NASA/CP--1999-209146

General Public Space Travel and TourismVolume 2 Workshop Proceedings

D. O'Neil, Compiler

Marshall Space Flight Center, Marshall Space Flight Center, Alabama

J. Mankins, and L Bekey, Editors

NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC

T. Rogers and E. Stallmer, Editors

Space Transportation Association, Arlington, Virginia

W. Piland, Editor

Langley Research Center, Hampton, Virginia

Summary of a Space Act Agreement Study, including

a workshop held at Georgetown University, Washington, DC

February 19-21, 1997

National Aeronautics and

Space Administration

Marshall Space Flight Center

February1999

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Available from:

ii

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PREFACE

This document is the second of two volumes that present the results of the Space Act Cooperative Space Travel and Tourism study conducted by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration

and the Space Transportation Association during the past 3 yr.

Volume 1 contains the study's fundamental findings from the beginning of the study until the

publication was released, and volume 2 the detailed findings of the multiday workshop conducted at

Georgetown University, Washington, DC. Please note that the members of each of the workshop sections conducted their studies independent of each other.

In the nature of things, there is some overlap in interest between some of the sections. Because

the general public space travel and tourism area is so broad and novel, a decision was made not to

eliminate any redundancies--the full range of section-by-section findings and recommendations is

presented. Because of the differing backgrounds of the members of each section and their different study

approaches, the form of each section's report differs somewhat from that of the others.

.°,

111

TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. SPACE TRANSPORTATION AND DESTINATION FACILITIES ................................................ 1

A. Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 1

B. Strategies for General PST and Tourism Development .............................................................. 1

C. Strategy Summary ...................................................................................................................... 6

D. Key Issues to be Explored .......................................................................................................... 6

E. Opportunities to Eliminate Barriers ............................................................................................ 8

E Recommendations for Future Actions ......................................................................................... 9

G. Top-Level Requirements for General PST Systems and Services .............................................. 10

H. Summary ..................................................................................................................................... 20

REFERENCES ......................................................................................................... ... ............. i............. 21

PASSENGERS, CREW, LIFE SUPPORT, AND INSURANCE CONSIDERATIONS .................. 22

A. Introduction ............................................................................................. ................................. .. 22

B. Human Factors ............................................................................................................................ 22

C. Tour Package Roadmap .............................................................................................................. 26

D. Recommendations ...................................................................................................................... 31

REFERENCES ....................................................................................................................................... 32

"k--

III. CERTIFICATION, REGULATION, LEGISLATION, POLICIES, AND ENVIRONMENTAL

ISSUES ............................................................................................................................................. 33

A. Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 33

B. Near-Term Regulatory Issues ..................................................................................................... 33

C. Near-Term Policy Issues ............................................................................................................. 35

D. "Beyond the Near-Term" Issues ................................................................................................. 37

E. Recommendations for Future Action .......................................................................................... 38

REFERENCES ....................................................................................................................................... 39

V
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

IV. FINANCIAL, ECONOMIC, BUSINESS PLANNING, AND MARKET REQUIREMENTS 40

TO START A VIABLE SPACE TOURISM BUSINESS ...........................................

40

A'D.C.B. C_stDrivers.................................................."............................................................................_n_duc_nC_nclusi_nsRec_mmenda_ns..""..""".."""......................................................................................................................... ............................................................................. 464545467 /

E. Overall Consensus and Vision ....................................................................................................

V.

47

EARLY PRECURSORS ..................................................................................

47

A""C'D. B Conclusionslntr°ducfi°nwealthKey RecommendationsFrOm"-"--"--'--"--'--'----'--'--'"---Tourism Travel._..__ ".........................................""......................"......................"............. _.-___ _._.......-___ ................................................................................. _...____ ""-""--'"--'"-"--'"--'"----'"----'"- _.. _......_ _.. _.... _.__ _..__ .._ _......___ "'"'"-- "................... .Spaceand4848_"_-49

VI. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT, TECHNOLOGY REQUIREMENTS, AND USE 55

OF EXISTING SPACE ASSETS ..................................................................................................

A'D.C.B. PartIntr°ducti°npart t III."...."..........""....."."........".........."..".........."....".".."...."".........."....".........................".................."......................................................................................................................................................................... iiiPar 60585555 _'

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61. :_rv'

APPENDIX A--International Space University Study ....................................................................... (s

Travel and Tourism, The World's Largest Industry ..................................................... 6_;"A ¢

APPENDIX B

APPENDIX C--Study Workshop Participants ..................................................................................

vi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AAS

AFI'E

ASTP

DOC

DOD

DOT

EEL

ECLSS

FAA

G

GPS

HRST

ISS

ISU

LEO

LH 2

fox

MIR

NASA

OSHA

PST

R&D

RLV

SSTO

STA

STAIF

STS

TRE

USAF

VR

American Astronautical Society

Autogenic Feedback Training Exercise

Advanced Space Transportation Program

Department of Commerce

Department of Defense

Department of Transportation

Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle

Environmental Control and Life Support System

Federal Aviation Administration

force of gravity

Global Positioning System

highly reusable space transportation

International Space Station

International Space University

low-Earth orbit

liquid hydrogen

liquid oxygen

Russian Space Station

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Occupational Safety and Health Administration

public space travel

research and development

reusable launch vehicle

single stage to orbit

Space Transportation Association

Space Technology and Applications International Forum

Space Transportation System (such as the Space Shuttle)

Torso Rotation Experiment

United States Air Force

virtual reality

vii

CONFERENCEPUBLICATION ,_) -- /_)

o 1.4 z

GENERAL PUBLIC SPACE TRAVEL AND TOURISM--

VOLUME 2 WORKSHOP PROCEEDINGS

I. SPACE TRANSPORTATION AND DESTINATION FACILITIES

David Smitherman

NASA Marshall Space Flight Center

Marshall Space Flight Center, AL 35812

Wallace McClure

Boeing North American

A. Introduction

The Space Transportation and Destination Facilities section focused on space transportation

vehicles--from use of existing vehicles to development of specialized transports--and on space stations,

space business parks, space hotels, and other facilities in space of the kind that eventually would provide

services for general public space travel (PST) and tourism. For both transportation and destination

facilities, the emphasis was on the identification of various strategies to enable a realistic incremental

progression in the development and acquisition of such facilities, and the identification of issues that

need resolution to enable formation of viable businesses.

The approach was to determine the best (I) strategies for general PST and tourism development

through the description and analysis of a wide range of possible future scenarios. With these scenarios in

mind the section then identified (2) key issues to be explored, (3) opportunities to eliminate barriers,

(4) recommendations for future actions, and (5) top-level requirements and characteristics for general

PST and tourism systems and services that would guide the development of transportation and destination facilities.

B. Strategies for General PST and Tourism Development

In order to understand the full range of strategies that should be pursued, five scenarios, or

possible futures, were developed that might lead to general PST and tourism system/services development. These scenarios represent the range of ideas that could lead to sound businesses. It was agreed that

no single approach was right, but a combination of events would likely take place that would eventually

lead to the creation of these businesses. Each scenario was then analyzed to determine the basic

enablers, barriers, strengths, and weaknesses. The five scenarios are as follows:
1. Scenario lmGovernment investment Bootstrapping (Shuttle --> X-33 --->RLV --_ Orbital

Passenger Transport --> International Space Station --->Destination Facility)

This scenario builds upon Government investments in technology and vehicle developments. As

illustrated by the parenthetical items above, the Shuttle development and technology investments in the

X-33 would lead to a reusable launch vehicle (RLV). This in turn would lead to the development of one

or more orbital passenger transports needed for large-scale general PST and tourism. Likewise, the

Government's development of the International Space Station (ISS) would precede the design of the

basic building blocks for a public destination facility; i.e., a "hotel," either by utilizing part of the ISS, by

refurbishing the ISS at the end of its program life, or by building a new facility based on ISS technology

as illustrated by the Space Business Park presentations made in the workshop.

a. Enablers. The enablers to this scenario are seen to be the National Aeronautics and Space

Administration's (NASA's) investment in the X-33, ISS, and advanced propulsion systems, and Department of Defense's (DOD) investment in a military space plane. The need for a robust highly reusable

rocket engine and air-breathing rockets was also identified.

b. Barriers. The Government's control of these technology investments is seen as a barrier to

general PST and tourism business creation because the Government seems primarily interested in lowering the cost of existing launch services to meet present needs, and not in opening new markets such as

general PST and tourism. A good example of this problem is the current X-33 development, where it is

noted that the X-33 industry partner is not considering the market potential for space travel and tourism,

based upon publicly released information, but is focusing only on the existing launch service markets.

c. Strengths. The ability of industry to leverage these Government technology developments to

create an orbital passenger transport is identified as a strength and, also, as potentially the fastest way to

allow large-scale general PST and tourism businesses to be created because of the large technology

development and demonstration costs involved in acquiring this new type of vehicle.

d. Weaknesses. Unfortunately, it is difficult for commercial businesses to depend on consistency in Government technology investments. The Government is bound by a year-to-year budget

appropriation process* that hinders long-term planning and coordination of investments by our private

sector. Also, historically the Government's focus has been on Government missions that are significantly

different from new market considerations that could open space to the general public.

2. Scenario 2---Orbital Low-Earth Orbit Vehicle (Small to Medium Low-Earth Orbit Vehicle -->

Upgraded for Passengers --> Destination Facility)

This scenario assumes that a small-medium reusable launcher will be developed that can be

successfully upgraded for passenger transportation, and a destination facility will be put in place later.

An approach that illustrates this is the Kistler Co. rocket that is expected to begin tests next year.

Planned upgrades to this system include a reusable two-stage system building on the initial surface

*The NASA budget is now being authorized for 2 yr, FY 1998 and 1999; the appropriations will continue to be made yearly.

2
low-Earthorbit (LEO) vehicle. Also, some of the X-Prize Foundation candidate concepts under development appear to fit this scenario.

a. Enablers. There is a growing market for small LEO launchers because of the growth of

interest in using LEO communications satellite constellations by the communications industry. A reusable vehicle could have a significant market advantage and force the development of similar type

vehicles for other markets, including upgrades for passenger carrying.

b. Barriers. The expansion of the satellite communications market is already in progress, so

there is concern as to whether a new small LEO vehicle may be acquired too late to capture the bulk of

the initial market. If a higher production rate of expendable launch vehicles is attained, it will lower their

cost and thus perhaps become a barrier to a new reusable vehicle development. Upgrades of a new or

existing system for passengers may find Government-sponsored competitors that will try to deter their

access to space through market barriers and regulatory and policy entanglements. Basically, anything

that can carry people to/from space at a lower cost than the Shuttle or Soyuz could be viewed by some as

a threat to those multibillion-dollar Government programs.

c. Strengths. The fact that this scenario depends on no Government investment is considered a

major strength. As illustrated by the Kistler concept, several X-Prize Foundation candidates, and others,

the vehicle development would be driven by market considerations instead of Government missions.

This in itself makes the development and operations of the small LEO vehicle more cost efficient, and

permits quick response to market demands for passenger transports.

d. Weaknesses. The development of a small LEO vehicle system would be expensive and

complex--perhaps more so than their developers appreciate--as illustrated by the problems encountered

by the X-33 and X-34 program Government and industry partners. It may also be difficult for the

developer to find sufficient private financial backing to construct a system that can be upgraded to meet

the needs of multiple markets, while capturing enough initial market to justify the investment needed.

3. Scenario 3---Suborbital Fast Express Package (Fast Express Package (Cargo) -_ Human

Suborbital --> Small Orbital Vehicle --->Human Orbital Vehicle --->Destination Facility)

This scenario assumes that a small reusable suborbital vehicle is designed to provide fast express

package delivery services around the world for military and/or commercial purposes. It would likely be

upgraded to a human suborbital vehicle for executive travel and tourism. The DOD is now studying the

use and character of military space planes. This, in turn, would lead to the development of orbital capabilities for cargo and human transportation and, eventually, the development of destination facilities.

a. Enablers. Aerospace technology development for small, highly reusable vehicles is a key

enabler for this market since fast turnaround and a high trip rate is required. There should be early

market acceptance of this service inasmuch as there is already an established package delivery service

worldwide. Regulatory clearance for initial operations should be similar to those used for today's commercial aircraft and could take advantage of the X-33 regulatory issues being addressed now. Growth to

a passenger point-to-point transportation system would enable services to be provided for general PST

and tourism, and the addition of small stages for LEO insertion of payloads would address the market

growth expected for small LEO communications satellite constellations.
b. Barriers. The fact that space package delivery services are a totally new concept to the

aerospace industry is an early barrier in itself. Also, new kind of transports may find Governmentsponsored competitors that would see them as a threat to the traditional launch systems now in use.

c. Strengths, The potential for very high trip rates--higher than any now in existence--is very

attractive. Also, the fact that the market is an entirely commercial market that does not require Government support in meeting it adds to the strength of this approach.

d. Weaknesses. The primary weaknesses in this scenario could be the upgrade to a passenger

system if the initial vehicle is designed as an automated system without a pilot. Such an upgrade would

require justification in pursuit of other markets in addition to the package delivery service one. Also, this

market does not require an orbital vehicle. So, again, other markets will be required to prompt upgrading

the vehicle to provide LEO delivery capabilities.

4. Scenario 4--"Leap of Faith" Investment ($$$ --> Tourism-Capable Vehicle --> Orbital

Destination Facility)

This scenario assumes that an investor service has access to great wealth to finance a touristclass space transportation system (STS) service upfront without any need for incremental vehicle developments. A good example of this can be seen, conceptually, through some of the proposals put forward

in Japan. Also, some of the X-Prize Foundation participants fit this category because their vehicles are

designed for human space flight with plans for direct upgrade to passenger-carrying if their endeavors

are successful.

a. Enablers. The enablers in this scenario could result from market surveys that many believe

show sufficient justification for the large upfront investments required. Also, the availability of investment funds from interested parties with the prospect of high returns from the market or, in the case of

the X-Prize, some payback in the prize itself along with a lot of prestige for the winning party may also

enable this development path.

b. Barriers. Concern about the technology base, regulatory circumstances, and operating

experience are seen as primary barriers to the large investor approach. There are still many technologies

that need further development to achieve the high operability needed to bring the cost per trip down and

to ensure acceptably safe, reliable, and comfortable operations. Also, many of the regulatory issues for

general PST and tourism have yet to be addressed, which could result in costly delays to the first operational flights if all the safety concerns are not worked out properly. Also, a great deal of operating

experience is required to build up credibility and confidence.

c. Strengths. The strengths of this scenario are that it is purely commercial, very focused, does

not need incremental developments, and uses nontraditional approaches--a committed, large "leap of

faith" investment would support the vehicle development. With enough money, this could be the fastest

way to create a large-scale general PST and tourism business; and once one company proves the market,

others will follow.

4
d. Weaknesses. The major weakness to this approach is that it is hard to justify such a large

investment with the apparent lack of a convincingly large market in this area. Large investors usually

look for more secure markets for such substantial investments, ones where the return on investment is to

be associated with a proven track record.

5. Scenario 5--Synergistic Hotel--Theme Park (Ground-Based Hotel / Theme Park --> Suborbital

"Hook" for Increased Revenues --> Small Orbital Vehicle --> In-Space Destination Facility)

This scenario starts with a ground-based hotel and theme park where visitors enjoy space simulations. As an added commercial draw, the market for use of the hotel and theme park would then grow

through the use of parabolic flights in aircraft that provide some 20 sec of zero gravity, as is done now in

the training of astronauts and the development of zero-gravity equipment. As interest in this adventure

vacation experience grows, investments would be made to develop suborbital vehicles for short

sightseeing rides to space. Orbital vehicles and space theme-park destinations would follow as the

market grows.

a. Enablers. Hotels and resorts With the appropriate space theme ties would be the primary

enablers for this market. These could include space camps, Disney's Epcot, and the entertainment

business theme parks that include space adventure rides and simulators. These space-related theme parks

could have sufficient draws to create package deals that could finance the operations and provide the

entertainment and training needed.

b. Barriers. This approach is heavily dependent on the development of a market large enough

to justify the vehicle investments. Several steps are required before reaching the orbital vehicle goal,

which means this approach may prove to be very slow in development.

c. Strengths. If the adventure ride into space is sufficiently tied to the ground-based theme park

experience, then the investment for the initial suborbital vehicle does not have to be justified as a standalone business. The ride itself becomes a draw to all the other attractions, products, and services that in

turn finance the entire operation. Users of the suborbital vehicle would also provide revenue for food,

lodging, and other services at the hotel/theme park. The terrestrial destination might also avoid the need

for an orbital destination in early years if the total experience is sufficiently entertaining, even though

the space ride itself is very short. Also, since this approach follows through a full range of parabolic and

suborbital rides first, there will be greater opportunity to build an experience base for space tourist

operations, so the orbital adventure will be a more assured and successful investment.

d. Weaknesses. This approach is also a weakness in that there are multiple steps and upgrades

along the way to the development of an orbital vehicle. This highly synergistic approach would require

multiple justifications for the developer to go through to reach the next step.

Note: It must be appreciated that incidents causing serious injury or death could shut down the

market indefinitely through increased regulation or faltering customer trust. This fundamental consideration applies to all of the scenarios.

5
C. Strategy Summary

The actual path taken to realize the servicing of a general PST and tourism market could easily

encompass any or all of the five scenarios described above. One approach cannot be selected today

above another, around which to develop a primary strategy. Much more careful analysis and imaginative

thinking will have to be done in the private sector over the next few years to narrow down the opportunities.

D. Key Issues to be Explored

Given the range of development scenarios that could occur, the key issues associated with the

development of transportation and destination facilities for general PST and tourism were identified.

These issues are grouped into four areas----technical, market, regulatory and legal, and venture or organizational management.

1. Technical

The STS must achieve high safety and reliability, reasonable comfort, and low price. It is commonly assumed that this will happen by bootstrapping onto the developments from industry/Government technology programs such as the X-33. Unfortunately, high safety for Government programs may

involve doing only a little better than current safety factors for the Shuttle and the expendable vehicles

now in operation, which are not nearly as high as the aircraft level of safety needed for the general

public. Also, the cost reductions targeted for the X-33 are good enough for Government programs, but

are still a long way from allowing trip prices that approach those charged for airline tickets and tours.

Commercial alternatives or appropriate modifications of the Government programs are needed to develop the fight propulsion and vehicle technologies and to address all the design issues and complex

systems engineering tasks related to high safety and low price.

The ISS development is the state of the art in destination facilities development. That technology

will likely provide a basis for the initial on-orbit facility infrastructure. Technical issues not being addressed include the need for large volume facilities that would require on-orbit construction, and variable gravity facilities, and eventually 1-G (Earth gravity) facilities. The cost for the initial destination

experience will be high, and the size of ISS accommodations may not be sufficient. Technologies for a

hotel specifically optimized for tourism must also be considered. These technologies would be quite

different than those required for the ISS. As an example, the tourism-optimized design may call for

modifications to more traditional technologies such as partial-G toilets, showers, washers, dryers, food

preparation devices, and emergency medical care (see app. A).

