United States 

Geological Survey

Yearbook, 

Fiscal Year 1978

COVER: Temporal mapping with Landsat color image shows the maximum extent of ice around the Delmarva Peninsula during the record 

cold winter of 1976-77. New ice appears blue or green, and thick older 

ice is white; open water is generally black. This image is a portion of a 

published U.S. Geological Survey color image map titled "Chesapeake Bay 

and Vicinity, Winter 1976-77."
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

CECIL D. ANDRUS, Secretary

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

H. William Menard, Director

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents 

U.S. Government Printing Office 

Washington, DC 20402

STOCK NUMBER 024-001-03178-7
Table of Contents

1 THE YEAR IN REVIEW

7 PERSPECTIVES

7 GROUND WATER: AN UNDERVALUED RESOURCE 

13 LANDSLIDE HAZARDS AND THEIR REDUCTION 

22 THE PRONGHORN ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT:

AN IMPROVED PROTOTYPE 

27 PETROLEUM EXPLORATION AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

IN THE ALASKAN ARCTIC

47. TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYS AND MAPPING

69- GEOLOGIC AND MINERAL RESOURCE SURVEYS 

AND MAPPING

96 WATER RESOURCES INVESTIGATIONS 

115'CONSERVATION OF LANDS AND MINERALS

135 LAND INFORMATION AND ANALYSIS

157 NATIONAL PETROLEUM RESERVE IN ALASKA

165 PROGRAM SUPPORT ACTIVITIES

170 ORGANIZATIONAL AND STATISTICAL DATA

170 CHART OF ORGANIZATION

172 U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OFFICES

179 COOPERATORS AND OTHER FINANCIAL CONTRIBUTORS

188 BUDGETARY AND STATISTICAL DATA
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The Year in Review

INTRODUCTION

Fiscal year 1978 saw the U.S. Geological Survey 

continuing to perform its basic historical missions of 

collecting, analyzing, and disseminating information 

about the Earth, its processes, and its water and mineral resources. Classifying Federal lands and supervising lessee mineral extraction operations on those 

lands were also major Survey concerns during the 

year. In addition, substantial progress was made in 

the exploration and assessment of the petroleum 

potential of the National Petroleum Reserve in Alaska, 

a recently assigned mission.

These basic missions found expression in a wide 

range of program activities and interests as diverse 

as the sands of Mars and the volcanoes of Hawaii. 

Programs included assessment of numerous potential 

energy and mineral resources, study of earthquakes 

and other geologic hazards, appraisal of the magnitude and quality of the Nation's water resources, and 

supervision of lease operations on Federal lands. The 

Survey also was involved in developing data on land 

use and producing topographic, geologic, and hydrologic maps for public and private use. In cooperation with other Federal agencies, the Survey 

participated in studies under the U.S. Climate Program 

and continued its analysis of data received from the 

two Viking landers on the surface of Mars.

On April 3, 1978, Dr. H. William Menard became 

the 10th Director of the U.S. Geological Survey. Dr. 

Menard, who, until his appointment, was Professor of 

Geology at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, 

San Diego, Calif., brings to the Director's post the experience gained in a long and successful career as a 

marine geologist and oceanographer. He succeeds 

Dr. Vincent E. McKelvey, who continues with the 

Survey as a senior research scientist.

SURVEYING AND MAPPING

During fiscal year 1978, the Geological Survey produced more than 2,400 new and revised 1:24,000- 

scale quadrangle maps, bringing the total coverage of 

the United States to 71 percent at that scale. In addition, the Survey received nearly 40,000 requests for

Storm clouds gather over wind-gnarled timberline trees in the 

Granite Mountains, northwestern Wyoming.

1:24,000-scale format topographic quadrangle maps, 

intermediate- and small-scale maps, orthophotoquads, and digital cartographic data. Approximately 

6.2 million map copies at all scales were sold.

Cost-sharing agreements were in effect with 38 

States and Puerto Rico in fiscal year 1978. Through 

these agreements, the Survey is able to jointly establish selection procedures and prioritize mapping 

projects. The State Mapping Advisory Committees in 

23 States meet with the Survey periodically to discuss 

State mapping requirements and to coordinate mapping programs.

Efforts continue to modernize the National Mapping 

Program by the introduction of advanced technologies. The digitization of cartographic information 

and the refinement of airborne surveying techniques 

are among these modernization efforts.

The Digital Cartographic Applications Program, begun in 1978, included a number of pilot projects with 

other agencies to refine digital cartographic data 

formats, verify production techniques, and validate 

user requirements. When the computer-based cartographic information systems are refined and established, the full potential of rapid data manipulation 

and analysis can be realized.

Construction has begun, by means of a contract, on 

the Aerial Profiling of Terrain surveying system. The 

system is made-up of two parts: an inertial navigation subsystem and laser tracker that provides the 

latitude, the longitude, and the altitude of an aircraft 

and a laser ranging instrument that measures the 

distance to a series of points on the ground along the 

flight path for which precise coordinates in three 

dimensions can be computed. The system will have 

wide application in surveying and mapping including flood plain mapping, standard topographic maps, 

and monitoring strip mining and reclamation.

During 1978, a study was undertaken to improve 

distribution procedures for Geological Survey maps. 

The study, which is scheduled for completion in 

1979, is expected to identify optimum printing and 

inventory procedures for the many Geological Survey 

information products and to reduce the cost of delivering maps to the public.

GEOLOGIC STUDIES AND MAPPING

The Geological Survey's continuing programs of 

basic geologic mapping and research provide the 

fundamental knowledge of the geologic framework of
the Nation. These activities enable the Survey to respond to increasing needs for basic geologic information.

Research continued in the field of plate tectonics 

and its relationships to other geologic phenomenon. 

As a result of these efforts, Survey scientists are beginning to unravel the complex history of the unstable 

western margin of the North American Continent 

from southern Alaska to Baja, Calif. This new understanding of the geologic framework of the continent 

can have enormous implications for energy and 

mineral resources exploration, earthquake hazard reduction, and nuclear reactor siting in California, Oregon, Washington, and Alaska.

A new geologic map (scale 1:250,000) has been 

completed for the State of Kentucky. This represents 

the culmination of 18 years of cooperative StateFederal efforts. The map was compiled from detailed 

(1:24,000) geologic maps recently completed for the 

entire State. This new geologic map is expected to aid 

significantly in public and private decision processes 

regarding resource development and management.

A major new Geological Survey program concerning paleoclimate was launched in fiscal year 1978 as 

part of the U.S. Climate Program. The Geological Survey's main effort will be in refining our knowledge of 

past climates to provide a better basis for evaluation 

of present climate patterns and predicted weather 

cycles.

Survey scientists continued their analysis of data 

from the two Viking landers on the surface of Mars. 

Study of these data may provide further clues as to 

the origin of the high alluvial channels, the history of 

Martian volcanism, the possibility of radical climate 

changes, and the reasons for the lack of plate tectonic 

activity similar to that of the Earth. The Survey is also 

preparing to assist in the analysis of data from the 

Voyager mission to Jupiter and Saturn, which should 

shed new light on the origin of the solar system and 

the reasons for the striking differences among the 

planets.

GEOLOGIC HAZARDS

During fiscal year 1978, the Geological Survey continued efforts aimed at acquiring a better understanding of the nature and causes of various geologic 

hazards. These efforts included (1) identification, 

accession, and monitoring of potentially hazardous 

areas, (2) development of capabilities to predict the 

time, the place, and the severity of hazardous geologic 

events, and (3) effective dissemination of the information and findings.

It was determined through expanded monitoring 

efforts that Mauna Loa Volcano, Hawaii, is continuing

its slow but persistent buildup toward eruption but 

without the corresponding heightened seismicity that 

typically accompanies such buildup. The Geological 

Survey is actively working with Hawaii County and 

State Civil Defense officials to improve coordination 

and communication to better respond to the next 

eruption from either Mauna Loa or Kilauea.

Interagency agreements were signed with the 

Bureau of Reclamation and the Corps of Engineers by 

which the Survey will provide regional geologic and 

seismic data and advice to assist in the safe siting and 

design of major dams. One of the first tasks completed under these agreements was an extensive 

review of the Foothills fault system in California 

because of concerns about the design of a proposed 

dam at Auburn.

Research is focusing within the Earthquake Hazards 

Reduction Program on devising accurate methods for 

earthquake prediction. The possibility of predicting 

earthquakes, which was hardly taken seriously before 

1971, came to be viewed with cautious optimism in 

the early 1970's as observations accumulated of many 

possible earthquake precursors. For example, analyses 

of foreshocks before several earthquakes in Alaska 

and California show that foreshocks may be identifiable by their patterns of spatial distribution, by 

their time sequence, and by changes in the orientation 

of their fault planes with time. If this pattern proves 

to be of wide applicability, foreshocks should be 

identifiable before the main shock occurs. In another 

example, precursors in seismicity, radar levels, volumetric strain, and uplift were observed before an 

earthquake of magnitude 6.8 in Japan.

There has been an excellent information exchange 

with scientists in Japan and the Soviet Union, where 

major prediction programs also are underway. Exchange with scientists in China has been steadily 

improving. During the year, Geological Survey personnel met with representatives of 30 State and 7 

Federal agencies to develop procedures for communicating geologic-related hazards for use by State and 

Federal agencies. Based on its investigations, the 

Survey will provide information on potential hazards 

such as active faults, landslides, rockfalls, and fissuring 

and faulting associated with subsidence caused by 

ground-water withdrawals, which pose a threat to life 

and property, to State and local officials, and to the 

public.

ENERGY AND MINERALS

In fiscal year 1978, the Survey initiated 12 studies 

in the Conterminous United States Mineral Appraisal 

Program to systematically assess the mineral resource 

potential of selected 1:250,000-scale quadrangles in
the conterminous United States. This effort, like the 

ongoing Alaskan Mineral Resource Appraisal Program, 

combines geologic, geochemical, geophysical, and 

mineral deposit studies. The resultant information on 

mineral resource potential is an essential input to 

numerous land use decisionmaking processes.

A new series of coal folios that combine coal resource, environmental, and land use information on 

coal lands in the Western States was initiated to support the Department of the Interior's Coal Program. 

The folios combine a variety of 1°X 1/2° quadrangle 

maps at a scale of 1:100,000 showing distribution, 

thickness, and quality of coal; character and thickness 

of overburden; climatic factors; and land use; all of 

these must be considered in preparation of Environmental Impact Statements and decisions regarding 

leasing of Federal coal to help meet the Nation's 

energy demands. The first folio covering the Recluse 

quadrangle, Wyoming, has been completed and is 

being readied for publication.

More than 4,800 nautical miles of marine seismic 

and gravity data was collected off the northern coast 

of Alaska in the eastern Beaufort Sea to map the 

geologic structures of the Continental Shelf and to 

evaluate the area for potential oil and gas resources.

WATER RESOURCES

The year 1978 saw an end to the severe drought 

that characterized the previous 2 years, but other 

critical national water problems remained. Some of 

them are as follows:

 Water pollution increased, affecting both surface 

and ground water.

 Though generally the Nation has ample water resources, in many sections of the country the imbalance between supply and demand, remained 

serious and emphasized the need for informed 

management of available water.

 Investigation of the quantity and quality of surface 

and ground water as they relate to environmentally sound energy development became a 

growing challenge.

In response to these problems, the Geological Survey increased its efforts to collect and to present 

adequate water data to aid decisionmaking by 

management.

As part of the Federal-State Cooperative Program, 

projects were implemented in 16 States to fill an information gap that has long existed in data on "water 

use." The National Water Use Data Program, was 

initiated to provide comprehensive and systematic 

collection, analysis, and distribution of water use data

throughout the United States. The system will be 

be operating in all 50 States by 1982.

A program of indepth studies of the Nation's 29 

major regional aquifer systems was initiated. Studies 

were begun on the High Plains, northern Great 

Plains, and Central Valley of California; three additional studies are scheduled to start in 1979. The information will aid in planning for conjunctive use of 

surface and ground water where feasible, will reveal 

the sources and quality of ground water for potential 

use in times of serious shortage, and will add background data on water supply for energy development.

The River Quality Assessment Program continued 

in fiscal year 1978. Assessments for the Upper Chattahoochee Basin, Ga., and the Yampa River basin in 

Colorado-Wyoming were completed, and reports 

were in preparation at the end of the fiscal year. 

Three additional river assessments will begin in 1979.

The Central Laboratories System, which analyzes 

water quality, added nearly 150 new analyses to its 

catalog of analytical services. Water analyses became 

more complex as the result of Federal legislation such 

as the Clean Water Act of 1977 and the Safe Drinking 

Water Act of 1977.

New and sophisticated sensing and recording 

equipment was developed that increases the possibilities for prediction within the hydrologic system 

and will contribute valuable information for pollution 

control, flood control, sea water intrusion into fresh 

ground-water supplies, and other complex problems.

In addition to studies of basic water supply for coal 

and oil shale development, the pressing problem of 

radioactive waste disposal and its potential effects on 

ground water received considerable attention. During 

the year, the Geological Survey conducted a number 

of studies relating to low-level radioactive waste 

disposal including the use of modeling techniques for 

the prediction of ground-water flow characteristics, 

methodologies for the detection and identification of 

radionuclides, and assessments of geochemical 

characteristics of trace elements in the natural 

environment.

LAND INFORMATION AND ANALYSIS

The Geological Survey continued its effort to bridge 

the communications gap between the earth scientist 

and the variety of users of earth science information. 

This effort has involved interpreting and presenting 

land resources information in a variety of new report 

and map formats as well as holding workshops.

Work continued in developing interpretative earth 

science information on the Colorado Front Range 

Urban Corridor, Fairfax County, Va., and the Puget 

Sound area of Washington. Approximately 40 new
reports and maps were released during 1978 concerning "urban" projects. Perhaps the most important 

publication in terms of broad interest was "Nature 

to be Commanded . . .," (U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 950), which describes, in a readily 

understandable format, the uses of earth science information by public and private decisionmakers in 

six varied environmental settings across the country. 

Other efforts during the year involved projects with 

the Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ) under 

contract with the American Arbitration Association to 

assess test methods and to develop a computer information system supporting the National Environmental Protection Act; with the Department of Energy 

(Argonne National Laboratories) to develop methods 

for integrated mining, reclamation, and regional land 

use planning; with the Council of State Governments 

to assess the automation of land records systems 

(prototype State of Wisconsin); and with the Missouri River Basin Commission to conduct a Western 

Coal Planning Assistance Project.

Medium-scale (1:250,000) land use and land cover 

mapping of the entire United States proceeded as did 

development and operation of a computer-oriented 

Geographic Information System for land use and land 

cover data, and research activities addressing the 

trends in land use change.

Landsat image of a 13,255-square-mile 

area in southwestern Queensland, 

Australia. The dark area is the alluvial valley of Cooper Creek, which 

has a high grazing capacity. The 

lighter tones show uplands and 

minor valley areas, which have a 

lower and more variable grazing 

capacity. Maps of land units related 

to grazing capacity can be made by 

digital analysis of Landsat images 

and used for land management. 

This method has been tested in 

Australia and the Western United 

States. (Landsat E-1365-23570-5.)

During 1978, 1,000,000 square miles were mapped, 

bringing the total coverage of the United States to 

28 percent.

During 1978, a variety of research projects and 

training sessions were carried out concerning the aplication and interpretation of remotely sensed data. 

In addition, the Earth Resource Observation Systems 

Data Center in Sioux Falls, S. Dak., produced and distributed photographs, images, and computer-compatible tapes valued at $3,200,000. Since its establishment in 1972, the center has distributed approximately 2,000,000 reproductions of satellite and aircraft imagery and data.

During the year the Geological Survey had lead or 

joint-lead responsibility for the preparation of 14 Environmental Impact Statements (EIS's), principally concerned with coal. The Survey also directly participated 

in the preparation of 17 EIS's in a nonlead capacity. 

The Geological Survey initiated efforts to simplify 

EIS preparation and review by use of new formats that 

eliminate redundancies and highlight findings in summary fashion. This new EIS procedure is still being 

evaluated and will be adopted, with the concurrence 

of CEQ, if the results are positive. In addition, approximately 1,800 EIS's and related documents were 

reviewed.
MINERAL RESOURCE EVALUATION AND 

LEASE MANAGEMENT

NATIONAL PETROLEUM RESERVE IN 

ALASKA

U.S. Geological Survey lease management activities 

during fiscal year 1978 extended into the frontier 

Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) areas of the Lower 

Cook Inlet in Alaska (OCS Sale C-1) and the South 

Atlantic (OCS Sale No. 43). A third OCS sale was 

held for tracts in the Gulf of Mexico (OCS Sale No. 

45). Exploratory drilling operations were also initiated 

during this time in the frontier Mid-Atlantic Baltimore 

Canyon Trough area. The first promising encounter 

with natural gas in the Baltimore Canyon was made 

during the testing of Texaco's wildcat well. Approximately 2,250 oil and gas leases were under the supervision of the Geological Survey in the OCS.

In onshore oil and gas lease operations, 3,425 new 

exploration and development wells were approved, 

3,525 environmental analyses of proposed operations 

were prepared, and 27,630 on-site inspections of drilling and producing operations were conducted.

At the end of the fiscal year, 50 geothermal wells 

were completed on Federal leases; 36 of these, although producible, are shut-in awaiting powerplant 

facilities. One powerplant has been started in the 

East Mesa area, California.

Construction of surface facilities and shafts preparatory to development of a modified in-situ extraction 

process was initiated on Federal Oil Shale Tracts 

C-a and C-b.

Waterpower and water-storage site potential of 

10,000 acres were classified or reclassified during the 

fiscal year.

A Continental Offshore Stratigraphic Test (COST) 

well, No. 3, was completed in the Gulf of Alaska 

(Kodiak) in October 1977. The report on the COST 

No. GE-1 (Southeast Georgia embayment area, South 

Atlantic OCS) was issued as Open-File Report 78-668.

The second annual report on estimated oil and 

gas reserves for the Gulf of Mexico was released as 

Open-File Report 78-87. The first annual report on 

the estimated oil and gas reserves for the southern 

California OCS was released as Open-File Report 

78-384.

Eighteen new Known Recoverable Coal Resource 

Areas (KRCRA's), covering about 4.2 million acres 

were defined, and 748,161 acres were added to existing KRCRA's.

Contracts for 234 Coal Resource Occurrence-Coal 

Development Potential maps were issued in fiscal 

year 1978.

At the end of the fiscal year, 878 test holes had 

been drilled for coal in Colorado, Montana, North 

Dakota, New Mexico, Utah, and Wyoming under 

State grants and contracts and by use of Surveyowned drilling equipment.

Fiscal year 1978 marked the first full year of exploration activities on the National Petroleum Reserve 

in Alaska (NPRA). The 37,000-square-mile area, 

formerly Naval Petroleum Reserve No. 4, was transferred from the Department of the Navy to the Department of the Interior on June 1,1977. By the terms 

of the transfer, the Geological Survey was charged 

with evaluating the petroleum resource potential of 

NPRA, continuing to develop and produce gas from 

the South Barrow gas field for the village of Barrow 

and installations in the vicinity of Barrow, and continuing environmental rehabilitations of certain areas 

of the Reserve disturbed by previous exploration and 

construction activities.

The Geological Survey, through a contract operator, 

drilled four exploratory wells in the northern coastal 

area, three to completion and one for reentry and 

completion in fiscal year 1979. A deep well was 

started in the eastern part of the Reserve to test 

deeper structures and to gain Stratigraphic information on the rocks in the interior of the Reserve. The 

well is scheduled for completion in May 1979. A 

second deep-well site, in the western part of the 

Reserve, was prepared with an all-season pad, roads, 

and an airstrip. This well will commence drilling in 

fall 1979. A second drilling pad was constructed in the 

north-central part of the Reserve for a medium-depth 

well to be drilled in fiscal year 1979. All the exploration wells drilled to date have been dry or, at best, 

had only slight indications of oil and gas.

Geophysical studies continued with acquisition, 

processing, and interpretation of reconnaissance and 

fill-in detail seismic surveys in various parts of the 

Reserve. Reconnaissance data was acquired in the 

Driftwood, southern Foothills, and Umiat areas, and 

high-resolution data was collected along the Arctic 

Coastal Plain.

Pursuant to the objective of providing natural gas 

to the village of Barrow, the Geological Survey completed three wells during 1978. The first was drilled 

as an exploratory well approximately 2 miles northeast of the South Barrow field in an attempt to locate 

a new gas field to supplement the diminishing South 

Barrow reserves. The "Barrow gas sand" was not encountered, and the well was plugged and abandoned. 

Two development wells were completed in a new gas 

field discovered by the Navy in 1977. Both of these 

wells, located about 10 miles east of the South Barrow gas field, produced gas upon test and were completed as shut-in gas wells. Production facilities to 

the new field will be constructed during fiscal year 

1979.
i»v

Perspectives
Ground Water: 

An Undervalued Resource

By G. D. Bennett

INTRODUCTION

Information on the ground-water resources of the 

Nation must be upgraded if intelligent management 

of those resources is to be attempted. In particular 

areas of the country, the value of ground water is 

understood, and enough is known about its local occurrence to permit heavy utilization. Frequently, this 

is because it is the single local source of supply. For 

example, thousands of communities in the United 

States obtain all of their water from wells; and many 

large municipal areas such as Long Island, N.Y., 

Memphis, Tenn., Miami, Fla., and Houston, Tex., obtain all or a large part of their water from the ground. 

In specific areas we have learned much about the 

nature of ground-water resources, but integrated information on the aquifer systems of the country is 

inadequate for the times.

During the coming decade, pumpage of ground 

water to supplement surface supplies is expected to 

increase dramatically throughout the country. The 

rapid growth of cities, particularly in the water-short 

Southwest, will be a prime contributing factor; the 

desire to develop water supplies capable of weathering extended drought will be another. Large amounts 

of water will be required for new energy-producing 

industries, particularly in the generation of power and 

the operation of coal slurry pipelines. Irrigation is fast 

becoming a routine component of agricultural practice even in humid areas. The development of centerpivot equipment, in which a moving sprinkler pipe 

rotates around a central well and irrigates a circular 

area, has caused a rapid increase in irrigated acreage 

and a growing emphasis on ground water as a source 

of irrigation supply. Finally, environmental objections 

to large surface reservoirs are forcing planners to 

consider ground water as an alternative source of 

supply for all applications.

This increasing use of ground water is certain to 

have varied and widespread impacts. From a strictly 

hydraulic point of view, all pumpage must result in 

a lowering of ground-water levels, and this in turn 

would affect all users of ground water in the area. 

In addition, pumpage tends to reduce the available 

surface-water supply by reducing natural accretion of

^Jagged peaks of the Teton Range tower more than 7,000 feet 

above the flat floor of Jackson Hole in northwest Wyoming.
Center-pivot irrigation systems, in which a rotating sprinkler arm is 

supplied from a central well, have placed an increasing demand on 

aquifers in many areas of the country.

ground water to streams and, in some cases, by inducing direct seepage from streams to the groundwater system. In some instances, the pumped ground 

water is returned to the stream system or directly 

to the ground-water regime through artificial recharge, irrigation field seepage, or certain forms of 

waste disposal after a cycle of use. The result may 

then be degradation in water quality rather than 

diminished supply. Finally, pumpage may have an 

impact on the structure of the Earth. Sustained withdrawals from some types of aquifers can cause compaction of the geologic column and subsidence of the 

land surface.

In the development of ground water, as in the development of any resource, well-informed management can make a great difference. The consequences 

of pumpage will depend to a large extent on the way 

in which it is implemented. If the results of various 

courses of development are understood in advance, 

planners will be in a position to choose the course 

for which the ratio of benefit to real cost is most 

favorable. Even where no planning authority exists 

that can guide and influence the development of 

ground water, an understanding of the consequences 

of various patterns of withdrawal is necessary if society is to be prepared to meet those consequences.

The prerequisite to any kind of successful management is information particularly on the hydrologic 

impacts of various development alternatives. The requirement is for a predictive capability through which 

the planner can estimate in advance what will happen 

if this or that scheme of withdrawal is implemented. 

For a number of years, ground-water investigations 

inside and outside the U.S. Geological Survey have 

focused on the development of such predictive capabilities. In general, these efforts have been at a local 

scale because the state of the science has been 

limited and because the interest of planners has been 

largely at the local level. The anticipated increases in 

withdrawal over the next decade, however, will produce impacts which are regional in scope. To provide management information at a regional scale, including predictive capabilities, the Geological Survey has initiated a new series of hydrologic investigations the Regional Aquifer-System Analysis 

(RASA) Program.

1955

1963

SAN JOAOUIN VALLEY CALIFORNIA

Bench M«rk S661

MAXIMUM SUBSIDENCE

23.3 feet 893m

1925 1975

Pumpage of ground water in the San Joaquin Valley, Calif., has 

caused widespread subsidence of the land surface. The markers on 

this pole show former land surface elevation near Mendito, western 

Fresno County.
THE ROLE OF GROUND WATER IN 

THE ECONOMY

The significance of ground water to economics can 

best be illustrated through one or two examples. In 

California's Central Valley, pumpage for irrigation 

was curtailed prior to 1977 and was replaced with 

surface water in an effort to stem the land subsidence 

which had accompanied earlier heavy withdrawals. 

The drought of 1977 caused a failure of surface-water 

supplies, and there was widespread concern that the 

agricultural production of the valley, a vital factor in 

the State's economy, would fall seriously short. As 

surface-water supplies declined, however, pumpage 

from active irrigation wells was increased, idle wells 

were reactivated, and thousands of new wells were 

drilled. Irrigation supplies were thus maintained 

throughout the growing season, and the impact of 

the drought on food production in the valley was 

greatly reduced. With the passing of the drought, 

surface water has again become the major source of 

irrigation in the valley. The experience illustrates the 

importance of ground water as a drought-resistant 

component in the total water supply and shows the 

value of integrated management of ground water and 

surface water to meet current demands.

Another example of the economic significance of 

ground water can be found in the northern Great 

Plains States, where surface-water and shallow 

ground-water sources are already committed to irrigation and new sources are needed to supply the competing demands of energy production. The Madison 

aquifer, an extensive but deep-lying and, therefore, 

largely unutilized formation, has been proposed as a 

potential source of water for mining operations, coal 

slurry pipelines, and power generation. The feasibility 

of utilizing the Madison in this way is currently the 

subject of intensive investigation. Whatever the results of these investigations are, the competition 

between energy-related uses and other water demands will probably be a factor in the regional economy for many years to come. This situation will be 

repeated in other parts of the country as the effort 

toward greater domestic energy production intensifies, and, in many instances, ground-water development will be proposed as the solution.

As these examples illustrate, the management questions facing the planner are basically economic issues. 

Some are clear cut; for example, any new draft on 

the ground-water system must influence the pumping lift, flow rate, or quality of the supply to existing 

installations, and each of these factors has an influence on cost. The economic implications of other 

management questions may be less clearly defined, 

but they are real. Certain environmental impacts of 

pumpage, for example, may not usually be thought

of in terms of dollars. However, if a development 

scheme is abandoned because of environmental considerations, a decision has implicitly been made to 

place a higher value on maintenance of the environment than on the benefit of the pumpage to the 

economy. This decision, intentionally or not, attaches 

a minimum dollar value to the environmental issue.

The need for management in any case is an economic need. Haphazard development of ground 

water will cost the Nation much more than wellmanaged development. Successful management of 

any resource depends upon adequate information, 

and ground water is no exception. An understanding of the natural flow system and of the way in 

which it will respond hydraulically, chemically, and 

structurally to imposed stresses is a necessary prerequisite to ground-water development planning.

The Nature of Ground-Water Flow Systems

The ground-water regime is a dynamic system in 

which water is continuously in motion from areas of 

recharge to areas of discharge. In a typical groundwater flow system, this movement occurs through an 

extensive heterogeneous but interconnected geologic 

framework. This framework generally includes permeable units, normally thought of as water-bearing 

zones or aquifers, and less permeable units, which 

were formerly considered confining zones (aquicludes) but are now more commonly thought of as 

semiconfining zones (aquitards). The chemical quality 

of ground water is recognized to be a function of the 

processes, particularly interaction with the geologic 

framework, that have occurred along the path of flow. 

Thus, chemical quality normally varies from one point 

to another in the flow pattern.

Prior to development in a given region, the flow 

regime is presumably in hydrologic equilibrium, having total recharge to the system equal to total discharge from it. Pumpage disrupts this equilibrium, 

causing a withdrawal of water from storage and a 

concurrent decline of water levels. As water levels 

fall, natural discharge from the system is reduced, 

and recharge may be increased. In time, these 

changes in natural inflow and outflow may be sufficient to balance the withdrawal; if this occurs, a new 

equilibrium is achieved in which recharge is balanced 

by the sum of natural outflow and pumpage, and depletion of storage no longer occurs. Such an equilibrium, however, may not always be possible at a 

given rate of withdrawal. If the pumpage from a given 

system exceeds the reductions in natural outflow and 

the increases in recharge which can be induced, wells 

will continue to draw from storage until depletion of 

the supply forces a reduction in withdrawal rate.
10

It is important to recognize that the reduction in 

natural outflow described above implies that withdrawal of ground water ultimately must have an impact on surface-water resources. If, for example, a 

ground-water flow system originally discharges to a 

stream, development of ground water will ultimately 

bring about a reduction in stream flow equal to the 

pumpage, provided a new equilibrium is achieved. 

In some applications, of course, much of the pumpage is returned to the stream system after use. As 

noted earlier, the impact on the stream is then largely one of degradation in quality rather than of reduction in flow. The significant point is that ground 

water and surface water are both parts of an integrated hydrologic regime and that a stress in either 

may have repercussions throughout the system.

The total volume of water in storage as ground 

water is extremely high relative to the rate of flow 

through the system. This high ratio of storage to flow 

rate tends to encourage development of ground water 

from storage; it also means that the ground-water 

system is a far more drought-resistant supply than 

most surface sources and that conjunctive management of ground water and surface water is an effective method of weathering fluctuations in surface 

supplies.

The Method Computer Simulation of 

Ground-Water Flow Systems

During recent years, rapid strides have been made 

in the field of computer simulation of ground-water 

flow systems. These advances have had far-reaching 

effects on the techniques of ground-water investigations and on the potential for intelligent management 

of ground-water resources.

Briefly, simulation refers to the process by which 

the hydraulic (and perhaps other) characteristics of 

the flow system are represented by a set of equations which can be solved on a digital computer. The 

set of equations, the computer routines required for 

its solution, and the input data (specifying the properties of the geologic framework and of the ground 

water itself and outlining the problem to be solved) 

collectively constitute the "model" of the flow system. Hydraulic effects are addressed in all groundwater models; more sophisticated simulations may 

also treat corollary effects, such as land subsidence or 

solute transport. An example of the use of simulation is provided by the Geological Survey's work on 

Long Island, where a three-dimensional model of the 

flow system has been used to predict declines in 

water level and stream flow that would be caused by 

various development alternatives.

Initially, simulation was regarded by many primarily 

as an aid in hydrologic prediction. The normal sequence of operations involved hydrogeologic investigation, construction of a model based on the results, 

and use of the model as a planning tool to predict 

the effects of various proposed schemes of pumping. 

With the continued development of simulation technology, however, there has been a growing realization of the contribution the method can offer to the 

process of hydrogeologic investigation itself. Increasingly, models are thought of as investigative tools to 

be used in the study of existing ground-water flow 

systems. In a variety of ways, ranging from simple 

trial-and-error to sophisticated statistical approaches, 

simulation allows the investigator to test his hypotheses, to check the sensitivity of his results to various assumed conditions, and to generate a reasonable reconstruction of the flow system on the basis 

of available field data. In this sense, it has made the 

analysis of regional hydrology a much more realistic 

goal than it was a few years ago.

It is relatively uncommon for hydrologic investigation to precede ground-water development altogether 

in a given region. As a rule, hydrologic investigations 

are initiated in response to problems that normally 

arise only after pumping has been in progress for 

several years. Thus, the hydrologist rarely has a firsthand look at the undisturbed or natural condition of 

the system that he is studying. Rather, he sees it in 

some intermediate condition, disturbed by a certain 

level of development but not yet subject to the full 

stresses which are to be imposed. An understanding 

of the original flow system is a prerequisite to an 

analysis of many other facets of the hydrogeology, 

particularly those relating to water chemistry. Simulation has proven particularly useful in this aspect of 

hydrologic investigation. When a model has been developed that offers a satisfactory representation of 

present conditions, it can be used to simulate the prepumping situation, thus providing an analysis of the 

original flow pattern.

The use of simulation as an investigative tool has 

not diminished its significance in terms of hydrologic 

prediction. The development of a predictive capability for planning purposes remains the ultimate goal 

of most hydrogeologic work today; the only real difference is that simulation itself now plays a large 

role in the investigations leading to that goal.

ANALYSIS OF REGIONAL AQUIFER 

SYSTEMS

The RASA Program represents a systematic effort 

to study a number of extensive regional groundwater systems that together cover much of the 

country and represent a significant element of the1 

national water supply. Twenty-five systems have been
identified for study, although the list is not necessarily 

in its final form. In general, the study areas transcend political subdivisions to which hydrologic investigations have often been limited in the past.

A regional aquifer system may be defined as an extensive set of aquifers within a given geographic 

region and made up of units that are hydraulically 

interconnected or that share so many common characteristics that it is efficient to study them in a single 

exercise. The hydraulic interconnection may be within the ground-water system or may be external to it, 

as in the case of a number of aquifers linked to a 

common stream network.

Needless to say, this is a broad definition and allows 

consideration of a wide range of candidate studies. 

The projects scheduled to date have been selected on 

the basis of further criteria, including (1) the significance of the aquifer system as a present or potential 

supply of water particularly its significance to the 

national economy or, at least, to the economies of 

more than one State, (2) the severity of the water 

problems facing the project area, and (3) the potential water needs in the project area particularly 

those connected with energy projection, increasing 

irrigation, and increasing urban development. Although most of the project areas are of an interstate 

nature, this is not a necessary requirement.

Three studies were initiated in fiscal year 1978, including the California Central Valley, the northern 

Great Plains, and the High Plains. The importance of 

ground water in the Central Valley and the northern 

Great Plains has already been mentioned. The Central 

Valley Study will concentrate on evaluating effects of 

continued or expanded use of ground water as an 

adjunct to surface water in the irrigation system. The 

program in the northern Great Plains represents an 

expansion and extension of an existing Survey investigation of the Madison aquifer in that area.

In the High Plains States, pumpage for irrigation 

from the Ogallala aquifer has sustained the agricultural economy for several decades. The withdrawals 

greatly exceed recharge, and, at present pumpage 

rates, the area appears to face exhaustion of the resource during the remainder of this century. The 

study will address the hydrologic impacts of varying 

the pumpage according to different plans and will 

be coordinated with an economic analysis of the 

region commissioned by the Economic Development 

Administration.

Three new RASA studies will be initiated in fiscal 

year 1979. These will include the Cambro-Ordovician 

aquifers of the northern Midwest, the carbonate 

aquifers of the Southeast, and the alluvial basin 

aquifers of the Southwest.

Center-pivot irrigation system.

11
Future plans call for initiating three or four new 

studies each year. The average length of study will 

be 4 years. The first two completions will occur in 

1981; following this, three or four studies should be 

completed each fiscal year through the end of the 

program.

Although each investigation will be designed to fit 

the particular problems of the study area, the general approach will be to develop a computer simulation for the overall aquifer system, supported by 

more detailed simulations of local or subregional 

problem areas. These simulations will assist in forming an understanding of the natural (prepumping) 

flow regime and of the changes brought about by 

human activities. They will also provide a means of 

predicting the hydraulic effects of stress, such as 

pumpage, artificial recharge, or waste disposal. In 

some studies, associated effects, such as land subsidence, changes in water quality, or costs of pumping, may be incorporated in the models. The simulations will be based on a full assemblage of existing 

data and on such new data as are required to fill 

critical gaps in the available information. In some 

cases, collection of this new data will require extensive field operations.

Simulation will be initiated early in each project 

to study the overall nature of the flow system, to 

identify sensitive parameters and data needs, and to 

determine what segments of the system, if any, can 

be treated independently in further work. As additional data are assembled, the simulation of the 

regional system will be refined progressively, and detailed models of local problem areas will be developed. The regional model, apart from contributing 

to an understanding of the overall hydrologic system, 

will provide the boundary conditions for experiments 

on the local models, thus tying the local simulations 

into the regional analysis.

Each study will address water quality as well as 

hydraulics. The present water-quality distribution 

throughout the study area will be described, and an 

effort will be made to interpret this distribution in 

terms of the original flow pattern, the changes in response to development, and the associated geochemical processes.

The products of these investigations will vary according to the needs of the area, although, again, 

some common patterns will be followed. In particular, results will be released continuously during each 

study through a series of data reports and short 

papers, and the full results of the investigation will 

be summarized in a comprehensive final report.

The studies are designed to complement the Survey's continuing program of cooperative groundwater investigations. As a general rule, investigations 

initiated under the cooperative program are of a local 

nature, and, frequently, they are oriented to the solution of specific problems. Because the RASA studies 

are designed to look at the regional picture, they 

will serve to tie together local investigations, whether 

past, present, or future; in terms of simulation, they 

will provide boundary flows for detailed local models. 

Thus, the RASA Program is expected to act as a 

stimulus to other hydrologic investigations rather 

than as a replacement for any existing program.

Center-pivot irrigation system.

12
Landslide Hazards and Their Reduction

By Robert W. Fleming, David J. Varnes, and 

Robert L. Schuster

INTRODUCTION

Massive landslides triggered by a major earthquake 

in Kansu Province, China, in 1920 killed nearly 

200,000 people. Three major landslides in Peru within the last 20 years have killed nearly 25,000 people. 

Landslides have also caused secondary effects resulting in many deaths and much damage. For example, 

in 1963, a rockslide into the Vaiont Reservoir in Italy 

displaced a huge volume of water and created a wave 

that overtopped the dam. The flood wave swept 

through towns downstream killing nearly 3,000 

people.

In contrast, losses and damages from landslides in 

the United States are hidden disasters in most respects. 

U.S. Geological Survey studies of some recent disasters in the United States reveal that landslides are 

responsible for considerably greater damage than is 

generally recognized and are a costly part of many 

major disasters in which the landslide damage is 

overlooked by the news media. For example, the 

tremendous destruction in central Virginia in 1969 is 

remembered as an effect of Hurricane Camille, although most of the 150 people killed during the 

storm were not drowned by flooding but were killed 

by debris avalanches that cascaded down steep slopes 

during the heavy rainfall. More than one-half of the 

damage from the 1964 Alaskan earthquake was the 

result of landslides triggered by the quake. Landsliding may have been a critical part of the sequence of 

failure of the Buffalo Creek Dam in West Virginia in 

1972 and of the St. Francis Dam in southern California 

in 1928.

The term "landslide" denotes downward and outward movement of slope materials composed of 

natural rock, soil, artificial fill, or combinations of 

these materials. In recent years, there has been a 

great deal of interest in classifying the different types 

of landslides, and the term "slope movement" seems 

to be preferred to landslide because not all of the 

damaging movements involve sliding of materials. 

Here, recognizing that the different types of slope 

movement involve sliding, flowing, falling, toppling, 

spreading, and combinations of these, landslide and 

slope movement are used interchangeably.

In the simplest form of classification, names of different types of slope movements are assigned by

combining the name of the material involved with the 

predominant type of movement to produce a one- or 

two-word descriptor such as rock fall, debris topple, 

or earth flow. Slides with significant rotation are 

termed "slumps," and the term "slide" (rock slide, 

debris slide, or earth slide) is reserved for downslope 

movement along more or less planar surfaces without 

rotation of slide material.

The variety of types of movements and the factors 

responsible for the movements would seem to make 

the technical problem of landslide hazard reduction 

inordinately complex, but this is not so. Leighton 

(1976) estimated that in California, a 95- to 99-percent reduction in damaging failures is technically attainable through the use of three levels of investigation. These levels are regional, tract or community, 

and site, with progressively more detailed investigations in the smaller areas. However, the solutions to 

the technical problems are only a part of the process 

of achieving landslide hazard reduction. The transfer 

of information into an orderly program to reduce 

hazards and damages is perhaps more formidable 

than the technical problem. Implementation of technology is subject to pressures from groups that range 

from those that dislike regulation or interference to 

those that do not consider landslides amenable to 

loss-reduction measures or do not consider landslides a serious enough economic problem to justify 

the effort required to make a program work.

WIDESPREAD HAZARDS

Landslides are a significant hazard in virtually every 

State of the United States. Although individual landslides generally are not as spectacular or as costly as 

certain other natural catastrophes such as earthquakes, major floods, or tornadoes, they are more 

widespread and the total financial loss due to slope 

failures probably is at least equivalent to any other 

single geologic hazard in the United States.

Reliable estimates of the overall costs of landslides 

are difficult to obtain for geographical entities as 

large as the United States. In 1958, a study reported 

by the Highway Research Board stated that "the average yearly cost of landslides in the United States runs 

to hundreds of millions of dollars," an estimate which

13
14

FIGURE 1 . A landslide has virtually destroyed this building in 

Cincinnati, Ohio. The toe of the landslide crushed the rear 

of the building, and slide debris, including trees and rubble, 

has been pushed across the floor. Part of the direct losses 

from the landslide include the intrinsic value of the building 

and associated costs of dismantling and removing it. (Photograph courtesy of J. O. Maberry.)

at that time was probably realistic. However, in the 

20 years since those data were assembled, a combination of inflation, increased construction in landslideprone areas, and the use of larger cuts and fills in 

construction has resulted in considerably increased 

annual costs of landslides. A study by the Transportation Research Board in 1978 has concluded that a 

reasonable estimate of landslide damages to public 

and private property exceeds $1 billion annually.

Costs include both direct and indirect losses from 

landslides affecting highways, railroads, industrial installations, mines, homes, and other public and private properties. Direct costs are those losses incurred 

in actual damages to installations or property (see 

fig. 1). Examples of indirect costs (fig. 2) are (1) 

loss of tax revenues on properties devalued as a result of landslides, (2) reduced real estate values in 

areas threatened by landslides, (3) loss of productivity 

of agricultural or forest lands affected by landslides, 

and (4) loss of industrial productivity due to interruption of transportation systems by landslides. Indirect 

costs of landslides are difficult to evaluate, but they 

may be larger than the direct costs.

Somewhat more accurate cost estimates can be 

made for individual landslides or for landslides occurring in relatively small areas. For instance, in a

classic study of slope-movement costs in the San 

Francisco Bay area, Taylor and Brabb (1972) documented costs for nine bay-area counties during the 

winter of 1968-69. Costs of slope movements totaled 

at least $25 million, of which approximately $9 million was direct loss or damage to private property 

(due mainly to drop in market value), $10 million was 

direct loss or damage to public property (chiefly for 

repair or relocation of roads and utilities), and about 

$6 million consisted of miscellaneous costs that could 

not be easily classified in either the public or private 

sector. This is a tremendous expense for the relatively small area involved. In addition, Taylor and Brabb 

noted that their data were incomplete in that they 

were not able to obtain costs on many of the slope 

movements. They felt, therefore, that the total cost 

of the 1968-69 slope movements for the bay area 

may have been several times greater than the estimated $25 million.

A 1973 survey conducted by the Federal Highway 

Administration indicated that approximately $50 

million is being spent annually to repair major landFICURE 2 . This view of landslide scars on the face of Pillar 

Mountain, Kodiak) Alaska, illustrates some indirect costs associated with landsliding. Open cracks above the landslide 

scars have produced concern that a much larger mass of rock 

and debris, comprising up to 13 million cubic yards of debris, could fail abruptly. Such a slide might destroy the new 

cargo dock and might create a large wave that could severely 

damage the city of Kodiak. The threat of a disaster has produced only minimal direct costs, but indirect costs related 

to investment, planning, and city expansion have been substantial (Blackburn, 1978).
slides on the federally financed portion of the national 

highway system (Chassie and Goughnor, 1976). Total 

annual costs of landslides to highways in the United 

States are difficult to determine precisely for a variety 

of reasons. For example, it is difficult to define the 

direct costs of smaller slides that are routinely repaired by maintenance forces and the various slides 

remedied on non-Federal-aid routes, as well as the 

indirect costs for landslide-related damages. Indirect 

costs including traffic disruption and delays, inconvenience to the traveling public, engineering costs 

for investigation, and analysis and design of mitigation measures are commonly overlooked. With these 

factors included, Chassie and Goughnor believed that 

$100 million is a conservative estimate of total annual 

cost of landslide damage to highways and roads in 

the United States.

For planning purposes, other studies have attempted to project costs of landslides. In a study 

predicting the cost of geologic hazards in California 

from 1970 to 2000, the California Division of Mines 

and Geology (Alfors and others, 1973) estimated that

the costs of slope movements throughout the State 

during that period would be nearly $10 billion, or an 

average of over $300 million per year. This estimate 

was based on the assumption that California loss-reduction practices in use in 1970 for slope failures will 

remain unchanged. Shown in figure 3 is a comparison 

taken from the California study of the estimated 

losses due to slope movements with losses due to 

other geologic hazards and urbanization. Of the socalled catastrophic geologic hazards included in the 

study, losses due to landslides exceed those predicted 

for floods and, in turn, are exceeded by those due 

to earthquakes. It must be remembered that California is particularly prone to earthquake activity. In 

most other States, the losses due to slope movements 

probably would be greater than those due to 

earthquakes.

In addition to the economic losses resulting from 

landslides, significant loss of human life in many 

parts of the world has been directly attributable to 

slope failure. Landslides in the United States have not 

commonly resulted in major losses of life because

EROSION $600 MILLION

EXPANSIVE SOIL 

$150 MILLION

FAULT DISPLACEMENT 

$76 MILLION

VOLCANIC ERUPTION 

$49 MILLION

TSUNAMI $41 MILLION

SUBSIDENCE 

$26 MILLION

FIGURE 3. Predicted economic losses from geologic hazards and urbanization in California, 1970 to 2000 (Alfors and others,

1973).

15
most catastrophic landslides in this country have occurred in nonpopulated areas. However, in recent 

years, more than 25 people per year have been killed 

by landslides. The greatest threat to lives seems to be 

from debris flows triggered by hurricanes in the Eastern United States and by heavy rainfall in southern 

California.

Reduction of Landslide Hazards and Losses

The reduction of hazards and losses from landslides 

is both a technical and an administrative problem. 

In cases where the economics of a major construction 

activity justify a detailed study, landslides usually can 

be controlled or avoided. However, in the vast majority of development activity, construction proceeds 

without recognition or consideration of potential 

landslide problems.

The steps that need to be taken to reduce the 

losses from landslides are as follows:

1. Recognition of the areas that have failed in the 

past and identification of the factors that caused 

the failures.

2. Quantification of the present conditions and 

processes that promote landsliding to evaluate 

present and future landslide activity and to 

delineate susceptible areas.

3. Dissemination of information to the public and 

to appropriate agencies in an effective manner 

that permits decisive use.

4. Regulation of land use in a manner that reduces

the hazard.

Geologists, engineers, and planners are involved 

here in a communication system that begins with research, continues with the education of others who 

are generally not trained in these fields, and ideally 

ends with overt social action on the part of an individual, a group, or a governmental organization. As 

such, a communication system involves people with 

very different interests and skills and needs to be 

carefully thought out if it is to achieve its purpose. 

In practice, this means that the measures available to 

prevent or to mitigate a hazard must be known in advance to define the kind of information necessary 

for decisionmaking or for drafting and enforcing 

legislative actions. Then the geologist must obtain, 

and present clearly to the right person or group, the 

geologic data that are appropriate to reach decisions 

or solutions to the problem. Both the content and the 

means of communication are critically important because the regulation of land use through ordinances 

and laws pertaining to geologic hazards is seldom 

effective unless based on a thorough understanding of 

the geologic processes involved and on a clear demonstration of the economic and social benefits to be 

achieved.

An essential tool for rational land use planning is 

a map that shows where landslides exist or may be 

expected. Although individual landslides are generally relatively small, from a few feet to almost a mile 

or two in maximum dimension, they commonly occur 

in swarms or are dispersed widely in areas having 

particular geologic, topographic, and climatic characteristics. The combinations of these characteristics 

that lead to landslides vary greatly in kind and areal 

extent; hence, texts and maps concerning slope stability problems also vary markedly in content and 

scale and according to the purpose for which they 

were made. The size of the area of interest determines 

the kinds of factors that can be studied and the scales 

at which results can be shown. For example, both 

incidence of and susceptibility to slope movements 

have been shown, for generalized groups of geologic 

units, at a scale of 1:7,500,000 for the conterminous 

United States in an overview map prepared by the 

U.S. Geological Survey. Maps range in scale from 

smaller than 1:30,000,000 to one to several hundred. 

At a scale of 1:30,000,000 some generalized aspect of 

slope stability for a nation the size of the United 

States can be shown on a page-size map. At a scale 

of one to several hundred, details of lithology and 

physical properties of components of small individual 

landslides, together with stability analyses, can be presented. Although small-scale maps may give an informative overview, the real use of maps for land 

planning and hazard reduction begins at a scale of 

about 1:125,000 and intensifies as the scales become 

larger.

The types of landslide information that can be depicted on maps vary with the scale used. At scales 

smaller than 1:125,000, the common procedure is to 

interpret broadly or to infer the slope stability of 

large regions according to available knowledge of the 

behavior of geologic formations, *or groups, within 

similar topographic and climatic settings. But at larger 

scales, and with adequate economic incentive, it becomes possible to do much more. Actual landslides 

may be shown in nearly their correct positions and 

sizes, together with the factors of lithology, slope, or 

rainfall with which they may be associated. The effects 

of shear zones, faults, and joints/ the attitude of 

weak or water-bearing strata in relation to the direction in which the ground slopes/ the possible effects 

of seismic vibrations; and the impact of man's activities can all be considered in written discussions and 

shown on maps. In studies of specific sites that warrant thorough exploration, a wealth of geotechnical 

data on physical properties of materials to considerable depth may be obtained and used for definitive 

analyses of stability.

At scales larger than about 1:125,000, it is possible 

to make a significant change in methodology of land-
slide hazard prediction. This involves breaking away 

from geologic units as the basis for areal prediction 

of landslide problems and creating new map units of 

susceptibility based not only on lithology but also 

on pertinent and mappable factors such as slope, 

slope aspect, ground and surface water, geologic 

structures, vegetation, and physical properties. In 

effect, maps can be added or superposed to yield a 

new map with the closely defined purpose of classifying the land according to its susceptibility to slope 

failure.

If warranted, the map units can be quantified, 

weighted according to their estimated relative importance, and plotted within uniformly sized parcels 

of ground so that the whole array of information may 

be processed by computer methods. An early and 

instructive example of the use of four categories of 

rock strength and two of slope to produce eight map 

units of relative stability is provided by a slope-stability map at a scale of 1:19,200 of the San Clemente 

area, California (Blanc and Cleveland, 1968). In the 

last 10 years, many more landslide susceptibility maps 

at various scales and using a variety of factors have 

been prepared by both governmental organizations 

and private consultants for areas in the United States.

Among the better known and more successful efforts to translate geologic information on slope stability into land use planning has been the work of 

the Survey in the San Francisco Bay region. The 

methodology by which the landslide susceptibility 

map of San Mateo County has been prepared represents an advanced state of the art. It was prepared 

by superposing and integrating maps showing geologic units, the distribution of actual landslide deposits, and five categories of slope. Maps of a test 

area are shown in figure 4 . The original procedure 

developed by E. E. Brabb, T. H. Nilsen, and their associates at the Survey has been adapted by Newman, 

Paradis, and Brabb (1978) for more economical processing of data and production of the landslide susceptibility map by computer. The landslide susceptibility map of San Mateo County is unusual in that it 

has been incorporated into county ordinances which 

assign upper limits to the number of dwellings per 

unit area within each of the landslide susceptibility 

zones.

The intent of much of the geologic work on slope 

stability directed toward land use planning is to reduce the hazard through avoidance by not building 

on areas foreseen to be troublesome or dangerous. 

But avoidance is not always possible, and it may not 

always be the best solution where large engineering 

projects rather than residential construction are 

involved.

For example, the routes of major highways are 

commonly dictated by cost of land acquisition and

other factors that may outweigh the advantage of 

choosing one route over another because of better 

slope stability. Unless stability problems are foreseen 

to be extremely critical, the highway may be located 

with the expectation either of having to solve these 

problems through design or of living with them and 

providing continued maintenance over the life of the 

structure, which in the long run would cost less than 

originally choosing a more stable route.

Large dams that create deep reservoirs often cause 

landslides on the reservoir banks when the water 

level rises or falls. To assure complete stability would 

in many instances be prohibitively expensive, unless 

lives or valuable property are clearly threatened. 

Should the potential slides present the possibility of 

creating waves that might overtop the dam, yet not 

cause a catastrophic flood, it may be more economical to design the dam to resist overtopping than to 

try to locate, to evaluate, and to correct the potentially unstable slopes. These approaches to landslide 

hazard evaluation and reduction require both perceptive geologic insight and a high degree of engineering skill and judgment.

Landslide Hazard Reduction by the City of 

Los Angeles

The best example of the success of a landslide 

hazard reduction program in the United States is that 

enacted by the city of Los Angeles. The experience 

there was long enough ago and has been documented well enough to permit an evaluation of the 

program's effectiveness. In an unprecedented series 

of activities that required cooperation among geologists and engineers working closely with city agencies and elected officials, Los Angeles responded , 

to citizen pressure for protective regulations for the 

development of hillside land. Development of the 

basic program spanned the period from 1952 to 1963. 

Since 1963, the program has been reevaluated and 

modified several times. Portions of the history of the 

Los Angeles program to reduce landslide damages 

are summarized below.

A great deal of grading and construction that had 

been done during the early post-World War II period, 

with little or no regulation, created many steep cuts 

and large poorly compacted fills. The winter of 1951- 

52 produced more than 26 inches of rainfall in downtown Los Angeles compared to an average of 10 

inches during the preceding 7 years. One severe 

storm during January 1952 produced 7 inches of 

moisture. The resulting erosion, sedimentation, and 

landslides caused property damage estimated at $7.5 

million (Jahns, 1969).

According to the Mayor's Ad Hoc Landslide Committee, "the citizens of Los Angeles, in conjunction

17
B

FIGURE 4 . Materials used for a landslide susceptibility map of San Mateo County, Calif. A, Geologic map. B, Landslide map. C, 

Slope map. The tones indicate the degree of slope, in which the darker the tone, the greater the slope. These maps are 

combined and integrated to produce D, the landslide susceptibility map in which the higher the roman numeral, the greater 

the susceptibility. Landslide deposits (L) are shown as a separate and highest category of slope susceptibility (Nilsen and 

Brabb, 1977).

18

with the grading industry and professional people in 

private industry and city government wrote a grading 

ordinance which was adopted into law on October 

17, 1952." This ordinance was based on state-of-theart practices for large grading projects such as 

earthen dams and required the expertise of soils engineering and "very limited geology."

The first real test of the new ordinance occurred in 

1956 when, although the total rainfall for the season 

barely exceeded the long-term average, about 8 inches 

of rain fell during a 36-hour period. The resulting 

erosion was massive and led to a change in the 

ordinance. Compaction of the sloping surface of fills 

became mandatory. At the same time, in response to 

special landslide problems, the city government required geologic reports before certain grading permits could be issued.

Another event in 1956 undoubtedly affected the 

course of future programs to reduce landslide damages. In the Portuguese Bend area of Los Angeles 

County, a large old landslide was reactivated, causing damge or destruction to more than 150 private 

residences and associated roads and utilities. Prior 

to this event, limited insurance coverage was available for landslide damages, and it was all but discontinued immediately following the Portuguese 

Bend landslide. Also, in the aftermath of this landslide, the concept that many destructive geologic 

processes are acts of Cod was questioned and tested 

in the courts. In succeeding years, the courts have 

gradually come to the position of applying the concept of strict liability to developers, engineers, and 

geologists. This concept holds that, in the interest of 

public welfare, a manufacturer (or in this case a developer, grading contractor, engineer, or geologist) is strictly liable for defects in products or workmanship. Lawsuits against professional geologists and 

engineers have relied on proving negligence in the 

investigation, design, or inspection of a grading 

project.

