FM 22-100

DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION: Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.

Headquarters, Department of the Army

ARMY LEADERSHIP

BE, KNOW, DO

August 1999

Field Manual Headquarters

No. 22-100 Department of the Army

Washington, DC, 31 August 1999

Army Leadership

Contents Page

Examples.......................................................................................................v

Preface.........................................................................................................vii

CHAPTER 1 THE ARMY LEADERSHIP FRAMEWORK ................................................1-2

Leadership Defined .....................................................................................1-4

BE, KNOW, DO............................................................................................1-6

Levels of Leadership..................................................................................1-10

Leaders of Leaders....................................................................................1-13

Leadership and Command .......................................................................1-14

Subordinates .............................................................................................1-15

The Payoff: Excellence ..............................................................................1-17

Summary ...................................................................................................1-19

CHAPTER 2 THE LEADER AND LEADERSHIP: WHAT THE LEADER MUST BE,

KNOW, AND DO.........................................................................................2-1

Section I CHARACTER: WHAT A LEADER MUST BE................................................2-2

Army Values.................................................................................................2-2

Leader Attributes .......................................................................................2-10

Focus on Character...................................................................................2-19

Section II COMPETENCE: WHAT A LEADER MUST KNOW ....................................2-24

Section III LEADERSHIP: WHAT A LEADER MUST DO.............................................2-26

Influencing .................................................................................................2-27

Operating...................................................................................................2-27

Improving...................................................................................................2-28

SUMMARY .................................................................................................2-28

DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION: Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.

*This publication supersedes FM 22-100, 31 July 1990; FM 22-101, 3 June 1985; FM 22-102, 2 March 1987; FM

22-103, 21 June 1987; DA Pam 600-80, 9 June 1987; and DA Form 4856, June 1985.

Army Leadership i

*FM 22-100

PART ONE: THE LEADER, LEADERSHIP, AND THE HUMAN DIMENSION
CHAPTER 3 THE HUMAN DIMENSION.........................................................................3-1

People, the Team, and the Institution .........................................................3-1

Combat Stress.............................................................................................3-6

The Stress of Change..................................................................................3-8

Climate and Culture...................................................................................3-12

Leadership Styles ......................................................................................3-15

Intended and Unintended Consequences................................................3-18

Summary ...................................................................................................3-19

PART TWO: DIRECT LEADERSHIP

CHAPTER 4 DIRECT LEADERSHIP SKILLS.................................................................4-2

Interpersonal Skills ......................................................................................4-2

Conceptual Skills.........................................................................................4-6

Technical Skills..........................................................................................4-11

Tactical Skills .............................................................................................4-12

Summary ...................................................................................................4-14

CHAPTER 5 DIRECT LEADERSHIP ACTIONS .............................................................5-1

Influencing Actions ......................................................................................5-1

Operating Actions........................................................................................5-8

Improving Actions......................................................................................5-13

Summary ...................................................................................................5-27

PART THREE: ORGANIZATIONAL AND STRATEGIC LEADERSHIP

CHAPTER 6 ORGANIZATIONAL LEADERSHIP............................................................6-1

Section I WHAT IT TAKES TO LEAD ORGANIZATIONS—SKILLS ............................6-3

Interpersonal Skills ......................................................................................6-3

Conceptual Skills.........................................................................................6-5

Technical Skills............................................................................................6-9

Tactical Skills .............................................................................................6-10

Section II WHAT IT TAKES TO LEAD ORGANIZATIONS—ACTIONS.......................6-12

Influencing Actions ....................................................................................6-12

Operating Actions......................................................................................6-18

Improving Actions......................................................................................6-25

Section III A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF ORGANIZATIONAL

LEADERSHIP—GENERAL RIDGWAY IN KOREA .....................................6-29

SUMMARY .................................................................................................6-32

CHAPTER 7 STRATEGIC LEADERSHIP........................................................................7-1

Section I STRATEGIC LEADERSHIP SKILLS .............................................................7-2

Interpersonal Skills ......................................................................................7-2

Conceptual Skills.........................................................................................7-7

ii FM 22-100

Contents
Technical Skills..........................................................................................7-10

Section II STRATEGIC LEADERSHIP ACTIONS .......................................................7-13

Influencing Actions ....................................................................................7-13

Operating Actions......................................................................................7-18

Improving Actions......................................................................................7-22

Section III A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF STRATEGIC LEADERSHIP—

GENERAL OF THE ARMY MARSHALL DURING WORLD WAR II ............7-26

SUMMARY .................................................................................................7-28

Appendix A Roles and Relationships ..........................................................................A-1

Authority ......................................................................................................A-3

Responsibility and Accountability...............................................................A-4

Communications and the Chain of Command..........................................A-4

The Noncommissioned Officer Support Channel ......................................A-5

DA Civilian Support .....................................................................................A-5

Appendix B Performance Indicators............................................................................B-1

Values..........................................................................................................B-2

Attributes .....................................................................................................B-3

Skills ............................................................................................................B-3

Actions.........................................................................................................B-4

Appendix C Developmental Counseling......................................................................C-1

The Leader’s Responsibilities.....................................................................C-1

The Leader as a Counselor ........................................................................C-2

Leader Counseling Skills ............................................................................C-3

The Leader’s Limitations.............................................................................C-5

Types of Developmental Counseling .........................................................C-7

Approaches to Counseling.......................................................................C-10

Counseling Techniques............................................................................C-11

The Counseling Process...........................................................................C-12

Summary...................................................................................................C-16

The Developmental Counseling Form......................................................C-17

Appendix D A Leader Plan of Action and the ECAS ..................................................D-1

Preparation of an ECAS..............................................................................D-2

Preparation of a Leader Plan of Action.......................................................D-4

Appendix E Character Development............................................................................E-1

Appendix F The Constitution of the United States .....................................................F-1

Source Notes...........................................................................Source Notes-1

Glossary ..........................................................................................Glossary-1

Bibliography..............................................................................Bibliography-1

Index .....................................................................................................Index-1

Army Leadership iii

Contents

Examples Page

COL Chamberlain at Gettysburg .......................................................................................................1-8

Small Unit Leaders’ Initiative in Normandy ....................................................................................1-16

GEN Washington at Newburgh..........................................................................................................2-3

Duty in Korea ......................................................................................................................................2-4

GA Marshall Continues to Serve .......................................................................................................2-6

MSG Gordon and SFC Shughart in Somalia ....................................................................................2-8

WO1 Thompson at My Lai ................................................................................................................2-10

The Will to Persevere........................................................................................................................2-11

The Quick Reaction Platoon ............................................................................................................2-13

GA Eisenhower Forms SHAEF.........................................................................................................2-15

Self-Control in Combat.....................................................................................................................2-17

BG Jackson at First Bull Run...........................................................................................................2-18

Character and Prisoners ..................................................................................................................2-19

The Battle of the Bulge .....................................................................................................................2-20

GA Eisenhower’s Message ..............................................................................................................2-20

The Qualification Report ..................................................................................................................2-22

Soldiers Are Our Credentials.............................................................................................................3-2

The 96th Division on Leyte.................................................................................................................3-4

The K Company Visit ..........................................................................................................................3-5

Task Force Ranger in Somalia, 1993 ................................................................................................3-6

Mix-up at the Crossroads...................................................................................................................3-8

“Superior Technology” .....................................................................................................................3-10

Changing a Unit Climate—The New Squad Leader.......................................................................3-13

The Checking Account .......................................................................................................................4-3

The Rusty Rifles Incident ...................................................................................................................4-5

Finding the Real Problem...................................................................................................................4-6

Pulling Dragons’ Teeth .......................................................................................................................4-7

The EFMB Test ..................................................................................................................................4-10

Technical Skill into Combat Power ................................................................................................4-11

Task Force Kingston.........................................................................................................................4-13

Solving a Training Problem................................................................................................................5-5

An Implied Mission and Leader Plan of Action................................................................................5-9

Brief Solutions, Not Problems .........................................................................................................5-10

Trust Earned ......................................................................................................................................5-19

Replacements in the ETO.................................................................................................................5-22

Army Leadership v
Page

Reception on Christmas Eve ...........................................................................................................5-22

SGT York ............................................................................................................................................5-24

Knowing Your People .........................................................................................................................6-4

GEN Grant and the End of the Civil War...........................................................................................6-6

DA Civilian Support to Desert Shield................................................................................................6-8

Innovative Reorganization .................................................................................................................6-8

GEN Grant at Vicksburg ...................................................................................................................6-11

The Commander’s Notebook...........................................................................................................6-14

The 505th Parachute Infantry Regiment at Normandy..................................................................6-18

The “Paperwork Purge”....................................................................................................................6-20

Allied Command During the Battle of the Bulge..............................................................................7-5

Strategic Flexibility in Haiti ................................................................................................................7-9

Show of Force in the Philippines.....................................................................................................7-12

Combat Power from a Good Idea....................................................................................................7-14

The D-Day Decision ..........................................................................................................................7-16

Multinational Resource Allocation ..................................................................................................7-19

World War II Strategic Assessment ................................................................................................7-22

Change After Vietnam.......................................................................................................................7-25

vi FM 22-100

Examples
Preface

The Army consists of the active component, Army National Guard, Army Reserve,

and Department of the Army (DA) civilians. It’s the world’s premier land combat

force—a full-spectrum force trained and ready to answer the nation’s call. The

Army’s foundation is confident and competent leaders of character. This manual is

addressed to them and to those who train and develop them.

PURPOSE

FM 22-100 is a single-source reference for all Army leaders. Its purpose is threefold:

• To provide leadership doctrine for meeting mission requirements under all conditions.

• To establish a unified leadership theory for all Army leaders: military and civilian,

active and reserve, officer and enlisted.

• To provide a comprehensive and adaptable leadership resource for the Army of the

21st century.

As the capstone leadership manual for the Army, FM 22-100 establishes the Army’s

leadership doctrine, the fundamental principles by which Army leaders act to accomplish the mission and take care of their people. The doctrine discusses how Army values form the basis of character. In addition, it links a suite of instruments,

publications, and initiatives that the Army uses to develop leaders. Among these

are—

• AR 600-100, which establishes the basis for leader development doctrine and

training.

• DA Pam 350-58, which describes the Army’s leader development model.

• DA Pam 600-3, which discusses qualification criteria and outlines development

and career management programs for commissioned officers.

• DA Pam 600-11, which discusses qualification criteria and outlines development

and career management programs for warrant officers.

• DA Pam 600-25, which discusses noncommissioned officer (NCO) career development.

• DA Pam 690-46, which discusses mentoring of DA civilians.

• The TRADOC Common Core, which lists tasks that military and DA civilian leaders must perform and establishes who is responsible for training leaders to perform them.

• Officer, NCO, and DA civilian evaluation reports.

FM 22-100 also serves as the basis for future leadership and leader development initiatives associated with the three pillars of the Army’s leader development model.

Specifically, FM 22-100 serves as—

• The basis for leadership assessment.

Army Leadership vii
• The basis for developmental counseling and leader development.

• The basis for leadership evaluation.

• A reference for leadership development in operational assignments.

• A guide for institutional instruction at proponent schools.

• A resource for individual leaders’ self-development goals and initiatives.

FM 22-100 directly supports the Army’s keystone manuals, FM 100-1 and FM 100-5,

which describe the Army and its missions. It contains principles all Army leaders use

when they apply the doctrine, tactics, techniques, and procedures established in the

following types of doctrinal publications:

• Combined arms publications, which describe the tactics and techniques of combined arms forces.

• Proponency publications, which describe doctrinal principles, tactics, techniques,

and collective training tasks for branch-oriented or functional units.

• Employment procedure publications, which address the operation, employment,

and maintenance of specific systems.

• Soldier publications, which address soldier duties.

• Reference publications, which focus on procedures (as opposed to doctrine, tactics,

or techniques) for managing training, operating in special environments or

against specific threats, providing leadership, and performing fundamental tasks.

This edition of FM 22-100 establishes a unified leadership theory for all Army leaders

based on the Army leadership framework and three leadership levels. Specifically,

it—

• Defines and discusses Army values and leader attributes.

• Discusses character-based leadership.

• Establishes leader attributes as part of character.

• Focuses on improving people and organizations for the long term.

• Outlines three levels of leadership—direct, organizational, and strategic.

• Identifies four skill domains that apply at all levels.

• Specifies leadership actions for each level.

The Army leadership framework brings together many existing leadership concepts

by establishing leadership dimensions and showing how they relate to each other.

Solidly based on BE, KNOW, DO—that is, character, competence, and action—the

Army leadership framework provides a single instrument for leader development.

Individuals can use it for self-development. Leaders can use it to develop subordinates. Commanders can use it to focus their programs. By establishing leadership dimensions grouped under the skill domains of values, attributes, skills, and actions,

the Army leadership framework provides a simple way to think about and discuss

leadership.

The Army is a values-based institution. FM 22-100 establishes and clarifies those

values. Army leaders must set high standards, lead by example, do what is legally and

morally right, and influence other people to do the same. They must establish and

sustain a climate that ensures people are treated with dignity and respect and create

an environment in which people are challenged and motivated to be all they can be.

FM 22-100 discusses these aspects of leadership and how they contribute to developing leaders of character and competence. These are the leaders who make the Army a

trained and ready force prepared to fight and win the nation’s wars.

viii FM 22-100

Preface

• The basis for developmental counseling and leader development.

• The basis for leadership evaluation.

• A reference for leadership development in operational assignments.

• A guide for institutional instruction at proponent schools.

• A resource for individual leaders’ self-development goals and initiatives.

FM 22-100 directly supports the Army’s keystone manuals, FM 100-1 and FM 100-5,

which describe the Army and its missions. It contains principles all Army leaders use

when they apply the doctrine, tactics, techniques, and procedures established in the

following types of doctrinal publications:

• Combined arms publications, which describe the tactics and techniques of combined arms forces.

• Proponency publications, which describe doctrinal principles, tactics, techniques,

and collective training tasks for branch-oriented or functional units.

• Employment procedure publications, which address the operation, employment,

and maintenance of specific systems.

• Soldier publications, which address soldier duties.

• Reference publications, which focus on procedures (as opposed to doctrine, tactics,

or techniques) for managing training, operating in special environments or

against specific threats, providing leadership, and performing fundamental tasks.

This edition of FM 22-100 establishes a unified leadership theory for all Army leaders

based on the Army leadership framework and three leadership levels. Specifically,

it—

• Defines and discusses Army values and leader attributes.

• Discusses character-based leadership.

• Establishes leader attributes as part of character.

• Focuses on improving people and organizations for the long term.

• Outlines three levels of leadership—direct, organizational, and strategic.

• Identifies four skill domains that apply at all levels.

• Specifies leadership actions for each level.

The Army leadership framework brings together many existing leadership concepts

by establishing leadership dimensions and showing how they relate to each other.

Solidly based on BE, KNOW, DO—that is, character, competence, and action—the

Army leadership framework provides a single instrument for leader development.

Individuals can use it for self-development. Leaders can use it to develop subordinates. Commanders can use it to focus their programs. By establishing leadership dimensions grouped under the skill domains of values, attributes, skills, and actions,

the Army leadership framework provides a simple way to think about and discuss

leadership.

The Army is a values-based institution. FM 22-100 establishes and clarifies those

values. Army leaders must set high standards, lead by example, do what is legally and

morally right, and influence other people to do the same. They must establish and

sustain a climate that ensures people are treated with dignity and respect and create

an environment in which people are challenged and motivated to be all they can be.

FM 22-100 discusses these aspects of leadership and how they contribute to developing leaders of character and competence. These are the leaders who make the Army a

trained and ready force prepared to fight and win the nation’s wars.
The three leadership levels—direct, organizational, and strategic—reflect the

different challenges facing leaders as they move into positions of increasing

responsibility. Direct leaders lead face to face: they are the Army’s first-line leaders.

Organizational leaders lead large organizations, usually brigade-sized and larger.

Strategic leaders are the Army’s most senior leaders. They lead at the major

command and national levels.

Unlike previous editions of FM 22-100—which focused exclusively on leadership by

uniformed leaders at battalion level and below—this edition addresses leadership at

all levels and is addressed to all Army leaders, military and DA civilian. It supersedes

four publications—FM 22-101, Leadership Counseling; FM 22-102, Soldier Team

Development; FM 22-103, Leadership and Command at Senior Levels; and DA Pam

600-80 Executive Leadership—as well as the previous edition of FM 22-100. A comprehensive reference, this manual shows how leader skills, actions, and concerns at

the different levels are linked and allows direct leaders to read about issues that affect organizational and strategic leaders. This information can assist leaders serving

in positions supporting organizational and strategic leaders and to other leaders who

must work with members of organizational- and strategic-level staffs.

FM 22-100 emphasizes self-development and development of subordinates. It includes performance indicators to help leaders assess the values, attributes, skills,

and actions that the rest of the manual discusses. It discusses developmental counseling, a skill all Army leaders must perfect so they can mentor their subordinates

and leave their organization and people better than they found them. FM 22-100 prescribes DA Form 4856-E (Developmental Counseling Form), which supersedes DA

Form 4856 (General Counseling Form). DA Form 4856-E is designed to support

leader development. Its format follows the counseling steps outlined in Appendix C.

FM 22-100 offers a framework for how to lead and provides points for Army leaders

to consider when assessing and developing themselves, their people, and their organizations. It doesn’t presume to tell Army leaders exactly how they should lead

every step of the way. They must be themselves and apply this leadership doctrine as

appropriate to the situations they face.

SCOPE

FM 22-100 is divided into three parts. Part I (Chapters 1, 2, and 3) discusses leadership aspects common to all Army leaders. Part II (Chapters 4 and 5) addresses the

skills and actions required of direct leaders. Part III (Chapters 6 and 7) discusses the

skills and actions required of organizational and strategic leaders. The manual also

includes six appendixes.

Chapter 1 defines Army leadership, establishes the Army leadership framework, and

describes the three Army leadership levels. It addresses the characteristics of an

Army leader (BE, KNOW, DO), the importance of being a good subordinate, and how

all Army leaders lead other leaders. Chapter 1 concludes with a discussion of moral

and collective excellence.

Chapter 2 examines character, competence, and leadership—what an Army leader

must BE, KNOW, and DO. The chapter addresses character in terms of Army values

and leader attributes. In addition, it describes character development and how character is related to ethics, orders—to include illegal orders—and beliefs. Chapter 2

concludes by introducing the categories of leader skills—interpersonal, conceptual,

Army Leadership ix

Preface

The three leadership levels—direct, organizational, and strategic—reflect the

different challenges facing leaders as they move into positions of increasing

responsibility. Direct leaders lead face to face: they are the Army’s first-line leaders.

Organizational leaders lead large organizations, usually brigade-sized and larger.

Strategic leaders are the Army’s most senior leaders. They lead at the major

command and national levels.

Unlike previous editions of FM 22-100—which focused exclusively on leadership by

uniformed leaders at battalion level and below—this edition addresses leadership at

all levels and is addressed to all Army leaders, military and DA civilian. It supersedes

four publications—FM 22-101, Leadership Counseling; FM 22-102, Soldier Team

Development; FM 22-103, Leadership and Command at Senior Levels; and DA Pam

600-80 Executive Leadership—as well as the previous edition of FM 22-100. A comprehensive reference, this manual shows how leader skills, actions, and concerns at

the different levels are linked and allows direct leaders to read about issues that affect organizational and strategic leaders. This information can assist leaders serving

in positions supporting organizational and strategic leaders and to other leaders who

must work with members of organizational- and strategic-level staffs.

FM 22-100 emphasizes self-development and development of subordinates. It includes performance indicators to help leaders assess the values, attributes, skills,

and actions that the rest of the manual discusses. It discusses developmental counseling, a skill all Army leaders must perfect so they can mentor their subordinates

and leave their organization and people better than they found them. FM 22-100 prescribes DA Form 4856-E (Developmental Counseling Form), which supersedes DA

Form 4856 (General Counseling Form). DA Form 4856-E is designed to support

leader development. Its format follows the counseling steps outlined in Appendix C.

FM 22-100 offers a framework for how to lead and provides points for Army leaders

to consider when assessing and developing themselves, their people, and their organizations. It doesn’t presume to tell Army leaders exactly how they should lead

every step of the way. They must be themselves and apply this leadership doctrine as

appropriate to the situations they face.

SCOPE

FM 22-100 is divided into three parts. Part I (Chapters 1, 2, and 3) discusses leadership aspects common to all Army leaders. Part II (Chapters 4 and 5) addresses the

skills and actions required of direct leaders. Part III (Chapters 6 and 7) discusses the

skills and actions required of organizational and strategic leaders. The manual also

includes six appendixes.

Chapter 1 defines Army leadership, establishes the Army leadership framework, and

describes the three Army leadership levels. It addresses the characteristics of an

Army leader (BE, KNOW, DO), the importance of being a good subordinate, and how

all Army leaders lead other leaders. Chapter 1 concludes with a discussion of moral

and collective excellence.

Chapter 2 examines character, competence, and leadership—what an Army leader

must BE, KNOW, and DO. The chapter addresses character in terms of Army values

and leader attributes. In addition, it describes character development and how character is related to ethics, orders—to include illegal orders—and beliefs. Chapter 2

concludes by introducing the categories of leader skills—interpersonal, conceptual,
technical, and tactical—and the categories of leader actions—influencing, operating,

and improving.

Chapter 3 covers the human dimension of leadership. The chapter begins by discussing discipline, morale, and care of subordinates. It then addresses stress, both combat- and change-related. Discussions of organizational climate, institutional culture,

and leadership styles follow. Chapter 3 concludes by examining intended and unintended consequences of decisions and leader actions.

Chapters 4 and 5 discuss the skills and actions required of direct leaders. The skills

and actions are grouped under the categories introduced at the end of Chapter 2.

Chapters 6 and 7 provide an overview of the skills and actions required of organizational and strategic leaders. These chapters introduce direct leaders to the concerns

faced by leaders and staffs operating at the organizational and strategic levels. Like

Chapters 4 and 5, Chapters 6 and 7 group skills and actions under the categories introduced in Chapter 2.

Appendix A outlines the roles and relationships of commissioned, warrant, and noncommissioned officers. It includes discussions of authority, responsibility, the chain

of command, the NCO support channel, and DA civilian support.

Appendix B lists performance indicators for Army values and leader attributes,

skills, and actions. It provides general examples of what Army leaders must BE,

KNOW, and DO.

Appendix C addresses developmental counseling in detail. It begins with a discussion

of the characteristics of a good counselor, the skills a counselor requires, and the

limitations leaders face when they counsel subordinates. The appendix then examines the types of developmental counseling, counseling approaches, and counseling

techniques. Appendix C concludes by describing the counseling process and explaining how to use DA Form 4856-E, the Developmental Counseling Form.

Appendix D explains how to prepare a leader plan of action and provides an example

of a direct leader preparing a leader plan of action based on information gathered using an ethical climate assessment survey (ECAS). The example explains how to conduct an ECAS.

Appendix E discusses how Army values contribute to character development and the

importance of developing the character of subordinates.

Appendix F contains a copy of the Constitution of the United States. All members of

the Army take an oath to “support and defend the Constitution of the United

States.” It is included so it will be immediately available for Army leaders.

x FM 22-100

Preface

technical, and tactical—and the categories of leader actions—influencing, operating,

and improving.

Chapter 3 covers the human dimension of leadership. The chapter begins by discussing discipline, morale, and care of subordinates. It then addresses stress, both combat- and change-related. Discussions of organizational climate, institutional culture,

and leadership styles follow. Chapter 3 concludes by examining intended and unintended consequences of decisions and leader actions.

Chapters 4 and 5 discuss the skills and actions required of direct leaders. The skills

and actions are grouped under the categories introduced at the end of Chapter 2.

Chapters 6 and 7 provide an overview of the skills and actions required of organizational and strategic leaders. These chapters introduce direct leaders to the concerns

faced by leaders and staffs operating at the organizational and strategic levels. Like

Chapters 4 and 5, Chapters 6 and 7 group skills and actions under the categories introduced in Chapter 2.

Appendix A outlines the roles and relationships of commissioned, warrant, and noncommissioned officers. It includes discussions of authority, responsibility, the chain

of command, the NCO support channel, and DA civilian support.

Appendix B lists performance indicators for Army values and leader attributes,

skills, and actions. It provides general examples of what Army leaders must BE,

KNOW, and DO.

Appendix C addresses developmental counseling in detail. It begins with a discussion

of the characteristics of a good counselor, the skills a counselor requires, and the

limitations leaders face when they counsel subordinates. The appendix then examines the types of developmental counseling, counseling approaches, and counseling

techniques. Appendix C concludes by describing the counseling process and explaining how to use DA Form 4856-E, the Developmental Counseling Form.

Appendix D explains how to prepare a leader plan of action and provides an example

of a direct leader preparing a leader plan of action based on information gathered using an ethical climate assessment survey (ECAS). The example explains how to conduct an ECAS.

Appendix E discusses how Army values contribute to character development and the

importance of developing the character of subordinates.

Appendix F contains a copy of the Constitution of the United States. All members of

the Army take an oath to “support and defend the Constitution of the United

States.” It is included so it will be immediately available for Army leaders.
APPLICABILITY

FM 22-100’s primary audience is direct leaders, military leaders serving at battalion

level and below and DA civilian leaders in comparable organizations. However, FM

22-100 contains doctrine applicable at all leadership levels, to all military and DA civilian leaders of the Army.

The proponent of this publication is Headquarters (HQ), TRADOC. Send comments

and recommendations on DA Form 2028 directly to Commander, US Army Combined Arms Center and Fort Leavenworth, Center for Army Leadership, ATTN:

ATZL-SWC, Fort Leavenworth, KS 66027-2300.

Unless this publication states otherwise, masculine nouns and pronouns do not refer

exclusively to men.

This publication contains copyrighted material.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The copyright owners listed here have granted permission to reproduce material

from their works. Other sources of quotations and material used in examples are

listed in the source notes.

The quotations in Chapters 1 and 2 from Geoffrey C. Ward, The Civil War: An Illustrated History (New York: Knopf, 1990) are reprinted with permission of the publisher.

Portions of the example Task Force Kingston are reprinted from ARMY Magazine,

April 1964. Copyright © 1964 by the Association of the United States Army and reproduced by permission.

The quotation by Thomas J. Jackson in Chapter 2 is reprinted from Robert D. Heinl,

Dictionary of Military and Naval Quotations (Annapolis: US Naval Institute Press,

1988).

The quotation by Dandridge M. Malone in Chapter 2 is reproduced from Dandridge

M. Malone, Small Unit Leadership: A Commonsense Approach (Novato, Calif.: Presidio Press, 1983).

The quotations by Theodore Roosevelt in Chapter 5 and Dwight D. Eisenhower in

Chapter 7 are reprinted from John C. Maxwell, Leadership 101—Inspirational

Quotes and Insights for Leaders (Tulsa, Okla.: Honor Books, 1994).

The quotation by Arleigh Burke in Chapter 7 is reproduced from Karel Montor and

others, Naval Leadership: Voices of Experiences (Annapolis: US Naval Institute

Press, 1987).

Excerpts from WAR AS I KNEW IT by General George S. Patton. Copyright © 1947

by Beatrice Patton Walters, Ruth Patton Totten, and George Smith Totten. Copyright © renewed 1975 by Major General George Patton, Ruth Patton Totten, John K.

Waters Jr., and George P. Waters. Reprinted by permission of Houghton Mifflin Co.

All rights reserved.

The quotation by George C. Marshall in Chapter 2 is reprinted from Forrest C.

Pogue, George C. Marshall: Ordeal and Hope 1939-1942 (New York: Viking Press,

1966). Copyright © 1965, 1966 by George C. Marshall Research Foundation.

Army Leadership xi

Preface

APPLICABILITY

FM 22-100’s primary audience is direct leaders, military leaders serving at battalion

level and below and DA civilian leaders in comparable organizations. However, FM

22-100 contains doctrine applicable at all leadership levels, to all military and DA civilian leaders of the Army.

The proponent of this publication is Headquarters (HQ), TRADOC. Send comments

and recommendations on DA Form 2028 directly to Commander, US Army Combined Arms Center and Fort Leavenworth, Center for Army Leadership, ATTN:

ATZL-SWC, Fort Leavenworth, KS 66027-2300.

Unless this publication states otherwise, masculine nouns and pronouns do not refer

exclusively to men.

This publication contains copyrighted material.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The copyright owners listed here have granted permission to reproduce material

from their works. Other sources of quotations and material used in examples are

listed in the source notes.

The quotations in Chapters 1 and 2 from Geoffrey C. Ward, The Civil War: An Illustrated History (New York: Knopf, 1990) are reprinted with permission of the publisher.

Portions of the example Task Force Kingston are reprinted from ARMY Magazine,

April 1964. Copyright © 1964 by the Association of the United States Army and reproduced by permission.

The quotation by Thomas J. Jackson in Chapter 2 is reprinted from Robert D. Heinl,

Dictionary of Military and Naval Quotations (Annapolis: US Naval Institute Press,

1988).

The quotation by Dandridge M. Malone in Chapter 2 is reproduced from Dandridge

M. Malone, Small Unit Leadership: A Commonsense Approach (Novato, Calif.: Presidio Press, 1983).

The quotations by Theodore Roosevelt in Chapter 5 and Dwight D. Eisenhower in

Chapter 7 are reprinted from John C. Maxwell, Leadership 101—Inspirational

Quotes and Insights for Leaders (Tulsa, Okla.: Honor Books, 1994).

The quotation by Arleigh Burke in Chapter 7 is reproduced from Karel Montor and

others, Naval Leadership: Voices of Experiences (Annapolis: US Naval Institute

Press, 1987).

Excerpts from WAR AS I KNEW IT by General George S. Patton. Copyright © 1947

by Beatrice Patton Walters, Ruth Patton Totten, and George Smith Totten. Copyright © renewed 1975 by Major General George Patton, Ruth Patton Totten, John K.

Waters Jr., and George P. Waters. Reprinted by permission of Houghton Mifflin Co.

All rights reserved.

The quotation by George C. Marshall in Chapter 2 is reprinted from Forrest C.

Pogue, George C. Marshall: Ordeal and Hope 1939-1942 (New York: Viking Press,

1966). Copyright © 1965, 1966 by George C. Marshall Research Foundation.
The quotations by Gordon R. Sullivan in Chapter 7 are reprinted from Gordon R.

Sullivan and Michael V. Harper, Hope Is Not A Method (New York: Times Business,

1996). Copyright © 1996 by Gordon R. Sullivan and Michael V. Harper.

xii FM 22-100

Preface

The quotations by Gordon R. Sullivan in Chapter 7 are reprinted from Gordon R.

Sullivan and Michael V. Harper, Hope Is Not A Method (New York: Times Business,

1996). Copyright © 1996 by Gordon R. Sullivan and Michael V. Harper.
1-1. The Army’s ultimate responsibility is to

win the nation’s wars. For you as an Army

leader, leadership in combat is your primary

mission and most important challenge. To meet

this challenge, you must develop character and

competence while achieving excellence. This

manual is about leadership. It focuses on character, competence, and excellence. It’s about accomplishing the mission and taking care of

people. It’s about living up to your ultimate responsibility, leading your soldiers in combat

and winning our nation’s wars.

1-2. Figure 1-1 shows the Army leadership

framework. The top of the figure shows the four

categories of things leaders must BE, KNOW,

and DO. The bottom of the figure lists dimensions of Army leadership, grouped under these

four categories. The dimensions consist of

Army values and subcategories under attributes, skills, and actions.

1-3. Leadership starts at the top, with the character of the leader, with your character. In order to lead others, you must first make sure

your own house is in order. For example, the

first line of The Creed of the Noncommissioned

Officer states, “No one is more professional

than I.” But it takes a remarkable person to

move from memorizing a creed to actually

 

 	
 

 



1-1. The Army’s ultimate responsibility is to

win the nation’s wars. For you as an Army

leader, leadership in combat is your primary

mission and most important challenge. To meet

this challenge, you must develop character and

competence while achieving excellence. This

manual is about leadership. It focuses on character, competence, and excellence. It’s about accomplishing the mission and taking care of

people. It’s about living up to your ultimate responsibility, leading your soldiers in combat

and winning our nation’s wars.

1-2. Figure 1-1 shows the Army leadership

framework. The top of the figure shows the four

categories of things leaders must BE, KNOW,

and DO. The bottom of the figure lists dimensions of Army leadership, grouped under these

four categories. The dimensions consist of

Army values and subcategories under attributes, skills, and actions.

1-3. Leadership starts at the top, with the character of the leader, with your character. In order to lead others, you must first make sure

your own house is in order. For example, the

first line of The Creed of the Noncommissioned

Officer states, “No one is more professional

than I.” But it takes a remarkable person to

move from memorizing a creed to actually

This manual is a tool to help you answer these questions, to begin or continue

becoming a leader of character and competence, an Army leader. Chapter 1 starts

with an overview of what the Army requires of you as an Army leader. This is the Army

leadership framework; it forms the structure of the Army’s leadership doctrine.

Chapter 1 also discusses the three levels of Army leadership: direct, organizational,

and strategic. Chapter 2 discusses character, competence, and leadership—what you

must BE, KNOW, and DO as an Army leader. Chapter 3 talks about the human

dimension, the many factors that affect the people and teams that you lead and the

institution of which you and they are a part.

CHAPTER 1

The Army Leadership Framework

Just as the diamond requires three properties for its formation—carbon, heat, and

pressure—successful leaders require the interaction of three properties—character,

knowledge, and application. Like carbon to the diamond, character is the basic quality of the leader....But as carbon alone does not create a diamond, neither can character alone create a leader. The diamond needs heat. Man needs knowledge, study, and

preparation....The third property, pressure—acting in conjunction with carbon and

heat—forms the diamond. Similarly, one’s character, attended by knowledge, blooms

through application to produce a leader.

  	
 


  	  

LEADERSHIP DEFINED ......................1-4

BE, KNOW, DO.....................................1-6

LEVELS OF LEADERSHIP ................1-10

LEADERS OF LEADERS ...................1-13

LEADERSHIP AND COMMAND........1-14

SUBORDINATES................................1-15

THE PAYOFF: EXCELLENCE............1-17

SUMMARY..........................................1-19
living that creed; a true leader is that remarkable person.

1-4. Army leadership begins with what the

leader must BE, the values and attributes that

shape a leader’s character. It may be helpful to

think of these as internal qualities: you possess

them all the time, alone and with others. They

define who you are; they give you a solid footing. These values and attributes are the same

for all leaders, regardless of position, although

 	
 


	
 


Loyalty

Duty

Respect

Selfless Service

Honor

Integrity

Personal Courage

Mental

Physical

Emotional

Interpersonal

Conceptual

Technical

Tactical

THE LEADER THE LEADER

of Character and Competence Acts...

to Achieve Excellence to Achieve Excellence

of Character and Competence Acts...

Influencing

Operating

Improving

Leaders of character and competence act to achieve excellence by developing a force that

can fight and win the nation’s wars and serve the common defense of the United States.

Figure 1-1. The Army Leadership Framework
LEADERSHIP DEFINED

INFLUENCING

1-7. Influencing means getting people to do

what you want them to do. It is the means or

method to achieve two ends: operating and improving. But there’s more to influencing than

simply passing along orders. The example you

set is just as important as the words you speak.

And you set an example—good or bad—with

every action you take and word you utter, on or

off duty. Through your words and example, you

must communicate purpose, direction, and

motivation.

Purpose

1-8. Purpose gives people a reason to do things.

This does not mean that as a leader you must

explain every decision to the satisfaction of

your subordinates. It does mean you must earn

their trust: they must know from experience

that you care about them and would not ask

them to do something—particularly something

dangerous—unless there was a good reason,

unless the task was essential to mission

accomplishment.

1-9. Look, for example, at a battalion

maintenance section. Its motor sergeant always

takes the time—and has the patience—to explain to the mechanics what is required of

them. Nothing fancy; the motor sergeant usually just calls them together for a few minutes

to talk about the workload and the time crunch.

The soldiers may get tired of hearing “And, of

course, unless we get the work finished, this

unit doesn’t roll and the mission doesn’t get

done,” but they know it’s true. And every time

he passes information this way, the motor

sergeant sends this signal to the soldiers: that

he cares about their time and work and what

they think, that they are members of a team,

not cogs in the “green machine.”

1-10. Then one day the unit is alerted for an

emergency deployment. Things are happening

at breakneck speed; there is no time to pause,

and everything and everyone is under stress.

The motor sergeant cannot stop to explain

things, pat people on the back, or talk them up.

But the soldiers will work themselves to exhaustion, if need be, because the motor sergeant has earned their trust. They know and

 

	 

 		 	

Leadership is influencing people—by providing purpose, direction, and motivation—while

operating to accomplish the mission and improving the organization.

you certainly refine your understanding of

them as you become more experienced and assume positions of greater responsibility. For example, a sergeant major with combat

experience has a deeper understanding of selfless service and personal courage than a new

soldier does.

1-5. Your skills are those things you KNOW

how to do, your competence in everything from

the technical side of your job to the people skills

a leader requires. The skill categories of the

Army leadership framework apply to all leaders. However, as you assume positions of

greater responsibility, you must master

additional skills in each category. Army

leadership positions fall into one of three levels:

direct, organizational, and strategic. These levels are described later in this chapter. Chapters

4, 6, and 7 describe the skills leaders at each

level require.

1-6. But character and knowledge—while

absolutely necessary—are not enough. You

cannot be effective, you cannot be a leader, until you apply what you know, until you act and

DO what you must. As with skills, you will

learn more leadership actions as you serve in

different positions. Because actions are the essence of leadership, the discussion begins with

them.
appreciate their leader’s normal way of operating, and they will assume there is a good reason

the leader is doing things differently this time.

And should the deployment lead to a combat

mission, the team will be better prepared to accomplish their mission under fire. Trust is a basic bond of leadership, and it must be developed

over time.

Direction

1-11. When providing direction, you communicate the way you want the mission accomplished. You prioritize tasks, assign

responsibility for completing them (delegating

authority when necessary), and make sure your

people understand the standard. In short, you

figure out how to get the work done right with

the available people, time, and other resources;

then you communicate that information to your

subordinates: “We’ll do these things first. You

people work here; you people work there.” As

you think the job through, you can better aim

your effort and resources at the right targets.

1-12. People want direction. They want to be

given challenging tasks, training in how to accomplish them, and the resources necessary to

do them well. Then they want to be left alone to

do the job.

Motivation

1-13. Motivation gives subordinates the will to

do everything they can to accomplish a mission.

It results in their acting on their own initiative

when they see something needs to be done.

1-14. To motivate your people, give them

missions that challenge them. After all, they did

not join the Army to be bored. Get to know your

people and their capabilities; that way you can

tell just how far to push each one. Give them as

much responsibility as they can handle; then let

them do the work without looking over their

shoulders and nagging them. When they succeed, praise them. When they fall short, give

them credit for what they have done and coach

or counsel them on how to do better next time.

1-15. People who are trained this way will

accomplish the mission, even when no one is

watching. They will work harder than they

thought they could. And when their leader

notices and gives them credit (with something

more than the offhand comment “good job”),

they will be ready to take on even more next

time.

1-16. But Army leaders motivate their people

by more than words. The example you set is at

least as important as what you say and how well

you manage the work. As the unit prepares for

the rollout, the motor sergeant you just read

about is in the motor pool with the mechanics

on Friday night and Saturday morning. If his

people are working in the rain, the NCO’s uniform will be wet too. If they have missed breakfast, the leader’s stomach will be growling just

as loudly. The best leaders lead from the front.

Don’t underestimate the importance of being

where the action is.

OPERATING

1-17. Actions taken to influence others serve to

accomplish operating actions, those actions you

take to achieve the short-term goal of accomplishing the mission. The motor sergeant will

make sure the vehicles roll out, on time and

combat ready, through planning and preparing

(laying out the work and making the necessary

arrangements), executing (doing the job), and

assessing (learning how to work smarter next

time). The motor sergeant provides an example

of how direct leaders perform operating actions.

All leaders execute these operating actions,

which become more complex as they assume positions of increasing responsibility.

IMPROVING

1-18. The motor sergeant’s job is not complete

when the last vehicle clears the gate. While getting the job done is key, the Army also expects

him to do far more than just accomplish the

day’s work. Army leaders also strive to improve

everything entrusted to them: their people, facilities, equipment, training, and resources.

There will be a new mission, of course, but part

of finishing the old one is improving the

organization.

1-19. After checking to be sure the tools are repaired, cleaned, accounted for, and put away,

the motor sergeant conducts an informal afteraction review (AAR) with the section. (An AAR

 	
 


	
 

is a professional discussion of an event, focused

on performance standards, that allows participants to discover for themselves what happened, why it happened, and how to sustain

strengths and improve on weaknesses. Chapter

5 discusses AARs.) The motor sergeant is selfconfident enough to ask subordinates for their

ideas on how to make things work better (always a key goal). He then acts based on his own

and team members’ observations. The motor

sergeant looks for strong areas to sustain and

praises team members as appropriate; however

if the motor sergeant saw the team members

spend too much time on some tasks and not

enough on others, he changes the section standing operating procedures (SOP) or counsels the

people involved. (Developmental counseling is

not an adverse action; it is a skill you use to help

your subordinates become better team members, improve performance, and prepare for the

future. Counseling should address strong areas

as well as weak ones and successes as well as

failures. Appendix C discusses developmental

counseling.) If the motor sergeant discovers

gaps in individual or collective skills, he plans

and conducts the training necessary to fill

them. If something the motor sergeant did or a

decision he made didn’t turn out quite right, he

will not make the same error again. More than

that, the motor sergeant lets his people know

what went wrong, finds out their impressions of

why it happened, and determines how they will

make it work next time.

1-20. By doing these things, the motor sergeant

is creating a better organization, one that will

work smarter the next time. His example sends

an important message. The soldiers see their

leader look at his own and the organization’s

performance, evaluate it, identify strong areas

to sustain as well as mistakes and shortcomings, and commit to a better way of doing

things. These actions are more powerful than

any lecture on leadership.

BE, KNOW, DO

1-21. BE, KNOW, DO clearly and concisely

state the characteristics of an Army leader.

You have just read about leader actions, the

DO of BE, KNOW, DO. Leadership is about

taking action, but there’s more to being a

leader than just what you do. Character and

competence, the BE and the KNOW, underlie

everything a leader does. So becoming a

leader involves developing all aspects of

yourself. This includes adopting and living

Army values. It means developing the attributes and learning the skills of an Army

leader. Only by this self-development will

you become a confident and competent

leader of character. Being an Army leader is

not easy. There are no cookie-cutter solutions to leadership challenges, and there are

no shortcuts to success. However, the tools

are available to every leader. It is up to you to

master and use them.

BE

1-22. Character describes a person’s inner

strength, the BE of BE, KNOW, DO. Your

character helps you know what is right;

more than that, it links that knowledge to

action. Character gives you the courage to

do what is right regardless of the circumstances or the consequences. (Appendix E

discusses character development.)

1-23. You demonstrate character through

your behavior. One of your key responsibilities as a leader is to teach Army values to

your subordinates. The old saying that actions speak louder than words has never

been more true than here. Leaders who talk

about honor, loyalty, and selfless service but

do not live these values—both on and off

duty—send the wrong message, that this

“values stuff” is all just talk.

1-24. Understanding Army values and

leader attributes (which Chapter 2 discusses) is only the first step. You also must

embrace Army values and develop leader attributes, living them until they become

habit. You must teach Army values to your

subordinates through action and example

and help them develop leader attributes in

themselves.

 

	 

 		 	
KNOW

1-25. A leader must have a certain level of

knowledge to be competent. That knowledge

is spread across four skill domains. You must

develop interpersonal skills, knowledge of

your people and how to work with them. You

must have conceptual skills, the ability to

understand and apply the doctrine and other

ideas required to do your job. You must learn

technical skills, how to use your equipment. Finally, warrior leaders must master

tactical skills, the ability to make the right

decisions concerning employment of units in

combat. Tactical skills include mastery of the

art of tactics appropriate to the leader’s level

of responsibility and unit type. They’re amplified by the other skills—interpersonal,

conceptual, and technical—and are the most

important skills for warfighters. (FM 100-40

discusses the art of tactics.)

1-26. Mastery of different skills in these

domains is essential to the Army’s success in

peace and war. But a true leader is not

satisfied with knowing only how to do what

will get the organization through today; you

must also be concerned about what it will

need tomorrow. You must strive to master

your job and prepare to take over your boss’s

job. In addition, as you move to jobs of increasing responsibility, you’ll face new

equipment, new ideas, and new ways of

thinking and doing things. You must learn to

apply all these to accomplish your mission.

1-27. Army schools teach you basic job skills,

but they are only part of the learning picture.

You’ll learn even more on the job. Good

leaders add to their knowledge and skills

every day. True leaders seek out opportunities; they’re always looking for ways to increase their professional knowledge and

skills. Dedicated squad leaders jump at the

chance to fill in as acting platoon sergeant,

not because they’ve mastered the platoon

sergeant’s job but because they know the

best place to learn about it is in the thick of

the action. Those squad leaders challenge

themselves and will learn through doing;

what’s more, with coaching, they’ll learn as

much from their mistakes as from their

successes.

DO

1-28. You read about leader actions, the DO of

Army leadership doctrine, at the beginning of

this chapter. Leader actions include—

 Influencing: making decisions, communicating those decisions, and motivating

people.

 Operating: the things you do to

accomplish your organization’s immediate

mission.

 Improving: the things you do to increase

the organization’s capability to accomplish

current or future missions.

1-29. Earlier in this chapter, you read about a

motor sergeant who lives Army values, has developed leader attributes, and routinely performs leader actions. But that was an example,

and a garrison example at that. What about reality? What about combat? Trained soldiers

know what they are supposed to do, but under

stress, their instincts might tell them to do

something different. The exhausted, hungry,

cold, wet, disoriented, and frightened soldier is

more likely to do the wrong thing—stop moving, lie down, retreat—than one not under that

kind of stress. This is when the leader must step

in—when things are falling apart, when there

seems to be no hope—and get the job done.

1-30. The fight between the 20th Regiment of

Maine Volunteers and the 15th and 47th Regiments of Alabama Infantry during the Civil

War illustrates what can happen when a leader

acts decisively. It shows how the actions of one

leader, in a situation that looked hopeless, not

only saved his unit, but allowed the entire Union Army to maintain its position and defeat the

Confederate invasion of Pennsylvania. The story’s hero is a colonel—but it could have been a

captain, or a sergeant, or a corporal. At other

times and in other places it has been.

 	
 


  
 

	 

 		 	

COL Chamberlain at Gettysburg

In late June 1863 GEN Robert E. Lee’s Army of Northern Virginia passed through western

Maryland and invaded Pennsylvania. For five days, the Army of the Potomac hurried to get between

the Confederates and the national capital. On 1 July the 20th Maine received word to press on to

Gettysburg. The Union Army had engaged the Confederates there, and Union commanders were

hurrying all available forces to the hills south of the little town.

The 20th Maine arrived at Gettysburg near midday on 2 July, after marching more than one

hundred miles in five days. They had had only two hours sleep and no hot food during the previous 24

hours. The regiment was preparing to go into a defensive position as part of the brigade commanded

by COL Strong Vincent when a staff officer rode up to COL Vincent and began gesturing towards a

little hill at the extreme southern end of the Union line. The hill, Little Round Top, dominated the Union

position and, at that moment, was unoccupied. If the Confederates placed artillery on it, they could

force the entire Union Army to withdraw. The hill had been left unprotected through a series of

mistakes—wrong assumptions, the failure to communicate clearly, and the failure to check—and the

situation was critical.

Realizing the danger, COL Vincent ordered his brigade to occupy Little Round Top. He positioned

the 20th Maine, commanded by COL Joshua L. Chamberlain, on his brigade’s left flank, the extreme

left of the Union line. COL Vincent told COL Chamberlain to “hold at all hazards.”

On Little Round Top, COL Chamberlain told his company commanders the purpose and

importance of their mission. He ordered the right flank company to tie in with the 83d Pennsylvania

and the left flank company to anchor on a large boulder. His thoughts turned to his left flank. There was

nothing there except a small hollow and the rising slope of Big Round Top. The 20th Maine was

literally at the end of the line.

COL Chamberlain then showed a skill common to good tactical leaders. He imagined threats to

his unit, did what he could to guard against them, and considered what he would do to meet other

possible threats. Since his left flank was open, COL Chamberlain sent B Company, commanded by

CPT Walter G. Morrill, off to guard it and “act as the necessities of battle required.” The captain

positioned his men behind a stone wall that would face the flank of any Confederate advance. There,

fourteen soldiers from the 2d US Sharpshooters, who had been separated from their unit, joined

them.

The 20th Maine had been in position only a few minutes when the soldiers of the 15th and 47th

Alabama attacked. The Confederates had also marched all night and were tired and thirsty. Even so,

they attacked ferociously.

The Maine men held their ground, but then one of COL Chamberlain’s officers reported seeing a

large body of Confederate soldiers moving laterally behind the attacking force. COL Chamberlain

climbed on a rock—exposing himself to enemy fire—and saw a Confederate unit moving around his

exposed left flank. If they outflanked him, his unit would be pushed off its position and destroyed. He

would have failed his mission.

COL Chamberlain had to think fast. The tactical manuals he had so diligently studied called for a

maneuver that would not work on this terrain. The colonel had to create a new maneuver, one that his

soldiers could execute, and execute now.

The 20th Maine was in a defensive line, two ranks deep. It was threatened by an attack around its left

flank. So the colonel ordered his company commanders to stretch the line to the left and bend it back to

form an angle, concealing the maneuver by keeping up a steady rate of fire. The corner of the angle would

be the large boulder he had pointed out earlier. The sidestep maneuver was tricky, but it was a

combination of other battle drills his soldiers knew. In spite of the terrible noise that made voice

commands useless, in spite of the blinding smoke, the cries of the wounded, and the continuing

Confederate attack, the Maine men were able to pull it off. Now COL Chamberlain’s thin line was only
1-31. COL Joshua Chamberlain was awarded

the Medal of Honor for his actions on 2 July

1863. After surviving terrible wounds at

Petersburg, Virginia, he and his command were

chosen to receive the surrender of Confederate

units at Appomattox in April 1865. His actions

there contributed to national reconciliation

and are described in Chapter 7.

PUTTING

IT TOGETHER

1-32. Study the Army leadership framework; it

is the Army’s common basis for thinking about

leadership. With all the day-to-day tasks you

must do, it’s easy to get lost in particulars. The

Army leadership framework is a tool that allows you to step back and think about leadership as a whole. It is a canopy that covers the

hundreds of things you do every day. The Army

leadership framework gives you the big picture

and can help you put your job, your people, and

your organization in perspective.

1-33. The dimensions of the Army leadership

framework shown in Figure 1-1—the values, attributes, skills, and actions that support BE,

KNOW, and DO—each contain components. All

are interrelated; none stands alone. For example, will is very important, as you saw in the

 	
 


  

COL Chamberlain at Gettysburg (continued)

one rank deep. His units, covering twice their normal frontage, were bent back into an L shape.

Minutes after COL Chamberlain repositioned his force, the Confederate infantry, moving up what they

thought was an open flank, were thrown back by the redeployed left wing of the 20th Maine. Surprised

and angry, they nonetheless attacked again.

The Maine men rallied and held; the Confederates regrouped and attacked. “The Alabamians

drove the Maine men from their positions five times. Five times they fought their way back again. At

some places, the muzzles of the opposing guns almost touched.” After these assaults, the Maine men

were down to one or two rounds per man, and the determined Confederates were regrouping for

another try. COL Chamberlain saw that he could not stay where he was and could not withdraw. So he

decided to counterattack. His men would have the advantage of attacking down the steep hill, he

reasoned, and the Confederates would not be expecting it. Clearly he was risking his entire unit, but

the fate of the Union Army depended on his men.

The decision left COL Chamberlain with another problem: there was nothing in the tactics book

about how to get his unit from their L-shaped position into a line of advance. Under tremendous fire

and in the midst of the battle, COL Chamberlain again called his commanders together. He explained

that the regiment’s left wing would swing around “like a barn door on a hinge” until it was even with the

right wing. Then the entire regiment, bayonets fixed, would charge downhill, staying anchored to the

83d Pennsylvania on its right. The explanation was clear and the situation clearly desperate.

When COL Chamberlain gave the order, 1LT Holman Melcher of F Company leaped forward and

led the left wing downhill toward the surprised Confederates. COL Chamberlain had positioned

himself at the boulder at the center of the L. When the left wing was abreast of the right wing, he

jumped off the rock and led the right wing down the hill. The entire regiment was now charging on line,

swinging like a great barn door—just as its commander had intended.

The Alabama soldiers, stunned at the sight of the charging Union troops, fell back on the positions

behind them. There the 20th Maine’s charge might have failed if not for a surprise resulting from COL

Chamberlain’s foresight. Just then CPT Morrill’s B Company and the sharpshooters opened fire on

the Confederate flank and rear. The exhausted and shattered Alabama regiments thought they were

surrounded. They broke and ran, not realizing that one more attack would have carried the hill.

The slopes of Little Round Top were littered with bodies. Saplings halfway up the hill had been

sawed in half by weapons fire. A third of the 20th Maine had fallen, 130 men out of 386. Nonetheless,

the farmers, woodsmen, and fishermen from Maine—under the command of a brave and creative

leader who had anticipated enemy actions, improvised under fire, and applied disciplined initiative in

the heat of battle—had fought through to victory.
case of COL Chamberlain. It’s discussed in

Chapter 2 under mental attributes. Yet will

cannot stand by itself. Left unchecked and

without moral boundaries, will can be dangerous. The case of Adolf Hitler shows this fact.

Will misapplied can also produce disastrous results. Early in World War I, French forces attacked German machine gun positions across

open fields, believing their élan (unit morale

and will to win) would overcome a technologically advanced weapon. The cost in lives was

catastrophic. Nevertheless, the will of leaders of

character and competence—like the small unit

leaders at Normandy that you’ll read about

later in this chapter—can make the difference

between victory and defeat.

1-34. This is how you should think about the

Army leadership framework: all its pieces work

in combination to produce something bigger

and better than the sum of the parts. BE the

leader of character: embrace Army values and

demonstrate leader attributes. Study and practice so that you have the skills to KNOW your

job. Then act, DO what’s right to achieve

excellence.

1-35. The Army leadership framework applies

to all Army leaders. However, as you assume

positions of increasing responsibility, you’ll

need to develop additional attributes and

master more skills and actions. Part of this

knowledge includes understanding what your

bosses are doing—the factors that affect their

decisions and the environment in which they

work. To help you do this, Army leadership positions are divided into three levels—direct, organizational, and strategic.

LEVELS OF LEADERSHIP

NCOs like to make a decision right away and move on to the next thing...so the higher up the

flagpole you go, the more you have to learn a very different style of leadership.

 	
  
	  


 

  

1-36. Figure 1-2 shows the perspectives of the

three levels of Army leadership: direct, organizational, and strategic. Factors that determine

a position’s leadership level can include the position’s span of control, its headquarters level,

and the extent of the influence the leader holding the position exerts. Other factors include

the size of the unit or organization, the type of

operations it conducts, the number of people assigned, and its planning horizon.

 

 	
 

 



case of COL Chamberlain. It’s discussed in

Chapter 2 under mental attributes. Yet will

cannot stand by itself. Left unchecked and

without moral boundaries, will can be dangerous. The case of Adolf Hitler shows this fact.

Will misapplied can also produce disastrous results. Early in World War I, French forces attacked German machine gun positions across

open fields, believing their élan (unit morale

and will to win) would overcome a technologically advanced weapon. The cost in lives was

catastrophic. Nevertheless, the will of leaders of

character and competence—like the small unit

leaders at Normandy that you’ll read about

later in this chapter—can make the difference

between victory and defeat.

1-34. This is how you should think about the

Army leadership framework: all its pieces work

in combination to produce something bigger

and better than the sum of the parts. BE the

leader of character: embrace Army values and

demonstrate leader attributes. Study and practice so that you have the skills to KNOW your

job. Then act, DO what’s right to achieve

excellence.

1-35. The Army leadership framework applies

to all Army leaders. However, as you assume

positions of increasing responsibility, you’ll

need to develop additional attributes and

master more skills and actions. Part of this

knowledge includes understanding what your

bosses are doing—the factors that affect their

decisions and the environment in which they

work. To help you do this, Army leadership positions are divided into three levels—direct, organizational, and strategic.

LEVELS OF LEADERSHIP

NCOs like to make a decision right away and move on to the next thing...so the higher up the

flagpole you go, the more you have to learn a very different style of leadership.

 	
  
	  


 

  

1-36. Figure 1-2 shows the perspectives of the

three levels of Army leadership: direct, organizational, and strategic. Factors that determine

a position’s leadership level can include the position’s span of control, its headquarters level,

and the extent of the influence the leader holding the position exerts. Other factors include

the size of the unit or organization, the type of

operations it conducts, the number of people assigned, and its planning horizon.

Figure 1-2. Army Leadership Levels
1-37. Sometimes the rank or grade of the

leader holding a position does not indicate the

position’s leadership level. That’s why Figure

1-2 does not show rank. A sergeant first class

serving as a platoon sergeant works at the

direct leadership level. If the same NCO holds a

headquarters job dealing with issues and policy

affecting a brigade-sized or larger organization,

the NCO works at the organizational leadership level. However, if the NCO’s primary duty

is running a staff section that supports the leaders who run the organization, the NCO is a direct leader. In fact, most leadership positions

are direct leadership positions, and every leader

at every level acts as a direct leader when dealing with immediate subordinates.

1-38. The headquarters echelon alone

doesn’t determine a position’s leadership

level. Soldiers and DA civilians of all ranks

and grades serve in strategic-level headquarters, but they are not all strategic-level leaders. The responsibilities of a duty position,

together with the other factors paragraph

1-36 lists, determine its leadership level. For

example, a DA civilian at a training area

range control with a dozen subordinates

works at the direct leadership level while a

DA civilian deputy garrison commander with

a span of influence over several thousand

people works at the organizational leadership

level. Most NCOs, company grade officers,

field grade officers, and DA civilian leaders

serve at the direct leadership level. Some senior NCOs, field grade officers, and highergrade DA civilians serve at the organizational

leadership level. Most general officers and

equivalent Senior Executive Service DA civilians serve at the organizational or strategic

leadership levels.

DIRECT LEADERSHIP

1-39. Direct leadership is face-to-face, first-line

leadership. It takes place in those organizations

where subordinates are used to seeing their

leaders all the time: teams and squads, sections

and platoons, companies, batteries, and

troops—even squadrons and battalions. The direct leader’s span of influence, those whose

lives he can reach out and touch, may range

from a handful to several hundred people.

1-40. Direct leaders develop their subordinates

one-on-one; however, they also influence their

organization through their subordinates. For

instance, a cavalry squadron commander is

close enough to his soldiers to have a direct influence on them. They’re used to seeing him

regularly, even if it is only once a week in garrison; they expect to see him from time to time in

the field. Still, during daily operations, the commander guides the organization primarily

through his subordinate officers and NCOs.

1-41. For direct leaders there is more certainty

and less complexity than for organizational and

strategic leaders. Direct leaders are close

enough to see—very quickly—how things work,

how things don’t work, and how to address any

problems. (Chapter 4 discusses direct leader

skills. Chapter 5 discusses direct leader actions.)

ORGANIZATIONAL LEADERSHIP

1-42. Organizational leaders influence several

hundred to several thousand people. They do

this indirectly, generally through more levels of

subordinates than do direct leaders. The additional levels of subordinates can make it more

difficult for them to see results. Organizational

leaders have staffs to help them lead their people and manage their organizations’ resources.

They establish policies and the organizational

climate that support their subordinate leaders.

(Chapter 3 introduces climate and culture and

explains the role of direct leaders in setting the

organizational climate. Chapters 6 and 7 discuss the roles of organizational and strategic

leaders in establishing and maintaining the organizational climate and institutional culture.)

1-43. Organizational leadership skills differ

from direct leadership skills in degree, but not

in kind. That is, the skill domains are the same,

but organizational leaders must deal with more

complexity, more people, greater uncertainty,

and a greater number of unintended consequences. They find themselves influencing people more through policymaking and systems

integration than through face-to-face contact.

1-44. Organizational leaders include military

leaders at the brigade through corps levels,

military and DA civilian leaders at directorate

 	
 


  	


1-37. Sometimes the rank or grade of the

leader holding a position does not indicate the

position’s leadership level. That’s why Figure

1-2 does not show rank. A sergeant first class

serving as a platoon sergeant works at the

direct leadership level. If the same NCO holds a

headquarters job dealing with issues and policy

affecting a brigade-sized or larger organization,

the NCO works at the organizational leadership level. However, if the NCO’s primary duty

is running a staff section that supports the leaders who run the organization, the NCO is a direct leader. In fact, most leadership positions

are direct leadership positions, and every leader

at every level acts as a direct leader when dealing with immediate subordinates.

1-38. The headquarters echelon alone

doesn’t determine a position’s leadership

level. Soldiers and DA civilians of all ranks

and grades serve in strategic-level headquarters, but they are not all strategic-level leaders. The responsibilities of a duty position,

together with the other factors paragraph

1-36 lists, determine its leadership level. For

example, a DA civilian at a training area

range control with a dozen subordinates

works at the direct leadership level while a

DA civilian deputy garrison commander with

a span of influence over several thousand

people works at the organizational leadership

level. Most NCOs, company grade officers,

field grade officers, and DA civilian leaders

serve at the direct leadership level. Some senior NCOs, field grade officers, and highergrade DA civilians serve at the organizational

leadership level. Most general officers and

equivalent Senior Executive Service DA civilians serve at the organizational or strategic

leadership levels.

DIRECT LEADERSHIP

1-39. Direct leadership is face-to-face, first-line

leadership. It takes place in those organizations

where subordinates are used to seeing their

leaders all the time: teams and squads, sections

and platoons, companies, batteries, and

troops—even squadrons and battalions. The direct leader’s span of influence, those whose

lives he can reach out and touch, may range

from a handful to several hundred people.

1-40. Direct leaders develop their subordinates

one-on-one; however, they also influence their

organization through their subordinates. For

instance, a cavalry squadron commander is

close enough to his soldiers to have a direct influence on them. They’re used to seeing him

regularly, even if it is only once a week in garrison; they expect to see him from time to time in

the field. Still, during daily operations, the commander guides the organization primarily

through his subordinate officers and NCOs.

1-41. For direct leaders there is more certainty

and less complexity than for organizational and

strategic leaders. Direct leaders are close

enough to see—very quickly—how things work,

how things don’t work, and how to address any

problems. (Chapter 4 discusses direct leader

skills. Chapter 5 discusses direct leader actions.)

ORGANIZATIONAL LEADERSHIP

1-42. Organizational leaders influence several

hundred to several thousand people. They do

this indirectly, generally through more levels of

subordinates than do direct leaders. The additional levels of subordinates can make it more

difficult for them to see results. Organizational

leaders have staffs to help them lead their people and manage their organizations’ resources.

They establish policies and the organizational

climate that support their subordinate leaders.

(Chapter 3 introduces climate and culture and

explains the role of direct leaders in setting the

organizational climate. Chapters 6 and 7 discuss the roles of organizational and strategic

leaders in establishing and maintaining the organizational climate and institutional culture.)

1-43. Organizational leadership skills differ

from direct leadership skills in degree, but not

in kind. That is, the skill domains are the same,

but organizational leaders must deal with more

complexity, more people, greater uncertainty,

and a greater number of unintended consequences. They find themselves influencing people more through policymaking and systems

integration than through face-to-face contact.

1-44. Organizational leaders include military

leaders at the brigade through corps levels,

military and DA civilian leaders at directorate
through installation levels, and DA civilians at

the assistant through undersecretary of the

Army levels. They focus on planning and

mission accomplishment over the next two to

ten years.

1-45. Getting out of their offices and visiting

the parts of their organizations where the work

is done is especially important for organizational leaders. They must make time to get to

the field to compare the reports their staff gives

them with the actual conditions their people

face and the perceptions of the organization

and mission they hold. Because of their lessfrequent presence among their soldiers and DA

civilians, organizational leaders must use those

visits they are able to make to assess how well

the commander’s intent is understood and to

reinforce the organization’s priorities.

STRATEGIC LEADERSHIP

1-46. Strategic leaders include military and DA

civilian leaders at the major command through

Department of Defense levels. Strategic leaders

are responsible for large organizations and influence several thousand to hundreds of thousands of people. They establish force structure,

allocate resources, communicate strategic vision, and prepare their commands and the

Army as a whole for their future roles.

1-47. Strategic leaders work in an uncertain

environment on highly complex problems that

affect and are affected by events and organizations outside the Army. Actions of a theater

commander in chief (CINC), for example, may

even have an impact on global politics. (CINCs

command combatant commands, very large,

joint organizations assigned broad, continuing

missions. Theater CINCs are assigned responsibilities for a geographic area (a theater); for

example, the CINC of the US Central Command is responsible for most of southwestern

Asia and part of eastern Africa. Functional

CINCs are assigned responsibilities not

bounded by geography; for example, the CINC

of the US Transportation Command is responsible for providing integrated land, sea, and air

transportation to all services. (JP 0-2, JP 3-0,

and FM 100-7 discuss combatant commands.)

Although civilian leaders make national policy,

decisions a CINC makes while carrying out that

policy may affect whether or not a national objective is achieved. Strategic leaders apply

many of the same leadership skills and actions

they mastered as direct and organizational

leaders; however, strategic leadership requires

others that are more complex and indirectly

applied.

1-48. Strategic leaders concern themselves

with the total environment in which the Army

functions; their decisions take into account

such things as congressional hearings, Army

budgetary constraints, new systems acquisition, civilian programs, research, development,

and interservice cooperation—just to name a

few.

1-49. Strategic leaders, like direct and

organizational leaders, process information

quickly, assess alternatives based on incomplete data, make decisions, and generate support. However, strategic leaders’ decisions

affect more people, commit more resources, and

have wider-ranging consequences in both space

and time than do decisions of organizational

and direct leaders.

1-50. Strategic leaders often do not see their

ideas come to fruition during their “watch”;

their initiatives may take years to plan,

prepare, and execute. In-process reviews (IPRs)

might not even begin until after the leader has

left the job. This has important implications for

long-range planning. On the other hand, some

strategic decisions may become a front-page

headline of the next morning’s newspaper.

Strategic leaders have very few opportunities to

visit the lowest-level organizations of their

commands; thus, their sense of when and where

to visit is crucial. Because they exert influence

primarily through subordinates, strategic leaders must develop strong skills in picking and developing good ones. This is an important

improving skill, which Chapter 7 discusses.

 

 	
 

 



through installation levels, and DA civilians at

the assistant through undersecretary of the

Army levels. They focus on planning and

mission accomplishment over the next two to

ten years.

1-45. Getting out of their offices and visiting

the parts of their organizations where the work

is done is especially important for organizational leaders. They must make time to get to

the field to compare the reports their staff gives

them with the actual conditions their people

face and the perceptions of the organization

and mission they hold. Because of their lessfrequent presence among their soldiers and DA

civilians, organizational leaders must use those

visits they are able to make to assess how well

the commander’s intent is understood and to

reinforce the organization’s priorities.

STRATEGIC LEADERSHIP

1-46. Strategic leaders include military and DA

civilian leaders at the major command through

Department of Defense levels. Strategic leaders

are responsible for large organizations and influence several thousand to hundreds of thousands of people. They establish force structure,

allocate resources, communicate strategic vision, and prepare their commands and the

Army as a whole for their future roles.

1-47. Strategic leaders work in an uncertain

environment on highly complex problems that

affect and are affected by events and organizations outside the Army. Actions of a theater

commander in chief (CINC), for example, may

even have an impact on global politics. (CINCs

command combatant commands, very large,

joint organizations assigned broad, continuing

missions. Theater CINCs are assigned responsibilities for a geographic area (a theater); for

example, the CINC of the US Central Command is responsible for most of southwestern

Asia and part of eastern Africa. Functional

CINCs are assigned responsibilities not

bounded by geography; for example, the CINC

of the US Transportation Command is responsible for providing integrated land, sea, and air

transportation to all services. (JP 0-2, JP 3-0,

and FM 100-7 discuss combatant commands.)

Although civilian leaders make national policy,

decisions a CINC makes while carrying out that

policy may affect whether or not a national objective is achieved. Strategic leaders apply

many of the same leadership skills and actions

they mastered as direct and organizational

leaders; however, strategic leadership requires

others that are more complex and indirectly

applied.

1-48. Strategic leaders concern themselves

with the total environment in which the Army

functions; their decisions take into account

such things as congressional hearings, Army

budgetary constraints, new systems acquisition, civilian programs, research, development,

and interservice cooperation—just to name a

few.

1-49. Strategic leaders, like direct and

organizational leaders, process information

quickly, assess alternatives based on incomplete data, make decisions, and generate support. However, strategic leaders’ decisions

affect more people, commit more resources, and

have wider-ranging consequences in both space

and time than do decisions of organizational

and direct leaders.

1-50. Strategic leaders often do not see their

ideas come to fruition during their “watch”;

their initiatives may take years to plan,

prepare, and execute. In-process reviews (IPRs)

might not even begin until after the leader has

left the job. This has important implications for

long-range planning. On the other hand, some

strategic decisions may become a front-page

headline of the next morning’s newspaper.

Strategic leaders have very few opportunities to

visit the lowest-level organizations of their

commands; thus, their sense of when and where

to visit is crucial. Because they exert influence

primarily through subordinates, strategic leaders must develop strong skills in picking and developing good ones. This is an important

improving skill, which Chapter 7 discusses.
LEADERS OF LEADERS

More than anything else, I had confidence in my soldiers, junior leaders, and staff. They were

trained, and I knew they would carry the fight to the enemy. I trusted them, and they knew I

trusted them. I think in Just Cause, which was a company commander’s war, being a

decentralized commander paid big dividends because I wasn’t in the knickers of my company

commanders all the time. I gave them the mission and let them do it. I couldn’t do it for them.

  		

   

	
 

1-51. At any level, anyone responsible for supervising people or accomplishing a mission

that involves other people is a leader. Anyone

who influences others, motivating them to action or influencing their thinking or decision

making, is a leader. It’s not a function only of

position; it’s also a function of role. In addition, everyone in the Army—including every

leader—fits somewhere in a chain of command. Everyone in the Army is also a follower

or subordinate. There are, obviously, many

leaders in an organization, and it’s important

to understand that you don’t just lead subordinates—you lead other leaders. Even at the lowest level, you are a leader of leaders.

1-52. For example, a rifle company has four

leadership levels: the company commander

leads through platoon leaders, the platoon

leaders through squad leaders, and the squad

leaders through team leaders. At each level,

the leader must let subordinate leaders do

their jobs. Practicing this kind of decentralized

execution based on mission orders in peacetime trains subordinates who will, in battle,

exercise disciplined initiative in the absence of

orders. They’ll continue to fight when the radios are jammed, when the plan falls apart,

when the enemy does something unexpected.

(Appendix A discusses leader roles and relationships. FM 100-34 discusses mission orders

and initiative.)

1-53. This decentralization does not mean that

a commander never steps in and takes direct

control. There will be times when a leader has

to stop leading through subordinates, step forward, and say, “Follow me!” A situation like

this may occur in combat, when things are falling apart and, like BG Thomas J. Jackson,

you’ll need to “stand like a stone wall” and

save victory. (You’ll read about BG Jackson in

Chapter 2.) Or it may occur during training,

when a subordinate is about to make a mistake

that could result in serious injury or death and

you must act to prevent disaster.

1-54. More often, however, you should

empower your subordinate leaders: give them

a task, delegate the necessary authority, and

let them do the work. Of course you need to

check periodically. How else will you be able to

critique, coach, and evaluate them? But the

point is to “power down without powering off.”

Give your subordinate leaders the authority

they need to get the job done. Then check on

them frequently enough to keep track of what

is going on but not so often that you get in their

way. You can develop this skill through

experience.

1-55. It takes personal courage to operate this

way. But a leader must let subordinate leaders

learn by doing. Is there a risk that, for instance,

a squad leader—especially an inexperienced

one—will make mistakes? Of course there is.

But if your subordinate leaders are to grow, you

must let them take risks. This means you must

let go of some control and let your subordinate

leaders do things on their own—within bounds

established by mission orders and your expressed intent.

1-56. A company commander who routinely

steps in and gives orders directly to squad leaders weakens the whole chain of command, denies squad leaders valuable learning

experiences, and sends a signal to the whole

company that the chain of command and NCO

support channel can be bypassed at any time.

On the other hand, successful accomplishment

of specified and implied missions results from

subordinate leaders at all levels exercising

 	
 


  

LEADERS OF LEADERS

More than anything else, I had confidence in my soldiers, junior leaders, and staff. They were

trained, and I knew they would carry the fight to the enemy. I trusted them, and they knew I

trusted them. I think in Just Cause, which was a company commander’s war, being a

decentralized commander paid big dividends because I wasn’t in the knickers of my company

commanders all the time. I gave them the mission and let them do it. I couldn’t do it for them.

  		

   

	
 

1-51. At any level, anyone responsible for supervising people or accomplishing a mission

that involves other people is a leader. Anyone

who influences others, motivating them to action or influencing their thinking or decision

making, is a leader. It’s not a function only of

position; it’s also a function of role. In addition, everyone in the Army—including every

leader—fits somewhere in a chain of command. Everyone in the Army is also a follower

or subordinate. There are, obviously, many

leaders in an organization, and it’s important

to understand that you don’t just lead subordinates—you lead other leaders. Even at the lowest level, you are a leader of leaders.

1-52. For example, a rifle company has four

leadership levels: the company commander

leads through platoon leaders, the platoon

leaders through squad leaders, and the squad

leaders through team leaders. At each level,

the leader must let subordinate leaders do

their jobs. Practicing this kind of decentralized

execution based on mission orders in peacetime trains subordinates who will, in battle,

exercise disciplined initiative in the absence of

orders. They’ll continue to fight when the radios are jammed, when the plan falls apart,

when the enemy does something unexpected.

(Appendix A discusses leader roles and relationships. FM 100-34 discusses mission orders

and initiative.)

1-53. This decentralization does not mean that

a commander never steps in and takes direct

control. There will be times when a leader has

to stop leading through subordinates, step forward, and say, “Follow me!” A situation like

this may occur in combat, when things are falling apart and, like BG Thomas J. Jackson,

you’ll need to “stand like a stone wall” and

save victory. (You’ll read about BG Jackson in

Chapter 2.) Or it may occur during training,

when a subordinate is about to make a mistake

that could result in serious injury or death and

you must act to prevent disaster.

1-54. More often, however, you should

empower your subordinate leaders: give them

a task, delegate the necessary authority, and

let them do the work. Of course you need to

check periodically. How else will you be able to

critique, coach, and evaluate them? But the

point is to “power down without powering off.”

Give your subordinate leaders the authority

they need to get the job done. Then check on

them frequently enough to keep track of what

is going on but not so often that you get in their

way. You can develop this skill through

experience.

1-55. It takes personal courage to operate this

way. But a leader must let subordinate leaders

learn by doing. Is there a risk that, for instance,

a squad leader—especially an inexperienced

one—will make mistakes? Of course there is.

But if your subordinate leaders are to grow, you

must let them take risks. This means you must

let go of some control and let your subordinate

leaders do things on their own—within bounds

established by mission orders and your expressed intent.

1-56. A company commander who routinely

steps in and gives orders directly to squad leaders weakens the whole chain of command, denies squad leaders valuable learning

experiences, and sends a signal to the whole

company that the chain of command and NCO

support channel can be bypassed at any time.

On the other hand, successful accomplishment

of specified and implied missions results from

subordinate leaders at all levels exercising
disciplined initiative within the commander’s

intent. Effective leaders strive to create an environment of trust and understanding that encourages their subordinates to seize the

initiative and act. (Appendix A discusses authority, the chain of command, and the NCO support

channel. FM 100-34 contains information about

building trust up and down the chain of command.)

1-57. Weak leaders who have not trained their

subordinates sometimes say, “My organization

can’t do it without me.” Many people, used to

being at the center of the action, begin to feel as

if they’re indispensable. You have heard them:

“I can’t take a day off. I have to be here all the

time. I must watch my subordinates’ every

move, or who knows what will happen?” But no

one is irreplaceable. The Army is not going to

stop functioning because one leader—no matter how senior, no matter how central—steps

aside. In combat, the loss of a leader is a shock

to a unit, but the unit must continue its mission. If leaders train their subordinates properly, one of them will take charge.

1-58. Strong commanders—those with personal courage—realize their subordinate leaders need room to work. This doesn’t mean that

you should let your subordinates make the

same mistake over and over. Part of your responsibility as a leader is to help your subordinates succeed. You can achieve this through

empowering and coaching. Train your subordinates to plan, prepare, execute, and assess well

enough to operate independently. Provide sufficient purpose, direction, and motivation for

them to operate in support of the overall plan.

1-59. Finally, check and make corrections.

Take time to help your subordinates sort out

what happened and why. Conduct AARs so your

people don’t just make mistakes, but learn from

them. There is not a soldier out there, from private to general, who has not slipped up from

time to time. Good soldiers, and especially good

leaders, learn from those mistakes. Good leaders help their subordinates grow by teaching,

coaching, and counseling.

LEADERSHIP AND COMMAND

When you are commanding, leading [soldiers] under conditions where physical exhaustion

and privations must be ignored, where the lives of [soldiers] may be sacrificed, then, the

efficiency of your leadership will depend only to a minor degree on your tactical ability. It will

primarily be determined by your character, your reputation, not much for courage—which

will be accepted as a matter of course—but by the previous reputation you have established for

fairness, for that high-minded patriotic purpose, that quality of unswerving determination to

carry through any military task assigned to you.

  	 
 
  	


     

 

	 

 		 	

disciplined initiative within the commander’s

intent. Effective leaders strive to create an environment of trust and understanding that encourages their subordinates to seize the

initiative and act. (Appendix A discusses authority, the chain of command, and the NCO support

channel. FM 100-34 contains information about

building trust up and down the chain of command.)

1-57. Weak leaders who have not trained their

subordinates sometimes say, “My organization

can’t do it without me.” Many people, used to

being at the center of the action, begin to feel as

if they’re indispensable. You have heard them:

“I can’t take a day off. I have to be here all the

time. I must watch my subordinates’ every

move, or who knows what will happen?” But no

one is irreplaceable. The Army is not going to

stop functioning because one leader—no matter how senior, no matter how central—steps

aside. In combat, the loss of a leader is a shock

to a unit, but the unit must continue its mission. If leaders train their subordinates properly, one of them will take charge.

1-58. Strong commanders—those with personal courage—realize their subordinate leaders need room to work. This doesn’t mean that

you should let your subordinates make the

same mistake over and over. Part of your responsibility as a leader is to help your subordinates succeed. You can achieve this through

empowering and coaching. Train your subordinates to plan, prepare, execute, and assess well

enough to operate independently. Provide sufficient purpose, direction, and motivation for

them to operate in support of the overall plan.

1-59. Finally, check and make corrections.

Take time to help your subordinates sort out

what happened and why. Conduct AARs so your

people don’t just make mistakes, but learn from

them. There is not a soldier out there, from private to general, who has not slipped up from

time to time. Good soldiers, and especially good

leaders, learn from those mistakes. Good leaders help their subordinates grow by teaching,

coaching, and counseling.

LEADERSHIP AND COMMAND

When you are commanding, leading [soldiers] under conditions where physical exhaustion

and privations must be ignored, where the lives of [soldiers] may be sacrificed, then, the

efficiency of your leadership will depend only to a minor degree on your tactical ability. It will

primarily be determined by your character, your reputation, not much for courage—which

will be accepted as a matter of course—but by the previous reputation you have established for

fairness, for that high-minded patriotic purpose, that quality of unswerving determination to

carry through any military task assigned to you.

  	 
 
  	


     

1-60. Command is a specific and legal position

unique to the military. It’s where the buck

stops. Like all leaders, commanders are

responsible for the success of their organizations, but commanders have special accountability to their superiors, the institution, and

the nation. Commanders must think deeply

and creatively, for their concerns encompass

yesterday’s heritage, today’s mission, and tomorrow’s force. To maintain their balance

among all the demands on them, they must exemplify Army values. The nation, as well as the

members of the Army, hold commanders accountable for accomplishing the mission, keeping the institution sound, and caring for its

people.
SUBORDINATES

To our subordinates we owe everything we are or hope to be. For it is our subordinates, not our

superiors, who raise us to the dizziest of professional heights, and it is our subordinates who

can and will, if we deserve it, bury us in the deepest mire of disgrace. When the chips are down

and our subordinates have accepted us as their leader, we don’t need any superior to tell us; we

see it in their eyes and in their faces, in the barracks, on the field, and on the battle line. And on

that final day when we must be ruthlessly demanding, cruel and heartless, they will rise as

one to do our bidding, knowing full well that it may be their last act in this life.

 	
 
 

 


 

1-62. No one is only a leader; each of you is also

a subordinate, and all members of the Army

are part of a team. A technical supervisor leading a team of DA civilian specialists, for instance, isn’t just the leader of that group. The

team chief also works for someone else, and the

team has a place in a larger organization.

1-63. Part of being a good subordinate is

supporting your chain of command. And it’s

your responsibility to make sure your team

supports the larger organization. Consider a

leader whose team is responsible for handling

the pay administration of a large organization.

The chief knows that when the team makes a

mistake or falls behind in its work, its

customers—soldiers and DA civilians—pay the

price in terms of late pay actions. One day a

message from the boss introducing a new computer system for handling payroll changes arrives. The team chief looks hard at the new

system and decides it will not work as well as

the old one. The team will spend a lot of time installing the new system, all the while keeping

up with their regular workload. Then they’ll

have to spend more time undoing the work once

the new system fails. And the team chief believes it will fail—all his experience points to

that.

1-64. But the team chief cannot simply say,

“We’ll let these actions pile up; that’ll send a

signal to the commander about just how bad the

new system is and how important we are down

here.” The team does not exist in a vacuum; it’s

part of a larger organization that serves soldiers and DA civilians. For the good of the organization and the people in it, the team chief

must make sure the job gets done.

1-65. Since the team chief disagrees with the

boss’s order and it affects both the team’s

mission and the welfare of its members, the

team chief must tell the boss; he must have

the moral courage to make his opinions

 	
 


	
  

SUBORDINATES

To our subordinates we owe everything we are or hope to be. For it is our subordinates, not our

superiors, who raise us to the dizziest of professional heights, and it is our subordinates who

can and will, if we deserve it, bury us in the deepest mire of disgrace. When the chips are down

and our subordinates have accepted us as their leader, we don’t need any superior to tell us; we

see it in their eyes and in their faces, in the barracks, on the field, and on the battle line. And on

that final day when we must be ruthlessly demanding, cruel and heartless, they will rise as

one to do our bidding, knowing full well that it may be their last act in this life.

 	
 
 

 


 

1-62. No one is only a leader; each of you is also

a subordinate, and all members of the Army

are part of a team. A technical supervisor leading a team of DA civilian specialists, for instance, isn’t just the leader of that group. The

team chief also works for someone else, and the

team has a place in a larger organization.

1-63. Part of being a good subordinate is

supporting your chain of command. And it’s

your responsibility to make sure your team

supports the larger organization. Consider a

leader whose team is responsible for handling

the pay administration of a large organization.

The chief knows that when the team makes a

mistake or falls behind in its work, its

customers—soldiers and DA civilians—pay the

price in terms of late pay actions. One day a

message from the boss introducing a new computer system for handling payroll changes arrives. The team chief looks hard at the new

system and decides it will not work as well as

the old one. The team will spend a lot of time installing the new system, all the while keeping

up with their regular workload. Then they’ll

have to spend more time undoing the work once

the new system fails. And the team chief believes it will fail—all his experience points to

that.

1-64. But the team chief cannot simply say,

“We’ll let these actions pile up; that’ll send a

signal to the commander about just how bad the

new system is and how important we are down

here.” The team does not exist in a vacuum; it’s

part of a larger organization that serves soldiers and DA civilians. For the good of the organization and the people in it, the team chief

must make sure the job gets done.

1-65. Since the team chief disagrees with the

boss’s order and it affects both the team’s

mission and the welfare of its members, the

team chief must tell the boss; he must have

the moral courage to make his opinions

1-61. Command is a sacred trust. The legal and

moral responsibilities of commanders exceed

those of any other leader of similar position or

authority. Nowhere else does a boss have to answer for how subordinates live and what they

do after work. Our society and the institution

look to commanders to make sure that missions

succeed, that people receive the proper training

and care, that values survive. On the one hand,

the nation grants commanders special authority to be good stewards of its most precious resources: freedom and people. On the other

hand, those citizens serving in the Army also

trust their commanders to lead them well.

NCOs probably have a more immediate impact

on their people, but commanders set the

policies that reward superior performance and

personally punish misconduct. It’s no wonder

that organizations take on the personal stamp

of their commanders. Those selected to command offer something beyond their formal

authority: their personal example and public

actions have tremendous moral force. Because

of that powerful aspect of their position, people

inside and outside the Army see a commander

as the human face of “the system”—the person

who embodies the commitment of the Army to

operational readiness and care of its people.
known. Of course, the team chief must also

have the right attitude; disagreement doesn’t

mean it’s okay to be disrespectful. He must

choose the time and place—usually in private—to explain his concerns to the boss fully

and clearly. In addition, the team chief must

go into the meeting knowing that, at some

point, the discussion will be over and he must

execute the boss’s decision, whatever it is.

1-66. Once the boss has listened to all the arguments and made a decision, the team chief must

support that decision as if it were his own. If he

goes to the team and says, “I still don’t think

this is a good idea, but we’re going to do it anyway,” the team chief undermines the chain of

command and teaches his people a bad lesson.

Imagine what it would do to an organization’s

effectiveness if subordinates chose which orders to pursue vigorously and which ones to

half step.

1-67. Such an action would also damage the

team chief himself: in the future the team may

treat his orders as he treated the boss’s. And

there is no great leap between people thinking

their leader is disloyal to the boss to the same

people thinking their leader will be disloyal to

them as well. The good leader executes the

boss’s decision with energy and enthusiasm;

looking at their leader, subordinates will

believe the leader thinks it’s absolutely the best

possible solution. The only exception to this involves your duty to disobey obviously illegal orders. This is not a privilege you can claim, but a

duty you must perform. (Chapter 2 discusses

character and illegal orders. Chapter 4 discusses ethical reasoning.)

1-68. Loyalty to superiors and subordinates

does more than ensure smooth-running peacetime organizations. It prepares units for combat by building soldiers’ trust in leaders and

leaders’ faith in soldiers. The success of the airborne assault prior to the 1944 Normandy invasion is one example of how well-trained

subordinate leaders can make the difference between victory and defeat.

 

	 

 		 	

known. Of course, the team chief must also

have the right attitude; disagreement doesn’t

mean it’s okay to be disrespectful. He must

choose the time and place—usually in private—to explain his concerns to the boss fully

and clearly. In addition, the team chief must

go into the meeting knowing that, at some

point, the discussion will be over and he must

execute the boss’s decision, whatever it is.

1-66. Once the boss has listened to all the arguments and made a decision, the team chief must

support that decision as if it were his own. If he

goes to the team and says, “I still don’t think

this is a good idea, but we’re going to do it anyway,” the team chief undermines the chain of

command and teaches his people a bad lesson.

Imagine what it would do to an organization’s

effectiveness if subordinates chose which orders to pursue vigorously and which ones to

half step.

1-67. Such an action would also damage the

team chief himself: in the future the team may

treat his orders as he treated the boss’s. And

there is no great leap between people thinking

their leader is disloyal to the boss to the same

people thinking their leader will be disloyal to

them as well. The good leader executes the

boss’s decision with energy and enthusiasm;

looking at their leader, subordinates will

believe the leader thinks it’s absolutely the best

possible solution. The only exception to this involves your duty to disobey obviously illegal orders. This is not a privilege you can claim, but a

duty you must perform. (Chapter 2 discusses

character and illegal orders. Chapter 4 discusses ethical reasoning.)

1-68. Loyalty to superiors and subordinates

does more than ensure smooth-running peacetime organizations. It prepares units for combat by building soldiers’ trust in leaders and

leaders’ faith in soldiers. The success of the airborne assault prior to the 1944 Normandy invasion is one example of how well-trained

subordinate leaders can make the difference between victory and defeat.

Small Unit Leaders’ Initiative in Normandy

The amphibious landings in Normandy on D-Day, 1944, were preceded by a corps-sized, night

parachute assault by American and British airborne units. Many of the thousands of aircraft that

delivered the 82d and 101st (US) Airborne Divisions to Normandy on the night of 5-6 June 1944 were

blown off course. Some wound up in the wrong place because of enemy fire; others were simply lost.

Thousands of paratroopers, the spearhead of the Allied invasion of Western Europe, found

themselves scattered across unfamiliar countryside, many of them miles from their drop zones. They

wandered about in the night, searching for their units, their buddies, their leaders, and their

objectives. In those first few hours, the fate of the invasion hung in the balance; if the airborne forces

did not cut the roads leading to the beaches, the Germans could counterattack the landing forces at

the water’s edge, crushing the invasion before it even began.

Fortunately for the Allies and the soldiers in the landing craft, the leaders in these airborne forces

had trained their subordinate leaders well, encouraging their initiative, allowing them to do their jobs.

Small unit leaders scattered around the darkened, unfamiliar countryside knew they were part of a

larger effort, and they knew its success was up to them. They had been trained to act instead of

waiting to be told what to do; they knew that if the invasion was to succeed, their small units had to

accomplish their individual missions.

Among these leaders were men like CPT Sam Gibbons of the 505th Parachute Infantry Regiment.

He gathered a group of 12 soldiers—from different commands—and liberated a tiny village—which

turned out to be outside the division area of operations—before heading south toward his original objective, the Douve River bridges. CPT Gibbons set off with a dozen people he had never seen before and

no demolition equipment to destroy a bridge nearly 15 kilometers away. Later, he remarked,
THE PAYOFF: EXCELLENCE

1-72. You achieve excellence when your people

are disciplined and committed to Army values.

Individuals and organizations pursue excellence to improve, to get better and better. The

Army is led by leaders of character who are

good role models, consistently set the example,

and accomplish the mission while improving

 	
 





1-69. You read earlier about how COL Joshua

Chamberlain accomplished his mission and

took care of his soldiers at Little Round Top.

Empower subordinates to take initiative and be

the subordinate leader who stands up and

makes a difference. That lesson applies in peace

and in combat, from the smallest organization

to the largest. Consider the words of GEN Edward C. Meyer, former Army Chief of Staff:

When I became chief of staff, I set two personal

goals for myself. The first was to ensure that the

Army was continually prepared to go to war,

and the second was to create a climate in which

each member could find personal meaning and

fulfillment. It is my belief that only by attainment of the second goal will we ensure the first.

1-70. GEN Meyer’s words and COL Chamberlain’s actions both say the same thing: leaders

must accomplish the mission and take care of

their soldiers. For COL Chamberlain, this

meant he had to personally lead his men in a

bayonet charge and show he believed they could

do what he asked of them. For GEN Meyer the

challenge was on a larger scale: his task was to

make sure the entire Army was ready to fight

and win. He knew—and he tells us—that the

only way to accomplish such a huge goal is to

pay attention to the smallest parts of the machine, the individual soldiers and DA civilians.

Through his subordinate leaders, GEN Meyer

offered challenges and guidance and set the example so that every member of the Army felt a

part of the team and knew that the team was

doing important work.

1-71. Both leaders understood the path to

excellence: disciplined leaders with strong values produce disciplined soldiers with strong values. Together they become disciplined, cohesive

units that train hard, fight honorably, and win

decisively.

Leaders of character and competence act

to achieve excellence by developing a

force that can fight and win the nation’s

wars and serve the common defense of the

United States.

Small Unit Leaders’ Initiative in Normandy (continued)

“This certainly wasn’t the way I had thought the invasion would go, nor had we ever rehearsed it in this

manner.” But he was moving out to accomplish the mission. Throughout the Cotentin Peninsula,

small unit leaders from both divisions were doing the same.

This was the payoff for hard training and leaders who valued soldiers, communicated the

importance of the mission, and trusted their subordinate leaders to accomplish it. As they trained their

commands for the invasion, organizational leaders focused downward as well as upward. They took

care of their soldiers’ needs while providing the most realistic training possible. This freed their

subordinate leaders to focus upward as well as downward. Because they knew their units were

well-trained and their leaders would do everything in their power to support them, small unit leaders

were able to focus on the force’s overall mission. They knew and understood the commander’s intent.

They believed that if they exercised disciplined initiative within that intent, things would turn out right.

Events proved them correct.
their units. It is a cohesive organization of

high-performing units characterized by the

warrior ethos.

1-73. Army leaders get the job done. Sometimes it’s on a large scale, such as GEN Meyer’s

role in making sure the Army was ready to

fight. Other times it may be amid the terror of

combat, as with COL Chamberlain at Gettysburg. However, most of you will not become

Army Chief of Staff. Not all of you will face the

challenge of combat. So it would be a mistake to

think that the only time mission accomplishment and leadership are important is with the

obvious examples—the general officer, the combat leader. The Army cannot accomplish its

mission unless all Army leaders, soldiers, and

DA civilians accomplish theirs—whether that

means filling out a status report, repairing a vehicle, planning a budget, packing a parachute,

maintaining pay records, or walking guard

duty. The Army isn’t a single general or a handful of combat heroes; it’s hundreds of thousands of soldiers and DA civilians, tens of

thousands of leaders, all striving to do the right

things. Every soldier, every DA civilian, is important to the success of the Army.

MORAL EXCELLENCE:

ACCOMPLISHING THE MISSION WITH

CHARACTER

To the brave men and women who wear the

uniform of the United States of America

—thank you. Your calling is a high one—to be

the defenders of freedom and the guarantors of

liberty.

 

	
 
   
 

1-74 The ultimate end of war, at least as America fights it, is to restore peace. For this reason

the Army must accomplish its mission honorably. The Army fights to win, but with one eye on

the kind of peace that will follow the war. The

actions of Ulysses S. Grant, general in chief of

the Union Army at the end of the Civil War,

provide an example of balancing fighting to win

with restoring the peace.

1-75. In combat GEN Grant had been a relentless and determined commander. During the final days of campaigning in Virginia, he

hounded his exhausted foes and pushed his own

troops on forced marches of 30 and 40 miles to

end the war quickly. GEN Grant’s approach to

war was best summed up by President Lincoln,

who said simply, “He fights.”