A combination of both the vehicle and accommodations into one system could be an approach

that would eliminate the need for early development of destination facilities. However, this approach

would be constrained by the volume.
2. Market

Detailed market analysis will lay the basis for the type and size of initial services to be provided.

Although there were several market surveys cited during the workshop, there was a consensus that more

detailed market surveys were needed before major investors would be willing to advance the large sums.

Also, there needs to be a way to validate or test the market before commitment to a large system. This is

where the features of the parabolic and suborbital ventures look attractive for initial transportation

systems, as is the use of the Shuttle fleet. Initial destination facilities utilizing existing space assets or

constructed from existing ISS technologies were cited as a first step toward testing the destination

facility market.

3. Regulatory and Legal

In most cases, regulatory and legal issues can be resolved by using a common sense application

of existing codes and regulations that are now in use in analogous surface businesses. This will likely be

the approach taken initially, with specific regulations put in place as needed. There is a concern that too

much regulation initially may stifle the development of this novel business, whereas too little could

hinder investment because of the uncertainty of the regulatory environment.

Physical/medical screening will be somewhat dependent on the vehicle system. If it is operated

as an airliner, then the physical requirements will be minimal. However, if the launch environment is

more strenuous, and the time for emergency return is not flexible, then physicals and liability waivers

will be required to protect the passengers, crew, and investors.

Liability and indemnification will be similar to other activities of similar risk. Regulations will

be needed to define the limits of liability for the operators.

Regulations that govern the operating "rules of the road" will be needed and are currently being

explored through the X-33 and X-34 development programs and other private sector programs. The

Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), Department of Transportation (DOT), Department of State,

Department of Commerce (DOC), DOD, and NASA all have concerns about vehicles passing through

the atmosphere, into space, and over international territories.

Current Government control of human access to space is also an issue. Any new system will

need to consider the general public, specifically. When the general public thinks about space today, they

think about NASA. A human system including NASA, or having NASA's blessing, would be viewed

positively by the public. On the other hand, any commercial system may be viewed as a competitor to

the Shuttle system and might be viewed as a threat to a very large and well-established Government and

Government-contractor infrastructure. These issues must be worked out as public space trip systemsservices come closer to fruition.

Standards, codes, and certification need to be modeled after existing Earth- and space-based

facilities and transportation systems. In general, these are not Government-driven, but are recognized

business standards that have been promoted by the private sector as a means to promote safety and

provide bases for arriving at acceptable insurance liability. A similar approach needs to be taken for the

7
establishmentof safetycodesfor spacetransportationanddestinationfacilities.For transportation,the

aviationindustrymayserveastheinitial model,butfor destinationfacilities, surfacebuildingcodes

would beapplicable,aswell asthecodesthatgovernthedevelopmentof passengershipsat sea.For

example,any spacevesselshouldhaveacaptainwith thesameauthorityasaseacaptain.It isdebatable

asto whetherescapeprovisionsfor largespacestructuresshouldbethesameasfor seavesselswhere

thereis life boatcapacityfor everyperson,or whetherit shouldbelike buildingconstructionwhere

thereis a safehavenor fire wall thatdividesthefacility upinternallyto providefor safety.Theseissues

arebeingexploredin theISS program.

4. Venture or Organizational Management

The venture or organizational management structures will likely be as varied as the scenarios

described earlier. They will develop funding sources and venture paths that inevitably look to minimum

cost and risk wherever possible, including the use of Government assets, tax incentives, and anchor

tenancy from the Government or a large private investor. The establishment of a firm fixed price for the

use of Government assets, the establishment of broad tax incentives, and the imaginative use of the large

Government civil and defense space transportation markets were identified as major contributions that

the Government could make to the establishment of a general PST and tourism business.

The credibility of the management and technical team will also be key to the success of the space

venture. Do they have credible space technology and management experience? Are they using proven

space technology? Do they have operating experience? A positive response to these questions will help

provide reassurance to the investors and the respective insurance backers.

E. Opportunities to Eliminate Barriers

Opportunities to eliminate the barriers to the PST and tourism business were identified.

1. Technical

In the space transportation area it was noted that NASA's and our space industry's current

emphasis on the development of new propulsion systems, new engines, prototypes, demonstrations, and

X-vehicles, with focus on integrated systems engineering approaches, provides a major opportunity to

eliminate barriers to general PST and tourism. More emphasis is needed on general public space transportation issues to focus Government and private technology developments into areas of high economic

leverage.

In the destination facilities area, the completion of the ISS provides a major opportunity to

eliminate perceived barriers to space construction and habitation. Further expansion of this effort is

needed to develop and demonstrate low-cost technology and to focus systems engineering on hygiene

issues, closed-loop life support systems, power, safety, and emergency medical care, as well as largevolume and low-gravity facilities.
2. Market

Simulations of space travel at the space centers, space camps, theme parks, and in the entertainment industry have already gone a long way towards eliminating some of the barriers to space development. This momentum needs to be continued but is not enough to open the in-space market. Obtaining

better market data, and then validating the data, would be major steps towards helping to eliminate

barriers to general PST and tourism.

3. Regulatory and Legal

The Government needs to take a proactive position to promote general PST and tourism. This

can be achieved through proper policy and regulatory actions. A change to the administration's space

policy that would identify general PST and tourism as a national goal would go a long way toward

eliminating barriers. In addition, providing public access to Government-controlled technology, systems,

and facilities for market validation (STS/Mir/ISS) is needed. The establishment of initial suborbital flight

regulations and the establishment of the rules of the road, standards, and regulations that industry needs

to follow, are also required.

4. Venture or Organizational Management

Continuing with this need for a proactive Government position, financial incentives for the

venture investors need to be established. This could include tax incentives, use of independent research

and development funds, and encouragement to form company consortia with investments from the

financial community.

F. Recommendations for Future Actions

Specific recommendations for future actions by Government and/or industry are as follows.

1. Technical

Space Transportation:

Explore the near-term development of more robust, reusable rocket engines for Government

and commercial use.

Support the long-term Integrated High Payoff Propulsion Technology program to develop the

next generation robust propulsion systems to meet Government and commercial space transportation needs.

Destination Facilities:

• Explore the use of ISS capabilities and its technology for public use.

• Develop technologies for low-cost, large-volume, artificial-gravity habitat systems.

• Organize a workshop to focus on the definition of relationships, systems engineering, and

integration between ISS and early destination facilities for general PST and tourism.

9
2. Market

• Develop high-fidelity market data as tools and aids to understanding the market potential and

the risks in development of a general PST and tourism business.

• Conduct more indepth analyses of potential space travel markets, especially those of particular

interest to the investment community.

• Initiate a nationwide public awareness campaign on the potential for PST and tourism.

• Use the Shuttle fleet and the ISS to explore and stimulate the space tourism market.

3. Regulatory and Legal

• Develop policies for private use of Government space transportation and destination systems;

i.e., the Shuttle and the United States (U.S.) portion of the ISS, to allow testing of the market.

• Form a Washington, DC-based coalition "Interest Group" to promote general PST and tourist

interests.

• Work with Congress and the Administration to form policies which encourage and permit

proactive support from all Government agencies for the development of a large, general PST

and tourism business.

• Work for regulatory, tax, and legislative policies which will encourage this new business by

better defining the playing field for commercial investments.

4. Venture or Organizational Management

• Promote legislation to provide tax incentives for commercial investments to stimulate a

large general PST and tourism business.

• Better define accounting and tax implications for all space systems/services.

• Form partnerships to conduct systems engineering studies to define space transportation

vehicles and destination facilities concepts that will serve to guide technology, marketing,

and financial planning for the commercial investors.

G. Top-Level Requirements for General PST Systems and Services

This is an accumulation of ideas that express the general requirements and characteristics of

general PST and tourism systems and services, These ideas relate to quasi-"ultimate" large-scale, surface

LEO trips rather than to early niche market adventure trips.

1. Space Transportation

Several characteristics of STS's are driven by the particular needs of general PST and tourism.

Too, the development of the market is heavily influenced by these characteristics. These characteristics

include price, safety, reliability, comfort of the provided services, and schedule availability.

Initial space trips have been suggested purely for sightseeing purposes, where passengers do not

disembark from the vehicle, and the vehicle provides all of their sustenance for the duration of the

adventure. Terrestrial analogies to this include sightseeing flights which travel to and transit Antarctica

10
andtheNorthPole,aswell assightseeingflights overnaturalwonders,suchastheGrandCanyon.

Discussionsof theviability of theseflights andtheirrelatedSTS/servicesaredrivenby theperception

thatthemarketfor suchflights is alimited one,comparedto thetravelto adestinationfor a stayof some

daysorweeks.A terrestrialanalogyis thatof ahypotheticalmarketfor asightseeingflight from San

Franciscoto theHawaiianislandsthatwouldcircletheislandsfrom theair andreturntoSanFrancisco,

versusthemarketfor aflight to theseislandswith hands-onsightseeinganda stayin aresortthere.

Obviously,themarketfor adestinationresortis moresubstantialif thecostsareroughlyequivalent.

Thus,theobviousconclusionthatthemarketfor spacetransportationservicesis closelytiedto the

destinationfor thetourist.

However,thereis alsoasidelightto themarket.Thereis asubstantialterrestrialmarketin

"cruises,"wherethevehicle/transportationsystemarethedestinationitself. Herethevehicleactsasa

mobileresort,includingsubstantialamenitiesforthepassengers.In thecruisetransportationtradethe

vehicleitself mustpositionitselfasa luxury resort,andthepassengermustseethevehicleitself as

equivalentto thedestinationresort.ForSTSservices,this maybea moredifficult situationto accommodate,becauseof theconflictingrequirementsof low-pricetransportationandsophisticatedtouristservices.Thedollarsandtechnicalcapabilityrequiredto provideatrip which offerslow-pricetransportationandresortlevelaccommodationswill bedifficult to achieve.Sucha spacetrip eventuallymight

becomemorefeasibleusingin-spacetransportationwherelessrigorousconstraintsof systemmass

fractionanda simplerin-spaceoperatingenvironmentmightbeencountered.

2. Ground Infrastructure

Ground infrastructure requirements depend greatly on the vehicle design and operational requirements. For instance, the ideal vehicle might be much like an aircraft that is single stage to orbit (SSTO),

with horizontal launch and horizontal landing profiles. This type of vehicle could be integrated into the

world-wide network of existing airports and would therefore require only modification of some existing

facilities and operational procedures to absorb the new vehicle fleet. If the vehicle is designed to be

launched vertically, then new or modified existing ground facilities will be required. The implications

that a space transportation vehicle design can impose on the ground infrastructure follow.

a. Access. First- and second-generation passenger-carrying STS's would probably build upon

existing launch-recovery sites associated with orbital destinations. There are about a dozen sites in the

world today that could accommodate orbital trips without undue worries about overflight of populated

areas. If, as expected, fully reusable systems are the STS's of the future, and a suitable safety and reliability database is established, then these sites may be expanded greatly. However, there would be some

restrictions upon the development of these sites, driven by both economic and physical constraints. The

first of these is access----both to markets from which the passengers will come and to any orbital destination desired. Access to the site should be moderately simple and low cost and should not involve major

inconveniences or hardships for a passenger or cargo to reach the space trip site. This will be important

both for attractiveness to the passenger and for logistics operations. As an example, the Orlando, FL area

can be seen as an attractive location given its proximity to both terrestrial attractions and destinations

and its ability to draw upon other major transportation hubs. In comparison, a site located on an atoll in

the mid-Pacific would be more difficult to reach, offer fewer amenities for passengers in transit, and be

more difficult to stage supplies through, both for the transportation system and the orbital resort

destination.

11
Similarly,it isdesirablethatthelaunchsitebelocatedat alatitudelower thanthatof theorbital

destinationbecauseof orbitalmechanicsconsiderations;i.e.,becauseof launchenergyrequirements,it

is moredifficult for a spacetransportationvehicleto rendezvouswith adestinationwhoseorbital inclinationis moreor lessthanthelatitudeof thelaunchsite.Similarly,thelocationof thetrip siteswouldbe

influencedby theorbitaldestination,thedurationof staythere,andthetransportationsystemcrossrange

required.If avehiclehasonly avery smallcrossrangecapability,thenit mayhaveto waiton orbitfor

someperiodof timeuntil it canreacharecoverysite.Thiscalculationis dependentuponthespecific

geographicdistributionof sites,thecrossrangecapabilityof thevehicle,andtheinclinationandaltitude

of theorbitaldestination.Givenareasonableglobaldistributionof flight departureandlandingsitesand

amoderatecrossrangeof athousandmilesor so,assuredaccessto a landingsitecanbeachievedin a

shortdurationorbital flight.

b. Ground Support Systems. If you look at a modern airport or cruise ship terminal facility,

there is a substantial amount of ground infrastructure which supports the transportation system. This is

one of the primary reasons why space transportation vehicles that could be integrated into air transportation sites are desirable. The ground support infrastructure could include the following:

• Passenger transit facilities, such as lobbies, waiting rooms, amenities, lodging, parking,

transit facilities, intermodal transportation facilities, and lounges

• Cargo/luggage collection, sorting, handling, packaging (into cargo containers), on-site transportation, shipping/receiving, distribution, and disbursement facilities

• Office/sales activities, including ticketing, reception, sales, reservations, and communications

• Vehicle processing, including on-site transportation (tow bar vehicles and tugs), positioning,

repair and maintenance shops and facilities

• Vehicle servicing, including cosmetic maintenance (window washing, deicing, etc.), fueling,

cleaning, and amenities/catering/servicing (lavatory/waste water servicing, food and drink

catering, rubbish removal, etc.)

• Passenger embarkation/disembarkation, including passenger marshaling and disbursement,

and gangway/flight way access

• Site logistics and facilities, including propellant storage and distribution systems, warehouses,

hangers, utilities' distribution (water, power, sewage, gas, etc.), and transportation.

Many of these support systems are "behind the scenes" for routine ocean cruise or air transportation operations to the point that it is a sign of a well-run and efficient operation if the passengers are not

aware of these operations and considerations. Such ground support operations and facilities will also be

needed for routine and efficient space travel operations. They can be provided at virtually any site, but at

a price. As a point of departure, new major terrestrial airports can easily cost several billions of dollars.

The new Chek Lap Kok airport in Hong Kong is projected to cost $9 billion by the time that it opens in

1998, j and the new Denver International Airport is carrying $3.7 billion in debt from its acquisition. 2 If

such a facility is needed for space passenger service, then the cost of this facility must be recovered

against the commercial traffic through the facility, and the costs of operating the facility recovered as

well. For commercial aircraft this is done through landing and transit fees. The ability to share facilities

with other transportation nodes, or to build off of existing facilities, may drive such space trip facilities

to co-locate with other transportation nodes as part of a global transportation infrastructure.

12
e. Noise. Among other environmental considerations, noise is one consideration for transportation node selection. Terrestrial airport operations may be constrained by local noise ordinances and in

the U.S. by FAA noise-abatement regulations. STS's capable of orbital flight are expected to expend

substantial energies in a short duration of time, which typically produces high noise levels. For rockets,

the rocket exhaust produces a very high characteristic noise level, and for high-speed flight in departure

or return, the impact of supersonic shock waves must be considered. Routine general PST and tourism

operations from a trip site which may involve frequent departures, potentially at a higher than daily

frequency, must deal with these noise considerations. This may mean increasing the clearance zone

around such a flight landing site, and controlling departure and return corridors to minimize the impact

of noise upon the environment. Some analysis indicates that a 15-km zone around such facilities 3 should

be sufficient, but further study is necessary. Other more configuration-dependent and technically driven

considerations include shaping the vehicle ascent or descent trajectory to minimize impact upon specific

areas, or operating in some form of mixed mode to minimize such impacts. For example, using turbofans to lift the vehicle off the ground and cruise to an orbital ascent location over a remote area may

allow space transportation vehicle operations to operate much closer to populated regions without major

noise impacts.

d. Propulsion/Propellants Safety. Transportation systems for general PST and tourism will, by

their nature, carry a concentrated load of propellants, potentially including volatile hazardous materials.

If a high level of reliability and safety in the use of these systems is established, then current standards

may be relaxed. But until enough of an operational database is established that is adequate to provide

confidence in safe operations, STS's must comply with current space vehicle launch regulations.

Explosions, caused by the uncontrolled combustion of propellants, may produce a blast wave

with the potential of causing damage by crushing forces and winds. Debris, made up of vehicle fragments that may land upon structures or populated areas, and fires, where the uncontrolled combustion of

the propellants results in heat, or thermal radiation, must be controlled. Toxic vapors can be eliminated

through eliminating specific hazardous materials from the propellant systems of the vehicle (such as

toxic hypergolic propellants). But, in the aftermath of an accident where a vehicle's composite structure

or its cargo may be consumed by fire, a toxic vapor hazard may still occur.

Current operating procedures require specified trajectory clearances away from inhabited areas.

This includes consideration of the potential blast wave, and the quantity/distance of debris from a potential problem. This safety zone from the launch/recovery site to inhabited areas, such as passenger terminals, may be as much as 13,000 ft or more, depending upon the specific design of the vehicle and the

results of detailed technical hazard analyses. However, it should be noted that a typical commercial

jetport has a runway of about 10,000 ft. So locating the site at the opposite end of the runway from the

terminal may provide sufficient clearance for routine operation, if a sufficient cleared area exists there.

Flight paths to/from the site should also be designed to minimize the impact of any potential problems,

at least until enough experience is gained to demonstrate high levels of reliability.

Similar considerations should be employed for the storage and transport of propellants. There are

existing commercial standards for STS's. A comparison between a typical jet port and a space trip site is

informative. If the jet port accommodates 300 flights per day of MD-80's or Boeing 737's, with each

13
planepotentiallycarrying60,000lb of fuel,thejetportmayhaveto accommodate18million lb of fuel

perday.A 2-day storage would be equivalent to 36 million lb of fuel, or about 654,000 ft 3 of storage

volume. If a space trip site accommodates 1 daily trip of a liquid oxygen/liquid hydrogen (lox/LH2)

system, each carrying 1.8 million lb of propellant (typical for an SSTO-type vehicle), then a 2-day

storage capability would be equivalent to 43,400 ft 3 of lox and about 115,600 ft 3 of LH 2. While these

are cryogenic fuels with their attendant issues of boil-off and insulation, an advanced trip site capable of

over 300 trips per year would not require substantially larger propellant storage acreage than is already

provided by commercial airports.

e. Traffic Control. With the increase in space trip traffic, space traffic control issues must also

be resolved. This includes establishing clearance for travel to or from orbit, assuring clear orbital paths

from collision with other space objects, warning of space debris, and scheduling vehicles out of/into a

general PST and tourism facility.