The next test of the Hillside Grading Regulations of 

the City of Los Angeles came during the winter of 

1957-58. More than 20 inches of rain, nearly 50 percent above normal, fell in the city, causing considerable landslide damage. The Grading Regulations were 

modified slightly to accommodate some special stability problems within one geologic formation.

At about the same time, the Department of Building and Safety of the City of Los Angeles established 

an Engineering Geologists Qualification Board to 

evaluate and to certify the training and experience of 

engineering geologists wishing to practice their profession in the hillside areas of Los Angeles. This action provided a measure of quality control over the 

technical community associated with hillside grading. 

Two years later, the Qualification Board prepared a 

general guide and checklist of the desired contents 

of geologic reports submitted to the city.

The winter of 1961-62 provided yet another test 

of effectiveness of the Grading Regulations. Total 

rainfall for the season was 19 inches, not much more 

than the long-term average. However, one storm in
February 1962 produced about 8 inches of rain. Even 

though 40,000 new homes had been constructed since 

the enactment of the Grading Regulations and this 

storm caused less damage than the storms of a decade earlier, deficiencies in existing regulations again 

became apparent. Croups were organized to rewrite 

the Grading Regulations, and, in October 1963, a new 

ordinance was adopted. The new ordinance provided 

a more restrictive grading code and geologic and engineering participation in design, construction, and 

final inspection and certification of the adequacy of 

a grading project.

The winters of 1968-69 and 1977-78 have provided 

stern tests of the effectiveness of the regulations. The 

Department of Building and Safety of the City of Los 

Angeles conducted a thorough analysis of the damage 

and slope failures to private property in the hillside 

areas caused by the storms in 1969, as shown in 

table 1 . The study compared the distribution of damage to developed sites according to the years the sites 

were graded. Sites developed before 1952 were without a grading code, and sites developed between 

1952 and 1962 were based on the first code and 

modifications. Sites developed after 1962 had the 

benefit of the revised Grading Regulations and stringent requirements for engineers and engineering 

geologists.

Comparing the data for damage to sites constructed 

after 1963 to those constructed before 1952, the older 

sites sustained 18 times as much total damage as did 

the sites developed with stringent controls. Less than 

3 percent of the total damage occurred to sites developed under the strong grading regulations. Although the published analysis did not separate landslide damage from the other types of damage, the

losses from landslides were apparently reduced at 

least proportionally.

TABLE 1 . Damage associated with destructive storms of 7969

in hillside areas of Los Angeles

[Adapted from Slosson (1969)]

Number of

sites constructed _, ___

Total damage 

Average damage

per site ______

Percentage of

sites damaged _

Sites

developed

prior to

1952

10,000

$3,300,000

$330

10.4

Sites

developed

1952 to

1962

27,000

$2,767,000

$100

1.3

Sites

developed

1963 to

1969

11,000

1 $182,400

s $7

0.15

1 More than $100,000 of the $182,400 occurred to sites that were 

currently being graded. Even the best of grading projects are susceptible to damage during construction.

2 If the total damage value is used, the average damage value per 

site is about $17. The value of $7 per site was obtained by deducting 

the damages to sites under construction.

The results of the near-record rainstorms in 1977 

and 1978 are incomplete. A preliminary analysis of 

the distribution of damage by the Department of 

Building and Safety of the City of Los Angeles suggests that more than 93 percent of the landslide damage to sites involved those graded before the Grading 

Regulations of 1963.

Drafting and adoption of regulations were only part 

of the entire process, and mention should be made 

of the other activities essential to the success of the 

program. Perhaps as important as the creation of 

regulations is their enforcement. As the regulations 

were developed and refined, so were the procedures 

for policing grading projects. The procedures require

19
FIGURE 5. Landslides in the Los Angeles area caused by the near-record rainstorms of 1977-78 dramatically showed that hazards have not been eliminated. However, scenes like this would have been much more common without the effective hazard 

reduction program developed over the past 25 years. (Photograph courtesy of the Los Angeles Times.)

20

review of plans and construction by several departments and approval at two stages before grading 

begins. Following grading operations, the site is inspected and an "as built" grading plan and technical 

reports are submitted for review and approval. If all 

the reports and plans are acceptable, the city prepares a grading certificate and releases performance 

bonds. The procedure is not as complex for some 

other types of development, such as single lots, where 

questions regarding zoning and easements have already received attention.

Another activity critical to the success of landslide 

hazard reduction was the accumulation of the necessary scientific information to understand hazardous 

locations and situations. Intensive programs of geologic and special-purpose mapping were conducted 

by Federal and State agencies, in some cases in cooperation with the city and county of Los Angeles.

A great deal of work was also accomplished by university faculty and students and the various private 

consulting firms in the area. Local meetings of the 

Association of Engineering Geologists and the American Society of Civil Engineers provided forums for 

the exchange of ideas and information. Members of 

both professional societies served on committees and 

contributed to the prepartion of the regulations. 

Other individuals and organizations, such as builders, 

homeowners' associations, and interested citizens, 

contributed similarly.

Members of the news media did their part as well. 

Landslides and related hazards became headline 

stories. The activities of the groups working on evaluating the problem and preparing the Grading Regulations were treated with in-depth reports that kept 

the landslide issue before the public even when their 

hillsides were not sliding.
These appear to have been the ingredients for the 

successful experiment in Los Angeles. This simplified 

account does not convey the countless hours spent by 

many segments of the community in formulating and 

implementing the program, the range of strategies 

proposed, and the debate among the various groups 

concerned. The storms of 1977-78 demonstrated that 

the program does not completely eliminate damages 

and hazards and can be further improved. Figure 5 , 

which shows landslide damage in Los Angeles caused 

by these storms, reveals that not all the problems 

have been solved. Without the program in Los Angeles, 

however, losses would have been many times greater, 

and the efforts of the past 25 years will continue to 

help both Los Angeles and other communities looking for solutions to landslide hazards.

The experience of Los Angeles in reducing landslide hazards can be summarized into the following 

generalizations that may be applicable to other areas:

1. Damages and hazards from landslides can be 

significantly reduced. The technology is available in geology, engineering, construction, and 

government. Achievement of hazard reduction 

requires the perception of the necessity and the 

will to reduce the risk and damages.

2. Opportunities for community responses to landslide reduction programs arise during and immediately after the crises accompanying the 

hazardous processes and the resulting damages.

3. The development and implementation of the successful landslide hazard reduction program in 

Los Angeles contained at least three key ele- 

^ments that must be emulated for success in 

other parts of the United States. These are an 

able and concerned local government, a solid 

base of technical information about the hazards

and a technical community able to apply and 

build on the information, and a Citizenry that, 

on the whole, recognizes the need for appropriate regulation.

REFERENCES CITED

Alfors, J. T., Burnett, J. L, and Cay, T. E., Jr., 1973, Urban 

geology master plan for California: California Division of 

Mines and Geology Bulletin 198, 112 p.

Blackburn, Chris, 1978, "Redflag" on Pillar Felt Hastle for 

Kodiak: Kodiak Daily Mirror, v. 8, no. 235, p. 1.

Blanc, R. P., and Cleveland, C. B., 1968, Natural slope stability 

as related to geology, San Clemente area, Orange and San 

Diego Counties, California: California Division of Mines and 

Geology, Special Report 98, 19 p.

Chassie, R. G., and Goughnor, R. D., 1976, National highway 

landslide experience: Highway Focus, Federal Highway Administration, v. 8, no. 1, p. 1-9.

Jahns, R. H., 1969, Seventeen years of response by the City of 

Los Angeles to geologic hazards, in Proceedings, Geologic 

hazards and public problems: Office of Emergency Preparedness, Santa Rosa, California, p. 283-296.

Leighton, F. B., 1976, Urban Landslides Targets for land-use 

planning in California, in Urban Geomorphology: Geological 

Society of America, Special Paper 174.

Newman, E. B., Paradis, A. R., and Brabb, E. E., 1978, Feasibility 

and cost of using a computer to prepare landslide susceptibility maps of the San Francisco Bay region, California: U.S. 

Geological Survey Bulletin 1443, 27 p.

Nilsen, T. H., and Brabb, E. E., 1977, Slope-stability studies in 

the San Francisco Bay region, California, in Coates, D. R., ed., 

Landslides: Geological Society of America, Reviews in Engineering Geology, v. 3, p. 235-243.

Slosson, J. E., 1969, The role of engineering geology in urban 

planning, in The Governor's Conference on Environmental 

Geology: Colorado Geological Survey, Special Publication No. 

1, p. 8-15.

Taylor, F. A., and Brabb, E. E., 1972, Map showing distribution 

and cost by counties of structurally damaging landslides in 

the San Francisco Bay region, California, winter of 1968-69: 

U.S. Geological Survey Miscellaneous Field Studies Map MF327.

21
The Pronghorn Environmental

Impact Statement: An Improved

Prototype

By James R. Burns and Linda G. Marcus

22

INTRODUCTION

A common problem among Federal agencies is a 

tendency to prepare inordinately long environmental 

impact statements (EIS's) that fail to focus on real 

issues, impacts, and alternatives. The problem is more 

than superficial. It threatens the goals of the National 

Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) because few decisionmakers will ever read such bulky statements 

many hundreds to several thousand pages each 

much less get a clear picture of the issues involved. 

Many such EIS's tend to become justifications for 

decisions already made rather than aids to decisionmaking. The problem is most pronounced in two 

types of projects those that are complex and controversial, where informed decisionmaking is particularly crucial, and those that are ill-conceived and 

poorly planned, the faults of which tend to be concealed by verbiage.

Much attention and several major studies have 

been devoted to this problem in the past 2 years, 

notably by the Council on Environmental Quality 

(CEQ), the Commission on Federal Paperwork, and 

the General Accounting Office. Executive Order 

11991, requiring CEQ to issue regulations that would 

make EIS's more useful to decisionmakers and the 

public, was issued in 1977 with the comment by the 

President that "We do not want impact statements 

that are measured by the inch or weighed by the 

pound."

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY EFFORTS TO 

IMPROVE THE EIS PROCESS

As early as April 1976, the U.S. Geological Survey 

began a formal effort to improve its own EIS preparation process. Emphasis was on the internal improvements that would be consistent with current Federal 

policies and procedures and that would contribute to 

shortening EIS's, to improving their readability, and to 

making the process more effective in time, cost, and

manpower while maintaining the legal adequacy and 

acceptability of the statements.

In this effort we searched for the roots of the problem through various facets of the process. These 

facets included the legal and regulatory background, 

the use of in-house staff and contractors, the work 

scheduling practices, the standardized EIS formats, 

the analytical techniques, and the roles of organizational elements within the Geological Survey.

Two elements of the problem must be accepted as 

"givens," as challenges requiring more innovative 

responses: The first is the diversity of needs among 

EIS users. Decisionmakers and some segments of the 

public need a clear and concise presentation of the 

proposal, its reasonable alternatives, the unavoidable 

impacts, and the principal issues involved. Others, at 

all levels of government as well as other sectors of 

the public, need detailed technical information to 

plan and to review the validity of the conclusions in 

the EIS.

The second "given" is the diversity of laws, regulations, and adjudications that govern the content of 

an EIS. NEPA itself is a brief straightforward statement of national policy that has been extensively defined by the courts as a result of litigation. The conditions for approval of a proposed Federal action and 

the range of alternatives to it are also influenced 

greatly by two separate bodies of laws and regulations those dealing with environmental protection 

and those dealing with the authorities under which 

the Federal action is proposed. For the Geological 

Survey, the second category consists chiefly of a 

series of laws and regulations relating to the leasing 

and the development of Federal and Indian minerals. 

These laws and regulations are complex and are 

changed frequently. For example, since May 1976, 

there have been six modifications of the regulations 

governing management of federally owned coal. In 

addition, the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 was passed, and regulations are being developed to implement it. With every change, 

the text for each coal mining EIS in progress had to
be reviewed for compliance, had to be amended as 

necessary, and had to be reanalyzed for impacts.

Another element of the problem, the selection of 

persons for the team employed to prepare an EIS, 

deserves careful scrutiny because important tradeoffs are involved. Other factors being equal, persons 

with previous experience in EIS preparation can generally write a more acceptable EIS manuscript in a 

shorter length of time than those without prior experience. This premise can readily support proposals 

for the wider use of career environmental specialists, 

consultants, and contractors. However, such proposals can lead to reduced NEPA responsiveness by 

those who are involved in day-to-day project and 

planning activities. The Geological Survey has relied 

heavily upon in-house staff for EIS preparation. EIS 

specialists are chiefly confined to a small core group 

that manages, guides, and reviews the work. Teams 

composed principally of people detailed from the 

Operating Divisions, who collaborate with members 

of cooperating agencies to prepare the EIS, provide a 

broad diverse skill resource with flexibility for the 

changing workload. Many of the team members have 

not had previous specific experience in EIS preparation, although most have had experience in writing 

technical reports. The dominant consideration, however, is that EIS involvement promotes the growth of 

^JEPA-oriented viewpoints and values within the operating staff of the Survey. This effect has been widely noted in Federal agencies employing in-house 

staffs for EIS preparation. Some have felt that it has 

been more beneficial to planning and to decisionmaking than to the actual direct use of the EIS's themselves. Our quest for improved staffing practices, 

therefore, has concentrated on better interactions between those with previous EIS experience and those 

without it rather than on increasing the proportion 

of EIS specialists involved. The principal trade-off 

illustrated here is between greater efficiency in 

achieving short-range goals, as by the use of a more 

experienced and specialized EIS preparation staff to

produce better documents, and greater effectiveness 

in achieving long-range goals, as by the broader involvement of agency personnel in the NEPA process 

to produce better planning and decisionmaking.

All of these problem elements discussed above 

supported the Geological Survey's decision, with the 

approval of the Department of the Interior, to develop and to demonstrate a prototype for an improved, shorter, more readable EIS. The relationship 

of the first element, diverse user needs, to this decision is obvious. The second element, involving frequent changes of laws and regulations, demands a 

short and manageable EIS that can be amended 

rapidly when such changes occur during the process 

of preparation. The third element, which greatly affects preparation time requirements and which led 

to a quest for better interactions between experienced and inexperienced EIS preparers, deserves 

more extended comment. This will provide insight 

into the procedural problems attacked during the prototype effort. The scope and content of an EIS become essentially set during the period when the team 

prepares the preliminary draft statement. For an average Geological Survey EIS, this period accounts for 

little more than one-quarter of the total critical-path 

preparation time (which averages slightly more than 

1 year); an additional one-quarter of the time is devoted to revisions and to responses to comments; the 

remainder is spent in initial planning and in external 

review, hearings, and coordination.

When massive EIS's (averaging 600 to 800 pages 

each) are the norm, the preliminary draft preparation 

period mentioned above is so short that writing must 

proceed almost from the outset; writing, therefore, 

becomes the vehicle for analysis. This often results 

in data being incorporated in the manuscript before 

their significance can be established through a completed analysis. At the end of trtff period, the manuscript is of unmanageable size, and insufficient time is 

left to edit it. A shorter EIS is absolutely essential to 

reduce the writing burden so that detailed preparation planning, analysis, writing, and editing can be 

put into proper sequence and balance and experienced people can interact at each stage and effectively influence the outcome, including, particularly, the 

quality of the product.

THE PRONGHORN EIS PROTOTYPE

The Federal action selected for the demonstration 

of an improved EIS prototype was approval of the 

mining and reclamation plan proposed by Mobil OilConsolidation Coal Co. for the Pronghorn mine in 

Campbell County, Wyo. The plan proposed surface 

mining of about 100 million tons of coal at a rate of 

about 5 million tons annually over 22 years, with 

reclamation of the area following the progress of 

mining.

The preparation process for the Pronghorn EIS differed from previous efforts by (1) an extended intensive planning phase that involved all concerned elements of the Geological Survey and the Department 

of the Interior and lasted for several months, (2) a 

preliminary draft preparation phase that was conducted in three sequential steps instruction, data 

collection and analysis, and writing and was completed in 2 months, less than one-half the normal 

time, and (3) an extended period for review and editing, during which it was possible to make major revisions and improvements in key parts of the text.

23
STANDARD EIS FORMAT .

 Description of the proposal.

 Description of the existing environment.

 Environmental impacts.

 Mitigating measures.

 Adverse impacts that cannot be avoided.

 Relationship between short-term uses of man's environment and maintenance and enhancement of 

long-term productivity.

 Irreversible and irretrievable commitments of resources.

 Alternatives to the proposed action.

 Consultation and coordination with others.

PRONCHORN EIS FORMAT

Part A Statement of Environmental Impact 

Part B Supporting Analysis and Data

 Description of the proposed Federal action.

 Probable effectiveness of reclamation.

 Analysis of anticipated impacts.

 Alternatives to the proposal.

 Consultation and coordination with others.

FIGURE 6 . Comparison of standard EIS format and Pronghorn EIS format.

24

Persons experienced in the EIS process interacted 

effectively at each phase and had more influence than 

usual over the final outcome of the effort.

Figure 6 compares the traditional EIS format with 

the prototype format of the Pronghorn EIS. The 

Pronghorn format consists of Part A, Statement of Environmental Impact (31 pages), and Part B, Supporting Analysis and Data (122 pages). Part A is a summary intended for decisionmakers and others who are 

primarily interested in the salient features and conclusions of the EIS. Part B contains the detailed technical 

descriptions and analyses of the proposed action, the 

alternatives to the proposed action, and the impacts 

for planners and technical reviewers and others of 

similar needs.

Other significant features of the Pronghorn EIS 

format are as follows:

 Proposed action. This section combines two formerly separate treatments, one addressing the applicants' proposal and the other addressing the 

mitigating measures that would be enforced by 

governmental authority.

 Mitigating measures. The standard chapter on this 

subject, dealing with special measures to reduce

impacts, was eliminated. Measures that will be 

expressly required are included in the description of the proposal that is then analyzed for impacts. Measures subject to the decisionmaker's 

discretionary authority are included in the section on alternatives. This eliminates confusion as 

to the status of individual mitigating measures. 

It also avoids a previous practice of analyzing 

impacts before considering required mitigations; 

this produced unrealistic conclusions.

Description of the environment. The standard 

chapter on this subject was eliminated, and necessary background information has been redistributed among other sections. CEQ's guidelines 

had called for such information only as needed 

to understand the proposal, its alternatives, and 

their impacts. This chapter had accounted for 42 

percent of the total pages in five recent EIS's prepared by the Survey. It appeared to be the object of most complaints about sheer volume and 

encyclopedic detail.

Effectiveness of reclamation. A separate section 

was established for this subject. Reclamation, a 

composite of various impacts and mitigating
measures, tends to be fragmented within the 

standardized departmental EIS's, yet it is a recurring major issue in surface mining proposals. This 

section reflects an intent for flexibility of format 

whenever needed to focus on any major issue 

that might arise in future statements dealing with 

different kinds of proposals.

 Environmental impacts. The section dealing with 

this subject is divided into two parts that distinguish onsite impacts from countywide and 

regional impacts of the proposed action. This 

promotes a better focus on additional major 

issues such as social, economic, and community 

impacts. In the traditional EIS format, three additional chapters had summarized the impact 

analysis from varying viewpoints, as explicitly required by NEPA. By incorporating these viewpoints in the summary of the Pronghorn EIS, 

repetition has been reduced.

 Alternatives. This section includes alternatives to 

the proposed action based on administrative options (for example, approve the proposal, delay 

approval) and on operational modifications involving additional mitigating measures that the 

Secretary of the Interior could order. Included 

are measures that address mitigation of the social and economic energy-related impacts being 

experienced by Campbell County and the city 

of Gillette which are beyond the functions and 

authority of the Department of the Interior. The 

alternatives are retained in a separate section 

from the proposed action because the alternatives are not of a type that is amenable to the 

same depth of description and analysis as the 

basic proposal. In the Geological Survey's experience, this has generally been true of proposals 

initiated by nongovernmental applicants, where 

the principal available alternatives include rejection, deferral, and various modifications of the 

original proposal.

 Significance of impacts. An attempt has been 

made to give the reader some perspective on the 

significance of impact levels. Impacts from the 

Pronghorn mine have been related to the total 

impacts of energy-related activities in the area. 

Supported by quantitative data, qualitative terms 

defining magnitude and duration of impacts have 

been introduced to provide further perspective 

of significance.

 Readability. To make the document easier to read, 

a double-column format has been used. Tables 

and figures are used to summarize and highlight 

key facts. The summary of impacts (Part A) uses 

interspersed charts for quick access to key facts 

about each impact. Boldface headings are used

liberally to aid judicious skimming. Key conclusions are underscored in Part B.

Supporting data. Background information of a detailed technical nature has been removed from 

the EIS. Some of it is available in a corresponding Geological Survey open-file report; the remainder is accessible upon request from task 

force files.

RESULTS

The draft EIS on the Pronghorn mine was filed with 

the Environmental Protection Agency in July 1978. At 

this writing, completion of the final statement and its 

use in decisionmaking have not yet occurred. Evaluation of the prototype effort at this time is, therefore, 

preliminary and is based on (1) user reaction during 

the public and interagency-comment period, (2) relationship of the format to CEQ's proposed regulations for implementing procedural provisions of 

NEPA, and (3) the in-house preparation experience.

Questionnnaires requesting reaction to the new 

format were sent out with all copies of the EIS, and 

the majority of the 52 responses received indicated 

that (1) this EIS is clear and easier to understand, (2) 

the information presented in Part A of the report was 

sufficient for readers to understand the proposed action, alternatives, and environmental impacts, and 

those responding believed it provided a sufficient 

basis for making a decision, (3) the supporting analysis and data provided in Part B was occasionally 

used to more fully understand information presented 

in Part A and was sufficient to answer questions raised 

in Part A, (4) most readers would like future EIS's to 

use a summary that covers the proposed action, significant impacts, and alternatives in less than 50 pages 

and supporting data and analysis provided in a separate section not to exceed 150 pages, and (5) readers 

were evenly divided as to whether future EIS's should 

include a separate section for discussing the probable 

effectiveness of reclamation.

In addition to reaction received on the questionnaire, several of the agencies that formally reviewed 

the content of the EIS also offered strong support of 

the abbreviated format. All of those persons who 

testified at the public hearing held at Gillette (the 

mayor, the city-county planner, a representative from 

an environmental group, and the applicant's representative) strongly supported the new format for its brevity and readability. A comment of particular note is 

that this EIS succeeded to an unusual degree in presenting technical information in such a way as to be 

understandable to a layman.

25
CEQ's proposed regulations were published on 

June 9, 1978,1 shortly before the Pronghorn statement 

went to press and did not apply to Pronghorn EIS. 

The format provisions of those proposed regulations 

had no direct effect upon the Pronghorn EIS format. 

Nevertheless, overall objectives of the two appeared 

to be compatible and were the subject of informal 

discussion between CEQ and the Geological Survey 

prior to June 9. Preliminary analyses indicate that the 

format developed for the Pronghorn EIS would require the following principal adjustments for compliance with CEQ regulations based on the June 9 proposal: (1) expansion of the introduction to Part A 

into a 5- to 15-page summary of the statement, (2) 

inclusion of the alternatives in the description of the 

proposed action and the impact analysis, (3) restoration of a section on description of the environment, 

and (4) possible elimination of the separate section 

on the effectiveness of reclamation.

From the in-house preparation experience, the findings of the team that prepared the Pronghorn statement are best expressed by an official of the Bureau 

of Land Management, which cooperated in the effort 

and provided staff for the preparation team:

"The entire team found the new format superior to 

the traditional ES format. The writers consistently felt 

much more comfortable with the new format for several 

important reasons:

1. Although new, it was much clearer and easier to 

understand than the traditional format.

2. It was more direct and, therefore, did not contain 

the redundancies in writing that are often required in 

the traditional format.

3. The amount of writing time required under the new 

format was sharply reduced. This meant two things: 

first, it freed the writer to spend more time on the 

quality rather than the quantity of his or her writing. 

Secondly, it meant that the total length of the project 

was of a more reasonable duration which made it 

easier to sustain interest and momentum in the project. 

This added up to the writer's being able to produce 

a better product in less time, under more reasonable 

time schedules, both per section and for the project 

overall."

This prototype effort per se was aimed primarily 

at product improvement and not specifically at savings in time or cost. However, as described in the 

quotation above, the preliminary draft preparation 

phase was markedly shortened. This is the most manpower-intensive phase of all, hence, the most costly 

per unit of time. Savings here were balanced by extended planning and review phases in the case of this 

initial effort, but it is likely that planning and review 

could be shortened if the prototype format became 

routine. This might result in some overall savings in 

time and cost for future EIS's.

In summary, the Pronghorn EIS prototype has 

gained wide acceptance among users and reviewers 

as being more responsive than previous EIS's to their 

various needs; and it makes possible a more efficient 

and expeditious preparation process. Further evaluation is needed, specifically in its use in final decisionmaking and in its compliance with CEQ regulations. 

Results of the study and analysis effort that led to this 

prototype are expected to be beneficial in further 

efforts to improve the EIS preparation process.

26

1 CEQ's final regulations were subsequently published after this writing on November 29, 1978.
Petroleum Exploration and

Environmental Protection in the

Alaskan Arctic

By M. E. Britton

INTRODUCTION

Nowhere are the environmental sins of summer 

more immediately apparent or those of winter emerge 

so promptly and visibly with the snowmelt of spring 

than on the treeless tundra. The tundra of Alaska's 

North Slope, from the crest of the Brooks Range 

northward to the Chukchi and Beaufort Seas (fig. 7 ), 

is a major challenge to the engineer who has a job 

to do and who must, in some degree, disrupt the enTractor train tows sled-mounted living facilities over winter trails. 

Large low-ground-pressure tires and sled runners have little effect on 

the frozen snow-covered ground. Photograph by Robert Mallahan.

vironment and to all who insist upon its protection. 

Nowhere is it more evident that known environmentally compatible engineering practices provide 

the greatest economy and environmental protection 

and that the best of protection demands them. Compatibility is achievable in most respects, but it remains 

lamentable that absolute protection occurs only 

through no exploration and that any exploration 

leaves its mark.

On June 1, 1977, the U.S. Geological Survey became responsible for the management of a large 

petroleum exploration program in the National Petroleum Reserve in Alaska (NPRA), which is located on 

the North Slope. With this role came the responsibility 

and the commitment to achieve the exploration goals 

with the fewest possible adverse effects on environmental values of all selected areas of operation. As 

will be seen, degradation of local scenic qualities in 

essentially wilderness country is the least avoidable 

and most enduring environmental heritage of exploration. There is no satisfactory solution for this effect, 

only cosmetic procedures which may blur but not 

eliminate the small and widely scattered blemishes 

on the natural scene.

Present knowledge of correct protection procedures 

accrues from the experience of all circumpolar countries with lands within the Arctic (Canada, Greenland, 

Norway, the United States, and the U.S.S.R.). Much of 

this knowledge, however, has evolved within NPRA 

(formerly the Naval Petroleum Reserve No. 4); many 

Geologfcal Survey personnel were involved, some of 

whom still provide their expertise for today's exploration program.

Two major developments historically impacted the 

Reserve. First, the Department of the Navy Oil Exploration of 1944 to 1953 was accomplished with little 

understanding of environmental protection yet provided the training and experience for today's arctic 

operations. By present environmental standards, inexcusable errors were made bulldozed trails became 

canals, thin gravel roads subsided, heated buildings 

sagged, and the litter of exploration was carelessly 

left in place, ultimately to demonstrate the slowness 

of arctic decay and corrosion to eliminate eyesores.

27
The second development was the construction of 

the Distant Early Warning Line of radar stations by 

the U.S. Air Force. This time, environmental concerns 

in engineering design were considered, and Survey 

personnel who had learned their lessons in the Reserve made major contributions to site selection and 

to the design of arctic-worthy camps, roads, and airstrips which were both functional with low maintenance and protective of the environment. The basic 

lessons had been learned and heeded, except for 

abandoned litter.

A third, and by far the largest North Slope development outside NPRA but sharing the same problems, 

occurred at Prudhoe Bay following the very significant 

oil and gas discovery in 1968. Although initially resisting the accumulated arctic operational knowledge

and, incomprehensibly, repeating the error of bulldozing the first access roads, the industrial complex 

at Prudhoe Bay eventually became a model of good 

arctic engineering and, consequently, environmentally 

sound.

THE NATURE OF THE PROBLEM

NPRA is 37,000 square miles of coastal plain, foothill, and mountain tundra essentially without roads 

and having airstrips at only a few principal bases. 

Permafrost is continuous, and fine-grained surficial 

materials that predominate are rich in pore ice and 

massive segregated ice, often as polygonal networks 

of ice wedges. The ground is usually covered with at

162° 160° 158° 156° 154° 152°

2) South Barrow No.16 

South Barrow No.17 

South Barrow No.19 OCEAN

A R

C T I C

Drew Point Test Well 

%

No.l

*>

**

CHU*cHl

SEA

70°

69'

J

Location map \

 J.

EXPLANATION 

1977-78 WELL STATUS

^\J Development well drilled and suspended for 

completion as a gas well 

(2) Exploratory well drilled, plugged, and abandoned

(5) Exploratory well spudded June 7, 1978, drilled 

through summer, and to be completed during 

winter 1978-79

(4) Exploratory well drilled to depth of 8,519 feet 

and suspended for completion of drilling during 

winter 1978-79

(5) Exploratory well to be spudded in November 

1978; construction only during winter 1977 78

___________I___________________I

FIGURE 7. National Petroleum Reserve in Alaska.

28
Inigok Test Well No. 1, a deep well requiring year-round drilling, is located between two large lakes in an area of ice-wedge polygons with 

many small ponds. The sand and gravel pad and the diked reserve (mud) pit occupy about 14 acres. The drilling rig and all living and working 

facilities are confined to the pad; the portable camp living quarters are lined up at the upper margin of the pad. At the right of the reserve pit is 

the diked membrane-lined fuel storage pit containing two fuel bladders, and, at the lower left, is the flare pit. An all-season sand and gravel 

road leads from the right side of the pad to the all-season airstrip (not shown). Photograph by Charles Andrews.

least a few inches of organic mat, or peat, an effective thermal insulator. Summer thaw penetrates from 

about 6 inches to about 18 inches in fine-grained materials and from 5 to 6 feet in better drained sands 

and rare gravels. Under the thawed zone, referred to 

as the active layer, lies the permafrost table, which 

is the upper surface of the permafrost which itself extends downward for hundreds of feet. Ponds and 

lakes abound on the coastal plain and are surrounded 

by swamplands in summer.

The tundra is home for the migratory caribou; the 

Western Arctic Herd calves in the foothills in spring, 

grazes over the entire tundra in summer, and, for the 

most part, moves to the mountains in winter. Other 

mammals include grizzly bear, moose, fox, wolf, 

wolverine, least weasel, and small rodents. Hundreds 

of thousands of migratory waterfowl, shorebirds, and 

songbirds populate the area in summer, but only a 

few kinds of birds, such as snowy owl, raven, 

ptarmigan, and gyrfalcon, are winter residents. The

endangered migratory peregrine falcon is a summer 

resident on bluffs, principally along the Colville River. 

The larger deeper lakes and streams contain fish 

populations important to Native subsistence, and 

marine sea mammals, including polar bear, seal, 

walrus, and whale in spring and autumn migration, 

are found offshore and are heavily harvested.

Into this pristine land rich in renewable resources, 

significant for wilderness qualities and for the cultural 

and economic well-being of Natives, exploration for 

nonrenewable resources is an intrusion but not a 

major threat to natural values. In perspective, the area 

is large, and the exploratory program, although intensive, is relatively small. For example, in fiscal year 

1978, seismic reflection surveys covered 1,935 miles, 

mostly in the foothills, and including 257 miles in offshore bays and lagoons. The 10 drilling sites (fig. 7 ) 

were constructed during the 1977-78 winter; drilling 

was completed at six sites; one well was suspended 

for continuation in the winter of 1978-79; and on

29
June 7, 1978, a deep well, Inigok Test Well No. 1, 

was spudded, and drilling continued through the 

summer.

Experience has demonstrated that environmental 

problems stem primarily from construction and overland transportation. The question is, how to transport 

to remote sites the thousands of tons of machinery, 

muds, pipe, fuels, and other supplies; construct all 

needed facilities; and complete drilling, clean up, 

and restore the site without leaving "footprints," 

creating erosion and siltation, destroying wildlife 

habitat, disturbing the behavior of birds and mammals, or interfering with subsistence activities or cultural resources of Natives?

HOW THE ENVIRONMENT IS PROTECTED

Arctic experience uniquely teaches that the rigorous 

winter is the season of choice for outdoor engineering operations. The cardinal rule at NPRA is to concentrate all potentially disruptive construction work 

and surface transportation in winter. Summer is the 

season for activities that produce the least environmental disturbance and that enhance the opportunity 

for greater protection the following winter. Among 

these are survey of drilling sites and seismic lines; 

selection of water sources, ice road routes, and material sites; cultural resource inventory; staking of 

winter trails; geologic and ecological research; and 

surface restoration and rehabilitation of previously 

used sites. Such activities accomplished by personnel 

operating from aircraft and on foot have few environmental implications beyond minor human presence 

and noise. An exceptional case is the summer drilling operation at Inigok Test Well No. 1, but, with the 

construction phase accomplished during the winter, 

the principal disturbance to wildlife is largely one of 

noise that of aircraft on logistics missions.

The Ground Surface

"Save the Surface and You Save All," the slogan 

of a paint manufacturer, has special pertinence to the 

tundra, although not a complete answer to all 

environmental problems. Permafrost preservation 

is a concomitant goal of all construction and 

transportation.

In the Arctic, the strength of otherwise unconsolidated surficial materials depends largely upon ice 

cementation, and the loss of rocklike properties is instantaneous with ice melt. The consequence is loss 

of mechanical strength, subsidence proportional to 

the ice-volume loss, destruction of surface, ponding, 

and the accumulation of a slurry of supersaturated 

organic and inorganic materials. On slopes, water 

drainage, mudflows, and downhill creep of soils become sources of siltation to tundra surfaces or water 

bodies. The active layer depth represents an equilibrium between available heat and the biological and 

physical properties of the surface and substrate. All 

possible precautions are taken to avoid disturbing in 

any way the equilibrium by increasing heat penetration and thaw. Surfaces cannot always be preserved, 

and it is necessary to examine two cases, one which 

degrades permafrost and one which does not, although other surface features are lost.

EXCAVATION OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL

Material borrow is a surface-destroying process 

over a few acres at each site. All pad construction requires locally available sand and (or) gravel. Gravels 

contain little or no ice and are usually stable when 

thawed but are very scarce at NPRA. In 1978, some 

gravel was taken from marine beaches at Barrow, 

Lonely, and Peard Bay and from an old river bar on 

the delta of the Kikiakrorak River (fig. 7 ). There is 

little effect from such borrow because the surfaces 

are devoid of vegetation and removal is not made 

below water line. Sands, which are somewhat more 

plentiful, are the most commonly used. They contain some ice wedges and usually have an active layer 

5 to 6 feet thick. Slumping occurs with thaw, but the 

materials are relatively stable thereafter.

PAD CONSTRUCTION

Sand or sand and gravel pads provide the working 

and living surfaces at each drilling site and the short 

local all-season roads and airstrips at the Tunalik and 

Inigok wellsites. Pads bury all surface features but 

preserve permafrost. A pad 5 to 6 feet thick laid on 

top of undisturbed tundra is sufficient to maintain 

the frozen condition at the latitudes of NPRA, but this 

is not critical in a single winter's operation, and thinner pads are often used. A pad of proper thickness 

will contain the wave of summer heat penetration 

so that the temperature does not rise above 32°F at the 

permafrost table and melt buried ice. This engineering practice is the secret of all successful road or other 

enduring pad construction over permafrost. To assure 

the stability of the two all-season airstrips in the 

absence of completely satisfactory construction material, special precautions were taken in design. 

Styrofoam board insulation, 3 inches and 2 inches 

thick at the Inigok and Tunalik sites, respectively, 

overlain by a plastic membrane moisture barrier, was 

laid beneath the top course of 18 inches of gravel. 

Each 1 inch of such insulation reduces the gravel requirement by about 1 foot. Thin pads, used briefly in 

winter and abandoned, induce minor thaw and subsidence that result in wetter substrate and more favorable environment for plants, and, therefore, more 

rapid revegetation.

30
Soft-tire Rolligons are used for overland transport of cargo on unprepared surfaces of winter trails. Photograph by Husky Oil NPR 

Operations, Inc.

Ice road 1 foot thick protects the tundra surface under heavy traffic 

of 20-cubic-yard dump trucks hauling gravel. Photograph by John 

Schindler.

The all-season airstrip at Tunalik Test Well No. 1 is under construction in March 1978. Building on a subgrade of sandy gravel, 

styrofoam insulation is laid and is overlain by a sheet plastic moisture 

barrier. The surface wearing course consists of 18 inches of compacted gravel. Photograph by Husky Oil NPR Operations, Inc.

I

Construction of the supporting structure of the drilling rig for a deep 

well, which must be drilled through at least one summer season, requires special protection of frozen ground around the well head. 

Wooden piling set as much as 40 feet into permafrost provides stable 

support for the rig, and styrofoam insulation installed in the drill pad 

retards heat flow to the pad from machinery and heated structures; 

this is especially important during the summer period of higher ambient air temperatures. Hotter muds from deep wells also require insulated conductor pipe and special thermal design of the cellar 

(neither shown) to preserve the integrity of the frozen ground immediately around the well. Photograph by Husky Oil NPR Operations, Inc.

31
ICE AIRSTRIPS

The large numbers of coastal plain lakes are a 

ready environmental asset used routinely for ice airstrips accommodating all project aircraft, including 

large C-130 Hercules cargo planes. The strips are 

economically constructed by removing or dragging 

and compacting snow, sometimes supplemented by 

water flooding to hasten ice thickening. The method 

is highly effective, and the disturbance to tundra surfaces is avoided.

SNOW AND ICE ROADS

Access roads of this type are used for all local 

winter traffic between drilling sites, airstrips, borrow pits, and lake water sources and, properly used, 

prevent tundra damage. Snow is compacted over 

frozen ground and repeatedly flooded with water to 

build up ice layers. Light traffic requires only a thickness of 3 to 4 inches of ice but at least 12 inches are 

required for heavy duty, such as gravel haul. One 

road 37 miles in length was built to enable the transport of 88,571 cubic yards of gravel from the Kikiakrorak River delta to the Inigok all-season airstrip.

OVERLAND WINTER TRAILS

All overland traffic is strictly confined to carefully 

selected staked trails in winter, whether for heavyduty freight or seismic parties, and is permitted only 

after the ground is frozen and snow covered and before the beginning of spring thaw. No bulldozing is 

allowed except occasionally for snow removal and 

then only to depths not reaching the organic tundra 

mat. Vehicles are selected for low-ground-pressure 

qualities and may be rubber-tired carriers of the 

Terra-tire or Rolligon type or track-laying tractors 

towing sleds. Additional tundra protection is achieved 

by successive tractor trains over the same trail traveling in off-setting tracks. Lake and lagoon ice surfaces 

are used as much as possible, and their banks are 

crossed at low approach angles to avoid track or 

wheel slippage and churning of the surface.

WASTE DISPOSAL

Mobile parties and construction camps utilize incinerator toilets, and filtered disinfected gray wash 

water is discharged to tundra depressions or small 

ponds. Drilling camps and the Lonely Base Camp are 

equipped with sewage treatment plants, and warm 

sewage effluent, including gray waters, is treated to 

Environmental Protection Agency-State of Alaska secondary standards and is discharged as mentioned 

above. Such liquid discharges have no appreciable 

effect on thaw in winter or summer but may affect 

vegetation.

During earlier operations in the Reserve, the tundra was left littered with wood and metallic debris. 

Casual surface dumping today is not only unthink32

able but illegal. The solution is effective but costly. 

All solid wastes are incinerated if burnable. All nonburnable solid wastes, including ashes and excepting 

drilling muds and cuttings, are hauled back to Lonely, 

usually by aircraft, for disposal in sanitary landfill approved by the State of Alaska. Drilling muds and cuttings are accumulated in reserve (mud) pits excavated 

into permafrost as part of the drilling pad. The reserve pit volume is sufficient to contain all drilling 

muds below the level of the permafrost table; this 

precludes leakage. Additionally, the pits are diked 

with sand or gravel as a precaution against any unforeseen volume increases. Disposal is by burial in 

place, utilizing sand and gravel taken from a portion 

of the drilling pad at the time of abandonment or the 

following warm season. Within one winter, the materials are solidly frozen and qualify as permafrost. 

Surface disposal of muds is practiced in the Barrow 

Gas Field because the wells are shallow and the mud 

volumes are small. Disposal causes insignificant 

thermal problems but does bury small areas of surface, which are indiscernible after a few years.

Vegetation

Plant cover was destroyed during 1977-78 winter 

drilling season by excavation of 73.4 acres of borrow 

pits, by burial beneath 163.6 acres of drilling pads, 

airstrips and related facilities, equipment storage 

pads, all-season roads, and by mud disposal at Barrow. An additional 88.6 acres of barren beach gravels 

were utilized by shallow surface removal of construction material in some cases or simply by leveling in 

the case of a temporary C-130 airstrip at the Peard 

Bay Logistics Base (LIZ C).

Otherwise, the project has little effect on vegetation as it is protected by snow cover in winter and 

there is no off-road traffic in summer. Occasionally, 

woody plants extend above the snow layer where, in 

a condition of brittleness at low temperature, small 

branches are broken. Tall willow shrubs, which occur 

along some rivers, are avoided by vehicles if possible, 

otherwise attempts are made to follow paths avoiding straight lines.

At times, winter trails and ice roads experience 

some compaction of the organic mat and minor 

puddling of water in slight depressions the following warm season. Interestingly, this provides improved growing conditions, and the grasses and 

sedges respond with greater vigor, forming "green 

trails" in the duller green of the tundra.

Similar green spots on land and algal blooms in 

ponds result from the fertilizing effect of discharged 

sewage effluent. Other "trail scars" may result from 

mechanical disturbance to sedge tussocks, especially
Caribou of the Western Arctic Herd graze throughout the NPRA in summer. This group exhibits the common reaction of flight to the noise of 

low-flying aircraft. Photograph by John Schindler.

in the foothills, or exposure of soils, if vehicles unexpectedly encounter thin snow. Compacted snow 

loses its insulation efficiency in ice roads, and, on occasions when air temperatures are extreme, plants 

may be damaged or killed. These events have little 

impact on the vegetation resources, but the scars are 

visible for 2 or 3 years and degrade the aesthetic 

quality of the landscape. Tundra fires are rarely seen, 

but, during the unusually dry summer of 1977, a fire 

of human origin burned several acres at the Inigok 

site. Recovery from such fires is rapid.

Wildlife and Their Habitats

Except for accidental oil spills, to be discussed 

later, operations hold little threat for wildlife. One of 

the major benefits of winter operations is the avoidance of caribou, except stragglers, and all migratory 

birds, including waterfowl and the endangered peregrine falcon. Daily burning of garbage diminishes attraction of ravens and mammals and avoids their conflict with workers. Hunting is not permitted within 5 

miles of any work site, and all forms of harassment 

are forbidden.

DESTRUCTION OF HABITAT

Unavoidable habitat destruction was identical with 

the acreage of vegetation destroyed, as discussed in 

the section on vegetation. These amounts of land 

surface, divided among the several drilling sites, are 

small relative to the resources available. Some bird 

nesting and small rodent habitat is lost, hunting area 

of predators is diminished, and grazing area for 

caribou is reduced slightly.

Borrow pits, especially at Tunalik and Inigok, and 

airstrip construction on a sandy ridge at the latter of 

these two sites are destructive of upland habitat used 

by birds for nesting and feeding. Loss of willows will 

have some effect on ptarmigan which feed on willow 

buds. A more direct loss, unfortunate but unavoidable, is destruction of occasional hibernating ground 

squirrels and their dens. More rarely fox dens are 

also destroyed. Peregrine falcon habitat is strictly 

avoided in all seasons.

HUMAN PRESENCE AND NOISE

Animals may be deprived of habitat or exhibit 

fright reactions as a result of activities of workers and

33
34

the noise of surface vehicles, drilling machinery, seismic explosions, and aircraft. In winter, the few animals encountered move away from disturbing noises, 

ignore them, or, in some cases, as with caribou, may 

be attracted to them if there is no additional threat 

to their safety. Any animals displaced by transient 

noises of overland tractor trains and seismic parties 

return to normal range and activities when the disturbance has passed. The sounds of seismic explosions in winter are muffled, the detonation being 

more felt than heard, and have little disturbing effect 

on the few animals present. Most disturbing to birds 

and mammals are summer aircraft operations. The 

only protection is avoidance of highly sensitive areas 

such as caribou calving grounds, peregrine aeries, 

principal waterfowl nesting areas, and open leads in 

pack ice during whale migration. It is inevitable that 

some displacement of birds will occur as a result of 

summer air activities at the Inigok airstrip.

Water Resources

Ponds and lakes are the sources of water for domestic uses, well drilling, and ice road construction. 

Rivers are not used at all in winter, but many could 

be safely used in summer. Snow melters are often 

used by seismic parties or in any other case where 

lake water is not readily available and the cost of 

fuel is favorable relative to the cost and greater potential of environmental effects of long hauls. The 

principal concerns are excessive withdrawal of water, 

siltation, and introduction of oils, which will be discussed later.

WATER WITHDRAWAL

Water requirements are high ice roads use about 

1 to 4 acre-feet per 1 mile, depending on thickness 

and length of time in use; drilling a medium depth 

well requires about 5.25 acre-feet; and a deep well 

requires about 26 acre-feet. Water is readily available for ice roads early in winter and is obtained 

for this purpose largely from shallow tundra ponds 

that do not contain fish. Lakes less than 6 feet deep 

do not contain fish because the lakes freeze to bottom in some years. These are abundant, especially 

on the coastal plain, and are used until late winter 

when maximum ice thickness is attained and the 

water supply is gone. Deep lakes, which are scarce, 

are always used if conveniently available because 

there is no threat to fish by water withdrawal. Difficulties arise with lakes that are only a few feet deeper 

than the maximum depth of freeze and that contain 

fish. Drawdown of water in such cases holds the 

threat of killing fish by depletion of oxygen supply. 

Lakes of sufficient size and of a bottom configuration providing a large acreage of water a few feet 

deep below maximum ice thickness are selected and

readily provide for all water needs and entail only a 

few inches of drawdown.

If only 1 foot or so of residual water exists beneath 

the ice and fish are present, withdrawal is restricted, 

and several source lakes may be used. As a matter of 

policy, any lake with water present under 6 feet of 

ice is considered to contain fish even though their 

presence has not been demonstrated. All water intakes are screened to prevent entry and killing of fish.

SILTATION

Protection against siltation is effected by avoidance 

of erosion and by control of erosion in the event of 

occurrence. The principal concern is siltation of fish 

spawning beds in streams and lakes. Because little 

activity is associated with streams, the probability of 

the program causing any problems is small. Excavation of borrow pits in silty sands is a potential threat 

if near a stream or lake, but such sites are usually 

avoided or drainage is diverted sufficiently to permit 

settlement and containment of silts on land. Sand deposits, mainly of eolian origin, contribute considerable silts naturally, and borrowing practices, which 

reduce slope angles, may even reduce the amount of 

their downslope transport.

SEISMIC EXPLOSIONS

Fish and spawning beds are protected by prohibiting dynamite shot holes any closer than 300 feet to 

thermal springs, deeper lakes that do not freeze to 

bottom, or designated anadromous streams, except 

where those waters and underlying sediments at the 

time of shooting are completely frozen. Variances are 

sometimes obtained from regulatory agencies when 

surveys require especially critical data. Air guns, or a 

modification called a mud gun, which employ compressed air as an energy source, are used in offshore 

marine environments to avoid the harmful effects of 

dynamite to fish and sea mammals.

Archeological and Historic Sites

Integral parts of the environment are the ancient 

and modern sites recording the history and culture of 

arctic man. The exploration program adheres to all 

Federal and State regulations for preservation of 

archeological and historic sites. In 1978, a cultural 

resources survey was conducted by professional 

archeologists over all areas of operation, and no area 

was used without official clearance. All identified 

cultural sites are protected by complete avoidance.

In two cases, Tunalik Test Well No. 1 and South 

Meade Test Well No. 1, critically needed borrow 

areas proved to be significant archeological sites. 

These sites were authorized for excavation and study 

by professional archeologists, under Federal Antiquities Act permit 77-AK-079. Only the Tunalik bor-
row site was ultimately used, clearance for use being 

issued following completion of the study.

Scenic and Aesthetic Values

All activities are an intrusion on the natural scene 

which, except for the long-disturbed coastal fringe 

of the Reserve, is de facto wilderness. Although observed by few people, many of them consider the active operations a degradation of environmental qualities. At the end of operations, cleanup, abandonment, 

and rehabilitation, all constructed pads and, to a 

lesser degree, borrow areas are conspicuous, especially as viewed from the air. Recontouring of sand 

pads breaks their linearity, and wind action will redistribute sands into dunelike mounds. Gravel airstrips at Inigok and Tunalik must be abandoned without earthworking to avoid exposure of insulation and 

littering of the tundra by windblown debris. These 

airstrips will be evident on the landscape into the 

distant future and perhaps will be permanently visible 

in configuration even though ultimately covered by 

vegetation. Alteration of the natural scene is the most

serious environmental effect anticipated in the exploration program. Any protection rests with success of rehabilitation procedures, most of which cannot be completely effective. The scars of work sites 

and any accidental trail scars, described above, are a 

long-term legacy of exploration, and only natural 

processes of revegetation and animal repopulation 

can restore them to a degree of similarity to surrounding tundra. Two to three decades may be required to 

accomplish the transformation.

ACCIDENTAL FUEL SPILLS

Accidental spills during transport, transfer, and 

storage of gasoline, jet fuel, and fuel oil; refueling of 

vehicles and aircraft; and leaks of oils and greases 

from vehicles are a constant threat prevented only by 

good equipment and the best management and labor 

practices. Considering that several million gallons of 

fuels and oils are used in an annual program, it is 

inevitable that some spills will occur, usually the result of human error. The potential of spills and leaks 

at ice airstrips to cause environmental damages to

At a temporary fuel storage facility, two fuel tankers mounted on tracked trailers are blocked above ground level on timbers to facilitate 

transfer of fuel to truck tanker (left). A wooden containment structure forms an aboveground "pit" which is lined with an impervious plastic 

membrane to retain any accidental spills or oil leaks. Photograph by Husky Oil NPR Operations, Inc.

35
lakes is an ever-present danger. No storage of petroleum products is permitted on lake ice at drilling 

sites, seismic camps, or any other work site. Refueling requires use of containers for nozzle storage and 

prevention of dripping to the ice.

Avoidance of leaks and spills is the primary goal, 

followed by alertness to any that do occur and prompt 

cleanup. Oils on lake ice at low winter temperatures 

do not spread far and are relatively easy to recover 

and dispose of by approved methods. Spilled fuel 

oils not recovered from the ice, as well as any spilled 

during the summer, are a threat to all biological components of lakes and streams. Toxicity of the more 

volatile fractions of petroleum are biologically harmful, and heavier fractions have particularly adverse 

effects on waterfowl by oiling of feathers and loss of 

flying and feeding capabilities and thermal protection. 

Spills on water are contained by booms and removed 

by skimming and using sorbents.

Overland transport of fuels is usually in steel tanks, 

and, at logistics bases and wellsites, fuels are stored 

either in tanks or bladders in diked pits, which are 

lined with an impermeable plastic membrane.

Small spills of a gallon or so on land are usually on 

a work pad surface and are readily cleaned up. Spills 

on any land surface are more readily cleaned up in 

winter as they occur on snow which can be scraped 

up and the product separated and burned under approved conditions, although .gasoline quickly penetrates the snow cover. In summer, any spill or leak 

reaching the tundra surface is difficult to recover because the spongy surface holds oil as well as any 

sorbents used to soak it up, and removal by mechanical means is often as destructive to the surface as is 

the oil. Any large spill on the tundra would kill vegetation and, in summer, would result in thaw and subsidence. The extreme case would occur in the unlikely 

event of an oil-well blowout which might cover several acres. Protection against such an event is good 

blowout-prevention equipment, frequently tested for 

operation, and efficient well-trained crews following 

prescribed regulations under the surveillance of the 

Survey Oil and Gas Supervisor.

REHABILITATION AND RESTORATION

There are limited procedures which can mitigate 

the effects of exploration, but no disturbed site can, 

of course, be fully restored. The principal concern is 

to control erosion and, otherwise, to diminish the 

visual effects and to get the surfaces into a condition where natural processes of revegetation will ultimately restore areas to something near the natural 

landscape appearance.

Borrow pits, and, to some degree, the drilling pads, 

are recontoured by bulldozing, then fertilized with

mineral nutrients, which are very deficient in the 

tundra, and seeded with mixtures of perennial agronomic and native grasses found to be effective on 

the Alyeska Oil Pipeline project. Such revegetation is 

successful for a time on some sites, but the record 

is spotty. Because water is deficient in the sandy area 

of most borrow pits, seedling survival is tenuous. It 

is expected that repeated fertilization and reseeding 

will be necessary on some sites before natural revegetation with native species is far advanced. When 

possible, surface soils and clumps of plants are stockpiled and redistributed to the surface of borrow pits. 

Some plant parts wi|l survive the procedure and will 

provide a vegetative means of restoring some native 

species.

All areas of operation, including ice roads and 

winter trails, are inspected during the first summer 

following use to determine the nature of any damage 

and any requirement for erosion control. Scars on the 

tundra, in the absence of erosion, are usually left to 

natural processes of restoration, but, in case of severe 

surface disturbance, these, too, will be seeded. The 

slow natural repopulation of disturbed terrain by 

plants and animals will provide the long-term solution to stabilization and restoration.

ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING

Protection of environmental values depends upon 

continuous, close, and effective monitoring and inspection of all exploration activities to assure compliance with all applicable laws, regulations, and 

stipulations. This role is shared between the Geological Survey and the Bureau of Land Management 

(BLM), which has the overall surface management responsibility of NPRA.

The two bureaus have established their individual 

and mutual responsibilities for management, including environmental protection, by agreement to terms 

of a Memorandum of Understanding (MOD) with 

Cooperative Procedures of January 18, 1977 ("Federal 

Register," v. 42, no. 16, January 25, 1977, p. 4542- 

4546). The Survey is solely responsible for all petroleum operations conducted within areas of operation 

described in each Annual Plan of Operations, including the enforcement of the surface protection and rehabilitation requirements as defined in the MOD.

Monitoring is accomplished by the following groups 

of professional environmentalists: BLM, the Survey's 

Office of NPRA, and the Survey's prime contractor, 

Husky Oil NPR Operations, Inc. The independent but 

cooperative diligence of highly knowledgeable arctic 

personnel in this three-tiered hierarchy of inspection 

has assured the setting and the accomplishment of 

the highest of environmental standards.

36
SUMMARY

The assessment of petroleum resources at NPRA 

pits the potential rewards of fossil energy discovery 

against the certainty of some degree of disruption of 

environmental values. This classic conflict of values 

constitutes a dilemma to the Department of the Interior, mandated by the Congress to both conduct a 

petroleum assessment and protect environmental 

values. The twin goals are achievable only by acceptance of some inevitable environmental cost. These

costs are kept to minimal values by procedures designed to protect the specific environmental attributes 

of each area of operations. Based on the history of 

previous operations and the first 18 months of the 

current program, most environmental effects of the 

assessment were both predicted and found to be 

transient and minor and no threat to any environmental systems or to their physical and biological 

components. The only unavoidable cost demonstrated 

is that of tundra scarring and resultant degradation of 

visual qualities of wilderness. These effects may persist for a few decades at scattered local sites.