1-76. Yet even before the surrender was

signed, GEN Grant had shifted his focus to the

peace. Although some of his subordinates

wanted the Confederates to submit to the

humiliation of an unconditional surrender,

GEN Grant treated his former enemies with respect and considered the long-term effects of

his decisions. Rather than demanding an

unconditional surrender, GEN Grant negotiated terms with GEN Lee. One of those was

allowing his former enemies to keep their

horses because they needed them for spring

plowing. GEN Grant reasoned that peace would

best be served if the Southerners got back to a

normal existence as quickly as possible. GEN

Grant’s decisions and actions sent a message to

every man in the Union Army: that it was time

to move on, to get back to peacetime concerns.

1-77. At the same time, the Union commander

insisted on a formal surrender. He realized that

for a true peace to prevail, the Confederates had

to publicly acknowledge that organized hostility to the Union had ended. GEN Grant knew

that true peace would come about only if both

victors and vanquished put the war behind

them—a timeless lesson.

1-78. The Army must accomplish its mission

honorably. FM 27-10 discusses the law of war

and reminds you of the importance of restoring

peace. The Army minimizes collateral damage

and avoids harming noncombatants for practical as well as honorable reasons. No matter

what, though, soldiers fight to win, to live or die

with honor for the benefit of our country and its

citizens.

1-79. Army leaders often make decisions amid

uncertainty, without guidance or precedent, in

situations dominated by fear and risk, and

sometimes under the threat of sudden, violent

death. At those times leaders fall back on their

values and Army values and ask, What is right?

The question is simple; the answer, often, is

not. Having made the decision, the leader depends on self-discipline to see it through.

 

	 

 		 	
ACHIEVING COLLECTIVE

EXCELLENCE

1-80. Some examples of excellence are obvious:

COL Chamberlain’s imaginative defense of Little Round Top, GA Dwight Eisenhower drafting

his D-Day message (you’ll read about it in

Chapter 2), MSG Gary Gordon and SFC Randall Shughart putting their lives on the line to

save other soldiers in Somalia (their story is in

Chapter 3). Those examples of excellence shine,

and good leaders teach these stories; soldiers

must know they are part of a long tradition of

excellence and valor.

1-81. But good leaders see excellence wherever

and whenever it happens. Excellent leaders

make certain all subordinates know the important roles they play. Look for everyday examples that occur under ordinary circumstances:

the way a soldier digs a fighting position, prepares for guard duty, fixes a radio, lays an artillery battery; the way a DA civilian handles an

action, takes care of customers, meets a deadline on short notice. Good leaders know that

each of these people is contributing in a small

but important way to the business of the Army.

An excellent Army is the collection of small

tasks done to standard, day in and day out. At

the end of the day, at the end of a career, those

leaders, soldiers and DA civilians—the ones

whose excellent work created an excellent

Army—can look back confidently. Whether

they commanded an invasion armada of

thousands of soldiers or supervised a technical

section of three people, they know they did the

job well and made a difference.

1-82. Excellence in leadership does not mean

perfection; on the contrary, an excellent leader

allows subordinates room to learn from their

mistakes as well as their successes. In such a climate, people work to improve and take the risks

necessary to learn. They know that when they

fall short—as they will—their leader will pick

them up, give them new or more detailed instructions, and send them on their way again.

This is the only way to improve the force, the

only way to train leaders.

1-83. A leader who sets a standard of “zero defects, no mistakes” is also saying “Don’t take

any chances. Don’t try anything you can’t already do perfectly, and for heaven’s sake, don’t

try anything new.” That organization will not

improve; in fact, its ability to perform the mission will deteriorate rapidly. Accomplishing the

Army’s mission requires leaders who are imaginative, flexible, and daring. Improving the

Army for future missions requires leaders who

are thoughtful and reflective. These qualities

are incompatible with a “zero-defects” attitude.

1-84. Competent, confident leaders tolerate

honest mistakes that do not result from

negligence. The pursuit of excellence is not a

game to achieve perfection; it involves trying,

learning, trying again, and getting better each

time. This in no way justifies or excuses failure.

Even the best efforts and good intentions cannot take away an individual’s responsibility for

his actions.

SUMMARY

1-85. Leadership in combat is your primary

and most important challenge. It requires you

to accept a set of values that contributes to a

core of motivation and will. If you fail to accept

and live these Army values, your soldiers may

die unnecessarily. Army leaders of character

and competence act to achieve excellence by

developing a force that can fight and win the

nation’s wars and serve the common defense of

the United States. The Army leadership

framework identifies the dimensions of Army

leadership: what the Army expects you, as one

of its leaders, to BE, KNOW, and DO.

1-86. Leadership positions fall into one of three

leadership levels: direct, organizational, and

strategic. The perspective and focus of leaders

change and the actions they must DO become

more complex with greater consequences as

they assume positions of greater responsibility.

Nonetheless, they must still live Army values

and possess leader attributes.

 	
 


	  
1-87. Being a good subordinate is part of being

a good leader. Everyone is part of a team, and

all members have responsibilities that go with

belonging to that team. But every soldier and

DA civilian who is responsible for supervising

people or accomplishing a mission that involves

other people is a leader. All soldiers and DA civilians at one time or another must act as

leaders.

1-88. Values and attributes make up a leader’s

character, the BE of Army leadership. Character embodies self-discipline and the will to win,

among other things. It contributes to the motivation to persevere. From this motivation

comes the lifelong work of mastering the skills

that define competence, the KNOW of Army

leadership. As you reflect on Army values and

leadership attributes and develop the skills your

position and experience require, you become a

leader of character and competence, one who

can act to achieve excellence, who can DO what

is necessary to accomplish the mission and take

care of your people. That is leadership—influencing people by providing purpose, direction,

and motivation while operating to accomplish

the mission and improving the organization.

That is what makes a successful leader, one who

lives the principles of BE, KNOW, DO.

  

 	
 

 


CHAPTER 2

The Leader and Leadership:

What the Leader Must Be, Know, and Do

I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will support and defend the Constitution of the United

States against all enemies, foreign and domestic; that I will bear true faith and allegiance to

the same; and that I will obey the orders of the President of the United States and the orders of

the officers appointed over me, according to regulations and the Uniform Code of Military

Justice. So help me God.

Oath of Enlistment

I [full name], having been appointed a [rank] in the United States Army, do solemnly swear

(or affirm) that I will support and defend the Constitution of the United States against all

enemies, foreign and domestic; that I will bear true faith and allegiance to the same; that I

take this obligation freely, without any mental reservation or purpose of evasion, and that I

will well and faithfully discharge the duties of the office upon which I am about to enter. So

help me God.

Oath of office taken by commissioned officers and DA civilians

2-1. Beneath the Army leadership framework

shown in Figure 1-1, 30 words spell out your job

as a leader: Leaders of character and competence act to achieve excellence by

developing a force that can fight and win

the nation’s wars and serve the common

defense of the United States. There’s a lot

in that sentence. This chapter looks at it in

detail.

2-2. Army leadership doctrine addresses what

makes leaders of character and competence and

what makes leadership. Figure 2-1 highlights

these values and attributes. Remember from

Chapter 1 that character describes what leaders

must BE; competence refers to what leaders

must KNOW; and action is what leaders must

DO. Although this chapter discusses these concepts one at a time, they don’t stand alone; they

are closely connected and together make up

who you seek to be (a leader of character and

competence) and what you need to do (leadership).

Army Leadership 2-1

CHARACTER: WHAT A LEADER

MUST BE ............................................2-2

Army Values.....................................2-2

Leader Attributes ..........................2-10

Focus on Character......................2-19

COMPETENCE: WHAT A LEADER

MUST KNOW ....................................2-24

LEADERSHIP: WHAT A

LEADER MUST DO...........................2-26

Influencing.....................................2-27

Operating .......................................2-27

Improving.......................................2-28

SUMMARY ...........................................2-28
SECTION I

CHARACTER: WHAT A LEADER MUST BE

Everywhere you look—on the fields of athletic competition, in combat training, operations,

and in civilian communities—soldiers are doing what is right.

Former Sergeant Major of the Army

Julius W. Gates

2-3. Character—who you are—contributes significantly to how you act. Character helps you

know what’s right and do what’s right, all the

time and at whatever the cost. Character is

made up of two interacting parts: values and attributes. Stephen Ambrose, speaking about the

Civil War, says that “at the pivotal point in the

war it was always the character of individuals

that made the difference.” Army leaders must

be those critical individuals of character themselves and in turn develop character in those

they lead. (Appendix E discusses character development.)

ARMY VALUES

2-4. Your attitudes about the worth of people,

concepts, and other things describe your values.

Everything begins there. Your subordinates enter the Army with their own values, developed

in childhood and nurtured through experience.

All people are all shaped by what they’ve seen,

what they’ve learned, and whom they’ve met.

But when soldiers and DA civilians take the

oath, they enter an institution guided by Army

values. These are more than a system of rules.

They’re not just a code tucked away in a drawer

or a list in a dusty book. These values tell you

what you need to be, every day, in every action

you take. Army values form the very identity of

the Army, the solid rock upon which everything

else stands, especially in combat. They are the

glue that binds together the members of a noble

profession. As a result, the whole is much

greater than the sum of its parts. Army values

are nonnegotiable: they apply to everyone and

in every situation throughout the Army.

2-5. Army values remind us and tell the rest of

the world—the civilian government we serve,

the nation we protect, even our enemies—who

we are and what we stand for. The trust soldiers

and DA civilians have for each other and the

trust the American people have in us depends

on how well we live up to Army values. They are

the fundamental building blocks that enable us

to discern right from wrong in any situation.

Army values are consistent; they support one

another. You can’t follow one value and ignore

another.

2-6. Here are the Army values that guide you,

the leader, and the rest of the Army. They form

the acronym LDRSHIP:

2-2 FM 22-100

What the Leader Must Be, Know, and Do

to Achieve Excellence to Achieve Excellence

THE LEADER THE LEADER

of Character of Characterand Competence Acts...

Loyalty

Duty

Respect

Selfless Service

Honor

Integrity

Personal Courage

“Know” “Do”

SKILLS

ACTIONS

ATTRIBUTES

Figure 2-1. Army Values
L

D

R	

S
 
	

H

I

P 	

2-7. The following discussions can help you understand Army values, but understanding is

only the first step. As a leader, you must not

only understand them; you must believe in

them, model them in your own actions, and

teach others to accept and live by them.

LOYALTY

Bear true faith and allegiance to the US

Constitution, the Army, your unit,

and other soldiers.

Loyalty is the big thing, the greatest battle asset

of all. But no man ever wins the loyalty of troops

by preaching loyalty. It is given to him as he

proves his possession of the other virtues.

Brigadier General S. L. A. Marshall

Men Against Fire

2-8. Since before the founding of the republic,

the Army has respected its subordination to its

civilian political leaders. This subordination is

fundamental to preserving the liberty of all

Americans. You began your Army career by

swearing allegiance to the Constitution, the basis of our government and laws. If you’ve never

read it or if it has been a while, the Constitution

is in Appendix F. Pay particular attention to Article I, Section 8, which outlines congressional

responsibilities regarding the armed forces, and

Article II, Section 2, which designates the president as commander in chief. Beyond your allegiance to the Constitution, you have an

obligation to be faithful to the Army—the institution and its people—and to your unit or organization. Few examples illustrate loyalty to

country and institution as well as the example

of GEN George Washington in 1782.

2-9. GEN Washington’s example shows how

the obligation to subordinates and peers fits in

the context of loyalty to the chain of command

and the institution at large. As commander of

the Continental Army, GEN Washington was

obligated to see that his soldiers were taken

care of. However, he also was obligated to

ensure that the new nation remained secure

and that the Continental Army remained able

to fight if necessary. If the Continental Army

had marched on the seat of government, it may

well have destroyed the nation by undermining

the law that held it together. It also would have

destroyed the Army as an institution by destroying the basis for the authority under

which it served. GEN Washington realized

these things and acted based on his knowledge.

Had he done nothing else, this single act would

have been enough to establish GEN George

Washington as the father of his country.

Army Leadership 2-3

Army Values

GEN Washington at Newburgh

Following its victory at Yorktown in 1781, the Continental Army set up camp at Newburgh, New

York, to wait for peace with Great Britain. The central government formed under the Articles of

Confederation proved weak and unwilling to supply the Army properly or even pay the soldiers who

had won the war for independence. After months of waiting many officers, angry and impatient,

suggested that the Army march on the seat of government in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and force

Congress to meet the Army’s demands. One colonel even suggested that GEN Washington become

King George I.

Upon hearing this, GEN Washington assembled his officers and publicly and emphatically rejected

the suggestion. He believed that seizing power by force would have destroyed everything for which the

Revolutionary War had been fought. By this action, GEN Washington firmly established an enduring

precedent: America’s armed forces are subordinate to civilian authority and serve the democratic

principles that are now enshrined in the Constitution. GEN Washington’s action demonstrated the

loyalty to country that the Army must maintain in order to protect the freedom enjoyed by all Americans.
2-10. Loyalty is a two-way street: you should

not expect loyalty without being prepared to

give it as well. Leaders can neither demand loyalty nor win it from their people by talking

about it. The loyalty of your people is a gift they

give you when, and only when, you deserve

it—when you train them well, treat them fairly,

and live by the concepts you talk about. Leaders

who are loyal to their subordinates never let

them be misused.

2-11. Soldiers fight for each other—loyalty is

commitment. Some of you will encounter the

most important way of earning this loyalty:

leading your soldiers well in combat. There’s no

loyalty fiercer than that of soldiers who trust

their leader to take them through the dangers

of combat. However, loyalty extends to all members of an organization—to your superiors and

subordinates, as well as your peers.

2-12. Loyalty extends to all members of all

components of the Army. The reserve components—Army National Guard and Army Reserve—play an increasingly active role in the

Army’s mission. Most DA civilians will not be

called upon to serve in combat theaters, but

their contributions to mission accomplishment

are nonetheless vital. As an Army leader, you’ll

serve throughout your career with soldiers of

the active and reserve components as well as

DA civilians. All are members of the same team,

loyal to one another.

DUTY

Fulfill your obligations.

The essence of duty is acting in the absence of

orders or direction from others, based on an

inner sense of what is morally and

professionally right....

 	
 
 


 	   

2-13. Duty begins with everything required of

you by law, regulation, and orders; but it

includes much more than that. Professionals do

their work not just to the minimum standard,

but to the very best of their ability. Soldiers and

DA civilians commit to excellence in all aspects

of their professional responsibility so that when

the job is done they can look back and say, “I

couldn’t have given any more.”

2-14. Army leaders take the initiative, figuring

out what needs to be done before being told

what to do. What’s more, they take full responsibility for their actions and those of their subordinates. Army leaders never shade the truth to

make the unit look good—or even to make their

subordinates feel good. Instead, they follow their

higher duty to the Army and the nation.

2-15. CPT McConnell understood and fulfilled

her duty to the Army and to the soldiers she

supported in ways that went beyond her medical training. A leader’s duty is to take charge,

even in unfamiliar circumstances. But duty

isn’t reserved for special occasions. When a platoon sergeant tells a squad leader to inspect

weapons, the squad leader has fulfilled his

minimum obligation when he has checked the

weapons. He’s done what he was told to do. But

if the squad leader finds weapons that are not

clean or serviced, his sense of duty tells him to

go beyond the platoon sergeant’s instructions.

The squad leader does his duty when he corrects the problem and ensures the weapons are

up to standard.

2-4 FM 22-100

What the Leader Must Be, Know, and Do

Duty in Korea

CPT Viola B. McConnell was the only Army nurse on duty in Korea in July of 1950. When

hostilities broke out, she escorted nearly 700 American evacuees from Seoul to Japan aboard a

freighter designed to accommodate only 12 passengers. CPT McConnell assessed priorities for care

of the evacuees and worked exhaustively with a medical team to care for them. Once in Japan, she

requested reassignment back to Korea. After all she had already done, CPT McConnell returned to

Taejon to care for and evacuate wounded soldiers of the 24th Infantry Division.
2-16. In extremely rare cases, you may receive

an illegal order. Duty requires that you refuse

to obey it. You have no choice but to do what’s

ethically and legally correct. Paragraphs 2-97

through 2-99 discuss illegal orders.

RESPECT

Treat people as they should be treated.

The discipline which makes the soldiers of a free

country reliable in battle is not to be gained by

harsh or tyrannical treatment. On the contrary,

such treatment is far more likely to destroy than

to make an army. It is possible to impart

instruction and to give commands in such

manner and such a tone of voice to inspire in the

soldier no feeling but an intense desire to obey,

while the opposite manner and tone of voice

cannot fail to excite strong resentment and a

desire to disobey. The one mode or the other of

dealing with subordinates springs from a

corresponding spirit in the breast of the

commander. He who feels the respect which is

due to others cannot fail to inspire in them

regard for himself, while he who feels, and

hence manifests, disrespect toward others,

especially his inferiors, cannot fail to inspire

hatred against himself.

  	
  



  
     

  

2-17. Respect for the individual forms the basis

for the rule of law, the very essence of what

makes America. In the Army, respect means

recognizing and appreciating the inherent dignity and worth of all people. This value reminds

you that your people are your greatest resource.

Army leaders honor everyone’s individual

worth by treating all people with dignity and

respect.

2-18. As America becomes more culturally

diverse, Army leaders must be aware that they

will deal with people from a wider range of ethnic, racial, and religious backgrounds. Effective

leaders are tolerant of beliefs different from

their own as long as those beliefs don’t conflict

with Army values, are not illegal, and are not

unethical. As an Army leader, you need to avoid

misunderstandings arising from cultural

differences. Actively seeking to learn about people and cultures different from your own can

help you do this. Being sensitive to other cultures can also aid you in counseling your people

more effectively. You show respect when you

seek to understand your people’s background,

see things from their perspective, and appreciate what’s important to them.

2-19. As an Army leader, you must also foster

a climate in which everyone is treated with

dignity and respect regardless of race, gender,

creed, or religious belief. Fostering this climate begins with your example: how you live

Army values shows your people how they

should live them. However, values training is

another major contributor. Effective training

helps create a common understanding of

Army values and the standards you expect.

When you conduct it as part of your regular

routine—such as during developmental counseling sessions—you reinforce the message

that respect for others is part of the character

of every soldier and DA civilian. Combined

with your example, such training creates an

organizational climate that promotes consideration for others, fairness in all dealings, and

equal opportunity. In essence, Army leaders

treat others as they wish to be treated.

2-20. As part of this consideration, leaders create an environment in which subordinates are

challenged, where they can reach their full potential and be all they can be. Providing tough

training doesn’t demean subordinates; in fact,

building their capabilities and showing faith in

their potential is the essence of respect. Effective

leaders take the time to learn what their subordinates want to accomplish. They advise their

people on how they can grow, personally and

professionally. Not all of your subordinates will

succeed equally, but they all deserve respect.

2-21. Respect is also an essential component

for the development of disciplined, cohesive,

and effective warfighting teams. In the deadly

confusion of combat, soldiers often overcome

incredible odds to accomplish the mission and

protect the lives of their comrades. This spirit of

selfless service and duty is built on a soldier’s

personal trust and regard for fellow soldiers. A

leader’s willingness to tolerate discrimination

Army Leadership 2-5

Army Values
or harassment on any basis, or a failure to cultivate a climate of respect, eats away at this trust

and erodes unit cohesion. But respect goes beyond issues of discrimination and harassment;

it includes the broader issue of civility, the way

people treat each other and those they come in

contact with. It involves being sensitive to diversity and one’s own behaviors that others

may find insensitive, offensive, or abusive. Soldiers and DA civilians, like their leaders, treat

everyone with dignity and respect.

SELFLESS SERVICE

Put the welfare of the nation, the Army,

and subordinates before your own.

The nation today needs men who think in terms

of service to their country and not in terms of

their country’s debt to them.

General of the Army Omar N. Bradley

2-22. You have often heard the military

referred to as “the service.” As a member of the

Army, you serve the United States. Selfless

service means doing what’s right for the nation,

the Army, your organization, and your people—and putting these responsibilities above

your own interests. The needs of the Army and

the nation come first. This doesn’t mean that

you neglect your family or yourself; in fact, such

neglect weakens a leader and can cause the

Army more harm than good. Selfless service

doesn’t mean that you can’t have a strong ego,

high self-esteem, or even healthy ambition.

Rather, selfless service means that you don’t

make decisions or take actions that help your

image or your career but hurt others or sabotage the mission. The selfish superior claims

credit for work his subordinates do; the selfless

leader gives credit to those who earned it. The

Army can’t function except as a team, and for a

team to work, the individual has to give up selfinterest for the good of the whole.

2-23. Soldiers are not the only members of the

Army who display selfless service. DA civilians

display this value as well. Then Army Chief of

Staff, Gordon R. Sullivan assessed the DA civilian contribution to Operation Desert Storm

this way:

Not surprisingly, most of the civilians deployed

to Southwest Asia volunteered to serve there.

But the civilian presence in the Gulf region

meant more than moral support and filling in

for soldiers. Gulf War veterans say that many of

the combat soldiers could owe their lives to the

DA civilians who helped maintain equipment by

speeding up the process of getting parts and

other support from 60 logistics agencies

Army-wide.

2-24. As GEN Sullivan’s comment indicates,

selfless service is an essential component of

teamwork. Team members give of themselves

so that the team may succeed. In combat some

soldiers give themselves completely so that

their comrades can live and the mission can be

accomplished. But the need for selflessness

isn’t limited to combat situations. Requirements for individuals to place their own

needs below those of their organization can occur during peacetime as well. And the requirement for selflessness doesn’t decrease

with one’s rank; it increases. Consider this example of a soldier of long service and high rank

who demonstrated the value of selfless service.

or harassment on any basis, or a failure to cultivate a climate of respect, eats away at this trust

and erodes unit cohesion. But respect goes beyond issues of discrimination and harassment;

it includes the broader issue of civility, the way

people treat each other and those they come in

contact with. It involves being sensitive to diversity and one’s own behaviors that others

may find insensitive, offensive, or abusive. Soldiers and DA civilians, like their leaders, treat

everyone with dignity and respect.

SELFLESS SERVICE

Put the welfare of the nation, the Army,

and subordinates before your own.

The nation today needs men who think in terms

of service to their country and not in terms of

their country’s debt to them.

General of the Army Omar N. Bradley

2-22. You have often heard the military

referred to as “the service.” As a member of the

Army, you serve the United States. Selfless

service means doing what’s right for the nation,

the Army, your organization, and your people—and putting these responsibilities above

your own interests. The needs of the Army and

the nation come first. This doesn’t mean that

you neglect your family or yourself; in fact, such

neglect weakens a leader and can cause the

Army more harm than good. Selfless service

doesn’t mean that you can’t have a strong ego,

high self-esteem, or even healthy ambition.

Rather, selfless service means that you don’t

make decisions or take actions that help your

image or your career but hurt others or sabotage the mission. The selfish superior claims

credit for work his subordinates do; the selfless

leader gives credit to those who earned it. The

Army can’t function except as a team, and for a

team to work, the individual has to give up selfinterest for the good of the whole.

2-23. Soldiers are not the only members of the

Army who display selfless service. DA civilians

display this value as well. Then Army Chief of

Staff, Gordon R. Sullivan assessed the DA civilian contribution to Operation Desert Storm

this way:

Not surprisingly, most of the civilians deployed

to Southwest Asia volunteered to serve there.

But the civilian presence in the Gulf region

meant more than moral support and filling in

for soldiers. Gulf War veterans say that many of

the combat soldiers could owe their lives to the

DA civilians who helped maintain equipment by

speeding up the process of getting parts and

other support from 60 logistics agencies

Army-wide.

2-24. As GEN Sullivan’s comment indicates,

selfless service is an essential component of

teamwork. Team members give of themselves

so that the team may succeed. In combat some

soldiers give themselves completely so that

their comrades can live and the mission can be

accomplished. But the need for selflessness

isn’t limited to combat situations. Requirements for individuals to place their own

needs below those of their organization can occur during peacetime as well. And the requirement for selflessness doesn’t decrease

with one’s rank; it increases. Consider this example of a soldier of long service and high rank

who demonstrated the value of selfless service.

2-6 FM 22-100

What the Leader Must Be, Know, and Do

GA Marshall Continues to Serve

GA George C. Marshall served as Army Chief of Staff from 1939 until 1945. He led the Army

through the buildup, deployment, and worldwide operations of World War II. Chapter 7 outlines some

of his contributions to the Allied victory. In November 1945 he retired to a well-deserved rest at his

home in Leesburg, Virginia. Just six days later President Harry S Truman called on him to serve as

Special Ambassador to China. From the White House President Truman telephoned GA Marshall at

his home: “General, I want you to go to China for me,” the president said. “Yes, Mr. President,” GA

Marshall replied. He then hung up the telephone, informed his wife of the president’s request and his

reply, and prepared to return to government service.
2-25. When faced with a request to solve a difficult problem in an overseas theater after six

years of demanding work, GA Marshall didn’t

say, “I’ve been in uniform for over thirty years,

we just won a world war, and I think I’ve done

enough.” Instead, he responded to his commander in chief the only way a professional

could. He said yes, took care of his family, and

prepared to accomplish the mission. After a

year overseas, when faced with a similar question, he gave the same answer. GA Marshall always placed his country’s interests first and his

own second. Army leaders who follow his example do the same.

HONOR

Live up to all the Army values.

What is life without honor? Degradation is

worse than death.

Lieutenant General Thomas J. “Stonewall” Jackson

2-26. Honor provides the “moral compass” for

character and personal conduct in the Army.

Though many people struggle to define the

term, most recognize instinctively those with a

keen sense of right and wrong, those who live

such that their words and deeds are above reproach. The expression “honorable person,”

therefore, refers to both the character traits an

individual actually possesses and the fact that

the community recognizes and respects them.

2-27. Honor holds Army values together while

at the same time being a value itself. Together,

Army values describe the foundation essential

to develop leaders of character. Honor means

demonstrating an understanding of what’s

right and taking pride in the community’s

acknowledgment of that reputation. Military

ceremonies recognizing individual and unit

achievement demonstrate and reinforce the importance the Army places on honor.

2-28. For you as an Army leader, demonstrating an understanding of what’s right and

taking pride in that reputation means this:

Live up to all the Army values. Implicitly,

that’s what you promised when you took your

oath of office or enlistment. You made this

promise publicly, and the standards—Army

values—are also public. To be an honorable person, you must be true to your oath and live

Army values in all you do. Living honorably

strengthens Army values, not only for yourself

but for others as well: all members of an organization contribute to the organization’s climate

(which you’ll read about in Chapter 3). By what

they do, people living out Army values contribute to a climate that encourages all members of

the Army to do the same.

2-29. How you conduct yourself and meet your

obligations defines who you are as a person;

how the Army meets the nation’s commitments

defines the Army as an institution. For you as

an Army leader, honor means putting Army

values above self-interest, above career and

comfort. For all soldiers, it means putting Army

values above self-preservation as well. This

honor is essential for creating a bond of trust

among members of the Army and between the

Army and the nation it serves. Army leaders

have the strength of will to live according to

Army values, even though the temptations to

do otherwise are strong, especially in the face of

personal danger. The military’s highest award

is the Medal of Honor. Its recipients didn’t do

Army Leadership 2-7

Army Values

GA Marshall Continues to Serve (continued)

President Truman didn’t appoint GA Marshall a special ambassador to reward his faithful service;

he appointed GA Marshall because there was a tough job in China that needed to be done. The

Chinese communists under Mao Tse-tung were battling the Nationalists under Chiang Kai-shek, who

had been America’s ally against the Japanese; GA Marshall’s job was to mediate peace between

them. In the end, he was unsuccessful in spite of a year of frustrating work; the scale of the problem

was more than any one person could handle. However, in January 1947 President Truman appointed

GA Marshall Secretary of State. The Cold War had begun and the president needed a leader

Americans trusted. GA Marshall’s reputation made him the one; his selflessness led him to continue

to serve.
just what was required of them; they went beyond the expected, above and beyond the call of

duty. Some gave their own lives so that others

could live. It’s fitting that the word we use to

describe their achievements is “honor.”

2-30. No one will ever know what was running

through the minds of MSG Gordon and SFC

Shughart as they left the comparative safety of

their helicopter to go to the aid of the downed

aircrew. The two NCOs knew there was no

ground rescue force available, and they

certainly knew there was no going back to their

helicopter. They may have suspected that

things would turn out as they did; nonetheless,

they did what they believed to be the right

thing. They acted based on Army values, which

they had clearly made their own: loyalty to their

fellow soldiers; the duty to stand by them, regardless of the circumstances; the personal

courage to act, even in the face of great danger;

selfless service, the willingness to give their all.

MSG Gary I. Gordon and SFC Randall D.

Shughart lived Army values to the end; they

were posthumously awarded Medals of Honor.

INTEGRITY

Do what’s right—legally and morally.

The American people rightly look to their

military leaders not only to be skilled in the

technical aspects of the profession of arms, but

also to be men of integrity.

General J. Lawton Collins

Former Army Chief of Staff

2-31. People of integrity consistently act

according to principles—not just what might

work at the moment. Leaders of integrity make

their principles known and consistently act in

accordance with them. The Army requires leaders of integrity who possess high moral standards and are honest in word and deed. Being

honest means being truthful and upright all the

time, despite pressures to do otherwise. Having

integrity means being both morally complete

and true to yourself. As an Army leader, you’re

honest to yourself by committing to and consistently living Army values; you’re honest to others by not presenting yourself or your actions as

anything other than what they are. Army leaders say what they mean and do what they say. If

you can’t accomplish a mission, inform your

chain of command. If you inadvertently pass on

bad information, correct it as soon as you find

out it’s wrong. People of integrity do the right

thing not because it’s convenient or because

2-8 FM 22-100

What the Leader Must Be, Know, and Do

MSG Gordon and SFC Shughart in Somalia

During a raid in Mogadishu in October 1993, MSG Gary Gordon and SFC Randall Shughart,

leader and member of a sniper team with Task Force Ranger in Somalia, were providing precision

and suppressive fires from helicopters above two helicopter crash sites. Learning that no ground

forces were available to rescue one of the downed aircrews and aware that a growing number of

enemy were closing in on the site, MSG Gordon and SFC Shughart volunteered to be inserted to

protect their critically wounded comrades. Their initial request was turned down because of the

danger of the situation. They asked a second time; permission was denied. Only after their third

request were they inserted.

MSG Gordon and SFC Shughart were inserted one hundred meters south of the downed

chopper. Armed only with their personal weapons, the two NCOs fought their way to the downed fliers

through intense small arms fire, a maze of shanties and shacks, and the enemy converging on the

site. After MSG Gordon and SFC Shughart pulled the wounded from the wreckage, they established a

perimeter, put themselves in the most dangerous position, and fought off a series of attacks. The two

NCOs continued to protect their comrades until they had depleted their ammunition and were

themselves fatally wounded. Their actions saved the life of an Army pilot.
they have no choice. They choose the right

thing because their character permits no less.

Conducting yourself with integrity has three

parts:

 Separating what’s right from what’s wrong.

 Always acting according to what you know

to be right, even at personal cost.

 Saying openly that you’re acting on your

understanding of right versus wrong.

2-32. Leaders can’t hide what they do: that’s

why you must carefully decide how you act. As

an Army leader, you’re always on display. If you

want to instill Army values in others, you must

internalize and demonstrate them yourself.

Your personal values may and probably do extend beyond the Army values, to include such

things as political, cultural, or religious beliefs.

However, if you’re to be an Army leader and a

person of integrity, these values must reinforce,

not contradict, Army values.

2-33. Any conflict between your personal

values and Army values must be resolved before

you can become a morally complete Army

leader. You may need to consult with someone

whose values and judgment you respect. You

would not be the first person to face this issue,

and as a leader, you can expect others to come

to you, too. Chapter 5 contains the story of how

SGT Alvin York and his leaders confronted and

resolved a conflict between SGT York’s personal values and Army values. Read it and reflect on it. If one of your subordinates asks you

to help resolve a similar conflict, you must be

prepared by being sure your own values align

with Army values. Resolving such conflicts is

necessary to become a leader of integrity.

PERSONAL COURAGE

Face fear, danger, or adversity

(physical or moral).

The concept of professional courage does not

always mean being as tough as nails either. It

also suggests a willingness to listen to the

soldiers’ problems, to go to bat for them in a

tough situation, and it means knowing just how

far they can go. It also means being willing to

tell the boss when he’s wrong.

Former Sergeant Major of the Army William Connelly

2-34. Personal courage isn’t the absence of

fear; rather, it’s the ability to put fear aside and

do what’s necessary. It takes two forms, physical and moral. Good leaders demonstrate both.

2-35. Physical courage means overcoming fears

of bodily harm and doing your duty. It’s the

bravery that allows a soldier to take risks in

combat in spite of the fear of wounds or death.

Physical courage is what gets the soldier at Airborne School out the aircraft door. It’s what allows an infantryman to assault a bunker to save

his buddies.

2-36. In contrast, moral courage is the willingness to stand firm on your values, principles, and

convictions—even when threatened. It enables

leaders to stand up for what they believe is right,

regardless of the consequences. Leaders who

take responsibility for their decisions and actions, even when things go wrong, display moral

courage. Courageous leaders are willing to look

critically inside themselves, consider new ideas,

and change what needs changing.

2-37. Moral courage is sometimes overlooked,

both in discussions of personal courage and in

the everyday rush of business. A DA civilian at a

meeting heard courage mentioned several times

in the context of combat. The DA civilian pointed

out that consistent moral courage is every bit as

important as momentary physical courage.

Situations requiring physical courage are rare;

situations requiringmoralcouragecan occur frequently. Moral courage is essential to living the

Army values of integrity and honor every day.

2-38. Moral courage often expresses itself as

candor. Candor means being frank, honest, and

sincere with others while keeping your words

free from bias, prejudice, or malice. Candor

means calling things as you see them, even

when it’s uncomfortable or you think it might

be better for you to just keep quiet. It means

not allowing your feelings to affect what you

say about a person or situation. A candid company commander calmly points out the first

sergeant’s mistake. Likewise, the candid first

Army Leadership 2-9

Army Values
sergeant respectfully points out when the company commander’s pet project isn’t working

and they need to do something different. For

trust to exist between leaders and subordinates, candor is essential. Without it, subordinates won’t know if they’ve met the standard

and leaders won’t know what’s going on.

2-39. In combat physical and moral courage

may blend together. The right thing to do may

not only be unpopular, but dangerous as well.

Situations of that sort reveal who’s a leader of

character and who’s not. Consider this

example.

LEADER ATTRIBUTES

Leadership is not a natural trait, something inherited like the color of eyes or

hair...Leadership is a skill that can be studied, learned, and perfected by practice.

The Noncom’s Guide, 1962

2-40. Values tell us part of what the leader

must BE; the other side of what a leader must

BE are the attributes listed in Figure 2-2.

Leader attributes influence leader actions;

leader actions, in turn, always influence the

unit or organization. As an example, if you’re

physically fit, you’re more likely to inspire your

subordinates to be physically fit.

2-41. Attributes are a person’s fundamental

qualities and characteristics. People are born

with some attributes; for instance, a person’s

genetic code determines eye, hair, and skin

color. However, other attributes—including

leader attributes—are learned and can be

changed. Leader attributes can be characterized

as mental, physical, and emotional. Successful

leaders work to improve those attributes.

2-10 FM 22-100

What the Leader Must Be, Know, and Do

to Achieve Excellence to Achieve Excellence

VALUES

“Be”

THE LEADER THE LEADER

“Do”

SKILLS

ACTIONS

“Know”

of Character and Competence and Competence Acts...

Mental

Physical

Emotional

Figure 2-2. Leader Attributes

WO1 Thompson at My Lai

Personal courage—whether physical, moral, or a combination of the two—may be manifested in

a variety of ways, both on and off the battlefield. On March 16, 1968 Warrant Officer (WO1) Hugh C.

Thompson Jr. and his two-man crew were on a reconnaissance mission over the village of My Lai,

Republic of Vietnam. WO1 Thompson watched in horror as he saw an American soldier shoot an

injured Vietnamese child. Minutes later, when he observed American soldiers advancing on a number

of civilians in a ditch, WO1 Thompson landed his helicopter and questioned a young officer about

what was happening on the ground. Told that the ground action was none of his business, WO1

Thompson took off and continued to circle the area.

When it became apparent that the American soldiers were now firing on civilians, WO1

Thompson landed his helicopter between the soldiers and a group of 10 villagers who were headed

for a homemade bomb shelter. He ordered his gunner to train his weapon on the approaching

American soldiers and to fire if necessary. Then he personally coaxed the civilians out of the shelter

and airlifted them to safety. WO1 Thompson’s radio reports of what was happening were instrumental

in bringing about the cease-fire order that saved the lives of more civilians. His willingness to place

himself in physical danger in order to do the morally right thing is a sterling example of personal

courage.
MENTAL ATTRIBUTES

2-42. The mental attributes of an Army leader

include will, self-discipline, initiative, judgment, self-confidence, intelligence, and cultural

awareness.

Will

The will of soldiers is three times more

important than their weapons.

	
  
	 

Small Unit Leadership: A Commonsense Approach

2-43. Will is the inner drive that compels soldiers and leaders to keep going when they are

exhausted, hungry, afraid, cold, and

wet—when it would be easier to quit. Will enables soldiers to press the fight to its conclusion. Yet will without competence is useless.

It’s not enough that soldiers are willing, or

even eager, to fight; they must know how to

fight. Likewise, soldiers who have competence but no will don’t fight. The leader’s

task is to develop a winning spirit by building

their subordinates’ will as well as their skill.

That begins with hard, realistic training.

2-44. Will is an attribute essential to all members of the Army. Work conditions vary among

branches and components, between those deployed and those closer to home. In the Army,

personal attitude must prevail over any adverse

external conditions. All members of the

Army—active, reserve, and DA civilian—will

experience situations when it would be easier to

quit rather than finish the task at hand. At

those times, everyone needs that inner drive to

press on to mission completion.

2-45. It’s easy to talk about will when things go

well. But the test of your will comes when

things go badly— when events seem to be out of

control, when you think your bosses have

forgotten you, when the plan doesn’t seem to

work and it looks like you’re going to lose. It’s

then that you must draw on your inner reserves

to persevere—to do your job until there’s

nothing left to do it with and then to remain

faithful to your people, your organization, and

your country. The story of the American and

Filipino stand on the Bataan Peninsula and

their subsequent captivity is one of individuals,

leaders, and units deciding to remain true to

the end—and living and dying by that decision.

Army Leadership 2-11

Leader Attributes

The Will to Persevere

On 8 December 1941, hours after the attack on Pearl Harbor, Japanese forces attacked the

American and Filipino forces defending the Philippines. With insufficient combat power to launch a

counterattack, GEN Douglas MacArthur, the American commander, ordered his force to consolidate

on the Bataan Peninsula and hold as long as possible. Among his units was the 12th Quartermaster

(QM) Regiment, which had the mission of supporting the force.

Completely cut off from outside support, the Allies held against an overwhelming Japanese army

for the next three and a half months. Soldiers of the 12th QM Regiment worked in the debris of

warehouses and repair shops under merciless shelling and bombing, fighting to make the meager

supplies last. They slaughtered water buffaloes for meat, caught fish with traps they built themselves,

and distilled salt from sea water. In coffeepots made from oil drums they boiled and reboiled the tiny

coffee supply until the grounds were white. As long as an ounce of food existed, it was used. In the

last desperate days, they resorted to killing horses and pack mules. More important, these supporters

delivered rations to the foxholes on the front lines—fighting their way in when necessary. After Bataan

and Corregidor fell, members of the 12th QM Regiment were prominent among the 7,000 Americans

and Filipinos who died on the infamous Bataan Death March.

Though captured, the soldiers of the 12th QM Regiment maintained their will to resist. 1LT

Beulah Greenwalt, a nurse assigned to the 12th QM Regiment, personified this will. Realizing the

regimental colors represent the soul of a regiment and that they could serve as a symbol for

resistance, 1LT Greenwalt assumed the mission of protecting the colors from the Japanese. She

carried the colors to the prisoner of war (PW) camp in Manila by wrapping them around her
Self-Discipline

The core of a soldier is moral discipline. It is

intertwined with the discipline of physical and

mental achievement. Total discipline overcomes

adversity, and physical stamina draws on an

inner strength that says “drive on.”

	 
 	
 

  

2-46. Self-disciplined people are masters of

their impulses. This mastery comes from the

habit of doing the right thing. Self-discipline allows Army leaders to do the right thing regardless of the consequences for them or their

subordinates. Under the extreme stress of combat, you and your team might be cut off and

alone, fearing for your lives, and having to act

without guidance or knowledge of what’s going

on around you. Still, you—the leader—must

think clearly and act reasonably. Self-discipline

is the key to this kind of behavior.

2-47. In peacetime, self-discipline gets the unit

out for the hard training. Self-discipline makes

the tank commander demand another runthrough of a battle drill if the performance

doesn’t meet the standard—even though everyone is long past ready to quit. Self-discipline

doesn’t mean that you never get tired or discouraged—after all, you’re only human. It does

mean that you do what needs to be done regardless of your feelings.

Initiative

The leader must be an aggressive

thinker—always anticipating and analyzing.

He must be able to make good assessments and

solid tactical judgments.

 
   

2-48. Initiative is the ability to be a selfstarter—to act when there are no clear instructions, to act when the situation changes or

when the plan falls apart. In the operational

context, it means setting and dictating the

terms of action throughout the battle or operation. An individual leader with initiative is willing to decide and initiate independent actions

when the concept of operations no longer applies or when an unanticipated opportunity

leading to accomplishment of the commander’s

intent presents itself. Initiative drives the

Army leader to seek a better method, anticipate

what must be done, and perform without waiting for instructions. Balanced with good judgment, it becomes disciplined initiative, an

essential leader attribute. (FM 100-5 discusses

initiative as it relates to military actions at the

operational level. FM 100-34 discusses the relationship of initiative to command and control.

FM 100-40 discusses the place of initiative in

the art of tactics.)

2-49. As an Army leader, you can’t just give orders: you must make clear the intent of those

orders, the final goal of the mission. In combat,

it’s critically important for subordinates to understand their commander’s intent. When they

are cut off or enemy actions derail the original

plan, well-trained soldiers who understand the

commander’s intent will apply disciplined initiative to accomplish the mission.

2-12 FM 22-100

What the Leader Must Be, Know, and Do

The Will to Persevere (continued)

shoulders and convincing her Japanese captors that they were “only a shawl.” For the next 33 months

1LT Greenwalt and the remains of the regiment remained PWs, living on starvation diets and denied

all comforts. But through it all, 1LT Greenwalt held onto the flag. The regimental colors were

safeguarded: the soul of the regiment remained with the regiment, and its soldiers continued to resist.

When the war ended in 1945 and the surviving PWs were released, 1LT Greenwalt presented the

colors to the regimental commander. She and her fellow PWs had persevered. They had resisted on

Bataan until they had no more means to resist. They continued to resist through three long years of

captivity. They decided on Bataan to carry on, and they renewed that decision daily until they were

liberated. The 12th QM Regiment—and the other units that had fought and resisted with

them—remained true to themselves, the Army, and their country. Their will allowed them to see

events through to the end.
2-50. Disciplined initiative doesn’t just appear;

you must develop it within your subordinates.

Your leadership style and the organizational

climate you establish can either encourage or

discourage initiative: you can instill initiative

in your subordinates or you can drive it out. If

you underwrite honest mistakes, your subordinates will be more likely to develop initiative. If

you set a “zero defects” standard, you risk

strangling initiative in its cradle, the hearts of

your subordinates. (Chapter 5 discusses “zero

defects” and learning.)

Judgment

I learned that good judgment comes from

experience and that experience grows out of

mistakes.

  	 
 
  

2-51. Leaders must often juggle hard facts,

questionable data, and gut-level intuition to arrive at a decision. Good judgment means making the best decision for the situation. It’s a key

attribute of the art of command and the transformation of knowledge into understanding.

(FM 100-34 discusses how leaders convert data

and information into knowledge and understanding.)

2-52. Good judgment is the ability to size up a

situation quickly, determine what’s important,

and decide what needs to be done. Given a problem, you should consider a range of alternatives

before you act. You need to think through the

consequences of what you’re about to do before

you do it. In addition to considering the consequences, you should also think methodically.

Some sources that aid judgment are the boss’s

intent, the desired goal, rules, laws, regulations,

experience, and values. Good judgment also includes the ability to size up subordinates, peers,

and the enemy for strengths, weaknesses, and

potential actions. It’s a critical part of problem

solving and decision making. (Chapter 5 discusses problem solving and decision making).

2-53. Judgment and initiative go hand in hand.

As an Army leader, you must weigh what you

know and make decisions in situations where

others do nothing. There will be times when

you’ll have to make decisions under severe time

constraints. In all cases, however, you must take

responsibility for your actions. In addition, you

must encourage disciplined initiative in, and

teach good judgment to, your subordinates. Help

your subordinates learn from mistakes by coaching and mentoring them along the way. (Chapter

5 discusses mentoring.)

Self-Confidence

2-54. Self-confidence is the faith that you’ll act

correctly and properly in any situation, even

one in which you’re under stress and don’t have

all the information you want. Self-confidence

comes from competence: it’s based on mastering

skills, which takes hard work and dedication.

Leaders who know their own capabilities and

believe in themselves are self-confident. Don’t

mistake bluster—loudmouthed bragging or

self-promotion—for self-confidence. Truly selfconfident leaders don’t need to advertise; their

actions say it all.

Army Leadership 2-13

Leader Attributes

The Quick Reaction Platoon

On 26 December 1994 a group of armed and disgruntled members of the Haitian Army entered the

Haitian Army Headquarters in Port-au-Prince demanding back pay. A gunfight ensued less than 150

meters from the grounds of the Haitian Palace, seat of the new government. American soldiers from C

Company, 1-22 Infantry, who had deployed to Haiti as part of Operation Uphold Democracy, were

guarding the palace grounds. The quick reaction platoon leader deployed and immediately

maneuvered his platoon towards the gunfire. The platoon attacked, inflicting at least four casualties

and causing the rest of the hostile soldiers to flee. The platoon quelled a potentially explosive situation

by responding correctly and aggressively to the orders of their leader, who knew his mission and the

commander’s intent.
2-55. Self-confidence is important for leaders

and teams. People want self-confident leaders,

leaders who understand the situation, know

what needs to be done, and demonstrate that

understanding and knowledge. Self-confident

leaders instill self-confidence in their people. In

combat, self-confidence helps soldiers control

doubt and reduce anxiety. Together with will

and self-discipline, self-confidence helps leaders

act—do what must be done in circumstances

where it would be easier to do nothing—and to

convince their people to act as well.

Intelligence

2-56. Intelligent leaders think, learn, and reflect; then they apply what they learn. Intelligence is more than knowledge, and the ability to

think isn’t the same as book learning. All people

have some intellectual ability that, when developed, allows them to analyze and understand a

situation. And although some people are

smarter than others, all people can develop the

capabilities they have. Napoleon himself observed how a leader’s intellectual development

applies directly to battlefield success:

It is not genius which reveals to me suddenly

and secretly what I should do in circumstances

unexpected by others; it is thought and

meditation.

2-57. Knowledge is only part of the equation.

Smart decisions result when you combine professional skills (which you learn through study)

with experience (which you gain on the job) and

your ability to reason through a problem based

on the information available. Reflection is also

important. From time to time, you find yourself

carefully and thoughtfully considering how

leadership, values, and other military principles apply to you and your job. When things

don’t go quite the way they intended, intelligent leaders are confident enough to step back

and ask, “Why did things turn out that way?”

Then they are smart enough to build on their

strengths and avoid making the same mistake

again.

2-58. Reflection also contributes to your originality (the ability to innovate, rather than only

adopt others’methods) and intuition (direct, immediate insight or understanding of important

factors without apparent rational thought or inference). Remember COL Chamberlain at Little

Round Top. To his soldiers, it sometimes appeared that he could “see through forests and

hillsandknowwhatwascoming.”Butthiswasno

magical ability. Through study and reflection,

the colonel had learned how to analyze terrain

and imaginehow theenemymight attempt touse

it to his advantage. He had applied his intelligence and developed his intellectual capabilities.

Good leaders follow COL Chamberlain’s

example.

Cultural Awareness

2-59. Culture is a group’s shared set of beliefs,

values, and assumptions about what’s important. As an Army leader, you must be aware of

cultural factors in three contexts:

 You must be sensitive to the different backgrounds of your people.

 You must be aware of the culture of the

country in which your organization is operating.

 You must take into account your partners’

customs and traditions when you’re working with forces of another nation.

2-60. Within the Army, people come from

widely different backgrounds: they are shaped

by their schooling, race, gender, and religion as

well as a host of other influences. Although they

share Army values, an African-American man

from rural Texas may look at many things differently from, say, a third-generation IrishAmerican man who grew up in Philadelphia or

a Native American woman from the Pacific

Northwest. But be aware that perspectives vary

within groups as well. That’s why you should

try to understand individuals based on their

own ideas, qualifications, and contributions

and not jump to conclusions based on

stereotypes.

2-61. Army values are part of the Army’s institutional culture, a starting point for how you as

a member of the Army should think and act. Beyond that, Army leaders not only recognize that

people are different; they value them because of

their differences, because they are people. Your

job as a leader isn’t to make everyone the same.

2-14 FM 22-100

What the Leader Must Be, Know, and Do
Instead, your job is to take advantage of the fact

that everyone is different and build a cohesive

team. (Chapter 7 discusses the role strategic

leaders play in establishing and maintaining

the Army’s institutional culture.)

2-62. There’s great diversity in the Army—religious, ethnic, and social—and people of different backgrounds bring different talents to the

table. By joining the Army, these people have

agreed to adopt the Army culture. Army leaders

make this easier by embracing and making use

of everyone’s talents. What’s more, they create

a team where subordinates know they are valuable and their talents are important.

2-63. You never know how the talents of an individual or group will contribute to mission accomplishment. For example, during World War

II US Marines from the Navajo nation formed a

group of radio communications specialists

dubbed the Navajo Code Talkers. The code talkers used their native language—a unique talent—to handle command radio traffic. Not even

the best Japanese code breakers could decipher

what was being said.

2-64. Understanding the culture of your adversaries and of the country in which your organization is operating is just as important as

understanding the culture of your own country

and organization. This aspect of cultural awareness has always been important, but today’s operational environment of frequent

deployments—often conducted by small units

under constant media coverage—makes it even

more so. As an Army leader, you need to remain

aware of current events—particularly those in

areas where America has national interests.

You may have to deal with people who live in

those areas, either as partners, neutrals, or adversaries. The more you know about them, the

better prepared you’ll be.

2-65. You may think that understanding other

cultures applies mostly to stability operations

and support operations. However, it’s critical to

planning offensive and defensive operations as

well. For example, you may employ different

tactics against an adversary who considers surrender a dishonor worse than death than against

those for whom surrender is an honorable option.

Likewise, if your organization is operating as part

of a multinational team, how well you understand your partners will affect how well the

team accomplishes its mission.

2-66. Cultural awareness is crucial to the success of multinational operations. In such situations Army leaders take the time to learn the

customs and traditions of the partners’ cultures.

They learn how and why others think and act as

they do. Inmultinational forces,effective leaders

createa“thirdculture,”which is thebridgeor the

compromise among partners. This is what GA

Eisenhower did in the following example.

Army Leadership 2-15

Leader Attributes

GA Eisenhower Forms SHAEF

During World War II, one of GA Eisenhower’s duties as Supreme Allied Commander in the

European Theater of Operations (ETO) was to form his theater headquarters, the Supreme

Headquarters, Allied Expeditionary Force (SHAEF). GA Eisenhower had to create an environment in

this multinational headquarters in which staff members from the different Allied armies could work

together harmoniously. It was one of GA Eisenhower’s toughest jobs.

The forces under his command—American, British, French, Canadian, and Polish—brought not

only different languages, but different ways of thinking, different ideas about what was important, and

different strategies. GA Eisenhower could have tried to bend everyone to his will and his way of

thinking; he was the boss, after all. But it’s doubtful the Allies would have fought as well for a bullying

commander or that a bullying commander would have survived politically. Instead, he created a

positive organizational climate that made best use of the various capabilities of his subordinates. This

kind of work takes tact, patience, and trust. It doesn’t destroy existing cultures but creates a new one.

(Chapter 7 discusses how building this coalition contributed to the Allied victory in the ETO.)
PHYSICAL ATTRIBUTES

2-67. Physical attributes—health fitness,

physical fitness, and military and professional

bearing—can be developed. Army leaders maintain the appropriate level of physical fitness

and military bearing.

Health Fitness

Disease was the chief killer in the [American

Civil] war. Two soldiers died of it for every one

killed in battle...In one year, 995 of every

thousand men in the Union army contracted

diarrhea and dysentery.

Geoffrey C. Ward

The Civil War

2-68. Health fitness is everything you do to

maintain good health, things such as undergoing routine physical exams, practicing good

dental hygiene, maintaining deployability standards, and even personal grooming and cleanliness. A soldier unable to fight because of

dysentery is as much a loss as one who’s

wounded. Healthy soldiers can perform under

extremes in temperature, humidity, and other

conditions better than unhealthy ones. Health

fitness also includes avoiding things that

degrade your health, such as substance abuse,

obesity, and smoking.

Physical Fitness

Fatigue makes cowards of us all.

General George S. Patton Jr.

Commanding General, Third Army, World War II

2-69. Unit readiness begins with physically fit

soldiers and leaders. Combat drains soldiers

physically, mentally, and emotionally. To minimize those effects, Army leaders are physically

fit, and they make sure their subordinates are

fit as well. Physically fit soldiers perform better

in all areas, and physically fit leaders are better

able to think, decide, and act appropriately under pressure. Physical readiness provides a

foundation for combat readiness, and it’s up to

you, the leader, to get your soldiers ready.

2-70. Although physical fitness is a crucial element of success in battle, it’s not just for frontline soldiers. Wherever they are, people who are

physically fit feel more competent and confident. That attitude reassures and inspires

those around them. Physically fit soldiers and

DA civilians can handle stress better, work

longer and harder, and recover faster than ones

who are not fit. These payoffs are valuable in

both peace and war.

2-71. The physical demands of leadership positions, prolonged deployments, and continuous

operations can erode more than just physical attributes. Soldiers must show up ready for deprivations because it’s difficult to maintain high

levels of fitness during deployments and demanding operations. Trying to get fit under

those conditions is even harder. If a person isn’t

physically fit, the effects of additional stress

snowball until their mental and emotional fitness are compromised as well. Army leaders’

physical fitness has significance beyond their

personal performance and well-being. Since

leaders’ decisions affect their organizations’

combat effectiveness, health, and safety and

not just their own, maintaining physical fitness

is an ethical as well as a practical imperative.

2-72. The Army Physical Fitness Test (APFT)

measures a baseline level of physical fitness. As

an Army leader, you’re required to develop a

physical fitness program that enhances your

soldiers’ ability to complete soldier and leader

tasks that support the unit’s mission essential

task list (METL). (FM 25-101 discusses

METL-based integration of soldier, leader, and

collective training.) Fitness programs that emphasize training specifically for the APFT are

boring and don’t prepare soldiers for the varied

stresses of combat. Make every effort to design

a physical fitness program that prepares your

people for what you expect them to do in combat. Readiness should be your program’s primary focus; preparation for the APFT itself is

secondary. (FM 21-20 is your primary physical

fitness resource.)

2-16 FM 22-100

What the Leader Must Be, Know, and Do

ou have to lead men in war by requiring

more from the individual than he thinks he

can do. You have to [bring] them along to

endure and to display qualities of fortitude

thatarebeyond theaverageman’s thoughtof

what he should be expected to do. You have to
Military and Professional Bearing

Our...soldiers should look as good as they are.

Sergeant Major of the Army Julius W. Gates

2-73. As an Army leader, you’re expected to

look like a soldier. Know how to wear the uniform and wear it with pride at all times. Meet

height and weight standards. By the way you

carry yourself and through your military courtesy and appearance, you send a signal: I am

proud of my uniform, my unit, and myself.

Skillful use of your professional bearing—fitness, courtesy, and military appearance—can

often help you manage difficult situations. A

professional—DA civilian or soldier—presents

a professional appearance, but there’s more to

being an Army professional than looking good.

Professionals are competent as well; the Army

requires you to both look good and be good.

EMOTIONAL ATTRIBUTES

Anyone can become angry—that is easy. But to

be angry with the right person, to the right

degree, at the right time, for the right purpose,

and in the right way—that is not easy.

Aristotle

Greek philosopher and tutor to Alexander the Great

2-74. As an Army leader, your emotional attributes—self-control, balance, and stability—contribute to how you feel and therefore to how you

interact with others. Your people are human

beings with hopes, fears, concerns, and dreams.

When you understand that will and endurance

come from emotional energy, you possess a

powerful leadership tool. The feedback you give

can help your subordinates use their emotional

energy to accomplish amazing feats in tough

times.

2-75. Self-control, balance, and stability also

help you make the right ethical choices.

Chapter 4 discusses the steps of ethical reasoning. However, in order to follow those steps, you

must remain in control of yourself; you can’t be

at the mercy of your impulses. You must remain

calm under pressure, “watch your lane,” and

expend energy on things you can fix. Inform

your boss of things you can’t fix and don’t

worry about things you can’t affect.

2-76. Leaders who are emotionally mature also

have a better awareness of their own strengths

and weaknesses.Mature leaders spend their energy on self-improvement; immature leaders

spend their energy denying there’s anything

wrong. Mature, less defensive leaders benefit

from constructive criticism in ways that immature people cannot.

Army Leadership 2-17

Leader Attributes

inspire them when they are hungry and

exhausted and desperately uncomfortable

and in great danger; and only a man of

positive characteristics of leadership, with

the physical stamina [fitness] that goeswith

it, can function under those conditions.

General of the Army George C. Marshall

Army Chief of Staff, World War II

Self-Control in Combat

An American infantry company in Vietnam had been taking a lot of casualties from booby traps.

The soldiers were frustrated because they could not fight back. One night, snipers ambushed the

company near a village, killing two soldiers. The rest of the company—scared, anguished, and

frustrated—wanted to enter the village, but the commander—who was just as angry—knew that the

snipers were long gone. Further, he knew that there was a danger his soldiers would let their emotions

get the upper hand, that they might injure or kill some villagers out of a desire to strike back at

something. Besides being criminal, such killings would drive more villagers to the Viet Cong. The

commander maintained control of his emotions, and the company avoided the village.
Self-Control

Sure I was scared, but under the circumstances,

I’d have been crazy not to be scared....There’s

nothing wrong with fear. Without fear, you can’t

have acts of courage.

Sergeant Theresa Kristek

Operation Just Cause, Panama

2-77. Leaders control their emotions. No one

wants to work for a hysterical leader who might

lose control in a tough situation. This doesn’t

mean you never show emotion. Instead, you

must display the proper amount of emotion and

passion—somewhere between too much and

too little—required to tap into your subordinates’ emotions. Maintaining self-control inspires calm confidence in subordinates, the

coolness under fire so essential to a successful

unit. It also encourages feedback from your

subordinates that can expand your sense of

what’s really going on.

Balance

An officer or noncommissioned officer who loses

his temper and flies into a tantrum has failed to

obtain his first triumph in discipline.

Noncommissioned Officer’s Manual, 1917

2-78. Emotionally balanced leaders display the

right emotion for the situation and can also

read others’ emotional state. They draw on

their experience and provide their subordinates

the proper perspective on events. They have a

range of attitudes—from relaxed to intense—with which to approach situations and

can choose the one appropriate to the circumstances. Such leaders know when it’s time to

send a message that things are urgent and how

to do that without throwing the organization

into chaos. They also know how to encourage

people at the toughest moments and keep them

driving on.

Stability

Never let yourself be driven by impatience or

anger. One always regrets having followed the

first dictates of his emotions.

Marshal de Belle-Isle

French Minister of War, 1757-1760

2-79. Effective leaders are steady, levelheaded

under pressure and fatigue, and calm in the

face of danger. These characteristics calm their

subordinates, who are always looking to their

leader’s example. Display the emotions you

want your people to display; don’t give in to the

temptation to do what feels good for you. If

you’re under great stress, it might feel better to

vent—scream, throw things, kick furniture—but that will not help the organization. If

you want your subordinates to be calm and rational under pressure, you must be also.

2-18 FM 22-100

What the Leader Must Be, Know, and Do

BG Jackson at First Bull Run

At a crucial juncture in the First Battle of Bull Run, the Confederate line was being beaten back from

Matthews Hill by Union forces. Confederate BG Thomas J. Jackson and his 2,000-man brigade of

Virginians, hearing the sounds of battle to the left of their position, pressed on to the action. Despite a

painful shrapnel wound, BG Jackson calmly placed his men in a defensive position on Henry Hill and

assured them that all was well.

As men of the broken regiments flowed past, one of their officers, BG Barnard E. Bee, exclaimed

to BG Jackson, “General, they are driving us!” Looking toward the direction of the enemy, BG Jackson

replied, “Sir, we will give them the bayonet.” Impressed by BG Jackson’s confidence and self-control,

BG Bee rode off towards what was left of the officers and men of his brigade. As he rode into the

throng he gestured with his sword toward Henry Hill and shouted, “Look, men! There is Jackson

standing like a stone wall! Let us determine to die here, and we will conquer! Follow me!”

BG Bee would later be mortally wounded, but the Confederate line stiffened and the nickname he

gave to BG Jackson would live on in American military history. This example shows how one leader’s

self-control under fire can turn the tide of battle by influencing not only the leader’s own soldiers, but

the leaders and soldiers of other units as well.
FOCUS ON CHARACTER

Just as fire tempers iron into fine steel, so does adversity temper one’s character into firmness,

tolerance, and determination.

Margaret Chase Smith

Lieutenant Colonel, US Air Force Reserve

and United States Senator

2-80. Earlier in this chapter, you read how

character is made up of two interacting sets of

characteristics: values and attributes. People

enter the Army with values and attributes

they’ve developed over the course of a lifetime,

but those are just the starting points for further

character development. Army leaders continuously develop in themselves and their subordinates the Army values and leader attributes

that this chapter discusses and Figure 1-1

shows. This isn’t just an academic exercise, another mandatory training topic to address once

a year. Your character shows through in your

actions—on and off duty.

2-81. Character helps you determine what’s

right and motivates you to do it, regardless of

the circumstances or the consequences. What’s

more, an informed ethical conscience consistent with Army values steels you for making the

right choices when faced with tough questions.

Since Army leaders seek to do what’s right and

inspire others to do the same, you must be concerned with character development. Examine

the actions in this example, taken from the

report of a platoon sergeant during Operation

Desert Storm. Consider the aspects of character

that contributed to them.

Character and Prisoners

The morning of [28 February 1991], about a half-hour prior to the cease-fire, we had a T-55 tank

in front of us and we were getting ready [to engage it with a TOW]. We had the TOW up and we

were tracking him and my wingman saw him just stop and a head pop up out of it. And Neil started

calling me saying, “Don’t shoot, don’t shoot, I think they’re getting off the tank.” And they did. Three

of them jumped off the tank and ran around a sand dune. I told my wingman, “I’ll cover the tank,

you go on down and check around the back side and see what’s down there.” He went down there

and found about 150 PWs....

[T]he only way we could handle that many was just to line them up and run them through...a little

gauntlet...[W]e had to check them for weapons and stuff and we lined them up and called for the PW

handlers to pick them up. It was just amazing.

We had to blow the tank up. My instructions were to destroy the tank, so I told them to go ahead

and move it around the back side of the berm a little bit to safeguard us, so we wouldn’t catch any

shrapnel or ammunition coming off. When the tank blew up, these guys started yelling and screaming

at my soldiers, “Don’t shoot us, don’t shoot us,” and one of my soldiers said, “Hey, we’re from America; we don’t shoot our prisoners.” That sort of stuck with me.

2-82. The soldier’s comment at the end of this

story captures the essence of character. He said,

“We’re from America...” He defined, in a very

simple way, the connection between who you

are—your character—and what you do. This

example illustrates character—shared values

and attributes—telling soldiers what to do and

what not to do. However, it’s interesting for

other reasons. Read it again: You can almost

feel the soldiers’ surprise when they realized

what the Iraqi PWs were afraid of. You can picture the young soldier, nervous, hands on his

weapon, but still managing to be a bit amused.

The right thing, the ethical choice, was so

deeply ingrained in those soldiers that it never

occurred to them to do anything other than

safeguard the PWs.

Army Leadership 2-19

Focus on Character
2-83. BG McAuliffe spoke based on what he

knew his soldiers were capable of, even in the

most extreme circumstances. This kind of courage and toughness didn’t develop overnight.

Every Allied soldier brought a lifetime’s worth

of character to that battle; that character was

the foundation for everything else that made

them successful.

2-84. GA Eisenhower, in command of the

largest invasion force ever assembled and

poised on the eve of a battle that would decide

the fate of millions of people, was guided by

the same values and attributes that shaped

the actions of the soldiers in the Desert Storm

example. His character allowed for nothing

less than acceptance of total personal responsibility. If things went badly, he was ready to

take the blame. When things went well, he

gave credit to his subordinates. The Army

values GA Eisenhower personified provide a

powerful example for all members of the

Army.

2-20 FM 22-100

What the Leader Must Be, Know, and Do

The Battle of the Bulge

In December 1944 the German Army launched its last major offensive on the Western Front of the

ETO, sending massive infantry and armor formations into a lightly-held sector of the Allied line in Belgium.

American units were overrun. Thousands of green troops, sent to that sector because it was quiet, were

captured. For two desperate weeks the Allies fought to check the enemy advance. The 101st Airborne

Division was sent to the town of Bastogne. The Germans needed to control the crossroads there to move

equipment to the front; the 101st was there to stop them.

Outnumbered, surrounded, low on ammunition, out of medical supplies, and with wounded piling up,

the 101st, elements of the 9th and 10th Armored Divisions, and a tank destroyer battalion fought off

repeated attacks through some of the coldest weather Europe had seen in 50 years. Wounded men froze to

death in their foxholes. Paratroopers fought tanks. Nonetheless, when the German commander demanded

American surrender, BG Anthony C. McAuliffe, acting division commander, sent a one-word reply: “Nuts.”

The Americans held. By the time the Allies regained control of the area and pushed the Germans

back, Hitler’s “Thousand Year Reich” had fewer than four months remaining.

GA Eisenhower’s Message

On 5 June 1944, the day before the D-Day invasion, with his hundreds of thousands of soldiers,

sailors and airmen poised to invade France, GA Dwight D. Eisenhower took a few minutes to draft

a message he hoped he would never deliver. It was a “statement he wrote out to have ready when

the invasion was repulsed, his troops torn apart for nothing, his planes ripped and smashed to no

end, his warships sunk, his reputation blasted.”

In his handwritten statement, GA Eisenhower began, “Our landings in the Cherbourg-Havre area

have failed to gain a satisfactory foothold and I have withdrawn the troops.” Originally he had written,

the “troops have been withdrawn,” a use of the passive voice that conceals the actor. But he changed

the wording to reflect his acceptance of full personal accountability.

GA Eisenhower went on, “My decision to attack at this time and place was based on the best

information available.” And after recognizing the courage and sacrifice of the troops he concluded, “If

any blame or fault attaches to this attempt, it is mine alone.”
CHARACTER AND THE WARRIOR

ETHOS

2-85. The warrior ethos refers to the professional attitudes and beliefs that characterize

the American soldier. At its core, the warrior

ethos grounds itself on the refusal to accept failure. The Army has forged the warrior ethos on

training grounds from Valley Forge to the

CTCs and honed it in battle from Bunker Hill to

San Juan Hill, from the Meuse-Argonne to

Omaha Beach, from Pork Chop Hill to the Ia

Drang Valley, from Salinas Airfield to the Battle of 73 Easting. It derives from the unique realities of battle. It echoes through the precepts

in the Code of Conduct. Developed through discipline, commitment to Army values, and

knowledge of the Army’s proud heritage, the

warrior ethos makes clear that military service

is much more than just another job: the purpose

of winning the nation’s wars calls for total

commitment.

2-86. America has a proud tradition of

winning. The ability to forge victory out of the

chaos of battle includes overcoming fear,

hunger, deprivation, and fatigue. The Army

wins because it fights hard; it fights hard

because it trains hard; and it trains hard because that’s the way to win. Thus, the warrior

ethos is about more than persevering under the

worst of conditions; it fuels the fire to fight

through those conditions to victory no matter

how long it takes, no matter how much effort is

required. It’s one thing to make a snap decision

to risk your life for a brief period of time. It’s

quite another to sustain the will to win when

the situation looks hopeless and doesn’t show

any indications of getting better, when being

away from home and family is a profound hardship. The soldier who jumps on a grenade to

save his comrades is courageous, without question. That action requires great physical courage, but pursuing victory over time also

requires a deep moral courage that concentrates on the mission.

2-87. The warrior ethos concerns character,

shaping who you are and what you do. In that

sense, it’s clearly linked to Army values such as

personal courage, loyalty to comrades, and

dedication to duty. Both loyalty and duty

involve putting your life on the line, even when

there’s little chance of survival, for the good of a

cause larger than yourself. That’s the clearest

example of selfless service. American soldiers

never give up on their fellow soldiers, and they

never compromise on doing their duty. Integrity

underlies the character of the Army as well.

The warrior ethos requires unrelenting and

consistent determination to do what is right

and to do it with pride, both in war and military

operations other than war. Understanding

what is right requires respect for both your comrades and other people involved in such complex arenas as peace operations and nation

assistance. In such ambiguous situations, decisions to use lethal or nonlethal force severely

test judgment and discipline. In whatever conditions Army leaders find themselves, they turn

the personal warrior ethos into a collective

commitment to win with honor.

2-88. The warrior ethos is crucial—and perishable—so the Army must continually affirm, develop, and sustain it. Its martial ethic connects

American warriors today with those whose sacrifices have allowed our very existence. The

Army’s continuing drive to be the best, to triumph over all adversity, and to remain focused

on mission accomplishment does more than

preserve the Army’s institutional culture; it

sustains the nation.

2-89. Actions that safeguard the nation occur

everywhere you find soldiers. The warrior ethos

spurs the lead tank driver across a line of departure into uncertainty. It drives the bone-tired

medic continually to put others first. It pushes

the sweat-soaked gunner near muscle failure to

keep up the fire. It drives the heavily loaded infantry soldier into an icy wind, steadily uphill to

the objective. It presses the signaler through fatigue to provide communications. And the warrior ethos urges the truck driver across frozen

roads bounded by minefields because fellow soldiers at an isolated outpost need supplies. Such

tireless motivation comes in part from the comradeship that springs from the warrior ethos.

Soldiers fight for each other; they would rather

die than let their buddies down. That loyalty

runs front to rear as well as left to right: mutual

Army Leadership 2-21

Focus on Character
support marks Army culture regardless of who

you are, where you are, or what you are doing.

2-90. That tight fabric of loyalty to one another and to collective victory reflects perhaps the noblest aspect of our American

warrior ethos: the military’s subordinate relationship to civilian authority. That subordination began in 1775, was reconfirmed at

Newburgh, New York, in 1782, and continues

to this day. It’s established in the Constitution and makes possible the freedom all

Americans enjoy. The Army sets out to

achieve national objectives, not its own, for

selfless service is an institutional as well as an

individual value. And in the end, the Army returns its people back to the nation. America’s

sons and daughters return with their experience as part of a winning team and share that

spirit as citizens. The traditions and values of

the service derive from a commitment to excellent performance and operational success.

They also point to the Army’s unwavering

commitment to the society we serve. Those

characteristics serve America and its citizens—both in and out of uniform—well.

CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT

2-91. People come to the Army with a character formed by their background, religious or

philosophical beliefs, education, and experience. Your job as an Army leader would

be a great deal easier if you could check the

values of a new DA civilian or soldier the way

medics check teeth or run a blood test. You

could figure out what values were missing by

a quick glance at Figure 1-1 and administer

the right combination, maybe with an injection or magic pill.

2-92. But character development is a complex,

lifelong process. No scientist can point to a person and say, “This is when it all happens.”

However, there are a few things you can count

on. You build character in subordinates by creating organizations in which Army values are

not just words in a book but precepts for what

their members do. You help build subordinates’

character by acting the way you want them to

act. You teach by example, and coach along the

way. (Appendix E contains additional information on character development.) When you hold

yourself and your subordinates to the highest

standards, you reinforce the values those standards embody. They spread throughout the

team, unit, or organization—throughout the

Army—like the waves from a pebble dropped

into a pond.

CHARACTER AND ETHICS

2-93. When you talk about character, you help

your people answer the question, What kind of

person should I be? You must not only embrace

Army values and leader attributes but also use

them to think, reason, and—after reflection—act. Acting in a situation that tests your

character requires moral courage. Consider this

example.

2-22 FM 22-100

What the Leader Must Be, Know, and Do

The Qualification Report

A battalion in a newly activated division had just spent a great deal of time and effort on weapons

qualification. When the companies reported results, the battalion commander could not understand

why B and C Companies had reported all machine gunners fully qualified while A Company had not.

The A Company Commander said that he could not report his gunners qualified because they had

only fired on the 10-meter range and the manual for qualification clearly stated that the gunners had to

fire on the transition range as well. The battalion commander responded that since the transition

range was not built yet, the gunners should be reported as qualified: “They fired on the only range we

have. And besides, that’s how we did it at Fort Braxton.”

Some of the A Company NCOs, who had also been at Fort Braxton, tried to tell their company

commander the same thing. But the captain insisted the A Company gunners were not fully qualified,

and that’s how the report went to the brigade commander.
2-94. The A Company Commander made his

decision and submitted his report without

knowing how it would turn out. He didn’t know

the brigade commander would back him up, but

he reported his company’s status relative to the

published Army standard anyway. He insisted

on reporting the truth—which took character—

because it was the right thing to do.

2-95. Character is important in living a

consistent and moral life, but character doesn’t

always provide the final answer to the specific

question, What should I do now? Finding that

answer can be called ethical reasoning. Chapter

4 outlines a process for ethical reasoning. When

you read it, keep in mind that the process is

much more complex than the steps indicate and

that you must apply your own values, critical

reasoning skills, and imagination to the situation. There are no formulas that will serve

every time; sometimes you may not even come

up with an answer that completely satisfies

you. But if you embrace Army values and let

them govern your actions, if you learn from

your experiences and develop your skills over

time, you’re as prepared as you can be to face

the tough calls.

2-96. Some people try to set different Army

values against one another, saying a problem is

about loyalty versus honesty or duty versus respect. Leadership is more complicated than

that; the world isn’t always black and white. If

it were, leadership would be easy and anybody

could do it. However, in the vast majority of

cases, Army values are perfectly compatible; in

fact, they reinforce each other.

CHARACTER AND ORDERS

2-97. Making the right choice and acting on it

when faced with an ethical question can be difficult. Sometimes it means standing your

ground. Sometimes it means telling your boss

you think the boss is wrong, like the finance supervisor in Chapter 1 did. Situations like these

test your character. But a situation in which

you think you’ve received an illegal order can be

even more difficult.

2-98. In Chapter 1 you read that a good leader

executes the boss’s decision with energy and enthusiasm. The only exception to this principle is

your duty to disobey illegal orders. This isn’t a

privilege you can conveniently claim, but a duty

you must perform. If you think an order is illegal, first be sure that you understand both the

details of the order and its original intent. Seek

clarification from the person who gave the order. This takes moral courage, but the question

will be straightforward: Did you really mean for

me to...steal the part...submit a false report...shoot the prisoners? If the question is

complex or time permits, always seek legal

counsel. However, if you must decide immediately—as may happen in the heat of combat

make the best judgment possible based on

Army values, your experience, and your previous study and reflection. You take a risk when

you disobey what you believe to be an illegal order. It may be the most difficult decision you’ll

ever make, but that’s what leaders do.

2-99. While you’ll never be completely prepared

for such a situation, spending time reflecting on

Army values and leader attributes may help.

Talk to your superiors, particularly those who

Army Leadership 2-23

Focus on Character

The Qualification Report (continued)

The brigade commander asked for an explanation of the qualification scores. After hearing the A

Company Commander’s story, he agreed that the brigade would be doing itself no favors by reporting

partially qualified gunners as fully qualified. The incident also sent a message to division: get that

transition range built.

The A Company Commander’s choice was not between loyalty to his battalion commander and

honesty; doing the right thing here meant being loyal and honest. And the company commander had

the moral courage to be both honest and loyal—loyal to the Army, loyal to his unit, and loyal to his

soldiers.
have done what you aspire to do or what you

think you’ll be called on to do; providing counsel

of this sort is an important part of mentoring

(which Chapter 5 discusses). Obviously, you

need to make time to do this before you’re faced

with a tough call. When you’re in the middle of a

firefight, you don’t have time to reflect.

CHARACTER AND BELIEFS

2-100. What role do beliefs play in ethical matters? Beliefs are convictions people hold as true;

they are based on their upbringing, culture,

heritage, families, and traditions. As a result,

different moral beliefs have been and will continue to be shaped by diverse religious and

philosophical traditions. You serve a nation

that takes very seriously the notion that people

are free to choose their own beliefs and the basis for those beliefs. In fact, America’s strength

comes from that diversity. The Army respects

different moral backgrounds and personal convictions—as long as they don’t conflict with

Army values.

2-101. Beliefs matter because they are the way

people make sense of what they experience. Beliefs also provide the basis for personal values;

values are moral beliefs that shape a person’s

behavior. Effective leaders are careful not to require their people to violate their beliefs by ordering or encouraging any illegal or unethical

action.

2-102. TheConstitution reflects our deepest national values. One of these values is the guarantee of freedom of religion. While religious beliefs

and practices are left to individual conscience,

Army leaders are responsible for ensuring their

soldiers’ right to freely practice their religion. Title 10 of the United States Code states, “Each

commanding officer shall furnish facilities, including necessary transportation, to any chaplain assigned to his command, to assist the

chaplain in performing his duties.” What does

this mean for Army leaders? The commander

delegates staff responsibility to the chaplain for

programs to enhance spiritual fitness since

many people draw moral fortitude and inner

strength from a spiritual foundation. At the

same time, no leader may apply undue influence

or coerce others in matters of religion—whether

to practice or not to practice specific religious beliefs. (The first ten amendments to the Constitution are called the Bill of Rights. Freedom of

religion is guaranteed by the First Amendment,

an indication of how important the Founders

considered it. You can read the Bill of Rights in

Appendix F.)

2-103. Army leaders also recognize the role beliefs play in preparing soldiers for battle. Soldiers often fight and win over tremendous odds

when they are convinced of the ideals (beliefs) for

which they are fighting. Commitment to such

beliefs as justice, liberty, freedom, and not letting down your fellow soldier can be essential ingredients in creating and sustaining the will to

fight and prevail. A common theme expressed by

American PWs during the Vietnam Conflict was

the importance of values instilled by a common

American culture. Those values helped them to

withstand torture and thehardships ofcaptivity.

SECTION II

COMPETENCE: WHAT A LEADER MUST KNOW

The American soldier...demands professional competence in his leaders. In battle, he wants to

know that the job is going to be done right, with no unnecessary casualties. The

noncommissioned officer wearing the chevron is supposed to be the best soldier in the platoon

and he is supposed to know how to perform all the duties expected of him. The American

soldier expects his sergeant to be able to teach him how to do his job. And he expects even more

from his officers.

General of the Army Omar N. Bradley

2-104. Army values and leader attributes form

the foundation of the character of soldiers and

DA civilians. Character, in turn, serves as the

basis of knowing (competence) and doing

2-24 FM 22-100

What the Leader Must Be, Know, and Do
(leadership). The self-discipline that leads to

teamwork is rooted in character. In the Army,

teamwork depends on the actions of competent leaders of proven character who know

their profession and act to improve their organizations. The best Army leaders constantly

strive to improve, to get better at what they

do. Their self-discipline focuses on learning

more about their profession and continually

getting the team to perform better. They build

competence in themselves and their subordinates. Leader skills increase in scope and complexity as one moves from direct leader

positions to organizational and strategic

leader positions. Chapters 4, 6, and 7 discuss

in detail the different skills direct, organizational, and strategic leaders require.

2-105. Competence results from hard, realistic

training. That’s why Basic Training starts with

simple skills, such as drill and marksmanship.

Soldiers who master these skills have a couple of

victories under their belts. The message from

the drill sergeants—explicit or not—is, “You’ve

learned how to do those things; now you’re

ready to take on something tougher.” When you

lead people through progressively more complex tasks this way, they develop the confidence

and will—the inner drive—to take on the next,

more difficult challenge.

2-106. For you as an Army leader, competence

means much more than being well-trained.

Competence links character (knowing the

right thing to do) and leadership (doing or

influencing your people to do the right thing).

Leaders are responsible for being personally

competent, but even that isn’t enough: as a

leader, you’re responsible for your subordinates’ competence as well.

2-107. Figure 2-3 highlights the four categories

containing skills an Army leader must KNOW:

 Interpersonal skills affect how you deal

with people. They include coaching, teaching, counseling, motivating, and empowering.

 Conceptual skills enable you to handle

ideas. They require sound judgment as well

as the ability to think creatively and reason

analytically, critically, and ethically.

 Technical skills are job-related abilities. They include basic soldier skills. As

an Army leader, you must possess the expertise necessary to accomplish all tasks

and functions you’re assigned.

 Tactical skills apply to solving tactical

problems, that is, problems concerning

employment of units in combat. You enhance tactical skills when you combine

them with interpersonal, conceptual, and

technical skills to accomplish a mission.

2-108. Leaders in combat combine interpersonal,

conceptual, technical, and tactical skills to accomplish the mission. They use their interpersonal

skills to communicate their intent effectively

and motivate their soldiers. They apply their

conceptual skills to determine viable concepts

of operations, make the right decisions, and

execute the tactics the operational environment requires. They capitalize on their technical skills to properly employ the techniques,

procedures, fieldcraft, and equipment that fit

the situation. Finally, combat leaders employ

tactical skill, combining skills from the other

skill categories with knowledge of the art of tactics appropriate to their level of responsibility

and unit type to accomplish the mission. When

plans go wrong and leadership must turn the

tide, it is tactical skill, combined with

Army Leadership 2-25

Competence: What a Leader Must Know

VALUES

ATTRIBUTES

ACTIONS

“Be” “Do”

THE LEADER THE LEADER

of Character and Competence Acts...

to Achieve Excellence to Achieve Excellence

Interpersonal

Conceptual

Technical

Tactical

Figure 2-3. Leader Skills
character, that enables an Army leader to seize

control of the situation and lead the unit to mission accomplishment.

2-109. The Army leadership framework draws

a distinction between developing skills and performing actions. Army leaders who take their

units to a combat training center (CTC) improve their skills by performing actions—by

doing their jobs on the ground in the midst of

intense simulated combat. But they don’t wait

until they arrive at the CTC to develop their

skills; they practice ahead of time in command

post exercises, in combat drills, on firing

ranges, and even on the physical training (PT)

field.

2-110. Your leader skills will improve as your

experience broadens. A platoon sergeant gains

valuable experience on the job that will help

him be a better first sergeant. Army leaders

take advantage of every chance to improve:

they look for new learning opportunities, ask

questions, seek training opportunities, and request performance critiques.

SECTION III

SECTION III

LEADERSHIP: WHAT A LEADER MUST DO

He gets his men to go along with him because they want to do it for him and they believe in

him.

General of the Army Dwight D. Eisenhower

2-111. Leaders act. They bring together everything they are, everything they believe, and

everything they know how to do to provide purpose, direction, and motivation. Army leaders

work to influence people, operate to accomplish

the mission, and act to improve their organization. This section introduces leader actions.

Chapters 5, 6, and 7 discuss them more fully. As

with leader skills, leader actions increase in

scope and complexity as you move from direct

leader positions to organizational and strategic

leader positions.

2-112. Developing the right values, attributes,

and skills is only preparation to lead. Leadership

doesn’t begin until you act. Leaders who live up

to Army values, who display leader attributes,

who are competent, who act at all times as they

would have their people act, will succeed. Leaders who talk a good game but can’t back their

words with actions will fail in the long run.

2-26 FM 22-100

What the Leader Must Be, Know, and Do

VALUES

ATTRIBUTES

SKILLS

“Be” “Know”

THE LEADER THE LEADER

of Character and Competence Acts...

to Achieve Excellence to Achieve Excellence

Influencing

Operating

Improving

Figure 2-4. Leader Actions
INFLUENCING

2-113. Army leaders use interpersonal skills to

guide others toward a goal. Direct leaders most

often influence subordinates face to face—such

as when a team leader gives instructions, recognizes achievement, and encourages hard work.

Organizational and strategic leaders also influence their immediate subordinates and staff

face to face; however, they guide their organizations primarily by indirect influence. Squad

leaders, for example, know what their division

commander wants, not because the general has

briefed each one personally, but because his

intent is passed through the chain of command.

Influencing actions fall into these categories:

 Communicating involves displaying good

oral, written, and listening skills for individuals and groups.

 Decision making involves selecting the

line of action intended to be followed as the

one most favorable to the successful

accomplishment of the mission. This involves using sound judgment, reasoning

logically, and managing resources wisely.

 Motivating involves inspiring and guiding

others toward mission accomplishment.

OPERATING

2-114. Operating is what you do to accomplish

the immediate mission, to get the job done on

time and to standard. Operating actions fall

into these categories:

 Planning and preparing involve developing detailed, executable plans that are

feasible, acceptable, and suitable; arranging

unit support for the exercise or operation;

and conducting rehearsals. During tactical

operations, decision making and planning

are enhanced by two methodologies: the

military decision making process (MDMP)

and the troop leading procedures (TLP).

Battalion and higher echelons follow the

MDMP. Company and lower echelons follow

the TLP. (FM 101-5 discusses the MDMP.)

 Executing involves meeting mission

standards, taking care of people, and efficiently managing resources.

 Assessing involves evaluating the efficiency and effectiveness of any system or plan

in terms of its purpose and mission.

2-115. Leaders assess, or judge, performance so

they can determine what needs to be done to

sustain the strong areas and improve weak

ones. This kind of forward thinking is linked to

the last leader action, improving.

Army Leadership 2-27

Leadership: What a Leader Must Do
IMPROVING

2-116. Good leaders strive to leave an organization better than they found it. A child

struggling to understand why it is better to put

money in a piggy bank is learning what leaders

know: plan and sacrifice now for the sake of the

future. All leaders are tempted to focus on the

short-term gain that makes them and their organizations look good today: “Why bother to fix

it now? By the time next year rolls around, it

will be someone else’s problem.” But that attitude doesn’t serve either your subordinates or

the Army well. When an organization sacrifices

important training with long-term effects—say, training that leads to true marksmanship skill—and focuses exclusively on

short-term appearances—such as qualification

scores—the organization’s capabilities suffers.

2-117. The results of shortsighted priorities

may not appear immediately, but they will appear. Loyalty to your people as well as the Army

as an institution demands you consider the

long-term effects of your actions. Some of your

people will remain in the organization after

you’ve moved on. Some will still be in the Army

after you’re long gone. Soldiers and DA civilians tomorrow must live with problems leaders

don’t fix today.

2-118. Army leaders set priorities and balance

competing demands. They focus their

organizations’ efforts on short- and long-term

goals while continuing to meet requirements

that may or may not contribute directly to

achieving those goals. In the case of weapons

proficiency, qualification is a requirement but

true marksmanship skill is the goal. For battlefield success, soldiers need training that leads

to understanding and mastery of technical and

tactical skills that hold up under the stress of

combat. Throw in all the other things vying for

an organization’s time and resources and your

job becomes even more difficult. Guidance from

higher headquarters may help, but you must

make the tough calls. Improving actions fall

into these categories:

 Developing involves investing adequate

time and effort to develop individual subordinates as leaders. It includes mentoring.

 Building involves spending time and

resources to improve teams, groups, and

units and to foster an ethical climate.

 Learning involves seeking selfimprovement and organizational growth. It

includes envisioning, adapting, and leading

change.

SUMMARY

2-119. As an Army leader, leadership in combat

is your primary and most important challenge.

It requires you to accept a set of values that contributes to a core of motivation and will. If you

fail to accept and live these Army values, your

soldiers may die unnecessarily and you may fail

to accomplish your mission.

2-120. What must you, as an Army leader, BE,

KNOW, and DO? You must have character,

that combination of values and attributes that

underlie your ability to see what needs to be

done, decide to do it, and influence others to follow you. You must be competent, that is, possess the knowledge and skills required to do

your job right. And you must lead, take the

proper actions to accomplish the mission based

on what your character tells you is ethically

right and appropriate for the situation.

2-121. Leadership in combat, the greatest challenge, requires a basis for your motivation and

will. That foundation is Army values. In them

are rooted the basis for the character and selfdiscipline that generate the will to succeed and

the motivation to persevere. From this motivation derives the lifelong work of selfdevelopment in the skills thatmake a successful

Army leader, one who walks the talk of BE,

KNOW, DO. Chapter 3 examines the environment that surrounds your people and how what

you do as a leader affects it. Understanding the

human dimension is essential to mastering

leader skills and performing leader actions.

2-28 FM 22-100

What the Leader Must Be, Know, and Do
Chapter 3

The Human Dimension

All soldiers are entitled to outstanding leadership; I will provide that leadership. I know my

soldiers and I will always place their needs above my own. I will communicate consistently

with my soldiers and never leave them uninformed.

  	


	 


3-1. Regardless of the level, keep in mind one

important aspect of leadership: you lead people.

In the words of former Army Chief of Staff

Creighton W. Abrams,

The Army is not made up of people; the Army is people...living, breathing, serving human beings. They

have needs and interests and desires. They have

spirit and will, strengths and abilities. They have

weaknesses and faults, and they have means. They

are the heart of our preparedness...and this

preparedness—as a nation and as an Army—depends upon the spirit of our soldiers. It is the spirit

that gives the Army...life. Without it we cannot

succeed.

3-2. GEN Abrams could not have been more

clear about what’s important. To fully appreciate the human dimension of leadership, you

must understand two key elements: leadership

itself and the people you lead. Leadership—what this manual is about—is far from

an exact science; every person and organization

is different. Not only that, the environment in

which you lead is shaped first by who you are

and what you know; second, by your people and

what they know; and third, by everything that

goes on around you.

3-3. This chapter examines this all-important

human dimension. Later chapters discuss the

levels of Army leadership and the skills and actions required of leaders at each level.

PEOPLE, THE TEAM, AND THE INSTITUTION

3-4. Former Army Chief of Staff John A. Wickham Jr. described the relationship between the

people who are the Army and the Army as an institution this way:

The Army is an institution, not an occupation.

Members take an oath of service to the nation

and the Army, rather than simply accept a

job...the Army has moral and ethical

obligations to those who serve and their families;

they, correspondingly, have responsibilities to

the Army.

3-5. The Army has obligations to soldiers, DA

civilians, and their families that most organizations don’t have; in return, soldiers and DA civilians have responsibilities to the Army that

far exceed those of an employee to most employers. This relationship, one of mutual obligation

and responsibility, is at the very center of what

makes the Army a team, an institution rather

than an occupation.

3-6. Chapter 2 discussed how the Army can’t

function except as a team. This team identity

doesn’t come about just because people take an

 	
 


PEOPLE, THE TEAM, AND THE

INSTITUTION ......................................3-1

COMBAT STRESS.................................3-6

THE STRESS OF CHANGE ..................3-8

CLIMATE AND CULTURE...................3-12

LEADERSHIP STYLES........................3-15

INTENDED AND UNINTENDED

CONSEQUENCES............................3-18

SUMMARY ...........................................3-19
oath or join an organization; you can’t force a

team to come together any more than you can

force a plant to grow. Rather, the team identity

comes out of mutual respect among its members and a trust between leaders and subordinates. That bond between leaders and

subordinates likewise springs from mutual respect as well as from discipline. The highest

form of discipline is the willing obedience of

subordinates who trust their leaders, understand and believe in the mission’s purpose,

value the team and their place in it, and have

the will to see the mission through. This form of

discipline produces individuals and teams

who—in the really tough moments—come up

with solutions themselves.

DISCIPLINE

I am confident that an army of strong individuals, held together by a sound discipline based on

respect for personal initiative and rights and

dignity of the individual, will never fail this nation in time of need.

  	



  
  


3-7. People are our most important resource;

soldiers are in fact our “credentials.” Part of

knowing how to use this most precious resource

is understanding the stresses and demands that

influence people.

3-8. One sergeant major has described

discipline as “a moral, mental, and physical

state in which all ranks respond to the will of

the [leader], whether he is there or not.”

Disciplined people take the right action, even if

they don’t feel like it. True discipline demands

habitual and reasoned obedience, an obedience

that preserves initiative and works, even when

the leader isn’t around. Soldiers and DA civilians who understand the purpose of the mission, trust the leader, and share Army values

will do the right thing because they’re truly

committed to the organization.

3-9. Discipline doesn’t just mean barking

orders and demanding an instant response—it’s more complex than that. You build

discipline by training to standard, using rewards and punishment judiciously, instilling

confidence in and building trust among team

members, and creating a knowledgeable collective will. The confidence, trust, and collective

will of a disciplined, cohesive unit is crucial in

combat.

3-10. You can see the importance of these three

characteristics in an example that occurred

during the 3 October 1993 American raid in Somalia. One soldier kept fighting despite his

wounds. His comrades remembered that he

seemed to stop caring about himself, that he

had to keep fighting because the other

guys—his buddies—were all that mattered.

When things go badly, soldiers draw strength

from their own and their unit’s discipline; they

know that other members of the team are depending on them.

3-11. Soldiers—like those of Task Force

Ranger in Somalia (which you’ll read about

later in this chapter) and SGT Alvin York

(whose story is in Chapter 5)—persevere in

tough situations. They fight through because

 

	 

 	

oath or join an organization; you can’t force a

team to come together any more than you can

force a plant to grow. Rather, the team identity

comes out of mutual respect among its members and a trust between leaders and subordinates. That bond between leaders and

subordinates likewise springs from mutual respect as well as from discipline. The highest

form of discipline is the willing obedience of

subordinates who trust their leaders, understand and believe in the mission’s purpose,

value the team and their place in it, and have

the will to see the mission through. This form of

discipline produces individuals and teams

who—in the really tough moments—come up

with solutions themselves.

DISCIPLINE

I am confident that an army of strong individuals, held together by a sound discipline based on

respect for personal initiative and rights and

dignity of the individual, will never fail this nation in time of need.

  	



  
  


3-7. People are our most important resource;

soldiers are in fact our “credentials.” Part of

knowing how to use this most precious resource

is understanding the stresses and demands that

influence people.

