodynamic, chemical, and biological 

environments. Sediments accumulate in 

estuaries along with the attached 

nutrients, metals, and trace organic 

compounds. The attached substances 

may become stored permanently or 

temporarily in the bottom sediments

87
Figure 1 . Map of tidal Potomac 

River and Estuary. (Modified 

from fig. 4, U.S. Geological 

Survey Yearbook, Fiscal Year 

1982, p. 75.)

thereby contributing to eutrophication 

and, in the case of metals and organics, 

sometimes accumulating in aquatic life 

forms.

From 1979 to 1981, water-quality data 

were collected twice weekly at six 

stations along the 116-mile tidal reach 

between Chain Bridge near Washington, 

B.C., and the Chesapeake Bay (fig. 1). 

Monthly amounts of sediment and nutrients passing the stations were estimated 

by a computer model and used, together 

with data from sewage-treatment plants, 

tributaries, and nonpoint sources, to 

determine sediment and nutrient 

budgets for the major segments of the 

tidal river and estuary (J. P. Bennett, 

written communication, 1984).

All of the suspended sediment contributed to the Potomac River estuary came 

from nonpoint sources. Of the total 

annual amount of suspended sediment; 

56 percent came from sources upstream 

from Chain Bridge, 43 percent came 

from sources downstream from Chain 

Bridge, and 1 percent came from

upstream-flowing saline water entering 

from the Chesapeake Bay. All of the suspended sediment was trapped in the 

estuary.

Nonpoint sources downstream from 

Chain Bridge contributed 17 percent of 

the nitrogen and 32 percent of the 

phosphorus. Sources upstream from 

Chain Bridge contributed 58 percent of 

the nitrogen and 43 percent of the 

phosphorus. The relative amounts of 

nitrogen and phosphorus contributed by 

point and nonpoint sources upstream 

from Chain Bridge are unknown. The 

balance of the nutrient loads, 25 

percent nitrogen and 25 percent phosphorus, was contributed by point 

sources.

Seventy-five percent of the nitrogen 

and phosphorus contributed to the 

Potomac was trapped in the estuary 

during the study period. Whether these 

materials are stored permanently in the 

estuary or will later be transported to 

the Chesapeake Bay under extreme hydrologic conditions, such as hurricanes, 

is unknown.

' WASHINGTON, D.C. \. 

Chain Bridge

Roosevelt IslandNational Airport

Aquia 

Creek

Potomac Creek

Quantic

 Chicamuxen Creek

nsition Zone MARYLAND

Part Tnbacco River 

Mathias Point 

Morgantown

Lower Cedar Point

Wicomico River

Upper Machodoc 

Creek

VIRGINIA Norn in i Ba_ 

Estuary

15 20 MILES

0 5 10 15 20 KILOMETERS Smith Point «

NATIONAL MONITORING 

NETWORKS USED TO ASSESS 

TRENDS IN RIVER QUALITY

Two nationwide water-quality monitoring networks (fig. 2), the National 

Hydrologic Bench-Mark Network and 

the National Stream Quality Accounting 

Network (NASQAN), are operated by the 

U.S. Geological Survey.

The Bench-Mark Network, which was 

begun in the mid 1960's and consists of 

collection sites in 52 basins, is designed 

to characterize the hydrology and water 

quality of small basins that are in a 

near-natural state. Study of streams 

draining these basins helps to explain 

how much of the variation in water 

quality and quantity occurring in 

streams across the Nation is natural 

and how much is caused by human 

activity.

The NASQAN network, which was 

begun in 1973, provides a basis for 

continuously assessing the quality of 

major rivers with respect to natural and 

man-induced factors. The network currently consists of 501 stations that are 

located in 331 subregional drainage 

basins, collectively encompassing nearly 

the entire Nation.

88
Figure 2. Locations of stations 

in the Bench-Mark and NASQAN 

water-quality monitoring 

systems in operation as of September 30, 1984.

Data routinely collected in the two 

networks include streamflow, concentrations of major inorganic and trace 

constituents (including heavy metals), 

bacterial indicators of pollution, and 

concentrations of several radiochemical 

constituents. A major purpose of both 

the Bench-Mark and NASQAN Networks 

is to detect trends in the concentrations 

of water-quality constituents. The 

problem of separating man-induced 

changes in water quality from the 

natural variability that results from 

seasonal change and differences 

between wet and dry years has complicated the analysis of data from these 

networks. However, Geological Survey 

scientists have recently developed new 

statistical techniques for detecting time 

trends in fixed-station water-quality 

data, and the techniques have proven 

successful for analyses of the constituents measured at the Bench-Mark and 

NASQAN stations. All trend analyses 

described in subsequent sections were 

conducted on water-quality data that 

were adjusted for the effects of flow 

and season.

Acid-Precipitation-Induced 

Trends at Bench-Mark Stations

The United States lacks long-term 

nationwide data on the chemistry of 

precipitation. Without these data, the 

next best possibility for detecting 

historic changes in precipitation 

chemistry is to evaluate trends in the

chemistry of sensitive streams and lakes 

that might be attributable to changes in 

precipitation quality.

Records from the Bench-Mark Network are particularly appropriate for 

investigating atmospheric influences on 

water quality during the last decade 

because consistent sampling and analytical methods have been applied for a 

10- to 15-year period at each network 

station and because the basins have 

been relatively unaffected by changes in 

land use. Many of the Bench-Mark 

Network streams have a low capacity to 

buffer acids, and these are expected to 

be sensitive to small changes in acid 

deposition.

Industrial emissions of sulfur dioxide 

are a major source of acidity in precipitation. Once emitted, the sulfur dioxide 

forms dilute sulfuric acid and is transported in the atmosphere. Thus, one 

expected result of increases in acid precipitation would be increases in the 

sulfate concentrations of streams. In 

contrast, alkalinity is a measure of the 

capability of water to neutralize acid 

and is, itself, reduced by the neutralization process. Hence, acid deposition 

would be expected to decrease alkalinity, especially where the initial concentration of alkalinity is low, as is typical 

in regions devoid of certain rock types, 

such as limestone and marble.

Figures 3 and 4 show the results of 

applying the new statistical techniques 

to detect trends in sulfate and alkalinity 

data collected over the past 10 to 15

89
Figures. Trends in sujfate concentrations and in sulfur 

dioxide emissions at Hydrofogic 

Bench-Mark stations. Arrows 

on the map point upward or 

downward to indicate the trend 

in suJfate concentrations. Dots 

indicate no significant trends 

detected. (Modified from U.S. 

Geological Survey Circular 910, 

1983.)

Figure 4. Trends in alkalinity 

concentrations at Hydrologic 

Bench-Mark stations. Arrows 

on the map point upward or 

downward to indicate the trend 

in alkalinity concentrations. 

Dots indicate no significant 

trends detected. (Modified from 

U.S. Geological Survey Circular 

910, 1983.)

] Increasing Levels 

|~ j Decreasing Levels

90
years at Bench-Mark stations. Figure 3 

also shows the direction of change in 

sulfur dioxide emissions (compiled by 

the U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency) between 1965 and 1980.

Figure 3 shows that sulfate 

concentrations in streams have tended 

to increase during the last 10 to 15 

years over a broad area of the continental United States, extending from the 

Southeast to the Mountain States and 

the Northwest. By contrast, streams in 

the Northeast have tended to show 

slight declines in sulfate concentrations. 

The overall geographical pattern is 

similar to that shown by trends in sulfur 

dioxide emissions to the atmosphere 

during the same period.

Figure 4 shows that downward trends 

in alkalinity, suggesting increases in the 

acidity of precipitation, greatly outnumber upward trends within a broad 

area from the Southeast to the Northwest. In contrast, alkalinity trends at 

the Bench-Mark stations in the Northeast are consistently upward, suggesting 

a decrease in the acidity of precipitation. The geographical distribution of 

trends in sulfate and alkalinity are 

consistent with the reported sulfur 

dioxide emissions. Together, the results 

suggest a decline in the acidity of

precipitation in the Northeastern United 

States and an increase in acidity in 

most other regions during the last 10 to 

15 years. The results also indicate that 

the effects of relatively small changes in 

atmospheric emissions are observable 

as changes in stream quality, a point 

that recently has been the focus of 

considerable national debate.

Trends in Suspended Sediment at 

National Stream Quality 

Accounting Network Stations

Although transport of sediment by 

flowing water is a natural process, 

excessive sediment is harmful to almost 

every beneficial use of water. Sediment 

fills reservoirs, clogs navigation 

channels, and drastically reduces the 

aesthetic and recreational values of 

rivers. Increased sedimentation, by 

raising the elevation of river-channel 

beds, can cause an increase in the 

frequency of floods. In the production of 

potable water, the cost of removing sediments generally exceeds the cost of all 

other treatment. Furthermore, other 

water contaminants, such as excess 

nutrients, toxic metals, and many of the 

pesticides, adhere readily to sediment 

particles and are transported, deJohn D. Powell (left) and 

Ronald R. H. Cohen 

(right) measuring 

dissolved oxygen, 

temperature, pH, and 

conductivity profiles in 

the tidal Potomac River 

from the U.S. Geological 

Survey Research Vessel 

Rockfish. The Wilson 

Bridge is in the 

background. (Photograph 

by Daniel C. Hahl, Water 

Resources Division, U.S. 

Geological Survey.)

91
Figure 5. Trends in suspended 

sediment concentrations at 

National Stream Quality Accounting Network stations, 1975 

to 1981. Arrows on the map 

point upward or downward to 

indicate the trend in suspended 

sediment concentrations. Dots 

indicate no significant trends 

detected.

posited, and stored by suspended 

sediments.

Part of the sediment supplied to rivers 

arises from natural erosion, part from 

alterations to land from logging, 

farming, mining, and construction, and 

part from man-induced acceleration of 

river-channel erosion. Because of its 

importance, an analysis of trends in 

suspended sediment concentration has 

been made at those NASQAN stations 

that have sufficient long-term sediment 

data (R. A. Smith and R. B. Alexander, 

written communication, 1984). Nationwide, 225 such NASQAN stations have 

been established (fig. 5). Of these, the 

numbers of stations showing increasing 

and decreasing trends are nearly equal, 

but the trends at some important regional groupings of stations are predominatly in one direction or the other.

For example, there are a number of 

decreases in suspended-sediment concentrations in the Missouri Basin in 

Montana, North Dakota, and South 

Dakota. The specific stations showing 

decreases are located on the Missouri 

River mainstem as well as on tributaries 

including .the Yellowstone, Knife, 

Cannonball, Grand, Belle Fourche, 

White, and James Rivers. Declining sediment concentrations previously have 

been reported for a number of locations 

in the Missouri Basin and have been 

attributed to the effects of reservoir 

construction throughout the basin 

during the 1950's and 1960's. Reservoirs

act as sediment traps, and the effects of 

a new reservoir on downstream sediment concentrations may be observed 

for an extended period of time as a new 

equilibrium is established between the 

river forces that carry and deposit 

sediment.

Figure 5 shows that increases in 

suspended sediment concentrations have 

occurred in the Columbia Basin, Oregon 

and Washington; the Arkansas and Red 

River basins, Oklahoma; and the Mississippi Basin near the junctions of the 

Missouri and Ohio Rivers with the Mississippi mainstem. In all three cases, 

changes in land use activity appear to 

be the most likely causes of the 

uptrends.

It is likely that the trends detected in 

suspended-sediment concentrations at 

NASQAN stations may be associated with 

specific types of land use. The Geological Survey has compared the number 

and direction of detected trends to soil 

erosion information for three land 

uses cropland, forest land, and range 

and pasture land as compiled in the 

Natural Resources Inventory by the Soil 

Conservation Service. Although the 

ultimate validity of the comparison may 

depend on some still unknown factors, 

such as temporary or longer term storage of sediment, the present results 

show that suspended-sediment concentrations are increasing more than 

decreasing in basins dominated by sheet 

and rill erosion from cropland. In

92
contrast, suspended-sediment concentrations seem to be decreasing more than 

increasing in basins dominated by sheet 

and rill erosion from forest land, and 

the same also may be true in basins 

dominated by erosion from range and 

pasture land. These findings, if borne 

out by more detailed investigations, 

would have important implications for 

the planning of national erosion-control 

efforts.

GROUND-WATER 

CONTAMINATION

About one-half of the people in the 

United States rely on ground water for 

drinking water. In some places, such as 

Florida, New Mexico, and Long Island in 

New York, ground-water supplies more 

than 90 percent of the needs of the 

population. Because waste disposal is a 

common source of ground-water contamination, understanding the physical, 

chemical, and biological processes 

affecting the subterranean movement of 

contaminants is a key water-management issue. Physical processes that must 

be understood include the complex 

movement of ground water, the mixing 

of contaminants with the ground water, 

the filtration and sorption of contaminants by aquifer materials, and effects 

of buoyancy. The latter can result in 

contaminants concentrating at the top 

or the bottom of an aquifer, depending 

upon the density of the waste liquid. 

Chemical reactions can cause certain 

dissolved contaminants to join with 

other dissolved compounds to form new 

products that may be more toxic than 

their predecessors. In addition, bacteria 

and other microorganisms in ground 

water alter or decompose many organic 

contaminants; here again, new products 

of greater toxicity can be created.

Our understanding of the processes 

affecting the movement and fate of 

contaminants in ground water has 

increased significantly during the last 

several years. However, a great deal 

more work needs to be done. Although 

sophisticated mathematical models have 

been developed to simulate many 

aspects of contaminant movement and 

reaction in ground water, the methods 

to adequately measure all the parameters needed for these models have not

been developed. Other areas in which 

we need to improve our understanding 

are ground-water flow in fractured-rock 

systems, ground-water flow in the 

unsaturated zone, and clay mineralogy.

Research Investigations at 

Selected Ground-Water 

Contamination Sites

In 1982, teams of scientists from the 

Geological Survey and universities, 

representing all major earth science 

disciplines, began studies of selected 

ground-water contamination sites to 

advance our understanding of processes 

affecting movement of contaminants in 

ground water. Selected for study were 

ground-water contamination from a 

crude oil pipeline break near Bemidji, 

Minnesota, ground-water contamination 

from the infiltration of creosote and 

pentachlorophenol (PCP) from wastedisposal pits at Pensacola, Florida, and 

ground-water contamination from the 

infiltration of domestic wastewater 

effluent on Cape Cod, Massachusetts. 

The types of contaminants at the three 

sites are associated with many groundwater contamination problems throughout the Nation. The studies are designed 

to improve our understanding of basic 

processes, and the knowledge gained 

will have practical transfer value to 

other sites having similar hydrogeologic 

conditions and types of contamination.

One of the research demonstration 

sites selected is an abandoned wood- . 

treatment facility in northwest Florida. 

The 18-acre site, also a U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Superfund 

site, is located about 600 yards north of 

Pensacola Bay. During 80 years of 

continuous operation from 1902 to 1981, 

wastewaters generated from the use of 

creosote in the wood-treatment process 

were discharged into two unlined 

surface impoundments that are in direct 

contact with the sand and gravel aquifer, the principal source of water in 

northwest Florida. From 1902 to 1950, 

wood at the plant was treated exclusively with creosote. However, in 1950, 

PCP was introduced as a wood preservative at the plant, and its use steadily 

increased until the plant closed in 1981. 

Over the last few years of operation, the 

plant used about 25,000 gallons of creo93
Figure 6. Vertical extent of 

ground-water contamination, as 

measured by total phenol (milligrams per liter), at an abandoned wood-treatment facility, 

Pensacola, Florida, 1982 to 

1983.

sote per month and a similar quantity of 

PCP.

Data collected at the site indicate that 

the ground-water contamination is confined to a volume generally less than 90 

feet in depth (fig. 6) and extending less 

than 1,000 feet downgradient from the 

surface impoundments (fig. 7). Considering the 80 years of continuous waste

N

20 n

SEA 

LEVEL

20-

60-

100

discharge, the ground-water contamination has been confined to a much 

smaller part of the aquifer than would 

be expected for nonreactive contaminants at the estimated rate of groundwater flow. Laboratory and field studies 

have identified nearly 80 different 

organic contaminants in the ground 

water, some of which are readily bios

0 500 1000 FEET

>20 1-20 .01-1

Figure 7. Area] extent of groundwater contamination, as measured by totaJ phenol (milligrams 

per liter), at an abandoned 

wood-treatment facility, 

Pensacola, Florida, 1982 to 

1983. >20

1-20

.01-1

20 FEET BELOW SEA LEVEL

94
degradable (H. C. Mattraw, oral communication, 1984). Five different waterquality zones have been characterized 

beneath the site, including a "bioreaction zone" that seems to be the 

principal location where some of these 

organic compounds are degraded by 

microorganisms. Survey scientists are 

continuing specific research in each of 

these zones to better improve our understanding of the contaminant migration 

pathways, rates, controlling factors, and 

effects of the dominant chemical and 

biochemical processes.

NEW WATER-QUALITY STUDIES 

BY THE U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

Regional Ground-Water Quality

Unlike surface waters that can be 

relatively easily monitored to provide 

information about regional changes in 

water quality, ground water cannot be 

monitored efficiently by a network of 

stations. Such a network would be a 

costly and ineffective method of 

assessing the quality of the Nation's 

ground water because it moves slowly. 

The volume of contaminated ground 

water is usually small, and it tends to 

occur in slowly developing pockets 

around point sources of contamination 

or in shallow, slowly expanding zones 

beneath areas of nonpoint pollution. 

Thus, a monitoring strategy in which 

samples are collected from observation 

wells chosen for areal coverage would 

fail to detect most developing contamination problems until a great deal of 

damage had been done.

As an alternative to fixed-station 

monitoring, the Geological Survey has 

begun a series of 14 regional groundwater quality studies to provide 

information on ambient ground-water 

chemistry with emphasis on organic 

substances and trace elements and to 

identify the causes, effects, and 

processes that are applicable to similar 

areas elsewhere. Study areas vary in 

size from a few tens of square miles to a 

few thousand square miles. Each area is 

characterized by relatively uniform 

climatic and geohydrologic conditions, 

and the land use, the ground-water flow 

system, and the inorganic chemical

quality of the ground water generally 

are well understood. Although results 

from these studies are not expected for 

several years, careful analyses to 

determine the factors affecting the 

quality of our ground water may allow 

extrapolation of these results to the 

national level.

Toxic Substances in Surface 

Waters

Water contamination by dioxin at 

Times Beach, Missouri, kepone in the 

lower James River, Virginia, and polychlorinated biphenyls in the Hudson 

River in New York State have heightened the public's awareness of toxic 

substances in surface waters. In fact, 

because ground-water and surfacewater systems are connected hydrologically, it is important that, in addition to 

understanding the processes affecting 

toxic substances in ground water, we 

understand the sources, distribution, 

transport, and fate of these substances 

in rivers, lakes, and estuaries.

During the past 25 years, the Geological Survey has conducted many individual studies of toxic substances in 

surface waters. Recently, a program has 

been started to increase our understanding of the processes affecting the 

movement and fate of different groups 

of toxic substances under different 

hydrologic conditions and to describe 

the occurrence, magnitude, and distribution of toxic substances in surface 

waters, bottom sediments, and aquatic 

biota and how these substances are 

changing with time. The new program 

consists of three integrated components research, river basin investigations, and monitoring.