Track-laying water tanker sprinkles water to build an additional layer of ice on an ice road. Photograph by John Schindler.

37

Missions, Organization, and Budget

On March 3, 1979, the U.S. Geological Survey will 

celebrate the one-hundredth anniversary of its establishment by Act of Congress. The Survey was originally charged with responsibility for the "classification of the public lands and examination of the geological structure, mineral resources, and products of 

the national domain," but the evolution of the earth 

sciences, the need to carefully manage the Nation's 

nonrenewable resources and to find new sources of 

scarce energy and mineral commodities, and mounting concern regarding the impact of man on the 

Nation's environment have added numerous other 

duties including topographic mapping, chemical and 

physical research, stream-gaging and water resource 

assessments, and supervision of mineral exploration 

and development activities on Federal and Indian 

lands.

The most recently added responsibility is the exploration program of the National Petroleum Reserve 

in Alaska, transferred from the Department of the 

Navy to the Department of the Interior in June 1977 

under the Naval Petroleum Reserves Production Act 

of 1976 (Public Law 94-258). Under the Act, Congress 

also charged the Department of the Interior with the 

responsibility for operating the South Barrow gas field 

as a source of energy for the village of Barrow and 

several Federal installations including the Naval Arctic 

Research Laboratory. This responsibility for the operation of the gas field was assigned by the Secretary to 

the Geological Survey.

In general, the Survey's activities are oriented toward two basic missions, scientific and regulatory. The 

first of these is to collect, to analyze, and to publish 

information about the Nation's energy, mineral, land, 

and water resources; to conduct research to determine the geological structure of the United States; 

and to develop an understanding of Earth processes 

and history. The second mission is to classify Federal lands as to their water and mineral potential 

and to supervise the activities of lessees who explore 

for and develop the mineral resources of Federal and 

Indian lands, including the Outer Continental Shelf 

(OCS). Both missions and their supporting activities 

are directed towards the goal of assuring that the 

Nation's mineral resources are identified, conserved, 

and developed in an orderly, timely, and diligent 

fashion; that the American people receive a fair reSheet joints in granitic rocks, Sierra Nevada, Calif.

turn on the value of their leased resources; and that 

mineral exploration and production activities on Federal and Indian lands are conducted with due regard 

for the interests of the communities directly affected 

and with minimum damage to other resource and 

environmental values.

ORGANIZATION

The Geological Survey is headquartered at Reston, 

Va., and maintains a nationwide organization consisting of three Regions and more than 160 offices 

located throughout the United States. The Survey is 

organized into four program divisions, two major 

offices, and three support divisions, each reporting to 

the Director of the Survey as shown in the diagram 

appearing on pages 170 and 171 in the section entitled "Organizational and Statistical Data."

Program Divisions

 The Topographic Division produces maps delineating the physical features of land areas in the 

United States, its outlying areas, and Antarctica. 

The Division also collects and distributes photographs and space images, maps and charts, 

geodetic data, and related cartographic information through the National Cartographic information Center.

 The Geologic Division conducts research on geologic processes and the Earth's history. The Division also studies the composition and structure 

of the rocks and materials that lie on or beneath 

the Earth's surface; identifies potential energy 

and mineral resources, including those of the 

OCS; and develops and distributes knowledge 

about natural hazards such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and land subsidence.

 The Water Resources Division assesses the quantity 

and quality of the Nation's water supply, develops the knowledge necessary to predict the 

environmental consequences of alternative plans 

for developing water resources, coordinates Federal water-data acquisition activities, collects and 

distributes information about the availability of 

water data through the National Water Data Exchange, and develops and distributes information about hydrologic extremes including floods 

and droughts.

39
* The Conservation Division classifies the public 

lands with respect to leasable mineral and waterpower sites and supervises exploration and development authorized under leases and permits 

on Federal and Indian lands and on the OCS.

Major Offices

* The Land Information and Analysis Office coordinates and administers certain interrelated interdisciplinary programs of the Survey and other 

bureaus of the Department of the Interior wtih 

the objective of interpreting and displaying resource information in ways that are readily accessible and understandable to a wide range of 

potential users, particularly land use planners 

and decisionmakers.

* The Office of the National Petroleum Reserve in 

Alaska (NPRA) manages, for the Department of 

the Interior, the oil exploration program in the 

Reserve as mandated by Public Law 94-258. It 

supervises and oversees the activities of the 

contract operator to ensure efficient and environmentally sound activities and the continued supply of natural gas to the village of Barrow and 

to the nearby Federal installations.

Support Divisions

* The Administrative Division supports the varied 

scientific and engineering programs of the Survey through its management analysis, accounting, budgeting, personnel, contracting, property, 

and supply services.

* The Computer Center Division provides computation, data processing, systems analysis, and design services to all elements of the Survey.

 The Publications Division prints and distributes 

maps, edits scientific and technical manuscripts, 

prepares illustrations and visual aids, disseminates general Survey program and publications 

information, and sells Survey book publications 

as an authorized sales agent of the Superintendent of Documents.

A number of Assistant Directorships have been 

established to coordinate the activities and relations 

among the Divisions and the three Regional Offices 

and to render staff services to the Director and Associate Director in certain specified areas such as program analysis, land resources, energy, mineral and 

water management, geologic engineering, and regulation.

The Geological Survey's field organization is made 

up of Regional Offices at Reston, Va., Denver, Colo., 

and Menlo Park, Calif., and a network of field and 

special-purpose offices. These offices coordinate and 

administer the work of the Survey's widely dispersed 

activities. The Water Resources Division, for example, 

has District Offices in 45 of the 50 States. The Conservation Division maintains 73 Area and District 

Offices close to its areas of work on the public lands 

and adjacent to areas of petroleum development on 

the OCS. A directory of the Survey's National Center 

and selected field offices appears on page 172.

A WORD OR TWO ABOUT PROGRAMS 

AND MONEY

The word "programs" as used in Government 

circles has been integrated to denote almost any size 

or level of activity from the multibillion dollar effort 

that placed a man on the Moon to the study of the

TABLE 2'. Participation of Survey organizational units in areas of study included in the fiscal year 1978 budget

Area of study

Coal __ _ _ ___________

Uranium, geothermal, and oil shale _ __

Water-data collection, analysis, and research _

National Petroleum Reserve in Alaska _ _

Topographic Geologic . Division Division

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

Water 

Resources 

Division

X

X

X

Conservation 

Division

X

X

X

X

X

X

Land 

Information and 

Analysis 

Office

Y

X

X

X

Office 

of the 

Director 

and 

Administrative 

Division

X

National 

Petroleum 

Reserve 

in Alaska

X

40
behavior of some small organism in a one-man laboratory. This ambiguity is not particularly helpful to 

those who must classify large numbers of such activities according to their varying size and complexity. 

Predictably, a hierarchy of distinctive terms has been 

developed to aid in this task.

In descending order, Activity, Subactivity, Program 

Element, and Program Subelement are used to describe various levels of effort for budgeting purposes. 

Thus, under the Activity "Geological and Mineral Resource Surveys and Mapping" appears a Subactivity 

identified as "Land Resource Surveys." Under "Land 

Resource Surveys" are a number of Program Elements, 

one of which is "Earthquake Hazards Reduction," 

which in turn is comprised of Program Subelements, 

including one designated "Hazards Delineation and 

Evaluation."

The structure of the Geological Survey's budget 

closely parallels that of its organization, with each of 

the program divisions being responsible for administering a particular budget activity and its components 

as described above. Two support-related activities, 

"General Administration" and "Facilities," fund the 

Office of the Director and the operation of the National Center complex at Reston. Support services 

provided by the Administrative Division are financed 

through assessments to the program divisions. The 

Computer Center and Publications Divisions are financed by direct user charges in return for services 

rendered. The relationships between the Survey's organization and budget activities are shown in tables 

2 and 3.

The Survey and its activities are supported directly 

through annual congressional appropriations and indirectly through reimbursements from other fund 

sources, both Federal and non-Federal. Currently, 

direct support is provided by two appropriations, 

"Exploration of the National Petroleum Reserve in 

Alaska," which funds the work being done in the 

National Petroleum Reserve, and "Surveys, Investigations, and Research," which supports all other activities of the Survey.

The direct funding of the Survey is supplemented 

by reimbursements from the Federal agencies, States, 

local communities, foreign countries, international 

organizations, and other entities, both public and 

private, for work performed of particular interest to 

those sources but also contributing to the performance of the Survey's missions. A list of agencies and 

organizations with which the Survey has formal agreements for reimbursable work in fiscal year 1978 can 

be found beginning on page 179.

A large portion of the work performed by the 

Water Resources Division under Federal-State cooperative programs is carried on under long-standing 

arrangements with State, county, or municipal 

agencies.

Funding may vary according to the type of investigation within the stipulation that federally appropriated funds may not be used to finance more than 

one-half of the cost of topographic mapping or water 

resource investigations. In the case of the latter, a 

dollar limitation is also imposed within each annual 

appropriation. Cooperative programs undertaken for 

geologic surveys and investigations are not subject to 

specific dollar limits or to the general 50-percent 

matching ceiling.

Work performed by the Survey for other agencies 

and organizations is usually on a fully reimbursable 

basis.

Producing an orthophotograph.

41
U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

BUDGET

Transferred from U.S.

Navy (National Petroleum

Reserve in Alaska)

$0.1

x. Other Federal 

>- agencies

v X. $68;3

Miscellaneous

non-Federal 

sources

$12.8

Land Information

and Analysis 

$23.2

TOTAL $698.3 MILLION

SOURCE OF FUNDS

Conservation

of Lands and

Minerals

Water Resources 

Investigation

$146.0

Topographic 

Surveys and Mapping

$69.5

ic and Mineral 

urce Surveys 

d Mapping

National Petroleum 

Reserve in Alaska

General 

administration 

facilities and 

miscellaneous

services

$15.9

BUDGET

Total obligations incurred by the Geological Survey 

in fiscal year 1978 were $698 million, an increase of 

$265 million over the preceding year. By far the 

largest part of the increase resulted from the Survey's 

first full year of funding of the work being undertaken 

on the NPRA under the appropriation for "Exploration of the National Petroleum Reserve in Alaska," 

which totaled over $202 million compared to $9 

million for this activity during fiscal year 1977. Obligations for "Surveys, Investigations, and Research" 

were $374 million, up $54 million from the previous

year, which was due principally to a greatly expanded 

effort in the Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program, 

continued expansion of the National Mapping Program and modernization of mapmaking techniques, 

and other program increases in the areas of Water 

Resources Investigations and Conservation of Lands 

and Minerals.

Reimbursable programs provided $122 million from 

fund sources other than direct appropriations, an increase of $8 million over fiscal year 1977. These

42
funds constituted about 25 percent of total funds 

obligated for activities other than those related to 

the National Petroleum Reserve. Funds received from 

States, counties, and municipalities under the Federal-State Cooperative Program totaled over $41 million, about $1 million more than was received in fiscal 

year 1977.

A 10-year comparative analysis of obligations incurred under direct and reimbursable program activities is presented in figure 8.

Just as it performs services within its own field of 

expertise for other agencies under reimbursable 

agreements, the Survey relies upon outside sources 

for the accomplishment of an increasingly large portion of its burgeoning workload. Funds obligated for 

grants and contractual services have risen from less 

than $25 million in fiscal year 1973 to $112 million 

in fiscal year 1978, a 348-percent increase in 5 years. 

The $203 million obligated under "Exploration of the

TABLE 3 . U.S. Geological Survey obligations for fiscal years

1977 and 7978 

[Dollars in thousands]

Activity

Fiscal year 

1977

Fiscal year 

1978

272

69,520

61,356

8,164

Total ________ $433,403 $698,272

Direct program ___ 319,460 576,393 

Reimbursable program ._______113,943______121,879

Alaska Pipeline Related

Investigations _______ 317

Topographic Surveys and

Mapping ______________57,073

Direct program _____ _ 50,311 

Reimbursable program _ _ 6,762

Geologic and Mineral

Resource Surveys and

Mapping _________ 130,269_______163,193 

Direct program _______ 100,007 123,830 

Reimbursable program __ 30,262 39,363

Water Resources Investigations 131,509 146,014

Direct program _________ 68,555

Reimbursable program ____ 62,954

Conservation of Lands and

Minerals ________________67,427 

Direct program ____,_ 67,239 

Reimbursable program ____ 188

Land Information and Analysis 23,476

Direct program _______ 17,698

Reimbursable program ____ 5,778

General administration _____ 3,760

Facilities __________ 9,494

Miscellaneous services to

other accounts _______ 924

National Petroleum

Reserve in Alaska ____ 9,154 202,704 

Direct program _______ 2,079 202,598 

Allocation transfer ___ 7,063 106

78,487

67,527

77,409

77,299

110

23,226

18,132

5,094

3,650

10,769

1,515

National Petroleum Reserve in Alaska" was almost 

entirely for contractual services.

Table 3 shows a comparison of obligations in fiscal 

years 1977 and 1978 by major budget activity, and 

figure 9 depicts the annual obligations incurred by 

each activity for the period 1968 to 1978.

1968 1970 1978

FISCAL YEAR

FIGURE 8. U.S. Geological Survey budget for fiscal years 1968 

to 1978, by source of funds.

43
FIGURE 9 . U.S. Geological Survey budget for fiscal years 1968 to 1978, by activity.

PERSONNEL

Although the workload of the Survey has grown 

dramatically during the past 5 years, its permanent 

employment has risen very little from 8,089 at the 

end of fiscal year 1973 to 9,587 at the end of fiscal 

year 1978, an increase of 18.5 percent. The increased 

responsibilities pursuant to the scientific mission have 

been accomplished with an essentially level full-time 

personnel work force; virtually all of the increases in 

full-time personnel have been directed to the rapid 

increases in the regulatory mission as energy exploration and development expands on Federal lands. Although much of the program increases have been 

"contracted out" as described in the preceding section, a substantial share of the additional work is 

being performed by the Survey's other-than-permanent employees, the number of which has doubled 

since fiscal year 1973, as shown in figure 10. The 

Survey has profited greatly from its historic relationship with this group, which has given it access to 

eminent specialists in many fields and afforded it 

great flexibility in meeting surges in the workload. 

The arrangement also has unique advantages in bringing the academic community into close and continuing contact with Government on a personal level. 

Scientists, engineers, and other professional people 

comprise roughly one-half of the Survey's total permanent staff, and technical specialists account for an 

additional 24 percent. Hydrologists and geologists 

predominate among the professional corps, 9 percent of whom have doctoral degrees. These and other 

aspects of the Survey's permanent work force are 

presented graphically in figure 11. Staff distribution 

among the several Divisions is shown in figure 12.

44
13-

Total employment 

I Permanent full-time employment

Water Resources Division 

2950

Land Information 

and Analysis Office

127

Director's Office, 

"~~Administrative Division, 

and Facilities

566 

'Computer Center Division

144 

'Publications Division

442

Office of National Petroleum

Reserve in Alaska

23

TOTAL PERAAANENT FULL-TIME EMPLOYMENT 9587

1968 1978

END OF FISCAL YEAR

FIGURE 10. U.S. Geological Survey end-of-year employment for FIGURE 11. Distribution of permanent full-time U.S. Geological 

fiscal years 1968 to 1978. Survey employees as of the end of fiscal year 1978, by organizational unit.

Administrative

and others

22.9%

age board 2.4% Professional 51.2%

Technical 23.4%

~ Geophysicists 6.6% 

Engineers 7.6%

Cartographers 11.3% 

Chemists 4.4% 

Other professionals 16.6%

PROFESSIONAL EMPLOYEES 

ALL EMPLOYEES BY OCCUPATION

BY EDUCATION

FIGURE 12 . Permanent full-time U.S. Geological Survey employees, by type.

45
Topographic Surveys 

and Mapping

T
INTRODUCTION

Topographic maps at various scales illustrating detailed and precisely referenced information about 

natural and manmade features on the Earth's surface 

continue to be the most important products of the 

National Mapping Program. These maps provide basic 

cartographic information needed by most Federal, 

State, and local government agencies in dealing with 

key issues ranging from energy production to conservation, from preparing environmental impact 

statements to developing social alternatives, and from 

locating commercial facilities to designing public 

works.

The 7.5-minute topographic map series is the primary map series produced under the National Mapping Program. This series is not only the most popular but also serves as source material for a variety of 

smaller scale products, including the 1:50,000-, 

1:100,000-, and 1:250,000-scale maps. Published 

7.5-minute maps are available for 71 percent of the 

country (fig. 13), and manuscript materials are available for an additional 7 percent. Photoimage products 

at the same scale, known as orthophotoquads, are 

available for most of the areas unmapped in the conterminous United States at 1:24,000 scale (fig. 14). In 

Alaska, the 1:63,360-scale series has been standard, 

although most new mapping will be prepared at 

1:50,000 scale and will be used in much the same 

manner as the 7.5-minute series in other States.

For a basic map series to retain value, it must be 

periodically reviewed and the cultural information 

revised and updated as needed. Approximately 4,000 

maps are reviewed and 1,600 revised maps are completed annually. The need for revision is expected to 

grow due to the dynamic nature of society. Revision 

of the 7.5-minute maps occurs when a comparison 

of published maps to recent aerial photographs reveals significant change. Although most revisions are 

photorevisions, having new planimetric map data

Digital map data collected with two- and three-axis systems can 

be interactively edited and revised on the Digital Data Editing System. Each editing station consists of a large graphic 

digitizing table, a "menu" tablet for mode control, a keyboard 

for entering alphanumeric and function data, and dual display 

screens. The editing stations are interactively interfaced to the 

control computer to reformat data, to add or to delete points 

and lines, to change the position of data, to add or to revise 

descriptive header information, or to collect and to*digitize 

new data. Current editing systems have three stations each; 

however, up to eight stations can be simultaneously operated 

per system when expanded capacity is needed.

overprinted in purple, increased emphasis is being 

placed on field review of the changes which are then 

printed in standard colors.

In addition to maps, the National Mapping Program is also starting production of cartographic data 

in computer-readable form. These data will be used 

in computer-based resource information and management systems to evaluate alternative management 

plans and to study the effects of different policies. 

The Geological Survey is developing production capabilities and techniques and is acquiring sophisticated 

new equipment.

In response to the Metric Conversion Act of 1975, 

plans are being implemented to convert gradually 

to metric scales and units. Individual plans for conversion are being developed with each State. Currently, nearly 1,700 7.5-minute quadrangle maps in 

19 States are being prepared in metric units. A cooperative mapping program has begun with the Commonwealth of Massachusetts to produce new metric 

maps of the entire State. This 8- to 10-year program 

will make Massachusetts the first State to convert 

its mapping program entirely to the metric system. 

All 1:50,000- and 1:100,000-scale quadrangle maps 

and some of the county maps are being completed 

as metric maps, and recompilations of 1:250,000-scale 

maps will be in metric units.

COORDINATION OF MAPPING

The Geological Survey has been given the responsibility for coordinating domestic mapping activities 

by Circular A-16 of the Office of Management and 

Budget. Additions and changes to the National Mapping Program are made largely on the basis of national priorities developed through evaluation of the 

requirements stated by Federal agencies, State Mapping Advisory Committees, and other State and local 

agencies.

In fiscal year 1978, the Survey received 39,473 requests for 25,261 7.5-minute quadrangles of mapping 

and revision from 25 Federal agencies. The Survey 

also received hundreds of requests for intermediatescale maps, 1:250,000-scale maps, orthophotoquads, 

and digital cartographic data.

State Mapping Advisory Committees (SMAC) have 

been formed in 23 States to determine State mapping 

requirements, to direct State cooperative mapping 

programs with the Survey, and to stay abreast of 

mapping developments and to report them to State 

map users. SMAC recommendations are given equal 

weight with Federal agency requirements in development of the Federal programs.

During fiscal year 1978, two regional mapping conferences were held to review the policies and longrange plans of the National Mapping Program and to

47
provide an opportunity for the States to discuss their 

long-range mapping needs.

Additionally in fiscal year 1978, 38 States and 

Puerto Rico with cost-sharing cooperative mapping 

agreements participated directly in selecting areas to 

be mapped in their States.

Accomplishments for fiscal year 1978 include the 

following:

 Publication of 2,678 new and revised maps, ranging in scale from 1:24,000 to 1:250,000. In addition, about 4,467 orthophotoquads were produced and are available in diazo or photocopy 

form. Initial 1:24,000-scale topographic map 

coverage of Florida and West Virginia was completed during fiscal year 1978 as a result of cooperative efforts with the States. 

Completion of 452 intermediate-scale maps to 

meet special needs of Federal and State agencies 

(fig. 15). These included 204 1:100,000-scale 

quadrangles, 162 county maps for the Soil Conservation Service and State cooperators, and 86 

1:50,000-scale quadrangles for the Defense Mapping Agency.

I- ' / Ml *

^ l/r 1 ^

^^fetJ__J ~ t - ~~J * 

\« ' * I*

EXPLANATION

15' Mapping 

7.5 Mapping 

Revision in progress

48

FIGURE 13. Status of standard topographic mapping and revision.
EXPLANATION 

Orthophotoquads availabl

In program

HAWAII V

FIGURE 14. Status of orthophotoquad production.

Production of two experimental maps in the proposed new format for 1:25,000-scale metric 

maps 7.5 minutes of latitude by 15 minutes of 

longitude. The new maps, Saranac Lake and Lake 

Placid (fig. 16), N.Y., were prepared in conjunction with new mapping of the site for the 1980 

Winter Olympics.

Publication of 18 simulated natural color photoimage maps at 1:25,000 scale of the U.S.-Canadian border from St. Regis to East Richford, N.Y., 

as part of a cooperative project with the U.S. 

Customs Service.

Completion of a data base containing over 1,700 

7.5-minute quadrangles of digital elevation 

model data as part of the Digital Cartographic 

Applications Project. In addition, several digital 

data pilot production projects were started with 

the Bureau of Land Management (BLM), the 

Forest Service, the Department of Energy, the 

Census Bureau, and the State of Idaho.

Experimentation in preparing 1:250,000-scale maps 

by combining reduced 1:100,000-scale map material with space imagery has resulted in a spaceimagery edition of the Wenatchee, Wash., quadrangle. Photomechanical equipment restored 

photoreduced 1:100,000-scale-map line weights 

and generated thematic data from Landsat imagery, which also provides a striking appearance 

of natural relief shading.

 User evaluation of 22 folded maps as a new element of the National Mapping Program. The 

folded maps, complete with transparent plastic 

jackets, were for high-interest recreation areas 

and are designed to meet the needs of the outdoor general map users.

 Agreements with the States of Minnesota, North 

Dakota, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, and West Virginia to establish State-operated information 

centers for collecting and distributing cartographic data in affiliation with the National Cartographic Information Center. This brings the 

total of State affiliates to 10.

 Contracting for 413,075 square miles of aerial 

photographic coverage as an addition to the national aerial photograph data base.

 Publication of the first of a series of U.S.-Mexico 

1:24,000-scale border maps. Through agreement

49
with DETENAL, the Mexican mapping agency, 

mapping projects along the border are coordinated so that territory on both sides can be depicted completely. DETENAL is publishing its 

border series at 1:50,000 scale.

Completion of a cooperative mapping program 

with the State of North Carolina to produce 

1:24,000-scale orthophotoquads for the entire 

State. To date, this is the largest cooperatively 

funded orthophotoquad program.

Hosting a conference of Federal agency representatives to consider the requirements and funding 

for a cyclic national high-altitude aerial photography program.

Completion of microfilming of all Geological Survey topographic maps published to date. Copies 

on 35-mm roll microfilm are now available.

Production of a family of maps along the Georgia 

coast in cooperation with the State and in support of programs and studies of the near offshore 

and Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) areas. The 

maps are published at 1:24,000, 1:100,000, and 

1:250,000 scales. The 1:24,000-scale map is a 

standard orthophotomap with bathymetric contours and shows mean low-water and mean highwater lines. The 1:100,000- and 1:250,000-scale 

maps also have bathymetric contours and mean 

low-water and mean high-water lines, plus 

BLM's offshore protraction diagram.

EXPLANATION

In program

50

FIGURE 15. Status of the Intermediate-Scale Mapping Program.
Mapping production for fiscal year 1978 

[Data in square miles]

Alabama .

Alaska -

Arizona .

Arkansas _ -

California -

Colorado -

Connecticut _ .

Delaware .

District of Columbia .

Florida 

Georgia .

Hawaii _ 

Idaho _ _ .

Illinois _ ___ _ _ _ _- 

Indiana .

Iowa _ 

Kansas _ 

Kentucky ___ 

Louisiana 

Maine _ - 

Maryland ___ __ _ __ 

Massachusetts _ ____ _ .

Michigan _ _ _ _ _ _.

Minnesota .

Mississippi ______ __ _____

Missouri _ .

Montana ___ _ _____ __.

Nebraska ____ _____ _ _ _ _ .

Nevada .

New Hampshire __ __ _ _ _ __.

New Jersey 

New Mexico ___ __ _ __ _ _ _ _____

New York ____ _ _ __

North Carolina ___ __________

North Dakota _ __________ .

Ohio _____ _ _ _____ .

Oklahoma 

Oregon _ 

Pennsylvania _ __ _ ______ _ .

Rhode Island __ .

South Carolina _ ___ _______ _ .

South Dakota _______ ___ .

Tennessee _ __ _ _ ____________

Texas _ _ _ _____

Utah ________________ .

Vermont ______________ .

Virginia __ ___ _ ______ .

Washington __ _ _ _ _ _ .

West Virginia _ _ ___ _ ___.

Wisconsin _____________ .

Wyoming _ ______________

Guam _______________ .

Puerto Rico ____________ .

Samoa _____________ ___

Virgin Islands _ _____ _______

l:24,000-scale

topographic

. _____ -_ 996

. 509

. 3,392

. _ 1,547

3,341

. ______ 2,122

. ____ 235

. 966

1,733

3,714

. __ 2,266

. 1,141

. ______ 152

. 1,459

. ___ 2,113

. _____ 1,617

. ______ 1,168

. 3,426

1,203

. __ 427

 2,686

 ___ 645

._ ____ 1,011

. ______ 2,004

. _ 607

. 1,524

._ ___ 1,037

. 2,778

. _ _ ___ 5,889

. ______ 1,001

- ___ 37

. 824

 ___ 2,271

. ______ 1,018

l:24,000-scale

orthophotoquads

7,015

34,252

4,631

35,352

2,476

92

1,100

2,201

2,980

3,517

2,935

16,323

2,201

21,413

275

9,767

2,935

17,284

3,943

24,898

6,007

1,055

1,055

5,227

1,421

9,721

13,114

5,640

1,880

1,100

12,839

l:24,000-scale

revisions

1,581

36

667

953

3,455

3,801

76

2,509

319

1,582

2,396

347

34

6,923

6,091

403

444

826

2,331

257

119

349

4,445

1,660

1,280

255

85

1,719

4,286

1,768

465

3,065

1,239

452

4,989

891

2,865

9,965

2,613

7,131

950

5,095

107

7,873

Intermediate

scale

4,135

29,468

4,143

59,690

17,481

1,011

1,061

7,021

35,943

2,346

2,406

4,076

11,493

2,952

971

2,293

4,772

19,348

1,104

3,628

28,080

1,958

50,110

796

21,600

1,546

2,139

3,242

2,044

2,364

29,222

973

1,351

4,250

8,938

3,876

2,187

17,800

2,251

8,758

7,880
TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYS 

AND MAPPING

Other Federal 

agencies

$4.35

Miscellaneous 

non-Federal

.%. /. $0.51

irect Federal program 

$59.18

TOTAL $67.35 MILLION

SOURCE OF FUNDS

Quadrangle Mapping 

and Revision

Reimbursable 

$5.82

Reimbursable 

$2.35

Small-Scale and 

Special Mapping

National Cartographic 

Information Center

Direct 

$7.87

Direct 

$2.83

USE OF FUNDS

BUDGET AND PERSONNEL

The Topographic Surveys and Mapping budget 

comprises the following subactivities:

1. Quadrangle mapping and revision, including production and revision of 7.5-minute maps at 

1:24,000 scale in customary units and 1:25,000 

scale in metric units for the conterminous 

United States, Hawaii, and developing areas in 

Alaska, and maps at 1:63,360 scale (inch-pound 

units) and 1:50,000 scale (metric units) for 

Alaska.

2. Small-scale and special mapping, including preparation of other maps and map products from

the intermediate-scale series to the small-scale 

U.S. base maps.

3. The National Cartographic Information Center for 

acquisition and dissemination of information 

about available cartographic data.

For fiscal year 1978, Topographic Surveys and Mapping obligations amounted to $67.3 million (table 

4 ). Included are funds from 38 States, which, when 

matched by Federal funds, amounted to $6.6 million 

for cooperative mapping. The cooperative projects 

mutually benefit the State and national programs by 

ensuring the completion of map coverage sooner than 

would otherwise be possible.

52
TABLE 4 . Topographic Surveys and Mapping activity obligations for fiscal years 1977 and 1978, by program

[Dollars in millions. Data may differ from that in statistical tables 

because of rounding]

Program Fiscal year 

1977

Fiscal year 

1978

Total $57.07 $67.35

Quadrangle Mapping and 

Revision _________ 47.51 54.30

Direct programs ______.

Reimbursable programs __. 

States, counties, and

municipalities _____. 

Miscellaneous non-Federal 

Other Federal agencies __.

42.39

5.12

2.73

.45

1.94

48.48

5.81

2.80

1.67

1.34

Small-Scale and Special Mapping _

Direct programs ____________

Reimbursable programs ____

State, counties, and

municipalities __________

Miscellaneous non-Federal _ 

Other Federal agencies __

National Cartographic Information 

Center __________________

Direct programs __________

6.92 10.22

5.28

1.64

.54 

.15 

.95

7.86

2.36

.52

.32

1.52

2.64 2.83

2.64 2.83

The National Mapping Program in the Geological 

Survey was carried out through a combination of inhouse efforts and contracts. The in-house effort involved about 1,630 career employees, many with 

special training in cartography, data processing, engineering, photographic technology, and the physical 

sciences. About 250 additional employees, many on 

work-study programs, served as temporary aids.

QUADRANGLE MAPPING AND REVISION

Aerial photographs of the land surface are essential 

to the mapping process. In fiscal year 1978, the Survey contracted for 413,075 square miles of aerial 

photography. Photographs of about three-fourths of 

the area were taken from altitudes higher than the 

39,000 feet primarily for use in photoinspection and 

photorevision of published maps.

Field control surveys are needed to show map features in correct relationship to each other and to the

Earth's surface. Horizontal ground control establishes 

and maintains correct scale, position, and orientation of the map. Vertical control governs the contours 

and spot elevations that show the shape of the terrain. These data are used to prepare the map base, 

the framework on which map detail is compiled. During fiscal year 1978, 53,950 square miles of horizontal 

control and 65,950 square miles of vertical control 

were established.

During fiscal year 1978, 1,083 new standard topographic maps were published, covering 61,467 square 

miles as shown in figure 13; most of the maps were 

in the 7.5-minute 1:24,000-scale series (1:63,360- 

scale series in Alaska). West Virginia and Florida became the 12th and 13th States to have complete published topographic map coverage at 1:24,000 scale. 

In addition to being used directly at the published 

scales, these map series are also used to prepare 

smaller scale and special maps.

As national coverage in the 7.5-minute series increases, the revision mapping workload increases. 

The need for revision of individual maps is determined by the amount of change detected in comparing the published maps with current aerial photographs. Maps are reviewed cyclically with emphasis 

on urban areas, coastal zones, airports, major transportation corridors, and other areas of high national 

interest. During the last year, 4,897 7.5-minute 

maps were reviewed, and 1,322 revised maps were 

published.

Orthophotographs are produced by processing 

aerial photographs to correct image displacement 

caused by camera tilt and terrain variations. In a standard quadrangle format with grid and name information superimposed, the orthophotograph is called an 

orthophotoquad, which has many applications as a 

map substitute or as a companion product to a published line map (fig. 17). In 1978, 4,467 orthophotoquads were prepared; printed stock is available for 

a small percentage of these, with the majority available in nonlithographic form (fig. 14) on request to 

the regional mapping centers.

SMALL-SCALE AND SPECIAL MAPPING

To meet the need for basic map data at various 

levels of detail and at scales between 1:24,000 and 

1:250,000, the intermediate-scale map series was introduced in 1975. These maps are prepared to have 

up to 25 feature-separation drawings, any combination of which can be used to produce a special map

FIGURE 16. The Lake Placid, N.Y., quadrangle is one of a series 

of metric topographic maps prepared in a new format by the 

U.S. Geological Survey. All map elements grid, contours, 

elevations, distances, and bathymetry are in the metric 

system.

53
LAKE PLACID, NEW YORK ESSEX COUNTY

52-30- 

SCALE 1:25000
7.5X15 MINUTE SERIES (TOPOGRAPHIC)

T A T E PARK

1:25 000-scale metric 

topographic map of

Lake Placid

NEW YORK

SHOWING

s Contours and elevations 

in meters

* Highways, roads and other 

manmade structures

* Water features 

ft Woodland areas

* Geographic names

Produced by (he United Stales Geological Survey 

Conuot b-, USCS «u NOS NOAA

OQO-nwtn gnu, rnn* 18: Uniwrsai

32 nwun **» u ihown h* dulvd cntiwr uciu 

TIM* am *l*a am-rtd t>v 1 25 000-ttak a

CO!*UES MTM NATKlNM. V

Topographic Map Symbols

LAKE PLACID. NEW YORK

4473-231-T25

FIGURE 17. Landform details west of Tunica, Miss., appear on 

the orthophotoquad Clayton NW, Miss.-Ark. Orthophotoquads uniform-scale photoimages in quadrangle format having a minimum of added cultural and political information 

allow the user to interpret detail information for himself. The 

aerial photographs used for orthophotoquads are processed 

to remove any scale distortion caused by tilt of the aerial 

cameras and by terrain relief; thus, all features are shown 

correct in scale and relative position.

with a desired level of content (fig. 18). The feature 

symbolization has been specially designed to facilitate digitization. By the end of fiscal year 1978, intermediate-scale maps for about one-third of the conterminous United States were either completed or in 

progress with priority given to completing maps for 

Federal and State agencies.

Under the joint Geological Survey-Defense Mapping Agency agreement to produce 15-minute maps 

at 1:50,000 scale that began in fiscal year 1978, the 

Survey completed 86 metric topographic maps during 

the first year. The total program goal is for the completion of about 2,100 maps. The maps will be prepared in accordance with jointly prepared specifications and will produce map materials that can be 

used directly in the preparation of other intermediatescale maps.

The 1:250,000-scale topographic map series provides the largest scale complete coverage available 

for the United States (fig. 19) and is thus valuable to 

many Federal and State agencies. The maps are also 

used by the Survey for preparing State base maps, 

various geologic maps, and special-purpose maps, 

such as those showing land use and land cover information. During fiscal year 1978, 50 revisions were 

published. Terrain data digitized from the contours 

on the 1:250,000-scale maps are available on magnetic tape from the National Cartographic Information Center.

The joint Geological Survey-National Ocean Survey Program for the preparation of topographicbathymetric maps (fig. 20) continues and involves 90 

maps at 1:24,000, 1:100,000, and 1:250,000 scales; 

6 of these maps have been published, and an additional 84 are in preparation. In fiscal year 1979, 70 

additional maps are planned for inclusion in the 

program.

During 1978, three National Park Service maps 

were included in the program as new 1:50,000-scale 

metric topographic maps. These maps are designed 

to be folded and placed in pocket-size plastic jackets. 

An additional six maps will be added to the Park Map 

Revision Program during fiscal year 1979.

Eighteen experimental simulated natural color 

photoimage maps at 1:25,000 scale were published 

to provide new map coverage of the U.S.-Canadian

border from St. Regis to East Richford, N.Y., as part 

of a cooperative project with the U.S. Customs Service (see box, p. 62).

NATIONAL CARTOGRAPHIC INFORMATION 

CENTER

The National Cartographic Information Center 

(NCIC) collects and distributes information concerning the availability of cartographic data for the United 

States. In fiscal year 1978, affiliate agreements were 

signed with seven more State agencies. The new 

affiliates are the West Virginia Cartographic Center, 

the Minnesota Land Management Information Center, 

the North Dakota Regional Environmental Assessment 

Program, the North Dakota State Water Commission, 

the Louisiana Department of Urban and Community 

Affairs, the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Resources, and the Tennessee Division of 

Geology.

Over 50 organizations now submit data for inclusion in the NCIC Aerial Photography Summary Record System. City, State, and private industry, as well 

as Federal agencies, have contributed over 2,000,000 

records covering all areas of the country.

NCIC has completed the systems design and programing of the Cartographic Catalog (CC) and the Map 

and Chart Information System (MCIS). The CC consists of descriptive records of any cartographic product in the NCIC information systems. The information is arranged by place name or geographic coordinates. The first edition of the catalog, containing 

14,000 Library of Congress records, was recently 

produced.

The MCIS was programed in fiscal year 1978 and 

is expected to be operational in fiscal year 1979. This 

system will contain information about the Nation's 

historic and current maps and charts. It will accommodate batch inquiries from remote terminals located 

at the regional and State NCIC offices. Many of the 

complete sets of maps in the system will be available on 35-mm roll microfilm (fig. 21). Currently, over 

120,000 maps are contained on 275 rolls of microfilm. 

They are arranged by State and then alphabetically 

by map name.

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

Survey employees provided training in mapping 

and cartography to foreign participants from Mali, 

Lesotho, France, Saudi Arabia, and Trinidad and 

Tobago and to Inter-American Geodetic Survey employees from Panama. In addition, seminars and workshops on mapping requirements and on the preparation of cartographic Landsat products were conducted 

by request at selected locations in Latin America.

57
COMBINED 

NEGATIVES

ORIGINAL

FEATURE SEPARATE

DRAWINGS

SELECTED 

COMBINED 

REPRODUCIBLES

For printing of standard topographic maps For preparation of special purpose maps

i/XTflfi^ T, fefei, \

STANDARD TOPOGRAPHIC MAP SPECIAL PURPOSE MAP

58
FIGURE 18. Intermediate-scale topographic maps are compiled with 13 to 25 feature separates, depending on the variety of 

detail within the mapped area. Conventionally, map reproducibles are prepared under a color-separation system in which one 

drawing is prepared for each group of features to be printed in the same color on the map. The innovative feature-separation 

system subdivides the major components of the map into classes for which separate master drawings are prepared. This system provides flexibility in that it enables users preparing maps for special purposes to obtain copies of the master drawings 

of only the map elements needed. For example, the special-purpose map shown contains only 14 of the 25 feature separates 

prepared for the standard topographic map.

EXPLANATION 

1:250,000 scale products

Maps in progress (revision)

PUERTO RICO

 CDU-, <- ^ s 3 -

CD

FIGURE 19. Status of 1:250,000-scale mapping revision.

59

FIGURE 20. In addition to the normal topography and bathymetry on 1:250,000-scale quadrangle maps, this map of the 

Georgetown, S.C.-N.C, quadrangle (partly shown) also contains offshore protraction survey data compiled by the Bureau 

of Land Management.

The fifth extension of the agreement between Saudi 

Arabia and the Geological Survey was approved. In 

support of this agreement, two cartographers continued to provide surveying and mapping capabilities 

for the Survey's mission in that country. A newly 

acquired Doppler satellite positioning system will 

help provide mapping control, especially for the 

1:250,000-scale Landsat image base map project.

In March, the First Pan-American Symposium on 

Automation in Cartography was held in Washington, 

D.C., by the U.S. National Section, Commission on 

Cartography, Pan-American Institute of Geography

and History. Representatives from 18 Western Hemisphere nations attended the symposium, which was 

cosponsored by the Geological Survey, the Defense 

Mapping Agency, and the National Ocean Survey.

Fieldwork in Mexico was completed for a horizontal control network established for a crustal strain 

and subsidence study in a border area of geothermal 

activity. This is an ongoing cooperative project between the Geological Survey, the Department 

of Energy, and Mexico's Comision Federal de 

Electricidad.

Fiscal year 1978 marked the 21st consecutive year 

that the Survey provided surveying and cartographic 

support to the U.S. Antarctic Research Program sponsored by the National Science Foundation (fig. 22). 

Nine cartographers participated in four separate expeditions to conduct ground surveys, to provide

FIGURE 21. Currently, over 120,000 maps, including all U.S. Geological Survey topographic maps, are available for inspection on 

the 35-mm microfilm system at the National Cartographic Information Center.

61
Color Image Maps From Black and White Aerial Photographs

The idea for producing color image maps by 

combining and assigning colors to the visible and 

infrared spectral bands of black-and-white aerial 

film came as a direct result of the Geological Survey's success in using a similar technique to produce 1:500,000-scale satellite image maps from 

two or more bands of imagery recorded by the 

Landsat multispectral scanner (MSS). The cover of 

this Yearbook shows the Lower Chesapeake Bay in 

such a satellite image. Experiments indicated that 

MSS Bands 5 and 7 are sufficient to portray the 

major themes of vegetation, water, and culture. 

Therefore, if two aerial camera films were filtered 

to have spectral responses similar to MSS Bands 

5 and 7 and were simultaneously exposed, it should 

be possible to rectify, to register, and to print a 

1:24,000-scale color image map in a rendition 

similar to that of color infrared film. The resulting 

map should overcome the weaknesses of high-altitude color photographs poor contrast and color 

rendition due to atmospheric scattering of the 

shorter visible wavelengths, particularly the blue 

and the violet. In addition, most mapping organizations are not equipped to process color images. 

Virtually no equipment changes would be needed

 A Little Scientific Magic

to produce color image maps from black-andwhite film.

The first experimental color composite was produced in 1975 from imagery of the Livingston, Tex., 

area taken at 40,000 feet from a plane equipped 

with two mapping cameras one containing blackand-white panchromatic film and other containing 

black-and-white infrared film. After exposure, the 

two films were independently rectified to remove 

errors caused by the cameras not being perfectly 

perpendicular to the ground. Printing plates made 

from the two rectified negatives simulate the dye 

layers in color infrared film and thereby achieve a 

color infrared response in the final printing.

After experimenting with other simulated color 

infrared projects, the Survey produced a simulated 

natural color composite of an area along our northern border. The resulting map exhibits sharper 

tonal contrast and better resolution than equivalent 

high-altitude natural color or color infrared photographs. Color image maps make excellent companion maps to corresponding line maps and could 

eventually be incorporated into the Survey orthophotomapping program.

Doppler satellite point positioning, and to operate 

satellite tracking and seismological equipment. One 

of the expeditions was a cooperative project with the 

British Antarctic Survey to obtain map control for 

Landsat satellite image maps in Western Antarctica 

using the Doppler satellite equipment.

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT 

Metric Quadrangle Maps

The Saranac Lake, N.Y., quadrangle is the first of a 

series of metric topographic maps being prepared in 

a new format proposed by the Survey, 7.5 minutes of 

latitude by 15 minutes of longitude at 1:25,000 scale. 

The map contains newly designed symbols and has a 

redesigned border. In addition to traditional data, 

such as the credit legend, bar scale, contour interval, 

and declination diagram, the border contains a legend 

explaining topographic map symbols, a metric-inchpound unit conversion table, and other data pertinent 

to metric mapping. All map elements grid, contours, 

elevations, distances, and bathymetry are in the 

metric system. The 1:25,000-scale metric series is 

printed on the same size paper and uses the same 

feature-separate sequence as the 1:100,000-scale 

metric series.

62

Digital Cartographic Data Index

The file of digital cartographic data has been increased to over 3,000 files of 7.5-minute digital elevation model data from the Cestalt Photo Mapper II. 

This instrument differentially rectifies a stereopair.of 

aerial photographs electronically to remove image 

displacements caused by camera tilt and terrain variations, records the elevation information in digital 

format, and produces an orthophotograph.

Data files may be digital elevation models, consisting of a sampled array of elevations for a number of ground positions, or digital line graphs, which 

are line map information in digital form. An algorithm 

has been developed for transforming digital elevation model data into digital line graph data.

Mapping Short-Term Phenomena

Landsat images that show the maximum extent of 

ice coverage on the Chesapeake Bay, Potomac River, 

and Washington, D.C, vicinity on February 7 and 8, 

1977, were processed as a 1:500,000-scale color 

image map. A portion of the February 7 image showing the mouth of the Chesapeake Bay is on the front 

cover of this Yearbook. The images were digitally en-
hanced at the Earth Resources Observation Systems -|.Meter Contour Interval Mapping

Data Center, Sioux Falls, S. Dak., to emphasize ice

distribution. Comparison of the two images demon- Metric maps of some areas of the country, primstrates Landsat capability to record temporal phenom- arily in the coastal zones, require a 1-meter contour 

ena of general interest for historical purposes. interval to properly depict the hypsographic features.

30 30

60

EXPLANATION

I Mapped, various 

[scales and formats

Mapping in progress

150 150

180

I I Sketch maps with 

|___| relief shading

f I Ross Ice Shelf 

|_ __| planning map

FIGURE 22 . Status of mapping in Antarctica.

63
Digital Base Map of Idaho

 The State Goes on Tape

The Geological Survey has converted the standard published Idaho State Base Map at 1:500,000 

scale from graphic analog information to digital 

data for computer processing. State boundaries, 

drainage, transportation, population centers, and 

public land surveys were digitized.

The Department of Commerce and the Department of Energy need digital cartographic data at 

1:500,000-scale for 16 Western States to prepare a 

series of State and regional maps showing geothermal resources and tectonic information, such 

as ancient volcanoes, earthquake epicenters, and 

major faults. These graphics will serve as planning 

aids for exploiting geothermal occurrences. Because various map scales and projections are involved, the thematic and the cartographic data 

have to be in digital form.

The State of Idaho was chosen to begin the project. Duplicate positives of the original map separation plates were prepared, and, on these positives, 

each map feature was given an identifying number 

and a rank or classification. For example, every 

boundary received an individual number and a 

code that classified it as a State, county, or specific 

type of Federal reservation. A digitizer converted 

the analog map information to digital form the 

operator entered the identifying data by keyboard 

and then traced the feature with the cursor to record the feature as a series of points measured 

from the lower left corner of the map. These data 

were computer processed for preliminary correction and then automatically plotted for comparison 

with the original map. Errors were corrected on a 

Digital Data Edit System (DDES) poor alinements, 

faulty junctions, wrong identifiers, and other mistakes were all quickly displayed and corrected, and 

the amended versions shown again on the viewing 

screen of the system. The final step was to transform all the data from recorded digitizer x and y 

coordinates into geographic latitude and longitude 

coordinates.

An interesting associated effort was a project to 

correct the geometry of the base map. For many 

technical reasons, maps, especially older ones such 

as that for Idaho, do not meet current standards 

for accuracy. Manual repositioning of the map content is time consuming and expensive. However, 

once the information is in digital form, it can be 

adjusted much more easily. For example, 37 critical control points from 1:24,000-scale sources were 

compared with the same points on the 1:500,000- 

scale base map. Measured deviations were fed into 

an elastic body-fit program on the DDES, which in 

turn repositioned the digital map data. These new 

data were then tested against other control points 

and plotted back at larger scales for checking. The 

result was a new cartographic data file that meets 

National Map Accuracy Standards.

What future applications lie beyond this Idaho 

pilot project? By expressing the data in latitudelongitude form and adjusting for accuracy, the 

Idaho information can be merged with similar data 

in adjacent States. Work has already begun on 

Utah, and planning for other Western States is underway. A future possibility is a National Cartographic Data Base that can be used to selectively 

generate maps of States and regions at 1:500,000 

scale and smaller. Secondary applications might be 

sorting, computation, or analysis based on administrative areas or linear networks, such as streams 

or transportation. Supplementary indexes to the 

map features appended to these files will enhance 

nongraphic applications.

64
To determine the time and cost of producing 1-meter 

contours, two projects are being compiled by different methods. The Nanticoke, Md., project, consisting 

of six 7.5-minute quadrangles, is being compiled by 

field surveying methods; the Golden Hill, Md., project consisting of four 7.5-minute quadrangles, is being compiled by photogrammetric methods using 

photographs taken with a camera 5.9-inch focal length 

at a flight height of 5,000 feet. The areas selected are 

representative of the general landform types that require 1-meter contours, that is, primarily tidal marshes 

and low-lying farmland.

Dual-Use Maps

The Geological Survey has prepared experimental 

dual-use maps of Washington, D.C., metropolitan 

area for the blind and the normally sighted (fig. 23). 

One edition has the multicolor normal visual image 

combined with limited tactual symbols in relief; another has a large-type reverse image combined with 

tactual symbols. A reversal image, white on a dark 

background, significantly increases the legibility and 

readability of graphics or text for individuals with impaired vision. The size of braille characters make it 

impossible to use full names on a braille map; however, abbreviations of names rather than abstract 

braille symbols were used to reduce the necessity for 

referring to the key, also in braille and in large reversal type. Both maps are preprinted on plastic 

sheets before being vacuum-formed to emboss the 

tactual information.

Digital Pilot Projects

To fulfill specific requests for digital cartographic 

data, to evaluate user application, and to refine data 

formats, nine pilot production projects covering various parts of the country are in progress. Examples of 

the projects are 33 7.5-minute quadrangles in Kentucky, Montana, Virginia, West Virginia, and Wyoming that were digitized to support the National Coal 

Resource Data Bank and 400 quadrangles in southeastern California that were digitized to support a 

land management plan for the BLM California Desert 

Planning Staff. Several categories of data are being 

digitized at 1:500,000 scale for the State of Idaho to 

support geothermal energy evaluations; a special research activity associated with this project is the investigation of the use of control points from largescale materials to improve the positional accuracy of 

the digital data files.

Comparison of Landsat Image Products

Information content of Landsat cartographic products has been studied with respect to image enhancement techniques. Landmarks chosen from Geological

Survey topographic quadrangle maps of northern Virginia were compared with the corresponding points 

on four differently processed color images of the 

Upper Chesapeake Bay. The original Landsat image 

was recorded in 1972. The variations in detectability 

of selected features on the small-scale images indicate 

that enhancement materially increased the informational content of the images. Edge enhancement, although it causes anomalies, further increases the interpretability of cultural and natural features that have 

continuous edges. An unexpected finding is that onedimensional edge enhancement approaches the results obtained by two-dimensional edge enhancement.

Scribing From Digital Data

Digitized stereomodels of the Packwood SE, Iowa, 

7.5-minute quadrangle are being processed to investigate the feasibility of obtaining final scribed drawings 

from a digitized photogrammetric system. Computer 

programs that transform the independent digitized 

stereomodel data into a format that can be manipulated by the Digital Data Edit System have been written. The editing system interactively smooths the 

linear information to final tolerences before the feature-separate drawings are scribed by an automatic 

plotter.

Camera Calibration Data Bank

The camera calibration data bank now contains 

calibration measurements for over 400 camera-magazine combinations; 157 are suitable for fully analytical aerotriangulation. Additional information in the 

data bank this year is the platen identification required on all magazines used on Survey aerial photography contracts. The platen number appears in all 

camera exposures. The data bank also contains information on fiducial-mark coordinates, radial lens distortion correction tables, focal length, lens type and 

number, nominal focal length code, camera owner, 

manufacturer, camera number, magazine or platen 

number, calibration date, and model-flatness test 

results.

Space Oblique Mercator Projection

Imagery from Landsat and other Earth-viewing 

satellites in near-polar orbits can now be prepared 

on a Space Oblique Mercator projection that makes 

it possible to print the images on a mathematically 

defined format. These satellites generate a narrow 

299-mile-wide strip of imagery in an oblique spiral 

around the Earth. The Space Oblique Mercator projection is a cylinder that moves to maintain contact 

with the satellite ground track on a rotating Earth.

65
The groundtrack serves as the "Equator" of the projection, which is conformal within a few degrees of 

the track. Two sets of equations have been formulated one set treats the general case of any polarorbiting satellite, and the other set is specifically applied to Landsat. 

Aerial Profiling of Terrain

Fabrication of the Aerial Profiling of Terrain surveying system to be used in light aircraft has begun.

A three-coordinate scheme of reference with an accuracy of 0.5 foot vertically and 2 feet horizontally is 

provided by an inertia! navigation subsystem using a 

laser unit for air-borne calibration. The ground profile is determined by a laser altimeter whose readings 

are related to aircraft position by computer. Design 

of the system was prompted by a need for obtaining 

terrain profiles for flood-plain delineation; other field 

applications include establishing survey points for the 

control of new maps or for evaluating the accuracy of 

old maps.

66

FIGURE 23. Dual-use maps of the Washington, D.C., metropolitan area have been prepared for the blind and the normally

sighted by the U.S. Geological Survey.
Digital Cartographic Software Development

Development of cartographic software includes file 

management to track digital data in production, resampling, and reformatting data derived from different sources, batch editing to verify data, and graphic 

composition to prepare data for plotting. Emphasis 

has been on developing the Unified Cartographic 

Line Graph Encoding System to produce topologically 

encoded data by automatically editing and verifying 

raw data from manual digitizers based on topological 

characteristics.

Resolution Measurements: Bar Vs. Star 

Targets

In the past, aerial camera lens resolution usually 

has been determined in a laboratory under ideal conditions. To obtain real-world data, permanent resolution targets, standard bar and Siemens star, were 

painted on the roof of the Survey's National Center 

to measure resolution obtained under operational 

conditions. A low contrast ratio of 2.5:1, which approximates the contract normally obtained in photographs used for mapping, was selected.

National Geodetic Datum Changes

The National Ocean Survey is readjusting the national horizontal control network and redefining the 

national horizontal datum based on satellite and other 

recently obtained data. Completion of the adjustment work, the datum definition, and the formal 

adoption are anticipated in 1983. To make the new 

geodetic data available to users, the Geological Survey is planning to show the predicted effect of the 

datum change on new maps by graticule ticks at the 

map corners and by a note in the credit legend.

Voice Data Entry of Geographic Names 

Information

The Voice Data Entry Terminal System, a voice 

recognition system having a tape-recorded vocabulary 

for reference, has been programed to compile updated entries to the Geographic Names Information 

System file. By speaking the 5 digits of the GEONAME 

record number and 13 digits of the geographic coordinates, the operator records a complete computercompatible update entry on a separate magnetic tape.

I

Final preparation of a contour-line scribe sheet used in the production of a U.S. Geological Survey topographic map.

67

Geologic and Mineral Resource 

Surveys and Mapping

INTRODUCTION

Geologic research and investigation of the Nation's 

resources and of the geologic processes that formed 

the composition and structure of the Earth are conducted by the Geologic Division. These activities provide data on the distribution, quality, and quantity of 

energy, mineral, and land resources required for their 

wise use and management. Geologic, geochemical, 

and geophysical data are collected, analyzed, and 

disseminated to the public and other Government 

agencies to assist in mitigating hazards caused by 

such phenomena as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, 

and landslides; such data also help efforts to minimize damage to the environment. Four subactivities 

carry out the programs of the Geologic Division's 

basic mission. These are Land Resource Surveys, 

Mineral Resource Surveys, Energy Resource Surveys, 

and Offshore Geologic Surveys.

Land Resource Surveys provide basic data and interpretive analysis in the form of geologic, geophysical, and geochemical maps and reports. Other programs involve research on earthquake and volcano 

hazards; environmental aspects of energy development, especially as it affects coal exploitation; and 

nuclear reactor safety. Research on geologic processes 

and historical geologic events that develops knowledge necessary in implementing these programs is 

continually conducted.

Mineral Resource Surveys provide information on 

metallic and nonmetallic resources. Areas of emphasis 

include Alaska, Wilderness Areas, other public lands, 

and Indian lands. Data are also collected that allow a 

better understanding of fundamental geologic process 

in mineral formation.