3-8. One sergeant major has described

discipline as “a moral, mental, and physical

state in which all ranks respond to the will of

the [leader], whether he is there or not.”

Disciplined people take the right action, even if

they don’t feel like it. True discipline demands

habitual and reasoned obedience, an obedience

that preserves initiative and works, even when

the leader isn’t around. Soldiers and DA civilians who understand the purpose of the mission, trust the leader, and share Army values

will do the right thing because they’re truly

committed to the organization.

3-9. Discipline doesn’t just mean barking

orders and demanding an instant response—it’s more complex than that. You build

discipline by training to standard, using rewards and punishment judiciously, instilling

confidence in and building trust among team

members, and creating a knowledgeable collective will. The confidence, trust, and collective

will of a disciplined, cohesive unit is crucial in

combat.

3-10. You can see the importance of these three

characteristics in an example that occurred

during the 3 October 1993 American raid in Somalia. One soldier kept fighting despite his

wounds. His comrades remembered that he

seemed to stop caring about himself, that he

had to keep fighting because the other

guys—his buddies—were all that mattered.

When things go badly, soldiers draw strength

from their own and their unit’s discipline; they

know that other members of the team are depending on them.

3-11. Soldiers—like those of Task Force

Ranger in Somalia (which you’ll read about

later in this chapter) and SGT Alvin York

(whose story is in Chapter 5)—persevere in

tough situations. They fight through because

Soldiers Are Our Credentials

In September 1944 on the Cotentin Peninsula in France, the commander of a German stronghold

under siege by an American force sent word that he wanted to discuss surrender terms. German MG

Hermann Ramcke was in his bunker when his staff escorted the assistant division commander of the

US 8th Infantry Division down the concrete stairway to the underground headquarters. MG Ramcke

addressed BG Charles D. W. Canham through an interpreter: “I am to surrender to you. Let me see

your credentials.” Pointing to the dirty, tired, disheveled—but victorious—American infantrymen who

had accompanied him and were now crowding the dugout entrance, the American officer replied,

“These are my credentials.”
they have confidence in themselves, their buddies, their leaders, their equipment, and their

training—and because they have discipline and

will. A young sergeant who participated in Operation Uphold Democracy in Haiti in 1994 asserted this fact when interviewed by the media.

The soldier said that operations went well because his unit did things just the way they did

them in training and that his training never let

him down.

3-12. Even in the most complex operations, the

performance of the Army comes down to the

training and disciplined performance of individuals and teams on the ground. One example

of this fact occurred when a detachment of

American soldiers was sent to guard a television

tower in Udrigovo, Bosnia-Herzegovina.

3-13. After the soldiers had assumed their

posts, a crowd of about 100 people gathered,

grew to about 300, and began throwing rocks at

the Americans. However, the soldiers didn’t

overreact. They prevented damage to the tower

without creating an international incident.

There was no “Boston Massacre” in Udrigovo.

The discipline of American soldiers sent into

this and other highly volatile situations in Bosnia kept the lid on that operation. The bloody

guerrilla war predicted by some didn’t materialize. This is a testament to the professionalism

of today’s American soldiers—your soldiers—and the quality of their leaders—you.

MORALE

NSDQ [Night Stalkers Don’t Quit]

    	

 




   	



   !

  "#


$  	
 #
   %  &&'

3-14. When military historians discuss great

armies, they write about weapons and

equipment, training and the national cause.

They may mention sheer numbers (Voltaire

said, “God is always on the side of the heaviest

battalions”) and all sorts of other things that

can be analyzed, measured, and compared.

However, some also write about another factor

equally important to success in battle,

something that can’t be measured: the emotional element called morale.

3-15. Morale is the human dimension’s most

important intangible element. It’s a measure of

how people feel about themselves, their team,

and their leaders. High morale comes from good

leadership, shared hardship, and mutual respect. It’s an emotional bond that springs from

common values like loyalty to fellow soldiers and

a belief that the organization will care for families. High morale results in a cohesive team that

enthusiastically strives to achieve common

goals. Leaders know that morale, the essential

human element, holds the team together and

keeps it going in the face of the terrifying and dispiriting things that occur in war.

TAKING CARE OF SOLDIERS

Readiness is the best way of truly taking care of

soldiers.

( 	

)   


$ * +$$

3-16. Sending soldiers in harm’s way, into

places where they may be killed or wounded,

might seem to contradict all the emphasis on

taking care of soldiers. Does it? How can you

truly care for your comrades and send them on

missions that might get them killed? Consider

this important and fundamental point as you

read the next few paragraphs.

3-17. Whenever the talk turns to what leaders do, you’ll almost certainly hear someone

say, “Take care of your soldiers.” And that’s

good advice. In fact, if you add one more

clause, “Accomplish the mission and take

care of your soldiers,” you have guidance for a

career. But “taking care of soldiers” is one of

those slippery phrases, like the word

“honor,” that lots of people talk about but

few take the trouble to explain. So what does

taking care of soldiers mean?

 	
 


 	   	 



You have a comradeship, a rapport that

you’ll never have again...There’s no competitiveness, no money values. You trust the man

on your left and your right with your life.

 


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 --
3-18. Taking care of soldiers means creating a

disciplined environment where they can learn

and grow. It means holding them to high standards, training them to do their jobs so they

can function in peace and win in war. You take

care of soldiers when you treat them fairly, refuse to cut corners, share their hardships, and

set the example. Taking care of soldiers encompasses everything from making sure a soldier

has time for an annual dental exam to visiting

off-post housing to make sure it’s adequate. It

also means providing the family support that

assures soldiers their families will be taken

care of, whether the soldier is home or deployed. Family support means ensuring there’s

a support group in place, that even the most

junior soldier and most inexperienced family

members know where to turn for help when

their soldier is deployed.

3-19. Taking care of soldiers also means

demanding that soldiers do their duty, even

at the risk of their lives. It doesn’t mean coddling them or making training easy or comfortable. In fact, that kind of training can get

soldiers killed. Training must be rigorous and

as much like combat as is possible while being

safe. Hard training is one way of preparing

soldiers for the rigors of combat. Take care of

soldiers by giving them the training, equipment, and support they need to keep them

alive in combat.

3-20. In war, soldiers’ comfort is important because it affects morale and combat effectiveness, but comfort takes a back seat to the

mission. Consider this account of the 1944

landings on the island of Leyte in the

Philippines, written more than 50 years later

by Richard Gerhardt. Gerhardt, who was an

18-year-old rifleman in the 96th Infantry

Division, survived two amphibious landings

and months of close combat with the Japanese.

 

	
 
 



3-18. Taking care of soldiers means creating a

disciplined environment where they can learn

and grow. It means holding them to high standards, training them to do their jobs so they

can function in peace and win in war. You take

care of soldiers when you treat them fairly, refuse to cut corners, share their hardships, and

set the example. Taking care of soldiers encompasses everything from making sure a soldier

has time for an annual dental exam to visiting

off-post housing to make sure it’s adequate. It

also means providing the family support that

assures soldiers their families will be taken

care of, whether the soldier is home or deployed. Family support means ensuring there’s

a support group in place, that even the most

junior soldier and most inexperienced family

members know where to turn for help when

their soldier is deployed.

3-19. Taking care of soldiers also means

demanding that soldiers do their duty, even

at the risk of their lives. It doesn’t mean coddling them or making training easy or comfortable. In fact, that kind of training can get

soldiers killed. Training must be rigorous and

as much like combat as is possible while being

safe. Hard training is one way of preparing

soldiers for the rigors of combat. Take care of

soldiers by giving them the training, equipment, and support they need to keep them

alive in combat.

3-20. In war, soldiers’ comfort is important because it affects morale and combat effectiveness, but comfort takes a back seat to the

mission. Consider this account of the 1944

landings on the island of Leyte in the

Philippines, written more than 50 years later

by Richard Gerhardt. Gerhardt, who was an

18-year-old rifleman in the 96th Infantry

Division, survived two amphibious landings

and months of close combat with the Japanese.

The 96th Division on Leyte

By the time we reached the beach, the smoke and dust created by the preparation fire had largely

dissipated and we could see the terrain surrounding the landing area, which was flat and covered with

some underbrush and palm trees. We were fortunate in that our sector of the beach was not heavily

defended, and in going ashore there were few casualties in our platoon. Our company was engaged

by small arms fire and a few mortar rounds, but we were able to move forward and secure the landing

area in short order. Inland from the beach, however, the terrain turned into swamps, and as we moved

ahead it was necessary to wade through muck and mud that was knee-deep at times....Roads in this

part of the island were almost nonexistent, with the area being served by dirt trails around the

swamps, connecting the villages....The Japanese had generally backed off the beaches and left them

lightly defended, setting up their defense around certain villages which were at the junctions of the

road system, as well as dug-in positions at points along the roads and trails. Our strategy was to...not

use the roads and trails, but instead to move through the swamps and rice paddies and attack the

enemy strong points from directions not as strongly defended. This was slow, dirty, and extremely

fatiguing, but by this tactic we reduced our exposure to the enemy defensive plan, and to heavy fire

from their strong points. It must be recognized that in combat the comfort of the front-line troops isn’t

part of the...planning process, but only what they can endure and still be effective. Conditions that

seriously [affect] the combat efficiency of the troops then become a factor.
3-21. Gerhardt learned a lifetime’s worth of lessons on physical hardship in the Pacific. Mud,

tropical heat, monsoon rains, insects, malaria,

Japanese snipers, and infiltrators—the details

are still clear in his mind half a century later.

Yet he knows—and he tells you—that soldiers

must endure physical hardship when the best

plan calls for it. In the Leyte campaign, the best

plan was extremely difficult to execute, but it

was tactically sound and it saved lives.

3-22. This concept doesn’t mean that leaders

sit at some safe, dry headquarters and make

plans without seeing what their soldiers are

going through, counting on them to tough out

any situation. Leaders know that graphics on a

map symbolize soldiers going forward to fight.

Leaders get out with the soldiers to see and feel

what they’re experiencing as well as to influence the battle by their presence. (Gerhardt

and numerous other front-line writers refer to

the rear echelon as “anything behind my foxhole.”) Leaders who stay a safe distance from

the front jeopardize operations because they

don’t know what’s going on. They risk destroying their soldiers’ trust, not to mention their

unit.

3-23. This example illustrates three points:

 The importance of a leader going to where

the action is to see and feel what’s really going on.

 The importance of a first-line leader telling

the boss something he doesn’t want to hear.

 The importance of a leader accepting information that doesn’t fit his preconceived notions.

3-24. Soldiers are extremely sensitive to

situations where their leaders are not at risk,

and they’re not likely to forget a mistake by a

leader they haven’t seen. Leaders who are out

with their soldiers—in the same rain or snow,

under the same blazing sun or in the same dark

night, under the same threat of enemy artillery

or small arms fire—will not fall into the trap of

ignorance. Those who lead from the front can

better motivate their soldiers to carry on under

extreme conditions.

3-25. Taking care of soldiers is every leader’s

business. A DA civilian engineering team chief

volunteered to oversee the installation of six

Force Provider troop life support systems in the

vicinity of Tuzla, Bosnia-Herzogovina. Using

organizational skills, motivational techniques,

and careful supervision, the team chief ensured

that the sites were properly laid out, integrated,

and installed. As a result of thorough planning

and the teamwork the DA civilian leader

generated, the morale and quality of life of over

5,000 soldiers were significantly improved.

 	
 


 	   	 



The K Company Visit

1LT Harold Leinbaugh, commander of K Company, 333d Infantry Regiment, 84th Division,related

this experience from the ETO in January,1945, during the coldest winter in Europe in nearly 50 years:

On a front-line visit, the battalion commander criticized 1LT Leinbaugh and CPT Jay Prophet, the

A Company Commander, for their own and their men’s appearance. He said it looked like no one had

shaved for a week. 1LT Leinbaugh replied that there was no hot water. Sensing a teaching moment,

the colonel responded: “Now if you men would save some of your morning coffee it could be used for

shaving.” Stepping over to a snowbank, 1LT Leinbaugh picked up a five-gallon GI [general issue]

coffee can brought up that morning, and shook it in the colonel’s face. The frozen coffee produced a

thunk. 1LT Leinbaugh shook it again.

“That’s enough,” said the colonel,“...I can hear.”
COMBAT STRESS

All men are frightened. The more intelligent they are, the more they are frightened. The

courageous man is the man who forces himself, in spite of his fear, to carry on.

  	 
	

  	 


3-26. Leaders understand the human

dimension and anticipate soldiers’ reactions to

stress, especially to the tremendous stress of

combat. The answers may look simple as you

sit somewhere safe and read this manual, but

be sure easy answers don’t come in combat.

However, if you think about combat stress and

its effects on you and your soldiers ahead of

time, you’ll be less surprised and better

prepared to deal with and reduce its effects. It

takes mental discipline to imagine the unthinkable—the plan going wrong, your soldiers

wounded or dying, and the enemy coming after

YOU. But in combat all of these things can happen, and your soldiers expect you, their leader,

to have thought through each of them. Put

yourself in the position of the squad leader in

the following example.

3-27. Consider carefully what the squad leader

did. First he told his squad to calm down. Then

he told them why it was important: they had to

continue the fight if they wanted to make it

back to their base alive. In this way he jerked

his soldiers back to a conditioned response, one

that had been drilled during training and that

took their minds off the loss. The squad leader

demonstrated the calm, reasoned leadership

under stress that’s critical to mission success.

In spite of the loss, the unit persevered.

WILL AND WINNING IN BATTLE

3-28. The Army’s ultimate responsibility is to

win the nation’s wars. And what is it that

carries soldiers through the terrible challenges

of combat? It’s the will to win, the ability to gut

it out when things get really tough, even when

things look hopeless. It’s the will not only to

persevere but also to find workable solutions to

the toughest problems. This drive is part of the

warrior ethos, the ability to forge victory out of

the chaos of battle—to overcome fear, hunger,

deprivation, and fatigue and accomplish the

mission. And the will to win serves you just as

well in peacetime, when it’s easy to become

discouraged, feel let down, and spend your

energy complaining instead of using your

talents to make things better. Discipline holds a

team together; the warrior ethos motivates its

members—you and your people—to continue

the mission.

3-29. All soldiers are warriors: all need to develop and display the will to win—the desire to do

their job well—to persevere, no matter what

the circumstances. The Army is a team, and all

 

	
 
 



Task Force Ranger in Somalia, 1993

“Sarge” was a company favorite, a big powerful kid from New Jersey who talked with his hands

and played up his “Joy-zee” accent. He loved practical jokes. One of his favorites was to put those tiny

charges in guys’ cigarettes, the kind that would explode with a loud “POP!” about halfway through a

smoke. If anyone else had done it, it would have been annoying; Sarge usually got everyone to

laugh—even the guy whose cigarette he destroyed.

During the 3 October 1993 raid in Mogadishu, Sarge was manning his Humvee’s .50 cal when he

was hit and killed. The driver and some of the guys in back screamed, “He’s dead! He’s dead!” They

panicked and were not responding as their squad leader tried to get someone else up and behind the

gun. The squad leader had to yell at them, “Just calm down! We’ve got to keep fighting or none of us

will get back alive.”
members’ contributions are essential to mission accomplishment. As an Army leader,

you’re responsible for developing this sense of

belonging in your subordinates. Not only that;

it’s your job to inculcate in your people the winning spirit—the commitment to do their part to

accomplish the mission, no matter when, no

matter where, no matter what.

3-30. Army operations often involve danger

and therefore fear. Battling the effects of fear

has nothing to do with denying it and

everything to do with recognizing fear and handling it. Leaders let their subordinates know,

“You can expect to be afraid; here’s what we’ll

do about it.” The Army standard is to continue

your mission to successful completion, as GEN

Patton said, in spite of your fears. But saying

this isn’t going to make it happen. Army leaders

expect fear to take hold when things go poorly,

setbacks occur, the unit fails to complete a mission, or there are casualties. The sights and

sounds of the modern battlefield are terrifying.

So is fear of the unknown. Soldiers who see

their buddies killed or wounded suddenly have

a greater burden: they become aware of their

own mortality. On top of all these obvious

sources of fear is the insecurity before battle

that many veterans have written about: “Will I

perform well or will I let my buddies down?”

3-31. In the October 1993 fight in Somalia, one

soldier who made it back to the safety of the

American position was told to prepare to go

back out; there were other soldiers in trouble.

He had just run a gauntlet of fire, had just seen

his friends killed and wounded, and was understandably afraid. “I can’t go back out there,” he

told his sergeant. The leader reassured the soldier while reminding him of the mission and his

responsibility to the team: “I know you’re

scared...I’m scared...I’ve never been in a situation like this, either. But we’ve got to go. It’s

our job. The difference between being a coward

and a man isn’t whether you’re scared; it’s

what you do while you’re scared.” That frightened soldier probably wasn’t any less afraid,

but he climbed back on the vehicle and went out

to rescue the other American soldiers.

3-32. Will and a winning spirit apply in more

situations than those requiring physical

courage; sometimes you’ll have to carry on for

long periods in very difficult situations. The

difficulties soldiers face may not be ones of

physical danger, but of great physical,

emotional, and mental strain. Physical courage

allowed the soldier in the situation described

above to return to the fight; will allowed his

leader to say the right thing, to influence his

frightened subordinate to do the right thing.

Physical courage causes soldiers to charge a

machine gun; will empowers them to fight on

when they’re hopelessly outnumbered, under

appalling conditions, and without basic

necessities.

STRESS IN TRAINING

When the bullets started flying...I never thought

about half the things I was doing. I simply

relied on my training and concentrated on the

mission.

  	



   

3-33. Leaders must inject stress into training to

prepare soldiers for stress in combat. However,

creating a problem for subordinates and having

them react to it doesn’t induce the kind of

stress required for combat training. A meaningful and productive mission, given with detailed

constraints and limitations plus high standards

of performance, does produce stress. Still, leaders must add unanticipated conditions to that

stress to create a real learning environment.

Sometimes, you don’t even have to add stress; it

just happens, as in this example.

 	
 


 
3-34. The section chief fixed the immediate

problem by starting to shuttle the infantry soldiers in the available trucks. During the AAR

with the drivers, the leader admitted a mistake

and figured out how to prevent similar errors in

the future. The section chief also let the team

know that sometimes, in spite of the best plans,

things go wrong. A well-trained organization

doesn’t buckle under stress but deals with any

setbacks and continues the mission.

THE STRESS OF CHANGE

3-35. Since the end of the Cold War, the Army

has gone through tremendous change—dramatic decreases in the number of soldiers and

DA civilians in all components, changes in assignment policies, base closings, and a host of

other shifts that put stress on soldiers, DA civilians, and families. In those same years, the

number of deployments to support missions

such as peace operations and nation assistance

has increased. And these changes have occurred

in a peacetime Army. At the same time, Army

leaders have had to prepare their soldiers for the

stresses of combat, the ultimate crucible.

3-36. The stresses of combat you read about

earlier in this chapter are classic: they’ve been

the same for centuries. However, there’s an aspect of the human dimension that has assumed

an increasing importance: the effect of technological advances on organizations and people.

Military leaders have always had to deal with

the effect of technological changes. What’s different today is the rate at which technology, to

include warfighting technology, is changing.

Rapid advances in new technologies are forcing

the Army to change many aspects of the way it

operates and are creating new leadership

challenges.

TECHNOLOGY AND LEADERSHIP

3-37. Technology’s presence challenges all

Army leaders. Technology is here to stay and

you, as an Army leader, need to continually

learn how to manage it and make it work for

you. The challenges come from many

directions. Among them—

 You need to learn the strengths and vulnerabilities of the different technologies that

support your team and its mission.

 You need to think through how your organization will operate with organizations that

are less or more technologically complex.

This situation may take the form of heavy

and light Army units working together, operating with elements of another service, or

 

	
 
 



Mix-up at the Crossroads

A young transportation section chief was leading a convoy of trucks on a night move to link up

with several rifle companies. He was to transport the infantry to a new assembly area. When a sudden

rainstorm dropped visibility to near zero, the section chief was especially glad that he had carefully

briefed his drivers, issued strip maps, and made contingency plans. At a road intersection, his

northbound convoy passed through an artillery battery moving east. When his convoy reached the

rendezvous and the section chief got out to check his vehicles, he found he was missing two of his

own trucks but had picked up three others towing howitzers. The tired and wet infantry commander

was concerned that his unit would be late crossing the line of departure and forcefully expressed that

concern to the section chief. The section chief now had to accomplish the same mission with fewer

resources as well as run down his lost trucks and soldiers. There was certainly enough stress to go

around.

After the section chief sent one of his most reliable soldiers with the artillery vehicles to find his

missing trucks, he started shuttling the infantrymen to their destination. Later, after the mission was

accomplished, the section chief and his drivers talked about what had happened. The leader admitted

that he needed to supervise a convoy more closely under difficult conditions, and his soldiers

recognized the need to follow the part of the unit SOP concerning reduced visibility operations.
cooperating with elements of another nation’s armed forces.

 You need to consider the effect of

technology on the time you have to analyze

problems, make a decision, and act. Events

happen faster today, and the stress you encounter as an Army leader is correspondingly greater.

Technological advances have the potential to

permit better and more sustainable operations.

However, as an Army leader you must remember the limitations of your people. No matter

what technology you have or how it affects your

mission, it’s still your soldiers and DA civilians—their minds, hearts, courage, and talents—that will win the day.

3-38. Advances in electronic data processing let

you handle large amounts of information easily.

Today’s desktop computer can do more, and do

it faster, than the room-sized computers of only

20 years ago. Technology is a powerful tool—if

you understand its potential uses and limitations. The challenge for all Army leaders is to

overcome confusion on a fast-moving battlefield characterized by too much information

coming in too fast.

3-39. Army leaders and staffs have always

needed to determine mission-critical information, prioritize incoming reports, and process them quickly. The volume of information

that current technology makes available makes

this skill even more important than in the past.

Sometimes something low-tech can divert the

flood of technological help into channels the

leader and staff can manage. For example, a

well-understood commander’s intent and

thought-through commander’s critical information requirements (CCIR) can help free leaders from nonessential information while

pushing decisions to lower levels. As an Army

leader, you must work hard to overcome the attractiveness and potential pitfalls of centralized

decision making that access to information will

appear to make practical.

3-40. Technology is also changing the size of

the battlefield and the speed of battle. Instant

global communications are increasing the pace

of military actions. Global positioning systems

and night vision capabilities mean the Army

can fight at night and during periods of limited

visibility—conditions that used to slow things

down. Continuous operations increase the mental and physical stress on soldiers and leaders.

Nonlinear operations make it more difficult for

commanders to determine critical points on the

battlefield. Effective leaders develop techniques to identify and manage stress well before actual conflict occurs. They also find ways

to overcome the soldier’s increased sense of isolation that comes with the greater breadth and

depth of the modern battlefield. (FM 100-34

discusses continuous operations. FM 22-51 discusses combat stress control.)

3-41. Modern technology has also increased the

number and complexity of skills the Army requires. Army leaders must carefully manage

low-density specialties. They need to ensure

that critical positions are filled and that their

people maintain perishable skills. Army leaders

must bring together leadership, personnel

management, and training management to ensure their organizations are assigned people

with the right specialties and that the entire organization is trained and ready. On top of this,

the speed and lethality of modern battle have

made mental agility and initiative even more

necessary for fighting and winning. As in the

past, Army leaders must develop these attributes in their subordinates.

3-42. To some, technology suggests a bloodless

battlefield that resembles a computer war game

more than the battlefields of the past. That

isn’t true now and it won’t be true in the immediate future. Technology is still directed at answering the same basic questions that Civil War

leaders tried to answer when they sent out a

line of skirmishers: Where am I? Where are my

buddies? Where is the enemy? How do I defeat

him? Armed with this information, the soldiers

and DA civilians of the Army will continue to

accomplish the mission with character, using

their technological edge to do the job better,

faster, and smarter.

3-43. Modern digital technology can contribute

a great deal to the Army leader’s understanding

of the battlefield; good leaders stay abreast of

advances that enhance their tactical abilities.

Digital technology has a lot to offer, but don’t be

 	
 


	   	
fooled. A video image of a place, an action, or an

organization can never substitute for the leader’s getting down on the ground with the soldiers to find out what’s going on. Technology

can provide a great deal of information, but it

may not present a completely accurate picture.

The only way leaders can see the urgency in the

faces of their soldiers is to get out and see them.

As with any new weapon, the Army leader must

know how to use technology without being seduced by it. Technology may be invaluable; however, effective leaders understand its limits.

3-44. Whatever their feeling regarding technology, today’s leaders must contend more and

more with an increased information flow and operational tempo (OPTEMPO). Pressures to

make a decision increase, even as the time to verify and validate information decreases. Regardless of the crunch, Army leaders are responsible

for the consequences of their decisions, so they

gather, process, analyze, evaluate—and check

—information. If they don’t, the costs can be disastrous. (FM 100-34 discusses information management and decision making.)

3-45. The Chinese counterattack undid the results of the previous summer’s campaign and

denied UN forces the opportunity for a decisive

victory that may have ended the war. The UN

forces, under US leadership, enjoyed significant

technological advantages over the Chinese.

However, failure to verify the information provided by aerial photography set this advantage

to zero. And this failure was one of leadership,

not technology. Questioning good news provided by the latest “gee-whiz” system and ordering reconnaissance patrols to go out in lousy

weather both require judgment and moral

courage: judgment as to when a doubt is reasonable and courage to order soldiers to risk their

lives in cold, miserable weather. But Army leaders must make those judgments and give those

orders. Technology has not changed that.

3-46. Technology and making the most of it will

become increasingly important. Today’s Army

leaders require systems understanding and

more technical and tactical skills. Technical

skill: What does this system do? What does it

not do? What are its strengths? What are its

weaknesses? What must I check? Tactical skill:

  

	 

 	

fooled. A video image of a place, an action, or an

organization can never substitute for the leader’s getting down on the ground with the soldiers to find out what’s going on. Technology

can provide a great deal of information, but it

may not present a completely accurate picture.

The only way leaders can see the urgency in the

faces of their soldiers is to get out and see them.

As with any new weapon, the Army leader must

know how to use technology without being seduced by it. Technology may be invaluable; however, effective leaders understand its limits.

3-44. Whatever their feeling regarding technology, today’s leaders must contend more and

more with an increased information flow and operational tempo (OPTEMPO). Pressures to

make a decision increase, even as the time to verify and validate information decreases. Regardless of the crunch, Army leaders are responsible

for the consequences of their decisions, so they

gather, process, analyze, evaluate—and check

—information. If they don’t, the costs can be disastrous. (FM 100-34 discusses information management and decision making.)

3-45. The Chinese counterattack undid the results of the previous summer’s campaign and

denied UN forces the opportunity for a decisive

victory that may have ended the war. The UN

forces, under US leadership, enjoyed significant

technological advantages over the Chinese.

However, failure to verify the information provided by aerial photography set this advantage

to zero. And this failure was one of leadership,

not technology. Questioning good news provided by the latest “gee-whiz” system and ordering reconnaissance patrols to go out in lousy

weather both require judgment and moral

courage: judgment as to when a doubt is reasonable and courage to order soldiers to risk their

lives in cold, miserable weather. But Army leaders must make those judgments and give those

orders. Technology has not changed that.

3-46. Technology and making the most of it will

become increasingly important. Today’s Army

leaders require systems understanding and

more technical and tactical skills. Technical

skill: What does this system do? What does it

not do? What are its strengths? What are its

weaknesses? What must I check? Tactical skill:

“Superior Technology”

In the late fall of 1950, as United Nations (UN) forces pushed the North Korean People’s Army

northward, the People’s Republic of China prepared to enter the conflict in support of its ally. The UN

had air superiority, a marked advantage that had contributed significantly to the UN tactical and

operational successes of the summer and early fall. Nonetheless, daily reconnaissance missions

over the rugged North Korean interior failed to detect the Chinese People’s Liberation Army’s

movement of nearly a quarter of a million ground troops across the border and into position in the

North Korean mountains.

When the first reports of Chinese soldiers in North Korea arrived at Far East Command in Tokyo,

intelligence analysts ignored them because they contradicted the information provided by the latest

technology—aerial surveillance. Tactical commanders failed to send ground patrols into the

mountains. They assumed the photos gave an accurate picture of the enemy situation when, in fact,

the Chinese were practicing strict camouflage discipline. When the Chinese attacked in late

November, UN forces were surprised, suffered heavy losses, and were driven from the Chinese

border back to the 38th parallel.

When GEN Matthew B. Ridgway took over the UN forces in Korea in December, he immediately

visited the headquarters of every regiment and many of the battalions on the front line. This gave GEN

Ridgway an unfiltered look at the situation, and it sent a message to all his commanders: get out on

the ground and find out what’s going on.
How do this system’s capabilities support my

organization? How should I employ it to support this mission? What must I do if it fails?

There’s a fine line between a healthy questioning of new systems’ capabilities and an unreasoning hostility that rejects the advantages

technology offers. You, as an Army leader, must

stay on the right side of that line, the side that

allows you to maximize the advantages of technology. You need to remain aware of its capabilities and shortcomings, and you need to

make sure your people do as well.

LEADERSHIP AND THE CHANGING

THREAT

3-47. Another factor that will have a major

impact on Army leadership in the near future is

the changing nature of the threat. For the

Army, the twenty-first century began in 1989

with the fall of the Berlin Wall and subsequent

collapse of the Soviet Union. America no longer

defines its security interests in terms of a single, major threat. Instead, it faces numerous,

smaller threats and situations, any of which can

quickly mushroom into a major security

challenge.

3-48. The end of the Cold War has increased the

frequency and variety of Army missions. Since

1989, the Army has fought a large-scale land

war and been continually involved in many different kinds of stability operations and support

operations. There has been a greater demand

for special, joint, and multinational operations

as well. Initiative at all levels is becoming more

and more important. In many instances, Army

leaders on the ground have had to invent ways

of doing business for situations they could not

have anticipated.

3-49. Not only that, the importance of direct

leaders—NCOs and junior officers—making the

right decisions in stressful situations has increased. Actions by direct-level leaders—sergeants, warrant officers, lieutenants, and

captains—can have organizational- and

strategic-level implications. Earlier in this

chapter, you read about the disciplined soldiers

and leaders who accomplished their mission of

securing a television tower in Udrigovo,

Bosnia-Herzegovina. In that case, the local

population’s perception of how American soldiers secured the tower was just as important as

securing the tower itself. Had the American detachment created an international incident by

using what could have been interpreted as excessive force, maintaining order throughout

Bosnia Herzegovina would have become more

difficult. The Army’s organizational and strategic leaders count on direct leaders. It has always

been important to accomplish the mission the

right way the first time; today it’s more important than ever.

3-50. The Army has handled change in the

past. It will continue to do so in the future as

long as Army leaders emphasize the

constants—Army values, teamwork, and discipline—and help their people anticipate change

by seeking always to improve. Army leaders

explain, to the extent of their knowledge and in

clear terms, what may happen and how the organization can effectively react if it does.

Change is inevitable; trying to avoid it is futile.

The disciplined, cohesive organization rides out

the tough times and will emerge even better

than it started. Leadership, in a very real sense,

includes managing change and making it work

for you. To do that, you must know what to

change and what not to change.

3-51. FM 100-5 provides a doctrinal framework

for coping with these challenges while

executing operations. It gives Army leaders

clues as to what they will face and what will be

required of them, but as COL Chamberlain

found on Little Round Top, no manual can

cover all possibilities. The essence of leadership

remains the same: Army leaders create a vision

of what’s necessary, communicate it in a way

that makes their intent clear, and vigorously

execute it to achieve success.

 	
 


	   	
CLIMATE AND CULTURE

3-52. Climate and culture describe the environment in which you lead your people. Culture refers to the environment of the Army as an

institution and of major elements or communities within it. Strategic leaders maintain the

Army’s institutional culture. (Chapter 7 discusses their role.) Climate refers to the environment of units and organizations. All

organizational and direct leaders establish

their organization’s climate, whether purposefully or unwittingly. (Chapters 5 and 6 discuss

their responsibilities.)

CLIMATE

3-53. Taking care of people and maximizing

their performance also depends on the climate a

leader creates in the organization. An organization’s climate is the way its members feel about

their organization. Climate comes from people’s shared perceptions and attitudes, what

they believe about the day-to-day functioning of

their outfit. These things have a great impact

on their motivation and the trust they feel for

their team and their leaders. Climate is generally short-term: it depends on a network of the

personalities in a small organization. As people

come and go, the climate changes. When a soldier says “My last platoon sergeant was pretty

good, but this new one is great,” the soldier is

talking about one of the many elements that affect organizational climate.

3-54. Although such a call seems subjective,

some very definite things determine climate.

The members’ collective sense of the organization—its organizational climat —is directly attributable to the leader’s values, skills, and

actions. As an Army leader, you establish the

climate of your organization, no matter how

small it is or how large. Answering the following questions can help you describe an organization’s climate:

 Does the leader set clear priorities and

goals?

 Is there a system of recognition, rewards

and punishments? Does it work?

 Do the leaders know what they’re doing? Do

they admit when they’re wrong?

 Do leaders seek input from subordinates?

Do they act on the feedback they’re provided?

 In the absence of orders, do junior leaders

have authority to make decisions that are

consistent with the leader’s intent?

 Are there high levels of internal stress and

negative competition in the organization? If

so, what’s the leader doing to change that

situation?

 Do the leaders behave the way they talk? Is

that behavior consistent with Army values?

Are they good role models?

 Do the leaders lead from the front, sharing

hardship when things get tough?

 Do leaders talk to their organizations on a

regular basis? Do they keep their people

informed?

3-55. Army leaders who do the right things for

the right reasons—even when it would be easier

to do the wrong thing—create a healthy

organizational climate. In fact, it’s the leader’s

behavior that has the greatest effect on the

organizational climate. That behavior signals

to every member of the organization what the

leader will and will not tolerate. Consider this

example.

  

	 

 	
 	
 



  

Changing a Unit Climate—The New Squad Leader

SSG Withers was having a tough week. He had just been promoted to squad leader in a different

company; he had new responsibilities, new leaders, and new soldiers. Then, on his second day, his

unit was alerted for a big inspection in two days. A quick check of the records let him know that the

squad leader before him had let maintenance slip; the records were sloppy and a lot of the scheduled

work had not been done. On top of that, SSG Withers was sure his new platoon sergeant didn’t like

him. SFC King was professional but gruff, a person of few words. The soldiers in SSG Withers’ squad

seemed a little afraid of the platoon sergeant.

After receiving the company commander’s guidance about the inspection, the squad leaders

briefed the platoon sergeant on their plans to get ready. SSG Withers had already determined that he

and his soldiers would have to work late. He could have complained about his predecessor, but he

thought it would be best just to stick to the facts and talk about what he had found in the squad. For all

he knew, the old squad leader might have been a favorite of SFC King.

SFC King scowled as he asked, “You’re going to work late?”

SSG Withers had checked his plan twice: “Yes, sergeant. I think it’s necessary.”

SFC King grunted, but the sound could have meant “okay” or it could have meant “You’re being

foolish.” SSG Withers wasn’t sure.

The next day SSG Withers told his soldiers what they would have to accomplish. One of the

soldiers said that the old squad leader would have just fudged the paperwork. “No kidding,” SSG

Withers thought. He wondered if SFC King knew about it. Of course, there was a good chance he

would fail the inspection if he didn’t fudge the paperwork—and wouldn’t that be a good introduction to

the new company? But he told his squad that they would do it right: “We’ll do the best we can. If we

don’t pass, we’ll do better next time.”

SSG Withers then asked his squad for their thoughts on how to get ready. He listened to their

ideas and offered some of his own. One soldier suggested that they could beat the other squads by

sneaking into the motor pool at night and lowering the oil levels in their vehicles. “SFC King gives a

half day off to whatever squad does best,” the soldier explained. SSG Withers didn’t want to

badmouth the previous squad leader; on the other hand, the squad was his responsibility now. “It’d be

nice to win,” SSG Withers said, “but we’re not going to cheat.”

The squad worked past 2200 hours the night before the inspection. At one point SSG Withers

found one of the soldiers sleeping under a vehicle. “Don’t you want to finish and go home to sleep?”

he asked the soldier.

“I...uh...I didn’t think you’d still be here,” the soldier answered.

“Where else would I be?” replied the squad leader.

The next day, SFC King asked SSG Withers if he thought his squad’s vehicle was going to pass

the inspection.

“Not a chance,” SSG Withers said.

SFC King gave another mysterious grunt.

Later, when the inspector was going over his vehicle, SSG Withers asked if his soldiers could

follow along. “I want them to see how to do a thorough inspection,” he told the inspector. As the

soldiers followed the inspector around and learned how to look closely at the vehicle, one of them

commented that the squad had never been around for any inspection up to that point. “We were

always told to stay away,” he said.

Later, when the company commander went over the results of the inspection, he looked up at

SSG Withers as he read the failing grade. SSG Withers was about to say, “We’ll try harder next time,

sir,” but he decided that sounded lame, so he said nothing. Then SFC King spoke up.

“First time that squad has ever failed an inspection,” the platoon sergeant said, “but they’re

already better off than they were the day before yesterday, failing grade and all.”
3-56. SFC King saw immediately that things

had changed for the better in SSG Withers’

squad. The failing grade was real; previous

passing grades had not been. The new squad

leader told the truth and expected his soldiers

to do the same. He was there when his people

were working late. He acted to improve the

squad’s ethical and performance standards (by

clearly stating and enforcing them). He moved

to teach his soldiers the skills and standards associated with vehicle maintenance (by asking

the inspector to show them how to look at a vehicle). And not once did SSG Withers whine

that the failing grade was not his fault; instead,

he focused on how to make things better. SSG

Withers knew how to motivate soldiers to perform to standard and had the strength of character to do the right thing. In addition, he

trusted the chain of command to take the longterm view. Because of his decisive actions,

based on his character and competence, SSG

Withers was well on his way to creating a much

healthier climate in his squad.

3-57. No matter how they complain about it,

soldiers and DA civilians expect to be held to

standard; in the long run they feel better about

themselves when they do hard work successfully. They gain confidence in leaders who help

them achieve standards and lose confidence in

leaders who don’t know the standards or who

fail to demand performance.

CULTURE

When you’re first sergeant, you’re a role model

whether you know it or not. You’re a role model

for the guy that will be in your job. Not next

month or next year, but ten years from now.

Every day soldiers are watching you and

deciding if you are the kind of first sergeant they

want to be.

   	






3-58. Culture is a longer lasting, more complex

set of shared expectations than climate. While

climate is how people feel about their organization right now, culture consists of the shared attitudes, values, goals, and practices that

characterize the larger institution. It’s deeply

rooted in long-held beliefs, customs, and

practices. For instance, the culture of the

armed forces is different from that of the business world, and the culture of the Army is different from that of the Navy. Leaders must

establish a climate consistent with the culture

of the larger institution. They also use the

culture to let their people know they’re part of

something bigger than just themselves, that

they have responsibilities not only to the people

around them but also to those who have gone

before and those who will come after.

3-59. Soldiers draw strength from knowing

they’re part of a tradition. Most meaningful

traditions have their roots in the institution’s

culture. Many of the Army’s everyday customs

and traditions are there to remind you that

you’re just the latest addition to a long line of

American soldiers. Think of how much of your

daily life connects you to the past and to American soldiers not yet born: the uniforms you

wear, the martial music that punctuates your

day, the way you salute, your title, your organization’s history, and Army values such as selfless service. Reminders of your place in history

surround you.

3-60. This sense of belonging is vitally

important. Visit the Vietnam Memorial in

Washington, DC, some Memorial Day weekend

and you’ll see dozens of veterans, many of them

wearing bush hats or campaign ribbons or fatigue jackets decorated with unit patches.

They’re paying tribute to their comrades in this

division or that company. They’re also acknowledging what for many of them was the most intense experience of their lives.

3-61. Young soldiers want to belong to

something bigger than themselves. Look at

them off duty, wearing tee shirts with names of

sports teams and famous athletes. It’s not as if

an 18-year-old who puts on a jacket with a professional sports team’s logo thinks anyone will

mistake him for a professional player; rather,

that soldier wants to be associated with a winner. Advertising and mass media make heroes

of rock stars, athletes, and actors. Unfortunately, it’s easier to let some magazine or TV

show tell you whom to admire than it is to dig

up an organization’s history and learn about

heroes.

  

	
 
 



3-56. SFC King saw immediately that things

had changed for the better in SSG Withers’

squad. The failing grade was real; previous

passing grades had not been. The new squad

leader told the truth and expected his soldiers

to do the same. He was there when his people

were working late. He acted to improve the

squad’s ethical and performance standards (by

clearly stating and enforcing them). He moved

to teach his soldiers the skills and standards associated with vehicle maintenance (by asking

the inspector to show them how to look at a vehicle). And not once did SSG Withers whine

that the failing grade was not his fault; instead,

he focused on how to make things better. SSG

Withers knew how to motivate soldiers to perform to standard and had the strength of character to do the right thing. In addition, he

trusted the chain of command to take the longterm view. Because of his decisive actions,

based on his character and competence, SSG

Withers was well on his way to creating a much

healthier climate in his squad.

3-57. No matter how they complain about it,

soldiers and DA civilians expect to be held to

standard; in the long run they feel better about

themselves when they do hard work successfully. They gain confidence in leaders who help

them achieve standards and lose confidence in

leaders who don’t know the standards or who

fail to demand performance.

CULTURE

When you’re first sergeant, you’re a role model

whether you know it or not. You’re a role model

for the guy that will be in your job. Not next

month or next year, but ten years from now.

Every day soldiers are watching you and

deciding if you are the kind of first sergeant they

want to be.

   	






3-58. Culture is a longer lasting, more complex

set of shared expectations than climate. While

climate is how people feel about their organization right now, culture consists of the shared attitudes, values, goals, and practices that

characterize the larger institution. It’s deeply

rooted in long-held beliefs, customs, and

practices. For instance, the culture of the

armed forces is different from that of the business world, and the culture of the Army is different from that of the Navy. Leaders must

establish a climate consistent with the culture

of the larger institution. They also use the

culture to let their people know they’re part of

something bigger than just themselves, that

they have responsibilities not only to the people

around them but also to those who have gone

before and those who will come after.

3-59. Soldiers draw strength from knowing

they’re part of a tradition. Most meaningful

traditions have their roots in the institution’s

culture. Many of the Army’s everyday customs

and traditions are there to remind you that

you’re just the latest addition to a long line of

American soldiers. Think of how much of your

daily life connects you to the past and to American soldiers not yet born: the uniforms you

wear, the martial music that punctuates your

day, the way you salute, your title, your organization’s history, and Army values such as selfless service. Reminders of your place in history

surround you.

3-60. This sense of belonging is vitally

important. Visit the Vietnam Memorial in

Washington, DC, some Memorial Day weekend

and you’ll see dozens of veterans, many of them

wearing bush hats or campaign ribbons or fatigue jackets decorated with unit patches.

They’re paying tribute to their comrades in this

division or that company. They’re also acknowledging what for many of them was the most intense experience of their lives.

3-61. Young soldiers want to belong to

something bigger than themselves. Look at

them off duty, wearing tee shirts with names of

sports teams and famous athletes. It’s not as if

an 18-year-old who puts on a jacket with a professional sports team’s logo thinks anyone will

mistake him for a professional player; rather,

that soldier wants to be associated with a winner. Advertising and mass media make heroes

of rock stars, athletes, and actors. Unfortunately, it’s easier to let some magazine or TV

show tell you whom to admire than it is to dig

up an organization’s history and learn about

heroes.
3-62. Soldiers want to have heroes. If they don’t

know about SGT Alvin York in World War I,

about COL Joshua Chamberlain’s 20th Maine

during the Civil War, about MSG Gary Gordon

and SFC Randall Shughart in the 1993 Somalia

fight, then it’s up to you, their leaders, to teach

them. (The bibliography lists works you can use

to learn more about your profession, its history,

and the people who made it.)

3-63. When soldiers join the Army, they become part of a history: the Big Red One, the

King of Battle, Sua Sponte. Teach them the

history behind unit crests, behind greetings,

behind decorations and badges. The Army’s culture isn’t something that exists apart from you;

it’s part of who you are, something you can use

to give your soldiers pride in themselves and in

what they’re doing with their lives.

LEADERSHIP STYLES

3-64. You read in Chapter 2 that all people are

shaped by what they’ve seen, what they’ve

learned, and whom they’ve met. Who you are determines the way you work with other people.

Some people are happy and smiling all the time;

others are serious. Some leaders can wade into a

room full of strangers and inside of five minutes

have everyone there thinking, “How have I lived

so long without meeting this person?” Other

very competent leaders are uncomfortable in social situations. Most of us are somewhere in between. Although Army leadership doctrine

describes at great length how you should interact with your subordinates and how you must

strive to learn and improve your leadership

skills, the Army recognizes that you must always

be yourself; anything else comes across as fake

and insincere.

3-65. Having said that, effective leaders are

flexible enough to adjust their leadership style

and techniques to the people they lead. Some

subordinates respond best to coaxing, suggestions, or gentle prodding; others need, and even

want at times, the verbal equivalent of a kick in

the pants. Treating people fairly doesn’t mean

treating people as if they were clones of one another. In fact, if you treat everyone the same

way, you’re probably being unfair, because different people need different things from you.

3-66. Think of it this way: Say you must teach

map reading to a large group of soldiers ranging

in rank from private to senior NCO. The senior

NCOs know a great deal about the subject,

while the privates know very little. To meet all

their needs, you must teach the privates more

than you teach the senior NCOs. If you train

the privates only in the advanced skills the

NCOs need, the privates will be lost. If you

make the NCOs sit through training in the basic tasks the privates need, you’ll waste the

NCOs’ time. You must fit the training to the experience of those being trained. In the same

way, you must adjust your leadership style and

techniques to the experience of your people and

characteristics of your organization.

3-67. Obviously, you don’t lead senior NCOs the

same way you lead privates. But the easiest distinctions to make are those of rank and experience. You must also take into account

personalities, self-confidence, self-esteem—all

the elements of the complex mix of character

traits that makes dealing with people so difficult

and so rewarding. One of the many things that

makes your job tough is that, in order to get their

best performance, you must figure out what

your subordinates need and what they’re able to

do—even when they don’t know themselves.

3-68. When discussing leadership styles, many

people focus on the extremes: autocratic and

democratic. Autocratic leaders tell people what

to do with no explanation; their message is,

“I’m the boss; you’ll do it because I said so.”

Democratic leaders use their personalities to

persuade subordinates. There are many shades

in between; the following paragraphs discuss

five of them. However, bear in mind that competent leaders mix elements of all these styles

to match to the place, task, and people involved.

Using different leadership styles in different

situations or elements of different styles in the

same situation isn’t inconsistent. The opposite

is true: if you can use only one leadership style,

 	
 



  
you’re inflexible and will have difficulty operating in situations where that style doesn’t fit.

DIRECTING LEADERSHIP STYLE

3-69. The directing style is leader-centered.

Leaders using this style don’t solicit input from

subordinates and give detailed instructions on

how, when, and where they want a task performed. They then supervise its execution very

closely.

3-70. The directing style may be appropriate

when time is short and leaders don’t have a

chance to explain things. They may simply give

orders: Do this. Go there. Move. In fast-paced

operations or in combat, leaders may revert to

the directing style, even with experienced subordinates. This is what the motor sergeant you

read about in Chapter 1 did. If the leader has

created a climate of trust, subordinates will assume the leader has switched to the directing

style because of the circumstances.

3-71. The directing style is also appropriate

when leading inexperienced teams or individuals who are not yet trained to operate on their

own. In this kind of situation, the leader will

probably remain close to the action to make

sure things go smoothly.

3-72. Some people mistakenly believe the

directing style means using abusive or demeaning language or includes threats and intimidation. This is wrong. If you’re ever tempted to be

abusive, whether because of pressure or stress

or what seems like improper behavior by a subordinate, ask yourself these questions: Would I

want to work for someone like me? Would I

want my boss to see and hear me treat subordinates this way? Would I want to be treated this

way?

PARTICIPATING LEADERSHIP STYLE

3-73. The participating style centers on both

the leader and the team. Given a mission, leaders ask subordinates for input, information,

and recommendations but make the final decision on what to do themselves. This style is especially appropriate for leaders who have time

for such consultations or who are dealing with

experienced subordinates.

3-74. The team-building approach lies behind

the participating leadership style. When subordinates help create a plan, it becomes—at least

in part—their plan. This ownership creates a

strong incentive to invest the effort necessary

to make the plan work. Asking for this kind of

input is a sign of a leader’s strength and selfconfidence. But asking for advice doesn’t mean

the leader is obligated to follow it; the leader

alone is always responsible for the quality of decisions and plans.

DELEGATING LEADERSHIP STYLE

3-75. The delegating style involves giving subordinates the authority to solve problems and

make decisions without clearing them through

the leader. Leaders with mature and experienced subordinates or who want to create a

learning experience for subordinates often need

only to give them authority to make decisions,

the necessary resources, and a clear understanding of the mission’s purpose. As always, the

leader is ultimately responsible for what does or

does not happen, but in the delegating leadership style, the leader holds subordinate leaders

accountable for their actions. This is the style

most often used by officers dealing with senior

NCOs and by organizational and strategic

leaders.

TRANSFORMATIONAL AND

TRANSACTIONAL LEADERSHIP

STYLES

A man does not have himself killed for a few

halfpence a day or for a petty distinction. You

must speak to the soul in order to electrify the

man.

 	

3-76. These words of a distinguished military

leader capture the distinction between the transformational leadership style, which focuses on inspiration and change, and the transactional

leadership style, which focuses on rewards and

punishments. Of course Napoleon understood

the importance of rewards and punishments.

Nonetheless, he also understood that carrots and

sticks alone don’t inspire individuals to

excellence.

  

	
 
 



you’re inflexible and will have difficulty operating in situations where that style doesn’t fit.

DIRECTING LEADERSHIP STYLE

3-69. The directing style is leader-centered.

Leaders using this style don’t solicit input from

subordinates and give detailed instructions on

how, when, and where they want a task performed. They then supervise its execution very

closely.

3-70. The directing style may be appropriate

when time is short and leaders don’t have a

chance to explain things. They may simply give

orders: Do this. Go there. Move. In fast-paced

operations or in combat, leaders may revert to

the directing style, even with experienced subordinates. This is what the motor sergeant you

read about in Chapter 1 did. If the leader has

created a climate of trust, subordinates will assume the leader has switched to the directing

style because of the circumstances.

3-71. The directing style is also appropriate

when leading inexperienced teams or individuals who are not yet trained to operate on their

own. In this kind of situation, the leader will

probably remain close to the action to make

sure things go smoothly.

3-72. Some people mistakenly believe the

directing style means using abusive or demeaning language or includes threats and intimidation. This is wrong. If you’re ever tempted to be

abusive, whether because of pressure or stress

or what seems like improper behavior by a subordinate, ask yourself these questions: Would I

want to work for someone like me? Would I

want my boss to see and hear me treat subordinates this way? Would I want to be treated this

way?

PARTICIPATING LEADERSHIP STYLE

3-73. The participating style centers on both

the leader and the team. Given a mission, leaders ask subordinates for input, information,

and recommendations but make the final decision on what to do themselves. This style is especially appropriate for leaders who have time

for such consultations or who are dealing with

experienced subordinates.

3-74. The team-building approach lies behind

the participating leadership style. When subordinates help create a plan, it becomes—at least

in part—their plan. This ownership creates a

strong incentive to invest the effort necessary

to make the plan work. Asking for this kind of

input is a sign of a leader’s strength and selfconfidence. But asking for advice doesn’t mean

the leader is obligated to follow it; the leader

alone is always responsible for the quality of decisions and plans.

DELEGATING LEADERSHIP STYLE

3-75. The delegating style involves giving subordinates the authority to solve problems and

make decisions without clearing them through

the leader. Leaders with mature and experienced subordinates or who want to create a

learning experience for subordinates often need

only to give them authority to make decisions,

the necessary resources, and a clear understanding of the mission’s purpose. As always, the

leader is ultimately responsible for what does or

does not happen, but in the delegating leadership style, the leader holds subordinate leaders

accountable for their actions. This is the style

most often used by officers dealing with senior

NCOs and by organizational and strategic

leaders.

TRANSFORMATIONAL AND

TRANSACTIONAL LEADERSHIP

STYLES

A man does not have himself killed for a few

halfpence a day or for a petty distinction. You

must speak to the soul in order to electrify the

man.

 	

3-76. These words of a distinguished military

leader capture the distinction between the transformational leadership style, which focuses on inspiration and change, and the transactional

leadership style, which focuses on rewards and

punishments. Of course Napoleon understood

the importance of rewards and punishments.

Nonetheless, he also understood that carrots and

sticks alone don’t inspire individuals to

excellence.
Transformational Leadership Style

3-77. As the name suggests, the transformational style “transforms” subordinates

by challenging them to rise above their immediate needs and self-interests. The transformational style is developmental: it emphasizes

individual growth (both professional and personal) and organizational enhancement. Key

features of the transformational style include

empowering and mentally stimulating subordinates: you consider and motivate them first

as individuals and then as a group. To use the

transformational style, you must have the

courage to communicate your intent and then

step back and let your subordinates work. You

must also be aware that immediate benefits

are often delayed until the mission is

accomplished.

3-78. The transformational style allows you to

take advantage of the skills and knowledge of

experienced subordinates who may have better

ideas on how to accomplish a mission. Leaders

who use this style communicate reasons for

their decisions or actions and, in the process,

build in subordinates a broader understanding

and ability to exercise initiative and operate effectively. However, not all situations lend themselves to the transformational leadership style.

The transformational style is most effective during periods that call for change or present new

opportunities. It also works well when organizations face a crisis, instability, mediocrity, or disenchantment. It may not be effective when

subordinates are inexperienced, when the mission allows little deviation from accepted procedures, or when subordinates are not motivated.

Leaders who use only the transformational leadership style limit their ability to influence individuals in these and similar situations.

Transactional Leadership Style

3-79. In contrast, some leaders employ only the

transactional leadership style. This style includes such techniques as—

 Motivating subordinates to work by offering

rewards or threatening punishment.

 Prescribing task assignments in writing.

 Outlining all the conditions of task

completion, the applicable rules and regulations, the benefits of success, and the consequences—to include possible disciplinary

actions—of failure.

 “Management-by-exception,”where leaders

focus on their subordinates’failures, showing

up only when something goes wrong.

The leader who relies exclusively on the transactional style, rather than combining it with

the transformational style, evokes only shortterm commitment from his subordinates and

discourages risk-taking and innovation.

3-80. There are situations where the

transactional style is acceptable, if not preferred. For example, a leader who wants to emphasize safety could reward the organization

with a three-day pass if the organization prevents any serious safety-related incidents over

a two-month deployment. In this case, the leader’s intent appears clear: unsafe acts are not

tolerated and safe habits are rewarded.

3-81. However, using only the transactional

style can make the leader’s efforts appear selfserving. In this example, soldiers might interpret

the leader’s attempt to reward safe practices as

an effort to look good by focusing on something

that’s unimportant but that has the boss’s attention. Such perceptions can destroy the trust subordinates have in the leader. Using the

transactional style alone can also deprive subordinates of opportunities to grow, because it leaves

no room for honest mistakes.

3-82. The most effective leaders combine techniques from the transformational and transactional leadership styles to fit the situation. A

strong base of transactional understanding supplemented by charisma, inspiration and individualized concern for each subordinate, produces the

most enthusiastic and genuine response. Subordinates will be more committed, creative, and innovative. They will also be more likely to take

calculated risks to accomplish their mission.

Again referring to the safety example, leaders can

avoid any misunderstanding of their intent by

combining transformational techniques with

transactional techniques. They can explain why

safety is important (intellectual stimulation) and

encourage their subordinates to take care of each

other (individualized concern).

 	
 


	
 
INTENDED AND UNINTENDED CONSEQUENCES

3-83. The actions you take as a leader will most

likely have unintended as well as intended consequences. Like a chess player trying to anticipate an opponent’s moves three or four turns in

advance—if I do this, what will my opponent do;

then what will I do next?—leaders think

through what they can expect to happen as a result of a decision. Some decisions set off a chain

of events; as far as possible, leaders must anticipate the second- and third-order effects of their

actions. Even lower-level leaders’ actions may

have effects well beyond what they expect.

3-84. Consider the case of a sergeant whose

team is manning a roadblock as part of a peace

operation. The mission has received lots of media attention (Haiti and Bosnia come to mind),

and millions of people back home are watching.

Early one morning, a truckload of civilians appears, racing toward the roadblock. In the halflight, the sergeant can’t tell if the things in the

passengers’ hands are weapons or farm tools,

and the driver seems intent on smashing

through the barricade. In the space of a few seconds, the sergeant must decide whether or not

to order his team to fire on the truck.

3-85. If the sergeant orders his team to fire because he feels he and his soldiers are threatened, that decision will have international

consequences. If he kills any civilians, chances

are good that his chain of command from the

president on down—not to mention the entire

television audience of the developed

world—will know about the incident in a few

short hours. But the decision is tough for

another reason: if the sergeant doesn’t order

his team to fire and the civilians turn out to be

an armed gang, the team may take casualties

that could have been avoided. If the only factor

involved was avoiding civilian casualties, the

choice is simple: don’t shoot. But the sergeant

must also consider the requirement to protect

his force and accomplish the mission of preventing unauthorized traffic from passing the roadblock. So the sergeant must act; he’s the leader,

and he’s in charge. Leaders who have thought

through the consequences of possible actions,

talked with their own leaders about the

commander’s intent and mission priorities, and

trust their chain of command to support them

are less likely to be paralyzed by this kind of

pressure.

INTENDED CONSEQUENCES

3-86. Intended consequences are the anticipated results of a leader’s decisions and actions. When a squad leader shows a team leader

a better way to lead PT, that action will have intended consequences: the team leader will be

better equipped to do the job. When leaders

streamline procedures, help people work

smarter, and get the resources to the right place

at the right time, the intended consequences

are good.

UNINTENDED CONSEQUENCES

3-87. Unintended consequences are the results

of things a leader does that have an unplanned

impact on the organization or accomplishment

of the mission. Unintended consequences are

often more lasting and harder to anticipate

than intended consequences. Organizational

and strategic leaders spend a good deal of energy considering possible unintended consequences of their actions. Their organizations

are complex, so figuring out the effects today’s

decisions will have a few years in the future is

difficult.

3-88. Unintended consequences are best described with an example, such as setting the

morning PT formation time: Setting the formation time at 0600 hours results in soldiers

standing in formation at 0600 hours, an

intended consequence. To not be late, soldiers

living off post may have to depart their homes

at 0500 hours, a consequence that’s probably

also anticipated. However, since most junior

enlisted soldiers with families probably own

only one car, there will most likely be another

consequence: entire families rising at 0430

hours. Spouses must drive their soldiers to post

and children, who can’t be left at home unattended, must accompany them. This is an unintended consequence.

  

	
 
 


SUMMARY

3-89. The human dimension of leadership, how

the environment affects you and your people,

affects how you lead. Stress is a major part of

the environment, both in peace and war. Major

sources of stress include the rapid pace of

change and the increasing complexity of technology. As an Army leader, you must stay on top

of both. Your character and skills—how you

handle stress—and the morale and discipline

you develop and your team are more important

in establishing the climate in your organization

than any external circumstances.

3-90. The organizational climate and the

institutional culture define the environment in

which you and your people work. Direct, organizational, and strategic leaders all have different

responsibilities regarding climate and culture;

what’s important now is to realize that you, the

leader, establish the climate of your organization. By action or inaction, you determine the

environment in which your people work.

3-91. Leadership styles are different ways of

approaching the DO of BE, KNOW, DO—the

actual work of leading people. You’ve read

about five leadership styles: directing,

participating, delegating, transformational,

and transactional. But remember that you

must be able to adjust the leadership style you

use to the situation and the people you’re

leading. Remember also that you’re not limited

to any one style in a given situation: you should

use techniques from different styles if that will

help you motivate your people to accomplish

the mission. Your leader attributes of

judgment, intelligence, cultural awareness, and

self-control all play major roles in helping you

choose the proper style and the appropriate

techniques for the task at hand. That said, you

must always be yourself.

3-92. All leader actions result in intended and

unintended consequences. Two points to

remember: think through your decisions and do

your duty. It might not seem that the actions of

one leader of one small unit matter in the big

picture. But they do. In the words of Confederate COL William C. Oats, who faced COL

Joshua Chamberlain at Little Round Top:

“Great events sometimes turn on comparatively small affairs.”

3-93. In spite of stress and changes, whether

social or technological, leadership always involves shaping human emotions and behaviors.

As they serve in more complex environments

with wider-ranging consequences, Army leaders

refine what they’ve known and done as well as

develop new styles, skills, and actions. Parts

Two and Three discuss the skills and actions required of leaders from team to Department of

the Army level.

 	
 




PART TWO

Direct Leadership

The first three chapters of this manual cover the constants of leadership. They focus primarily

on what a leader must BE. Part Two examines what a direct leader must KNOW and DO. Note

the distinction between a skill, knowing something, and an action, doing something. The

reason for this distinction bears repeating: knowledge isn’t enough. You can’t be a leader until

you apply what you know, until you act and DO what you must.

Army leaders are grounded in the heritage, values, and tradition of the Army. They embody

the warrior ethos, value continuous learning, and demonstrate the ability to lead and train their

subordinates. Army leaders lead by example, train from experience, and maintain and enforce

standards. They do these things while taking care of their people and adapting to a changing

world. Chapters 4 and 5 discuss these subjects in detail.

The warrior ethos is the will to win with honor. Despite a thinking enemy, despite adverse

conditions, you accomplish your mission. You express your character— the BE of BE, KNOW,

DO—when you and your people confront a difficult mission and persevere. The warrior ethos

applies to all soldiers and DA civilians, not just those who close with and destroy the enemy.

It’s the will to meet mission demands no matter what, the drive to get the job done whatever

the cost.

Continuous learning requires dedication to improving your technical and tactical skills through

study and practice. It also includes learning about the world around you—mastering new

technology, studying other cultures, staying aware of current events at home and abroad. All

these things affect your job as a leader.

Continuous learning also means consciously developing your character through study and

reflection. It means reflecting on Army values and developing leader attributes. Broad

knowledge and strong character underlie the right decisions in hard times. Seek to learn as

much as you can about your job, your people, and yourself. That way you’ll be prepared when

the time comes for tough decisions. You’ll BE a leader of character, KNOW the necessary

skills, and DO the right thing.

Army leaders train and lead people. Part of this responsibility is maintaining and enforcing

standards. Your subordinates expect you to show them what the standard is and train them to

it: they expect you to lead by example. In addition, as an Army leader you’re required to take

care of your people. You may have to call on them to do things that seem impossible. You may

have to ask them to make extraordinary sacrifices to accomplish the mission. If you train your

people to standard, inspire the warrior ethos in them, and consistently look after their

interests, they’ll be prepared to accomplish the mission—anytime, anywhere.

 	
 

Chapter 4

Direct Leadership Skills

Never get so caught up in cutting wood that you forget to sharpen your ax.

 	 
 
 
 

4-1. The Army’s direct leaders perform a huge

array of functions in all kinds of places and under all kinds of conditions. Even as you read

these pages, someone is in the field in a cold

place, someone else in a hot place. There are

people headed to a training exercise and others

headed home. Somewhere a motor pool is buzzing, a medical ward operating, supplies moving.

Somewhere a duty NCO is conducting inspections and a sergeant of the guard is making the

rounds. In all these places, no matter what the

conditions or the mission, direct leaders are

guided by the same principles, using the same

skills, and performing the same actions.

4-2. This chapter discusses the skills a direct

leader must master and develop. It addresses

the KNOW of BE, KNOW, and DO for direct

leaders. The skills are organized under the four

skill groups Chapter 1 introduced: interpersonal, conceptual, technical, and tactical.

(Appendix B lists performance indicators for

leader skills.)

INTERPERSONAL SKILLS

4-3. A DA civilian supervisor was in a frenzy

because all the material needed for a project

wasn’t available. The branch chief took the supervisor aside and said, “You’re worrying about

things. Things are not important; things will or

won’t be there. Worry about working with the

people who will get the job done.”

4-4. Since leadership is about people, it’s not surprising to find interpersonal skills, what some call

“people skills,” at the top of the list of what an

Army leader must KNOW. Figure 4-1 (on page

4-3) identifies the direct leader interpersonal

skills. All these skills—communicating, team

building, supervising, and counseling—require

communication. They’re all closely related; you

can hardly use one without using the others.

COMMUNICATING

4-5. Since leadership is about getting other

people to do what you want them to do, it

follows that communicating—transmitting information so that it’s clearly understood—is an

important skill. After all, if people can’t understand you, how will you ever let them know

what you want? The other interpersonal

skills—supervising, team building, and

counseling—also depend on your ability to

communicate.

4-6. If you take a moment to think about all the

training you’ve received under the heading

“communication,” you’ll see that it probably

falls into four broad categories: speaking, reading, writing, and listening. You begin practicing

speech early; many children are using words by

the age of one. The heavy emphasis on reading

and writing begins in school, if not before. Yet

how many times have you been taught how to

listen? Of the four forms of communication,

 

INTERPERSONAL SKILLS ................4-2

CONCEPTUAL SKILLS ......................4-6

TECHNICAL SKILLS ........................4-11

TACTICAL SKILLS ...........................4-12

SUMMARY ........................................4-14
listening is the one in which most people receive

the least amount of formal training. Yet for an

Army leader, it’s every bit as important as the

others. It often comes first because you must

listen and understand before you can decide

what to say.

One-Way and Two-Way Communication

4-7. There are two common forms of one-way

communication that are not necessarily the

best way to exchange information: seeing and

hearing. The key difference between one-way

and two-way communication is that one-way

communication—hearing or seeing something

on television, reading a copy of a slide presentation, or even watching a training event unfold—may not give you a complete picture. You

may have unanswered questions or even walk

away with the wrong concept of what has occurred. That’s why two-way communication is

preferred when time and resources permit.

Active Listening

4-8. An important form of two-way communication is active listening. When you practice active listening, you send signals to the speaker

that say, “I’m paying attention.” Nod your head

every once in a while, as if to say, “Yes, I understand.” When you agree with the speaker, you

might use an occasional “uh-huh.” Look the

speaker in the eye. Give the speaker your full

attention. Don’t allow yourself to be distracted

by looking out the window, checking your

watch, playing with something on your desk, or

trying to do more than one thing at a time.

Avoid interrupting the speaker; that’s the cardinal sin of active listening.

4-9. Be aware of barriers to listening. Don’t

form your response while the other person is

still talking. Don’t allow yourself to become distracted by the fact that you’re angry, or that

you have a problem with the speaker, or that

you have lots of other things you need to be

thinking about. If you give in to these temptations, you’ll miss most of what’s being said.

Nonverbal Communication

4-10. In face-to-face communication, even in

the simplest conversation, there’s a great deal

going on that has almost nothing to do with the

words being used. Nonverbal communication

involves all the signals you send with your facial

expressions, tone of voice, and body language.

Effective leaders know that communication includes both verbal and nonverbal cues. Look for

them in this example.

 	
 


 


VALUES

ATTRIBUTES

ACTIONS

“Be” “Do”

THE LEADER THE LEADER

of Character and Competence Acts...

to Achieve Excellence to Achieve Excellence

Interpersonal

Conceptual

Technical

Tactical

C

T

T

Figure 4-1. Direct Leader

Skills—Interpersonal

The Checking Account

A young soldier named PVT Bell, new to the unit, approaches his team leader, SGT Adams, and

says, “I have a problem I’d like to talk to you about.”

The team leader makes time—right then if possible—to listen. Stopping, looking the soldier in the

eye, and asking, “What’s up?” sends many signals: I am concerned about your problem. You’re part

of the team, and we help each other. What can I do to help? All these signals, by the way, reinforce

Army values.
4-11. SGT Adams performed crisis counseling,

a leader action Appendix C discusses. Look for

the communicating skills in this example. SGT

Adams listened actively and controlled his nonverbal communication. He gave PVT Bell his

full attention and was careful not to signal indifference or a lack of concern. SGT Adams’

ability to do this shows the mental attribute of

self-discipline and the emotional attribute of

self-control, which you read about in Chapter 2.

The leader also displayed empathy, that is, sensitivity to the feelings, thoughts, and experiences of another person. It’s an important

quality for a counselor.

SUPERVISING

If a squad leader doesn’t check, and the guy on

point has no batteries for his night vision

goggles, he has just degraded the effectiveness of

the entire unit.

  	
 	
	
 

4-12. Direct leaders check and recheck things.

Leaders strike a balance between checking too

much and not checking enough. Training subordinates to act independently is important;

that’s why direct leaders give instructions or

their intent and then allow subordinates to

work without constantly looking over their

shoulders. Accomplishing the mission is equally

important; that’s why leaders check things—

especially conditions critical to the mission

(fuel levels), details a soldier might forget

(spare batteries for night vision goggles), or

tasks at the limit of what a soldier has accomplished before (preparing a new version of a report).

4-13. Checking minimizes the chance of

oversights, mistakes, or other circumstances

that might derail a mission. Checking also gives

leaders a chance to see and recognize

subordinates who are doing things right or

make on-the-spot corrections when necessary.

Consider this example: A platoon sergeant

delegates to the platoon’s squad leaders the

  

	
 


	 

The Checking Account (continued)

PVT Bell sees the leader is paying attention and continues, “Well, I have this checking account,

see, and it’s the first time I’ve had one. I have lots of checks left, but for some reason the PX [post

exchange] is saying they’re no good.”

SGT Adams has seen this problem before: PVT Bell thinks that checks are like cash and has no

idea that there must be money in the bank to cover checks written against the account. SGT Adams,

no matter how tempted, doesn’t say anything that would make PVT Bell think that his difficulty was

anything other than the most important problem in the world. He is careful to make sure that PVT Bell

doesn’t think that he’s anyone other than the most important soldier in the world. Instead, SGT Adams

remembers life as a young soldier and how many things were new and strange. What may seem like

an obvious problem to an experienced person isn’t so obvious to an inexperienced one. Although the

soldier’s problem may seem funny, SGT Adams doesn’t laugh at the subordinate. And because

nonverbal cues are important, SGT Adams is careful that his tone of voice and facial expressions

don’t convey contempt or disregard for the subordinate.

Instead, the leader listens patiently as PVT Bell explains the problem; then SGT Adams

reassures PVT Bell that it can be fixed and carefully explains the solution. What’s more, SGT Adams

follows up later to make sure the soldier has straightened things out with the bank.

A few months later, a newly promoted PFC Bell realizes that this problem must have looked pretty

silly to someone with SGT Adams’ experience. But PFC Bell will always remember the example SGT

Adams set. Future leaders are groomed every day and reflect their past leaders. By the simple act of

listening and communicating, SGT Adams won the loyalty of PFC Bell. And when the next batch of

new soldiers arrives, PFC Bell, now the old-timer, will say to them, “Yeah, in all my experience, I’ve got

to say this is one of the best units in the Army. And SGT Adams is the best team leader around. Why, I

remember a time...”
authority to get their squads ready for a tactical

road march. The platoon sergeant oversees the

activity but doesn’t intervene unless errors,

sloppy work, or lapses occur. The leader is there

to answer questions or resolve problems that

the squad leaders can’t handle. This

supervision ensures that the squads are

prepared to standard and demonstrates to the

squad leaders that the platoon sergeant cares

about them and their people.

COUNSELING

Nothing will ever replace one person looking

another in the eyes and telling the soldier his

strengths and weaknesses. [Counseling] charts

a path to success and diverts soldiers from

heading down the wrong road.

 	
	
  		

4-14. Counseling is subordinate-centered communication that produces a plan outlining actions necessary for subordinates to achieve

individual or organizational goals. Effective counseling takes time, patience, and practice. As with

everything else you do, you must develop your

skills as a counselor. Seek feedback on how effective you are at counseling, study various

counseling techniques, and make efforts to improve. (Appendix C discusses developmental

counseling techniques.)

4-15. Proper counseling leads to a specific plan

of action that the subordinate can use as a road

map for improvement. Both parties, counselor

and counseled, prepare this plan of action. The

leader makes certain the subordinate understands and takes ownership of it. The best plan

 	
 


 


The Rusty Rifles Incident

While serving in the Republic of Vietnam, SFC Jackson was transferred from platoon sergeant of

one platoon to platoon leader of another platoon in the same company. SFC Jackson quickly sized up

the existing standards in the platoon. He wasn’t pleased. One problem was that his soldiers were not

keeping their weapons cleaned properly: rifles were dirty and rusty. He put out the word: weapons

would be cleaned to standard each day, each squad leader would inspect each day, and he would

inspect a sample of the weapons each day. He gave this order three days before the platoon was to

go to the division rest and recuperation (R&R) area on the South China Sea.

The next day SFC Jackson checked several weapons in each squad. Most weapons were still

unacceptable. He called the squad leaders together and explained the policy and his reasons for

implementing it. SFC Jackson checked again the following day and still found dirty and rusty

weapons. He decided there were two causes for the problem. First, the squad leaders were not doing

their jobs. Second, the squad leaders and troops were bucking him—testing him to see who would

really make the rules in the platoon. He sensed that, because he was new, they resisted his

leadership. He knew he had a serious discipline problem he had to handle correctly. He called the

squad leaders together again. Once again, he explained his standards clearly. He then said,

“Tomorrow we are due to go on R&R for three days and I’ll be inspecting rifles. We won’t go on R&R

until each weapon in this platoon meets the standard.”

The next morning SFC Jackson inspected and found that most weapons in each squad were still

below standard. He called the squad leaders together. With a determined look and a firm voice, he

told them he would hold a formal in-ranks inspection at 1300 hours, even though the platoon was

scheduled to board helicopters for R&R then. If every weapon didn’t meet the standard, he would

conduct another in-ranks inspection for squad leaders and troops with substandard weapons. He

would continue inspections until all weapons met the standard.

At 1300 hours the platoon formed up, surly and angry with the new platoon leader, who was taking

their hard-earned R&R time. The soldiers could hardly believe it, but his message was starting to sink

in. This leader meant what he said. This time all weapons met the standard.
of action in the world does no good if the subordinate doesn’t understand it, follow it, and believe in it. And once the plan of action is agreed

upon, the leader must follow up with one-onone sessions to ensure the subordinate stays on

track.

4-16. Remember the Army values of loyalty,

duty, and selfless service require you to counsel

your subordinates. The values of honor, integrity, and personal courage require you to give

them straightforward feedback. And the Army

value of respect requires you to find the best

way to communicate that feedback so that your

subordinates understand it. These Army values

all point to the requirement for you to become a

proficient counselor. Effective counseling helps

your subordinates develop personally and

professionally.

4-17. One of the most important duties of all direct, organizational, and strategic leaders is to

develop subordinates. Mentoring, which links

the operating and improving leader actions,

plays a major part in developing competent and

confident future leaders. Counseling is an interpersonal skill essential to effective mentoring. (Chapters 5, 6, and 7 discuss the direct,

organizational, and strategic leader mentoring

actions.)

CONCEPTUAL SKILLS

4-18. Conceptual skills include competence in

handling ideas, thoughts, and concepts.

Figure 4-2 (on page 4-7) lists the direct leader

conceptual skills.

CRITICAL REASONING

4-19. Critical reasoning helps you think

through problems. It’s the key to understanding situations, finding causes, arriving at justifiable conclusions, making good judgments, and

learning from the experience—in short, solving

problems. Critical reasoning is an essential part

of effective counseling and underlies ethical

reasoning, another conceptual skill. It’s also a

central aspect of decision making, which Chapter 5 discusses.

4-20. The word “critical” here doesn’t mean

finding fault; it doesn’t have a negative meaning at all. It means getting past the surface of

the problem and thinking about it in depth. It

means looking at a problem from several points

of view instead of just being satisfied with the

first answer that comes to mind. Army leaders

need this ability because many of the choices

they face are complex and offer no easy

solution.

4-21. Sometime during your schooling you

probably ran across a multiple choice test, one

that required you to “choose answer a, b, c, or d”

or “choose one response from column a and two

from column b.” Your job as an Army leader

would be a lot easier if the problems you faced

were presented that way, but leadership is a lot

more complex than that. Sometimes just figuring out the real problem presents a huge hurdle;

at other times you have to sort through distracting multiple problems to get to the real difficulty. On some occasions you know what the

problem is but have no clue as to what an answer might be. On others you can come up with

two or three answers that all look pretty good.

 

	

 
	 	

Finding the Real Problem

A platoon sergeant directs the platoon’s squad leaders to counsel their soldiers every month and

keep written records. Three months later, the leader finds the records are sloppy or incomplete; in

many cases, there’s no record at all. The platoon sergeant’s first instinct is to chew out the squad

leaders for ignoring his instructions. It even occurs to him to write a counseling annex to the platoon

SOP so he can point to it the next time the squad leaders fail to follow instructions.
CREATIVE THINKING

4-22. Sometimes you run into a problem that

you haven’t seen before or an old problem that

requires a new solution. Here you must apply

imagination; a radical departure from the old

way of doing things may be refreshing. Army

leaders prevent complacency by finding ways to

challenge subordinates with new approaches

and ideas. In these cases, rely on your intuition,

experience, and knowledge. Ask for input from

your subordinates. Reinforce team building by

making everybody responsible for, and

shareholders in, the accomplishment of difficult

tasks.

4-23. Creative thinking isn’t some mysterious

gift, nor does it have to be outlandish. It’s not reserved for senior officers; all leaders think creatively. You employ it every day to solve small

problems. A unit that deploys from a stateside

post on a peace operation, for instance, may find

itself in a small compound with limited athletic

facilities and no room to run. Its leaders must

devise new ways for their soldiers to maintain

physical fitness. These may include sports and

games, even games the local nationals play.

 	
 


 


Finding the Real Problem (continued)

But those are just knee-jerk reactions and the platoon sergeant knows it. Instead of venting his

frustration, the leader does a little investigating and finds that two squad leaders have never really

been taught how to do formal, written counseling. The third one has no idea why counseling is

important. So what looked like a disciplinary problem—the squad leaders disobeying

instructions—turns out to be a training shortfall. By thinking beyond the surface and by checking, the

platoon sergeant was able to isolate the real problem: that the squad leaders had not been trained in

counseling. The next step is to begin training and motivating subordinates to do the tasks.

VALUES

ATTRIBUTES

ACTIONS

“Be” “Do”

THE LEADER THE LEADER

of Character and Competence Acts...

to Achieve Excellence to Achieve Excellence

Interpersonal

Technical

Tactical

Conceptual

Figure 4-2. Direct Leader Skills—Conceptual

Pulling Dragons’ Teeth

As American forces approached the Siegfried Line between Germany and France at the end of

World War II, the armored advance was slowed by “dragons’ teeth,” concrete obstacles that looked

like large, tightly spaced traffic cones. Engineers predicted it would take many days and tons of

explosives to reduce the obstacles, which were heavily reinforced and deeply rooted. Then an NCO

suggested using bulldozers to push dirt on top of the spikes, creating an earthen ramp to allow tanks to

drive over the obstacles. This is but one example of the creative thinking by American soldiers of all

ranks that contributed to victory in the ETO.
ETHICAL REASONING

4-24. Ethical leaders do the right things for the

right reasons all the time, even when no one is

watching. But figuring out what’s the “right”

thing is often, to put it mildly, a most difficult

task. To fulfill your duty, maintain your

integrity, and serve honorably, you must be

able to reason ethically.

4-25. Occasionally, when there’s little or no

time, you’ll have to make a snap decision based

on your experience and intuition about what

feels right. For Army leaders, such decisions are

guided by Army values (discussed in Chapter 2),

the institutional culture, and the organizational climate (discussed in Chapter 3). These

shared values then serve as a basis for the

whole team’s buying into the leader’s decision.

But comfortable as this might be, you should

not make all decisions on intuition.

4-26. When there’s time to consider alternatives, ask for advice, and think things

through, you can make a deliberate decision.

First determine what’s legally right by law and

regulation. In gray areas requiring interpretation, apply Army values to the situation.

Inside those boundaries, determine the best

possible answer from among competing

solutions, make your decision, and act on it.

4-27. The distinction between snap and deliberate decisions is important. In many decisions,

you must think critically because your intuition—what feels right—may lead to the wrong

answer. In combat especially, the intuitive response won’t always work.

4-28. The moral application of force goes to the

heart of military ethics. S. L. A. Marshall, a

military historian as well as a brigadier general,

has written that the typical soldier is often at a

disadvantage in combat because he “comes

from a civilization in which aggression, connected with the taking of a human life, is prohibited and unacceptable.” Artist Jon Wolfe, an

infantryman in Vietnam, once said that the

first time he aimed his weapon at another human being, a “little voice” in the back of his

mind asked, “Who gave you permission to do

this?” That “little voice” comes, of course, from

a lifetime of living within the law. You can

determine the right thing to do in these very

unusual circumstances only when you apply

ethical as well as critical reasoning.

4-29. The right action in the situation you face

may not be in regulations or field manuals.

Even the most exhaustive regulations can’t predict every situation. They’re designed for the

routine, not the exceptional. One of the most

difficult tasks facing you as an Army leader is

determining when a rule or regulation simply

doesn’t apply because the situation you’re facing falls outside the set of conditions envisioned

by those who wrote the regulation. Remember

COL Chamberlain on Little Round Top. The

drill manuals he had studied didn’t contain the

solution to the tactical problem he faced; neither this nor any other manual contain “cookbook” solutions to ethical questions you will

confront. COL Chamberlain applied the doctrine he learned from the drill manuals. So you

should apply Army values, your knowledge, and

your experience to any decision you make and

be prepared to accept the consequences of your

actions. Study, reflection, and ethical reasoning

can help you do this.

4-30. Ethical reasoning takes you through these

steps:

 Define the problem.

 Know the relevant rules.

 Develop and evaluate courses of action.

 Choose the course of action that best represents Army values.

4-31. These steps correspond to some of the

steps of the decision making leadership action

in Chapter 5. Thus, ethical reasoning isn’t a

separate process you trot out only when you

think you’re facing an ethical question. It

should be part of the thought process you use to

make any decision. Your subordinates count on

you to do more than make tactically sound decisions. They rely on you to make decisions that

are ethically sound as well. You should always

consider ethical factors and, when necessary,

use Army values to gauge what’s right.

4-32. That said, not every decision is an ethical

problem. In fact, most decisions are ethically

neutral. But that doesn’t mean you don’t have

 

	

 
	 	
to think about the ethical consequences of your

actions. Only if you reflect on whether what

you’re asked to do or what you ask your people

to do accords with Army values will you develop

that sense of right and wrong that marks ethical people and great leaders. That sense of right

and wrong alerts you to the presence of ethical

aspects when you face a decision.

4-33. Ethical reasoning is an art, not a science,

and sometimes the best answer is going to be

hard to determine. Often, the hardest decisions

are not between right and wrong, but between

shades of right. Regulations may allow more

than one choice. There may even be more than

one good answer, or there may not be enough

time to conduct a long review. In those cases,

you must rely on your judgment.

Define the Problem

4-34. Defining the problem is the first step in

making any decision. When you think a

decision may have ethical aspects or effects, it’s

especially important to define it precisely.

Know who said what—and what specifically

was said, ordered, or demanded. Don’t settle for

secondhand information; get the details. Problems can be described in more than one way.

This is the hardest step in solving any problem.

It’s especially difficult for decisions in the face

of potential ethical conflicts. Too often some

people come to rapid conclusions about the nature of a problem and end up applying solutions

to what turn out to be only symptoms.

Know the Relevant Rules

4-35. This step is part of fact gathering, the second step in problem solving. Do your homework. Sometimes what looks like an ethical

problem may stem from a misunderstanding of

a regulation or policy, frustration, or overenthusiasm. Sometimes the person who gave an

order or made a demand didn’t check the regulation and a thorough reading may make the

problem go away. Other times, a difficult situation results from trying to do something right

in the wrong way. Also, some regulations leave

room for interpretation; the problem then becomes a policy matter rather than an ethical

one. If you do perceive an ethical problem,

explain it to the person you think is causing it

and try to come up with a better way to do the

job.

Develop and Evaluate Courses of Action

4-36. Once you know the rules, lay out possible

courses of action. As with the previous steps,

you do this whenever you must make a decision.

Next, consider these courses of action in view of

Army values. Consider the consequences of

your courses of action by asking yourself a few

practical questions: Which course of action best

upholds Army values? Do any of the courses of

action compromise Army values? Does any

course of action violate a principle, rule, or

regulation identified in Step 2? Which course of

action is in the best interest of the Army and of

the nation? This part will feel like a juggling

act; but with careful ethical reflection, you can

reduce the chaos, determine the essentials, and

choose the best course—even when that choice

is the least bad of a set of undesirable options.

Choose the Course of Action That Best

Represents Army Values

4-37. The last step in solving any problem is

making a decision and acting on it. Leaders are

paid to make decisions. As an Army leader,

you’re expected—by your bosses and your people—to make decisions that solve problems

without violating Army values.

4-38. As a values-based organization, the Army

uses expressed values—Army values—to provide its fundamental ethical framework. Army

values lay out the ethical standards expected of

soldiers and DA civilians. Taken together, Army

values and ethical decision making provide a

moral touchstone and a workable process that

enable you to make sound ethical decisions and

take right actions confidently.

4-39. The ethical aspects of some decisions are

more obvious that those of others. This example

contains an obvious ethical problem. The issues

will seldom be so clear-cut; however, as you

read the example, focus on the steps SGT Kirk

follows as he moves toward an ethical decision.

Follow the same steps when you seek to do the

right thing.

 	
 


 

4-40. When SGT Kirk stands his ground and

does the right thing, it may cost him some pain

in the short run, but the entire Army benefits.

If he makes the wrong choice, he weakens the

Army. Whether or not the Army lives by its values isn’t just up to generals and colonels; it’s up

to each of the thousands of SGT Kirks, the

Army leaders who must make tough calls when

no one is watching, when the easy thing to do is

the wrong thing to do.

REFLECTIVE THINKING

4-41. Leader development doesn’t occur in a

vacuum. All leaders must be open to feedback

on their performance from multiple perspectives—seniors, peers, and subordinates.

But being open to feedback is only one part of

the equation. As a leader, you must also listen

to and use the feedback: you must be able to

reflect. Reflecting is the ability to take information, assess it, and apply it to behavior to explain why things did or did not go well. You can

then use the resulting explanations to improve

future behavior. Good leaders are always

striving to become better leaders. This means

you need consistently to assess your strengths

and weaknesses and reflect on what you can do

to sustain your strengths and correct your

weaknesses. To become a better leader, you

must be willing to change.

4-42. For reasons discussed fully in Chapter 5,

the Army often places a premium on doing—on

the third element of BE, KNOW, DO. All Army

leaders are busy dealing with what’s on their

plates and investing a lot of energy in accomplishing tasks. But how often do they take the

time to STOP and really THINK about what

they are doing? How often have you seen this

sign on a leader’s door: Do Not Disturb—Busy

Reflecting? Not often. Well, good leaders need

to take the time to think and reflect. Schedule

it; start really exercising your capacity to get

feedback. Then reflect on it and use it to improve. There’s nothing wrong with making mistakes, but there’s plenty wrong with not

learning from those mistakes. Reflection is the

means to that end.

  

	
 


	 

The EFMB Test

SGT Kirk, who has already earned the Expert Field Medical Badge (EFMB), is assigned as a

grader on the division’s EFMB course. Sergeant Kirk’s squad leader, SSG Michaels, passes through

SGT Kirk’s station and fails the task. Just before SGT Kirk records the score, SSG Michaels pulls him

aside.

“I need my EFMB to get promoted,” SSG Michaels says. “You can really help me out here; it’s only

a couple of points anyway. No big deal. Show a little loyalty.”

SGT Kirk wants to help SSG Michaels, who’s been an excellent squad leader and who’s loyal to

his subordinates. SSG Michaels even spent two Saturdays helping SGT Kirk prepare for his

promotion board. If SGT Kirk wanted to make this easy on himself, he would say the choice is

between honesty and loyalty. Then he could choose loyalty, falsify the score, and send everyone

home happy. His life under SSG Michaels would probably be much easier too.

However, SGT Kirk would not have defined the problem correctly. (Remember, defining the

problem is often the hardest step in ethical reasoning.) SGT Kirk knows the choice isn’t between

loyalty and honesty. Loyalty doesn’t require that he lie. In fact, lying would be disloyal to the Army,

himself, and the soldiers who met the standard. To falsify the score would also be a violation of the

trust and confidence the Army placed in him when he was made an NCO and a grader. SGT Kirk

knows that loyalty to the Army and the NCO corps comes first and that giving SSG Michaels a passing

score would be granting the squad leader an unfair advantage. SGT Kirk knows it would be wrong to

be a coward in the face of this ethical choice, just as it would be wrong to be a coward in battle. And if

all that were not enough, when SGT Kirk imagines seeing the incident in the newspaper the next

morning—Trusted NCO Lies to Help Boss—he knows what he must do.
TECHNICAL SKILLS

The first thing the senior NCOs had to do was to determine who wasn’t qualified with his

weapon, who didn’t have his protective mask properly tested and sealed—just all the basic

little things. Those things had to be determined real fast.

  	
 
	 	 	

KNOWING EQUIPMENT

4-43. Technical skill is skill with things—equipment, weapons, systems—everything from the

towing winch on the front of a vehicle to the

computer that keeps track of corps personnel

actions. Direct leaders must know their

equipment and how to operate it. Figure 4-3

highlights direct leader technical skills. Technical manuals, training circulars, SOPs, and all

the other publications necessary for efficient,

effective performance explain specific skills

more completely.

4-44. Direct leaders are closer to their equipment than organizational and strategic leaders.

Thus, they have a greater need to know how it

works and how to use it. In addition, direct

leaders are the experts who are called upon to

solve problems with the equipment, the ones

who figure out how to make it work better, how

to apply it, how to fix it—even how to modify it.

Sergeants, junior officers, warrant officers,

wage grade employees, and journeymen are the

Army’s technical experts and best teachers.

Subordinates expect their first-line leaders to

know their equipment and be experts in all the

applicable technical skills.

OPERATING EQUIPMENT

4-45. Direct leaders know how to operate their

equipment and make sure their people do as

well. They set the example with a hands-on approach. When new equipment arrives, direct

leaders find out how it works, learn how to use

it themselves, and train their subordinates to

do the same.

 	
 


	
 


VALUES

ATTRIBUTES

ACTIONS

“Be” “Do”

THE LEADER THE LEADER

of Character and Competence Acts...

to Achieve Excellence to Achieve Excellence

Interpersonal

Conceptual

Tactical

Technical

Figure 4-3. Direct Leader Skills—Technical

Technical Skill into Combat Power

Technical skill gave the Army a decided advantage in the 1944 battle for France. For example,

the German Army had nothing like the US Army’s maintenance battalions. Such an organization was

a new idea, and a good one. These machine-age units were able to return almost half the

battle-damaged tanks to action within two days. The job was done by young men who had been

working at gas stations and body shops two years earlier and had brought their skill into the service of

their country. Instead of fixing cars, they replaced damaged tank tracks, welded patches on the

armor, and repaired engines. These combat supporters dragged tanks that were beyond repair to the

rear and stripped them for parts. The Germans just left theirs in place.
TACTICAL SKILLS

Man is and always will be the supreme element in combat, and upon the skill, the courage and

endurance, and the fighting heart of the individual soldier the issue will ultimately depend.

 	 
 
	

  
  

DOCTRINE

4-47. Tactics is the art and science of employing available means to win battles and engagements. The science of tactics encompasses

capabilities, techniques, and procedures that

can be codified. The art of tactics includes the

creative and flexible array of means to accomplish assigned missions, decision making when

faced with an intelligent enemy, and the effects

of combat on soldiers. Together, FM 100-34,

FM 100-40, and branch-specific doctrinal

manuals capture the tactical skills that are essential to mastering both the science and the

art of tactics. Figure 4-4 highlights direct leader

tactical skills.

FIELDCRAFT

4-48. Fieldcraft consists of the skills soldiers

need to sustain themselves in the field. Proficiency in fieldcraft reduces the likelihood soldiers will become casualties. The requirement

to be able to do one’s job in a field environment

distinguishes the soldier’s profession from

most civilian occupations. Likewise, the

  

	
 


	 

VALUES

ATTRIBUTES

ACTIONS

“Be” “Do”

THE LEADER THE LEADER

of Character and Competence Acts...

to Achieve Excellence to Achieve Excellence

Interpersonal

Conceptual

Technical

Tactical

Figure 4-4. Direct Leader Skills—Tactical

I felt we had to get back to the basic soldier

skills. The basics of setting up a training

schedule for every soldier every day. We had to

execute the standard field disciplines, such as

NCOs checking weapons cleanliness and

ensuring soldiers practiced personal hygiene

daily. Our job is to go out there and kill the

enemy. In order to do that, as Fehrenbach writes

in [his study of the Korean Conflict entitled]

This Kind of War, we have to have disciplined

teams; discipline brings pride to the unit.

Discipline coupled with tough, realistic training

is the key to high morale in units. Soldiers want

to belong to good outfits, and our job as leaders

is to give them the best outfit we can.

    

4-46. This company commander is talking

about two levels of skill. First is the individual

level: soldiers are trained with their equipment

and know how to do their jobs. Next is the collective level: leaders take these trained individuals and form them into teams. The result: a

whole greater than the sum of its parts, a team

that’s more than just a collection of trained individuals, an organization that’s capable of

much more than any one of its elements. (FM

25-101 discusses how to integrate individual,

collective, and leader training).
requirement that Army leaders make sure

their soldiers take care of themselves and provide them with the means to do so is unique.

4-49. The Soldier’s Manual of Common Tasks

lists the individual skills all soldiers must

master to operate effectively in the field. Those

skills include everything from how to stay

healthy, to how to pitch a tent, to how to run a

heater. Some military occupational specialties

(MOS) require proficiency in additional

fieldcraft skills. Soldier’s Manuals for these

MOS list them.

4-50. Army leaders gain proficiency in fieldcraft

through schooling, study, and practice. Once

learned, few fieldcraft skills are difficult. However, they are easy to neglect during exercises,

when everyone knows that the exercise will end

at a specific time, sick and injured soldiers are

always evacuated, and the adversary isn’t using

real ammunition. During peacetime, it’s up to

Army leaders to enforce tactical discipline, to

make sure their soldiers practice the fieldcraft

skills that will keep them from becoming casualties—battle or nonbattle—during operations.