Much of the research is dedicated to 

the development of information on the 

migration pathways, rates, and controlling factors of the processes by 

which toxic substances move and 

undergo chemical and biochemical 

changes in rivers and to the development of improved study approaches, 

sampling methods, and analytical 

techniques.

The purpose of the river basin investigations is to develop an understanding 

of the movement and fate of specific 

classes of toxic substances under differ95
ent hydrologic conditions. In addition, 

the river basin investigations will 

uncover locations and types of toxic 

contamination in rivers. This will dictate 

future monitoring needs concerning 

whether the concentrations of specific 

substances are increasing or decreasing 

and how long certain compounds remain 

in river systems after sources have been 

controlled.

Finally, the monitoring component of 

the program, beginning with sediments, 

will provide a broad view of the 

occurrence and distribution of toxic 

substances in the Nation's rivers. 

Analyses of the data from the monitoring efforts are expected to uncover 

additional needs for process-oriented 

research that will help identify candidate watersheds for future river basin 

investigations.

Sound technical information about the 

quality of the ground and surface water 

is essential in meeting the Nation's 

water-resources needs, in using the land 

wisely, and in preserving the quality of 

the environment. The Geological Survey 

will continue to provide the hydrologic 

data and understanding of hydrologic 

processes needed to make the fundamental decisions on the future water 

needs of the Nation.

96
The Continued Rise of Great Salt Lake, Utah

The Great Salt Lake rose 5.0 feet 

from September 25,1983, to July 1, 

1984, the second largest seasonal rise 

on record since 1847. The maximum 

seasonal rise was observed the previous 

year when the lake rose 5.1 feet from 

September 18,1982, to June 30,1983. 

The lake declined only 0.5 foot during 

summer 1983; thus, the net rise from 

September 18,1982, to July 1,1984, was 

9.6 feet. By comparison, the previously 

recorded maximum net rise over a similar period of time was 4.75 feet from 

1970 to 1972.

The lake has a yearly cycle (fig. 1). 

The level begins to decline in the spring 

or summer when the weather is hot 

enough so that the loss of water by 

evaporation from the lake surface is 

greater than the inflow from surface 

streams, ground water, and precipitation directly on the lake. It begins to rise 

in the autumn when the temperature 

decreases, and the loss of water by 

evaporation is exceeded by the inflow. 

According to past records, the rise can 

begin at any time between September 

and December, and the decline, at any 

time between March and July.

The level of the lake surface and the 

volume of the lake reflect an instantaneous equilibrium between the inflow and 

the loss by evaporation. The surface 

area and brine concentration are the

major aspects of the lake that affect the 

volume of evaporation. During dry 

years, the water level declines, causing 

a decrease in surface area; consequently, the volume of evaporation 

decreases. As the lake declines, the 

brine generally becomes more concentrated, which decreases the rate of 

evaporation. During wet years, the 

water level rises, causing an increase of 

surface area; consequently, the volume 

of evaporation increases. As the lake 

rises, the brine generally becomes less 

concentrated, which increases the rate 

of evaporation.

Precipitation was above average 

during summer 1983, and evaporation 

was relatively small because of greaterthan-normal cloud cover. This resulted 

in an unusually small decline of lake 

level during the summer. By September 

25, when the seasonal rise began, the 

lake level had declined only 0.5 foot. 

The excessive precipitation continued 

throughout the autumn and culminated 

in the wettest December ever recorded 

in Salt Lake City. By New Year's Day, 

Salt Lake City had recorded 24.26 

inches of precipitation during the past 

year about 1.6 times the average.

The cumulative precipitation during 

the first one-half of 1984 also was above 

average, and, from October 1983 

through June 1984, the precipitation at

Figure 1. Fluctuations of the 

water level of Great Salt Lake.

1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920, 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970198D_1

97
the Salt Lake City Airport was about 1.5 

times greater than average. Much of the 

precipitation fell in the form of snow on 

the mountains in the drainage basin. 

The snowmelt began soon after May 1, 

at which time the snow cover ranged 

from about 1.2 to 1.5 times greater than 

average in the Bear River basin, about 

1.5 times greater than average in the 

Weber River basin, and from about 1.3 

to 1.8 times greater than average in the 

Jordan-Provo River basin.

The lake rose steadily from October 

1983 through June 1984, and one of the 

major contributing factors that resulted 

from the excessive precipitation was the 

inflow in three major surface tributaries. The measured inflow during that 

period, which accounts for more than 90 

percent of the total from the three 

tributaries, was about 3.1 million acrefeet in the Bear River, 923,000 acre-feet 

in the Weber River, and over 1.2 million 

acre-feet in the Jordan River. The flow

in the Bear River was about 2.7 times 

greater than average; in the Weber 

River, about 2.1 times greater than 

average; and in the Jordan River, about 

5.2 times greater than average.

When the lake peaked on July 1,1984, 

it was at a level of 4,209.25 feet above 

sea level. The increase in area covered 

by the lake during its 5-foot rise since 

September 25,1983, was about 210,000 

acres (330 square miles). This resulted 

in continuing damage to the roads, 

railroads, wildfowl-management areas, 

recreational facilities (fig. 2), and 

industrial installations that had been 

established on the exposed lakebed. The 

Utah Division of Water Resources estimates that the capital damages at these 

facilities as the lake rose the 5 feet was 

about $150 million. The Geological 

Survey continues to work with State and 

local authorities to provide information 

that can be used to mitigate damages 

from rising lake levels.

Figure 2. Saltair, a huge dance 

and recreational pavillion, 

being submerged by the Great 

Salt Lake. Water covered the 

dance floor to a depth of more 

than I foot on April 11, 1984, 

as the Jake Jeve] reached 

4,207.7 feet. The lake peaked at 

4,209.25 feet on July 1, 1984. 

(Photograph by Ted Arnow, 

Water Resources Division, U.S. 

GeoJogicaJ Survey.)

98
Movement and Fate of Contaminants From Treated Sewage 

Infiltrated to Ground Water, Cape Cod, Massachusetts

Understanding the movement of 

contaminants from waste-disposal sites 

through a ground-water system is 

important to the protection of water 

supplies. A contaminant introduced to 

ground water generally will move with it 

but may adsorb onto the aquifer materials or may react, either chemically or 

biologically, to form other, possibly less 

harmful, products. A contaminant 

moving with ground water also tends to 

disperse and becomes less concentrated 

due to nonuniform flow velocities and to 

the complex branching of flow in an 

aquifer. Dispersion will reduce the 

maximum concentration of a contaminant but will increase the volume of 

contaminated water.

Since 1936, secondarily treated 

domestic sewage has been discharged to 

the ground on surface sand beds at a 

sewage-treatment plant at Otis Air 

Force Base, Massachusetts. Infiltration 

of the sewage through sand beds to an 

underlying sand and gravel aquifer and 

the subsequent movement of the sewagecontaminated ground water in a southerly direction have caused a plume of 

contamination to form that is 3,000 feet 

wide, 75 feet thick, and more than 

11,000 feet long.

The extent of the plume can be 

defined by chemically analyzing water 

sampled from the aquifer or by geophysical techniques. Ions (charged particles) 

of boron, chloride, and sodium and 

detergents that are known to occur at 

much higher concentrations in sewage 

than are found normally in the local 

ground water make good indicators of 

plume location. Increasing the dissolved 

ions in water increases its electrical 

conductivity. Because of the elevated 

level of dissolved ions, the plume is 

detectable, from instrumentation on the 

land surface, by a number of methods 

for measuring electrical conductivity of 

the soil, the aquifer, and the ground 

water.

In 1977, the U.S. Geological Survey, in 

cooperation with the Massachusetts 

Department of Environmental Quality 

Engineering, Division of Water Pollution 

Control, began a study to describe the

extent and chemical composition of the 

zone of ground water contaminated by 

the sewage disposal at Otis Air Base to 

better understand the potential for 

ground-water contamination at other 

similar waste-disposal sites. The field 

data collected from this first study, 

released as Open-File Report 82-274, 

Sewage Plume in a Sand and Gravel 

Aquifer, Cape Cod, Massachusetts, by 

D. R. LeBlanc, provided one of the best 

three-dimensional descriptions of a 

contaminant plume available at that 

time. That description, and the results 

from a subsequent study, demonstrated 

the potential of this site to advance 

scientific understanding of the processes that control convective dispersion 

transport and chemical change of contaminants in a plume. In March 1983, 

the Otis site was proposed, and later 

accepted, for a major research study of 

these topics. Some results from the first 

year of the research study follow.

Most contaminants move readily 

through the sand and gravel that make 

up the aquifer on Cape Cod, and little 

discernible attenuation by sorption of 

solutes on the aquifer material is 

evident. Transverse and longitudinal 

spreading of the plume is significant, 

but little vertical mixing occurs. After 

10,000 feet of movement, the plume is 

only about 75 feet thick, with a core 

zone 20 to 30 feet thick where the 

contaminants remain at concentrations 

more than one-fourth of what they are 

in the treated sewage.

Microbiological reactions affect some 

contaminants in the plume. For example, 

a high concentration of nitrogen in the 

form of nitrate is present in the treated 

sewage. Within a few tens of feet in the 

direction of ground-water flow from the 

infiltration beds, nitrate is found at a 

much lower concentration, but ammonia 

is present. At 1,000 feet downgradient, 

no nitrate is found in the core of the 

plume, but ammonia concentrations 

exceed 10 milligrams per liter. At 5,000 

feet downgradient, nitrate is again 

found in the core but no ammonia.

Dissolved organic carbon decreases 

more rapidly with increasing distance

99
The Otis Air Force Base 

sewage-treatment plant 

and sand beds. 

Secondarily treated 

domestic sewage has been 

discharged to the ground 

on surface sand beds 

since 1936. (Photograph 

courtesy of the U.S. Air 

National Guard.)

Bucket of foaming water taken 

from a well in the 

contaminant plume. Most 

dissolved organic carbon, 

present in the plume beyond 

1,500 feet from the point of 

infiltration, may be 

nonbiodegradable detergents. 

(Photograph by Denis R. 

LeBlanc, Water Resources 

Division, U.S. Geological 

Survey.)

100
from the source than do conservative 

contaminants, such as chloride, sodium, 

and boron. Most dissolved organic 

carbon, present in the plume beyond 

1,500 feet from the point of infiltration, 

may be nonbiodegradable materials,

such as detergents. Microbial populations are distributed in the plume in a 

manner consistent with the distribution 

of changes in water quality. The number 

of free-living bacteria declines linearly 

with respect to distance from the point

SAND 

BEDS

NITRATE 

Milligrams per Liter

JO I 

]2-3 I

SAND 

BEDS

io-i ni-2

Greater than 3

AMMONIA 

Milligrams per Liter

200

Q2-7 Q7-14 

I I Greater than 14

SAND 

BEDS

DETERGENTS 

Milligrams per Liter

0.1-0.5 0.5-1.0 

11.0-2.0 ED Greater than 2.0

MILE

Concentration of nitrate 

and ammonia, expressed 

as nitrogen, and 

detergents, in milligrams 

per liter, in a longitudinal 

section in the contaminant 

plume. Ground-water flow 

is to the right.

,Sand Beds Sand Beds

Coonamessett 

Pond

jj^

VOLATILE ORGAN1CS 

Micrograms per Liter

DISSOLVED ORGANICS CARBONS 

Milligrams per Liter

Concentration of volatile 

organics and dissolved 

organic carbon in the 

contaminant plume. 

Ground-water flow is to 

the lower left.

101
of infiltration to a point about 1/2-mile 

downgradient, whereafter they continue 

to be found at a low and relatively 

constant level. Bacteria fixed to the 

aquifer material are probably more 

significant than the free bacteria in 

causing the observed reactions.

Computer models that simulate the 

movement of solutes in an aquifer have 

been applied successfully to the plume. 

A two-dimensional model was used to

simulate the horizontal spreading of 

several contaminants in the plume. 

However, the physical properties of the 

aquifer that affect dispersion still are 

not well understood, and such knowledge may be critical to the ability to 

model the plume in three dimensions. 

Further study of this sewage plume on 

Cape Cod will assist in understanding 

the migration of contaminants in groundwater systems nationwide.

^>

t t

H

H

H -J

^ ^ 1

Q%>

I " O 

O

fa

O

wFQ

*

0

 SDW 344 ' ' 1

\

\ EXPLANATION

 _ Sewage-Contaminated

^ Ground Water

 FSW 347

\ . Uncontaminated

\ Ground Water

\ FSW Observation well.

\

\

\

f FSW 239

\

\

\

\

\

\

\

 ^ FSW 244

\

X

\ FSW257 FSW 357 

\t^S_W 257^ ___ ^ ^ Fgw 353 ^

FSW 347

0123

 1 | » |FSW 355

KILOMETERS FROM SAND BEDS

Bacterial counts in the 

contaminant plume 

decline in relation to 

distance from the sand 

beds where the treated 

sewage is infiltrated.

102
Screening of Geohydrologic Environments in the Basin and 

Range Province for High-Level Radioactive Waste Disposal

Deeply buried repositories in specially 

constructed mines offer several properties suitable for disposal of high-level 

radioactive waste. Principal among 

these properties are adequate shielding, 

isolation from the environment, absorption and dispersion of heat generated by 

the radioactive waste, and protection 

from intrusion by man. The potential for 

migration of high-level radioactive 

wastes from the repository demands 

that attention be given not only to the 

selection of a suitable host material for 

the waste the rock in which the repository is to be constructed but also to 

the selection of the geohydrologic environment of the repository. Ideally, the 

geohydrologic environment best suited 

for a high-level radioactive wastedisposal site would have many natural 

barriers to waste movement. These 

barriers include the following:

 Rock through which water moves 

very slowly (low permeability);

 Ground-water flow away from the 

biosphere;

 Long flow paths to points readily 

accessible to people;

 Little water movement and great 

thickness of the unsaturated zone 

above the water table;

 Low rainfall;

 Strong host rock with few fractures;

 Small probability of seismic or 

volcanic activity;

 Slow rate of erosion;

 Ground-water chemistry favoring low 

radionuclide solubility; and

 High capacity for adsorption

(sorption) or ion exchange of waste 

radionuclides.

In view of the numerous combinations 

that are possible among the various 

natural barriers, the identification of 

suitable geohydrologic environments 

dictates that site selection for a highlevel radioactive waste repository be 

approached using comprehensive analysis. The process used by the U.S. Geological Survey is described below.

The Geological Survey's program for 

identifying potential environments 

suitable for locating acceptable 

repositories in the Basin and Range

province was an outgrowth of a plan 

developed jointly with the U.S. 

Department of Energy, which has the 

responsibility for selecting, building, and 

operating the repositories. The Geological Survey assists the Department of 

Energy by providing fundamental geohydrologic information to be used in 

solving the Nation's problem of selecting 

high-level radioactive waste-disposal 

sites. Although this is a Geological 

Survey study, earth scientists from the 

particular States involved are participating actively.

The screening process consists of 

several stages. At each stage, it involves 

geologic and hydrologic description and 

evaluation of successively smaller land 

units. According to the plan, the Basin 

and Range province was divided into 

smaller land units that were ranked as 

follows: First, regions (103-105 square 

miles); second, areas (1CP-103 square 

miles); and third, potential sites (about 

10 square miles).

Screening of the province and regions 

is based only on existing data. Field 

work and collection of new data are not 

part of the present study. A screening 

program based on nongeologic factors, 

such as socioeconomic considerations, is 

also important in choosing areas for 

further study to select a site for the 

disposal of radioactive waste. Such a 

program would be managed by the U.S. 

Department of Energy and would be 

used in conjunction with the geologic 

screening program described in this 

article in selecting areas for field 

investigations.

A Province Working Group, composed 

of earth scientists from the Geological 

Survey and several States, was established. The States that are formally 

participating in the province screening 

program are Arizona, California, Idaho, 

Nevada, New Mexico, Texas, and Utah. 

Oregon is kept informed of progress and 

has participated informally by reviewing 

geologic maps.

Basic factors selected for province 

evaluation were the distribution of 

potential host rocks, tectonic stability, 

and ground-water hydrology. Geologic

103
data to be evaluated include information

on the following:

 Distribution of rock types considered 

to be potential host rocks. Surface 

outcrops of basalt, granitic rocks, 

argillaceous rocks, tuff, salt, and 

anhydrite were mapped. In addition, data on subsurface occurrences of salt and anhydrite were 

compiled;

 Seismicity;

 Quaternary volcanism;

 Quaternary faulting;

 Heat flow; and

 Mineral and energy resources. 

Hydrologic data to be evaluated include

Basin and Range province. A, 

Prospective land units for 

favorable high-leveJ radioactive 

waste-isolation environments. B, 

Regions selected for further 

study.

RIO GRANDE REGION, 

SONORAN REGION NEW MEXICO AND TEXAS

CALIFORNIA '

SONORAN REGION. 

ARIZONA

104
information on the following:

 Ground-water flow;

 Potentiometric surface;

 Chemical quality of ground water;

 Natural ground-water discharge 

areas;

 Depth to water table. This

information is to be used to define 

the thickness of the unsaturated 

zone, an environment in which various rock types might be acceptable 

as host media; and

 Water use.

The process of the screening of the 

region by the Province Working Group 

resulted in the identification of land 

units considered to be prospective for

containing geohydrologic environments 

for the isolation of high-level radioactive 

waste (A part of the figure). Of these 

land units, regions were selected for 

further study and are shown in the B 

part of the figure. The province phase of 

screening is discussed in detail in a 

series of three reports, released as U.S. 

Geological Survey Open-File Reports 

83-759, 83-699, and 83-756, which are 

pending publication in the Circular 

series as 904-A, 904-B, and 904-C. 

Currently, the program is screening the 

regions shown in the figure. The evaluation of the regions and the identification of areas that are prospective for 

further study will complete the study.

WATER RESOURCES RESEARCH INSTITUTE PROGRAM

In October 1983, the U.S. Geological 

Survey assumed responsibility for the 

administration of the Water Resources 

Research Institutes. The map shows the 

54 institutes, located at land grant 

universities in each State, Guam, Puerto 

Rico, the Virgin Islands, and the District 

of Columbia, that are supported by Federal and State funds. This national network of institutes

 Works with local, State, and regional 

water interests to identify critical 

water-related problems;

 Conducts research aimed at the 

solution of those problems;

 Trains students in water sciences 

through research support; and

 Develops and distributes water

resources information. 

Research at the institutes is addressing 

problems such as

 Ground-water contamination;

 Nonpoint pollution;

 Acid precipitation;

 Ground-water depletion; and

 Management of water supply. 

Results of the research are communicated to the user community through

 Technical reports;

 Professional literature;

 Workshops, seminars, and conferences; and

 Newsletters.

105
High Plains Regional Aquifer System Analysis 

Phase II Activities

The High Plains is a 174,000-squaremile area of flat to gently rolling terrain 

east of the Rocky Mountains. It includes 

parts of Colorado, Kansas, Nebraska, 

New Mexico, Oklahoma, South Dakota, 

Texas, and Wyoming. The High Plains is 

underlain by unconsolidated alluvial 

deposits that form a water-table aquifer 

capable of sustaining well yields of 100 

to more than 1,000 gallons per minute. 