Energy Resource Surveys provide current assessments of the Nation's energy resources. The distribution, quantity, and quality of coal, oil and gas, oil 

shale, uranium and thorium, and geothermal resources are continually studied so that updated information on these resources is always available.

Cinder cones on the slope of Mauna Kea, the highest (13,784 

feet) of the five volcanoes that form the island of Hawaii. 

Radiocarbon dates indicate that Mauna Kea last erupted 4,000 

years before present.

Offshore Geologic Surveys investigate the continental margins of the United States and its territories 

for assessment of potential mineral and energy resources. Studies are made to evaluate environmental 

hazards posed in the siting of offshore drilling platforms and pipelines.

Launch preparation of a current and transmissometer mooring 

system, which is used to estimate the sediment flux above 

the sea floor. The long white tubes are PVC spar sections 

that provide buoyancy to hold the instruments vertical while 

in the sea water.

69
GEOLOGIC AND MINERAL RESOURCE 

SURVEYS AND MAPPING

Direct Federal funds 

$123.8

Federal-State

Cooperative

Program

Miscellaneous

non-Federal sources

$8.51

TOTAL $163.2 MILLION

SOURCE OF FUNDS

70

BUDGET AND PERSONNEL

In fiscal year 1978, obligations of the Geologic and 

Mineral Resources Surveys and Mapping activity were 

$123.8 million. This amount was supplemented by approximately $1.0 million from 13 States and $38.4 

million from other Federal agencies and non-Federal 

sources (table 5).

At the end of fiscal year 1978, the Geologic Division had 2,060 permanent full-time employees and 

1,113 temporary or part-time employees.

Direct 

$54.32

Land Resource Surveys 

- $69.02

Reimbursable 

$14.70

Reimbursable 

$12.62

Direct 

$26.39

Mineral Resource 

Surveys 

$39.01

Reimbursable. 

$6.72

Energy Resource Surveys 

$34.55

Reimbursable 

$5.32

Offshore Geologic Surveys 

$20.61

USE OF FUNDS

Direct 

$15.29
TABLE 5. Geologic and Mineral Resource Surveys and Mapping activity obligations for fiscal year 7977

and 7978, by program 

[Dollars in millions]

Program

Fiscal 

year 

1977

Fiscal 

year 

1978

Total ____ 

Land Resource Surveys - 

Direct programs 

Earthquake hazards 

Volcano hazards __ 

Environmental aspects of energy 

Arctic environmental studies 

Engineering geology 

Regional mapping and analysis 

Regional geology ___ . 

Geophysical surveys _ 

Ceochemical surveys _ 

Dating and correlation 

Geologic processes __ . 

Reimbursable programs __ 

States, counties, and municipalities 

Miscellaneous non-Federal sources _ _

Other Federal agencies __

Mineral Resource Surveys _ 

Direct programs _ 

Mineral resource assessment 

Wilderness areas 

Alaska 

Conterminous States 

Mineral Discovery Loan Program _ 

Mineral commodities assessment ___ _ 

Critical commodities 

Minerals for energy production _____ _ _.

Mineral information system and analysis ____

Resources processes technology 

Resource techniques in geochemistry and geophysics 

Reimbursable programs ___ __ __-_ _.

States, counties, and municipalities .

Miscellaneous non-Federal sources __ _ _.

Other Federal agencies _.

Energy Resources Surveys 

Direct programs 

GO ill «.« *,«,. _«-. « -,«, -« -. - - - -- -

Oil and gas 

Oil shale _ _ - - 

Uranium and thorium _ 

Geothermal energy _____ 

Energy Resource Data System 

Reimbursable programs _ . 

States, counties, and municipalities ___ - . 

Miscellaneous non-Federal sources 

Other Federal agencies .

Offshore Geologic Surveys ___ ___________ 

Direct programs _______ __ ____ ____.

Oil and gas resource appraisal 

Environmental investigations ______________.

Marine geology investigations . _ ___. 

Reimbursable programs __________________. 

States, counties, and municipalities __ _-____ 

Miscellaneous non-Federal sources __________. 

Other Federal agencies __-________.____.

$130.20 $163.19

50.53 69.02

35.20 54.32

11.88

.69

6.61

.45

1.29

14.28

8.86

4.11

1.31

15.33

30.84

1.07

7.32

.46

1.26

13.37

7.94

4.48

.95

14.70

1.08

.26

13.99

lil.70

.48

.09

14.13

39:01

23.76 26.39

7.92

1.35

4.44

1.91

.22

2.37

1.73

.64

2.14

5.87

5.46

7.94

11.80

2.81

4.83

3.94

.22

2.31

1.72

.59

1.95

5.95

4.38

12.62

.20

6.17

1.57

29.02

.30

8.42

3.90

3435"

26.25 27.83

3.19

5.59

1.02

5.36

9.61

1.48

2.77

4.89

5.69

.62

5.17

9.76

1.70

6.72

.03

.01

2.73

18.95

.02

6.70

20.61

14.80 15.29

9.23

4.25

1.32

4.15

9.77

4.23

1.29

5.32

.09

4.06

.15

5.17

71
LAND RESOURCE SURVEYS

Earthquake Hazards Program

The goal of earthquake hazards research is to reduce the risks to life and property from future earthquakes in the United States. The enactment of the 

Earthquake Hazards Reduction Act of 1977 increased the scope and intensity of Geological Survey 

research in (1) fundamental earthquake studies, (2) 

earthquake prediction, (3) earthquake hazards assessment, (4) induced seismicity, and (5) engineering 

seismology.

Some of the accomplishments and activities for 

fiscal year 1978 were as follows: 

 National Earthquake Information Service. In 1977, 

more than 40 earthquakes in the world caused 

fatalities, injuries, and damage. These included 

the earthquake in Romania on March 4 that killed 

at least 1,500, injured 10,100, and caused extensive damage in the Bucharest area. The earthquake 

was felt from Rome to Moscow and from Turkey 

to Finland. In the United States, 30 States were 

affected by earthquakes, including 21 damaging 

earthquakes of intensity VI or greater on the 

Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale as shown 

below.

Felt Earthquakes by State, 1977

Damaging Earthquakes in the United States, 7977 

[Intensity VI or greater]

State Number

Alabama ________ ______ _ _ 1

Alaska ______________________________57 

Arizona ___________________ _ _ _4

Arkansas ______________________________1 

California ____________________________103 

Colorado ______________________________3 

Delaware _____________________________1 

Georgia __________________________ ____1

Hawaii ___________________ _____ _158

Idaho ________________________________2 

Illinois ______________________________1 

Maine ______________________________1 

Massachusetts ______________________2

Mississippi _________________________1

Missouri ______________________________1

Montana ___________________________18

Nevada ______________________________4 

New Hampshire _____________________: ____1 

New Mexico ___________________________2 

New York ______________________________2 

North Carolina __________________________1 

Ohio ________________________________1 

Oregon _______________________________2 

South Carolina _______________________4

Tennessee ___________________________1 

Texas ______________________________2

Utah ________________________________6 

Virginia ______________________________1

Washington __________________________4

Wyoming ___________________________18

Total _______________ ___ _

Date Location Magnitude

Jan. 3 _. 

Jan. 8 _. 

Feb. 9 . 

Feb. 22 

Mar. 5 . 

Mar. 11 

June 2 _ 

June 17 

June 21 

Aug. 12 

Sept. 5 _ 

Sept. 24 

Sept. 30 

Oct. 19 

Oct. 21

Nov. 4 _. 

Nov. 13 .

Nov. 22 

Nov. 27 

Dec. 15 

Dec. 25

.Appleton, Mo __ _ 

.Bay area, Calif ____ _ 

.Price, Utah ____ 

.Nevada (southeast of Tahoe) 

-Farmingdale, N. Mex _______

.Harrison, Mont ___________

.Mena, Ark _____ _ 

.Celina, Ohio ______________

.Bay area, Calif ____________

.San Fernando vicinity, Calif _ 

.Fairfield area, Calif _______

.San Fernando vicinity, Calif _ 

.Northeastern _____________

.Hebgen Lake, Mont ________

.Brawley, Calif _____________

.Andreanof Islands, Aleutian Islands 

.Brawley, Calif ___________________

.Willits, Calif _____________

.Idaho (near Cascade) _. 

.Carmel Valley, Calif _______

.New Hampshire (Concord)

_3.6 

_4.6 

_4.0 

.5.0 

_4.5 

_4.8 

.4.0 

.3.2 

.4.7 

.4.4 

.3.7 

.4.2 

.5.0 

.4.7 

.4.0

(swarm) 

.6.6 

.4.3

(swarm;

others

at 4.0) 

.4.5-5.0 

.4.5 

.2.9 

.3.2

.404

72

National Strong-Motion Network. U.S. earthquakes produced strong ground motions that 

were recorded at 166 accelerograph stations of 

the National Strong-Motion Network in 1977. 

(Strong-motion records are of vital interest to 

engineers in the field of earthquake-resistant design and construction.) A large percentage of 

these records were obtained from the Brawley, 

Calif., earthquake swarms of October 20 to 30 

and November 11 to 14, 1977. Twenty-four of 

the records showed accelerations greater than 10 

percent of gravity. The maximum acceleration recorded was 0.50 g and was caused by a magnitude 3.9 event on November 14.

Destructive foreign earthquakes. Investigations 

following the March 1977 Romanian and November 1977 Argentine earthquakes provided important information about the damage distribution 

for a large earthquake. The Argentine earthquake 

showed that extensive liquefaction (temporary 

transformation of cohesionless soil into a fluid 

mass) occurred over an area of about 7,722 

square miles at distances of up to 124 miles from 

the epicenter. An international symposium was 

convened in Guatemala, 2 years after the magnitude 7.5 earthquake of.February 4, 1976. The 

conference focused on the lessons learned from 

the experience. Important lessons about earthquake-resistant design and human behavior will 

be the basis for hazard mitigation measures,
disaster response activities, and reconstruction 

practices that can be applied in similar experiences following a destructive earthquake.

Relocation of earthquake epicenters in the Eastern 

United States. More than 100 instrumentally recorded past earthquakes in the United States east 

of 85° W. longitude were relocated by a newly 

refined method to provide improved relative 

hypocenter locations. In the Charleston, S.C., 

area, the relocated epicenters show that eastwest trends suggested by previously published 

data are probably not correct. The distribution of 

the relocated epicenters correlates closely with 

the two most prominent zones of microearthquake activity defined by the South Carolina 

seismic network. The epicenters correlate with 

a zone of mafic intrusives inferred from gravity 

and aeromagnetic data.

Earthquake hazards in the Mississippi Valley area. 

An 853-foot trench across Reelfoot scarp in 

northwestern Tennessee provided new insight 

into the tectonic and seismic history of the area. 

The structural and stratigraphic relations observed in the trench suggest that the upper Mississippi embayment experienced at least two 

major earthquakes prior to the 1811-12 New 

Madrid earthquakes. Seismic reflection lines acquired in the area show a vertical offset in subsurface reflecting horizons at depth beneath part 

of Reelfoot scarp, showing it to follow a fault at 

depth in bedrock. The coincidence of contemporary earthquake activity in the vicinity of the 

Reelfoot scarp suggests that stresses active in the 

embayment today are similar to those that produced the 1811-12 New Madrid and earlier 

high-intensity earthquakes.

Earthquake prediction. A variety of monitoring 

networks ranging from continuously recording 

seismograph and tiltmeter stations to periodically occupied leveling and trilateration figures are 

being maintained and augmented along the San 

Andreas fault system in central and southern 

California. These networks are intended to provide a long-term stable data base against which 

any premonitory anomalies preceding moderate 

and large earthquakes can be reliably recognized, as well as a continuing flow of high-quality 

data in support of specific studies of fault-zone 

properties and the physical processes leading to 

earthquakes. Field work was started this summer 

on an intensive multifaceted study of fault-zone 

properties in a creeping section of the San 

Andreas fault near Dry Lake, 30 miles south of 

Hollister.

A massive effort to obtain a "stop-action" configuration for the area of the southern California

uplift was undertaken in early 1978. Under the 

general supervision of the National Geodetic 

Survey, but funded primarily by the Geological 

Survey, more than 2,858 miles of first-order leveling and gravity survey was completed in less 

than 4 months, in spite of delays caused by an 

exceptional sequence of severe storms. The configuration provided by this general releveling 

will serve as a long-term standard datum for 

comparison with archival survey data in testing 

models of the formation and evolution of the 

uplift and in assessing its implications for the 

potential of a large earthquake.

No large earthquakes have yet occurred within any of the concentrated networks in the conterminous United States. For this reason, the 

magnitude 6.8 earthquake that occurred on 

January 14, 1978, in the intensively monitored 

Izu-Oshima region of Japan is of particular interest. Although this earthquake was not specifically predicted by Japanese geophysicists, it 

occurred on the edge of a regional topographic 

uplift of 6 inches first recognized in 1976. In addition to a remarkable foreshock sequence, this 

earthquake was preceded, by several weeks, by 

notable anomalies in volume strain and random 

emission, as well as a variety of other less clear 

but suggestive anomalies. Also of interest was a 

magnitude 6.5 earthquake that occurred late in

Geodolite survey for fault monitoring.

73
1977 within a seismic network maintained on 

Adak Island, Alaska. The local earthquake activity 

preceding the main shock showed several distinctive patterns that may prove to be premonitory to other moderate-to-large Aleutian earthquakes.

 Production of seismicity maps for each State. A

1978 map showing the distribution, maximum intensity, and year of occurrence of historic earthquakes in the State of Maine is the first map in a 

series. Maps for each of the other States will follow, some of which are cooperative efforts with 

the States.

 Ground response in urban areas. Portable seismograph systems were deployed at 125 selected locations in the greater Los Angeles, Calif., area 

and at 37 locations in the Salt Lake City-Provo, 

Utah, area. Ground motions were recorded at 

each location from Nevada Test Site nuclear explosions. The ground-motion records from these 

events are being used to produce preliminary 

ground-response maps, an important part of the 

assessment of the earthquake hazards for each 

area.

 Analysis of strong ground-motion data. In the 90 

days following the August 1975 Oroville, Calif., 

earthquake, a unique set of 313 strong-motion 

accelerograms were obtained. Most of these 

records were obtained at hypocentral distances of 

24 miles or less, a distance range for which very 

few strong-motion accelerograms had previously been available. Analysis of these data has 

shown that peak acceleration increases fairly 

rapidly with magnitudes up to 5 but appears to 

remain constant above that. These data reinforce 

the suggestion that peak particle acceleration 

alone is a poor measure of earthquake source 

strength and a poor parameter with which to 

scale ground motion for certain engineering design applications. In those applications, peak 

particle velocity appears to be a more appropriate parameter for estimating the increase of 

ground motion with the increase of earthquake 

size.

 Field studies of fault zones. Field studies of fault 

scarps in alluvium in western Utah have disclosed 

a systematic relationship between scarp height, 

slope angle, and age. For scarps of a given age, 

the slope angle of the scarp is proportional to 

the logarithm of the scarp height, and slope angle 

decreases with estimated age for scarps of a 

given height. Although the ages for the scarps 

studied are only approximately known, the procedure provides a means of ranking scarps according to relative geomorphic age within a general age framework for scarps between several

thousand and several hundred thousand years 

old, thereby yielding important information on 

prehistoric earthquake recurrences. 

 State-of-the-art workshops. Six workshops were 

held to enhance communications between Survey and non-Survey personnel working on the 

Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program, to improve interdisciplinary communications among 

investigators working on several aspects of the 

program, and to improve public education about 

the consequences and potential for mitigation of 

earthquake hazards. The subjects of the workshops include (1) abnormal animal behavior 

prior to earthquakes, (2) experimental studies of 

rock friction with application to earthquake prediction, (3) fault mechanics and its relation to 

earthquake prediction, (4) the use of volunteers 

in the Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program,

(5) seismic gaps and earthquake prediction, and

(6) communicating earthquake hazard reduction 

information. Proceedings were published following each workshop.

Volcano Hazards Program

The primary objective of the Volcano Hazards Program is to mitigate the hazards posed by the active 

volcanoes in Hawaii, the Cascade Range (Washington, Oregon, and California), and the Alaska Range. 

Intensive monitoring of Hawaii's Mauna Loa and 

Kilauea, two of the world's most active volcanoes, 

has been the principal focus of the program, but, 

beginning in fiscal year 1979, increased emphasis will 

be placed on the Cascade volcanoes.

Accomplishments for fiscal year 1978 include the 

following:

 Upgrading and expansion of monitoring networks 

on Mauna Loa indicated a retardation of the rate 

of summit inflation from earlier rates.

 Measurement of atrianglelinking MaunaKea, Mauna 

Loa, and Hualalai Volcanoes showed a decrease 

in distance between the volcanoes; this decrease 

is related to the slowed inflation rate of Mauna 

Loa.

 Continuation of active participation with Hawaii 

State and county officials and Federal agencies 

on contingency planning and lava-diversion 

studies in anticipation of a Mauna Loa eruption, 

which might pose a threat to Hilo, the largest 

population center on the island of Hawaii.

 Initiation of a program of systematic monitoring 

of the chemical composition of volcanic gases to 

try to evaluate the utility of detecting chemical 

changes as premonitory signals of impending 

eruptive activity.

74
 In response to a Department of State request, preparation of a map of the potential volcanic hazards 

from Cotopaxi Volcano, Ecuador, as part of the 

program to provide technical assistance to foreign countries.

Environmental Aspects of Energy Program

The Environmental Aspects of Energy Program is 

directed to the study, interpretation, and distribution 

of geologic, hydrologic, geophysical, geochemical, 

and other information that will assist in the analysis 

and resolution of environmental problems related to 

energy development and to the planning, siting, and 

construction of energy-related facilities.

ENERGY LANDS PROGRAM

Present and near future development of coal and 

oil shale resources, chiefly through surface mining, 

has a major potential for negative impact on the environment in many areas across the country. The 

Energy Lands Program is designed to assess existing 

baseline knowledge of environments in the coal and 

oil shale resource areas to predict changes that may 

occur during mining and development, to monitor 

changes as they occur, and to suggest means of mitigating negative impacts of energy development on 

the environment. Types of studies underway include 

bedrock and surficial geologic mapping, engineering 

geologic investigations, geochemistry of surface materials and plants, climatic conditions as they affect 

rehabilitation potential of mined lands, and feasibility 

of surface and underground mining. The purpose 

common to all studies in the Energy Lands Program 

is to provide timely earth science information pertinent to environmental preservation to managers, 

policymakers, engineers, scientists, planners, and 

others to contribute to the orderly and safe development of the energy resources of the Nation.

Accomplishments of the program during fiscal year 

1978 include the following:

« Completion of a map of the power-generating 

plants of the United States showing location 

(built, in construction, planned); type of plant 

(fossil fuel, nuclear); type of fuel (coal, oil, gas, 

nuclear); SO2 content, if fossil fuel; and type of 

scrubbing plant, startup date, and capacity.

 Completion of mapping of the surficial geology of 

40 7.5-minute quadrangles in the eastern 

Powder River Basin, Wyo. Each quadrangle notes 

information in regard to alluvial valley floors in 

the area, a major consideration in surface mining of western coal.

 Publication of reports on surface effects of subsidence into underground mine openings in the 

Powder River Basin and for an unnamed basin 

including parts of Utah and Colorado. These 

studies are essential to planning for underground 

mining, and in situ gasification of coal and of 

oil shale.

 Preparation, in cooperation with other programs 

in the Survey, of a folio (1:100,000 scale) of the 

Recluse quadrangle, Wyoming, showing bedrock, surficial geology, engineering geology, 

climatology, coal geology, land use, and land 

cover maps as well as derivative environmental 

maps. The folio illustrates types of information 

essential to wise coal resource development in 

the West.

REACTOR SAFETY PROGRAM

Expanding demand for electrical power and growing constraints on petroleum availability will probably lead to an increased reliance on nuclear power 

reactors as a major source of electrical power in the 

near future. The Reactor Safety Program is designed 

to identify and improve upon our understanding of 

geologic processes such as fault movement, failure of 

foundation materials, and volcanic eruption that may 

be hazardous to nuclear power reactors. The program 

seeks to determine the geographic distribution and 

expected frequency and severity of these processes 

to help expedite the safe siting, design, and licensing 

of civilian nuclear power reactors in the United 

States.

Beyond the study of problems encountered in specific licensing applications, the program focus is on 

the study of regional geologic settings, on the constraints they impose on reactor siting, and on the development of techniques and an understanding of 

processes necessary to regional study and site 

evaluation.

Accomplishments of the program during fiscal year 

1978 include the following:

 Recognition, in addition to a previously recognized 

seismic zone, of a second potential seismic 

source for the 1886 Charleston, S.C., earthquake.

 Recognition that active faults do exist in the Peninsular Range of southern California, an area previously thought to be technically stable and suitable for reactor sites.

 Major revision of the tectonic model of the Puget 

Sound area resulting from recent field work 

which could affect major energy facility siting.

 Continued study and application of the new amino 

acid dating technique that has resulted in improved age dating of tectonic events along the 

Pacific coast of the United States.

75
NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL OVERVIEW 

PROGRAM

Maps (1:7,500,000 and 1:1,000,000 scale) are being 

prepared that summarize many of the characteristics 

and the distribution of geologic processes and earth 

materials. These will be useful in an understanding 

of national environmental problems and will serve as 

a technical data base for decisionmaking in land, 

energy, and mineral resource management. The 

maps will be synoptic land resource inventories that 

will show extent of, and predict the recurrence of, 

certain geologic processes and events that may constrain safe land utilization and energy and mineral 

resource development. The following maps have been 

recently completed in preliminary form:

 Limestone resource map.

 Solution mining subsidence.

 Quaternary dating applications.

 Lithologic map of the United States.

 Quaternary geologic map of the Chicago, III., area 

(showing distribution of surficial materials).

 Quaternary geologic map of the Minneapolis, 

Minn., area (showing distribution of surficial 

materials).

Arctic Environmental Studies Program

The arctic and subarctic regions of Alaska pose 

special problems for the development of natural 

resources, transportation systems, and urban development, primarily because of the unusual environmental 

conditions of permafrost (perennially frozen ground). 

Ice-rich permafrost soils undergo a change in volume 

when thawed resulting in severe damage to buildings and other engineering structures. Because of the 

unique geologic-environmental conditions that exist 

in the northern regions, geotechnical data are especially important to determine the proper engineering 

techniques and procedures to use, not only to minimize disruption of the natural environment but also 

to provide economical and safe methods of design.

Major accomplishments of the program during fiscal year 1978 include the following:

 Continuation of the engineering-geologic mapping 

of the Tanana Valley transportation-development 

corridor between Fairbanks and the Canadian 

border.

 Continuation of the compilation of engineeringgeologic maps of the Arctic Coastal Plain between Prudhoe Bay and the Canadian border, 

which includes the northern part of the Arctic 

National Wildlife Range.

 Continuation of surficial-environmental geologic 

mapping of the central Brooks Range, which includes several transportation corridors across the 

Brooks Range from the energy-rich Arctic North 

Slope.

 Completion of a 3-year study of the seismicity of 

northeastern Alaska, demonstrating that this large 

region is subject to earthquakes although it was 

previously considered to be essentially aseismic.

 Completion of a series of preliminary engineeringgeologic strip maps of the route of the proposed 

Alaska Highway gas pipeline between Fairbanks 

and the Canadian border.

 Continuation of the exchange program with Soviet 

scientists and engineers concerned with pipelines, permafrost, and environmental protection.

Engineering Geology Program

The Engineering Geology Program is focused primarily on geologic processes and the behavior of 

earth materials as they affect the works of man and 

on the application of geologic knowledge to increase 

the safety, efficiency, and economy of design of 

structures and other engineering works. A major 

aspect of this program is the study of the areal and 

geologic distribution of geologic processes (that is, 

hazards) that are of major engineering significance 

(landslides, mudflows, floods, catastrophic erosion, 

failure of foundation materials because of subsidence, 

collapse, or liquefaction; earthquake shaking; and 

volcanic eruption) and the influence of physical and 

chemical properties and the environment on the 

causes, rates, and effects of these geologic hazards.

Major accomplishments of the program during fiscal year 1978 include the following:

 Completion of a major study on the classification, 

analysis, and control of landslides; to be published by the National Academy of Sciences.

 Recognition and mapping of a fault, the Ventura 

fault, within the metropolitan limits of Ventura, 

Calif., a probable source of seismic activity and 

Holocene movement.

 Completion of aerial photographic studies of landslides and slopes susceptable to landslides for a 

major part of the Appalachian region.

 Evaluation of instrumentation techniques used to 

identify subsurface features that affect slope stability.

 Participation in a study of the causes of failure of 

the Kelly Barnes Dam, Toccoa, Ca.

 Completion of studies and compilation of thermal 

properties of rocks, information that is critical 

to an estimation of geothermal resources and 

the thermal regime around radioactive waste 

repositories.

76
Regional Mapping and Analysis Program 

(Geologic Framework)

This fundamental program is designed to expand 

and to develop knowledge of the geologic framework 

of the Nation. Products of the program are basic to 

geologic work throughout the Geological Survey and 

are widely used by other Federal and State agencies 

and the public. This program is comprised of (1) surveys to determine the distribution and properties of 

earth materials, (2) studies to determine the absolute 

and relative ages of those materials, and (3) studies 

of geologic processes responsible for the formation, 

modification, and distribution of materials within or 

at the surface of the Earth.

GEOLOGIC MAPPING

Geologic mapping activities are determined by 

present and impending environmental and resource 

problems, by needs of other Federal and State agencies, and by the need to expand the basic knowledge 

of the Nation's rocks and surficial materials to meet 

mission program needs. Relations between the environment and the incidence of disease, geologic 

factors controlling food production, climate changes 

and their possible effects on the use of and demand 

for the Nation's resources, the management of radioactive wastes, and the development of alternate 

energy sources are among the diverse and complex 

problems that will rely, in the near future, on knowledge of the Nation's geologic framework. By means 

of cooperative agreements with several States, 

the Survey is also involved in Statewide mapping 

programs.

Major accomplishments for fiscal year 1978 include 

the following:

 Radiometric age determinations for some basalt 

rift systems in the Snake River Plain, Idaho, indicate eruption-recurrence intervals of 3,000 years. 

Some systems, however, may show an even 

shorter eruption interval.

 The cooperative program of detailed geologic mapping of the entire State of Kentucky was brought 

to a successful close. The program extended over 

nearly two decades and involved 1:24,000-scale 

geologic mapping of 707 quadrangles. Major results will be presented in a series of summary 

reports and in a new State geologic map at a 

scale of 1:250,000. The Kentucky Geological 

Survey estimates that the value of the maps to 

the State is nearly 51 times the $32 million cost 

of the program.

 Geologic mapping of western Montana has led to 

a better definition of both the geometry and

the genesis of a part of the Cordillera thrust belt. 

New data indicate that a major block of this belt 

last moved between 81 and .77 million years 

ago. The thrust belt of Montana is a major potential source of petroleum.

 The cooperative mapping program with Massachusetts indicates that eastern Massachusetts, Rhode 

Island, and part of Connecticut (a sliver of the 

ancient African continental plate) were left sutured to the North American plate along a zone 

through central Massachusetts when the African 

and North American plates split 200 million years 

ago. This most recent split led to the formation of the present Atlantic Ocean.

 Ongoing studies indicate that the rate of uplift and 

the rate of erosion and weathering of the southeastern Piedmont are alike, 33 feet per million 

years, and that they have been in balance for 

about the last 200 million years.

Applied and theoretical studies of potential field 

geophysical data, such as gravity and magnetic data, 

contribute fundamentally to our knowledge about the 

characteristics of rocks and structures beneath the 

Earth's surface. This research is multipurpose and 

provides a foundation upon which future research 

dedicated to mineral and energy resources and geologic hazards can be built.

Some of the activities and accomplishments of this 

program for fiscal year 1978 were as follows:

* Development and successful testing of a new method for determining from a continuous record 

of magnetic anomalies the depths to the tops 

of the magnetic rocks causing these anomalies 

using the maximum entropy power spectrum of 

the profile data.

* Development of the theory for a generalized approach to the inversion of magnetic and gravity 

data and reduction and treatment of irregularly 

distributed data.

* Interpretation of magnetic anomalies over the 

United States from satellite data which indicates 

that the most salient anomaly gradients are associated with lateral contrasts of oceanic and 

continental crust and intercontinental variations 

in remanent magnetization and crustal thickness 

due primarily to changes in regional temperature 

gradients.

* Compilation and interpretation of regional geophysical data in New Mexico which show that the 

Rio Grande rift encompasses uplifts of the Southern Rocky Mountains in a terrain of en echelon 

faults which are alined with structural cracks in 

the basement.

77
78

The distribution and abundance of chemical elements in rocks, soils, stream sediments, and vegetation provide a basis for appraising the impact of these 

factors on the economic, environmental, and health 

interests of the Nation.

Major accomplishments for fiscal year 1978 include 

the following:

 Geochemical baselines which are used to measure 

or monitor changes in the environment have 

been established for 36 regional landscape units 

spread throughout the energy region of the 

northern Great Plains; the Powder River, Big 

Horn, and Wind River Basins; the oil shale region 

of Colorado and Utah; and the San Juan Basin.

 Chemical data on a variety of plants which include 

crested wheatgrass, sweetclover, alfalfa, and 

wheat indicate that coal mine spoils, even with 

considerable topsoiling, can change the level of 

many elements to an appreciable degree. Some 

of these effects are nutritionally beneficial in 

terms of required concentrations of essential elements in animal forage; others in particular, 

the ratio of copper to molybdenum may induce 

mineral imbalances in livestock.

 Statistical analysis of concentrations of major, 

minor, and trace elements in surface sediments 

in the St. George Basin on the Outer Continental 

Shelf (OCS), southern Bering Sea, indicates three 

source areas of sediment a dominant felsic 

component from the northern Bering Sea derived 

from the Yukon and Kuskokwim Rivers, andesitic 

components from the Aleutian Islands, and a local basaltic component derived from the Pribilof 

components from the Aleutian Islands, and a local 

basaltic component derived from the Pribilof 

Islands. Sediment distribution is further modified 

by ponding of finer grained, higher organic sediments in the center of the St. George Basin. This 

information provides a baseline with which to 

measure future variations that may result from 

offshore economic exploration and development.

DATING AND CORRELATION PALEONTOLOGY 

AND STRATIGRAPHY PROGRAM

The study of life based on fossils, paleontology, and 

the study of the sedimentary rocks that enclose those 

fossils, stratigraphy, are essential to an understanding of the geologic history of the Earth, and geologic 

history is basic to a thorough understanding of the 

Nation's geologic framework. Paleontologic and stratigraphic information makes possible the relative dating and correlation of geologic deposits, the interpretations of environments in which previous life

forms existed, and the assessment of changes in life 

forms through time. Results of this program are critical to major programs throughout the Survey, and 

they enable the Survey to respond to both present 

and future problems requiring a knowledge of the 

history of geologic events.

Highlights of the Paleontology and Stratigraphy 

Program in fiscal year 1978 were as follows:

 Biostratigraphic studies in combination with new 

techniques of absolute age dating have established a more precise correlation of deformed 

shoreline deposits along the Atlantic Coastal 

Plain. A better understanding of the deformational history of the area is critical to an assessment of earthquake hazards to the siting of 

nuclear reactors in the area.

 Recent studies indicate that vertebrate animals 

existed at least 512 million years ago, that is, 40 

million years earlier than previously believed. 

Study of these fossils provides new knowledge 

on the anatomy, ecology, and evolution of the 

vertebrates, as well as new tools for correlation, dating, and paleogeographic reconstructions of ancient seas and landmasses.

 Study of fossils and the magnetic properties of the 

enclosing rocks indicates that some of the continental margin between Oregon and Alaska is 

composed of blocks of material formed near an 

ancient equator and moved 30° to 60° northward before being joined to what is now North 

America. A better understanding of these blocks 

is of great economic importance because some 

of these transported rocks in the Wrangell Mountains of Alaska contain rich copper deposits.

 Study of conodonts and brachiopods indicates that 

the Phosphoria Formation, a major source of 

fertilizer raw materials, can be extended into 

areas where it was not thought to exist. The fossil forms indicate that thicker phosphatic parts 

of the formation were deposited in small depressions on the shelflike margin of an ancient 

sea.

 Studies of 85- to 100-million-year-old pollen and 

other fossils in Texas have been used to establish a more precise biostratigraphy of rocks containing only the pollen fossils in the Atlantic 

Continental Shelf. This biostratigraphy will aid 

in the exploration for petroleum on the Atlantic 

Continental Shelf.

DATING AND CORRELATION ISOTOPE 

GEOLOGY PROGRAM

The Isotope Geology Program investigates, develops, and utilizes methods for determining ages of 

rocks and minerals, geochemical methods for study-
ing geologic processes, and neutron activation 

methods of field chemical analysis for mineral exploration. This work provides the basic data necessary for understanding Earth history and the geologic 

processes that have been active in shaping the Earth 

for the last 4.5 billion years and for solving a great 

variety of problems, ranging from mineral exploration to nuclear plant site evaluation, in which knowledge of the age of rocks or geologic events is 

essential.

Highlights of the program during fiscal year 1978 

include the following:

 Establishment of a volunteer and paid sampler network is providing well water samples from the 

Yellowstone National Park and the San Andreas 

fault areas for the determination of the helium 

contents to assess its use as a geochemical precursor of earthquakes.

 Operation of the argon mass spectrometer that will 

be unique when it is functioning on all five collectors; it is now operating on three collectors. 

Even at this stage, measurement of accurate potassium-argon ages is permitted even when only 

1 to 2 percent of the argon measured has been 

contributed by the radioactive decay of the 

parent potassium. This improvement has permitted undertaking the assessments of volcanic 

hazards at the candidate nuclear waste disposal 

sites in Idaho.

 Discovery that the isotopic composition of lead in 

Mesozoic and Cenozoic ore deposits is related 

to igneous activity in the Western United States 

correlates with the maximum production expected of the deposit. A new method of assessing the economic potential of these deposits is 

thus provided.

GEOLOGIC PROCESSES

Studies of geologic processes are made because 

they are fundamental to understanding the origin of 

mineral and energy resources and because many of 

these processes bear directly on health and the environment. Current studies include the thermodynamic properties of uranium compounds as related 

to the solution mining of uranium and the disposal 

of radioactive wastes, the occurrence and characterization of asbestiform minerals and their application 

to future public health legislation, the mechanism of 

volcanic eruptions, and the gas monitoring of volcanoes as a possible means to predict eruptions.

Activities and accomplishments for fiscal year 1978 

include the following:

 Development of a comprehensive program of research on radioactive waste disposal, including

investigations of potassium chloride, calcium 

chloride, calcium sulfate, and magnesium chloride 

systems.

 Completion of studies of the detailed crystal structure of copper sulfate ores. Results of this research will aid in exploration for new copper 

resources.

 Clarification of the health hazards caused by different fibrous minerals. Crocidolite is apparently 

a major health hazard, but not all fibrous minerals are equally hazardous.

MINERAL RESOURCE SURVEYS

Mineral Land Assessments

ALASKA

Mineral resource studies in Alaska constitute a 

long-range program designed to provide a systematic 

assessment of all potentially mineralized land in the 

State. The accumulated information and data are published in folios consisting of geologic, geophysical, 

geochemical, and Landsat image maps. All the maps, 

each of which is accompanied by a text, are used as 

building blocks to produce a map that outlines areas 

with mineral resource potential. Within areas for 

which there is adequate information on mineral deposit types, a quantitative probabilistic estimate of 

the mineral resources is made.

Highlights of the program during fiscal year 1978 

include the following:

 Open-file release of a mineral resource assessment 

at a scale of 1:1,000,000 of the main body of 

Alaska for use by the Department of the Interior 

and Congress in making decisions on classification and allocation of Alaska's public lands.

 Completion of detailed resource assessment studies 

in the McCarthy mining district. Similar studies 

were underway in two other districts in Alaska.

 Publication of mineral resource assessments in 

seven quadrangles at a scale of 1:250,000. Fieldwork was carried out in nine other quadrangles.

CONTERMINOUS STATES

Areas that have a high proportion of public land 

and a high potential for mineral resources are receiving comprehensive systematic study. Geologic, geochemical, and geophysical studies are combined to 

produce maps at a scale of 1:250,000. These integrated studies are the basis for mineral resource assessments that provide information on present and 

potential mineral supplies. Data from these assessments are an important consideration for land use 

planning by Federal, State, and local governments.

79
Major accomplishments for fiscal year 1978 include 

the following:

 The Atlantic Coastal Plain of South Carolina has 

been surveyed with airborne radioactivity detectors. Ground checks of areas with anomalous 

radioactivity show that a few are caused by heavy 

mineral concentration in Pleistocene beach 

sands; five were found that contain an estimated 

2 million tons of possible economic grade. Other 

areas of anomalous radioactivity are associated 

with phosphate deposits that contain traces of 

uranium. Recognition of these deposits extends 

the area of potential phosphate resources far beyond previously known deposits.

 Geological and geophysical work in the Iron Mountain 2° quadrangle, Wisconsin and upper Michigan, indicated the presence of a swarm of 

igneous dikes that extend at least 19 miles beyond their last surface exposure. The area, deeply 

covered by glacial deposits, is a significant extension of rocks that have a high potential for 

copper or nickel deposits.

 Careful scrutiny of mineralized rocks in the Canon 

City area of Oregon succeeded in identifying 

the origins of its copper and gold veins. Although they occur in the same groups of rocks, 

they were found to be formed by two different 

episodes of mineralization. Successful prospecting, therefore, requires different approaches for 

the two types of deposits.

WILDERNESS AREAS

The United States contains many millions of 

acres that have not been developed or otherwise 

changed as a result of man's use. Some of that land 

is being classified as wilderness and will be permanently closed to future mineral exploration. Prudent 

selection of areas for such withdrawal requires knowledge of potential resources that they may contain. The 

Survey, in cooperation with the Bureau of Mines, has 

completed appraisals of the mineral resource potential of about 18.5 million acres of land proposed for 

wilderness.

Accomplishments during fiscal year 1978 include the 

following:

 Publication of mineral resource assessments for 

eight areas comprising about 2 million acres. 

They are as follows:

1. Jarbidge, Nev.

2. Cabinet Mountains, Mont.

3. Snow Mountain, Calif.

4. Cranberry, W. Va.

5. Elkhorn, Mont.

6. Bob Marshall, Mont.

80

7. Rock Creek Canyon, Mich.

8. Sturgeon River, Mich.

 Five of the above areas have potential for mineral 

resources. They are as follows:

1. Jarbidge, Nev. The central and east-central 

part of the area has a high potential for 

barite.

2. Cabinet Mountains, Mont. The southern 

part of the area has a potential for large 

deposits of copper and silver.

3. Bob Marshall, Mont. The east half of the 

area has a high potential for natural gas.

4. Elkhorn, Mont. The northwest side of the 

area has a potential for molybdenum; 

the south has a potential for molybdenum and copper.

5. Cranberry, W. Va. Approximately 116 million tons of coal are present in seams 

thick enough and close enough to the 

surface to allow economic recovery.

 No significant mineral resource potential is known 

in the Rock River Canyon, Sturgeon River, and 

Snow Mountain areas.

INDIAN LANDS

Phase I studies on Indian lands consist of the review and evaluation of existing information and recommendation of further work where needed. These 

studies, done jointly by the Geological Survey and 

the Bureau of Mines, were completed on 13 reservations or groups of reservations, with a total area of 

1.6 million acres in fiscal year 1978.

Phase II studies involve reconnaissance geologic 

mapping and geophysical and geochemical studies by 

the Geological Survey. In fiscal year 1978, Phase II 

studies were continued on the Papago Indian Reservation, Ariz., the Fort Belknap and Flathead Reservations, Mont., and the Pine Ridge Reservation, S. Dak., a 

total of 7.5 million acres. New projects were started 

on eight Indian reservations; they were Acoma, N. 

Mex., Blackfeet, Fort Peck, and Crow Reservations, 

Mont., Wind River, WyO., Rosebud, S. Dak., and the 

Mole Lake and Lac du Flambeau Reservations, Wis. 

Total area involved in the new projects is 6.6 million 

acres.

Noteworthy results of Phase II studies include the 

completion of six 15-minute quadrangle geologic 

maps on the Papago Reservation, Ariz., and the 

delineation of a drilling program for geothermal 

energy on the Flathead Reservation, Mont.

Resource Information and Analysis

The minerals and metals most important to national and world economy are studied by commodity
specialists, who collect worldwide data on geologic 

occurrences and on the current and potential future 

sources. They maintain data on the origin and distribution of important mineral commodities and evaluate the significance of new discoveries and newly 

recognized processes in ore formations and apply 

them to assess the potential for mineral resources in 

areas under study.

Data on worldwide mineral supplies are stored in 

computer data banks, where they can be used by 

commodity specialists and others to supply information on which to base land use decisions and national 

mineral policy decisions. New computer programs 

are developed to evaluate current information and to 

estimate future supplies.

Major accomplishments of these interrelated fields 

in fiscal year 1978 include the following:

 Detailed studies in northern New York State resulted in the recognition of a very large body of 

high-calcium marble, within about 25 miles of 

the St. Lawrence Seaway. Utilization of material 

from that deposit as a flux in iron and steel making could result in significant savings in transportation costs compared with sources now in 

use.

 An evaluation of the fluorine provinces of the 

United States show that fluorspar occurs mostly 

in the Rocky Mountains, Appalachia, and the 

midcontinent. Fifty-five percent of known fluorspar reserves are in Illinois and Kentucky. Additional very large resources of fluorine are in 

phosphate rock, where the fluorine content is 

too low to permit economic recovery of itself 

but which may be recovered from the processing 

of phosphate rock for fertilizer. Major phosphate 

deposits are in Florida, Idaho, North Carolina, 

Tennessee, and Utah.

 Examination of data on past and current world 

sources and world consumption of chromite indicates that projected world demand for the 

period 1976 to 2000 will be double the total 

world production prior to 1976. By the year 2000, 

world markets will be dominated by the immense 

chromite resources of South Africa and Rhodesia.

 Consideration of known geologic environments 

that contain major deposits of lead and zinc 

throughout the world indicates that a significant 

potential exists for undiscovered deposits in 

buried shale sequences in the Eastern and Central 

United States. Detailed understanding of the 

geologic history of these concealed rocks can lead 

to the definition of favorable target areas with 

a high potential for new deposits.

 A computer program, using weighted aggregates 

of observed characteristics including lithology,

structure, magnetic intensity, and reflectance, 

was developed to provide a quantitative assessment of the resource potential of a mineralized 

area. The program has an important application 

in the assessment of the resource potential of 

large remote regions.

 Analysis of petroleum production and petroleum 

discovery rates in free world countries outside 

the United States and Canada shows that peak 

production for those countries will occur in the 

1990's. Peak production for the world as a whole 

will occur earlier.

 A worldwide computer network was established to 

provide information and methods for resource 

assessments and analysis. One hundred fortyone geologists in 10 countries made extensive 

use of the network to share resource information, to disseminate scientific information, and 

to consider policy issues.

 International standards for resource assessment 

methods, primarily for developing countries, 

were developed and accepted by more than 40 

countries. This provides the first opportunity to 

conduct resource assessments and studies in a 

uniform format useful to all nations involved.

Resources Processes

Assessment of mineral resources is greatly facilitated by the understanding of the processes responsible for their formation. A variety of field and laboratory studies, including the study of mining districts, 

detailed studies of ores, and experimental work on 

the physical and'chemical properties of minerals and 

rocks, contribute to such understanding.

Resource processes under study in fiscal year 1978 

provided the following results:

« Molybdenum deposits in the Battle Mountain district, Nevada, are related to a group of small 

quartz monzonite intrusives. Emplacement of 

both the intrusives and the molybdenum was 

controlled by jointing. Two sets of joints striking north and N. 70° W. controlled igneous rock 

emplacement; the ore veins are mostly in the 

N, 70° W. set, but a N. 45° E. set was important 

as conduits for mineralization. Much of the ore 

is associated with intense potassic alteration. 

Fluid inclusion study suggests molybdenite deposition from moderately saline solutions at temperatures of 300° to 400°C.

* Mapping, microscope studies, examination of fluid 

inclusions, and extensive chemical and microprobe analyses of the porphyry copper deposit at 

Ray, Ariz., were used to test theories on the

81
origin of the deposit. Earlier models of ore genesis were found to be inadequate. The Ray deposit appears to have formed from sulfides that 

remained below the porphyry until the intrusive 

had cooled enough to allow circulation of late 

magnetic metal-bearing water. Regional structures appear to exercise important controls on 

the localization of ore.

 Chemical composition and properties of radioactive ground water and spring water in the Southwestern United States are controlled by a complex group of factors. Multivariate analyses of 

analytical data revealed that nine identifiable 

characteristics controlled the properties of the 

water. Differences in the properties of the water 

were a function of the variations in the intensity 

of the nine processes at various springs and in 

various geologic environments. Properties of 

radioactive water are controlled by (1) total dissolved solids, (2) true alkalinity, (3) temperature, 

and (4) uranium-iron concentration. The composition of precipitates from the waters are determined by (1) contamination by migrating salts, 

(2) manganese precipitation, (3) iron-arsenicberyllium precipitation, (4) heavy metal precipitation, and (5) barium-radon precipitation. Computed intensity levels allow the scoring of intensity levels of each process that affected a particular water or precipitate sample.

 Detailed studies in the Duluth Complex, Minn., 

provided a basis for understanding the patterns 

of the large number of faults that cut these rocks. 

Interpretation of the pattern is important in 

evaluating the continuity of the nickel-copper deposits that occur in the complex.

Geochemical and Geophysical Techniques in 

Resource Assessments

As the supply of near-surface easily found mineral 

resources dwindles, detection of concealed deposits 

becomes increasingly important. Development of new 

geochemical and geophysical techniques and of new 

ways to interpret these and other sort of geologic information are major needs. Survey efforts in this direction include not only conception and design but 

also the testing of the new equipment and techniques 

in resource assessment and their incorporation into 

further assessment work as successful developments 

occur.

Important results in fiscal year 1978 include the 

following:

 Drill core samples of "barren" carbonate rocks 

from the Rolla 2° quadrangle, Missouri, were

82

examined to identify possible geochemical 

guides to mineral deposits. The samples, all 

from areas outside of known ore bodies, were 

found to contain two suites of trace elements. 

The first suite is present in all samples tested and 

is considered to be part of the original rock unit. 

The second, found in a few of the samples, includes lead, zinc, copper, molybdenum, nickel, 

cobalt, silver, arsenic, antimony, and tin. Metals 

of this suite were undetectable in most whole 

rock samples but were readily detected in their 

insoluble residues. That group of metals, which 

was introduced after the rocks were formed, is 

the same group found in rocks within known 

mineralized areas. Examination of insoluble residues of appropriate rock units thus becomes 

a potential guide to previously undetected 

deposits.

 Analyses of core samples from the Boulder Basin, 

Idaho, revealed the close association of mercury 

with the ores highest in gold and silver. The association suggests that mercury may be a useful 

pathfinder element in future exploration.

 Ceochemical exploration in northern Sonora, 

Mexico, in cooperation with the Consejo de Recursos Minerales of Mexico, found that certain 

stream sediments and panned concentrates were 

high in rare-earth elements. The anomalous samples, which also contain thorium, delineate a 

southwest-trending belt about 28 miles wide and 

112 miles long, extending across several mountain ranges. The thorium mineral was identified 

as thorite.

 Reconnaissance geochemical studies in the National 

Petroleum Reserve in Alaska (NPRA) and the adjoining Brooks Range found evidence for five 

types of mineralization: (1) barium in concretionary or bedded deposits, (2) zinc, silver, and 

barium in massive sulfides, (3) lead, silver, and 

zinc in deposits of unknown type, (4) arsenic, 

lead, and silver in deposits of unknown type, 

and (5) chromium and associated elements related to ultramafic rocks similar to those known 

south of the NPRA. The barite potential is of 

particular interest as a local source of drilling 

mud if the NPRA becomes a significant source 

of petroleum in the future.

 A pilot study in the Medicine Bow Mountains, 

Wyo., found highly radioactive ground water. 

Radioactivity, caused by radon gas, was much 

higher than could be accounted for by the uranium in exposed rocks. The results indicate a 

strong likelihood of significant uranium concentrations in Precambrian conglomerates, the 

geologic environment that contains the great 

gold-uranium deposits of South Africa.
The Oil and Gas Resource Investigations Program, 

which includes regional and topical petroleum-related geologic studies, provides Government and the 

public with credible and reliable assessments of the 

Nation's undiscovered oil and gas resources, both onshore and offshore. These research investigations involve the collection and analysis of geologic, geophysical, and geochemical data, leading to the development of concepts concerning the origin, migration, entrapment, and detection of oil and gas that 

are needed to support the resource appraisal efforts. 

Resource appraisal techniques and methodology are 

continually refined to make reliable estimates of undiscovered resources or to update previous estimates. 

Computerized data systems are being developed 

to organize petroleum-related geologic data and 

resource information so that they can be retrieved rapidly and applied to petroleum-related 

investigations.

EXPLANATION 

REGIONAL PETROLEUM GEOLOGY

Onshore basin studies 

Tight gas sands

Eastern black shale

Pacific Arctic and Atlantic 

Gulf petroleum geology

Northern Alaska petroleum geology

TOPICAL PETROLEUM GEOLOGY

G Oil forming process 

B Bore hole gravity 

R Reservoir rocks 

T Structural traps 

S Seismic investigations 

D Geochemical detection 

P Sedimentary process

Location of regional petroleum geologic studies and topical investigations.

83
Fiscal year 1978 accomplishments and activities include the following:

 Publication of a comprehensive report on the geologic and geophysical data obtained from the 

Continental Offshore Stratigraphic Test (COST) 

GE-1 well that was drilled in the southeast 

Georgia embayment, 74 miles east of Jacksonville, Fla.

 Publication of a report on the geologic setting, 

sediments, environmental conditions, and petroleum potential of the Mid-Atlantic OCS and 

Slope.

 Completion of a detailed report on oil and gas resource estimates, including appraisals by major 

Stratigraphic units, historical frequency distributions by sizes of fields, distributions by depth of 

occurrence for the known fields, and estimates of 

the number and probability distributions for the 

sizes of the undiscovered fields in each of the 

major Stratigraphic units for the Permian basins 

in west Texas and New Mexico and offshore Gulf 

of Mexico, Tex. and La.

 Continuation of research on characterization studies (Stratigraphic, structural, geochemical, paleontologic, mineralogic, geophysical, and resource 

appraisal) of the tight gas sands in the Uinta, 

Piceance, and Green River Basins, the northern 

Great Plains area, and the black shales and related rocks of Middle and Late Devonian age in 

the Appalachian Basin for the Department of 

Energy.

 Publication of a report on the petroleum geology 

of the West Siberian Basin and a detailed description of the Samotlor oil field, U.S.S.R.

Coal

The Geological Survey conducts a program to 

assess and classify the Nation's coal resources on the 

basis of their geographic and geologic distribution, 

physical and chemical characteristics, and availability 

for mining. The program involves geologic mapping, 

core drilling, Stratigraphic and petrographic studies, 

chemical analyses of samples, and geophysical and biochemical investigations, as well as research on the 

organic and nonorganic (mineral) constituents of coal, 

coal depositional environments, and coal diagenesis. 

The data obtained from these investigations are incorporated in the computerized National Coal Resources Data System (NCRDS), which now contains 

approximately 92,000 records.

The following activities and accomplishments were 

highlights in fiscal year 1978:

 Mapping, sampling, and assessing of the low-sulfur 

coal resources in areas totaling about 580 square 

miles in Colorado, Montana, Virginia, West Virginia, and Wyoming. A reassessment was made 

of low-sulfur coal on Federal lands in Wyoming, 

Montana, and Colorado, totaling about 957 

square miles.

 Determination of 110 million short tons of coal resources in nine beds within the 57-square-mile 

area proposed for the Cranberry Wilderness area 

in the Monongahela National Forest, Webster 

and Pocahontas Counties, W. Va.

 Preparation of 15 reports on the geology, quantity, 

and quality of coal resources; mining methods 

and potential development; and environmental 

hazards of mining federally owned coal in the 

Western United States, where production is 

anticipated and for which environmental impact 

statements and reclamation will be required.

 Participation in the International Energy Agency 

and cooperation with other North American and 

European coal-producing countries in the development of a World Coal Resource and Reserve 

. Data System for the assessment of world coal 

resources and an international lexicon of coalresource and reserve terminology.

 Collection of 1,000 samples of coal and related 

rock for chemical analysis in cooperation with 

20 State geological surveys. The analysis to date 

of more than 5,600 samples shows that coal from 

the Powder River region of Wyoming and Montana contains the lowest average amounts of 

many minor elements. In general, coal from the 

Interior province contains the highest average 

amount of these elements, and coal from the 

Appalachian province contains an intermediate 

amount.

Oil Shale

Field and laboratory studies of the Green River 

Formation in Colorado and Utah are conducted to determine the geologic setting and physical and chemical characteristics of oil shale. This work ultimately 

will lead to an assessment of the oil shale resources 

of the United States.

During fiscal year 1978, the following tasks were 

completed:

 Detailed geologic mapping of 58 square miles in 

the Piceance Creek Basin, Colo., and Uinta Basin, 

Utah.

 Measurement and analysis of 16 Stratigraphic sections, totaling 2.4 miles.

 Drilling and logging 15 core holes, for a total of 

0.7 mile.

 Analysis of 200 samples for oil yield, 400 samples 

for acid-extractable alumina, and 360 samples for 

chemical composition.

84
 Input of 10,000 data items from 10 core holes to 

the oil shale resource data file.

Uranium and Thorium

A better understanding of the occurrence of 

uranium and thorium in the United States is the basic 

objective of the Uranium-Thorium Resource Investigations Program. To attain this goal, geologic, geocherriical, and geophysical studies are conducted on 

a broad range of problems concerning the origin, 

migration, and deposition of uranium and thorium. 

The program also includes research on resource assessment methodology, which will lead to more 

reliable estimates of domestic uranium and thorium 

resources.

Among the program accomplishments and activities for fiscal year 1978 are the following:

 Participation in the National Uranium Resource 

Evaluation (NURE) Program being conducted by 

the Department of Energy. The favorability for 

uranium resources in 42 2° quadrangles is to be 

evaluated in 3 years. Preliminary studies of 38 

quadrangles were completed during fiscal year 

1978.

 Development of a facies model that explains and 

predicts uranium occurrences in the Powder 

River Basin, Wyo. The model uses information 

from surface and subsurface geologic and geophysical surveys and remote sensing data from 

satellite and high-flying aircraft.

 Identification of potential sources of uranium in 

four two-mica granite plutons in northeastern 

Washington and northern Idaho. The mineralogy, 

high uranium content, and thorium-uranium 

ratios are analogous to similar granites in important French mining districts.

 Demonstration of the effectiveness of a low-cost 

high-quality plastic scintillation detector for airborne spectrogamma ray surveys. The use of this 

detector by private industry should reduce the 

cost and increase the coverage of aerorad surveys in the United States.

 Preparation of an estimate of the reserves and probable potential thorium resources in the higher 

grade and better known deposits in the United 

States for the Department of Energy. Principal 

areas include high-grade veins in the Western 

States; low-grade disseminated deposits in 

Illinois, Wyoming, - and Colorado; low-grade 

massive carbonatites in Colorado and California; 

and very low grade stream placers in the 

Carolinas.

 Continuation of research on electrical resistivity 

and induced polarization surface and borehole 

surveys for detecting anomalous concentrations

of sulfide and clay minerals in the vicinity of 

uranium deposits. The success of this research 

has encouraged private industry to include resistivity and induced polarization surveys in 

four major exploration programs over the past 

year.