TACTICAL SKILLS AND TRAINING

4-51. Direct leaders are the Army’s primary tactical trainers, both for individuals and for

teams. Practicing tactical skills is often challenging. The best way to improve individual

and collective skills is to replicate operational

conditions. Unfortunately, Army leaders can’t

always get the whole unit out in the field to

practice maneuvers, so they make do with

training parts of it separately. Sometimes they

can’t get the people, the time, and the money all

together at the right time and the right place to

train the entire team. There are always training distracters. There will always be a hundred

excuses not to train together and one reason

why such training must occur: units fight as

they train. (FM 25-100 and FM 25-101 discuss

training principles and techniques.)

4-52. Unfortunately, the Army has been caught

unprepared for war more than once. In July

1950, American troops who had been on occupation duty in Japan were thrown into combat

when North Korean forces invaded South Korea. Ill-trained, ill-equipped, and out of shape,

they went into action and were overrun. However, that same conflict provides another example of how well things can go when a direct

leader has tactical skill, the ability to pull people and things together into a team. Near the

end of November 1950, American forces were

chasing the remnants of the broken North Korean People’s Army into the remote northern

corners of the Korean Peninsula. Two American units pushed all the way to the Yalu River,

which forms the boundary between North Korea and the People’s Republic of China. One

was the 17th Infantry Regiment. The other was

a task force commanded by a 24-year-old first

lieutenant named Joseph Kingston.

 	
 



 


Task Force Kingston

1LT Joseph Kingston, a boyish-looking platoon leader in K Company, 3d Battalion, 32d Infantry,

was the lead element for his battalion’s move northward. The terrain was mountainous, the weather

bitterly cold—the temperature often below zero—and the cornered enemy still dangerous. 1LT

Kingston inched his way forward, with the battalion adding elements to his force. He had antiaircraft

jeeps mounted with quad .50 caliber machine guns, a tank, a squad (later a platoon) of engineers, and

an artillery forward observer. Some of these attachments were commanded by lieutenants who

outranked him, as did a captain who was the tactical air controller. But 1LT Kingston remained in

command, and battalion headquarters began referring to Task Force Kingston.

Bogged down in Yongsong-ni with casualties mounting, Task Force Kingston received

reinforcements that brought the number of men to nearly 300. Despite tough fighting, the force

continued to move northward. 1LT Kingston’s battalion commander wanted him to remain in

command, even though they sent several more officers who outranked 1LT Kingston. One of the
4-53. 1LT Kingston made the task force work

by applying skills at a level of responsibility far

above what was normal for a soldier of his rank

and experience. He knew how to shoot, move,

and communicate. He knew the fundamentals

of his profession. He employed the weapons

under his command and controlled a rather

unwieldy collection of combat assets. He

understood small-unit tactics and applied his

reasoning skills to make decisions. He fostered

a sense of teamwork, even in this collection of

units that had never trained together. Finally,

he set the example with personal courage.

SUMMARY

4-54. Direct leadership is face-to-face, first-line

leadership. It takes place in organizations

where subordinates are used to seeing their

leaders all the time: teams, squads, sections,

platoons, companies, and battalions. To be effective, direct leaders must master many interpersonal, conceptual, technical, and tactical

skills.

4-55. Direct leaders are first-line leaders. They

apply the conceptual skills of critical reasoning

and creative thinking to determine the best way

to accomplish the mission. They use ethical reasoning to make sure their choice is the right

thing to do, and they use reflective thinking to

assess and improve team performance, their

subordinates, and themselves. They employ the

interpersonal skills of communicating and supervising to get the job done. They develop their

people by mentoring and counseling and mold

them into cohesive teams by training them to

standard.

4-56. Direct leaders are the Army’s technical

experts and best teachers. Both their bosses

and their people expect them to know their

equipment and be experts in all the applicable

technical skills. On top of that, direct leaders

combine those skills with the tactical skills of

doctrine, fieldcraft, and training to accomplish

tactical missions.

4-57. Direct leaders use their competence to

foster discipline in their units and to develop

soldiers and DA civilians of character. They use

their mastery of equipment and doctrine to

train their subordinates to standard. They

create and sustain teams with the skill, trust,

and confidence to succeed—in peace and war.

 

	
 


	 

Task Force Kingston (continued)

attached units was a rifle company, commanded by a captain. But the arrangement worked, mostly

because 1LT Kingston himself was an able leader. Hit while leading an assault on one enemy

stronghold, he managed to toss a grenade just as a North Korean soldier shot him in the head. His

helmet, badly grazed, saved his life. His personal courage inspired his men and the soldiers from the

widely varied units who were under his control. Task Force Kingston was commanded by the soldier

who showed, by courage and personal example, that he could handle the job.
Chapter 5

Direct Leadership Actions

5-1. Preparing to be a leader doesn’t get the job

done; the test of your character and competence

comes when you act, when you DO those things

required of a leader.

5-2. The three broad leader actions that Chapters 1 and 2 introduced—influencing, operating, and improving—contain other activities.

As with the skills and attributes discussed previously, none of these exist alone. Most of what

you do as a leader is a mix of these actions. This

manual talks about them individually to explain them more clearly; in practice they’re often too closely connected to sort out.

5-3. Remember that your actions say more

about what kind of leader you are than

anything else. Your people watch you all the

time; you’re always on duty. And if there’s a

disconnect between what you say and how you

act, they’ll make up their minds about

you—and act accordingly—based on how you

act. It’s not good enough to talk the talk; you

have to walk the walk.

INFLUENCING ACTIONS

5-4. Leadership is both art and science. It requires constant study, hard work, and frequent

practice. Since you’re dealing with people and

their emotions, dreams, and fears, it also calls

for imagination and a positive, upbeat approach.

5-5. Effective leaders act competently and confidently. Your attitude sets the tone for the entire unit, and you choose your attitude—day to

day, task to task, even minute to minute. Remember that optimism, a positive outlook, and

a sense of humor are infectious. This is especially true when you must make unpopular

decisions and face the challenge of bringing the

team on board.

Army Leadership 5-1

The most important influence you

have on your people is the example

you set.

INFLUENCING ACTIONS.....................5-1

OPERATING ACTIONS.........................5-8

IMPROVING ACTIONS......................5-13

SUMMARY..........................................5-27

Influencing

Operating

Improving

nterpersonal

onceptual

Technical

Tactical

VALUES

ATTRIBUTES

SKILLS

“Be” “Know”

THE LEADER THE LEADER

of Character and Competence Acts...

to Achieve Excellence to Achieve Excellence

Loyalty

Duty

Respect

Selfless Service

Honor

Integrity

Personal Courage

Mental

Physical

Emotional

Influencing

Operating

Improving

Interpersonal

Conceptual

Technical

Tactical ce

rage

y

Emotional

Conceptual

Technical

Tactical

Communicating

Decision Making

Motivating

Figure 5-1. Direct Leader Actions—Influencing
5-6. Figure 5-1 shows that influencing consists

of communicating, decision making and

motivating. As a leader, you should be asking

several questions: What’s happening? What

should be happening but isn’t? Why are these

things happening? Then ask yourself: How can I

get this teammoving toward the goal? (Appendix

B lists leader performance indicators).

COMMUNICATING

You must talk to your soldiers...I don’t just

mean in formation or groups, but one-on-one.

Take time (at least 15 to 30 minutes a day) to

really talk to a soldier, one soldier a day.

Command Sergeant Major Daniel E. Wright

5-7. Leaders keep their subordinates informed

because doing so shows trust, because sharing

information can relieve stress, and because information allows subordinates to determine

what they need to do to accomplish the mission

when circumstances change. By informing

them of a decision—and, as much as possible,

the reasons for it—you show your subordinates

they’re important members of the team. Accurate information also relieves unnecessary

stress and helps keep rumors under control.

(Without an explanation for what’s happening,

your people will manufacture one—or several—of their own.) Finally, if something

should happen to you, the next leader in the

chain will be better prepared to take over and

accomplish the mission if everyone knows

what’s going on. Subordinates must understand your intent. In a tactical setting, leaders

must understand the intent of their commanders two levels up.

5-8. In other situations, leaders use a variety of

means to keep people informed, from face-toface talks to published memos and family newsletters. No matter what the method, keep two

things in mind:

 As a leader, you are responsible for making

sure your subordinates understand you.

 Communication isn’t limited to your immediate superiors and subordinates.

5-9. The success or failure of any communication is the responsibility of the leader. If it

appears your subordinates don’t understand,

check to make sure you’ve made yourself clear.

In fact, even if you think your people understand, check anyway; ask for a back-brief.

5-10. Don’t assume that communication

begins or ends at the next level up or the next

level down. If you’re a team leader, listen carefully to what your supervisors, platoon sergeants, platoon leaders, and company commanders say. If you’re a platoon sergeant, pass

the word through your squad leaders or section

chiefs, but also watch and listen to the troops to

see if the information has made it all the way to

where it needs to go. Listen carefully at least

two levels up and two levels down.

5-11. In combat, subordinates may be out of

contact with their leaders. Sometimes the

plan falls apart because of something

unexpected—weather, terrain, enemy action.

Sometimes the leader may be killed or

wounded. In those situations, subordinates

who know the overall purpose of the mission

and the commander’s intent have the basic

information they need to carry on. And if the

leader has established a climate of trust, if

the leader has trained the subordinate leaders in how and why decisions are made, one of

these subordinates is more likely to step up

and take charge.

5-12. To prepare your subordinates for such

circumstances, create training situations where

they must act on their own with a minimum of

guidance—or with no guidance except a clear

understanding of the purpose. Follow up these

training situations with AARs so that subordinates learn what they did well, what they could

have done better, and they should do differently

next time.

5-13. Communicating also goes on from bottom

to top. Leaders find out what their people are

thinking, saying, and doing by using that most

important communication tool: listening. By

listening carefully, you can even hear those

messages behind what a person is actually saying, the equivalent of reading between the lines.

Practice “leadership by walking around.” Get

out and coach, listen, teach, and clarify; pass on

5-2 FM 22-100

Direct Leadership Actions
what you learn to your superiors. They need to

know what’s going on to make good plans.

DECISION MAKING

A good leader must sometimes be stubborn.

Armed with the courage of his convictions, he

must often fight to defend them. When he has

come to a decision after thorough analysis—and

when he is sure he is right—he must stick to it

even to the point of stubbornness.

General of the Army, Omar N. Bradley

Address to the US Army Command and

General Staff College, May 1967

5-14. A problem is an existing condition or

situation in which what you want to happen is

different from what actually is happening.

Decision making is the process that begins to

change that situation. Thus, decision making is

knowing whether to decide, then when and

what to decide. It includes understanding the

consequences of your decisions.

5-15. Army leaders usually follow one of two

decision-making processes. Leaders at company

level and below follow the troop leading procedures (TLP). The TLP are designed to support

solving tactical problems. Leaders at battalion

level and above follow the military decision

making process (MDMP). The MDMP, which

FM 101-5 discusses, is designed for organizations with staffs. These established and proven

methodologies combine elements of the planning operating action to save time and achieve

parallel decision making and planning. Both

follow the problem solving steps discussed

below.

5-16. Every once in a while, you may come

across a decision that’s easy to make: yes or no,

right or left, on or off. As you gain experience as

a leader, some of the decisions you find difficult

now will become easier. But there will always

be difficult decisions that require imagination,

that require rigorous thinking and analysis, or

that require you to factor in your gut reaction.

Those are the tough decisions, the ones you’re

getting paid to make. As an experienced first

sergeant once said to a brand new company

commander, “We get paid the big bucks to

make the hard calls.” The next several paragraphs explain the steps you should use to solve

a problem; then you’ll read about other factors

that affect how you make those hard calls and

the importance of setting priorities.

Problem Solving Steps

5-17. Identify the problem. Don’t be distracted by the symptoms of the problem; get at

its root cause. There may be more than one

thing contributing to a problem, and you may

run into a case where there are lots of contributing factors but no real “smoking gun.”

The issue you choose to address as the root

cause becomes the mission (or restated mission

for tactical problems). The mission must include a simple statement of who, what, when,

where, and why. In addition, it should include

your end state, how you want things to look

when the mission is complete.

5-18. Identify facts and assumptions. Get

whatever facts you can in the time you have.

Facts are statements of what you know about

the situation. Assumptions are statements of

what you believe about the situation but don’t

have facts to support. Make only assumptions

that are likely to be true and essential to generate alternatives. Some of the many sources of

facts include regulations, policies, and doctrinal

publications. Your organization’s mission,

goals, and objectives may also be a source.

Sources of assumptions can be personal experiences, members of the organization, subject

matter experts, or written observations. Analyze the facts and assumptions you identify to

determine the scope of the problem. (FM 101-5

contains more information on facts and assumptions.)

5-19. Generate alternatives. Alternatives

are ways to solve the problem. Develop more

than one possible alternative. Don’t be satisfied

with the first thing that comes into your mind.

That’s lazy thinking; the third or fourth or

twentieth alternative you come up with might

be the best one. If you have time and experienced subordinates, include them in this

step.

Army Leadership 5-3

Influencing Actions
5-20. Analyze the alternatives. Identify

intended and unintended consequences, resource or other constraints, and the advantages

and disadvantages of each alternative.Be sure to

considerallyouralternatives.Don’tprejudge the

situationby favoringanyonealternativeoverthe

others.

5-21. Compare the alternatives. Evaluate

each alternative for its probability of success

and its cost. Think past the immediate future.

How will this decision change things tomorrow?

Next week? Next year?

5-22. Make and execute your decision.

Prepare a leader’s plan of action, if necessary,

and put it in motion. (Planning, an operating

action, is covered later in this chapter. Appendix C discusses plans of action as part of

developmental counseling. Appendix D contains an example of a leader’s plan of action.)

5-23. Assess the results. Check constantly to

see how the execution of your plan of action is

going. Keep track of what happens. Adjust your

plan, if necessary. Learn from the experience so

you’ll be better equipped next time. Follow up

on results and make further adjustments as required.

Factors to Consider

5-24. All of this looks great on paper; and it’s

easy to talk about when things are calm, when

there’s plenty of time. But even when there

isn’t a great deal of time, you’ll come up with

the best solution if you follow this process to the

extent that time allows.

5-25. Even following these steps, you may find

that with some decisions you need to take into

account your knowledge, your intuition, and

your best judgment. Intuition tells you what

feels right; it comes from accumulated experience, often referred to as “gut feeling.”

However, don’t be fooled into relying only on

intuition, even if it has worked in the past. A

leader who says “Hey, I just do what feels right”

may be hiding a lack of competence or may just

be too lazy to do the homework needed to make

a reasoned, thought-out decision. Don’t let that

be you. Use your experience, listen to your instincts, but do your research as well. Get the

facts and generate alternatives. Analyze and

compare as many as time allows. Then make

your decision and act.

5-26. Remember also that any decision you

make must reflect Army values. Chapter 4 discusses ethical reasoning. Its steps match the

problem solving steps outlined here. Most problems are not ethical problems, but many have

ethical aspects. Taking leave for example, is a

right soldiers and DA civilians enjoy, but leaders must balance mission requirements with

their people’s desires and their own. Reconciling such issues may require ethical reasoning.

As a leader, your superiors and your people expect you to take ethical aspects into account

and make decisions that are right as well as

good.

Setting Priorities

5-27. Decisions are not often narrowly defined,

as in “Do I choose A or B?” Leaders make decisions when they establish priorities and determine what’s important, when they supervise,

when they choose someone for a job, when they

train.

5-28. As a leader, you must also set priorities. If

you give your subordinates a list of things to do

and say “They’re all important,” you may be

trying to say something about urgency. But the

message you actually send is “I can’t decide

which of these are most important, so I’ll just

lean on you and see what happens.”

5-29. Sometimes all courses of action may

appear equally good (or equally bad) and that

any decision will be equally right (or equally

wrong). Situations like that may tempt you to

sit on the fence, to make no decision and let

things work themselves out. Occasionally that

may be appropriate; remember that decision

5-4 FM 22-100

Direct Leadership Actions
5-30. The platoon leader and platoon sergeant

followed the problem solving steps you just read

about. Given a problem (poor performance),

they identified the facts surrounding it (poor

PT practices, poor property accountability, and

unhealthy competition), developed a plan of

Army Leadership 5-5

Influencing Actions

making involves judgment, knowing whether to

decide. More often, things left to themselves go

from bad to worse. In such situations, the decision you make may be less important than simply deciding to do something. Leaders must

have the personal courage to say which tasks

are more important than others. In the absence

of a clear priority, you must set one; not everything can be a top priority, and you can’t make

progress without making decisions.

Solving a Training Problem

A rifle platoon gets a new platoon leader and a new platoon sergeant within days of a poor

showing in the division’s military operations on urbanized terrain (MOUT) exercise. The new leaders

assume the platoon’s poor showing is a problem. Feedback from the evaluators is general and vague.

The platoon’s squad and fire team leaders are angry and not much help in assessing what went

wrong, so the new leaders begin investigating. In their fact-finding step they identify the following

facts: (1) The soldiers are out of shape and unable to complete some of the physical tasks. (2) The fire

team leaders don’t know MOUT tactics, and some of the squad leaders are also weak. (3) Third

Squad performed well, but didn’t help the other squads. (4) The soldiers didn’t have the right

equipment at the training site.

Pushing a bit further to get at the root causes of these problems, the new leaders uncover the

following: (1) Platoon PT emphasizes preparation for the APFT only. (2) Third Squad’s leaders know

MOUT techniques, and had even developed simple drills to help their soldiers learn, but because of

unhealthy competition encouraged by the previous leaders, Third Squad didn’t share the knowledge.

(3) The company supply sergeant has the equipment the soldiers needed, but because the platoon

had lost some equipment on the last field exercise, the supply sergeant didn’t let the platoon sign out

the equipment.

The new platoon leader and platoon sergeant set a goal of successfully meeting the exercise

standard in two months. To generate alternatives, they meet with the squad leaders and ask for

suggestions to improve training. They use all their available resources to develop solutions. Among

the things suggested was to shuffle some of the team leaders to break up Third Squad’s clique and

spread some of the tactical knowledge around. When squad leaders complained, the platoon

sergeant emphasized that they must think as a platoon, not just a collection of squads.

The platoon sergeant talks to the supply sergeant, who tells him the platoon’s previous leadership

had been lax about property accountability. Furthermore, the previous leaders didn’t want to bother

keeping track of equipment, so they often left it in garrison. The platoon sergeant teaches his squad

leaders how to keep track of equipment and says that, in the future, soldiers who lose equipment will

pay for it: “We wouldn’t leave our stuff behind in war, so we’re not going to do it in training.”

Building on Third Squad’s experience, the platoon leader works with the squad and fire team

leaders to come up with some simple drills for the platoon’s missions. He takes the leaders to the field

and practices the drills with them so they’ll be able to train their soldiers to the new standard.

The platoon sergeant also goes to the brigade’s fitness trainers and, with their help, develops a

PT program that emphasizes skills the soldiers need for their combat tasks. The new program

includes rope climbing, running with weapons and equipment, and road marches. Finally, the leaders

monitor how their plan is working. A few weeks before going through the course again, they decide to

eliminate one of the battle drills because the squad leaders suggested that it wasn’t necessary after

all.
action, and executed it. Where appropriate,

they analyzed and compared different alternatives (Third Squad’s drills). They included their

subordinates in the process, but had the moral

courage to make unpopular decisions (breaking

up the Third Squad clique). Will the platoon do

better the next time out? Probably, but before

then the new leaders will have to assess the results of their actions to make sure they’re accomplishing what the leaders want. There may

be other aspects of this problem that were not

apparent at first. And following this or any process doesn’t guarantee success. The process is

only a framework that helps you make a plan

and act. Success depends on your ability to apply your attributes and skills to influencing and

operating actions.

5-31. Army leaders also make decisions when

they evaluate subordinates, whether it’s with a

counseling statement, an evaluation report, or

even on-the-spot encouragement. At an in-ranks

inspection, a new squad leader takes a second

look at a soldier’s haircut—or lack of one. The

squad leader’s first reaction may be to ask, “Did

you get your haircut lately?” But that avoids the

problem. The soldier’s haircut is either to standard or not—the NCO must decide. The squad

leader either says—without apologizing or dancing around the subject—“You need a haircut” or

else says nothing. Either way, the decision communicates the leader’s standard. Looking a subordinate in the eye and making a necessary

correction is a direct leader hallmark.

MOTIVATING

A unit with a high esprit de corps can

accomplish its mission in spite of seemingly

insurmountable odds.

FM 22-10, 1951

5-32. Recall from Chapter 1 that motivation involves using word and example to give your subordinates the will to accomplish the mission.

Motivation grows out of people’s confidence in

themselves, their unit, and their leaders. This

confidence is born in hard, realistic training;

it’s nurtured by constant reinforcement and

through the kind of leadership—consistent,

hard, and fair—that promotes trust. Remember

that trust, like loyalty, is a gift your soldiers

give you only when you demonstrate that you

deserve it. Motivation also springs from the

person’s faith in the larger mission of the organization—a sense of being a part of the big

picture.

Empowering People

5-33. People want to be recognized for the work

they do and want to be empowered. You empower subordinates when you train them to do

a job, give them the necessary resources and

authority, get out of their way, and let them

work. Not only is this a tremendous statement

of the trust you have in your subordinates; it’s

one of the best ways to develop them as leaders.

Coach and counsel them, both when they succeed and when they fail.

Positive Reinforcement

5-34. Part of empowering subordinates is finding out their needs. Talk to your people: find

out what’s important to them, what they want

to accomplish, what their personal goals are.

Give them feedback that lets them know how

they’re doing. Listen carefully so that you know

what they mean, not just what they say. Use

their feedback when it makes sense, and if you

change something in the organization because

of a subordinate’s suggestion, let everyone

know where the good idea came from. Remember, there’s no limit to the amount of good you

can do as long as you don’t worry about who

gets the credit. Give the credit to those who deserve it and you’ll be amazed at the results.

5-35. You recognize subordinates when you

give them credit for the work they do, from a

pat on the back to a formal award or decoration.

Don’t underestimate the power of a few choice

words of praise when a person has done a good

job. Don’t hesitate to give out awards—commendations, letters, certificates—when appropriate. (Use good judgment, however. If you

give out a medal for every little thing, pretty

soon the award becomes meaningless. Give an

award for the wrong thing and you show you’re

out of touch.) Napoleon marveled at the motivational power of properly awarded ribbons and

medals. He once said that if he had enough ribbon, he could rule the world.

5-6 FM 22-100

Direct Leadership Actions
5-36. When using rewards, you have many

options. Here are some things to consider:

 Consult the leadership chain for recommendations.

 Choose a reward valued by the person

receiving it, one that appeals to the individual’s personal pride. This may be a locally approved award that’s more respected

than traditional DA awards.

 Use the established system of awards (certificates, medals, letters of commendation,

driver and mechanic badges) when appropriate. These are recognized throughout

the Army; when a soldier goes to a new unit,

the reward will still be valuable.

 Present the award at an appropriate ceremony. Emphasize its importance. Let others see how hard work is rewarded.

 Give rewards promptly.

 Praise only good work or honest effort. Giving praise too freely cheapens its effect.

 Promote people who get the job done and

who influence others to do better work.

 Recognize those who meet the standard and

improve their performance. A soldier who

works hard and raises his score on the

APFT deserves some recognition, even if

the soldier doesn’t achieve the maximum

score. Not everyone can be soldier of the

quarter.

Negative Reinforcement

5-37. Of course, not everyone is going to

perform to standard. In fact, some will require

punishment. Using punishment to motivate a

person away from an undesirable behavior is effective, but can be tricky. Sound judgment must

guide you when administering punishment.

Consider these guidelines:

 Before you punish a subordinate, make sure

the subordinate understands the reason for

the punishment. In most—although not

all—cases, you’ll want to try to change the

subordinate’s behavior by counseling or

retraining before resulting to punishment.

 Consult your leader or supervisor before

you punish a subordinate. They’ll be aware

of policies you need to consider and may be

able to assist you in changing the subordinate’s behavior.

 Avoid threatening a subordinate with punishment. Making a threat puts you in the

position of having to deliver on that threat.

In such a situation you may end up punishing because you said you would rather than

because the behavior merits punishment.

This undermines your standing as a leader.

 Avoid mass punishment. Correctly identify

the problem, determine if an individual or

individuals are responsible, and use an

appropriate form of correction.

 With an open mind and without prejudging,

listen to the subordinate’s side of the story.

 Let the subordinate know that it’s the

behavior—not the individual—that is the

problem. “You let the team down” works;

“You’re a loser” sends the wrong message.

 Since people tend to live up to their leader’s

expectations, tell them, “I know you can do

better than that. I expect you to do better

than that.”

 Punish those who are able but unwilling to

perform. Retrain a person who’s unable to

complete a task.

 Respond immediately to undesirable behavior. Investigate fully. Take prompt and prudent corrective action in accordance with

established legal or regulatory procedures.

 Never humiliate a subordinate; avoid public

reprimand.

 Ensure the person knows exactly what behavior got the person in trouble.

 Make sure the punishment isn’t excessive

or unreasonable. It’s not only the severity of

punishment that keeps subordinates in line;

it’s the certainty that they can’t get away

with undesirable behavior.

 Control your temper and hold no grudges.

Don’t let your personal feelings interfere;

whether you like or dislike someone has

nothing to do with good order and discipline.

5-38. If you were surprised to find a discussion

of punishment under the section on motivation, consider this: good leaders are always

on the lookout for opportunities to develop

Army Leadership 5-7

Influencing Actions
subordinates, even the ones who are being punished. Your people—even the ones who cause

you problems—are still the most important resource you have. When a vehicle is broken, you

don’t throw it out; you fix it. If one of your people is performing poorly, don’t just get rid of the

person; try to help fix the problem.

OPERATING ACTIONS

5-39. You’re operating when you act to achieve

an immediate objective, when you’re working

to get today’s job done. Although FM 25-100 is

predominantly a training tool, its methodology

applies to a unit’s overall operational effectiveness. Because operating includes planning, preparing, executing, and assessing (see Figure

5-2), you can use the FM 25-100 principles as a

model for operations other than training.

Sometimes these elements are part of a cycle;

other times they happen simultaneously.

5-40. You’ll often find yourself influencing

after you’ve moved on to operating. In practice,

the nice, neat divisions in this manual are not

clear-cut; you often must handle multiple tasks

requiring different skills at the same time.

(Appendix B lists operating actions and some

indicators of effectiveness.)

PLANNING AND PREPARING

5-41. In peacetime training, in actual

operations, and especially in combat, your job

is to help your organization function

effectively—accomplish the mission—in an

environment that can be chaotic. That begins

with a well thought-out plan and thorough

preparation. A well-trained organization

with a sound plan is much better prepared

than one without a plan. Planning ahead reduces confusion, builds subordinates’ confidence in themselves and the organization,

and helps ensure success with a minimum of

wasted effort—or in combat, the minimum

number of casualties. (FM 101-5 discusses

the different types of plans.)

5-42. A plan is a proposal for executing a command decision or project. Planning begins with

a mission, specified or implied. A specified mission comes from your boss or from higher headquarters. An implied mission results when the

leader, who may be you, sees something within

his area of responsibility that needs to be done

and, on his own initiative, develops a leader

plan of action. (Remember that a problem exists when you’re not satisfied with the way

things are or the direction they’re heading.) Either type of mission contains implied and specified tasks, actions that must be completed to

accomplish the mission. (FM 101-5 discusses

how the MDMP supports planning.)

Reverse Planning

5-43. When you begin with the goal in mind,

you often will use the reverse planning method.

Start with the question “Where do I want to

end up?” and work backward from there until

you reach “We are here right now.”

5-44. Along the way, determine the basics of

what’s required: who, what, when, where, and

why. You may also want to consider how to accomplish the task, although the “how” is

5-8 FM 22-100

Direct Leadership Actions

VALUES

ATTRIBUTES

SKILLS

“Be” “Know”

THE LEADER THE LEADER

of Character and Competence Acts...

to Achieve Excellence to Achieve Excellence

Influencing

Improving

Operating

Figure 5-2. Direct Leader

Actions—Operating
usually not included in a mission to a subordinate. As you plan, consider the amount of time

needed to coordinate and conduct each step.

For instance, a tank platoon sergeant whose

platoon has to spend part of a field exercise on

the firing range might have to arrange, among

other things, refueling at the range. No one explicitly said to refuel at the range, but the platoon sergeant knows what needs to happen.

The platoon sergeant must think through the

steps from the last to the first: (1) when the refueling must be complete, (2) how long the refueling will take, (3) how long it takes the

refueling unit to get set up, and finally (4) when

the refueling vehicles should report to the

range.

5-45. After you have figured out what must

happen on the way to the goal, put the tasks in

sequence, set priorities, and determine a schedule. Look at the steps in the order they will occur. Make sure events are in logical order and

you have allotted enough time for each one. As

always, a good leader asks for input from subordinates when time allows. Getting input not

only acts as a check on the your plan (you may

have overlooked something), but also gets your

people involved; involvement builds trust, selfconfidence, and the will to succeed.

Preparing

5-46. While leaders plan, subordinates

prepare. Leaders can develop a plan while their

organization is preparing if they provide

advance notice of the task or mission and initial

guidance for preparation in a warning order.

(Warning orders are part of the TLP and

MDMP; however, any leader—uniformed or DA

civilian—can apply the principle of the warning

order by giving subordinates advance notice of

an impending requirement and how they’ll be

expected to contribute to it. FM 101-5 discusses

warning orders.) Based on this guidance, subordinates can draw ammunition, rehearse key actions, inspect equipment, conduct security

patrols, or begin movement while the leader

completes the plan. In the case of a nontactical

requirement, preparation may include making

sure the necessary facilities and other resources

are available to support it. In all cases, preparation includes coordinating with people and organizations that are involved or might be

affected by the operation or project. (TC 25-30

discusses preparing for company- and platoonlevel training).

5-47. Rehearsal is an important element of

preparation. Rehearsing key combat actions

lets subordinates see how things are supposed

to work and builds confidence in the plan for

both soldiers and leaders. Even a simple

walk-through helps them visualize who’s

supposed to be where and do what when.

Mobilization exercises provide a similar

function for DA civilians and reserve

component soldiers: they provide a chance to

understand and rehearse mobilization and

deployment support functions. Execution goes

more smoothly because everyone has a mental

picture of what’s supposed to happen.

Rehearsals help people remember their

responsibilities. They also help leaders see how

things might happen, what might go wrong,

how the plan needs to be changed, and what

things the leader didn’t think of. (FM 101-5

contains an in-depth discussion of rehearsals.)

Army Leadership 5-9

Operating Actions

An Implied Mission and Leader Plan of Action

Not all missions originate with higher headquarters; sometimes the leader sees what’s required

and, exercising initiative, develops a leader plan of action.

Suppose a platoon sergeant’s soldiers had trouble meeting minimum weapons qualification

requirements. Since everyone qualified, no one has said to work on marksmanship. But the platoon

sergeant knows the platoon made it through range week on sheer luck. The leader develops a training
5-48. Leader plans of action can be used to reinforce positive behavior, improve performance,

or even change an aspect of the organizational

climate. A leader plan of action may also be personal—as when the leader decides “I need to

improve my skills in this area.”

5-49. No matter what your position is, part of

your duty is making your boss’s job easier. Just

as you loyally provide resources and authority

for your subordinates to do their jobs, you leave

the boss free to do his. Ask only for decisions

that fall outside your scope of authority—not

those you want to avoid. Forward only problems you can’t fix—not those whose solutions

are just difficult. Ask for advice from others

with more experience or seek clarification when

you don’t understand what’s required. Do all

that and exercise disciplined initiative within

your boss’s intent. (Appendix A discusses delegation of authority.)

EXECUTING

Soldiers do what they are told to do. It’s

leadership that’s the key. Young men and

women join the Army; if they’re with competent,

confident, capable leaders they turn into good

soldiers.

Sergeant Major of the Army Robert E. Hall

5-50. Executing means acting to accomplish

the mission, moving to achieve the leader’s

goals as expressed in the leader’s vision—to

standard and on time—while taking care of

your people.

5-51. Execution, the payoff, is based on all the

work that has gone before. But planning and

preparation alone can’t guarantee success.

Things will go wrong. Large chunks of the plan

will go flying out the window. At times, it will

seem as if everything is working against you.

Then you must have the will to fight through,

keeping in mind your higher leaders’ intent and

the mission’s ultimate goal. You must adapt

and improvise.

5-10 FM 22-100

Direct Leadership Actions

An Implied Mission and Leader Plan of Action (continued)

plan to work on basic marksmanship, then goes to the platoon leader and presents it. Together the

two leaders figure out a way to make sure their soldiers get a chance to train, even with all the other

mission requirements. After they’ve talked it over, they bring in their subordinate leaders and involve

them in the planning process. The platoon sergeant keeps track of the progress and effectiveness of

the leader plan of action, making sure it accomplishes the intent and changing it when necessary.

Later, the platoon leader and platoon sergeant meet to assess the plan’s results and to decide if

further action is required.

Brief Solutions, Not Problems

Leaders develop their subordinates by requiring those subordinates to plan. A lieutenant, new to

the battalion staff, ran into a problem getting all the resources the unit was going to need for an

upcoming deployment. The officer studied the problem, talked to the people involved, checked his

facts, and generally did a thorough analysis—of which he was very proud. Then he marched into the

battalion executive officer’s (XO’s) office and laid it all out in a masterly fashion. The XO looked up

from his desk and said, “Great. What are you going to do about it?”

The lieutenant was back in a half-hour with three possible solutions he had worked out with his

NCOs. From that day on, the officer never presented a problem to any boss without offering some

solutions as well. The lieutenant learned a useful technique from the XO. He learned it so well he

began using it with his soldiers and became a better coach and mentor because of it.
5-52. In a tactical setting, all leaders must

know the intent of commanders two levels up.

During execution, position yourself to best lead

your people, initiate and control the action, get

others to follow the plan, react to changes, keep

your people focused, and work the team to accomplish the goal to standard. A well-trained

organization accomplishes the mission, even

when things go wrong.

5-53. Finally, leaders ensure they and their

subordinate leaders are doing the right jobs.

This goes hand in hand with empowerment. A

company commander doesn’t do a squad

leader’s job. A division chief doesn’t do a branch

chief’s job. A supervisor doesn’t do a team

leader’s job.

Maintaining Standards

5-54. The Army has established standards for

all military activities. Standards are formal, detailed instructions that can be stated, measured, and achieved. They provide a

performance baseline to evaluate how well a

specific task has been executed. You must

know, communicate and enforce standards. Explain the ones that apply to your organization

and give your subordinate leaders the authority

to enforce them. Then hold your subordinates

responsible for achieving them.

5-55. Army leaders don’t set the minimum

standards as goals. However, everything can’t

be a number one priority. As an Army leader,

you must exercise judgment concerning which

tasks are most important. Organizations are required to perform many tasks that are not

mission-related. While some of these are extremely important, others require only a minimum effort. Striving for excellence in every

area, regardless of how trivial, quickly works an

organization to death. On the other hand, the

fact that a task isn’t a first priority doesn’t excuse a sloppy performance. Professional soldiers accomplish all tasks to standard.

Competent leaders make sure the standard fits

the task’s importance.

Setting Goals

5-56. The leader’s ultimate goal—your

ultimate goal—is to train the organization to

succeed in its wartime mission. Your daily work

includes setting intermediate goals to get the

organization ready. Involve your subordinates

in goal setting. This kind of cooperation fosters

trust and makes the best use of subordinates’

talents. When developing goals, consider these

points:

 Goals must be realistic, challenging, and attainable.

 Goals should lead to improved combat

readiness.

 Subordinates ought to be involved in the

goal setting.

 Leaders develop a plan of action to achieve

each goal.

ASSESSING

Schools and their training offer better ways to

do things, but only through experience are we

able to capitalize on this learning. The process of

profiting from mistakes becomes a milestone in

learning to become a more efficient soldier.

Former Sergeant Major of the Army

William G. Bainbridge

5-57. Setting goals and maintaining standards

are central to assessing mission accomplishment. Whenever you talk about accomplishing the mission, always include the phrase

“to standard.” When you set goals for your

subordinates, make sure they know what the

standards are. To use a simple example, the

goal might be “All unit members will pass the

APFT.” The APFT standard tells you, for each

exercise, how many repetitions are required in

how much time, as well as describing a proper

way to do the exercise.

5-58. Also central to assessing is spot checking.

Army leaders check things: people, performance, equipment, resources. They check things

to ensure the organization is meeting standards

and moving toward the goals the leader has established. Look closely; do it early and often; do

it both before and after the fact. Praise good

performance and figure out how to fix poor performance. Watch good first sergeants or command sergeants major as they go through the

mess line at the organizational dining facility.

They pick up the silverware and run their fingers over it—almost unconsciously—checking

Army Leadership 5-11

Operating Actions
for cleanliness. Good leaders supervise, inspect,

and correct their subordinates. They don’t

waste time; they’re always on duty.

5-59. Some assessments you make yourself.

For others, you may want to involve subordinates. Involving subordinates in assessments and obtaining straightforward feedback

from them become more important as your

span of authority increases. Two techniques

that involve your subordinates in assessing are

in-process reviews (IPRs) and after-action

reviews (AARs).

In-Process Reviews

5-60. Successful assessment begins with forming a picture of the organization’s performance

early. Anticipate which areas the organization

might have trouble in; that way you know

which areas to watch closely. Once the organization begins the mission, use IPRs to evaluate

performance and give feedback. Think of an

IPR as a checkpoint on the way to mission

accomplishment.

5-61. Say you tell your driver to take you to division headquarters. If you recognize the landmarks, you decide your driver knows the way

and probably say nothing. If you don’t recognize the landmarks, you might ask where you

are. And if you determine that the driver is lost

or has made a wrong turn, you give instructions

to get back to where you need to be. In more

complex missions, IPRs give leaders and subordinates a chance to talk about what’s going on.

They can catch problems early and take steps to

correct or avoid them.

After-Action Reviews

5-62. AARs fill a similar role at the end of the

mission. Army leaders use AARs as opportunities to develop subordinates. During an

AAR, give subordinates a chance to talk about

how they saw things. Teach them how to look

past a problem’s symptoms to its root cause.

Teach them how to give constructive, useful

feedback. (“Here’s what we did well; here’s

what we can do better.”) When subordinates

share in identifying reasons for success and failure, they become owners of a stake in how

things get done. AARs also give you a chance to

hear what’s on your subordinates’ minds—and

good leaders listen closely. (FM 25-101 and TC

25-20 discuss how to prepare, conduct, and follow up after AARs.)

5-63. Leaders base reviews on accurate

observations and correct recording of those observations. If you’re evaluating a ten-day field

exercise, take good notes because you won’t remember everything. Look at things in a systematic way; get out and see things firsthand. Don’t

neglect tasks that call for subjective judgment:

evaluate unit cohesion, discipline, and morale.

(FM 25-100 and FM 25-101 discuss training assessment.)

Initial Leader Assessments

5-64. Leaders often conduct an initial

assessment before they take over a new position. How competent are your new subordinates? What’s expected of you in your new job?

Watch how people operate; this will give you

clues about the organizational climate.

(Remember SSG Withers and the vehicle inspection in Chapter 3?) Review the organization’s SOP and any regulations that apply.

Meet with the outgoing leader and listen to his

assessment. (But don’t take it as the absolute

truth; everyone sees things through filters.) Review status reports and recent inspection results. Identify the key people outside the

organization whose help you’ll need to be

successful. However, remember that your initial impression may be off-base. After you’ve

been in the position for a while, take the necessary time to make an in-depth assessment.

5-65. And in the midst of all this checking and

rechecking, don’t forget to take a look at

yourself. What kind of leader are you? Do you

oversupervise? Undersupervise? How can you

improve? What’s your plan for working on your

weak areas? What’s the best way to make use of

your strengths? Get feedback on yourself from

as many sources as possible: your boss, your

peers, even your subordinates. As Chapter 1

said in the discussion of character, make sure

your own house is in order.

Assessment of Subordinates

5-66. Good leaders provide straightforward

feedback to subordinates. Tell them where you

see their strengths; let them know where they

5-12 FM 22-100

Direct Leadership Actions
can improve. Have them come up with a plan of

action for self-improvement; offer your help.

Leader assessment should be a positive experience that your subordinates see as a chance for

them to improve. They should see it as an opportunity to tap into your experience and

knowledge for their benefit.

5-67. To assess your subordinate leaders, you

must—

 Observe and record leadership actions. Figure 1-1 is a handy guide for organizing your

thoughts.

 Compare what you see to the performance indicators in Appendix B or the appropriate reference.

 Determine if the performance meets,

exceeds, or falls below standard.

 Tell your subordinates what you saw; give

them a chance to assess themselves.

 Help your subordinate develop a plan of action to improve performance.

Leader Assessments and Plans of Action

5-68. Leader assessment won’t help anyone

improve unless it includes a plan of action

designed to correct weaknesses and sustain

strengths. Not only that, you and the subordinate must use the plan; it doesn’t do anyone any good if you stick it in a drawer or file

cabinet and never think about it again. Here is

what you must do:

 Design the plan of action together; let your

subordinate take the lead as much as possible.

 Agree on the actions necessary to improve

leader performance; your subordinate must

buy into this plan if it’s going to work.

 Review the plan frequently, check progress,

and change the plan if necessary.

(Appendix C discusses the relationship between

a leader plan of action and developmental

counseling.)

IMPROVING ACTIONS

How can you know if you’ve made a difference? Sometimes—rarely—the results are instant.

Usually it takes much longer. You may see a soldier again as a seasoned NCO; you may get a

call or a letter or see a name in the Army Times. In most cases, you will never be sure how well

you succeeded, but don’t let that stop you.

Command Sergeant Major John D. Woodyard, 1993

5-69. Improving actions are things leaders do to

leave their organizations better than they

found them. Improving actions fall into the

categories highlighted in Figure 5-3: developing, building, and learning.

5-70. Developing refers to people: you improve

your organization and the Army as an institution when you develop your subordinates.

5-71. Building refers to team building: as a direct leader, you improve your organization by

building strong, cohesive teams that perform to

standard, even in your absence.

5-72. Learning refers to you, your subordinates,

and your organization as a whole. As a leader,

you must model self-development for your people; you must constantly be learning. In addition, you must also encourage your subordinates

to learn and reward their self-development efforts. Finally, you must establish an organizational climate that rewards collective learning

and act to ensure your organization learns from

its experiences.

Army Leadership 5-13

Operating Actions
DEVELOPING

I’ve reminded many NCOs that they wouldn’t be

where they are today if someone hadn’t given

them a little extra time. I know I wouldn’t be

where I am.

Former Sergeant Major of the Army Glenn E. Morrell

5-73. In the Army, developing means developing people. Your subordinates are the leaders of

tomorrow’s Army. You have a responsibility to

train them, to be the kind of leader they deserve

so that they’ll see how leading is done. It’s your

duty to invest the time and energy it takes to

help them reach their fullest potential. The

driving principle behind Army leader development is that leaders must be prepared before

assuming leadership positions; they must be

competent and confident in their abilities. This

principle applies to all ranks and levels, to soldiers and DA civilians, and to both the active

and reserve components.

5-74. As Figure 5-4 shows, a trained and ready

Army rests on effective leader development. In

turn, leader development rests on a foundation

of training and education, expectations and

standards, and values and ethics. This foundation supports the three leader development

pillars: institutional training (schooling), operational assignments, and self-development.

(DA Pam 350-58 discusses Army leader development.)

Institutional Training

5-75. The Army school system provides formal

education and training for job-related and leadership skills. The American public education

system is progressive; that is, children attend

primary school before middle school or junior

high and then go on to high school. Likewise,

the Army school system is progressive. The

main difference is that you can expect to go out

and use your skills in an assignment before being considered for the next level of schooling.

Institutional training is critical in developing

leaders and preparing them for increased positions of responsibility throughout the Army.

Operational Assignments

5-76. When you take what you’ve learned in

school into the field Army, you continue to

learn through on-the-job experience and by

watching your leaders, peers, and subordinates. Operational assignments provide opportunities to broaden your knowledge and refine skills you gain during institutional

training and previous assignments. You gain

and expand your experience base by performing a wide range of duties and tasks under a variety of frequently changing conditions and

situations. Operational assignments provide a

5-14 FM 22-100

Direct Leadership Actions

VALUES

ATTRIBUTES

SKILLS

“Be” “Know”

THE LEADER THE LEADER

of Character and Competence Acts...

to Achieve Excellence to Achieve Excellence

Influencing

Operating

Improving

Figure 5-3. Direct Leader Actions

—Improving

VALUES & ETHICS

EXPECTATIONS & STANDARDS

TRAINING & EDUCATION

TRAINED & READY

LEADER

DEVELOPMENT

Figure 5-4. Leader Development
powerful resource for leader development—an

opportunity to learn by doing.

Self-Development

5-77. Self-development is a process you should

use to enhance previously acquired skills,

knowledge, and experience. Its goal is to

increase your readiness and potential for positions of greater responsibility. Effective selfdevelopment focuses on aspects of your character, knowledge, and capabilities that you believe need developing or improving. You can use

the dimensions of the Army leadership framework to help you determine what areas to work

on. Self-development is continuous: it takes

place during institutional training and operational assignments.

5-78. Self-development is ajointeffort involving

you, your first-line leader, and your commander.

Commanders establish and monitor selfdevelopment programs for their organizations.

You and your first-line leader together establish

goals to meet your individual needs and plan the

actions you must take to meet them. You do this

as part of developmental counseling, which is

discussed below and in Appendix C. Finally, you

must execute your plan of action. If you have subordinates, you monitor how well they’re acting

on their plans of action. You can’t execute their

plans for them, but you can give them advice,

encouragement, and—when necessary and mission permits—time.

5-79. Self-development for junior personnel is

very structured and generally narrow in focus.

The focus broadens as individuals learn their

strengths and weaknesses, determine their individual needs, and become more independent.

Everyone’s knowledge and perspective increases with age, experience, institutional

training, and operational assignments. Specific,

goal-oriented self-development actions can accelerate and broaden a person’s skills and

knowledge. As a member of the Army, you’re

obligated to develop your abilities to the greatest extent possible. As an Army leader, you’re

responsible to assist your subordinates in their

self-development.

5-80. Civilian and military education is part of

self-development. Army leaders never stop

learning. They seek to educate and train

themselves beyond what’s offered in formal

schooling or even in their duty assignments.

Leaders look for educational opportunities to

prepare themselves for their next job and

future responsibilities. Look for Army off-duty

education that interests you and will give you

useful skills. Seek civilian education to broaden

your outlook on life. Look for things to read

that will develop your mind and help you build

skills. Challenge yourself and apply the same

initiative here as you do in your day-to-day

duties.

5-81. Remember that Army leaders challenge

themselves and take advantage of work done by

others in such fields as leadership and military

history as well as in their off-duty areas of interest. In the leadership area, you can begin with

some of the books listed in the bibliography or

go to any bookstore or library. You’ll find hundreds of titles under the heading of leadership.

The libraries of your post, nearby civilian communities, and colleges contain works on these

topics. In addition, the Internet can also be a

useful place for obtaining information on some

areas. However, be careful. Some books contain

more reliable and useful information than others; the same is true of Internet sites.

5-82. Figure 5-4 also shows that actions, skills,

and attributes form the foundation of success in

operational assignments. This is where you, the

leader, fit into Army leader development. As a

leader, you help your subordinates internalize

Army values. You also assist them in developing

the individual attributes, learning the skills,

and mastering the actions required to become

leaders of character and competence themselves. You do this through the action of

mentoring.

Mentoring

Good NCOs are not just born—they are groomed

and grown through a lot of hard work and

strong leadership by senior NCOs.

Former Sergeant Major of the Army

William A. Connelly

Army Leadership 5-15

Improving Actions
5-83. Mentoring is totally inclusive, real-life

leader development for every subordinate.

Because leaders don’t know which of their

subordinates today will be the most significant

contributors and leaders in the future, they

strive to provide all their subordinates with the

knowledge and skills necessary to become the

best they can be—for the Army and for

themselves.

5-84. Mentoring begins with the leader setting

the right example. As an Army leader, you mentor people every day in a positive or negative

way, depending on how you live Army values

and perform leader actions. Mentoring shows

your subordinates a mature example of values,

attributes, and skills in action. It encourages

them to develop their own character and leader

attributes accordingly.

5-85. Mentoring links operating leader actions

to improving leader actions. When you mentor,

you take the observing, assessing, and evaluating you do when you operate and apply these actions to developing individual subordinates.

Mentoring techniques include teaching, developmental counseling, and coaching.

5-86. Teaching is passing on knowledge and

skills to subordinates. It’s a primary task for

first-line leaders. Teaching focuses primarily on

technical and tactical skills. Developmental

counseling is better for improving

interpersonal and conceptual skills. Technical

competence is critical to effective teaching. In

order to develop subordinates, you must be able

to demonstrate the technical and tactical skills

you expect them to perform; otherwise they

won’t listen to you.

5-87. To be an Army leader, you must be a

teacher. You give your subordinates knowledge

and skills all the time, whether in formal, classroom settings or through your example. To be

an effective teacher, you must first be professionally competent; then you must create conditions in which your subordinates can learn.

5-88. The measure of how well you teach is how

well your people learn. In most cases, your people will learn more by performing a skill than

they will by watching you do it or by hearing

you talk about how to do it. However, it’s up to

you to choose the teaching method that best fits

the material. To make this choice, you need to

understand the different ways people learn.

People learn—

 Through the example of others (observing).

 By forming a picture in their minds of what

they’re trying to learn (thinking).

 By absorbing information (thinking).

 Through practice (hands-on experience).

5-89. Teaching is a complex art, one that you

must learn in addition to the competencies you

seek to teach. Just because you can pull the engine out of a tank doesn’t mean you would be

any good at teaching other people to do it.

There are techniques and methods involved in

teaching that have nothing to do with how good

you are on the job; you must know both the

skills related to the subject and another set of

teaching skills. As an Army leader, you must

develop these teaching skills as well. A subject

matter expert who has acquired technical

knowledge but is unable to teach that knowledge to others isn’t improving the organization

or the Army. (FM 25-101 addresses these and

other areas related to conducting training.)

5-16 FM 22-100

Direct Leadership Actions

Teaching gives knowledge or provides skills

to others, causing them to learn by example

or experience.

Mentoring (in the Army) is the proactive development of each subordinate through observing,

assessing, coaching, teaching, developmental

counseling, and evaluating that results in people

being treated with fairness and equal opportunity. Mentoring is an inclusive process (not an

exclusive one) for everyone under a leader’s

charge.

Soldiers learn to be good leaders from good

leaders.

	 
 	
  
  
5-90. Developmental counseling is central to

leader development. It’s the means by which

you prepare your subordinates of today to be

the leaders of tomorrow. (Appendix C contains

more details on developmental counseling.)

5-91. Developmental counseling isn’t a time for

war stories or for tales of how things were done

way back when. It should focus on today’s performance and problems and tomorrow’s plans

and solutions. Effective developmental counseling is centered on the subordinate, who is actively involved—listening, asking for more

feedback, seeking elaboration of what the counselor has to say.

5-92. Developmental counseling isn’t an

occasional event that you do when you feel like

it. It needs to be part of your program to develop

your subordinates. It requires you to use all your

counseling tools and skills. This means using

counseling requirements such as those prescribed in the NCO Evaluation Reporting System (NCOERS), Officer Evaluation Reporting

System (OERS), and Total Army Performance

Evaluation System (TAPES, which is used to

evaluate DA civilians) as more than paper drills.

It means face-to-face counseling of individuals

you rate. But more important, it means making

time throughout the rating period to discuss performance objectives and provide meaningful assessments and feedback. No evaluation

report—positive or negative—should be a surprise. A consistent developmental counseling

program ensures your people know where they

stand and what they should be doing to improve

their performance and develop themselves.

Your program should include all your people,

not just the ones you think have the most

potential. (The bibliography lists the evaluation

and support forms prescribed by the OERS,

NCOERS, and TAPES. Appendix C discusses

how to use support forms to assist you with developmental counseling.)

5-93. New direct leaders are sometimes

uncomfortable confronting a subordinate who

isn’t performing to standard. However, remember that counseling isn’t about how comfortable

or uncomfortable you are; counseling is about

correcting the performance or developing the

character of a subordinate. Therefore, be honest and frank with your subordinates during developmental counseling. If you let your people

get away with substandard behavior because

you want them to like you or because you’re

afraid to make a hard call, you’re sacrificing

Army standards for your personal wellbeing—and you’re not developing your

subordinates.

5-94. This manual has emphasized throughout

the importance of the example that you, as an

Army leader, set for your subordinates. Your

people look to you to see what kind of leader

they want to be. The example you set in

counseling is especially important. Army leaders at every level must ensure their subordinate

leaders use counseling to develop their own

subordinates. Setting the example is a powerful

leadership tool: if you counsel your subordinates, your subordinate leaders will counsel

theirs as well. The way you counsel is the way

they’ll counsel. Your people copy your behavior.

The significance of your position as a role model

can’t be understated. It’s a powerful teaching

tool, for developmental counseling as well as

other behaviors.

5-95. Although you’re responsible for developing your subordinates, no leader can be all

things to all people. In addition, the Army is already culturally diverse and is becoming increasingly technologically complex. In this

environment, some of your subordinates may

seek advice and counsel from informal relationships in addition to their leadership chain. Such

relationships can be particularly important for

women, minorities, and those in low-density

specialties who have relatively few role models

nearby.

5-96. This situation in no way relieves you, the

leader, of any of your responsibilities regarding

caring for and developing your people. Rather,

Army Leadership 5-17

Improving Actions

Developmental Counseling i s

subordinate-centered communication that

produces a plan outlining actions necessary

for subordinates to achieve individual or

organizational goals.
being sensitive to your subordinates’ professional development and cultural needs is part of

the cultural awareness leader attribute. As an

Army leader, you must know your people and

take advantage of every resource available to

help your subordinates develop as leaders. This

includes other leaders who have skills or attributes different from your own.

5-97. You can consider coaching to be both an

operating and an improving leader action. It’s

less formal than teaching. When you’re dealing

with individuals, coaching is a form of specific

instance counseling (which Appendix C discusses). When you’re dealing with all or part of

a team, it’s generally associated with AARs

(which you read about earlier in this chapter).

5-98. Coaching follows naturally from the

assessing leader action. As you observe your

subordinates at work, you’ll see them perform

some tasks to standard and some not to

standard. Some of their plans will work; some

won’t. Your subordinates know when you’re

watching them. They expect you to tell them

what they need to do to meet the standard, improve the team’s performance, or develop themselves. You provide this sort of feedback

through coaching. And don’t limit your coaching to formal sessions. Use every opportunity to

teach, counsel or coach from quarterly training

briefings to AARs. Teaching moments and

coaching opportunities occur all the time when

you concentrate on developing leaders.

Mentoring and Developing Tomorrow’s

Army

5-99. Mentoring is demanding business, but

the future of the Army depends on the trained

and effective leaders whom you leave behind.

Sometimes it requires you to set priorities, to

balance short-term readiness with long-term

leader development. The commitment to mentoring future leaders may require you to take

risks. It requires you to give subordinates the

opportunity to learn and develop themselves

while using your experience to guide them

without micromanaging. Mentoring will lead

your subordinates to successes that build their

confidence and skills for the future.

5-100. Mentoring isn’t something new for the

Army. Past successes and failures can often be

traced to how seriously those in charge took the

challenge of developing future leaders. As you

consider the rapid pace of change in today’s

world, it’s critical that you take the time to develop leaders capable of responding to that

change. The success of the next generation of

Army leaders depends on how well you accept

the responsibility of mentoring your subordinates. Competent and confident leaders trained

to meet tomorrow’s challenges and fight and

win future conflicts will be your legacy.

5-101. As you assume positions of greater

responsibility, as the number of people for

whom you are responsible increases, you need

to do even more to develop your subordinates.

More, in this case, means establishing a leader

development program for your organization. It

also means encouraging your subordinates to

take actions to develop themselves personally

and professionally. In addition, you may have to

provide time for them to pursue selfdevelopment. (FM 25-101 discusses leader

development programs.)

BUILDING

Building Teams

5-102. You’ve heard—no doubt countless

times—that the Army is a team. Just how important is it that people have a sense of the

team? Very important. The national cause, the

purpose of the mission, and all the larger concerns may not be visible from the battlefield.

5-18 FM 22-100

Direct Leadership Actions

What have YOU done TODAY to develop

the leaders of tomorrow’s Army?

Coaching involves a leader’s assessing

performance based on observations,

helping the subordinate develop an

effective plan of action to sustain strengths

and overcome weaknesses, and supporting

the subordinate and the plan.
Regardless of other issues, soldiers perform for

the other people in the squad or section, for others in the team or crew, for the person on their

right or left. This is a fundamental truth: soldiers perform because they don’t want to let

their buddies down.

5-103. If the leaders of the small teams that

make up the Army are competent, and if their

members trust one another, those teams and

the larger team of teams will hang together and

get the job done. People who belong to a successful team look at nearly everything in a positive light; their winners’ attitudes are

infectious, and they see problems as challenges

rather than obstacles. Additionally, a cohesive

team accomplishes the mission much more efficiently than a group of individuals. Just as a

football team practices to win on the gridiron,

so must a team of soldiers practice to be effective on the battlefield.

5-104. Training together builds collective competence; trust is a product of that competence.

Subordinates learn to trust their leaders if the

leaders know how to do their jobs and act consistently—if they say what they mean and

mean what they say. Trust also springs from

the collective competence of the team. As the

team becomes more experienced and enjoys

more successes, it becomes more cohesive.

5-105. Developing teams takes hard work,

patience, and quite a bit of interpersonal skill

on the part of the leader, but it’s a worthwhile

investment. Good teams get the job done. People who are part of a good team complete the

mission on time with the resources given them

and a minimum of wasted effort; in combat,

good teams are the most effective and take the

fewest casualties.

5-106. Good teams—

 Work together to accomplish the mission.

 Execute tasks thoroughly and quickly.

 Meet or exceed the standard.

 Thrive on demanding challenges.

 Learn from their experiences and are proud

of their accomplishments.

5-107. The Army is a team that includes members who are not soldiers but whose contributions are essential to mission success. The

contributions made by almost 1,600 DA civilians in the Persian Gulf region were all but lost

in the celebrations surrounding the military

victory against Iraq and the homecoming celebration for the soldiers that followed. However,

one safety specialist noted that these deployed

DA civilians recognized the need for a team

effort:

Patriotism was their drawing force for being

there....We were part of the team supporting our

soldiers! The focus is where it should be—on the

military. They’re here to do the job; we’re here to

help them.

Army Leadership 5-19

Improving Actions

Trust Earned

In a 1976 interview, Congressman Hamilton Fish of New York told of his experiences as a white

officer with the 369th Infantry Regiment, an all-black unit in the segregated Army of 1917. Fish knew

that his unit would function only if his soldiers trusted him; his soldiers, all of whom had volunteered for

combat duty, deserved nothing less than a trustworthy leader. When a white regiment threatened to

attack the black soldiers in training camp, Fish, his pistol drawn, alerted the leaders of that regiment

and headed off a disaster.

“There was one thing they wanted above all from a white officer,” [Fish recalled in an interview

nearly 60 years later] “and that was fair treatment. You see, even in New York City [home of most of

his soldiers] they really did not get a square deal most of the time. But if they felt you were on the level

with them, they would go all out for you. And they seemed to have a sixth sense in realizing just how

you felt. I sincerely wanted to lead them as real soldiers, and they knew it.”
5-108. People will do the most extraordinary

things for their buddies. It’s your job as an

Army leader to pull each member into the team

because you may someday ask that person for

extraordinary effort. Team building involves

applying interpersonal leader skills that transform individuals into productive teams. If

you’ve done your work, the team member won’t

let you down.

5-109. Within a larger team, smaller teams

may be at different stages of development. For

instance, members of First Squad may be used

to working together. They trust one another

and get the job done—usually exceeding the

standard—with no wasted motion. Second

Squad in the same platoon just received three

new soldiers and a team leader from another

company. As a team, Second Squad is less mature; it will take them some time to get up to the

level of First Squad. New team members have

to learn how things work: they have to be

brought on board and made to feel members of

the team; they must learn the standards and

the climate of their new unit; they’ll have to

demonstrate some competence before other

members really accept them; and finally, they

must practice working together. Leaders, who

must oversee all this, are better equipped if

they know what to expect. Make use of the information on the next few pages; learn what to

look for—and stay flexible.

5-110. Figure 5-5 lists things you must do to

pull a team together, get it going in the right direction, and keep it moving. And that list only

hints at the work that lies ahead as you get

your team to work together. Your subordinates

must know—must truly believe—that they’re a

part of the team, that their contribution is important and valued. They must know that

you’ll train them and listen to them. They

don’t want you to let them get away with

shoddy work or half-baked efforts; there’s no

pride in loafing. You must constantly observe,

counsel, develop, listen; you must be every bit

the team player you want your subordinates to

be—and more.

5-111. Teams don’t come together by accident;

leaders must build and guide them through a

series of developmental stages: formation,

enrichment, and sustainment. This discussion

may make the process seem more orderly than

it actually is; as with so many things leaders do,

the reality is more complicated than the explanation. Each team develops differently: the

boundaries between stages are not hard and

fast. As a leader, you must be sensitive to the

characteristics of the team you’re building and

of its individual members—your people. Compare the characteristics of your team with the

team building stage descriptions. The information that results can help you determine what

to expect of your team and what you need to do

to improve its capabilities.

Stages of Team Building

5-112. Teams, like individuals, have different

personalities. As with individuals, the leader’s

job isn’t to make teams that are clones of one

another; the job is to make best use of the peculiar talents of the team, maximize the potential

of the unit climate, and motivate aggressive

execution.

5-113. Formation stage. Teams work best

when new members are brought on board

quickly, when they’re made to feel a part of the

team. The two steps—reception and orientation—are dramatically different in peace and

war. In combat, this sponsorship process can literally mean life or death to new members and to

the team.

5-114. Reception is the leader’s welcome: the

orientation begins with meeting other team

members, learning the layout of the workplace,

learning the schedule and other requirements,

and generally getting to know the lay of the

land. In combat, leaders may not have time to

spend with new members. In this case, new

arrivals are often assigned a buddy who will

help them get oriented and keep them out of

trouble until they learn their way around.

Whatever technique you use, your soldiers

should never encounter a situation similar to

the one in the next example.

5-20 FM 22-100

Direct Leadership Actions
Army Leadership 5-21

Improving Actions

TEAM BUILDING STAGES

SUBORDINATE CHALLENGES LEADER & UNIT/ORGANIZATION ACTIONS

GENERIC

GENERIC

GENERIC

FORMATION STAGE

ENRICHMENT STAGE

SUSTAINMENT STAGE

SOLDIER

CRITICAL

SOLDIER

CRITICAL

SOLDIER

CRITICAL

Figure 5-5. Team Building Stages
5-115. In combat, Army leaders have countless

things to worry about; the mental state of new

arrivals might seem low on the list. But if those

soldiers can’t fight, the unit will suffer needless

casualties and may fail to complete the mission.

5-116. Discipline and shared hardship pull people together in powerful ways. SGT Alvin C.

York, who won the Medal of Honor in an action

you’ll read about later in this chapter, talked

about cohesion this way:

War brings out the worst in you. It turns you into

a mad, fighting animal, but it also brings out

something else, something I just don’t know

how to describe, a sort of tenderness and love for

the fellow fighting with you.

5-117. However, the emotions SGT York

mentions don’t emerge automatically in combat. One way to ensure cohesion is to build it

during peacetime. Team building begins with

receiving new members; you know how important first impressions are when you meet someone new. The same thing is true of teams; the

new member’s reception and orientation creates that crucial first impression that colors the

person’s opinion of the team for a long time. A

good experience joining the organization will

make it easier for the new member to fit in and

contribute. Even in peacetime, the way a person is received into an organization can have

long-lasting effects—good or bad—on the individual and the team. (Appendix C discusses reception and integration counseling.)

5-22 FM 22-100

Direct Leadership Actions

Replacements in the ETO

Most historians writing about World War II agree that the replacement system that fed new

soldiers into the line units was seriously flawed, especially in the ETO, and did tremendous harm to

the soldiers and the Army. Troops fresh from stateside posts were shuffled about in tent cities where

they were just numbers. 1LT George Wilson, an infantry company commander who received one

hundred replacements on December 29, 1944, in the midst of the Battle of the Bulge, remembers the

results: “We discovered that these men had been on a rifle range only once; they had never thrown a

grenade or fired a bazooka [antitank rocket], mortar or machine gun.”

PVT Morris Dunn, another soldier who ended up with the 84th Division after weeks in a

replacement depot recalls how the new soldiers felt: “We were just numbers, we didn’t know anybody,

and I’ve never felt so alone and miserable and helpless in my entire life—we’d been herded around

like cattle at roundup time....On the ride to the front it was cold and raining with the artillery fire louder

every mile, and finally we were dumped out in the middle of a heavily damaged town.”

Reception on Christmas Eve

An assistant division commander of the 25th Infantry Division told this story as part of his farewell

speech:

“I ran across some new soldiers and asked them about their arrival on the island [of Oahu]. They

said they got in on Christmas Eve, and I thought to myself, ‘Can’t we do a better job when we ship

these kids out, so they’re not sitting in some airport on their first big holiday away from home?’ I mean,

I really felt sorry for them. So I said, ‘Must have been pretty lonesome sitting in a new barracks where

you didn’t know anyone.’ And one of them said, ‘No, sir. We weren’t there a half-hour before the CQ

[charge of quarters] came up and told us to get into class B’s and be standing out front of the company

in 15 minutes. Then this civilian drives up, a teenager, and the CQ orders us into the car. Turns out the

kid was the first sergeant’s son; his father had sent him over to police up anybody who was hanging

around the barracks. We went over to the first sergeant’s house to a big luau [party] with his family and

a bunch of their neighbors and friends.’
5-118. Enrichment stage. New teams and

new team members gradually move from

questioning everything to trusting themselves,

their peers, and their leaders. Leaders earn that

trust by listening, following up on what they

hear, establishing clear lines of authority, and

setting standards. By far the most important

thing a leader does to strengthen the team is

training. Training takes a group of individuals

and molds them into a team while preparing

them to accomplish their missions. Training occurs during all three team building stages, but

is particularly important during enrichment;

it’s at this point that the team is building

collective proficiency.

5-119. Sustainment stage. When a team

reaches this stage, its members think of the

team as “their team.” They own it, have pride

in it, and want the team to succeed. At this

stage, team members will do what needs to be

done without being told. Every new mission

gives the leader a chance to make the bonds

even stronger, to challenge the team to reach

for new heights. The leader develops his

subordinates because they’re tomorrow’s

team leaders. He continues to train the team

so that it maintains proficiency in the collective and individual tasks it must perform to

accomplish its missions. Finally, the leader

works to keep the team going in spite of the

stresses and losses of combat.

Building the Ethical Climate

5-120. As an Army leader, you are the ethical

standard bearer for your organization. You’re

responsible for building an ethical climate that

demands and rewards behavior consistent with

Army values. The primary factor affecting an

organization’s ethical climate is its leader’s

ethical standard. Leaders can look to other

organizational or installation personnel—for

example, the chaplain, staff judge advocate, inspector general, and equal employment opportunity manager—to assist them in building and

assessing their organization’s ethical climate,

but the ultimate responsibility belongs to the

leader—period.

5-121. Setting a good ethical example doesn’t

necessarily mean subordinates will follow it.

Some of them may feel that circumstances justify unethical behavior. (See, for example, the

situation portrayed in Appendix D.) Therefore,

you must constantly seek to maintain a feel for

your organization’s current ethical climate and

take prompt action to correct any discrepancies

between the climate and the standard. One tool

to help you is the Ethical Climate Assessment

Survey (ECAS), which is discussed in Appendix

D. You can also use some of the resources listed

above to help you get a feel for your organization’s ethical climate. After analyzing the information gathered from the survey or other

sources, a focus group may be a part of your

plan of action to improve the ethical climate.

Your abilities to listen and decide are the most

important tools you have for this job.

5-122. It’s important for subordinates to have

confidence in the organization’s ethical environment because much of what is necessary in

war goes against the grain of the societal values

individuals bring into the Army. You read in

the part of Chapter 4 that discusses ethical reasoning that a soldier’s conscience may tell him

it’s wrong to take human life while the mission

of the unit calls for exactly that. Unless you’ve

established a strong ethical climate that lets

that soldier know his duty, the conflict of values

may sap the soldier’s will to fight.

Army Leadership 5-23

Improving Actions

Reception on Christmas Eve (continued)

“My guess is that those soldiers will not only do anything and everything that first sergeant wants,

but they are going to tell anyone who will listen that they belong to the best outfit in the Army.”
5-24 FM 22-100

Direct Leadership Actions

SGT York

A conscientious objector from the Tennessee hills, Alvin C. York was drafted after America’s

entry into World War I and assigned to the 328th Infantry Regiment of the 82d Division, the “All

Americans.” PVT York, a devout Christian, told his commander, CPT E. C. B. Danforth, that he would

bear arms against the enemy but didn’t believe in killing. Recognizing PVT York as a potential leader

but unable to sway him from his convictions, CPT Danforth consulted his battalion commander, MAJ

George E. Buxton, about how to handle the situation.

MAJ Buxton was also deeply religious and knew the Bible as well as PVT York did. He had CPT

Danforth bring PVT York to him, and they talked at length about the Scriptures, about God’s

teachings, about right and wrong, about just wars. Then MAJ Buxton sent PVT York home on leave to

ponder and pray over the dilemma. The battalion commander promised to release him from the Army

if PVT York decided he could not serve his country without sacrificing his integrity. After two weeks of

reflection and deep soul-searching, PVT York returned, having reconciled his personal values with

those of the Army. PVT York’s decision had great consequences for both himself and his unit.

Alvin York performed an exploit of almost unbelievable heroism in the morning hours of 8 October

1918 in France’s Argonne Forest. He was now a corporal (CPL), having won his stripes during

combat in the Lorraine. That morning CPL York’s battalion was moving across a valley to seize a

German-held rail point when a German infantry battalion, hidden on a wooded ridge overlooking the

valley, opened up with machine gun fire. The American battalion dived for cover, and the attack

stalled. CPL York’s platoon, already reduced to 16 men, was sent to flank the enemy machine guns.

As the platoon advanced through the woods to the rear of the German outfit, it surprised a group

of about 25 German soldiers. The shocked enemy offered only token resistance, but then more

hidden machine guns swept the clearing with fire. The Germans dropped safely to the ground, but

nine Americans, including the platoon leader and the other two corporals, fell dead or wounded. CPL

York was the only unwounded leader remaining.

CPL York found his platoon trapped and under fire within 25 yards of the enemy’s machine gun

pits. Nonetheless, he didn’t panic. Instead, he began firing into the nearest enemy position, aware

that the Germans would have to expose themselves to get an aimed shot at him. An expert

marksman, CPL York was able to hit every enemy soldier who popped his head over the parapet.

After he had shot more than a dozen enemy, six German soldiers charged him with fixed

bayonets. As the Germans ran toward him, CPL York once again drew on the instincts of a

Tennessee hunter and shot the last man first (so the ones in front wouldn’t see the ones he shot fall),

then the fifth, and so on. After he had shot all the assaulting Germans, CPL York again turned his

attention to the machine gun pits. In between shots, he called for the Germans to give up. It may have

initially seemed ludicrous for a lone soldier in the open to call on a well-entrenched enemy to

surrender, but their situation looked desperate to the German battalion commander, who had seen

over 20 of his soldiers killed by this one American. The commander advanced and offered to

surrender if CPL York would stop shooting.

CPL York now faced a daunting task. His platoon, now numbering seven unwounded soldiers,

was isolated behind enemy lines with several dozen prisoners. However, when one American said

their predicament was hopeless, CPL York told him to be quiet and began organizing the prisoners for

a movement. CPL York moved his unit and prisoners toward American lines, encountering other

German positions and forcing their surrender. By the time the platoon reached the edge of the valley

they had left just a few hours before, the hill was clear of German machine guns. The fire on the

Americans in the valley was substantially reduced and their advance began again.
5-123. CPT Danforth and MAJ Buxton could

have ordered SGT York to go to war, or they

might have shipped him out to a job that would

take him away from the fight. Instead, these

leaders carefully addressed the soldier’s ethical

concerns. MAJ Buxton, in particular, established the ethical climate by showing that he,

too, had wrestled with the very questions that

troubled SGT York. The climate these leaders

created held that every person’s beliefs are important and should be considered. MAJ Buxton

demonstrated that a soldier’s duties could be

consistent with the ethical framework established by his religious beliefs. Leaders who create a healthy ethical environment inspire

confidence in their subordinates; that confidence and the trust it engenders builds the

unit’s will. They create an environment where

soldiers can truly “be all they can be.”

LEARNING

For most men, the matter of learning is one of

personal preference. But for Army [leaders], the

obligation to learn, to grow in their profession,

is clearly a public duty.

General of the Army Omar N. Bradley

5-124. The Army is a learning organization,

one that harnesses the experience of its people

and organizations to improve the way it does

business. Based on their experiences, learning

organizations adopt new techniques and procedures that get the job done more efficiently or

effectively. Likewise, they discard techniques

and procedures that have outlived their purpose. However, you must remain flexible when

trying to make sense of your experiences. The

leader who works day after day after day and

never stops to ask “How can I do this better?” is

never going to learn and won’t improve the

team.

5-125. Leaders who learn look at their experience and find better ways of doing things.

Don’t be afraid to challenge how you and your

subordinates operate. When you ask “Why do

we do it that way?” and the only answer you get

is “Because we’ve always done it that way,” it’s

time for a closer look. Teams that have found a

way that works still may not be doing things the

best way. Unless leaders are willing to question

how things are, no one will ever know what can

be.

“Zero Defects” and Learning

5-126. There’s no room for the “zero-defects”

mentality in a learning organization. Leaders

willing to learn welcome new ways of looking at

things, examine what’s going well, and are not

afraid to look at what’s going poorly. When direct leaders stop receiving feedback from subordinates, it’s a good indication that something is

wrong. If the message you hammer home is

“There will be no mistakes,” or if you lose your

temper and “shoot the messenger” every time

there’s bad news, eventually your people will

just stop telling you when things go wrong or

suggesting how to make things go right. Then

there will be some unpleasant surprises in

store. Any time you have human beings in a

complex organization doing difficult jobs, often

under pressure, there are going to be problems.

Effective leaders use those mistakes to figure

out how to do things better and share what they

have learned with other leaders in the organization, both peers and superiors.

Army Leadership 5-25

Improving Actions

SGT York (continued)

CPL York returned to American lines, having taken a total of 132 prisoners and putting 35

machine guns out of action. He left the prisoners and headed back to his own outfit. Intelligence

officers questioned the prisoners and learned from their testimony the incredible story of how a

fighting battalion was destroyed by one determined soldier armed only with a rifle and pistol. Alvin C.

York was promoted to sergeant and awarded the Medal of Honor for this action. His character,

physical courage, technical competence, and leadership enabled him to destroy the morale and

effectiveness of an entire enemy infantry battalion.
5-127. That being said, all environments are

not learning environments; a standard of

“zero-defects” is acceptable, if not mandatory,

in some circumstances. A parachute rigger is

charged with a “zero-defect” standard. If a rigger makes a mistake, a parachutist will die.

Helicopter repairers live in a “zero-defect” environment as well. They can’t allow aircraft to

be mechanically unstable during flight. In these

and similar work environments, safety concerns mandate a “zero-defects” mentality. Of

course, organizations and people make mistakes; mistakes are part of training and may be

the price of taking action. Leaders must make

their intent clear and ensure their people understand the sorts of mistakes that are acceptable and those that are not.

5-128. Leaders can create a “zero-defects”

environment without realizing it. Good leaders

want their organizations to excel. But an

organizational “standard” of excellence can

quickly slide into “zero defects” if the leader

isn’t careful. For example, the published minimum standard for passing the APFT is 180

points—60 points per event. However, in units

that are routinely assigned missions requiring

highly strenuous physical activities, leaders

need to train their people to a higher-thanaverage level of physical fitness. If leaders use

APFT scores as the primary means of gauging

physical fitness, their soldiers will focus on the

test rather than the need for physical fitness. A

better course would be for leaders to train their

people on mission-related skills that require the

higher level of physical readiness while at the

same time motivating them to strive for their

personal best on the APFT.

Barriers to Learning

5-129. Fear of mistakes isn’t the only thing

that can get in the way of learning; so can rigid,

lockstep thinking and plain mental laziness.

These habits can become learning barriers leaders are so used to that they don’t even notice

them. Fight this tendency. Challenge yourself.

Use your imagination. Ask how other people do

things. Listen to subordinates.

Helping People Learn

5-130. Certain conditions help people learn.

First, you must motivate the person to learn.

Explain to the subordinate why the subject is

important or show how it will help the individual perform better. Second, involve the subordinate in the learning process; make it active. For

instance, you would never try to teach someone

how to drive a vehicle with classroom instruction alone; you have to get the person behind

the wheel. That same approach applies to much

more complex tasks; keep the lecture to a minimum and maximize the hands-on time.

5-131. Learning from experience isn’t enough;

you can’t have every kind of experience. But if

you take advantage of what others have

learned, you get the benefit without having the

experience. An obvious example is when combat veterans in a unit share their experiences

with soldiers who haven’t been to war. A less

obvious, but no less important, example is when

leaders share their experience with subordinates during developmental counseling.

After-Action Reviews and Learning

5-132. Individuals benefit when the group

learns together. The AAR is one tool good leaders use to help their organizations learn as a

group. Properly conducted, an AAR is a professional discussion of an event, focused on performance standards, that enables people to

discover for themselves what happened, why it

happened, and how to sustain strengths and

improve on weaknesses. Like warning orders

and rehearsals, the AAR is a technique that all

leaders—military or DA civilian—can use in

garrison as well as field environments. (FM

25-101 and TC 25-20 discuss how to prepare for,

conduct, and follow up after an AAR.) When

your team sits down for an AAR, make sure everyone participates and all understand what’s

being said. With input from the whole team,

your people will learn more than if they just

think about the experience by themselves.

Organizational Climate and Learning

5-133. It takes courage to create a learning environment. When you try new things or try

things in different ways, you’re bound to make

mistakes. Learn from your mistakes and the

5-26 FM 22-100

Direct Leadership Actions
mistakes of others. Pick your team and yourself

up, determine what went right and wrong, and

continue the mission. Be confident in your

abilities. Theodore Roosevelt, a colonel during

the Spanish-American War and twenty-sixth

President of the United States, put it this way:

Whenever you are asked if you can do a job, tell

’em, Certainly I can!—and get busy and find out

how to do it.

5-134. Your actions as a direct leader move the

Army forward. How you influence your

subordinates and the people you work for, how

you operate to get the job done, how you

improve the organization for a better future, all

determine the Army’s success or failure.

SUMMARY

5-135. Direct leaders influence their subordinates face-to-face as they operate to accomplish the mission and improve the organization.

Because their leadership is face-to-face, direct

leaders see the outcomes of their actions almost

immediately. This is partly because they receive

immediate feedback on the results of their

actions.

5-136. Direct leaders influence by determining

their purpose and direction from the boss’s intent and concept of the operation. They motivate subordinates by completing tasks that

reinforce this intent and concept. They continually acquire and assess outcomes and motivate

their subordinates through face-to-face contact

and personal example.

5-137. Direct leaders operate by focusing their

subordinates’ activities toward the organization’s objective and achieving it. Direct leaders

plan,prepare,execute,andassess as theyoperate.

These functions sometimes occur

simultaneously.

5-138. Direct leaders improve by living Army

values and providing the proper role model for

subordinates. Leaders must develop all subordinates as theybuild strong,cohesive teams andestablish an effective learning environment.

Army Leadership 5-27

Improving Actions

PART THREE

Organizational and Strategic Leadership

As they mature and assume greater responsibilities, Army leaders must also learn new skills,

develop new abilities, and act in more complex environments. Organizational and strategic

leaders maintain their own personalities and propensities, but they also expand what they

know and refine what they do.

Chapters 6 and 7 describe (rather than prescribe or mandate) skills and actions required of

organizational and strategic leaders. The chapters discuss much of what developing leaders

often sense and explore some concepts that may seem foreign to them. Neither chapter

outlines exhaustively what leaders know and do at higher levels; they simply introduce what’s

different.

The audience for Chapters 6 and 7 is only in part organizational and strategic leaders, who

have prepared to serve in those positions by career-long experience and study. Primarily,

these chapters offer staffs and subordinates who work for those leaders insight into the

additional concerns and activities of organizational and strategic leadership.

Chapter 6

Organizational Leadership

6-1. During the Battle of the Bulge, with the

Germans bearing down on retreating US forces,

PFC Vernon L. Haught dug in and told a sergeant in a tank destroyer, “Just pull your

vehicle behind me . . . I’m the 82d Airborne, and

this is as far as the bastards are going.” He

knew his division commander’s intent. Despite

desperate odds, he had confidence in himself

and his unit and knew they would make the difference. Faced with a fluid situation, he knew

where the line had to be drawn; he had the will

to act and he didn’t hesitate to do what he

thought was right.

6-2. Whether for key terrain in combat or for

results in peacetime training, leaders in units

and organizations translate strategy into policy

and practice. They develop programs, plans,

and systems that allow soldiers in teams, like

the infantryman in the All-American Division,

Army Leadership 6-1

ORGANIZATIONAL LEADERSHIP

SKILLS.................................................6-3

Interpersonal Skills..............................6-3

Conceptual Skills..................................6-5

Technical Skills .....................................6-9

Tactical Skills ......................................6-10

ORGANIZATIONAL LEADERSHIP

ACTIONS...........................................6-12

Influencing Actions............................6-12

Operating Actions..............................6-18

Improving Actions..............................6-25

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE .............6-29

SUMMARY ...........................................6-32
to turn plans and orders into fire and maneuver

that seize victory at the least possible cost in

sweat and blood. By force of will and application

of their leadership skills, organizational leaders

build teams with discipline, cohesion, trust, and

proficiency. They clarify missions throughout

the ranks by producing an intent, concept, and

systematic approach to execution.

6-3. Organizational leadership builds on direct

leader actions. Organizational leaders apply

direct leader skills in their daily work with their

command and staff teams and, with soldiers

and subordinate leaders, they influence during

their contacts with units. But to lead complex

organizations like brigades, divisions, and corps

at today’s OPTEMPO and under the stresses of

training, contingency operations, and combat,

organizational leaders must add a whole new

set of skills and actions to their leadership

arsenal. They must practice direct and

organizational leadership simultaneously.

6-4. Communicating to NCOs, like the

airborne soldier at the Battle of the Bulge, occurs through individual subordinates, the staff,

and the chain of command. Organizational

leaders divide their attention between the concerns of the larger organization and their staffs

and those of their subordinate leaders, units,

and individuals. This tradeoff requires them to

apply interpersonal and conceptual skills differently when exercising organizational leadership than when exercising direct leadership.

6-5. Organizational leaders rely heavily on

mentoring subordinates and empowering them

to execute their assigned responsibilities and

missions. They stay mentally and emotionally

detached from their immediate surroundings so

they can visualize the larger impact on the organization and mission. Soldiers and subordinate leaders look to their organizational leaders

to establish standards for mission accomplishment and provide resources (conditions) to

achieve that goal. Organizational leaders provide direction and programs for training and

execution that focus efforts on mission success.

6-6. Due to the indirect nature of their

influence, organizational leaders assess interrelated systems and design long-term plans to

accomplish the mission. They must sharpen

their abilities to assess their environments,

their organization, and their subordinates.

Organizational leaders determine the cause

and effect of shortcomings, translate these new

understandings into plans and programs, and

allow their subordinate leaders latitude to execute and get the job done.

6-7. Organizational demands also differ as

leaders develop a systems perspective. At the

strategic level, the Army has identified six

imperatives: quality people, training, force

mix, doctrine, modern equipment, and leader

development. In organizations these imperatives translate into doctrine, training,

leader development, organization, materiel,

and soldiers—commonly called DTLOMS.

Together with Army values, these systems

provide the framework for influencing people

and organizations at all levels, conducting a

wide variety of operations, and continually

improving the force. Doctrine includes techniques to drive the functional systems in

Army organizations. FMs 25-100, 25-101, and

101-5 lay out procedures for training management and military decision making that

enable and focus execution. The training

management and military decision-making

processes provide a ready-made, systemic approach to planning, preparing, executing,

and assessing.

6-2 FM 22-100

Organizational Leadership
SECTION I

WHAT IT TAKES TO LEAD ORGANIZATIONS—SKILLS

6-8. Organizational leaders continue to use

the direct leader skills discussed in Chapter 4.

However their larger organizations and spans

of authority require them to master additional

skills. As with direct leader skills, these span

four areas: interpersonal, conceptual,

technical, and tactical.

INTERPERSONAL SKILLS

To get the best out of your men, they must feel that you are their real leader and must know that

they can depend upon you.

  	 

 	 
	

UNDERSTANDING SOLDIERS

6-9. Good organizational leaders understand

the human dimension, which Chapter 3

discussed. They use that understanding to motivate subordinates and to encourage initiative.

Chapter 5 explained that motivation means

much more than an individual willingness to do

what’s directed. It imparts a desire on the part

of individuals and organizations to do what’s

needed without being directed. This collective

desire to accomplish the mission underlies good

organizational discipline: good soldiers and

competent DA civilians adhere to standards

because they understand that doing so, even

when it’s a nuisance or hardship, leads to

success.

6-10. This understanding, along with Army

values, forms the foundation of great units.

Units that have solid discipline can take

tremendous stress and friction yet persevere,

fight through, and win. Fostering initiative

builds on motivation and discipline. It requires

subordinates’ confidence that in an uncertain

situation, when they know the commander’s

intent and develop a competent solution, the

commander will underwrite the risk they take.

While this principle applies to both direct and

organizational leaders, the stakes are usually

higher in larger, more complex organizations.

Additionally, organizational leaders may be

more remote in time and distance and

subordinates’ ability to check back with them is

diminished. Therefore, organizational leaders’

understanding must develop beyond what they

can immediately and personally observe.

COMMUNICATING

6-11. Persuasion is a communication skill

important to organizational leaders.

Well-developed skills of persuasion and an

openness to working through controversy in a

positive way help organizational leaders

overcome resistance and build support. These

characteristics are particularly important in

dealing with other organizational leaders. By

reducing grounds for misunderstanding,

persuasion reduces time wasted in overcoming

unimportant issues. It also ensures

Army Leadership 6-3

Interpersonal Skills

VALUES

ATTRIBUTES

ACTIONS

“Be” “Do”

THE LEADER THE LEADER

to Achieve Excellence to Achieve Excellence

Interpersonal

Conceptual

Technical

Tactical

Figure 6-1. Organizational Leader Skills—

Interpersonal
involvement of others, opens communication

with them, and places value on their

opinions—all team-building actions. Openness

to discussing one’s position and a positive

attitude toward a dissenting view often diffuses

tension and saves time and resistance in the

long run. By demonstrating these traits,

organizational leaders also provide an example

that subordinates can use in self-development.

6-12. In some circumstances, persuasion may

be inappropriate. In combat, all leaders make

decisions quickly, modifying the decisionmaking process to fit the circumstances. But

this practice of using the directing leadership

styles as opposed to more participatory ones

should occur when situations are in doubt,

risks are high, and time is short—circumstances that often appear in combat. No exact

blueprints exist for success in every context;

leadership and the ability to adapt to the situation will carry the day. Appropriate style, seasoned instinct, and the realities of the situation

must prevail.

SUPERVISING

6-13. Organizations pay attention to things

leaders check. Feedback and coaching enhance

motivation and improve performance by showing subordinates how to succeed. But how much

should you check and how much is too much?

When are statistics and reports adequate indicators and when must you visit your front-line

organizations, talk to your soldiers and DA civilians and see what’s going on yourself?

6-14. Overcentralized authority and

oversupervising undermine trust and empowerment. Undersupervising can lead to failure,

especially in cases where the leader’s intent

wasn’t fully understood or where subordinate

organizations lack the training for the task. Different subordinate commanders need different

levels of supervision: some need a great deal of

coaching and encouragement, though most

would just as soon be left alone. As always, a

good leader knows his subordinates and has the

skill to supervise at the appropriate level.

6-4 FM 22-100

Organizational Leadership

Knowing Your People

This General said, “Each of our three regimental commanders must be handled differently.

Colonel ‘A’ does not want an order. He wants to do everything himself and always does well. Colonel

‘B’ executes every order, but has no initiative. Colonel ‘C’ opposes everything he is told to do and

wants to do the contrary.”

A few days later the troops confronted a well-entrenched enemy whose position would have to be

attacked. The General issued the following orders:

To Colonel “A” (who wants to do everything himself): “My dear Colonel “A”, I think we will attack.

Your regiment will have to carry the burden of the attack. I have, however, selected you for this

reason. The boundaries of your regiment are so-and-so. Attack at X-hour. I don’t have to tell you

anything more.”

To Colonel “C” (who opposes everything): “We have met a very strong enemy. I am afraid we will

not be able to attack with the forces at our disposal.” “Oh, General, certainly we will attack. Just give

my regiment the time of attack and you will see that we are successful,” replied Colonel “C.” “Go then,

we will try it,” said the General, giving him the order for the attack, which he had prepared some time

previously.

To Colonel “B” (who always must have detailed orders) the attack order was merely sent with

additional details.

All three regiments attacked splendidly.

  	




  
  	 


 
  
CONCEPTUAL SKILLS

6-15. The complexity of the organizational

leader’s environment requires patience, the

willingness to think before acting. Furthermore, the importance of conceptual and

analytical skills increases as an organizational

leader moves into positions of greater responsibility. Organizational environments with

multiple dimensions offer problems that

become more abstract, complex, and uncertain.

6-16. Figure 6-2 identifies the conceptual skills

required of organizational leaders. For organizational leaders, reasoning skills are crucial for

developing intent and direction toward common goals. Critical thinking at the organizational level requires understanding systems

and an increased ability to filter information,

that is, to identify quickly information that applies to the task at hand and separate the important from the unimportant. Organizational

leaders use this analytical ability to assess ambiguous environments and to calculate and

manage risk. Their experience may allow them

to see and define problems more easily—but not

necessarily fix them quickly. Therefore, they

also dedicate time to think and generate alternative ways of organizing their organizations

and resources for maximum effect. It’s important for organizational leaders to encourage

critical thinking in subordinates because subordinates also assess organizational challenges,

analyze indicators, and recommend courses of

action. It’s also important, time and mission

permitting, to allow subordinates’ solutions to

bear fruit.

ESTABLISHING INTENT

In an organization like ours, you have to think

through what it is that you are becoming. Like a

marathon runner, you have to get out in front,

mentally, and pull the organization to you. You

have to visualize the finish line—to see yourself

there—and pull yourself along—not push—pull

yourself to the future.

 	 



    


6-17. Intent is the leader’s personal expression

of a mission’s end state and the key tasks the

organization must accomplish to achieve it.

During operations and field training, it’s a

clear, concise statement of what the force must

do to succeed with respect to the enemy and the

terrain and to the desired end state. It provides

the link between the mission and the concept of

operations. By describing their intent, organizational leaders highlight the key tasks that,

along with the mission, are the basis for subordinates to exercise initiative when unanticipated opportunities arise or when the original

concept of operations no longer applies. Clear

and concise, the leader’s intent includes a mission’s overall purpose and expected results. It

provides purpose, motivation, and direction,

whether the leader is commanding a division or

running a staff directorate. An organizational

leader visualizes the sequence of activities that

will move the organization from its current

state to the desired end state and expresses it as

simply and clearly as possible. (FM 101-5-1 contains a complete definition of commander’s intent. FM 100-34 discusses the relationship of

intent and visualization to command and

Army Leadership 6-5

Conceptual Skills

VALUES

ATTRIBUTES

ACTIONS

“Be” “Do”

THE LEADER THE LEADER

of Character and Competence Acts...

to Achieve Excellence to Achieve Excellence

Interpersonal

Technical

Tactical

Conceptual

Figure 6-2. Organizational Leader Skills—

Conceptual
control. FM 101-5 discusses the development of

intent in the MDMP.)

6-18. After establishing a clear and valid intent, the art of organizational leadership lies in

having subordinates take actions on their own

to transform that intent into reality. Since organizational leaders are likely to be farther

away from the point of execution in time and

space, they must describe the collective goal

rather than list tasks for individual subordinates. With clearly communicated purpose and

direction, subordinates can then determine

what they must do and why. Within that broad

framework, leaders empower subordinates,

delegating authority to act within the intent:

“Here’s where we’re headed, why we’re going

there, and how we’re going to get there.” Purpose and direction align the efforts of subordinates working toward common goals.

6-19. A former division commander has said,

“You must be seen to be heard.” There’s a great

temptation for organizational leaders to rely

exclusively on indirect leadership, to spread

intent by passing orders through subordinates

or communicating electronically with troops

scattered far and wide. However, nothing can

take the place of face-to-face contact.

Organizational leaders make every effort to get

out among the troops. There they can

spot-check intent to see that it’s disseminated

and understood among those who must execute

it.

6-6 FM 22-100

Organizational Leadership

GEN Grant and the End of the Civil War

I propose to fight it out on this line if it takes all summer.

  	
 


   

GEN Ulysses S. Grant penned those words at Spotsylvania, Virginia, after being appointed

general in chief of the Union Army and stationing himself forward with the Army of the Potomac. After

fighting a bloody draw at the Wilderness, the Army of the Potomac had moved aggressively to

outflank GEN Robert E. Lee’s Army of Northern Virginia but once more faced a dug-in Confederate

Army. However, where previous Union commanders had turned away, GEN Grant would not relent.

His intent was clear. It was reinforced in the sentiment of his army, which wanted to finish the war.

In a series of determined attacks, the new Union commander broke GEN Lee’s defense and used

a turning movement to force his opponent out of position. Again they met at Cold Harbor, where GEN

Grant attacked frontally and failed. Prior to his attack, Union soldiers, literally days from the end of

their enlistment, were seen writing notes to their families and pinning them on the backs of their shirts

so one last message would get home if they were killed. Their resolution demonstrates the power of

their commitment to a shared intent.

After his bloody repulse at Cold Harbor, GEN Grant again moved south, maintaining the initiative,

always pressing, always threatening to turn the Confederate flank and expose Richmond, the capital

of Virginia. GEN Lee, in turn, was forced to block and defend Petersburg, Richmond’s railroad hub.

Uncovering it would have isolated Richmond as well as his army’s rail-based lines of communication.

GEN Grant had his opponent pinned to a critical strategic resource. Doing this denied the Army of

Northern Virginia its greatest asset, its excellent ability to maneuver. It would not escape.