Irrigation from this aquifer has made 

the High Plains one of the Nation's 

leading agricultural areas.

Around 1940, a rapid expansion in 

the use of ground water for irrigation 

began in the southern High Plains; this 

expansion in use spread to the central 

High Plains in the 1950's and to the 

northern High Plains in the 1960's. 

By 1980, about 18 million acre-feet of 

water was pumped annually from about 

170,000 wells drilled in the High Plains 

aquifer to irrigate about 13 million 

acres.

Although the High Plains is characterized by moderate annual precipitation 

ranging from 16 to 28 inches, recharge 

to the ground-water system is generally 

sparse, and most of the pumpage is from 

storage within the aquifer materials 

rather than from water being transmitted through the aquifer. As a result 

of these withdrawals from storage, 

widespread declines in water levels 

have occurred so that the aquifer has 

beendewatered by more than 50 

percent of its saturated thickness in 

over 3,500 square miles in Kansas, New 

Mexico, and Texas. These water-level 

declines have increased the cost of 

water to irrigators because increased 

pumping lifts cause higher energy costs 

and have reduced well yields because of 

a decrease in the saturated thickness of 

the aquifer materials.

In 1978, The U.S. Geological Survey 

began a study of the High Plains aquifer 

as part of the Regional Aquifer System 

Analysis Program to understand the 

flow system and to evaluate the effects 

of the irrigation development on a 

regional scale. This study, completed in 

1982, indicated that data on pumpage 

for irrigation and recharge to the

aquifer from irrigation return flow are 

essential to evaluate water-level 

declines due to irrigation development; 

these data, however, were not readily 

available. To develop a method of 

estimating these data with an acceptable confidence level, a follow-up 

project to the program, Phase II, was 

started in 1983.

Two areas, shown on the accompanying illustration, have been selected for 

these studies. One area includes Castro 

and Farmer Counties in the southern 

High Plains of Texas; the other includes 

Chase, Perkins, and Dundy Counties in 

the northern High Plains of Nebraska. 

The period of pumpage and irrigation 

return-flow analyses for each area is 

from 1974 through 1983 10 irrigation 

seasons. Irrigated acreage is being 

mapped in both areas for evennumbered years (and including 1983) 

using Landsat satellite imagery. Dry 

land and rangeland are to be mapped 

for the Nebraska area. The Landsat 

maps will be compared with observed or 

reported acreage maps, if information is 

available. The total 1983 pumpage was 

measured at 52 wells at the Nebraska 

test area and at about 86 wells in the 

Texas test area. Irrigated acreages are 

being mapped from Landsat images for 

1974,1976,1978,1980,1982, and 1983 

for the Nebraska and Texas areas. 

About one-half of the maps showing 

irrigated land have been completed.

Data on pumpage and irrigated acreage have been collected for about 50 

irrigation systems in each area for the 

1983 and 1984 irrigation seasons and 

will be used as the key information upon 

which pumpage for the entire test area 

will be estimated. In the Nebraska area, 

nearly all wells are equipped with inline volumetric flowmeters. These measured flow data also will be used to 

check the accuracy of flow data measured by portable flowmeters. In the 

Texas area, pumpage will be measured 

solely by portable flowmeters and timeof-operation sensors that will be calibrated by about 12 volumetric in-line 

flowmeters installed at selected sites. 

Using the data collected at these sites,

106
the relation between pumpage and irrigated acreage is expected to be established statistically. With this relation 

and on the basis of mapped irrigated 

acreage, it will be possible to estimate 

more accurately the 1974 to 1983 pumpage for the two test areas.

Change in ground-water storage will 

be determined from water-level records 

and from the maps of estimated specific 

yield. The difference between pumpage 

and the change in ground-water storage 

will be used to estimate the rates of

106°

irrigation return flow. With more 

accurate estimates of pumpage and 

rates of return-flow recharge from 

irrigation, the flow models that were 

constructed during the initial Regional 

Aquifer System Analysis study will yield 

better results in understanding the flow 

system, as well as the effects of 

irrigation development. These models 

will then provide a useful means of 

evaluating potential aquifer depletion 

and recharge in the future.

42'

40'

38'

SOUTH DAKOTA '.

EXPLANATION

| | High Plains aquifer

High PJains aquifer. Two areas, 

one in the southern High PJains 

of Texas and the other in the 

northern High Plains of 

Nebraska, were selected for 

the Regional Aquifer Systems 

Analysis Phase II studies.

107
NATIONAL WATER SUMMARY PROGRAM

The U.S. Geological Survey has established the National Water Summary 

Program in response to recent concerns 

about an impending water crisis and an 

increased public interest in the 

condition of the Nation's water 

resources. In addition to preparing a 

national water summary report annually, the Program will describe the geographic extent and severity of water 

issues and will develop and maintain 

maps and statistics that describe the 

condition of water resources in the 

context of specific issues.

In January 1984, the Survey published 

National Water Summary 1983 

HydroJogic Events and Issues, WaterSupply Paper 2250, the first in the 

planned series of reports to discuss 

changes and trends in the availability, 

quantity, quality, and use of the 

Nation's water resources. These reports 

have been designed to organize and 

present water information to aid in the 

analysis and development of water 

policies, legislation, and management 

actions by the Congress and Federal 

and State officials and to increase 

public understanding of water 

resources.

National Water Summary 1983 consists of four parts: A discussion of the 

hydrologic cycle and how man influences the movement and quality of 

water as it moves through the cycle; a 

review of recent hydrologic conditions precipitation, streamflow, flooding, and droughts from January 1982 

through August 1983; a hydrologic 

interpretation of four categories of 

water issues water availability, water 

quality, hydrologic hazards and land 

use, and institutional and management 

issues; and a State-by-state discussion 

of water issues in each of the four 

categories, highlighted by color-coded 

maps that show the location and extent 

of the issues.

A number of water issues that have 

nationwide significance emerged from 

the State summary section:

 Short-term vulnerability to drought of 

surface-water supplies and shallow 

ground-water supplies;

 Concerns about the reliability of 

water supplies as competition for 

water increases;

 Declining ground-water levels

associated with increased use of 

ground water;

 Need for improved control of surfacewater pollution, especially nonpoint 

sources of pollution, such as runoff 

from agricultural and urban areas;

 Prevention of ground-water

contamination and the mitigation of 

existing sources of pollution, such 

as hazardous waste sites;

 Potential effects of acidic 

precipitation;

 Chronic problems of flooding;

 Effects of resource development, 

especially coal mining and lowhead hydropower, on water resources; and

 Development of water allocation and

reallocation procedures. 

More than 8,000 copies of National 

Water Summary 1983 have been distributed to Federal, State, and local 

agencies, the Congress, the Water 

Resources Research Institutes, and 

other members of the water-resources 

community. News coverage of the 

Summary was nationwide, and reviews 

appeared in local, State, and national 

newspapers and newsletters and on 

national network television. The 

favorable response to the report was 

due, in part, to the State-by-state 

presentations that one newspaper 

referred to as "an unprecedented Stateby-State assessment of U.S. water 

supplies." The National Water Summary 

also was displayed prominantly as part 

of the Geological Survey's exhibit at the 

Louisiana World Exposition.

108
WATER RESOURCES EXHIBIT AT THE WORLD'S FAIR

One of the exhibit panels on 

water information exhibited at 

the World's Fair in New 

Orleans, Louisiana. (Photograph 

by John E. Moore, Water Resources Division, U.S. Geological Survey.

The theme of the Louisiana World 

Exposition in New Orleans, The World 

of Rivers: Fresh Water as a Source of 

Life, presented an opportunity for the 

U.S. Geological Survey to demonstrate 

the importance of current streamflow 

data to present and potential national 

water-resources issues. Highlights of the 

Water Resources Division exhibit, 

"Measuring U.S. Water Resources," on 

display in the Great Hall of the Convention Center May 12 through November 

11,1984, were

 A display of satellite telemetry that 

demonstrated the latest electronic 

technology in making current hydrologic data available to users; 

visitors to the exhibit could select 

current and historical streamflow

data and obtain a computergraphics streamflow display of one 

representative stream in each 

State;

 A hands-on slide presentation for 

water use in each State;

 Panels that described why the

Geological Survey collects water 

information, how the information is 

collected, and how it is used to 

define and manage water-resources 

problems. These panels also featured the National Water Summary 

1983; and

 Panels that showed water issues of 

the 1980's and provided information on ground-water mining, floods, 

and acid precipitation.

109
International Activities

MISSION

The U.S. Geological Survey has 

conducted international activities as an 

extension of its domestic programs since 

about 1940. Authority for Survey participation in foreign studies derives from 

the revised Geological Survey Organic 

Act, the Foreign Assistance Act, and 

related legislation. Principal objectives 

of the activities are

 To help achieve domestic research 

objectives through the comparative 

study of scientific phenomena abroad 

and in the United States;

 To obtain information about existing and 

potential foreign resources of interest to 

the United States;

 To develop and maintain relations with 

counterpart institutions and programs 

which will facilitate scientific 

cooperation and exchange; and

 To provide support for the international 

programs of other Federal agencies including those of the U.S. Department of 

State that contribute to foreign policy 

objectives.

MAJOR PROGRAMS 

AND ACTIVITIES

International programs of the U.S. 

Geological Survey are usually of two 

general types. The first is technical 

assistance to other countries and 

international organizations utilizing 

funds from other Federal agencies, from 

international organizations, or from 

foreign governments as authorized 

under the Foreign Assistance Act and 

related legislation. The second is 

bilateral or multilateral scientific 

cooperation with foreign counterpart 

organizations under Governmentapproved cooperative agreements to 

achieve common research objectives 

utilizing funds appropriated for Survey 

research and funds or other financial 

resources made available by the cooperating countries or organizations.

Many related activities that form 

integral parts of the programs commonly 

stem from the international work; for

example, institutional development, 

exchange of scientists, training of 

foreign nationals, and representation of 

the Survey or the U.S. Government in 

international organizations, commissions, or associations.

During fiscal year 1984, the Geological Survey continued its formal 

training courses for foreign nationals.

Course title Number of attendees

22nd International Remote

Sensing Workshop 10 

23rd International Remote

Sensing Workshop 7 

Techniques of Hydrologic

Investigations 24 

Geologic and Hydrologic

Hazards Course 42

In addition to the scheduled training 

courses, the Survey provided or 

arranged for on-the-job or academic 

training for 167 people either at Survey 

facilities or at other organizations on 

behalf of the Survey. The 250 trainees 

(including those in the formal courses) 

represented 55 countries; 66 trainees 

were from the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. 

The Survey also continued to arrange 

programs for visiting scientists. Through 

these programs, 106 scientists from 25 

countries conducted cooperative 

research at the Survey or Surveyselected institutions; 25 scientists were 

from the People's Republic of China.

Programs active during fiscal year 

1984 are summarized in the accompanying table. The more significant highlights 

of fiscal year 1984 are described below.

Caribbean-South America

During 1984, the Survey developed a 

program supportive of the President's 

Caribbean Basin Initiative. The program 

proposes cooperative scientific research 

with counterpart agencies in Caribbean 

nations that will enhance the economic 

conditions and improve the health and 

safety of the people. The proposals are 

largely extensions of domestic studies 

such as the Strategic and Critical 

Minerals Program, the Geologic Frame110
International scientific activities conducted by the U.S. Geological Survey in fiscal year 1984, listed by country or 

region

Technical Assistance Activities

Bangladesh Training of Geological Survey personnel.

Colombia ; StreamHElow modeling related to dam operations.

Costa Rica Coal-resources assessment.

Dominican Republic Reconnaissance of Jayaco concession.

Egypt Technology transfer and personnel training; remote sensing.

El Salvador Earthquake hazards reduction.

Guatemala Do.

Guinea Earthquake damage assessment and mitigation.

Indonesia Volcanic research and hazards mitigation; peat^-esource

consultancy.

Jordan Seismic systems; ground-water resources; geothermal resources. 

Kenya Regional remote sensing facility; Landsat imagery. 

Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Geologic mapping and mineral-resource assessment; hydrologic

studies; Landsat image quadrangle maps.

Latin America Earthquake disaster mitigation in Andean region. 

Madagascar Mineral-resource project development. 

Morocco Landsat image base map compilation. 

Panama Earthquake hazards reduction. 

Paraguay Hydrologic hazards related to floods. 

Peru Mineral-resources assessment; flood hazards in Cuzco. 

Philippines Geoscience map publication assistance.

Portugal Geothermal resources; seismic hazards, San Miguel Island, Azores. 

Senegal Hydrogeology of Senegal River alluvium related to dam

construction. 

Southeast Asia Earthquake engineering and hazards mitigation; engineering

seismology. 

Thailand Lignite research; map publication assistance; mineral deposit and

natural gas symposia.

Tunisia : Remote sensing; Landsat image mosaic map production. 

Venezuela Hydrology and water resources of Orinoco Basin. 

Worldwide Global seismic network; geologic and hydrologic training programs;

conventional energy-resources identifications.

Scientific Cooperative Activities

Antarctica Topographic mapping; marine geological and geophysical surveys. 

Bolivia Subvolcanic intrusions related to ash-flow tuff terranes and tin

resources.

Brazil Magnetotelluric surveys; river sediment studies. 

Canada Strategic minerals inventory; seafloor mineral exploration; borehole

geophysics; continental deep seismic reflection. 

Chile Volcano studies.

Colombia Mineral-resources assessment; geochemical exploration. 

Costa Rica Geothermal-energy consultation; magnetic observatory

instrumentation.

Dominican Republic Offshore shelf studies.

France Marine hydrothermal mineralogy; geophysics. 

Germany Strategic minerals inventory; marine seismic studies of continental

margins; radioactive waste; petroleum-resource assessment;

Antarctic research.

Greece Geochemistry of petroleum. 

Hungary Seismic stratigraphy, reflection seismic, electromagnetic,

mineralogic, paleomagnetic and paleoenvironmental studies.

Ill
International scientific activities conducted by the U.S. Geological Survey in fiscal year 1984, listed by country or 

region -Continued

Scientific Cooperative Activities

Iceland Volcano and geothermal studies.

Italy Seismology and seismic risk assessment; geochemistry; volcanology;

marine geology. 

Japan Joint panels on earthquake prediction, marine geology, marine

mining; symposium on resources of 1990's; massive sulfide

assessments. 

Mexico ^ Volcano studies; geochemical and geophysical exploration; mineral

and metallogenic map analyses; regional structure and

stratigraphic studies; tectonostratigraphic terrane studies.

Nepal Geologic and hydrologic training and resource assessments. 

Pacific region South Pacific cruise; hydrocarbon-resources studies; oceanic crusts

studies; chromite resources; Circum-Pacific mapping. 

People's Republic of China Earthquake studies; remote sensing; volcanism and metallogeny;

coal basin studies; petroleum geology of carbonate rocks; CircumPacific geologic and tectonic framework; surface-water

hydrology.

South Africa Strategic minerals inventory. 

South Korea Offshore petroleum-resources and geothermal-resources

assessments. 

Southeast-East Asia Seafloor geologic mapping; petroleum geology research;

sedimentary basin analysis. 

Spain Ground-water resources; remote sensing for mineral deposits;

earthquake research; marine geology of continental margins. 

Sweden Nuclear waste disposal. 

United Kingdom Marine geology; world coal resources. 

U.S.S.R Joint committee on earthquake prediction. 

Yugoslavia Crustal structure research; seismology and earthquake hazards;

subsidence research; geochemical surveys; remote sensing;

engineering geology; geophysics. 

Worldwide International Strategic Mineral Inventory; World Energy

Resources Program.

work Program, and the Earthquake 

Hazards Reduction Program. As an 

initial contribution to the Carribean 

program, the Geological Survey 

published Circular 925, Earth and 

Water Resources and Hazards in 

Central America, which is a review of 

information available for natural 

resources in the region and the potential 

impact of geologic hazards such as 

earthquakes, landslides, and volcanic 

eruptions. Survey scientists have briefed 

officials of the Department of the 

Interior, the Department of State, and 

the U.S. Agency for International 

Development throughout the year to 

acquaint them with the resource and 

hazards potential of the region and to 

outline the Survey's proposals for study. 

The Caribbean nations have onshore, 

and possibly offshore, deposits of gold,

silver, and, to a lesser extent, platinum. 

Coal and rock phosphate deposits are 

known but unassessed. Potential areas 

for oil and gas development are 

untested for the most part. Geothermal 

energy resources are developed locally, 

but their potential for development 

elsewhere is just now being considered. 

Development of reliable potable water 

supplies and their protection from 

pollution are of considerable interest in 

the Caribbean nations, and mitigation of 

the risks from geologic hazards is 

necessary to the safety and well-being 

of the inhabitants. As initial activities in 

the Caribbean basin, the Geological 

Survey proposes onshore and offshore 

energy- and mineral-resource studies, 

geologic and hydrologic surveys, and 

geologic hazards studies. Programs of 

regional geological mapping using

112
sophisticated geophysical and geochemical techniques are needed to assess the 

potential of the area.

Phosphate Symposium

The Survey, East Carolina University, 

and the International Geological Correlation Program (IGCP) Project 156 sponsored a workshop on the potential for 

discovery of useful phosphate deposits 

in the Caribbean. The workshop was 

held at East Carolina University, 

Greenville, North Carolina, in July 1984. 

Scientists from Colombia, the Dominican 

Republic, Costa Rica, Honduras, 

Jamaica, Guatemala, Venezuela, and 

Mexico met with U.S. specialists to 

consider the regional and detailed 

geologic studies needed to assess the 

rock phosphate potential that would 

provide an accessible local source of 

agricultural fertilizer. The development 

of this resource will be a giant step 

towards mitigating the region's severe 

food production problems. As a result of 

the workshop, the country representatives now are working to establish a 

Caribbean basin phosphate resources 

group to plan and coordinate phosphate 

assessment in the region. The U.S. 

Geological Survey and the IGCP Project 

156 will provide advice and assistance 

to this regional resource group.

Costa Rica

In July 1983, the Survey initiated a 

technical assistance program in coalresources assessment and exploration 

with Costa Rican counterparts in the 

Gerencia de Exploracion de Refinadora 

Costarricense de Petroleo (RECOPE) under 

the auspices of the Agency for International Development. A RECOPE 

geologist received on-the-job training in 

coal exploratory and drillhole geophysical logging techniques with Geological 

Survey counterparts in the Powder 

River Basin of Wyoming during that 

summer. In 1984, three of nine coalbearing areas in Costa Rica were 

targeted for study; in the Volio area in 

the southeast, RECOPE is drilling to determine the quantity of coal available; 

reconnaissance mapping and surface 

exploration are being done in the

Venado area to the north and in the 

Zent area to the east. Survey personnel 

advise and train RECOPE counterparts in 

coal mapping and resource assessment 

methodologies, exploratory drilling and 

downhole geophysical logging techniques, and coal sample collection, processing, and analysis. Assessment of the 

quality of Costa Rican coal will be 

accelerated with completion of a 

Survey-designed coal analytical 

laboratory in RECOPE under the 

leadership of a Costa Rican chemist who 

received training this year at a Surveyselected commercial laboratory in the 

United States. Development of coal 

resources of the Caribbean region for 

utilization in the production of electricity will decrease the dependency on 

imported oil. As a source to replace 

fuelwood, coal utilization can alleviate 

severe problems caused by deforestation 

in the region.