3. On-Orbit Infrastructure

On-orbit infrastructure requirements include the orbital requirements for the Earth-to/from-orbit

transportation vehicle, the destination facility(s), be it a space station-laboratory, hotel, or space business

park, and an in-space orbital transfer vehicle to transport cargo and personnel between destination points

in orbit.

a. Space Transportation Vehicle On-Orbit Requirements. The basic requirements should

include a transportation system to/from LEO destinations at high inclination to include access to the ISS

and the Mir. This does not necessarily mean the vehicle has to go to the ISS orbit. That would be a

preferred capability, but for initial tourism needs a destination facility at a lower inclination may be

more economical with an orbital transfer vehicle added later to complete the transportation system to all

possible destinations. Once on orbit, the vehicle will require orbital maneuvering and docking capabilities comparable to the Space Shuttle and the Soyuz vehicles.

Space transportation vehicle on-orbit requirements will also depend on the basic vehicle design

and destination trajectory. If the launch to the destination timeframe is only a few hours, then minimum

commercial aircraft type accommodations can be provided. However, if the designed trajectory requires

a day or more to reach the orbital inclination, passenger accommodations will tend to become more like

private compartments on overnight passenger railway systems. These two comparisons represent the

lower and upper range of demand for passenger accommodations.

The transportation cost will probably be the most expensive part of the entire price to a passenger

(including costs for their in-flight amenities, as well as themselves), which suggests the need for a quick

trip to an on-orbit destination with minimum facilities in the vehicle for passengers, and more plush

facilities on-orbit at the destination facility.

Passenger accommodations should include an open cabin with individual recliner-type seating

similar to a commercial aircraft, but it should be adjustable to a more erect position for better body

support during ascent and descent accelerations, and on-orbit zero-gravity body posture. The passenger

cabin should include side and/or overhead view ports and individual video monitors for communications

14
andentertainment.Personalsafetyandhygienerequirementsmayincludeahalf-maskrespiratorcombinationbagfor all passengersto wearearlyin thetrip until it canbeconfirmedthatspacesicknessmedicationshavebeeneffective.A body tether may also be needed for attachment to an overhead rail for

zero-gravity movement about the cabin and to/from public toilet facilities. Early flights with small

passenger loads will determine if these features are really required, as well as to uncover other unforeseen problems.

Crew requirements for the space transportation vehicle on-orbit would be similar to those of a

commercial passenger airline. Even though the vehicle will probably be nearly autonomous, it will be

necessary to have a pilot and copilot who can provide a leadership role, communicate vehicle performance to the passengers, provide an understanding of the vehicle systems and anomalies, perform

manual orbital maneuvering and landing when needed, and communicate with the surface and any

orbital destination. Flight attendants would likewise serve the passengers as on a commercial aircraft.

b. On-Orbit Transfer Vehicle Requirements. Passenger safety and flexibility in transportation

operations must be assured as the on-orbit infrastructure matures. A vehicle system designed to service

the tourist market would include a passenger module capable of making passenger transfers between all

human destinations in space. Initially this would mean the ability to transfer humans and cargo between

the on-orbit tourist facility, the Mir, and the ISS. Such a vehicle transfer system has broad market appeal

today. Possible services could include astronaut, passenger, and supply transfers between stations;

satellite servicing and satellite orbital transfer; space rescue operations; orbital debris collection; and

space station reboost operations.

Passenger transfer vehicle accommodations would vary according to the length of time required

for the orbital transfer. If the transfer vehicle makes only short trips between the vehicles and several

destinations in close proximity to each other, then minimum accommodations would be sufficient as

described above for the space transportation vehicle. If the transfer vehicle is used to make transfers

from low inclination orbits to high inclination orbits that take a day or more, then more spacious cabintype accommodations would be required. Since the transfer vehicle is maintained on orbit, this option

may prove more economical than including cabin-type accommodations in the surface-space vehicle.

4. Market Drivers

a. Cost/Price. One of the most important drivers in the general PST and tourism market is the

cost of space transportation. This directly drives the ticket price per passenger and secondarily drives the

cost of installing any orbital destination facility and supporting the passenger with food, drink, air, and

amenities.

Several prior studies 4-7 have directly linked the price of space transportation to expected demand

for space tourism. Typically, the challenge has been to provide a ticket for space transportation at a very

low price to a potential customer, while still ensuring sufficient revenue stream to justify the development of the advanced STS that would allow this lower cost. In this consideration, the price/demand

elasticity between the ticket price and service demand is of great importance. But, as of this time, the

price-demand elasticity for this new market is not known with sufficient confidence (see app. A in

Vol. 1).

15
It is importantto notealsothatthepriceschargedfor spacetourismtripsareby necessityhigher

thanjust therecurringcostof thetransportation.A transportationsystemoperatoror developermust

recoversufficientreturnsfrom theoperationof their systemto paybacktheircreditors,sustainrecurring

operations(includingthereplacementof vehicles),andearnaprofit for theirinvestors.Sincethemarket

demandfor generalPSTandtourismis notwell establishedasyet,this alsohasaneffectuponthe

viability of STS'sdevelopedto servicethis newmarket.High riskrequireshighreturnsin abusiness

investmentand,therefore,therequiredreturnsfor a significantinvestmentmayimposeadditional

investmentrisksandinitially forceup therequiredpricefor theuseof thesystemto obtainthesereturns.

This is a"chickenortheegg"problem.If thismarketis to berealized,additionalemphasismustbe

placedonconductingdetailedmarketsurveysandin-spacemarket-relatedstudieswhichaddressthe

typesof servicesthatareactuallyexpectedto bemadeavailableandthepricethatpassengers/tourists

arewilling to pay.

b. Safety and Reliability. Besides a low price, a transportation system for space tourism must

also provide a relatively safe service on a reasonably consistent schedule. To achieve this, it must demonstrate operations that are at least two orders of magnitude safer and more reliable than current systems. In analogy, aircraft transportation systems have demonstrated a sustained growth in safety over the

past 70+ yr of commercial passenger operations. This safety record has been the result of a persistent

focus upon identifying problem areas in airline safety, applying well thought out, technically, operationally, and economically sound design approaches, and establishing a regulatory and operations process to

control these characteristics.

The aircraft business has developed an extensive database on how to maintain safe, reliable, and

efficient operations. In 1960, major U.S. airlines carried 58 million passengers on board 3.8 million

flights and suffered 67 accidents, 12 with fatalities. In 1995, they carried 550 million passengers on

8.2 million flights, suffering 33 accidents, two of them with fatalities. That is, over 35 yr, we have seen

the market grow by an order of magnitude, while the probability of a fatal accident has dropped from

one in 300,000 departures to one in a million. 8 Commercial space transportation operations have a long

way to go in order to approach those of airline operations of 35 yr ago. Current space operations run

about 35 trips per year, and lose one vehicle in every 20-30. Our passenger-carrying vehicle, the Shuttle,

does much better. It is now approaching one fatal accident in 100 trips, but this is lower than commercial

airline operations by four orders of magnitude.

Passenger-carrying STS's should be designed and tested to high reliability. Approaching the

same safety levels as commercial aircraft may be difficult until an equivalent database has been developed for sustained safe operations, but, initially, at least two orders of magnitude increase over current

levels should be pursued. Establishing a much higher operational trip rate for space systems would aid in

this effort.

e. Services. Current STS's are not designed to provide general PST and tourism services. The

process to integrate and carry a payload on a space vehicle typically takes from 12-18 mo or more and

may involve unique consideration of the interactions of the payload with the vehicle.

General PST and tourism will require a totally different approach to accommodate passengers as

paying customers. There will have to be a standard set of services available, with the capability of a

16
mixedpayloadof passengersandcargo(luggageand/orsupplies).Uniqueinterfacesbetweenthepayloadandthevehiclewill bereplacedby standardinterfaces.Also, to accommodatepeople,theSTSmust

beableto provideanappropriateEnvironmentalControlandLife SupportSystem(ECLSS),aswell as

appropriateaccessandhabitabilityconsiderations.Thiscanperhapsbeaccommodatedthrougha modular passengermodule,whichwouldprovideaircraft-likeservicesandstand-aloneECLSScapabilities.

But theinterfacebetweenthepassengermoduleandthevehiclemustprovideappropriateaccessand

suitableservicesfor thepassengers.

d. Schedule/Availability. An STS for general PST and tourism should also provide scheduled

services. There are two paths to follow for tourism-driven vehicle operations. The first is similar to

charter aircraft operations and is similar to existing launch system operations: trips are not launched on

predetermined schedules, but only when a sufficient cargo has been accumulated. Services for passengers, as well as the flight departure and return times, may be more catered to meet individual needs.

Early trips may follow this model until sufficient traffic builds up to allow scheduled services.

Scheduled services are the long-term goal for the general PST and tourism market. Then, a

transportation system is expected to provide a standard set of services with departures and returns on an

established schedule. However, this service paradigm assumes the services provided are highly standardized, that the space transportation service "route" (including to and from a destination) is standardized,

and there is enough traffic along this route to allow the system to operate economically.

5. Passenger Vehicle Accommodations

a. Windows. Obviously, one the biggest draws for a passenger on a space liner will be the

ability to look out the window. Most conceptualizations of space passenger-carrying vehicles include

windows at least similar to those of current commercial passenger aircraft. However, structural considerations during ascent and reentry may preclude having large banks of windows along the sides of the

vehicle. This has been an ongoing issue between the designers of spacecraft and their passengers, and

resolution of this issue will probably not take place until plans for the first routine passenger operations

are formalized in detail.

However, there are valid psychological and market needs which drive the system to provide

some form of external view to each passenger. Some passenger aircraft are currently experimenting with

the delivery of video from the cockpit, and it may be found that such a direct video link to each seat

from an external camera may be a sufficient substitute for a window. Similarly, windows in a passenger

module contained in a vehicle may be covered until on orbit, thereby avoiding the issues of having to

design windows capable of accommodating the harsher environments of ascent and/or reentry.

b. Volume. The immediate physical environment around the passengers should be conducive to

their psychological and physical well being, as well as to establishing the proper environment for a

quality trip experience. This includes the design and location of seats, walls, floors, and the selection of

materials, colors and textures as is done for commercial aircraft. Based upon the experience of U.S. and

Russian astronauts on Skylab, Mir, and the Shuttle, some persons may be very uncomfortable without a

local vertical reference, and subtle clues could be maintained in the passenger accommodations areas to

ease this physiological circumstance.

17
A passengervehiclemaybecramped,particularlyif thevehicleisjust actingasatransportto/

from anorbitaldestination.Anyonewho hasflown acrosscountryin coachclassona modernjet is

awareof thetight volumeconstraints.However,somevolumeshouldbeutilizedto allowthepassengers

to experienceweightlessnessandto playwith smallobjectsin thenewenvironment.Certainly,if thisis

notplannedfor,thenpassengerswill play with whateveris at hanr---pens,glasses,watches,etc.,to see

them"float." As this mayalsoinvolveplayingwith foodor liquids,caremustbetakento ensurethat

theydonot interferewith thevehicle'ssafeoperationsorthehealthandsafetyof otherpassengers.To

captureandcontrolsmallobjectslocatednearthepassengersduringflight, somepersonalstowagespace

neareachpassengermustbeprovided.

c. Lighting and ECLSS. Some lighting and ECLSS should also be associated with each

passenger's volume. Lighting for each passenger should be controlled at each individual seat, and area

lighting made available throughout the passenger area. Local airflow should be conditioned, with some

ability of different passengers to adjust the level for personal comfort. Furthermore, the air flow should

be designed to move floating debris and objects out of the way. This will aid in continuously minimizing

debris and capturing small objects which have not been properly stowed.

d. Ingress/Egress. Depending upon the specific design of the passenger vehicle, the passengers should have simple, nonphysically demanding access to their positions for the trip. This may be

done as on commercial airliners with aisles and doors, but the consideration of when and how the passengers are loaded for vertical takeoff may impose some different access problems.

Once in space the full volume of the vehicle will be available, but access to and from the seats

should be maintained to allow services and attendants to reach the passengers, or to allow the passengers

to move about to reach the lavatory or other facilities. The design of the passenger volume should

include appropriate handholds and rails. Wherever possible, the design should avoid sharp protrusions so

as to minimize the possibility of bruises or painful collisions between a passenger and the vehicle's

internal structure.

Consideration of passenger ingress and egress should include dealing with emergency situations

where the passengers may have to exit the vehicle rapidly. Similar criteria as required by the FAA for

airliner passenger egress may be required. This means emergency doors, slides, or other capabilities may

be needed.

e. Entertainment and Communications. It is reasonable to expect services similar to those

available in commercial airline operations including music, video, and communications devices. With

modern aircraft-like systems, it is possible to provide data communications, giving the trip status of the

vehicle with its position in orbit, camera views from around the craft during the trip, and space-surface

communications links for individual passengers.

f. Timetable. The duration of time the passenger spends on board the vehicle should be considered. Current Shuttle operations have the crew entering the vehicle some hours before liftoff, but such

delays should be minimized for general public passenger-carrying vehicles. The specific timeline between start of passenger loading and launch may be dependent upon specific considerations for vehicle

18
processingandpreparation,aswell assafetyconsiderations(loadingtimefor cryogenicpropellants),but

experienceandproperdesignshouldminimizethisconcern.Similarly, the habitability volume per

passenger should be greater for longer trips.

g. Training/Guidance. The amount of specialized training required for passengers should be

minimized. However, some familiarization and training probably will be needed. At a minimum, as with

commercial airlines, some familiarization and guidance in emergency procedures should be provided.

h. Galley Services. The whole issue of food and drink in space is worthy of an extensive

document. However, for an orbital trip with a duration of more than an hour or so, some type of galley

services to provide liquids and solid food refreshments to passengers should be provided. While extensive meal services would be difficult to provide---and the potential inexperience of passengers with the

techniques of zero-gravity eating may make meals a particularly difficult matter--Ahere are methods of

providing refreshment and sustenance to passengers during flight, and, of course, this service in itself

will provide some entertainment.

i. Lavatory Services. Comfortable facilities for the elimination of bodily wastes in orbit must

also be considered. Current Shuttle and proposed ISS systems are nonintuitive to persons used to being

in a gravity field during the conduct of this common bodily function.

6. Destination Facility Accommodations

a. Crew On-Orbit Requirements. The on-orbit facility has to be piloted and will have orbital

maneuvering and reboost capabilities to maintain on orbit. Crew capabilities must be designed to service

the facility and the tourist population. A surface cruise ship is a good analogy to consider. The numerous

systems on board the facility will have to be monitored and controlled by a capable captain and an

engineering staff. Stewards will serve the passengers in the same way as on a ship at sea. Quarters for

the crew with passenger-restricted access to the control of all vehicle systems is preferable. Complete

crew rotations should occur every few months at first, with longer crew duration permitted as experience

permits. It should be noted here that the zero-gravity environment will provide unique employment

opportunities for many people with physical disabilities that are inhibited by the 1-G environment on

Earth; some may actually prefer a permanent residence in space.

b. Passenger On-Orbit Requirements. The first space tourism facility will probably be the

transportation vehicle itself. Like the Shuttle now, the accommodations will be limited to an open cabin

area, windows, simple personal experiment activities, public-available lavatory, and a sleeping bag on

the wall or bunk-sized locker. Tourists will expect better accommodations as the on-orbit time increases

and dedicated permanent facilities become available.

The first permanent on-orbit facilities will probably be similar to those planned for the ISS. The

ISS provides a good baseline design for safety and reliability and should help establish a precedent that

the insurance industry can base risk estimates upon. Production and installed cost can also be derived

from ISS experience, but operating costs are not as well defined at this time. Certainly, they must become much less costly.

19
Anotherapproachfor anearlytourismfacility couldbearotatinghoteldesignedto providea

partialgravityenvironment.Thiswouldpermittheuseof existingterrestrialequipmentandsystems

(e.g.,toiletfacilities, foodpreparationequipment,mechanicalandplumbingsystems,etc.)with proven

terrestrialsafetyandreliability.ISS habitation experience should be carefully analyzed and the partialgravity approach experimented with in order to understand the performance, estimate the cost, and help

to focus upon the preferred technology and systems development.

By analogy to cruise vessels, medical facilities would include a staff physician or nurse with

emergency medical equipment and a quick-return vehicle capability similar to those to be provided on

the ISS. Medical facilities would expand as the facility expands. A side-line benefit to this is that some

treatments such as those for severe bums and certain orthopedic procedures could benefit from a zerogravity environment. 9 This type of activity could be expected to expand the demand for on-orbit medical

research facilities.

A second-generation hotel could provide cruise ship-like accommodations. More experience will

be needed with on-orbit construction methods and large vehicle operations in the space environment. A

need that is not being addressed by the ISS or Mir programs is the on-orbit construction of large pressurized volumes and low-gravity facilities. Three near-term options appear to be viable for the construction

of large, low-cost, habitable volumes on orbit: (a) The conversion of Shuttle external tanks on orbit to

habitable facilities, (2) the launch of a converted or partially converted external tank for habitation, and

(3) the development of new rigid and/or inflatable structures that can be made habitable on orbit. Such a

facility could be multipurpose--it could be used to accommodate televised sports events, tourist recreation, and film production, l0

H. Summary

The need for a continuing dialogue between Government and travel and tourism interests must

be emphasized as plans are developed for providing an STS-service for the general public. The promise

of this capability has been recognized since humans first went to space in the 1960's, but it has not been

realized, in part, because of the lack of critical technologies and the lack of proper Government policy.

The initial critical technologies are within reach, and a proactive Government policy initiative for general PST and tourism can open up this new business opportunity. The recommendations listed in section

F of this chapter (Recommendations for Future Actions) express these needs more concisely and should

be implemented as soon as possible.

2O
REFERENCES

1. Aviation Week and Space Technology, p. 38, Sept. 30, 1996.

2. Aviation Week and Space Technology, p. 39, Jan. 6, 1997.

3. Nagatomo, Hanada, Naruo, and Collins: "Study on Airport Services for Space Tourism."

AAS 95-603, 1995.

4. Penn, J.E; and Lindley, C.A.: "Space Tourism Optimized Reusable Spaceplane Design."

STAIF-97 Conference, Albuquerque, NM, Jan. 26-30, 1997.

. "Commercial Space Transportation Study Final Report," performed as a cooperative effort by

Boeing, General Dynamics, Lockheed, Martin Marietta, McDonnell Douglas, and Rockwell

International, with the coordination of NASA Langley Research Center, Hampton,VA, May 1994.

6. Collins, E; Stockmans, R.; and Maita, M.: "Demand for Space Tourism in America and Japan, and

Its Implications for Future Space Activities." AAS 95-605, 1995.

7. Collins, P.; Iwasaski, Y.; Kanayama, H.; and Ohnuki, M.: "Commercial Implications of Market

Research On Space Tourism." Space Energy and Transportation, Vol. 1, No. 1.