GEN Grant was unstinting in his resolve to totally defeat GEN Lee. He was a familiar figure to his

soldiers, riding among them with his slouch hat in his private’s uniform with general’s rank. He drove

his subordinates, who themselves wanted to finish off their old foe; despite casualties, he

unflinchingly resisted pressure to back away from his intent.
6-20. Having established an azimuth,

organizational leaders assist their subordinates’ efforts to build and train their organizations on those tasks necessary for success.

Finally, they act to motivate subordinate leaders and organizations to meet the operational

standards upon which discipline depends.

FILTERING INFORMATION

Leaders at all levels, but particularly those at

higher levels who lack recent personal

observations, can only make decisions based on

the information given to them. What sets senior

leaders apart is their ability to sort through

great amounts of information, key in on what is

significant, and then make decisions. But, these

decisions are only as good as the information

provided.

  	
 


6-21. Organizational leaders deal with a

tremendous amount of information. Some information will make sense only to someone

with a broad perspective and an understanding

of the entire situation. Organizational leaders

communicate clearly to their staffs what information they need and then hold the staff accountable for providing it. Then, they

judge—based on their education, training, and

experience—what’s important and make wellinformed, timely decisions.

6-22. Analysis and synthesis are essential to effective decision-making and program development. Analysis breaks a problem into its

component parts. Synthesis assembles complex

and disorganized data into a solution. Often,

data must be processed before it fits into place.

6-23. Commander’s critical information

requirements (CCIR) are the commander’smost

important information filters. Commanders

must know the environment, the situation, their

organizations, and themselveswellenough to articulate what they need to know to control their

organizations and accomplish their missions.

They must also ensure they have thought

through the feedback systems necessary to supervise execution. Organizational-level commanders must not only establish CCIR but also

train their staffs to battle drill proficiency in information filtering. (FM 101-5 discusses CCIR,

mission analysis, informationmanagement, and

other staff operations.)

UNDERSTANDING SYSTEMS

6-24. Organizational leaders think about

systems in their organization: how they work

together, how using one affects the others, and

how to get the best performance from the

whole. They think beyond their own organizations to how what their organization

does affects other organizations and the team

as a whole. Whether coordinating fires among

different units or improving sponsorship of new

personnel, organizational leaders use a systems

perspective. While direct leaders think about

tasks, organizational leaders integrate, synchronize, and fine-tune systems and monitor

outcomes. If organizational leaders can’t get

something done, the flaw or failure is more

likely systemic than human. Being able to

understand and leverage systems increases a

leader’s ability to achieve organizational goals

and objectives.

6-25. Organizational leaders also know how

effectively apply all available systems to achieve

mission success. They constantly make sure

that the systems for personnel, administration,

logistical support, resourcing, and training

work effectively. They know where to look to

see if the critical parts of the system are

functioning properly.

Army Leadership 6-7

Conceptual Skills
6-26. Organizational leaders analyze systems

and results to determine why things happened

the way they did. Performance indicators and

standards for systems assist them in their

analysis. Equipment failure rates, unit status

reports (USR) Standard Installation/Division

Personnel System (SIDPERS), Defense Civilian Personnel Data System (DCPDS) data, and

evaluation report timeliness all show the health

of systems. Once an assessment is complete and

causes of a problem known, organizational

leaders develop appropriate solutions that address the problem’s root cause.

6-27. Isolating why things go wrong and where

systems break down usually requires giving

subordinates time and encouragement to ferret

out what’s really happening. The dilemma for

organizational leaders occurs when circumstances and mission pressures require immediate remedial action and preclude gathering

more data. It’s then that they must fall back on

their experience and that of their subordinates,

make a judgment, and act.

6-8 FM 22-100

Organizational Leadership

DA Civilian Support to Desert Shield

During Operation Desert Shield, a contingent of DA civilians deployed to a depot in the combat

theater to provide warfighting supplies and operational equipment to Third (US) Army. These DA

civilians were under the supervision of DA civilian supervisors, who motivated their employees in

spite of the harsh conditions in the region: hot weather, a dismal environment, and the constant

threat of Iraqi missile and chemical attacks. It turned out that the uplifting organizational climate these

leaders provided overcame the physical deprivation.

Two senior DA civilian leaders, the depot’s deputy director of maintenance and the chief of the

vehicle branch, developed a plan to replace arriving units’ M1 tanks with M1A1s, which boasted

greater firepower, better armor, and a more advanced nuclear, biological, and chemical protective

system. They also developed systems for performing semiannual and annual maintenance checks,

quickly resolving problems, applying modifications such as additional armor, and repainting the tanks

in the desert camouflage pattern.

Although similar programs normally take 18 to 24 months to complete, the two leaders set an

ambitious objective of 6 months. Many experts thought the goal could not be met, but the tenacious

leaders never wavered in their resolve. After 24-hour-a-day, 7-day-a week operations, their inspired

team of teams completed the project in 2 months. These DA civilian leaders with clear intent, firm

objectives, and unrelenting will motivated their team and provided modern, lethal weapons to the

soldiers who needed them when they were needed.

Innovative Reorganization

Facing a long-term downsizing of his organization, a DA civilian director didn’t simply shrink its

size. Instead, the director creatively flattened the organization by reducing the number of deputy

executives, managers, and supervisors. The director increased responsibilities of those in leadership

positions and returned to a technical focus those managers and supervisors with dominant mission

skills. The result was a better leader-to-led ratio, a reduced number of administrative and clerical

positions, and a smoother transition to multidisciplined team operations. The director’s systems

understanding led him to tailor inputs that maintained healthy systems and improved outputs.
TECHNICAL SKILLS

6-28. The external responsibilities of organizational leaders are greater than those of direct

leaders, both vertically and horizontally. Their

organizations have more levels than directlevel organizations and, depending on the

organization’s role, command interest may

reach to the CINC or national command

authority. There are more requirements to coordinate with other organizations, which may

include agencies outside the Department of Defense (DOD). To make full use of their organizations’ capabilities, organizational leaders must

continue to master technical skills outside their

original area of expertise.

MAINTAINING CRITICAL SKILLS

6-29. Organizational leaders have fewer opportunities to practice many of the technical skills

they mastered as direct leaders. However, that

doesn’t mean they can forget about them. In

every organization there are certain skills in

which all members must be proficient. Soldiers

know what they are and expect their leaders to

be able to perform them. This doesn’t mean

that organizational leaders must be able to perform every specialty-related skill as well as an

individual holding that specialty. The Army is

too complex for that. It does, however, mean

that organizational leaders must identify and

be proficient in those critical, direct-leader

skills they need to assess tactical training and

set the example.

6-30. One organizational leader who set the

example by drawing on deeply embedded technical skills was COL Marian Tierney. In her final military assignment, COL Tierney was

responsible for nursing operations at 38 hospitals with 2500 nurses in the Republic of Vietnam. In 1966 she had to call on the basic

medical skills and personal character she had

honed throughout a career in places like

Omaha Beach during the Normandy invasion.

That day, 22 years after D-Day, the aircraft on

which she was a passenger crashed, leaving

many injured and panicked survivors. Ignoring

her own injuries COL Tierney treated her comrades and took charge of evacuating the scene.

For her heroism she received the Soldier’s

Medal. Her actions demonstrate that courageous leaders of character and competence

serve at all levels.

RESOURCING

6-31. In addition to using the technical skills

they learned as direct leaders, organizational

leaders must also master the skill of resourcing.

Resources—which include time, equipment, facilities, budgets, and people—are required to

achieve organizational goals. Organizational

leaders must aggressively manage the resources at their disposal to ensure their organizations’ readiness. The leader’s job grows more

difficult when unprogrammed costs—such as

an emergency deployment—shift priorities.

6-32. Organizational leaders are stewards of

their people’s time and energy and their own

will and tenacity. They don’t waste these

resources but skillfully evaluate objectives, anticipate resource requirements, and efficiently

allocate what’s available. They balance available resources with organizational requirements and distribute them in a way that best

achieves organizational goals—in combat as

well as peacetime. For instance, when a cavalry

squadron acting as the division flank guard

Army Leadership 6-9

Technical Skills

VALUES

ATTRIBUTES

ACTIONS

“Be” “Do”

THE LEADER THE LEADER

to Achieve Excellence to Achieve Excellence

Interpersonal

Conceptual

Tactical

Technical

Figure 6-3. Organizational Leader

Skills—Technical
makes contact, its commander asks for priority

of fires. The division commander considers the

needs of the squadron but must weigh it against

the overall requirements of the current and future missions.

PREDICTING SECOND- AND

THIRD-ORDER EFFECTS

6-33. Because the decisions of organizational

leaders have wider-ranging effects than those

of direct leaders, organizational leaders must

be more sensitive to how their own actions affect the organization’s climate. These actions

may be conscious, as in the case of orders and

policies, or unconscious, such as requirements

for routine or unscheduled reports and meetings. The ability to discern and predict secondand third-order effects helps organizational

leaders assess the health of the organizational

climate and provide constructive feedback to

subordinates. It can also result in identifying

resource requirements and changes to organizations and procedures. (The ECAS process

illustrated in Appendix D or a similar one can

be applied by organizational as well as direct

leaders.)

6-34. For instance, when the Army Chief of

Staff approved a separate military occupational

specialty code for mechanized infantry soldiers,

the consequences were wide-ranging. Secondorder effects included more specialized schooling for infantry NCOs, a revised promotion system to accommodate different infantry NCO

career patterns, and more doctrinal and training material to support the new specialty.

Third-order effects included resource requirements for developing the training material and

adding additional instructor positions at the Infantry Center and School. Organizational leaders are responsible for anticipating the

consequences of any action they take or direct.

Requiring thorough staff work can help. However, proper anticipation also requires imagination and vision as well as an appreciation for

other people and organizations.

TACTICAL SKILLS

Soldiers need leaders who know how to fight and how to make the right decisions.

   	


 
   

6-35. Organizational leaders must master the

tactical skills of synchronization and orchestration. Synchronization applies at the tactical

level of war; orchestration is an operationallevel term. Synchronization arranges activities

in time, space, and purpose to focus maximum

relative military power at a decisive point in

space and time. Organizational leaders synchronize battles, each of which may comprise

several synchronized engagements. (FM 100-40

discusses synchronization. FM 100-5 discusses

orchestration.)

6-36. Organizational leaders at corps and

higher levels orchestrate by applying the complementary and reinforcing effects of all military and nonmilitary assets to overwhelm

opponents at one or more decisive points. Both

synchronization and orchestration require

leaders to put together technical, interpersonal,

6-10 FM 22-100

Organizational Leadership

VALUES

ATTRIBUTES

ACTIONS

“Be” “Do”

THE LEADER THE LEADER

to Achieve Excellence to Achieve Excellence

Interpersonal

Conceptual

Technical

Tactical

Figure 6-4. Organizational Leader

Skills—Tactical
and conceptual skills and apply them to warfighting tasks.

6-37. Tactical skill for direct leaders involves employing individuals and teams of company size

and smaller. In contrast, tactical skill for organizational leaders entails employing units of battalion size and larger. Organizational leaders get

divisions, brigades, and battalions to the right

place, at the right time, and in the right combination to fight and win battles and engagements.

(FM 100-40 discusses battles and engagements.)

They project the effects of their decisions further

out—in time and distance—than do direct

leaders.

6-38. The operational skill of orchestrating a

series of tactical events is also more demanding

and far-reaching. Time horizons are longer. Effects take more time to unfold. Decision sets are

more intricate. GEN Grant’s Vicksburg campaign in the spring of 1863, which split the Confederacy and opened the Mississippi River to

Union use, is a classic example of an organizational leader orchestrating the efforts of subordinate forces.

6-39. Organizational leaders know doctrine,

tactics, techniques, and procedures. Their

refined tactical skills allow them to understand,

integrate, and synchronize the activities of systems, bringing all resources and systems to

bear on warfighting tasks.

Army Leadership 6-11

Tactical Skills

GEN Grant at Vicksburg

After failing to capture Vicksburg by attacking from the north, GEN Ulysses S. Grant moved along

the west bank of the Mississippi River to a point south of the city. He masked his movement and

intentions by sending COL Benjamin Grierson’s cavalry deep into Mississippi to conduct a series of

raids. The Union commander also synchronized the daring dispatch of US Navy gunboats through

Confederate shore batteries to link up with his army south of Vicksburg. Using Admiral (ADM) David

D. Porter’s gunboats, the Union Army crossed to the east bank of the Mississippi while MG William T.

Sherman conducted a diversionary attack on the northern approaches to Vicksburg.

Once across the Mississippi, GEN Grant bypassed Vicksburg, used the Big Black River to protect

his flank, and maneuvered east toward Jackson, Mississippi. By threatening both Jackson and

Vicksburg, GEN Grant prevented Confederate forces from uniting against him. After a rapid series of

engagements, the Union Army forced the enemy out of Jackson, blocking Vicksburg’s main line of

supply. It then turned west for an assault of Vicksburg, the key to control of the Mississippi. With

supply lines severed and Union forces surrounding the city, Confederate forces at Vicksburg

capitulated on 4 July 1863.

GEN Grant’s Vicksburg campaign demonstrates the orchestration of a series of subordinate unit

actions. In a succession of calculated moves, he defeated the Confederate forces under the

command of Generals Joseph E. Johnston and John C. Pemberton, gained control of the Mississippi

River, and divided the Confederacy.
SECTION II

WHAT IT TAKES TO LEAD ORGANIZATIONS—ACTIONS

Making decisions, exercising command, managing, administering—those are the dynamics

of our calling. Responsibility is its core.

  	
 


    

6-40. Actions by organizational leaders have

far greater consequences for more people over a

longer time than those of direct leaders.

Because the connections between action and effect are sometimes more remote and difficult to

see, organizational leaders spend more time

thinking about what they’re doing and how

they’re doing it than direct leaders do. When organizational leaders act, they must translate

their intent into action through the larger

number of people working for them.

6-41. Knowledge of subordinates is crucial to

success. To maximize and focus the energy of

their staffs, organizational leaders ensure that

subordinates know what must be done and

why. In addition, they ensure that work being

done is moving the organization in the right direction. They develop concepts for operations

and policies and procedures to control and

monitor their execution. Since the challenges

they face are varied and complicated, no manual can possibly address them all. However, the

following section provides a framework for examining, explaining, and reflecting on organizational leader actions.

INFLUENCING ACTIONS

A soldier may not always believe what you say, but he will never doubt what you do.

	 
	
 	

6-42. As Figure 6-5 shows, influencing is

achieved through communicating, decision

making, and motivating. At the organizational

level, influencing means not only getting the order or concept out; it means marshaling the activities of the staff and subordinate leaders to

move towards the organization’s objective. Influencing involves continuing to reinforce the

intent and concept, continually acquiring and

assessing available feedback, and inspiring subordinates with the leader’s own presence and

encouragement.

6-43. The chain of command provides the

initial tool for getting the word out from, and

returning feedback to, the commander. In

training, commanders must constantly

improve its functioning. They must stress it in

training situations, pushing it to the point of

failure. Combat training centers (CTCs) offer

tremendous opportunities to exercise and

assess the chain of command in their

6-12 FM 22-100

Organizational Leadership

VALUES

ATTRIBUTES

SKILLS

“Be” “Know”

THE LEADER THE LEADER

of Character and Competence Acts...

to Achieve Excellence to Achieve Excellence

Influencing

Operating

Improving

Figure 6-5. Organizational Leader Actions—

Influencing
communicating and monitoring tasks.

Programs for officer and NCO professional development based on either terrain walks or

seminars can reinforce chain of command functioning. Checking organizational functions

daily (“leading by walking around”) can reveal

whether the commander’s intent is getting to

the lowest level.

6-44. Communication becomes more complex

for organizational leaders because of their

increased span of control and separation from

elements actually executing the mission. Whatever organizational leaders ask for, explicitly or

implicitly, causes ripples throughout the organization. Therefore, they must consider how

subordinates might interpret their wishes. Directives and actions must be clear and issued in

a manner that discourages overreaction. The

installation commander who remarks out loud

about bland walls may cause an entire organization’s soldiers to paint all weekend (it

has happened).

6-45. Organizational leaders also lose the right

to complain in public; for example, their opinion of a support agency affects the attitude of

hundreds or thousands of people. Where the

leader is, how the leader looks, and what the

leader does and says influence routine leadership actions throughout the organization. Like

direct leaders, organizational leaders are always on display, and their demeanor and presence set the tone and climate for subordinate

organizations. However, the position of organizational leaders makes them more prominent,

and they must remain aware of how their behavior affects their organization. A bad day for

the leader should not have to be a bad day for

everyone else.

COMMUNICATING

Too often we place the burden of comprehension

on [those at a different level from] us, assuming

both the existence of a common language and

motivation.

  	
 


  	  

6-46. Ironically, organizational leaders’ faceto-face communication must be more powerful,

more focused, and more unequivocal than

direct leaders’ communication. Because organizational leaders move quickly from one project

to another and one part of the organization to

the other, they must be careful that the right

message goes out the first time. Poor communication can have tremendously negative consequences.

Know Yourself

6-47. Even before assuming an organizational,

leadership position, leaders must assess themselves, understand their strengths and weaknesses, and commit to an appropriate

leadership philosophy. Organizational leaders

must realize that some techniques that worked

in direct-level positions may no longer work at

the organizational level. They must resist the

temptation to revert to their old role and thus

preempt their subordinates by making decisions for them.

6-48. That said, personal qualities that contributed to their previous success are still important for organizational leaders. They must be

themselves. They must know their biases, frustrations, and desires and try to keep these factors from negatively influencing their

communication. It’s not enough to be careful

about what they say. Nonverbal communication is so powerful that organizational leaders

need to be aware of personal mannerisms, behavioral quirks, and demeanor that reinforce or

contradict a spoken message.

Know the Purpose

6-49. Organizational leaders know themselves,

the mission, and the message. They owe it to

their organization and their people to share as

much as possible. People have to know what to

do and why. At the most basic level, communication provides the primary way that organizational leaders show they care. If subordinates

are to succeed and the organization is to move

forward, then the organizational leader must

work hard at maintaining positive communication. Encouraging open dialogue, actively listening to all perspectives, and ensuring that

subordinate leaders and staffs can have a forthright, open, and honest voice in the organization without fear of negative consequences

Army Leadership 6-13

Influencing Actions
greatly fosters communication at all levels.

Organizational leaders who communicate

openly and genuinely reinforce team values,

send a message of trust to subordinates, and

benefit from subordinates’ good ideas.

Know the Environment

6-50. Before organizational leaders can

effectively communicate, they must assess the

environment—people, events, and systems—and tailor their message to the target

audience. Organizational leaders constantly

communicate by persuading and conveying intent, standards, goals, and priorities at four levels within the Army: their people, their own and

higher staffs, their subordinate leaders and

commanders, and their superiors. There may

also be occasions that require organizational

leaders to speak to audiences outside the Army

such as the media or community groups. They

may have to repeat the message to different

audiences and retune it for different echelons,

but only leaders can reinforce their true intent.

Know the Boss

6-51. Working to communicate consistently

with the boss is especially important for organizational leaders. Organizational leaders have to

figure out how to reach the boss. They must assess how the boss communicates and how the

boss receives information. For some leaders, direct and personal contact is best; others may be

more comfortable with weekly meetings, email, or letters. Knowing the boss’s intent, priorities, and thought processes greatly enhances

organizational success. An organizational

leader who communicates well with the boss

minimizes friction between the organization

and the higher headquarters and improves the

overall organizational climate.

6-14 FM 22-100

Organizational Leadership

The Commander’s Notebook

A brigade commander met with his subordinate leaders and outlined his goals for an upcoming

training exercise. In the days following, while the brigade staff worked on the formal orders and

requirements, the commander spent time visiting subordinate units as they trained. As a part of each

visit, he asked his subordinate leaders for specific feedback on his intent. Was it clear? Could they

repeat the three main points he had tried to make? What would they add to the unit’s goals for the

training? He listened, asked his own questions, and allowed them to question him. It turned out that

most of the people he spoke to missed one of his three main points, which led the commander to

believe that he hadn’t made himself clear the first time. Eventually, he started the conversation by

saying, “There are a couple of points I tried to make in my talk; apparently, I dropped the ball on at

least one of them. Let me take another shot at it.” Then he explained the point again.

Whenever subordinate leaders offered suggestions about the upcoming exercise, the brigade

commander took out a pocket notebook and wrote some notes. Even when suggestions sounded

lame, he wrote them down. That way, he signaled to the speaker, “Yes, your opinion counts, too.”

Secondly, by writing down the ideas, the commander guaranteed himself a chance to look at the

comments later. He knew from experience that sometimes the ones that don’t seem to make sense at

first turn out to be quite useful later. Many of the direct leaders remarked that they had never seen a

brigade commander do anything like that before. They were even more astonished when they got

feedback on the suggestion. The brigade adjutant even explained to one company commander why

his suggestion wasn’t implemented. On a Saturday morning the brigade commander was standing in

line at the PX when a platoon sergeant engaged him in conversation. “I wasn’t around the day you

visited my company last week, sir,” the NCO said, “but I heard the other folks had a few suggestions

for you. I wonder if I could add something?”
Know the Subordinates

If it’s dumb it’s not our policy.

 	 
	  
	 

  	  

6-52. The mere presence of an organizational

leader somewhere communicates the leader’s

character and what the leader values. The

organizational leader who hurries through a

talk about caring for subordinates, then passes

up an opportunity to speak face-to-face with

some soldiers, does more than negate the message; he undercuts whatever trust his subordinates may have had.

6-53. Because organizational leaders know

themselves, they also know that others bring

the sum total of their experience to their duties.

They analyze interpersonal contact to gather

meaning; they look for the message behind the

words. In this way, they gain a greater understanding of peers, subordinates, and superiors.

Improving communication skills becomes a major self-development challenge for them. By

stating their intent openly, organizational leaders give subordinates an open door for feedback

on unintended consequences or just bad policy:

“Hey sir, did you really mean it when you said,

‘If it’s dumb it’s not our policy?’ OK, well what

about...?” Leaders must be seen to be heard.

Know the Staff

6-54. Organizational leaders must understand

what’s going on within their own and the nexthigher echelon staff. Networking allows them

to improve communication and mission accomplishment by giving them a better understanding of the overall environment. Networking

requires leaders to constantly interact and

share thoughts, ideas, and priorities. Informed

staffs can then turn policies, plans, and programs into realities.

6-55. Organizational leaders must also know

the focus of the next-higher staff and commander. Through taking time to interact with the

next-higher staff, organizational leaders gain a

greater understanding of the boss’s priorities

and also help set the conditions for their own

requirements. Constantly sensing—observing,

talking, questioning, and actively listening

to—what’s going on helps organizational leaders better identify and solve potential problems

and allows them to anticipate decisions and put

their outfit in the best possible position to

execute.

Know the Best Method

6-56. To disseminate information accurately

and rapidly, organizational leaders must also

develop an effective communications network.

Some of these networks—such as the chain of

command, the family support network, the

NCO support channel, and staff relationships—simply need to be recognized and

exploited. Other informal chains must be

developed. Different actions may require different networks.

6-57. The more adept organizational leaders

become in recognizing, establishing, and using

these networks, the more successful the outcome, especially as they become comfortable using a wider range of communications forums.

Memorandums, notes, and e-mail as well as formal and informal meetings, interactions, and

publications are tools of an effective communicator. Organizational leaders must know the

audiences these methods reach and use them

accordingly.

DECISION MAKING

The key is not to make quick decisions, but to

make timely decisions.

	 	 		

     

6-58. Organizational leaders are far more likely

than direct leaders to be required to make decisions with incomplete information. They determine whether they have to decide at all, which

decisions to make themselves, and which ones

to push down to lower levels. To determine the

right course of action, they consider possible

second- and third-order effects and think farther into the future—months, or even years,

out in the case of some directorates.

6-59. Organizational leaders identify the problem, collect input from all levels, synthesize

that input into solutions, and then choose and

execute the best solution in time to make a

Army Leadership 6-15

Influencing Actions
difference. To maximize the use of resources

and have the greatest effect on developing an

effective organization, organizational leaders

move beyond a reacting, problem-solving approach to an anticipating, problem-preemption

method. While there will always be emergencies

and unforeseen circumstances, organizational

leaders focus on anticipating future events and

making decisions about the systems and people

necessary to minimize crises. Vision is essential

for organizational leaders.

6-60. During operations, the pace and stress of

action increase over those of training. Organizational leaders use the MDMP to make tactical

decisions; however, they must add their conceptual skill of systems understanding to their

knowledge of tactics when considering courses

of action. Organizational leaders may be

tempted—because of pressure, the threat, fear,

or fatigue—to abandon sound decision making

by reacting to short-term demands. The same

impulses may result in focusing too narrowly

on specific events and losing their sense of time

and timing. But there’s no reason for organizational leaders to abandon proven decisionmaking processes in crises, although they

shouldn’t hesitate to modify a process to fit the

situation. In combat, success comes from creative, flexible decision making by leaders who

quickly analyze a problem, anticipate enemy actions, and rapidly execute their decisions. (Remember GEN Grant’s actions at Vicksburg.)

Leaders who delay or attempt to avoid a decision may cause unnecessary casualties and

even mission failure.

6-61. Effective and timely decision making—both the commander’s and subordinates’—is crucial to success. As part of decision

making, organizational leaders establish responsibility and accountability among their

subordinates. They delegate decision making

authority as far as it will go, empowering and

encouraging subordinates to make decisions

that affect their areas of responsibility or to further delegate that authority to their own

subordinates.

6-62. Effective organizational leaders encourage initiative and risk-taking. They remember that they are training leaders and

soldiers; the goal is a better-trained team, not

some ideal outcome. When necessary, they support subordinates’ bad decisions, but only those

made attempting to follow the commander’s intent. Failing through want of experience or luck

is forgivable. Negligence, indecision, or attempts to take an easy route should never be

tolerated.

6-63. As GEN Powell’s comment makes clear, a

decision’s timeliness is as important as the

speed at which it is made. Just as for direct leaders, a good decision now is better than a perfect

one too late. Leaders who are good at handling

the decision-making process will perform better

when the OPTEMPO speeds up. Leaders who

don’t deliver timely decisions leave their subordinates scrambling and trying to make up for

lost time. Better to launch the operation with a

good concept and let empowered subordinates

develop subsequent changes to the plan than to

court failure by waiting too long for the perfect

plan.

6-64. In tough moments, organizational leaders may need the support of key subordinates to

close an issue. Consider MG George G. Meade’s

position at Gettysburg. In command of the

Army of the Potomac for only a few days, MG

Meade met with his subordinates on the night

of 2 July 1863 after two days of tough fighting.

Uncertainty hung heavy in the air. MG Meade’s

decision to stand and fight, made with the support of his corps commanders, influenced the

outcome of the battle and became a turning

point of the Civil War.

6-65. Coping with uncertainty is normal for all

leaders, increasingly so for organizational leaders. Given today’s information technology, the

dangerous temptation to wait for all available

information before making a decision will persist. Even though this same technology may

also bring the unwanted attention of a superior,

leaders should not allow it to unduly influence

their decisions. Organizational leaders are

where they are because of their experience, intuition, initiative, and judgment. Events move

quickly, and it’s more important for decisive organizational leaders to recognize and seize opportunities, thereby creating success, than to

wait for all the facts and risk failure.

6-16 FM 22-100

Organizational Leadership
6-66. In the end, leaders bear ultimate responsibility for their organizations’ success or

failure. If the mission fails, they can’t lay the

blame elsewhere but must take full responsibility. If the mission succeeds, good leaders give

credit to their subordinates. While organizational leaders can’t ensure success by being allknowing or present everywhere, they can assert

themselves throughout the organization by being decisive in times of crisis and quick to seize

opportunities. In combat, leaders take advantage of fleeting windows of opportunity: they

see challenges rather than obstacles; they seek

solutions rather than excuses; they fight

through uncertainty to victory.

MOTIVATING

It is not enough to fight. It is the spirit which we

bring to the fight that decides the issue. It is

morale that wins the victory.

  	 
 
  	

6-67. Interpersonal skills involved in creating

and sustaining ethical and supportive climates

are required at the organizational as well as the

direct leadership level. As Chapter 3 explains,

the organizational, unit, or command climate

describes the environment in which subordinates work. Chapter 5 discusses how direct

leaders focus their motivational skills on individuals or small groups of subordinates. While

direct leaders are responsible for their organizations’ climate, their efforts are constrained

(or reinforced) by the larger organization’s climate. Organizational leaders shape that larger

environment. Their primary motivational responsibility is to establish and maintain the climate of their entire organization.

6-68. Disciplined organizations evolve within a

positive organizational climate. An organization’s climate springs from its leader’s

attitudes, actions, and priorities. Organizational leaders set the tone most powerfully through a personal example that brings

Army values to life. Upon assuming an organizational leadership position, a leader determines the organizational climate by assessing

the organization from the bottom up. Once this

assessment is complete, the leader can provide

the guidance and focus (purpose, direction, and

motivation) required to move the organizational climate to the desired end state.

6-69. A climate that promotes Army values and

fosters the warrior ethos encourages learning

and promotes creative performance. The foundation for a positive organizational climate is a

healthy ethical climate, but that alone is insufficient. Characteristics of successful organizational climates include a clear, widely known

intent; well-trained and confident soldiers; disciplined, cohesive teams; and trusted, competent leadership.

6-70. To create such a climate, organizational

leaders recognize mistakes as opportunities to

learn, create cohesive teams, and reward leaders of character and competence. Organizational leaders value honest feedback and

constantly use all available means to maintain a

feel for the environment. Staff members who

may be good sources for straightforward feedback may include equal opportunity advisors

and chaplains. Methods may include town hall

meetings, surveys, and councils. And of course,

personal observation—getting out and talking

to DA civilians, soldiers, and family members—brings organizational leaders face-toface with the people affected by their decisions

and policies. Organizational leaders’ consistent, sincere effort to see what’s really going on

and fix things that are not working right can result in mutual respect throughout their organizations. They must know the intricacies of the

job, trust their people, develop trust among

them, and support their subordinates.

6-71. Organizational leaders who are positive,

fair, and honest in their dealings and who are

not afraid of constructive criticism encourage

an atmosphere of openness and trust. Their

people willingly share ideas and take risks to

get the job done well because their leaders

strive for more than compliance; they seek to

develop subordinates with good judgment.

Army Leadership 6-17

Influencing Actions
6-72. Good judgment doesn’t mean lockstep

thinking. Thinking “outside the box” isn’t the

same as indiscipline. In fact, a disciplined organization systematically encourages creativity

and taking prudent risks. The leader convinces

subordinates that anything they break can be

fixed, except life or limb. Effective organizational leaders actively listen to, support, and reward subordinates who show disciplined

initiative. All these things create opportunities

for subordinates to succeed and thereby build

their confidence and motivation.

6-73. However, it’s not enough that individuals

can perform. When people are part of a disciplined and cohesive team, they gain proficiency,

are motivated, and willingly subordinate themselves to organizational needs. People who sense

they’re part of a competent, well-trained team

act on what the team needs; they’re confident in

themselves and feel a part of something important and compelling. These teammembers know

that what they do matters and discipline

themselves.

OPERATING ACTIONS

6-74. Organizational leaders see, decide, and

act as they perform the operating actions

shown in Figure 6-6. They emphasize

teamwork and cooperation over competition.

They provide their intent so subordinates can

accomplish the mission, no matter what happens to the original plan. Because organizational leaders primarily work through

subordinates, empowerment and delegation are

indispensable. As a result of communicating

with subordinates, listening to their responses,

and obtaining feedback from their assessments,

organizational leaders are better equipped to

make decisions.

6-75. Organizational-level commanders

usually use the MDMP for tactical decision

6-18 FM 22-100

Organizational Leadership

The 505th Parachute Infantry Regiment at Normandy

On 7 June 1944, the day after D-Day, nearly 600 paratroopers of the 505th Parachute Infantry

Regiment were in position in the town of Ste. Mère Église in Normandy to block any German

counterattack of the Allied invasion force. Although outnumbered by an enemy force of over 6,000

soldiers, the paratroopers attacked the German flank and prevented the enemy’s assault. The

paratroopers were motivated and well-trained, and they all understood the absolute necessity of

preventing the German counterattack. Even in the fog of war, they did what needed to be done to

achieve victory. Their feat is especially noteworthy since many landed outside their planned drop

zones and had to find their units on their own. They did so quickly and efficiently in the face of the

enemy.

The 505th combined shared purpose, a positive and ethical climate, and cohesive, disciplined

teams to build the confidence and motivation necessary to fight and win in the face of uncertainty and

adversity. Both leaders and soldiers understood that no plan remains intact after a unit crosses the

line of departure. The leaders’ initiative allowed the disciplined units to execute the mission by

following the commander’s intent, even when the conditions on the battlefield changed.

VALUES

ATTRIBUTES

SKILLS

“Be” “Know”

THE LEADER THE LEADER

of Character and Competence Acts...

to Achieve Excellence to Achieve Excellence

Figure 6-6. Organizational Leader Actions—

Operating
making and planning. However, those who

command in the joint environment must use

the Joint Operation Planning and Execution

System (JOPES) methodology. Both the

MDMP and JOPES allow organizational commanders to apply the factors discussed in this

chapter.

SYSTEMS PLANNING AND

PREPARING

[A] good plan violently executed now is better

than a perfect plan next week.

  	 
	

  	 


6-76. GEN Patton wasn’t belittling the importance of planning; he was emphasizing the balance necessary for successful operations.

Planning, getting ready for the future by laying

out how leaders aim to turn their intent into reality, is something leaders do every day and

something the Army does very well. However,

organizational leaders plan for the systems that

support training and operations as well as for

the actual training event or operation. Systems

planning involves seven steps:

 Establish intent.

 Set goals.

 Determine objectives.

 Determine tasks.

 Establish priorities.

 Follow up.

Establish Intent

6-77. The first step in systems planning is for

the organizational leader to have a clear intent

for what he wants the organization to be. What

will it look like at some future point? Spending

extra time visualizing the end state up front is

more important than quickly jumping into the

mechanics of planning. Obviously, the actual

mission is critical in determining this end state.

The organizational leader’s intent should be

announced at the earliest practicable time after

it has been formulated so the staff and subordinate commanders can have maximum time to

plan. For a division, the intent might be—

 The best infantry division in the world.

 Supported by the finest installation in the

Army.

 Trained and ready to deploy anywhere in

the world to fight and win.

 But flexible enough to accomplish any other

mission the nation asks us to perform.

 A values-based organization that takes care

of its soldiers, DA civilians, and families.

6-78. Organizational leaders must determine

how this intent affects the various systems for

which they are responsible. By their actions and

those of their subordinates and by using their

presence to be heard, organizational leaders

bring meaning for their intent to their people.

Set Goals

6-79. Once they have established their intent,

organizational leaders, with the help of their

team of subordinate leaders and staffs, set specific goals for their organizations. Goals frame

the organizational leader’s intent. For instance, the goal “Improve fire control and killing power” could support that part of the intent

that states the division will be “trained and

ready to deploy anywhere in the world to fight

and win.” Organizational leaders are personally involved in setting goals and priorities to

execute their intent and are aware that unrealistic goals punish subordinates.

Determine Objectives

6-80. In the third step, organizational leaders

establish objectives that are specific and measurable. For example, an objective that supports

the goal of improving fire control and killing

power could be “Fifty percent of the force must

fire expert on their personal weapons.” Establishing objectives is difficult because the process requires making precise calls from a wide

variety of options. Since time and resources are

limited, organizational leaders make choices

about what can and cannot be accomplished.

They check key system nodes to monitor

subsystem functions.

Determine Tasks

6-81. The fourth step involves determining the

measurable, concrete steps that must be taken

on the way to the objective. For example, the

Army Leadership 6-19

Operating Actions
commander of a forward-stationed division

might ensure family readiness by ordering that

any newly arriving soldier with a family may

not be deployed without having a vehicle in

country and household goods delivered.

Establish Priorities

6-82. The fifth step is to establish a priority for

the tasks. This crucial step lets subordinates

know how to spend one of their most critical resources: time.

6-83. This system of establishing priorities is

important for the organization; organizational

leaders must also practice it personally. In fact,

a highly developed system of time management

may be the only way for organizational leaders

to handle all the demands upon them. There’s

rarely enough time to do everything, yet they

must make the time to assess and synthesize information and make timely decisions. Leaders

who recognize distractions are better equipped

to handle their time well.

Prepare

6-84. Though organizational leaders have

more complex missions than direct leaders,

they also have more assets: a staff and

additional subordinate leaders, specialists, and

equipment allow their preparation to be diverse

and complete. Direct leaders prepare by getting

individuals moving in the right direction; organizational leaders take a step back and check

to make sure the systems necessary to support

the mission are in place and functioning

correctly.

Follow Up

6-85. The final step in systems planning is to

follow up: Does the team understand the tasks?

Is the team taking the necessary actions to complete them? Check the chain of command again:

does everyone have the word? Organizational

leader involvement in this follow up validates

the priorities and demonstrates that the leader

is serious about seeing the mission completed.

Organizational leaders who fail to follow up

send a message that the priorities are not really

that important and that their orders are not

really binding.

6-20 FM 22-100

Organizational Leadership

The “Paperwork Purge”

The division’s new chief of staff was surprised at how much time subordinates spent at meetings;

it seemed they had time for little else. After observing the way things worked for two weeks, the chief

did away with most of the scheduled meetings, telling the staff, “We’ll meet when we need to meet,

and not just because it’s Friday morning.” What’s more, the chief required an agenda for each

meeting ahead of time: “That way, people can do their homework and see who needs to be there and

who doesn’t.” The chief was always on time for meetings and started at the time specified on the

agenda. There were no interruptions of whomever had the floor, and the long, meandering speeches

that had marked previous meetings were cut short.

The chief put a one-page limit on briefing papers for the boss. This meant subordinates learned to

write concisely. Each staff section did a top-to-bottom review of procedures that had been in place as

long as anyone could remember. Anything that couldn’t be justified was thrown out. The chief handled

most of the correspondence that came across his desk with a quick note written on the original and

told the staff to do the same.

The chief made the staff justify requirements they sent to subordinate organizations, with the

comment, “If you can’t tell them why it’s important, then maybe it’s not important.” The explanation

also helped subordinate elements determine their own priorities: “You can’t keep sending stuff down

saying, ‘This is critical!’ It gets to be like the boy who cried wolf.”
6-86. Keeping their intent in mind, organizational leaders fight distracters, make time to reflect, and seek to work more efficiently. Despite

the pressure of too much to do in too little time,

they keep their sense of humor and help those

around them do the same.

THE CREATIVE STAFF PROCESS

None of us is as smart as all of us.

  	
 	


6-87. The size and complexity of the organizations led by organizational leaders requires

well-trained, competent staffs. Training these

staffs is a major responsibility of organizational

leaders. The chief of staff or executive officer is

the organizational leader’s right hand in that

effort.

6-88. In the 100 days leading to the Battle of

Waterloo, Napoleon had to campaign without

his intensely loyal and untiring chief of staff,

Berthier. In all his other campaigns, Berthier

had transformed Napoleon’s orders into

instructions to the marshals, usually in quadruplicate with different riders carrying four copies to the same marshal over different routes.

Berthier’s genius for translating Napoleon’s intent into tasks for each corps underlay the

French Army’s versatile, fluid maneuver style.

Without Berthier and with an increasingly rigid

Napoleon disdaining advice from any source,

Napoleon’s formations lost a good deal of their

flexibility and speed.

6-89. Great staffs work in concert with the

leader to turn intent into reality. A

single leader in isolation has no doubt done

great things and made good decisions. However, the organizational leader alone can’t consistently make the right decisions in an

environment where operational momentum

never stops.

6-90. Building a creative, thinking staff

requires the commander’s time, maturity, wisdom, and patience. Although managing information is important, the organizational leader

needs to invest in both quality people and in

training them to think rather than just process

information. Several factors contribute to

building a creative, thinking staff.

The Right People

6-91. A high-performing staff starts with putting the right people in the right places. Organizational leaders are limited to their

organization’s resources, but have many

choices about how to use them. They assemble,

from throughout their organizations, people

who think creatively, possess a vast array of

technical skills, are trained to solve problems,

and can work together. They take the time to

evaluate the staff and implement a training

program to improve it as a whole. They avoid

micromanaging the staff, instead trusting and

empowering it to think creatively and provide

answers.

The Chief of Staff

6-92. The staff needs its own leader to take

charge—someone who can focus it, work with

it, inspire it, and move it to decisive action in

the absence of the commander. The sections of

the staff work as equals, yet without superb

leadership they won’t perform exceptionally.

Army Leadership 6-21

Operating Actions

The “Paperwork Purge” (continued)

Of course, the staff didn’t take the new chief quite seriously at first, and after a week of reviewing

old policy letters, some staff sections let the requirement slide. Then the chief showed up one day and

had them give him a rundown on all the policies left after what everyone was calling “the big

paperwork purge.” A few more outdated requirements fell by the wayside that afternoon. More

important, the staff got the message that the chief followed through on decisions.

Finally, and most startling, the chief told staff members that now and then they should sit quietly

and stare into space: “You’re getting paid to think, and every once in a while you’ve got to stop moving

to do that well.”
To make a staff a true team, an empowered deputy must be worthy of the staff and have its respect. The chief of staff must have the courage

to anticipate and demand the best possible

quality. On the other hand, the chief must take

care of the hardworking people who make up

the staff and create an environment that fosters

individual initiative and develops potential.

(FM 100-34 discusses the role of the chief of

staff.)

Challenging Problems

6-93. A staff constantly needs challenging

problems to solve if it’s to build the attitude

that it can overcome any obstacle. Tackling

problems with restricted time and resources

improves the staff members’ confidence and

proficiency, as long as they get an opportunity

to celebrate successes and to recharge their batteries. Great confidence comes from training

under conditions more strenuous than they

would likely face otherwise.

Clear Guidance

6-94. The commander constantly shares

thoughts and guidance with the staff. Welltrained staffs can then synthesize data according to those guidelines. Computers, because of

their ability to handle large amounts of data,

are useful analytical tools, but they can do only

limited, low-order synthesis. There’s no substitute for a clear commander’s intent, clearly understood by every member of the staff.

EXECUTING

The American soldier demonstrated that,

properly equipped, trained, and led, he has no

superior among all the armies of the world.

 	
 


 	   

6-95. Planning and preparation for branches

and sequels of a plan and contingencies for future operations may continue, even during execution. However, execution is the purpose for

which the other operating actions occur; at

some point, the organizational leader commits

to action, spurs his organization forward, and

sees the job through to the end. (FM 100-34 and

FM 101-5 discuss branches and sequels.)

6-96. In combat, organizational leaders

integrate and synchronize all available elements of the combined arms team, empower

subordinates, and assign tasks to accomplish

the mission. But the essence of warfighting for

organizational leaders is their will. They must

persevere despite limitations, setbacks, physical exhaustion, and declining mental and emotional reserves. They then directly and

indirectly energize their units—commanders

and soldiers—to push through confusion and

hardship to victory.

6-97. Whether they’re officers, NCOs, or DA

civilians, the ultimate responsibility of

organizational-level leaders is to accomplish

the mission. To this end, they must mass the

effects of available forces on the battlefield, to

include supporting assets from other services.

The process starts before the fight as leaders

align forces, resources, training, and other supporting systems.

Combined Arms and Joint Warfighting

6-98. Brigades and battalions usually conduct

single-service operations supported by assets

from other services. In contrast, the large areas

of responsibility in which divisions and corps

operate make division and corps fights joint by

nature. Joint task forces (JTFs) are also

organizational-level formations. Therefore, organizational leaders and their staffs at

division-level and higher must understand joint

procedures and concerns at least as well as they

understand Army procedures and concerns. In

addition, it’s not unusual for a corps to control

forces of another nation; divisions do also, but

not as frequently. This means that corps and division headquarters include liaison officers

from other nations. In some cases, these staffs

may have members of other nations permanently assigned: such a staff is truly

multinational.

6-99. Today’s operations present all Army

leaders—but particularly organizational

leaders—with a nonlinear, dynamic environment ranging the full spectrum of continuous

operations. These dispersed conditions create

an information-intense environment that

challenges leaders to synchronize their efforts

6-22 FM 22-100

Organizational Leadership
with nonmilitary and often nongovernmental

agencies.

Empowering

Never tell people how to do things. Tell them

what to do and they will surprise you with their

ingenuity.

  	 
	

  	 


6-100. To increase the effects of their will, organizational leaders must encourage initiative

in their subordinates. Although unity of command is a principle of war, at some level a single

leader alone can no longer control all elements

of an organization and personally direct the accomplishment of every aspect of its mission. As

leaders approach the brigade or directorate

level, hard work and force of personality alone

cannot carry the organization. Effective organizational leaders delegate authority and support their subordinates’ decisions, while

holding subordinates accountable for their

actions.

6-101. Delegating successfully involves

convincing subordinates that they’re empowered, that they indeed have the freedom to act

independently. Empowered subordinates have,

and know they have, more than the responsibility to get the job done. They have the authority

to operate in the way they see fit and are limited

only by the leader’s intent.

6-102. To do that, the organizational leader

gives subordinates the mission, motivates

them, and lets them go. Subordinates know

that the boss trusts them to make the right

things happen; this security motivates them, in

turn, to lead their people with determination.

They know the boss will underwrite honest

mistakes, well-intentioned mistakes—not stupid, careless, or repeated ones. So for the boss,

empowering subordinates means building the

systems and establishing the climate that gives

subordinates the rein to do the job within the

bounds of acceptable risk. It means setting organizational objectives and delegating tasks to

ensure parallel, synchronized progress.

6-103. Delegation is a critical task: Which subordinates can be trusted with independent

action? Which need a short rein? In fluid situations—especially in combat, where circumstances can change rapidly or where leaders

may be out of touch or become casualties—empowered subordinates will pursue the commander’s intent as the situation develops and react

correctly to changes that previous orders failed

to anticipate. However, as important as delegation is to the success of organizations, it does

not imply in any way a reduction of the commander’s responsibility for the outcome. Only

the commander is accountable for the overall

outcome, the success or failure, of the mission.

ASSESSING

6-104. The ability to assess a situation

accurately and reliably—a critical tool in the

leader’s arsenal—requires instinct and

intuition based on experience and learning. It

also requires a feel for the reliability and validity of information and its sources. Organizational assessment is necessary to determine

organizational weaknesses and preempt mishaps. Accurately determining causes is essential to training management, developing

subordinate leadership, and process

improvement.

6-105. There are several different ways to

gather information: asking subordinates

questions to find out if the word is getting to

them, meeting people, and checking for

synchronized plans are a few. Assessing may

also involve delving into the electronic databases upon which situational understanding

depends. Assessment techniques are more than

measurement tools; in fact, the way a leader assesses something can influence the process being assessed. The techniques used may produce

high quality, useful feedback; however, in a dysfunctional command climate, they can backfire

and send the wrong message about priorities.

6-106. Staff and subordinates manage and process information for a leader, but this doesn’t

relieve the leader from the responsibility of

analyzing information as part of the decisionmaking process. Leaders obtain information

from various sources so they can compare and

make judgments about the accuracy of sources.

Army Leadership 6-23

Operating Actions
6-107. As Third Army commander during

World War II, GEN George Patton did this continuously. Third Army staff officers visited

front-line units daily to gather the latest

available information. In addition, the 6th Cavalry Group, the so-called “Household Cavalry”

monitored subordinate unit reconnaissance

nets and sent liaison patrols to visit command

and observation posts of units in contact. These

liaison patrols would exchange information

with subordinate unit G2s and G3s and report

tactical and operational information directly to

the Third Army forward headquarters (after

clearing it with the operations section of the

unit they were visiting).

6-108. In addition to providing timely combat

information, the Household Cavalry and staff

visits reduced the number of reports Third

Army headquarters required and created a

sense of cohesiveness and understanding not

found in other field armies. Other organizational leaders have accomplished the

same thing using liaison officers grounded in

their commander’s intent. Whatever the

method they choose, organizational leaders

must be aware of the second- and third-order effects of having “another set of eyes.”

6-109. In the world of digital command and

control, commanders may set screens on

various command and control systems to monitor the status of key units, selected enemy parameters, and critical planning and execution

timelines. They may establish prompts in the

command and control terminal that warn of imminent selected events, such as low fuel levels

in maneuver units, tight fighter management

timelines among aviation crews, or massing enemy artillery.

6-110. A leader’s preconceived notions and

opinions (such as “technology undermines basic skills” or “technology is the answer”) can interfere with objective analysis. It’s also possible

to be too analytical, especially with limited

amounts of information and time. Therefore,

when analyzing information, organizational

leaders guard against dogmatism, impatience,

or overconfidence that may bias their analysis.

6-111. The first step in designing an

assessment system is to determine the purpose

of the assessment. While purposes vary, most

fall into one of the following categories:

 Evaluate progress toward organizational

goals (using an emergency deployment

readiness exercise to check unit readiness or

monitoring progress of units through stages

of reception, staging, onward movement,

and integration).

 Evaluate the efficiency of a system, that is,

the ratio of the resources expended to the

results gained (comparing the amount of

time spent performing maintenance to the

organization’s readiness rate).

 Evaluate the effectiveness of a system, that

is, the quality of the results it produces

(analyzing the variation in Bradley gunnery scores).

 Compare the relative efficiency or effectiveness against standards.

 Compare the behavior of individuals in a

group with the prescribed standards (APFT

or gunnery scores).

 Evaluate systems supporting the organization (following up “no pay dues” to

see what the NCO support channel did

about them).

6-112. Organizational leaders consider the

direct and indirect costs of assessing. Objective

costs include the manpower required to design

and administer the system and to collect, analyze, and report the data. Costs may also include machine-processing times and expenses

related to communicating the data. Subjective

costs include possible confusion regarding organizational priorities and philosophies, misperceptions regarding trust and

decentralization, fears over unfair use of

collected data, and the energy expended to collect and refine the data.

6-113. Organizational leaders ask themselves

these questions: What’s the standard? Does the

standard make sense to all concerned? Did we

meet it? What system measures it? Who’s responsible for the system? How do we reinforce

or correct our findings? One of the greatest contributions organizational leaders can make to

their organizations is to assess their own leadership actions: Are you doing things the way

you would to support the nation at war? Will

6-24 FM 22-100

Organizational Leadership
your current systems serve equally well under

the stress and strain of continuous fighting? If

not, why not?

6-114. It follows that organizational leaders

who make those evaluations every day will also

hold their organizations to the highest standards. When asked, their closest subordinates

will give them informal AARs of their leadership behaviors in the critical situations. When

they arrange to be part of official AARs, they

can invite subordinates to comment on how

they could have made things go better. Organizational leader errors are very visible; their results are probably observed and felt by many

subordinates. Thus, there’s no sense in not admitting, analyzing. and learning from these errors. A bit of reflection in peacetime may lead to

greater effectiveness in war.

6-115. The 1991 ground war in the Iraqi desert

lasted only 100 hours, but it was won through

hard work over a period of years, in countless

field exercises on ranges and at the combat

training centers. The continual assessment

process allowed organizational leaders to trade

long hours of hard work in peacetime for operations in war.

6-116. Organizational leaders are personally

dedicated to providing tough, battle-focused

training so that the scrimmage is always harder

than the game. They must ensure that in training, to the extent that resources and risks allow, nothing is simulated. Constant

assessments refine training challenges, forge

confidence, and foster the quiet, calculating,

and deadly warrior ethos that wins battles and

campaigns. (FM 25-100 and FM 25-101 discuss

battle focus and training assessment.)

IMPROVING ACTIONS

The creative leader is one who will rewrite doctrine, employ new weapons systems, develop

new tactics and who pushes the state of the art.

  	


 
   

6-117. Improving actions are what all leaders

do today to make their organization and subordinates better tomorrow, next month, next

year, five years from now. The responsibility for

how the Army fights the next war lies with today’s leaders; the work to improve the organization in the long term never ends. Leaders

teaching subordinates to do the leader’s job in

combat is the hallmark of the profession of

arms.

6-118. The payoff for improving actions might

not be evident for years. In fact, leaders at all

levels may never see the benefit of developing

subordinates, since those subordinates go on to

work for someone else. But this doesn’t stop

them from taking pride in their subordinates’

development and performance; a subordinate’s

success is a great measure of a leader’s success.

Further, it’s often difficult to draw a causeand-effect line from what leaders do today to

Army Leadership 6-25

Operating Actions

VALUES

ATTRIBUTES

SKILLS

“Be” “Know”

THE LEADER THE LEADER

of Character and Competence Acts...

to Achieve Excellence to Achieve Excellence

Influencing

Operating

Improving

Figure 6-7. Organizational Leader

Actions—Improving
how it pays off tomorrow. Precisely because of

these difficulties, organizational leaders ensure

the goals they establish include improving people and organizations. They also make sure

they communicate this to their subordinates.

6-119. The developing, building, and learning

actions may be more difficult at the organizational level because the leaders themselves

must rely more on indirect leadership methods.

The challenge is greater because of the size of

the organization, but the rewards increase as

well: organizational leaders can influence large

numbers of people and improve large segments

of the Army.

DEVELOPING

Let us set for ourselves a standard so high that it

will be a glory to live up to it, and then let us live

up to it and add a new laurel to the crown of

America.

 

	
 
   

6-120. Just as leadership begins at the top, so

does developing. Organizational leaders keep a

focus on where the organization needs to go and

what all leaders must be capable of accomplishing. They continually develop themselves and

mentor their subordinate leaders. As discussed

in Chapter 3, leaders search for and take advantage of opportunities to mentor their subordinates. At the organizational level, commanders

ensure that systems and conditions are in place

for the mentoring of all organizational

members.

6-121. Effective organizational leaders grow

leaders at all levels of their organization. Just

as they prepare their units for in-stride

breaches, for example, they combine existing

opportunities into a coherent plan for

leadership development. Leaders get much of

their development when they practice what

they’ve learned and receive straightforward

feedback in rigorously honest AARs. Feedback

also comes from self-assessments as well as

from peers, subordinates, and supervisors.

6-122. Organizational leaders design and integrate leader development programs into everyday training. They aim to capture learning in

common duties, ensure timely feedback, and allow reflection and analysis. As Frederick the

Great said, “What good is experience if you do

not reflect?” Simply scheduling officer and

NCO professional development sessions isn’t

enough for genuine, lasting leader

development. Letting “operating” overwhelm

“improving” threatens the future.

6-123. Leadership development is purposeful,

not accidental. Everyday mission requirements

are opportunities to grow leaders. Based on assessment of their subordinate leaders, organizational leaders describe how they intend to

deliberately influence leader development

through a comprehensive leadership development program that captures and harnesses

what’s already occurring in the organization. A

leadership development program must provide

for learning skills, practicing actions, and

receiving feedback.

6-124. Organizational leaders assess their organizations to determine organization-specific

developmental needs. They analyze their mission, equipment, and long-term schedule as

well as the experience and competence of their

subordinate leaders to determine leadership requirements. In addition to preparing their immediate subordinates to take their place,

organizational leaders must also prepare subordinate leaders selected for specific duties to actually execute them.

6-125. Based on their assessment, organizational leaders define and clearly articulate their goals and objectives for leadership

development within the organization. They create program goals and objectives to support

their focus as well as to communicate specific

responsibilities for subordinate leaders. These

subordinate leaders help bring leadership development to life through constant mentoring

and experiential learning opportunities. Leadership development is an important responsibility shared by leaders at every level. It

becomes their greatest contribution—their

legacy.

6-126. The development technique used

depends on the leaders involved. Learning by

making mistakes is possible, but having subordinates develop habits of succeeding is better

6-26 FM 22-100

Organizational Leadership
for instilling self-confidence and initiative.

Newly assigned assistant operations officers

may need time to visit remote sites over which

they have day-to-day control. They may need

time to visit higher headquarters to establish

rapport with those action officers they will have

to deal with under the pressure of a tense operational situation. They may have to see the tactical operations center set up in the field and get

a chance to review its SOPs before a big exercise. These activities can only happen if the organizational leader supports the leader

development program and demands it take

place in spite of the pressures of daily (routine)

business.

6-127. There are many ways to tackle leader

development. For example, instead of pursuing

long-term training programs for his career civilians, one DA civilian leader enrolled both his

DA civilian managers and military officers in

graduate programs while they continued to

work full-time. This approach allowed the

directorate to provide development opportunities to four times as many personnel at onethird the cost of long-term training. In addition,

the students were able to apply what they were

learning directly to their jobs, thus providing

immediate benefit to the organization.

6-128. In addition to educational programs, innovative interagency exchange assignments

can cross-level the knowledge, skills, and experience of DA civilian leaders. Whether taking on

new interns or expanding the perspectives of

seasoned managers, the DA civilian component

mirrors the uniformed components in its approach to broad-based leadership opportunities.

6-129. Often developmental programs involve

historical events similar to current operational

challenges. Such situations allow all to share a

sense of what works and what does not from

what worked before and what did not. This

analysis can also be applied to recent organizational experiences. For example, in preparation

for a CTC rotation, leaders review their own as

well as others’ experiences to determine valuable lessons learned. They master the individual and collective tasks through a training

program that sets up soldiers and leaders for

success. Based on internal AARs, they continue

to learn, practice, and assess. CTCs also provide

individual leaders with invaluable experience

in operating under harsh conditions. Organizations execute missions, receive candid feedback

and coaching to facilitate lessons learned, then

execute again.

6-130. Commanders must take the time to

ensure they do developmental counseling.

Nothing can replace the face-to-face contribution made by a commander mentoring a

subordinate. Developing the most talented

and (often) those with the greatest challenges

requires a great amount of time and energy,

but it’s an essential investment for the

future.

BUILDING

Building Combat Power

6-131. Emphasis on winning can’t waver

during training, deploying, and fighting. By developing the right systems and formulating appropriate contingency plans, organizational

leaders ensure that the organization is

prepared for a variety of conditions and uncertainties. In wartime, building combat power derives from task organization, resourcing, and

preparing for execution while still meeting the

human needs of the organization. Commanders

must preserve and recycle organizational energy throughout the campaign. In peacetime,

the main component of potential combat power

is embedded collective skill and organizational

readiness stemming from hard, continuous,

and challenging training to standard.

Building Teams

All United States military doctrine is based

upon reliance on the ingenuity of the individual

working on his own initiative as a member of a

team and using the most modern weapons and

equipment which can be provided him.

 	
 


      

6-132. Organizational leaders rely on others to

follow and execute their intent. Turning a

battlefield vision or training goals into reality

takes the combined efforts of many teams

inside and outside of the leader’s organization.

Army Leadership 6-27

Improving Actions
Organizational leaders build solid, effective

teams by developing and training them and sustain those teams by creating healthy

organizational climates.

6-133. Organizational leaders work

consistently to create individual and team ownership of organizational goals. By knowing

their subordinates—their aspirations, fears,

and concerns—organizational leaders can ensure their subordinate organizations and leaders work together. Taking time to allow

subordinates to develop ways to meet organizational missions fosters ownership of a plan. The

FM 25-100 training management process, in

which subordinate organizations define supporting tasks and suggest the training required

to gain and maintain proficiency, is an example

of a process that encourages collective investment in training. That investment leads to a

commitment that not only supports execution

but also reduces the chances of internal

conflict.

6-134. Subordinates work hard and fight

tenaciously when they’re well-trained and feel

they’re part of a good team. Collective

confidence comes from winning under challenging and stressful conditions. People’s sense of

belonging comes from technical and tactical

proficiency—as individuals and then

collectively as a team—and the confidence they

have in their peers and their leaders. As

cohesive teams combine into a network, a team

of teams, organizations work in harness with

those on the left and right to fight as a whole.

The balance among three good battalions is

more important than having a single outstanding one. Following that philosophy necessarily

affects resource allocation and task

assignment.

6-135. Organizational leaders build cohesive

organizations. They overcome, and even

capitalize on, diversity of background and experience to create the energy necessary to achieve

organizational goals. They resolve conflicts

among subordinate leaders as well as any conflicts between their own organization and

others.

6-136. For example, subordinate leaders may

compete for limited resources while pursuing

their individual organization’s goals. Two

battalion commanders may both want and need

a certain maneuver training area to prepare for

deployment, so they both present the issue professionally and creatively to their commander.

The brigade commander must then weigh and

decide between the different unit requirements, balancing their competing demands

with the greater good of the entire organization

and the Army. An even better situation would

be if the organizational climate facilitates teamwork and cooperation that results in the subordinate commanders themselves producing a

satisfactory solution.

6-137. Similarly, the brigade commander’s

own interests may at times conflict with that of

other organizations. He must maintain a broad

perspective and develop sensible solutions for

positive resolution with his contemporaries. In

both these cases, subordinates observe the actions of leaders and pattern their attitudes and

actions after them. Everyone, even experienced

leaders, looks up the chain of command for the

example of “how we do it here,” how to do it

right. Organizational leaders empower their

subordinates with a powerful personal

example.

6-138. Like direct leaders, organizational leaders build teams by keeping team members informed. They share information, solicit input,

and consider suggestions. This give-and-take

also allows subordinates a glimpse into the

mind of their leaders, which helps them prepare

for the day when they fill that job. The leader

who sends these messages—“I value your opinion; I’m preparing you for greater responsibilities; you’re part of the team”—strengthens the

bonds that hold the team together.

6-139. Team building produces trust. Trust begins with action, when leaders demonstrate discipline and competence. Over time,

subordinates learn that leaders do what they

say they’ll do. Likewise leaders learn to trust

their subordinates. That connection, that mutual assurance, is the link that helps organizations accomplish the most difficult tasks. (FM

100-34 discusses the importance of building

trust for command and control.)

6-28 FM 22-100

Organizational Leadership
LEARNING

6-140. Organizational leaders create an

environment that supports people within their

organizations learning from their own experiences and the experiences of others. How

leaders react to failure and encourage success

now is critical to reaching excellence in the future. Subordinates who feel they need to hide

mistakes deprive others of valuable lessons.

Organizational leaders set the tone for this

honest sharing of experiences by acknowledging that not all experiences (even their own) are

successful. They encourage subordinates to examine their experiences, and make it easy for

them to share what they learn.

6-141. Learning is continuous and occurs

throughout an organization: someone is always

experiencing something from which a lesson

can be drawn. For this reason, organizational

leaders ensure continual teaching at all levels;

the organization as a whole shares knowledge

and applies relevant lessons. They have systems in place to collect and disseminate those

lessons so that individual mistakes become organizational tools. This commitment improves

organizational programs, processes, and

performances.

SECTION III

A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF ORGANIZATIONAL

LEADERSHIP—GENERAL RIDGWAY IN KOREA

6-142. Few leaders have better exemplified effective organizational leadership in combat

than GEN Matthew B. Ridgway. GEN Ridgway

successfully led the 82d Airborne Division and

XVIII Airborne Corps in the ETO during World

War II and Eighth (US) Army during the Korean War. His actions during four months in

command of Eighth Army prior to his appointment as UN Supreme Commander bring to life

the skills and actions described throughout this

chapter.

6-143. At the outbreak of the Korean War in

June 1950, GEN Ridgway was assigned as the

Army Deputy Chief of Staff, Operations. In an

agreement between the Army Chief of Staff,

GEN J. Lawton Collins, and the UN Supreme

Commander, GA Douglas MacArthur, GEN

Ridgway was identified early as the replacement for the Eighth Army commander,

GEN Walton H. Walker, in the event GEN

Walker was killed in combat.

6-144. That year, on 23 December, GEN

Walker died in a jeep accident. Following

approval by Secretary of Defense George C.

Marshall and President Truman, GEN Ridgway

was ordered to take command of Eighth Army.

At that time, Eighth Army was defending near

the 38th parallel, having completed a 300-mile

retreat after the Chinese intervention and stunning victory on the Chongchin River.

6-145. The UN defeat had left its forces in serious disarray. One of Eighth Army’s four American divisions, the 2d, needed extensive

replacements and reorganization. Two other divisions, the 25th and 1st Cavalry, were

seriously battered. Of the Republic of Korea divisions, only the 1st was in good fighting shape.

A British brigade was combat ready, but it too

had suffered substantial losses in helping cover

the retreat.

6-146. Within 24 hours of GEN Walker’s death,

GEN Ridgway was bound for Korea. During the

long flight from Washington, DC, to GA MacArthur’s headquarters in Japan, GEN Ridgway

had an opportunity to reflect on what lay ahead.

He felt this problem was like so many others he

had experienced: “Here’s the situation—what’s

your solution?” He began to formulate his plan

of action. He determined each step based on his

assessment of the enemy’s strengths and capabilities as well as his own command’s strengths

and capabilities.

Army Leadership 6-29

Improving Actions
6-147. The necessary steps seemed clear: gain

an appreciation for the immediate situation

from GA MacArthur’s staff, establish his

presence as Eighth Army commander by sending a statement of his confidence in them, and

then meet with his own staff to establish his

priorities. His first message to his new

command was straight to the point: “You will

have my utmost. I shall expect yours.”

6-148. During the flight from Japan to his forward command post, GEN Ridgway carefully

looked at the terrain upon which he was to

fight. The battered Eighth Army had to cover a

rugged, 100-mile-long front that restricted both

maneuver and resupply. Poor morale presented

a further problem. Many military observers felt

that Eighth Army lacked spirit and possessed

little stomach for continuing the bruising battle

with the Chinese.

6-149. For three days GEN Ridgway traveled

the army area by jeep, talking with commanders who had faced the enemy beyond the

Han River. GEN Ridgway wrote later,

I held to the old-fashioned idea that it helped the

spirits of the men to see the Old Man up there, in

the snow and the sleet and the mud, sharing the

same cold, miserable existence they had to

endure.

6-150. GEN Ridgway believed a commander

should publicly show a personal interest in the

well-being of his soldiers. He needed to do

something to attract notice and display his concern for the front-line fighters. Finding that

one of his units was still short of some winter

equipment, GEN Ridgway dramatically ordered that the equipment be delivered within

24 hours. In response, the logistical command

made a massive effort to comply, flying equipment from Pusan to the front lines. Everyone

noticed. He also ordered—and made sure the

order was known—that the troops be served

hot meals, with any failures to comply reported

directly to him.

6-151. GEN Ridgway was candid, criticizing

the spirit of both the commanders and soldiers

of Eighth Army. He talked with riflemen and

generals, from front-line foxholes to corps command posts. He was appalled at American

infantrymen who didn’t patrol, who had no

knowledge of the terrain in which they fought,

and who failed to know the whereabouts of

their enemy. Moreover, this army was roadbound and failed to occupy commanding terrain

overlooking its positions and supply lines. GEN

Ridgway also sensed that Eighth Army—particularly the commanders and their

staffs—kept looking over their shoulders for

the best route to the rear and planned only for

retreat. In short, he found his army immobilized and demoralized.

6-152. An important part of GEN Ridgway’s effort to instill fighting spirit in Eighth Army was

to order units to close up their flanks and tie in

with other units. He said he wanted no units

cut off and abandoned, as had happened to the

3d Battalion, 8th Cavalry at Unsan, Task Force

Faith at Chosin Reservoir, and the 2d Division

at Kuni-ri. GEN Ridgway felt that it was essential for soldiers to know they would not be left

to fend for themselves if cut off. He believed

that soldiers would be persuaded to stand and

fight only if they realized help would come.

Without that confidence in the command and

their fellow soldiers, they would pull out, fearing to be left behind.

6-153. As he visited their headquarters, GEN

Ridgway spoke to commanders and their staffs.

These talks contained many of his ideas about

proper combat leadership. He told his commanders to get out of their command posts and

up to the front. When commanders reported on

terrain, GEN Ridgway demanded that they

base their information on personal knowledge

and that it be correct.

6-154. Furthermore, he urged commanders to

conduct intensive training in night fighting and

make full use of their firepower. He also required commanders to personally check that

their men had adequate winter clothing, warming tents, and writing materials. In addition, he

encouraged commanders to locate wounded

who had been evacuated and make every effort

to return them to their old units. Finally, the

army commander ordered his officers to stop

wasting resources, calling for punishment of

those who lost government equipment.

6-30 FM 22-100

Organizational Leadership
6-155. During its first battle under GEN

Ridgway’s command in early January 1951,

Eighth Army fell back another 70 miles and lost

Seoul, South Korea’s capital. Major commanders didn’t carry out orders to fall back in an orderly fashion, use field artillery to inflict the

heaviest possible enemy casualties, and counterattack in force during daylight hours. Eighth

Army’s morale and sense of purpose reached

their lowest point ever.

6-156. Eighth Army had only two choices: substantially improve its fighting spirit or get out

of Korea. GEN Ridgway began to restore his

men’s fighting spirit by ordering aggressive patrolling into areas just lost. When patrols found

the enemy few in number and not aggressive,

the army commander increased the number

and size of patrols. His army discovered it could

drive back the Chinese without suffering overwhelming casualties. Buoyed by these successes, GEN Ridgway ordered a general

advance along Korea’s west coast, where the

terrain was more open and his forces could take

advantage of its tanks, artillery, and aircraft.

6-157. During this advance, GEN Ridgway also

attempted to tell the men of Eighth Army why

they were fighting in Korea. He sought to build

a fighting spirit in his men based on unit and

soldier pride. In addition, he called on them to

defend Western Civilization from Communist

degradation, saying:

In the final analysis, the issue now joined right

here in Korea is whether Communism or

individual freedom shall prevail; whether the

flight of the fear-driven people we have

witnessed here shall be checked, or shall at some

future time, however distant, engulf our own

loved ones in all its misery and despair.

6-158. In mid-February of 1951, the Chinese

and North Koreans launched yet another offensive in the central area of Korea, where US

tanks could not maneuver as readily and artillery could be trapped on narrow roads in mountainous terrain. In heavy fights at Chipyon-ni

and Wonju, Eighth Army, for the first time, repulsed the Communist attacks. Eighth Army’s

offensive spirit soared as GEN Ridgway quickly

followed up with a renewed attack that took

Seoul and regained roughly the same positions

Eight Army had held when he first took command. In late March, Eighth Army pushed the

Communist forces north of the 38th parallel.

6-159. GEN Ridgway’s actions superbly

exemplify those expected of organizational

leaders. His knowledge of American soldiers,

units, and the Korean situation led him to certain expectations. Those expectations gave him

a baseline from which to assess his command

once he arrived. He continually visited units

throughout the army area, talked with soldiers

and their commanders, assessed command climate, and took action to mold attitudes with

clear intent, supreme confidence, and unyielding tactical discipline.

6-160. He sought to develop subordinate commanders and their staffs by sharing his

thoughts and expectations of combat

leadership. He felt the pulse of the men on the

front, shared their hardships, and demanded

they be taken care of. He pushed the logistical

systems to provide creature comforts as well as

the supplies of war. He eliminated the

skepticism of purpose, gave soldiers cause to

fight, and helped them gain confidence by winning small victories. Most of all, he led by

example.

6-161. In April GEN Ridgway turned Eighth

Army over to GEN James A. Van Fleet. In

under four months, a dynamic, aggressive commander had revitalized and transformed a traumatized and desperate army into a proud,

determined fighting force. GA Omar N.

Bradley, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff,

summed up GEN Ridgway’s contributions:

It is not often that a single battlefield commander

can make a decisive difference. But in Korea

Ridgway would prove to be that exception. His

brilliant, driving, uncompromising leadership

would turn the tide of battle like no other general’s

in our military history.

Army Leadership 6-31

Historical Perspective
SUMMARY

6-162. This chapter has covered how organizational leaders train and lead staffs, subordinate leaders, and entire organizations. The

influence of organizational leaders is primarily

indirect: they communicate and motivate

through staffs and subordinate commanders.

Because their leadership is much more indirect,

the eventual outcomes of their actions are often

difficult to foresee. Nor do organizational leaders receive the immediate feedback that direct

leaders do.

6-163. Still, as demonstrated by GEN Ridgway

in Korea, the presence of commanders at the

critical time and place boosts confidence and

performance. Regardless of the type of organization they head, organizational leaders direct

operations by setting the example, empowering

their subordinates and organizations and supervising them appropriately. Organizational

leaders concern themselves with combat

power—how to build, maintain, and recover it.

That includes developing systems that will provide the organization and the Army with its

next generation of leaders. They also improve

conditions by sustaining an ethical and supportive climate, building strong cohesive teams

and organizations, and improving the processes

that work within the organization.

6-164. Strategic leaders provide leadership at

the highest levels of the Army. Their influence

is even more indirect and the consequences of

their actions more delayed than those of organizational leaders. Because of this, strategic leaders must develop additional skills based on

those they’ve mastered as direct and organizational leaders. Chapter 7 discusses these and

other aspects of strategic leadership.

6-32 FM 22-100

Organizational Leadership
Chapter 7

Strategic Leadership

It became clear to me that at the age of 58 I would have to learn new tricks that were not taught

in the military manuals or on the battlefield. In this position I am a political soldier and will

have to put my training in rapping-out orders and making snap decisions on the back burner,

and have to learn the arts of persuasion and guile. I must become an expert in a whole new set

of skills.

  	 
 
  	

7-1. Strategic leaders are the Army’s highestlevel thinkers, warfighters, and politicalmilitary experts. Some work in an institutional

setting within the United States; others work

in strategic regions around the world. They simultaneously sustain the Army’s culture, envision the future, convey that vision to a wide

audience, and personally lead change. Strategic

leaders look at the environment outside the

Army today to understand the context for the

institution’s future role. They also use their

knowledge of the current force to anchor their

vision in reality. This chapter outlines strategic

leadership for audiences other than the general

officers and Senior Executive Service DA civilians who actually lead there. Those who support strategic leaders need to understand the

distinct environment in which these leaders

work and the special considerations it requires.

7-2. Strategic leadership requires significantly

different techniques in both scope and skill

from direct and organizational leadership. In

an environment of extreme uncertainty,

complexity, ambiguity, and volatility, strategic

leaders think in multiple time domains and operate flexibly to manage change. Moreover,

strategic leaders often interact with other leaders over whom they have minimal authority.

7-3. Strategic leaders are not only experts in

their own domain—warfighting and leading

large military organizations—but also are

astute in the departmental and political environments of the nation’s decision-making process. They’re expected to deal competently with

the public sector, the executive branch, and the

legislature. The complex national security

environment requires an in-depth knowledge of

the political, economic, informational, and military elements of national power as well as the

interrelationship among them. In short, strategic leaders not only know themselves and their

own organizations but also understand a host of

different players, rules, and conditions.

7-4. Because strategic leaders implement the

National Military Strategy, they deal with the

elements that shape that strategy. The most important of these are Presidential Decision

Memorandums, Department of State Policies,

the will of the American people, US national security interests, and the collective

strategies—theater and functional—of the combatant commanders (CINCs). Strategic leaders

operate in intricate networks of competing

 	
 


STRATEGIC LEADERSHIP

SKILLS.................................................7-2

Interpersonal Skills............................7-2

Conceptual Skills...............................7-7

Technical Skills ................................7-10

STRATEGIC LEADERSHIP

ACTIONS...........................................7-13

Influencing Actions.........................7-13

Operating Actions...........................7-18

Improving Actions...........................7-22

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE .............7-26

SUMMARY ...........................................7-28
constituencies and cooperate in endeavors extending beyond their establishments. As institutional leaders, they represent their organizations to soldiers, DA civilians, citizens, statesmen, and the media, as well as to other services

and nations. Communicating effectively with

these different audiences is vital to the organization’s success.

7-5. Strategic leaders are keenly aware of the

complexities of the national security environment. Their decisions take into account

factors such as congressional hearings, Army

budget constraints, reserve component issues,

new systems acquisition, DA civilian programs,

research, development, and interservice cooperation. Strategic leaders process information

from these areas quickly, assess alternatives

based on incomplete data, make decisions, and

garner support. Often, highly developed interpersonal skills are essential to building consensus among civilian and military policy makers.

Limited interpersonal skills can limit the effect

of other skills.

7-6. While direct and organizational leaders

have a short-term focus, strategic leaders have

a “future focus.” Strategic leaders spend much

of their time looking toward the mid-term and

positioning their establishments for long-term

success, even as they contend with immediate

issues. With that perspective, strategic leaders

seldom see the whole life span of their ideas; initiatives at this level may take years to come to

fruition. Strategic leaders think, therefore, in

terms of strategic systems that will operate

over extended time periods. They ensure these

systems are built in accord with the six imperatives mentioned in Chapter 6—quality people,

training, force mix, doctrine, modern equipment, and leader development—and they ensure that programs and resources are in place

to sustain them. This systems approach sharpens strategic leaders’ “future focus” and helps

align separate actions, reduce conflict, and improve cooperation.

SECTION I

STRATEGIC LEADERSHIP SKILLS

7-7. The values and attributes demanded of

Army leaders are the same at all leadership levels. Strategic leaders live by Army values and set

the example just as much as direct and organizational leaders, but they face additional challenges. Strategic leaders affect the culture of the

entire Army and may find themselves involved

in political decision making at the highest national or even global levels. Therefore, nearly

any task strategic leaders set out to accomplish

requires more coordination, takes longer, has a

wider impact, and produces longer-term effects

than a similar organizational-level task.

7-8. Strategic leaders understand, embody, and

execute values-based leadership. The political

and long-term nature of their decisions doesn’t

release strategic leaders from the current demands of training, readiness, and unforeseen

crises; they are responsible to continue to work

toward the ultimate goals of the force, despite

the burden of those events. Army values provide

the constant reference for actions in the stressful environment of strategic leaders. Strategic

leaders understand, embody, and execute leadership based on Army values.

INTERPERSONAL SKILLS

7-9. Strategic leaders continue to use interpersonal skills developed as direct and organizational leaders, but the scope, responsibilities,

and authority of strategic positions require

leaders with unusually sophisticated interpersonal skills. Internally, there are more levels of

people to deal with; externally, there are more

interactions with outside agencies, with the media, even with foreign governments. Knowing

the Army’s needs and goals, strategic leaders

patiently but tenaciously labor to convince the

proper people about what the Army must have

 

	

 
	

and become. Figure 7-1 lists strategic leader interpersonal skills.

7-10. Strategic leaders and their staffs develop

networks of knowledgeable individuals in organizations and agencies that influence their

own organizations. Through penetrating assessments, these leaders seek to understand the

personal strengths and weaknesses of all the

main players on a particular issue. Strategic

leaders are adept at reading other people, and

they work to completely control their own actions and reactions. Armed with improved

knowledge of others, self-control, and

established networks, strategic leaders influence external events by providing leadership,

timely and relevant information, and access to

the right people and agencies.

COMMUNICATING

7-11. Communication at the strategic level is

complicated by the wide array of staff,

functional, and operational components interacting with each other and with external agencies. These complex relationships require

strategic leaders to employ comprehensive

communications skills as they represent their

organizations. One of the most prominent differences between strategic leaders and leaders

at other levels is the greater importance of symbolic communication. The example strategic

leaders set, their decisions, and their actions

have meaning beyond their immediate consequences to a much greater extent than those of

direct and organizational leaders.

7-12. Thus, strategic leaders identify those

actions that send messages. Then they use their

positions to send the desired messages to their

organizations and ensure that the right

audiences hear them. The messages strategic

leaders send set the example in the largest

sense. For instance, messages that support traditions, Army values, or a particular program

indicate the strategic leader’s priorities.

7-13. Thus, strategic leaders communicate not

only to the organization but also to a large

external audience that includes the political

leadership, media, and the American people. To

influence those audiences, strategic leaders

seek to convey integrity and win trust. As GA

Marshall noted, they become expert in “the art

of persuasion.”

7-14. Strategic leaders commit to a few common, powerful, and consistent messages and repeat them over and over in different forms and

settings. They devise a communications campaign plan, written or conceptual, that outlines

how to deal with each target group. When preparing to address a specific audience, they determine its composition and agenda so they

know how best to reach its members. Finding

some apparent success with the medium, frequency, and words of the message, strategic

leaders determine the best way to measure the

message’s effectiveness and continually scan

and assess the environment to make sure that

the message is going to all the right groups.

USING DIALOGUE

7-15. One of the forms of communication that

strategic leaders use to persuade individuals,

rather than groups, is dialogue. Dialogue is a

conversation between two or more people. It requires not only active listening, but carefully

considering what’s said (and not said), logically

 	
 


 


VALUES

ATTRIBUTES

ACTIONS

“Be” “Do”

THE LEADER THE LEADER

of Character and Competence Acts...

to Achieve Excellence to Achieve Excellence

Interpersonal

Conceptual

Technical

Tactical

Figure 7-1. Strategic Leader Skills—

Interpersonal
assessing it without personal bias, and specifying issues that are not understood or don’t

make sense within the strategic leader’s frame

of reference. By using dialogue to thoroughly

exchange points of view, assumptions, and concepts, strategic leaders gather information,

clarify issues, and enlist support of subordinates and peers.

NEGOTIATING

7-16. Many relationships between strategiclevel organizations are lateral and without clear

subordination. Often, strategic leaders rely

heavily on negotiating skills to obtain the cooperation and support necessary to accomplish a

mission or meet the command’s needs. For example, commanders of the national contingents

that made up the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) implementation force (IFOR)

sent to Bosnia to support the 1995 Dayton peace

accords all had limitations imposed on the extent of their participation. In addition, they all

had direct lines to their home governments,

which they used when they believed IFOR commanders exceeded those limits. NATO strategic

leaders had to negotiate some actions that ordinarily would have required only issuing orders.

They often had to interpret a requirement to the

satisfaction of one or more foreign governments.

7-17. Successful negotiation requires a range

of interpersonal skills. Good negotiators are

also able to visualize several possible end states

while maintaining a clear idea of the best end

state from the command’s perspective. One of

the most important skills is the ability to stand

firm on nonnegotiable points while simultaneously communicating respect for other participants and their negotiating limits. In

international forums, firmness and respect

demonstrate that the negotiator knows and understands US interests. That understanding

can help the negotiator persuade others of the

validity of US interests and convince others

that the United States understands and respects the interests of other states.

7-18. A good negotiator is particularly skilled

in active listening. Other essential personal

characteristics include perceptiveness and objectivity. Negotiators must be able to diagnose

unspoken agendas and detach themselves from

the negotiation process. Successful negotiating

involves communicating a clear position on all

issues while still conveying willingness to bargain on negotiable issues, recognizing what’s

acceptable to all concerned, and achieving a

compromise that meets the needs of all participants to the greatest extent possible.

7-19. Sometimes strategic leaders to put out a

proposal early so the interchange and ultimate

solution revolve around factors important to

the Army. However, they are confident enough

to resist the impulse to leave their thumbprints

on final products. Strategic leaders don’t have

to claim every good idea because they know

they will have more. Their understanding of

selfless service allows them to subordinate personal recognition to negotiated settlements

that produce the greatest good for their establishment, the Army, and the nation or coalition.

ACHIEVING CONSENSUS

7-20. Strategic leaders are skilled at reaching

consensus and building and sustaining coalitions. They may apply these skills to tasks as

diverse as designing combatant commands,

JTFs, and policy working groups or determining the direction of a major command or the

Army as an institution. Strategic leaders routinely weld people together for missions lasting

from months to years. Using peer leadership

rather than strict positional authority, strategic leaders oversee progress toward their visualized end state and monitor the health of the

relationships necessary to achieve it. Interpersonal contact sets the tone for professional relations: strategic leaders are tactful and

discreet.

7-21. GA Eisenhower’s creation of SHAEF

during World War II (which was mentioned in

Chapter 2) is an outstanding example of

coalition building and sustainment. GA Eisenhower insisted on unity of command over the

forces assigned to him. He received this authority from both the British and US governments

but exercised it through an integrated command and staff structure that related influence

roughly to the contribution of the nations involved. The sections within SHAEF all had

 

	
	
 

chiefs of one nationality and deputies of

another.

7-22. GA Eisenhower also insisted that

military, rather than political, criteria would

predominate in his operational and strategic

decisions as Supreme Allied Commander. His

most controversial decisions, adoption of the

so-called broad-front strategy and the refusal to

race the Soviet forces to Berlin, rested on his belief that maintaining the Anglo-American alliance was a national interest and his personal

responsibility. Many historians argue that this

feat of getting the Allies to work together was

his most important contribution to the war.

7-23. Across the Atlantic Ocean, GA George C.

Marshall, the Army Chief of Staff, also had to

seek consensus with demanding peers, none

more so than ADM Ernest J. King, Commander

in Chief, US Fleet and Chief of Naval Operations. GA Marshall expended great personal energy to ensure that interservice feuding at the

top didn’t mar the US war effort. ADM King, a

forceful leader with strong and often differing

views, responded in kind. Because of the ability

of these two strategic leaders to work in harmony, President Franklin D. Roosevelt had few

issues of major consequence to resolve once he

had issued a decision and guidance.

7-24. Opportunities for strategic leadership

may come at surprising moments. For instance,

Joshua Chamberlain’s greatest contribution to

our nation may have been not at Gettysburg or

Petersburg, but at Appomattox. By that time a

major general, Chamberlain was chosen to command the parade at which GEN Lee’s Army of

Northern Virginia laid down its arms and colors. GEN Grant had directed a simple ceremony that recognized the Union victory

without humiliating the Confederates.

7-25. However, MG Chamberlain sensed the

need for something even greater. Instead of

gloating as the vanquished army passed, he directed his bugler to sound the commands for attention and present arms. His units came to

attention and rendered a salute, following his

order out of respect for their commander, certainly not out of sudden warmth for recent enemies. That act set the tone for reconciliation

 	
 


 


Allied Command During the Battle of the Bulge

A pivotal moment in the history of the Western Alliance arrived on 16 December 1944, when the

German Army launched a massive offensive in a lightly held-sector of the American line in the

Ardennes Forest. This offensive, which became known as the Battle of the Bulge, split GEN Omar

Bradley’s Twelfth Army Group. North of the salient, British GEN Bernard Montgomery commanded

most of the Allied forces, so GA Eisenhower shifted command of the US forces there to GEN

Montgomery rather than have one US command straddle the gap. GEN Bradley, the Supreme Allied

Commander reasoned, could not effectively control forces both north and south of the penetration. It

made more sense for GEN Montgomery to command all Allied forces on the northern shoulder and

GEN Bradley all those on its southern shoulder. GA Eisenhower personally telephoned GEN Bradley

to tell his old comrade of the decision. With the SHAEF staff still present, GA Eisenhower passed the

order to his reluctant subordinate, listened to GEN Bradley’s protests, and then said sharply, “Well,

Brad, those are my orders.”

According to historian J.D. Morelock, this short conversation, more than any other action taken by

GA Eisenhower and the SHAEF staff during the battle, “discredited the German assumption that

nationalistic fears and rivalries would inhibit prompt and effective steps to meet the German

challenge.” It demonstrated GA Eisenhower’s “firm grasp of the true nature of an allied command” and

it meant that Hitler’s gamble to win the war had failed.
and reconstruction and marks a brilliant

leader, brave in battle and respectful in peace,

who knew when, where, and how to lead.

BUILDING STAFFS

The best executive is the one who has sense

enough to pick good men to do what he wants

done, and self-restraint enough to keep from

meddling with them while they do it.

	



 

  

 



7-26. Until Army leaders reach the highest levels, they cannot staff positions and projects as

they prefer. Strategic leaders have not only the

authority but also the responsibility to pick the

best people for their staffs. They seek to put the

right people in the right places, balancing

strengths and weaknesses for the good of the

nation. They mold staffs able to package concise, unbiased information and build networks

across organizational lines. Strategic leaders

make so many wide-ranging, interrelated decisions that they must have imaginative staff

members who know the environment, foresee

consequences of various courses of action, and

identify crucial information accordingly.

7-27. With their understanding of the strategic

environment and vision for the future, strategic

leaders seek to build staffs that compensate for

their weaknesses, reinforce their vision, and ensure institutional success. Strategic leaders

can’t afford to be surrounded by staffs that

blindly agree with everything they say. Not

only do they avoid surrounding themselves

with “yes-men,” they also reward staff members for speaking the truth. Strategic leaders

encourage their staffs to participate in dialogue

with them, discuss alternative points of view,

and explore all facts, assumptions, and implications. Such dialogue assists strategic leaders to

fully assess all aspects of an issue and helps

clarify their intent and guidance.

7-28. As strategic leaders build and use their

staffs, they continually seek honesty and

competence. Strategic-level staffs must be able

to discern what the “truth” is. During World

War II, GA Marshall’s ability to fill his staff and

commands with excellent officers made a difference in how quickly the Army could create a

wartime force able to mobilize, deploy, fight,

and win. Today’s strategic leaders face an environment more complex than the one GA Marshall faced. They often have less time than GA

Marshall had to assess situations, make plans,

prepare an appropriate response, and execute.

The importance of building courageous, honest,

and competent staffs has correspondingly

increased.

 

	
	
 

CONCEPTUAL SKILLS

From an intellectual standpoint, Princeton was a world-shaking experience. It fundamentally

changed my approach to life. The basic thrust of the curriculum was to give students an

appreciation of how complex and diverse various political systems and issues are....The

bottom line was that answers had to be sought in terms of the shifting relationships of groups

and individuals, that politics pervades all human activity, a truth not to be condemned but

appreciated and put to use.

 	


	 
 	 
 	 

7-29. Strategic leaders,more than direct and organizational leaders, draw on their conceptual

skills to comprehend national, national security,

and theater strategies, operate in the strategic

and theater contexts, and improve their vast,

complex organizations. The variety and scope of

their concerns demand the application of more

sophisticated concepts.

7-30. Strategic leaders need wisdom—and wisdom isn’t just knowledge. They routinely deal

with diversity, complexity, ambiguity, change,

uncertainty, and conflicting policies. They are

responsible for developing well-reasoned positions and providing their views and advice to

our nation’s highest leaders. For the good of

the Army and the nation, strategic leaders seek

to determine what’s important now and what

will be important in the future. They develop

the necessary wisdom by freeing themselves to

stay in touch with the force and spending time

thinking, simply thinking.

ENVISIONING

It is in the minds of the commanders that the

issue of battle is really decided.

    

7-31. Strategic leaders design compelling visions for their organizations and inspire a collaborative effort to articulate the vision in

detail. They then communicate that vision

clearly and use it to create a plan, gain support,

and focus subordinates’ work. Strategic leaders

have the further responsibility of defining for

their diverse organizations what counts as success in achieving the vision. They monitor their

progress by drawing on personal observations,

review and analysis, strategic management

plans, and informal discussions with soldiers

and DA civilians.

7-32. Strategic leaders look realistically at

what the future may hold. They consider things

they know and things they can anticipate. They

incorporate new ideas, new technologies, and

new capabilities. The National Security Strategy and National Military Strategy guide strategic leaders as they develop visions for their

organizations. From a complicated mixture of

ideas, facts, conjecture, and personal experience they create an image of what their organizations need to be.

 	
 


 


VALUES

ATTRIBUTES

ACTIONS

“Be” “Do”

THE LEADER THE LEADER

of Character and Competence Acts...

to Achieve Excellence to Achieve Excellence

Interpersonal

Technical

Tactical

Conceptual

Figure 7-2. Strategic Leader Skills—

Conceptual
7-33. Once strategic leaders have developed a

vision, they create a plan to reach that end state.

They consider objectives, courses of action to

take the organization there, and resources

needed to do the job. The word “vision” implies

that strategic leaders create a conceptual model

of what they want. Subordinates will be more

involved in moving the organization forward if

they can “see” what the leader has in mind. And

because moving a large organization is often a

long haul, subordinates need some sign that

they’re making progress. Strategic leaders

therefore provide intermediate objectives that

act as milestones for their subordinates in

checking their direction and measuring their

progress.

7-34. The strategic leader’s vision provides the

ultimate sense of purpose, direction, and motivation for everyone in the organization. It is at

once the starting point for developing specific

goals and plans, a yardstick for measuring what

the organization accomplishes, and a check on

organizational values. Ordinarily, a strategic

leader’s vision for the organization may have a

time horizon of years, or even decades. In combat, the horizon is much closer, but strategic

leaders still focus far beyond the immediate

actions.

7-35. The strategic leader’s vision is a goal,

something the organization strives for (even

though some goals may always be just out of

reach). When members understand the vision,

they can see it as clearly as the strategic leader

can. When they see it as worthwhile and accept

it, the vision creates energy, inspiration, commitment, and a sense of belonging.

7-36. Strategic leaders set the vision for their

entire organization. They seek to keep the vision consistent with the external environment,

alliance or coalition goals, the National Security Strategy, and the National Military Strategy. Subordinate leaders align their visions and

intent with their strategic leader’s vision. A

strategic leader’s vision may be expressed in

everything from small acts to formal, written

policy statements.

7-37. Joint Vision 2010 and Army Vision 2010,

which is derived from it, are not based on

formal organizations; rather they array future

technologies and force structure against emerging threats. While no one can yet see exactly

what that force will look like, the concepts

themselves provide an azimuth and a point on

the horizon. Achieving well-publicized milepost

initiatives shows that the Army as an institution is progressing toward the end state visualized by its strategic leaders.

DEVELOPING FRAMES OF

REFERENCE

7-38. All Army leaders build a personal frame

of reference from schooling, experience, selfstudy, and reflection on current events and history. Strategic leaders create a comprehensive

frame of reference that encompasses their organization and places it in the strategic environment. To construct a useful frame, strategic

leaders are open to new experiences and to comments from others, including subordinates.

Strategic leaders are reflective, thoughtful, and

unafraid to rethink past experiences and to

learn from them. They are comfortable with the

abstractions and concepts common in the strategic environment. Moreover, they understand

the circumstances surrounding them, their

organization, and the nation.

7-39. Much like intelligence analysts, strategic

leaders look at events and see patterns that others often miss. These leaders are likely to identify and understand a strategic situation and,

more important, infer the outcome of interventions or the absence of interventions. A strategic leader’s frame of reference helps identify

the information most relevant to a strategic

situation so that the leader can go to the heart

of a matter without being distracted. In the new

information environment, that talent is more

important than ever. Cosmopolitan strategic

leaders, those with comprehensive frames of

reference and the wisdom that comes from

thought and reflection, are well equipped to

deal with events having complex causes and to

envision creative solutions.

7-40. A well-developed frame of reference also

givesstrategic leadersathoroughunderstanding

of organizational subsystems and their interacting processes. Cognizant of the relationships

 

	
	
 

among systems, strategicleaders foreseethepossible effects on one system of actions in others.

Their vision helps them anticipate and avoid

problems.

DEALING WITH UNCERTAINTY AND

AMBIGUITY

True genius resides in the capacity for

evaluation of uncertain, hazardous, and conflicting information.