Colombia

A geologic synthesis and mineral 

resource assessment of Colombia was 

completed in 1984 with cooperation of 

scientists from the Survey and the 

Institute de Investigaciones GeologicoMineras in Colombia. This project was 

designed to organize and review existing 

geologic information to identify terranes 

in Colombia that have the greatest 

potential for new mineral discoveries. 

Mineral deposit models were developed 

and adapted for deposits that occur in 

Colombia or in similar terranes elsewhere, and guides for further mineral 

resource studies and assessments were 

presented. The cooperative review 

provides a solid base for the planning of 

more detailed programs of exploration 

in South and Central America and 

Caribbean nations. Concurrent and 

follow-up cooperative studies thus far 

undertaken include assistance in the 

establishment of a microcomputer-based 

geochemical data base, workshops and 

assistance in the conduct of geochemical 

surveys and chemical analyses, planning 

of cooperative marine mineral research, 

seminars for a national rock phosphate 

assessment program, and research for a 

national geologic hazards reduction 

program. Results of the assessment have 

been released as U.S. Geological Survey

113
Open-file Report 84-345 titled MineroJ 

Resource Assessment of Colombia. 

The Geological Survey and the 

Corporacion Autonoma Regional del 

Cauca, a Colombian organization similar 

to the Tennessee Valley Authority, are 

cooperating in a project to simulate by 

mathematical model the streamflow of 

the Cauca River in northwestern 

Colombia. Colombian scientists will 

evaluate the applicability of a Surveydeveloped model to the Cauca River to 

guide the operation of a dam which will 

become functional in early 1985. 

Satellite data relay also will be used 

with the model to obtain realtime data 

on river stages and meteorologic conditions for realtime operation of the 

model.

Peru

Technical assistance and institutional 

development continued in 1984 in Peru 

where Survey scientists trained and 

guided geologists and geochemists of the 

Empresa Minera del Centro del Peru in 

geological and geochemical mapping and 

in sample processing and analyses at a 

Survey-designed laboratory. Investigations continued in the Puquio prospect 

and began in the Acos concession, 

which are in the Sur Medio region. 

Frequency distribution tables, single and 

multielement distribution maps, preliminary geologic maps, and accompanying 

reports are in preparation.

South Pacific-East Asia

The U.S. Geological Survey's Research 

Vessel Samuel P. Lee completed a 

3-month, 4-leg resource appraisal cruise 

in the southwest Pacific in 1984 as part 

of "Operation Deep Sweep," a pole-topole expedition designed to obtain data 

to further the knowledge of tectonic 

processes and resource potential of the 

Pacific Basin. The scientific expedition, 

the second in as many years, is a 

continuation of the Australia-New 

Zealand-United States (ANZUS) Tripartite 

Geoscientific Resource Investigation in 

the southwest Pacific under the 

direction of the Committee for Coordination of Joint Prospecting for Mineral 

Resources in South Pacific Offshore

Areas (CCOP/SOPAC). The expedition took 

the ship from San Francisco to the 

Bering Sea and Hawaii, from there to 

international waters offshore of the 

nations of Kiribati, Samoa, New 

Zealand, Antarctica, Fiji, Tonga, 

Vanuatu, and Papua New Guinea, and 

returning to San Francisco via the 

Marshall Islands and Hawaii. Results of 

the Antarctica portion of the cruise are 

described in the article titled The 

Antarctic Leg of "Operation Deep 

Sweep" in the Geologic Investigations 

chapter.

The recently completed ANZUS-CCOP/ 

SOPAC investigation was successful in 

delineating structural and stratigraphic 

features that may be promising mineralor energy-resource targets. In the 

Tonga-Lau region, a shallow magma 

chamber was identified that could 

possibly be a source for polymetallic 

mineralization. In Vanuatu, the 

Torres-Santa Cruz basin was found to 

be quite extensive (over 7,000 square 

miles) and to contain sediment about 3 

miles thick. The sedimentary basins 

associated with the Central Solomons 

Trough and offshore New Ireland basin 

in eastern Papua New Guinea were 

defined further and found to contain 

structures that could trap oil and gas.

The Geological Survey conducted a 

6-month pilot study to analyze Tertiary 

sedimentary basins in the CircumBorneo offshore areas of Malaysian 

Sarawak and Sabah, Brunei, Indonesian 

Kalimantan, and the southwestern 

Philippines as a forerunner to a planned 

program in basin analysis of the East 

Asia Region (fig. 1). The study was 

undertaken as part of a proposed 

cooperative program for the evaluation 

of sedimentary basins for the International Union of Geological Sciences 

and was carried out in cooperation with 

the United Nations Coordinating 

Committee for Joint Prospecting of 

Mineral Resources in Asian Offshore 

Areas. The objective of the pilot study 

was to demonstrate methodologies and 

to assist the nations involved in an 

assessment of the petroleum resources 

of the region. The analysis was done 

within the extended framework of the 

Circum-Pacific Map Project in that data 

was supplied by the countries involved,

114
J0°

110° 120° 130" 150° 160°

and base map cartography, compilation 

of data, and coordination of the 

program were done by the U.S. Geological Survey.

Many governmental agencies and 

private companies throughout East Asia 

supplied useful data, particularly for the 

offshore and subsurface in the CircumBorneo pilot study area. The Geological 

Survey is synthesizing the data into a 

series of maps at a scale of 1:2 million: 

(1) a Tertiary basin outline map, (2) a 

Tertiary sediment thickness and structure map (depth to economic basement),

(3) a Paleogene sediment isopach map,

(4) a Paleogene paleogeographic and 

paleoenvironmental map, (5) a Neogene 

sediment isopach map, and (6) a 

Neogene paleogeographic and paleoenvironmental map. Representative stratigraphic columnar sections and cross 

sections for all basins also are being 

prepared. The data will be released in 

preliminary form as a Survey open-file 

report before editing and processing as 

a formal publication.

Figure 1. Index of maps for 

the East Asia basin-anoJysis 

program showing the 

Circum-Borneo pilot study 

area (hachuredj.

115
Information Systems Division

At one of the demonstration 

booths set up in the center, a 

SuperBrain equipped with a 

Maxtex XCEL graphics board 

displays a design. The SuperBrain also has software to 

drive the Bausch Sr Lomb 

DMP-29 plotter.

MISSION

The Information Systems Division 

provides support and advice to the 

Director of the U.S. Geological Survey, 

the Department of the Interior, other 

government agencies, and the other 

Divisions of the Survey on all matters 

relating to Bureau information technology and automated data processing 

(ADP) services. It provides these 

services along with acquisition assistance for users of large general-purpose 

computers, smaller special purpose 

computers, and telecommunications. The 

Division provides for coordination and 

growth of information systems through 

systems analysis and design and conducts ADP research into better ways to 

use technology to solve mission-related 

problems. It is responsible for guidelines 

for data standards, data administration, 

and data base management.

BUDGET AND PERSONNEL

The Information Systems Division had 

a budget of $20 million for fiscal year 

1984. Other Survey Divisions and 

Department of the Interior and Federal 

agency users provided funding.

As a Department of the Interior 

General Purpose Computer Center, the 

Division computing facilities were 

available to other Interior offices and 

bureaus as well as to all Survey 

Divisions.

Division staffing consisted of 167 fulltime employees, primarily computer specialists, computer analysts, mathematicians, systems programmers, computer 

scientists, and technicians. The staff 

was augmented by part-time and intermittent employees and contract personnel who greatly assisted in fulfilling the 

mission of the Division. These employees 

served customers from the five ADP

116
Service Center sites nationwide: 

National Center, Reston, Virginia, 

Washington, D.C., Menlo Park, California, Denver, Colorado, and Flagstaff, 

Arizona.

ACCOMPLISHMENTS

Opening of Technology 

Information Centers

During fiscal year 1984, the 

Information Systems Division opened 

technology information centers at the 

National Center and the Flagstaff and 

Denver service center sites. The centers 

primarily emphasize small computer 

technology; however, plans are underway to demonstrate how small and large 

computer technologies can be 

integrated.

The Centers provide the following 

capabilities:

 Demonstrations by in-house personnel 

and vendors showing the use of 

specific small computers and 

associated software packages;

 A library containing a variety of 

publications related to computing 

technology;

 A clearinghouse for distributing

information about vendors, equipment, user groups, software, and 

data bases developed for or accessible with computers in the Survey;

 Consultations on equipment, software, 

and computer acquisition; and

 Individual instruction using computerassisted instruction and videotapes.

During fiscal year 1984, the centers 

were visited by over 3,000 Survey 

employees: Scientists who had a need to 

find out how small computer technology 

can help in supporting their programs, 

managers who had a need to find out 

how technology can help them to make 

decisions and produce reports, administrators who were considering new systems to enhance office productivity or 

who wanted to understand more about 

the capabilities of those that they are 

using, and ADP professionals who were

interested in keeping up with 

technology.

LASER OPTICAL DISK TECHNOLOGY

The Survey is continuing a program to 

improve digital mass storage capability 

and to provide facilities for increasing 

amounts of digital scientific data. This 

year, the Survey and a private corporation will be testing the first production 

model of a new laser optical disk storage system that will provide more costeffective, easily accessible, digital data 

storage for scientific data bases as well 

as digitized images of graphs, maps, 

reports, and administrative records. 

Test applications and pilot projects are 

being developed with the operating 

divisions to evaluate the utility of this 

new technology. The new method will 

increase capacity 10 times over that of 

magnetic storage, with costs per character similar to that of microfiche. The 

National Mapping Division will test the 

device for storage of the Digital Cartographic Data Base, and the Information 

Systems Division will examine its use for 

various geologic and hydrologic data, 

streamflow graphs, text of scientific 

papers, and administrative records.

ACQUISITION ASSISTANCE

Division assistance for acquiring 

information technology services continued during 1984. The assistance 

included requirements definition, documentation preparation, regulatory 

approvals acquisition, technical evaluation of proposed computer resources, 

contract administration functions, and 

management of the Bureau computer 

resource reutilization program.

An automated acquisition tracking 

system was designed and implemented 

to provide a more effective method of 

process control, thereby enhancing the 

computer resource acquisition process. 

Over 3,500 requests for various automation products and services with expenditures exceeding $50 million were processed this fiscal year.

The Division provided acquisition 

assistance for the Water Resources 

Distributed Information System, Earthquake Studies Program, Digitized 

Mapping Information, Marine Geology 

Research Program, Public Inquiries

117
Visitors can select from a variety 

o/videocassette tapes to 

satisfy their microcomputer 

training needs.

System, and the modernization of the 

General Purpose Computer Centers. 

Additional efforts include office automation projects, administrative support 

functions, and acquisition of the nationwide voice and data communications 

networks.

EARTH SCIENCE INFORMATION ACCESS 

AND DELIVERY

During the past year, access to and 

delivery of earth science information 

was substantially improved by the use 

of the Earth Science Information 

Network at the National Cartographic 

Information Centers and the Public

Inquiries Office of the Survey. The 

Information Systems Council is developing plans for extending the network and 

using it at other Survey offices to 

further improve the dissemination of 

earth science information. These 

changes will make products and data 

resulting from Survey research and 

investigations more readily available to 

inquirers.

Establishment of the Earth Science 

Information Center (ESIC) is scheduled 

to more conveniently provide needed 

technical assistance in analyzing, evaluating, and interpreting the products and 

data that are, in part, obtained by 

referral from the information network. 

The ESIC will be located in the Main 

Interior Building in Washington, B.C., 

and the capabilities of its professional 

staff, drawn from each of the program 

divisions, will help the scientific 

community in the Federal Government to 

use the results of Survey earth science 

activities. The staff will have available 

a full range of computerized reference 

tools and instrumentation.

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE TECHNIQUES 

APPLIED TO EARTH SCIENCE 

INFORMATION

The Survey is exploring the use of 

artificial intelligence concepts as they 

relate to earth science data bases. One 

approach uses systems that require 

teaching the computer to accept a set of

This demonstration booth displays two offerings in the IBM 

personel computer product 

line, the IBM PC fleftj and the 

IBM PC/XT (rightj.

118
rules. These rules then are coupled with 

facts in a data base to provide solutions 

to problems. While the program is being 

used, more rules can be added by the 

user. This program will be of value in 

dealing concurrently with many data 

sets and should result in the development of new knowledge that will be 

retained and reported back to the researcher. Although artificial intelligence 

can be used in many areas, the Survey's 

initial work is on the subject of geographic information. In the project, 

Knowledge-Based Geographic Information Systems, a new form of data structure for spatial data was designed. 

Software has been developed to demonstrate the system, and new techniques 

for searching earth science and geographic data bases will result.

FISCAL YEAR 1984 INFORMATION 

SYSTEMS COUNCIL ACTIVITIES

The Information Systems Council, 

chaired by the Assistant Director for 

Information Systems and including 

policy-level representatives from the 

Divisions and regions, focuses on 

developing ADP technical policy and 

coordinating ADP technology within the 

Survey and with the Department of the 

Interior. In the policy area, the Council 

developed a chapter on Systems Life 

Cycle Management for inclusion in the 

Geological Survey Manual. The purpose 

of the chapter is to establish a policy for 

systematically managing the activities 

and phases during the life span of an 

information system. Serving in its 

coordination role, the Council reviewed 

the minicomputer procurement for the 

National Mapping Division's digital line 

graph processors and developed ideas 

for a policy to promote hardware and 

software resource sharing within the 

Survey.

Increased capabilities as a result of 

technological advances continue to offer 

opportunites for the Survey to distribute 

small computers to its many field locations. Consequently, communications are 

becoming a critical factor in ensuring 

access to these distributed computers 

and in facilitating sharing of data and 

software among them. In recognition of 

the essential nature of these communications, the Information Systems Council 

undertook two actions this year. The

first was a Bureauwide evaluation of 

the Survey's current data and voice 

communications activities and an analysis of alternative future strategies. The 

second was the formation of the Bureaulevel Telecommunications Utility Commission. The Commission, which reports 

to the Council, serves as a forum to 

ensure that Divisions are focusing 

management attention on their telecommunications requirements. The Commission will review major communications 

acquisitions and changes and will work 

to equitably allocate telecommunications 

costs. Additionally, the Commission will 

review major policy issues requiring 

resolution by the Council.

The Information Systems Council is 

committed to making earth science 

information more accessible and used 

more effectively. An increasingly 

important challenge in scientific studies 

is to be able to integrate diverse earth 

science data sets. To this end, the 

Council has initiated a bureauwide 

project to develop a standardized 

system which will allow researchers 

and casual users to integrate and 

display data bases in a consistent 

structure.

Digital Private Automatic Branch 

Exchange

The Division participated in the 

acquisition of the digital Private 

Automatic Branch Exchange, the new 

telephone systems for Reston and Menlo 

Park. The systems will provide extensive 

support to data and state-of-the-art 

voice communications capabilities.

Communications Network 

Services

A Request for Proposals to acquire 

the use of a nationwide computer 

network was prepared for release. The 

network will permit connection of 

Survey computers as host computing 

resources and will provide access to 

these resources for all local and remote 

location users. The network is expandable and will permit new technology to 

be installed and used throughout the life 

of the contract. This service will replace 

many fragmented communications 

facilities and will result in a unified

119
In the center's library, users can 

read articles in the latest computer periodicals or consult 

one of several catalogs describing software packages.

approach to computer communications 

within the Survey. During the term of 

the contract, this network will provide 

opportunities to integrate voice and data 

over common communications lines 

resulting in significant opportunities to 

reduce expenses.

Telecommunications Task Force

Due to the increasing complexity of 

telecommunications (which includes 

data and voice communications) as a 

result of industry deregulation, the 

Division consolidated its resources to 

permit more careful coordination of 

essential telecommunications functions. 

The primary objectives of this action 

were the completion of the Communications Network Services, the culmination 

of the digital Private Automatic Branch

Exchange acquisition, the move of the 

communications facilities coincident to 

the relocation of the computer systems 

at the National Center, and the 

planning, coordinating, and operating of 

all Survey telecommunications facilities 

nationwide.

Small Computer 

Accomplishments

Major accomplishments included the 

completion of the Event Alert System, 

the Budget Information Management 

System, and a multiuser system for 

automating actions pertaining to 

employee training.

The purpose of the Event Alert 

System is to notify key officials of the 

Survey of naturally occurring hazards; 

that is, seismic or volcanic activity. This

120
notification is accomplished from geographically separate offices of the 

Office of Earthquakes, Volcanoes, and 

Engineering of the Geologic Division. A 

small computer in Reston receives the 

information and automatically forwards 

it to other small computers in the homes 

of key personnel.

The Budget Information Management 

System provides a similar reporting 

mechanism for the accrual of Survey 

financial information. Information on 

individual programs is stored on 

general-purpose computers and can be 

obtained on demand for inclusion at the 

small computer level into a framework 

of spreadsheet information.

The purpose of the multiuser system 

is to investigate the application of small 

computer technology and local area 

networks to reduce the time it takes to 

process paperwork in the Survey training office. A multiuser computer system 

is in the final stages of testing.

Rapid Expansion of Small 

Computer Use

The Survey is in the forefront in the 

use of small computers in the Federal 

Government, with over 700 units now 

operating.

These small computers have enabled 

Geological Survey scientists and 

administrative personnel to accomplish 

many tasks in a more efficient and 

timely manner; for example, electronic 

spreadsheets permit an employee to do 

"what if analysis on financial 

information, and, because budget 

allocation can quickly be analyzed in a 

total context, much more accurate 

predictions can be made.