Geothermal Energy

A number of areas that have promise as sources of 

geothermal energy have been identified, and other 

areas of possible geothermal energy are under study. 

The Geothermal Energy Investigations Program is also 

developing a scientific basis for more accurate assessment and exploration techniques; this effort complements the technologic research program of the Department of Energy.

Some significant results and accomplishments for 

fiscal year 1978 include the following:

 Discovering a large low-velocity seismic anomaly 

beneath The Geysers Clear Lake geothermal 

area in northern California. This anomaly is probably the heat source responsible for the geothermal system.

 Discovering that the "Battle Mountain High," a 

region of high heat flow previously known only 

in north-central Nevada, probably extends northeast into Utah and Idaho and west almost to California. This indicates that a zone of exceptionally 

high heat flow extends almost continuously for 

621 miles from the vicinity of Steamboat Springs, 

Nev., to Yellowstone National Park, Wyo.

 Determining that the solubility of quartz in water at 

high temperature and pressure is of major importance to maintaining permeability in a geothermal reservoir. Heating water above 340°C at 

a depth of 1.2 miles will cause a decrease in the 

solubility of quartz. Decreased permeability due 

to quartz precipitation imposes an upper limit 

on the temperature attained by dilute water circulating into a geothermal system.

 Finding that reservoir temperature at Cerro Prieto 

geothermal field has decreased as pressure declined with production. Temperature decreases 

since 1970 may exceed 30°C and may make reinjection of separated water a necessity.

 Recognition of the following distinct patterns of 

organic gases in geothermal fluids: (1) a volcanic pattern with relatively little total hydrocarbons, (2) a volcanic-geothermal pattern with 

more total hydrocarbons, and (3) a sedimentarygeothermal pattern characterized by a relatively 

large amount of total hydrocarbons.

 Conducting a major multidisciplinary study of the 

Snake River Plain in Idaho to determine the 

geothermal potential of this region. Seismic,

85
magnetic, gravity, and electromagnetic surveys 

were made in conjunction with geologic and 

hydrologic studies.

OFFSHORE GEOLOGIC SURVEYS

Oil and Gas Resource Appraisal

The assessment of offshore oil and gas resources 

involves a study of the rocks beneath the Continental 

Shelf, using a variety of geophysical and geologic 

equipment. At sea, the prime geophysical tool is the 

common-depth-point seismic reflection system. Using 

compressed air as an energy source, sound waves 

are reflected off rock layers thousands of feet below 

the sea floor. The returning acoustic signals are recorded onboard the ship. Simultaneously, magnetic 

and gravity measurements are taken; these aid in interpreting the crustal structure.

The final interpretation integrates all of these data 

with geologic knowledge gained by directly sampling the sediments and rocks that constitute the sea 

floor. Deep stratigraphic cores provide the most satisfactory samples for calibrating the geophysical data 

and for chemical analyses of hydrocarbon generation, 

maturation, migration, and accumulation. Because 

deep coring is costly, this type of sampling is generally limited to sites where petroleum exploration is 

being conducted by private companies. In other areas, 

samples are dredged from rocks exposed in the walls 

of submarine canyons or other sea floor outcrops. 

Wells and outcrops from nearby coastal areas also 

provide samples to aid in the interpretation.

Major activities and accomplishments in fiscal year 

1978 include the following:

 In the Beaufort Sea off northern Alaska, the R/V 

Samuel P. Lee mapped major geologic structures which may contain oil and gas resources.

 A submarine gas seep in Norton Sound, Alaska, 

was found to contain types of gases that are of 

commercial interest.

 A synthesis of all geophysical and geologic data 

on the Atlantic OCS has been enhanced with 

3,169 miles of newly acquired geophysical data.

Environmental Investigations

Marine geologic features and processes, including 

active faulting, unstable sediment masses, and excessive underwater erosion, are hazardous to offshore 

structures such as drilling platforms and pipelines. 

Field studies (see below) are conducted to identify 

safe and hazardous areas within each lease sale area. 

The information developed from these investigations 

is used in the departmental leasing decision process.

Sequence showing launch and retrieval of current and transmissometer mooring system. This page: Two scientists discussing whether the unit will "fly" (above); anchor, acoustic 

release, new fan-type current meter, and span buoy being 

attached (below). Next page: Retrieval of system (above); 

checking out the instrument package (below); two scientists 

taking 1 of 125 suspended sediment samples (right).

86
port the Bureau of Land Management's environmental baseline study program.

 A profiling and sampling program on the Yukon 

Delta of Alaska was begun to gather data on sediment movement across the delta region and to 

identify areas of unstable sediments on the delta 

front slope.

Marine Geology Investigations

This program consists of marine research and support activities specifically directed toward OCS oil and 

gas development. Current research includes geochemical studies of manganese nodules and the development of deep-towed instruments to map the 

distribution of manganese nodules, coastal zone 

studies, and engineering properties of sea floor 

sediments.

Fiscal year 1978 highlights include the following:

 Compilation of a series of charts covering the 

Alaskan and northeastern Pacific Continental

Activities and highlights for fiscal year 1978 include 

the following:

 Field studies were conducted in the North, South, 

and Mid-Atlantic OCS areas; in the central and 

western Gulf of Mexico; off the southern California coast; and in the Gulf of Alaska and the 

Bering Sea.

 Geophysical data and sea floor samples were collected in the Pacific and Alaskan OCS areas to 

identify potential geologic hazards to offshore 

oil and gas resource development and to supShelves which show sea floor topography, tracklines with high-resolution geophysical data, 

tracklines of single and multichannel seismic 

data, sample localities, and subsurface geologic 

structures.

 Discovery and mapping of sand resources offshore 

St. Thomas, Virgin Islands, where onshore resources are virtually unavailable. Other coastal 

and nearshore investigations were conducted in 

Alaska, Oregon, California, Texas, Puerto Rico, 

and Massachusetts.

87
ASTROGEOLOGY

Study of geologic processes, materials, and histories 

of the Moon and other planets and their satellites 

continued in fiscal year 1978 under funding from the 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration. 

As in the previous fiscal year, emphasis has continued 

to shift away from the study of the Moon to the 

study of other planets, as the last of the lunar projects 

ended and a new 5-year Mars data analysis program 

was begun. The Viking mission returned a vast 

amount of data on Mars, including about 50,000 pictures. The Astrogeology Program was expanded to 

take advantage of this mass of information, with the 

hope of a better understanding of this geologically 

diverse planet. Support was also provided for the 

Pioneer mission to Venus and the Voyager and 

Galileo missions to the outer planets. ,, 

INTERNATIONAL ACTIVITIES

Although the Geological Survey's primary responsibilities are for Earth resources surveys, investigations, and research within the territorial limits of the 

United States, it has long been involved in activities 

abroad, both on behalf of other U.S. agencies and 

programs and in the extension of its own research 

into foreign areas. In recent years, the scope of these 

activities has increased to support the growing interests of other Federal agencies and the growing 

needs for research abroad on earth science problems 

of concern to the United States.

The Survey's international activities may be classified in the following principal categories:

1. Scientific and technical assistance to other agencies, governments, and international organizations.

2. Cooperative research on subjects of mutual interest to the Survey and counterpart agencies.

3. Representation and participation in international 

commissions, working groups, and meetings.

4. Training and information exchange. _

Scientific and technical assistance and training activities are authorized by the Agency for International 

Development (AID) under the Foreign Assistance Act 

and are conducted with funds transferred from other 

agencies or governments. The other international activities are conducted, in part, to support the Survey's 

own domestic program objectives.

All Survey divisions and elements of the Land Information and Analysis Office (LIA), including the 

Earth Resources Observations Systems (EROS) Program, the Environmental Impact Analysis Program, 

the Geography Program, and the Land Resource Data

Applications Program, are involved in the Survey's international activities. Most scientific, technical, and

Computer mosaic of high-resolution Viking 1 Lander pictures, which were taken in the early morning of August 3,1976, and cover about 167°. 

The drifts of fine-grained material (left) are about 50 to 100 feet from the spacecraft. The blocks (near center) are about 250 feet from the 

spacecraft. Computer mosaicking was done by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif. Photograph by the National Aeronautics and 

Space Administration.

88
administrative personnel who participate in these activities are drawn from the staffs of these organizational units and return to domestic operations following their international assignments.

Coordination of Survey international activities is 

achieved through the International Activities Committee, which consists of representatives of the divisions and LIA. Administrative, managerial, and logistical functions are performed by the Office of International Geology, which operates within the Geologic 

Division.

Results of the Survey's international activities are 

made available in Geological Survey publications 

and those of sponsoring U.S. agencies, in publications of counterpart and cooperating agencies in the 

host countries and of professional societies, and in 

the proceedings of international organizations and 

commissions.

The range of subjects and countries involved is indicated by fiscal year 1978 reports on recent and 

projected changes in the level of the Red Sea and 

their influence on mineral production; studies of rock 

types and geologic structures in Brazil, the Libyan 

Arab Republic, the Yemen Arab Republic, Saudi 

Arabia, Colombia, and Liberia; ground-water conditions in Cambodia, Egypt, and Kenya; the geologic 

conditions pertinent to engineering planning for the 

new Federal Capital Territory of Nigeria; volcanic 

hazards of Cotopaxi, Ecuador; and copper prospects, 

gabbro, and the geochronology and radioactive mineralogy of rocks of the Arabian Shield. A tectonic map 

of the circum-Pacific region, one of a series being 

produced by cooperative international effort, was 

published, as was a report presenting the technical 

papers of a Central Treaty Organization (CENTO) 

workshop on remote sensing.

Scientific and Technical Assistance

During fiscal year 1978, scientific and technical assistance activities, which range in length from a few 

weeks to many years, cover virtually all subjects with 

which the Geological Survey's domestic program is 

involved. They vary in scope from consultation on 

specific techniques, problems, or resources to multifaceted programs involving many disciplines that aim 

toward developing or strengthening Earth resources 

institutions and programs.

During fiscal year 1978, in support of the Department of Energy, a new program to assist developing 

countries in identifying and evaluating their options 

for future development and use of their energy resources was undertaken. In this program, existing information on indigenous energy resources is compiled and evaluated jointly with host-country scientists to determine the status of known resources and

possibilities for the discovery of additional resources. 

The Bureau of Mines, the Bureau of Reclamation, and 

the Argonne National Laboratories also cooperate 

with the Geological Survey in the program, providing 

information on production of raw materials essential 

to energy industries, on hydropower development, 

and on the applicability of solar, wind, and biomass 

energy technology. This information is then analyzed 

in cooperation with host-country agencies to determine the options available for meeting future energy 

requirements. Such studies were carried out in Egypt 

and Peru in 1978.

The fifth extension of an agreement between the 

U.S. Geological Survey and the Directorate General 

for Mineral Resources (DGMR), Ministry of Petroleum 

and Mining, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, was signed in 

1978. The agreement provides for continuing assistance to the DGMR in establishing facilities and training Saudi Arabian scientists in earth science and 

mineral investigations. Work carried out under the 

agreement to date has been described in more than 

250 reports.

Results of several projects sponsored by AID were 

highlighted by maps and reports published during the 

year. A series of 10 quadrangle maps of Liberia was 

published (see fig. 24). When these became available 

in late 1977, a set was formally presented to the 

Liberian Embassy (see fig. 25) in Washington, D.C. 

Liberia is now the only African country to be completely mapped geologically at 1:250,000-scale. A 

geographic map of Yemen (San'a') (fig. 26) on a 

Landsat image base and a companion multicolor geologic map, both prepared by the Survey at 1:500,000 

scale, were published for the Government of Yemen. 

The proceedings of two conferences on remote sensing were prepared for publication by CENTO. These 

reports contain the results of training and information 

exchange projects involving applications of Landsat 

data to a wide range of Earth resources problems in 

the participating countries (Pakistan, Iran, and Turkey).

As part of a cooperative effort to help Nigeria select a site for a new Federal capital, geographic and 

land use maps of Nigeria were prepared and published. Based upon computer-enhanced Landsat 

imagery, these products are intended to provide reference, geologic, hydrologic, and land use information 

as a basis for site selection and engineering studies. 

The completion of the shooting of a deep seismic 

refraction line from the coastal waters of the Red Sea 

to the eastern side of the Arabian Shield was a major 

achievement during 1978. Twenty-four Survey scientists and technicians participated in the work, and 

high-quality data were collected. A series of interpretive papers is in preparation.

As part of the Geological Survey's continuing support for AID, a new program to assist other countries

89
GEOLOGIC MAP OF LIBERIA

FIGURE 24.-Photograph of the

in the employment of new techniques for assessing 

and mitigating volcanic, earthquake, landslide, and 

flood hazards has been formulated. Objectives will 

be to identify and to analyze hazardous conditions, to 

devise programs and to introduce techniques that will 

minimize the effects of natural disasters, and to develop staff, institutions, and mechanisms for hazard 

studies.

90

composite geologic map of Liberia.

Cooperative Research

Cooperative research is undertaken for the benefit 

of both Survey programs and those of the counterpart agencies. Objectives are to improve the knowledge of resources and geologic phenomena and the 

techniques and equipment for acquiring, processing, 

and reporting information. Programs are conducted
in the following categories: (1) bilateral agreements 

between the Survey and counterpart organizations, 

(2) multilateral cooperative projects involved with international organizations, and (3) joint survey projects 

such as the work in Antarctica.

Bilateral agreements have been made with Bolivia, 

Mexico, Morocco, West Germany, Poland, and Yugoslavia. In Bolivia, the Survey and the San Calixto 

Observatory will cooperate to establish a net to 

gather data on seismic events to enable analysis of 

earthquake hazards of the Cochabamba area and to 

expand knowledge of worldwide seismic conditions. 

In Mexico, cooperative research on techniques of geochemical exploration for copper with the Consejo de 

Recursos Minerales, now in its third year, has led to 

the discovery of areas having anomalous amounts of 

lead- and uranium-bearing minerals. Continuing research will be aimed at discovery of the sources and 

evaluation of their metal content. Mineral and energy 

resources, marine geology, geologic data acquisition and management systems, and applications of 

geology to agriculture and to management of environments are categories of research interests identified

FIGURE 25. Dr. James R. Balsley (right), Assistant Director, 

Land Resources, U.S. Geological Survey, presents the Geologic 

Map of Liberia to Mr. William V. S. Bull, Counselor to the 

Liberian Embassy, Washington, D.C., at the Survey's National 

Center in Reston.

in the U.S.-West German bilateral agreement for 

cooperation.

Projects have been undertaken with Poland for research on the characteristics of coal basins and basemetal deposits and with Yugoslavia for the investigation of light metal and rare-earth minerals of granitoid massifs and for the design and development of 

data management systems and maps of geologic, 

seismic, and mineral distribution conditions specifically for land use planning.

The Survey cooperated in multilateral programs 

under the auspices of several international agencies. 

The International Geological Correlation Program involves geological agencies of 56 other countries under 

the joint sponsorship of the International Union of 

Geological Sciences (ILJGS) and the United Nations 

Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization 

(UNESCO). Participation in the International Hydrological Program is under the general guidance of the 

U.S. National Committee on Scientific Hydrology in 

cooperation with UNESCO and the World Meteorological Organization. Through the Circum-Pacific 

Council on Energy and Resources (CPC), a nonprofit 

organization devoted to appraising the scientific and 

resource status of the Pacific region, Survey members 

are collaborating with scientists of civil and private 

agencies in dozens of CPC countries to prepare a 

series of maps depicting the geology, tectonics, 

geodynamics, energy, and mineral resources of the 

Pacific region. During the year, the geographic and 

base map series were published (1:10,000,000 scale). 

Survey personnel presented papers on energy and 

mineral source materials, tectonics, and geologic 

hazards and also contributed to workshops on sedimentary basin analysis, landslides, and remote sensing at the second Circum-Pacific Conference on 

Energy and Minerals Resources, Honolulu, Hawaii.

The Survey also cooperated in a UNESCO-Canadian 

Agency for International Development-AID joint 

project to present a training course on Landsat applications to land use and land cover mapping for 

five West African countries. The workshop was conducted at Ibadan) Nigeria, specifically for university 

staff members through whom the knowledge of new 

data types and methods might reach the students who 

will become the next generation of analysts and 

managers.

Representation and Participation in 

International Commissions, Working Groups, 

and Meetings

Activities in international representation included 

participation in multination commissions, working

91
YEMEN ARAB REPUBLIC

92

GEOGRAPHIC MAP OF THE VEMEN ARAB REPUBLIC (SAN-A')
groups, and meetings. Sponsors included the InterAmerican Development Bank, the CPC, McGill University, the Organization of American States, agencies of the United Nations, and the World Bank, in 

support of programs on water resources, marine mining and oil and gas production, tectonics and seismicity, geologic mapping, and land use mapping.

In addition, Survey personnel also participated in 

meetings and conferences of the Committee for Coordination of Joint Prospecting for Mineral Resources 

in Asian Offshore Areas, the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, 

the Commission for the Geologic Map of the World, 

and various commissions and subcommissions of the 

IUGS.

As part of its effort to provide representation and 

exchange of information with agencies and programs 

in other countries and to keep informed on foreign 

resources and programs, the Geological Survey is 

cooperating with the Bureau of Mines and the Department of State in supporting a resources attache 

program in selected U.S. embassies abroad. The resources attache program provides a mechanism for 

exchange with other countries of information on 

minerals and fuels programs, resources, industries, 

and related activities. Resources attaches are now stationed in U.S. embassies in Australia, Belgium, Bolivia, 

Brazil, India, Indonesia, Japan, Mexico, South Africa, 

Thailand, and Venezuela.

Training and Information Exchange

Training and information exchange activities involve formal training programs including the regularly scheduled International Remote Sensing Workshop 

that is presented twice yearly at the EROS Data 

Center, formal training programs in other countries, 

and programs that associate individual participants 

with ongoing Survey projects in geology, water resources, topographic mapping, publications, and computer applications and also in college and industrial programs. By mid-1978, about 200 participants 

from 55 countries had begun or completed associated 

programs, 25 scientists from 14 countries had attended the spring International Remote Sensing 

Workshop, 18 scientists from 5 Central American 

countries had attended the workshop on applications 

of remote sensing in land use surveys that was sponsored by the Inter-American Development Bank, and 

a course on Landsat applications in land use and land 

cover mapping had been presented for the Government of Mexico in Mexico City. In July and August, 

a basic course on applications and methods in remote 

sensing was conducted at the Iranian Remote Sensing

FIGURE 26. Photograph of multicolor geologic map of the Yemen 

Arab Republic (San'a').

Students in the Minority Participation in Earth Science Program at the Global 

Seismicity Facilities, Golden, Colo., and at the Geologic Landmark, near 

Denver, Colo.

Center in Tehran. New courses in computer-assisted 

processing of Landsat data for geologic, land use, 

and environmental study are planned to begin in late 

1978 in cooperation with the Northern Arizona State 

University.

In addition to contributions in formal programs, 

Survey personnel responded to requests by visitors including U.S. citizens, teachers, explorationists, and 

other industry representatives as well as foreign visitors. At midyear, visitors representing U.S. interests 

numbered 83, and 200 foreign visitors had come from 

56 countries. The second edition of the "Worldwide 

Directory of National Earth Science Organizations" 

was published as Circular 771.

93
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY LIBRARY

The Geological Survey Library is one of the largest 

earth science libraries in the world. The main library 

is located at the Survey's National Center in Reston, 

Va., with branches located at major research centers 

in Denver, Colo., Menlo Park, Calif., and Flagstaff, 

Ariz. These libraries collectively contain more than 

2 million items. Although these holdings are intended 

primarily to support the research activities of the 

Geological Survey, the library also serves other Government agencies, State geological surveys, academic 

institutions, and research organizations throughout 

the country.

The open-house celebrating the opening of the 

new library in Denver, took place in November 1977. 

The new facility was brought about in the aftermath of 

a fire that heavily damaged the former library facility. 

The new accommodations boast of approximately 

27,000 square feet of space for the clientele as well as 

the library staff. Hard work and dedication by the 

staff contributed greatly to the reestablishment of 

services in the new library. Correspondingly, the library facilities have been expanded at the field center 

in Flagstaff, reflecting the more diversified interests of 

the Survey there.

Machine-readable data produced as a result of 

cataloging through OCLC Inc. has been used to 

create a library accessions list. This monthly list alerts 

the user to new publications added to the library and 

is particularly beneficial to field offices with few or no 

library facilities. By alerting a broad spectrum of Survey users to the new acquisitions, a greater number 

of users is being made aware of library materials and 

services.

A users' guide has been drafted to provide information that will assist the researcher in the use of the 

library collections and services. The guide details' 

methods of access to the collections of books, maps,

Research facilities, National Center library.

Portion of the map collection, National Center library.

and microfilms and explains how to make use of the 

reproduction facilities, lending and reference services, 

and online data-base searches.

Interlibrary loan and photoduplication activities continued to increase in volume and number of clientele 

serviced (table 44). More demands for these services 

are being produced by a wider range of libraries using the library's cataloged materials that appear on 

the OCLC data base. Likewise, the number of visitors 

from across the Nation and foreign countries who 

come to work with the collections has increased.

The number of Beehive Model 105 terminals being 

used to access the OCLC data base was increased by 

two, giving a total of five such terminals now being 

operated for library services. The Survey library continues to rank among the top six Federal libraries in 

the number of titles entered into this data base. Increased use of these same terminals is being made in 

the areas of acquisitions, reference, and interlibrary 

loan services.

Access to such data bases as GeoRef, GeoArchive, 

Chemcon, and NTIS Index is now available at the 

Reston, Denver, and Menlo Park libraries. The citations listed as the result of the literature searches of 

the online services have increased the demand for 

the serials, books, and reports listed. The increase in 

loan activities (table 44) is a reflection of the effect 

these activities have on other library services.

With the cooperation of the National Cartographic 

Information Center, the library, for the first time, was 

able to assemble a complete collection of all editions 

of the topographic quadrangle maps issued by the 

Survey. This collection represents an important historical collection in hard copy form. Statistics for fiscal year 1978 on library acquisitions, circulation, and 

lending-borrowing activities will be found in table 

44.

94
OTHER ASPECTS OF GEOLOGIC DIVISION 

PROGRAMS

(clockwise from upper left): sandflow vents 

and interior damage in a house lying across 

a fissure associated with liquefaction (Caucete, Argentina); collecting up-to-date data 

on land and mineral resources still requires 

covering the ground the hard way (Bitch 

Creek, northwest flank of the Teton Range, 

Wyo.); thick packets of turbidite sandstone 

in the Makah Formation (southwesternmost 

coast of the Strait of Juan de Fuca, Wash.); 

construction of the underground radiocarbon dating laboratory (Menlo Park, 

Calif.).

95
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Wise management of resources requires that up-todate scientific hydrologic information be readily 

available for planners. The Water Resources Division 

has the principal responsibility within the Federal 

Government for providing data and appraising water 

resources to facilitate evaluation of water problems. 

The Division's program is structured to present impartial accurate data and scientific analyses. It provides reports and maps to the public in Federal, 

State, and local publications; in technical journals; 

and through selected libraries.

The Water Resources Division provides extensive 

support to the missions of other Federal agencies 

and, under the Federal-State Cooperative Program, to 

State and local agencies. Therefore, the Division is 

aware of water-information needs at all levels of government and develops programs responsive to those 

needs. Through a network of offices in all 50 States, 

as well as in Puerto Rico and Guam (fig. 27), the 

Division works closely with State and local agencies. 

Addresses of District Offices are listed in the chapter 

on organizational and statistical data.

A major responsibility was assigned to the Survey 

in 1964 when it was designated the lead agency for 

coordinating water-data-acquistion activities of all 

Federal agencies, including information on streams, 

lakes, reservoirs, estuaries, and ground water. This 

coordination effort minimizes duplication of data collection among Federal agencies and strengthens the 

overall data base and its accessibility.

HIGHLIGHTS

In the past, not enough data have been available 

that describe where, how, and in what quantities 

water is used. Yet water-use data are critical for effective planning and management. To fill this information gap, a national system for water-use data was 

begun in 1978. Projects were implemented in 16 

States as part of the Federal-State Cooperative Program. By 1982, similar projects should be underway 

in all States.

The National Water Data Exchange (NAWDEX) expanded its Master Water Data Index to identify more 

than 200,000 sites for which water data are available. 

Membership in NAWDEX increased from 84 members 

in September 1977 to 116 members in July 1978, and 

more than 400 organizations have been registered in 

the Water Data Sources Directory.

Intensive river-quality assessments of the Upper 

Chattahoochee River, Ga., and the Yampa River, 

Colo.-Wyo., were completed, and reports are in preparation. A study of the Potomac estuary, Washington, 

D.C., is in progress, and assessments of three basins

Lower Falls, Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone. Yellowstone 

National Park, Wyo. (National Park Service.)

(the Schuylkill River, Pa., Apalachicola River, Fla., and 

Carson-Truckee Rivers, Nev.-Calif.) will begin in fiscal 

year 1979.

A finding from prototype urban hydrology studies 

in Denver, Colo., Miami, Fla., Philadelphia, Pa., and 

Portland, Ore., during the past 5 years showed that 

storm-water runoff in urban areas is a significant 

source of pollutants entering rivers and streams. The 

Survey published several technical reports on these 

investigations, and recent improvements in automatic 

sampling equipment and analysis techniques will 

greatly expand the effectiveness of such urban studies 

in the future.

Water-surface profiles are needed to design structurally sound and environmentally harmonious stream 

crossings. Hydrologists obtained flood-flow data at 22 

sites in Alabama, Louisiana, and Mississippi where 

densely wooded flood plains are crossed by highway 

embankments and single-opening bridges. New techniques are under investigation to use the data as a 

base for developing and evaluating two-dimensional 

digital models for predicting water-surface profiles.

Numerical simulation models of the simultaneous 

transport of water and heat in porous media offer a 

useful technical tool for the evaluation of aquifers for 

the storage of heat energy. Data collected in a field 

experiment of heat storage in an aquifer near Mobile, 

Ala., were analyzed, and a simulation model of the 

aquifer system was constructed. Simulation runs of 

the model indicated that it can satisfactorily reproduce the observed behavior of the system.

Water continues to be a key factor in energy development. Studies by the Water Resources Division 

in 1978 focused on the relationship of subsurface 

water to the disposal of high-level nuclear wastes, 

water problems related to in-situ development of oil 

shale, and water supplies and impacts related to the 

development of coal reserves.

In-depth studies of major regional aquifer systems 

began in fiscal year 1978. Investigations were underway in the California Central Valley, the northern 

Great Plains, and the High Plains regions. Available 

hydrologic information was analyzed, and observation networks and data-collection programs were 

implemented. In the northern Great Plains area, contracts for deep test drilling were awarded, and development of computer models of the aquifer systems 

of the three regions was begun.

Work has continued on a series of 21 Regional 

Ground-Water Appraisals. In 1978, appraisals were 

published for the following regions: Mid-Atlantic, 

Great Lakes, Souris-Red-Rainy, Tennessee, and Hawaii. 

The appraisals address matters of broad public concern problems associated with urban-area management, land and water use planning, and the quantity 

and quality of regional ground-water supplies.

97
WATER RESOURCES 

INVESTIGATIONS

Other Federal 

agencies

$29.7

Direct 

$67.0

:eimbursable 

$67.5

National Water Data System $134.5

Miscellaneous

non-Federal

sources

$2.8

Cooperate 

TOTAL $148.2 MILLION

SOURCfc Or r'UM

Direct 

$13.7

Critical National 

Water Problems

USE OF FUNDS

S

BUDGET AND PERSONNEL

In 1978, the Water Resources Division employed 

2,872 full-time personnel. They included scientists and 

engineers representing all fields of hydrology and related sciences, technical specialists, and administrative, secretarial, and clerical employees. An additional 

1,250 permanent part-time and intermittent employees assisted in the work of the Division.

The $148.2 million available in 1978 for the Water 

Resources Investigations activities came from the following sources (table 6):

1. Direct Congressional appropriations.

2. Congressional, State, and local appropriations for 

the Federal-State Cooperative Program on a 50- 

50 basis.

3. Funds transferred from other Federal agencies.

4. Funds transferred from State and local agencies.

98
TABLE 6 Water Resources Investigations activity obligations for fiscal year 1978, by program

[Dollars in millions]

Source of funds

Program Federal 

Program 1

FederalState 

Cooperative 

Program 2

Other

Federal

agency

programs 3

NonFederal 

programs *

Total

Percent 

change 

relative 

to fiscal 

year 1977

Total _______________________________45.7_____70.0

National Water Data System _______________ 32.0 70.0

Collection, analysis, and dissemination of streamflow,

water quality, ground-water, and sediment data 5 14.9 34.0 

Regional and areal resource appraisals, and regional

aquifer system analyses _______________ 5.8 23.2 

Studies related to critical water problems ____ . __ 6.4 

Core program of hydrologic research _______ 7.8 __ 

Other data collection and applied research _____ __ 6.4 

Hydrologic investigations on public lands (soil and

moisture conservation) _______________ .2 __ 

Publications and other supporting services ____ 3.3 __

Critical National Water Problems _____________ 13.7 __

Accelerated energy research and development programs ________________________ 10.6 __

Coal hydrology ________ _ _ 6.0 

Oil-shale hydrology _________________ 2.4 __

Underground heat storage _____________ .1 ____

Low-level nuclear waste investigations ______ 2.1 __

Ground-water recharge ________________ 1.2 ____

Subsurface waste storage _____________ 1.3

Flood-hazard mapping __ _ _________ .4 

Estuarine and coastal studies ____________ .2 

Percent change relative to fiscal year 1977 _______ +32 +3

29.7 2.8 148.2

29.7 2.8 134.5

14.2

7.6 

5.6

2.3

1.8

0.4 

0.3

0.3

64.9

37.0

12.3

7.8

9.0

.2 

3.3

13.7

10.6

6.0

2.4

.1

2.1

1.2

1.3 

.4 

.2

+ 12 + 13

+ 13

+ 13

1 Federal funds excluding those used to match funds from State and 

local agencies.

- Includes Federal funds used to match State and local agency funds 

on a 50-50 basis.

3 Funds from 23 other Federal agencies transferred to the Geological 

Survey, Water Resources Division.

Federal Program

The water-data collection, resource investigation, 

and research activities of this program are carried out 

in areas where the Federal interest is paramount. 

These include bodies of water in the public domain, 

river basins and aquifers that transcend State boundaries, and other areas of international or inter-State 

concern. Activities include operation of surface-water 

and ground-water measurement stations throughout 

the country and sites established to provide data on 

water quality, the Survey's Central Laboratories System, hydrologic research and analytical studies, and

* Includes unmatched funds from State and local agencies, funds from 

permittees and licensees of the Federal Power Commission, and funds 

from minor miscellaneous sources.

5 Federal funds include support of coordination of national water data 

and the National Water Data Exchange.

a variety of supporting services. In 1978, the Federal 

Program totaled $45.7 million.

Federal-State Cooperative Program

Geological Survey programs have multiple objectives and serve the earth science and related information needs of a large number of government agencies and private groups. As major users of this information, State, regional, and local agencies have an 

important role in helping to define the scope of Survey programs. Accordingly, selected projects judged

99
100

to be of mutual benefit to the Federal, State, and local governments are funded on a 50-50 basis in the 

Federal-State Cooperative Program.

In fiscal year 1978, the Water Resources Division 

joined in cooperative programs with 610 State and 

local agencies; most of the work was done bv the 

Survey, but State and local agencies provided half 

the funds. The overall programs totaled $70 million.

Through contact with the "real" world of water 

conservation, development, management, and use, 

the Water Resources Division anticipates and responds to changing priorities. Planning the annual 

program in each State is a mutual decision process, 

with the Survey representing national interests and 

the cooperating agencies representing State and local 

interests. As the need arises for additional and new 

kinds of water information, programs are jointly adjusted within the framework of priorities and resources. As a result, the work is problem oriented and 

interdisciplinary. The diverse program activities include collection of long-term multipurpose data (surface water, ground water, water quality, and water 

use); special interpretive studies of the physical, 

chemical, and biological characteristics of water; and 

appraisals for environmental impact evaluation, 

energy development, coastal zone management, subsurface waste storage, waste utilization, land use planning, flood-plain management, and flood-warning 

systems.

The strength of the Federal-State Cooperative Program lies in (1) coordinated programming for water 

information that responds to identified and developing needs of people at all levels and relates to the 

environmental aspects of water use, (2) the quality 

and acceptability of the water data accumulated 

through a uniform program in 50 States and several 

of the territories, and (3) the impartial nonadvocacy 

position of the Geological Survey in carrying out and 

reporting on its work.

Considerable information has been developed to 

characterize in detail the quantity, quality, and distribution of the Nation's water resources, but until 

now relatively little has been done to describe where, 

how, and in what quantities water is used. In recognition of this deficiency, the Division began the National Water Use Data Program by implementing investigations in 16 States during fiscal year 1978. The 

program provides for the comprehensive and systematic collection, analysis, and dissemination of 

water use data throughout the United States. Water 

use statistics are essential to planning and management decisions involving water quality, environmental 

impacts, energy development, and resource allocations. The program is being developed in stages 

through consultation with State and Federal agencies.

Arrangements are being made for State or local agencies to collect field data in each State. Full implementation is anticipated by fiscal year 1982.

Another major area of emphasis within the Federal-State Cooperative Program is that of hydrologic 

studies related to coal development. Use of coal to 

lessen demand for imported oil has resulted in coalrelated hydrologic studies in 31 States. Additional cooperative investigations related to alternative sources 

of energy include nuclear hydrology, oil shale hydrology, and geothermal research.

Examples of reports published during the past year 

are as follows:

 A ground-water-quality monitoring program for 

Nevada.

 Connector-well experiment in East Orange County> 

Fla.

 Limnology of Laguna Tortuguero, Puerto Rico.

 Stress and recovery of aquatic organisms as related 

to highway construction along Turtle Creek, 

Boone County, W. Va.

 Reaeration capacity of the Rock River between Lake 

Koshkonong, Wis., and Rockton, III.

 Well-response model of the confined area, Bunker 

Hill ground-water basin, San Bernadino County, 

Calif.

 Techniques for estimating flood discharge for Oklahoma streams.

 Ground-water resources of Cavalier and Pembina 

Counties, N. Dak.

Funds Transferred From Other Federal 

Agencies

Work carried out by the Geological Survey to provide support of the missions of other Federal agencies 

amounted to $29.7million in fiscal year 1978. Examples 

of work done in cooperation with other Federal agencies are as follows:

Department of 

Agriculture

Department of Defense 

Corps of Engineers

Department of Energy

Department of Housing and 

Urban Development

Hydrologic studies on small 

watersheds; sediment studies; 

stream discharge and quality.

Tidal flows in estuaries; subsidence studies; streamflow data; 

ground-water studies; sedimentation and water-quality studies.

Hydologic and water-supply exploration studies at nuclear-explosion sites and at both operating and potential nuclearwaste sites; research in field of 

radiohydrology related to Interaction between radioactive materials and various geohydrologic environments, both above 

and below ground; hydrologic 

modeling.

Flood-plain delineation; flood 

profiles; flood-frequency stud-
Department of the Interior: 

Bureau of Indian 

Affairs

Bureau of Land 

Management

Bureau of Mines

Bureau of Reclamation

Fish and Wildlife 

Service

National Park Service

Environmental Protection 

Agency

ies related to flood-insurance 

programs.

Basic data collection; water resources appraisal studies; 

water-supply investigations on 

reservations.

Collection of basic hydrologic 

data; water-supply studies on 

public lands; effects of coal 

mining on hydrology.

Collection of basic hydrologic 

data; hydrologic studies of 

abandoned coal mines.

Collection of basic hydrologic 

data; ground-water resources, 

reservoir, and land-subsidence 

studies.

Collection of basic hydrologic 

data; ground-water recharge; 

water supply for fish hatcheries; 

instream flow evaluations; relation of ground water to lakes.

Collection of basic hydrologic 

data; water-resources appraisals 

of National Parks and Monuments; flood hazard, forest 

geomorphology, and groundwater studies.

Studies related to energy research 

and development; municipal 

waste-disposal-site studies; relationship of ground water to 

lakes; collection of water-quality information.

The example that follows illustrates a project undertaken by the Water Resources Division to assist a 

Federal agency in resolving a specific water problem.

Cape Cod, Mass., is a hook-shaped peninsula that 

extends 40 miles into the ocean. Ground water in unconsolidated deposits that form the peninsula is the 

only local source of fresh water for residents and 

visitors to this nationally famous seashore resort. The 

water supply is under increasing stress from withdrawal uses and contamination, and the effects of 

this stress must be evaluated so that wise decisions 

on future land and water use can be made.

The National Park Service, custodians of the Cape 

Cod National Seashore on the outer tip of the Cape, 

is participating with the Water Resources Division 

and others in a study to determine aquifer characteristics, boundaries, recharge and discharge rates, and 

water quality. The information gathered is being used 

to construct a digital ground-water model to assess 

impacts of proposed land and water development. 

Such an assessment will allow optimum choice among 

alternative proposals for development.

Funds Transferred From State and Local 

Agencies

In this program, the Geological Survey is reimbursed by State and local agencies when there is both 

Federal interest and State or local interest in an investigation of water resources but where matching 

Federal funds are inadequate for cost sharing.

FIGURE 27. Location of principal offices of the U.S. Geological Survey's Water Resources Division in the conterminous United 

States. Cities named are those where regional and district offices are located. Puerto Rico is included in the Southwestern 

Region, and Alaska, Guam, and Hawaii are included in the Western Region.

WESTERN REGION

NORTHEASTERN REGION

ALASKA

oo

GUAM

o

HAWAII

allohassee

EXPLANATION 

Regional office 

 District office 

O Subdistrict office 

A Field headquarters

SOUTHEASTERN 

REGION

PUERTO RICO

101
102

ACTIVITIES

National Water-Data System

COORDINATION OF WATER-DATA ACTIVITIES

In fiscal year 1978, the Survey's Office of Water 

Data Coordination (OWDC) continued its coordinating activities with Federal and other organizations and 

individuals. OWDC is counseled on these activities 

by two committees established by the Secretary of 

the Interior. The Interagency Advisory Committee on 

Water Data (Federal) is composed of representatives 

from more than 30 Federal agencies (table 7 ). The 

Advisory Committee on Water Data for Public Use 

(non-Federal) includes representatives from professional and technical societies, State and regional 

water agencies, universities, and consultants. Some of 

the many non-Federal organizations represented are 

the American Society of Civil Engineers, the American 

Water Works Association, the Association of American State Geologists, the Association of Western State 

Engineers, the Association of State and Interstate 

Water Pollution Control Administrators, the Conference of State Sanitary Engineers, the Chamber of 

Commerce of the United States, the Council of State 

Governments, the Manufacturing Chemists Association, the National Association of Conservation Districts, the National Governors' Conference, the National Water Resources Association, the National 

Water Well Association, the Universities Council on 

Water Resources, and the Water Pollution Control 

Federation. The major coordination efforts include 

planning, designing, and documenting water-data 

programs; developing standards for data acquisition 

and handling; and coordinating data activities of all 

Federal agencies.

"Working groups" are an integral part of OWDC's 

coordination effort. In the past year, they made important contributions to water-data acquisition activities. The Federal Working Group on Precipitation 

Quality recommended establishing a national program for precipitation-chemistry research in their 

July 1978 report. The Federal Working Group on 

Water-Quality Data Needs for Small Watersheds prepared a preliminary report which summarized waterquality data needs for watersheds of less than 50 

square miles. The non-Federal Working Group on 

River Quality Assessment reviewed the finding of 

the river basin studies done on the Chattahoochee 

and Yampa Rivers and the progress of the Potomac 

estuary study and discussed plans for future demonstration assessments.

Another significant activity during 1978 was the 

restructuring of OWDC's computer file for the "Catalog of Information on Water Data" to serve as the

base for NAWDEX's Master Water Data Index. The resultant computerized file will provide an expanded 

nationwide index of information on station-type 

water-data collection, including historic and current 

sites as well as those that are needed in the future.

Developing standards for collecting and handling 

water data is an important continuing interagency activity sponsored by OWDC. In the past year, two 

new chapters were added to the "National Handbook of Recommended Methods for Water-Data 

Acquisition."

TABLE 7 . Interagency Advisory Committee on Water Data, by 

department and agency

AGRICULTURE:

Science and Education Administration-Federal Research

Economics, Statistics, and Cooperatives Service

Forest Service

Soil Conservation Service 

COMMERCE:

Bureau of Census

Bureau of Domestic Commerce

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

National Bureau of Standards 

DEFENSE:

Army:

Corps of Engineers

Navy:

Naval Facilities Engineering Command 

ENERGY:

Bonneville Power Administration

Division of Operational and Environmental Safety

Division of Regional Assessments

Federal Energy Regulatory Commission 

HOUSING AND URBAN DEVELOPMENT 

INTERIOR:

Bureau of Indian Affairs

Bureau of Land Management

Bureau of Mines

Bureau of Reclamation

Fish and Wildlife Service

Geological Survey

Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service

National Park Service

Office of Surface Mining

Office of Water Research and Technology 

TRANSPORTATION 

INDEPENDENT AGENCIES:

Council on Environmental Quality

Environmental Protection Agency

International Boundary and Water Commission

International Joint Commission

Nuclear Regulatory Commission

Tennessee Valley Authority

Water Resources Council

COLLECTION, /4/VALYS/S, AND DISSEMINATION 

OF WATER DATA

The collection and analysis of hydrologic data, such 

as stream discharge, lake stage, water levels in wells, 

the chemical and biological characteristics and sedi-
TABLE 8 . Number and type of measurement sites (stations) of the Geological Survey

Type of station

SURFACE-WATER FLOW

Continuous discharge _ _________ __ _ _ _ _

Partial discharge (high flow and (or) low flow) ___ _ _

Lake reservoir and contents __ _ _____ _ _

Total __ _____ ________ _ _ ____

SURFACE-WATER

Surface-water stations (excluding temperature only) _ _ _ _ _

Sediment stations _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

Total __ . ________ ________ __ _

Federal 

Program

FederalState 

Cooperative 

Program

Other 

Federal 

agency 

programs

NonFederal 

programs 1

Total

OR CONTENTS

750 

100 

50

900

QUALITY

550 

250

800

4,950 

7,500 

450

12,900

3,600 

750

4,350

1,810 

450 

150

2,410

1,000 

279

1,279

390 

50 

150

590

50 

1

51

7,900 

8,100 

800

16,800

5,200 

1,280

6,480

GROUND WATER

Sites at which water levels and (or) pumpage are collected annually 

or more frequently ___________ _______ __ __ 21,000

Includes permittees and licensees of the Federal Power Commission.

ment loads of streams, and water use statistics are 

fundamental aspects of water resources investigations. 

These kinds of measurements (table 8) are necessary 

to determine how much and what kind of water is 

available where and when. Comparisons can then be 

made between water used and water needed. Hydrologic data are essential not only for determining the 

adequacy of water supplies but also for engineering 

projects and public works, for preventing or lessening the impact of floods and droughts, for determining the feasibility of waterpower and irrigation projects, and for developing water pollution control and 

recreational facilities.

The Survey maintains continuous discharge records 

at 7,900 stream sites, analyzes water quality at more 

than 5,000 stream sites, and measures water levels or 

other hydrologic characteristics periodically in more 

than 21,000 wells.

National Stream Quality Accounting Network

The Geological Survey's National Stream Quality 

Accounting Network (NASQAN) provides a nationally 

uniform basis for continuously assessing the quality 

of U.S. rivers. Beginning with 50 stations in 1973, the 

network has been gradually enlarged to the present 

445 stations, 100 of which were added in 1978. Present plans will expand the network to approximately 

525 stations in 1979. Stations are generally located 

at the downstream ends of 349 accounting units (subregional drainage basins), which collectively encompass the surface of the Nation. At all NASQAN stations, about 60 water-quality characteristics are measured by identical methods of sampling and analysis 

at the same frequency at each station.

Beginning with the 1974 data, NASQAN summary 

reports and maps have been published annually. The

maps cover a wide range of selected constituents. 

Each map shades the accounting unit to represent the 

data from the station(s) on rivers draining the unit. 

An example is shown in figure 28. The data show 

geographic patterns of water quality that reflect 

climate, geology, soil types, agricultural practices, 

human and animal populations, water pollution, and 

pollution-control practices. For example, most rivers 

of the Midwest and the Southwest are characterized 

by moderate to high levels of dissolved constituents 

as well as nutrients, sediment, and biota (floating and 

attached aquatic plants and indicator bacteria).

The NASQAN program provides information to 

planners and to the public on river quality in a particular area or region or nationwide. As the program 

continues, it will help answer such questions as, "Is 

water quality improving, or is it deteriorating?" Earlier studies attempting to answer that question revealed a lack of data on water-quality characteristics. 

At the present time, NASQAN is the only nationwide 

network designed to provide this needed long-term 

water-quality data on a continuing basis.

Central Laboratories System

In 1978, the Survey expanded the analytical services available through its Central Laboratories System, 

adding nearly 150 new measurements to its catalog. 

The demand for new and more complex water analyses has resulted from recent Federal legislation such 

as the Clean Water Act of 1977 and the Safe Drinking Water Act of 1977. The greatest increase in demand has been for the determination of trace elements and organic compounds identified under the 

Clean Water Act as toxic pollutants.

New analytical services available to meet these demands include multilevel analyses to provide data at

103
EXPLANATION

100 or less

FIGURE 28. Mean hardness as calcium carbonate in milligrams per liter (standard measurement) at the National Stream Quality 

Accounting Network (NASQAN) stations during the 1977 water year. Each accounting unit is shaded to show mean hardness 

for the NASQAN station(s) representing that unit.

104

the detection levels required for specific applications. 

For example, trace metals are analyzed by graphitefurnace atomic-absorption spectroscopy when data 

are needed at the submicrogram level, whereas techniques such as flame-emission spectroscopy are used, 

at lower cost, when less sensitivity is required. The 

addition of a new instrument, the inductively coupled-argon-plasma-emission spectrophotometer (ICP), 

has made simultaneous multielement analysis for inorganic constituents possible. In less than 1 minute,

this computer-controlled technique gives results of a 

simultaneous analysis of 26 elements using only 0.169 

fluid ounce of sample.

A major effort is now underway to develop and implement analytical methods for a wide variety of volatile and semivolatile organic compounds. The techniques used will rely heavily on gas chromatographymass spectrometry for isolating and identifying specific organic compounds.
Regional Aquifer-System Analysis Program National Water-Data Storage and Retrieval System

With the ever-growing demands being placed on 

surface-water supplies, it is apparent that ground 

water will be increasingly used in the coming decades. The Regional Aquifer-System Analysis Program 

(RASA) has been set up to predict impacts of such 

increased use by studying several extensive aquifer 

systems throughout the country. To date, 25 systems 

have been identified for study, though the list is not 

final.

Projects now scheduled were selected on the basis 

of (1) the significance of the aquifer system as a present or potential water supply particularly its significance to the national economy or at least to the 

economies of more than one State, (2) the severity of 

the water problems facing the project area, and (3) 

anticipated water needs, particularly for energy production, increasing irrigation, and increasing urban 

development.

The studies begun in 1978 include the California 

Central Valley, the northern Great Plains, and the 

High Plains. Future plans call for three or four new 

studies to begin each year through 1985.

Most of the streamflow and stream-quality data 

that the Survey collects and analyzes are not only 

published in various Federal and State reports but are 

also filed in computer storage. The National WaterData Storage and Retrieval System (WATSTORE) of 

the National Water-Data System, now contains approximately 70 percent of the streamflow and waterstage data and 35 percent of the ground-water and 

surface-water quality data collected by the Federal 

sector.

Four major files of WATSTORE, the Daily Values 

File, the Station Header File, the Peak Flow File, and 

the Ground-Water Site-Inventory File, are available 

to non-Survey users. An enormous volume of surfacewater and ground-water inventory data collected by 

the Water Resources Division and other agencies may 

be accessed directly by users nationwide through 

their own computer terminals. These four files, plus 

others in the WATSTORE system, are available 

through more than 60 terminals in Survey field offices 

and through more than 40 terminals in other Federal or State offices.

LOCAL ASSISTANCE CENTERS 

54 OFFICES IN 45 STATES AND PUERTO RICO

USER SERVICES 

Data search assistance 

Request-referral services 

Access to major water data bases 

Data source identification 

Nationwide index of water data

FIGURE 29. User services and Local Assistance Center network of the National Water Data Exchange.

105
Survey Publishes "How-To" Manuals on Water-Quality Investigations

This year, the U.S. Geological Survey Central 

Water-Quality Laboratories will make over 500,000 

analyses of the physical, chemical, and biological 

properties of approximately 100,000 water samples. 

That represents a fourfold increase in the demand 

for water-quality work over the past 5 years. The 

variety of constituents to be measured has widened 

markedly. For example, analyses of water samples 

for radioactive substances would have been considered "exotic" if they were requested 10 years 

ago now they are routine. "Standard methods" 

for measuring dozens of additional substances 

were developed in 1978 which focused primarily 

on those classed as primary pollutants under recent legal actions, such as chloroform and 

dicholoromethane.

In line with this serious growing concern over 

manmade pollutants in water and their effects on

106

National Water Data Exchange

The National Water Data Exchange (NAWDEX), 

established in 1976, is a confederation of wateroriented organizations working together on a national 

basis to improve access to water information by assisting users in the identification, location, and acquisition of needed data (fig. 29). Member organizations 

are linked so that their water-data holdings may be 

readily exchanged for maximum use. A central program office within the Water Resources Division coordinates this linkage and provides overall management of the program.

For users' convenience, NAWDEX services are 

available through a nationwide network of Local Assistance Centers. An initial network of 54 centers in 

45 States and Puerto Rico provides direct access to 

NAWDEX and makes local-area expertise available to 

aid in locating needed data. Included in this network 

are the facilities of 50 Geological Survey District and 

Subdistrict offices, the Texas Natural Resources Information System (TNRIS) in Austin, the Water Resources Research Institute of the Virginia Polytechnic 

Institute and State University in Blacksburg, the Iowa 

Water Resources Data System in Iowa City, and the 

Nebraska Natural Resources Information System in 

Lincoln.

NAWDEX provides a computerized Water Data 

Sources Directory, which is maintained in the Geological Survey's computer system in Reston, Va., and 

is accessible by most Local Assistance Centers through 

computer terminals. At present, this directory contains information compiled for more than 600 organizations. Information on other organizations will

be added on a continuing basis. NAWDEX also maintains a nationwide indexing service through its 

Master Water Data Index. This computerized index 

identifies over 300,000 sites for which water data are 

available nationwide. Additional sites are being added 

on a continuing basis. The Master Water Data Index 

is also maintained in Reston and is accessible by most 

Local Assistance Centers through computer terminals. 

As a part of its services, NAWDEX has direct access 

to and disseminates water data stored in the Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) Storage and Retrieval System (STORET) and in WATSTORE. STORET 

services are available through the NAWDEX Program 

Office in Reston and the Local Assistance Center facilities provided by TNRIS. Data from the WATSTORE 

system are available through nearly all of the Local 

Assistance Centers. NAWDEX also has service-exchange arrangements with the Environmental Data 

and Information Service (EDIS) of the National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), 

the Water Resources Scientific Information Center 

(WRSIC) of the U.S. Department of the Interior, and 

the Water Document Reference Centre (WATDOC) 

of the Canadian Department of Fisheries and the Environment. Various water data are available from data 

systems of other member organizations.

Through its Local Assistance Centers and by using 

the Water Data Source Directory and the Master 

Water Data Index, NAWDEX can readily assist users 

to locate data available for a specific geographic area. 

Listing and summary counts can be provided, or the 

user can be referred quickly to water-data systems, 

to bibliographic services, or to data-collecting or-
man as well as on aquatic life, the Water Resources 

Division has just published two new instruction 

manuals. One describes methods for collecting and 

analyzing aquatic biological and microbiological 

samples, and the other documents techniques for 

the determination of radioactive substances in 

water and fluvial sediments.

"Methods for Collection and Analysis of Aquatic 

Biological and Microbiological Samples" includes 

methods used by the Survey to collect, to preserve, 

and to analyze water samples for their biological 

and microbiological properties. It discusses biological sampling and sampling statistics and describes in detail more than 45 individual methods 

of analysis including those for all major groups of 

aquatic organisms. The 332-page manual also contains a 184-term glossary and a list of over 1,300 

taxonomic references.

"Methods of Determination of Radioactive Substances in Water and Fluvial Sediments" is a 95- 

page manual covering 17 methods for the determination of radioactivity, of natural and manmade 

radioactive isotopes, and of radiocarbon ages.

The new volumes are part of a series of more 

than 30 manuals covering the methods used by the 

Survey in its hydrologic investigations. The series 

is a standard reference source within the Survey, 

but more than 100,000 copies of the various 

manuals have been sold and distributed to scientists, engineers, and planners around the world.

Because new methods are constantly being developed 

and tested, the two water-quality manuals will be kept up 

to date by frequent revision. They are available from the 

Branch of Distribution, U.S. Geological Survey, 1200 

South Eads Street, Arlington, VA 22202, an authorized 

agent of the Superintendent of Documents.

ganizations that are able to provide the information 

or other services required.

Membership in NAWDEX is voluntary and open to 

any water-oriented organization. Members are required, however, to enter into a formal agreement 

with the NAWDEX program office that defines a 

member's general commitment to take an active role 

in NAWDEX activities. As of September 30, 1978, 

there were 22 Federal and 98 non-Federal members 

of NAWDEX.

RESEARCH PROGRAM

Approximately 240 articles and reports from the 

research program were published in 1978. A sampling of research accomplishments follows.

Locating and developing geothermal resources is 

of national importance; however, problems associated with geothermal energy include disposing of 

spent thermal fluids and the fate of trace contaminants such as boron. To predict the mobility of boron 

in the environment, a model was developed that describes the boron-sorption process.

Multiple linear regressions were developed that relate water-quality characteristics to basin characteristics. Usable regression models were defined for 10 

of 11 water-quality properties and explain from 58 

to 89 percent of the variation of the properties.

In cooperation with the Fish and Wildlife Service, 

a new system for classifying wetlands of the United 

States was devised.

Chemical extraction procedures were developed 

for estimating the bioavailability of particulate trace 

metals in estuarine sediments. Sediment extractions

involving complexation and (or) mild dissolution 

were found to best estimate bioavailability. Zinc concentrations in detritus-feeding estuarine macroinvertebrates are apparently controlled by the concentration and the physiochemical form of zinc in sediments that the animal ingests and by species-specific 

physiological factors.

Numerical simulation of the three-dimensional 

ground-water flow near lakes provided an increased 

understanding of seepage to and from lakes and allowed for improved estimates of the ground-water 

component of lake-water budgets. The simulation 

suggests new methods for managing lakes for waterlevel control and relating ground-water quality to 

lake quality.

A numerical model was developed that solves 

equations for heat and mass transfer in porous media. 

The model is used to analyze natural (cellular) convection in geothermal reservoirs with rock and fluid 

properties that vary spatially and with temperature. 

Transfer processes associated with hot-spring systems 

are also simulated to determine lateral conductive 

heat losses from the spring conduit as a function of 

spring discharge.

A computer program for simulating one-dimensional subcritical, gradually varied unsteady flow in 

a stream has been developed and documented. Given 

upstream and downstream boundary conditions and 

channel geometry data and roughness coefficients, 

stage and discharge can be calculated anywhere 

within a reach as a function of time. This program 

will simulate such common problems as flood waves, 

release, from dams, and channels where storage may

107
108

be a consideration. It may also supply the needed 

flow information for mass-transport simulation.