8. Aviation Week and Space Technology, p. 46, Nov. 4, 1996.

9. "Commercial Space Transportation Study Final Report," May 1994, previous cite. Section 3.7.3

"Space Medical Facilities."

10. "Commercial Space Transportation Study Final Report," May 1994, previous cite.

Section 3.6 "Entertainment."

21
A-;.-,u

II. PASSENGERS, CREW, LIFE SUPPORT, AND INSURANCE CONSIDERATIONS

Daniel A. O'Neil

NASA Marshall Space Flight Center

Marshall Space Flight Center, AL 35812

Dr. Lawrence R. Young

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

A. Introduction

This section describes the key issues, barriers, opportunities, and potential trip packages related

to the needs and expectations ofinitiai space adventure traveiers. A variety of ideas to overcome barriers

is presented that address financiall psychological, and sociological problems expected to be encountered

in establishing a general PST and tourism business. Tour package descriptions range from near-term

surface training facilities to far-term lunar ones. Recommendations include requirements pertaining to

human factors in design and needed technology.

B. Human Factors

Human needs and expectations will evolve as general PST and tourism services expand. Nearterm adventure travel does not have to provide the amenities that later orbital tourist facilities will have

to provide. Design consideration must be based upon customer expectations. There are key issues that

technologists and designers must resolve, and there are barriers to be overcome.

1. Design Requirements

Human factors requirements will evolve from sparse accommodations to luxurious amenities as

the general public business matures. Early space adventurers will tolerate cramped living quarters and

zero-gravity toilets similar in design to the ones on the Shuttle and in the ISS. Later space travelers will

increasingly expect more comfortable lodging, entertainment, and improved personal hygiene facilities.

In general, vehicles and operations should not subject passengers to more than 3 G during the

launch phase and, during reentry, no more than 1.3 G; but higher levels can be permitted for short

intervals. Space travelers should not spend more than about a week in a zero-gravity environment.

Orbital facility personnel may spend longer periods in space, provided they adhere to a strict exercise

regimen and proper diet. Early space travel will not be for everyone; perhaps space adventurers should

meet standards analogous to the NASA Class IV Medical Standards for traveling into space. Orbital

facility personnel should meet higher medical standards.

22
Thetrips shouldincorporatesomeentertainmentinfrastructure. Entertainment on early space

adventure trips may consist primarily of breathtaking views and acrobatics. Later space tours should

include specialized facilities for sports. Eventually, orbital resorts should include theaters for

variety shows.

Travel agencies and universities should start developing curricula related to commercial space

travel and tourism. Students who learn about potential opportunities for commercial space travel will

become proponents, advocates, and champions for future space programs. Travel agents with an understanding of future space adventure travel opportunities can encourage people to visit space training

facilities and/or space travel simulators. As space adventure travel packages become available, travel

agencies and launch-recovery facilities should develop orientation programs that inspire people, alleviate their fears, and educate them about procedures. A well-established general PST and tourism business

will require guide books, maps, and trained personnel who can assist travelers in maximizing their

opportunities in space.

Near-term life support systems in space adventure travel will leverage the work done for the ISS.

Large-scale space resorts and business parks will require more than today's closed-loop water and air

reclamation system. Far-term life support systems will be like city sewage treatment centers or perhaps

distributed personal life support systems. Orbital facility builders will need building codes and standards, and should be able to use commercial off-the-shelf equipment to minimize development costs.

Future orbital facilities will present opportunities for the exercise equipment industry. Exercise

equipment manufacturers can use the results from ongoing research to begin designing future space

exercise equipment. Space training facilities can demonstrate the prototype equipment to participants.

Presently, the medical community is developing telemedicine systems that allow doctors to get

vital diagnostic information about patients while the ambulance is en route to the hospital. This equipment will serve an important role in the sickbays on future space travel vehicles. A potential scenario is a

commercial space travel crew member relaying information about a sick passenger to doctors on Earth.

The doctors can view the passenger through video, read diagnostic telemetry, and provide medical

directions to the crew member. The emerging telemedicine equipment community should work with

system designers and component manufacturers to develop systems appropriate for space use. Also, the

aerospace community should determine the telemetry requirements of the telemedicine service (see

app. A).

2. Key Issues

There are several barriers to establishing a general PST and tourism business that must be eliminated. The barriers are financial, political, and sociological in nature. Barriers that concern passengers

on a personal level constitute key issues because, if they are not handled properly, space travelers will

not enjoy their experience. Miserable vacation stories can hurt a young space travel and tourism business. These issues include space sickness, passenger preparation, personal hygiene, and privacy. Both

aerospace and travel and tourism interests must understand key space travel issues. Some issues require

technical solutions, others operational procedures; some require political imagination and others a

thorough understanding of human psychology.

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3. Opportunities to Eliminate Barriers

The aerospace community can overcome the technical barriers through focused research and

development. Financial barriers can be eliminated through innovative investment strategies and partnerships. To break through political barriers, space advocacy groups must identify and inculcate champions.

Overcoming psychological barriers requires education, marketing, and demonstrations. The following

paragraphs identify specific barriers and potential approaches to eliminating them.

a. Financial. Creating a commercial space travel business will be expensive. Corporations will

need to form consortia, obtain venture capital, issue bonds, and develop near-term sources of revenue for

investment in long-term infrastructure. A series of space-related prizes could provide incentives to

private companies to develop commercial space travel vehicles. Consortiums could allocate profits from

theme parks and new space training facilities to invest in the development and operation of space transportation vehicles. Banks could begin offering Space Accounts to future space travelers. Travel agencies

or others could organize lotteries and/or auctions for tickets. Use of Government transportation markets

would be helpful.

b. Political. General PST and tourism advocacy groups must find political champions that will

seize the issues related to PST. Champions must work with the appropriate Congressional committees

and Federal departments and agencies to establish sensible policies at the outset. Congress can learn

from the development of regulations and policies for the airline business.

c. Ignorance and Fear. Many people will be afraid to travel into space, and the public will

have misconceptions about space travel. Through education, advertising, and public relations demonstrations, general PST and tourism interests could put space travel into proper perspective as has been done

previously for land, air, and water trips.

d. Physical Stress. Launch vehicle developers must design systems for low-G launches and

reentry. In orbit, some facilities may provide full or partial gravity. Passengers should have appropriate

physical training so that they will be fit for space trips.

e. Medical Care. Near-term adventure space travel must include contingency plans for passengers needing medical attention. In the far term, orbital resorts should include medical facilities with the

telemedicine capability to remotely diagnose illness and injury and to direct medical procedures.

f. Quality of Life. Early space adventurers will accept uncomfortable accommodations. As

commercial space travel matures, so will the demand for quality of life. Examples include prepackaged

foods in the near term and food preparation systems in the far term, hopefully including hydroponic food

production _that would allow fresh vegetables to be provided at lower logistical cost. In the near term,

entertainment may be nothing more than playing in a padded chamber and looking out the window. Farterm entertainment may include swimming pools, variety shows, and sporting events.

g. Crews with People Skills. Today, space travel involves technicians, engineers, and astronauts. Space travel of tomorrow should involve space flight attendants, tour guides, and concierges.

Passengers will expect personable and competent crews that will make them feel at ease. Spacecraft

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developersshouldautomatemostproceduresto eliminatetheneedfor peoplewith technicalbackgrounds.Schoolsshouldcreatecurriculafor spacetrip attendants.Crewmembersshouldmeethigher

physicalstandardsthanthepassengerssotheycanstayin spacelonger.

h. Crew/Passenger Ratios. Telepresence and robotic control systems can reduce the need for

large crews. These systems must be demonstrated over long periods of time to build public confidence in

them. General PST and tourism interests can work with the media to educate the public on how

telepresence works. Even with highly reliable robotic control systems, passengers will feel more comfortable with company representatives aboard. Operations research and psychological studies can determine the minimum acceptable crew/passenger ratios.

i. Hygiene. Passenger expectations for personal hygiene will increase along with demands for

higher "quality of life" trips. Early adventurers will accept the Space Shuttle or ISS zero-gravity toilets.

Later orbital resorts that offer full or partial gravity should have much nicer lavatories. Commercial

space travel may present opportunities to invent new hygiene products.

j. Privacy. Psychological studies can provide specific minimal requirements for passenger

privacy. In near-term adventure travel, such as a suborbital flight, the need for privacy will not be as

important as longer stay times in space.

k. Time Management. Travel agencies should develop detailed itineraries for near-term adventure travel. (One road map for space tours is provided below.) In the near term, trips will be short and

entertainment will focus on the freedom of zero-gravity and the magnificent views. Itineraries for these

short trips will resemble timelines that explain available opportunities to passengers. As trip times

become longer and the number of opportunities increase, itineraries will be less rigid and allow passengers more time to determine their own activities. Tour guides can assist passengers in deciding how they

want to spend their time.

1. Traveler Baggage. Minimizing luggage allowance will enable space transportation vehicles

to carry more passengers. Early space adventurers may not carry any luggage; for longer trips, passengers will want to take some. Vehicle service companies may charge customers by the pound, or have

strict requirements on luggage weight. Luggage companies may market "space qualified" suitcases.

Orbital resorts could offer a complete wardrobe including even formals and wedding dresses. Onboard

cameras or photographers would eliminate the need to bring personal equipment.

m. Sickness. Space motion sickness affects approximately 50 percent of the people who go into

space. 1 Drugs, such as promethezyne, offer relief from space sickness, but have side effects such as

drowsiness. Changing maneuvers can eliminate some of the physiological causes, For example, in

parabolic flights, pilots can provide rest periods and climb or dive more gradually. Interior designs of

spacecraft and orbital resorts should eliminate visual cues that can cause space sickness. Focused research and development may result in new drugs, meditation training programs, vehicle maneuvers, and

design guidelines. Learning new ways to move and control your body can mitigate space motion sickness. Examples of retraining the body to adapt to microgravity include Autogenic Feedback Training

Exercise (AFTE) and the Torso Rotation Experiment (TRE).

25
Dr. PatriciaCowingsattheNASAAmesResearchCenterandDr. William ToscanoattheUniversityof California in Los Angeles studied over 200 people in preparation for tests of AFTE in space. A

combination of biofeedback and autogenic therapy, AFTE is a patented 6-hr preflight training program

which could benefit both passengers and crew through greater physiological self-regulation. During a

typical training session, subjects are instructed to control a pattern of physiological responses and are

given many different feedback displays (visual and auditory) simultaneously. Two groups of subjects, an

AFTE treatment group and a no-treatment control group, were given three types of motion sicknessinducing tests: a rotating chair test, the combination of optokinetic stimulation with rotation in a chair,

and a vertical acceleration test. Results showed that subjects given AFTE significantly improved their

tolerance to the different types of motion sickness tests, whereas the control subjects exhibited little or

no improvement. For example, subjects who were moderately susceptible to motion sickness increased

their tolerance from 2013 rotations in the rotating chair to nearly 1,000 rotations. 1

Dr. Douglas Watt, the Director of the Aerospace Medical Research Unit at McGill University in

Montreal, Canada, attributes space sickness to jerky and stiff movements astronauts tend to make in

microgravity. In space, astronauts tend to turn their head and torso together, as if wearing a neck brace,

rather than moving them independently. This unusual act, even on Earth provokes the dizziness, headaches, and nausea of motion sickness. During the STS-78 mission, Canadian Space Agency astronaut

Bob Thirsk carried out the TRE. In this experiment, astronauts wore a device on their heads attached to a

backpack holding a computer. The equipment monitored eye, head, and torso movement. After studying

the data, Dr. Watt hopes to train astronauts to avoid certain movements and behavior that seem to trigger

space sickness. 2

n. Regulation. Over-regulation can make it difficult for companies to make a profit. Industry

should take the lead in developing standards, policies, and regulations that ensure the safety of passengers without crushing the profit potential. The Government should work closely with travel and tourism

interests to define the roles and missions of agencies pertaining to monitoring and enforcing regulations.

Contemporary commercial airline regulations in the airline industry can serve both as a positive and

negative model for the nascent general PST and tourism business.

C. Tour Package Roadmap

A roadmap of tour packages provides a reference for expected levels of service for near-term

space adventures and far-term off-world destinations. Adventure tours include high-risk outdoor programs with a certain amount of physical activity, experience with the unknown, and discovery. Grand

vistas often engender a sense of the sublime, a feeling that you are part of something greater than you

are. The following paragraphs describe potential tour packages, customer expectations, and technological and design requirements.

1. Space Training

Near-term space adventure travel may begin using a variety of space training facilities, ranging

from camps to resorts. In recent years, people have become more interested in vacations that involve

physical activities. Activities may include a physical fitness program similar to the one used in the

26
official astronautcandidateprogram.Trainingcoursescouldteachvaluableskills thatwouldenricha

person'slife evenif theynevertravel intospace.

Universitiesandspacetrainingfacilities couldoffer acurriculumwhereinpeoplebecomecertified for certainkindsandlevelsof spacetravel.Potentialspaceadventurerswouldtakea seriesof tests

thatcertify their qualificationsfor simulations,suborbitalflights,three-orbittours,and3-daytours.

Along theway,participantscouldacquirecertificationin otheradventurousactivitiessuchasscuba

diving or piloting smallaircraft.

a. Physical Education. Perhaps potential space adventurers should meet medical standards

analogous to those of NASA Class IV. The physical education program could offer classes in nutrition,

weightlifting, aerobics, and stretching. Medical examinations and physical tests would qualify participants for various kinds of specific space trips.

b. Space History Courses. An education in space history can enhance a space traveler's experience by providing a context and understanding of their place in history. Course material may include an

overview of rockets, satellites, historical space events, etc. Basics of orbital mechanics could be referenced as well as the studies of Copernicus, Brahe, Galileo, Kepler, and Newton, all of which formed the

bases for modern space flight. Space adventurers will appreciate their history class when they look

through a telescope on their spacecraft and recognize different satellites.

c. Flight Training. Some space adventurers may want a deeper understanding of rocketry and

space flight. One course may conclude with an FAA examination for small aircraft. Another class may

explain the physics of rocketry and include launching model rockets. When the general PST and hotel

business has established a number of orbital resorts, flight training may address piloting small orbital

transfer vehicles in moving between one facility and another.

d. Autogenic Feedback Training Exercise. APTE is an operant conditioning process used to

enable an individual to regulate his/her body. Operant conditioning is a trial and error process in which

the response learned and performed must be followed by either a reward or punishment. When a novice

basketball player practices shooting fouls, he or she sees the ball going through the hoop (success) as a

reward, or missing the hoop (failure) as a punishment. If the novice were blindfolded, he or she would

not learn. The same rules that apply to improving athletic skills also apply to gaining voluntary control

of one's own heart rate. Autogenic exercises provide specific instructions and methods of concentration

that are likely to produce a desired response. For example, self-suggestion of warmth in the hands and

feet is associated with measurable vasodilatation in the hands and feet. Classes in AFTE and other selfregulation techniques would benefit participants, not only in space, but in any situation that could cause

motion sickness.

e. General PST and Tourism Agency Training. Agents in this business should understand

most aspects of space tour packages. Courses in this area would provide students with an overview of

launch/recovery facilities, an understanding of spacecraft accommodations, amenities, medical standards, entertainment, education opportunities, sites, timelines, etc. As longer space tour packages

become available, courses will certify tour guides, space flight attendants, and space resort concierges.

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f. Medical Training. Crewmembersmustknowemergencymedicalproceduresin theevent

thatapassengerbecomesinjuredor seriouslyill. As newmedicaldiagnosticor telemedicinecapabilities

becomeavailable,personnelwouldbetaughthow to operatethisequipment.Eventually,crew members

will specializeasparamedics,nurses,doctors,etc.

g. Photography Classes. Space photography classes would go beyond composition, lighting,

and shutter speed. Tourists would learn how to use onboard camera equipment, how to manipulate

telerobotic camera systems, and about available subject matter such as satellites, orbital debris, Earth,

the stars, etc.

h. Earth Observation Training. Space adventure travelers will have a greater appreciation of

the Earth after they have taken an Earth observation class. They would learn how to operate the onboard

Earth observation equipment and how to interpret the data.

i. Emergency Procedures. Early space adventure travelers will need to understand emergency

procedures. Travelers would experience simulated emergencies to test their understanding of the procedures. As the general PST and tourism business matures, orbital resort guests wilI not need extensive

training in emergency procedures, but the resort personnel will need a thorough understanding of evacuation procedures. Through simulation, future crew personnel would evacuate numbers of guests to space

"life boats."

2. Simulations

People who want a more visceral space travel experience could experience a variety of simulations. Some simulations could create the sensation of weightlessness while others could use virtual

reality (VR) for walk-throughs of future orbital facilities. Space training facilities might include some

simulations or people might graduate from a course and proceed to other facilities that specialize in

space travel simulations.

a. Neutral Buoyancy Tanks. Using a large tank of water and props, space training facilities can

simulate a zero-gravity environment. Participants wear a weighted space suit that prevents them from

floating to the top of the tank. Through interaction with props and other people, participants could

perform a simulated extravehicular activity such as servicing a satellite.

b. Centrifuge Rooms. In a centrifuge room participants could experience the increased level of

gravity they will feel during reentry. The room spins, which causes a centrifugal force to push participants against the walls of the circular room.

c. Parabolic Flights. Today, potential space adventurers can experience zero gravity on a

parabolic aircraft flight. A large plane, such as a KC-135, carries several passengers in the cargo area

without seats or other obstructions. The plane flies up and down in a series of parabolas. At the peak,

participants experience weightlessness. At the trough, passengers feel somewhere between 1 and 2 G.

The plane may fly as many as 40 parabolas. Often, people get sick because of the repetitive transition

between 0 and 2 G. The pilot can minimize the sickness by providing sufficient rest periods between

parabolas and gradual climbs and descents.

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d. Virtual Space Tours. Theme parks and space training facilities could provide virtual space

tours through such technologies as VR and telepresence. People can immerse themselves in a threedimensional computer generated environment using powerful computers, stereo audio/visual headgear,

and special gloves for controlling the system. VR environments may include future orbital space resorts,

spacecraft, and off-word settlements. Telepresence applies VR user interfaces, remote control systems,

and cameras to direct robotic systems to look at something or pick up an object. (The Luna Corp. has

developed a concept for a teleoperated lunar rover that people can drive. A variety of teleoperated

vehicles could provide people with spectacular views of Earth or even allow them to capture a piece of

space debris.)

3. Suborbital Trips

Suborbital trips present a near-term opportunity for adventure travel. Participants could experience the thrill of a Mercury-style space flight. Using modem technologies such as the Global Positioning

System and teleoperated control systems, a company could launch an adventurer traveler and maneuver

the capsule to splash down in a specific location. An alternative is a small highly reusable space transportation (HRST) vehicle with a pilot and multiple passengers landing at a standard airport. This tour

package would offer an incredible view of Earth and 5 rain of weightlessness. Travel agencies could

wrap vacation packages around the flight so the splashdowns or airport landings could be made at an

exotic locale. A small HRST vehicle could also reduce 16-hr cargo and passenger trips to

90 min.