121
Administration 

Programs 

Research

Engineering Geology 

Information Systems 

' Intergovernmental Affairs

Washington Liaison 

Equal Employment Opportunity 

Congressional Liaison 

Public Affairs

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fgs ~^,f& ... ^ ^ -W 'i|. v^ u . ^ % :>'^''m ^ :

WATER RESOURCES DIVISION

Chief Hydrologist 

Associate Chief Hydrologist

Office of National Water 

Summary and Long Range 

_____Planning_____

Office of the Assistant Chief

for Scientific Publications

and Data Management

Office of the Assistant Chief 

for Operations

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NATIONAL MAPPING DIVISION

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Chief 

Associate Chief

Office of 

Water Data Coordination

Office of the Assistant Chief

for Research and 

Technical Coordination

Assistant Division Chief 

for Research

Geographic and

Cartographic Research 

Systems and

Techniques Development

Deputy Assistant Chief 

for Research

Branches

Surface Water 

Ground Water 

Quality of Water

Assistant Division Chief 

for Information and Data Services

Product Distribution Policy 

Publications Liaison and Review 

National Cartographic and 

Geographic Information Service 

Public Inquiries

Regional Offices

Northeastern-Reston, VA 

Southeastern-Atlanta, GA 

Central-Denver, CO 

Western-Menlo Park , CA

District Offices

*^ **"! v* fe* I ** ??-K£s

Assistant Division Chief 

for Plans and Operations

Offices

, Program Management 

Plans and Coordination 

International Activities

Office of Scientific Publications

Branches

Eastern Technical Reports 

Central Technical Reports 

Western Technical Reports 

Library and Information Services

Assistant Division Chief

for Earth Resources Observation

Systems

« >'* **»%'"''*,,'

Office of Mineral Resources

Branches

Alaskan Geology 

Western Mineral Resources 

Central Mineral Resources 

Eastern Mineral Resources 

Exploration Geochemistry 

Geophysics 

Analytical Chemistry 

Resource Analysis

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 * ,-?- * *^* \ ^''^ « «* |- *'

Office of Energy and Marine 

Geology

Branches 

Coal Resources 

Oil and Gas Resources v 

Energy Minerals 

Pacific Marine Geology 

Atlantic Marine Geology

Field Centers

Eastern Mapping-Reston, VA 

Mid-Continent Mapping-Rolla, MO 

Printing and Distribution-Reston, VA 

Rocky Mountain Mapping-Denver,CO 

Western Mapping-Menlo Park, CA 

EROS Data Center-Sioux Falls, SD

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Organizational and Statistical Data

ORGANIZATION OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

U.S. Department of the Interior

GEOLOGIC DIVISION

Chief Geologist 

Associate Chief Geologist 

Assistant Chief Geologist for Program

Office of International Geology

Office of Regional Geology

Branches

Western Regional Geology 

Central Regional Geology 

Eastern Regional Geology 

Isotope Geology 

Paleontology and Stratigraphy 

Astrogeology

Office of Earthquakes, 

Volcanoes and Engineering

Branches

Tectonophysics 

Engineering Seismology and

Geology 

Seismology 

Engineering Geology and

Tectonics 

Global Seismology and

Geomagnetism 

Igneous and Geothermal 

Processes

Assistant Chief Geologists

Eastern Region 

Central Region 

Western Region

INFORMATION SYSTEMS DIVISION ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISION

Chief 

Deputy Chief

OFFICES

Program Support Services 

Systems Policy and Management 

Data Administration 

Acquisition Management and

Support 

Operational Support Services

Office of ADP Services

Centers 

Denver, CO 

Menlo Park. CA 

Washington, D.C. 

Flagstaff, AZ 

Reston, VA

Branches

Financial Management

General Services

Management Analysis

Personnel

Procurement and Contracts

Management Offices

Eastern-Reston, VA 

Central-Denver, CO 

Western-Menlo Park, CA

123
U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OFFICES

Headquarters Offices 

12201 Sunrise Valley Drive, 

National Center, Reston, VA 22092

Office Name

OFFICE OF THE DIRECTOR

Director Dallas L. Peck 

Associate Director Doyle G. Frederick 

Special Assistant (Washington Liaison) 

and Deputy Ethics Counselor Jane H. Wallace

Assistant Director for Research Bruce B. Hanshaw 

Assistant Director for Engineering

Geology James F. Devine 

Assistant Director for Administration Edmund J. Grant 

Assistant Director for Programs Peter F. Bermel 

Assistant Director for Intergovernmental

Affairs John J. Dragonetti 

Director's Representative Central

Region Alfred Clebsch, Jr.

Director's Representative Western 

Region George Gryc

Congressional Liaison Officer Talmadge W. Reed 

Chief, Public Affairs Office Donovan B. Kelly 

Staff Assistant (Special Issues) William G. Wilber 

Special Assistant to the 

Director for Alaska Max. C. Brewer

Assistant Director for 

Information Systems - James E. Biesecker

NATIONAL MAPPING DIVISION

Chief Rupert B. Southard 

Associate Chief Roy R. Mullen 

Assistant Division Chief for Research Lowell E. Starr 

Assistant Division Chief for Plans

and Operations William A. Coe 

Assistant Division Chief for

Information and Data Services Gary W. North

GEOLOGIC DIVISION

Chief Geologist Robert M. Hamilton 

Associate Chief Geologist William C. Prinz 

Assistant Chief Geologist

for Program Benjamin A. Morgan 

Deputy Chief Geologist for

Scientific Personnel Penelope M. Hanshaw 

Policy and Budget Officer Norman E. Gunderson 

Office of Scientific Publications,

Chief John M. Aaron 

Office of Regional Geology,

Chief Douglas M. Morton 

Office of Earthquakes, Volcanoes,

and Engineering, Chief : John R. Filson 

Office of Energy and

Marine Geology, Chief Terry W. Offield 

Office of Mineral Resources,

Chief Glenn H. Allcott 

Office of International

Geology, Chief A. Thomas Ovenshine

Telephone Number

(703) 860-7411 

(703) 860-7412

(202) 343-3888 

(703) 860-7488

(703) 860-7491 

(703) 860-7201 

(703) 860-7435

(703) 860-7414 

(303) 236-3661

(415) 323-2917

(703) 860-6438 

(703) 860-7444 

(703) 860-7413

(907) 271-4398 or 

(907) 263-7429

(703) 860-7108

(703) 860-6231 

(703) 860-6232 

(703) 860-6291

(703) 860-6531 

(703) 860-6532

(703) 860-6584

(703) 860-7429 

(703)860-6544

(703) 860-6575 

(703) 860-6411 

(703) 860-6471 

(703) 860-6431 

(703) 860-6561 

(703) 860-6418

Address

National Center, STOP 101 

National Center, STOP 102

Rm. 7343, Interior Bldg., 

Washington, DC 20240 

National Center, STOP 104

National Center, STOP 106 

National Center, STOP 201 

National Center, STOP 105

National Center, STOP 109

Box 25046, STOP 406, Denver 

Federal Center, Denver, 

CO 80225

345 Middlefield Rd., STOP 87

Menlo Park, CA 94025 

National Center, STOP 112 

National Center, STOP 119 

National Center, STOP 121

Gould Hall APU Campus 

University Drive, 

Anchorage, AK 99504

National Center, STOP 801

National Center, STOP 516 

National Center, STOP 516 

National Center, STOP 519

National Center, STOP 514 

National Center, STOP 508

National Center, 

National Center,

STOP 911 

STOP 911

National Center, STOP 911

National Center, 

National Center,

National Center, 

National Center, 

National Center, 

National Center, 

National Center, 

National Center,

STOP 911 

STOP 910

STOP 904 

STOP 908 

STOP 905 

STOP 915 

STOP 913 

STOP 917

124
Office Name Telephone Number Address

WATER RESOURCES DIVISION

Chief Hydrologist Philip Cohen (703) 860-6921 

Associate Chief Hydrologist R. Hal Langford (703) 860-6921 

Assistant Chief Hydrologist,

Scientific Publication, and

Data Management, Acting William B. Mann IV (703) 860-6877 

Assistant Chief Hydrologist,

Operations Thomas J. Buchanan (703) 860-6801 

Assistant Chief Hydrologist,

Research and

Technical Coordination Gordon D. Bennett (703) 860-6971 

Deputy Assistant Chief

Hydrologist, Research Roger G. Wolff (703) 860-6971 

Office of National Water

Summary and Long Range

Planning, Chief David W. Moody (703) 860-6925 

Office of Hazardous Waste

Hydrology, Acting Chief George A. Dinwiddie (703) 860-6976 

Branch of Water Information

Transfer, Chief Gary D. Cobb (703) 860-7638 

Branch of Ground Water, Chief Eugene P. Patten, Jr. (703) 860-6904 

Branch of Quality of Water, Chief R. J. Pickering (703) 860-6834 

Branch of Surface Water, Chief Marshall E. Moss (703) 860-6837 

Office of Water Data Coordination, Chief Porter E. Ward (703) 860-6931 

Office of International Hydrology, Chief Delia Laura (703) 860-6547 

Office of Computer Technology, Chief J. Ronald Jones (703) 860-6877 

Office of Scientific Information, Chief John E. Moore (703) 860-6878 

Water Resources Information Center

Program (WRSIC), Chief Raymond A. Jensen (703) 860-7455 

Water Resources Research Institutes

(WRRI), Chief Frank T. Carlson (703) 860-7921

INFORMATION SYSTEMS DIVISION

Chief James E. Biesecker (703) 860-7108

Associate Chief Carl E. Diesen (703) 860-7106

Office of Systems Policy and Management Richard A. MacDonald (703) 860-7127

Office of ADP Services James A. Lair (703) 860-7519

Office of Data Administration Theodore M. Albert (703) 860-6086 

Office of Acquisition Management

and Support Virginia L. Thomas (703) 860-7242

Office of Program Support Services Rollin F. Nelson (703) 860-7103

ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISION

Chief Edmund J. Grant (703) 860-7201 

Administrative Service Officer

Deputy Chief William F. Gossman, Jr. (703) 860-7203

Administrative Operations Officer Timothy Calkins (703) 860-7204

Personnel Officer Maxine C. Millard (703) 860-6127

Contracts Officer Paul A. Denett (703) 860-7261

Finance Officer Roy Heinbuch (703) 860-6181

General Services Officer Posey R. Howell (703) 860-7206

National Center, STOP 409 

National Center, STOP 408

National Center, STOP 440 

National Center, STOP 441

National Center, STOP 414 

National Center, STOP 413

National Center, STOP 407 

National Center, STOP 410

National 

National 

National 

National 

National 

National 

National 

National

Center, 

Center, 

Center, 

Center, 

Center, 

Center, 

Center, 

Center,

STOP 421 

STOP 411 

STOP 412 

STOP 415 

STOP 417 

STOP 470 

STOP 440 

STOP 440

National Center, STOP 425 

National Center, STOP 424

National Center, 

National Center, 

National Center, 

National Center, 

National Center,

STOP 801 

STOP 801 

STOP 804 

STOP 807 

STOP 806

National Center, STOP 805 

National Center, STOP 802

National Center, STOP 201

National 

National 

National 

National 

National 

National

Center, 

Center, 

Center, 

Center, 

Center, 

Center,

STOP 202 

STOP 203 

STOP 215 

STOP 205 

STOP 270 

STOP 207

SELECTED FIELD OFFICES 

National Mapping Division

REGIONAL CENTERS

Eastern Roy E. Fordham

Mid-Continent Lawrence H. Borgerding

Rocky Mountain

Western 

Printing and Distribution

Merle E. Southern

John R. Swinnerton 

Charles D. Kuhler

(703) 860-6352 

(314)341-0880

(303)236-5825

(415) 323-8111,

ext.2411 

(703) 860-6761

National Center, STOP 567 

1400 Independence Road,

Rolla, MO 65401 

Box 25046, STOP 510,

Federal Center,

Denver, CO 80225 

345 Middlefield Road,

Menlo Park, CA 94025 

National Center, STOP 580

125
Office

PUBLIC INQUIRIES OFFICES

Alaska 

Name

Elizabeth C. Behrendt

California: 

Los Angeles Lucy E. Birdsall

Menlo Park Bruce S. Deam

San Francisco Patricia A. Shiffer

Colorado Irene V. Shy

District of Columbia Bruce A. Hubbard

Texas

Utah

Virginia

Washington

John P. Donnelly

Wendy R. Hassibe

Margaret E. Counce

Jean E. Flechel

DISTRIBUTION BRANCH OFFICES

Alaska :- Natalie Cornforth

Western

Eastern

Dwight F. Canfield

George V. DeMeglio

EARTH RESOURCES OBSERVATION SYSTEMS DATA CENTER

South Dakota Alien H. Watkins

GEOLOGIC DIVISION 

Regional Offices

Eastern Bruce R. Doe 

Central Harry A. Tourtelot

Western Carroll A. Hodges

WATER RESOURCES DIVISION 

Regional Offices

Northeastern Stanley P. Sauer 

Southeastern James L. Cook

Telephone Number

(907)277-0577

(907) 241-4307

(213) 688-2850 

(415) 323-8111 

(415) 556-5627 

(303) 837-4169 

(202) 343-8073 

(214) 767-0198 

(801)524-5652 

(703) 860-6167

(509) 456-2524

(907) 456-7535 

(303) 236-7477

(703)557-2781 

(605) 594-7123

(703) 860-6631 

(303) 236-5438

(415) 323-2214

(703) 860-6985 

(404) 221-5174

Address

108 Skyline Bldg., 

508 2d Ave., 

Anchorage, AK 99501

E-146 Federal Bldg., 

Box 53, 701 C Street 

Anchorage, AK 99513

7638 Fed. Bldg., .

300 N. Los Angeles St.,

Los Angeles, CA 90012 

345 Middlefield Rd.,

STOP 553, Bldg. 3,

Menlo Park, CA 94025 

504 Customhouse,

555 Battery St.,

San Francisco, CA 94111 

169 Fed. Bldg.,

1961 Stout St.,

Denver, CO 80294 

1028 GSA Bldg.,

19th and F Sts., NW.,

Washington, DC 20244 

1C45 Fed. Bldg.,

.1100 Commerce St.,

Dallas, TX 75242 

8105 Fed. Bldg.,

125 S. State St.,

Salt Lake City, UT 84138 

1C402 National Center,

STOP 503,

12201 Sunrise Valley Dr.,

Reston, VA 22092 

678 U.S. Courthouse,

W. 920 Riverside Ave.,

Spokane, WA 99201

101 12th Ave., Box 12, 

Fairbanks, AK 99701

Box 25286, STOP 306, 

Denver Federal Center, 

Denver, CO 80225

1200 S. Eads St., 

Arlington, VA 22202

EROS Data Center, 

Sioux Falls, SD 57198

National Center STOP 953 

Box 25046, STOP 911,

Denver Federal Center,

Denver, CO 80225 

345 Middlefield Rd., STOP 19,

Menlo Park, CA 94025

National Center, STOP 433 

Richard B. Russell Federal 

Bldg., 75 Spring St., SW, 

Suite 77, Atlanta, GA 30303

126
Office

Central

Western

Name

Alfred Clebsch, Jr.

John D. Bredehoeft

District Offices

Alabama Charles A. Pascale

Alaska Philip A. Emery 

Arizona Robert D. Mac Nish

Arkansas Ector E. Gann

California Timothy J. Durbin

Colorado James F. Blakey

Connecticut (See Massachusetts)

Delaware (See Maryland)

District of Columbia (See Maryland)

Florida Irwin H. Kantrowitz

Georgia Jeffrey T. Armbruster 

Hawaii - Stanley F. Kapustka

Idaho Ernest F. Hubbard, Jr. 

Illinois Larry G. Toler

Indiana Dennis K. Stewart 

Iowa : John M. Klein

Kansas Joseph S. Rosenshein 

Kentucky Alfred L. Knight 

Louisiana Darwin D. Knochenmus

Maine (See Massachusetts)

Maryland Herbert J. Freiberger

Massachusetts Ivan C. James II 

Michigan T. Ray Cummings 

Minnesota Donald R. Albin 

Mississippi Garald G. Parker, Jr.

Telephone Number

(303) 236-3661

(415) 323-8111, 

ext. 2337

(205) 752-8104 

(907) 271-4138 

(602) 629-6671

(501) 378-6391 

(916) 484-4606 

(303) 236-^1882

(904) 681-7620 

(404)221-4858 

(808) 546-8331

(208) 334-1750 

(217) 398-5353

(317) 927-8640 

(319) 337-4191

(913) 864-4321 

(502)582-5241 

(504) 389-0281

(301)828-1535

(617) 223-2822 

(517) 377-1608 

(612) 725-7841 

(601) 960-4600

Address

Box 25046, STOP 406, 

Denver Federal Center, 

Denver, CO 80225

345 Middlefield Road, STOP 66,

Menlo Park, CA 94025

520 19th Ave.,

Tuscaloosa, AL 35401 

1515 East 13th Ave.,

Anchorage, AK 99501 

Federal Bldg.,

301 W. Congress St.,

Tucson, AZ 85701 

2301 Federal Office Bldg.,

700 W. Capital Ave.,

Little Rock, AR 72201 

Room W-2235 Federal Bldg.,

2800 Cottage Way,

Sacramento, CA 95825 

Box 25046, STOP 415,

Denver Federal Center,

Denver, CO 80225

Suite 3015,

227 North Bronough Street,

Tallahassee, FL 32301 

6481 Peachtree Industrial Blvd.,

Suite B,

Doraville, GA 30360 

P.O. Box 50166,

300 Ala Moana Blvd., Rm 6610,

Honolulu, HI 96850 

230 Collins Road,

Boise, ID 83702 

Champaign County Bank Plaza,

102 E. Main St., 4th Floor,

Urbana, IL 61801 

6023 Guion Road, Suite 201,

Indianapolis, IN 46254 

P.O. Box 1230,

Room 269, Federal Bldg.,

1400 S. Clinton St.,

Iowa City, IA 52244 

1950 Constant Ave., Campus West,

University of Kansas,

Lawrence, KS 66044 

572 Federal Bldg.,

600 Federal PL,

Louisville, KY 40202 

P.O. Box 66492,

6554 Florida Blvd.,

Baton Rouge, LA 70896

208 Carroll Bldg.,

8600 La Salle Rd.,

Towson, MD 21204 

150 Causeway St./Suite 1309,

Boston, MA 02114 

6520 Mercantile Way, Suite 5,

Lansing, MI 48910 

702 Post Office Bldg.,

St. Paul, MN 55101 

Suite 710 Federal Bldg.,

100 West Capitol St.,

Jackson, MS 39269

127
Office

Missouri

Montana

Name

Daniel P. Bauer

George M. Pike

Nebraska William M. Kastner

Nevada (See Idaho)

New Hampshire (See Massachusetts)

New Jersey Donald E. Vaupel

New Mexico James F. Daniel 

New York Lawrence A. Martens 

North Carolina James F. Turner

North Dakota L. Grady Moore 

Ohio Steven M. Hindall 

Oklahoma James H. Irwin

Oregon (See Washington)

Pennsylvania David E. Click

Puerto Rico Ferdinand QuinonesMarquez

Rhode Island (See Massachusetts)

South Carolina Rodney N. Cherry

South Dakota Richard E. Fidler 

Tennessee Larry R. Hayes 

Texas Charles W. Boning

Telephone Number

(314) 341-0824

(406) 449-5302 

(402) 471-5082

(609) 989-2162 

(505) 766-2246 

(518)472-3107 

(919) 755^510

(701) 255-4011,

ext. 601 

(614) 469-5553

(405) 231^256 

(717) 782^514 

(809) 783^660

(803) 765-5966

(605) 352-8651, 

ext. 258

(615) 251-5424 

(512) 482-5766

Address

1400 Independence Rd.,

STOP 200,

Rolla, MO 65401 

428 Federal Bldg.,

301 South Park Avenue,

Drawer 10076,

Helena, MT 59626 

406 Federal Bldg. and

U.S. Courthouse,

100 Centennial Mall, North,

Lincoln, NE 68508

418 Federal Bldg.,

402 E. State Street,

Trenton, NJ 08608 

Western Bank Bldg., Rm. 720,

505 Marquette, NW.,

Albuquerque, NM 87102 

P.O. 1350, 343 U.S. Post

Office and Courthouse,

Albany, NY 12201 

P.O. Box 2857, Rm. 436,

Century Postal Station,

300 Fayetteville Street Mall

Raleigh, NC 27602 

821 East Interstate Ave.,

Bismarck, ND 58501 

975 West Third Ave.,

Columbus, OH 43212 

Rm. 621, 215 Dean A. McGee Ave.,

Oklahoma City, OK 73102

P.O. Box 1107, 4th Floor,

Federal Bldg., 228 Walnut St.,

Harrisburg, PA 17108 

GPO Box 4424,

Bldg. 652 GSA Center,

San Juan, PR 00936

Suite 658, 1835 Assembly St.,

Columbia, SC 29201 

Rm. 317 Federal Bldg.,

200 4th St., SW,

Huron, SD 57350 

A^13 Federal Bldg.,

U.S. Courthouse,

Nashville, TN 37203 

649 Federal Bldg.,

300 E. 8th St.,

Austin, TX 78701

128
Office

Utah

Name

Theodore Arnow

Vermont (See Massachusetts)

Virginia (See Maryland)

Washington Leslie B. Laird

West Virginia David H. Appel 

Wisconsin Vernon W. Norman 

Wyoming Richard M. Bloyd, Jr.

ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISION

REGIONAL MANAGEMENT OFFICES 

Central 

Telephone Number

(801) 524-5663

(206)593-6510 

(304) 347-5130 

(608) 262-1847 

(307) 772-2153

Western

Jack J. Stassi

Avery W. Rogers

(303) 236-5900 

(415) 323-2211

Address

1016 Administration Bldg., 

1745 W. 1700 South, 

Salt Lake City, UT 84104

1201 Pacific Ave., Suite 600,

Tacoma, WA 98402 

603 Morris St.

Charleston, WV 25301 

1815 University Ave.,

Madison, WI 53705 

P.O. Box 1125,

2120 Capital Ave., Rm. 4007,

Cheyenne, WY 82003

Box 25046, STOP 201, 

Denver Federal Center, 

Denver, CO 80225

345 Middlefield Rd., STOP 11, 

Menlo Park, CA 94025

129
Guide to Information and Publications

Throughout this report, reference has 

been made to information services and 

publications of the U.S. Geological Survey. 

During fiscal year 1984, the Survey 

produced over 6,679 new and revised 

topographic, hydrologic, and geologic maps; 

printed 14,634,104 copies of 6,679 different 

maps; distributed 7,313,355 copies of maps; 

and sold 5,866,744 copies for $9,104,984. 

The number of reports approved for 

publication by the Geological Survey 

increased 4,958 reports prepared in fiscal 

year 1984 with 64 percent designated for 

publication in professional journals and 

monographs outside the Survey and the 

remainder scheduled for publication by the 

Survey. In addition, 233,789 copies of 

technical reports were distributed of which 

43,808 copies were sold for $235,664 and 

1,076 open-file reports were released of 

which 43,769 copies were sold for 

$306,183.

To buy Survey book publications or to 

request Survey circulars, catalogs, 

pamphlets, and leaflets (limited quantities 

free), write or visit: 

U.S. Geological Survey 

Eastern Distribution Branch 

604 S. Pickett St. 

Alexandria, VA 22304

To buy maps of areas east of the 

Mississippi River, write or visit: 

U.S. Geological Survey 

Eastern Distribution Branch 

1200 S. Eads St. 

Arlington, VA 22202

To buy maps of areas west of the 

Mississippi River and to request Survey 

catalogs, pamphlets, and leaflets (limited 

quantities free), write or visit: 

U.S. Geological Survey 

Western Distribution Branch 

Box 25286, Bldg. 41, Federal Center 

Denver, CO 80225

To buy Alaskan maps, residents of 

Alaska may write or visit: 

U.S. Geological Survey 

Alaska Distribution Section 

101 12th Avenue, Box 12 

Fairbanks, AK 99701

To obtain information on the availability 

of microfiche or paper-duplicate copies of 

open-file reports, write: 

U.S. Geological Survey 

Open-File Services Section 

Box 25425, Federal Center 

Denver, CO 80225

To get on the mailing list for the monthly 

list of New Publications of the Geological 

Survey (free), write: 

U.S. Geological Survey 

Computer Operations Office 

582 National Center 

12201 Sunrise Valley Drive 

Reston, VA 22092

To subscribe to the Earthquake 

Information Bulletin, write: 

Superintendent of Documents

Government Printing Office 

Washington, DC 20402

To obtain information on programs, 

publications, and services or to obtain 

copies or reports and maps, visit the U.S. 

Geological Survey Public Inquiries Offices 

at the following addresses: 

Alaska:

108 Skyline Bldg.

508 2d Avenue

Anchorage, AK 99501

E-146 Federal Bldg. 

Box 53 

701 C St.

Anchorage, AK 99513 

California: 

7638 Federal Bldg. 

300 N. Los Angeles St. 

Los Angeles, CA 99012

Bldg. 3, Stop 533 

345 Middlefield Rd. 

Menlo Park, CA 94025

504 Customhouse

555 Battery St.

San Francisco, CA 94111 

Colorado:

169 Federal Bldg.

1961 Stout St.

Denver, CO 80294 

Texas:

1C45 Federal Bldg.

1100 Commerce St.

Dallas, TX 75242 

Utah:

8105 Federal Bldg.

125 S. State St.

Salt Lake City, UT 84138 

Virginia:

1C402 National Center

12201 Sunrise Valley Dr.

Reston, VA 22092 

Washington:

678 U.S. Courthouse

W. 920 Riverside Ave.

Spokane, WA 99201 

Washington, DC:

1028 General Services Admin. Bldg.

19th and F Sts., N.W.

Washington, DC 20244

To obtain information on cartographic 

data, write or visit the U.S. Geological 

Survey, National Cartographic Information 

Centers (NCIC), in the following States: 

Alaska:

U.S. Geological Survey

National Cartographic Information Center

Skyline Bldg.

218 E St.

Anchorage, AK 99501 

California:

Western Mapping Center

National Cartographic Information Center

345 Middlefield Rd.

Menlo Park, CA 94025 

Colorado:

Rocky Mountain Mapping Center

National Cartographic Information Center

Box 25046, Stop 504

Bldg. 25, Federal Center

Denver, CO 80225 

Mississippi:

National Space Technology Laboratories

National Cartographic Information Center

U.S. Geological Survey

Bldg. 3101

NSTL Station, MS 39529 

Missouri:

Mid-Continent Mapping Center

National Cartographic Information Center

1400 Independence Rd.

Rolla, MO 65401 

Virginia:

National Cartographic Information Center

507 National Center

12201 Sunrise Valley Dr.

Reston, VA 22092

Eastern Mapping Center

National Cartographic Information Center

536 National Center

12201 Sunrise Valley Dr.

Reston, VA 22092

To obtain information on aerial 

photographs and satellite and space 

imagery, write or visit: 

U.S. Geological Survey 

EROS Data Center 

Sioux Falls, SD 57198

To obtain assistance in locating sources 

of water data, identifying sites at which 

data have been collected, and specific 

data, write: 

U.S. Geological Survey 

National Water Data Exchange 

421 National Center 

12201 Sunrise Valley Dr. 

Reston, VA 22092

To obtain information on ongoing and 

planned water-data acquisition activities of 

all Federal agencies and many non-Federal 

organizations, write: 

U.S. Geological Survey 

Office of Water Data Coordination 

417 National Center 

12201 Sunrise Valley Dr. 

Reston, VA 22092

To obtain information on water 

resources in general and about the water 

resources of specific areas of the United 

States, write: 

U.S. Geological Survey 

Hydrologic Information Unit 

419 National Center 

12201 Sunrise Valley Dr. 

Reston, VA 22092

To obtain information on geology topics 

such as earthquakes, energy and mineral 

resources, the geology of specific areas, 

and geologic maps and mapping, write: 

U.S. Geological Survey 

Geologic Inquiries Group 

907 National Center 

12201 Sunrise Valley Dr. 

Reston. VA 22092

130
Cooperators and Other Financial Contributors

(Cooperators listed are those with whom the U.S. Geological Survey 

had a written agreement cosigned by Survey officials and the 

cooperating agency for financial cooperation in fiscal year 1984. 

Parent agencies are listed separately from their subdivisions whenever 

there are separate cooperative agreements for different projects with 

a parent agency and with a subdivision of it. Agencies with whom the 

Geological Survey has research contracts and to whom it supplied 

research funds are not listed.)

Cooperating office of the Geological Survey

g Geological Division

n National Mapping Division

w Water Resources Division

State, County, and Local Cooperators

Alabama:

Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources (w), 

Environmental Management (w), Highways (w); Alabama Surface 

Mining Commission (w); Geological Survey of Alabama (n,w); 

Jefferson County Commission (w); Tuscaloosa, City of (w)

Alaska:

Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation (w), Fish and 

Game (w), Natural Resources (n), Division of Geological and 

Geophysical Surveys (g, w), Lands and Water Management (w), 

Transportation and Public Facilities (w), Alaska Power Authority 

(g,w); Anchorage, Municipality of Department of Health and 

Environmental Protection (w), Department of Planning (w), 

Department of Solid Waste Services (w), Public Service (w), Water 

and Wastewater Utility (w); Fairbanks North Star Borough (w); 

Juneau, City and Borough of (w); Kenai Peninsula Borough (w); King 

Cove, City of (w); Matanuska Susitna Borough (w); Sandpoint, City of 

(w); Sitka, City and Borough of (w)

American Samoa: (See Hawaii)

Arizona:

Bureau of Water Quality Control (w), Parks and Tourism (w); Water 

Resources (w); Gila Valley Irrigation District (w); Maricopa 

County Flood Control District (w), Municipal Water Conservation 

District No. 1 (w); Metropolitan Water District of Southern 

California (w); Navajo County Parks Commission (w); Pima County, 

Board of Supervisors (w); Salt River Valley Water Users Association 

(w); San Carlos Irrigation and Drainage District (w); Show Low 

Irrigation Company (w); Tucson, City of (w); University of Arizona, 

Water Resources Research Center (w); Arizona Municipal Water 

Users Association (w)

Arkansas:

Arkansas Department of Pollution Control and Ecology (w); 

Arkansas Soil and Water Conservation Commission (w); Arkansas 

Geological Commission (g,n,w); Arkansas State Highway and 

Transportation Department (w); Arkansas Department of Parks and 

Tourism (w)

California:

Alameda County Flood Control and Water Conservation District 

(Hayward) (w), Flood Control and Water Conservation District, Zone 

7 (Livermore) (w), Water District (w); Antelope Valley-East Kern 

Water Agency (w); California Department of Boating and 

Waterways (w), Fish and Game (Sacramento) (w), Fish and Game, 

Region II (Rancho Cordova) (w), Health Services (w), Transportation, 

District 3 (Marysville); (w), Water Resources Central District 

(Sacramento) (w), Northern District (Red Bluff) (w), San Joaquin 

District (Fresno) (w); California Regional Water Quality Control 

Board Central Coast Region (San Luis Obispo) (w), Colorado River

Basin Region (Palm Desert) (w), North Coast Region (Santa Rosa) (w), 

San Francisco Bay Region (Oakland) (w), Santa Ana Region 

(Riverside); (w); California Water Resources Control Board (w); 

Carpointeria County, Water District (w); Casitas Municipal Water 

District (w); Coachella Valley, County Water District (w); Contra 

Costa County Department of Health Services (w), Flood Control 

and Water Conservation District (w); Crestline-Lake Arrowhead 

Water Agency (w); Desert Water Agency (w); East Bay Municipal 

Utility District (w); East San Bernardino County Water District (w); 

El Dorado County (w); Fresno County, Department of Resources and 

Development (w); Fresno Metropolitan Flood Control District (w); 

Georgetown Divide Public Utility District (w); Goleta County Water 

District (w); Humboldt Bay, Municipal Water District (w); Imperial 

County, Department of Public Works (w); Imperial Irrigation District 

(w); Indian Planning Consortium-Central California (w); Indian Wells 

Valley Water District (w); Inyo County Water Department (w); Kern 

County Water Agency (w); Kings River Conservation District (w); 

Lake County, Planning Department (w); Los Angeles County, Flood 

Control District (w); Los Angeles Department of Water and Power 

(w); Madera County, Flood Control and Water Conservation Agency 

(w); Madera Irrigation District (w); Marin County, Department of 

Public Works (w); Marin Municipal Water District (w); Merced, City 

of (w); Merced Irrigation District (w); Modesto, City of, Department 

of Public Works (w); Modoc County, Department of Public Works 

(w); Mojave Water Agency (w); Montecito County Water District (w); 

Monterey County Flood Control and Water Conservation District (w); 

Monterey Peninsula, Water Management District (w); Napa County 

Flood Control and Water Conservation District (w); Newport Beach, 

City of (w); Orange County Environmental Management Agency 

(w), Water District (w); Oroville-Wyandotte Irrigation District (w); 

Pacheo Pass Water District (w); Paradise Irrigation District (w); 

Placer County Water Agency (Auburn) (w); Placer County Water 

Agency (Foresthill) (w); Rancho California Water District (w); 

Riverside County Flood Control and Water Conservation District (w); 

Sacramento Regional County Sanitation District, Department of 

Public Works (w); San Benito County Water Conservation and Flood 

Control District (w); San Bernardino Valley Municipal Water 

District (w); San Diego, City of (w); San Diego County, Department 

of Planning and Land Use (w), Public Works (w); San Diego County 

Water Authority (w); San Francisco, City and County of, Hetch 

Hetchy Water and Power (w); San Francisco Water Department (w); 

San Joaquin County Flood Control and Water Conservation District 

(w); San Luis Obispo County, Engineering Department (w); San 

Mateo County Department of Planning (w), Department of Public 

Works (w); Santa Barbara, City of, Department of Public Works (w); 

Santa Barbara County Flood Control and Water Conservation 

District (w), Water Agency (w); Santa Clara Valley, Water District 

(w); Santa Cruz County Flood Control and Water Conservation 

District (w), Planning Department (w); Santa Cruz, City of, Water 

Department (w); Santa Maria Valley Water Conservation District 

(w); Santa Rosa Band of Mission Indians (w) Siskiyou County Flood 

Control and Water Conservation District (w), Sonoma 

County Planning Department (w), Water Agency (w); Soquel Creek 

County Water District (w); Stanford University (g); Tahoe Regional 

Planning (w); Terra Bella Irrigation District (w); Thousand Oaks, 

City of (w); Tulare County, Flood Control District (w); Turlock 

. Irrigation District (w); United Water Conservation District (w); 

University of California Berkeley, Agricultural Experiment Station, ' 

Department of Forestry and Resource Management (w), Davis, 

Division of Environmental Studies (w); Venture County, Public 

Works Agency (w); Western Municipal Water District (w); 

Westlands Water District (w); Woodbridge Irrigation District (w); 

Yolo County, Flood Control and Water Conservation District (w)

Colorado:

Arkansas River Compact Administration (w); Arvada, City of (w); 

Aspen, City of (w); Aurora, City of (w); Boulder, County of, 

Department of Public Works (w); Breckenridge, Town of (w); Central

131
Yuma Ground Water Management District (w); Cherokee Water and 

Sanitation District (w); Colorado Department of Health (w); Natural 

Resources (g); Colorado Division of Mined Land Reclamation (w); 

Colorado Division of Water Resources, Office of the State Engineer 

(w); Colorado River Water Conservation District (w); Colorado 

Springs, City of Department of Public Utilities (w), Office of the 

City Manager (w); Copper Mountain Water and Sanitation District 

(w); Custer, County of (w); Delta County, Board of County 

Commissioners (w); Denver, City and County, Board of Water 

Commissioners (w); Denver Regional Council of Governments {w); 

Eagle County, Board of Commissioners (w); El Paso County Water 

Users Association (w); Englewood, City of, Bi-City Wastewater 

Treatment Plant (w); Frenchman Ground Water Management 

District (w); Fruita, City of (w); Garfield County (w); Glenwood 

Springs, City of (w); Grand County Board of Commissioners (w); 

Larimer-Weld Regional Council of Governments (w); Marks Butte 

Ground Water Management District (w); Metropolitan Denver 

Sewage Disposal District No. 1 (w); Northern Colorado Water 

Conservancy District (w); Northwest Colorado Council of Govt. (w); 

Pitkin County, Board of Commissioners (w); Pueblo Civil Defense 

Agency (w); Purgatoire River Water Conservancy District (w); Rio 

Blanco County, Board of County Commissioners (w); Rio Grande 

Water Conservation District (w); Sand Hills Ground Water 

Management District (w); Southeastern Colorado Water 

Conservancy District (w); Southern High Plains GWMD (w); 

Southwestern Colorado Water Conservancy District (w); Steamboat 

Springs, City of (w); Trinchera Conservancy District (w); 

Uncompahgre Valley Water Users' Association (w); Upper Arkansas 

River Water Conservancy District (w); Upper Black Squirrel Creek 

(w); Upper Yampa Water Conservancy District (w); Urban Drainage 

and Flood Control District (w); Water Users No. 1 (Rangely) (w); 

W-Y Ground Water Management District (w); Yellow Jacket Water 

Conservancy District (w)

Connecticut:

Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection (g, n, w); 

Enfield, Town of (w); Fairfield, Town of, Conservation Commission 

(w); Meriden, Town of, Department of Public Works (w); New 

Britain, City of Board of Water Commissioners (w), Improvement 

Commission (w); New Haven Water Company (w); Northeast 

Connecticut Regional Planning Agency (w); Norwalk, Town of (w); 

Ridgefield, Town of (w); Simsbury, Town of (w); Stonington, Town of 

(w); Torrington, City of (w)

Delaware:

Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Control (w); 

Geological Survey (w); New Castle County, Public Works 

Department (w)

District of Columbia:

Department of Environmental Services (w)

Florida:

Department of Natural Resources (n); Big Cypress Basin Board (w); 

Boca Raton, City of (w); Bradenton, City of (w); Brevard County, 

Board of County Commissioners (w); Broward 

County Environmental Quality Control Board (w), Water Resources 

Management Division (w); Cape Coral, City of (w); Clearwater, City 

of (w); Collier, County of (w); Cocoa, City of (w); Coordinating 

Council on the Restoration of Kissimmee River Valley and Taylor 

Creek-Nubbins Slough Basin (w); Daytona Beach, City of (w); 

Englewood Water District, Board of Supervisors (w); Escambia 

County, Board of County Commissioners (w); Flagler County, Board 

of County Commissioners (w); Florida Department of Environmental 

Regulation, Bureau of Water Resources Management (w), Division of 

Recreation and Parks (w), Natural Resources, Division of Marine 

Resources (w); Transportation (n,w); Florida Institute of Phosphate 

Research (w); Florida Keys Aqueduct Authority (w); Fort

Lauderdale, City of (w); Fort Walton Beach, City of (w); Gainesville, 

City of (w); Hallandale, City of (w); Hernando, County of (w); 

Highland Beach, Town of (w); Hillsborough County (w); Hollywood, 

City of (w); Indian River County (w); Jacksonville, Consolidated City 

of Department of Health and Environmental Services (w), 

Department of Public Works (w); Jacksonville Plan Department (w); 

Joshua Water Control District (w); Juno Beach, Town of (w); Jupiter 

Inlet District (w); Lake County Board of County Commissioners (w), 

Pollution Control Department (w); Lee County, Board of County 

Commissioners (w); Leon County Courthouse (w), Department of 

Public Works (w); Manatee County, Board of County Commissioners 

(w); Marion County, Board of County Commissioners (w); 

Metropolitan Dade County Department of Environmental Resources 

Management (w); Miami-Dade Water and Sewer Authority (w); 

Northwest Florida Water Management District (w); Old Plantation 

Water Control District (w); Orange County, Board of County 

Commissioners (w); Palm Beach County, Board of County 

Commissioners (w); Pasco, County of (w); Perry, City of (w); Pinellas 

County, County Courthouse (w); Pinellas Park Water Management 

District (w); Polk County, Board of County Commissioners (w); 

Pompano Beach, City of, Water and Sewer Department (w); Quincy, 

City of (w); Reedy Creek Improvement District (w); Sarasota, City of 

(w); Sarasota, County of (w); South Florida Water Management 

District (w); Southwest Florida Regional Planning Council (w); 

Southwest Florida Water Management District (w); St. Johns, County 

of (w); St. Johns River Water Management District (w); St. 