 	
	


     

7-41. Strategic leaders operate in an environment of increased volatility, uncertainty,

complexity, and ambiguity. Change at this level

may arrive suddenly and unannounced. As they

plan for contingencies, strategic leaders prepare intellectually for a range of uncertain

threats and scenarios. Since even great planning and foresight can’t predict or influence all

future events, strategic leaders work to shape

the future on terms they can control, using diplomatic, informational, military, and economic

instruments of national power.

7-42. Strategic leaders fight complexity by

encompassing it. They must be more complex

than the situations they face. Thismeans they’re

able to expand their frame of reference to fit a

situation rather than reducing a situation to fit

their preconceptions. They don’t lose sight of

Army values and force capabilities as they focus

on national policy.Because of theirmaturity and

wisdom, they tolerate ambiguity, knowing they

will never have all the information theywant. Instead, they carefully analyze events and decide

when tomakeadecision,realizing that theymust

innovate and accept some risk. Once they make

decisions, strategic leaders then explain them to

the Army and the nation, in the process imposing

order on the uncertainty and ambiguity of the

situation. Strategic leaders not only understand

the environment themselves; they also translate

their understanding to others.

7-43. In addition to demonstrating the flexibility required to handle competing demands,

strategic leaders understand complex causeand-effect relationships and anticipate the second- and third-order effects of their decisions

throughout the organization. The highly volatile nature of the strategic environment may

tempt them to concentrate on the short term,

but strategic leaders don’t allow the crisis of the

moment absorb them completely. They remain

focused on their responsibility to shape an organization or policies that will perform successfully over the next 10 to 20 years. Some secondand third-order effects are desirable; leaders

 	
 


 


Strategic Flexibility in Haiti

Operation Uphold Democracy, the 1994 US intervention in Haiti conducted under UN auspices,

provides an example of strategic leaders achieving success in spite of extreme uncertainty and

ambiguity. Prior to the order to enter Haiti, strategic leaders didn’t know either D-day or the available

forces. Neither did they know whether the operation would be an invitation (permissive entry), an

invasion (forced entry), or something in between. To complicate the actual military execution, former

President Jimmy Carter, retired GEN Colin Powell, and Senator Sam Nunn were negotiating with LTG

Raoul Cedras, commander in chief of the Haitian armed forces, in the Haitian capital even as

paratroopers, ready for a combat jump, were inbound.

When LTG Cedras agreed to hand over power, the mission of the inbound JTF changed from a

forced to a permissive entry. The basis for the operation wound up being an operation plan based on

an “in-between” course of action inferred by the JTF staff during planning. The ability of the strategic

leaders involved to change their focus so dramatically and quickly provides an outstanding example of

strategic flexibility during a crisis. The ability of the soldiers, sailors, airmen, and Marines of the JTF to

execute the new mission on short notice is a credit to them and their leaders at all levels.
can design and pursue actions to achieve them.

For example, strategic leaders who continually

send—through their actions—messages of

trust to subordinates inspire trust in themselves. The third-order effect may be to enhance subordinates’ initiative.

TECHNICAL SKILLS

The crucial difference (apart from levels of innate ability) between Washington and the

commanders who opposed him was they were sure they knew all the answers, while

Washington tried every day and every hour to learn.

  	


 	
 	
  
	
 	

7-44. Strategic leaders create their work on a

broad canvas that requires broad technical

skills of the sort named in Figure 7-3.

STRATEGIC ART

7-45. The strategic art, broadly defined, is the

skillful formulation, coordination, and application of ends, ways, and means to promote and

defend the national interest. Masters of the strategic art competently integrate the three roles

performed by the complete strategist: strategic

leader, strategic practitioner, and strategic

theorist.

7-46. Using their understanding of the systems

within their own organizations, strategic leaders

work through the complexity and uncertainty

of the strategic environment and translate abstract concepts into concrete actions. Proficiency in the science of leadership—programs,

schedules, and systems, for example—can bring

direct or organizational leaders success. For

strategic leaders, however, the intangible qualities of leadership draw on their long and varied

experience to produce a rare art.

7-47. Strategic leaders do more than imagine

and accurately predict the future; they shape it

by moving out of the conceptual realm into

practical execution. Although strategic leaders

never lose touch with soldiers and their technical skills, some practical activities are unique to

this level.

7-48. By reconciling political and economic

constraints with the Army’s needs, strategic

leaders navigate to move the force forward using the strategy and budget processes. They

spend a great deal of time obtaining and allocating resources and determining conceptual directions, especially those judged critical for

future strategic positioning and necessary to

prevent readiness shortfalls. They’re also

charged with overseeing of the Army’s responsibilities under Title 10 of the United States

Code.

7-49. Strategic leaders focus not so much on internal processes as on how the organization fits

into the DOD and the international arena: What

are the relationships among external organizations? What are the broad political and social

systems in which the organization and the Army

must operate? Because of the complex reporting

and coordinating relationships, strategic leaders

  

	

 
	


VALUES

ATTRIBUTES

ACTIONS

“Be” “Do”

THE LEADER THE LEADER

to Achieve Excellence to Achieve Excellence

Interpersonal

Conceptual

Tactical

Technical

Figure 7-3. Strategic Leader Skills—

Technical
fully understand their roles, the boundaries of

these roles, and the expectations of other departments and agencies. Understanding those

interdependencies outside the Army helps strategic leaders do the right thing for the programs,

systems, and people within the Army as well as

for the nation.

7-50. Theater CINCs, with their service component commanders, seek to shape their environments and accomplish long-term national

security policy goals within their theaters. They

operate through congressional testimony, creative use of assigned and attached military

forces, imaginative bilateral and multilateral

programs, treaty obligations, person-to-person

contacts with regional leaders, and various

joint processes. These actions require strategic

leaders to apply the strategic art just as much as

does designing and employing force packages to

achieve military end states.

7-51. GA Douglas MacArthur, a theater CINC

during World War II, became military governor

of occupied Japan after the Japanese surrender.

His former enemies became his responsibility;

he had to deal diplomatically with the defeated

nation as well as the directives of American civil

authorities and the interests of the former Allies. GA MacArthur understood the difference

between preliminary (often called military) end

state conditions and the broader set of end state

conditions that are necessary for the transition

from war to peace. Once a war has ended, military force can no longer be the principal means

of achieving strategic aims. Thus, a strategic

leader’s end state vision must include diplomatic, economic, and informational—as well as

military—aspects. GA MacArthur’s vision, and

the actions he took to achieve it, helped establish the framework that preserved peace in the

Pacific Ocean and rebuilt a nation that would

become a trusted ally.

7-52. A similar institutional example occurred

in the summer of 1990. Then, while the Army

was in the midst of the most precisely planned

force “build-down” in history, Army Chief of

Staff Carl Vuono had to halt the process to meet

a crisis in the Persian Gulf. GEN Vuono was required to call up, mobilize and deploy forces

necessary to meet the immediate crisis while

retaining adequate capabilities in other theaters. The following year he redeployed Third

(US) Army, demobilized the activated reserves,

and resumed downsizing toward the smallest

active force since the 1930s. GEN Vuono demonstrated the technical skill of the strategic art

and proved himself a leader of character and

competence motivated by Army values.

LEVERAGING TECHNOLOGY

7-53. Leveraging technology—that is, applying

technological capabilities to obtain a decisive

military advantage—has given strategic leaders

advantages in force projection, in command and

control, and in the generation of overwhelming

combat power. Leveraging technology has also

increased the tempo of operations, the speed of

maneuver, the precision of firepower, and the

pace at which information is processed. Ideally,

information technology, in particular, enhances not only communications, but also

situational understanding. With all these advantages, of course, comes increasing complexity: it’s harder to control large organizations

that are moving quickly. Strategic leaders seek

to understand emerging military technologies

and apply that understanding to resourcing, allocating, and exploiting the many systems under their control.

7-54. Emerging combat, combat support, and

combat service support technologies bring

more than changes to doctrine. Technological

change allows organizations to do the things

they do now better and faster, but it also enables them to do things that were not possible

before. So a part of leveraging technology is envisioning the future capability that could be exploited by developing a technology. Another

aspect is rethinking the form the organization

ought to take in order to exploit new processes

that previously were not available. This is why

strategic leaders take time to think “out of the

box.”

TRANSLATING POLITICAL GOALS

INTO MILITARY OBJECTIVES

7-55. Leveraging technology takes more than

understanding; it takes money. Strategic leaders call on their understanding and their knowledge of the budgetary process to determine

 	
 


	
 

which combat, combat support, and combat

service support technologies will provide the

leap-ahead capability commensurate with the

cost. Wise Army leaders in the 1970s and 1980s

realized that superior night systems and greater

standoff ranges could expose fewer Americans

to danger yet kill more of the enemy. Those leaders committed money to developing and procuring appropriate weapons systems and

equipment. Operation Desert Storm validated

these decisions when, for example, M1 tanks destroyed Soviet-style equipment before it could

close within its maximum effective range. However strategic leaders are always in the position

of balancing budget constraints, technological

improvements, and current force readiness

against potential threats as they shape the force

for the future.

7-56. Strategic leaders identify military conditions necessary to satisfy political ends desired

by America’s civilian leadership. They must

synchronize the efforts of the Army with those

of the other services and government agencies

to attain those conditions and achieve the end

state envisioned by America’s political leaders.

To operate on the world stage, often in conjunction with allies, strategic leaders call on their

international perspective and relationships

with policy makers in other countries.

7-57. Since the end of the Cold War, the

international stage has become more confused.

Threats to US national security may come from

a number of quarters: regional instability,

insurgencies, terrorism, and proliferation of

weapons of mass destruction to name a few.

International drug traffickers and other

transnational groups are also potential

adversaries. To counter such diverse threats,

the nation needs a force flexible enough to

  

	

 
	


Show of Force in the Philippines

At the end of November 1989, 1,000 rebels seized two Filipino air bases in an attempt to

overthrow the government of the Philippines. There had been rumors that someone was plotting a

coup to end Philippine President Corazon Aquino’s rule. Now rebel aircraft from the captured airfields

had bombed and strafed the presidential palace. President Aquino requested that the United States

help suppress the coup attempt by destroying the captured airfields. Vice President Dan Quayle and

Deputy Secretary of State Lawrence Eagleburger favored US intervention to support the Philippine

government. As the principal military advisor to the president, Joint Chiefs of Staff Chairman Colin

Powell was asked to recommend a response to President Aquino’s request.

GEN Powell applied critical reasoning to this request for US military power in support of a foreign

government. He first asked the purpose of the proposed intervention. The State Department and

White House answered that the United States needed to demonstrate support for President Aquino

and keep her in power. GEN Powell then asked the purpose of bombing the airfields. To prevent

aircraft from supporting the coup, was the reply. Once GEN Powell understood the political goal, he

recommended a military response to support it.

The chairman recommended to the White House that American jets fly menacing runs over the

captured airfields. The goal would be to prevent takeoffs from the airfields by intimidating the rebel

pilots rather than destroying rebel aircraft and facilities. This course of action was approved by

President George Bush and achieved the desired political goal: it deterred the rebel pilots from

supporting the coup attempt. By understanding the political goal and properly defining the military

objective, GEN Powell was able to recommend a course of action that applied a measured military

response to what was, from the United States’ perspective, a diplomatic problem. By electing to

conduct a show of force rather than an attack, the United States avoided unnecessary casualties and

damage to the Philippine infrastructure.
execute a wide array of missions, from

warfighting to peace operations to

humanitarian assistance. And of course, the

nation needs strategic leaders with the sound

perspective that allows them to understand the

nation’s political goals in the complex

international environment and to shape

military objectives appropriate to the various

threats.

SECTION II

STRATEGIC LEADERSHIP ACTIONS

Leadership is understanding people and involving them to help you do a job. That takes all of

the good characteristics, like integrity, dedication of purpose, selflessness, knowledge, skill,

implacability, as well as determination not to accept failure.

 	 
 


 	
 

  


7-58. Operating at the highest levels of the

Army, the DOD, and the national security establishment, military and DA civilian strategic

leaders face highly complex demands from inside and outside the Army. Constantly changing global conditions challenge their

decision-making abilities. Strategic leaders tell

the Army story, make long-range decisions, and

shape the Army culture to influence the force

and its partners inside and outside the United

States. They plan for contingencies across the

range of military operations and allocate resources to prepare for them, all the while assessing the threat and the force’s readiness.

Steadily improving the Army, strategic leaders

develop their successors, lead changes in the

force, and optimize systems and operations.

This section addresses the influencing, operating, and improving actions they use.

INFLUENCING ACTIONS

7-59. Strategic leaders act to influence both

their organization and its outside environment.

Like direct and organizational leaders, strategic leaders influence through personal example

as well as by communicating, making decisions, and motivating.

7-60. Because the external environment is diverse and complex, it’s sometimes difficult for

strategic leaders to identify and influence the

origins of factors affecting the organization.

This difficulty applies particularly to fast-paced

situations like theater campaigns. Strategic

leaders meet this challenge by becoming masters of information, influence, and vision.

7-61. Strategic leaders also seek to control the

information environment, consistent with US

law and Army values. Action in this area can

range from psychological operations campaigns

to managing media relationships. Strategic

leaders who know what’s happening with present and future requirements, both inside and

 	
 



 


VALUES

ATTRIBUTES

SKILLS

“Be” “Know”

THE LEADER THE LEADER

of Character and Competence Acts...

to Achieve Excellence to Achieve Excellence

Influencing

Operating

Improving

Figure 7-4. Strategic Leader

Actions—Influencing
outside the organization, are in a position to influence events, take advantage of opportunities, and move the organization toward its

goals.

7-62. As noted earlier, strategic leaders develop

the wisdom and frames of reference necessary

to identify the information relevant to the

situation at hand. In addition, they use interpersonal skills to develop a network of knowledgeable people, especially in those

organizations that can influence their own.

They encourage staff members to develop similar networks. Through these networks, strategic leaders actively seek information relevant to

their organizations and subject matter experts

they can call on to assist themselves and their

staffs. Strategic leaders can often call on the nation’s best minds and information sources and

may face situations where nothing less will do.

COMMUNICATING

Moving our Army into the next century is a

journey, not a destination; we know where we

are going and we are moving out.

 	 



    


Communicating a Vision

7-63. The skill of envisioning is vital to the

strategic leader. But forming a vision is pointless unless the leader shares it with a broad

audience, gains widespread support, and uses it

as a compass to guide the organization. For the

vision to provide purpose, direction, and motivation, the strategic leader must personally

commit to it, gain commitment from the organization as a whole, and persistently pursue the

goals and objectives that will spread the vision

throughout the organization and make it a

reality.

7-64. Strategic leaders identify trends, opportunities, and threats that could affect the

Army’s future and move vigorously to mobilize

the talent that will help create strategic vision.

In 1991 Army Chief of Staff Gordon R. Sullivan

formed a study group of two dozen people to

help craft his vision for the Army. In this process, GEN Sullivan considered authorship less

important than shared vision:

Once a vision has been articulated and the

process of buy-in has begun, the vision must be

continually interpreted. In some cases, the

vision may be immediately understandable at

every level. In other cases, it must be

translated—put into more appropriate

language—for each part of the organization. In

still other cases, it may be possible to find

symbols that come to represent the vision.

7-65. Strategic leaders are open to ideas from a

variety of sources, not just their own organizations. Some ideas will work; some won’t. Some

will have few, if any, long-lasting effects; others, like the one in this example, will have effects few will foresee.

  

	
	
 


Combat Power from a Good Idea

In 1941, as the American military was preparing for war, Congresswoman Edith Nourse Rogers

correctly anticipated manpower shortages in industry and in the armed forces as the military grew. To

meet this need, she proposed creation of a Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps (WAAC) of 25,000 women

to fill administrative jobs and free men for service with combat units. After the United States entered

the war, when the size of the effort needed became clearer, Congresswoman Rogers introduced

another bill for a WAAC of some 150,000 women. Although the bill met stiff opposition in some

quarters, a version passed and eventually the Women’s Army Corps was born. Congresswoman

Rogers’ vision of how to best get the job done in the face of vast demands on manpower contributed a

great deal to the war effort.
Telling the Army Story

If you have an important point to make, don’t

try to be subtle or clever. Use a pile-driver. Hit

the point once. Then come back and hit it a

second time—a tremendous whack!

 	
	


     

7-66. Whether by nuance or overt presentation,

strategic leaders vigorously and constantly represent who Army is, what it’s doing, and where

it’s going. The audience is the Army itself as

well as the rest of the world. There’s an especially powerful responsibility to explain things

to the American people, who support their Army

with money and lives. Whether working with

other branches of government, federal agencies,

the media, other militaries, the other services,

or their own organizations, strategic leaders

rely increasingly on writing and public speaking

(conferences and press briefings) to reinforce

the Army’s central messages. Because so much

of this communication is directed at outside

agencies, strategic leaders avoid parochial language and remain sensitive to the Army’s

image.

7-67. Strategic leaders of all times have determined and reinforced the message that speaks

to the soul of the nation and unifies the force. In

1973 Army leaders at all levels knew about

“The Big Five,” the weapons systems that

would transform the Army (a new tank, an infantry fighting vehicle, an advanced attack helicopter, a new utility helicopter, and an air

defense system). Those programs yielded the

M1 Abrams, the M2/M3 Bradley, the AH-64

Apache, the UH-60 Blackhawk, and the Patriot.

But those initiatives were more than sales

pitches for newer hardware; they were linked to

concepts about how to fight and win against a

massive Soviet-style force. As a result, fielding

the new equipment gave physical form to the

new ideas being adopted at the same time. Soldiers could see improvements as well as read

about them. The synergism of new equipment,

new ideas, and good leadership resulted in the

Army of Excellence.

7-68. Today, given the rapid growth of technology, unpredictable threats, and newly emerging

roles, Army leaders can’t cling to new hardware

as the key to the Army’s vision. Instead, today’s

strategic leaders emphasize the Army’s core

strength: Army values and the timeless character of the American soldier. The Army—

trained, ready, and led by leaders of character

and competence at all levels—has met and will

continue to meet the nation’s security needs.

That’s the message of today’s Army to the

nation it serves.

7-69. A recent example of successfully telling

the Army story occurred during Operation Desert Shield. During the deployment phase, strategic leaders decided to get local reporters to

the theater of war to report on mobilized reserve component units from their communities.

That decision had several effects. The firstorder effect was to get the Army story to the

citizens of hometown America. That publicity

resulted in an unintended second-order effect: a

flood of mail that the nation sent to its deployed

soldiers. That mail, in turn, produced a thirdorder effect felt by American soldiers: a new

pride in themselves.

STRATEGIC DECISION MAKING

When I am faced with a decision—picking

somebody for a post, or choosing a course of

action—I dredge up every scrap of knowledge I

can. I call in people. I telephone them. I read

whatever I can get my hands on. I use my

intellect to inform my instinct. I then use my

instinct to test all this data. “Hey, instinct, does

this sound right? Does it smell right, feel right,

fit right?”

  


	  	  

7-70. Strategic leaders have great conceptual

resources; they have a collegial network to

share thoughts and plan for the institution’s

continued success and well being. Even when

there’s consensual decision making, however,

everyone knows who the boss is. Decisions

made by strategic leaders—whether CINCs deploying forces or service chiefs initiating budget

programs—often result in a major commitment

of resources. They’re expensive and tough to reverse. Therefore, strategic leaders rely on

timely feedback throughout the decision-

 	
 



 

making process in order to avoid making a decision based on inadequate or faulty information.

Their purpose, direction, and motivation flow

down; information and recommendations surface from below.

7-71. Strategic leaders use the processes of the

DOD, Joint Staff, and Army strategic planning

systems to provide purpose and direction to subordinate leaders. These systems include the

Joint Strategic Planning System (JSPS), the

Joint Operation Planning and Execution System (JOPES), and the Planning, Programming

and Budgeting System (PPBS). However, no

matter how many systems are involved and no

matter how complex they are, providing motivation remains the province of the individual strategic leader.

7-72. Because strategic leaders are constantly

involved in this sort of planning and because decisions at this level are so complex and depend

on so many variables, there’s a temptation to

analyze things endlessly. There’s always new

information; there’s always a reason to wait for

the next batch of reports or the next dispatch.

Strategic leaders’ perspective, wisdom, courage, and sense of timing help them know when

to decide. In peacetime the products of those decisions may not see completion for 10 to 20

years and may require leaders to constantly adjust them along the way. By contrast, a strategic leader’s decision at a critical moment in

combat can rapidly alter the course of the war,

as did the one in this example.

  

	
	
 


The D-Day Decision

On 4 June 1944 the largest invasion armada ever assembled was poised to strike the Normandy

region of France. Weather delays had already caused a 24-hour postponement and another front of

bad weather was heading for the area. If the Allies didn’t make the landings on 6 June, they would

miss the combination of favorable tides, clear flying weather, and moonlight needed for the assault. In

addition to his concerns about the weather, GA Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Supreme Allied

Commander, worried about his soldiers. Every hour they spent jammed aboard crowded ships,

tossed about and seasick, degraded their fighting ability.

The next possible invasion date was 19 June; however the optimal tide and visibility conditions

would not recur until mid-July. GA Eisenhower was ever mindful that the longer he delayed, the

greater chance German intelligence had to discover the Allied plan. The Germans would use any

additional time to improve the already formidable coastal defenses.

On the evening of 4 June GA Eisenhower and his staff received word that there would be a

window of clear weather on the next night, the night of 5-6 June. If the meteorologists were wrong, GA

Eisenhower would be sending seasick men ashore with no air cover or accurate naval gunfire. GA

Eisenhower was concerned for his soldiers.

“Don’t forget,” GA Eisenhower said in an interview 20 years later, “some hundreds of thousands of

men were down here around Portsmouth, and many of them had already been loaded for some time,

particularly those who were going to make the initial assault. Those people in the ships and ready to

go were in cages, you might say. You couldn’t call them anything else. They were fenced in. They

were crowded up, and everybody was unhappy.”

GA Eisenhower continued, “Goodness knows, those fellows meant a lot to me. But these are the

decisions that have to be made when you’re in a war. You say to yourself, I’m going to do something

that will be to my country’s advantage for the least cost. You can’t say without any cost. You know

you’re going to lose some of them, and it’s very difficult.”

A failed invasion would delay the end of a war that had already dragged on for nearly five years.

GA Eisenhower paced back and forth as a storm rattled the windows. There were no guarantees, but

the time had come to act.

He stopped pacing and, facing his subordinates, said quietly but clearly, “OK, let’s go.”
MOTIVATING

It is the morale of armies, as well as of nations,

more than anything else, which makes victories

and their results decisive.

 	
  


 	
  

Shaping Culture

7-73. Strategic leaders inspire great effort. To

mold morale and motivate the entire Army,

strategic leaders cultivate a challenging, supportive, and respectful environment for soldiers

and DA civilians to operate in. An institution

with a history has a mature, well-established

culture—a shared set of values and assumptions that members hold about it. At the same

time, large and complex institutions like the

Army are diverse; they have many subcultures,

such as those that exist in the civilian and reserve components, heavy and light forces, and

special operations forces. Gender, ethnic, religious, occupational, and regional differences also

define groups within the force.

Culture and Values

7-74. The challenge for strategic leaders is to

ensure that all these subcultures are part of the

larger Army culture and that they all share

Army values. Strategic leaders do this by working with the best that each subculture has to offer and ensuring that subcultures don’t foster

unhealthy competition with each other, outside

agencies, or the rest of the Army. Rather, these

various subcultures must complement each

other and the Army’s institutional culture.

Strategic leaders appreciate the differences

that characterize these subcultures and treat

all members of all components with dignity and

respect. They’re responsible for creating an environment that fosters mutual understanding

so that soldiers and DA civilians treat one another as they should.

7-75. Army values form the foundation on

which the Army’s institutional culture stands.

Army values also form the basis for Army policies and procedures. But written values are of

little use unless they are practiced. Strategic

leaders help subordinates adopt these values by

making sure that their experience validates

them. In this, strategic leaders support the efforts all Army leaders make to develop the their

subordinates’ character. This character development effort (discussed in Appendix E) strives

to have all soldiers and DA civilians adopt Army

values, incorporate them into a personal code,

and act according to them.

7-76. Like organizational and direct leaders,

strategic leaders model character by their

actions. Only experience can validate Army values: subordinates will hear of Army values, then

look to see if they are being lived around them.

If they are, the Army’s institutional culture is

strengthened; if they are not, the Army’s institutional culture begins to weaken. Strategic

leaders ensure Army values remain fundamental to the Army’s institutional culture.

7-77. Over time, an institution’s culture

becomes so embedded in its members that they

may not even notice how it affects their

attitudes. The institutional culture becomes

second nature and influences the way people

think, the way they act in relation to each other

and outside agencies, and the way they approach the mission. Institutional culture helps

define the boundaries of acceptable behavior,

ranging from how to wear the uniform to how to

interact with foreign nationals. It helps determine how people approach problems, make

judgments, determine right from wrong, and establish priorities. Culture shapes Army customs

and traditions through doctrine, policies and

regulations, and the philosophy that guides the

institution. Professional journals, historical

works, ceremonies—even the folklore of the organization—all contain evidence of the Army’s

institutional culture.

Culture and Leadership

7-78. A healthy culture is a powerful

leadership tool strategic leaders use to help

them guide their large diverse organizations.

Strategic leaders seek to shape the culture to

support their vision, accomplish the mission,

and improve the organization. A cohesive

culture molds the organization’s morale, reinforcing an ethical climate built on Army values,

especially respect. As leaders initiate changes

for long-range improvements, soldiers and DA

civilians must feel that they’re valued as

 	
 



 

persons, not just as workers or program

supporters.

7-79. One way the Army’s institutional culture

affirms the importance of individuals is through

its commitment to leader development: in essence, this commitment declares that people are

the Army’s future. By committing to broadbased leader development, the Army has

redefined what it means to be a soldier. In fact,

Army leaders have even changed the appearance

of American soldiers and the way they perform.

Introducing height and weight standards, raising PT standards, emphasizing training and

education, and deglamorizing alcohol have all

fundamentallychanged theArmy’s institutional

culture.

OPERATING ACTIONS

7-80. Operating at the strategic level can involve both short-term and long-term actions.

The most agile organizations have standing

procedures and policies to take the guesswork

out of routine actions and allow leaders to concentrate their imagination and energy on the

most difficult tasks. Strategic leaders coordinate their organizations’ actions to accomplish

near-term missions, often without the benefit

of direct guidance. Strategic leaders receive

general guidance—frequently from several

sources, including the national command

authority.

7-81. Although they perform many of the same

operating actions as organizational and direct

leaders, strategic leaders also manage joint,

multinational, and interagency relationships.

For strategic leaders, planning, preparing, executing, and assessing are nearly continuous,

more so than at the other leadership levels, because the larger organizations they lead have

continuing missions. In addition, the preparing

action takes on a more comprehensive meaning

at the strategic leadership level. Leaders at all

levels keep one eye on tomorrow. Strategic leaders, to a greater extent than leaders at other

levels, must coordinate their organizations’ actions, positioning them to accomplish the current mission in a way that will feed seamlessly

into the next one. The Army doesn’t stop at the

end of a field exercise—or even after recovering

from a major deployment; there’s always another mission about to start and still another

one on the drawing board.

STRATEGIC PLANNING

7-82. Strategic-level plans must balance competing demands across the vast structure of the

DOD, but the fundamental requirements for

strategic-level planning are the same as for direct- and organizational-level planning. At all

levels, leaders establish priorities and communicate decisions; however, at the strategic level,

the sheer number of players who can influence

the organization means that strategic leaders

must stay on top of multiple demands. To plan

coherently and comprehensively, they look at

the mission from other players’ points of view.

Strategic planning depends heavily on wisely

applying interpersonal and conceptual skills.

Strategic leaders ask, What will these people

want? How will they see things? Have I justified

the mission? The interaction among strategic

  

	
	
 


VALUES

ATTRIBUTES

SKILLS

“Be” “Know”

THE LEADER THE LEADER

to Achieve Excellence to Achieve Excellence

Influencing

Improving

Operating

of Character and Competence Acts...

Figure 7-5. Strategic Leader

Actions—Operating
leaders’ interpersonal and conceptual skills and

their operating actions is highly complex.

7-83. Interpersonal and conceptual

understanding helped the Army during Operation Uphold Democracy, the US intervention in

Haiti. The success of the plan to collect and disarm former Haitian police and military officials,

investigate them, remove them (if required), or

retrain them owed much to recognizing the special demands of the Haitian psyche. The population needed a secure and stable environment

and a way to know when that condition was in

place. The Haitians feared the resurgence of

government terror, and any long-term solution

had to address their concerns. Strategic planners maintained a focus on the desired end

state: US disengagement and a return to a

peaceful, self-governing Haiti. In the end, the

United States forced Haitian leaders to cooperate, restored the elected president, JeanBertrand Aristide, and made provisions for returning control of affairs to the Haitians

themselves.

EXECUTING

There are no victories at bargain prices.

  	 
 
	 
 	

Allocating Resources

7-84. Because lives are precious and materiel is

scarce, strategic leaders make tough decisions

about priorities. Their goal is a capable, prepared, and victorious force. In peacetime, strategic leaders decide which programs get funded

and consider the implications of those choices.

Allocating resources isn’t simply a matter of

choosing helicopters, tanks, and missiles for the

future Army. Strategic resourcing affects how

the Army will operate and fight tomorrow. For

example, strategic leaders determine how much

equipment can be pre-positioned for contingencies without degrading current operational

capabilities.

Managing Joint, Interagency, and

Multinational Relationships

7-85. Strategic leaders oversee the relationship

between their organizations, as part of the nation’s total defense force, and the national policy apparatus. They use their knowledge of how

things work at the national and international

levels to influence opinion and build consensus

for the organization’s missions, gathering support of diverse players to achieve their vision.

Among their duties, strategic leaders—

 Provide military counsel in national policy

forums.

 Interpret national policy guidelines and

directions.

 Plan for and maintain the military capability required to implement national policy.

 Present the organization’s resource

requirements.

 	
 



 


Multinational Resource Allocation

Following the breakout and pursuit after the Normandy landings, Allied logistics systems became

seriously overstretched. GA Eisenhower, the Supreme Allied Commander, had to make a number of

decisions on resource allocation among his three army groups. These decisions had serious

implications for the conduct of the war in the ETO. Both GEN George Patton, Commander of the Third

(US) Army in GEN Omar Bradley’s Twelfth Army Group, and British GEN Bernard Montgomery, the

Twenty-first Army Group Commander, argued that sole priority for their single thrusts into the German

homeland could win the war. GA Eisenhower, dedicated to preserving the alliance with an Allied

success in the West, gave GEN Montgomery only a limited priority for a risky attempt to gain a Rhine

bridgehead, and at the same time, slowed GEN Patton’s effort to what was logistically feasible under

the circumstances. The Supreme Allied Commander’s decision was undoubtedly unpopular with his

longtime colleague, GEN Patton, but it contributed to alliance solidarity, sent a message to the

Soviets, and ensured a final success that did not rely on the still highly uncertain collapse of German

defenses.
 Develop strategies to support national

objectives.

 Bridge the gap between political decisions

made as part of national strategy and the

individuals and organizations that must

carry out those decisions.

7-86. As part of this last requirement, strategic

leaders clarify national policy for subordinates

and explain the perspectives that contribute to

that national policy. They develop policies reflecting national security objectives and prepare their organizations to respond to missions

across the spectrum of military actions.

7-87. Just as direct and organizational leaders

consider their sister units and agencies, strategic leaders consider and work with other armed

services and government agencies. How important is this joint perspective? Most of the Army’s

four-star billets are joint or multinational. Almost half of the lieutenant generals hold similar

positions on the Joint Staff, with the DOD, or in

combatant commands. While the remaining

strategic leaders are assigned to organizations

that are nominally single service (Forces Command, Training and Doctrine Command, Army

Materiel Command), they frequently work outside Army channels. In addition, many DA civilian strategic leaders hold positions that require

a joint perspective.

7-88. The complexity of the work created by

joint and multinational requirements is

twofold. First, communication is more complicated because of the different interests, cultures, and languages of the participants. Even

the cultures and jargon of the various US

armed services differ dramatically. Second,

subordinates may not be subordinate in the

same sense as they are in a purely Army organization. Strategic leaders and their forces may

fall under international operational control but

retain their allegiances and lines of authority to

their own national commanders. UN and

NATO commands, such as the IFOR, discussed

earlier are examples of this kind of

arrangement.

7-89. To operate effectively in a joint or

multinational environment, strategic leaders

exercise a heightened multiservice and international sensitivity developed over their years of

experience. A joint perspective results from

shared experiences and interactions with leaders of other services, complemented by the leader’s habitual introspection. Similar elements in

the international arena inform an international

perspective. Combing those perspectives with

their own Army and national perspectives, strategic leaders—

 Influence the opinions of those outside the

Army and help them understand Army

needs.

 Interpret the outside environment for people on the inside, especially in the formulation of plans and policies.

Most Army leaders will have several opportunities to serve abroad, sometimes with forces of

other nations. Perceptive leaders turn such

service into opportunities for self-development

and personal broadening.

7-90. Chapter 2 describes building a “third culture,” that is, a hybrid culture that bridges the

gap between partners in multinational operations. Strategic leaders take the time to learn

about their partners’ cultures—including political, social and economic aspects—so that

they understand how and why the partners

think and act as they do. Strategic leaders are

also aware that the successful conduct of multinational operations requires a particular sensitivity to the effect that deploying US forces may

have on the laws, traditions, and customs of a

third country.

7-91. Strategic leaders understand American

and Army culture. This allows them to see their

own culturally-based actions from the viewpoint of another culture—civilian, military, or

foreign. Effective testimony before Congress requires an understanding of how Congress

works and how its members think. The same is

true concerning dealings with other federal and

state agencies, non-governmental organizations, local political leaders, the media, and

other people who shape public opinion and national attitudes toward the military. Awareness

of the audience helps strategic leaders represent their organizations to outside agencies.

Understanding societal values—those values

people bring into the Army—helps strategic

  

	

 
	

leaders motivate subordinates to live Army

values.

7-92. When the Army’s immediate needs conflict with the objectives of other agencies, strategic leaders work to reconcile the differences.

Reconciliation begins with a clear understanding of the other agency’s position. Understanding the other side’s position is the first step in

identifying shared interests, which may permit

a new outcome better for both parties. There

will be times when strategic leaders decide to

stick to their course; there will be other times

when Army leaders bend to accommodate other

organizations. Continued disagreement can impair the Army’s ability to serve the nation;

therefore, strategic leaders must work to devise

Army courses of action that reflect national policy objectives and take into account the interests of other organizations and agencies.

7-93. Joint and multinational task force

commanders may be strategic leaders. In certain operations they will work for a CINC but

receive guidance directly from the Chairman of

the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the Secretary of

Defense, the State Department, or the UN. Besides establishing professional relationships

within the DOD and US government, such strategic leaders must build personal rapport with

officials from other countries and military

establishments.

Military Actions Across the Spectrum

7-94. Since the character of the next war has not

been clearly defined for them, today’s strategic

leaders rely on hints in the international environment to provide information on what sort of

force to prepare. Questions they consider include these: Where is the next threat? Will we

have allies or contend alone? What will our national and military goals be? What will the exit

strategy be? Strategic leaders address the technological, leadership, and moral considerations

associated with fighting on an asymmetrical battlefield. They’re at the center of the tension between traditional warfare and the newer kinds

of multiparty conflict emerging outside the

industrialized world. Recent actions like those in

Bosnia, Somalia, Haiti, Grenada, and the Persian Gulf suggest the range of possible military

contingencies. Strategic leaders struggle with

the ramifications of switching repeatedly among

the different types of military actions required

under a strategy of engagement.

7-95. The variety of potential missions calls for

the ability to quickly build temporary organizations able to perform specific tasks. As they design future joint organizations, strategic

leaders must also determine how to engineer

both cohesion and proficiency in modular units

that are constantly forming and reforming.

STRATEGIC ASSESSING

7-96. There are many elements of their environment that strategic leaders must assess. Like

leaders at other levels, they must first assess

themselves: their leadership style, strengths

and weaknesses, and their fields of excellence.

They must also understand the present operational environment—to include the will of the

American people, expressed in part through

law, policy, and their leaders. Finally, strategic

leaders must survey the political landscape and

the international environment, for these affect

the organization and shape the future strategic

requirements.

7-97. Strategic leaders also cast a wide net to

assess their own organizations. They develop

performance indicators to signal how well

they’re communicating to all levels of their

commands and how well established systems

and processes are balancing the six imperatives. Assessment starts early in each mission

and continues through its end. It may include

monitoring such diverse areas as resource use,

development of subordinates, efficiency, effects

of stress and fatigue, morale, and mission accomplishment. Such assessments generate

huge amounts of data; strategic leaders must

make clear what they’re looking for so their

staffs can filter information for them. They

must also guard against misuse of assessment

data.

 	
 



 

IMPROVING ACTIONS

7-98. Improving is institutional investment for

the long haul, refining the things we do today

for a better organization tomorrow. A fundamental goal of strategic leaders is to leave the

Army better than they found it. Improving at

this level calls for experimentation and innovation; however, because strategic-level organizations are so complex, quantifying the results of

changes may be difficult.

7-99. Improving the institution and organizations involves an ongoing tradeoff between today and tomorrow. Wisdom and a refined frame of reference are tools to understand

what improvement is and what change is

needed. Knowing when and what to change is a

constant challenge: what traditions should remain stable, and which long-standing methods

need to evolve? Strategic leaders set the conditions for long-term success of the organization

by developing subordinates, leading change,

building the culture and teams, and creating a

learning environment.

7-100. One technique for the Army as a learning institution is to decentralize the learning

and other improving actions to some extent.

That technique raises the questions of how to

share good ideas across the entire institution

and how to incorporate the best ideas into doctrine (thus establishing an Army-wide standard) without discouraging the decentralized

learning process that generated the ideas in the

 

	

 
	


VALUES

ATTRIBUTES

SKILLS

“Be” “Know”

THE LEADER THE LEADER

of Character and Competence Acts...

to Achieve Excellence to Achieve Excellence

Influencing

Operating

Improving

Figure 7-6. Strategic Leader Actions—

Improving

World War II Strategic Assessment

Pursuing a “Germany first” strategy in World War II was a deliberate decision based on a strategic

and political assessment of the global situation. Military planners, particularly Army Chief of Staff

George C. Marshall, worried that US troops might be dispersed and used piecemeal. Strategic

leaders heeded Frederick the Great’s adage, “He who defends everywhere defends nowhere.” The

greatest threat to US interests was a total German success in Europe: a defeated Russia and

neutralized Great Britain. Still, the Japanese attacks on Pearl Harbor and the Philippines and the

threat to the line of communications with Australia tugged forces toward the opposite hemisphere.

Indeed, throughout the first months of 1942, more forces headed for the Pacific Theater than across

the Atlantic.

However, before the US was at war with anyone, President Franklin Roosevelt had agreed with

British Prime Minister Winston Churchill to a “Germany first” strategy. The 1942 invasion of North

Africa restored this focus. While the US military buildup took hold and forces flowed into Great Britain

for the Normandy invasion in 1944, operations in secondary theaters could and did continue.

However, they were resourced only after measuring their impact on the planned cross-channel

attack.
first place. Those and other questions face the

strategic leaders of the learning organization

the Army seeks to become.

DEVELOPING

George C. Marshall learned leadership from John

J. Pershing, and Marshall’s followers became great

captains themselves: Dwight D. Eisenhower, Omar

N. Bradley...among them. Pershing and Marshall

each taught their subordinates their profession;

and, more importantly, they gave them room to

grow.

 	 



    


Mentoring

7-101. Strategic leaders develop subordinates

by sharing the benefit of their perspective and

experience. People arriving at the Pentagon

know how the Army works in the field, but regardless of what they may have read, they don’t

really know how the institutional Army works.

Strategic leaders act as a kind of sponsor by introducing them to the important players and

pointing out the important places and activities. But strategic leaders actually become mentors as they, in effect, underwrite the learning,

efforts, projects, and ideas of rising leaders. The

moral responsibility associated with mentoring

is compelling for all leaders; for strategic leaders, the potential significance is enormous.

7-102. More than a matter of required forms

and sessions, mentoring by strategic leaders

means giving the right people an intellectual

boost so that they make the leap to operations

and thinking at the highest levels. Because

those being groomed for strategic leadership

positions are among the most talented Army

leaders, the manner in which leaders and subordinates interact also changes. Strategic leaders aim not only to pass on knowledge but also

to grow wisdom in those they mentor.

7-103. Since few formal leader development

programs exist beyond the senior service colleges, strategic leaders pay special attention to

their subordinates’ self-development, showing

them what to study, where to focus, whom to

watch, and how to proceed. They speak to audiences at service schools about what goes on “at

the top” and spend time sharing their perspectives with those who haven’t yet reached the

highest levels of Army leadership. Today’s subordinates will, after all, become the next generation of strategic leaders. Strategic leaders

are continually concerned that the Army institutional culture and the climates in subordinate organizations encourage mentoring by

others so that growth opportunities are available from the earliest days of a soldier or DA

civilian’s careers.

Developing Intellectual Capital

7-104. What strategic leaders do for individuals

they personally mentor, they also seek to provide to the force at large. They invest in the future of the force in several ways. Committing

money to programs and projects and investing

more time and resources in some actions than

others are obvious ways strategic leaders

choose what’s important. They also value people and ideas as investments in the future. The

concepts that shape the thinking of strategic

leaders become the intellectual currency of the

coming era; the soldiers and DA civilians who

develop those ideas become trusted assets

themselves. Strategic leaders must choose

wisely the ideas that bridge the gap between today and tomorrow and skillfully determine how

best to resource important ideas and people.

7-105. Strategic leaders make difficult decisions

about how much institutional development is

enough. They calculate how much time it will

take to plant and grow the seeds required for

the Army’s great leaders and ideas in the future. They balance today’s operational requirements with tomorrow’s leadership needs to

produce programs that develop a core of Army

leaders with the required skills and knowledge.

7-106. Programs like training with industry,

advanced civil schooling, and foreign area officer education complement the training and

education available in Army schools and

contribute to shaping the people who will shape

the Army’s future. Strategic leaders develop

the institution using Army resources when they

are available and those of other services or the

public sector when they are not.

 	
 



 

7-107. After Vietnam the Army’s leadership

thought investing in officer development so important that new courses were instituted to revitalize professional education for the force.

The establishment of the Training and Doctrine Command revived Army doctrine as a central intellectual pillar of the entire service. The

Goldwater-Nichols Act of 1986 provided similar

attention and invigoration to professional joint

education and joint doctrine.

7-108. Likewise, there has been a huge investment in and payoff from developing the NCO

corps. The Army has the world’s finest noncommissioned officers, in part because they get the

world’s best professional development. The

strategic decision to resource a robust NCO

education system signaled the Army’s investment in developing the whole person—not just

the technical skills—of its first-line leaders.

7-109. The Army Civilian Training and

Education Development System is the Army’s

program for developing DA civilian leaders.

Like the NCO education system, it continues

throughout an individual’s career. The first

course integrates interns into the Army by explaining Army values, culture, customs, and

policies. The Leadership Education and Development Course helps prepare leaders for supervisory demands with training in

communication, counseling, team building,

problem solving, and group development. For

organizational managers, the Organizational

Leadership for Executives course adds higherorder study on topics such as strategic planning, change management, climate, and culture. DA civilians in the Senior Executive

Service have a variety of leadership education

options that deal with leadership in both the

military and civilian contexts. Together, these

programs highlight ways that leadership

development of DA civilians parallels that of

soldiers.

BUILDING

The higher up the chain of command, the greater

is the need for boldness to be supported by a reflective mind, so that boldness does not degenerate

into purposeless bursts of blind passion.

  	



Building Amid Change

7-110. The Army has no choice but to face

change. It’s in a nearly constant state of flux,

with new people, new missions, new technologies, new equipment, and new information. At

the same time, the Army, inspired by strategic

leaders, must innovate and create change. The

Army’s customs, procedures, hierarchical

structure, and sheer size make change especially daunting and stressful. Nonetheless, the

Army must be flexible enough to produce and

respond to change, even as it preserves the core

of traditions that tie it to the nation, its heritage and its values.

7-111. Strategic leaders deal with change by being proactive, not reactive. They anticipate

change even as they shield their organizations

from unimportant and bothersome influences;

they use the “change-drivers” of technology,

education, doctrine, equipment, and organization to control the direction and pace of

change. Many agencies and corporations have

“futures” groups charged with thinking about

tomorrow; strategic leaders and their advisory

teams are the Army’s “futures people.”

Leading Change

7-112. Strategic leaders lead change by—

 Identifying the force capabilities necessary

to accomplish the National Military Strategy.

 Assigning strategic and operational

missions, including priorities for allocating

resources.

 Preparing plans for using military forces

across the spectrum of operations.

 Creating, resourcing, and sustaining

organizational systems, including—

 Force modernization programs.

 Requisite personnel and equipment.

n Essential command, control, communications, computers, and intelligence systems.

 Developing and improving doctrine and the

training methods to support it.

  

	
	
 

 Planning for the second- and third-order effects of change.

 Maintaining an effective leader development program and other human resource initiatives.

7-113. Strategic leaders must guide their

organizations through eight stages if their initiatives for change are to make lasting progress.

Skipping a step or moving forward prematurely

subverts the process and compromises success.

Strategic leaders (1) demonstrate a sense of urgency by showing not only the benefits of but

the necessity for change. They (2) form guiding

coalitions to work the process all the way from

concept through implementation. With those

groups they (3) develop a vision of the future

and strategy for achieving it. Because change is

most effective when members embrace it, strategic leaders (4) communicate the vision

throughout the institution or organization, and

then (5) empower subordinates at all levels for

widespread, parallel efforts. They (6) plan for

short-term successes to validate the programs

and keep the vision credible and (7) consolidate

those wins and produce further change. Finally,

the leader (8) preserves the change culturally.

The result is an institution that constantly prepares for and even shapes the future environment. Strategic leaders seek to sustain the

Army as that kind of institution.

LEARNING

A good soldier, whether he leads a platoon or an

army, is expected to look backward as well as

forward; but he must think only forward.

  	 
 
 
	

7-114. The nation expects military professionals as individuals and the Army as an institution to learn from the experience of others and

apply that learning to understanding the present and preparing for the future. Such learning

requires both individual and institutional commitments. Each military professional must be

committed to self-development, part of which is

studying military history and other disciplines

related to military operations. The Army as an

institution must be committed to conducting

technical research, monitoring emerging

threats, and developing leaders for the next

generation. Strategic leaders, by their example

and resourcing decisions, sustain the culture

and policies that encourage both the individual

and the Army to learn.

 	
 



 


Change After Vietnam

The history of the post-Vietnam Army provides an example of how strategic leaders’ commitment

can shape the environment and harness change to improve the institution while continuing to operate.

The Army began seeking only volunteers in the early 1970s. With the all-volunteer force came a

tremendous emphasis on doctrinal, personnel, and training initiatives that took years to mature. The

Army tackled problems in drug abuse, racial tensions, and education with ambitious, long-range plans

and aggressive leader actions. Strategic leaders overhauled doctrine and created an environment

that improved training at all levels; the CTC program provided a uniform, rock-solid foundation of a

single, well-understood warfighting doctrine upon which to build a trained and ready Army.

Simultaneously, new equipment, weapons, vehicles, and uniforms were introduced. The result was

the Army of Desert Storm, which differed greatly from the force of 15 years earlier.

None of these changes happened by chance or through evolution. Change depended on the hard

work of direct and organizational leaders who developed systematically in an environment directed,

engineered, and led by strategic leaders.
7-115. Strategic leaders promote learning by

emplacing systems for studying the force and

the future. Strategic leaders must resource a

structure that constantly reflects on how the

Army fights and what victory may cost. All that

means constantly assessing the culture and

deliberately encouraging creativity and

learning.

7-116. The notion of the Army as a “learning organization” is epitomized by the AAR concept,

which was developed as part of the REALTRAIN

project, the first version of engagement simulation. Since then, it has been part of a cultural

change, in which realistic “hot washes,” such as

following tough engagements at CTCs, are now

embedded in all training. Twenty years ago, anything like today’s AARs would have been rare.

7-117. Efficient and effective operations

require aligning various initiatives so that different factions are not working at crosspurposes. Strategic leaders focus research and

development efforts on achieving combined

arms success. They deal with questions such as:

Can these new systems from various sources

communicate with one another? What happens

during digitization lapses—what’s our residual

combat capability? Strategic leaders coordinate

time lines and budgets so that compatible systems are fielded together. However, they are

also concerned that the force have optimal capability across time; therefore, they prepare plans

that integrate new equipment and concepts into

the force as they’re developed, rather than waiting for all elements of a system to be ready before fielding it. Finally, learning what the force

should be means developing the structure,

training, and leaders those future systems will

support and studying the variety of threats they

may face.

7-118. The Louisiana Maneuvers in 1941

taught the Army what mechanized warfare

would look like and what was needed to prepare for it. The study of the same name 50

years later helped produce the conceptual

Force XXI and the first digitized division.

Strategic leaders commissioned these projects

because the Army is dedicated to learning

about operations in new environments,

against different threats. The projects were

strategic counterparts to the rehearsals that

direct and organizational leaders conduct to

prepare for upcoming missions.

SECTION III

A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF STRATEGIC LEADERSHIP—

GENERAL OF THE ARMY MARSHALL DURING WORLD WAR II

7-119. GA George C. Marshall was one of the

greatest strategic leaders of World War II, of

this century, of our nation’s history. His example over many years demonstrates the skills

and actions this chapter has identified as the

hallmarks of strategic leadership.

7-120. Chosen over 34 officers senior to him,

GA Marshall became Army Chief of Staff in

1939, a time of great uncertainty about the future of the free world. Part of his appeal for

President Roosevelt was his strength of character and personal integrity. The honesty and

candor that GA Marshall displayed early in

their relationship were qualities the president

knew he and the nation would need in the difficult times ahead.

7-121. The new Army Chief of Staff knew he

had to wake the Army from its interwar slumber and grow it beyond its 174,000 soldiers—a

size that ranked it seventeenth internationally,

behind Bulgaria and Portugal. By 1941 he had

begun to move the Army toward his vision of

what it needed to become: a world-changing

force of 8,795,000 soldiers and airmen. His vision was remarkably accurate: by the end of the

war, 89 divisions and over 8,200,000 soldiers in

Army uniforms had made history.

7-122. GA Marshall reached deep within the

Army for leaders capable of the conceptual

leaps necessary to fight the impending war. He

demanded leaders ready for the huge tasks

ahead, and he accepted no excuses. As he found

  

	
	
 

colonels, lieutenant colonels, and even majors

who seemed ready for the biggest challenge of

their lives, he promoted them ahead of those

more senior but less capable and made many of

them generals. He knew firsthand that such

jumps could be productive. As a lieutenant in

the Philippines, he had commanded 5,000 soldiers during an exercise. For generals who

could not adjust to the sweeping changes in the

Army, he made career shifts as well: he retired

them. His loyalty to the institution and the nation came before any personal relationships.

7-123. Merely assembling the required number

of soldiers would not be enough. The mass

Army that was forming required a new

structure to manage the forces and resources

the nation was mobilizing for the war effort.

Realizing this, GA Marshall reorganized the

Army into the Army Ground Forces, Army Air

Forces, and Army Service Forces. His foresight

organized the Army for the evolving nature of

warfare.

7-124. Preparing for combat required more

than manning the force. GA Marshall

understood that World War I had presented

confusing lessons about the future of warfare.

His in-theater experience during that war and

later reflection distilled a vision of the future.

He believed that maneuver of motorized formations spearheaded by tanks and supported logistically by trucks (instead of horse-drawn

wagons) would replace the almost siege-like

battles of World War I. So while the French

trusted the Maginot Line, GA Marshall emphasized the new technologies that would heighten

the speed and complexity of the coming conflict.

7-125. Further, GA Marshall championed the

common sense training to prepare soldiers to go

overseas ready to fight and win. By having new

units spend sufficient time on marksmanship,

fitness, drill, and fieldcraft, GA Marshall ensured that soldiers and leaders had the requisite competence and confidence to face an

experienced enemy.

7-126. Before and during the war, GA Marshall

showed a gift for communicating with the

American public. He worked closely with the

press, frequently confiding in senior newsmen

so they would know about the Army’s activities

and the progress of the war. They responded to

his trust by not printing damaging or premature stories. His relaxed manner and complete

command of pertinent facts reassured the

press, and through it the nation, that America’s

youth were entrusted to the right person.

7-127. He was equally successful with

Congress. GA Marshall understood that getting

what he wanted meant asking, not demanding.

His humble and respectful approach with lawmakers won his troops what they needed; arrogant demands would have never worked.

Because he never sought anything for himself

(his five-star rank was awarded over his

objections), his credibility soared.

7-128. However, GA Marshall knew how to

shift his approach depending on the audience,

the environment, and the situation. He refused

to be intimidated by leaders such as Prime Minister Winston Churchill, Secretary of War

Henry Stimson, or even the president. Though

he was always respectful, his integrity demanded that he stand up for his deeply held

convictions—and he did, without exception.

7-129. The US role in Europe was to open a major second front to relieve pressure on the Soviet Union and ensure the Allied victory over

Germany. GA Marshall had spent years preparing the Army for Operation Overlord, the DDay invasion that would become the main effort by the Western Allies and the one expected

to lead to final victory over Nazi Germany.

Many assumed GA Marshall would command

it. President Roosevelt might have felt obligated to reward the general’s faithful and towering service, but GA Marshall never raised the

subject. Ultimately, the president told GA Marshall that it was more important that he lead

global resourcing than command a theater of

war. GA Eisenhower got the command, while

GA Marshall continued to serve on staff.

7-130. GA Marshall didn’t request the

command that would have placed him alongside

immortal combat commanders likeWashington,

Grant, and Lee. His decision reflects the value of

selfless service that kept him laboring for decades without the recognition that came to some

of his associates. GA Marshall never attempted

to be anyplace but where his country needed

 	
 




 

him. And there, finally as Army Chief of Staff,

GA Marshall served with unsurpassed vision

and brilliance, engineering the greatest victory

in our nation’s history and setting an extraordinary example for those who came after him.

SUMMARY

7-131. Just as GA Marshall prepared for the

coming war, strategic leaders today ready the

Army for the next conflict. They may not have

years before the next D-Day; it could be just

hours away. Strategic leaders operate between

extremes, balancing a constant awareness of

the current national and global situation with a

steady focus on the Army’s long-term mission

and goals.

7-132. Since the nature of future military

operations is so unclear, the vision of the

Army’s strategic leaders is especially crucial.

Identifying what’s important among the concerns of mission, soldiers, weapons, logistics,

and technology produces decisions that determine the structure and capability of tomorrow’s Army.

7-133. Within the institution, strategic leaders

build support for the end state they desire. That

means building a staff that can take broad guidance and turn it into initiatives that move the

Army forward. To obtain the required support,

strategic leaders also seek to achieve consensus

beyond the Army, working with Congress and

the other services on budget, force structure,

and strategy issues and working with other

countries and militaries on shared interests.

The way strategic leaders communicate direction to soldiers, DA civilians, and citizens determines the understanding and support for the

new ideas.

7-134. Like GA Marshall, today’s strategic

leaders are deciding how to transform today’s

force into tomorrow’s. These leaders have little

guidance. Still, they know that they work to develop the next generation of Army leaders,

build the organizations of the future, and

resource the systems that will help gain the

next success. The way strategic leaders communicate direction to soldiers, DA civilians, and

citizens determines the understanding and support for the new ideas. To communicate with

these diverse audiences, strategic leaders work

through multiple media, adjust the message

when necessary, and constantly reinforce Army

themes.

7-135. To lead change personally and move the

Army establishment toward their concept of

the future, strategic leaders transform political

and conceptual programs into practical and

concrete initiatives. That process increasingly

involves leveraging technology and shaping the

culture. By knowing themselves, the strategic

players, the operational requirements, the geopolitical situation, and the American public,

strategic leaders position the force and the nation for success. Because there may be no time

for a World War II or Desert Storm sort of

buildup, success for Army strategic leaders

means being ready to win a variety of conflicts

now and remaining ready in the uncertain

years ahead.

7-136. Strategic leaders prepare the Army for

the future through their leadership. That

means influencing people—members of the

Army, members of other government agencies,

and the people of the nation the Army

serves—by providing purpose, direction, and

motivation. It means operating to accomplish

today’s missions, foreign and domestic. And it

means improving the institution—making

sure its people are trained and that its equipment and organizations are ready for tomorrow’s missions, anytime, anywhere.

  

	
	
 

Appendix A

Roles and Relationships

A-1. When the Army speaks of soldiers, it refers

to commissioned officers, warrant officers, noncommissioned officers (NCOs), and enlisted personnel—both men and women. The terms

commissioned officer and warrant officer are

used when it is necessary to specifically address

or refer to a particular group of officers. All Army

leaders—soldiers and DA civilians—share the

same goal: to accomplish their organization’s

mission. The roles and responsibilities of Army

leaders—commissioned, warrant, noncommissioned, and DA civilian—overlap. Figure A-1

summarizes them.

A-2. Commissioned officers are direct representatives of the President of the United States.

Commissions are legal instruments the president uses to appoint and exercise direct control

over qualified people to act as his legal agents

and help him carry out his duties. The Army retains this direct-agent relationship with the

president through its commissioned officers.

The commission serves as the basis for a commissioned officer’s legal authority. Commissioned officers command, establish policy, and

manage Army resources. They are normally

generalists who assume progressively broader

responsibilities over the course of a career.

A-3. Warrant officers are highly specialized,

single-track specialty officers who receive their

authority from the Secretary of the Army upon

their initial appointment. However, Title 10

USC authorizes the commissioning of warrant

officers (WO1) upon promotion to chief warrant

officer (CW2). These commissioned warrant officers are direct representatives of the president of

the United States. They derive their authority

from the same source as commissioned officers

but remain specialists, in contrast to commissioned officers, who are generalists. Warrant officers can and do command detachments, units,

activities, and vessels as well as lead, coach,

train, and counsel subordinates. As leaders and

technical experts, they provide valuable skills,

guidance, and expertise to commanders and organizations in their particular field.

A-4. NCOs, the backbone of the Army, train,

lead, and take care of enlisted soldiers. They receive their authority from their oaths of office,

law, rank structure, traditions, and regulations. This authority allows them to direct soldiers, take actions required to accomplish the

mission, and enforce good order and discipline.

NCOs represent officer, and sometimes DA

civilian, leaders. They ensure their subordinates, along with their personal equipment,

are prepared to function as effective unit and

team members. While commissioned officers

command, establish policy, and manage resources, NCOs conduct the Army’s daily

business.

A-5. As members of the executive branch of the

federal government, DA civilians are part of the

Army. They derive their authority from a variety of sources, such as commanders, supervisors, Army regulations, and Title 5 USC. DA

civilians’ authority is job-related: they normally

exercise authority related to their positions. DA

civilians fill positions in staff and base sustaining operations that would otherwise have to be

filled by officers and NCOs. Senior DA civilians

establish policy and manage Army resources,

but they do not have the authority to command.

A-6. The complementary relationship and mutual respect between the military and civilian

members of the Army is a long-standing tradition. Since the Army’s beginning in 1775, military and DA civilian duties have stayed

separate, yet necessarily related. Taken in combination, traditions, functions, and laws serve

to delineate the particular duties of military

and civilian members of the Army.

 	
 

 

	
 









Commands, establishes policy, and manages Army resources.

Integrates collective, leader, and soldier training to accomplish missions.

Deals primarily with units and unit operations.

Concentrates on unit effectiveness and readiness.













Provides quality advice, counsel, and solutions to support the command.

Executes policy and manages the Army’s systems.

Commands special-purpose units and task-organized operational elements.

Focuses on collective, leader, and individual training.

Operates, maintains, administers, and manages the Army’s equipment, support

activities, and technical systems.

Concentrates on unit effectiveness and readiness.









Trains soldiers and conducts the daily business of the Army within established

policy.

Focuses on individual soldier training.

Deals primarily with individual soldier training and team leading.

Ensures that subordinate teams, NCOs, and soldiers are prepared to function as

effective unit and team members.









Establishes and executes policy, leads people, and manages programs, projects,

and Army systems.

Focuses on integrating collective, leader, and individual training.

Operates, maintains, administers, and manages Army equipment and support,

research, and technical activities.

Concentrates on DA civilian individual and organizational effectiveness and

readiness.

THE COMMISSIONED OFFICER

THE WARRANT OFFICER

THE NONCOMMISSIONED OFFICER

THE DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY CIVILIAN

Figure A-1. Roles and Responsibilities of Commissioned, Warrant, Noncommissioned, and DA

Civilian Leaders
AUTHORITY

A-7. Authority is the legitimate power of leaders to direct subordinates or to take action

within the scope of their positions. Military

authority begins with the Constitution, which

divides it between Congress and the president.

(The Constitution appears in Appendix F.) Congress has the authority to make laws that govern the Army. The president, as commander in

chief, commands the armed forces, including

the Army. Two types of military authority exist:

command and general military.

Command Authority

A-8. Command is the authority that a commander in the armed forces lawfully exercises

over subordinates by virtue of rank or assignment. Command includes the authority and responsibility for effectively using available

resources to organize, direct, coordinate, employ, and control military forces so that they accomplish assigned missions. It also includes

responsibility for health, welfare, morale, and

discipline of assigned personnel.

A-9. Command authority originates with the

president and may be supplemented by law or

regulation. It is the authority that a commander lawfully exercises over subordinates by

virtue of rank or assignment. Only commissioned and warrant officers may command

Army units and installations. DA civilians may

exercise general supervision over an Army installation or activity; however, they act under

the authority of a military supervisor. DA civilians do not command. (AR 600-20 addresses

command authority in more detail.)

A-10. Army leaders are granted command

authority when they fill command-designated

positions. These normally involve the direction

and control of other soldiers and DA civilians.

Leaders in command-designated positions have

the inherent authority to issue orders, carry out

the unit mission, and care for both military

members and DA civilians within the leader’s

scope of responsibility.

General Military Authority

A-11. General military authority originates in

oaths of office, law, rank structure, traditions,

and regulations. This broad-based authority

also allows leaders to take appropriate corrective actions whenever a member of any armed

service, anywhere, commits an act involving a

breach of good order or discipline. AR 600-20,

paragraph 4-5, states this specifically, giving

commissioned, warrant, and noncommissioned

officers authority to “quell all quarrels, frays,

and disorders among persons subject to military law”—in other words, to maintain good order and discipline.

A-12. All enlisted leaders have general military

authority. For example, dining facility managers, platoon sergeants, squad leaders, and tank

commanders all use general military authority

when they issue orders to direct and control

their subordinates. Army leaders may exercise

general military authority over soldiers from

different units.

A-13. For NCOs, another source of general military authority stems from the combination of

the chain of command and the NCO support

channel. The chain of command passes orders

and policies through the NCO support channel

to provide authority for NCOs to do their job.

Delegation of Authority

A-14. Just as Congress and the president cannot participate in every aspect of armed forces

operations, most leaders cannot handle every

action directly. To meet the organization’s

goals, officers delegate authority to NCOs and,

when appropriate, to DA civilians. These leaders, in turn, may further delegate that

authority.

A-15. Unless restricted by law, regulation, or a

superior, leaders may delegate any or all of

their authority to their subordinate leaders.

However, such delegation must fall within the

leader’s scope of authority. Leaders cannot

delegate authority they do not have and subordinate leaders may not assume authority that

their superiors do not have, cannot delegate, or

have retained. The task or duty to be performed

limits the authority of the leader to which it is

assigned.

 	
 


  
	

A-16. When a leader is assigned a task or duty,

the authority necessary to accomplish it accompanies the assignment. When a leader delegates

a task or duty to a subordinate, he delegates the

requisite authority as well. However, leaders

always retain responsibility for the outcome of

any tasks they assign. They must answer for

any actions or omissions related to them.

RESPONSIBILITY AND ACCOUNTABILITY

A-17. No definitive lines separate officer, NCO,

and DA civilian responsibilities. Officers,

NCOs, and DA civilians lead other officers,

NCOs, and DA civilians and help them carry

out their responsibilities. Commanders set

overall policies and standards, but all leaders

must provide the guidance, resources, assistance, and supervision necessary for subordinates to perform their duties. Similarly,

subordinates must assist and advise their leaders. Mission accomplishment demands that officers, NCOs, and DA civilians work together to

advise, assist, and learn from each other. Responsibilities fall into two categories: command

and individual.

Command Responsibility

A-18. Command responsibility refers to collective or organizational accountability and includes how well units perform their missions.

For example, a company commander is responsible for all the tasks and missions assigned to

his company; his leaders hold him accountable

for completing them. Military and DA civilian

leaders have responsibility for what their sections, units, or organizations do or fail to do.

Individual Responsibility

A-19. All soldiers and DA civilians must account

for their personal conduct. Commissioned officers, warrant officers, and DA civilians assume

personal responsibility when they take their

oath. DA civilians take the same oath as commissioned officers. Soldiers take their initial

oath of enlistment. Members of the Army account for their actions to their fellow soldiers or

coworkers, the appointed leader, their unit or

organization, the Army, and the American

people.

COMMUNICATIONS AND THE CHAIN OF COMMAND

A-20. Communication among individuals,

teams, units, and organizations is essential to

efficient and effective mission accomplishment.

As Chapter 4 discusses, two-way communication is more effective than one-way communication. Mission accomplishment depends on

information passing accurately to and from

subordinates and leaders, up and down the

chain of command and NCO support channel,

and laterally among adjacent organizations or

activities. In garrison operations, organizations

working on the same mission or project should

be considered “adjacent.”

A-21. The Army has only one chain of command. Through this chain of command, leaders

issue orders and instructions and convey policies. A healthy chain of command is a two-way

communications channel. Its members do more

than transmit orders; they carry information

from within the unit or organization back up to

its leader. They furnish information about how

things are developing, notify the leader of problems, and provide requests for clarification and

help. Leaders at all levels use the chain of command—their subordinate leaders—to keep

their people informed and render assistance.

They continually facilitate the process of gaining the necessary clarification and solving

problems.

A-22. Beyond conducting their normal duties,

NCOs train soldiers and advise commanders on

individual soldier readiness and the training

needed to ensure unit readiness. Officers and DA

civilian leaders should consult their command

sergeant major, first sergeant, or NCO assistant,

before implementing policy. Commanders, commissioned and warrant officers, DA civilian leaders, and NCOs must continually communicate to

 

	

 
avoid duplicating instructions or issuing conflicting orders. Continuous and open lines of

communication enable commanders and DA

civilian leaders to freely plan, make decisions,

and program future training and operations.

THE NONCOMMISSIONED OFFICER SUPPORT CHANNEL

A-23. The NCO support channel parallels and

reinforces the chain of command. NCO leaders

work with and support the commissioned and

warrant officers of their chain of command. For

the chain of command to work efficiently, the

NCO support channel must operate effectively.

At battalion level and higher, the NCO support

channel begins with the command sergeant major, extends through first sergeants and platoon

sergeants, and ends with section chiefs, squad

leaders, or team leaders. (TC 22-6 discusses the

NCO support channel.)

A-24. The connection between the chain of command and NCO support channel is the senior

NCO. Commanders issue orders through the

chain of command, but senior NCOs must know

and understand the orders to issue effective implementing instructions through the NCO support channel. Although the first sergeant and

command sergeant major are not part of the

formal chain of command, leaders should consult them on all individual soldier matters.

A-25. Successful leaders have a good relationship with their senior NCOs. Successful commanders have a good leader-NCO relationship

with their first sergeants and command sergeants major. The need for such a relationship

applies to platoon leaders and platoon sergeants as well as to staff officers and NCOs.

Senior NCOs have extensive experience in successfully completing missions and dealing with

enlisted soldier issues. Also, senior NCOs can

monitor organizational activities at all levels,

take corrective action to keep the organization

within the boundaries of the commander’s intent, or report situations that require the attention of the officer leadership. A positive

relationship between officers and NCOs creates

conditions for success.

DA CIVILIAN SUPPORT

A-26. The Army employs DA civilians because

they possess or develop technical skills that are

necessary to accomplish some missions. The

specialized skills of DA civilians are essential to

victory but, for a variety of reasons, they are difficult to maintain in the uniformed components. The Army expects DA civilian leaders to

be more than specialists: they are expected to

apply technical, conceptual, and interpersonal

skills together to accomplish missions—in a

combat theater, if necessary.

A-27. While the command sergeant major is the

advocate in a unit for soldier issues, DA civilians have no single advocate. Rather, their own

leaders, civilian personnel advisory center, or

civilian personnel operations center represent

them and their issues to the chain of command.

Often the senior DA civilian in an organization

or the senior DA civilian in a particular career

field has the additional duty of advising and

counseling junior DA civilians on job-related issues and career development.

 	
 


  
	


Appendix B

Performance Indicators

B-1. Appendix B is organized around the leadership dimensions that Chapters 1 through 7

discuss and that Figure B-1 shows. This appendix lists indicators for you to use to assess the

leadership of yourself and others based on these

leadership dimensions. Use it as an assessment

and counseling tool, not as a source of phrases

for evaluation reports. When you prepare an

evaluation, make comments that apply specifically to the individual you are evaluating. Do

not limit yourself to the general indicators

listed here. Be specific; be precise; be objective;

be fair.

 	
 


Values

"Be”

Attributes

"Be”

Mental

Physical

Emotional

1

2

3

Skills4 Actions5

"Know”

Interpersonal

Conceptual

Technical

Tactical

"Do”

Communicating

Decision Making

Motivating

Developing

Building

Learning

Influencing Operating Improving

Leaders of character and competence... act to achieve excellence by providing purpose,

direction and motivation.

Loyalty

Duty

Respect

Selfless Service

Honor

Integrity

Personal Courage

Planning/

Executing

Assessing

Preparing

 The mental attributes of an Army leader are will, self-discipline, initiative, judgment, selfconfidence, intelligence, and cultural awareness.

 The physical attributes of an Army leader are health fitness, physical fitness, and military and professional bearing.

The emotional attributes of an Army leader are self-control, balance, and stability.



The interpersonal, conceptual, technical, and tactical skills are different for direct, organizational,

and strategic leaders.



The influencing, operating, and improving actions are different for direct, organizational, and

strategic leaders.

Figure B-1. Leadership Dimensions
VALUES

LOYALTY

B-2. Leaders who demonstrate loyalty—

 Bear true faith and allegiance in the correct

order to the Constitution, the Army, and the

organization.

 Observe higher headquarters’ priorities.

 Work within the system without manipulating it for personal gain.

DUTY

B-3. Leaders who demonstrate devotion to

duty—

 Fulfill obligations—professional, legal, and

moral.

 Carry out mission requirements.

 Meet professional standards.

 Set the example.

 Comply with policies and directives.

 Continually pursue excellence.

RESPECT

B-4. Leaders who demonstrate respect—

 Treat people as they should be treated.

 Create a climate of fairness and equal opportunity.

 Are discreet and tactful when correcting or

questioning others.

 Show concern for and make an effort to

check on the safety and well-being of others.

 Are courteous.

 Don’t take advantage of positions of authority.

SELFLESS SERVICE

B-5. Leaders who demonstrate selfless

service—

 Put the welfare of the nation, the Army, and

subordinates before their own.

 Sustain team morale.

 Share subordinates’ hardships.

 Give credit for success to others and accept

responsibility for failure themselves.

HONOR

B-6. Leaders who demonstrate honor—

 Live up to Army values.

 Don’t lie, cheat, steal, or tolerate those actions by others.

INTEGRITY

B-7. Leaders who demonstrate integrity—

 Do what is right legally and morally.

 Possess high personal moral standards.

 Are honest in word and deed.

 Show consistently good moral judgment and

behavior.

 Put being right ahead of being popular.

PERSONAL COURAGE

B-8. Leaders who demonstrate personal

courage—

 Show physical and moral bravery.

 Take responsibility for decisions and actions.

 Accept responsibility for mistakes and

shortcomings.

 

	

 
ATTRIBUTES

MENTAL ATTRIBUTES

B-9. Leaders who demonstrate desirable

mental attributes—

 Possess and display will, self-discipline, initiative, judgment, self-confidence, intelligence, common sense, and cultural

awareness.

 Think and act quickly and logically, even

when there are no clear instructions or the

plan falls apart.

 Analyze situations.

 Combine complex ideas to generate feasible

courses of action.

 Balance resolve and flexibility.

 Show a desire to succeed; do not quit in the

face of adversity.

 Do their fair share.

 Balance competing demands.

 Embrace and use the talents of all members

to build team cohesion.

PHYSICAL ATTRIBUTES

B-10. Leaders who demonstrate desirable

physical attributes—

 Maintain an appropriate level of physical

fitness and military bearing.

 Present a neat and professional appearance.

 Meet established norms of personal

hygiene, grooming, and cleanliness.

 Maintain Army height and weight

standards (not applicable to DA civilians).

 Render appropriate military and civilian

courtesies.

 Demonstrate nonverbal expressions and

gestures appropriate to the situation.

 Are personally energetic.

 Cope with hardship.

 Complete physically demanding endeavors.

 Continue to function under adverse

conditions.

 Lead by example in performance, fitness,

and appearance.

EMOTIONAL ATTRIBUTES

B-11. Leaders who demonstrate appropriate

emotional attributes—

 Show self-confidence.

 Remain calm during conditions of stress,

chaos, and rapid change.

 Exercise self-control, balance, and stability.

 Maintain a positive attitude.

 Demonstrate mature, responsible behavior

that inspires trust and earns respect.

SKILLS

INTERPERSONAL SKILLS

B-12. Leaders who demonstrate interpersonal

skills—

 Coach, teach, counsel, motivate, and empower subordinates.

 Readily interact with others.

 Earn trust and respect.

 Actively contribute to problem solving and

decision making.

 Are sought out by peers for expertise and

counsel

CONCEPTUAL SKILLS

B-13. Leaders who demonstrate conceptual

skills—

 Reason critically and ethically.

 Think creatively.

 Anticipate requirements and contingencies.

 Improvise within the commander’s intent.

 Use appropriate reference materials.

 Pay attention to details.

 	
 


 

TECHNICAL SKILLS

B-14. Leaders who demonstrate technical

skills—

 Possess or develop the expertise necessary

to accomplish all assigned tasks and

functions.

 Know standards for task accomplishment.

 Know the small unit tactics, techniques,

and procedures that support the organization’s mission.

 Know the drills that support the organization’s mission.

 Prepare clear, concise operation orders.

 Understand how to apply the factors of mission, enemy, terrain and weather, troops, time

available, and civil considerations (METT-TC)

to mission analysis.

 Master basic soldier skills.

 Know how to use and maintain equipment.

 Know how and what to inspect or check.

 Use technology, especially information

technology, to enhance communication.

TACTICAL SKILLS

B-15. Leaders who demonstrate tactical

skills—

 Know how to apply warfighting doctrine

within the commander’s intent.

 Apply their professional knowledge, judgment, and warfighting skill at the appropriate leadership level.

 Combine and apply skill with people, ideas,

and things to accomplish short-term missions.

 Apply skill with people, ideas, and things to

train for, plan, prepare, execute and assess

offensive, defensive, stability, and support

actions.

ACTIONS

INFLUENCING

B-16. Leaders who influence—

 Use appropriate methods to reach goals

while operating and improving.

 Motivate subordinates to accomplish assigned tasks and missions.

 Set the example by demonstrating enthusiasm for—and, if necessary, methods of—accomplishing assigned tasks.

 Make themselves available to assist peers

and subordinates.

 Share information with subordinates.

 Encourage subordinates and peers to express candid opinions.

 Actively listen to feedback and act appropriately based on it.

 Mediate peer conflicts and disagreements.

 Tactfully confront and correct others when

necessary.

 Earn respect and obtain willing cooperation

of peers, subordinates, and superiors.

 Challenge others to match their example.

 Take care of subordinates and their families, providing for their health, welfare,

morale, and training.

 Are persuasive in peer discussions and prudently rally peer pressure against peers

when required.

 Provide a team vision for the future.

 Shape the organizational climate by setting,

sustaining, and ensuring a values-based environment.

Communicating

B-17. Leaders who communicate effectively—

 Display good oral, written, and listening

skills.

 Persuade others.

 Express thoughts and ideas clearly to individuals and groups.

B-18. Oral Communication. Leaders who

effectively communicate orally—

 Speak clearly and concisely.

 Speak enthusiastically and maintain listeners’ interest and involvement.

 

		

 
 Make appropriate eye contact when speaking.

 Use gestures that are appropriate but not

distracting.

 Convey ideas, feelings, sincerity, and

conviction.

 Express well-thought-out and wellorganized ideas.

 Use grammatically and doctrinally correct

terms and phrases.

 Use appropriate visual aids.

 Act to determine, recognize and resolve misunderstandings.

 Listen and watch attentively; make appropriate notes; convey the essence of what was

said or done to others.

 React appropriately to verbal and nonverbal

feedback.

 Keep conversations on track.

B-19. Written Communication. Leaders

who effectively communicate in writing—

 Are understood in a single rapid reading by

the intended audience.

 Use correct grammar, spelling, and

punctuation.

 Have legible handwriting.

 Put the “bottom line up front.”

 Use the active voice.

 Use an appropriate format, a clear organization, and a reasonably simple style.

 Use only essential acronyms and spell out

those used.

 Stay on topic.

 Correctly use facts and data.

(DA Pam 600-67 discusses techniques for writing effectively.)

Decision Making

B-20. Leaders who make effective, timely

decisions—

 Employ sound judgment and logical reasoning.

 Gather and analyze relevant information

about changing situations to recognize and

define emerging problems.

 Make logical assumptions in the absence of

facts.

 Uncover critical issues to use as a guide in

both making decisions and taking advantage of opportunities.

 Keep informed about developments and policy changes inside and outside the organization.

 Recognize and generate innovative solutions.

 Develop alternative courses of action and

choose the best course of action based on

analysis of their relative costs and benefits.

 Anticipate needs for action.

 Relate and compare information from

different sources to identify possible causeand-effect relationships.

 Consider the impact and implications of decisions on others and on situations.

 Involve others in decisions and keep them

informed of consequences that affect them.

 Take charge when in charge.

 Define intent.

 Consider contingencies and their consequences.

 Remain decisive after discovering a mistake.

 Act in the absence of guidance.

 Improvise within commander’s intent; handle a fluid environment.

Motivating

B-21. Leaders who effectively motivate—

 Inspire, encourage, and guide others toward

mission accomplishment.

 Don’t show discouragement when facing

setbacks.

 Attempt to satisfy subordinates’ needs.

 Give subordinates the reason for tasks.

 Provide accurate, timely, and (where appropriate) positive feedback.

 Actively listen for feedback from subordinates.

 Use feedback to modify duties, tasks, requirements, and goals when appropriate.

 	
 


 

 Recognize individual and team accomplishments and reward them appropriately.

 Recognize poor performance and address it

appropriately.

 Justly apply disciplinary measures.

 Keep subordinates informed.

 Clearly articulate expectations.

 Consider duty positions, capabilities, and

developmental needs when assigning tasks.

 Provide early warning to subordinate leaders of tasks they will be responsible for.

 Define requirements by issuing clear and

concise orders or guidance.

 Allocate as much time as possible for task

completion.

 Accept responsibility for organizational performance. Credit subordinates for good performance. Take responsibility for and

correct poor performance.

OPERATING

B-22. Leaders who effectively operate—

 Accomplish short-term missions.

 Demonstrate tactical and technical competency appropriate to their rank and position.

 Complete individual and unit tasks to standard, on time, and within the commander’s

intent.

Planning and Preparing

B-23. Leaders who effectively plan—

 Develop feasible and acceptable plans for

themselves and others that accomplish the

mission while expending minimum

resources and posturing the organization

for future missions.

 Use forward planning to ensure each course

of action achieves the desired outcome.

 Use reverse planning to ensure that all

tasks can be executed in the time available

and that tasks depending on other tasks are

executed in the correct sequence.

 Determine specified and implied tasks and

restate the higher headquarters’ mission in

terms appropriate to the organization.

 Incorporate adequate controls such as time

phasing; ensure others understand when

actions should begin or end.

 Adhere to the “1/3–2/3 Rule”; give subordinates time to plan.

 Allocate time to prepare and conduct rehearsals.

 Ensure all courses of action accomplish the

mission within the commander’s intent.

 Allocate available resources to competing

demands by setting task priorities based on

the relative importance of each task.

 Address likely contingencies.

 Remain flexible.

 Consider SOPs, the factors of METT-TC,

and the military aspects of terrain

(OCOKA).

 Coordinate plans with higher, lower,

adjacent, and affected organizations.

 Personally arrive on time and meet deadlines; require subordinates and their organizations to accomplish tasks on time.

 Delegate all tasks except those they are required to do personally.

 Schedule activities so the organization

meets all commitments in critical performance areas.

 Recognize and resolve scheduling conflicts.

 Notify peers and subordinates as far in advance as possible when their support is

required.

 Use some form of a personal planning calendar to organize requirements.

Executing

B-24. Leaders who effectively execute—

 Use technical and tactical skills to meet mission standards, take care of people, and accomplish the mission with available

resources.

 Perform individual and collective tasks to

standard.

 Execute plans, adjusting when necessary, to

accomplish the mission.

 Encourage initiative.

 Keep higher and lower headquarters, superiors, and subordinates informed.

 

		

 
 Keep track of people and equipment.

 Make necessary on-the-spot corrections.

 Adapt to and handle fluid environments.

 Fight through obstacles, difficulties, and

hardships to accomplish the mission.

 Keep track of task assignments and suspenses; adjust assignments, if necessary;

follow up.

Assessing

B-25. Leaders who effectively assess—

 Use assessment techniques and evaluation

tools (especially AARs) to identify lessons

learned and facilitate consistent improvement.

 Establish and employ procedures for monitoring, coordinating, and regulating subordinates’ actions and activities.

 Conduct initial assessments when beginning a new task or assuming a new position.

 Conduct IPRs.

 Analyze activities to determine how desired

end states are achieved or affected.

 Seek sustainment in areas when the organization meets the standard.

 Observe and assess actions in progress

without oversupervising.

 Judge results based on standards.

 Sort out important actual and potential

problems.

 Conduct and facilitate AARs; identify lessons.

 Determine causes, effects, and contributing

factors for problems.

 Analyze activities to determine how desired

end states can be achieved ethically.

IMPROVING

B-26. Leaders who effectively improve the

organization—

 Sustain skills and actions that benefit themselves and each of their people for the future.

 Sustain and renew the organization for the

future by managing change and exploiting

individual and institutional learning capabilities.

 Create and sustain an environment where

all leaders, subordinates, and organizations

can reach their full potential.

Developing

B-27. Leaders who effectively develop—

 Strive to improve themselves, subordinates,

and the organization.

 Mentor by investing adequate time and effort in counseling, coaching, and teaching

their individual subordinates and subordinate leaders.

 Set the example by displaying high standards of duty performance, personal appearance, military and professional bearing,

and ethics.

 Create a climate that expects good performance, recognizes superior performance,

and doesn’t accept poor performance.

 Design tasks to provide practice in areas of

subordinate leaders’ weaknesses.

 Clearly articulate tasks and expectations

and set realistic standards.

 Guide subordinate leaders in thinking

through problems for themselves.

 Anticipate mistakes and freely offer

assistance without being overbearing.

 Observe, assess, counsel, coach, and evaluate subordinate leaders.

 Motivate subordinates to develop

themselves.

 Arrange training opportunities that help

subordinates achieve insight, selfawareness, self-esteem, and effectiveness.

 Balance the organization’s tasks, goals, and

objectives with subordinates’ personal and

professional needs.

 Develop subordinate leaders who demonstrate respect for natural resources and the

environment.

 Act to expand and enhance subordinates’

competence and self-confidence.

 Encourage initiative.

 Create and contribute to a positive organizational climate.

 Build on successes.

 Improve weaknesses.

 	
 


 

Building

B-28. Leaders who effectively build—

 Spend time and resources improving the organization.

 Foster a healthy ethical climate.

 Act to improve the organization’s collective

performance.

 Comply with and support organizational

goals.

 Encourage people to work effectively with

each other.

 Promote teamwork and team achievement.

 Are examples of team players.

 Offer suggestions, but properly execute decisions of the chain of command and NCO

support channel—even unpopular ones—as

if they were their own.

 Accept and act on assigned tasks.

 Volunteer in useful ways.

 Remain positive when the situation

becomes confused or changes.

 Use the chain of command and NCO support channel to solve problems.

 Support equal opportunity.

 Prevent sexual harassment.

 Participate in organizational activities and

functions.

 Participate in team tasks and missions

without being requested to do so.

 Establish an organizational climate that

demonstrates respect for the environment

and stewards natural resources.

Learning

B-29. Leaders who effectively learn—

 Seek self-improvement in weak areas.

 Encourage organizational growth.

 Envision, adapt, and lead change.

 Act to expand and enhance personal and organizational knowledge and capabilities.

 Apply lessons learned.

 Ask incisive questions.

 Envision ways to improve.

 Design ways to practice.

 Endeavor to broaden their understanding.

 Transform experience into knowledge and

use it to improve future performance.

 Make knowledge accessible to the entire organization.

 Exhibit reasonable self-awareness.

 Take time off to grow and recreate.

 Embrace and manage change; adopt a

future orientation.

 Use experience to improve themselves and

the organization.

 

		

 
Plan of Action

Session Closing:

Leader Responsibilities:

Assessment

: (Outlines actions that the subordinate will do after the counseling session to reach the agreed upon goals(s).

The actions must be specific enough to modify or maintain the subordinate's behavior and include a specific time line for

implementation and assessment (Part IV below)).

(The leader summarizes the key points of the session and checks if the subordinate understands the plan

of action. The subordinate agrees/disagrees and provides remarks if appropriate).

Individual counseled: I agree/ disagree with the information above

Individual counseled remarks:

Signature of Individual Counseled: Date:

(Leader's responsibilities in implementing the plan of action).

PFC Lloyd will visit the DPP office to make an immediate partial payment of $20 and will give me a copy of the receipt as

soon as the payment is made. PFC Lloyd will also provide me with a copy of the next month's phone bill and DPP payment

receipt.

PFC Lloyd's finances will be a key topic of discussion at his next monthly counseling session.

Signature of Counselor: Date:

(Did the plan of action achieve the desired results? This section is completed by both the leader and the

individual counseled and provides useful information for follow-up counseling):

Counselor: Individual Counseled: Date of Assessment:

Based on our discussion, PFC Lloyd will be able to resume normal payment on his DPP account next month (assuming that

his phone bill is approximately $50). PFC Lloyd agreed to contact the DPP office and provide a partial payment of $20

immediately. He agreed to exercise self-restraint and not make long distance calls as frequently. He decided that his goal

is to make one ten-minute phone call every two weeks. He will write letters to express concern over his grandmother's

condition and ask his parents to do the same to keep him informed. His long-term goal is to establish a savings account

with a goal of contributing $50 a month.

PFC Lloyd also agreed to attend the check cashing class at ACS on 2, 9, and 16 April.

Assessment date: 27 June

Andrew Lloyd 28 March 1997

Mark Levy 28 March 1997

PART IV - ASSESSMENT OF THE PLAN OF ACTION

Note: Both the counselor and the individual counseled should retain a record of the counseling.

DA FORM 4856-E (Reverse)

Figure C-9 (continued). Example of a Developmental Counseling Form—Event Counseling

Developmental Counseling

Army Leadership C-19
DEVELOPMENTAL COUNSELING FORM For use of this form see FM 22-100

DATA REQUIRED BY THE PRIVACY ACT OF 1974

Key Points of Discussion:

AUTHORITY: 5 USC 301, Departmental Regulations; 10 USC 3013, Secretary of the Army and E.O. 9397 (SSN)

PRINCIPAL PURPOSE: To assist leaders in conducting and recording counseling data pertaining to subordinates.

ROUTINE USES: For subordinate leader development IAW FM 22-100. Leaders should use this form as necessary.

DISCLOSURE: Disclosure is voluntary.

PART I - ADMINISTRATIVE DATA

PART II - BACKGROUND INFORMATION

Purpose of Counseling

PART III - SUMMARY OF COUNSELING

Complete this section during or immediately subsequent to counseling.

Name (Last, First, MI) Rank / Grade Social Security No. Date of Counseling

Organization Name and Title of Counselor

: (Leader states the reason for the counseling, e.g. performance/professional or eventoriented counseling and includes the leader's facts and observations prior to the counseling):

McDonald, Stephen 1SG 333-33-3333 13 March 1998

D Company, 3–95 IN CPT Peterson, Company Commander

.

Emphasized safety and knowledge of demolition, tactical proficiency on the Platoon Live Fire Exercises.

Took charge of company defense during the last major field training exercise; outstanding integration and use of

engineer, heavy weapons, and air defense artillery assets. Superb execution of defense preparations and execution.

No dropped white cycle taskings.

Good job coordinating with battalion adjutant on legal and personnel issues.

Continue to take care of soldiers, keep the commander abreast of problems.

Focused on subordinate NCO development; right man for the right job.

Get NCODPs on the calendar.

Hold NCOs to standard on sergeants time training.

th

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

To discuss duty performance for the period 19 Dec 97 to 11 March 1998

To discuss short-range professional growth goals/plan for next year.

Talk about long-range professional growth (2-5 years) goals.

Performance (sustain):

Improve:

OTHER INSTRUCTIONS

This form will be destroyed upon: reassignment (other than rehabilitative transfers), separation at ETS, or upon retirement. For

separation requirements and notification of loss of benefits/consequences see local directives and AR 635-200.

DA FORM 4856-E, JUN 99 EDITION OF JUN 85 IS OBSOLETE

Figure C-10. Example of a Developmental Counseling Form—

Performance/Professional Growth Counseling

Appendix C

C-20 FM 22-100
Plan of Action

Session Closing:

Leader Responsibilities:

Assessment

: (Outlines actions that the subordinate will do after the counseling session to reach the agreed upon goals(s).

The actions must be specific enough to modify or maintain the subordinate's behavior and include a specific time line for

implementation and assessment (Part IV below)).

(The leader summarizes the key points of the session and checks if the subordinate understands the plan

of action. The subordinate agrees/disagrees and provides remarks if appropriate).

Individual counseled: I agree/ disagree with the information above

Individual counseled remarks:

Signature of Individual Counseled: 1SG McDonald Date:

(Leader's responsibilities in implementing the plan of action).

Signature of Counselor: Date:

(Did the plan of action achieve the desired results? This section is completed by both the leader and the

individual counseled and provides useful information for follow-up counseling):

Counselor: Individual Counseled: Date of Assessment:

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

Developmental Plan (next year):

Long-range goals (2 to 5 years):

Develop a yearlong plan for NCODPs; coordinate to place on the calendar and training schedules.

Resume civilian education; correspondence courses.

Develop a company soldier of the month competition.

Assist the company XO in modularizing the supply room for quick, efficient load-outs.

Put in place a program to develop Ranger School candidates.

Earn bachelor's degree.

Attend and graduate the Sergeant Majors Academy.

13 March 1998

Mark Levy 28 March 1997

1SG McDonald has enrolled in an associates degree program at the University of Kentucky. The supply room received all

green evaluations during the last command inspection. Five of seven Ranger applicants successfully completed Ranger

School, exceeding the overall course completion rate of 39%. Monthly soldier of the month boards proved to be impractical

because of the OPTEMPO; however, the company does now hold quarterly boards during the white cycle. Brigade command

sergeant major commented favorably on the last company NCODP he attended and gave the instructor a brigade coin.

CPT Peterson 1SG McDonald 1 Aug 98

Coordinate with the 1SG on scheduling of NCODPs and soldier of the month boards.

Have the XO meet with the 1SG on developing a plan for modularizing and improving the supply room.

Provide time for Ranger candidate program.

PART IV - ASSESSMENT OF THE PLAN OF ACTION

Note: Both the counselor and the individual counseled should retain a record of the counseling.

DA FORM 4856-E (Reverse)

Figure C-10 (continued). Example of a Developmental Counseling Form—

Performance/Professional Growth Counseling

Developmental Counseling

Army Leadership C-21
DEVELOPMENTAL COUNSELING FORM For use of this form see FM 22-100

DATA REQUIRED BY THE PRIVACY ACT OF 1974

Key Points of Discussion:

AUTHORITY: 5 USC 301, Departmental Regulations; 10 USC 3013, Secretary of the Army and E.O. 9397 (SSN)

PRINCIPAL PURPOSE: To assist leaders in conducting and recording counseling data pertaining to subordinates.

ROUTINE USES: For subordinate leader development IAW FM 22-100. Leaders should use this form as necessary.

DISCLOSURE: Disclosure is voluntary.

PART I - ADMINISTRATIVE DATA

PART II - BACKGROUND INFORMATION

Purpose of Counseling

PART III - SUMMARY OF COUNSELING

Complete this section during or immediately subsequent to counseling.

Name (Last, First, MI) Rank / Grade Social Security No. Date of Counseling

Organization Name and Title of Counselor

: (Leader states the reason for the counseling, e.g. performance/professional or eventoriented counseling and includes the leader's facts and observations prior to the counseling):

Open the Sessio

Discuss the Issues.

See paragraph C-68,

The leader should annotate pertinent, specific, and objective facts and observations made. If applicable, the leader

and subordinate start the counseling session by reviewing the status of the previous plan of action.

See paragraphs C-69 and C-70,

The leader and subordinate should attempt to develop a mutual understanding of the issues. Both the leader and the

subordinate should provide examples or cite specific observations to reduce the perception that either is unnecessarily

biased or judgmental.

n

OTHER INSTRUCTIONS

This form will be destroyed upon: reassignment (other than rehabilitative transfers), separation at ETS, or upon retirement. For

separation requirements and notification of loss of benefits/consequences see local directives and AR 635-200.

DA FORM 4856-E, JUN 99 EDITION OF JUN 85 IS OBSOLETE

Figure C-11. Guidelines on Completing a Developmental Counseling Form

Appendix C

C-22 FM 22-100
Plan of Action

Session Closing:

Leader Responsibilities:

Assessment

: (Outlines actions that the subordinate will do after the counseling session to reach the agreed upon goals(s).

The actions must be specific enough to modify or maintain the subordinate's behavior and include a specific time line for

implementation and assessment (Part IV below)).

Develop a Plan of Action

(The leader summarizes the key points of the session and checks if the subordinate understands the plan

of action. The subordinate agrees/disagrees and provides remarks if appropriate).

Individual counseled: I agree/ disagree with the information above

Individual counseled remarks:

Close the Session

Signature of Individual Counseled: Date:

(Leader's responsibilities in implementing the plan of action).