4. Three-Orbit Tour

A three-orbit tour could provide passengers the photo opportunity of a lifetime, time to play in

zero gravity, and time to think about their world. A passenger spacecraft could include a padded room

for acrobatics and windows or perhaps even an observation cupola. After enjoying the magnificent view

of the Earth, perhaps passengers might be able to orbit near the ISS, Mir, and a variety of commercial

satellites. Robotic camera systems on the outside of the ship would enable passengers to take many

photographs. In addition, passengers could have hands on experience with several types of remotesensing equipment.

This tour may not be for everyone, because early space adventure travelers cannot expect the

amenities found on a pleasure cruise. An analogous activity on Earth may be a trip on a deep-sea fishing

boat. The spacecraft may include a zero-gravity bathroom and a small sickbay. The crew may consist of

two people who monitor automated control systems and tend to sick passengers. On such a short trip,

they would not prepare food, but they could provide prepackaged snacks.

5. Three-Day Trip

A 3-day trip offers more personal time and may call for more structured activities. This tour

package may be analogous to a trip on a large sailing ship where passengers do some of the work.

Passengers could perform some tasks that provide the experience of being an astronaut. For example, the

trip could include some onboard experiments that require some human interaction. Like the three-orbit

tour, passengers would have access to robotic cameras, remote sensors, an acrobatic chamber, and

29
perhapsanobservation cupola. Additional activities could include teleoperation of orbital debris

collection systems. The telerobotic system could deposit the debris in the back of the ship for return to

Earth or forced reentry. (Imagine the excitement of bringing home a piece of space debris as a souvenir!)

Wedding ceremonies have transpired in cyberspace, on roller coasters, on top of flag poles, under

water, and at other offbeat locations. A matrimony package trip could take wedding parties into space for

a unique ceremony. The package could offer time for in-space acclimation, wedding vows in the cupola,

a reception, and a private room for the newlyweds.

As the general PST and tourism business grows in sophistication, the 3-day tour could offer stops

along the way at special orbital facilities. These orbital facilities could later grow into orbital hotels for

longer vacations. Examples of specialized orbital facilities include a swimming pool, gymnasium, and

observatories. A swimming pool in zero gravity is more like a large blob of water--swimmers could

enter at one end and swim through to the other. A gymnasium could provide more room than an acrobatic chamber with a greater variety of equipment and games. Tourists could play a game of soccer or

fly through a three-dimensional obstacle course. A visit to a space-based observatory would give tourists

a greater appreciation of the universe and let them see advanced space science hardware up close.

Again, the 3-day tour would offer minimal amenities. Artificial gravity would not be required, so

the ship would have a zero-gravity toilet similar to the 1SS. Scheduled activities should include sleep

periods scheduled around circadian rhythms. Passengers would eat prepackaged meals. A potential

architecture for the ship includes a private room for two people, a larger room with several sleeping

bags, and a larger sickbay than on the three-orbit tour ship.

6. Orbital Resorts

Eventually, the specialized orbital facilities will evolve into space resorts. Competition will

provide a variety of places for passengers to visit via orbital transfer vehicles. Entertainment will probably be a primary consideration of such early resorts. Professional sporting events could take place in

orbital "stadiums" (perhaps constructed around large---70,000 ft3---Shuttle vehicle external tanks that

would be placed in orbit). Some resorts could include casinos and variety shows with incredible zerogravity choreography, and other resorts could serve as retreats for religious and business organizations.

Passengers could have a choice of gravity levels among the various resorts. Some resorts may

offer 1 G or partial G, while others have zero gravity. Amenities at orbital resorts would far exceed the

modest accommodations of the early adventure tours. Travelers would expect more personal space,

better bathrooms, and fine cuisine. Room design should eliminate undesired visual cues and consider

circadian rhythms.

Resorts would also include physical training facilities and medical facilities. For resort personnel

and travelers who spend a longer time in space, physical training facilities would offer a variety of

exercise equipment and artificial-gravity environments to maintain muscles and bones. Inevitably, as the

number of people in space increases, there will be a need for medical facilities with a staff capable of

performing minor surgery. Other societal problems will eventually arise, requiring the need for security

systems and personnel. Design requirements would include orbital debris shielding and radiation

protection.

30
Resorts,like anyotherbusiness,requireofficesandacommunicationsinfrastructure.Eventually,

traveIerswill expectshopsandtheaters.Thesefeatureswill drive therequirementsfor communication,

electricity,plumbing,etc.As theresortsin LEO expand,sowill theinfrastructureandinvestmentcapital. In time,resortsandtransportationsystemswill moveout towardsgeostationaryorbit and,eventually,

to theMoon.

7. Lunar Settlements

Eventually, it can be expected that Government agencies and corporations will establish outposts

on the Moon. The Moon offers partial gravity of 1/6 G which will reduce incidents of space sickness and

provide people the feeling of superhuman strength. Tourists could wear a pair of wings and fly under

their own power within a dome. Tourists could visit the original Apollo landing sites or enjoy viewing a

splendid Earth-rise.

D. Recommendations

• Identify detailed human factors requirements for space infrastructure elements, the commercial travel and tourism business, and technology developers.

• Define guidelines and boundaries for developing policies, building codes, standards, and

regulations pertaining to the future general PST and tourism business.

• Outline basic "road maps" that businesses, universities, and Government agencies can use to

develop projects, goals, and objects.

• Determine minimum gravity requirements for long-term sojourns in space.

31
,

2_

REFERENCES

Cowings, ES.; and Toscano, W.B.: "Autogenic-Feedback Training (AFTE) as a Preventive Method

for Space Motion Sickness: Background and Experimental Design." NASA/TM-108780, August

1993.

"A Canadian Experiment Investigates Why Some Astronauts Suffer from Motion Sickness in

Microgravity." Canadian Space Agency News Release, St Hubert, June 21, 1996.

32
lII. CERTIFICATION, REGULATION, LEGISLATION, POLICIES,

AND ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

Keith Caihoun-Senghor

DOC/Office of Air & Space Commercialization

Carl S. Rappaport

DOT/Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Scott Pace

RAND/Critical Technologies Institute

A. Introduction

Critical regulatory issues affect general PST and tourism. These regulatory issues concern the

nature and extent of regulation to protect public health and safety, safety of property, and U.S. foreign

policy and national security interests. Statutory objectives must be considered in the context of international obligations requiring Governmental authorization, and supervision of commercial space activities.

Optimal types and levels of regulation of the emerging business should:

• Assure Congress, the media, the financial community, and the public that the business is safe

• Reduce uncertainty and risk by providing a more stable business environment

• Minimize Government burden on industry and commerce

• Promote uniform performance-based industry standards.

This section examines the regulatory and policy issues affecting the viability of public access to

space. After a series of presentations, followed by questions and discussions, this issue was divided into

three sections:

• Near-term regulatory issues

• Near-term policy issues

• "Beyond the near term" issues.

B. Near-Term Regulatory Issues

Four major regulatory issues need to be addressed in the near term.

1. Space Prize Participant Damage Waiver (X-Prize, etc.)

Throughout history, prizes have been offered as incentives to solve difficult technical or scientific problems. Currently, an X-Prize Foundation has been established that seeks to award a $10 million

33
prizeto thefirst partyto developafeasiblemethodof launchingapayloadintoorbit andreturningit to

Earthona reusablevehicle,readyto belaunchedagainwithin afixedperiod.

However,for theawardof suchaprizeto befinanciallyacceptable,theremustbesomelegally

bindingway for a participantin thecontestto waivehisorher claimto damagesagainsttheorganizers

of theprizeif theyshouldbeharmed,or harmothers,in pursuitof theprize.Suchrelief couldtakethe

form of legislation,or someothertypeof legally enforceablemechanism.

GeneralPSTandtourismliability regulationsshoulddrawuponthoseusedregardingliability for

aviationoperations.On average,theU.S.loses23-28 aircraftper year.In 1994,lossestotaled

$2.2billion (35percentfor hull loss,40percentforliability). Passengerliability factorsincludethe

degreeof airline negligence,passengerpainandsuffering,passengerfutureearningpower,andcrash

location.Averagecostswere$2 million perlife lost in domesticflights.Between80and90percentof

airline liability costis for litigation.A capestablishedat theWarsawconventionis $75,000for overseas

flights. Presently,thereis discussionof raisingthecapto lowerlegalcostsarisingfrom lawsuitsthat

typically challengethis cap.

2. Experimental Flight Regulations

It is also necessary to develop a standard set of regulations to govern the safety and other aspects

of experimental flights. This would protect those engaged in high-risk experiments by giving regulatory

protection in the event of liability claims resulting from these tests. It would also give the public and

entrepreneurs some minimum assurance of the acceptable level of risk involved in these ventures. A

potential change in regulations may allow the use of Bureau of Land Management land areas for experimental space flight. Safety regulations should address experimental human space flight. These regulations can use experimental aircraft as a model.

3. Uniform Spaceport Regulations

General PST and tourism would be greatly beneficial to U.S. space capabilities. However, opposition would arise to direct Government subsidies. Therefore, a business model is crucial. Typical business risks include technical risk, market risks, financial risk, and policy/regulatory risks. Analogous

aviation regulations include FAA/ICAO regulation, safety surveillance, airport ownership, air traffic

management fees, liability/litigation costs, and media coverage of accidents.

The Commercial Space Launch Act, as amended, requires licensing of commercial space

launches and commercial operation of launch sites in order to protect:

• Public health and safety

• Safety of property

° Foreign policy and national security interests.

Commercial spaceports will play an important role in making space travel for the general public

a routine and affordable matter. However, in order to protect the public and offer uniformity to the

launch providers using spaceports, it will be necessary to develop a standard set of regulations to govern

34
their operation and use. Spaceport regulations can derive benchmarks from consideration of international

practices. Currently, the DOT is drafting spaceport regulations. However, any regulations will need to be

refined over time to accommodate evolving uses of spaceports as alternative launch and recovery sites.

4. Space Traffic Management

To avoid risks of inappropriate or hostile regulations, business representatives must cooperate

while competing with one another. Current National Space Policy (September 1996) is silent on tourism.l

There are different policy concerns at different stages such as: research and development (R&D), testing,

and evaluation. Presently, Government supports operations, traffic control and clearances, and infrastructure construction. Extrapolating present Government support, one can imagine space tourism infrastructure such as spaceports, space business parks, even hotels.

As the use of space becomes a more common and commercial endeavor, a framework will be

needed within which the increasing amount and types of space traffic will be managed. This will require

some means of tracking and controlling the number of vehicles that will reach and operate in orbit and of

assuring rights of way, priority orbits, etc. Such a system could be based on current international air

traffic control regimes, or it could grow along with the evolution of this particular market.

Near-term thought will need to be given to this issue before the volume of traffic overcomes the

capacity to manage it. The current legal framework includes:

• Space Law----the 1967 Outer Space Treaty

• Trade--the 1944 Chicago Convention (Aviation)

• Liability--the 1929 Warsaw Convention (Aviation) and the 1972 Liability Convention

(Space).

An important point regarding current regulations is that international law is permissive. Chicago

Freedom Conventions identified a number of privileges, not rights, for airlines. The first five freedoms

are (1) the right to fly across another country without landing, (2) the fight to land in another country for

purposes other than carrying passengers; e.g., refueling and maintenance, (3) and (4) the fight to load or

unload passengers, mail, and cargo in another country, and (5) the right to enable airlines to carry passengers to one country and then fly on to another country, a.k.a., "beyond fights." Informal freedoms include

a state's right to carry traffic between two other countries via an airport in its own territory, the right to

operate stand-alone services between two other countries, and carriage of passengers and cargo within the

borders of another country, a.k.a., "cabotage." 2

C. Near-Term Policy Issues

Three different paths can lead to general PST and tourism: Government-driven, privately-driven,

and a mix of public and private activities. Government-driven programs include support to the 1SS and

other Government-funded human space flight projects. Privately funded efforts include the evolution

through parabolic aircraft flights, suborbital trips, and orbital trips to space hotels. Future private ventures

include the transfer of passengers and cargo. An example of a public/private mix is the support of space

35
businessparkswith mixturesof cargoandpassengersfrom all sources.Severalpolicy issuesalsoneedto

bedebatedandresolvedin theneartermto allow generalpublicaccessto spaceto developto its full

potential.

1. Determining the Availability and Use of Excess Government Launch Assets

There are significant and predictable consequences to allowing, or not allowing, the widespread

commercial use of excess Government launch vehicles. The arguments on both sides are substantial.

However, thus far the policy of the U.S. Government has been to restrict the use of excess Government

launch assets to limited educational purposes and DOD use only.

If this continues to be the policy, it will impact the cost, timing, and technology used for commercial ventures in the future. Rather than relying on surplus assets currently in existence, newer technologies will need to be brought to the market.

2. Government Procurement Policies

Financial concerns of a general PST and tourism policy agenda include clarification of tax

treatment for RLV's and space infrastructure; i.e., depreciation. Private competition should supply ISS

logistics. The circumstances under which the United Space Alliance, organized to operate the Shuttle

fleet, would be allowed to compete must be considered.

Regulatory and policy measures which benefit commercial space activities (in general) are

preferable to those which benefit general PST and tourism (in particular). A policy and regulatory

agenda should include support for R&D, not only for the RLV, but for subsystem technologies as well.

R&D should also improve the understanding of space debris risk and develop mitigation strategies.

Space transportation policies should be considered in future Government space transportation

acquisition decisions. Should the United Space Alliance be allowed to carry passengers and commercial

cargo? Should evolved expendable launch vehicles have a "Dyna-Soar" addition? The Government must

consider the ramifications of Using RLV's only, and two stage to orbit (TSTO) versus SSTO. These

policies can derive from a comparison of DOD, NASA, and DOT-FAA Commercial Space Transportation practices.

As in the case of excess Government launch assets, Federal procurement policies can have a

great impact on which space transportation technologies are developed and what markets are pursued by

private companies. Government procurement policies should be consistent within the broader framework of U.S. policy goals and work to promote the development of simpler, less costly, and more safe

and reliable space transportation technologies.

36
3. Explicit DOT Authority to License Reentry Vehicles

The DOT is currently seeking explicit legislative authority to license reentry vehicles to remove

any ambiguity about its authority in this regard. Legislation is being developed in Congress which would

grant such authority. Therefore, this issue may be resolved in the near future.*

4. Privatization of Zero-Gravity Aircraft Flights

One important step in bringing affordable space flight to the public would be the privatization of

zero-gravity aircraft flights. This would allow members of the public to experience simulated weightlessness in a manner, and at a price, that could serve to establish and stimulate the market for actual

suborbital and orbital flights. Such parabolic flights are conducted privately in Russia. The policy

decision is whether such private flights, properly licensed, should be allowed in this country.

5. Limitations on Second-Party (Passenger, Cargo) Damages

A general PST and tourism capability implies the ability to carry cargo and/or passengers. Demand for this capability will induce competition for time-urgent shipments. Today's subsonic air cargo;

e.g., FedEx, could lead to tomorrow's high-speed commercial transports in the Mach 3-5 range. As a

matter of policy, any limitations on the amount of damage allowable against carriers because of damage

to cargo or passengers would significantly affect the financial viability of such ventures. However, the

policy implications are also significant for those affected by such loss. The value of such an unprecedented decision would be significant for other businesses.

D. "Beyond the Near-Term" Issues

Eventually, regulations and policies must address the infrastructure, environment, and rights

associated with PST. Many of the certification procedures and regulations can derive from analogous

systems such as aerospace construction standards and maritime law. The following paragraphs describe

these categories of issues.

1. Property Rights and Individual Rights

Potential tourist attractions in space may include captured asteroids or salvaged satellites.

Today's regulations pertaining to international waters may provide a model for developing space-based

salvage and mining laws. A legal framework should be in place before property rights' issues arise.

Topics for discussion in this area include:

• A claims registry for property rights in space

• The development of rules governing rights to noninterference of space-based property

• A potential registry of"deeds" and liens for orbiting assets both man made and natural

• Definition of judicial jurisdiction for the application of criminal and civil laws in orbit.

* This issue was addressed by the Congress in 1998 in H.R. 1702, an Act "to encourage the development of a commercial

space industry in the United States...."

37
Giventheclosedandcontrolledenvironmentin which spacetravelerswill live, individualrights

mustbecarefullyconsidered.Examplesincludepersonalbehavior,gambling,anddrinking.A clear

commandof authoritycanderivefrom today'smaritimelaw.Regulationsfollowedby thecruiseline

industrymayserveasa modelfor gamblinganddrinking in spacehotels.Thelegalframeworkshould

provideenoughflexibility for "HouseRules"pertainingto drinking, smoking,anddresscode.

2. Launch/Recovery Facility and Space Environment

Today the space around Earth is littered with debris traveling in various orbits at rates up to

18,000 mph. Orbital debris endangers orbital facilities and drives requirements for expensive tracking

systems. Regulations must address the in-space environment as well as the Earth environment surrounding launch and recovery facilities. Environmental issues relate to:

• Regulation of noise around such facilities and space debris in the near-Earth and

space environments

• Rules governing overland supersonic flights for experimental and reentry vehicles

• Procedures and other rules relating to the operational impacts of space systems

• Regulations for cleaning the space environment to ensure the safety of orbital facilities.

3. Certification of Commercial STS's and Operations

General PST must have safety standards, building codes, and certification procedures to ensure

the safety of passengers and crew. Many of the launch vehicle and facility construction regulations can

derive from existing standards, or transition from Government standards to industry developed standards. Space transportation facility construction involves issues such as:

• Development of a regulatory fee structure, if necessary to sustain the oversight of launch

and recovery facilities

• Oversight of orbital facilities

• Tax treatment of orbital facilities and the appropriate role of tax incentives, tax holidays, etc.

The "rule book" for space destination systems has not been written. Building codes and safety

regulations need definition and refinement. Some example building codes include emergency egress for

large numbers of people, medical facilities, galleys for food preparation and heating, venting, and air

conditioning. The aerospace industry may lead the development of building and operating codes. ISS

systems can serve as a baseline. Cleanliness standards may derive from regulations set forth by the

Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). The passengers themselves should be required

to pass any physical standards identified by the FAA and NASA.

E. Recommendations for Future Action

• Begin debate and work on regulatory and policy near-term issues.

• Engage in a public policy debate on the longer-term issues.

• Increase the visibility of the potential for general PST and tourism as a viable economic

market through:

- Small, exciting ventures to start

- Serious study of this market to increase financial credibility.

• Directly engage the public's excitement---bypass the "experts."