Petersburg, City of (w); Stuart, City of (w); Sumter County, 

Recreation and Water Conservation and Control Authority (w); 

Suwannee River Authority (Live Oak) (w); Suwannee River Authority 

(Trenton) (w); Suwannee River Water Management District (w); 

Tallahassee, City of, Underground Utilities (w); Tampa, City of (w); 

University of South Florida (w); Walton, County of (w); West Coast 

Regional Waters Supply Authority (w); Winter Haven Lake Region 

(w); Winter Park, City of (w)

Georgia:

Albany, City of, Water, Gas, and Light Commission (w); Bibb County, 

Board of County Commissioners (w); Brunswick, City of (w); 

Chatham County, Board of County Commissioners (w); Clayton 

County, Water Authority (w); Consolidated Government of Columbus 

(w); Covington, City of (w); Georgia Department of Natural 

Resources Environmental Protection Division (w), Geological Survey 

(n,w); Transportation (w); Macon-Bibb County, Water and Sewage 

Authority (w); Valdosta, City of (w)

Guam: (See Hawaii)

Hawaii:

American Samoa, Government of (w); Guam, Government of (w); 

Hawaii Department of Health (w), Land and Natural Resources, 

Division of Water and Land Development (w), Transportation (w); 

Honolulu, City and County Board of Water Supply (w), Department 

of Public Works (w); Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands 

(w) Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (w), 

Federated States of Micronesia (w) State of Kosrae (w), State of 

Ponape (w), State of Truk (w), State of Yap (w), Republic of 

Marshall Islands (w); Republic of Palau (w); University of Hawaii, 

Water Resources Research Center (w)

Idaho:

Big Lost River Irrigation District (w); Idaho Department of Health 

and Welfare (w), Lands (n), Water Resources (w); Idaho Water 

Resources Board (w); Oakley Canal Company (w); Salmon River 

Canal Company (w); Teton County, Board of Commissioners (w); The 

Shoshone-Bannock Tribes, Fort Hall Indian Reservation (w); Water 

District No. 01, Idaho Falls (w); Water District No. 31, DuBois (w); 

Water District No. 33, Howe (w); Water District No. 37, Shoshone 

(w); Water District No. 37-N, Carey (w); Water District No. 65-K, 

Lake Fork (w)

132
Illinois:

Bloomington and Normal Sanitary District (w); Cook County, Forest 

Preserve District (w); Decatur, City of (w); Illinois Department 

of Conservation (n), Energy and Natural Resources, State Water 

Survey Division (w), Nuclear Safety (w), Transportation, Division of 

Highways (n), Division of Water Resources (n,w); Illinois 

Environmental Protection Agency (w); Illinois State Geological 

Survey (n); Springfield, City of (w)

Indiana:

Carmel, Town of (w); Elkhart, City of, Water Works (w); Indiana 

State Board of Health (w); Indiana Department of Highways (w), 

Natural Resources (n) Division of Water (w), Division of 

Reclamation (w); Indianapolis, City of, Department of Public Works 

(w); Purdue University (g)

Iowa:

Cedar Rapids, City of (w); Charles City, City of (w); Clear Lake, City 

of (w); Des Moines, City of (w); Des Moines Water Works (w); Fort 

Dodge, City of (w); Iowa Department of Transportation Highway 

Division (w); Water, Air, and Waste Management (w); Iowa 

Geological Survey (n, w); Iowa State University (w); Marshalltown, 

City of (w); Sewage Disposal Plant, Waterloo (w); Sioux City, City of 

(w); University of Iowa, University Physical Plant (w); University 

Hygenic Laboratory (w); Waterloo, City of (w); West-Central Iowa 

Rural Water Association (w)

Kansas:

Arkansas River Compact Administration (w); Harvey, County of (w); 

Hays, City of (w); Kansas Department of Health and Environment 

(w), Transportation (w); Kansas Geological Survey (w); Kansas State 

Board of Agriculture, Division of Water Resources (w); Kansas 

Water Office (w); Kansas-Oklahoma-Arkansas River Commission 

(w); Sedgwick, County (w); Southwest Kansas GWMD No. 3 (w); 

Western Kansas GWMD No. 1 (w); Wichita, City of, Flood Control 

Maintenance (w)

Kentucky:

Elizabethtown, City of (w); Kentucky Department of Natural 

Resources and Environmental Protection Cabinet (w), Transportation 

Cabinet, Division of Design (w); Louisville, City of {w); University of 

Kentucky, Kentucky Geological Survey (n,w); University of Louisville 

(w)

Louisiana:

Baton Rouge City-Parish Government (w); Capital-Area 

Groundwater Conservation Commission (w); Louisiana Department 

of Natural Resources Geological Survey (g,w); Office of 

Environmental Affairs, Water Pollution Control Division (w); 

Transportation and Development Office of Highways (w), Office of 

Public Works (n,w); Louisiana State Planning Office (n); Sabine 

River Compact Administration (w)

Maine:

Androscoggin Valley Regional Planning Commission (w); Cobbossee 

Watershed District (w); Maine Department of Conservation, 

Geological Survey (n,w), Environmental Protection (w); Wilton, Town 

of(w)

Maryland:

Anne Arundel County, Planning and Zoning Office (w); Baltimore 

County Department of Permits and Licenses (w), Department of 

Public Works (w), Office of Planning and Zoning (w); Calvert County 

(w); Caroline County (w); Carroll County, Board of County 

Commissioners (w); Howard County, Department of Public Works 

(w); Maryland Department of Health and Mental Hygiene, Office 

of Environmental Programs (w), Transportation, State Highway

Administration (w); Maryland Energy Administration (w); Maryland 

Geological Survey (n, w); Maryland Water Resources Administration 

(w); Montgomery County Department of Environmental Protection, 

Office of Environmental and Energy Planning (w), Division of 

Pollution Control (w); Poolesville, Town of (w); St. Marys County, 

County Commissioners (w); Upper Potomac River Commission (w); 

Washington Suburban Sanitary Commission (w)

Massachusetts:

Barnstable County, County Commissioners (w); Cape Cod Planning 

and Economic Development Commission (w); Falmouth, Town of (w); 

Massachusetts Department of Public Works Division of Highways 

(w), Division of Research and Materials (w); Massachusetts State 

Water Resources Commission Division of Water Pollution Control 

(w), Division of Water Resources (w); Metropolitan District 

Commission, Water Division (w)

Michigan:

Ann Arbor, City of (w); Battle Creek, City of (w); Clare, City of (w); 

Coldwater, City of, Board of Public Utilities (w); Dickinson County, 

Board of Commissioners (w); Elsie, Village of (w); Flint, City of, 

Water Supply and Pollution Control, Department of Public Works 

and Utilities (w); Genesee County Drain Commission, Division of 

Water and Waste Services (w); Huron-Clinton Metropolitan 

Authority (w); Imlay, City of (w); Kalamazoo, City of, Department of 

Public Utilities (w); Lansing, City of, Board of Water and Light, 

Water and Stream Division (w); Macomb County (w); Mason, City of 

(w); Michigan Department of Agriculture, Soil and Water 

Conservation Division (w), Natural Resources Geological Survey 

Division (w), Office of Budget and Federal Aid (w); Transportation 

(w); Oakland County, Drain Commission (w); Otsego County, Road 

Commission (w); Portage, City of (w); St. Johns, City of (w); Van 

Buren County, Board of Commissioners (w); Ypsilanti, City of (w)

Minnesota:

Bassett Creek Watershed Management Organization (w); 

Carnelian-Marine Watershed District (w); Coon Creek Watershed 

District (w); Eagan, City of (w); Elm Creek Conservation Commission 

(w); Fond Du Lac Reservation Bus. Comm. (w); Iron Range Resources 

Rehabilitation Board (w); Metropolitan Council of the Twin Cities 

Area (w); Metropolitan Waste Control Commission (w); Middle 

River-Snake River Watershed District (w); Minnesota Department 

of Energy, Planning and Development (w), Health (w), Natural 

Resources (w), Transportation (w); Minnesota Geological Survey (w); 

Minnesota Pollution Control Agency (w); Minnesota Waste 

Management Board (w); Morrison County, Soil and Water 

Conservation District (w); Red Lake Watershed District (w); St. Louis 

Park, City of (w); University of Minnesota (w); Wesmin Resource, 

Conservation and Development Association (w); White Earth 

Reservation Bus. Comm. (w)

Mississippi:

Harrison County Board of Supervisors {w), Development 

Commission (w); Jackson, City of (w); Jackson County Board of 

Supervisors (w), Port Authority (w); Mississippi Department 

of Highways (w), Natural Resources Bureau of Geology (w), 

Bureau of Land and Water Resources (w), Bureau of Pollution 

Control (w); Mississippi Research and Development Center (n,w); 

Natchez, City of (w); Pat Harrison Waterway District (w); Pearl 

River Valley Water Supply District (w)

Missouri:

Helena, City of (w); Little River Drainage District (w); Missouri 

Department of Conservation (w), Natural Resources Division of 

Environmental Quality, Lab Services Program (w), Division of 

Geology and Land Survey (n,w), Land Reclamation Commission (w); 

Missouri Highway and Transportation Commission (w); Springfield, 

City of City Utilities, Engineering Department (w)

133
Montana:

Helena, City of (w); Montana Bureau of Mines and Geology (w); 

Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife, and Parks (w), Health and 

Environmental Sciences (w), Highways (w), Natural Resources and 

Conservation (w), State Lands (w); Salish and Kootenai Tribes of 

Flathead Reservation (w); Wyoming State Engineer (w)

Nebraska:

Central Platte-Natural Resources District (w); Kansas-Nebraska Big 

Blue River Compact Administration (w); Lincoln, City of (w); Little 

Blue Natural Resources District (w); Lower Platte Natural Resources 

District (w); Lower Republican Natural Resources District (w); 

Nebraska Department of Environmental Control (w), Health (w); 

Water Resources (w); Nebraska Natural Resources Commission (w); 

Tri-Basin Natural Resources District (w); Twin Platte Natural 

Resources District (w); University of Nebraska, Conservation and 

Survey Division (w); Upper Loup Natural Resources District (w)

Nevada:

California Regional Water Quality Control Board, Lahontan Region 

(w); Carson City, Department of Public Works (w); Churchill County 

(w); Douglas County, Department of Planning (w); Fallon, City of (w); 

Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology (g,n,w), Nevada Department 

of Conservation and Natural Resources Division of Environmental 

Protection (w), Division of Water Resources (w); Transportation (w); 

Reno, City of (w); Washoe County, Council of Governments (w)

New Hampshire:

Conway, Town of (w); Nashua Regional Planning Commission (w); 

New Hampshire Water Resources Board (w); Water Pollution 

Control Commission (w)

New Jersey:

Bergen, County of (w); Bridgewater, Township of (w); Camden 

County, Board of Chosen Freeholders (w); Cranford, Township of 

(w); Logan, Township of (w); Morris County, Municipal Utilities 

Authority (w); New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection, 

Division of Water Resources (w); North Jersey District Water Supply 

Commission (w); Passaic Valley Water Commission (w); Somerset 

County, Board of Chosen Freeholders (w); West Windsor Township, 

Environmental Commission (w)

New Mexico:

Alamo Navajo Chapter (w); Alamogardo, City of (w); Albuquerque, 

City of (w); Albuquerque Metropolitan Arroyo Flood Control 

Authority (w); Bernalillo County (w); Costilla Creek Compact 

Commission (w); Jemez River Indian Water Authority (w); Las 

Cruces, City of (w); Navajo Indian Nation (w); New Mexico Bureau 

of Mines and Mineral Resources (w); New Mexico Environmental 

Improvement Division (w); New Mexico Department of Highways 

(w); Office of State Engineer (w); Pecos River Commission (w); 

Pueblo of Acoma (w); Pueblo of Laguna (w); Pueblo of Zuni (w); 

Raton, City of (w); San Juan County (w); Santa Fe Metropolitan 

Water Board (w); Veremejo Conservacy District (w)

New York:

Albany, City of, Department of Water and Water Supply (w); 

Auburn, City of (w); Brookhaven, Town of (w); Chautauqua, County 

of, Department of Planning and Development (w); Clarence, Town of 

(w); Cornell University Department of Natural Resources (w), 

Department of Utilities (w); Cortland, County of, Planning 

Department (w); Erie County, Division of Environmental Control, 

Department of Environment and Planning (w); Hudson-Black River 

Regulating District (w); Irondequoit Bay Pure Waters (w); Kirkwood, 

Town of (w); Kiryas Joel, Village of (w); Long Island Regional 

Planning Board (w); Monroe, County of Engineering Department 

(w), Water Authority (w); Nassau, County of, Department of Public 

Works (w); Newstead, Town of (w); New York City Department of 

Environmental Protection, Air Resources-Water Resources-Energy 

(w), Department of Sanitation, Office of Resource Recovery (w); New

York State Department of Environmental Conservation Division of 

Air (w), Division of Water (w); Water Research Bureau (w); 

Transportation, Bridge and Construction Bureau (w); New York 

State Energy Resources and Development Authority (w); New York 

State Power Authority (w); Nyack, Village of, Board of Water 

Commissioners (w); Onondaga, County of Department of Drainage 

(w), Environmental Management Council (w), Water Authority (w); 

Oswego, County of, Planning Board (w); Rockland, County of, 

Drainage Agency (w); Seneca Nation of Indians (w); Shelter Island, 

Town of (w); Suffolk, County of Department of Health Sciences (w), 

Water Authority (w); Susquehanna River Basin Commission (w); 

Temporary State Commission on Tug Hill (w); Ulster, County of, 

County Legislators (w); University of the State of New York, Regents 

Research Inc. (w); Westchester, County of Department of Health 

(w), Department of Public Works (w)

North Carolina:

Ayden, Town of (w); Charlotte, City of (w); Durham, City of, 

Department of Water Resources (w); Farmville, Town of (w); Greene 

County (w); Greensboro, City of (w); Greenville Utilities (w); Kinston, 

City of (w); LaGrange, Town of (w); New Bern, City of (w); North 

Carolina State Department of Human Resources (w), Natural 

Resources and Community Development (n,w), Transportation, 

Division of Highways (w); Pinetops, Town of (w); Rocky Mount, City 

of (w); Snow Hill, Town of (w); Stantonsburg, Town of (w)

North Dakota:

Burleigh County, Water Resources District (w); Dickinson, City of 

(w); North Dakota Geological Survey (w); North Dakota State 

University (w); Oliver County, Board of Commissioners (w); Public 

Service Commission (w); State Department of Health (w); State 

Water Commission (w); University of North Dakota (w)

Northern Mariana Islands: (See Hawaii)

Ohio:

Canton, City of, Water Department (w); Columbus, City 

of Department of Public Service (w), Division of Water (w); Miami 

Conservancy District (w); Northeast Ohio Areawide Coordinating 

Agency (w); Northwood, City of (w); Ohio Department of Natural 

Resources Division of Geological Survey (g,w), Division of Oil (w), 

Division of Reclamation (w), Division of Water (w); Transportation 

(w); Ohio Environmental Protection Agency (w); Seneca Soil and 

Water District (w)

Oklahoma:

Ada, City of (w); Altus, City of (w); Central Oklahoma Master 

Conservancy District (w); Claremore, City of (w); Fort Cobb 

Reservoir Master Conservancy District (w); Foss Reservoir Master 

Conservancy District (w); Lawton, City of (w); Lugert-Altus 

Irrigation District (w); Mountain Park Master Conservancy District 

(w); Oklahoma City, City of (w); Oklahoma Conservation Commission 

(w); Oklahoma Department of Transportation (n,w); Oklahoma 

Geological Survey, University of Oklahoma (w); Oklahoma State 

Health Department (w); Oklahoma Water Resources Board (w); 

Sapulpa, City of (w); Tulsa, City of (w)

Oregon:

Benton County Board of Commissioners (w); Burnt River Irrigaton 

District (w); Confederated Tribes of Umatilla Indian Reservation 

(w), Warm Springs Indian Reservation (w); Coos Bay-North Bend 

Water Board (w); Douglas, County of, Department of Public Works 

(w); Eugene, City of, Water and Electric Board (w); Lane Council of 

Governments (w); Lane, County of, Office of the Chief Administrator 

(w); McMinnville, City of, Water and Light Department (w); Oregon 

Department of Environmental Quality (w), Fish and Wildlife (w), 

Geology and Mineral Industries (g,n), Transportation, Highway 

Division (w); Water Resources (w); Oregon State University (w); 

Portland, City of, Bureau of Water Works (w); Rajneeshpuram, City 

of (w); Salem, City of (w); Wasco County People's Utility District (w)

134
Pennsylvania:

Altoona City Authority (w); Bethlehem, City of (w); Chester, County 

of, Water Resources Authority (w); Delaware River Basin 

Commission (w); Harrisburg, City of, Department of Public Works 

(w); Letort Regional Authority (w); Millcreek, Township of (w); New 

York State Department of Environmental Conservation (w); Oley 

Township (w); Philadelphia, City of, Water Department (w); 

Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Resources Mining 

and Reclamation Bureau (w), Office of Resources Management (w), 

Soil Wastes and Management Bureau (w), State Parks Bureau (w), 

Topographic and Geologic Survey Bureau (n,w), Water Quality 

Management Bureau (w); Pennsylvania State University (g); 

Susquehanna River Basin Commission (w); Washington 

County Conservation District (w), Supervisors (w)

Puerto Rico:

Puerto Rico Aqueduct and Sewer Authority (w); Puerto Rico 

Department of Agriculture (w), Health (w), Natural Resources 

(g,w), Transportation and Public Works (w); Puerto Rico Electric 

Power Authority (w); Puerto Rico Environmental Quality Board (w); 

Puerto Rico Industrial Development Company (w); Puerto Rico Land 

Administrator (w); Puerto Rico Land Authority (w); Puerto Rico 

Mineral Resources Development Corporation (g); Puerto Rico 

Planning Board (w); Puerto Rico Rice Corporation (w); Puerto Rico 

Sugar Corporation (w); Puerto Rico Vegetable Corporation (w); (See 

also Virgin Islands)

Rhode Island:

Narragansett Bay Water Quality Commission (w); Rhode Island 

State Department of Environmental Management, Division of Water 

Resources (w); State Water Resources Board (w)

South Carolina:

Charleston, Commission of Public Works (w); Grand Strand Water 

and Sewer Authority (w); Hilton Head Island, Public Service District 

No. 1 (w); Myrtle Beach, City of (w); North Myrtle Beach, City of (w); 

South Carolina State Department of Highways and Public 

Transportation (w), Geological Survey (w), Health and Environmental 

Control (w), Public Service Authority (w), Water Resources 

Commission (w); Spartanburg Water Works, Commissioners of 

Public Works (w)

South Dakota:

Black Hills Conservancy Subdistrict (w); East Dakota Conservancy 

Subdistrict (w); Lower James Conservancy Subdistrict (w); South 

Dakota Department of Transporation (n); Water and Natural 

Resources Geological Survey Division (w), Water Rights Division 

(w); Watertown, City of (w)

Tennessee:

Division of Surface Mines (w); Gallatin, City of (w); Lawrenceburg, 

City of (w); Memphis, City of Light, Gas, and Water Division (w), 

Public Works Division (w), Metropolitan Government of Nashville 

and Davidson County; Shelby, County of (w); Tennessee Department 

of Conservation, Geology Division (n,w), Health and Environment 

(w); Transportation, Bureau of Highways (w); University of 

Tennessee (w)

Texas:

Abilene, City of (w); Alice, City of (w); Arlington, City of (w); Athens 

Municipal Water Authority (w); Austin, City of (w); 

Bexar-Medina-Atascosa Counties, Water Improvement District No. 