Leader’s Responsibilities

Signature of Counselor: Date:

(Did the plan of action achieve the desired results? This section is completed by both the leader and the

individual counseled and provides useful information for follow-up counseling):

Counselor: Individual Counseled: Date of Assessment:

See paragraph C-71,

The plan of action specifies what the subordinate must do to reach the goals set during the counseling session. The plan of

action must be specific and should contain the outline, guideline(s), and time line that the subordinate follows. A specific

and achievable plan of action sets the stage for successful subordinate development.

Remember, event-oriented counseling with corrective training as part of the plan of action can’t be tied to a specified time

frame. Corrective training is complete once the subordinate attains the standard.

See paragraph C-72 through C-74,

See paragraph C76,

To accomplish the plan of action, the leader must list the resources necessary and commit to providing them to the soldier.

The assessment of the plan of action provides useful information for future follow-up counseling. This block should be

completed prior to the start of a follow-up counseling session. During an event-oriented counseling session, the counseling

session is not complete until this block is completed.

During performance/professional growth counseling, this block serves as the starting point for future counseling sessions.

Leaders must remember to conduct this assessment based on resolution of the situation or the established time line

discussed in the plan of action block above.

PART IV - ASSESSMENT OF THE PLAN OF ACTION

Note: Both the counselor and the individual counseled should retain a record of the counseling.

DA FORM 4856-E (Reverse)

Figure C-11 (continued). Guidelines on Completing a Developmental Counseling Form

Developmental Counseling

Army Leadership C-23
Appendix C

Developmental Counseling

C-1. Subordinate leadership development is

one of the most important responsibilities of

every Army leader. Developing the leaders who

will come after you should be one of your highest priorities. Your legacy and the Army’s future rests on the shoulders of those you prepare

for greater responsibility.

C-2. Leadership development reviews are a

means to focus the growing of tomorrow’s leaders. Think of them as AARs with a focus of making leaders more effective every day. These

important reviews are not necessarily limited

to internal counseling sessions; leadership feedback mechanisms also apply in operational settings such as the CTCs.

C-3. Just as training includes AARs and training strategies to fix shortcomings, leadership

development includes performance reviews.

These reviews result in agreements between

leader and subordinate on a development strategy or plan of action that builds on the subordinate’s strengths and establishes goals to

improve on weaknesses. Leaders conduct performance reviews and create plans of action

during developmental counseling.

C-4. Leadership development reviews are a

component of the broader concept of developmental counseling. Developmental counseling

is subordinate-centered communication that

produces a plan outlining actions that subordinates must take to achieve individual and organizational goals. During developmental

counseling, subordinates are not merely passive listeners; they’re actively involved in the

process. The Developmental Counseling Form

(DA Form 4856-E, which is discussed at the end

of this appendix) provides a useful framework

to prepare for almost any type of counseling.

Use it to help you mentally organize issues and

isolate important, relevant items to cover during counseling sessions.

C-5. Developmental counseling is a shared effort. As a leader, you assist your subordinates in

identifying strengths and weaknesses and creating plans of action. Then you support them

throughout the plan implementation and assessment. However, to achieve success, your

subordinates must be forthright in their commitment to improve and candid in their own assessment and goal setting.

THE LEADER’S RESPONSIBILITIES

C-6. Organizational readiness and mission accomplishment depend on every member’s ability to perform to established standards.

Supervisors must mentor their subordinates

through teaching, coaching, and counseling.

Leaders coach subordinates the same way

sports coaches improve their teams: by identifying weaknesses, setting goals, developing and

implementing plans of action, and providing

oversight and motivation throughout the process. To be effective coaches, leaders must thoroughly understand the strengths, weaknesses,

and professional goals of their subordinates.

(Chapter 5 discusses coaching.)

C-7. Army leaders evaluate DA civilians using

procedures prescribed under the Total Army

Performance Evaluation System (TAPES). Although TAPES doesn’t address developmental

counseling, you can use DA Form 4856-E to

counsel DA civilians concerning professional

growth and career goals. DA Form 4856-E is

not appropriate for documenting counseling

concerning DA civilian misconduct or poor performance. The servicing civilian personnel office can provide guidance for such situations.

C-8. Soldiers and DA civilians often perceive

counseling as an adverse action. Effective leaders

 	
 

who counsel properly can change that perception.

Army leaders conduct counseling to help subordinates become better members of the team, maintain or improve performance, and prepare for the

future. Just as no easy answers exist for exactly

what to do in all leadership situations, no easy

answers exist for exactly what to do in all counseling situations. However, to conduct effective

counseling, you should develop a counseling style

with the characteristics listed in Figure C-1.

THE LEADER AS A COUNSELOR

C-9. Army leaders must demonstrate certain

qualities to be effective counselors. These qualities include respect for subordinates, selfawareness and cultural awareness, empathy,

and credibility.

RESPECT FOR SUBORDINATES

C-10. As an Army leader, you show respect for

subordinates when you allow them to take responsibility for their own ideas and actions. Respecting subordinates helps create mutual

respect in the leader-subordinate relationship.

Mutual respect improves the chances of changing (or maintaining) behavior and achieving

goals.

SELF AWARENESS AND CULTURAL

AWARENESS

C-11. As an Army leader, you must be fully

aware of your own values, needs, and biases

prior to counseling subordinates. Self-aware

leaders are less likely to project their biases

onto subordinates. Also, aware leaders are

more likely to act consistently with their own

values and actions.

C-12. Cultural awareness, as discussed in

Chapter 2, is a mental attribute. As an Army

leader, you need to be aware of the similarities

and differences between individuals of different

cultural backgrounds and how these factors

may influence values, perspectives, and actions.

Don’t let unfamiliarity with cultural backgrounds hinder you in addressing cultural issues, especially if they generate concerns

within the organization or hinder teambuilding. Cultural awareness enhances your

ability to display empathy.

 

	

 

 Purpose: Clearly define the purpose of the counseling.

 Flexibility: Fit the counseling style to the character of each subordinate and to the relationship desired.

 Respect: View subordinates as unique, complex individuals, each with a distinct set of values,

beliefs, and attitudes.

 Communication: Establish open, two-way communication with subordinates using spoken

language, nonverbal actions, gestures, and body language. Effective counselors listen more

than they speak.

 Support: Encourage subordinates through actions while guiding them through their problems.

Figure C-1. Characteristics of Effective Counseling
EMPATHY

C-13. Empathy is the action of being

understanding of and sensitive to the feelings,

thoughts, and experiences of another person to

the point that you can almost feel or experience

them yourself. Leaders with empathy can put

themselves in their subordinate’s shoes; they

can see a situation from the other person’s perspective. By understanding the subordinate’s

position, you can help a subordinate develop a

plan of action that fits the subordinate’s personality and needs, one that works for the subordinate. If you don’t fully comprehend a

situation from your subordinate’s point of view,

you have less credibility and influence and your

subordinate is less likely to commit to the

agreed upon plan of action.

CREDIBILITY

C-14. Leaders achieve credibility by being honest and consistent in their statements and actions. To be credible, use a straightforward

style with your subordinates. Behave in a manner that your subordinates respect and trust.

You can earn credibility by repeatedly demonstrating your willingness to assist a subordinate and being consistent in what you say and

do. If you lack credibility with your subordinates you’ll find it difficult to influence them.

LEADER COUNSELING SKILLS

C-15. One challenging aspect of counseling is

selecting the proper approach to a specific

situation. To counsel effectively, the technique

you use must fit the situation, your capabilities,

and your subordinate’s expectations. In some

cases, you may only need to give information or

listen. A subordinate’s improvement may call

for just a brief word of praise. Other situations

may require structured counseling followed by

definite actions.

C-16. All leaders should seek to develop and

improve their own counseling abilities. You can

improve your counseling techniques by studying human behavior, learning the kinds of problems that affect your subordinates, and

developing your interpersonal skills. The techniques needed to provide effective counseling

will vary from person to person and session to

session. However, general skills that you’ll

need in almost every situation include active

listening, responding, and questioning.

ACTIVE LISTENING

C-17. During counseling, you must actively listen to your subordinate. When you’re actively

listening, you communicate verbally and nonverbally that you’ve received the subordinate’s

message. To fully understand a subordinate’s

message, you must listen to the words and observe the subordinate’s manners. Elements of

active listening you should consider include—

 Eye contact. Maintaining eye contact

without staring helps show sincere interest.

Occasional breaks of contact are normal and

acceptable. Subordinates may perceive

excessive breaks of eye contact, paper shuffling, and clock-watching as a lack of interest or concern. These are guidelines only.

Based on cultural background, participants

in a particular counseling session may have

different ideas about what proper eye

contact is.

 Body posture. Being relaxed and comfortable will help put the subordinate at

ease. However, a too-relaxed position or

slouching may be interpreted as a lack of interest.

 Head nods. Occasionally nodding your

head shows you’re paying attention and

encourages the subordinate to continue.

 Facial expressions. Keep your facial

expressions natural and relaxed. A blank

look or fixed expression may disturb the

subordinate. Smiling too much or frowning

may discourage the subordinate from

continuing.

 Verbal expressions. Refrain from talking

too much and avoid interrupting. Let the

subordinate do the talking while keeping

the discussion on the counseling subject.

Speaking only when necessary reinforces

the importance of what the subordinate is

saying and encourages the subordinate to

 	
 


 

continue. Silence can also do this, but be

careful. Occasional silence may indicate to

the subordinate that it’s okay to continue

talking, but a long silence can sometimes be

distracting and make the subordinate feel

uncomfortable.

C-18. Active listening also means listening

thoughtfully and deliberately to the way a subordinate says things. Stay alert for common

themes. A subordinate’s opening and closing

statements as well as recurring references may

indicate the subordinate’s priorities. Inconsistencies and gaps may indicate a subordinate’s

avoidance of the real issue. This confusion and

uncertainty may suggest additional questions.

C-19. While listening, pay attention to the subordinate’s gestures. These actions complete the

total message. By watching the subordinate’s

actions, you can “see” the feelings behind the

words. Not all actions are proof of a subordinate’s feelings, but they should be taken into

consideration. Note differences between what

the subordinate says and does. Nonverbal indicators of a subordinate’s attitude include—

 Boredom. Drumming on the table,

doodling, clicking a ball-point pen, or resting the head in the palm of the hand.

 Self-confidence. Standing tall, leaning

back with hands behind the head, and

maintaining steady eye contact.

 Defensiveness. Pushing deeply into a

chair, glaring at the leader, and making

sarcastic comments as well as crossing or

folding arms in front of the chest.

 Frustration. Rubbing eyes, pulling on an

ear, taking short breaths, wringing the

hands, or frequently changing total body position.

 Interest, friendliness, and openness.

Moving toward the leader while sitting.

 Openness or anxiety. Sitting on the edge

of the chair with arms uncrossed and hands

open.

C-20. Consider these indicators carefully. Although each indicator may show something

about the subordinate, don’t assume a particular behavior absolutely means something. Ask

the subordinate about the indicator so you can

better understand the behavior and allow the

subordinate to take responsibility for it.

RESPONDING

C-21. Responding skills follow-up on active listening skills. A leader responds to communicate

that the leader understands the subordinate.

From time to time, check your understanding:

clarify and confirm what has been said. Respond

to subordinates both verbally and nonverbally.

Verbal responses consist of summarizing, interpreting, and clarifying the subordinate’s message. Nonverbal responses include eye contact

and occasional gestures such as a head nod.

QUESTIONING

C-22. Although questioning is a necessary skill,

you must use it with caution. Too many questions can aggravate the power differential between a leader and a subordinate and place the

subordinate in a passive mode. The subordinate

may also react to excessive questioning as an intrusion of privacy and become defensive. During a leadership development review, ask

questions to obtain information or to get the

subordinate to think about a particular situation. Generally, the questions should be openended so as to evoke more than a yes or no answer. Well-posed questions may help to verify

understanding, encourage further explanation,

or help the subordinate move through the

stages of the counseling session.

COUNSELING ERRORS

C-23. Effective leaders avoid common

counseling mistakes. Dominating the counseling by talking too much, giving unnecessary or

inappropriate “advice,” not truly listening, and

projecting personal likes, dislikes, biases, and

prejudices all interfere with effective

counseling. You should also avoid other common mistakes such as rash judgments, stereotypes, loss of emotional control, inflexible

methods of counseling and improper follow-up.

To improve your counseling skills, follow the

guidelines in Figure C-2.

 

		

 
THE LEADER’S LIMITATIONS

C-24. Army leaders can’t help everyone in every

situation. Even professional counselors can’t

provide all the help that a person might need.

You must recognize your limitations and, when

the situation calls for it, refer a subordinate to a

person or agency more qualified to help.

C-25. These agencies Figure C-3 lists can help

you and your people resolve problems. Although

it’s generally in an individual’s best interest to

seek help first from their first-line leaders, leaders must always respect an individual’s right to

contact most of these agencies on their own.

 	
 


 


 Determine the subordinate’s role in the situation and what the subordinate has done to resolve

the problem or improve performance.

 Draw conclusions based on more than the subordinate’s statement.

 Try to understand what the subordinate says and feels; listen to what the subordinate says and

how the subordinate says it.

 Show empathy when discussing the problem.

 When asking questions, be sure that you need the information.

 Keep the conversation open-ended; avoid interrupting.

 Give the subordinate your full attention.

 Be receptive to the subordinate’s feelings without feeling responsible to save the subordinate

from hurting.

 Encourage the subordinate to take the initiative and to say what the subordinate wants to say.

 Avoid interrogating.

 Keep your personal experiences out of the counseling session unless you believe your experiences will really help.

 Listen more; talk less.

 Remain objective.

 Avoid confirming a subordinate’s prejudices.

 Help the subordinate help himself.

 Know what information to keep confidential and what to present to the chain of command.

Figure C-2. Guidelines to Improve Counseling
 

		

 



 

	


 	
 	
 	
  	
 	
 	   		

 	 		  	    	

	  	 	
  	  
	  
 

 	 	 	 	 	  

	  	
  
	 
 	 	 	  			
 	


   
 
  
 


	  	 
	   
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Figure C-3. Support Activities
TYPES OF DEVELOPMENTAL COUNSELING

C-26. You can often categorize developmental

counseling based on the topic of the session. The

two major categories of counseling are eventoriented and performance/professional growth.

EVENT-ORIENTED COUNSELING

C-27. Event-oriented counseling involves a

specific event or situation. It may precede

events, such as going to a promotion board or

attending a school; or it may follow events, such

as a noteworthy duty performance, a problem

with performance or mission accomplishment,

or a personal problem. Examples of eventoriented counseling include, but are not limited

to—

 Specific instances of superior or substandard performance.

 Reception and integration counseling.

 Crisis counseling.

 Referral counseling.

 Promotion counseling.

 Separation counseling.

Counseling for Specific Instances

C-28. Sometimes counseling is tied to specific

instances of superior or substandard duty performance. You tell your subordinate whether or

not the performance met the standard and what

the subordinate did right or wrong. The key to

successful counseling for specific performance

is to conduct it as close to the event as possible.

C-29. Many leaders focus counseling for specific instances on poor performance and miss,

or at least fail to acknowledge, excellent performance. You should counsel subordinates for

specific examples of superior as well as substandard duty performance. To measure your own

performance and counseling emphasis, you can

note how often you document counseling for superior versus substandard performance.

C-30. You should counsel subordinates who

don’t meet the standard. If the subordinate’s

performance is unsatisfactory because of a lack

of knowledge or ability, you and the subordinate should develop a plan to improve the subordinate’s skills. Corrective training may be

required at times to ensure the subordinate

knows and achieves the standard. Once the subordinate can achieve the standard, you should

end the corrective training.

C-31. When counseling a subordinate for a specific performance, take the following actions:

 Tell the subordinate the purpose of the

counseling, what was expected, and how the

subordinate failed to meet the standard.

 Address the specific unacceptable behavior

or action, not the person’s character.

 Tell the subordinate the effect of the behavior, action, or performance on the rest of the

organization.

 Actively listen to the subordinate’s response.

 Remain unemotional.

 Teach the subordinate how to meet the

standard.

 Be prepared to do some personal counseling,

since a failure to meet the standard may be

related to or the result of an unresolved personal problem.

 Explain to the subordinate what will be

done to improve performance (plan of action). Identify your responsibilities in implementing the plan of action; continue to

assess and follow up on the subordinate’s

progress. Adjust plan of action as necessary.

Reception and Integration Counseling

C-32. As the leader, you must counsel new

team members when they arrive at your organization. This reception and integration counseling serves two purposes. First, it identifies and

helps fix any problems or concerns that new

members may have, especially any issues resulting from the new duty assignment. Second,

it lets them know the organizational standards

and how they fit into the team. It clarifies job titles and sends the message that the chain of

command cares. Reception and integration

counseling should begin immediately upon arrival so new team members can quickly become

integrated into the organization. (Figure C-4

gives some possible discussion points.)

 	
 


 

Crisis Counseling

C-33. You may conduct crisis counseling to get

a subordinate through the initial shock after receiving negative news, such as notification of

the death of a loved one. You may assist the subordinate by listening and, as appropriate, providing assistance. Assistance may include

referring the subordinate to a support activity

or coordinating external agency support. Crisis

counseling focuses on the subordinate’s immediate, short-term needs.

Referral Counseling

C-34. Referral counseling helps subordinates

work through a personal situation and may or

may not follow crisis counseling. Referral counseling may also act as preventative counseling

before the situation becomes a problem. Usually, the leader assists the subordinate in identifying the problem and refers the subordinate

to the appropriate resource, such as Army Community Services, a chaplain, or an alcohol and

drug counselor. (Figure C-3 lists support activities.)

Promotion Counseling

C-35. Leaders must conduct promotion counseling for all specialists and sergeants who are

eligible for advancement without waivers but

not recommended for promotion to the next

higher grade. Army regulations require that

soldiers within this category receive initial

(event-oriented) counseling when they attain

full eligibility and then periodic (performance/personal growth) counseling thereafter.

Adverse Separation Counseling

C-36. Adverse separation counseling may involve informing the soldier of the administrative actions available to the commander in the

event substandard performance continues and

of the consequences associated with those administrative actions (see AR 635-200).

C-37. Developmental counseling may not apply

when an individual has engaged in more serious

acts of misconduct. In those situations, you

should refer the matter to the commander and

the servicing staff judge advocate. When the

leader’s rehabilitative efforts fail, counseling

with a view towards separation fills an administrative prerequisite to many administrative discharges and serves as a final warning to the

soldier to improve performance or face discharge. In many situations, it may be beneficial

to involve the chain of command as soon as you

determine that adverse separation counseling

might be required. A unit first sergeant or commander should be the person who informs the

soldier of the notification requirements outlined in AR 635-200.

 

		

 

 Organizational standards.

 Chain of command.

 NCO support channel (who and how used).

 On-and-off duty conduct.

 Personnel/personal affairs/initial clothing issue.

 Organizational history, organization, and mission.

 Soldier programs within the organization, such as soldier of the month/quarter/year and Audie

Murphy.

 Off limits and danger areas.

 Functions and locations of support activities (see Figure C-3).

 On- and off-post recreational, educational, cultural, and historical opportunities.

 Foreign nation or host nation orientation.

 Other areas the individual should be aware of, as determined by the leader.

Figure C-4. Reception and Integration Counseling Points
PERFORMANCE AND PROFESSIONAL

GROWTH COUNSELING

Performance Counseling

C-38. During performance counseling, you conduct a review of a subordinate’s duty performance during a certain period. You and the

subordinate jointly establish performance objectives and standards for the next period.

Rather than dwelling on the past, you should focus the session on the subordinate’s strengths,

areas needing improvement, and potential.

C-39. Performance counseling is required under the officer, NCO, and DA civilian evaluation

reporting systems. The OER process requires

periodic performance counseling as part of the

OER Support Form requirements. Mandatory,

face-to-face performance counseling between

the rater and the rated NCO is required under

the NCOERS. TAPES includes a combination

of both of these requirements.

C-40. Counseling at the beginning of and during the evaluation period facilitates a subordinate’s involvement in the evaluation process.

Performance counseling communicates standards and is an opportunity for leaders to establish and clarify the expected values, attributes,

skills, and actions. Part IVb (Leader Attributes/Skills/Actions) of the OER Support Form

(DA Form 67-9-1) serves as an excellent tool for

leaders doing performance counseling. For

lieutenants and warrant officers one, the major

performance objectives on the OER Support

Form are used as the basis for determining the

developmental tasks on the Junior Officer Developmental Support Form (DA Form 67-9-1a).

Quarterly face-to-face performance and developmental counseling is required for these junior

officers as outlined in AR 623-105.

C-41. As an Army leader, you must ensure

you’ve tied your expectations to performance

objectives and appropriate standards. You must

establish standards that your subordinates can

work towards and must teach them how to

achieve the standards if they are to develop.

Professional Growth Counseling

C-42. Professional growth counseling includes

planning for the accomplishment of individual

and professional goals. You conduct this

counseling to assist subordinates in achieving

organizational and individual goals. During the

counseling, you and your subordinate conduct a

review to identify and discuss the subordinate’s

strengths and weaknesses and create a plan of

action to build upon strengths and overcome

weaknesses. This counseling isn’t normally

event-driven.

C-43. As part of professional growth

counseling, you may choose to discuss and develop a “pathway to success” with the subordinate. This future-oriented counseling

establishes short- and long-term goals and objectives. The discussion may include opportunities for civilian or military schooling, future

duty assignments, special programs, and reenlistment options. Every person’s needs are different, and leaders must apply specific courses

of action tailored to each individual.

C-44. Career field counseling is required for

lieutenants and captains before they’re

considered for promotion to major. Raters

and senior raters, in conjunction with the

rated officer, need to determine where the officer’s skills best fit the needs of the Army.

During career field counseling, consideration

must be given to the rated officer’s preference and his abilities (both performance and

academic). The rater and senior rater should

discuss career field designation with the officer prior to making a recommendation on the

rated officer’s OER.

C-45. While these categories can help you organize and focus counseling sessions, they

should not be viewed as separate, distinct, or

exhaustive. For example, a counseling session that focuses on resolving a problem may

also address improving duty performance. A

session focused on performance may also include a discussion on opportunities for professional growth. Regardless of the topic of

the counseling session, leaders should follow

the same basic format to prepare for and

conduct it.

 	
 


 

APPROACHES TO COUNSELING

C-46. An effective leader approaches each subordinate as an individual. Different people and

different situations require different counseling approaches. Three approaches to counseling include nondirective, directive, and

combined. These approaches differ in the techniques used, but they all fit the definition of

counseling and contribute to its overall purpose. The major difference between the approaches is the degree to which the subordinate

participates and interacts during a counseling

session. Figure C-5 summarizes the advantages

and disadvantages of each approach.

NONDIRECTIVE

C-47. The nondirective approach is preferred

for most counseling sessions. Leaders use their

experienced insight and judgment to assist subordinates in developing solutions. You should

partially structure this type of counseling by

telling the subordinate about the counseling

process and explaining what you expect.

C-48. During the counseling session, listen

rather than make decisions or give advice. Clarify what’s said. Cause the subordinate to bring

out important points, so as to better understand the situation. When appropriate, summarize the discussion. Avoid providing solutions or

rendering opinions; instead, maintain a focus

on individual and organizational goals and objectives. Ensure the subordinate’s plan of action supports those goals and objectives.

DIRECTIVE

C-49. The directive approach works best to correct simple problems, make on-the-spot corrections, and correct aspects of duty performance.

The leader using the directive style does most of

the talking and tells the subordinate what to do

and when to do it. In contrast to the nondirective approach, the leader directs a course of action for the subordinate.

C-50. Choose this approach when time is short,

when you alone know what to do, or if a subordinate has limited problem-solving skills. It’s

also appropriate when a subordinate needs

guidance, is immature, or is insecure.

COMBINED

C-51. In the combined approach, the leader

uses techniques from both the directive and

nondirective approaches, adjusting them to articulate what’s best for the subordinate. The

combined approach emphasizes the subordinate’s planning and decision-making

responsibilities.

C-52. With your assistance, the subordinate

develops the subordinate’s own plan of action.

You should listen, suggest possible courses, and

help analyze each possible solution to determine its good and bad points. You should then

help the subordinate fully understand all aspects of the situation and encourage the subordinate to decide which solution is best.

  

	

 
COUNSELING TECHNIQUES

C-53. As an Army leader, you may select from a

variety of techniques when counseling subordinates. These counseling techniques, when appropriately used, cause subordinates to do

things or improve upon their performance. You

can use these methods during scheduled counseling sessions or while simply coaching a subordinate. Counseling techniques you can use

during the nondirective or combined approaches include—

 Suggesting alternatives. Discuss alternative actions that the subordinate may

take, but both you and the subordinate decide which course of action is most appropriate.

 Recommending. Recommend one course

of action, but leave the decision to accept

the recommended action to the subordinate.

 Persuading. Persuade the subordinate

that a given course of action is best, but

 leave the decision to the subordinate. Successful persuasion depends on the leader’s

credibility, the subordinate’s willingness to

listen, and their mutual trust.

 Advising. Advise the subordinate that a

given course of action is best. This is the

strongest form of influence not involving a

command.

C-54. Some techniques you can use during the

directive approach to counseling include—

 Corrective training. Teach and assist the

subordinate in attaining and maintaining

the standards. The subordinate completes

corrective training when the subordinate

attains the standard.

 Commanding. Order the subordinate to

take a given course of action in clear, exact

words. The subordinate understands that

he has been given a command and will face

the consequences for failing to carry it out.

 	
 


 


 	





  	 



 	  



 	 	 		


  
	


 	 	 	 	

	


  	 


      

	 

 	 		  
 	 

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Figure C-5. Counseling Approach Summary Chart
THE COUNSELING PROCESS

C-55. Effective leaders use the counseling process. It consists of four stages:

 Identify the need for counseling.

 Prepare for counseling.

 Conduct counseling.

 Follow up.

IDENTIFY THE NEED FOR

COUNSELING

C-56. Quite often organizational policies, such

as counseling associated with an evaluation or

counseling required by the command, focus a

counseling session. However, you may conduct

developmental counseling whenever the need

arises for focused, two-way communication

aimed at subordinate development. Developing

subordinates consists of observing the subordinate’s performance, comparing it to the standard, and then providing feedback to the

subordinate in the form of counseling.

PREPARE FOR COUNSELING

C-57. Successful counseling requires preparation. To prepare for counseling, do the

following:

 Select a suitable place.

 Schedule the time.

 Notify the subordinate well in advance.

 Organize information.

 Outline the counseling session components.

 Plan your counseling strategy.

 Establish the right atmosphere.

Select a Suitable Place

C-58. Schedule counseling in an environment

that minimizes interruptions and is free from

distracting sights and sounds.

Schedule the Time

C-59. When possible, counsel a subordinate

during the duty day. Counseling after duty

hours may be rushed or perceived as unfavorable. The length of time required for

counseling depends on the complexity of the issue. Generally a counseling session should last

less than an hour. If you need more time,

schedule a second session. Additionally, select a

time free from competition with other activities

and consider what has been planned after the

counseling session. Important events can

distract a subordinate from concentrating on

the counseling.

Notify the Subordinate Well in Advance

C-60. For a counseling session to be a

subordinate-centered, two-person effort, the

subordinate must have time to prepare for it.

The subordinate should know why, where, and

when the counseling will take place. Counseling

following a specific event should happen as

close to the event as possible. However, for performance or professional development counseling, subordinates may need a week or more to

prepare or review specific products, such as

support forms or counseling records.

Organize Information

C-61. Solid preparation is essential to

effective counseling. Review all pertinent information. This includes the purpose of the

counseling, facts and observations about the

subordinate, identification of possible problems, main points of discussion, and the development of a plan of action. Focus on

specific and objective behaviors that the subordinate must maintain or improve as well as

a plan of action with clear, obtainable goals.

Outline the Components of the

Counseling Session

C-62. Using the information obtained, determine what to discuss during the counseling session. Note what prompted the counseling,

what you aim to achieve, and what your role as

a counselor is. Identify possible comments or

questions to help you keep the counseling session subordinate-centered and help the subordinate progress through its stages. Although

you never know what a subordinate will say or

do during counseling, a written outline helps

organize the session and enhances the chance

of positive results. (Figure C-6 is one example

of a counseling outline prepared by a platoon

leader about to conduct an initial NCOER

counseling session with a platoon sergeant.)

  

	

 
Plan Counseling Strategy

C-63. As many approaches to counseling exist

as there are leaders. The directive, nondirective, and combined approaches to counseling

were addressed earlier. Use a strategy that

suits your subordinates and the situation.

Establish the Right Atmosphere

C-64. The right atmosphere promotes two-way

communication between a leader and subordinate. To establish a relaxed atmosphere, you

may offer the subordinate a seat or a cup of coffee. You may want to sit in a chair facing the

subordinate since a desk can act as a barrier.

C-65. Some situations make an informal

atmosphere inappropriate. For example, during

counseling to correct substandard performance, you may direct the subordinate to

remain standing while you remain seated

behind a desk. This formal atmosphere,

normally used to give specific guidance,

reinforces the leader’s rank, position in the

chain of command, and authority.

CONDUCT THE COUNSELING

SESSION

C-66. Be flexible when conducting a counseling

session. Often counseling for a specific incident

occurs spontaneously as leaders encounter subordinates in their daily activities. Such counseling can occur in the field, motor pool,

barracks—wherever subordinates perform

their duties. Good leaders take advantage of

naturally occurring events to provide subordinates with feedback.

C-67. Even when you haven’t prepared for formal counseling, you should address the four basic components of a counseling session. Their

purpose is to guide effective counseling rather

 	
 


 


Type of counseling: Initial NCOER counseling for SFC Taylor, a recently promoted new arrival to

the unit.

Place and time: The platoon office, 1500 hours, 9 October.

Time to notify the subordinate: Notify SFC Taylor one week in advance of the scheduled

counseling session.

Subordinate preparation: Have SFC Taylor put together a list of goals and objectives he would

like to complete over the next 90 to 180 days. Review the values, attributes, skills, and actions

from FM 22-100.

Counselor preparation:

 Review the NCO Counseling Checklist/Record (DA Form 2166-8-1).

 Update or review SFC Taylor’s duty description and fill out the rating chain and duty description

on the working copy of the NCOER (DA Form 2166-8, Parts II and III).

 Review each of the values and responsibilities in Part IV of the NCOER and the values, attributes,

skills and actions in FM 22-100. Think of how each applies to SFC Taylor and the platoon sergeant position.

 Review the actions you consider necessary for a success or excellence in each value and responsibility.

 Make notes in blank spaces in Part IV of the NCOER to assist when counseling.

Role as counselor: Help SFC Taylor to understand the expectations and standards associated

with the platoon sergeant position. Assist SFC Taylor in developing the values, attributes, skills,

and actions that will enable him to achieve his performance objectives, consistent with those of the

platoon and company. Resolve any aspects of the job that aren’t clearly understood.

Session outline: Complete an outline following the counseling session components in Figure C-7

and based on the draft duty description on the NCOER, ideally at least two to three days prior to

the actual counseling session.

Figure C-6. Example of a Counseling Outline
than mandate a series of rigid steps. Counseling

sessions consist of—

 Opening the session.

 Discussing the issues.

 Developing the plan of action.

 Recording and closing the session.

Ideally, a counseling session results in a subordinate’s commitment to a plan of action. Assessment of the plan of action (discussed below)

becomes the starting point for follow-up

counseling. (Figure C-7 is an example of a counseling session.)

Open the Session

C-68. In the session opening, state the purpose

of the session and establish a subordinatecentered setting. Establish the preferred setting

early in the session by inviting the subordinate

to speak. The best way to open a counseling session is to clearly state its purpose. For example,

an appropriate purpose statement might be:

“The purpose of this counseling is to discuss

your duty performance over the past month and

to create a plan to enhance performance and attain performance goals.” If applicable, start the

counseling session by reviewing the status of

the previous plan of action.

C-69. You and the subordinate should attempt

to develop a mutual understanding of the

issues. You can best develop this by letting the

subordinate do most of the talking. Use active

listening; respond, and question without

dominating the conversation. Aim to help the

subordinate better understand the subject of

the counseling, for example, duty performance,

a problem situation and its impact, or potential

areas for growth.

C-70. Both you and the subordinate should

provide examples or cite specific observations

to reduce the perception that either is unnecessarily biased or judgmental. However, when the

issue is substandard performance, you should

make clear how the performance didn’t meet

the standard. The conversation, which should

be two-way, then addresses what the subordinate needs to do to meet the standard. It’s important that you define the issue as

substandard performance and don’t allow the

subordinate to define the issue as an

unreasonable standard—unless you consider

the standard negotiable or are willing to alter

the conditions under which the subordinate

must meet the standard.

Develop a Plan of Action

C-71. A plan of action identifies a method for

achieving a desired result. It specifies what the

subordinate must do to reach the goals set during the counseling session. The plan of action

must be specific: it should show the subordinate

how to modify or maintain his behavior. It

should avoid vague intentions such as “Next

month I want you to improve your land navigation skills.” The plan must use concrete and direct terms. For example, you might say: “Next

week you’ll attend the map reading class with

1st Platoon. After the class, SGT Dixon will

coach you through the land navigation course.

He will help you develop your skill with the

compass. I will observe you going through the

course with SGT Dixon, and then I will talk to

you again and determine where and if you still

need additional training.” A specific and achievable plan of action sets the stage for successful

development.

Record and Close the Session

C-72. Although requirements to record counseling sessions vary, a leader always benefits by

documenting the main points of a counseling

session. Documentation serves as a reference to

the agreed upon plan of action and the subordinate’s accomplishments, improvements, personal preferences, or problems. A complete

record of counseling aids in making recommendations for professional development, schools,

promotions, and evaluation reports.

C-73. Additionally, Army regulations require

written records of counseling for certain personnel actions, such as a barring a soldier from

reenlisting, processing a soldier for administrative separation, or placing a soldier in the overweight program. When a soldier faces

involuntary separation, the leader must take

special care to maintain accurate counseling

records. Documentation of substandard actions

conveys a strong corrective message to

subordinates.

  

		

 
C-74. To close the session, summarize its key

points and ask if the subordinate understands

the plan of action. Invite the subordinate to review the plan of action and what’s expected of

you, the leader. With the subordinate, establish

any follow-up measures necessary to support

the successful implementation of the plan of action. These may include providing the subordinate with resources and time, periodically

assessing the plan, and following through on referrals. Schedule any future meetings, at least

tentatively, before dismissing the subordinate.

FOLLOW UP

Leader’s Responsibilities

C-75. The counseling process doesn’t end with

the counseling session. It continues through

implementation of the plan of action and

evaluation of results. After counseling, you

must support subordinates as they implement

their plans of action. Support may include

teaching, coaching, or providing time and resources. You must observe and assess this process and possibly modify the plan to meet its

goals. Appropriate measures after counseling

include follow-up counseling, making referrals,

informing the chain of command, and taking

corrective measures.

Assess the Plan of Action

C-76. The purpose of counseling is to develop

subordinates who are better able to achieve personal, professional, and organizational goals.

During the assessment, review the plan of action with the subordinate to determine if the

desired results were achieved. You and the subordinate should determine the date for this assessment during the initial counseling session.

The assessment of the plan of action provides

useful information for future follow-up counseling sessions.

 	
 


 


Open the Session

 Establish a relaxed environment. Explain to SFC Taylor that the more one discusses and understands Army values and leader attributes, skills, and actions, the easier it is to develop and incorporate them into an individual leadership style.

 State the purpose of the counseling session. Explain that the initial counseling is based on leader

actions (what SFC Taylor needs to do to be a successful platoon sergeant) and not on professional developmental needs (what SFC Taylor needs to do to develop further as an NCO).

 Come to an agreement on the duty description, the meaning of each value and responsibility, and

the standards for success and excellence for each value and responsibility. Explain that subsequent counseling will focus on SFC Taylor’s developmental needs as well as how well SFC Taylor

is meeting the jointly agreed upon performance objectives. Instruct SFC Taylor to perform a selfassessment during the next quarter to identify his developmental needs.

 Ensure SFC Taylor knows the rating chain. Resolve any questions that SFC Taylor has about the

job. Discuss the team relationship that exists between a platoon leader and a platoon sergeant

and the importance of two-way communication between them.

Discuss the Issue

 Jointly review the duty description on the NCOER, including the maintenance, training, and taking

care of soldiers responsibilities. Mention that the duty description can be revised as necessary.

Highlight areas of special emphasis and appointed duties.

 Discuss the meaning of each value and responsibility on the NCOER. Discuss the values, attributes, skills, and actions outlined in FM 22-100. Ask open-ended questions to see if SFC Taylor

can relate these items to his role as a platoon sergeant.

Figure C-7. Example of a Counseling Session
SUMMARY

C-77. This appendix has discussed developmental counseling. Developmental counseling

is subordinate-centered communication that

outlines actions necessary for subordinates to

achieve individual and organizational goals and

objectives. It can be either event-oriented or focused on personal and professional development. Figure C-8 summarizes the major aspects

of developmental counseling and the counseling

process.

  

		

 

 Explain that even though the developmental tasks focus on developing leader actions, character development forms the basis for leadership development. Character and actions can’t be viewed as

separate; they’re closely linked. In formulating the plan of action to accomplish major performance

objectives, the proper values, attributes, and skills form the basis for the plan. As such, character development must be incorporated into the plan of action.

Assist in Developing a Plan of Action (During the Counseling Session)

 Ask SFC Taylor to identify actions that will facilitate the accomplishment of the major performance

objectives. Categorize each action into one of the values or responsibilities listed on the NCOER.

 Discuss how each value and responsibility applies to the platoon sergeant position. Discuss specific examples of success and excellence in each value and responsibility block. Ask SFC Taylor

for suggestions to make the goals more objective, specific, and measurable.

 Ensure that SFC Taylor has at least one example of a success or excellence bullet listed under

each value and responsibility.

 Discuss SFC Taylor’s promotion goals and ask him what he considers to be his strengths and

weakness. Obtain copies of the last two master sergeant selection board results and match his

goals and objectives to these.

Close the Session

 Check SFC Taylor’s understanding of the duty description and performance objectives.

 Stress the importance of teamwork and two-way communication.

 Ensure SFC Taylor understands that you expect him to assist in your development as a platoon

leader. This means that both of you have the role of teacher and coach.

 Remind SFC Taylor to perform a self-assessment during the next quarter.

 Set a tentative date during the next quarter for the routinely scheduled follow-up counseling.

Notes on Strategy

 Facilitate answering any questions SFC Taylor may have.

 Expect SFC Taylor to be uncomfortable with the terms and the developmental process; respond

in a way that encourages participation throughout the session.

Figure C-7. Example of a Counseling Session (continued)
THE DEVELOPMENTAL COUNSELING FORM

C-78. The Developmental Counseling Form

(DA Form 4856-E) is designed to help Army

leaders conduct and record counseling sessions.

Figure C-9 shows a completed DA Form 4856-E

documenting the counseling of a young soldier

with financial problems. While this is an example of a derogatory counseling , you can see that

it is still developmental. Leaders must decide

when counseling, additional training,

rehabilitation, reassignment, or other developmental options have been exhausted. If the purpose of a counseling session is not

developmental, refer to paragraphs C-36 and

C-37. Figure C-10 shows a routine performance/professional growth counseling for a unit

first sergeant. Figure C-11 shows a blank form

with instructions on how to complete each

block.

 	
 


 


Leaders must demonstrate these qualities to counsel effectively:

 Respect for subordinates.

 Self and cultural awareness.

 Credibility.

 Empathy.

Leaders must possess these counseling

skills:

 Active listening.

 Responding.

 Questioning.

Effective leaders avoid common counseling mistakes. Leaders should avoid the

influence of—

 Personal bias.

 Rash judgments.

 Stereotyping.

 Losing emotional control.

 Inflexible counseling methods.

 Improper follow up.

The Counseling Process

1. Identify the need for counseling.

2. Prepare for counseling.

 Select a suitable place.

 Schedule the time.

 Notify the subordinate well in

advance.

 Organize information.

 Outline the components of the

counseling session.

 Plan counseling strategy.

 Establish the right atmosphere.

3. Conduct the counseling session.

 Open the session.

 Discuss the issue.

 Develop a plan of action (to include the leader’s responsibilities).

 Record and close the session.

4. Follow up.

 Support plan of action implementation

 Assess the plan of action.

Figure C-8. A Summary of Developmental Counseling
DEVELOPMENTAL COUNSELING FORM For use of this form see FM 22-100

DATA REQUIRED BY THE PRIVACY ACT OF 1974

Key Points of Discussion:

AUTHORITY: 5 USC 301, Departmental Regulations; 10 USC 3013, Secretary of the Army and E.O. 9397 (SSN)

PRINCIPAL PURPOSE: To assist leaders in conducting and recording counseling data pertaining to subordinates.

ROUTINE USES: For subordinate leader development IAW FM 22-100. Leaders should use this form as necessary.

DISCLOSURE: Disclosure is voluntary.

PART I - ADMINISTRATIVE DATA

PART II - BACKGROUND INFORMATION

Purpose of Counseling

PART III - SUMMARY OF COUNSELING

Complete this section during or immediately subsequent to counseling.

Name (Last, First, MI) Rank / Grade Social Security No. Date of Counseling

Organization Name and Title of Counselor

: (Leader states the reason for the counseling, e.g. performance/professional or eventoriented counseling and includes the leader's facts and observations prior to the counseling):

Lloyd, Andrew PFC 123-45-6789 28 March 1997

2 Platoon, B Battery, 1 - 1 ADA Bn SGT Mark Levy, Squad Leader

he purpose of this counseling is to inform PFC Lloyd of his responsibility to manage his financial affairs and the

potential consequences of poorly managing finances and to help PFC Lloyd develop a plan of action to resolve his

financial problems.

Facts: The battery commander received notice of delinquent payment on PFC Lloyd's Deferred Payment Plan (DPP).

A payment of $86.00 is 45 days delinquent

PFC Lloyd, late payments on a DPP account reflect a lack of responsibility and poor managing of finances. You should

know that the letter of lateness has been brought to the attention of the battery commander, the first sergeant, and the

platoon sergeant. They're all questioning your ability to manage your personal affairs. I also remind you that promotions

and awards are based more than on just performing MOS-related duties; soldiers must act professionally and responsibly

in all areas. Per conversation with PFC Lloyd, the following information was obtained:

He didn't make the DPP payment due to a lack of funds in his checking account. His most recent long distance phone bill

was over $220 due to calling his house concerning his grandmother's failing health. PFC Lloyd stated that he wanted to

pay for the phone calls himself in order not to burden his parents with the expense of collect calls. He also stated that his

calling had tapered down considerably and he expects this month's phone bill to be approximately $50. We made an

appointment at ACS and ACS came up with the following information:

PFC Lloyd's monthly obligations: Car payment: $330

Car insurance: $138

Rent including utilities: $400

Other credit cards: $0

Total monthly obligations: $868.00

Monthly take-home pay: $1232.63

We discussed that with approximately $364 available for monthly living expenses, a phone bill in excess of $200 will

severely affect PFC Lloyd's financial stability and can't continue. We discussed the need for PFC Lloyd to establish a

savings account to help cover emergency expenses. PFC Lloyd agreed that his expensive phone bill and his inability to

make the DPP payment is not responsible behavior. He confirmed that he wants to get his finances back on track and

begin building a savings account.

nd

T

OTHER INSTRUCTIONS

This form will be destroyed upon: reassignment (other than rehabilitative transfers), separation at ETS, or retirement. For

separation requirements and notification of loss of benefits/consequences, see local directives and AR 635-200.

DA FORM 4856-E, JUN 99 EDITION OF JUN 85 IS OBSOLETE

Figure C-9. Example of a Developmental Counseling Form—Event Counseling

Appendix C

C-18 FM 22-100
Plan of Action

Session Closing:

Leader Responsibilities:

Assessment

: (Outlines actions that the subordinate will do after the counseling session to reach the agreed upon goals(s).

The actions must be specific enough to modify or maintain the subordinate's behavior and include a specific time line for

implementation and assessment (Part IV below)).

(The leader summarizes the key points of the session and checks if the subordinate understands the plan

of action. The subordinate agrees/disagrees and provides remarks if appropriate).

Individual counseled: I agree/ disagree with the information above

Individual counseled remarks:

Signature of Individual Counseled: Date:

(Leader's responsibilities in implementing the plan of action).

PFC Lloyd will visit the DPP office to make an immediate partial payment of $20 and will give me a copy of the receipt as

soon as the payment is made. PFC Lloyd will also provide me with a copy of the next month's phone bill and DPP payment

receipt.

PFC Lloyd's finances will be a key topic of discussion at his next monthly counseling session.

Signature of Counselor: Date:

(Did the plan of action achieve the desired results? This section is completed by both the leader and the

individual counseled and provides useful information for follow-up counseling):

Counselor: Individual Counseled: Date of Assessment:

Based on our discussion, PFC Lloyd will be able to resume normal payment on his DPP account next month (assuming that

his phone bill is approximately $50). PFC Lloyd agreed to contact the DPP office and provide a partial payment of $20

immediately. He agreed to exercise self-restraint and not make long distance calls as frequently. He decided that his goal

is to make one ten-minute phone call every two weeks. He will write letters to express concern over his grandmother's

condition and ask his parents to do the same to keep him informed. His long-term goal is to establish a savings account

with a goal of contributing $50 a month.

PFC Lloyd also agreed to attend the check cashing class at ACS on 2, 9, and 16 April.

Assessment date: 27 June

Andrew Lloyd 28 March 1997

Mark Levy 28 March 1997

PART IV - ASSESSMENT OF THE PLAN OF ACTION

Note: Both the counselor and the individual counseled should retain a record of the counseling.

DA FORM 4856-E (Reverse)

Figure C-9 (continued). Example of a Developmental Counseling Form—Event Counseling

Developmental Counseling

Army Leadership C-19
DEVELOPMENTAL COUNSELING FORM For use of this form see FM 22-100

DATA REQUIRED BY THE PRIVACY ACT OF 1974

Key Points of Discussion:

AUTHORITY: 5 USC 301, Departmental Regulations; 10 USC 3013, Secretary of the Army and E.O. 9397 (SSN)

PRINCIPAL PURPOSE: To assist leaders in conducting and recording counseling data pertaining to subordinates.

ROUTINE USES: For subordinate leader development IAW FM 22-100. Leaders should use this form as necessary.

DISCLOSURE: Disclosure is voluntary.

PART I - ADMINISTRATIVE DATA

PART II - BACKGROUND INFORMATION

Purpose of Counseling

PART III - SUMMARY OF COUNSELING

Complete this section during or immediately subsequent to counseling.

Name (Last, First, MI) Rank / Grade Social Security No. Date of Counseling

Organization Name and Title of Counselor

: (Leader states the reason for the counseling, e.g. performance/professional or eventoriented counseling and includes the leader's facts and observations prior to the counseling):

McDonald, Stephen 1SG 333-33-3333 13 March 1998

D Company, 3–95 IN CPT Peterson, Company Commander

.

Emphasized safety and knowledge of demolition, tactical proficiency on the Platoon Live Fire Exercises.

Took charge of company defense during the last major field training exercise; outstanding integration and use of

engineer, heavy weapons, and air defense artillery assets. Superb execution of defense preparations and execution.

No dropped white cycle taskings.

Good job coordinating with battalion adjutant on legal and personnel issues.

Continue to take care of soldiers, keep the commander abreast of problems.

Focused on subordinate NCO development; right man for the right job.

Get NCODPs on the calendar.

Hold NCOs to standard on sergeants time training.

th

























To discuss duty performance for the period 19 Dec 97 to 11 March 1998

To discuss short-range professional growth goals/plan for next year.

Talk about long-range professional growth (2-5 years) goals.

Performance (sustain):

Improve:

OTHER INSTRUCTIONS

This form will be destroyed upon: reassignment (other than rehabilitative transfers), separation at ETS, or upon retirement. For

separation requirements and notification of loss of benefits/consequences see local directives and AR 635-200.

DA FORM 4856-E, JUN 99 EDITION OF JUN 85 IS OBSOLETE

Figure C-10. Example of a Developmental Counseling Form—

Performance/Professional Growth Counseling

Appendix C

C-20 FM 22-100
Plan of Action

Session Closing:

Leader Responsibilities:

Assessment

: (Outlines actions that the subordinate will do after the counseling session to reach the agreed upon goals(s).

The actions must be specific enough to modify or maintain the subordinate's behavior and include a specific time line for

implementation and assessment (Part IV below)).

(The leader summarizes the key points of the session and checks if the subordinate understands the plan

of action. The subordinate agrees/disagrees and provides remarks if appropriate).

Individual counseled: I agree/ disagree with the information above

Individual counseled remarks:

Signature of Individual Counseled: 1SG McDonald Date:

(Leader's responsibilities in implementing the plan of action).

Signature of Counselor: Date:

(Did the plan of action achieve the desired results? This section is completed by both the leader and the

individual counseled and provides useful information for follow-up counseling):

Counselor: Individual Counseled: Date of Assessment:























Developmental Plan (next year):

Long-range goals (2 to 5 years):

Develop a yearlong plan for NCODPs; coordinate to place on the calendar and training schedules.

Resume civilian education; correspondence courses.

Develop a company soldier of the month competition.

Assist the company XO in modularizing the supply room for quick, efficient load-outs.

Put in place a program to develop Ranger School candidates.

Earn bachelor's degree.

Attend and graduate the Sergeant Majors Academy.

13 March 1998

Mark Levy 28 March 1997

1SG McDonald has enrolled in an associates degree program at the University of Kentucky. The supply room received all

green evaluations during the last command inspection. Five of seven Ranger applicants successfully completed Ranger

School, exceeding the overall course completion rate of 39%. Monthly soldier of the month boards proved to be impractical

because of the OPTEMPO; however, the company does now hold quarterly boards during the white cycle. Brigade command

sergeant major commented favorably on the last company NCODP he attended and gave the instructor a brigade coin.

CPT Peterson 1SG McDonald 1 Aug 98

Coordinate with the 1SG on scheduling of NCODPs and soldier of the month boards.

Have the XO meet with the 1SG on developing a plan for modularizing and improving the supply room.

Provide time for Ranger candidate program.

PART IV - ASSESSMENT OF THE PLAN OF ACTION

Note: Both the counselor and the individual counseled should retain a record of the counseling.

DA FORM 4856-E (Reverse)

Figure C-10 (continued). Example of a Developmental Counseling Form—

Performance/Professional Growth Counseling

Developmental Counseling

Army Leadership C-21
DEVELOPMENTAL COUNSELING FORM For use of this form see FM 22-100

DATA REQUIRED BY THE PRIVACY ACT OF 1974

Key Points of Discussion:

AUTHORITY: 5 USC 301, Departmental Regulations; 10 USC 3013, Secretary of the Army and E.O. 9397 (SSN)

PRINCIPAL PURPOSE: To assist leaders in conducting and recording counseling data pertaining to subordinates.

ROUTINE USES: For subordinate leader development IAW FM 22-100. Leaders should use this form as necessary.

DISCLOSURE: Disclosure is voluntary.

PART I - ADMINISTRATIVE DATA

PART II - BACKGROUND INFORMATION

Purpose of Counseling

PART III - SUMMARY OF COUNSELING

Complete this section during or immediately subsequent to counseling.

Name (Last, First, MI) Rank / Grade Social Security No. Date of Counseling

Organization Name and Title of Counselor

: (Leader states the reason for the counseling, e.g. performance/professional or eventoriented counseling and includes the leader's facts and observations prior to the counseling):

Open the Sessio

Discuss the Issues.

See paragraph C-68,

The leader should annotate pertinent, specific, and objective facts and observations made. If applicable, the leader

and subordinate start the counseling session by reviewing the status of the previous plan of action.

See paragraphs C-69 and C-70,

The leader and subordinate should attempt to develop a mutual understanding of the issues. Both the leader and the

subordinate should provide examples or cite specific observations to reduce the perception that either is unnecessarily

biased or judgmental.

n

OTHER INSTRUCTIONS

This form will be destroyed upon: reassignment (other than rehabilitative transfers), separation at ETS, or upon retirement. For

separation requirements and notification of loss of benefits/consequences see local directives and AR 635-200.

DA FORM 4856-E, JUN 99 EDITION OF JUN 85 IS OBSOLETE

Figure C-11. Guidelines on Completing a Developmental Counseling Form

Appendix C

C-22 FM 22-100
Plan of Action

Session Closing:

Leader Responsibilities:

Assessment

: (Outlines actions that the subordinate will do after the counseling session to reach the agreed upon goals(s).

The actions must be specific enough to modify or maintain the subordinate's behavior and include a specific time line for

implementation and assessment (Part IV below)).

Develop a Plan of Action

(The leader summarizes the key points of the session and checks if the subordinate understands the plan

of action. The subordinate agrees/disagrees and provides remarks if appropriate).

Individual counseled: I agree/ disagree with the information above

Individual counseled remarks:

Close the Session

Signature of Individual Counseled: Date:

(Leader's responsibilities in implementing the plan of action).

Leader’s Responsibilities

Signature of Counselor: Date:

(Did the plan of action achieve the desired results? This section is completed by both the leader and the

individual counseled and provides useful information for follow-up counseling):

Counselor: Individual Counseled: Date of Assessment:

See paragraph C-71,

The plan of action specifies what the subordinate must do to reach the goals set during the counseling session. The plan of

action must be specific and should contain the outline, guideline(s), and time line that the subordinate follows. A specific

and achievable plan of action sets the stage for successful subordinate development.

Remember, event-oriented counseling with corrective training as part of the plan of action can’t be tied to a specified time

frame. Corrective training is complete once the subordinate attains the standard.

See paragraph C-72 through C-74,

See paragraph C76,

To accomplish the plan of action, the leader must list the resources necessary and commit to providing them to the soldier.

The assessment of the plan of action provides useful information for future follow-up counseling. This block should be

completed prior to the start of a follow-up counseling session. During an event-oriented counseling session, the counseling

session is not complete until this block is completed.

During performance/professional growth counseling, this block serves as the starting point for future counseling sessions.

Leaders must remember to conduct this assessment based on resolution of the situation or the established time line

discussed in the plan of action block above.

PART IV - ASSESSMENT OF THE PLAN OF ACTION

Note: Both the counselor and the individual counseled should retain a record of the counseling.

DA FORM 4856-E (Reverse)

Figure C-11 (continued). Guidelines on Completing a Developmental Counseling Form

Developmental Counseling

Army Leadership C-23
Appendix D

A Leader Plan of Action and the ECAS

D-1. By completing a set of tasks (shown in Figure D-1), leaders can improve, sustain, or reinforce a standard of performance within their

organizations. Leaders may complete some or

all of the sub-tasks shown in Figure D-1, depending on the situation.

D-2. A leader plan of action (developed in step

3) identifies specific leader actions necessary to

achieve improvement. It is similar to the individual plan of action that Appendix C discusses.

D-3. Begin your plan of action by assessing

your unit (Step 1). Observe, interact, and

gather feedback from others; or conduct formal

assessments of the workplace. Then analyze

the information you gathered to identify what

needs improvement (Step 2). Once you have

identified what needs improvement, begin to

develop courses of action to make the

improvements.

D-4. In Step 3, you develop your plan of action.

First, develop and consider several possible

courses of action to correct the weaknesses you

identified. Gather important information, assess the limitations and risks associated with

the various courses, identify available key personnel and resources, and verify facts and assumptions. Attempt to predict the outcome for

each possible course of action. Based on your

predictions, select several leader actions to deal

with the problems.

D-5. Execute your plan of action (Step 4) by

educating, training, or counseling your subordinates; instituting new policies or procedures;

and revising or enforcing proper systems of rewards and punishment. Your organization

moves towards excellence by improving substandard or weak areas and maintaining conditions that meet or exceed the standard. Finally,

periodically reassesses your unit to identify new

matters of concern or to evaluate the effectiveness of the leader actions.

D-6. You can use this process for many areas of

interest within your organization. A case study

demonstrating how to use an ECAS to prepare

a leader plan of action follows. It includes a description of how one leader gathered information to complete the survey. (You can obtain the

form used to conduct an ECAS through Training Support Centers by ordering GTA 22-6-1.)

Army Leadership D-1

Develop Plan of Action

(improve/maintain) Assess Analyze Execute Plan

of Action Excellence

1 2 3 4







Develop COAs

– Gather information

– Limitations/risk

– Resources

– Key personnel

– Facts/assumptions

Predict outcomes

Select COAs









Observe

Interact

Gather

subordinate

input

Obtain peer

input







Educate/Counsel

Subordinates

Institute Procedures

Reward/Punish

Identify Problems Improve/Maintain

Reassess

Figure D-1. The Leader Plan of Action Development Process
PREPARATION OF AN ECAS

D-7. 2LT Christina Ortega has been a military

police platoon leader for almost eight months.

When she first came to the platoon, it was a

well-trained, cohesive group. Within two

months of her taking charge, she and her

platoon deployed on a six-month rotation to

support operations in Bosnia. The unit performed well, and she quickly earned a reputation as a leader with high standards for herself

and her unit. Now redeployed, she must have

her platoon ready in two months for a rotation

at the Combat Maneuver Training Center

(CMTC). She realizes that within that time she

must get the unit’s equipment ready for deployment, train her soldiers on different missions

they will encounter at the CMTC, and provide

them some much needed and deserved time off.

D-8. As 2LT Ortega reflects on her first eight

months of leadership, she remembers how she

took charge of the platoon. She spoke individually with the leaders in the platoon about her

expectations and gathered information about

her subordinates. She stayed up all night completing the leadership philosophy memorandum that she gave to every member of her

platoon. After getting her feet on the ground

and getting to know her soldiers, she assessed

the platoon’s ethical climate using the ECAS.

Her unit’s overall ECAS score was very good.

She committed herself to maintaining that

positive ethical climate by continuing the established policies and by monitoring the climate

periodically.

D-9. Having completed a major deployment

and received a recent influx of some new

soldiers, 2LT Ortega decides to complete another ECAS. She heads to the unit motor pool to

observe her soldiers preparing for the next

day’s training exercise. The platoon is deploying to the local training area for the “best

squad” competition prior to the ARTEP evaluation at the CMTC. “The best squad competition

has really become a big deal in the company,”

she thinks. “Squad rivalry is fierce, and the

squad leaders seem to be looking for an edge so

they can come out on top and win the weekend

pass that goes to the winning squad.”

D-10. She talks to as many of her soldiers as

she can, paying particular attention to the newest members of the unit. One new soldier, a vehicle driver for SSG Smith, the 2nd Squad

Leader, appears very nervous and anxious.

During her conversation with the soldier, 2LT

Ortega discovers some disturbing information.

D-11. The new soldier, PFC O’Brien, worries

about his vehicle’s maintenance and readiness

for the next day. His squad leader has told him

to “get the parts no matter what.” PFC O’Brien

says that he admires SSG Smith because he realizes that SSG Smith just wants to perform

well and keep up the high standards of his previous driver. He recounts that SSG Smith has

vowed to win the next day’s land navigation

competition. “SSG Smith even went so far as to

say that he knows we’ll win because he already

knows the location of the points for the course.

He saw them on the XO’s desk last night and

wrote them on his map.”

D-12. 2LT Ortega thanks the soldier for talking honestly with her and immediately sets him

straight on the proper and improper way to get

repair parts. By the time she leaves, PFC

O’Brien knows that 2LT Ortega has high standards and will not tolerate improper means of

meeting them. Meanwhile, 2LT Ortega heads

back toward the company headquarters to find

the XO.

D-13. She finds the XO busily scribbling numbers and dates on pieces of paper. He is obviously involved and frantic. He looks up at her

and manages a quick “Hi, Christina,” before returning to his task. The battalion XO apparently did not like the way the unit status report

(USR) portrayed the status of the maintenance

in the battalion and refused to send that report

forward. Not completely familiar with the USR,

2LT Ortega goes to the battalion motor officer

to get some more information. After talking to a

few more people in her platoon, 2LT Ortega

completes the ECAS shown in Figure D-2.

D-2 FM 22-100

Appendix D
Army Leadership D-3

A Leader Plan of Action

*Use the following scale for questions in Section III.

Section IITotal

Section III Total

III. Unit Leader Actions - “What do I do?”

4

5

3

5

4

5

5

3

4

5

31

4

5

32

INSTRUCTIONS

Answer the questions in this survey according to how you currently perceive your

unit and your own leader actions, NOT according to how you would prefer them to

be or how you think they should be. This information is for your use, (not your

chain of command’s) to determine if you need to take action to improve the Ethical

Climate in your organization. Use the following scale for all questions in Sections I

and II.

I. Individual Character -

II. Unit/Workplace Policies & Practices -

“Who are we?”

“What do we do?”

Section I Total

not

4

2

5

11

2

5

1

3

IV. Environmental/Mission Factors -

Total Socre (I + II + III + IV)

“What surrounds us?”

ECAS

Section IV Total

Place the Total Score from each section in the spaces below:

(A score of 1 or 2 on any question requires some immediate leader action.)

Section I - Individual Character Total Score

Section II - Leader Action Total Score

Section III - Unit Policies and Procedures Total Score

Section IV - Environmental/Mission Factors Total Score

Take Action to Take Actions to Improve Maintain a Healthy

Improve Ethical Climate Ethical Climate Ethical Climate

25 - 75 76-100 101 - 125

Immediate

Use the following scale for all questions in Section IV. ***Note: the scale is

reversed for this section (Strongly Agree is scored as a “1”, not a “5”) ***

1

1

1

2

5

1

11

11

11

85

31

32

Ethical

Climate

Assessment

Survey

ETHICAL

CLIMATE

Loyalty Courage Honor Respect

Selfless Servic

In

e

tegrity Duty

An ethical climate is one in which our stated Army values are routinely

articulated, supported, practiced and respected. The Ethical Climate of an

organization is determined by a variety of factors, including the

of unit members, the within the

organization, the , and

. Leaders should periodically assess their unit’s ethical climate and

take appropriate actions to maintain the high ethical standards expected of

all Army organizations. This survey will assist you in making these

assessments and in identifying the actions necessary to accomplish this

vital leader function. FM 22-100, , provides specific

leader actions necessary to sustain or improve your ethical climate, as

necessary.

individual

character policies and practices

actions of unit leaders environmental and mission

factors

Army Leadership

GTA 22-6-1

Figure D-2. Example of an Ethical Climate Assessment Survey
PREPARATION OF A LEADER PLAN OF ACTION

D-14. 2LT Ortega looks at her ECAS score and

determines that she needs to take action to improve the ethical climate in her platoon. To help

determine where she should begin, 2LT Ortega

looks at the scores for each question. She knows

that any question receiving a “1” or “2” must be

addressed immediately in her plan of action. As

2LT Ortega reviews the rest of the scores for

her unit, she identifies additional problems to

correct. Furthermore, she decides to look at a

few actions in which her unit excels and to describe ways to sustain the performance. As she

continues to develop the leader plan of action,

she looks at each subject she has identified. She

next develops the plan shown in Figure D-3 to

correct the deficiencies. At the bottom of the

form, she lists at least two actions she plans to

take to maintain the positive aspects of her platoon’s ethical climate.

D-15. 2LT Ortega has already completed the

first three steps (assess, analyze, and develop a

plan of action) specified inFigureD-1.When she

takes action to implement the plan she will have

completed the process. She must then follow up

to ensure her actions have the effects she

intended.

D-4 FM 22-100

Appendix D
Army Leadership D-5

A Leader Plan of Action

Actions to correct negative aspects of the ethical climate in the organization

Problem: Dysfunctional competition/stress in the unit (the competition is causing some members of

the unit to seek ways to gain an unfair advantage over others) [ECAS question # II.C., IV.A. &

IV.C.]

Action:

 Postpone the platoon competition; focus on the readiness of equipment and soldier preparation

rather than competition.

 Build some time in the long-range calendar to allow soldiers time to get away from work and

relax.

 Focus on the group’s accomplishment of the mission (unit excellence). Reward the platoon, not

squads, for excellent performance. Reward teamwork.

Problem: Battalion XO “ordering” the changing of reports [IV B., D. & F.]

Action:

 Go see the company XO first and discuss what he should do.

 If the XO won’t deal with it, see the commander myself to raise the issue.

Problem: Squad leader’s unethical behavior [I.B. & II.A.]

Action:

 Reprimand the squad leader for getting the land navigation points unfairly.

 Counsel the squad leader on appropriate ways to give instructions and accomplish the mission

without compromising values.

Problem: Unclear instructions given by the squad leader (“get the parts no matter what”) [II.A.]

Action:

 Have the platoon sergeant give a class (NCODP) on proper guidelines for giving instructions

and appropriate ethical considerations when asking subordinates to complete a task.

 Have the platoon sergeant counsel the squad leader(s) on the importance of using proper supply

procedures.

Problem: Company XO “changing report” to meet battalion XO’s needs [IV.B. & F.]

Action:

 Have an informal discussion with the company XO about correct reporting or see the company

commander to raise the issue about the battalion XO.

Actions to maintain positive aspects of the ethical climate in the organization

Maintain: Continue to hold feedback (sensing) sessions and conduct ECAS assessments to maintain

a feel for how the platoon is accomplishing its mi ssion. [ I I.D. & G.; III.A. & B.]

Maintain: Continue to reward people who perform to high standards without compromising values.

Punish those caught compromising them. [III.E. & F.]

Figure D-3. Example of a Leader Plan of Action

Appendix E

Character Development

E-1. Everyone who becomes part of America’s

Army, soldier or DA civilian, has character. On

the day a person joins the Army, leaders begin

building on that character. Army values emphasize the relationship between character

and competence. Although competence is a

fundamental attribute of Army leaders,

character is even more critical. This appendix

discusses the actions Army leaders take to develop their subordinates’ character.

E-2. Army leaders are responsible for refining

the character of soldiers and DA civilians. How

does the Army as an institution ensure proper

character development? What should leaders

do to inculcate Army values in their

subordinates?

E-3. Leaders teach Army values to every new

member of the Army. Together with the leader

attributes described in Chapter 2, Army values

establish the foundation of leaders of character.

Once members learn these values, their leaders

ensure adherence. Adhering to the principles

Army values embody is essential, for the Army

cannot tolerate unethical behavior. Unethical

behavior destroys morale and cohesion; it

undermines the trust and confidence essential

to teamwork and mission accomplishment.

E-4. Ethical conduct must reflect beliefs and

convictions, not just fear of punishment. Over

time, soldiers and DA civilians adhere to Army

values because they want to live ethically and

profess the values because they know it’s right

to do so. Once people believe and demonstrate

Army values, they are persons of character. Ultimately, Army leaders are charged with the

with the essential role of developing character

in others. Figure E-1 shows the leader actions

that support character development.

 	
 


Believe

Comply

Learn

Subordinates

Leaders Develop

Character by . . .

Shaping the organization’s

ethical climate

Reinforcing Army Values and

Leader Attributes

Teaching Army Values

and Demonstrating Attributes

Internalization

Reinforcement

Education

Figure E-1. Character Development
LEADERS TEACH VALUES;

SUBORDINATES LEARN THE

CULTURE

E-5. Army leaders must teach their subordinates moral principles, ethical theory,

Army values, and leadership attributes.

Through their leaders’ programs, soldiers and

DA civilians develop character through education, experience, and reflection. By educating

their subordinates and setting the example,

Army leaders enable their subordinates to

make ethical decisions that in turn contribute

to excellence. Subordinates gain deeper

understanding from experiencing, observing,

and reflecting on the aspects of Army leadership under the guidance of their leaders.

E-6. Inculcating Army values doesn’t end with

basic training. All Army leaders should seek to

deepen subordinates’ understanding of the

ethical aspects of character through classes, informal discussions, one-on-one coaching, and

formal developmental counseling. Army leaders can also improve their own understanding

through study, reflection, and discussions with

peers and superiors.

LEADERS REINFORCE VALUES;

SUBORDINATES COMPLY

E-7. Leaders reinforce and discipline behavior

to guide subordinates’ development. To help

subordinates live according to Army values,

leaders enforce rules, policies, and regulations.

Still, soldiers and DA civilians of character do

more than merely comply with established institutional rules. Acting correctly but without

complete understanding or sound motivation is

not good enough in America’s values-based

Army. People of character behave correctly

through correct understanding and personal

desire. Understanding comes from training and

self-development. Personal desire comes from a

person’s realization that Army values are

worth adopting and living by and from that person’s decision to do just that.

E-8. Character stems from a thorough

understanding of Army values; however, this

understanding must go beyond knowing the

one-line definitions. Individuals must also

know why Army values are important and how

to apply them to everyday Army life. Leaders

can promote Army values by setting the example themselves and pointing out other examples

of Army values in both normal and exceptional

activities. Army leaders can use unit histories

and traditions, prominent individuals, and recent events to bring Army values to life and explain why adhering to them is important.

LEADERS SHAPE THE ETHICAL

CLIMATE; SUBORDINATES

INTERNALIZE ARMY VALUES

E-9. Doing the right thing is good. Doing the

right thing for the right reason and with the

right intention is better. People of character

must possess the desire to act ethically in all

situations. One of the Army leader’s primary

responsibilities is to maintain an ethical

climate that supports development of such a

character. When an organization’s ethical

climate nurtures ethical behavior, over time,

people think, feel, and act ethically—they internalize the aspects of sound character.

E-10. Leaders should influence others’

character development and foster correct actions through role modeling, teaching, and

coaching. Army leaders seek to build a climate

in which subordinates and organizations can

reach their full potential. Together, these

actions promote organizational excellence.

E-11. Army leaders can use the ECAS to assess

ethical aspects of their own character and actions, the workplace, and the external environment. Once they have done their assessment,

leaders prepare and carry out a plan of action.

The plan of action focuses on solving ethical

problems within the leaders’ span of influence;

leaders pass ethical problems they cannot

change to higher headquarters. E-12. Becoming

a person of character and a leader of character

is a career-long process involving both selfdevelopment and developmental counseling.

While individuals are responsible for their own

character development, leaders are responsible

for encouraging, supporting, and assessing the

efforts of their subordinates. Leaders of character can develop only through continual study,

reflection, experience, and feedback.

 

	

 
Appendix F

The Constitution of the United States

As a member of the Army, you have taken an oath to “support and defend the Constitution of the United

States against all enemies, foreign and domestic [and to] bear true faith and allegiance to the same.” But

what is this document that you have sworn to protect? In essence, the Constitution is a blueprint

establishing the powers and responsibilities of the three branches of the United States government as

well as the rights of American citizens. Especially important for the Army are those provisions in the

Constitution that place fundamental military authority in Congress and the president. As part of that

authority, Congress has the power to “provide for the common Defense,” which includes the power to

“raise and support Armies,” and the president is the commander in chief of the armed forces. So the

Constitution establishes the critical principle that America’s military leaders are subordinate to the

nation’s civilian authorities. Given the importance of that concept to our system of government, this

appendix contains a copy of the US Constitution. As you read it, you will see that, although the

Constitution was written over 200 years ago, it remains relevant today for Army leaders and all

Americans.

THE PREAMBLE

We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for

the common defence, promote the general

Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to

ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States

of America.

THE CONSTITUTION

ARTICLE I

Section 1

All legislative Powers herein granted shall

be vested in a Congress of the United States,

which shall consist of a Senate and House of

Representatives.

Section 2

The House of Representatives shall be composed of Members chosen every second Year by

the People of the several States, and the Electors in each State shall have the Qualifications

requisite for Electors of the most numerous

Branch of the State Legislature.

No Person shall be a Representative who shall

not have attained to the Age of twenty five

Years, and been seven Years a Citizen of the

United States, and who shall not, when elected,

 	
 


be an Inhabitant of that State in which he shall

be chosen.

Representatives and direct Taxes shall be

apportioned among the several States which

may be included within this Union, according to

their respective Numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free

Persons, including those bound to Service for a

Term of Years, and excluding Indians not

taxed, three fifths of all other Persons. The actual Enumeration shall be made within three

Years after the first Meeting of the Congress of

the United States, and within every subsequent

Term of ten Years, in such Manner as they shall

by Law direct. The Number of Representatives

shall not exceed one for every thirty Thousand,

but each State shall have at Least one Representative; and until such enumeration shall be

made, the State of New Hampshire shall be
entitled to chuse three, Massachusetts eight,

Rhode-Island and Providence Plantations one,

Connecticut five, New-York six, New Jersey

four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five,

South Carolina five, and Georgia three.

When vacancies happen in the Representation

from any State, the Executive Authority thereof

shall issueWrits of Election to fill such Vacancies.

The House of Representatives shall chuse

their Speaker and other Officers; and shall have

the sole Power of Impeachment.

Section 3

The Senate of the United States shall be

composed of two Senators from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, for six Years;

and each Senator shall have one Vote.

Immediately after they shall be assembled

in Consequence of the first Election, they shall

be divided as equally as may be into three

Classes. The Seats of the Senators of the first

Class shall be vacated at the Expiration of the

second Year, of the second Class at the Expiration of the fourth Year, and of the third Class at

the Expiration of the sixth Year, so that one

third may be chosen every second Year; and if

Vacancies happen by Resignation, or otherwise,

during the Recess of the Legislature of any

State, the Executive thereof may make temporary Appointments until the next Meeting of

the Legislature, which shall then fill such Vacancies.

No Person shall be a Senator who shall not

have attained to the Age of thirty Years, and

been nine Years a Citizen of the United States,

and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen.

The Vice President of the United States

shall be President of the Senate, but shall have

no Vote, unless they be equally divided.

The Senate shall chuse their other Officers,

and also a President pro tempore, in the Absence of the Vice President, or when he shall exercise the Office of President of the United

States.

The Senate shall have the sole Power to try

all Impeachments. When sitting for that Purpose, they shall be on Oath or Affirmation.

When the President of the United States is

tried, the Chief Justice shall preside: And no

Person shall be convicted without the Concurrence of two thirds of the Members present.

Judgment in Cases of Impeachment shall

not extend further than to removal from Office,

and disqualification to hold and enjoy any Office of honor, Trust or Profit under the United

States: but the Party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to Indictment, Trial,

Judgment and Punishment, according to Law.

Section 4

The Times, Places and Manner of holding

Elections for Senators and Representatives,

shall be prescribed in each State by the Legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time

by Law make or alter such Regulations, except

as to the Places of chusing Senators.

The Congress shall assemble at least once

in every Year, and such Meeting shall be on the

first Monday in December, unless they shall by

Law appoint a different Day.

Section 5

Each House shall be the Judge of the Elections, Returns and Qualifications of its own

Members, and a Majority of each shall constitute a Quorum to do Business; but a smaller

Number may adjourn from day to day, and may

be authorized to compel the Attendance of absent Members, in such Manner, and under such

Penalties as each House may provide.

Each House may determine the Rules of its

Proceedings, punish its Members for disorderly

Behaviour, and, with the Concurrence of two

thirds, expel a Member.

Each House shall keep a Journal of its Proceedings, and from time to time publish the

same, excepting such Parts as may in their

Judgment require Secrecy; and the Yeas and

Nays of the Members of either House on any

question shall, at the Desire of one fifth of those

Present, be entered on the Journal.

 

	
 
Neither House, during the Session of Congress, shall, without the Consent of the other,

adjourn for more than three days, nor to any

other Place than that in which the two Houses

shall be sitting.

Section 6

The Senators and Representatives shall receive a Compensation for their Services, to be

ascertained by Law, and paid out of the Treasury of the United States. They shall in all

Cases, except Treason, Felony and Breach of

the Peace, be privileged from Arrest during

their Attendance at the Session of their respective Houses, and in going to and returning from

the same; and for any Speech or Debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any

other Place.

No Senator or Representative shall, during

the Time for which he was elected, be appointed

to any civil Office under the Authority of the

United States, which shall have been created,

or the Emoluments whereof shall have been encreased during such time; and no Person holding any Office under the United States, shall be

a Member of either House during his Continuance in Office.

Section 7

All Bills for raising Revenue shall originate

in the House of Representatives; but the Senate

may propose or concur with Amendments as on

other Bills.

Every Bill which shall have passed the

House of Representatives and the Senate, shall,

before it become a Law, be presented to the

President of the United States; If he approve he

shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with

his Objections to that House in which it shall

have originated, who shall enter the Objections

at large on their Journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such Reconsideration two

thirds of that House shall agree to pass the Bill,

it shall be sent, together with the Objections, to

the other House, by which it shall likewise be

reconsidered, and if approved by two thirds of

that House, it shall become a Law. But in all

such Cases the Votes of both Houses shall be determined by Yeas and Nays, and the Names of

the Persons voting for and against the Bill shall

be entered on the Journal of each House respectively. If any Bill shall not be returned by the

President within ten Days (Sundays excepted)

after it shall have been presented to him, the

Same shall be a Law, in like Manner as if he had

signed it, unless the Congress by their Adjournment prevent its Return, in which Case it shall

not be a Law.

Every Order, Resolution, or Vote to which

the Concurrence of the Senate and House of

Representatives may be necessary (except on a

question of Adjournment) shall be presented to

the President of the United States; and before

the Same shall take Effect, shall be approved by

him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds of the Senate and House of

Representatives, according to the Rules and

Limitations prescribed in the Case of a Bill.

Section 8

The Congress shall have Power To lay and

collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to

pay the Debts and provide for the common Defence and general Welfare of the United States;

but all Duties, Imposts and Excises shall be uniform throughout the United States;

To borrow Money on the credit of the

United States;

To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with

the Indian Tribes;

To establish an uniform Rule of Naturalization, and uniform Laws on the subject of Bankruptcies throughout the United States;

To coin Money, regulate the Value thereof,

and of foreign Coin, and fix the Standard of

Weights and Measures;

To provide for the Punishment of counterfeiting the Securities and current Coin of the

United States;

To establish Post Offices and post Roads;

To promote the Progress of Science and

useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to

Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to

their respective Writings and Discoveries;

 	
 


	 

  	 
 
To constitute Tribunals inferior to the supreme Court;

To define and punish Piracies and Felonies

committed on the high Seas, and Offences

against the Law of Nations;

To declare War, grant Letters of Marque

and Reprisal, and make Rules concerning Captures on Land and Water;

To raise and support Armies, but no Appropriation of Money to that Use shall be for a

longer Term than two Years;

To provide and maintain a Navy;

To make Rules for the Government and

Regulation of the land and naval Forces;

To provide for calling forth the Militia to

execute the Laws of the Union, suppress Insurrections and repel Invasions;

To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the Militia, and for governing such

Part of them as may be employed in the Service

of the United States, reserving to the States respectively, the Appointment of the Officers, and

the Authority of training the Militia according

to the discipline prescribed by Congress;

To exercise exclusive Legislation in all

Cases whatsoever, over such District (not exceeding ten Miles square) as may, by Cession of

particular States, and the Acceptance of Congress, become the Seat of the Government of

the United States, and to exercise like Authority over all Places purchased by the Consent of

the Legislature of the State in which the Same

shall be, for the Erection of Forts, Magazines,

Arsenals, dock-Yards, and other needful Buildings;—And

To make all Laws which shall be necessary

and proper for carrying into Execution the

foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested

by this Constitution in the Government of the

United States, or in any Department or Officer

thereof.

Section 9

The Migration or Importation of such Persons as any of the States now existing shall

think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited

by the Congress prior to the Year one thousand

eight hundred and eight, but a Tax or duty may

be imposed on such Importation, not exceeding

ten dollars for each Person.

The Privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus

shall not be suspended, unless when in Cases of

Rebellion or Invasion the public Safety may require it.

No Bill of Attainder or ex post facto Law

shall be passed.

No Capitation, or other direct, Tax shall be

laid, unless in Proportion to the Census or Enumeration herein before directed to be taken.

No Tax or Duty shall be laid on Articles exported from any State.

No Preference shall be given by any Regulation of Commerce or Revenue to the Ports of

one State over those of another: nor shall Vessels bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to

enter, clear, or pay Duties in another.

No Money shall be drawn from the Treasury, but in Consequence of Appropriations

made by Law; and a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and Expenditures of all

public Money shall be published from time to

time.

No Title of Nobility shall be granted by the

United States: And no Person holding any Office of Profit or Trust under them, shall, without the Consent of the Congress, accept of any

present, Emolument, Office, or Title, of any

kind whatever, from any King, Prince, or foreign State.

Section 10

No State shall enter into any Treaty, Alliance, or Confederation; grant Letters of

Marque and Reprisal; coin Money; emit Bills of

Credit; make any Thing but gold and silver

Coin a Tender in Payment of Debts; pass any

Bill of Attainder, ex post facto Law, or Law impairing the Obligation of Contracts, or grant

any Title of Nobility.

No State shall, without the Consent of the

Congress, lay any Imposts or Duties on Imports

or Exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection Laws: and

 

	

 
the net Produce of all Duties and Imposts, laid

by any State on Imports or Exports, shall be for

the Use of the Treasury of the United States;

and all such Laws shall be subject to the Revision and Controul of the Congress.

No State shall, without the Consent of Congress, lay any Duty of Tonnage, keep Troops, or

Ships of War in time of Peace, enter into any

Agreement or Compact with another State, or

with a foreign Power, or engage in War, unless

actually invaded, or in such imminent Danger

as will not admit of delay.

ARTICLE II

Section 1

The executive Power shall be vested in a

President of the United States of America. He

shall hold his Office during the Term of four

Years, and, together with the Vice President,

chosen for the same Term, be elected, as follows:

Each State shall appoint, in such Manner

as the Legislature thereof may direct, a

Number of Electors, equal to the whole

Number of Senators and Representatives to

which the State may be entitled in the

Congress: but no Senator or Representative, or

Person holding an Office of Trust or Profit

under the United States, shall be appointed an

Elector.

The Electors shall meet in their respective

States, and vote by Ballot for two Persons, of

whom one at least shall not be an Inhabitant of

the same State with themselves. And they shall

make a List of all the Persons voted for, and of

the Number of Votes for each; which List they

shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to

the Seat of the Government of the United

States, directed to the President of the Senate.

The President of the Senate shall, in the Presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the Certificates, and the Votes

shall then be counted. The Person having the

greatest Number of Votes shall be the President, if such Number be a Majority of the whole

Number of Electors appointed; and if there be

more than one who have such Majority, and

have an equal Number of Votes, then the House

of Representatives shall immediately chuse by

Ballot one of them for President; and if no Person have a Majority, then from the five highest

on the List the said House shall in like Manner

chuse the President. But in chusing the President, the Votes shall be taken by States, the

Representation from each State having one

Vote; A quorum for this Purpose shall consist of

a Member or Members from two thirds of the

States, and a Majority of all the States shall be

necessary to a Choice. In every Case, after the

Choice of the President, the Person having the

greatest Number of Votes of the Electors shall

be the Vice President. But if there should remain two or more who have equal Votes, the

Senate shall chuse from them by Ballot the Vice

President.

The Congress may determine the Time of

chusing the Electors, and the Day on which

they shall give their Votes; which Day shall be

the same throughout the United States.

No Person except a natural born Citizen, or

a Citizen of the United States, at the time of the

Adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible

to the Office of President; neither shall any Person be eligible to that Office who shall not have

attained to the Age of thirty five Years, and

been fourteen Years a Resident within the

United States.

In Case of the Removal of the President

from Office, or of his Death, Resignation, or Inability to discharge the Powers and Duties of

the said Office, the Same shall devolve on the

Vice President, and the Congress may by Law

provide for the Case of Removal, Death, Resignation or Inability, both of the President and

Vice President, declaring what Officer shall

then act as President, and such Officer shall act

accordingly, until the Disability be removed, or

a President shall be elected.

The President shall, at stated Times, receive for his Services, a Compensation, which

shall neither be encreased nor diminished during the Period for which he shall have been

elected, and he shall not receive within that Period any other Emolument from the United

States, or any of them.

 	
 


	 

  	 
 
Before he enter on the Execution of his Office, he shall take the following Oath or Affirmation:—“I do solemnly swear (or affirm)

that I will faithfully execute the Office of President of the United States, and will to the best of

my Ability, preserve, protect and defend the

Constitution of the United States.”

Section 2

The President shall be Commander in

Chief of the Army and Navy of the United

States, and of the Militia of the several States,

when called into the actual Service of the

United States; he may require the Opinion, in

writing, of the principal Officer in each of the

executive Departments, upon any Subject relating to the Duties of their respective Offices, and

he shall have Power to grant Reprieves and

Pardons for Offences against the United States,

except in Cases of Impeachment.

He shall have Power, by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, to make Treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators

present concur; and he shall nominate, and by

and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate,

shall appoint Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, Judges of the supreme Court,

and all other Officers of the United States,

whose Appointments are not herein otherwise

provided for, and which shall be established by

Law: but the Congress may by Law vest the Appointment of such inferior Officers, as they

think proper, in the President alone, in the

Courts of Law, or in the Heads of Departments.

The President shall have Power to fill up all

Vacancies that may happen during the Recess

of the Senate, by granting Commissions which

shall expire at the End of their next Session.

Section 3

He shall from time to time give to the Congress Information of the State of the Union, and

recommend to their Consideration such Measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient;

he may, on extraordinary Occasions, convene

both Houses, or either of them, and in Case of

Disagreement between them, with Respect to

the Time of Adjournment, he may adjourn

them to such Time as he shall think proper; he

shall receive Ambassadors and other public

Ministers; he shall take Care that the Laws be

faithfully executed, and shall Commission all

the Officers of the United States.

Section 4

The President, Vice President and all civil

Officers of the United States, shall be removed

from Office on Impeachment for, and Conviction of, Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes

and Misdemeanors.

ARTICLE III

Section 1

The judicial Power of the United States,

shall be vested in one supreme Court, and in

such inferior Courts as the Congress may from

time to time ordain and establish. The Judges,

both of the supreme and inferior Courts, shall

hold their Offices during good Behaviour, and

shall, at stated Times, receive for their Services,

a Compensation, which shall not be diminished

during their Continuance in Office.

Section 2

The judicial Power shall extend to all Cases,

in Law and Equity, arising under this Constitution, the Laws of the United States, and Treaties made, or which shall be made, under their

Authority;—to all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls;—to

all Cases of admiralty and maritime Jurisdiction;—to Controversies to which the United

States shall be a Party;—to Controversies between two or more States;—between a State

and Citizens of another State;—between Citizens of different States, —between Citizens of

the same State claiming Lands under Grants of

different States, and between a State, or the

Citizens thereof, and foreign States, Citizens or

Subjects.

In all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other

public Ministers and Consuls, and those in

which a State shall be Party, the supreme Court

shall have original Jurisdiction. In all the other

Cases before mentioned, the supreme Court

shall have appellate Jurisdiction, both as to

Law and Fact, with such Exceptions, and under

such Regulations as the Congress shall make.

 

	

 
The Trial of all Crimes, except in Cases of

Impeachment, shall be by Jury; and such Trial

shall be held in the State where the said Crimes

shall have been committed; but when not committed within any State, the Trial shall be at

such Place or Places as the Congress may by

Law have directed.

Section 3

Treason against the United States, shall

consist only in levying War against them, or in

adhering to their Enemies, giving them Aid and

Comfort. No Person shall be convicted of Treason unless on the Testimony of two Witnesses

to the same overt Act, or on Confession in open

Court.

The Congress shall have Power to declare

the Punishment of Treason, but no Attainder of

Treason shall work Corruption of Blood, or Forfeiture except during the Life of the Person attainted.

ARTICLE IV

Section 1

Full Faith and Credit shall be given in each

State to the public Acts, Records, and judicial

Proceedings of every other State. And the Congress may by general Laws prescribe the Manner in which such Acts, Records and

Proceedings shall be proved, and the Effect

thereof.

Section 2

The Citizens of each State shall be entitled

to all Privileges and Immunities of Citizens in

the several States.

A Person charged in any State with Treason, Felony, or other Crime, who shall flee from

Justice, and be found in another State, shall on

Demand of the executive Authority of the State

from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having Jurisdiction of the

Crime.

No Person held to Service or Labour in one

State, under the Laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in Consequence of any Law or

Regulation therein, be discharged from such

Service or Labour, but shall be delivered up on

Claim of the Party to whom such Service or Labour may be due.

Section 3

New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union; but no new State shall be

formed or erected within the Jurisdiction of any

other State; nor any State be formed by the

Junction of two or more States, or Parts of

States, without the Consent of the Legislatures

of the States concerned as well as of the Congress.

The Congress shall have Power to dispose

of and make all needful Rules and Regulations

respecting the Territory or other Property belonging to the United States; and nothing in

this Constitution shall be so construed as to

Prejudice any Claims of the United States, or of

any particular State.

Section 4

The United States shall guarantee to every

State in this Union a Republican Form of Government, and shall protect each of them against

Invasion; and on Application of the Legislature,

or of the Executive (when the Legislature cannot be convened) against domestic Violence.

ARTICLE V

The Congress, whenever two thirds of both

Houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose

Amendments to this Constitution, or, on the

Application of the Legislatures of two thirds of

the several States, shall call a Convention for

proposing Amendments, which, in either Case,

shall be valid to all Intents and Purposes, as

Part of this Constitution, when ratified by the

Legislatures of three fourths of the several

States, or by Conventions in three fourths

thereof, as the one or the other Mode of Ratification may be proposed by the Congress; Provided that no Amendment which may be made

prior to the Year One thousand eight hundred

and eight shall in any Manner affect the first

and fourth Clauses in the Ninth Section of the

first Article; and that no State, without its Consent, shall be deprived of its equal Suffrage in

the Senate.

 	
 


	 

  	 
 
ARTICLE VI

All Debts contracted and Engagements entered into, before the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States

under this Constitution, as under the Confederation.

This Constitution, and the Laws of the

United States which shall be made in Pursuance thereof; and all Treaties made, or which

shall be made, under the Authority of the

United States, shall be the supreme Law of the

Land; and the Judges in every State shall be

bound thereby, any Thing in the Constitution

or Laws of any State to the Contrary notwithstanding.

The Senators and Representatives before

mentioned, and the Members of the several

State Legislatures, and all executive and judicial

Officers, both of the United States and of the

several States, shall be bound by Oath or Affirmation, to support this Constitution; but no

religious Test shall ever be required as a Qualification to any Office or public Trust under the

United States.

ARTICLE VII

The Ratification of the Conventions of nine

States, shall be sufficient for the Establishment

of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the same.

Done in Convention by the Unanimous Consent of the States present the Seventeenth Day of

September in the Year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and Eighty seven and of the

Independence of the United States of America the Twelfth. In witness whereof We have hereunto

subscribed our Names,

G. WASHINGTON—President. And deputy from Virginia

 

	

 

Delaware Maryland North Carolina

Geo: Read James McHenry Wm. Blount

Gunning Bedford jun Dan of St Thos. Jenifer Richd. Dobbs Spaight

John Dickinson Danl Carroll. Hu Williamson

Richard Bassett Virginia

Jaco: Broom John Blair---

South Carolina James Madison Jr.

J. Rutledge New York

Charles Cotesworth Alexander Hamilton

Pinckney New Jersy

Charles Pinckney Wil: Livingston

Pierce Butler David Brearley

Georgia Wm. Paterson

William Few Jona: Dayton

Abr Baldwin Pennsylvania

New Hampshire B Franklin

John Langdon Thomas Mifflin

Nicholas Robt Morris

Massachusetts Geo. Clymer

Nathaniel Gorham Thos. FitzSimons

Rufus King Jared Ingersoll

Connecticut James Wilson

Wm: Saml. Johnson Gouv Morris

Roger Sherman

Attest William Jackson

Secretary
THE PREAMBLE TO THE BILL OF RIGHTS

Congress of the United States begun and held

at the City of New York, on Wednesday the

fourth of March, one thousand seven hundred

and eighty-nine.

The Conventions of a number of the States,

having at the time of their adopting the Constitution expressed a desire in order to prevent

misconstruction or abuse of its powers, that

further declaratory and restrictive clauses

should be added: And as extending the ground

of public confidence in the Government will

best ensure the beneficent ends of its

institution.

Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in

Congress assembled, two thirds of both Houses

concurring that the following Articles be proposed to the Legislatures of the several states as

Amendments to the Constitution of the United

States, all or any of which articles, when ratified by three fourths of the said Legislatures to

be valid to all intents and purposes as part of

the said Constitution. viz.

Articles in addition to, and Amendment of the

Constitution of the United States of America,

proposed by Congress and Ratified by the Legislatures of the several States, pursuant to the

fifth Article of the original Constitution.

THE BILL OF RIGHTS

AMENDMENT I

Congress shall make no law respecting an

establishment of religion, or prohibiting the

free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom

of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the

Government for a redress of grievances.

AMENDMENT II

A well regulated Militia being necessary to

the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed.

AMENDMENT III

No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the

Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to

be prescribed by law.

AMENDMENT IV

The right of the people to be secure in their

persons, houses, papers, and effects, against

unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not

be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but

upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place

to be searched, and the persons or things to be

seized.

AMENDMENT V

No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a

presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces,

or in the Militia, when in actual service in time

of War or public danger; nor shall any person be

subject for the same offence to be twice put in

jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled

in any criminal case to be a witness against

himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without

just compensation.

AMENDMENT VI

In all criminal prosecutions, the accused

shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial,

by an impartial jury of the State and district

wherein the crime shall have been committed,

which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature

and cause of the accusation; to be confronted

with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his

favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for

his defence.

 	
 


	 

  	 
 
AMENDMENT VII

In suits at common law, where the value in

controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the

right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no

fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise reexamined in any Court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law.

AMENDMENT VIII

Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual

punishments inflicted.

AMENDMENT IX

The enumeration in the Constitution, of

certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or

disparage others retained by the people.

AMENDMENT X

The powers not delegated to the United

States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it

to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.

AMENDMENTS 11 THROUGH 27

AMENDMENT XI

Passed by Congress March 4, 1794. Ratified

February 7, 1795.

The Judicial power of the United States

shall not be construed to extend to any suit in

law or equity, commenced or prosecuted

against one of the United States by Citizens of

another State, or by Citizens or Subjects of any

Foreign State.

Note: Article III, section 2, of the Constitution

was modified by amendment 11.

AMENDMENT XII

Passed by Congress December 9, 1803. Ratified

June 15, 1804.