In response to the need for fulfilling time-dependent data requirements (model supporting systems) 

of estuary and coastal embayment models, a comprehensive highly modular automated data-collection 

and processing system has been developed to effect 

the acquisition and reduction of bathymetric data 

used to delineate the bottom configuration of estuaries and coastal embayments. Another complementary system has been devised to translate, to edit, to 

collate, to file, and to retrieve various types of timedependent data (water-surface elevations, temperatures, flow and wind vectors, dissolved-constituent 

concentrations). All time-dependent data are filed in 

a common location by a common format and are, 

thereby, easily accessible to activate a model for 

verification data with which to evaluate the performance of a model or, most importantly, as output results to illustrate the effect of some real or hypothetically imposed stress upon the water body. Consequently, water-management officials are provided 

with a rapid, economical, and systematic mechanism 

for effectively using flow-simulation models to evaluate various plans for coastal zone management.

A comprehensive microwave-sensing program was 

performed on the sea ice of the Beaufort Sea. Surface and aircraft measurements were obtained during 

all seasons using a wide variety of microwave sensors. 

In three test regions, each with an area of approximately 4.9 x 32.8 feet, detailed ice crystallography, 

dielectric properties, and brightness temperatures of 

first-year, multiyear, and first-year-multiyear mixtures 

were measured. Aircraft obtained passive microwave 

measurements that were able to distinguish firstyear and multiyear ice types and concentration and 

gave new information on ways to observe ice mixtures and thin-ice types.

INTERNATIONAL ACTIVITIES

Technical assistance activities continued a trend 

from long-term programs to short assignments. Programs of several years' duration in Kenya and Yemen, 

both sponsored by the Agency for International Development, were completed. Only in Saudi Arabia, 

where four hydrologists were posted under a program of the U.S.-Saudi Arabia Joint Commission on 

Economic Cooperation, do Division personnel reside abroad.

Short-term advisory services were provided for 

Brazil, Saudi Arabia, Djibouti, the Philippines, and 

Turkey. The Water Resources Division cooperated 

with international training seminars and workshops in 

Argentina, India, Iran, Israel, Pakistan, Turkey, and 

Venezuela by providing lecturers and instructors.

Hydrologic reports were issued on Cambodia, Egypt, 

Kenya, Indonesia, and the Dead Sea.

During the year, approximately 60 foreign scientists visited Reston headquarters to study or to discuss research and technological advances, particularly in computerized data processing. Of these visits, 

27 lasted from days to months.

The Water Resources Division maintains liaison with 

international hydrological programs, such as those 

conducted by the United Nations Education, Science 

and Culture Organization (UNESCO), the World 

Meteorological Organization, and the International 

Atomic Energy Agency. The Division also cooperates 

with the Department of State in programs such as the 

International Decade for Drinking Water and Sanitation, which originated with the 1977 United Nations 

Water Conference, and in developing proposals for 

joint studies of desertification. Experts from within 

and outside the Survey participated in regional studies in Latin America and in the Far East.

The Division provides the Chairman and the Secretariat of the U.S. National Committee on Scientific 

Hydrology, which represents the country in the International Hydrological Program (IHP) of UNESCO. 

During 1978, work continued on the development of 

the program for the second phase (1981 to 1986) of 

the IHP and on the preparation of reports which are 

part of the current (1975 to 1980) phase of activities.

SUPPORTING SERVICES

These services provide for publication and operational support, personnel training, career development, and specific services for water resources activities. Publication standards and guidelines are developed, and the publication and release of a wide 

variety of reports are supervised and monitored. 

Training in the field and in the classroom provides 

the special knowledge and expertise not obtainable 

in academic institutions which are required to understand and execute the hydrologic investigations of the 

Survey.

Critical National Water Problems

COAL HYDROLOGY

Water is a critical component in developing the 

Nation's vast coal reserves. It is required for the 

miners, can be depleted or contaminated by the mining, is necessary for reclaiming mined lands, can be 

used to transport coal by slurry pipeline, and is necessary for cooling and other industrial uses when the 

coal is converted to other forms of energy.

In 1978, Survey-funded activities ranged from collecting hydrologic data from contractors to a complex regional analysis of the Madison aquifer. Studies
were underway in the 20 States that account for more 

than 96 percent of the Nation's annual coal production. Program emphasis continued to center on the 

Western States because a large percentage of the 

Nation's total coal reserve is under Federal ownership in those States and because the region is generally deficient in water supply.

Western water-energy studies are attempting not 

only to define the basic supply but also to assess the 

effect on development in-State and on the water resources of the adjacent States. At some point, as 

water demands approach the limit of available supply, tradeoffs among conflicting interests will have to 

be made so as to meet the most urgent needs; 

market-place pressures are expected to be the deciding factors. The Survey's program is attempting to 

obtain answers through a coordinated effort of State, 

local, and national agencies. As figure 30 illustrates, 

Geological Survey funding represents only slightly 

more than half the financial outlay for coal and other 

energy-related studies. Water Resources Division activities in coal hydrology are funded by ERA, the 

Bureau of Land Management, and 31 States (under 

the Federal-State Cooperative Program), in addition 

to direct appropriations.

OIL SHALE HYDROLOGY

Studies of the hydrologic problems related to developing oil shale deposits continue to focus more 

and more on Colorado. The only two active Federal

prototype oil shale leases are in northwest Colorado. 

Both sites are under evaluation through modified insitu techniques. Simply stated, these techniques involve driving a shaft through the zone to be developed, mining approximately 15 to 25 percent of 

the shale, fracturing the surrounding shale to refill 

the area mined, and then, through combustion controlled from the surface, retorting the shale in place. 

Currently, the mined shale will be stockpiled on the 

surface and will be surface-retorted when a sufficient 

volume of material is available to make it economically feasible. Hydrologic problems associated with 

these techniques include locating adequate water 

supplies for personnel, dewatering during development and production, disposing of what may be 

highly saline water pumped for dewatering, and the 

long-term effects of the retorted shale on the region's 

water supply after development. One major unknown 

under study is the potential for collapse into the retorted deposits some time after development. This is 

possible, even though the retort is backfilled with 

rubble. The part the ground-water system may play 

in potential collapse must be evaluated.

NUCLEAR HYDROLOGY

Nuclear power for energy generation is closely 

linked with disposal of radioactive waste. This waste, 

in addition to that from laboratories and hospitals, 

contains a variety of nuclides in a large range of concentrations. Concentrations of radioactivity of less

Environmental 

Protection 

Agency $1.2

\

\/

Bureau of Land Management 

$2.6

Water

7 \

\

Department of Energy $6.6

Pass thru (reimbursable)

Resources

r

Division energy

\

\

funds $12.2

/

7

/

States $2.8

7 \

\

Matching

Fed-State

cooperative

$2.8

7

= $13.2

= $15.0 

$28.2

Monitoring of 

mining impacts

Mined land 

reclamation

Nuclear waste 

disposal

Geothermal 

research

Local mining 

problems

FIGURE 30._Energy research and development program of the Water Resources Division for fiscal year 1978 (dollars in millions).

109
Reducing Losses from Rampaging Rivers

Nature will always extract some price for use of 

her flood plains. However, this Nation's annual 

flood damage bill ... is excessive, even in a 

growing economy. Beyond the dollar loss the accompanying toll in personal hardship cannot be 

calculated. In addition, opportunities are being lost 

to use flood plain lands effectively for recreation 

and wildlife purposes. (President Lyndon B. Johnson, August 10, 1966.) , ;

In the decade since President Johnson made this 

observation, hydrologists and cartographers of the 

U.S. Geological Survey have intensified their efforts 

to research and to map flood-prone areas and to 

investigate the extent of major floods in the 

United States. One useful result is a practical 

guide to the use of such earth science information to reduce damage from floods Professional 

Paper 942, published in 1977 by the Survey in cooperation with the Department of Housing and 

Urban Development. Entitled "Flood-Prone Areas 

and Land-Use Planning," the report emphasizes 

flood-plain planning in the San Francisco Bay

than 10 nanocuries per gram are considered low level. 

High-level wastes were originally defined as those resulting from the first cycle of reprocessing reactor 

fuel; however, the definition is now generally extended to include the spent fuel rods themselves. A 

third category of waste, referred to as transuranic 

(TRU), is also defined and consists of elements above 

uranium in the periodic table that generally have a 

very long half-life. There has been no disposal of 

high-level wastes to date. The Geological Survey, in 

cooperation with the Department of Energy, is characterizing several rock types that may be suitable as 

repositories for high-level wastes. Studies are in 

progress on the hydrology and geology of salt domes 

in Texas and Louisiana and on bedded salt in New 

Mexico, New York, Ohio, and Utah. Shale and granite 

are being studied in Nevada. Igneous crystalline 

rocks, in general, are being evaluated regionally.

Low-level waste has been buried in shallow landfills since the beginning of the atomic age. The Geological Survey has a program to investigate five of the 

six commercial low-level burial sites in New York, 

South Carolina, Kentucky, Illinois, and Nevada, as 

well as two Department of Energy disposal sites in 

Tennessee and Idaho. This program is designed to 

quantify the factors controlling the movement of dissolved radionuclides by ground water, which is generally regarded as one of the more likely mechanisms 

by which buried radionuclides can reach the biosphere. The program aims to develop hydrologic criteria for locating future low-level disposal sites and 

techniques for evaluating these criteria.

In connection with field studies of both low- and 

high-level waste, the following theoretical and laboratory studies are underway to:

 Use digital-modeling techniques to predict characteristics of ground-water flow and water-quality variations.

 Detect and identify radionuclides by borehole geophysical techniques.

 Evaluate geochemical kinetics of radionuclides.

 Predict movement of radionuclides in the saturated 

and unsaturated zones.

 Use techniques for interpreting paleohydrologic 

conditions to aid in extending the ground-water 

record.

 Determine the amount of ground-water recharge 

in arid areas.

 Improve techniques for carbon-14 dating of ground 

water.

 Determine the geochemical characteristics of trace 

elements in natural environments.

GROUND-WATER RECHARGE

Studies on ground-water recharge include the use 

of both spreading basins, in which highly treated 

sewage effluent is spread over a wide area of permeable soil, and injection wells. In the semiarid 

plains of Texas and New Mexico, methods are being

110
region, but the principles are applicable to other 

flood-prone areas throughout the country. Adherence to the principles could save many lives and 

millions of dollars. It has been estimated that there 

are 16,500 square miles of urban flood plains in 

the United States, an area equal to Massachusetts 

and New Jersey combined.

Professional Paper 942 points out that people 

tend to occupy flood plains because of the advanages of level ground, fertile soil, ease of access, 

and available water supplies but often without 

full consideration of the attendant risks. The damage from flooding so often sustained is a direct 

consequence of inappropriate use of lands exposed 

to such risks.

Better management of flood-plain lands based 

on knowledge now available could reduce vulnerable uses within the floodway, could regulate 

building, and could prohibit dumping and filling or 

the building of structures that would obstruct the 

flow of floodwater. In undeveloped flood-prone 

areas, agricultural and other nonintensive uses

could be permitted, but even agricultural use 

should be specifically suited to the flood-plain.

Measures for reducing flood losses are of two 

general types structural, which involves the building of dams, levees, floodways, and similar structures for containment and direction of floodwaters, 

and nonstructural, which involves land use zoning 

of the flood plain. In the past, structural flood 

control was the most common, but it is more expensive and often not as effective as nonstructural 

control. Nonstructural control is becoming more 

and more feasible as identification and scientific 

study of flood-prone areas has expanded. Dams, 

dikes, and levees have played a role in reducing 

some flood losses, but sometimes they actually 

contributed to greater losses. Now the emphasis is 

shifting to a more balanced approach, combining 

structural controls with better land use planning 

and management. The San Francisco study described in the report is a convincing argument for 

land use management and is a practical working 

guide to reducing needless loss of life and property.

developed to predict the amount of water that can be 

returned to aquifers by studying the fundamental 

principles that control movement of water into 

aquifers, the rock-water interactions during storage, 

and the diffusion-dispersion phenomenon accompanying water movement after emplacement. Recent 

tests involving injection of surface water into wells 

indicate that such recharge can be successful, even 

with turbid water, if the aquifer permeability is due 

to secondary porosity. However, wells tapping aquifers in which permeability is governed by intergranular porosity are quickly plugged even by small quantities of suspended sediment. Temperature logs obtained during injection of water of a different temperature than that of the native ground water have 

been successfully used to determine zones containing solution openings in poorly consolidated rock. 

Moreover, work has been completed to show that 

such temperature changes may be related, by use of 

a theoretically based retardation factor, to chemical 

changes arising from injection of a conservative 

tracer. Other experiments involving recharge by 

spreading indicate that sulfate ions are significantly 

sorbed on aquifer materials and hence do not constitute a conservative tracer.

Recharge of aquifers using highly treated sewage 

by spreading basins has been shown to be successful on Long Island. Maximum recharge rates of more 

than 98 feet per day have been obtained, but more 

complete denitrification and virus removal was observed to occur after clogging of surface materials 

lowered the recharge rate to a minimum value of 

about 7 to 10 feet per day.

MAPPING IN FLOOD-PRONE AREAS

The mapping program of flood-prone areas aims 

to identify areas subject to inundation and to provide 

simple techniques for estimating the magnitude and 

frequency of future flood peaks at ungaged sites. 

("Response to Recommendation 1 of the Task Force 

on Federal Flood Control Policy": House Document 

465, 89th Congress, 47 p.).

In 1978, the Water Resources Division published 

approximately 100 maps of flood-prone areas. Most 

of the urgently needed mapping in areas having urban flood problems has been completed (nearly 

13,000 maps and 1,000 descriptive pamphlets). Definition of flood-prone areas, primarily those downstream from dams and reservoirs, where structural 

failure could result in extensive loss of life and catastrophic flood damage, continued on a limited and 

selective basis.

In addition to reconnaissance flood mapping, the 

Geological Survey is one of several agencies making 

flood-insurance studies in cooperation with the Department of Housing and Urban Development. These 

studies include flood-profile information and delineation of 100-year floods (floods with a 1-percent

111
112

chance of occurring in any given year) on city or 

community maps with scales such as 1:4,800 (1 inch 

on the map equals 400 feet). Since 1970, more than 

400 flood-insurance studies have been completed by 

the Water Resources Division, and studies in an additional 250 communities are in progress.

Documentation of major floods every year in the 

United States provides information required for the 

judicious management of flood plains. Field investigations of the Maine coastal floods of January and 

February 1978 and the Wyoming-Montana floods of 

May 1978 are in progress. Formal reports on the 

tragic flood caused by the failure of the Kelly Barnes 

Dam, Toccoa, Ga., in November 1977 and the severe 

Johnstown, Pa., flood of July 1977 are in preparation. 

In 1978, the Geological Survey and the National 

Weather Service completed joint reports on investigations of three disastrous floods in Maine in February 1976, in Colorado in July 1976, and in the Appalachian areas of Kentucky, Tennessee, Virginia, and 

West Virginia in April 1977.

Planners and designers need simple reliable methods for estimating the magnitude and frequency of 

future floods. The techniques published by the Water 

Resources Division from 1963 to 1965 have been used 

extensively by government agencies and the private 

sector. Updating of the Streamflow and Basin Characteristics File, a key feature in large-scale nationwide 

flood-frequency analysis, was completed.

SUBSURFACE WASTE STORAGE

Waste-disposal sites such as dumps, landfills, pits, 

ponds, lagoons, injection wells, and feedlots can adversely affect ground-water quality. Such sites exist 

in and near every city in the country. Nonpoint 

sources of water pollution include fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation water for food and fiber production, 

and chemicals for highway deicing. Accidental spills, 

storage-tank leaks, and pipeline breaks also affect 

ground water.

Ground water is replenished naturally, except in a 

few over-stressed aquifers. However, polluted water 

is effectively removed from fresh-water reserves for 

a long time. To maintain a current appraisal of the 

Nation's water resources, the Geological Survey is 

endeavoring to substantiate the amount "lost" 

through contamination, a statistic that may have a 

greater cumulative impact than the amount "lost" by 

declining water levels.

State and local agencies have the responsibility to 

provide safe drinking water and water for industrial 

and agricultural uses. They need information and 

technology to assess the impact of various waste-disposal activities on ground water and to predict how

waste will move in ground water to determine the 

long-term impact. Waste-storage information is also 

necessary for designing and implementing monitoring programs for meeting the regulations of EPA and 

other Federal regulatory agencies.

The Subsurface Waste Storage Program is concerned with the fundamental principles of waste 

movement into and through the subsurface and with 

developing criteria and methodology for mapping and 

describing potential disposal aquifers and associated 

confining beds. Investigations include the chemical 

and physical reactions of waste with aquifer materials 

and ground water and the dilution and dispersion of 

pollutants, not only in the deep subsurface but also 

in the shallow and near-surface environment where 

most waste disposal takes place.

The program also seeks to develop and to test predictive models of waste movement in aquifers and 

unsaturated material and to evaluate the impacts and 

benefits of disposal of treated sewage on and beneath 

the land surface. In addition, the program develops 

new techniques, applications, and tools that will improve geophysical methods and interpretations of 

waste injection into aquifers and tracing of the movement of polluted water from surface or shallow disposal sites.

Predictive models of solute transport in ground 

water are limited at present to conservative compounds or a few chemicals having known reactions. 

One of the most difficult problems remaining is the 

development of methods to predict how nonconservative chemicals react with aquifer materials and 

how the reactions affect their movement. Most organic chemicals will be sorbed, at least temporarily, 

on particles in the aquifer. However, the sorption 

capacity may be exceeded, or changes in the pH or 

other characteristics of the water may release the 

contaminants, allowing their further movement by 

flowing ground water. Another problem is the determination of naturally occurring trace substances in 

ground water. For instance, small amounts of naturally occurring organic materials in ground water may 

form dangerous compounds in drinking water after 

the water is treated with chlorine.

Part of the Subsurface Waste Storage Program has 

-been devoted to developing and demonstrating 

methodology and technology to describe aquifers 

that contain saline water and that are isolated from 

fresh-water aquifers by confining beds of clay or 

shale. These investigations describe large areas of 

the subsurface so that high-risk zones can be ruled 

out and targets for detailed exploration can be identified. They also describe methods of analysis that 

can be used in other areas where similar data are 

available. The results of these investigations save 

much time and money for the waste managers, plan-
ners, and regulators who are evaluating possible deep 

waste injection.

Since its beginning in 1970, the Subsurface Waste 

Storage Program has released more than 100 reports 

and articles.

ESTUARINE AND COASTAL STUDIES

Studies continued on the biogeochemistry and circulation patterns in San Francisco Bay. In addition, an 

Interdisciplinary Potomac Estuary Study is being done 

cooperatively by members of eight separate but interlocking projects. Objectives of the study are to understand an urbanized estuary better, to determine urban

influence on it, and to predict the results of changes 

brought about by these influences.

Major efforts are directed at calibrating and verifying a horizontal two-dimensional flow and transport 

model. Sediment-related studies are intended to enable computation of modern-day suspended loan 

transport and to determine historic and prehistoric 

sediment sources and deposition rates. Geochemical 

investigations are concerned primarily with phosphorus-cycle dynamics and heavy-metal distribution. 

Surveys of benthic macrofaunae and the submersed 

aquatic vegetation of main-stem and tributary shoreline areas are the major biological contributions.

Development of sinkholes caused or accelerated by ground-water withdrawal. This collapse is at a construction site in Jefferson

County, Ala.

113
Conservation of Lands 

and Minerals
INTRODUCTION

The Conservation Division performs several evaluation and regulatory functions concerning the leasing, 

mining, and use of mineral and water resources on 

Federal and Indian lands. These functions were delegated to the Geological Survey by the Secretary of the 

Interior and are accomplished through two major 

missions:

 Resource evaluation which includes the classification of public lands to identify areas containing 

potentially valuable leasable minerals and areas 

valuable for waterpower and water-storage purposes and the evaluation of mineral resources on 

tracts of public land that are made available for 

private development through a competitive leasing process, are exchanged, or are sold.

 Supervision of operations associated with the exploration, development, and production of minerals from leased Federal, Indian, and Outer 

Continental Shelf (OCS) lands, including the collection of royalties for minerals produced and 

certain rentals.

Data acquired by the Geological Survey for the 

sound development of resources and protection of 

the environmental characteristics found on public 

lands also support the missions of other Federal agencies. These agencies include the Bureau of Land Management (BLM), the Bureau of Indian Affairs, the National Park Service, and the Bureau of Reclamation 

within the Department of the Interior. Agencies outside the Department include the Department of Defense, the Forest Service, the General Services Administration, the Environmental Protection Agency, 

and the Department of Energy.

In fiscal year 1978, Federal and Indian lands supplied a significant portion of the Nation's mineral 

production. More than 16 percent of the oil, 27 percent of all natural gas, and 13 percent of the Nation's 

coal were produced from leases on Indian and Federal lands onshore and offshore. This production 

clearly demonstrates the importance of the contribution from these lands to the Nation's supply of petroleum and minerals. The production of these minerals 

has had a significant impact on the Nation's economy. 

For example, in fiscal year 1978, the value of all commodities produced from leased Federal and Indian 

lands exceeded $10.5 billion. Lease rentals, royalties 

from the production of minerals, and various bonus 

payments provided more than $2.9 billion in revenue 

for the Federal Government.

C/omar Pacific, a new drillship on its initial operation, was the 

first rig to begin drilling on the Atlantic Outer Continental 

Shelf.

115
Highlights

Activities during fiscal year 1978 included the 

following:

 Completion of tract evaluations for four lease sales 

totaling almost 3.5 million acres. Two of the 

sales were scheduled for the Atlantic and one 

each for the Gulf of Mexico and Lower Cook 

Inlet.

 Revision, drafting, and updating of Outer Continental Shelf Orders and Standards for the Atlantic, Gulf of Mexico, and Pacific areas (table 

, 9).

 Supervision of operations included more than 

6,100 inspections of offshore drilling rigs and 

platforms.

 Approval of 3,425 new onshore oil and gas exploration and development wells, preparation of 3,525 

environmental analyses of proposed operations, 

and inspection of 27,630 onsite drilling and production operations.

 Supervision of mining operations on 2,143 mineral 

leases comprising 8.5 million acres including 565 

coal leases and 397 uranium leases. Combined 

production value of 24 mineral commodities was 

over $1.3 billion.

 Supervision of exploration operations under 522 

prospecting permits comprising 6.5 million acres 

for discovery or development of 24 different 

solid mineral commodities.

 Collection of $59.4 million in rents and royalties 

from the leasing of minerals on Federal and 

Indian lands.

 Evaluation of 380 tracts for proposed onshore oil 

and gas lease sales. In all, 367 tracts were sold 

in 21 sales.

 Evaluation of 132 tracts for 7 geothermal lease sales. 

Subsequently, more than 59,000 acres were 

leased in 34 tracts, with a total bonus paid to 

the Government of almost $1.1 million.

 Evaluation of 15 tracts for proposed coal lease sales 

under the National Research Defense Council vs. 

Hughes settlement. Five lease sales were held by 

BLM.

 Mineral resource evaluation of one oil shale tract 

for exchange.

Authority

The Geological Survey presently has the authority 

to classify public lands and to regulate mineral development on Federal and Indian lands, to protect the 

environment, and to collect a fair return from extracted resources. The authority comes from a complex body of mineral and land laws. Some laws carrying the Secretary's authority date back to the 1860's.

Congress created the U.S. Geological Survey in the 

act of March 3, 1879. The act stipulated that the Director of the Survey should classify the public lands 

to identify features pertaining to land values for many 

purposes.

The Mineral Leasing Act of 1920 provided for the 

leasing of coal and certain other mineral commodities. The leasable minerals on public lands now include oil, gas, coal, potash, sodium, phosphate, oil 

shale, asphaltic minerals, sulfur (only in New Mexico 

and Louisiana), and geothermal resources. All minerals, except common varieties such as sand and 

gravel on acquired lands and Indian lands, are leasable. A lessee is required to pay the Federal Government or the Indians a royalty based on the value

TABLE 9. Effective dates of Outer Continental Shelf Orders and Standards

1.

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 

10.

11.

12. 

13. 

14. 

U.S. 

U.S.

Order number and title

Marking of Wells, Platforms, and Fixed Structures _ _

Plugging and Abandonment of Wells ________________

Suspensions and Determination of Well Producibility __ 

Subsurface Safety Devices ___ _ _ _

Completion of Oil and Gas Wells __ __ __ 

Pollution and Waste Disposal __ _____ _ _

Platforms, Structures, and Associated Equipment 

Oil and Gas Pipelines _ _ _ _ _ _ ___ 

Sulphur Drilling Procedures (Gulf of Mexico) and 

Drilling of Twin Core Holes (Pacific) __ _ 

Oil and Gas Production Rates, Prevention of Waste, 

and Protection of Correlative Rights __ __ __ _

Public Inspection of Records _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

Production Measurement and Commingling _ _

Approval of Suspensions of Production _ _ _ _ _ __

Geological Survey Standard GSS-OCS #1 _ _ __

Geological Survey Standard GSS-OCS-T1 _ __ __ _

Gulf of 

Mexico 

area

8-28-69 

1- 1-75

8-28-69 

8-28-69 

6- 5-72 

8-28-69 

10- 1-76 

10- 1-76 

10-30-70

8-28-69

5- 1-74 

2- 1-75 

10- 1-75 

1- 1-77 

2- 1-76 

12- 1-77

Pacific 

area

6- 

5- 

6- 

6- 

6- 

6- 

6- 

6- 

6-

6-

5-

12-

2- 

12-

1-71 

1-76 

1-71 

1-71 

1-71 

1-71 

1-71 

1-71 

1-71

1-71

1-75 

1-74

1-76 

1-77

Gulf of 

Alaska 

area

3- 

3- 

3- 

3- 

3-

3-

3-

2- 

12-

1-76 

1-76 

1-76 

1-76 

1-76

1-76

1-76

1-76 

1-77

MidAtlantic 

area

7- 

7- 

7- 

7- 

7-

7-

7-

2- 

12-

1-76 

1-76 

1-76 

1-76 

1-76

1-76

1-76

1-76 

1-77

North 

Atlantic 

area

1- 1-78 

1- 1-78 

1- 1-78 

1- 1-78 

1- 1-78

1- 1-78

1- 1-78

South 

Atlantic 

area

2- 

2- 

2- 

2- 

2-

2-

2-

1-78 

1-78 

1-78 

1-78 

1-78

1-78

1-78

116
or quantity of the mineral produced. Other laws authorize the leasing and management of metallic and 

nonmetallic minerals on Indian lands, railroad and 

other right-of-ways across public lands, acquired 

lands, and OCS lands.

By various statutory authorities, the Secretary of the 

Interior has promulgated in the Code of Federal 

Regulations (CFR), rules pertaining to the development of minerals on Federal and Indian lands. The 

principal Department of the Interior sections of the 

CFR concerning operations on Federal mineral leases 

are as follows:

 Onshore Federal Lands Regulations pertaining to 

operations Parts 211, 221, 223, 225, 226, 231, 

270, and 271 of Title 30.

 Outer Continental Shelf Regulations pertaining to 

royalty oil, operations, and so forth Parts 225a, 

250, 251, and 252 of Title 30.

 Onshore Federal Lands Leasing Regulations 

Groups 3100, 3200, and 3500 of Title 43.

 Outer Continental Shelf Leasing Regulations 

Group 3300 of Title 43.

 Indian Lands Leasing Regulations Parts 171, 172, 

173, 174, 176, and 177 of Title 25 and the pertinent onshore Federal operating regulations contained in Title 30.

Although the Geological Survey administers or enforces some provisions of leasing regulations and all 

provisions of operating regulations, BLM and the 

Bureau of Indian Affairs administer most provisions 

of the leasing regulations.

Anchorage Conservation Division geologists assembling an auger, which is used to search for coal beds beneath the tundra. The auger will be mounted on

the Rolligon used along the Kokolik River, National Petroleum Reserve in Alaska.

117
CONSERVATION 

OF LANDS 

AND MINERALS

Resource evaluation \ 

$24.5 \

Direct Federal appropriation 

$77.3

OUTER CONTINENTAL 

SHELF LANDS

Regulation of

operations

$20.8

FEDERAL AND 

INDIAN LANDS

Other Federal

agencies

$0.2

Classification and

evaluation.

$10.5

TOTAL $77.5 MILLION

OF FUNDS USE OF

BUDGET AND PERSONNEL

The source of funds for these programs is described under the Conservation of Lands and Minerals 

Budget Activity in the Geological Survey Budget. 

Funds for these activities have increased by 13.5 

percent from $68.1 million in fiscal year 1977 to $77.3 

million in fiscal year 1978. Program expenditures for 

fiscal years 1977 and 1978 are shown in table 10. The 

OCS lands subactivity was appropriated $45.9 million, 

an increase of 19.9 percent over the appropriation for 

fiscal year 1977. In fiscal year 1978, funding for the

Federal and Indian lands subactivity increased to a 

total of $31.3 million. This represents a 5.2-percent 

increase for this subactivity.

In response to recently broadened responsibilities, 

the Division has filled many of the new professional 

positions with economists, computer specialists, and 

environmental scientists, in addition to the traditional 

disciplines of geophysics, geology, petroleum engineering, and mining engineering. Additional management personnel were hired during the same period to 

improve the over-all direction of programs.

118
TABLE 10. Conservation of Lands and Minerals activity obligations for fiscal years 7977 and 7978, by program 

[Dollars in millions. Data may differ from that in statistical tables 

because of rounding]

Program

Fiscal 

year 

1977

Fiscal 

year 

1978

exploration, development, and production operations; and the computation and collection of royalty 

and certain rental payments. The onshore program 

also includes the classification of Federal lands for 

mineral development and waterpower and waterstorage site potential.

Total ___-_________ $67.2 1 $77.5

= Outer Continental Shelf Lands

	Oil and gas leases on the OCS are issued by BLM,

outer continental Shelf (OCS) lands .. 38.0 46.0 but the Geological Survey implements and enforces

Regulation of OCS oil and gas .... is* 2iT" the °Pe ting regulations. The Geological Survey and

OCS oil and gas tract selection and BLM consult closely on the significant actions that

evaluation __________ 21.2____24.6 precede each lease sale. The Survey provides BLM

====^^ wjtn the following:

 Assessments of petroleum resources and other 

technical information used to identify areas to 

lease and to schedule lease sales. 

2 Resource evaluations used to select tracts for each

Federal and Indian lands _ _________29.2______31.5 lease sale

Regulation of operations - 18.4 18.3 , Identification of geologic hazards.

Oil and gas _______________ 9.8 11.6 , Mineral resource values for each tract to be used

Energy minerals (coal and ura- j . *u x i*~i ni*m) 56 3 _ in determining the fair market value.

Oil shale _____________ .8 .6

Ceothermal resources _________ .8 1.2 MONITORING DEVELOPMENT

Nonenergy minerals _ 1.4 1.4 ... , ^_., . , , ,

 Diligent development of OCS leased lands was a

prime thrust during fiscal year 1978. This work centers on ascertaining the actual efforts being expended 

by lessees to determine the oil and gas resources conResource classification and evaluation 10.8 13.2 tained on their leases and whether their efforts to 

on and gas _________ 3 ^~~ extract these resources are adequate. The Survey 

Coal ______________ 8.6 9.9 monitors development through the use of detailed 

Oil shale .4 .2 geologic, geophysical, and engineering studies. The 

Ceothermal resources _________ .7 .8 tQta, ocs budget for the Division in fiscal year 1978

Nonenergy minerals _______ .3 .9 *,_ -M- -.«-/-/ t <t--r c. Water resource development ____ .5 .5 was $45.9 million, an increase over 1977 of $7.6

 - - million.

11ncluded in this total is $200,000 for the total reimbursement program.

^Shifts in program funding for Federal and Indian Lands subactivities approved by the DCC/")/ /PfF F\/AI I IATID\J 

Appropriations Committee. KCD^UKL.C C V/ALU/A I IV_y/\

Resource evaluation activities on the OCS focus on 

identifying areas for future lease sales, advising BLM

nnr^nAiAc AMP* A_~ri%/rricc on the selection of tracts to be offered for sale, estiPROGRAMS AND ACTIVITIES mating the value" of oil and gas on each tract that is

The programs of the Geological Survey support offered, and determining geologic hazards that affect

the minerals programs of the Department of the In- specific tracts.

terior. They are carried out in close cooperation with Between 1954 and 1966, tracts on the OCS were 

other agencies of the Department. The principal min- selected for sales without the Geological Survey 

erals activities focus on the following major pro- evaluating their hydrocarbon potential. In 1967, the 

grams: the classification and evaluation of mineral Geological Survey established an OCS mineral reresources on Federal lands and the supervision of source evaluation program to improve methods of 

mineral development and extraction operations oc- tract selection and to develop methods of evaluating 

curring on those lands under lease. For budget pur- tracts proposed for OCS leasing, 

poses and ease of administration, the offshore activi- To select tracts for leasing, BLM publishes a Call 

ties are separated from the onshore activities. Both for Nominations and Comments in the "Federal 

offshore and onshore activities include prelease Register," the official notice to the public. Responses 

evaluation of resources; the postlease supervision of assist in identifying individual offshore tracts that

	119
subsequently may be sold. The Calls describe large 

areas that usually embrace several million acres. Interested parties are asked to nominate tracts within 

each area that they wish to have offered for lease 

because of the oil and gas resource potential.

Geophysical service companies operating under 

permits issued by the Survey conduct geophysical surveys in areas of interest. Data obtained from these 

surveys are furnished to the Survey and are used in 

evaluating the region. Once tracts have been selected, 

detailed geophysical maps are made; usually two reflecting horizons are mapped. Paleontological investigations are conducted using samples from drill cuttings when available. Also, available well, geochemical, and subsurface geologic data, including rock 

units and thicknesses, are studied to arrive at a range 

of net pay thicknesses and areal extents of potential 

reservoirs. Reservoir engineering and engineering 

evaluation then commences, and a dollar value is 

calculated for each tract.

The Department of the Interior uses the tract nominations and the resources and environmental information received from all interested parties, as well as 

resource, environmental, technological, and economic 

information from the Survey and other agencies, to 

select tracts (which may be offered for sale) for 

further analysis in the environmental impact statement.

Resource evaluation activities of significance included the following:

 Tract evaluations began during fiscal year 1978 for 

one sale in the Atlantic (OCS Sale No. 49), two 

sales in the Gulf of Mexico (OCS Sale Nos. 58 

and 58a), and one State-Federal sale in the Beaufort Sea.

 An OCS lease sale for 135 tracts was held October 

27, 1977, in Anchorage, Alaska (OCS Sale No. 

Cl); 89 of the tracts were offered for bonus bids, 

and 46 were offered on a royalty-bid basis with 

a fixed cash bonus. Bids totaling almost $400 

million on 87 tracts (57 bonus, 30 high royalty) 

were accepted.

 On March 28, 1978, the first OCS lease sale (No. 

43) for tracts in the South Atlantic was held in 

Savannah, Ga. This sale introduced the slidingscale royalty bidding system for OCS lands with 

80 of the 224 tracts being offered on this basis. 

Only 57 tracts received bids, but 40 of these 

were sliding-scale royalty tracts; 43 tracts, consisting of 12 bonus and 31 sliding-scale royalty 

tracts, were sold for a total of almost $101 million.

 On April 25, 1978, an OCS lease sale (No. 45) in 

the Gulf of Mexico offered 145 tracts; 129 tracts 

were offered on the bonus system, and 16 tracts 

were offered on the sliding-scale royalty system.

The lease sale was held in New Orleans, La., on 

April 25, 1978. Bids totaling more than $733 

million were accepted on 80 bonus and 10 sliding-scale royalty tracts. A total of over $1.5 billion was offered for the 101 tracts receiving bids.

 The sliding-scale royalty leasing system utilizes 

bonus bidding. However, instead of a fixed 

royalty rate, a formula is specified that makes 

the royalty rate dependent on the total value of 

production during each quarter of the year. The 

royalty rate increases as the value of quarterly 

production increases. Approximately one-third 

of the tracts in OCS Sales Nos. 43 and 45 were 

offered under this sliding-scale system.

 Deep stratigraphic test wells are drilled on the OCS 

by industry. The operator, who represents the 

industrial group that desires to drill the test well, 

is issued a geologic exploration permit by the 

Geological Survey. During fiscal year 1978, one 

Continental Offshore Stratigraphic Test (COST) 

well was completed by industry. This well, Gulf 

of Alaska (Kodiak) COST No. 3, was completed 

in October 1977. The results of this test will be 

released to the public 5 years after completion of 

the test or 60 calendar days after the issuance 

of the first Federal lease within 50 miles of the 

test site, whichever is earlier. The operator submitted data and information to the Geological 

Survey as required by 30 CFR 251, the regulations which authorize deep stratigraphic testing 

on the OCS.

 To support tract evaluation, the Survey acquired 

more than 55,000 miles of common-depth-point 

seismic data from industry. These data are used 

to determine locations of potential hydrocarbon 

prospects. The Survey also acquired 5,830 miles 

of high-resolution geophysical data. High-resolution geophysical data, including side-scan sonar, 

are used to identify and map geologic features 

that may be hazardous to exploration or production activities on the OCS.

 Features such as unstable sediments, mudslides, 

slumping, shallow gas-bearing sediments, diapiric 

salt or shale near the surface, shallow faulting, 

and abnormally pressured sediments are referred 

to as geologic hazards. Where these geologic 

hazards exist, a tract may be withdrawn from a 

lease sale or offered with specific mitigating 

stipulations.

 To support the resource evaluation program, an 

additional 29,493 miles of magnetic data, 11,432 

miles of gravity data, and 3,041 gravity stations 

were also purchased.

Estimates of reserves on the OCS were completed 

on a reservoir-by-reservoir basis for 70 oil and gas

120
fields during the fiscal year; analyses of reservoirs 

and estimates of reserves have been completed for 

200 of about 335 fields identified in the Gulf of 

Mexico (fig. 31). In addition, 6 contracts were awarded 

to private consultants in September to estimate the 

reserves of 64 additional fields during the next fiscal 

year. Of the 12 fields on the OCS recognized off 

southern California, only 2 are producing, and 

not one is completely developed. It is anticipated that 

the limits of many of the fields here will be further 

defined by additional exploratory drilling. Under a 

continuing program of estimating reserves and updating inventory, each reservoir mapped is monitored 

for current production and for remaining reserves of 

recoverable oil and gas.

Since establishing the resource evaluation program, 

the Geological Survey has expanded its geophysical, 

geologic, and engineering capabilities to map, to 

select, and to evaluate the resource potential of the 

OCS. New Federal legislation resulted in the introduction of new bidding systems in an effort to stimulate competitive bidding.

SUPERVISION OF OPERATIONS

The Geological Survey supervises the activities of 

lessees who explore, develop, and produce oil and 

gas on the OCS. The Survey ensures that operations 

are conducted in compliance with Federal laws and 

Department of the Interior regulations for the conservation of the mineral resources and the protection

of the ocean environment and that the royalties collected for the Government are correct and current. 

Royalties may be collected either in the form of 

monies or by taking a portion of the hydrocarbons 

produced (termed "taken-in-kind"). The Government 

sells "taken-in-kind" hydrocarbons to operators of 

small refineries. Supervision of operations on offshore 

leases includes the following:

 Review and approval of proposed company operating plans.

 Periodic onsite inspections and reviews of oil and 

gas exploration, development, and production 

operations from Federal leases.

 Computation, collection, and accounting of rents 

and royalties from produced oil and gas from 

Federal leases.

During fiscal year 1978, the Geological Survey supervised oil and gas operation on 2,250 leases and 

test well operations covering more than 11.5 million 

acres on the OCS areas of the Alaska, Pacific, Gulf of 

Mexico, and Atlantic coasts. Figure 32 shows the increase in offshore oil and gas lease activity since 1965.

The Geological Survey reviewed and approved 

more than 475 exploration and development plans in 

the Gulf of Mexico in fiscal year 1978. Survey personnel made more than 6,100 inspections of drilling rigs 

and production platforms. Most of these inspections 

occurred in the Gulf of Mexico, which has the largest 

concentration of marine oil and gas operations in the 

world.

400

300

ty 200

Total fields completed 

in inventory

1981

FIGURE 31. Oil and gas reserve inventory for the Outer Continental Shelf.

121
PRODUCING LEASES AND WELL COMPLETIONS TOTAL PRODUCTION (OIL AND GAS)

1/5

1,000 

900 

800 

700 

600 

500 

400 

300 

200 

100

0 

19

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60 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990

I/J.OUU

11,500 

10,500 

9,500 

8,500 

7,500 

6,500 

5,500 

4,500 

3,500 

2,500 

1,500

U

YEAR

ROYALTIES TO UNITED STATES (OIL AND GAS)

1,100 

1,000 

"g" 900 

J 800

^T 600 

< 500 

g 400 

a 300 

200 

100

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IS

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60 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990

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500 

450 

400 

350 

300 

250 

200 

150 

100 

50

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I960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 

YEAR

NEW WELL STARTS AND COMPLETIONS

I,JUU

1,200 

1,100 

1,000 

£ 900 

I 800 

Z 700 

600 

500 

400 

300

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YEAR

1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 

YEAR

FIGURE 32. Offshore oil and gas lease activity.

Exploratory drilling operations were initiated on 

Atlantic OCS leases in March 1978. Natural gas was 

encountered on one lease (fig. 33) in August 1978. 

At the end of the fiscal year, drilling operations were 

conducted on eight leases.

Production of petroleum products from the OCS 

totaled more than 291 million barrels of oil and 

4,180 billion cubic feet of natural gas during the fiscal 

year. By the end of fiscal year 1978, more than 15,800 

wells had been drilled offshore in Federal waters. 

Rents and royalties from this production provided 

more than $1 billion to the Government.

Since 1971, annual production of oil from existing 

OCS leases has decreased while production of natural 

gas has increased. A primary response of Government 

to the increased energy needs has been to stimulate 

exploration and development on existing offshore 

leases through an accelerated resource development 

program. This program is particularly important because from 3 to 10 years are needed, on the average, 

to produce hydrocarbons from new lease discoveries. 

Requests for approval of exploration plans and applications for a permit to drill have increased significantly. The companies carry out the exploration and 

drilling activities to locate undiscovered resources in 

the Continental Shelf areas.

Research and development projects supported by 

the Department of Energy for enhanced reservoir recovery techniques and potential new energy sources 

like the geopressured aquifers in the Gulf of Mexico 

may result in adding significant new domestic supplies of gas and geothermal energy for the Nation 

during the coming years.

Federal and Indian Lands

The Geological Survey classifies and evaluates the 

mineral resources and waterpower and water-storage 

sites on Federal lands (onshore). It also supervises operations related to exploration, development, and 

production of minerals on both Federal and Indian 

leases.

Federal laws provide for the leasing of specific 

minerals on lands that have always been under Federal ownership. These leasable minerals include oil 

and gas, coal, oil shale, asphaltic minerals, sodium,

122
potash, phosphate, geothermal resources, and sulfur 

(in New Mexico and Louisiana only).

Other Federal laws authorize the leasing of Indian 

and acquired lands for production of all metalliferous 

and nonmetalliferous minerals except common varieties of minerals such as sand and gravel.

RESOURCE CLASSIFICATION AND EVALUATION

The classification and evaluation of leasable mineral resources on Federal lands are major responsibilities of the Geological Survey. The classification actions (table 11) of the Geological Survey provide the 

means for the Federal Government to retain the title 

to leasable minerals and water resource development 

sites that otherwise might be lost with disposal of 

the surface rights and provide information for land 

use planning purposes to Federal and administering 

agencies. The Geological Survey scientists compile 

geologic, geophysical, and engineering data from 

many sources including their own field investigations 

to make the following classification actions:

 Classifying lands for their potential for valuable 

leasable minerals.

 Classifying lands for their potential for waterpower.

 Outlining the boundaries of areas that potentially 

are valuable for leasing for mineral development.

 Identifying waterpower and water-storage sites.

Information from these activities, along with comments and recommendations regarding development 

of the mineral resources are supplied to BLM, the 

agency that issues leases on Federal lands.

Once lands are classified as to their mineral character, resources of the lands must be evaluated before they are offered at lease sales. Onshore leases 

may be awarded competitively or noncompetitively 

(except for coal), depending upon whether or not the 

parcel lies within a "known leasing area." The Geological Survey performs a presale evaluation of each 

parcel offered competitively for leasing to determine 

the extent and value of leasable minerals on Federal 

land. Principal responsibilities in this regard are as 

follows:

FIGURE 33. Semisubmersible drilling rig, Ocean Victory, encountered promising shows of natural gas in the Mid-Atlantic Outer

Continental Shelf.

123
TABLE 11. Status of Federal land classifications, fiscal year 1978

[Acres in thousands]

Oil shale __ _ __ __

Asphaltic minerals ________ . Coal _ _ _ _________

Ceothermal resources _ ___ _

Phosphate ___ _ _ _

Sulfur

Total _ __ _ _ __

Mineral

withdrawn

14,177

20,076

1,547

9,411

45,211

Classified

Nonmineral

101

35,699

4,661

40,461

lands

Mineral

4

42,722

462

629

43,817

Prospectively

valuable 

lands i

1,476,886

15,116

17,946

345,286

103,091

30,654

75,818

266,248

5,593

2,336,638

Known leasing

Undefined

6,402

2

53

567

7,024

areas

Defined

11,873

16,800

3,354

79

378

288

32,772

1 These figures represent the total acreage for each leasable mineral commodity and, because some acreage contains more than one 

mineral commodity, do not reflect total acreage prospectively valuable.

124

 To make recommendations to the leasing agency 

about the size of each parcel offered and any 

special stipulations required.

 To evaluate each parcel on the basis of current 

geologic, geophysical, economic, and engineering data and, prior to the sale, to furnish the 

leasing agency with an economic evaluation of 

the minerals for each parcel and the technical 

basis by which the valuation was derived to assist 

the leasing agency to establish the minimum 

acceptable bid for each parcel.

 To make recommendations concerning the acceptance or rejection of the highest bid offered for 

each parcel.

The procedures used for both onshore and offshore 

mineral evaluation assure that the public receives a 

fair value for its mineral resources.

At the end of fiscal year 1978, 43.8 million acres 

of withdrawn land had been classified as mineral 

land, and 10,000 acres were classified valuable for 

waterpower development.

In complying with requests by other Federal agencies concerning leasable minerals on Federal lands, 

the Geological Survey prepared 854 mineral reports 

during fiscal year 1978.

Most Indian lands have been leased by competitive 

bidding methods. The Bureau of Indian Affairs has 

usually relied on the Survey to parcel tracts for sale, 

to recommend stipulations to be included in the 

leases regarding other surface use and drilling requirements, and to recommend acceptance or rejection of offered bids. Complete presale evaluations for 

Indian lease sales are done only when requested by 

the Bureau of Indian Affairs.

COAL

In fiscal year 1978, nearly 13 percent of the Nation's 

coal was produced from Federal and Indian land

leases primarily in Arizona, Utah, Wyoming, New 

Mexico, Colorado, North Dakota, and Montana.

The coal resource evaluation program has been 

providing basic geologic and engineering data and 

analyses for use in BLM's coal leasing program. The 

evaluation of coal is based on compilations of existing information and on basic data collected by field 

mapping and core drilling. During fiscal year 1978, 

principal coal projects were in progress in seven 

Western States. Large deposits of coal that lie close 

enough to the surface to be mined economically using surface mining techniques occur principally in the 

High Plains. Generally, this coal has a low sulfur content. Surface mining involves the use of large powerexcavation and earthmoving equipment to remove 

overburden, to expose the underlying coal seams, to 

strip away the coal, and to replace the surface material. Underground mining methods must be used 

where the depth of overburden is too great for surface mining methods to be economical.

The Geological Survey conducts a coal resource 

evaluation program that requires compiling and, when 

necessary, acquiring basic engineering and geologic 

information. This effort includes the systematic collection of core samples of coal and overlying rocks 

and preparation of geologic maps to delineate the 

quantity, quality, and extent of coal resources. These 

activities are carried out to define Known Recoverable 

Coal Resource Areas (KRCRA's) as public lands containing coal. During fiscal year 1978, 878 test holes 

were drilled in Colorado, Montana, North Dakota, 

New Mexico, Utah, and Wyoming. Geologic data received from these test holes are released as openfile reports. Drilling information of this type is used 

to define KRCRA's and to select and to evaluate 

tracts for coal lease sales. In fiscal year 1978, 18 new 

KRCRA's covering about 4.2 million acres were defined, and about 748,161 acres were added to existing 

KRCRA's.
Other evaluation activities included evaluations of 

coal resources for Federal lands offered for lease by 

competitive bids and review of data submitted by applicants for preference right leases to determine if 

they met the requirements for this type of lease.

To assess the potential commercial value of federally owned coal resources in lease tracts, the Geological Survey compiles and analyzes technical, environmental, and economic information pertinent to 

the tracts; and, it considers current industry recovery 

techniques, costs, and present market conditions and 

estimates of future market demands and price 

changes. ;

The potential for coal of commercial value is shown 

on Coal Resource Occurrence and Coal Development 

Potential maps that are used by BLM and the Department for land use planning (fig. 34). Preparation of 

the 7.5-minute quadrangle maps began in fiscal year 

1977, when contracts for completion of 511 maps 

were awarded. Contracts for another 234 maps were 

issued in fiscal year 1978.

Economic evaluation of coal resources performed 

prior to competitive lease sales were completed for 

BLM under the Department's short-term leasing policies. Use of such a procedure was related to an agreement that followed the court action in the National 

Resource Defense Council vs. Hughes case. Under this 

agreement, the Department may issue short-term 

leases when the proposed lease is required to maintain an existing operation or when the proposed lease 

is necessary to prevent the bypassing and loss of 

Federal coal during the course of adjacent mining 

operations. In addition, the agreement permits the 

Department to process 20 preference right lease applications providing these 20 applications are those 

which would cause the least environmental impact of 

all preference right lease applications pending before 

the Secretary on the date of the agreement.

OIL AND GAS

Oil and gas lands are leased competitively if they are 

located on Known Geologic Structures of producing 

oil and gas fields. A Known Geologic Structure of a 

known producing oil and gas field is a trap for hydrocarbons, whether structural or stratigraphic, in which 

oil or gas has accumulated. Known Geologic Structures are defined on the basis of geologic mapping, 

analysis of well logs, core sample data, and production records. Lessees and operators are required to 

submit these data to the Geological Survey. Lands not 

located on a Known Geologic Structure of a producing oil or gas field are leased noncompetitively by 

BLM.

A discovery well on or close to Federal lands increases the value of the oil and gas rights under 

these lands; therefore, boundaries of Known Geologic

Structures are established as soon as possible after 

a discovery to authorize leasing of the lands by competitive bidding. The main basis for accepting or rejecting high bids at competitive sales is the fair market 

value which is determined by evaluation techniques. 

The basic data include lithologic, electric, and nuclear 

logs derived from wells and also include geologic 

structure maps and production records. By systematic 

analyses of all available geologic and engineering 

data pertaining to the evaluation of the resources, the 

Survey is able to provide BLM with an estimate of 

the value of the resource. BLM determines the fair 

market value of each tract and may reject any offer 

less than that value.

The Conservation Division has classified more than 

16.5 million acres of land as being within Known 

Geological Structures. In fiscal year 1978, BLM held 

21 lease sales in which tracts comprising 83,164 acres 

were offered for sale.

Oil and gas produced from Federal and Indian 

lands in 33 states account for about 6 percent of our 

total domestic production.

GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES

Congress provided for the development of geothermal resources on Federal lands through the Geothermal Steam Act of 1970. The act allows the Secretary of the Interior to lease Federal lands to private 

industry for exploration, development, and utilization 

of geothermal resources.

Geothermal resources comprise the heat stored in 

the Earth's crust that can be obtained by current recovery techniques. Most of the significant U.S. resources occur in the western part of the country, but 

commercially exploitable geothermal systems are 

relatively uncommon.

Geothermal energy can generate electricity or can 

be used directly for heating buildings or for industrial 

purposes. The principal use of geothermal energy in 

the United States at present is generation of electrical 

power. At The Geysers, Calif., powerplants (fig. 35) 

driven by geothermal steam generate almost as much 

electricity as is consumed in San Francisco. Shut-in 

producible wells (fig. 36) drilled on Federal lands in 

The Geysers area will be utilized after construction of 

adjacent powerplants. A new powerplant in the East 

Mesa area of California will utilize geothermal fluids 

from Federal leases.

Major projects involving direct use of lower temperature geothermal fluids include heating buildings 

in Boise, Idaho, and Klamath Falls, Oreg., and drying 

onions at a dehydrating plant in Nevada. The latter 

is one of the first industrial processing plants in the 

United States to utilize heat from geothermal fluids 

instead of natural gas on a commercial scale.

125
AREAL DISTRIBUTION OF IDENTIFIED 

AND HYPOTHETICAL RESOURCES

COAL DEVELOPMENT POTENTIAL 

(SURFACE) R. B. RES (50%)

FIGURE 34. Identification of areas suitable for coal development, using an idealized block diagram and maps, illustrate the concept 

of Coal Resource Occurrence (CRO) and Coal Development Potential (CDP) mapping of coal beds A and B.

126
RESERVE RESERVE 

BASE (50% DEC) (0-500) ~ 

SURFACE MINING 

stripping limit 500 ft "

SUBSURFACE

MINING 

(500-3000)

MEA 

IND 36.5 28.5

INF 16.7 14.2

IDENTIFIED AND HYPOTHETICAL 

RESOURCES

COAL THICKNESS X TONS/ACRE-FOOT 

(SUMITUMINOUS) X NO. OF ACRES-RESERVE 

BASE X RECOVERY FACTOR (85%)-RECOVERAHI 

COAL IN TONS COAL ISOPACH MAP

COAL DEVELOPMENT ! 

POTENTIAL ] 

(SUBSURFACE)

HYPOTHETICAL

INDICATED (0.75-mi arc)

MEASURED (0.25-mi arc)

STRUCTURE CONTOUR MAP

AREAL DISTRIBUTION OF IDENTIFIED 

AND HYPOTHETICAL RESOURCES

OVERBURDEN ISOPACH OF THE

"B" COAL BED 

(stripping limit 500 ft)

FIGURE 34. Continued.

127
The Geological Survey supports the Department of 

the Interior program for developing geothermal resources by evaluating these resources, classifying the 

resource potential of the lands, recommending measures to protect the environment, and supervising operations on Federal leases. The leasing program, 

which began in 1974, is conducted under regulations 

on the leasing of geothermal resources which were 

published in 1973.

Lands classified as Known Geothermal Resource 

Areas (KGRA's) are leased competitively. All KGRA's 

are determined either by geologic, geochemical, 

and geophysical criteria or by overlap of land areas 

covered by applications for noncompetitive leases. 

Lands not included in KGRA's are available for noncompetitive leasing to the first qualified applicant. 

The Geological Survey prepares presale evaluations 

for lands to be leased competitively to establish the 

value of the resource.

Federal lands have been classified as KGRA's since 

fiscal year 1971. At the end of fiscal year 1978, 108 

KGRA's had been designated. These KGRA's comprise 3.38 million acres in 11 Western States. Since

FIGURE 35. Ceothermal powerplant and cooling tower at The 

Geysers, Calif.

these lands became available for leasing, 207 leases 

have been issued covering 363,000 acres. In addition, 

there are 921 noncompetitive Federal geothermal 

leases on 1.54 million acres outside of designated 

KGRA's.

OIL SHALE

The prototype oil shale leasing program, established in fiscal year 1971, encourages private industry 

to develop oil shale mining and processing technology on a commercial scale. In addition, the program provides for the maintenance of environmental 

integrity in the affected areas by requiring environmental safeguards and land restoration techniques.

Under this program, the Department of the Interior 

leased four tracts of land in Utah and Colorado 

through competitive bidding procedures. These tracts, 

totaling 20,400 acres received bonus bids of $449 

million. The terms of each lease required the lessee 

to complete environmental baseline studies and to 

conduct investigations to determine the oil shale resources of each lease area.