1 (w); Bistone Municipal Water Supply District (w); Brazos River 

Authority (w); Cleburne, City of (w); Clyde, City of (w); Coastal Bend 

Council of Governments (w); Coastal Industrial Water Authority (w); 

Colorado River Municipal Water District (w); Corpus Christi, City of 

(w); Dallas, City of, Public Utilities (w); Dallas, County of, Public 

Works Department (w); Dallas-Fort Worth Airport (w); Edwards 

Underground Water District (w); El Paso, City of, Public Service 

.Board (w); Franklin, County of, Water District (w); Gainesville, City

of (w); Galveston, County of (w); Garland, City of (w); Graham, City 

of (w); Greenbelt Municipal and Industrial Water Authority (w); 

Guadalupe-Blanco River Authority (w); Harris, County of, Flood 

Control District (w); Harris-Galveston Coastal Subsidence District 

(w); Houston, City of (w); Lavaca-Navidad River Authority (w); 

Lower Colorado River Authority (w); Lower Neches Valley Authority 

(w); Lubbock, City of (w); Mackenzie Municipal Water Authority (w); 

Nacogdoches, City of (w); North Central Texas Municipal Water 

Authority (w); Northeast Texas Municipal Water District (w); 

Orange, County of (w); Pecos River Commission (w); Red Bluff Water 

Power Control District (w); Reeves, County of, Water Improvement 

District No. 1 (w); Sabine River Authority of Texas (w); Sabine River 

Compact Administration (w); San Angelo, City of (w); San Antonio, 

City of Engineering Department (w), Water Board (w); San Antonio 

River Authority (w); San Jacinto River Authority (w); Tarrant, 

County of, Water Control and Improvement District No. 1 (w); Texas 

Bureau of Economic Geology (g); Texas Department of Water 

Resources (n, w); Texas Parks and Wildlife Department (w); Titus, 

County of, Fresh Water Supply District No. 1 (w); Trinity River 

Authority (w); Upper Guadalupe River Authority (w); Upper Neches 

River Municipal Water Authority (w); Upper Trinity Basin Water 

Quality Compact (w); West Central Texas Municipal Water District 

(w); Wichita, County of, Water Improvement District No. 2 (w); 

Wichita Falls, City of (w); Wood, County of (w)

Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands: (See Hawaii)

Utah:

Bear River Commission (w); Department of Transporation (w); Salt 

Lake, County of Board of County Commissioners (w), Division of 

Flood Control and Water Quality (w), Utah Department of Natural 

Resources Geological and Mineral Survey (g,w), Oil, Gas and 

Mining Division (w), Water Resources Division (w), Water Rights 

Division (w), Wildlife Resources Division (w)

Vermont:

Agency of Environmental Conservation (n); Vermont Department of 

Water Resources and Environmental Engineering (w)

Virginia:

Alexandria, City of, Department of Transportation and 

Environmental Services (w); County of York (w); James City, County 

of, Department of Public Works (w); James City Service Authority 

(w); Newport News, City of, Department of Public Utilities (w); 

Roanoke, City of, Utilities and Operations (w); Southeastern Public 

Service Authority of Virginia (w); University of Virginia, Department 

of Environmental Sciences (w); Virginia Department 

of Conservation and Economic Development, Division of Mineral 

Resources (n), Highways and Transportation (w); Virginia State 

Water Control Board (w); Williamsburg, City of (w)

Virgin Islands:

Department of Public Works (w); Planning Office (w); Virgin Islands, 

College of (w)

Washington:

Bellevue, City of, Public Works Department (w); Centralia, City of 

(w); Chatcom County (w); Chelan, County of, Public Utility District 

No. 1 (w); Everett, City of (w); Fircrest, Town of (w); Hoh Indian 

Tribe (w); Island, County of, Board of County Commissioners (w); 

King, County of, Department of Public Works (w); Lewis, County of, 

Board of Commissioners (w); Makah Tribal Council (w); Municipality 

of Metropolitan Seattle (w); Pend Oreille, County of, Public Utility 

District No. 1 (w); Puyallup Indian Nation (w); Quinault Indian 

Business Committee (w); San Juan County Board of County 

Commissioners (w); Seattle, City of Department of Lighting (w), 

Water Department (w); Skagit, County of (w); Snohomish County (w); 

Stillaguamish Indian Tribe (w); Tacoma, City of Public Utilities 

Department (w), Public Works Department (w); Tulalip Tribal Board 

of Directors (w); Yakima Tribal Council (w); Washington Department

135
of Ecology (w), Fisheries (w), Natural Resources (g,n), 

Transportation (w)

West Virginia:

Marshall County Commission (w); Morgantown, City of, Water 

Commission (w); West Virginia Department of Highways (w), 

Natural Resources Division of Reclamation (w), Division of Water 

Resources (w); West Virginia Geological and Economic Survey (w)

Wisconsin:

Bad River Tribal Council (w); Dane, County of Department of 

Public Works (w), Regional Planning Commission (w); Delavan Lake 

Sanitary District (w); Forest County Potawatomi Community (w); 

Green Bay Metropolitan Sewerage District (w); Green Lake Sanitary 

District (w); Hills Lake District Association (w); Lac du Flambeau 

Indian Reservation (w); Madison Metropolitan Sewage District (w); 

Madison Water Utility (w); Menominee Indian Tribe of Wisconsin 

(w); Middleton, City of (w); Morris Lake Management District (w); 

Slinger, Village of (w); Southeastern Wisconsin Regional Planning 

Commission (w); University of Wisconsin, Extension, Geological and 

Natural History Survey (n,w); University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee 

(w); Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources (n,w), 

Transportation (n) Bridge Section (w), Division of Highways (w)

Wyoming:

Buffalo, City of (w); Water Development Commission (w); Wyoming 

Department of Agriculture (w), Economic Planning and 

Development (w), Environmental Quality (w), Highways (w); 

Wyoming State Engineer (n,w)

FEDERAL COOPERATORS

Central Intelligence Agency (g,n)

Department of Agriculture:

Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service (n); Economics, 

Statistics, and Cooperatives Service (n, w); Forest Service (n,w); 

Graduate School (w); Agricultural Research Service (w); Soil 

Conservation Service (g,n,w)

Department of the Air Force:

Air Force Academy (w); Boiling Air Force Base (g); Hanscom Air 

Force Base (g); Headquarters, AFTAC/AC (g); Vandenberg Air Force 

Base (w); Wurtsmith Air Force Base (w)

Department of the Army:

Armament Research and Development Command (w); Avionics R 

and D Activity (g); Coastal Engineering Research Center (g); Corps of 

Engineers (g,w); Fort Belvoir (n); Fort Bliss (w); Fort Carson 

Military Reservation (w); Mobility Equipment Research and 

Development Command (g); Research Office, Triangle Park, N.C. (g); 

Waterways Experiment Station (g); White Sands Missile Range (w); 

CE-New Orleans (n)

Department of Commerce:

Census (n); Coastal Plains Regional Action Planning Commission 

(g); National Bureau of Standards (g); National Ocean Survey (n); 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (n), National 

Marine (w); Fisheries Service (n,w); National Weather Service 

(g,n,w)

Department of Defense Agencies:

Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (g); Defense Mapping

Agency (g,n); Defense Nuclear Agency (g); Defense Intelligence 

Agency (g)

Department of Energy:

Albuquerque Operations Office (g,w); Nuclear Regulatory 

Commission (g,w); Bonneville Power Administration (w); Chicago 

Operations Office (w); Idaho Operations Office (w); Lawrence 

Livermore Laboratory (g); Nevada Operations Office (g,n,w); Oak 

Ridge Operations Office (w); Office of Energy Research (g); 

Procurement Operations Office (g); Richland Operations Office (g,w); 

San Francisco Operations (g); Sandia National Laboratories (g); 

United States Arms Control and Disarmament Agency (g); Western 

Area Power Administration (g)

Department of Health and Human Services (w)

Department of the Interior:

Bureau of Indian Affairs (g,n,w); Bureau of Land Management 

(g.n.w); Bureau of Mines (g.n.w); Bureau of Reclamation (g,w); 

Minerals Management Service (g,w); National Park Service (g.n.w); 

Office of the Secretary (g,w); Office of Surface Mining Reclamation 

and Enforcement (g,w); U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (g,n,w); Water 

and Power Resources Service (g)

Department of Justice (n,w)

Department of the Navy:

Naval Explosive Ordnance Disposal Test Center (g); Naval 

Oceanographic Office (g); Naval Weapons Center, China Lake 

(g,n,w); Office of Naval Research (g); U.S. Marine Corps, Camp 

Pendleton (w)

Department of State:

Agency for International Development (g,w); International Boundary 

and Water Commission, U.S. and Mexico (w); International Joint 

Commission, U.S. and Canada (w)

Department of Transportation:

Federal Highway Administration (g,n,w); St. Lawrence Seaway 

Development Corporation (w); U.S. Coast Guard (w)

Department of Treasury:

U.S. Customs Service (n)

Environmental Protection Agency (n):

Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory (w); Environmental 

Monitoring Systems Laboratory (g); Office of Environmental 

Engineering and Technology (g); Office of Monitoring and Technical 

Suoport (w)

Federal Emergency Management Agency (g, w)

Federal Energy Regulating Commission Licensees (w)

General Services Administration (w)

Missouri Basin States Association (w)

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (g,n,w)

National Science Foundation (g,n,w)

Tennessee Valley Authority (n,w)

Veterans Administration (g,w)

136
OTHER COOPERATORS AND CONTRIBUTORS

Government of American Samoa (w) 

Government of Guam (w) 

Government of Peru (g) 

Government of Saudi Arabia (g,n,w) 

Government of Venezuela (w) 

People's Republic of China (g)

Puerto Rico:

Puerto Rico Aqueduct and Sewer Authority (w); Puerto Rico 

Department of Agriculture (w); Puerto Rico Department of Health 

(w); Puerto Rico Department of Natural Resources (g,w); Puerto Rico

Department of Transportation and Public Works (w); Puerto Rico 

Electric Power Authority (w); Puerto Rico Environmental Quality 

Board (w); Puerto Rico Industrial Development Company (w); Puerto 

Rico Land Authority (w); Puerto Rico Mineral Resources 

Development Corporation (g); Puerto Rico Planning Board (w); Puerto 

Rico Sugar Corporation (w)

Trust Territories of the Pacific Islands (w):

Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (w); Federated 

States of Micronesia (w) State of Kosrae (w), State of Ponape (w), 

State of Truk (w), State of Yap (w); Republic of Palau (w)

United Nations:

United Nations Development Program (g,w); UNESCO (w); World 

Meteorological Organization (w)

Virgin Islands:

College of the Virgin Islands (w); Virgin Islands Department of 

Public Works (w); Virgin Islands Planning Office (w)

137
Budgetary and Statistical Data

TABLE 1. Geological Survey budget for fiscal years 1979 to 1984, by activity and sources of funds 

(Dollars in thousands; totals may not add due to Founding)

Budget activity

Tntal ____ _______ ________ ____ _ _ __

Oldltso, L.LJUHllGOj dllLl lI!LllllUl|JcllllltJo 

National Mapping, Geography, and Surveys 

Reimbursable program 

Geologic and Mineral Resource Surveys and

Mapping 

C to too r»rti i ntioo G TI/I IYII iTiioiTxQlitioo ___«__ __

i-Jll C/wL ^JL \JQL ulll

Reimbursable program 

Conservation of Lands and Minerals 

±JLL Clj L ^JL UK1 ulll

Reimbursable program 

f^f"Tif*A /\T T!> di*f'it d"*i<knf£ic A nnii/>*kiif\inc __.. __ _

Old Leo j LtULlllLlco, dilLl lllLlllUjl^JdllLltJo 

vjlllt/l r cU.t/1 dl dgcllUlUo

National Petroleum Reserve in Alaska

Ull dj i fl Ugl dill «. . 

Reimbursable program (Federal) 

General Administration 

IxcllllULli odUlt? £J1U££1 dill \r cUcl dlj

1-^11 OO L ^Ji \JQL ulll

Reimbursable program 

IVllSlijCllclIldJUS aClvlljCa III UUlcl clUI^UUllLS 

IVllooClldllcULlo 11U11 r oUt/lul aUUlL.t/0 

Uov*i*n¥Ar A I*AO f^fiG. l*^l'nAi*£k'f"imic _.._^^_..^_ W _^^ M...__»^H

1979

4&F7C/1 T1 O

CO A QOC

J.^iv7)UO£i

T1TI| i£t^.

*i c Ton

D«7,«71^7

 74,566

\j\j)\j\j^

0 QQO

3

O"7 -1

iJC7/

\Jj\J i" 

 1 *7O C EC

-1 f\A O ACi

T\Jj/ i\J

wL>~

 10,914

oo o-i o

 t CO CflO

nc QA T

r?-! TC "1

 40,156

I

C'TO

£i\j)\JL*£^

oe A o>i

oc oco

i oo

OO AC ET

J.CJ|C7*JC?

 4,006

1 Q

^,OOO

o-| p QQK

S

ati't

3

Cd

 11,741

1

OC-1

1

OC-1

L*i £j

\J\J>J

1980

$782,136

639,143 

142,993 

46,849 

16,817 

79,327 

82,683 

72,759 

9,924 

3,083 

610 

6,231

193,652

146,963 

46,689 

640 

11,258 

34,791 

184,871 

108,664 

76,207 

43,126 

1,778 

31,303 

106,395 

105,928 

467 

12 

455 

23,734 

18,935 

4,799

2,808 

1,991

169,845

3,776

3,776

12,273

12,273

4,907

4,907 

351 

4,556

1981

$769,757

623,057 

146,700 

48,700 

19,605 

78,395 

89,177 

77,449 

11,727 

2,985 

1,095 

7,648

208,287

162,756 

45,531 

758 

13,192 

31,761 

194,016 

115,458 

78,558 

45,138 

2,088 

31,332 

127,001 

125,739 

1,262 

29 

1,233 

23,205 

18,849 

4,356

3,139 

1,217

107,001

3,896

3,896

11,909

11,909

5,266

5,266 

62 

5,204

1982

$661,842

509,983 

151,859 

50,418 

24,376 

77,065 

88,133 

77,687 

10,446 

3,000 

1,100 

6,346

212,355

163,731 

48,624 

480 

16,844 

31,300 

190,096 

108,637 

81,459 

46,938 

2,679 

.31,842 

130,468 

129,868 

600 

210 

390 

20,853 

14,359 

6,494

3,482 

3,012

2,196

3,407

3,407

10,093

10,098

4,236

4,236 

61 

4,175

1983

$556,054

396,909 

159,145 

51,972 

21,215 

85,958 

91,611 

81,138 

10,473 

2,700 

1,204 

6,569

206,517

159,190 

47,327 

490 

14,293 

32,544 

199,697 

115,096 

84,601 

48,782 

3,914 

31,905

18,452

11,132 

7,320

1,728 

5,592

16,313

14,931 

1,382 

9,167 

9,022 

145 

7,917 

7,917 

96 

7,821 

6,400 

6,400

1984

$596,177

423,885 

172,292 

55,801 

21,142 

95,349 

112,447 

90,985 

21,462 

2,700 

2,362 

16,400

217,584

164,354 

53,230 

988 

15,030 

37,212 

220,390 

129,441 

90,949 

52,113 

3,600 

35,236

 

15,962

15,642 

320 

10,608 

10,463 

145 

6,186 

6,186 

150 

6,036 

13,000 

13,000

1 Includes 1982 appropriation for Minerals Management Service.

138
TABLE 2. Geological Survey reimbursable program funds from other Federal agencies for fiscal years 1979 to 1984, by agency 

(Dollars in thousands)

Budget activity

Total -

Department of Agriculture 

Department of Commerce 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration 

Ozarks Regional Commission 

Department of Defense 

Department of Energy 

Bonneville Power Administration 

Department of Housing and Urban Development 

Department of the Interior 

Bureau of Indian Affairs 

Bureau of Land Management -

Bureau of Mines 

Bureau of Reclamation 

Minerals Management Service 

National Park Service 

Office of the Secretary 

Office of Surface Mining 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

Department of State 

Department of Transportation 

Environmental Protection Agency 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

National Science Foundation 

Nuclear Regulatory Commission 

Tennessee Valley Authority 

Miscellaneous Federal agencies 

Miscellaneous services to other accounts 

1979

 $69,919

- 2,619

- 141

 1,464

- 16,760

 15,338

. 48

 1,967

 17,746

 4,345

 9,712

. 240

 1,975

. 771

 82

 21

 600

 1,455

 149

 2,873

 4,033

 896

 1,583

 261

 1,645

 989

1980

$79,326

3,878

276

2,388

76

17,447

14,406

61

302

22,926

9,295

7,807

297

2,257

818

203

1,563

686

2,449

291

2,645

2,793

1,211

1,325

243

2,105

4,556

1981

$78,395

3,567

823

18,490

10,885

81

188

22,553

3,999

13,800

299

2,231

1,121

154

469

480

2,272

273

1,259

5,065

2,001

1,781

317

3,717

5,204

1982

$76,675

2,675

1,781

21,459

10,529

75

20,328

5,001

10,551

275

1,800

1,015

100

1,176

410

3,445

500

675

3,885

1,958

1,544

290

3,431

4,175

1983

$85,958

2,774

111

5,750

25,429

5,858

103

23,955

4,796

7,150

200

3,411

5,284

1,957

223

606

328

573

483

883

3,716

1,300

2,272

151

4,882

7,821

1984

$95,349

2,770

910

6,139

33,707

13,828

120

16,167

4,299

3,446

56

3,524

2,347

1,037

244

95

1,119

700

600

1,012

3,999

774

2,003

250

6,334

6,036

U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1985-46I-A33:20003

139
As the Nation's principal conservation agency, the 

Department of the Interior has responsibility for most 

of our nationally owned public lands and natural resources. This includes fostering the wisest use of our 

land and water resources, protecting our fish and 

wildlife, preserving the environmental and cultural 

values of our national parks and historical places, and 

providing for the enjoyment of life through outdoor 

recreation. The Department assesses our energy and 

mineral resources and works to assure that their development is in the best interest of all our people. 

The Department also has a major responsibility for 

American Indian reservation communities and for 

people who live in Island Territories under U.S. Administration.