The Electors shall meet in their respective

states and vote by ballot for President and

Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not

be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct

ballots the person voted for as Vice-President,

and they shall make distinct lists of all persons

voted for as President, and of all persons voted

for as Vice-President, and of the number of

votes for each, which lists they shall sign and

certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the

government of the United States, directed to

the President of the Senate; the President of

the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate

and House of Representatives, open all the certificates and the votes shall then be counted;

The person having the greatest number of votes

for President, shall be the President, if such

number be a majority of the whole number of

Electors appointed; and if no person have such

majority, then from the persons having the

highest numbers not exceeding three on the list

of those voted for as President, the House of

Representatives shall choose immediately, by

ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by states, the representation from each state having one vote; a

quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the states,

and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. [And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President whenever

the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following,

then the Vice-President shall act as President,

as in case of the death or other constitutional

disability of the President. ]* The person having the greatest number of votes as VicePresident, shall be the Vice-President, if such

number be a majority of the whole number of

Electors appointed, and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on

the list, the Senate shall choose the VicePresident; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a majority of the whole number shall

be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President

shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the

United States.

  

	
 
* Superseded by section 3 of the 20th

amendment.

Note: A portion of Article II, section 1 of the

Constitution was superseded by the 12th

amendment.

AMENDMENT XIII

Passed by Congress January 31, 1865. Ratified

December 6, 1865.

Section 1

Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude,

except as a punishment for crime whereof the

party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist

within the United States, or any place subject to

their jurisdiction.

Section 2

Congress shall have power to enforce this

article by appropriate legislation.

Note: A portion of Article IV, section 2, of the

Constitution was superseded by the 13th

amendment.

AMENDMENT XIV

Passed by Congress June 13, 1866. Ratified

July 9, 1868.

Section 1

All persons born or naturalized in the

United States, and subject to the jurisdiction

thereof, are citizens of the United States and of

the State wherein they reside. No State shall

make or enforce any law which shall abridge

the privileges or immunities of citizens of the

United States; nor shall any State deprive any

person of life, liberty, or property, without due

process of law; nor deny to any person within its

jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.

Section 2

Representatives shall be apportioned

among the several States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number

of persons in each State, excluding Indians not

taxed. But when the right to vote at any election

for the choice of electors for President and

Vice-President of the United States, Representatives in Congress, the Executive and Judicial

officers of a State, or the members of the

Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male

inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one

years of age,* and citizens of the United States,

or in any way abridged, except for participation

in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens

shall bear to the whole number of male citizens

twenty-one years of age in such State.

Section 3

No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Congress, or elector of President

and Vice-President, or hold any office, civil or

military, under the United States, or under any

State, who, having previously taken an oath, as

a member of Congress, or as an officer of the

United States, or as a member of any State legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of

any State, to support the Constitution of the

United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid

or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may by a vote of two-thirds of each House,

remove such disability.

Section 4

The validity of the public debt of the United

States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties

for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the

United States nor any State shall assume or pay

any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States,

or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any

slave; but all such debts, obligations and claims

shall be held illegal and void.

Section 5

The Congress shall have the power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the provisions

of this article.

* Changed by section 1 of the 26th amendment.

Note: Article I, section 2, of the Constitution

was modified by section 2 of the 14th

amendment.

 	
 


	 

  	 
 
AMENDMENT XV

Passed by Congress February 26, 1869. Ratified

February 3, 1870.

Section 1

The right of citizens of the United States to

vote shall not be denied or abridged by the

United States or by any State on account of

race, color, or previous condition of servitude.

Section 2

The Congress shall have the power

to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

AMENDMENT XVI

Passed by Congress July 2, 1909. Ratified

February 3, 1913.

The Congress shall have power to

lay and collect taxes on incomes, from whatever

source derived, without apportionment among

the several States, and without regard to any

census or enumeration.

Note: Article I, section 9, of the Constitution

was modified by amendment 16.

AMENDMENT XVII

Passed by Congress May 13, 1912. Ratified

April 8, 1913.

The Senate of the United States shall be

composed of two Senators from each State,

elected by the people thereof, for six years; and

each Senator shall have one vote. The electors

in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch

of the State legislatures.

When vacancies happen in the representation of any State in the Senate, the executive

authority of such State shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies: Provided, That the

legislature of any State may empower the executive thereof to make temporary appointments until the people fill the vacancies by

election as the legislature may direct.

This amendment shall not be so construed

as to affect the election or term of any Senator

chosen before it becomes valid as part of the

Constitution.

Note: Article I, section 3, of the Constitution

was modified by the 17th amendment.

AMENDMENT XVIII

Passed by Congress December 18, 1917. Ratified

January 16, 1919. Repealed by amendment 21.

Section 1

After one year from the ratification of this

article the manufacture, sale, or transportation

of intoxicating liquors within, the importation

thereof into, or the exportation thereof from

the United States and all territory subject to

the jurisdiction thereof for beverage purposes is

hereby prohibited.

Section 2

The Congress and the several States shall

have concurrent power to enforce this article by

appropriate legislation.

Section 3

This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment

to the Constitution by the legislatures of the

several States, as provided in the Constitution,

within seven years from the date of the submission hereof to the States by the Congress.

AMENDMENT XIX

Passed by Congress June 4, 1919. Ratified

August 18, 1920.

The right of citizens of the United States to

vote shall not be denied or abridged by the

United States or by any State on account of sex.

Congress shall have power to enforce this

article by appropriate legislation.

AMENDMENT XX

Passed by Congress March 2, 1932. Ratified

January 23, 1933.

  

	
 
Section 1

The terms of the President and the Vice

President shall end at noon on the 20th day of

January, and the terms of Senators and Representatives at noon on the 3d day of January, of

the years in which such terms would have

ended if this article had not been ratified; and

the terms of their successors shall then begin.

Section 2

The Congress shall assemble at least once

in every year, and such meeting shall begin at

noon on the 3d day of January, unless they shall

by law appoint a different day.

Section 3

If, at the time fixed for the beginning of the

term of the President, the President elect shall

have died, the Vice President elect shall become

President. If a President shall not have been

chosen before the time fixed for the beginning

of his term, or if the President elect shall have

failed to qualify, then the Vice President elect

shall act as President until a President shall

have qualified; and the Congress may by law

provide for the case wherein neither a President elect nor a Vice President shall have qualified, declaring who shall then act as President,

or the manner in which one who is to act shall

be selected, and such person shall act accordingly until a President or Vice President shall

have qualified.

Section 4

The Congress may by law provide for the

case of the death of any of the persons from

whom the House of Representatives may

choose a President whenever the right of choice

shall have devolved upon them, and for the case

of the death of any of the persons from whom

the Senate may choose a Vice President whenever the right of choice shall have devolved

upon them.

Section 5

Sections 1 and 2 shall take effect on

the 15th day of October following the ratification of this article.

Section 6

This article shall be inoperative unless it

shall have been ratified as an amendment to the

Constitution by the legislatures of threefourths of the several States within seven years

from the date of its submission.

Note: Article I, section 4, of the Constitution

was modified by section 2 of this amendment. In

addition, a portion of the 12th amendment was

superseded by section 3.

AMENDMENT XXI

Passed by Congress February 20, 1933. Ratified

December 5, 1933.

Section 1

The eighteenth article of amendment to the

Constitution of the United States is hereby repealed.

Section 2

The transportation or importation into any

State, Territory, or Possession of the United

States for delivery or use therein of intoxicating

liquors, in violation of the laws thereof, is

hereby prohibited.

Section 3

This article shall be inoperative unless it

shall have been ratified as an amendment to the

Constitution by conventions in the several

States, as provided in the Constitution, within

seven years from the date of the submission

hereof to the States by the Congress.

AMENDMENT XXII

Passed by Congress March 21, 1947. Ratified

February 27, 1951.

Section 1

No person shall be elected to the office of

the President more than twice, and no person

who has held the office of President, or acted as

President, for more than two years of a term to

which some other person was elected President

shall be elected to the office of President more

than once. But this Article shall not apply to

any person holding the office of President when

this Article was proposed by Congress, and

 	
 


	 

  	 
 
shall not prevent any person who may be holding the office of President, or acting as President, during the term within which this Article

becomes operative from holding the office of

President or acting as President during the remainder of such term.

Section 2

This article shall be inoperative unless it

shall have been ratified as an amendment to the

Constitution by the legislatures of threefourths of the several States within seven years

from the date of its submission to the States by

the Congress.

AMENDMENT XXIII

Passed by Congress June 16, 1960. Ratified

March 29, 1961.

Section 1

The District constituting the seat of Government of the United States shall appoint in

such manner as Congress may direct:

A number of electors of President and Vice

President equal to the whole number of Senators and Representatives in Congress to which

the District would be entitled if it were a State,

but in no event more than the least populous

State; they shall be in addition to those appointed by the States, but they shall be considered, for the purposes of the election of

President and Vice President, to be electors appointed by a State; and they shall meet in the

District and perform such duties as provided by

the twelfth article of amendment.

Section 2

The Congress shall have power to

enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

AMENDMENT XXIV

Passed by Congress August 27, 1962. Ratified

January 23, 1964.

Section 1

The right of citizens of the United

States to vote in any primary or other election

for President or Vice President, for electors for

President or Vice President, or for Senator or

Representative in Congress, shall not be denied

or abridged by the United States or any State by

reason of failure to pay poll tax or other tax.

Section 2

The Congress shall have power to enforce

this article by appropriate legislation.

AMENDMENT XXV

Passed by Congress July 6, 1965. Ratified

February 10, 1967.

Section 1

In case of the removal of the President from

office or of his death or resignation, the Vice

President shall become President.

Section 2

Whenever there is a vacancy in the office of

the Vice President, the President shall nominate a Vice President who shall take office upon

confirmation by a majority vote of both Houses

of Congress.

Section 3

Whenever the President transmits to the

President pro tempore of the Senate and the

Speaker of the House of Representatives his

written declaration that he is unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office, and

until he transmits to them a written declaration to the contrary, such powers and duties

shall be discharged by the Vice President as

Acting President.

Section 4

Whenever the Vice President and a majority of either the principal officers of the executive departments or of such other body as

Congress may by law provide, transmit to the

President pro tempore of the Senate and the

Speaker of the House of Representatives their

written declaration that the President is unable

to discharge the powers and duties of his office,

the Vice President shall immediately assume

the powers and duties of the office as Acting

President.

Thereafter, when the President

transmits to the President pro tempore of the

Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives his written declaration that no in-

  

	

 
ability exists, he shall resume the powers and

duties of his office unless the Vice President

and a majority of either the principal officers of

the executive department or of such other body

as Congress may by law provide, transmit

within four days to the President pro tempore

of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of

Representatives their written declaration that

the President is unable to discharge the powers

and duties of his office. Thereupon Congress

shall decide the issue, assembling within fortyeight hours for that purpose if not in session. If

the Congress, within twenty-one days after receipt of the latter written declaration, or, if

Congress is not in session, within twenty-one

days after Congress is required to assemble, determines by two-thirds vote of both Houses that

the President is unable to discharge the powers

and duties of his office, the Vice President shall

continue to discharge the same as Acting President; otherwise, the President shall resume the

powers and duties of his office.

Note: Article II, section 1, of the Constitution

was affected by the 25th amendment.

AMENDMENT XXVI

Passed by Congress March 23, 1971. Ratified

July 1, 1971.

Section 1

The right of citizens of the United States,

who are eighteen years of age or older, to vote

shall not be denied or abridged by the United

States or by any State on account of age.

Section 2

The Congress shall have power to enforce

this article by appropriate legislation.

Note: Amendment 14, section 2, of the

Constitution was modified by section 1 of the

26th amendment.

AMENDMENT XXVII

Originally proposed Sept. 25, 1789. Ratified

May 7, 1992.

No law, varying the compensation for the

services of the Senators and Representatives,

shall take effect, until an election of representatives shall have intervened.

 	
 


	 

  	 
 

Source Notes

This section lists sources by page number. Where material appears in a paragraph, both the page

number and paragraph number are listed. Quotations are identified by the quoted person’s name.

Boldface indicates titles of examples.

PART I—THE LEADER, LEADERSHIP, AND THE HUMAN DIMENSION

Chapter 1—The Army Leadership Framework

1-1 Douglas MacArthur: A Soldier Speaks: Public Papers and Speeches of General of the Army Douglas

MacArthur, ed. Vorin E. Whan Jr. (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, Publishers, 1965), 354, 356.

1-1 J. Lawton Collins: in The Infantry School Quarterly (April 1953): 30.

1-2 Edward C. Meyer: in The Chiefs of Staff, United States Army: On Leadership and the Profession of Arms

(Pentagon, Washington, D.C.: The Information Management Support Center, 24 March 1997), 10

(hereafter referred to as Chiefs of Staff).

1-2 1-3, “The Creed of the Noncommissioned Officer”: TC 22-6, The Army Noncommissioned Officer

Guide, (23 November 1990), inside front cover (hereafter cited as TC 22-6).

1-8 COL Chamberlain at Gettysburg: John J. Pullen, The Twentieth Maine (1957; reprint, Dayton,

Ohio: Press of Morningside Bookshop, 1980), 114-125 (hereafter cited as Pullen); “The Alabamians

drove the Maine men...”: Geoffrey C. Ward, The Civil War: An Illustrated History (New York: Knopf,

1990), 220 (hereafter cited as Ward).

1-10 Douglas E. Murray: in ARMY Magazine 39, no. 12 (December 1989): 39.

1-13 “More than anything else...”: TRADOC Pam 525-100-2, Leadership and Command on the Battlefield:

Battalion and Company (Fort Monroe, Va., 10 June 1993), 43 (hereafter cited as TRADOC Pam

525-100-2).

1-14 George C. Marshall: in Selected Speeches and Statements of General of the Army George C. Marshall, ed.

H.A. DeWeerd (Washington, D.C.: The Infantry Journal, 1945), 176.

1-16 Small Unit Leaders’ Initiative in Normandy: Stephen Ambrose, D-Day June 6, 1944: The

Climactic Battle of World War II (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994), 235-36 (hereafter cited as

Ambrose, D-Day); “This certainly wasn’t the way...”: Sam Gibbons memoir (New Orleans: Eisenhower

Center, University of New Orleans (hereafter cited as Eisenhower Center)).

1-17 1-69, “When I became Chief of Staff...”: Edward C. Meyer, “A Return to Basics,” Military Review 60,

no. 4 (July 1980): 4.

1-18 George Bush: in Quotes for the Military Writer/Speaker (Department of the Army: Chief of Public

Affairs, 1989), 6 (hereafter cited as Military Quotes 1989).

Chapter 2—The Leader and Leadership: What a Leader Must Be, Know, and Do

2-1 Oath of Enlistment: AR 601-280 (29 Sep 1995), 72; 10 USC 502.

2-1 Oath of Office: DA Form 71, December 1988; Standard Form 61, June 1986; 5 USC 3331. The oath

administered to DA civilians omits the words “having been appointed a [rank] in the United States

Army.”

2-2 Julius W. Gates, “The Thunder of a Mighty Fighting Force,” ARMY Magazine 38, no. 10 (October

1988): 41.

2-3 S. L. A. Marshall, Men Against Fire: The Problem of Battle Command in Future War (Peter Smith:

Gloucester, Mass., 1978), 200 (hereafter cited as S. L. A. Marshall).

2-4 John A. Wickham Jr.: Collected Works of the Thirtieth Chief of Staff, United States Army (Washington,

D.C.: Department of the Army, 1988), 191 (hereafter cited as Wickham).

2-4 Duty in Korea: Highlights in the History of the Army Nurse Corps (Washington, D.C.: US Army

Center for Military History, 1996), 23.

2-5 John M. Schofield: in Manual for Noncommissioned Officers and Privates of Infantry of the Army of the

United States (West Point, N.Y.: US Military Academy Library Special Collections, 1917), 12.

2-6 Omar N. Bradley: in Military Review 28, no. 2 (May 1948): 62.

2-6 GA Marshall Continues to Serve: David McCullough, Truman (New York: Simon & Schuster,

1992), 475, 532-35.

Army Leadership Source Notes-1
2-7 Thomas J. Jackson: in Robert Debs Heinl, Dictionary of Military and Naval Quotations (Annapolis: US

Naval Institute Press, 1988), 151 (hereafter cited as Heinl).

2-8 MSG Gordon and SFC Shugart in Somalia: Mark Bowden, “Blackhawk Down,” Philadelphia

Inquirer [hereafter cited as Bowden], Chapter 8 (November 23, 1997) [http://phillynews.com/

packages/somalia/nov 23/default23.asp] and official sources.

2-8 J. Lawton Collins, Lightning Joe: An Autobiography (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press,

1979), 444.

2-9 2-31, “Integrity has three parts...”: Stephen L. Carter, Integrity (New York: Basic Books, 1996), 7.

2-9 William Connelly, “NCOs: It’s Time to Get Tough,” ARMY Magazine 31, no. 10 (October 1981): 31.

2-10 WO1 Thompson at My Lai: James S. Olson and Randy Roberts, My Lai: A Brief History with

Documents (Boston: Bedford Books, 1998), 159, 909-92. See also W.R. Peters, The My Lai Inquiry (New

York: W.W. Norton, 1979), 66-76.

2-11 Dandridge M. Malone, Small Unit Leadership: A Commonsense Approach (Novato, Calif.: Presidio

Press, 1983), 29.

2-12 William G. Bainbridge, “First, and Getting Firster: The NCO and Moral Discipline,” ARMY Magazine

25, no. 10 (October 1975): 24.

2-12 John T. Nelson, II: “Auftragstatik: A Case for Decentralized Combat Leadership,” in The Challenge of

Military Leadership, ed. Lloyd J. Matthews and Dale E. Brown (Washington, D.C.:

Pergamon-Brassey’s International Defense Publishers, Inc., 1989), 33.

2-13 The Quick Reaction Platoon: interview with LTC J. Baughman, School for Command Preparation,

US Army Command and General Staff College, Fort Leavenworth, Kans., 1998.

2-14 2-56: “It is not genius...”: Napoleon Bonaparte, in Heinl, 239.

2-14 2-58: “see though the forests...”: Pullen, 111.

2-16 Geoffrey C. Ward: in Ward, 184.

2-16 George S. Patton Jr., War as I Knew It (Boston: Houghton-Mifflin Co., 1947), 402 (hereafter cited as

Patton).

2-16 George C. Marshall: in Forrest C. Pogue, George C. Marshall: Ordeal and Hope 1939-1942 (New York:

Viking Press, 1966), 97.

2-17 Julius W. Gates, “From the Top,” Army Trainer 9, no. 1 (Fall 1989): 5.

2-17 Aristotle: Nicomachean Ethics, trans. Martin Ostwald (New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., 1962),

100.

2-17 2-75: The division of emotional attributes into self-control, balance, and stability is based on Daniel

Goleman, Emotional Intelligence (New York: Bantam Books, 1995).

2-18 Theresa Kristek: in Donna Miles, “The Women of Just Cause,” Soldiers (March 1990), 21 (hereafter

cited as “Just Cause”).

2-18 Noncommissioned Officer’s Manual: James E. Mose, Noncommissioned Officer’s Manual (Menasha,

Wis.: George Banta Publishing Co., 1917), 23.

2-18 BG Thomas Jackson at First Bull Run: quotations from William C. Davis, Battle at Bull Run: A

History of the First Major Campaign of the Civil War (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press,

1977), 196-97.

2-19 Margaret Chase Smith: speech to graduating women naval officers at Naval Station, Newport, Rhode

Island, 1952 (Skowhegan, Maine: Margaret Chase Smith Library).

2-19 Character and Prisoners: TRADOC Pam 525-100-4, Leadership and Command on the Battlefield:

Noncommissioned Officer Corps (Fort Monroe, Va., 1994), 26 (hereafter cited as TRADOC Pam

525-100-4).

2-20 GA Eisenhower’s Message: GA Eisenhower’s handwritten statement from the Harry Butcher diary,

6/20/44 (Eisenhower Center).

2-22 The Qualification Report: This vignette is based on an actual incident.

2-24 Omar N. Bradley, “American Military Leadership,” Army Information Digest 8, no. 2 (February 1953):

5.

Chapter 3—The Human Dimension

3-1 “The Creed of the Noncommissioned Officer”: TC 22-6, inside front cover.

3-1 3-4: Wickham, 310-11.

3-3 “NSDQ”: Bowden, Chapter 29 (December 14, 1997) [http://phillynews.com/packages/somalia/dec14/

default14.asp].

3-3 Audie Murphy: in Harold B. Simpson, Audie Murphy: American Soldier (Dallas, Tex.: Alcor Publishing

Co., 1982), 271.

3-3 Richard A. Kidd, “NCOs Make It Happen,” ARMY Magazine 44, no. 10 (October 1994): 31-36.

3-4 The 96th Division on Leyte: Richard Gerhardt, interview by Ed Ruggero, 1998.

Source Notes-2 FM 22-100

Source Notes
3-5 The K Company Visit: Harold P. Leinbaugh and John D. Campbell, The Men of Company K: The

Autobiography of a World War II Rifle Company (New York: William Morrow, 1985), 167-68 (hereafter

cited as Leinbaugh & Campbell).

3-6 George S. Patton Jr.: Patton, 340.

3-6 Task Force Ranger in Somalia: Bowden, Chapter 1 (November 16, 1997) [http://phillynews.com/

packages/somalia/nov16/default16.asp].

3-7 3-31: Bowden, Chapter 10 (November 25, 1997) [http://phillynews.com/packages/somalia/nov25/

default25.asp].

3-7 Marie Bezubic: in “Just Cause,” 23.

3-14 “When you’re first sergeant...”: Michelle McCormick, Polishing Up the Brass: Honest Observations on

Modern Military Life (Harrisburg, Pa.: Stackpole, 1988), 102.

3-19 3-92: “Great events sometimes turn...”: Pullen, 128.

PART II—DIRECT LEADERSHIP

Chapter 4—Direct Leadership Skills

4-2 James J. Karolchyk, “Leading by Example,” EurArmy (January 1986): 25-26.

4-4 “If a squad leader...”: TRADOC Pam 525-100-2, 35.

4-5 Randolph S. Hollingsworth: in The Noncommissioned Officer Corps on Leadership, the Army and

America: Quotes for Winners, 2d ed. (Washington D.C.: The Information Management Support Center,

January 1998), 18 (hereafter cited as Quotes for Winners).

4-8 4-28: “comes from a civilization...” and “Artist John Wolfe...”: S. L. A. Marshall, 78.

4-11 “The first thing ...”: TRADOC Pam 525-100-4, 5.

4-11 Technical Skill into Combat Power: Stephen Ambrose, Citizen Soldiers: The US Army from the

Normandy Beaches to the Bulge to the Surrender of Germany, June 7, 1944–May 7, 1945 (New York:

Simon & Schuster, 1997), 64 (hereafter cited as Ambrose, Citizen Soldiers).

4-12 “I felt we had to...”: TRADOC Pam 525-100-2, 47.

4-13 Task Force Kingston: Martin Blumenson, “Task Force Kingston,” ARMY Magazine (April 1964):

50-60.

Chapter 5—Direct Leadership Actions

5-2 Daniel E. Wright: in Quotes for Winners, 18.

5-11 William G. Bainbridge, “Quality, Training and Motivation,” ARMY Magazine, (October 1976): 28.

5-13 John D. Woodyard, “Are You a Whetstone?” NCO Journal (Summer 1993): 18.

5-14 Glen E. Morrell, “Looking to the Future” Sergeants’ Business (March 1986): 7.

5-15 William A. Connelly, “Keep Up with Change in the ’80s” ARMY Magazine (October 1982): 29.

5-16 Richard A. Kidd, “NCOs Make It Happen,” ARMY Magazine, 44, no. 10 (October 1994): 34.

5-19 Trust Earned: Henry Berry, Make the Kaiser Dance: Living Memories of the Doughboy (New York:

Arbor House, 1978), 416–419.

5-22 Replacements in the ETO: Ambrose, Citizen Soldiers, 276; “We discovered...” George Wilson, If You

Survive (New York: Ivy Books, 1987), 214; “We were just numbers...”: Leinbaugh & Campbell, 91.

5-24 SGT York: David D. Lee, Sergeant York: An American Hero (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky,

1985), 33-38.

5-25 Omar N. Bradley: in Quotes for the Military Writer (Washington, D.C.: Department of the Army, Office

of the Chief of Information, August, 1972), 19-1 (hereafter referred to as Military Quotes 1972).

5-27 5-133: Theodore Roosevelt: in John C. Maxwell, Leadership 101–Inspirational Quotes and Insights for

Leaders (Tulsa, Okla.: Honor Books, 1994), 52 (hereafter cited as Maxwell).

PART III—ORGANIZATIONAL AND STRATEGIC LEADERSHIP

Chapter 6—Organizational Leadership

6-4 Knowing Your People: Adolf von Schell, Battle Leadership (1933; reprint, Quantico, Va.: The Marine

Corps Association, 1988), 11-12.

6-9 6-30: General Order No. 1664, HQ, US Army Vietnam, APO, San Francisco 09307, 13 April 1967

(Washington, D.C.: Army Nurse Corps Archives, US Army Center for Military History).

6-10 Carl F. Vuono: in Military Quotes 1989, 13.

6-11 GEN Grant at Vicksburg: Joint Military Operations Collection (15 July 1997), Chapter I.

6-13 Edward C. Meyer: in Chiefs of Staff, 7.

6-17 George C. Marshall: in Military Quotes 1972, 13-1.

6-19 George S. Patton Jr.: Patton, 354.

Army Leadership Source Notes-3

Source Notes
6-22 Lucian K. Truscott, Command Missions: A Personal Story (New York: Dutton, 1954), 556.

6-23 George S. Patton Jr.: Patton, 357.

6-24 6-107–6-108: Gary B. Griffin, “The Directed Telescope: A Traditional Element of Effective Command”

(Fort Leavenworth, Kans.: US Army Command and General Staff College, Combat Studies Institute,

1991), 26-32.

6-25 John O. Marsh Jr.: in Military Quotes 1989, 38.

6-26 Woodrow Wilson: in Quotes for the Military Writer/Speaker (Department of the Army: Chief of Public

Affairs, 1982), 64.

6-27 Manton S. Eddy: in Military Review (March 1948): 44.

6-29 The discussion of GEN Ridgway is condensed from Jack J. Gifford, “Invoking Force of Will to Move the

Force,” in Studies in Battle Command by the Combat Studies Institute (Fort Leavenworth: Kans.: US

Army Command and General Staff College, 1995), 143-46.

Chapter 7—Strategic Leadership

7-5 Allied Command During the Battle of the Bulge: J.D. Morelock Generals of the Ardennes:

American Leadership in the Battle of the Bulge (Washington, D.C.: National Defense University Press,

1994), 65.

7-5 7-24–7-25, “But MG Chamberlain sensed...”: Pullen, 272-73.

7-7 William J. Crowe Jr.: William J. Crowe Jr. with David Chanoff, The Line of Fire: From Washington to

the Gulf, the Politics and Battles of the New Military (New York: Simon & Shuster, 1993), 54.

7-9 Strategic Flexibility in Haiti: Joint Military Operations Collection (15 July 1997), Chapter VII.

7-10 James Thomas Flexner, George Washington in the American Revolution (1775-1783) (Boston: Little,

Brown, & Co., 1968), 535.

7-12 Show of Force in the Philippines: Bob Woodward, The Commanders, (New York: Pocket Books,

1991), 120-25.

7-13 Arleigh A. Burke: in Karel Montor and others, Naval Leadership: Voices of Experience (Annapolis: US

Naval Institute Press, 1987), 16.

7-14 7-64: Gordon R. Sullivan and Michael V. Harper. Hope is Not A Method (New York: Times Business,

1996), 90-91.

7-16 The D-Day Decision: Ambrose, D-Day, 189; quotations from interview by Walter Cronkite for CBS

TV (Eisenhower Center).

7-17 Antoine-Henri de Jomini, The Art of War, trans. G.H. Mendell and W.P. Craighill (1862; reprint,

Westport Conn.: Greenwood Press, Publishers, n.d.)162-63.

7-19 Dwight D. Eisenhower: in Maxwell, 52.

7-25 7-113: John P. Kotter, Leading Change (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1996), 20-26.

7-25 Douglas MacArthur: in Military Quotes 1972, 18-3.

Source Notes-4 FM 22-100

Source Notes
Glossary

The glossary lists acronyms and abbreviations used in this manual. AR 310-25, JP 1-02, and FM

101-5-1 define most standard Army and joint terms. AR 310-50 lists authorized abbreviations and brevity codes.

1LT first lieutenant

2LT second lieutenant

.50 cal machine gun, caliber 50

5 USC Title 5, United States Code

10 USC Title 10, United States Code

AAR after-action review

ACS Army Community Service

ADM admiral

AO area of operations

APFT Army Physical Fitness Test

BOSS Better Opportunities for Single Soldiers

CCIR commander’s critical information requirements

CINC commander in chief of a combatant command

CMTC Combat Maneuver Training Center

COL colonel

comp. compiler

CPL corporal

CPT captain

CSM command sergeant major

CTC combat training center

CW2 chief warrant officer, W-2

DA Department of the Army

DA civilian a civilian employee of the Department of the Army

DA Pam Department of the Army Pamphlet

DCPDS Defense Civilian Personnel Data System (the automated personnel system

used to manage DA and DOD civilians)

D-Day 6 June 1944, the date of the Allied invasion of Normandy, France, during

World War II

D-day the execution date of any military operation

DOD Department of Defense

DOTLMS doctrine, training, leader development, organization, materiel, and soldiers

DPP deferred payment plan

 	
 

ECAS ethical climate assessment survey

ed. editor, edition

EFMB Expert Field Medical Badge

EO equal opportunity

ETO European Theater of Operations (used during World War II)

EUCOM United States European Command

FM field manual

GA General of the Army

GEN general

GI general issue (refers to equipment; sometimes used during World War II to

refer to soldiers)

GTA graphic training aid

HQ headquarters

HQDA Headquarters, Department of the Army

Humvee phonetic spelling of the acronym HMMWV, high-mobility, multipurpose

wheeled vehicle

IFOR the NATO Implementation Force sent to Bosnia to implement the 1995

Dayton peace accords

IPR in-process review

JOPES Joint Operation Planning and Execution System

JP Joint Publication

JSPS Joint Strategic Planning System

JTF joint task force

LDRSHIP an aid for remembering Army values (loyalty, duty, respect, selfless service,

honor, integrity, personal courage)

LTC lieutenant colonel

LTG lieutenant general

MAJ major

MDMP military decision-making process

METL mission essential task list

METT-TC mission, enemy, terrain and weather, troops, time available, civil

considerations (in tactics, the major factors considered during mission

analysis)

MOS military occupational specialty

MOUT military operations on urbanized terrain

NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization

NCO noncommissioned officer

NCODP noncommissioned officer development program (used to designate either a unit

program or training conducted as part of that program)

NCOER noncommissioned officer evaluation report

 	
 


NCOERS Noncommissioned Officer Evaluation Reporting System

OCOKA observation, concealment, obstacles, key terrain, and avenues of approach (in

tactics, the military aspects of terrain considered during a mission analysis)

OER officer evaluation report

OERS Officer Evaluation Reporting System

OPTEMPO operational tempo

PMCS preventive maintenance checks and services

PPBS Planning, Programming and Budgeting System

PT physical training

PVT private

PW prisoner of war

PX post exchange

QM quartermaster

R&R rest and recuperation

ROE rules of engagement

RPG rocket propelled grenade (a man-portable, single-shot, antitank rocket)

SFC sergeant first class

SGT sergeant

SHAEF Supreme Headquarters, Allied Expeditionary Force (the highest Allied

headquarters in the ETO during World War II)

SIDPERS Standard Installation/Division Personnel System

SJA staff judge advocate

SOP standing operating procedures

SSG staff sergeant

TAPES Total Army Performance Evaluation System (the system used to evaluate DA

civilians’ performance)

TLP troop leading procedures

TOC tactical operations center

TOW tube-launched, optically-tracked, wire-guided (refers to the Army’s heavy,

antitank missile system)

UCMJ Uniform Code of Military Justice

UN United Nations

US United States

USAREUR United States Army, Europe

USC United States Code

USR unit status report (also called the “2715 report”; a report of unit personnel,

equipment, training and overall readiness submitted monthly by active

component units and quarterly by reserve component units)

vols. volumes

 	
 




WAAC Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps

WO1 warrant officer

XO Executive Officer

 	
 




Bibliography

The Army uses the world wide web to disseminate information. All major commands and schools

maintain web pages. Since uniform resource locators (URLs) change from time to time, this bibliography

does not list any. If you do not know the URL for an organization’s web page, you can usually find it by

accessing the page for the major command or installation the organization belongs to and looking for a

link to the organization’s page. The Center for Army Leadership maintains a page under the US Army

Command and General Staff College at Fort Leavenworth, KS. The US Army Training and Doctrine

Command home page contains a link to Fort Leavenworth’s home page. The library or learning center at

your installation will provide you with free Internet access for official business. In addition, DA Pam 25-30

(available on CD-ROM) lists all Army publications and blank forms. Use it to find Army publications

related to specific topics. The US Army Publishing Agency (USAPA) home page has a link to an online

extract of DA Pam 25-30 which can link you to full-text copies of selected publications.

SOURCES USED

JOINT AND MULTISERVICE PUBLICATIONS

DOD Directive 5500.7. Joint Ethics Regulation. (n.d.).

DOD GEN–36A. The Armed Forces Officer. Armed Forces Information Service. Washington, D.C.:

1988.

JP 0-2. Unified Action Armed Forces (UNAAF). 24 February 1995.

JP 1-02. Department of Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms. 23 March 1994.

JP 3-0. Doctrine for Joint Operations. 1 February 1995.

USSOCOM Publication 1. Special Operations in Peace and War. (n.d.).

ARMY PUBLICATIONS

Army Regulation (AR)

AR 5-1. Army Management Philosophy. 12 June 1992.

AR 200-1. Environmental Protection and Enhancement. 21 February 1997.

AR 310-25. Dictionary of Unites States Army Terms. 21 May 1986.

AR 600-20. Army Command Policy. 30 March 1988.

AR 600-100. Army Leadership. 17 September 1993.

AR 623-105. Officer Evaluation Reporting System. 1 October 1997.

AR 635-200. Enlisted Personnel. 26 June 1996.

AR 690-950. Career Management. 18 August 1988.

AR 690-400. Total Army Performance Evaluation System. 22 May 1993.

 	
 


	
Department of the Army Pamphlet (DA Pam)

DA Pam 10-1. Organization of the US Army. 14 June 1994.

DA Pam 350-58. Leader Development for America’s Army. 13 October 1994.

DA Pam 600-3. Commissioned Officer Development. 01 October 1998.

DA Pam 600-11. Warrant Officer Professional Development. 30 December 1996.

DA Pam 600-25. US Army Noncommissioned Officer Professional Development Guide. 30 April 1987.

DA Pam 600-67. Effective Writing for Army Leaders. 2 June 1986.

DA Pam 600-69. Unit Climate Profile Commander’s Handbook. 01 October 1986.

DA Pam 623-205. The Noncommissioned Officer Evaluation Reporting System. 29 January 1988.

DA Pam 672-20. Decorations, Awards, and Honors, Incentive Awards. 1 July 1993.

DA Pam 690-46. Mentoring for Civilian Members of the Force. 31 July 1995.

DA Pam 690-400. Total Army Performance Evaluation System (TAPES). 1 June 1993.

Field Manual (FM)

FM 21-20. Physical Fitness Training. 30 September 1992.

FM 22-9. Soldier Performance in Continuous Operations. 12 December 1991.

FM 22-51. Leaders’ Manual for Combat Stress Control. 29 September 1994.

FM 25-100. Training the Force. 15 November 1988.

FM 25-101. Battle Focused Training. 30 September 1990.

FM 27-10. The Law of Land Warfare. 18 July 1956.

FM 100-1. The Army. 14 June 1994.

FM 100-5. Operations. 14 June 1993.

FM 100-6. Information Operations. 27 August 1996.

FM 100-7. Decisive Force: the Army in Theater Operations. 31 May 1995.

FM 100-34. Command and Control. TBP

FM 100-40. Tactics. TPB

Training Circular (TC)

TC 22-6. The Army Noncommissioned Officer Guide. 23 November 1990.

TC 25-20. A Leader’s Guide to After-Actions Reviews. 30 September 1993.

TC 25-30. A Leader’s Guide to Company Training Meetings. 27 April 1994.

US Army Training and Doctrine Command Publications

TRADOC Reg 351-10. Institutional Leader Education and Training. 1 May 1995.

TRADOC Pam 525-5. Force XXI Operations. 01 August 1994.

TRADOC Pam 525-100-1. Leadership and Command on the Battlefield. 1992.

	
 
 

	

TRADOC Pam 525-100-2. Leadership and Command on the Battlefield, Battalion and Company.

1993.

TRADOC Pam 525-100-4. Leadership and Command on the Battlefield, Noncommissioned Officer

Corps. 1994.

MISCELLANEOUS GOVERNMENT PUBLICATIONS

GTA 22-6-1. Ethical Climate Assessment Survey. October 1997.

10 USC, secs. 801–946. The Uniform Code of Military Justice.1950.

CIVILIAN TRAINING AND LEADER DEVELOPMENT POLICY

Laws

DOD 1400.25-M. Civilian Personnel Manual CPM Basic Installment #8, Training. 1 October 1985.

Executive Order 11348. Training Programs. 20 April 1967.

Federal Workforce Restructuring Act of 1994. The Government Employee Training Act (GETA).

1994.

5 USC, Chapter 41. Training, 1994.

5 CFR, Part 410/412. 12 December 1996.

Memoranda

HQ TRADOC, TAPC-CPP-T. Mandatory Supervisory Training. 29 May 1992.

HQ TRADOC, TAPC-CPP-T. Supervisory Training Policy. 29 June 1993.

HQ TRADOC, TAPC-CPP-T. Mandatory New Manager’s Training. 22 September 1994.

SAMR-CPP-MP. Action Officer Development Course. 10 July 1996.

DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY FORMS

DA Form 67-9. Officer Evaluation Report. October 1997.

DA Form 67-9-1. Office Evaluation Report Support Form. October 1997.

DA Form 67-9-1a. Junior Officer Developmental Support Form. October 1997.

DA Form 2028. Recommended Changes to Publications and Blank Forms. February 1974.

DA Form 2166-8. NCO Evaluation Report. October 1999.

DA Form 2166-8-1. NCO Counseling Checklist/Record. October 1999.

DA Form 4856-E. Developmental Counseling Form. June 1999.

DA Form 7222. Senior System Civilian Evaluation Report. May 1993.

DA Form 7222-1. Senior System Civilian Evaluation Report Support Form. May 1993.

DA Form 7223. Base System Civilian Evaluation Report. May 1993.

DA Form 7223-1. Base System Civilian Performance Counseling Checklist/Record. May 1993.

 	
 


	




	
NONMILITARY PUBLICATIONS

Ambrose, Stephen E. Citizen Soldiers: The US Army from the Normandy Beaches to the Bulge to the

Surrender of Germany, June 7, 1944–May 7, 1945. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1997.

———. D-Day June 6, 1944: The Climactic Battle of World War II. New York: Simon & Schuster,

1994.

Aristotle. “Nichomachean Ethics.” In The Basic Works of Aristotle. New York: Random House, 1941.

Arms, Larry, and Jaime Cavazos. “The Army’s SMAs from the Beginning to the Present.” NCO

Journal (Summer 1994): 9-13.

Associates, Department of Behavioral Sciences and Leadership, United States Military Academy.

Leadership in Organizations. Garden City Park, N.Y.: Avery Publishing Group, Inc., 1988.

Axinn, Sidney. A Moral Military. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1989.

Bass, Bernard M. A New Paradigm of Leadership: An Inquiry into Transformational Leadership.

Washington, D.C.: US Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences, 1996.

———. Leadership and Performance Beyond Expectations. New York: The Free Press, 1985.

———. Transformational Leadership: Industrial, Military, and Educational Impact. Mahwah, N.J.:

Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., 1998.

Bentham, Jeremy. The Principles of Morals and Legislation. New York: Macmillan, 1948.

Berry, Henry. Make the Kaiser Dance: Living Memories of the Doughboy. New York: Arbor House,

1978.

Blumenson, Martin, and James L. Stokesbury. Masters of the Art of Command. Boston: Houghton

Mifflin Company, 1975.

Chilcoat, Richard A. Strategic Art: The New Discipline for 21st Century Leaders. Carlisle Barracks,

Pa.: US Army War College, Strategic Studies Institute, 1995.

Christopher, Paul. The Ethics of War and Peace: An Introduction to Legal and Moral Issues.

Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice Hall, 1994.

Clement, S. D., and D. B. Ayers. A Matrix of Organizational Leadership Dimensions. Leadership

Monograph Series, no. 8. Indianapolis: US Army Administration Center, 1976.

Collins, James C., and Jerry I. Porras. Built To Last. New York: Harper Business, 1994.

Combat Studies Institute. Studies in Battle Command. Fort Leavenworth, Kans.: US Army

Command and General Staff College, 1995.

DePree, Max. Leadership Is an Art. New York: Dell Publishing, 1989.

Donagan, Alan. A Theory of Morality. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977.

Doughty, Robert A. The Seeds of Disaster: The Development of French Army Doctrine 1919-1939.

Hamden, Conn.: Archon Books, 1985.

Eichelberger, Robert L. Our Jungle Road to Tokyo. New York: The Viking Press, 1950.

Fall, Bernard B. Street Without Joy. Harrisburg, Pa.: Stackpole Books, March 1994.

Fitton, Robert A., ed., Leadership Quotations from the Military Tradition. Boulder, Colo.: Westview

Press, 1990.

Frankena, William. Ethics. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice Hall, 1973.

Fussell, Paul. Doing Battle: The Making of a Skeptic. Boston: Little, Brown & Co, 1996.

Gardner, John W. On Leadership. New York: The Free Press, 1990.

Goleman, Daniel. Emotional Intelligence. New York: Bantam Books, 1995.

	
 
 

	

Graen, George, and Chun Hui, “Development of Leaders for Dealing with ‘Third Cultures’: How to

Manage Cross-Cultural Partners.” Paper presented at the 1996 Army: “Leadership

Challenges of the 21st Century Army” Symposium, Cantigny, Wheaton, Ill., March 1996.

———. “US Army Leadership in Century XXI: Challenges and Implications for Training.” Paper

presented at the 1996 Army: “Leadership Challenges of the 21st Century Army” Symposium,

Cantigny, Wheaton, Ill., March 1996.

Griffin, Gary B. “The Directed Telescope: A Traditional Element of Effective Command.” Fort

Leavenworth, Kans.: US Army Command and General Staff College, Combat Studies

Institute, 1991.

Hammer, Michael, and James Champy. Reengineering the Corporation. New York: Harper Business,

1993.

Hartle, Anthony. Moral Issues in Military Decision Making. Lawrence, Kans.: University of Kansas

Press, 1989.

Haslam, Diana. The Effects of Continuous Operations Upon Military Performance of the Infantryman

(Exercise “Early Call II”). UK Army Personnel Research Establishment, 1978.

Heifetz, Ronald A. Leadership Without Easy Answers. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1994.

Heinl, Robert D. Dictionary of Military and Naval Quotations. Annapolis: US Naval Institute Press,

1988.

Heller, Charles E., and William A. Stofft. America’s First Battles–1776-1965. Lawrence, Kans.:

University of Kansas Press, 1986.

Hunt, James G. (Jerry), and Robert L. Phillips, eds. “Executive Summary of the 1996 Army

Symposium: ‘Leadership Challenges of the 21st Century Army.’” Paper presented at the US

Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences, Cantigny, Wheaton, Ill.,

May 1996.

Infantry in Battle. 2nd ed. Garrett & Massie: Richmond, Va., 1939. Reprint, Fort Leavenworth,

Kans.: US Army Command and General Staff College, 1981.

Jones, Charles “T,” and R. Manning Ancell, eds. Four Star Leadership for Leaders. Mechanicsburg,

Pa.: Executive Books, 1997.

Kant, Immanuel. Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals. New York: Harper & Row, 1964.

———. The Metaphysical Elements of Justice. New York: Macmillan, 1965.

Kilmann, Ralph H., Mary J. Sexton, and Roy Serpa. “Issues in Understanding and Changing

Culture.” California Management Review, 28 (1986): 87-94.

Kotter, John P. Leading Change. Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1996.

Kouzes, James M., and Barry Z. Posner. The Leadership Challenge. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass,

1987.

Kuhn, Thomas S. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press,

1974.

Lane, Larry. “Mentors and Shapers.” Soldiers 53 (March 1998): 16-19.

Leckie, William H. The Buffalo Soldiers: A Narrative of the Negro Cavalry in the West. Norman,

Okla.: University of Oklahoma Press, 1967.

Lee, Blaine. The Power Principle: Influence with Honor. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1997.

Malone, Dandridge M. (Mike). Small Unit Leadership: A Commonsense Approach. Novato, Calif.:

Presidio Press, 1983.

Marshall, S. L. A. Men Against Fire: The Problem of Battle Command in Future War. Gloucester,

Mass.: Peter Smith, 1947.

 	
 


	




	
Maxwell, John C. Leadership 101–Inspirational Quotes and Insights for Leaders. Tulsa, Okla.:

Honor Books, 1994.

Mill, J. S. Utilitarianism, On Liberty, and Considerations on Representative Government. London:

Everyman’s Library, 1988.

Montor, Karel, and others. Naval Leadership: Voices of Experiences. Annapolis: US Naval Institute

Press, 1987.

Moore, Harold G., and Joseph L. Galloway. We Were Soldiers Once...And Young. New York: Random

House, 1992.

Morden, Bettie J. The Women’s Army Corps, 1945-1978. Army Historical Series. Washington, D.C.:

Center of Military History, 1990.

Morelock, J. D. Generals of the Ardennes: American Leadership in the Battle of the Bulge.

Washington, D.C.: National Defense University Press, 1994.

O’Toole, James. Leading Change. New York: Jossey-Bass, Inc., 1996.

Palmer, Bruce, Jr. The 25-Year War: America’s Military Role in Vietnam. New York: Simon &

Schuster, 1985.

Phillips, Robert L., and James G. Hunt, eds. Strategic Leadership: A Multiorganizational-Level

Perspective. West Pamort, Conn.: Quorum Books, 1992.

Puryear, Edgar F. Jr. Nineteen Stars. Novato, Calif.: Presidio Press, 1971.

Rawls, John. A Theory of Justice. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1971.

Remarque, Erich Marie. All Quiet on the Western Front. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice Hall, 1996.

Rogers, Robert. J. “A Study of Leadership in the First Infantry Division During World War II: Terry

de la Mesa Allen and Clarence Ralph Huebner,” Master’s thesis, US Army Command and

General Staff College, Fort Leavenworth, Kans., 1965.

Rost, Joseph C. Leadership for the Twenty-First Century. New York: Praeger, 1991.

Schön, Donald. The Reflective Practitioner. New York: Basic Books, 1983.

Senge, Peter M. The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of the Learning Organization. New York:

Doubleday Currency, 1990.

Senge, Peter M., Art Kleiner, Charlotte Roberts, Richard R. Ross, and Bryan J. Smith. The Fifth

Discipline Fieldbook: Strategies and Tools for Building a Learning Organization. New York:

Doubleday Currency, 1994.

Sheehan, Neil. A Bright Shining Lie: John Paul Vann and America in Vietnam. New York: Vintage

Books, 1989.

Smircich, Linda. “Concepts of Culture and Organizational Analysis.” Administrative Science

Quarterly, 28 (1983): 339-358.

Solomon, Robert C. “Ethical Leadership, Emotions, and Trust: Beyond ‘Charisma.’” Paper

presented at the Kellogg Leadership Studies Project, Ethics and Leadership Working Papers,

Ethics and Leadership Focus Group, October 1996. Originally published in Ethics and

Excellence: Cooperation and Integrity in Business (New York: Oxford University Press, Inc.,

1993).

Spears, John A., Emil K. Kleuver, William L. Lynch, Michael T. Matthies, and Thomas L. Owens.

Striking a Balance in Leader Development: A Case for Conceptual Competence. National

Security Program Discussion Paper Series, no. 92-02. Cambridge: John F. Kennedy School of

Government at Harvard University, 1992.

Sullivan, Gordon R., and Michael V. Harper. Hope Is Not A Method. New York: Times Business, 1996.

	
 
 

	

Swain, Richard M. Lucky War: Third Army in Desert Storm. Fort Leavenworth, Kans.: US Army

Command and General Staff College Press, 1994.

Taylor, Robert L., and William E. Rosenbach. Military Leadership: In Pursuit of Excellence, 3rd ed.

Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1996.

Thompson, Dennis M., and John H. Grubbs. “‘Embracing Other Cultures: West Point and Beyond,’

from Embracing Cultural Geography: An Army Imperative.” Assembly 55 (May-June 1997).

Toner, James H. True Faith and Allegiance: The Burden of Military Ethics. Lexington, Ky.:

University of Kentucky Press, 1995.

Truscott, L. K., Jr. Command Missions. New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., 1954.

Vandiver, Frank. Facing Armageddon: The First World War Experienced. Edited by Hugh Cecil and

Peter H. Liddle. Great Britain: Pen and Sword Paperback, 1996.

Von Schell, Adolf. Battle Leadership. Fort Benning, Columbus, Ga.: The Benning Herald, 1933.

Wakin, Malham M., ed. War, Morality, and the Military Profession. 2nd ed. Boulder, Colo.: Westview,

1986.

Ward, Geoffrey C. The Civil War: An Illustrated History. New York: Knopf, 1990.

Watkins, Karen E., and Victoria J. Marsick. Sculpting The Learning Organization. New York:

Jossey-Bass, 1993.

Whiting, Charles. HERO: The Life and Death of Audie Murphy. Chelsea, Mich.: Scarborough House

Publishers, 1990.

Yukl, Gary. Leadership in Organizations. 3rd ed. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice Hall, 1994.

SUGGESTED READINGS FOR DIRECT LEADERS

Bass, Bernard M. Stogdill’s Handbook of Leadership. New York: Free Press, 1981.

Bennis, Warren, and Burt Nanus. Leaders: The Strategies for Taking Charge. New York: Harper &

Row, 1985.

Blanchard, Kenneth H., Patricia Zigarmi, and Drea Zigarmi. Leadership and the One Minute

Manager. New York: Morrow, 1985.

Burns, James MacGregor. Leadership. New York: Harper & Row, 1978.

Chamberlain, Joshua Lawrence. The Passing of the Armies. Dayton, Ohio: Press of Morningside

Bookshop, 1981.

Clarke, Bruce C. Guidelines for the Leader and the Commander. Harrisburg, Pa.: Stackpole Books.

1973.

Clausewitz, Carl von. On War. Edited and translated by Michael Howard and Peter Paret. Princeton,

N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1976.

Collins, Arthur S., Jr. Common Sense Training. San Rafael, Calif.: Presidio Press, 1978.

Crane, Stephen. The Red Badge of Courage. Logan, Iowa: Perfection Form, 1979.

Forester, C. S. Rifleman Dodd. Garden City, N.Y.: Sun Dial Press, 1944.

Gabriel, Richard A. To Serve with Honor: A Treatise on Military Ethics and the Way of the Soldier.

Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1982.

Holmes, Richard. Acts of War: The Behavior of Men in Battle. New York: Free Press, 1985.

Jacobs, Bruce. Heroes of the Army: The Medal of Honor and its Winners. New York: W.W. Norton &

Co., 1956.

 	
 


	




	
Keegan, John. The Face of Battle (A Study of Agincourt, Waterloo, and the Somme). New York: Viking

Press, 1976. Reprint, New York: Vintage Books, 1977, and New York: Penguin Books, 1978.

Kellett, Anthony. Combat Motivation: The Behavior of Soldiers in Battle. Boston: Kluwer-Nijhoff

Publishing, 1982.

MacDonald, Charles B. The Battle of the Huertgen Forest. New York: J. P. Lippincott Co., 1963.

Matthews, Lloyd J. The Challenge of Military Leadership. New York: Pergamon-Brassey’s

International Defense Publishers, Inc., 1989.

Myrer, Anton. Once an Eagle. New York: Dell Publishing Co., 1970.

Newman, Aubrey S. Follow Me. San Francisco: Presidio Press, 1981.

Norton, Oliver Willcox. The Attack and Defense of Little Round Top. Dayton, Ohio: Press of

Morningside Bookshop, 1978.

Nye, Roger H. The Challenge of Command: Reading for Military Excellence. Garden City, N.Y.:

Avery Publishing Co., 1986.

Peters, Thomas J., and Nancy Austin. A Passion for Excellence, The Leadership Difference. New

York: Random House, 1985.

Pullen, John J. The Twentieth Maine. Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott Co., 1957. Reprint, Dayton, Ohio:

Press of Morningside Bookshop, 1980.

Sajer, Guy. The Forgotten Soldier. New York: Harper & Row, 1971.

Shaara, Michael. The Killer Angels. New York: Ballantine Books, 1975.

Smith, Perry M. Taking Charge: A Practical Guide for Leaders. Washington, D.C.: National Defense

University Press, 1986.

Stockdale, James B. A Vietnam Experience: Ten Years of Reflection. Stanford, Calif.: Hoover Press,

1984.

Waterman, Robert H., and Thomas J. Peters. In Search of Excellence. New York: Harper & Row,

1982.

ADDITIONAL READINGS

FOR ORGANIZATIONAL AND STRATEGIC LEADERS

Ardant du Picq, Charles Jean Jacques Joseph. Battle Studies: Ancient and Modern. Translated by

John W. Greely and Robert C. Cotton. Harrisburg, Pa.: Military Service Publishing Co.,

1947.

Belasco, Hames A. Flight of the Buffalo: Soaring to Excellence, Learning to Let Employees Lead. New

York: Warner Books, 1993.

Blair, Clay. The Forgotten War. New York: Doubleday, 1987.

Clancy, Tom. Into the Storm. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1997.

Dixon, Norman. On the Psychology of Military Incompetence. New York: Basic Books, 1976.

Dupuy, Trevor N. A Genius for War: The German Army and General Staff, 1807-1945. Englewood

Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1977.

Fehrenback, R. R. This Kind of War: A Study in Unpreparedness. New York: Macmillan Co., 1963.

Flexner, James T. George Washington in the American Revolution. Boston: Little, Brown & Co.,

1968.

Freeman, Douglas Southall. Lee’s Lieutenants: A Study in Command. 3 vols. New York: Charles

Scribner’s Sons, 1942-44.

	
 
 

	

Freytag-Loringhoven, Hugo F .P. J. von. The Power of Personality in War. In Art of War Colloquium

text. Carlisle Barracks, Pa.: US Army War College, September 1983.

Fuller, J. F. C. The Conduct of War 1789-1961. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1961.

Grant, Ulysses S. Personal Memoirs of US Grant. 2 vols. New York: Charles L. Webster & Co., 1885.

Hackett, John W. The Third World War: August 1985. New York: Macmillan Co., 1978.

Hersey, Paul, and Kenneth H. Blanchard. Management of Organizational Behavior: Utilizing

Human Resources. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1977.

Hunt, James G., and John D. Blair, eds. Leadership on the Future Battlefield. New York:

Pergamon-Brassey’s, 1985.

Huntington, Samuel P. The Soldier and the State. New York: The Belknap Press, 1957.

Janowitz, Morris. The Professional Soldier: A Social and Political Portrait. New York: Free Press,

1971.

Johnson, Kermit D. Ethical Issues of Military Leadership. Carlisle Barracks, Pa.: US Army War

College, 1974.

Jomini, Antoine Henri. The Art of War. Trans. G.H. Mendell and W.P. Craighill. 1862. Reprint,

Westport Conn.: Greenwood Press, Publishers, n.d.

Larrabee, Eric. Commander in Chief: Franklin Delano Roosevelt, His Lieutenants, and their War.

New York: Harper & Row, 1987.

Lewis, Lloyd. Sherman, Fighting Prophet. New York: Harcourt, Brace & Co., 1932.

Luttwak, Edward N. The Pentagon and the Art of War. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1984.

Manstein, Erich von. Lost Victories. Edited and translated by Anthony G. Powell. Chicago: Henry

Regnery Co., 1958. Reprint, Novato, Calif.: Presidio Press, 1982.

Maslow, A. H. Motivation and Personality. New York: Harper, 1954.

McCullough, David. Truman. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1992.

Montgomery of Alamein, Field-Marshal Viscount. A History of Warfare. Cleveland: World Publishing

Co., 1968.

Moskos, Charles C., Jr. The American Enlisted Man: The Rank and File in Today’s Military. New

York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1970.

Musashi, Miyamoto. A Book of Five Rings. Woodstock, NY: The Overlook Press, 1982.

Patton, George S., Jr. War As I Knew It. Annotated by Paul D. Harkins. Boston: Houghton Mifflin

Co., 1947.

Pogue, Forrest D. George C. Marshall: Ordeal and Hope 1939-1942. New York: Viking Press, 1966.

Powell, Colin. My American Journey. New York: Random House, 1995.

Pratt, Fletcher. Eleven Generals, Studies in American Command. New York: William Sloane

Associates, 1949.

Ridgway, Matthew B. Soldier: The Memoirs of Matthew B. Ridgway. New York: Harper & Brothers,

1956.

Rommel, Erwin. Attacks. Vienna, Va.: Athena Press, 1979.

———. The Rommel Papers. Translated by Paul Findlay and edited by B. H. Liddell Hart. New York:

Harcourt, Brace & Co., 1953.

Ryan, Cornelius. A Bridge Too Far. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1974. Reprint, New York: Popular

Library, 1977.

 	
 


	




	
Sarkesion, Sam C. Beyond the Battlefield: The New Military Professionalism. New York: Pergamon

Press, 1981.

Summers, Harry G., Jr. On Strategy: The Vietnam War in Context. Carlisle Barracks, Pa.: US Army

War College, Strategic Studies Institute, 1982.

Sun Tzu. The Art of War. Trans. Samuel B. Griffith. New York: Oxford University Press, 1971.

Van Creveld, Martin L. Command in War. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1985.

Wavell, Sir Archibald P. Soldiers and Soldiering. New York: Avery Publishing Group, 1986.

Weigley, Russell F. Eisenhower’s Lieutenants: The Campaign of France and Germany, 1944-1945.

Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University Press, 1981.

Williams, T. Harry. McClellan, Sherman, and Grant. New Brunswick, N. J.: Rutgers University

Press, 1962.

	

  



	

A-B

achieving consensus

(influencing), actions

7-20–7-25, 7-92

active listening, 4-8–4-9, 4-11

counseling and, C-17–C-20

dialogue and, 7-15, 7-18

after-action review(s) (AARs),

1-19, 3-34

defined, 5-132

assessing and, 5-62–5-63

developing and, 1-59, 6-121,

6-129

improving and, 1-19–1-20

learning and, 1-59, 5-12, 5-132,

7-116

Army values, 2-4–2-39, fig.1-1

character/character

development and, 2-121, 2-80,

2-92, 7-75–7-76, E-1–E-12

combat leadership and, 1-85,

2-119–2-121

institutional culture and, 2-4,

2-61, 7-75, 7-76

leader attributes and, 1-85,

7-91

personal values and, 2-32–2-33

positive reinforcement and,

E-7–E-8, fig. E-1

self-development and, 1-21,

1-24

setting the example and, 1-23,

1-24, 2-7, 2-32, E-8

strategic leaders and, 7-7, 7-8

warrior ethos and, 2-85, 2-87

assessing/assessment (operating

action): defined, 2-114

in combat, 6-107–6-108, 6-153

counseling and, C-75–C-76

direct leader, 5-31, 5-57–5-68

improving and, 2-115, 6-104

learning and, 6-104, 7-115

liaison officers and,

6-107–6-108

organizational leader, 6-5,

6-104–6-116

plans of action and, 5-66, D-3,

D-5

standards and, 5-57,

6-113–6-114

strategic leader, 7-96–7-97

systems understanding and,

6-26, 7-97

training and, 5-63, 6-115–6-116

training management and,

6-104

vision and, 7-31, 7-33–7-34

assumptions, defined, 5-18

authority, A-2–A5, A-7–A-16

defined, A-7

autocratic leadership style,

defined, 3-68

balance (emotional attribute),

2-78, 6-48

defined, 2-78

beliefs, 2-18–2-19, 2-100–2-103.

See also values

defined, 2-100

building (improving action),

5-102–5-123, 6-131–6-141,

7-110–7-113. See also staff

building

defined, 2-118

building combat power, 6-131,

7-53, 7-94–7-95

building staffs (interpersonal

skill), 7-26–7-28

building teams, 5-102–5-119,

6-11, 6-132–6-139, fig. 5-5. See

also cohesion

C

candor, 6-150, 7-120

defined, 2-38

caring, 3-16–3-25

defined, 3-18

Army as an institution and, 3-4–3-5

Army values and, 2-10, 3-19

chain of command, A-20–A-24

change, 3-35–3-51, 7-1, 7-2,

7-110–7-113

character, 2-80–2-103

defined, 1-22

Army values and, 1-22, 2-83, 2-93,

2-121, 2-26, 2-31, E-1, E-3, E-4

behavior and, 1-23, E-3, E-7, E-9

ethical reasoning and, 2-82, 2-95

ethics and, 2-93–2-96

illegal orders and, 2-97–2-99

leader attributes and, 1-88, 2-81,

2-3

organizational climate, effect on,

3-56, 3-89, 6-70

values and, 2-3

warrior ethos and, 2-85–2-90

character development, 2-91–2-92,

E-1–E-12, fig. E-1

Army values and, 2-80, 2-92,

7-75–7-76, E-1–E-12

leader attributes and, 2-80, fig. E-1

plans of action and, fig. C-7

checking, 3-45. See also

supervising

organizational leaders and, 6-18

personal courage and, 1-54–1-55,

3-45

technology and, 3-45

climate, 3-53–3-57. See also

environment

coaching, 5-97–5-98, C-6, C-75

defined, p. 5-18

character development and, 2-92

Code of Conduct, warrior ethos and

the, 2-85

Army Leadership Index-1

Index

Entries are by paragraph number unless stated otherwise.
cohesion. See also building

teams

building combat power and,

7-95

change and, 3-50

discipline and, 3-9, 3-28

ethical behavior and, E-3

morale and, 3-15

organizational climate and, 6-70

reception and integration and,

5-117

combat leadership, 1-1

Army values and, 1-68, 1-85,

2-11, 2-24, 2-119–2-121

illegal orders and, 2-98

leader attributes and, 2-43,

2-46, 2-55, 2-77, 2-79

self-development and,

2-119–2-121

command, 1-60–1-61

defined, A-8

relationships, 7-88

presence, 6-45, 6-52, 6-153,

6-163

responsibilities of, 1-61, 6-103,

A-8, A-18, C-36–C-37

commander’s critical information

requirements (CCIR), 3-39,

6-23

commander’s intent, 3-39, 5-11,

5-12. See also establishing

intent; intent

initiative and, 2-49, 6-10

commissioned officers, roles and

duties, A-2, A-9, fig. A-1

communicate a vision, 7-31,

7-33–7-34, 7-63–7-65

communicating/communication

(interpersonal skill and

influencing action). See also

nonverbal communication

defined as an influencing

action, 2-113

defined as an interpersonal

skill, 4-5

building teams and, 5-7, 6-49,

6-138

chain of command and,

A-20–A-22

direct leader, 4-4–4-11,

5-7–5-13

direct leader and organizational

leader contrasted, 6-44, 6-46

envisioning and, 7-31,

7-33–7-34, 7-63–7-65

examples of, 1-75–1-77, 4-11,

6-147, 6-153, 6-157, 7-69,

7-126

organizational leader, 6-4,

6-11–6-12, 6-46–6-57

strategic leaders, 7-1, 7-4,

7-11–7-14, 7-63–7-69

trust and, 5-7, 6-49, 6-52, 7-126

competence, 2-104–2-110, 7-52

building teams and,

5-103–5-104

character and, 2-104, 2-106,

E-3

leader attributes and, 2-43,

2-54, 2-73, 2-105

organizational climate, effect

on, 3-56, 6-70

conceptual skills, 4-18–4-41, 6-4,

6-15–6-27, 7-29–7-43,

7-82–7-83

defined, 1-25

confidence, 3-9, E-3. See also

self-confidence

collective, 3-10–3-11, 6-134

Constitution, the: regarding the

armed forces, 2-8, pp. F-4, F-6

freedom of religion and, 2-102,

p. F-9

oath of enlistment or office and,

p. 2-1

subordination to civilian

authority and, 2-90

values and, 2-101

corrective training, C-30–C-54

counseling (interpersonal skill),

4-14–4-17

defined, 4-14

active listening and,

C-17–C-20, C-69

approaches, fig. C-5,

C-46–C-52

assessing and, C-75–C-76

chain of command and, C-75, fig.

C-2

character and, C-31

characteristics of effective, C-9,

fig. C-1

coaching and, C-75

combined approach, fig. C-5,

C-51–C-52

communicating and, C-64, fig. C-1

corrective training and, C-54

credibility and, C-14

critical reasoning and, 4-19

DA civilians and, A-27

decision making and, C-51

developing subordinates and, C-56

directive approach, C-49–C-50, fig.

C-5

elements of counseling sessions,

C-67, fig. C-7

empathy and, C-13, fig. C-2

empowering and, 5-33

environment for, C-58

errors during, C-23, fig. C-2

feedback opportunities, as, C-66

follow up and, C-23, C-31, C-67,

C-75–C-76

leader attributes and, C-12, C-23,

fig. C-1, C-2

leader limitations and, C-24–C-26

mentoring and, 4-17

motivating and, 1-14, fig. C-1

nondirective approach,

C-47–C-48, fig. C-5

nonverbal communication and,

C-17–C-21

outline, C-62, fig. C-6

persuading and, C-53

plans of action and, 4-15, C-30,

C-31, C-51–C-52, C-67, C-68,

C-71, C-75

preparing for, C-57–C-65

process, the, C-55–C-76, figs. C-6,

C-8

Index-2 FM 22-100

Index
qualities of effective counselor,

fig. C-8

recording, C-72–C-74, figs. C-9,

C-10, C-11

resources and, C-75

self-awareness and, C-11

skills, C-15–C-24, fig. C-8

standards and, 5-93, C-30,

C-31, C-70

strategy, example of, fig. C-7

teaching and, C-75

verbal responses, list, C-21

courage. See moral courage;

personal courage; physical

courage

creative thinking (conceptual

skill), 4-22–4-23

critical reasoning (conceptual

skill), 4-19–4-21

defined, 4-19–4-20

decision making and, 2-57,

2-113, 4-19

ethical reasoning and, 2-95,

4-19

cultural awareness (leader

attribute), 2-100, 2-59–2-66,

7-128, 6-135

Army values and, 2-18, 2-21,

7-91

building teams and, 6-135

motivating and, 7-91

multinational environment and,

7-90

nonverbal communication and,

C-17

role models and, 5-95–5-96

self-awareness and, 7-91

shaping culture and, 7-74

third countries and, 7-90

culture, 3-58–3-63. See also

institutional culture;

environment

defined, 2-59

adversaries and, 2-64–2-65

Army values and, 3-59, 7-78

beliefs and, 2-100

ethical climate and, 7-78

factors affecting, 2-60

morale and, 7-78

multinational operations and,

2-65–2-66

shaping, 7-73–7-79

stereotypes and, 2-60

talents and, 2-62

values and, 2-103, 7-74

D

DA civilians, 5-107, A-5–A-6,

A-26–A-27, fig. A-1

dealing with uncertainty and

ambiguity (conceptual skill),

7-41–7-43, 7-46, 7-49

decentralization/delegating,

1-54–1-55, 1-56

authority, A-14–A-16

commander’s intent and, 3-39

empowering and, 1-54, 5-53,

6-14, 6-18, 6-100–6-103

organizational leader decision

making and, 6-58–6-61, 6-74

decision making (influencing

action), 5-14–5-26, 6-58–6-66.

See also military

decision-making process;

strategic decision making

defined, 5-14

achieving consensus and, 7-22

Army values and, 1-66, 1-79,

5-30

critical reasoning and, 2-57,

2-113, 4-19

leader attributes and, 1-79,

5-49, 2-52, 2-113, 6-62, 6-65

MDMP and, 2-114, 5-15, 6-60

delegating leadership style, 3-75

democratic leadership style, 3-68

developing (improving action),

5-72–5-100, 6-120–6-130,

7-101–7-109

defined, 2-118

AARs and, 6-121

building teams and, 5-110,

6-132

conceptual skills, 5-86

feedback and, 6-121

frames of reference (conceptual

skill), 7-38–7-40

initiative and, 2-50

institutional training and, 5-75

interpersonal skills, 5-86

intellectual capital (improving

action), 7-104–7-109

mentoring and, 2-118, 4-17, 6-120,

6-130

motivating and, 5-38

organizational level, 6-120–6-130

self-development and, 6-121,

5-76–5-78

subordinates, 1-23, 1-24,

1-52–1-59, 2-53, 5-68, 5-92,

5-119, 6-71–6-72, 6-104; defined,

C-56

skills, 5-86

developmental counseling,

5-90–5-96. See also counseling;

event-oriented counseling;

performance counseling;

professional growth counseling

defined, p. 5-17

AARs and, 1-19

assessing and, 5-92

categories of, C-26

character development and, E-12

contrasted with teaching, 5-86

developing subordinates and, 5-92

setting the example and, 5-94

leader development reviews and,

C-3–C-4

mentoring and, 6-130

organizational leaders and, 6-130

plans of action and, C-3

purpose of, 1-19

responsibility for, C-5

self-development and, 5-78

skills and, 5-86

summary of, fig. C-8

Developmental Counseling Form

(DA Form 4856-E), C-4, C-7, C-78,

figs. C-9, C-10, C-11

dialogue, using (interpersonal skill),

7-15, 7-27

Army Leadership Index-3

Index
direct leader/leadership,

1-3–1-41, 2-113. See also

leader actions; leader skills

defined, 1-39

directing leadership style, 1-10,

3-69–3-72, 6-12

discipline, 3-6, 3-7–3-13

defined, 3-8–3-9

Army values and, 1-71, 2-21

building teams and, 3-6, 3-28

change and, 3-50

climate and, 3-89

cohesion and, 3-9, 3-28

general military authority and,

A-11

leader attributes and, 3-6, 6-10

motivation and, 6-9

organizational climate and,

6-68, 6-70

problem solving and, 3-6

trust and, 6-139

units and, 6-10

warrior ethos and, 2-85

discrimination, 2-21

doctrine (tactical skill), 4-47,

7-77, 7-100, 7-112

duty (Army value), 2-13–2-16

defined, p. 2-4

caring and, 3-19

counseling and, 4-16

ethical climate and, 5-122

illegal orders and, 1-67, 2-16

respect and, 2-21

warrior ethos and, 2-87

E-F-G

education, 5-75–5-76, 5-80,

6-127, 7-106, C-43

emotional attributes, 2-71,

2-74–2-79

empathy, C-11, fig. C-2

defined, C-13

empowering/empowerment, 6-5,

6-61, 6-74, 6-100–6-103

defined, 5-33

decentralization/delegating and,

1-54, 5-53, 6-14, 6-18,

6-100–6-103

intent and, 1-54–1-55, 6-18,

6-101

personal courage and,

1-54–1-55, 1-56

environment. See also climate;

culture

communicating and, 6-50, 6-54

factors affecting, 3-2

organizational leaders and, 6-5

strategic leaders and, 7-1–7-6,

7-26, 7-36, 7-49, 7-50, 7-57,

7-59, 7-96

envisioning (conceptual skill),

7-31–7-37. See also vision

establishing intent (conceptual

skill), 6-17–6-20. See also

commander’s intent; intent

ethical behavior: importance of,

E-3, E-7

character and, 2-82

ethical climate, 5-120–5-123

building and, 2-118

character development and, fig.

E-1

competition and, D-9, fig. D-3

Ethical Climate Assessment

Survey (ECAS), 5-121, 6-33,

D-7–D-13, E-11, fig. D-2

ethical reasoning (conceptual

skill), 2-95, 2-96, 4-10, 4-19,

4-24–4-40, 5-26

event-oriented counseling,

C-27–C-37

example, setting the, 1-16, 6-11.

See also role models

AARs and, 1-20, 4-53

Army values and, 1-23, 2-7,

2-10, 2-19, 2-32, E-8

leader attributes and, 1-24,

2-79

learning and, 5-88, 6-140,

7-114

executing (operating action):

defined, 2-114

direct leader, 5-50–5-55

organizational leader,

6-95–6-103

strategic leader, 7-84–7-95

facts, defined, 5-18

family support, 2-22, 2-25, 3-18,

6-56

fieldcraft (tactical skill), 4-48–4-50

filtering information (conceptual

skill), 6-21–6-23

strategic assessing and, 7-97

follow up. See also checking;

supervising

counseling and, C-23, C-31, C-67,

C-75–C-76

plans of action and, 4-15, D-15

frames of reference, developing,

(conceptual skill), 7-38–7-40

goals: commitment and developing,

6-134

intent and, 6-79

leadership development programs

and, 6-125

nonmission requirements and,

2-118

professional growth counseling

and, C-42

self-development and, 5-78

systems planning and, 6-79

vision and, 7-35

goal setting, 5-56, 5-57

H-I

hands-on training, 6-121–6-122

leadership development programs

and, 6-125

learning and, 5-88, 5-130

health fitness (physical attribute),

2-68

honor (Army value), 1-74, 2-26–2-30

defined, p. 2-7

moral courage and, 2-37

warrior ethos and, 2-87

illegal orders, 1-67, 2-16, 2-97–2-99

implied mission, defined, 5-42

improving actions, 1-18–1-20,

2-116–2-118

defined, 1-28

assessing and, 2-115, 5-66, 6-104

Index-4 FM 22-100

Index
direct leader, 5-69–5-134,

5-137, fig. 5-3

learning and, 5-124–5-125,

6-141

mentoring and, 4-17, 5-85

organizational climate, effect

on, 3-56

organizational leader, 6-117–

6-141, 6-159–6-160, fig. 6-7

reflective thinking and, 2-57,

4-41

strategic leader, 7-98–7-118

indirect influence, 2-113, 6-19,

6-119, 6-163

individual responsibility, 2-84,

A-19

influencing actions, 1-7–1-16,

5-4–5-68

defined, 1-28

direct leader, 1-40, 2-113,

5-4–5-38, 5-136, 6-42, figs. 5-1,

6-5

organizational leader, 1-43,

2-113, 6-42–6-73, fig. 6-5

sense of humor and, 5-5

strategic leader, 2-113, 7-10,

7-13, 7-59–7-79

information management,

technology and, 3-38–3-39,

6-104

initial leader assessment,

5-64–5-65, 6-68, 6-148–6-149

initiative (mental attribute), 2-14,

2-48–2-50, 3-6

building teams and, 3-6

commander’s intent and, 6-10

decentralization/delegation and,

1-52

development of subordinates

and, 6-72

decision making and, 5-49,

6-65

disciplined, defined, 2-48

judgment and, 2-48, 2-53

in-process review (IPR),

5-60–5-61

institutional culture, 2-61–2-63,

7-77. See also culture

change and, 7-113

creative thinking and, 7-115

honor and, 2-28–29

leader development and, 7-79

learning and, 7-115

mentoring and, 7-103

reflective thinking and, 7-115

strategic leaders and, 3-52, 7-1,

7-7

subcultures and, 7-73–7-74

subordination to civilian

authority and, 2-90

warrior ethos and, 2-87–2-89

institutional training, 5-75–5-76.

See also education

integrity (Army value), 2-31–2-33,

7-120, 7-128

defined, p. 2-8

counseling and, 4-16

moral courage and, 2-37

effect on organizational climate,

3-56

warrior ethos and, 2-87

intelligence (mental attribute),

3-91, 2-56–2-58

defined, 2-56

intended consequences, 5-20

intent, 6-17–6-20. See also

commander’s intent;

establishing intent

defined, 6-17

decision making and, 5-49

empowering and, 1-54–1-55,

6-18, 6-101

organizational climate and, 6-70

organizational leader actions

and, 1-45, 6-20

supervising and, 4-12–4-13,

6-14

interpersonal skills, 1-25, 2-107

defined, 1-25

combat leadership and, 2-108

developing, 5-86

direct leader, 4-3–4-17, 5-105,

fig. 4-2. See also building teams;

communicating; counseling;

supervising

organizational leader, 6-4,

6-9–6-14, fig. 6-1

strategic leader, 7-5, 7-9–7-28, fig.

7-1

strategic planning and, 7-82–7-83

intuition: defined, 2-58

assessing and, 6-104

decision making and, 6-65

problem solving and, 5-25

J-K-L

joint perspective, 7-87, 7-89

judgment (mental attribute),

2-51–2-53

defined, 2-52

decision making and, 2-52, 2-113,

6-65

developing in subordinates, 2-53,

6-71–6-72

initiative and, 2-48, 2-53

leadership style and, 3-91, 6-12

problem solving and, 2-52, 5-25

standards and, 5-55

systems understanding and, 6-27

technology and, 3-45

warrior ethos and, 2-87

knowledge: character and, 1-22

judgment and, 2-51

leader skills and, 1-25

operational assignments and, 5-76

self-development and, 5-77

leader actions: character and, 1-22,

2-93

direct leader, example of, 3-27,

3-34, 3-49

direct leader, organizational- and

strategic-level consequences of,

3-12–3-13, 3-49, 3-84–3-85

list, 1-28, 2-113, figs. 1-1, 2-4

organizational climate and, 3-52,

3-54, 3-55

organizational leader, 6-40–6-141

self-confidence and, 2-54, 2-55

strategic leader, 7-58–7-118

Army Leadership Index-5

Index
leader attributes, 2-40–2-79

defined, 2-41

leader development, 6-126,

6-129, 7-79, A-27. See also

education

leader development pillars, 5-74,

fig. 5-4. See also institutional

training; self-development

leader development programs,

6-122–6-129, 5-101

leader plan of action, D-1–D-5,

D-14–D-15, figs. D-1, D-3. See

also plans of action

leader skills: combat leadership

and, 2-108

competence and, 1-25

decision making and, 2-57

direct leader, organizational

leaders and, 6-3

empowering, 1-54

experience and, 2-110

improving and, 1-26

increasing responsibility and,

1-35

knowledge and, 1-25

leadership levels and, 2-104

list, 1-25, 2-107, figs. 1-1, 2-3

organizational, compared to

direct, 1-43

organizational climate and, 3-54

self-development and, 1-21,

1-26

strategic leader, 1-47, 7-7–7-57

leadership development review,

C-2–C-4, C-22

leadership environment. See

climate

leadership levels, 1-36–1-38,

1-86, fig. 1-2

leadership styles, 2-50,

3-64–3-82, 3-91, 6-12. See also

directing; delegating;

participating; transactional;

transformational

leading change, 7-112–7-113

learning (improving action):

defined, 2-118

AARs and, 5-12, 5-132, 7-116

assessing and, 6-104, 7-115

direct leader, 5-124–5-134

hands-on training and, 5-88,

5-130

improving and, 5-124–5-125

institutional culture and, 7-115

leadership development

programs and, 6-122–6-123

organizational leader,

6-140–6-141, 7-115

strategic leader, 7-114–7-118

leveraging technology (technical

skill), 7-53–7-55

defined, 7-53

listening. See also active

listening

barriers to, 4-9

building teams and, 5-110

ethical climate and, 5-121

trust and , 5-118

low-density specialties, 3-41,

5-95–5-96

loyalty (Army value), 2-8–2-12

defined, p. 2-3

chain of command, to the, 1-66,

2-9, 2-11

civil authority to, 2-8, 2-90

commitment and, 2-11

Constitution, to the, 2-8

counseling and, 4-16

subordinates to, 1-63–1-68,

2-9–2-11

warrior ethos and, 2-87,

2-89–2-90

M-N-O

maintaining critical skills

(technical skill), 6-29–6-30

management by exception, 3-79

managing change, 3-50

managing joint, interagency, and

multinational relationships,

7-85–7-93

mental attributes, 2-42, 2-71

mentoring, 4-17, 5-83–5-101. See

also coaching; counseling;

teaching

defined, p. 5-16

climate and, 7-103

developing and, 2-118, 4-17,

6-120

developmental counseling and,

4-17, 6-130, C-6

leader development programs and,

5-101, 6-125

organizational leaders and, 6-5,

6-130

military and professional bearing

(physical attribute), 2-73

military decision-making process

(MDMP), 2-114, 5-15, 6-7, 6-60

moral courage, 2-36–2-39

defined, 2-36

Army values and, 1-65

character and, 2-93

checking and, 3-45

decision making and, 5-30

illegal orders and, 2-98

technology and, 3-45

warrior ethos and, 2-86

morale, 3-14–3-15, 6-152, 6-156,

6-157

defined, 3-15

climate and, 3-89

culture and, 7-78

motivating (influencing action),

1-13–1-16, 1-85, 5-32–5-38

defined, 2-113

leadership attributes and, 1-13,

2-73, 5-32, 6-10, 7-91

negative reinforcement and,

5-37–5-38

organizational climate and, 3-56,

6-72

organizational leader, 6-67–6-73

warrior ethos and, 3-28

multinational operations, 2-65–2-66,

3-48, 6-98, 7-85–7-86, 7-93

NCO Counseling Checklist/Record

(DA Form 2166-8-1), example of

use, fig. C-6

Index-6 FM 22-100

Index
NCO support channel,

A-23–A-25

negative reinforcement, 3-9,

3-79, 5-37–5-38

negotiating (interpersonal skill),

1-76, 7-16–7-19

networking/networks, 6-54–6-55,

6-56–6-57, 7-26, 7-62, 7-70

noncommissioned officers

(NCOs), role and duties, A-4,

A-12, fig. A-1

nonmission requirements, 2-118

nonverbal communication, 4-11

defined, 4-10

counseling and, C-17–C-21

negotiating and, 7-18

organizational leaders and,

6-48

oath of enlistment/office, 2-28

officers. See commissioned

officers; noncommissioned

officers; warrant officers

operating actions, 1-17, 1-28,

2-114, 5-39, 6-159–6-160

defined, 1-28

direct leader, 5-39–5-67

list, 1-17, 2-114, 5-39, 7-80,

figs. 1-1, 5-2, 6-6

mentoring and, 4-17, 5-85

organizational leader,

6-74–6-116

strategic leader, 7-80–7-97

operational assignments, 5-76,

5-77, 7-89

orchestration, defined, 6-36

organizational climate, 3-52–3-57

defined, 3-52

Army values and, 2-19, 2-21,

2-28

building teams and, 6-73, 6-132

character and, 3-89, 6-70

culture and, 3-52–3-63

direct leaders and, 3-52, 3-56

discipline and, 3-89, 6-68, 6-70

improving and, 3-56

initial leader assessment and,

5-64, 6-68

initiative and, 1-56

intent and, 6-70

leader actions and, 3-54, 3-55,

3-56

leader responsibilities

concerning, 3-58, 3-90

learning and, 5-133, 6-140

mentoring and, 7-103

motivating and, 3-56

organizational leadership,

1-41–1-45, 2-83, 6-1–6-7

P-Q

participating leadership style,

3-73–3-74

performance counseling,

C-38–C-41, fig. C-10

personal courage (Army value),

2-34–2-39, 4-53. See also

moral courage; physical

courage

defined, p. 2-9

personal responsibility, 2-84,

A-19

personal values: Army values

and, 2-32–33

beliefs and, 2-101

physical attributes, 2-67–2-73

physical courage, 2-35, 2-37,

2-39, 3-32

defined, 2-35

warrior ethos and, 2-86, 3-32

physical fitness (physical

attribute), 2-69–2-72

APFT and, 2-72, 5-127

combat readiness and, 2-69,

2-71, 2-72, 5-127

planning (operating action), 1-17,

2-114, 6-76. See also systems

planning

defined, 2-114

counseling and, C-51–C-52

direct leader, 5-41–5-49

MDMP and, 2-114, 5-15

operational leader, 6-76–6-85

strategic leader, 7-82–7-83

systems, strategic, 7-71

TLP and, 2-114, 5-15

plans of action, 6-146, C-71, figs.

C-7, D-3. See also leader plan of

action

assessing and, 5-66, 5-68, 6-146

character development and, fig.

C-7

counseling and, 4-15, C-3, C-30,

C-31, C-42–C-43, C-52, C-67,

C-68, C-71, C-75

ECAS and, 5-121, E-11

follow up and, 4-15, D-15

self-development and, 5-78

positive reinforcement, 5-34–5-36

Army values and, E-7–E-8, fig. E-1

plans of action and, 5-48

predicting second- and third-order

effects (technical skill). See

second-order effects

preparing (operating action), 1-17,

2-114, 5-46–5-47, 7-81

defined, 2-114

building combat power and, 6-131

systems planning and, 6-84

warning orders and, 5-46

priorities: Army values and, 2-117,

5-27

decision making and, 5-27–5-29

developing intellectual capital and,

7-104–7-109

long-term versus short-term,

2-116–2-118

mentoring and, 5-99

nonmission requirements and,

2-118

organizational leadership and,

1-45

strategic art and, 7-48

symbolic communication and, 7-12

systems planning and, 6-82–6-83

time management and, 6-83

problem, defined, 5-14

problem solving, 3-34, 5-17–5-26

ethical reasoning and, 4-34, E-11

institutional culture and, 7-77

organizational-level, 6-59

Army Leadership Index-7

Index
staff training and, 6-93

professional growth counseling,

C-42–C-45, fig. C-9

punishment, 3-9, 3-79, 5-37–5-38

R-S

reception, 5-113–5-114, 5-117

reflective thinking (conceptual

skill), 2-57, 2-58, 4-41–4-42,

6-140

defined, 4-41

assessing and, 6-113–6-114

character development and,

E-12

ethical reasoning and, 4-32,

4-36

frames of reference and, 7-38

illegal orders and, 2-98–2-99

organizational leaders and,

6-113–6-114, 6-86

resourcing (technical skill),

6-31–6-62, 7-19, 7-84

building combat power and,

7-55, 6-131

decision making and,

2-113–2-114

developing intellectual capital

and, 7-104–7-109

leveraging technology and,

7-53, 7-55

organizational leader,

6-31–6-32

strategic art and, 7-48

systems understanding and,

7-55

respect (Army value), 2-17–2-21

defined, p. 2-5

building teams and, 2-21, 3-6

counseling and, 2-18, 4-16,

C-10, fig. C-1

examples of, 1-76, 7-24–7-25,

7-128

retraining, 5-37

reverse planning, 5-43–5-45

rewards: discipline and, 3-9

transactional leadership style

and, 3-79

risk management, 6-16

role models, 5-95–5-96. See also

example, setting the

science of leadership, 7-46

second-order effects, 6-33–6-34

assessing and, 6-108

dealing with uncertainty and

ambiguity and, 7-43

example of, 3-12–3-13, 3-49,

6-34, 7-69

leading change and, 7-112

organizational leader decision

making and, 6-58

self-assessing: communicating

and, 6-47

developing and, 6-121

organizational leaders and,

6-113–6-114

strategic assessing and, 7-96

self-awareness, 7-91, C-11

self-confidence (mental attribute),

2-54–2-55

defined, 2-54

organizational climate and,

6-70–6-72

training and, 6-115–6-116

self-control (emotional attribute),

2-77, 4-11

self-development, 5-77–5-82

defined, 5-77

Army values and, 1-21, 1-24

combat leadership and,

2-119–2-121

frames of reference and, 7-38

joint perspective and, 7-89

leader attributes and, 1-21,

1-24, 2-119–2-121

leader skills and, 1-21, 1-26

learning and, 1-27, 7-114

mentoring and, 7-103

plans of action and, 5-48, 5-78,

5-66

self-discipline (mental attribute),

2-46–2-47, 4-11

defined, 2-46

warrior ethos and, 2-87

selfless service (Army value),

2-22–2-25, 7-128, 7-129, 7-130

defined, p. 2-6

DA civilians and, 2-23

strategic leaders and, 7-19

warrior ethos and, 2-87

sending a message. See symbolic

communication

sense of humor, 5-5

sensing, 6-55, 6-70

defined, 6-55

setting the example. See example

skills. See also leader skills

defined, 1-4

actions and, 2-109

climate and, 3-89

collective, building combat power

and, 6-131

developing on the job, 1-27

experience and, 1-4

individual and team building, 4-46

institutional training and, 5-75

operational assignments and, 5-76

practice and, 2-109

self-development and, 1-27, 5-77

teaching, 5-89

technology and, 3-41

specified mission, defined, 5-42

specific instance counseling,

C-28–C31

spiritual fitness, 2-102

stability (emotional attribute), 2-79

staffs, 6-54–6-55, 6-90, 6-91, 7-26

filtering information and, 6-23

multinational, 6-98

staff building (interpersonal skill),

6-87–6-94, 7-26–7-28

standards: defined, 5-54

Army values and, 2-13, 2-15, 2-19,

2-28, 2-31

assessing and, 5-57, 5-66,

6-113–6-114

awards and, 5-36

building teams and, 5-110

candor and, 2-38

Index-8 FM 22-100

Index
character development and,

2-92

coaching and, 5-98

corrective training and, C-30

developmental counseling and,

5-93, C-30, C-31, C-70

discipline and, 3-9

enforcing, 3-57

ethical climate and, 5-120

evaluations and, 5-31

executing and, 2-114,

5-54–5-55

goal setting and, 5-57

institutional culture and, 7-77

judgment and, 5-55

leader plan of action and, D-1

organizational climate, effect

on, 3-56

organizational leaders and, 6-5

performance counseling and,

C-38, C-40

strategic art (technical skill),

7-44–7-52

defined, 7-45

strategic assessing (operating

action), 7-96–7-97

strategic decision making

(influencing action), 1-76, 7-3,

7-5, 7-70–7-72

strategic leaders/leadership,

1-46–1-50, 7-58–7-118

characteristics of, 7-38

examples of, 2-84, 7-119–7-130

strategic planning (operating

action), 7-71, 7-82–7-83

stress: change and, 3-35–3-51

combat, 3-26–3-34

decision making and,

3-84–3-85

subcultures, institutional culture

and, 7-73–7-74

subordinates: Army values and,

2-9–2-11, 2-14

developing. See developing,

subordinates

subordination to civil authority,

2-8, 2-9, 2-90

supervising (interpersonal skill),

4-12–4-13, 6-13–6-14. See also

checking; follow up

symbolic communication, 6-150

assessing and, 6-105

strategic leaders and,

7-11–7-12

synchronization: defined, 6-35

translating political goals into

military objectives and, 7-56

synthesis: defined, 6-22

computers and, 6-94

systems approach, 7-6

systems planning, 6-76–6-86.

See also planning

systems understanding

(conceptual skill), 6-24–6-27,

7-123

T-U-V

tactical skills, 4-47–4-51

defined, 2-107

direct leader, list, fig. 4-4

organizational leader,

6-35–6-39, 7-56, fig. 6-4

taking care of people. See caring

taking charge, 2-15

when to take direct control,

1-29, 1-53

of an organization, D-8

teaching, 5-85–5-88

defined, p. 5-16

AARs and, 5-62

Army values and, 2-7

character development and, fig.

E-1

contrasted with coaching, 5-97

developmental counseling and,

C-75

improving and, 6-117

organizational leader

responsibilities concerning,

6-141

organizational climate, effect

on, 3-56

team building/teamwork. See

also building teams

change and, 3-50

combat leadership and, 4-53

ethical behavior and, E-3

multinational operations and,

2-65–2-66

selfless service and, 2-24

technical skills, 1-25, 2-107, 4-43,

6-28–6-34

defined, 2-107

direct leader, 4-43–4-46, fig. 4-3

organizational leader, fig. 6-3

strategic leader, 7-44–7-58, fig.

7-3

telling the Army story, 7-66–7-69

third culture: defined, 7-90

multinational operations and, 2-66

third-order effects, 6-33–6-34

time management, 6-83

Total Army Performance Evaluation

System (TAPES), C-7, C-39

training: AARs and, 1-19, 5-12

Army values and, 2-10, 2-19, 2-20,

3-19

assessing and, 5-63, 6-115–6-116

building teams and, 5-104, 5-118,

5-119, 6-132

institutional, 5-75. See also

education

leader attributes and, 2-43, 2-47,

5-128, 6-115–6-116

stress in, 3-33

warrior ethos and, 6-115–6-116

in values, 2-19

training management, 6-7, 6-133,

6-104

transactional leadership style,

3-79–3-82

transformational leadership style,

3-77–3-78

translating political goals into

military objectives (technical skill),

7-56–7-57

troop leading procedures, 2-114,

5-15. See also decision making

trust: Army values and, 1-68, 2-5,

2-21, 2-29

Army Leadership Index-9

Index
building teams and, 5-104,

5-118, 6-139

communicating and, 6-49, 6-52,

7-126

example of, 3-10–3-11

initiative and, 1-56, 6-10

organizational climate, effect

on, 3-56

understanding soldiers

(interpersonal skill), 6-9–6-10

unintended consequences, 1-43,

5-20

values. See also Army values;

defined, 2-101

beliefs and, 2-101

character and, 1-4

communicating and, 6-49, 6-52

culture and, 2-103, 7-74

ethical climate, 5-122–5-123

expressed, 4-38

leader attributes and, 2-52,

2-103, 7-91

moral courage and, 2-36

organizational climate and, 3-54

personal, defined, 2-4

reflective thinking and, 2-33

training in, respect and, 2-19

vision and, 7-34

vision, 7-1, 7-31, 7-63, 7-64,

7-113. See also envisioning

W-X-Y-Z

warning orders, preparing and, 5-46

warrant officers, role and duties,

A-3–A-9, fig. A-1

warrior ethos, 2-85–2-90, 3-28,

3-32, 6-69, 6-115–6-116

will (leader attribute), 2-43–2-45,

3-11

defined, 2-43

Army values and, 1-85, 2-29, 3-32

collective, 3-9, 3-10–3-11

warrior ethos and, 3-28

winning in battle and, 3-28–3-32

wisdom, reflective thinking and,

7-30, 7-39, 7-71

“zero defects,” 1-83, 2-50,

5-126–5-128

Index-10 FM 22-100

Index
By order of the Secretary of the Army:

ERIC K. SHINSEKI

General, United States Army

Chief of Staff

Official:

JOEL B. HUDSON

Administrative Assistant to the

Secretary of the Army

DISTRIBUTION:

Active Army, Army National Guard, and US Army Reserve: To be distributed in accordance

with the initial distribution number 110180, requirements for FM 22-100, Army Leadership.

FM 22-100

31 August 1999



FM 22-100

31 AUGUST 1999

By Order of the Secretary of the Army:

ERIC K. SHINSEKI

General, United States Army

Chief of Staff

Official:

JOEL B. HUDSON

Administrative Assistant to the

Secretary of the Army

DISTRIBUTION:

Active Army, Army National Guard, and U. S. Army Reserve: To be distributed in

accordance with initial distribution number 110180, requirements for FM 22-100.

9924501