38
REFERENCES

1. National Space Policy; September 1996.

2. Reynolds, G.; and Merges, R.: "Outer Space Problems of Law and Policy." Berkeley; Westview

Press, 1997.

39
IV. FINANCIAL, ECONOM'IC, BUSINESS PLANNING, AND MARKET REQUIREMENTS

TO START A VIABLE SPACE TOURISM BUSINESS

Dr. Neville Marzwell

California Institute of Technology

Abstract

Technology, markets, business, and financial surveys suggest that a general PST and tourism

business will be created if a vehicle is developed and demonstrated to be adequately safe for a fast

turnaround time at an acceptable price. Various issues are identified that could be "show stoppers." The

major single requirement for the creation of a solid business is the design from scratch of a very highly

reliable system that is uniquely built for general public passenger transport. This vehicle must be designed to be operated like an airline. It should have fully autonomous flight control and navigation

systems. It is critical for this vehicle to have onboard health monitoring systems and real-time launchabort savability. Other issues that could impact business success are space sickness and Government

regulations that, if combined, could break the spirit of the public and the entrepreneurs. The major

factors affecting the economics of a viable general PST and tourism business are identified. An ultrahigh

flight rate and high safety and reliability are crucial. Figures of merit similar to those used to evaluate

the economic viability of conventional commercial aircraft are developed. Items, such as payload/

vehicle dry weight, number of passengers, turnaround time, propellant cost per passenger, insurance, and

depreciation costs, are discussed in detail, and indications are that an infrastructure can be developed for

a viable business. Reference space vehicle designs optimized for general PST and tourism are used to

assess the business opportunity. Subsystem allocations for safety and reliability, operability, and cost are

discussed, and a route to developing and implementing such capabilities has been judged to be realizable

and financially promising.

A. Introduction

A large-scale general PST and tourism business will require an infrastructure made up of launch

and landing sites, vehicles, training and medical diagnostics, and facilities to support hundreds of trips

per year. Until now the commercialization of space has been heavily handicapped by the high cost of

space transportation. It should be possible, with today's technology, to reduce the recurring launch cost

to $2,000-$4,000 per kg. This would present a significant improvement over today's cost. The proposed

reusable systems should strive to achieve safeties of 99.99 percent, which is a significant (two orders of

magnitude) improvement compared to today's systems at 95-98 percent.*

*Shuttle operations now approach 99 percent.

40
Theconventionalwisdomis thatoncesuchlow-costaccessto spaceis available,marketdemand

will nucleate,chiefly by allowingandpromptinglargenumbersof commercialbusinessopportunities.

But it maywell beaslow process.Thegrowthpotentialswill only belimited by safetyandreliability

first andforemost,andcostto a muchlesserextent.However,presentcostsarestill toohigh to attract

majortraffic from suchusesaslow-pricedpassengertransportto andfrom space,spacemanufacturing,

rapidworldwidepackagedelivery viasuborbitalflight, andpossiblyextensivelevelsof massdelivered

via military-like vehicles.

1. Commercial Ventures

The economics of starting viable space businesses, in general, are sobering. Financial planning

for the enterprises, capital needs, acquisition procedures and sources, size and elasticity of markets,

growth from initial demand, and the criteria for financially viable ventures--all must be considered.

However, if a vehicle is developed and demonstrated to be adequately safe and reliable, and trips are

offered at an acceptable price, then financially viable general PST and tourism businesses will begin to

be created.

2. Possible Foundations for General PST and Tourism

Traditional space transportation approaches are limiting and different approaches are now

needed. A general PST and tourism service requires that a transportation system and infrastructure be

made available that is specifically conceived and built for general public use. This STS will need excess

capacity that can be used for cargo needs. It must be designed at a price that the initial small market will

bear. Capacity could then expand at lower prices as business expands.

As a straw man, a price of $12,000 a ticket in 1997 dollars is suggested. This price represents a

discussion point only and is not intended as a goal but more as what might be possible in today's market

where tourists are spending comparable sums on an annual basis to take adventure tours. It was noted

that even the $12,000 ticket would not make an orbital vehicle a viable entry with transportation costs of

$2,000-$4,000 per kg, but it could certainly be an incentive for shorter suborbital adventure trips.

The next step in building the business would be to build a few space tour vehicles and then use

them as test vehicles for cargo transport to get customer acceptability, establish the viability of the

industry for insurance purposes, bring in initial revenues, and be certified for passenger carrying by

Government authority. This was the same approach (albeit unsuccessful) that the Russians used for their

supersonic transport, the TU-144, when it appeared that, in its,,initial production models, it would not be

suitable for passengers.

After the space tour vehicles, the next goal would be to develop a capability for an in-space stay

that would leave a positive feeling of a worthwhile "fulfilling experience." In essence, what this service

would be selling would be not only transportation or exotic thrills but also a basic life "experience," a

rite of passage. It is important to understand that, in the beginning of this business, it is not so much the

destination but the way and thrill of getting there that would be important. As its passengers used to say

about the GrafZeppelin, "You did not fly, you voyaged."

41
3. General PST and Tourism Issues

There is a definite need for a major shift/change of perception when it comes to general PST and

tourism. Access to space cannot be limited to highly trained and closely selected individuals, nor can it

be regarded as the exclusive province of governments. The importance of establishing a business that

will be supported by the business community under the same degree of scrutiny now accorded all large

business deals cannot be underestimated. Management know-how is extremely important; the ability to

determine market characteristics in detail and forecast demand will be at a premium, especially in the

early years.

One of the interesting aspects of space travel which have already shown up in space is motion

sickness. This is not a new phenomenon for international travelers. The old pictures with the travelers at

the rail of an ocean liner is a clichE, but motion sickness in space seems to be almost endemic, and there

is no recourse to larger ships and fresh sea air. Even astronauts with demonstrated resistance to motion

sickness have had trouble in the Space Shuttle environment. Ongoing research needs to establish the

degree, time, and duration associated with space sickness to open up this business to a greater market

than just the adventuresome rich who are ready to put up with considerable discomfort.

Another area of concern is the important one of insurance and the viability of coverage. The

business must depend on a commercial market that plays by generally accepted principles for underwriting. Along the same lines, but involving governments, are the regulations and licensing matrix that the

business will be subject to. At the current time, it is unknown how the regulations and the licensing will

be done or even how many governments or locally administered centers would be involved in an undertaking of this magnitude. This must be known to reduce the business risk of the entire enterprise. The

business must know the planned roles of governments both national and local as well as the international

community to be able to successfully operate in space.* Governments at any level can function as

supporters or creators of barriers.

Operational maintenance and servicing costs are another serious business concern. Overall

vehicle design and operating safety, reliability, robustness, reusability, durability, and cost are the keys

for a successful routine operation. Close attention must be paid to the technologies involved, the development pace of those technologies, and the time required to see their successful utilization. This new

business must be able to demonstrate credible low-risk and best-engineering practices in space transportation. For this reason alone, it must show that it can successfully operate with an optimized general

public passenger-carrying vehicle that takes low-risk and best-engineering practices into account. All of

this helps to develop and achieve a perception of safety in a business that will most likely rise or fall on

its safety record regardless of its financial viability.

4. Major Factors Affecting Successful Business Initiation

It is obvious that to succeed in the general PST and tourism business rigorous business plans are

necessary. These plans must be able to detail end-to-end space vehicle and infrastructure cost. Vehicle

* The recent announcement that an agreement has been reached among NASA, the Air Force, and the FAA regarding the

latter's licensing of all U.S. spaceports is encouraging.

42
reliability,robustness,serviceability,lifecycle,reusability,andsafetyareall itemswhichmustbe

addressed.Operationslogisticsandarchitecturemustbecarefullythoughtout.Thetourpricing strategy

from initiation throughthegrowthphasemustbeclear,carefullythoughtout,andarticulated.Market

sizeandmarketsegmentsmustbeaccuratelyforecast.Marketingdevelopment,maintenance,and

growthcostsmustbecarefullylaid out.Loadfactorsandturnaroundtime mustbedelineatedandthe

costto operateeachtourknownexactly.Thebusinessplansmusthavea comprehensivecapitalinvestmentstrategy.Financingmechanismsmustbein placeandaccessibleto thecompanieswho seekto

developthismarket.Theentiresystemmustaddressthelevelof comfortfor thetravelerthatis required,

aswasdonein theageof thegreatoceanliners;andinsuranceandlicensingprotocolsmustbeaccuratelyforecastedandpriced.

5. Business Risk and Uncertainties

Every business plan that will be developed in this new business must address the uncertainty of

market demand, affordable seat prices, revenues per trip, and trips per year to evaluate net profitability.

Business plans must recognize the limitations of existing space rocket vehicle designs and technologies

as alternatives. They must base their analysis on a strong case for demonstrated safe and reliable

vehicles that will protect the general public and have the economic viability to support a large business.

The current history of the high cost of current Government-financed and developed space vehicles,

rocket engines, and space operations needs to be addressed as well as the processes and technologies

that will reduce these costs. An explicit process to initiate insurance coverage and determine its costs

will have to be worked out prior to any strong investment in this system. One thing that must be determined is the impact of destination location(s) for tours which, in this context, includes options such as

in-continent trips, suborbital trips, intercontinental trips, orbital trips, short visits to a space station, lunar

orbits, etc. This will heavily influence industry demand forecasting, marketing, and early investment.

Other factors will be the number, location, and cost of the spaceports that will support any of the options

and yet offer the best return on its investment.

6. General PST and Tourism Vehicle Design Goals

The family of vehicles should be designed from the outset as a general public space transport

system. In this system the traveling public will be looking for very high safety and reliability. One of the

challenges facing the designers will be finding an optimal vehicle size for market needs. This is a problem facing airlines and airline manufacturers on a nearly annual basis. The vehicles must have a safe life

support design and operational architecture. The vehicles themselves must demonstrate great durability

with the capability of frequent trips to and from space. In essence, what the public will want to see is

airline-style operations with rapid turnaround. Vehicles must be equipped with fully autonomous flight

control and navigation systems. There should be an onboard health monitoring system. Unlike current

vehicles, there is a requirement for launch abort with full vehicle savability at any time. On the ground,

the family of vehicles must show simplified ground handling and maintenance compared to current

systems. Again, the goal here is airline-type maintainability and operability. To be economically viable,

in contrast to today's circumstances, there is a strong need for small numbers of launch and recovery

personnel, for this would lead to a very low operating cost.

43
Thedesignapproachfor theentirefamily of vehiclesneedsto bebasedonthephilosophythat

highsafetyandreliability, operability,andlow operationscostsaremorecritical thanperformance.In

thesamevein,highmarginsandrobustnessof thevehiclesaremoreimportantthansize.Thedesigner

needsto keepin mind thatthesevehiclesneedto operatewith rapidturnaroundandalong life, inasmuchasthis equatesto manytripswith few interruptions.Theremustbeareal-time,full abortcapability with anengineout.Thedesignermusteliminateasmanycatastrophicfailuremodesaspossible.This

is expectedto beaccomplishedthroughfollowing aprogramof rigorousdesignmarginswith anongoing

probabilisticanalysis.Thevehiclesmusthavea real-timehealthmonitoringsystem.Scheduledmaintenancemustberoutineandrapidlyaccomplished.Thevehiclesareexpectedto bedevelopedthrough

incrementalflight testingwith extensivesystemandsubsystemtestingandcertification.Of importance

to thedesignerwill befuel selectionwith emphasison safeandlow cost.

7. Potential Sources of Capital

The sources of capital for investment in these enterprises include private investors, venture

capital, international capital markets, strategic capital markets, the space transportation vehicle manufacturers (who in some cases will have a history of financing aerospace vehicles), spaceport construction

companies, debt financing, the initial public offerings of any space venture companies, or any combination of the above. Possible new mechanisms should be explored which might take the form of temporary

tax reductions.

The potential strategic partners who could potentially profit from a general PST and tourism

business include:

• Major cruise ship companies (who have a long track record of financing large

state-of-the-art vehicles)

• Major international hotel chains (bear in mind that the cost of the average casino

currently built in Las Vegas today exceeds $1 billion.)

• Major international airlines

• Major theme park operators, major international media organizations (the first purchased

stay at the Mir space station came from a Japanese news organization)

• The entertainment industry whose current products, on average, exceed $70 million a venture.

The initial market segments are believed to revolve around ground-based opportunities, rather

than space flight itself. Opportunities in this area, in ascending order of difficulty and technology

requirement, include:

• Receiving centers such as the Kennedy Space Center in Florida for tourists, private vehicle

launch, and recovery sites

• Simulation and training centers, teleoperation centers, teleprescence centers, medical diagnostics centers, interactive centers, on-site hotels/restaurant chains, parks and shopping centers,

physical enhancement through low-gravity exercise, museums and cameras on the Moon

accessible from Earth locations

• Rovers on the Moon and Mars, the command of which would be made available to the public.

44
Oncethefirst stageis underway,thesecondstageof spacetravelandtourismwouldstartwith an

introductionto zerogravity,to includesuborbitaltrips.Thepersonor personswho wouldmakethis

flight mightbe"X" prizewinners.Thecontestapproachmighthaveanichefor thefight timeat theright

price.Suborbitaltrips coulduseamodifiedmilitary spaceplanedesignif oneis developed.The suborbital periodwouldbefollowedwith anorbit programof 3-16 orbits(analogousto thoseof theMercury

program)in which thetourist(s)wouldlive in a transportvehiclefor 5 to 24hr.Thisventurewouldbe

thefirst of theorbital spacetours.Thesmallvehicleinvolvedin thisphasewouldbesustainedby other

venturessuchascargotransport,satellitetransport,etc.to gainprovenreliability for largerfollow-on

vehicles.

Thenextmajorgoalin thisincrementalapproachwouldbe 1wk in atransportvehiclefor atotal

of 100orbits.Thiswouldlaterbecombinedwith 1wk or moreat anorbitalresorthotel.Thesestepsare

believedto representeasilyachievedincrementalresultsandareasonableevolutionin themarket.

B. Cost Drivers

The model for identifying the cost per trip is the sum of fixed, plus variable, costs. The major

fixed costs are called out as R&D costs. The production costs of the vehicle plus the infrastructure costs

are divided by the total number of trips. This total is then added to the variable operations costs, plus the

failure costs, plus the propellant costs, in deciding upon the price per trip. The price per trip will relate to

many other business considerations and would include profit.

Given this model, a major goal is a large total number of trips with an emphasis on rapid turnaround for each vehicle. Operations costs would be controlled by large design margins, regular planned

maintenance on easily maintainable pIatforms, and the old standby of testing, testing, and more testing.

This means an incremental flight test plan. One major goal is in the area of low-failure costs;

i.e., both high reliability and a safe abort capability, with the vehicle design potential of surviving a

single catastrophic failure in the flight systems. Propellant costs should be held in line through the use of

conventional propellants such as lox rather than the more exotic LHz/lox. Low infrastructure costs for

the spaceports and the replacement systems and components are also very important, since recurring

costs will probably determine the continued viability of any general PST and tourism business ventures.

C. Recommendations

The main recommendation is to stimulate a rising tide of interest by using present assets to create

a market pull. This includes creating market demand and interest to enhance expectation. This could be

stimulated through the efforts of one or more association(s) that would deal with public relations, entertainment, media support, etc. Also stimulating the rising tide would be the process of building a financial

and credit infrastructure utilizing potential space voyaging slots, credit cards, certificates, awards, and

competitions. Movies would be a tremendous aid here with the Discovery Channel, educational television, education, and entertainment providing a means of communicating with the public. Health and

manufacturing benefits would be emphasized as part of this approach. The overall object is to support a

diverse set of businesses which could function at different price ranges.

45
Onthespacetrip front, therecommendationfor designingfor reliability androbustnessismade

usinganaircraft-airlinementality.An exampleis SouthwestAirlineswhichnotonly encompassesthe

vehiclebut theentiresupportinfrastructure.

To achieveacceptability,theindustryshouldinitially promotelimited tripsfor highly specialized

groupsat theirown risk.

D. Conclusions

• "Raise the tide" incrementally.

• A safe, reliable, and low-cost transport vehicle is needed if general PST and tourism

is to become a big business.

• Financial, market, and technoIogy readiness appears reasonable.

• Project leadership, commitment, and expert vision are critical for success, to obtain financing,

and gain credibility,

• A change in the public's basic perception of space travel is necessary at an early stage

in business development.

• Reliability, operability, cost, margins, safety, and efficiency through optimal size are more

critical than performance.

• A start is necessary at various levels for various niche markets.

• The Government role should focus on the development of key technologies, licensing through

a clear regulatory procedure, and using its mission transportation needs to assist in private

sector market creation.

• One or more general PST and tourism associations should be created to help gain political,

social, and financial acceptability.

• Business already exists today to support cargo and limited travel for journalists.

E. Overall Consensus and Vision

If a vehicle is developed and demonstrated to be adequately safe and reliable at an acceptable

cost, then financially viable general PST and tourism businesses will be created.

46
V. EARLY PRECURSORS

John Spencer

Design Finance International

Howard Wolff

Wimberly, Allison, Tong, and Goo

A. Introduction

Throughout history, the great pioneer explorers of the oceans, jungles, polar regions, and deserts

have always been followed by homesteaders, vacationers, and entrepreneurs. Once tamed, wild frontiers

can quickly become favorite resort destinations.

Just as we have become tourists passing over land, above and under the oceans, and through the

skies, so shall we eventually "float away" our leisure time in luxurious vessels orbiting the planet. Thus,

there is an emerging need for evolving an infrastructure that will provide the paying tourist with an

unforgettable vacation in space.

The problem facing private entrepreneurs of general PST and tourism is the current difficulty of

access to the space environment. Initially, business developers must look elsewhere for the needed

experience and industry growth. Appropriately, initial ground facilities, theme parks, and other Earthbased precursors can provide the evolving infrastructure necessary for the development of a sound

business.

That is, actual general public orbital space travel and tourism will be preceded by businesses that

exploit the demand for surface space-related theme entertainment. Theme parks and flight training

facilities developed around space travel launch and recovery sites can both prepare the public for the

space experience and provide profit from the enterprise; and such profits could fund the evolution from

existing Earth-based travel to actual space travel.

Inherent in all of Earth-based space tourism precursors are common parameters applicable to any

tourism business. Vehicle and facility design, length of stay, numbers of staff/crew, types of recreational

activities, and vacation prices are central to the sustainability of any tourism enterprise.

Creating a compelling vacation experience and sound business enterprise in a remote environment requires careful balancing of human factors, economic, and technological/operational issues. These

issues range from state-of-the-art Gore-tex TM sleeping bags to marble-tiled double staterooms aboard

luxurious ocean liners.

47
Much,perhapsevenmost,of what spaceentrepreneursneedto knowto growthegeneralPST

andtourismbusinessexiststodayonEarth.Everyyearmillions of peoplespendatleastabillion dollars

enjoyingspace-themetouristattractionsandanalogousleisureactivitiesin theU.S.alone.