W/ATERPOWER

Federal lands are classified by the Geological Survey for their waterpower or water-storage site potential. The classification helps to assure that the 

availability of sites in the future will be adequate 

and that site values will be properly considered in 

multiple use plans and land disposal actions. It also 

preserves the right of the Government to authorize 

and to license project development. About 14 million 

acres of Federal land are presently classified as potential waterpower or water-storage sites. During 

fiscal year 1978, the waterpower or the water-storage 

site potential of 10,000 acres of land was classified 

or reclassified. The Geological Survey also provided 

detailed site information for about 100 areas to Federal land management agencies for land use planning 

during the fiscal year. In addition, the Survey prepared more than 450 reports with recommendations 

requiring other interim uses or declassification of 

potential sites.

TAR SANDS

Legislation is being forwarded to Congress by the 

Department for introduction in the next session to 

provide for leasing tar sand deposits as "hydrocarbons." The proposed legislation would end more 

than a decade of uncertainty regarding the leasable 

status of this resource.

OTHER LEASABLE MINERALS

Phosphate and potash deposits were under increased development during the first half of the 

fiscal year. About 77 percent of the Nation's domes-
FIGURE 36. A shut-in geothermal steam well at The Geysers, Calif.

tically produced potash now comes from Federal 

leases in New Mexico and California, and 11 percent 

of the phosphate comes from Federal (figs. 37 and 

38) and Indian leases predominantly in Idaho.

Other valuable minerals mined on Federal and 

Indian lands comprise important portions of our Nation's mineral production (fig. 39). At present, 46 percent of the lead and 64 percent of the sodium compounds produced in the United States are extracted 

from leases on Federal lands.

Large reserves of uranium are being mined from 

lands under permits and leases on Indian land in New 

Mexico and Washington. Production of uranium 

oxide, or "yellow cake," from these lands accounts 

for 11 percent of domestic production. In the future, 

greater quantities of uranium ore will come from Indian land as new deep mines are opened. Additional 

sources are being identified that can be recovered by 

in situ mining techniques.

SUPERVISION OF OPERATIONS

The Geological Survey supervises oil, gas, and mining operations on Federal and Indian lands. In this 

regulatory program, oil, gas, geothermal resource, 

and mining operations are supervised by separate organizational units because of the difference in the

technologies and engineering disciplines used to produce each type of mineral resource. However, the 

major program requirements for each type of mineral 

resource are basically the same: (1) review and approval of exploration and development plans, (2) 

supervision of exploration, development, and production operations, and (3) computation and collection of royalties and certain rentals. Other related activities, such as unitization, method of production 

measurement, transportation allowances, commingling of products, off-lease storage, and sales contracts, also require the prior approval or concurrence 

of the Survey.

COAL

For the first time since the Geological Survey assumed management responsibility for mineral leases 

in 1925, the value of coal produced on Federal and 

Indian lands exceeded the combined value of all 

other leasable minerals which are mined. A total of 

565 coal leases comprising over 1 billion acres 

were supervised by the Conservation Division. A 

record 78.8 million tons of coal valued at $684 million 

were produced at 61 mines incorporating 118 Federal 

and Indian leases. Royalities derived from coal production were $18.8 million.

129
FIGURE 37. Grading reclaimed area prior to planting at a 

phosphate mine in Idaho.

By the end of the fiscal year, 67 mining plans were 

approved for 29 underground, 36 surface, and 2 

combined underground and surface coal mining 

operations.

The Geological Survey provided the Department 

of Energy with mining engineering assistance in evaluating and selecting a potential contractor for a coal 

mining research project. This project is directed toward developing the technology of mining thick coal 

seams by using a longwall mining system. The advantages of longwall mining compared to room and 

pillar mining are improved safety, high resource recovery, and minimizing undesirable surface disturbances. Resource recovery with the new technology is 

expected to be 60 or 70 percent compared to 15 to 

30 percent by room and pillar mining methods.

OIL SHALE

Detailed development plans were approved for the 

Colorado tracts in August and September 1977.

On Federal Oil Shale Tract C-a, construction of 

surface facilities and the sinking of a 15-footdiameter service and production shaft and a 7-footdiameter ventilation shaft were started during fiscal 

year 1978. The Detailed Development Plan submitted 

by the lessees, Gulf Oil Corp. and Standard Oil of 

Indiana, proposes development of a 750-foot-thick 

zone of oil shale by in situ methods (fig. 40). The 700- 

foot underground retort will be "rubblized," hoisted

to the surface, and retorted in surface retorts during 

commercial operations. An environmental monitoring program has been instituted to identify any potential problems that may endanger the integrity of 

the present ecosystem.

Federal Oil Shale Tract C-b in Colorado is being 

developed by a modified in situ extraction process 

(fig. 41). The lessee expects to recover about 1.2 billion barrels of oil during the projected 60-year life 

of the project. About 20 percent of the oil shale in a 

300-foot layer will be mined by underground 

methods. The remaining oil shale will be broken by 

explosives to form columns of rubble several hundred feet on a side. The columns of rubblized rock 

will be used as large underground retorts. The rock 

at the top of each retort will be ignited. Oil distilled 

from the rubblized rock will trickle downward and 

collect in sumps at the base of the retort. Special 

shafts will convey gases developed during the retorting to the surface where they may be burned to 

generate power.

A 34-foot-diameter service shaft (fig. 42), a 29-foot 

production shaft, and a 12-foot ventilator-escape shaft 

were started during the fiscal year. A temporary 6- 

foot gas shaft will be drilled in fiscal year 1979.

OIL AND GAS

Regulatory procedures associated with onshore oil 

and gas development include review and approval of

FIGURE 38. Revegetation and research plots at a phosphate 

mine in Idaho.

?.:*: I

130
FIGURE 39. Production from Federal and Indian lands as percentage of total U.S. production in fiscal year 1978.

development plans; regulation of exploration, development, and production activities; and the collection 

of appropriate royalties. For oil and gas production, 

the Survey must also approve off-lease storage facilities and unitization agreements that permit several owners to develop a single area cooperatively. 

The Geological Survey also approves methods of 

measuring production and the values established in 

the sales contracts. The Federal Government generally receives one-eighth of the resources produced 

as its royalty from onshore production.

At the close of fiscal year 1978, the Geological 

Survey was maintaining royalty accounts on 15,000 

producing oil and gas lease accounts covering 8.7 

million acres on Federal and Indian lands (fig. 43). 

This was a 5-percent increase over the 14,219 active 

leases under management the previous year.

The Geological Survey approved 3,425 new exploration and development wells, prepared 3,525 environmental analyses of proposed operations, and 

conducted 27,630 onsite inspections of drilling and 

producing operations.

During the year, all facilities handling water coproduced with hydrocarbons were formally reviewed. 

Approval was granted for disposal of the water produced when the methods or the facilities were 

found to be acceptable. Of over 14,000 such facilities, approximately 98 percent were found to be 

handling produced water acceptably, and enforcement actions were needed for only about 2 percent 

of the facilities. Where disposal facilities were unacceptable, enforcement actions ranged from assessment of liquidated damages to ordering cessation of 

operations.

Because most of the easily discovered oil and gas 

deposits have been developed, advanced techniques 

are now required to enhance recovery and to maintain production levels from these deposits. Substantial new supplies remain to be found, but most 

of these are believed to be located in remote areas 

and to be more costly to develop and to transport to 

the market than the deposits currently being produced. However, partly because of significant increases in the price of oil and gas, the search for 

new supplies onshore accelerated in fiscal year T978 

particularly in the "tight gas sands" basins in the 

Rocky Mountains.

The Overthrust Belt of Utah, Idaho, Wyoming, and 

Montana is a remote mountainous area with a limited 

road system. Large parts of the belt are in areas of 

the National Forest System and National Resource 

Lands being considered for inclusion in the Wilderness System. The recent numerous discoveries of oil 

and gas in the Overthrust Belt indicate that much of

131
Retorted block 

"'***, 

Block being retorted

§ Block under development

FIGURE 40. Modified in situ development plan for Tract C-a.

*,*r. -y» **

this area is prospectively valuable for oil and gas development. The value conflicts between development 

of the oil and gas resource versus conservation of 

wilderness have created a need for major efforts by 

the Geological Survey to resolve the associated 

problems.

GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES

The Geological Survey's supervision of operations 

on Federal geothermal leases includes review and approval of exploration and development plans; inspection of exploration, development, and production activities of operators; and also the computation and 

collection of royalties and certain rents.

At the end of fiscal year 1978, there were 50 completed wells on Federal leases. Although 36 of these 

are capable of production, they remain shut-in because the powerplants that they will supply have not 

been completed.

At the close of fiscal year 1978, the Geological Survey was administering 1,170 geothermal leases covering almost 2.1 million acres on Federal and Indian 

lands. The Survey approved 28 new exploration and 

development wells, prepared 28 environmental analyses of proposed operations, and conducted 778 onsite inspections of drilling and producing operations.

- "'WlJ

'' ^^§}^^ 

FIGURE 41. Modified in situ development plan for Tract C-b.

FIGURE 42. Construction of a 34-foot-diameter service shaft 

on a Federal oil shale lease in Colorado.

132
OTHER LEASABLE MINERALS

Production of 23 leasable mineral commodities in 

addition to oil, gas, and coal contributed $648.5 

million to the Nation's gross national product and 

brought $40.6 million in royalty revenue to the Federal Government. Approximately 64 percent of sodium compounds produced in the country came from 

21 sodium leases in Wyoming, Nevada, California, 

and Colorado; this production had a value of $222 

million. About 77 percent of the Nation's potash was 

produced from 43 leases in New Mexico, Utah, California, and Nevada; production value was $150 million. About 46 percent of the country's lead was produced from 18 leases in Missouri and was valued at 

$125 million. Uranium is becoming increasingly 

important as a source of fuel for generating electricity 

at nuclear power generators; uranium mined from 

eight leases on Indian lands in New Mexico and 

Washington was valued at $66 million. Phosphate 

production from 18 leases in Idaho, Florida, Montana, 

and California was valued at $47 million. Copper was

produced from three leases in Arizona and recovered 

from lead-zinc concentrates produced in Missouri; 

the value was $18 million. Zinc recovered from lead 

mining and processing operations in Missouri and 

Illinois was valued at $12 million. Other mineral 

commodities produced from Federal and Indian lands 

are listed in descending order of value produced: 

sand and gravel, silica sand, fluorspar, chat, limestone, feldspar, bentonite, barite, cinders, gypsum, 

clay, quartz crystals, molybdenum, wavellite, garnet, 

and quartz.

In addition to the leasable minerals, approximately 

one-fourth of the Nation's lithium is recovered as a 

byproduct from brines on sodium leases in Nevada. 

A small quantity of lithium was also recovered from 

brines on leases in California. Recovery of lithium in 

California ceased in fiscal year 1978.

In fiscal year 1976, the General Accounting Office 

suggested that certain changes in royalty payments 

be considered. Options for royalty payments were 

developed and are presently being reviewed within 

the Department.

PRODUCING LEASES AND WELL COMPLETIONS

12,000 

10,000 

12 8,000 

^ 6,000 

4,000 

2,000 

i

s s

k-'"

^^

./

Well Completions

_ lfr

^

 *'

-* 

ff^

/

S

Leases

/

24,000 

</> 

20,000 § 

P 

16,000 £

12,000 3 

«i 

8,000 i£J

4,000 

2,000

I960 1965 1970 1975 1980 

YEAR

1985 1990

TOTAL ROYALTIES TO UNITED STATES

250

J 200

1- 

^ 150

gioo

1 ^

f 19

_,_ 

 

. - 

f

1

1

,s

>-Oil

Gas

/

60 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 191 

YEAR

TOTAL PRODUCTION - OIL AND GAS

250

200

"w

1 150

§

1 100

_J

o

50 

n

,-'

/^

_X

x. -s

/o

"v,

.^xN

 Oil

***

BH 

2,000^-

£

U

l,500-§

c 

o

1,000 §

</> 

500 O

1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 

YEAR

NEW WELL STARTS AND COMPLETIONS 

COMBINED OIL AND GAS

3uu 

u.

o

13

z

1,920 

1,440 

960 

480

-A

\ .

rvr\ \j i

s~" \

^

V

/

r'

/Starts

V

/ Completions

oo * - o* -KJ£0 O

COMPLETIONS PERCENT OF, 

1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 

YEAR

FIGURE 43. Onshore oil and gas lease activity.

133

Land Information and Analysis

INTRODUCTION

As our population grows and nonreplenishable 

earth resources are consumed at an ever-increasing 

rate, the need to effectively communicate earth 

science data to planners, decisionmakers, and the 

general public has become of critical importance. 

Conservation and efficient use of our resources requires careful planning based on an ability to fully 

utilize earth resources information, in conjunction 

with the socioeconomic requirements and desires of 

the populace. Environmental concern led to enactment of the National Environmental Policy Act of 

1969; recent Federal, State, and local land use legislation; and intensive study of the impact of shortages 

of energy and mineral resources. These actions have 

identified the unprecedented need that exists for 

earth science and resources information for planning 

and decisionmaking. Traditionally, however, most information products of the U.S. Geological Survey 

have been in the technical language and formats of 

the earth scientist and not readily usable by the planning community without interpretation.

The earth science information required to evaluate 

impacts of alternative uses of the land and to facilitate related planning and decisionmaking must be 

derived from more than one of the Geological Survey's core disciplines geology, hydrology, cartography, and geography. In the past, the Geological 

Survey responded to the need for such information 

on a case-by-case basis, usually by one discipline,

Ocean City, Md., a typical example of intensive urbanization 

occuring on barrier islands. The multiple-use conflicts of such 

development are obvious on this aerial photograph which 

shows high-rise condominiums (foreground), a second-home 

development on reclaimed marshland (background), marshland, and commercialization along the highway, all on a 

rapidly eroding barrier island which is retreating landward.

but, during recent years, it has become obvious that 

conducting land resource and environmental studies 

requires coordinating and documenting the expertise 

from more than one discipline. It has also become 

obvious that closer interaction between the data compilers and the data users (land resource planners and 

decisionmakers) is necessary to provide the needed 

data in an understandable and usable form.

Explicit in the Land Information and Analysis 

Office's mission is the presentation of scientific and 

engineering information about land and other natural 

resources in readily understandable language and formats to encourage its use by elected officials, planners, public interest groups, the legal profession, 

social scientists, and the general public.

The objectives of the Land Information and Analysis Office are as follows:

 Development and application of multidisciplinary 

earth sciences, other natural sciences, and geographic technology in support of land resources 

planning and decisionmaking.

 Mapping current land use and land cover.

 Accomplishment of Geological Survey activities 

directly related to the requirements of the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA).

 Collecting, processing, and distributing remotely 

sensed data and applying other aspects of space 

technology in support of land resources planning 

and management and environmental impact 

analysis.

The task of achieving these objectives is carried on 

by the following multidisciplinary programs:

 ' Earth Sciences Applications (ESA).

 Resource and Land Investigations (RALI).

 Geography.

 Earth Resources Observation Systems (EROS).

 Environmental Impact Analysis (EIA).

135
LAND INFORMATION 

AND ANALYSIS

SOURCE OF FUNDS

State and

local funds

$0.05

Miscellaneous 

non-Federal

sources

$2.15

Direct Federal funds 

$18.13

Reimbursable 

$2.84

Earth Resources

Observation Program

$12.56

Reimburse bte 

$1.95

Environmental Impact

Analysis Program

$5.21

Geography Program 

$2.65

Land Resource Data

Applications Program

$2.80

USE OF

TOTAL $23.22 MILLION

136

BUDGET AND PERSONNEL

Obligations for Land Information and Analysis 

Office activities in fiscal year 1978 amounted to $23.2 

million, a decrease of 1 percent compared to fiscal 

year 1977 (table 12).

The work of the Land Information and Analysis 

Office is partly accomplished through contracts to 

private industry and through research grants. Of fiscal 

year 1978 funds, $7.475 million (32 percent) were 

expended on contracts. Contract services were the 

major source of operational support at the EROS 

Data Center (EDC). Cooperative programs with State

agencies were carried on by the Geography Program 

for land use and land cover mapping. The programs 

of the Land Information and Analysis Office were carried out by 234 full-time career employees in 1978; 

at the end of the year, 162 were assigned to the 

Office's programs and 72 were assigned to other 

Survey offices in support of the work of the Land Information and Analysis Office. There were also 75 

temporary or part-time employees. In addition, contract support services at EDC amounted to 290 manyears. Personnel of the Topographic, Computer, and 

Administrative Divisions assigned to EDC are included 

in the above numbers.
TABLE 12. Land Information and Analysis Office obligations for 

fiscal years 1977 and 1978

[Dollars in millions. Data may differ from that in the statistical tables 

because of rounding]

Program Fiscal year 

1977

Fiscal year 

1978

 Compilation of land use maps, land cover maps, 

and data for approximately 400,000 square miles 

of the United States, bringing the total area mapped to 1,000,000 square miles since the mapping 

______________________________ program began in 1975.

Total $2348 $2322 * Acquisition of the services of a commercial com- 

======== munications satellite by the EROS Program, in

______________________________ conjunction with the National Aeronautics and

, , _ ** ...* Space Administration (NASA), to provide a data Earth Resources Observation Systems . A .. . . , _ , . , Program __ 11.94 12.56 telemetry link between the Coddard Space

n __ n-7-i Flight Center and EDC. This will reduce the time Direct program 9.55 9.72 , °, ... ,,..,. , , Reimbursable program ____________ 2.39 2.84 lag between acquisition and distribution of data

Miscellaneous non-Federal sources 1.74 2.15 from 4-6 weeks to 7-10 days. 

Other Federal agencies .65 .64 Participation with lead or nonlead responsibility

in the preparation of 31 Environmental Impact 

Statements (EIS's). In addition, approximately 

Environmental Impact Analysis Program 6.26 5.21 I 1 '800 EIS/S and related documents were reviewed.

Direct program ______. _________ 3^7 I26~ EARTH SCIENCES APPLICATIONS PROGRAM

Rembursable program _ 3.09 1.95

Other Federal agencies _ _ 3^9 195 Program and Activities

 ' The Earth Sciences Application (ESA) Program

	directs and coordinates multidisciplinary Geological

Geography Program 2.72____2.65 Survey activities designed to interpret, to demonDirect program __________ strate, and to encourage the use of earth science inReimbursable program ___.19_______-°5 formation for land resource decisionmaking. The prostates, counties, and municipalities .19 .05 gram's principal means of achieving these goals are 

Other Federal agencies __.._____ _ - through specially designed projects and report prod-

 I ucts ancj through interaction with and technical assist-

 ance to users | n fjSGa | year 1973, the ESA Program

Land Resource Data Applications Pro- continued to emphasize two main areas of interest, 

gram (ESA and RALi) ____ 2.56______2.80 | Urban Area Studies and Geologic Related Hazards

Direct program ____________ 2~45 255 Information. 

Reimbursable program ________ .11 .25 ... A _. ..

0«her Federal agencies .......... !ii *~ Urban Area Studies

Since the Survey's multidisciplinary urban area 

studies were initiated in 1970, more than 600 basic 

HIGHLIGHTS data and interpretive reports and maps have been

released, principally for 8 major urban areas, includ-

 Publication of "Nature to be Commanded . . ." ing about 40 new reports and maps in fiscal year 

(Professional Paper 950), an innovative book de- 1978. Highlights and accomplishments of individual 

signed to communicate technical earth science projects in the past year included the following:

information andI methods to the layman. COLORADO FRONT RANGE URBAN CORRIDOR

 Publication, with the assistance of all other Survey ^^ L-^

divisions, of "A Guide to Obtaining Information Published a new geologic map of the Boulder-Ft.

from the USGS 1978" (Circular 777), to assist the Collins-Greeley area (Miscellaneous Investigapublic in obtaining Survey information products tions Map I-855-G) showing both bedrock and

and in locating sources of unpublished informa- surficial geology at a regional scale of 1:100,000

tion in the Survey. (1 inch equals about 1.6 miles). Similar maps for

 Establishment of an Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) the Denver and the Castle Rock-Colorado

Information Program, which aids State planners Springs areas are in preparation,

to evaluate the onshore impacts of OCS develop- Published "Climatography of the Front Range Urment and production. This is a cooperative effort ban Corridor and Vicinity, Colorado" (Profeswithin the Geological Survey between the Con- sional Paper 1019), a graphical summary of cliservation Division and the Land Information and matic conditions in this region of varied physiogAnalysis Office. raphy and rapid urbanization (see fig. 44).
w

^^m£^

:-~>

PRECIPITATION 

IN INCHES r

10-1d

t8

f 6 4

Supplemental 

3-inch isohyet

Portions of isohyetat 

data generalized 

from Matthai 

(1969)

5.3
 Initiated a survey of the uses and users of earth 

sciences information in this project area.

FAIRFAX COUNTY IN VIRGINIA

 Released an innovative computer-composite map 

showing the susceptibility to contamination of 

aquifers in Coastal Plain deposits in Fairfax 

County (Open-File Report 78-265).

 Provided technical assistance to the Fairfax County 

Water Authority and its ground-water consultant 

regarding selection and evaluation of sites for a 

well-drilling and testing program. The initial interest in the possibility of developing a supplemental ground-water supply, as well as the preliminary selection of sites for testing, was based 

largely on the findings of the Fairfax County earth 

sciences applications project and was stimulated 

by a severe water shortage in Fairfax County 

during the summer of 1977.

PL/GET SOUND AREA OF WASHINGTON

 Initiated a series of meetings with local government, industry, public interest, and citizens 

groups to brief these potential information users 

on the purposes of the Puget Sound earth 

sciences applications project and to solicit information on local problems and data needs.

 Released a new tectonic map of the Puget Sound 

region showing locations of faults, folds, and 

large-scale Quaternary deformation (Open-File 

Report 78-426). This map and the results of more 

recent studies by project personnel provide basic 

scientific information necessary for decisions on 

siting of nuclear powerplants in the area.

Geologic Related Hazards Information

 Met with designated representatives of about 30 

States and 7 Federal agencies to develop mutually acceptable procedures for communicating 

information on geologic related hazards.

 Provided information on potential hazards to representatives of the States of Alaska, California, 

Montana, Wyoming, and Nevada. Potential hazards included active faults, landslides, rockfalls, 

and fissuring and faulting associated with subsidence resulting from ground-water withdrawals.

 Presented information on coastal zone geologic 

hazards at workshops in New Jersey, California, 

and Massachusetts. These workshops, the second 

series conducted under joint sponsorship of the 

Survey's RALI Program, the American Society of

FIGURE 44. Maximum recorded precipitation in 24 hours (from 

Hanson, Chronic, and Matlock, 1978, map 18).

Planning Officials, and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), were focused on onshore 

impacts of offshore oil and gas development.

Other Activities

 Published "Postglacial Volcanic Deposits at Mount 

Baker, Washington, and Potential Hazards from 

Future Eruptions" (Professional Paper 1022-C).

 Published "Understanding Natural Systems A Perspective for Land-Use Planning in Appalachian 

Kentucky" (Bulletin 1438). This report summarizes the results of the Kentucky River Area Development District Project, which was supported 

jointly by the Survey and the Appalachian Regional Commission and was coordinated by the 

ESA Program.

RESOURCE AND LAND INVESTIGATIONS 

PROGRAM

Program and Activities

The Resource and Land Investigations (RALI) Program was established in 1972 by the Secretary of the 

Interior to provide "the organizational framework to 

mobilize more effectively the Department's technological capacity and scientific competence for objective analysis of the alternatives in land use, to provide, with appropriate collaboration by other agencies 

of government, the knowledge base for efficient and 

safe land and resource development, and to evaluate 

the tradeoffs between resource development and environmental protection concerns." The Geological 

Survey was assigned the "lead agency" role to manage the RALI Program, which was chartered to improve 

technical communication between the collectors and 

analysts of resource and land information and the 

planners, managers, and decisionmakers in government, industry, and the public sector.

The RALI Program undertakes projects which address multidisciplinary natural resources management 

problems that affect the missions of many bureaus 

of the Department. The program's clientele are primarily Federal, State, and local land use planners. In 

addition, the program also supports other users who 

require a suite of earth sciences, biologic, and socioeconomic data, as well as planning methods, and 

technologies that are not available from any single 

Departmental bureau.

Program activities involved the following:

 Product evaluation, in which the utility and reliability of resource planning methods and technologies and the usefulness of information 

products are tested against the "real world"

139
140

problems of the planning community. An example of this activity is the ongoing study with 

the Council of State Governments to find more 

efficient and accurate ways for States to communicate their natural resource data needs to 

Federal data-producing agencies.

 Methodology development, in which the existing 

information base is used to generate, to analyze, 

and to evaluate alternatives in land and resource 

planning and decisionmaking. An example of this 

activity is the initiation of a cooperative program 

with the Council on Environmental Quality, including a contract with the American Arbitration 

Association to devise, to select, and to test 

methods for resolving disputes involving environmental actions subject to NEPA requirements and to develop and to test the NEPA 

litigation computer information system.

 Technology transfer, which includes the packaging 

of information in usable forms, conducting workshops and other educational events, and providing short-term technical assistance to State 

and local planning communities. An example of 

this activity is the Alaska Coastal Management 

Research and Demonstration Project (a joint effort between the Geological Survey and the 

Alaska Coastal Management Program), which 

provides information to local and State planners 

developing plans for managing the Alaskan 

Coastal Zone.

 Information dissemination, which includes the 

compilation of directories, catalogs, and bibliographies of land resource data and technologies. 

An example of this activity is "A Catalog to 

Sources and Services of Natural Science Data and 

Information in the U.S. Department of the Interior" (in press), which will provide a guide to 

Department of the Interior information sources 

for Federal, State, and local land use and resource planners.

Accomplishments

 Establishment of the Coastal Zone Management Act 

coordination office, which will review and comment on State Coastal Zone Management plans, 

provide a bureau focal point for dealing with 

the Department and the Office of Coastal Zone 

Management of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) on coastal 

zone issues, and alert the Geological Survey to 

problems stemming from the Federal consistency 

provisions of the Coastal Zone Management Act.

 Completion of the first series of regional workshops on planning for onshore impacts of OCS 

oil and gas development. The second series of 

workshops, which will stress environmental and

socioeconomic impacts and mitigating measures, 

has been initiated. Workshops are partly funded 

by EPA and are managed by the American 

Society of Planning Officials.

 Establishment of an OCS Information Program, pursuant to 30 CFR 252 and in anticipation of the 

passage of the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act 

Amendments of 1978, to give States summary information to aid them in the planning for onshore and near shore socioeconomic, environmental, and fiscal impacts of OCS development 

and production.

 Draft report of a "Guideline to Identify, Manage, 

and Resolve Environmental Disputes," prepared 

jointly with the American Arbitration Association, 

which will aid public officials in anticipating environmental conflicts and managing their resolution within the existing regulatory framework.

 Initiation of the Western Coal Planning Assistance 

Project conducted jointly with the Missouri River 

Basin Commission to help State and local governments develop the technical methods and acquire the information needed to cope with the 

problems associated with coal and energy 

development.

 Completion of a joint project with the Department 

of Energy (Argonne National Laboratory) to develop methods for integrated mining, reclamation, and regional land use planning. A series of 

three regional workshops to transfer the project 

results to working planners, mining engineers, 

and concerned public officials was held under an 

interagency agreement with the Argonne National Laboratory.

 Completion of a project in cooperation with the 

Council of State Governments to assess the extent to which Wisconsin's various land record 

systems are amenable to automation and consolidation.

 Publication of "Environmental Resource Data: Intergovernmental Management Dimensions " by 

the Council of State Governments. 

In little more than 5 years, the program and its cooperators, grantees, and contractors have either published, released, or have in preparation more than 

80 reports, maps, inventories, and directories. The 

distribution of publications resulting from one supported activity, the Council of State Governments' 

Task Force on Natural Resource and Land-Use Information, had exceeded 30,000 copies by the end of 

fiscal year 1978. The program has also sponsored or

Landsat image showing the Anchorage, Alaska, area. This infrared 

(Band 7) Landsat 2 image demonstrates the use of satellite imagery 

as a tool of environmental scientists for regional land resource 

assessment. The image was obtained on July 11, 1975.
cosponsored a national symposium and 24 regional GEOGRAPHY PROGRAM

and national workshops designed to transfer technical ...

knowledge to State and local resource planners. Ad- Program and Activities

ditional workshops are scheduled in fiscal year 1979 Geography Program activities center on the delineon topics including mined area reclamation, coastal ation, analysis, and dissemination of spatially orienzone planning, OCS information, and natural resource ed land use and land cover maps and related data, 

information systems.

S D E011-1.0

To accomplish these tasks, program personnel keep

0301-043

o^uS EROS DflTR CENTER 

11JUL75 C N61-15/WH9-01 N N61-H/WH8-56 MSS 7 SUN EL48 HZH9 198-2372-R-1-N-D-3L NflSR ERT5 E-2170-20340-7 01

074-017 APPROXIMATE SCALE 

10 0 10 MILES

141
Resource Mapping Aids Town Planning

LIMITED 

h Yield Aquifer 

Swamp Wetlands

MODERATE 

Till, Some

Sand&

Gravel MODERATE 

Sand & 

Gravel 

LIMITED Till

Compact Till,

Wetlands, 

Clay, Swamp

MODERATE 

ompaet Till

MODERATE 

TO LIMITED

Compact 

Till Wet LIMITED 

Clay, Wetland, Swamp

MODERATE

Potential High, with Sewers 

High Yield Aquifer Sand & 

Gravel Danger of Pollution

BRADLEY / 

INTERNATIONAL /

MODERATE 

Compact Till

LIMITED 

Swamp 

Wetland

/MODERATE 

Compact Till 

Some Shallow 

to Bedrock

LIMITED 

Shallow to 

Bedrock 

p Slopes 

Talcott Mtn 

Ridge

2000 3000 4000 5000 FEET 

I I I _I

MODERATE

Sand & 

Gravel High 

Yield Aquifer

MODERATE

Sand & Gravel

Moderate Yield

Aquifer

142
Nature's forces and processes continue virtually unimpeded by even the largest work of man. When man builds 

and lives in concert with nature, his works may persist for 

generations; when he does not, the products of his labors, 

and sometimes man himself, are soon obliterated. As Francis 

Bacon observed, "Nature to be commanded must be 

obeyed." To be obeyed, nature must be understood.

Earth scientists have developed many tools for observing 

nature's forces and processes and for documenting the 

changes in our environment that result from them. These 

tools help us to understand nature better: the opportunities 

presented by resources and the deterrents posed by natural 

hazards. Some of the most valuable tools and the most 

readily understood are earth science maps.

U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 950, Nature to be 

Commanded . . .. demonstrates several ways that earth 

science maps have been used in the urban planning process. 

The introduction discusses the uses of topographic, geologic, 

and hydrologic maps; it is followed by chapters describing 

the applications of earth science information in six varied 

environments across the country. The following discussion of 

natural resources mapping in East Cranby, Conn., is condensed from a chapter in Nature to be Commanded ....

The town of East Cranby is a rural residential New England 

community about 15 miles north of Hartford, Conn. As a 

small town, its problems are somewhat different from those 

of large urban areas. Sewer service extends to only a small 

part of the town, and municipal water service does not exist. 

Therefore, most of the houses rely upon onsite septic systems 

for waste disposal and onsite wells for water supply. A 

properly functioning waste disposal system and a safe reliable 

water supply, both on the same property, require careful 

planning. With urban population growth demanding land, 

rural areas are under pressure. Urban development strongly 

competes with farming and also spreads into sensitive areas 

where it may be harmful effects on the natural environment. 

Rural town planning must carefully consider these special 

problems as well as those that are common to both rural 

and urban areas.

Therefore, a somewhat different approach to planning may 

be taken in East Cranby from that used in large urban areas. 

Here, large areas of land are available for growth; it is easier

Map showing land use intensities. This map indicates the relative suitability for development based on natural factors. 

Areas designated as high intensity have few site problems. 

Areas designated as moderate intensity are likely to have 

problems that require careful site planning. Areas designated 

as limited intensity probably have severe problems that require extensive and costly site preparation. (Map taken from 

Nature to be Commanded. . . .)

to plan around natural constraints than engineer through 

them. Development can be located in areas with few constraints or at a density that is low enough to minimize environmental impact. Of course, a sound development plan 

for a rural community, like that of a city, should be adjusted to the natural environment and should determine how 

the environment can be used most effectively by the 

community.

The natural resource data used for the plan of development for East Cranby (prepared by the East Cranby Planning 

and Zoning Commission with technical assistance from the 

Bureau of Local Government of the Connecticut Department 

of Community Affairs) were obtained from a detailed soil 

survey, surficial geologic maps, and hydrologic reports prepared over a period of many years by the U.S. Geological 

Survey and the Soil Conservation Service in cooperation with 

the Connecticut Geologic and Natural History Survey. From 

the data available, seven maps showing unconsolidated 

materials, depth to bedrock, slope, areas having seasonal 

high-water table, ground water potential, flood plains, and 

inland wetlands and water courses were prepared. Each of 

the maps is discussed separately in the plan of development, 

which describes the impact of development on the natural 

factors and the impact of the natural factors on development.

The natural resources maps describe single elements of the 

environment that interact in response to the stresses of development. For example, the rapid percolation rates of sands 

and gravels may be a positive factor in the location of septic 

systems; however, if an area also has high ground-water 

potential, the rapid movement of waste liquid may have a 

harmful effect on the water supply. This problem would be 

further complicated if the area were one of seasonal highwater table. For another example, areas underlain by glacial 

till generally have good foundation conditions. However, in 

areas of steep slope and especially where water levels are 

high, till often is less stable, which results in poor foundation conditions. The map shown here, natural land use intensities, is the result of the combination of all the natural 

factors maps. This map summarizes the land use potential of 

East Granby.

The inclusion of natural land use factors in the planning 

process familiarized commission members and citizens with 

the natural characteristics of their town and the influence of 

those factors of nature on development. The preparation and 

adoption of the plan, however, does not end the process of 

planning for the usefulness of the information obtained in 

that process, for the plan itself must now be implemented 

and will need to be revised from time to time. The natural 

factors maps will allow town agencies and officials, landowners, and potential developers to know the conditions 

they can expect to find in an area. These maps will not, 

however, replace detailed site review; rather, they will be 

the starting point for site reviews.

pace with current environmental concerns, technological innovations in the acquisition and handling 

of spatial data, and research endeavors which parallel 

their own basic geographic inquiries. The information 

gathered through these efforts is then transformed 

into products aimed at satisfying the needs of the 

Geography Program's user community.

The data and techniques made available by the 

Geography Program have their greatest utility in Federal, State, and regional agencies which apply them 

to land and water resources management. The private 

sector also has a growing need for environmental information to aid in land resource planning and management activities as well as for use in universitysponsored research activities.

National Land Use and Land Cover Mapping 

and Data Compilation

Formally begun in 1975, the primary objective of 

this program is the production of current, reliable, 

and standardized land use and land cover maps as 

well as geographic data for the Nation. To broaden 

the usefulness of these maps and data, associated

143
maps of hydrologic units, political units, Census 

county subdivisions, and Federal land ownership are 

also compiled and released. Final products are in 

graphic, digital, and tabular statistical formats.

The chief source of land use and land cover data is 

recent high-altitude photographs. The classification 

system used in compiling the maps was developed 

to optimize the use of this kind of source material 

and to be as applicable as possible in a variety of land 

use mapping and analysis situations. Completed maps 

are open filed at scales of 1:250,000 or 1:100,000; 

this latter scale is used if map bases are available.

Following the final reproduction of a compiled map, 

attention is turned to utilizing the map data in a geographic information system.

The Geographic Information Retrieval and Analysis 

System (CIRAS) functions to accommodate and to 

manipulate land use, land cover, and associated map 

information as digital data. Products include statistical 

summaries and variable-scale black-and-white or 

color-shaded computer plots. Also, a grid-compositing procedure exists that permits different maps, such 

as a land use and land cover map and its associated 

map of counties, to be "overlaid" in the computer.

EXPLANATION

pi H Maps on open file

Planned production FY 79

1:100,000-scale (heavier outline 

1:250,000-scale quadrangles showi

Status of land use and land cover mapping.

144
In addition, statistics on land use and land cover may 

be obtained by county areas using this process.

Geographers also undertake original investigations 

which explore such matters as the usefulness of Landsat data in land use and land cover mapping; computer, statistical, and empirical applications of land 

use data; and advanced mapping techniques. An excellent example of the results of these investigations is 

the use of CIRAS data in the production of map 

separation plates on an automatic plotter.

Technical Assistance

 Technical assistance is provided to users by the 

Geography Program at both Geological Survey 

and user' installations by formal and informal 

training sessions, papers delivered at professional 

and technical meetings, and articles published 

in technical journals. Geography Program staff 

members participate in conferences and study 

groups as well as in ongoing projects, assess and 

propose solutions to "real world" problems, and 

meet regularly with individual user groups.

Accomplishments

 Compilation of 400,000 square miles of land use 

and land cover data for the year. Total area completed under this program and available to the 

public through fiscal year 1978 was 772,000 

square miles. Mapping has focused on coastal

and energy production areas as well as metropolitan areas. During fiscal year 1978, 85 sets of 

land use and land cover and associated maps 

were released, bringing the total number of 

quadrangle sets now on open file to 202.

Completion of mapping for Alabama, Arkansas, 

Connecticut, Delaware, Florida, Kansas, Louisiana, Maryland, Mississippi, Missouri, New Jersey, 

North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, and 

West Virginia. Maps of California, Georgia, 

Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, South 

Carolina, Vermont, and Virginia are planned for 

completion during fiscal year 1979.

Digitizing and editing of land use and land cover 

data during fiscal year 1978 totaled 77,000 square 

miles. As of the end of the fiscal year, 400,000 

square miles of data had been processed and included in GIRAS. Data for Arkansas, Florida, 

Kansas, Louisiana, and Pennsylvania are now 

completed.

Completion of an investigation regarding the feasibility of employing computer-aided processing 

of Landsat digital data to update land use and 

land cover maps. Changes in the Phoenix, Ariz., 

suburban area were detected.

Publication of a land use and land cover map illustrating the latest cost-effective computer techniques developed to inventory land use and land 

cover using Landsat digital data. Research on 

these techniques has shown that in certain cases

Landslide at Kodiak, Alaska. View from Sea Land dock to landslide.

145
146

spectral signatures can be extended to apply to 

adjacent homogeneous geographic areas; in this 

case, land use and land cover was mapped for 

the Portland, Oreg., metropolitan area. This work 

was done as part of a cooperative effort with the 

Pacific Northwest Regional Commission and 

NASA.

 Completion of research on the comparison of 

statistics obtained for 1:250,000-, 1:100,000-, and 

1:24,000-scale maps in the Greater Atlanta 

Metropolitan Area.

 Statistical summaries of land use and land cover 

data tabulated by associated map sets were completed for Florida and Kansas.

 Publication of two additional maps in the Folio of 

Land Use Maps of the Washington Urban Area 

(I-858). Both new maps show land cover information derived from 1972 and 1973 Landsat 

digital data. One map (I-858-E) is overprinted 

with locational features and place names, and 

the other (I-585-F) is overprinted with 1970 

census tracts and the 1972 urban area boundary. 

Land cover statistics are printed on the backs of 

the maps. Maps (I-858-A through D) previously 

published show land use in 1970 as interpreted 

manually from high-altitude aerial photography, 

an annotated orthophotograph, census tracts, 

and land use change from 1970 to 1972.

 Completion of a land cover map of the Puget 

Sound Region, Wash., derived from Landsat 

digital data. The map, compiled in cooperation 

with NASA and the Pacific Northwest Regional 

Commission, is the result of a demonstration 

project designed to show the utility of Landsat 

data for planning at the regional level. Technical 

assistance and support from the local planning 

community was significant and vital to the completion of the project.

 Delivery of land use and land cover maps, statistics, 

and digital data to Pennsylvania, Alabama, West 

Virginia, and Missouri and to the Delaware River 

Basin Commission for a comprehensive study 

of the basin.

 Completion of a study on the effects of oil and 

gas development on the northwest coast of the 

Kenai Peninsula in Alaska. This study identified 

and analyzed changes in land use and land cover 

during the past 30 years.

 Entering into a cooperative agreement to carry out 

a demonstration project with San Mateo County, 

Calif., to compile 18 land use and land cover 

map sheets at a scale of 1:24,000. The purpose 

of this experimental project is to implement new 

mapping techniques, to provide more detailed 

information, and to assess the possible benefit 

of land use and land cover mapping for land

resource planning and management purposes at 

the county government level.

 Completion of mapping under a cooperative agreement for the State of North Carolina.

 Entering into a cooperative agreement with the 

State of Hawaii to compile land use and land 

cover maps covering that State at a scale of 

1:100,000.

 Training seminars on map compilation conducted 

for personnel from the States of Alabama, West 

Virginia, and Hawaii.

 Major revision of the Geographic Information System (CIS) software was undertaken to utilize the 

Universal Transverse Mercator control for data 

rectification and to provide for greater ease of 

operation by persons not familiar with computer 

programming techniques. The revised computer 

programs encompass data editing and enable the 

conversion of polygonal data into grid cell format for ease of use with existing data bases.

 Training courses in the use of CIS Branch computer 

programs were held to assist State users in digitizing and utilizing their own data. These courses 

have involved personnel from the States of 

Arkansas, Louisiana, and South Carolina.

 Entering into a cooperative agreement for a Technical Assistance Program with the Ozarks Regional Commission.

 Completion of a preliminary vegetation and land 

cover map derived from Landsat digital data for 

the National Petroleum Reserve in Alaska (NPRA). 

The map is at a scale of approximately 1:500,000 

and is a composite of 10 Landsat scenes covering 

an area of 38,000 square miles, roughly the size 

of Ohio. The map is being used in the environmental assessment for development in the 

NPRA area.

 Publication of Professional Paper 1099-B, "Land 

Use and Land Cover Information and Air-Quality 

Planning," an investigation of the applicability 

of land use and land cover data to air-quality 

monitoring for the Norfolk, Va., area. Findings 

from this investigation indicate that land use and 

land cover information can be used to estimate 

airborne emissions for use as inputs to diffusion 

models and to evaluate the implications of diffusion patterns in air-quality assessment and 

control.

Landsat 1 provided man's first opportunity to automatically delineate flooded areas over vast regions. Left: Distribution 

of water from data collected by satellite in a total time of 7 

minutes. Right: Distribution of water over the same area 

during "normal conditions."
MISSISSIPPI RIVER-NORMAL STAGE - BAND 7 

ORBIT O989- 2 OCT 1972

ORBIT 0975- I OCT 1972

ORBIT OE08-7 AU9. 1972

147
Living With And On Barrier Islands

A fleet of bulldozers were used on a round-the-clock basis throughout 

much of the 1977-78 winter at Ocean City, Md., to preserve the 

resorts precious beach, severely denuded by a relentless series of 

"northeaster" storms.

« Coordination of digital cartographic activities with 

the Digital Applications Team, Topographic 

Division, to define common objectives and tasks 

in digital cartography and to select tasks where 

coordinated development is necessary.

 Compilation of land use and land cover data for 

Atlantic and Gulf Coast barrier islands in support 

of the Department of the Interior's Barrier Island 

Study Group, which was directed by the President to prepare recommendations for the preservation of remaining unspoiled barrier islands.

EARTH RESOURCES OBSERVATION SYSTEMS 

PROGRAM

Program and Activities

The Earth Resources Observation Systems (EROS) 

Program is administered by the Geological Survey for

the Department of the Interior. The role of the EROS 

Program is to develop, to demonstrate, and to encourage applications of remotely sensed data acquired from aircraft and spacecraft that are relevant 

to functional responsibilities of the Department and 

agencies with related missions.

The program works closely with NASA and other 

Federal agencies to determine the results of present 

space technology use and the improvements needed 

in current and future systems in terms of the Department's information needs.

The EROS Program seeks new remote sensing applications to resource and environmental problems 

through research projects conducted in-house by 

program scientists and application studies conducted 

and funded jointly by other Federal agencies, universities, and State government organizations.

148
As part of his Environmental Message to Congress in May 1977, President Carter proposed a 

broad and ambitious set of actions designed to 

control pollution and protect health, assure environmentally sound energy development, improve 

the urban environment, protect natural resources, 

and preserve our national heritage. A portion of 

his plan for protecting natural resources specifically 

included coastal barrier islands, about which the 

President said,

"Coastal barrier islands are a fragile buffer between the wetlands and the sea. The 189 barrier 

islands on the Atlantic and Gulf Coast are an 

integral part of an ecosystem which helps protect 

inland areas from flood waves and hurricanes. 

Many of them are unstable and not suited for 

development, yet in the past the federal government has subsidized and insured new construction on them. Eventually, we can expect heavy 

economic losses from this short-sighted policy."

The facts presented in the President's statement 

are profound, both environmentally and economically. Although the statement cites the eventuality 

of heavy economic losses, such losses are a current problem. The cost of preserving the shoreline along developed islands is already astronomical.

The problem is complicted by the disharmonious 

interaction of four competing processes: physical, 

biological, cultural, and economic. In the natural 

system, physical and biological processes proceed 

in an orderly manner. The biological system responds and adopts to variations in the physical 

system. When man enters into this delicately 

balanced regime, however, drastic alterations can, 

and usually do, occur. By attempting to satisfy his 

aesthetic and recreational needs (the cultural 

process), man introduces into the natural system

a series of artificial features. Working in concert 

with this process is another human need to capitalize on a financially sound investment (the economic process). These two factors combine as man 

tries to maintain the "natural system" in the form 

most convenient for the satisfaction of his process 

requirements.

The battleground, therefore, is set for another 

classic encounter between man and nature. In this 

confrontation, man can never win. At best, he can 

only hope to delay an inevitable defeat at a 

frustratingly high cost.

The rational use of barrier islands requires 

sound planning, based in part on reliable earth 

science information. To this end, the Department 

of the Interior's Barrier Island Work Croup, which 

was formed by Presidential directive, has extensively used earth science information supplied by 

the Geological Survey (largely in the form of land 

use and land cover data) to prepare a series of 

recommendations to the President for the preservation of all remaining unspoiled barrier islands. 

Specifically, these data are useful for identifying 

dynamic versus stable areas; identifying those land 

cover types most frequently developed; assessing 

the magnitude of changes to barrier islands through 

natural processes; identifying where on barrier 

islands the most intensive development occurs; 

assessing land and resource opportunities foregone 

through development; identifying spoil areas, reclaimed marshlands, and the uses to which these 

areas are put; and assessing the magnitude of 

man-induced changes to barrier islands on a regional or national scale. Through applications such 

as these, earth science data are broadening their 

ability as hazard mitigation tools in the coastal 

zone as well as expanding their planning and 

policymaking usefulness.

Accomplishments during the past year include the 

following:

 Preparation of a satellite image atlas of glaciers of 

of the world in cooperation with the Geological 

Survey's Water Resources Division and NOAA. 

The U.S.S.R. Academy of Sciences and the British 

Antarctic Survey have also agreed to contribute 

to the atlas.

 Establishment of a cooperative program with the 

State of Maine. A short course in remote sensing 

was presented to personnel of the Maine Geological Survey. An EROS Program geologist analyzed the linear features on 10 Landsat images of 

Maine. A Maine Geological Survey hydrologist 

participated in a Ground Water Hydrology Workshop at the EROS Data Center.

 Development of a method for monitoring terrain 

and environmental changes in desert areas with 

Landsat images. The system will eventually be 

applicable to arid regions throughout the world.

 Development and use of both visual and automated computer analysis of Landsat images of 

the Palau Islands in the western Pacific. The 

technique permits correlation of the spectral response of submerged reefs and other sea bottom 

features with water depth.

 Publication of approximately 50 reports and articles 

concerning the applications of remotely sensed 

data to resources exploration, environmental 

problems, and image processing technology.

EROS Data Center

The EROS Data Center (EDC) in Sioux Falls, S. Dak., 

is the key facility of the EROS Program. The Center's

149
major functions are assistance and training in the use 

of remotely sensed data, development and demonstration of computer assisted image analysis techniques, and serving as the principal archive and distribution point for remotely sensed data collected by 

Geological Survey and NASA research aircraft and by 

Landsat, Skylab, Apollo, and Gemini spacecraft.

TRAINING AND ASSISTANCE

Of the training sessions conducted in fiscal year 

1978 by EDC staff, 12 were designed specifically for 

Interior Department personnel, including the Geological Survey, the Bureau of Land Management 

(BLM), the Fish and Wildlife Service, and the National 

Park Service. In addition, 58 attendees representing 

37 different countries participated in the 10th and 

11th International Workshops; 48 trainees from Central America attended workshops conducted for the 

Inter-American Development Bank and the Mexican 

Government; and a 4-week course was held in Tehran 

for 35 participants at the request of the Iranian 

Government.

Two Coal Surface Mining Remote Sensing Workshops were offered, demonstrating practical techniques for gathering information mandated by the 

Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977. 

Participants included personnel from State agencies, 

private industry, and several Department of the 

Interior bureaus.

DATA ANALYSIS LABORATORY

The Data Analysis Laboratory is equipped with interactive computer systems for the development, 

demonstration, and analysis of Landsat imagery and 

other digital data by computer-assisted image analysis 

techniques. The laboratory is used in demonstrations 

and training for more advanced students, but almost 

70 percent of the operation of the three interactive 

computer systems during fiscal year 1978 was in support of applications projects. The Interactive Digital 

Image Manipulation System was in use nearly 16 

hours per day.

The Bureau of Reclamation and BLM are installing 

similar systems in their Denver laboratories to continue applications projects, such as a land use inventory of the lower Colorado River area, which was 

begun in the EDC Data Analysis Laboratory.

APPLICATIONS ASSISTANCE FACILITIES

User assistance and training are conducted at Applications Assistance Facilities at Bay St. Louis, Miss., 

and Fairbanks, Alaska. A small EROS facility in the 

Canal Zone, Panama, serves as a distribution point 

for Landsat imagery and accession aids to several 

Central American countries. Six regional offices of the

Survey's National Cartographic Information Center 

(NCIC) and State affiliate offices also maintain 

browse files and microfilm of Earth scenes of the 

United States obtained from aircraft and satellites. 

This year a faster and less expensive Landsat data 

reference system has been initiated. Microfiche catalogs indexed by a global network of paths and rows 

have replaced the old paper catalogs. The six NCIC 

regional centers are equipped with terminals to the 

main computer complex in Sioux Falls to facilitate 

processing of inquiries and purchases of imagery.

DATA PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION

Since its establishment in 1972, EDC has distributed 

nearly 2 million reproductions of Earth images obtained from satellites and aircraft from the nearly 6 

million presently in the data base. About one-half of 

the reproductions have been of Landsat images. More 

than 7,500 computer-compatible tapes of Landsat 

data have also been supplied to users.

The dollar value of all data produced in fiscal year 

1978 is $3.2 million. Landsat products, while comprising only 19 percent of the data base, account for 

about 58 percent of the total sales. Of that total, sales 

of computer-compatible tapes amount to more than 

$400,000, which is about 20 percent of total Landsat 

sales; this reflects the increasing trend toward digital 

processing of Landsat data. Federal Government users 

were the principal purchasers of Landsat data during 

fiscal year 1978, accounting for approximately 35 percent of the total sales. Industrial and foreign users 

were the next largest categories, accounting for about 

30 and 22 percent, respectively.

The principal application by industry is in mineral 

exploration and related geologic analysis activities by 

major petroleum and mining companies. From the 

145 energy-related industries on a recent Forbes list 

of U.S. industries, 122 ordered data from EDC; 53 of 

these showed a highly repetitive ordering pattern, 

either in new orders for different areas or in standing 

orders for new data of the same area.

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING SYSTEM

Landsat digital image processing systems have been 

installed by EDC and NASA, providing Landsat image 

products superior to those produced previously. The 

data processing and resulting products associated 

with the new systems are described in a revised Landsat Data Users Handbook prepared by NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center and EDC and planned for 

publication by the Geological Survey.

COMMUNICATIONS SATELLITE LINK

The Geological Survey and NASA have retained the 

services of a commercial communications satellite

150
carrier to provide a telemetry data link from Coddard 

Space Flight Center to EDC beginning in January 

1979. This arrangement will reduce the time between 

acquisition of the data by Landsat and routine distribution to the user from 4-6 weeks to 7-10 days. 

Data will be available within 24 to 72 hours on an 

emergency basis. Landsat monitoring of time-dependent phenomena such as floods, extent of snow

pack, and vigor of range grass are facilitated by the 

telemetry data link.

SEMINAR ON CHEMICAL AND EFFLUENT 

MANAGEMENT

The successful treatment of toxic chemical waste 

from EDC's photographic laboratory has received 

considerable attention in the photographic industry.

EXPLANATION 

Regional Site specific

 Coal

Uranium 

Oil Shale

Oil and gas 

D Non energy

en

f Geothermal

*""" ~ ~ * Pipeline

RESPONSIBILITY

GS-lead Non lead

Regional

Site specific

Programmatic

5

9

1

8

7

1

FIGURE 45. Location for which environmental impact statements and studies were completed or in progress during fiscal year

1978. Locality numbers are keyed to table 13.

151
TABLE 13. Environmental impact statements and studies completed or in progress during fiscal year 79781

[Locality numbers keyed to fig. 45]

Locality 

Title State number Project description

_______________ _____________GEOLOGICAL SURVEY LEAD OR JOINT-LEAD RESPONSIBILITY

Northern Powder River regional

coal leasing and mining Montana __________ 2 Evaluate individual and cumulative regional impacts of leasing

and mining in south-central Montana.

Mining law reform 1 ________ Nationwide ______ _ Determine impacts of proposed legislation to reform the mining

law of 1872.

National Petroleum Reserve environmental analysis ___ _ Alaska __________ 5 Evaluate impacts of alternative plans for development, production, transportation, and distribution of petroleum resources 

in the reserve.

Samovar Hills exploratory drilling _ _ do ____ 6 Determine impacts of Texaco Oil Co.'s proposed oil and gas

exploratory drilling program.

East Gillette coal mine ______ Wyoming ________ 8 Determine impacts of Kerr-McGee Co.'s proposed mine north

of Gillette.

Caballo coal mine __________ ___ do _________ 9 Determine impacts of Carter Oil Co.'s proposed mine southeast of Gillette.

Peabody Big Sky coal mine ___ Montana _^i_______ 27 Determine impacts of coal mining in Peabody's expansion of

the Big Sky mine.

Spring Creek coal mine ______ __ do _________ 28 Evaluate impacts of coal mining at the Spring Creek coal mine,

northern Powder River Basin, Mont.

Pronghorn ct>al mine ________ Wyoming ______ 10 Evaluate impacts of Mobil Oil-Consolidated Coal Co.'s mining

and reclamation plan southeast of Gillette.

Coal Creek coal mine ______ __ do _______ 11 Determine impacts of Atlantic Richfield Co.'s proposed mining

and reclamation plan south of Gillette.

Rochelle coal mine _________ __ do _______ 12 Evaluate impacts of Peabody Coal Co.'s project in eastern Powder River Basin.

Southern Utah regional coal

leasing and development ____ Utah __________ 13 Evaluate individual and cumulative regional impacts of leasing

and mining.

Oil shale tract leasing 2 ______ Utah-Colorado ____ 20 Evaluate impacts of leasing two tracts for in-situ production of

oil shale.

Central Utah regional coal leasing and development ____ Utah __________ 21 Evaluate individual and cumulative regional impacts of leasing

and mining.

Colstrip No. 3 and No. 4 power

transmission line ________ Montana _______ 4 Evaluate impacts of construction of two coal-fired electric generating units and associated coal mine and transmission systems at Colstrip, Mont.

1 Locality 

Project State number Lead agency

____________ ________ GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PARTICIPATION______________________________________

West-central North Dakota regional coal leasing and development study 3 _________ North Dakota ____ 1 Bureau of Land Management.

Osceola National Forest phosphate leasing ___________ Florida ________ 29 Do.