B. Wealth From Space Travel and Tourism

Tourism and travel is the world's largest industry--S3.4 trillion a year (see app. B). The new

paradigm for general PST and tourism will come about from calculating how much profit can be made

per pound of (human) payload sent to/from orbit. Profitably operating a small fleet of space cruise ships

could provide the backbone of this business.

1. Trends Shaping the Design of Future Destinations

Today's tourists come from all walks of life and look for a variety of vacation experiences. Such

experiences include shopping, eating, exercising, pampering, viewing, interacting with new people,

getting married, gaming, and personal growth.

2. Evolution of the Modern Cruise Trade and Its Application to Space Tourism

The ocean cruise business is growing and offers direct comparisons to the kinds of activities and

expectations space guests will require. Success will depend on the actions of private enterprise guiding

the appropriate Government regulatory agencies, technological developments, the ability to raise necessary development capital, and the expressed desire, financial ability, and will of the general populace to

go into space.

3. Submarine Tourism

Approximately 48 purpose-built tourist submarines have been constructed in the last 10 yr.

Tourist submarine operations span the globe, providing approximately 2 million passengers each year

with the opportunity to view the creatures of the sea while contributing $150 million in revenue to the

providers of these trips.

4. Theme Park Industry Overview

Tomorrow's theme parks are evolving into highly participatory experience parks that will strive

to entertain and educate at the same time. Space is a well-proven and accepted theme.

C. Key Recommendations

Approach the development of general PST and tourism with a new attitude that springs from an

appreciation of terrestrial travel and tourism abundance rather than scarcity; i.e., travel/tourism and

entertainment are now the world's largest businesses.

When we talk about general PST and tourism, we must remember we are talking about the

future. We need to present a positive and healthy view of the future, a future that is fun, exciting, and

48
alivewith possibilities.Spacetripsmustbefun andexcitingif theyareto attractthewealthmarketand

becomearealisticdreamfor millions of people.

A long-termintegrateddevelopmenteffort shouldevolvewhich includesscientificandengineering research,buildingworldwidepublicawarenessandsupport,andfinancialpositioningwith high

profit andvisibility askeygoals.

A groupmodeledaftertheNationalGeographicSocietycouldbecomeapowerfuladvocatefor

thenewbusinessactivity.

1. Abundance Versus Scarcity

The wealth in the world is growing at an accelerating rate as new markets for products open and

new communication technologies make it easier to advertise new products and services. The wealthy are

always looking for something "new and exciting" to do, and, if a safe opportunity opened to take a

cruise in Earth orbit with lots of unique things to do, there are many thousands of people who could

afford hundreds of thousands of dollars for such an experience.

2. Lotteries and Sponsorships

A lottery system for the average person could widen the market base. Today almost

$34 billion per year is spent in the U.S. on lotteries. Large corporate sponsors could purchase space

cruises as prizes or awards. An example of this is one of the large Japanese newspapers which paid the

Russians $11 million to take a journalist to the Mir station for a week.

3. Pounds of Profit

If space tourism can prove to be highly profitable and prestigious, then the old question of how

much does it cost to send a pound into orbit will become secondary to how much profit can be made by

sending each pound into orbit.

Once the financing requirements are met, we will be able to establish detailed engineering

requirements that our talented scientists and engineers can solve.

4. Tapping Into the Wealth Community

Many wealthy people, especially those associated with the entertainment business, are interested

in space and become very excited when space tourism and the potential for them to actually go on such a

trip is discussed with them. Tapping into this flexible and interested wealth base for support could

provide the resources needed for critical research and marketing.

D. Conclusions

By focusing on the aforementioned key recommendations, we can accelerate the development of

a profitable general PST and tourism business and begin to truly open the space frontier.

49
1. The Cruise Line Business as a Model for Space Tourism

The cruise line business may be a better model to follow than the hotel business for in-orbit

facilities development and operation. The financing methods, operations, and marketing methods of the

cruise lines are more comparable with the needs of space trips than are hotels.

a. From the Cruise Lines International AssociationmExecutive Summary. (Note: These

numbers relate to only North America (U.S.A. and Canada).)

Over the next 5 yr, the cumulative market potential for the cruise business is over

$50 billion----a 20-percent increase since 1992.

The cruise line business is the most exciting growth category in the entire leisure market. Since

1970, it has had a compound annual growth rate of 10 percent per year.

Since 1970, an estimated 50 million passengers have taken a deep-water cruise (2 or more days).

Of this number, 70 percent have taken such a trip in the past 10 yr.

It is now projected that, by the year 2000, as many as 7 to 8 million passengers per year will take

a cruise.

Taking a cruise is a dream of 60 percent of all adults, with the highest interest being exhibited by

the emerging baby-boomer category. Shorter cruises (2 to 5 days) are the growth trend, up nearly 400

percent since 1980.

Based on public information as of July 1995, a total of 30 new ships are contracted for or

planned to be added to the North American fleet by 1999. At an average cost of $150 million a ship, this

would be an investment of $4.5 billion.

b. From Other Sources of Information. A 6-too cruise in the master suite of the Queen Elizabeth H costs over $350,000 per person. Many wealthy cruise takers spend over $100,000 per person per

cruise. Proposals are on the drawing boards for ultraluxury cruise ships that are huge floating cities

costing over $1 billion per ship.

2. Trends Shaping the Design of Future Destinations

Historically, the hospitality industry has not been known for rapid change, nor for embracing

radical new concepts and technologies. In fact, most hotels and resorts today look much the same as they

did 10, 20, and even 50 yr ago: Brick and mortar, lobby and guest rooms, restaurant, and swimming

pool. Most innovations in architectural design are not created by visionary architects skilled at winning

design awards and accolades from their peers. They are created by responsive architects skilled at

observing the human species, anticipating what people want, and scripting experiences that make their

dreams come true.

5O
Thetravelersof tomorrowwill not bea homogeneousgroup.Theywon't all choosethesame

destinations,andtheirexpectations,oncetheyarrive,will bequitediverse.What it comesdownto is

thatthehotels,resorts,anddestinationsof thefuturewill beshapedby whatpeoplelike to doon trips.

A majority(88percent)of theinternationaltravelersidentify shoppingastheirfavoritepastime.

(It rankssecondamongdomestictravelers.)Thehotelsandresortsof thefuturewill have,or haveaccess

to,a significantamountof retail space,whetherground-basedor orbiting.Shoppinghasbecomea

leisureactivity.Peoplethinkof it asentertainment.

Whatelsedo travelerslove to do?Eat.In this arenathebig trendis towardoffering choices.As

muchasmarketersmaywantto putpeopleintocategoriesandgive themacleverlabel,thosegroupsare

nothomogeneous.Theonly thingpredictableabouttheireatinghabitsisthattheyareunpredictable.A

wealthytraveler,for instance,mayhavedinneratafine diningestablishment,eatbreakfastin theroom,

andhavelunchat Jack-in-the-Box.If thefirst touristsin spaceareuptherefor anylengthof time,they

will likely wantto beofferedchoices.

There'sanotherleisure-timeactivity thathasprogressedbeyondjust beingafad. In fact,it's a

trend that's likely to strengthen in the future---getting exercise. Baby-boomers are intent on growing old

youthfully. The future is likely to offer us a proliferation of health clubs, wellness centers, fitness facilities, and some newer variations on this theme. How about spending your summer vacation at an athletic

camp for adults? Or investing 2 to 4 wk learning how to prolong your life at a "longevity center?"

Several of these already exist. One firm alone has designed what could be described as "health-management resorts" in Australia, Germany, and Arizona. There may be many space-related wellness opportunities, as well.

A trend that goes hand in hand with the quest for fitness is the penchant for pampering. Look for

more standalone spas and resorts catering to the stressed. As an early indication of this trend, several

hotels designed with spa facilities are now changing their names to reflect that. The Hyatt Regency

Kauai, for instance, is now officially the Hyatt Regency Kauai Resort and Spa.

According to a recent USA Today survey, even business travelers want to be pampered. Therefore, look for business hotels to offer spa facilities, whirlpools, and even massages. The pampering will

extend into the guest room as well, with increased emphasis on the bathroom. While the first group of

space travelers may expect Spartan conditions, as the business matures people will demand more luxurious accommodations.

What else do travelers do on trips? Well many of them meet friends, family, and business

acquaintances. In the future, even with the advent of and increasing sophistication of video conferencing

technology, people will seek out more opportunities to be with others of their species. There is already a

booming market in the design and expansion of convention centers and conference facilities in the U.S.

and throughout much of the world. As people grow apart and live apart, reunions, perhaps in space, will

also be an increasingly popular reason to travel.

51
There'ssomethingelsepeoplelike to doin theirleisuretime that's growing in popularity. They

get married. The popularity of good, old-fashioned romance and marriage are on the rise. Two key

trends are leading to this phenomenon. First, with a divorce rate around 50 percent, long-term marriages

are increasingly rare. But giving up on a marriage is different than giving up on marriage: 80 percent of

those who divorce remarry. Serial monogamy equals more marriages. Second, as our life expectancy

continues to grow, it increases the odds that we'll have more than one spouse.

How does this impact the design of hotels and resorts? Simply put, it can be a big part of their

future business. Hosting a wedding can be quite lucrative, both for the food and beverage revenues, as

well as for filling rooms. And then there is the honeymoon. Among first-time marriages in the U.S.,

98 percent take a honeymoon vacation. And they don't skimp. Honeymoon spending per couple has

quadrupled in the last 20 yr. As a result, and in anticipation of this trend continuing, we're seeing a

number of resorts adding wedding chapels, pavilions, and other related facilities to attract this lucrative

market. For those lovebirds in search of the ultimately unforgettable experience, who can match the

novelty and romance of a space-based or space-theme wedding and honeymoon?

Looking at Las Vegas may have some relevance. This patch of desert is expected to attract over

30 million visitors this year. While the recent growth in hotel construction was fueled by the popularity

of gaming as entertainment, Las Vegas has become an example of a destination in which "supply creates

demand." The more they build, the more people come. And visitors don't just come to gamble. Here,

they can do all the things they love to do: Shop, eat, exercise, be pampered, meet other people, get

married, and gamble.

There is at least one more early indication of what future travelers seek. A beach resort destination listed "environment and culture" as the number one criterion influencing their selection. This trend

will fuel the growth of resorts offering such experiences as archeological digs, tours of the rain forest, or

expeditions into space. The successful hotels and resorts of the future will facilitate and enhance a

traveler's desire to combine learning and leisure with adventure.

The more exposure we have to other worlds, the stronger our desire is to experience them first

hand. Where will we go in 10 or 20 yr in order to have a transforming experience and to see something

new and unspoiled? Many of today's destinations are likely to be overbuilt or seem "old hat" to

tomorrow's increasingly sophisticated leisure travelers.

In fact, according to the World Travel Organization, traditionally popular destinations as in

Europe and the U.S. are declining in popularity compared to the growth in travel to such destinations as

Asia and the Middle East.

The two most likely resort destinations of the future are sure to involve the exploration of space

and our living seas. And what travelers will expect to find when they get there---wherever there will

be---is a hotel or resort which reflects and respects the environment in which it is situated and an experience that enhances their lives in a meaningful and memorable way.

52
3. Theme Parks

In 1995 the domestic location-based entertainment business produced over $6 billion in gross

revenues. Two hundred and fifty million people visited U.S. theme parks in 1994 compared to 225

million in 1986. Parks captured over four times the number of paying customers as Major League

baseball.

Theme parks have now entered their third stage of evolution, the "Experience Park." The first

stage was the "Amusement Park," begun in the mid-1800's. The second stage, which is continuing

today, is the "Theme Park," which originated with the advent of Disneyland in southern California in

1955. The expression was coined to describe a development in which there was a physical division of

the amusement or leisure park into zones, each bearing a single theme.

As the population has become more skewed toward middle-aged "boomers" and their children,

thrill rides are out, and "theming" is in. According to the International Association of Amusement Parks

and Attractions, parks spent twice as much money enhancing themes in 1994 as they did in 1991.

The American audience has become increasingly sophisticated through their many years of

exposure to high-quality entertainment. Therefore, to attract an audience and to motivate them to return

to your attraction, the quality of the visitor experience and the "newness" of the experience must continue to evolve.

With a flexible visitor experience program rather than fixed rides, an experience park can adapt

to entertainment trends and new technologies (emerging high quality/response VR systems as an example) and can respond on a seasonal basis. For example, during the nontourist season, the experience

parks will emphasize their educational and exposition aspects rather than their entertainment aspects,

thus drawing from an even wider market.

4. Participatory Experience

The following attractions are examples of the trend towards participatory experience entertainment: The Renaissance Pleasure fairs, the Civil War reenactments, the Murder Mystery trains, the

Dodger Baseball camp, the Amateur Indy 500 sports car races, the Dungeons and Dragons TM simulation

role playing games, both live and on the Internet, the Paint Ball Wars games, the amateur scientific

expeditions to find dinosaur bones, and the Space Camps (both for kids and adults) around the world.

The guests (participants) dress in theme clothing and interact in a theme setting. A master story

or event guides the general entertainment of the day. These kinds of experience events are fast becoming

the "in" thing, worldwide. The park's staff will be trained in group dynamics and facilitation. They will

direct these situations, offering even more enjoyment and meaning.

This participatory approach significantly enhances repeat visitation because each visit will be

markedly different from the last one because of the unique interaction of the visitors and changing

programs.

53
5. 1996 Space Museums and Attractions Worldwide

• National Air and Space Museum

• Kennedy Space Center

• Johnson Spacecraft Center

• Space World-Japan

• Space Camp-Huntsville

• U.S. Space and Rocket Center

• Star Trek/Sci-Fi Conventions

8,000,000

2,300,000

800,000

2,000,000

600,000

400,000

200,000

Total Direct Market: Approximately 14,000,000

The second most successful movie of 1995 was "Apollo 13," starring Tom Hanks. It earned over

$300 million in worldwide revenue--and the audience already knew the end of the story. It demonstrates

a continuing general public fascination for space activity.

54
Vl. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT, TECHNOLOGY REQUIREMENTS,

AND USE OF EXISTING SPACE ASSETS

Dr. Jerry Grey

American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics

Larry Rowell

NASA Langley Research Center

A. Introduction

Technology requirements are addressed in three categories: (1) Passenger-carrying STS(s),

(2) orbital facilities (including on-orbit operations such as servicing) and human factors (crew and

passenger training and recreation, on-orbit environmental control, etc.), and (3) ground infrastructure.

An example tourism trip scenario is used in discussing possible targets for technology development

activities. Some general comments are made as are considerations for other working groups.

B. Part I

1. Research and Development

R&D activities pertinent to the three system areas of interest are being conducted primarily under

the cognizance of NASA's Office of Aeronautics and Space Transportation (Code R) and Office of

Space Flight (Code M). Some DOD efforts are also potentially applicable.

a. STS's. Current NASA-led programs relevant to space launch systems of interest include the

RLV program (X-33, X-34, and X-37 Initiative), the ASTP, which includes rocket-based combinedcycle propulsion system studies, the HRST study, Hyper-X scramjet research, and the X-38 crew-return

vehicle program.

Relevant Air Force programs include the Military Spaceplane (Transatmospheric Vehicle) study

by the United States Air Force (USAF) Space Command and Material Command, the Integrated HighPayoff Rocket Propulsion Technology effort, the Integrated Powerhead Demonstration rocket research

program, and the HyTech program (scramjet research/flight testing).

b. Orbital Facilities and Human Factors. Government R&D activities.relevant to orbital

facilities and human factors are being conducted primarily through the ISS program, involving not only

NASA Centers but also overseas partners' facilities in Europe, Russia, Japan, and Canada. Current space

trip operations related to relevant R&D on orbital facilities and human factors are being conducted

aboard the Russian Mir, the U.S. Shuttle, and by the Shuttle-Mirjoint program.

55
c. Ground Infrastructure. The ongoing R&D relevant to ground infrastructure primarily will

be spinoffs from U.S. Shuttle advances and the RLV program. However, major issues remain to be

resolved in operations for passengers and cargo that support safe, timely, low-cost handling, and loading

pertinent to future general public travel and tourism-suitable facilities. These will require significant

advances in technologies and operations.

These R&D activities bear significantly on the technologies and systems that are required to

establish and maintain a sustainable business. Aside from paper studies being conducted in the U.S. and

Japan, there is little or no R&D dedicated specifically to private sector general PST and tourism.

2. Technology Requirements

a. STS's. The primary requirement for the establishment and sustenance of a viable large-scale

general PST and tourism business is universally recognized: safe, low-cost, reliable, readily accessible,

timely access to space, and eventually comparable in all ways to today's commercial air travel. Note that

these STS characteristics are not required solely by the general PST and tourism market; they are also

needed by the U.S. Government's civil and military space programs and by the commercial space business. This Government requirement is not new; it has been recognized for decades. It was the original

goal of the Space Shuttle program, formulated in the 1960's.

NASA was charged by the President's Space Transportation Policy Directive of August 5, I994,

to conduct the R&D needed to develop a next-generation STS to meet these requirements. The outcome

of this mandate, following NASA's Access to Space Study in 1994, was the current RLV program and

several even more advanced studies (Advanced Space Transportation Program (ASTP) and (HRST)).

Clearly, reusability is the key (indeed, it was the original objective of the Shuttle concept). Many of the

necessary technologies have been well known for decades, and the RLV program has been constructed

to develop and demonstrate them in flight vehicles.

While the cost goal of the RLV program, if attained, could be adequate to serve our initial highpriced adventure trips market, according to market studies it is still too high to create the demand needed

for a large-scale viable space tourism business. Hence, the follow-on ASTP and HRST programs were

formulated to define concepts and technologies that would enable much more aggressive cost reductions

(and also extend space transportation capabilities beyond LEO).

Technology requirements, therefore, may be categorized in several phases. First are those which

are to be demonstrated by the current RLV program, which is expected to reduce costs to the order of

$1,000 per pound to/from LEO and increase operating safety and reliability by at least an order of

magnitude. These include:

• Composite structures and tanks

• Advanced thermal protection systems

• Simplified avionics and health-monitoring systems

• Simplified operations and maintenance

• Improved rocket propulsion.

56
Nextarethetechnologiesimplied bytheHRSTeffort, whosecostgoalis $200perpoundto/from

LEO.Theseinclude:

• Combinationpropulsionsystems

• Combined-cyclepropulsion

• Useof off-boardenergyfor launchassist

• Revolutionarypropulsionconcepts

• Streamlinedoperations

• Advancedmanufacturingtechnologies

• Thrustaugmentationandupperstages.

Althoughit is notyetpossibleto identify thosetechnologiesthatwill eventuallyenablethe

safety,reliability, cost,andoperabilitygoalsof anSTSsuitablefor generalPSTandtourism,some

ongoingR&D effortsareaimedin thedirectionneededto makethatdetermination.However,it is not

yet possibleto predictthedegreeof successtheywill achievein meetingtheiridentifiedprogrammatic

goals,muchlessthemoreambitiousonesrequiredfor aviablelarge-scalebusiness.Moreover,until the

RLV,ASTP,HRST,andUSAF effortshaveprogressedsomewhatfurther,it will notbepossibleto

identify thesubsequenteffortsthatmaybeneededto developsuitablespacetransportationtechnologies.

b. Orbital Facilities and Human Factors. The technology requirements for low-Earth orbital

facilities that would be suitable for general PST and tourism are relatively straightforward compared

with those for transportation. Although the present Mir and Shuttle environments are not suitable, the

forthcoming ISS should demonstrate at least the rudiments of tourist-suitable facilities. However, the

primary tourist-suitable technology requirements that will not be demonstrated by the ISS are as follows:

• Personnel transfer to and from the Station

• Recreational facilities

• Extravehicular activity

• Orientation and training programs for tourists

• Large-scale rescue capability (e.g., lifeboats, etc.)

• High-volume logistics capability.

c. Ground Infrastructure. Existing infrastructure does not provide any similarity to commercial air travel in terms of access, comfort, efficiency, timeliness, availability, safety, cost, etc. Entirely

new processes and hardware must be envisioned to even approach the features and environment now

enjoyed by commercial airline passengers. Technology needs, in broad terms, might include:

• Orientation and reservations theaters

• Simulation and training facilities

• Flight equipment and security facilities.

3. Existing Space Assets

The only current assets that might be converted to tourist use are (a) the real estate holdings

now used for launch/recovery and general support, (b) development testing facilities (especially for

57
propulsionsubsystems),and(c) themanufacturingcapabilityof thecurrentaerospaceindustry(butnot

its currenttooling).

ExistingSTS'sandinfrastructure(includingtheShuttle),currentorbitalfacilities (includingthe

forthcomingISS), and the current systems/technology-relevant policy and regulatory framework are

neither suitable nor adaptable to even the early stages of a space tourism business. Although the Shuttle

and the ISS might be used for early general passenger R&D studies and service demonstrations, an

entirely new technical and operating structure is required before large-scale marketing and sales of

services could begin.*

C. Part II

1. Mission Model

The viability of a large-scale general PST and tourism-in-orbit market will be related to cost of

the service and the price charged to provide it. A simple and conservative model allows discussion of the

technology targets that might be used to define the needed advanced technology program content. The

model used at this workshop is as follows:

• One-week trip duration; one vehicle per trip; 50 trips per year

° Forty passengers per trip

• Ticket price: $100,000 per trip, half for round-trip transportation, half for on-orbit stay

° Total individual volume requirements including common habitability needs (e.g., showers,

dining, corridors, etc.), but not including recreational facilities: 1,000 ft 3

• Recreational volume: 13,000 ft 3.

2. Implications for Technology

(a) If 500 lb are allowed for each passenger, launch costs must not exceed $100fib (half of the

HRST goal) to meet a scenario target of $50,000.

(b) Cost of installed habitable volume (i.e., including launch cost and all installed facilities)

should not consume more than half of the on-orbit portion of the ticket price; i.e., <$25,000. If current

ISS modules are used to fulfill volumetric space requirements, six are needed for individual space and

two more for recreational space. At $100 million dry-mass cost (Boeing's estimate of production cost)

and an RLV launch cost (25,000 lb @ $40 million), total habitable volume cost is $1.12 billion, or

roughly $300 million/year for 7 yr including a 15-percent discount. Hence, the per-ticket cost is

$150,000, or at least six times the target cost. Thus, Space Station technology is inconsistent with target

goals; other technological approaches are necessary.

*With imagination and the use of a large-scale lottery or auction, some of the modest but inherently useful excess capacity

available on most Shuttle trips could be used to create the earliest orbital adventure tourism service. And entrepreneurs could

offer other surface activities to be associated with these particular Shuttle operations, the profits from which could be used to

offset some of the high tourism trip costs. It is to be noted that United Space Alliance and Space Tech have agreed to work

together to maximize the number of commercial payloads to be carried by the Shuttle fleet.

58
(c) Powerrequirement:15kW (minimum)perperson.Current space power cost (ISS technology) is $2,000/W; ground-based photovoltaics cost $5/W. The mediarv---20 times the ground-based cost

and 1/20 of the space-based cost--is $100/W, which comes to $4,000/ticket. Allow 20-percent growth:

$5,000/ticket.

(d) Average cost of support personnel = $100,000 per person per year. Allowing $5,000 per

ticket, that would allow 4,100 support personnel to be split as appropriate between ground and on-orbit

crews. For comparison, the Shuttle requires 20,000 personnel, the ISS is estimated at 2,000, and a typical

airliner requires about 100 people per airplane in flight. Note that the 100 support personnel could

include as many onboard crew members as desired.

(e) Summary of what is required:

$50,000

$25,000

$5,000

$5,000

$15,000

Launch/return cost

Installed habitable volume cost

Power cost

Ground-support cost

Everything else, including profit

$100,000 Ticketprice.

3. Technology Requirements

a. STS. See earlier HRST program objectives.

b. Habitable Volume. Current technology is inadequate to meet the assumed cost goals. New

technologies will be required to meet both packing fraction and cost per unit volume goals and must be

developed, validated, and demonstrated at the system level. Possibilities include inflatables, bellows,

popup structures, etc.

c. Power. Current terrestrial technologies and manufacturing facilities could meet the cost goal

but need to be validated and space-qualified.

d. Operations. Autonomous systems, health-monitoring technologies, and other automation

technologies would help provide the necessary onboard reliability, abort capability, etc.

e. R&D Requirements. Some R&D requirements for technologies required by on-orbit facilities can be met by current programs; e.g., the Shuttle, the ISS, New Millennium, etc., just as some of the

transportation technology requirements can begin to be addressed by the RLV, AST, and HRST efforts.

However, these facilities do not provide the operations, reboost technologies, power distribution needs,

etc., of tourist-suitable orbital facilities that can meet the $100,000 ticket price goal. Nevertheless,

operations experience gained during the ISS program will be valuable, and both the Shuttle and ISS can

be used for technology validation, biomedical countermeasures research, testing (e.g., for space sickness

remedies), etc.

59
D. Part HI

1. Orbital facilities technology is not available for the $100,000/ticket price goal. Hence a

funding/programmatic mechanism is needed to advance, develop, validate, and demonstrate wholly

untested new technologies at the system level.

2. Are there marketable options to combine the space transportation vehicle and the orbital

facility? Or for very brief "excursion" or "barnstorming" trips in the early phases of activity that do not

require an orbital facility?

3. Common technology requirements are currently not being addressed by disparate R&D

programs; e.g., New Millennium does not address large-system or human-occupancy needs. But general

PST and tourism requirements are so broad and universal that they could support many other technology

development programs.

4. The life-support system needed for low-cost general PST and tourism trips must be nearly

self-sufficient (i.e., not even replaceable filters); that is, almost 100-percent closed-cycle (for air and

water).

60
APPENDIX Amlnternational Space University Study

During the conduct of this study, a number of internal memoranda were prepared. They are being

made available on the web site www.spacetransportation.org. One report was kindly prepared for the

NASA Space Transportation Association (STA) study leaders by the International Space University

(ISU). It deals with the health and medical circumstances of concern to people residing in LEO. It is a

summary of the detailed ISU report "Distant Operational Care Center."

The subject is of such importance that this summary report is reproduced here.

DISTANT OPERATIONAL CARE CENTER (DOCC)

At the 1996 Summer Session of the International Space University (ISU), 51 students from 23 countries

worked together to design a remote integrated medical facility, which would be capable of treating

patients in remote locations. The goal of the project was to design the system that was subsequently

called the DOCC: Distant Operational Care Center. The DOCC was to be a modular medical facility that

would maintain human health and performance in space, and be adaptable to a range of remote human

habitats. This facility can be applied to the space environment, such as on an LEO space tourism station,

aboard transplanetary spacecraft, and planetary surface habitats. This facility consisted of both an in situ

facility for the remote location, and a ground network to support it.

Motivation for the DOCC Project

Space is a dangerous place for humans. While human abilities are the strength of the space program,

human fragility, with regards to environment, is its weakness.

Until now, the care of humans in space has been left in the hands of the space agencies that launched

them. However, space is a future frontier for a range of remote human habitats. From a few days to half

a year, from LEO to Mars, the space frontier now beckons professionals and nonprofessionals, explorers

and entrepreneurs, scientists and politicians with rich new opportunities. It is essential that tomorrow's

medical community be prepared to face the challenges that such a diverse group of space-faring patients

would present.

In previous treatments of the problems posed by humans in space, a "mission first" approach has been

taken. To design the DOCC, a "medicine first" approach was taken instead. That is, work began from a

general medical perspective, studying and establishing a foundation of common medical functions and

hardware in order to design a modular facility which could be used in a wide range of remote locations.

It was felt that this approach would deal most comprehensively with the increased frequency, duration,

and complexity of future human spaceflight, while maintaining a functional interrestrial application.

61
The Core Module

The design process of the DOCC starts with the medical risk assessment. This covers all medical events

which are likely to be encountered during the space flight, the medical procedures, the countermeasures,

the treatment, and the hardware needed to cope with these medical events.

Medical events are divided into two categories: primary medical events and occupational hazards.

Primary medical events, like infections and injuries, are events that could occur in any environment

where humans are working. Occupational hazards are medical problems resulting from or having an

increased incidence due to the space environment such as Space Adaptation Syndrome and deconditioning of the cardiovascular, skeletal, muscular, neurosensory, and immune systems. These hazards require

the development of specific medical procedures and treatment, as well as appropriate countermeasures.

On the basis of the identified medical events, a modular approach was used in designing a core module.

The DOCC core module consists of two elements: the remote facility and the Ground Control Center

(GCC).

The remote facility can handle those medical events identified as common to a majority of missions in

remote environments, particularly in space. It includes a Computerized Health Maintenance System, an

Intensive Care Unit, a Crew Psychological Support System, and countermeasures equipment.

The GCC monitors, maintains, and resupplies the facility. It also serves as the hub of a communications

network that links the remote facility with medical specialists all over the world, medical and imaging

databases, and hardware manufacturers.

Case Applications

To demonstrate the capabilities of the core module, the report discusses its application to two scenarios:

providing constant medical care aboard a commercial international space station and providing medical

support for a Mars mission. The DOCC demonstrates its range in these two scenarios, since it must deal

with a wide range of variables: the level of microgravity, mission duration, astronaut skill level, capability to return to Earth in emergency conditions, communication difficulties, and the ability to resupply.

Possibilities for Commercialization

The competitive advantages of the DOCC are its ability to adapt its health care capabilities to a variety

of environmental or industrial needs, and the DOCC's provision of centralized ground support services,

which include global medical networks.

The report identifies the main cost drivers for the DOCC and notes that it is expected that both the

government and the private sector will play a role in the initial phases of the development of the DOCC.

Policy and Legal Issues

The report also examines the political rationale for which governments would participate in a project

such as DOCC. These include sharing project costs and risks, international and national prestige, poten62
tial spin-offs,theadvancementof thefield of medicineonEarthandin space,andthepossibilityof

encouraginglongerandmorefrequentspacemissions.

Liability, privacyissues,andownershipof intellectualpropertyrightsfor innovationsmadeby DOCC

usersareidentifiedasthemainlegalissuesthatwouldneedto beaddressed.TheWorld HealthOrganizationis viewedashavingarole in standardizingoperatingproceduresandmedicalequipment.

Concluding Remarks

If the future exploration and exploitation of the solar system are to be fully utilized, the need to promote

and maintain the health of astronauts and "semi-professional" astronauts will be of paramount importance. As mission duration increases, greater importance will need to be placed on countermeasures and

support of illnesses and injuries. For this, a dedicated medical facility such as the DOCC is essential.

In addition, the development of new medical tools and technology to deal with the particular challenges

posed by the space environment will also prompt the rapid development of those tools for Earth.

For further information concerning the DOCC, please contact the ISU Central Campus in Strasbourg or

the ISU North American Office:

International Space University

Strasbourg Central Campus

Parc d'Innovation

Boulevard Gonthier d'Andemach

67400 Illkirch-Graffenstaden

France

Tel: +33 (0) 3 88 65 54 30

Fax: +33(0) 388655447

International Space University

North American Office

3400 International Drive, NW

Suite 4M-400

Washington, DC 20008-3098

USA

Tel: +1 (202)237 1987

Tel: 800 677 1987 (Canada and USA only)

Fax: +1 (202) 237 8336

63
APPENDIX B--Travel and Tourism, The World's Largest Industry

From: "Global Paradox" 1994, by John Naisbitt

Tourism employs over 200 million people world-wide, or one in every nine workers.

Tourism is the world's leading economic contributor, producing an incredible 10.2 percent

of the world gross national product.

Tourism is the leading producer of tax revenues at $655 billion per year.

It is the world's largest business with a gross output approaching $3.4 trillion per year.

Tourism accounts for nearly 11 percent of all consumer spending and capital investment,

and nearly 7 percent of all Government spending.

Expectations for annual growth in global tourism are 6.1 percent, 23 percent faster than the world

economy.

Between 1990 and 1993, travel and tourism employment grew 50 percent faster than world

employment.

Travel and tourism is expected to create over 140 million new jobs world-wide between now

and the year 2005.

For many countries, tourism is by far the biggest moneymaker and the strongest sector in funding

the global economy. For the U.S., travel and tourism are now the number one source of foreign

exchange earnings.

In 1991 foreign revenues totaled $51 billion (including $11 billion spent on U.S. airplanes, cruise

ships and other carriers). This total surpassed agriculture ($39 billion) for the first time as the

country's primary export industry.

64
APPENDIX C--Study Workshop Participants

Dr. Buzz Aldrin (Starcraft Enterprises)

Robert Armstrong (NASA Marshall Space Flight Center)

Victoria Beckner (LunaCorp, Inc.)

Ivan Bekey (BDI; Steering Committee, Workshop; Initial NASA Study Lead)

Collette Bevis (X-Prize Foundation)

William Bierbauer (Lawyer)

Gloria Bohan (Omega World Travel; Steering Group)

Dr. Molly Brennan (CCI; also, Workshop Organizer)

Steve Brody (NASA OSS/Mission From Planet Earth Office)

Keith Calhoun-Senghor (DOC/Office of Air & Space Commercialization)

Robert A. Citron (Kistler Aerospace; Steering Group)

Kelvin B. Coleman (DOT/FAA/Office of Comm. Space Transportation)

Ed Cooper (Omega World Travel)

Dr. Peter H. Diamandis (X-Prize Foundation)

Marcus Dinsmore (Omega World Travel)

Norman Fast (F.B. Partners/Incredible Adventures; Steering Group)

Stephen Fogleman (NASA OLMSA; general participant)

Dr. Jerry Grey (AIAA)

David Gump (LunaCorp, Inc.)

Robert L. Haltermann (Haltermann & Associates)

Rick Hauck (INTEC)

Patt Hill (Omega World Travel)

Joe Howell (NASA Marshall Space Flight Center)

Walter Kistler (Kistler Aerospace)

Sandra Morey Kreer (Travel Network)

Chuck Larsen (DOT/FAA/AST)

Charles J. Lauer (Orbital Properties, LLC)

65
z

John C. Mankins (Workshop; NASA Study Lead)

Gregg Maryniak (X-Prize Foundation)

Dr. Neville MarzweU (California Institute of Technology)

Wallace McClure (Boeing North American)

Tidal W. McCoy (Thiokol)

James Muncy (House of Representatives Staff)

Dan O'Neil (Workshop; NASA Study Organizer)

Scott Pace (RAND/Critical Technologies Institute)

Michael R. Paneri (Wimberly, Allison, Tong and Goo)

Dr. William M. Piland (NASA Langley Research Center; Steering Group)

Gene Pinder (US Space & Rocket Center)

Jack Pozza (CCI; Workshop Organizer)

Carl S. Rappaport (DOT/Office of Commercial Space Transportation)

Tom Rogers (STA Study Lead)

Larry Rowell (NASA Langley Research Center)

T.C. Schwartz (Society Expeditions; Steering Group)

Charles Scottoline (Boeing North American (ret.); general participant)

David Smitherman (NASA Marshall Space Flight Center)

Eric W. Stallmer (STA Study Organizer)

Thomas C. Taylor (Global Outpost, Inc.)

Harvey Willenberg (Boeing Defense and Space Group)

Dr. Lawrence R. Young (MIT; Steering Group)

John Spencer (Design Finance Internationai)

Dr. Harvey Wichman (Claremont McKenna College)

Howard Wolff (Wimberly, Allison, Tong and Goo)

Gordon Woodcock (Consultant; Steering Group)

66
REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE Form Approved

OMB No. 0704-0188

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collection of information, including suggestions for reducing this burden, to Washington Headquarters Bervlces, Directorate for Information Operation and Reports, 1215 Jefferson

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1. AGENCY USE ONLY (Leave Blank) 2. REPORT DATE 3. REPORT TYPE AND DATES COVERED

February 1999 Conference Publication

4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE 5. FUNDING NUMBERS

General Public Space Travel and TourismVolume 2 Workshop Proceedings

6. AUTHORS

D. O'Neil, Compiler; I. Bekey,* Editor; J. Mankins,* Editor;

W. Piland,** Editor; T. Rogers,*** Editor; and E. Stallmer,*** Editor

7. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAMES(S) AND ADDRESS{ES) 8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION

REPORT NUMBER

George C. Marshall Space Flight Center

Marshall Space Flight Center, AL 35812 M-913

9.SPONSORINGJMONITORING AGENCYNAME(S) ANDADDRESS(ES)

NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC 20546-0001 and

Space Transportation Association, 2800 Shirlington, Suite 405,

Arlington, Virginia 22206

10. SPONSORING/MONITORING

AGENCY REPORT NUMBER

NAS A/CP-- 1999-209146

11.SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

Prepared for Program Development Directorate. MSFC coordinated and hosted workshop at

Georgetown University in conjunction with the Space Transportation Association.

*NASA Headquarters **Langley Research Center ***Space Transportation Association

12a.DISTRIBUTION/AVAILABILITY STATEMENT 12b.DISTRIBUTION CODE

Unclassified-Unlimited

Subject Category 16

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i13. ABSTRACT (Maximum 200 words)

The Space Transportation Association and NASA conducted a General Public Space Travel

study between 1996 and 1998. During the study, a workshop was held at Georgetown

University. Participants included representatives from the travel, aerospace, and construction

industries. This report is the proceedings from that workshop. Sections include infrastructure

needs, travel packages, policy related issues, and potential near-term activities.

14. SUBJECT TERMS

general public space travel, space tourism, space hotels

17. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION

OF REPORT

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Unclassified

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76

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A05

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