Northern Tier pipeline ______ Washington to

Wisconsin _____ 3 Do.

Eastern Powder River Basin regional coal leasing and development supplement _______ Wyoming _______ 14 Do.

Southwestern Wyoming regional

coal leasing and development 3 __ _ _ do _ _ 16 Do. 

South-central Wyoming regional

coal leasing and development _ __ do 17 Do. 

Northwest Colorado regional

coal leasing and development

study supplement _________ Colorado 19 Do.

See footnotes at end of table.

152
TABLE 13. Environmental impact statements and studies completed or in progress during fiscal year 19781 Continued

Project State

Locality 

number Lead agency

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PARTICIPATION Continued

San Juan Basin regional study __ New Mexico ____ 25 

Navajo-Hopi land dispute _____ __ do ________ 24 

Star Lake-Bisti regional coal

leasing and development ___ ___ do _______ 7

West-central Colorado regional

coal leasing and development __ Colorado _______ 22 

United Nuclear Dalton Pass

uranium mine 3 ________ New Mexico ______ 18

Targhee (Island Park) geothermal __ Idaho _________ 23 

Mobil Oil Crownpoint uranium

mine ________________ New Mexico _____ 15 

Emery Generating Station Units

3 and 4 ___'__________ Utah __________ 26 

Office of Surface Mining final

coal mining regulations 1 _____ Nationwide _____ _

Bureau of Indian Affairs. 

Do.

Bureau of Land Management. 

Do.

Tennessee Valley Authority. 

Forest Service.

Tennessee Valley Authority. 

Bureau of Land Management. 

Office of Surface Mining.

1 Not shown in figure 45. - Discontinued on December 30, 1977.

To disseminate this technology to other government 

agencies and industry, EDC and the Society of Photographic Scientists and Engineers cosponsored a 

Seminar on Chemical and Effluent Management in 

Photographic Laboratories.

Status of Satellites

Shortly after the demise of Landsat 1 early in January, Landsat 3 was launched on March 5, 1978, as a 

new partner to Landsat 2. One of the tape recorders 

on Landsat 2 is inoperable, and the thermal infrared 

band on Landsat 3 is not working, but the satellites 

are sending data every 9 days from four bands of the 

multispectral scanners, as well as from high-resolution 

131-foot return beam vidicon cameras on Landsat 3.

Water resource data from 101 ground measurement stations are being relayed through the Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES), 

30 stations relay water resource data through Landsat 

3, and numerous other stations (seismic event 

counters, and so forth) also use GOES and Landsat 3.

Landsat D is expected to be launched in the Space 

Shuttle in 1981 and will include a four-band multispectral scanner to assure continuity of data to users. 

A seven-band thematic mapper will provide data 

resolution of 98 feet.

Three other experimental satellites launched in 

1978 are transmitting data useful to Interior Department scientists. The Heat Capacity Mapping Mission 

is providing quantitative information useful in measuring thermal inertia of rocks; Seasat's synthetic aperture radar data is of special interest to oceanographers and geologists (communication with Seasat 

failed in October 1978); Nimbus 7 monitors polar 

areas not covered by Seasat, has a data collection 

system for relay of data from sensors deployed on

Completed.

the ground, and measures the chlorophyll absorption 

and surface temperature of vegetation in coastal 

areas.

William T. Pecora Memorial Symposium

The fourth William T. Pecora Memorial Symposium, 

on the applications of remote sensing data for wildlife management, was held in Sioux Falls, S. Dak., in 

October 1978. The symposium was sponsored by the 

National Wildlife Federation in cooperation with the 

Survey and NASA. The late Dr. Pecora, a former 

director of the Survey and Under Secretary of the 

Interior, was instrumental in developing the Landsat 

program.

Proceedings of the second Pecora Symposium on 

mapping with remotely sensed data were published 

by its sponsor, the American Society of Photogrammetry. Proceedings of the third Pecora Symposium on 

the applications of satellite data to petroleum and 

mineral exploration, sponsored by the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, are in press.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ANALYSIS 

PROGRAM

Program and Activities

The Environmental Impact Analysis (EIA) Program 

was established in 1975 to provide the Geological 

Survey's response to EIS preparation and review requirements of NEPA. The passage of NEPA in 1969 

initiated the EIS preparation and review process. Federal agencies are required to prepare a detailed statement of any possible environmental impacts resulting 

from Federal activities having potentially significant 

effects on the quality of the environment. This law

153
requires Federal agencies with appropriate jurisdiction and expertise to review statements prepared by 

other Federal agencies.

The Geological Survey becomes involved as a lead 

agency in the preparation of statements as a result 

of the Conservation Division's supervision of mineral 

resource exploration, development, extraction, and 

reclamation operations on Federal lands. The Survey 

becomes involved as a nonlead agency as a result 

both of its supervisory function (as described above) 

and through its special expertise in the areas of 

geology, hydrology, and mining and petroleum engineering. Survey review of EIS's focuses on the adequacy with which pertinent aspects of the geologic 

and hydrologic environment are described, potential 

environmental impacts are discussed, and mitigating 

measures and alternatives are considered.

The EIA Program integrates Geological Survey EIS 

activities by providing the following:

 Direction, coordination, and expertise in the preparation of environmental impact statements for 

which the Survey has lead or joint-lead responsibility.

 Scientific and technical support in the preparation 

of impact statements for which the Survey has 

contributing responsibility.

 Technical analyses and reviews of impact statements and related documents prepared by other 

agencies.

 Manuals, guidelines, and training courses on the 

preparation and review of impact statements.

 Environmental research.

Preparation of a prototype EIS demonstrating an 

improved format was completed by the EIA Program 

and filed as a draft environmental statement during 

fiscal year 1978. This prototype is the outcome of a 

continuing effort begun in fiscal year 1976 to reduce 

the bulk and increase readability of the impact statement itself as a way to improve the EIS process. The 

EIS for the mining and reclamation plan proposed 

by Mobil Oil-Consolidation Coal Co. for the Pronghorn mine in Campbell County, Wyo., was selected 

for the demonstration (see essay, "The Pronghorn 

Environmental Impact Statement: An Improved Prototype").

During fiscal year 1978, the EIA Program assumed 

responsibility for the preparation of Oilspill Trajectory Analyses (OSTA's) for OCS Lease Sale EIS's and, 

beginning in fiscal year 1979, for OCS developmental 

EIS's. These analyses provide information for assessing 

probabilities of impacts of resource development, in 

draft and final EIS's, and provide a basis for comparison of the value of the resource considered for

development with the cost of the impacts. Equipment and facilities for the OSTA's have been acquired 

and staffing is underway and expected to be completed during fiscal year 1979.

Work is underway for preparation of guidelines for 

preparing developmental OCS EIS's. Prior to the sale 

of an OCS lease tract, an EIS is prepared by BLM. 

Two environmental assessments are prepared by the 

Survey's Conservation Division prior to each activity 

following the sale of a lease tract: (1) exploration and 

(2) development and production. A developmental 

EIS, prepared prior to actual development of oil and 

gas on an OCS tract, draws on information contained 

in the previous documents as well as the information 

contained in the applicants' development plan. Because the time between preparation of the EIS prior 

to the sale of a tract and preparation of the developmental EIS is frequently long, the amount of information available for preparation of the developmental 

EIS may increase markedly, particularly in the areas 

of new development planning, changing technology, 

and improved understanding of geologic hazards. 

Therefore, methods for preparing these EIS's must 

be somewhat different from those used in other resource development EIS's for which guidelines have 

already been established. The new guidelines for 

preparation of developmental OCS EIS's are projected 

to be completed in fiscal year 1979.

Accomplishments

 Took lead or joint-lead responsibility for the preparation of 15 EIS's. Eleven EIS's concerned the 

development of coal, three concerned onshore 

oil and gas, and one concerned revision of the 

1872 mining law (fig. 45 and table 13).

 Participated in a nonlead capacity in the preparation of 16 EIS's for which other Federal agencies 

had the lead responsibility. Fourteen of these 

EIS's were energy related, involving principally 

coal leasing and development, uranium, and 

geothermal energy (fig. 45 and table 13).

 Reviewed and commented on approximately 1,800 

EIS's and related documents.

 Provided technical information, from other Survey 

programs, for the Forest Service for seven EIS's 

on geothermal energy resources and also for BLM 

for five EIS's on leasing of the OCS.

 Completed the draft environmental statement of a 

newly formatted EIS prototype on the Pronghorn 

coal mine in Campbell County, Wyo.

 Initiated establishment of guidelines for the preparation of developmental EIS's.

 Assumed responsibility for the preparation of 

OSTA's for OCS Lease Sale EIS's.

154
SELECTED REFERENCES

Anderson, J. R., Hardy, E. E., Roach, J. T., and Witmer, R. E., 

1976, A land use and land cover classification system for use 

with remote sensor data: U.S. Geological Survey Professional 

Paper 964, 28 p.

Clarke, P. F., Hodgson, H. E., and North, G. W., 1978, A guide 

to obtaining information from the U.S.G.S. 1978: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 777, 36 p.

Colton, R. B., 1978, Geologic map of the Boulder-Fort CollinsGreeley area, Colorado: U.S. Geological Survey Miscellaneous 

Investigations Map I-855-G, scale 1:100,000.

Council of State Governments, 1978, Environmental resource 

data Intergovernmental management dimensions: 56 p.

Cower, H. D., 1978, Tectonic map of the Puget Sound region, 

Washington, showing faults, principal folds, and large-scale 

quaternary deformation: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File 

Report 78-426.

Hansen, W. R., Chronic, John, and Matlock, John, 1978, Climatography of the Front Range Urban Corridor and vicinity, 

Colorado: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1019, 

59 p.

Johnston, R. H., and Van Driel, J. N., 1978, Susceptibility of 

Coastal Plain aquifers to contamination, computer composite 

map, Fairfax County, Virginia: U.S. Geological Survey OpenFile Report 78-265.

Kachadoorian, Reuben, and Slater, W. H., 1978, Pillar Mountain 

landslide, Kodiak, Alaska: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File 

Report 78-217, 21 p.

Mitchell, W. B., Guptill, S. C, Anderson, K. E., Fegeas, R. G., 

and Hallam, C. A., 1977, GIRAS A Geographic Information 

Retrieval and Analysis System for handling land use and land 

cover data: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1059, 

16 p.

Newell, W. L, 1978, Understanding natural systems A perspective for land-use planning in Appalachian Kentucky: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1438, 50 p.

Reed, W. E., and Lewis, J. E., 1978, Land use and land cover 

information and air-quality planning: U.S. Geological Survey 

Professional Paper 1099-B, 43 p.

Robinson, G. D., and Spieker, A. M., eds., 1978, "Nature to be 

Commanded . . .": U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 

950, 97 p.

U.S. Geological Survey, 1970, The national atlas of the United 

States of America: 417 p.

 1974, Land use map, 1970, Washington urban area, District of Columbia, Maryland, and Virginia: U.S. Geological 

Survey Miscellaneous Investigations Map I-858-A, scale 

1:100,000.

 1974, Annotated orthophoto map, 1970, Washington 

urban area, District of Columbia, Maryland and Virginia: 

U.S. Geological Survey Miscellaneous Investigations Map I858-B, scale 1:100,000.

 1974, Census tracts, 1970, Washington urban area, District of Columbia, Maryland, and Virginia: U.S. Geological 

Survey Miscellaneous Investigations Map 1-858-C, scale 

1:100,000.

 1975, Land use change map, 1970-1972, Washington, 

urban area, District of Columbia, Maryland, and Virginia: 

U.S. Geological Survey Miscellaneous Investigations Map I858-D, scale 1:100,000.

 1978, Land cover from Landsat, 1973, with place names, 

Washington urban area, District of Columbia, Maryland, and 

Virginia: U.S. Geological Survey Miscellaneous Investigations 

Map I-858-E, scale 1:100,000.

-1978, Land cover from Landsat, 1973, with census tracts,

Washington urban area, District of Columbia, Maryland and 

Virginia: U.S. Geological Survey Miscellaneous Investigations 

Map I-858-F, scale 1:100,000.

The Land Information and Analysis Office produces a variety of diverse publications. This selection indicates the various facets 

of this effort to present earth science data to decision makers and to the public.

NATURE TO BE 

COMMANDED..."

EARTH-SCIENCE MAPS APPLIED

TO LAND AND WATER MANAGEMENT

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 95O

tLM«o<,«*">« ' "'"' ,rV) ,n Cotri lf°TOtrt Range Urban

155
National Petroleum Reserve in Alaska
INTRODUCTION

During fiscal year 1978, the U.S. Geological Survey 

carried out its first full year of petroleum exploration 

activities on the National Petroleum Reserve in Alaska 

(NPRA) since the transfer of the Reserve (formerly the 

Naval Petroleum Reserve No. 4) from the Department 

of the Navy to the Department of the Interior on June 

1, 1977, in accordance with the Naval Petroleum Reserves Production Act of 1976 (Public Law 94-258, 

94th Congress, April 5, 1976). On transfer, the Geological Survey was charged with the responsibility of 

continuing the petroleum exploration program, which 

includes the following specific tasks:

1. Explore and evaluate the petroleum resources of 

NPRA by means of drilling and geologic and 

geophysical investigations and build an information base to assist Congress in determining 

the best use of the land within the Reserve.

2. Continue to develop and to produce natural gas 

from the South Barrow gas field or other fields 

as may be necessary and to supply gas at reasonable and equitable rates to the Native village 

of Barrow and other communities and installations of the Federal Government in the vicinity 

of Barrow.

3. Continue environmental rehabilitation of parts of 

the Reserve disturbed by previous exploration 

and construction activities.

At the time of transfer of the Reserve, the Department of the Navy, in its fourth year of a 26-well exploration program begun in 1974, had drilled 7 exploratory wells in the northern coastal part of the Reserve and had completed 7,680 miles of a 10,000-mile 

seismic reconnaissance survey. All the wells were dry 

or had only slight indications of oil except for the W. 

T. Foran well, which had good porosity and permeability and residual oil in the Sadlerochit Formation, 

the main producing zone at Prudhoe Bay (see table 

14). During fiscal year 1978, the Geological Survey 

completed three additional exploratory wells, suspended drilling at one medium-depth well (a well 

that can be completed in one winter drilling season) 

during the summer months, started drilling one deep 

well, and constructed two pads for future drilling including one pad for year-round drilling in the western 

part of the Reserve. In addition, one exploratory and 

two development gas wells were drilled in the Barrow area, and four geophysical survey parties acquired 1,935 line miles of seismic data. Husky Oil 

NPR Operations, Inc., continued as the principal contractor for all phases of the exploration program.

Inigok drill site with an all-weather airstrip in background, 

August 1978.

157
TABLE 14. Exploratory wells drilled by the Department of the Navy between 7975 and 7977 and we//s dr///ed in fiscal year 1978

and planned for fiscal year 7979 by the U.S. Geological Survey

Name

Cape Halkett 

No. 1. 

East Teshekpuk

No. 1. 

South Harrison 

Bay No. 1. 

Atigaru Point 

No. 1. 

West Fish Creek 

No. 1. 

South Simpson 

No. 1. 

W. T. Foran

No. 1. 

Drew Point Test

Well No. 1.

North KalikpikTest 

Well No. 1. 

South Meade Test

Well No. 1. 

Kugrua Test Well 

No. 1. 

Inigok Test Well

No. 1. 

Tunalik Test Well

No. 1. 

Peard Test Well

No. 1. 

Ikpikpuk Test

Well No. 1. 

East Simpson Test

Well No. 1. 

J. W. Dalton Test

Well No. 1. 

Lisburne Test

Well No. 1. 

Seabee Test Well

No. 1.

Location

18 miles ESE of 

Lonely. 

25 miles S of

Lonely. 

50 miles SE of 

Barrow. 

44 miles SE of 

Lonely. 

51 miles SE of 

Lonely. 

41 miles WSW 

of Lonely. 

23 miles ESE of

Lonely. 

14 miles W of

Lonely. '

37 miles SE of 

Lonely. 

45 miles S of

Barrow. 

67 miles SW of 

Barrow. 

60 miles S of

Lonely. 

22 miles SE of

Icy Cape. 

25 miles NE of

Wainwright. 

42 miles SW of

Lonely. 

55 miles SE of

Barrow.

Lonely. 

110 miles SW

of Umiat. 

1 mile NW of

Umiat.

Date

spudded 1

3-24-75 

3-12-76

11-21-76 

1-12-77 

2-14-77 

3- 9-77 

3- 7-77

1-13-78

2-27-78 

2- 8-78

2-13-78 

6- 7-78

2 11- 1-78

_do _ _ .

_ _do _____ .

do _ _ .

do _

_ do _

Total 

Date depth 

completed (in feet)

5-23-75 9,900 

5-11-76 10,664

1-27-77 11,290 

3-10-77 11,535 

4-21-77 11,427 

4-18-77 8,805 

4-16-77 8,864

3-13-78 7,946

4-14-78 7,395 

2 9,825

5-30-78 12,588 

_ __ "19,755

__ __ 2 19,980

____ 2 10,000

. __ _ 2 15,200

. _ _ 2 7,300

2 9 250

. _ _ =15,000

.__ _ _ 2 15,000

Deepest horizon 

attained

"Argillite" basement 

(Devonian or older). 

Granite Basement _ _

Lisburne Croup 

(Mississippian). 

"Argillite" basement 

(Devonian or older). 

Kayak shale 

(Mississippian). 

"Argillite" basement 

(Devonian or older). 

__ do _ 1 ______

__ do __ _ _ __

Kingak Shale (Jurassic) _ 

 do _____________

Lisburne Croup 

(Mississippian). 

"Argillite" basement 2 _

 do 2 __ --_ _ 

_ do 2 ___ . ______

____do 2 _____________

__ do 2 _ __ -

__ do 2 __ . _ __

Group.2

Remarks

Dry; plugged and 

abandoned. 

Do.

Poor oil shows; plugged 

and abandoned. 

Do.

Do.

Dry; plugged and 

abandoned. 

Oil and gas shows;

plugged and 

abandoned. 

Poor oil and gas shows;

plugged and 

abandoned. 

Do.

Dry; drilling suspended

until winter 1979. 

Dry; plugged and 

abandoned. 

Drilling at 12,355 feet

as of 9-28-78. 

Drilling to commence

11-1-78.

158

1 Drilling began. - Projected.

The petroleum exploration activities at NPRA are 

coordinated with two related studies mandated by 

Public Law 94-258. One study, due no later than 

January 1,1980, relates to "the best overall procedure 

to be used in the development, production, transportation, and distribution of the petroleum resources in 

the reserve" and is referred to as the Presidential 

Study or the 105(b) Study. It consists of an economic 

analysis being conducted by the Office of Minerals 

Policy and Research Analysis in the Department of the 

Interior and an environmental analysis being conducted by the Geological Survey. The second study, 

due on April 5, 1979, is "to determine the values of, 

and best uses for, the lands contained in the reserve, 

taking into consideration (A) the natives who live or 

depend upon such lands, (B) the scenic, historical,

recreational, fish and wildlife, and wilderness values, 

(C) mineral potential, and (D) other values of such 

lands" and is referred to as the 105(c) Study; the 

Bureau of Land Management is lead agency.

HIGHLIGHTS

 Drilling of four petroleum exploratory wells, three 

to completion and one for reentry in fiscal year 

1979.

 Initiation of drilling of one deep well (year-round 

drilling) in the eastern part of the Reserve.

 Drilling of one exploratory and two development gas wells in the Barrow area; construction 

of a pad to perform down-hole rehabilitation 

work in fiscal year 1979 at an older gas well experiencing production problems.
Construction of a drilling pad, roads, and an airstrip for year-round drilling during fiscal year 

1979 at a deep-well site in the western part of 

the Reserve.

Construction of a pad for fiscal year 1979 winter 

drilling in the north-central part of the Reserve.

Acquisition, processing, and interpretation of 1,935 

line miles of reconnaissance and detailed seismic 

data.

Selection of six locations for exploratory drilling on 

the Reserve and three locations for development 

drilling in the Barrow area in fiscal year 1979.

Location of 1,600 line miles of seimic survey to be 

acquired during fiscal year 1979 (1,000 line miles 

of reconnaissance and 600 miles of fill-in detail).

Continuation of environmental rehabilitation activities on the Reserve including the collection and 

disposal of over 3,000 tons of debris and waste 

materials from 35 sites.

Preparation of environmental assessments for each 

of six drilling sites, two pads, and miscellaneous 

support bases.

 Continuation of geologic studies to support petroleum exploration activities.

 Renewal of interagency agreements for continuing 

logistical, communications, and operational support for petroleum exploration activities.

 Negotiations of contract requirements with Husky 

Oil NPR Operations, Inc., for continuing the exploration program in fiscal year 1979.

 Coordination with other agencies and groups involved in related activities on the Reserve.

BUDGET AND PERSONNEL

The Survey received an appropriation of over $209 

million during fiscal year 1978 for activities conducted 

within NPRA. The appropriation provided over $192 

million to continue the ongoing evaluation and 

assessment of the Reserve, almost $15 million to 

operate the South Barrow gas field and to explore 

for and to develop additional gas reserves in the 

Barrow area, and $2 million for the environmental 

rehabilitation program which consists of the normal 

ongoing cleanup of current exploration activities and

Typical drilling site (East Teshekpuk No. 1)in winter. Living quarters are located nearby.

159
cleanup of areas of the Reserve disturbed during 

previous petroleum exploration and construction 

activities.

The Office of National Petroleum Reserve in Alaska 

was allocated 32 permanent full-time positions and 

6 part-time positions for fiscal year 1978. Of the 32 

permanent full-time positions, 3 have been staffed 

elsewhere in the Geological Survey to provide contract support to the program and to continually upgrade NPRA petroleum resource data as new information is acquired from the ongoing exploration 

program.

PROGRAM AND ACTIVITIES

The primary activity of the fiscal year 1978 exploration program was the drilling of exploratory wells on 

the Reserve (table 14). The goal of the drilling program is to sample a sufficient number of geologic 

structures identifiable from geophysical data to provide the information required to prepare a petroleum resource appraisal of the Reserve which will 

assist Congress in determining the best use of the land 

within NPRA. The first exploratory well drilled by the 

Geological Survey was the Drew Point Test Well No. 

1 located on the Arctic Coast near Smith Bay about 14 

miles west of the support camp at Lonely and about 

 37 miles west of the Navy's W. T. Foran Well No. 1 

drilled in 1977 (see fig. 46). It appeared that oil may 

have migrated westward through the area of the W. 

T. Foran well toward a structural-stratigraphic feature 

near the Drew Point well. Although minor oil and gas 

shows were encountered, the potential reservoir 

zones were thin and (or) had low porosity and permeability. The shows of oil and gas and the marked 

stratigraphic changes between the Drew Point and W. 

T. Foran wells indicate the need for an additional 

well between the two locations. J. W. Dalton Test 

Well No. 1, located approximately 3 miles east of 

Lonely, represents such an intermediate location and 

will be drilled in fiscal year 1979. Drew Point spudded 

on January 13, 1978, and was completed in the preDevonian "Argillite" basement on March 13, 1978, at 

a depth of 7,946 feet.

North Kalikpik Test Well No. 1 was drilled near the 

eastern margin of the Reserve approximately 37 miles 

southeast of Lonely to test a postulated stratigraphic 

trap identified in seismic data. No attractive reservoirs were encountered, although the equivalent 

rocks of the target interval were highly organic and 

contained traces of bitumen and gas. These strata 

may be source beds for reservoirs that lie updip 

(northward) from the North Kalikpik well. Although 

the results at North Kalikpik are discouraging, they 

indicate that future exploration should include continued drilling for structural-stratigraphic traps between this well and the Arctic coastal area. The well 

160

spudded in February 1978 and was completed in the 

pre-Devonian "Argillite" basement in April 1978 at 

a depth of 7,395 feet.

The Kugrua Test Well No. 1 was drilled approximately 67 miles southwest of Barrow in a new area 

of the Reserve and reached a depth greater than any 

previous well in the western part of the Reserve. The 

well was drilled to test a seismic anomaly in Paleozoic 

strata in an onlap sequence along the Arctic Coast. 

Although the anomaly was penetrated, explanation 

of the relationship was not obvious, and additional 

wells may be required to resolve the relationships 

and identify reservoir developments. The seismic 

velocity interpretations may be related to an unanticipated sequence of Pennsylvanian-Mississippian age 

limestone exceeding 1,400 feet in thickness encountered by the well, the base of which was not penetrated and may lie an additional 1,800 feet below the 

well's total depth of 12,588 feet. The projected depth 

of the Kugrua well was 12,220 feet, but the caving 

shale and the unanticipated sequence of limestone at 

the bottom of the hole slowed drilling considerably. 

Drilling was continued into the spring breakup season by monitoring environmental aspects on a day-today basis, but this still did not provide enough time 

to drill to the "Argillite" basement. The Kugrua well 

spudded in February 1978 and was abandoned in 

May 1978.

I;:%'

1

Reserve pit at the South Meade drilling site in March 1978.
ICY CAPE

Tapkaluk

/o "v^

BARROW^ V

r/ /\) |

<*T I CAMP LONELY J- W. Dalton 

j!_V \ "-

S. Meade '

. T. Foran

Carbon

E. Teshekpuk

N. Ka'ipik

Ikpikpuk S. Harrisoi 

W. Fish Creek

Inigok

Sea Bee.

PKUDHOE BAY

7

NPRA_

N

Lisburne

0 25 50 MILES

I______1______|

FIGURE 46. Exploration wells on the National Petroleum Reserve in Alaska.

The South Meade Test Well No. 1 was drilled 45 

miles south of Barrow to test for possible oil and gas 

accumulation in truncated onlap strata on the southern flank of the Barrow Arch. Like the Kugrua well, 

South Meade is a new play area. Caving shales at 

several intervals caused severe drilling problems and 

required several fishing operations for lost drilling 

tools. Because of an inability to complete fishing 

operations at 8,065 feet, the hole was plugged back, 

and a sidetrack hole was begun at 5,761 feet. The hole 

reached a depth of 8,516 feet in a thick shale unit 

when spring breakup conditions required suspension 

of drilling for the summer months. No attractive 

hydrocarbon reservoirs were encountered to its 

present depth. The hole was conditioned for future 

reentry and completion in fiscal year 1979. The South 

Meade well spudded in February 1978 and was suspended in May 1978.

Two deep exploratory wells (Tunalik and Inigok) 

were planned for fiscal year 1978, but drilling commenced at only one location because the drilling rig 

could not be moved from the Kugrua well site to the 

Tunalik site before the spring thaw began. Inigok 

Test Well No. 1, which is located 60 miles south of 

Lonely, spudded on June 7, 1978, and continued 

drilling throughout the summer months. As of September 30, 1978, the well was drilling ahead at 12,524 

feet. Approximately 360 drilling days will be required 

to complete the well to the "Argillite" basement, 

which has been projected at 19,775 feet. The well is 

designed to test structures developed in the eastcentral part of NPRA as well as to provide valuable 

stratigraphic information on the deeper rocks in the 

interior of the Reserve. To facilitate year-round drilling, an all-season drilling pad, roads, and an airstrip 

were constructed.

A second deep test, Tunalik Test Well No. 1, approximately 22 miles southeast of Icy Cape in the 

western part of NPRA, was scheduled to be drilled to 

the "Argillite" basement at a projected depth of

161
19,980 feet beginning November 1, 1978. Because 

drilling will continue during the summer of 1979, an 

all-season drilling pad, roads, and an airstrip were 

constructed during fiscal year 1978.

A second drilling pad was constructed approximately 42 miles southwest of Lonely for drilling Ikpikpuk Test Well No. 1, which is projected to a depth of 

15,200 feet. This well will be drilled during the winter 

of fiscal year 1979.

In the Barrow area, three wells were drilled 

(table 15). The first well, South Barrow Well No. 16, 

was drilled as an exploratory well approximately 2 

miles northeast of the South Barrow gas field in an 

attempt to locate a new gas field to supplement the 

diminishing reserves of the South Barrow gas field. 

The well, drilled on a seismically identifiable structure, penetrated the entire section of sediments to the 

"Argillite" basement. Small shows of gas were noted, 

but the primary objective, the "Barrow gas sand," was 

not encountered perhaps because erosion had moved 

the sand at this location or a fault had interrupted 

its continuity. A secondary objective, the Sag River 

sandstone, a potential oil reservoir, was also missing. 

The well spudded in January 1978 and reached a total 

depth of 2,399 feet in February 1978; it was then 

plugged and abandoned.

Two development wells located about 10 miles 

east of the South Barrow gas field were drilled in 

a new gas field discovered by the Department of the 

Navy during the fiscal year 1977 drilling season. South 

Barrow Well No. 17,. drilled about 1 mile east of the 

Navy discovery well, was designed to better define 

the productive limits of the gas sands in the new field 

and to determine if the Sag River sandstone was capable of oil production. Production tests indicated an 

absolute open flow potential of 7.2 million cubic 

feet of gas per day, but the well also produced appreciable quantities of water. Below the gas zone, 

the Sag River sandstone was tested for possible oil 

production, but the tests were negative. South Barrow Well No. 19 was drilled a little more than 0.5 

mile northwest of the Navy discovery well. Production 

tests in the "Barrow gas sand" resulted in a calculated 

absolute open-flow potential of 7.2 million cubic feet 

of gas per day with no water. Tests for oil in the Sag 

River sandstone were negative. Drilling at both wells 

reached total depth, but completion was suspended 

until production facilities are constructed at the new 

field. Development Well No. 18 had been earlier deferred to the fiscal year 1979 drilling season. In addition to the drilling in the Barrow area, a pad was 

constructed at South Barrow No. 6, drilled by the Department of the Navy in 1964, to permit repair of 

production tubing in the well. This work will be undertaken early in fiscal year 1979.

The Geological Survey continued to operate and 

maintain the South Barrow gas field which supplies 

natural gas to the village of Barrow and Federal installations in the vicinity of Barrow.

Geophysical studies at NPRA continued during 

fiscal year 1978 with the acquisition, processing, and 

interpretation of 1,935 line miles of reconnaissance 

and detailed seismic surveys in various parts of the 

Reserve, including offshore areas in the vicinity of 

Barrow. Four geophysical field parties were employed 

to acquire the seismic data. Two crews operated in 

the Driftwood and southern Foothills area, one at 

Umiat, and one in the northern coastal area. In the

TABLETS. Barrow gas wells recently drilled by the Department of the Navy and the U.S. Geological Survey

Name

South Barrow

No. 11. 

South Barrow 

No. 12. 

Iko Bay 2 _ _ _ _

South Barrow 

No. 13.

South Barrow

No. 14.

South Barrow

No. 16. 

South Barrow 

No. 17.

South Barrow 

No. 19.

1 Drilling began. 

2 The Iko Bay well

Location

Sec. 14, T. 22 N.,

R. 18 W. 

Sec. 23, T. 22 N., 

R. 17 W. 

Sec. 16,T. 21 N., 

R. 16 W. 

Sec. 14, T. 22 N., 

R. 18 W.

Sec. 25, T. 22 N.,

R. 17 W.

Sec. 1, T. 22 N.,

R. 18 W. 

Sec. 30, T. 22 N., 

R. 16 W.

Sec. 14, T. 22 N., 

R. 17 W.

was drilled approximately

Date 

spudded

2-10-74

3-10-74 

1- 2-75 

12-17-76

1-28-77

1-28-78

3- 2-78

4-17-78

20 miles

Date 

1 completed

3- 6-74

5- 4-74 

3- 8-75 

1-16-77

3- 3-77

2-18-78

4-13-78

5-17-78

Total

depth 

(in feet)

2,350

2,285 

2,731 

2,535

2,257

2,399

2,382

2,300

southeast of Barrow to locate

Deepest horizon 

penetrated

"Argillite" basement

(Devonian or older). 

__ do _ ___ 

do

Sag River sandstone

(Triassic).

"Argillite" basement

(Devonian or older).

_ do _ ____ _

a new gas field to supplement

Status

Completed as gas

producer. 

Suspended as marginal 

gas well. 

Marginal gas well.

Shows of gas; suspended as marginal

gas well.

Suspended; to be completed as gas well.

Dry; plugged and

abandoned. 

Suspended; edge well; 

produces water with

gas. 

Suspended; to be completed as gas well.

the gas supply for Barrow.

162
southern Foothills, about 1,360 line miles of reconnaissance data were collected to complete a grid of 

about 6-mile spacing to determine the general geologic structure and to identify possible future drilling 

targets. Along the Arctic coastal plain, about 575 

miles of high-resolution seismic data were acquired, 

including some high-resolution data on a detailed 

grid to delineate the Barrow gas sands and other potential reservoirs in the northern coastal area. In addition, approximately 200 miles of previously acquired 

seismic data were reprocessed for special stratigraphic 

evaluation.

In addition to the drilling and geophysical investigations, a number of geologic studies are underway 

by the Geological Survey and by contractors to support oil exploration activities. Geochemical studies 

were conducted to identify the type and the amount 

of organic matter in rocks from wells and outcrop and 

to determine thermal history and source rock potential. Studies of selected rock units in NPRA and 

adjacent areas were carried out to determine their 

depositional environment, structure, petroleum potential, reservoir properties, and stratigraphic relationships. Structural and stratigraphic field studies 

were conducted to supplement well and seismic data 

and to resolve problems arising from interpretation 

of subsurface geologic and geophysical data. Geologic 

engineering studies performed related to the source 

of construction materials for roads, airfields, and drilling pads and to the development of designs for exTest plots for grass for revegetation at

pedient surfacings for roads and airfields for summer 

operation.

The exploration program in fiscal year 1979 will include completion of the two deep wells begun in 

fiscal year 1978, the Inigok and Tunalik test wells, and 

reentry and completion of the South Meade test well. 

Four medium-depth test wells will be drilled in the 

northern coastal region (Peard, Ikpikpuk, East Simpson, and J. W. Dalton), and drilling will be initiated 

at two deep-well sites in the southern part of NPRA 

(Lisburne and Seabee) (see tables 14 and 15.) At the 

conclusion of the fiscal year 1979 program, a total 

of 19 exploration wells will have been drilled on the 

Reserve.

In the Barrow area, the Geological Survey will continue to operate and to maintain the South Barrow 

gas field as the primary source of natural gas for the 

community of Barrow and the Federal installations in 

the vicinity. The new gas field east of South Barrow 

will be further developed by construction of engineering facilities such as access roads, pipelines, and a 

pressure reducing station preparatory to the eventual 

production of gas from the new field.

To complete the petroleum assessment of NPRA 

and to aid in any further test drilling, approximately 

1,600 line miles of seismic data will be acquired, 

processed, and interpreted from the southern Foothills and the Barrow area. Environmental rehabilitation activities will be continued in areas of the Reserve not previously completed.

the Inigok Test Well No. 1 in July 1978.

I

163
<o
Program Support Activities

ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISION

General Administration

The cost of executive direction and coordination 

of U.S. Geological Survey programs by the Office of 

the Director and of the financial, procurement, personnel, and other administrative services provided by 

the Administrative Division is called General Administrative Expenses. During fiscal year 1978, these 

expenses (table 33) amounted to $16.5 million. They 

were funded from (1) the "General Administration" 

budget activity, $3.7 million, (2) assessments on the 

directly appropriated activities, $9.1 miMion, and (3) 

assessments on the reimbursable programs, $3.7 million. No assessments are made on cooperative funds 

from State and local governments. General Administrative Expenses represent only about 3.3 percent of 

the total Survey budget.

Administrative Management

The several administrative management activities of 

the Administrative Division are carried on at Survey 

Headquarters in Reston, Va., and at three major Regional Centers Eastern Region, also headquartered at 

Reston; Central Region, headquartered in Denver, 

Colo./ and Western Region, headquartered in Menlo 

Park, Calif. In addition, there are satellite offices in 

Atlanta, Ga., Rolla, Mo., Metairie, La., Sioux Falls, S. 

Dak., Flagstaff, Ariz., and Anchorage, Alaska, which 

provide primarily personnel and facilities or supply 

management service functions to Survey installations 

in the immediate or nearby areas.

As with the program activities of the Survey, the 

support activities are continuously engaged in trying 

to improve their capability to provide their services 

in the most effective and efficient manner. In addition 

to a continuing review of how to improve its regular 

personnel, procurement, fiscal, and general service 

activities, the Administrative Division routinely undertakes numerous special projects aimed at implementing newly mandated administrative requirements, changes in the location or thrust of program 

activities, and revisions to one or more major portions of the Survey's administrative services delivery 

system. Some of these are described below.

Above: Computer operator running the nationwide IBM 3707 

158 system in support of the U.S. Geological Survey scientific 

community. Below: Reader-printer can be used to make 

paper copies of reports from microfiche.

PROCUREMENT AND CONTRACTING ACTIVITIES

As a means of more effectively and efficiently accomplishing its goals, the Survey has increased its 

reliance on procurement and contracting methods to 

obtain the products and services needed to carry out 

its programs. Over the last few years, there have been 

major changes in the size and composition of the 

procurement program.

The most striking change is the growth of the procurement program. Since 1970, procurement activity 

has not only increased in relative terms, from 14 to 

53 percent of total program dollars, but in absolute 

terms, from $23 million to $350 million, or roughly 

1,500 percent.

Another major change has taken place in the type 

of goods and services being procured. At the start of 

the decade, practically all Survey procurement was for 

commercially available equipment and very little for 

research. Procurement actions were relatively simple 

and generally of small dollar value. Recently, however, Survey procurement has changed drastically and 

now includes a large number of research and development contracts, research grants, complicated service contracts, and the purchase of many sophisticated 

and specialized pieces of equipment that are frequently not available on the commercial market in 

the necessary configuration, thus requiring very complex procurements.

Two policy areas of potentially great impact on the 

Survey's procurement activities have received close 

review and study over the last few months. One is the 

recently enacted Federal Grant and Cooperative 

Agreement Act of 1977. This act distinguishes Federal program activities in which the primary purpose 

is procurement from those in which the primary purpose is assistance. A contract is defined as the appropriate method for accomplishing procurement; 

a grant, where Federal involvement is small, and 

a cooperative agreement, where Federal involvement 

is substantial, are defined as the appropriate methods 

for accomplishing assistance. The other major policy 

area is the current effort to revise Office of Management and Budget Circular A-76, which provides government-wide guidance on the conditions and circumstances under which a Federal program activity 

will be performed in-house or contracted out. Both 

of these policy documents may have a major impact 

on the size and scope of the Survey's procurement 

activities in the future.

165
PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT SPACE AND FACILITIES MANAGEMENT

166

In the area of personnel management, several significant activities have been accomplished.

As a result of new governmentwide requirements 

imposed by the Civil Service Commission, the Geological Survey has developed and implemented a new 

personnel evaluation method for ranking and evaluating candidates for promotional opportunities. The 

method uses job-related placement factors known as 

KSAP's (Knowledge, Skills, Abilities, and Personal 

Characteristics). These factors, determined by personnel specialists and selecting officials, are used to determine basic eligibility for the position and to rank 

the best qualified candidates among those eligible. 

The major benefits of this new method are that the 

employee is much better informed about the specific 

requirements of the job and the selecting official is 

better able to evaluate the employee's specific experience in terms of those requirements.

As part of the Administrative Division's effort to 

provide greater local administrative support to field 

offices, a new personnel office has been established 

in Metairie. This office provides direct personnel management support to the Conservation Division's 

Outer Continental Shelf operations in the Gulf Coast 

area.

Because of its experience with Flexitime, the Survey has become a nationally recognized source of information on the subject of flexible working schedules. Interested organizations throughout the Federal Government, State and local governments, labor 

unions, universities, and private companies have been 

referred to the Survey by such organizations as the 

Civil Service Commission, the National Council on 

Alternative Working Patterns, the National Center for 

Productivity and Quality of Working Life, and the 

Prentice-Hall publication, "Public Personnel Administration." Since 1975, when it first implemented the 

Flexitime program, which now covers 10,000 employees nationwide, the Survey has responded to over 

350 requests for information and has, on many occasions, given presentations to other organizations 

(both within and outside the Federal Government) interested in exploring the possible use of flexible 

working schedules. A complete evaluation of the Survey's experience with the use of Flexitime at Reston 

was published in booklet form by the Survey in February 1978. This booklet, "A Comprehensive Report 

of a One-Year Experiment with Flexitime at the U.S. 

Geological Survey," has become a widely requested 

source of information on this subject. As a followup, 

an evaluation of our experience since extending Flexitime to the entire organization is planned and will 

furnish valuable information to the Federal Government and other interested organizations.

Continuing efforts are being made to make the 

most effective use of Survey buildings and facilities. 

Several major improvements have been initiated during the year.

At Sioux Falls, an area where water conservation is 

especially essential, a recirculating water system has 

been designed for installation at the Earth Resources 

Observation Systems Data Center. The system will 

recycle all the water used for photograph processing 

and air-conditioning. In addition, feasibility and design studies have been completed and construction 

is ready to begin on modifications that will permit the 

use of solar energy for heating the water used at the 

center.

At the Central Region headquarters, renovation 

has been completed on the Survey's space that was 

destroyed by fire in March 1976. The damaged section has been given a new roof, and the renovated 

interior is nearly ready to be occupied. Two other 

buildings occupied by the Survey have been extensively renovated and enlarged. One is now in use with 

a new and safer radioisotope laboratory, and the 

other will be ready for occupancy by the end of 1978.

In the Western Region, a project has been initiated 

to strengthen several Survey buildings in Menlo Park 

to withstand seismic disturbances. In Hawaii, the Survey, working jointly with the National Park Service, 

is developing a program to upgrade and to renovate 

the Hawaii Volcano Observatory and to establish a 

visitor information and interpretive center in the 

original observatory building.

IMPROVEMENTS IN INFORMATION MANAGEMENT

As part of the President's program to reduce the 

reporting burden placed upon the public by Government agencies, the Survey has been conducting a 

program to reduce the number of reports which it 

requires from the public and the manhours spent 

completing them. The number of manhours has been 

reduced by 11 percent, and several reports have been 

eliminated entirely.

The four-volume "Survey Manual," the major system of policy and procedures directives, has been revised and brought up-to-date through the use of contract assistance. Procedures have been developed to 

implement and monitor compliance with the provisions of the Freedom of Information and Privacy Acts.

In the area of administrative information systems, 

implementation of the first phase of the Procurement Management Information System and installation of the Administrative Division's data entry terminal network in Reston, Denver, and Menlo Park 

have been completed. In addition, modernizing pro-
cedures for entering data into the Bureau Accounting 

System by utilizing a video terminal system has nearly been completed. Tests are underway to evaluate 

the concept of extending the entry of certain kinds of 

financial data to field installations.

The use of word processing technology, which is 

very closely related to computer technology, offers 

potential benefits and savings to any organization 

with a large volume of correspondence. For an organization like the Survey, which has not only a 

large volume of correspondence but also a large publications workload involving repeated typing in the 

process of manuscript preparation, editing, and, 

eventually, typesetting for printing, the opportunities 

for savings are even greater. To assure that the maximum benefits, in the form of manpower savings, are 

realized from this rapidly growing and changing 

technology, the Division has become heavily involved 

in assisting Survey personnel select the proper word 

processing applications and the proper equipment for 

those applications.

COMPUTER CENTER DIVISION

Scientific research within the U.S. Geological Survey is supported by the Computer Center Division's 

nationwide system of computer facilities. The primary 

Survey batch processing installation, located in the 

National Center, Reston, Va., consists of two IBM 

370/155 computers. Together, these computers provide high-speed magnetic core memory for 8 million 

characters of information and online magnetic disk 

storage for 8.9 billion characters of information. During fiscal year 1978, more than 1,100 users from over 

100 remote locations, as well as the National Center, 

submitted approximately 376,000 jobs to these computers. Most of the terminals used to access these 

computers are run by the Operating Divisions. To 

supply required additional batch capacity during fiscal 

year 1978, a contract was signed with American Management Systems to provide computing services. The 

services are provided through access by users to one 

of the Survey's existing batch processor communications controllers, ensuring that the user can use identical procedures regardless which computer processes 

the data.

The time-sharing needs of the Geological Survey 

are being supported by the three Honeywell Multics 

computers located in Denver, Colo., Menlo Park, 

Calif., and Reston. Each system provides high-speed 

magnetic core memory for 2 million characters of information, bulk store memory (faster than disk) storage for 8 million characters of information, and 1.2 

billion characters of disk storage. To allow Geological 

Survey scientists to access one or more of these computers, the Computer Center Division has acquired a 

nationwide communications network from TYMNET, 

Inc., which provides reliable connections from many 

varieties of terminals located in all major metropolitan areas for the cost of a local telephone call. In 

essence, users can access any of the three Multics 

locations from any location in the United States.

Approximately 1,400 users are registered on one or 

more of the three Honeywell Multics systems and are 

currently averaging more than 21,000 interactive sessions per month.

In addition, the Survey operates the following 

large computers:

 Burroughs Corporation Model B-6700 computer at 

the Earth Resources Observation Systems Data 

Center in Sioux Falls, S. Dak.

 Systems Engineering Laboratories, Inc., Model 86 

computer at the Mid-Continent Mapping Center, 

Rolla, Mo.

 Digital Equipment Corporation Model 11/15, Model 

11/20, Model 11/40, and Model 11/45 computers at Flagstaff, Ariz.

The Geological Survey has obtained many minicomputers and minicomputer-type devices to support local field and laboratory investigations. These 

computers are dedicated to specific local requirements and operate in real time.

Some examples of computer applications in operation or under development during 1978 are as follows:

 Conversion of the Cartographic Automatic Mapping package to the Multics computers.

 Implementation of a set of programs that allow the 

system management programs within the IBM 

systems to better handle peak user requirements.

 Operation of a real-time seismic monitoring and 

earthquake detection network.

 Maintenance of the National Water Data Storage 

and Retrieval System, including ground-water 

data.

 Simulation of surface-water and ground-water behavior in areas expected to be mined for coal and 

oil shale.

 Use ot an Economic Simulation System for analysis 

of lease sale tracts.

 Tracking of Bureau of Land Management and Geological Survey activities as an aid to interbureau 

and interdivisional program coordination leading 

to Outer Continental Shelf lease sales.

 Tracking of oil spills from satellite-obtained data.

 Custom enhancement of Landsat pictures with 

areas of special geologic interests.

Highlights of computer support activities included 

the following:

167
 Acquisition of additional computing services to prevent the recent overload of IBM 370/155 computers from reaching unmanageable proportions.

 Implementation of a set of programs to allow the 

IBM system management programs to better handle the peak user demands. These programs are 

estimated to have saved as much as 20 percent 

in systems overhead.

 Major conversion effort to convert many software 

packages from the overload IBM systems to the 

Honeywell Multics.

PUBLICATIONS DIVISION

Results of research and investigations conducted by 

the U.S. Geological Survey are made available to the 

public through increasingly diverse information services and publications.

The Publications Division edits the Survey's scientific and technical publications, including professional 

papers, bulletins, water-supply papers, and circulars. 

The Division also prepares nontechnical booklets designed to communicate many of the Survey programs 

to the public in a clear and understandable manner. 

In addition to preparing reproduction manuscripts for 

geologic, hydrologic, and other thematic maps, the 

Division prints topographic and thematic maps, and 

warehouses and distributes all Survey maps and 

books.

The number of reports approved for publication by 

the Geological Survey continues to increase. About 

59 percent of the 3,713 reports prepared in fiscal year

Electronic metering equipment is used to determine the exact postage 

needed to mail an open-file report to a customer.

1978 were designated for publication in professional 

journals and monographs outside the Survey; about 

24 percent were placed in open file; and the remainder were scheduled for publication by the Survey (table 35). The Survey also produced over 10/263 

topographic, hydrologic, and geologic maps in fiscal 

year 1978 (table 36). Most of these maps were scheduled for publication.

Highlights

 Printing of 22.6 million copies of 5,855 different 

maps.

 Distribution of 8.7 million copies of maps of which 

6.2 million copies were sold for $6.1 million.

 Transmittal of 144 technical manuscripts to the 

Government Printing Office for printing.

 Distribution of 215,918 copies of technical reports 

of which 53,931 copies were sold for $157,343.

 Release of 1,016 open-file reports of which 27,804 

copies were sold for $183,047.

Guide to Information and Publications

Throughout this report, reference has been made to 

information services and publications of the Geological Survey. This section describes how and where the 

public may acquire information and obtain products.

To buy Survey book publications and maps of areas 

east of the Mississippi River and to request Survey 

circulars, catalogs, pamphlets, and leaflets (limited 

quantities free), write or visit:

U.S. Geological Survey 

Branch of Distribution 

1200 S. Eads St. 

Arlington, VA 22202

To buy maps of areas west of the Mississippi River 

and to request Survey catalogs, pamphlets, and 

leaflets (limited quantities free), write or visit:

U.S. Geological Survey

Branch of Distribution

Box 25286, Bldg. 41, Federal Center

Denver, CO 80225

To buy Alaskan maps, residents of Alaska may write 

or visit:

U.S. Geological Survey 

Distribution Section 

101 12th Ave., Box 12 

Fairbanks, AK 99701

To obtain information on the availability of microfiche or paper-duplicate copies of open-file reports, 

write:

U.S. Geological Survey 

Open-File Services Section 

Box 25425, Federal Center 

Denver, CO 80225

168
To get on the mailing list for the monthly list of 

"New Publications of the Geological Survey" (free), 

write:

U.S. Geological Survey 

Branch of Data Systems 

329 National Center 

12201 Sunrise Valley Dr. 

Reston, VA 22092

To subscribe to the "Earthquake Information Bulletin" write:

Superintendent of Documents 

Government Printing Office 

Washington, DC 20402

To buy books and maps of local areas and general 

interest, visit the U.S. Geological Survey Public Inquiries Offices in the following states:

Alaska:

108 Skyline Bldg. 

508 2d Ave. 

Anchorage, AK 99501

California:

7638 Federal Bldg. 

300 N. Los Angeles St. 

Los Angeles, CA 90012

504 Customhouse ^

555 Battery St.

San Francisco, CA 94111

Colorado:

169 Federal Bldg. 

1961 Stout St. 

Denver, CO 80294

Texas:

1C45 Federal Bldg. 

1100 Commerce St. 

Dallas, TX 75242

Utah:

8105 Federal Bldg.

125 S. State St.

Salt Lake City, UT 84138

Virginia:

302 National Center, Rm. 1C402 

12201 Sunrise Valley Dr. 

Reston, VA 22092

Washington:

678 U.S. Courthouse 

W. 920 Riverside Ave. 

Spokane, WA 99201

Washington, D.C.

1028 General Services Bldg. 

19th and F Sts., NW 

Washington, DC 20244

To obtain information on cartographic data, write 

or visit the U.S. Geological Survey, National Cartographic Information Centers (NCIC), in the following 

states:

California:

NCIC-West

345 Middlefield Rd.

Menlo Park, CA 94025

Colorado:

NCIC Rocky Mountain 

Box 25046, Stop 501 

Bldg. 25, Federal Center 

Denver, CO 80225

Missouri:

NCIC-Mid-Continent 

1400 Independence Road 

Rolla, MO 65401

Virginia:

NCIC Headquarters 

507 National Center 

12201 Sunrise Valley Dr. 

Reston, VA 22092

NCIC-East 

536 National Center 

12201 Sunrise Valley Dr. 

Reston, VA 22092

To obtain information on satellite and space photography, write or visit:

U.S. Geological Survey 

EROS Data Center 

Sioux Falls, SD 57198

To obtain assistance in locating sources of water 

data, identifying sites at which data have been collected, and specific data, write:

U.S. Geological Survey 

National Water Data Exchange 

421 National Center 

12201 Sunrise Valley Dr. 

Reston, VA 22092

To obtain information on ongoing and planned 

water-data acquisition activities of all Federal Agencies and many non-Federal organizations, write:

U.S. Geological Survey

Office of Water Data Coordination

417 National Center

12201 Sunrise Valley Dr.

Reston, VA 22092

To obtain information on water resources in general and about the water resources of specific areas 

of the United States, write:

U.S. Geological Survey 

Water Information Group 

420 National Center 

12201 Sunrise Valley Dr. 

Reston, VA 22092

To obtain information on geology topics such as 

earthquakes, energy and mineral resources, the geology of specific areas, and geologic maps and mapping, 

write:

U.S. Geological Survey 

Geologic Inquiries Group 

907 National Center 

12201 Sunrise Valley Dr. 

Reston, VA 22092 169
DIRECTOR

ASSOCIATE DIRECTOR

ASSISTANT DIRECTORS

LAND RESOURCES

MINERAL AND WATER RESOURCES

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

ADMINISTRATION

PROGRAM ANALYSIS

EASTERN REGION

CENTRAL REGION

WESTERN REGION

TOPOGRAPHIC DIVISION

CHIEF TOPOGRAPHIC DIVISION 

ASSOCIATE CHIEF

OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND 

TECHNICAL STANDARDS

Branches

Research and Design 

Field Surveys 

Photogrammetry 

Cartography 

Aerial Photography 

and Image Technology

OFFICE OF PLANS AND 

PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT

Branches 

Planning 

Programing 

National Cartographic 

Information Center 

International Activities

MAPPING CENTERS

Eastern-Reston, VA 

Mid-Continent-Rolla, MO 

Rocky Mountain-Denver, CO 

Western-Menlo Park, CA

WASHINGTON LIAISON OFFICE

LAND INFORMATION AND ANALYSIS OFFICE

CHIEF. LAND INFORMATION AND ANALYSIS OFFICE 

ASSOCIATE CHIEF RESEARCH AND TECHNICAL COORDINATION

EARTH RESOURCES OBSERVATION 

SYSTEMS PROGRAM

RESOURCE AND LAND 

INVESTIGATIONS PROGRAM

GEOGRAPHY PROGRAM

EARTH SCIENCES 

APPLICATIONS PROGRAM

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT 

ANALYSIS PROGRAM

GEOLOGIC DIVISION

CHIEF GEOLOGIST 

ASSOCIATE CHIEF GEOLOGIST

OFFICE OF ENVIRONMENTAL 

GEOLOGY

Branches

Eastern

Central

Western

Engineering Geology

Special Projects

Astrogeologic Studies

Paleontology and Stratigraphy

Branches

Seismic Engineering

Global Seismology

Seismology

Ground Motion and Faulting

Earthquake Tectonics and Risk

Tectonophysics

Network Operations

OFFICE OF ENERGY RESOURCES 

Branches

OFFICE OF MARINE GEOLOGY

Branches

Pacific Arctic Geology

Atlantic Gulf of Mexico Geology

WATER RESOURCES DIVISION

CHIEF HYDROLOGIST 

ASSOCIATE CHIEF HYDROLOGIST

OFFICE OF MINERAL RESOURCES

Branches

Eastern

Central

Western

Alaskan Geology

Exploration Research

Office of Resource Analysis

OFFICE OF GEOCHEMISTRY 

AND GEOPHYSICS

Branches

Experimental Geochemistry

and Mineralogy 

Field Geochemistry

and Petrology 

Isotope Geology 

Regional Geochemistry 

Analytical Laboratories 

Petrophysics and Remote

Sensing 

Electromagnetism and

Geomagnetism 

Regional Geophysics

OFFICE OF INTERNATIONAL 

______GEOLOGY______

Branches

Latin American and African Geology

Middle Eastern and Asian Geology

REGIONAL OFFICES

Eastern-Reston. VA 

Central-Denver. CO 

Western-Menlo Park.CA

OFFICE OF THE ASSISTANT CHIEF

FOR RESEARCH AND TECHNICAL

COORDINATION

DEPUTY ASSISTANT CHIEF 

FOR RESEARCH

Branches 

Surface Water 

Ground Water 

Quality of Water

OFFICE OF THE ASSISTANT CHIEF

FOR SCIENTIFIC PUBLICATIONS

AND DATA MANAGEMENT

OFFICE OF THE ASSISTANT CHIEF 

FOR OPERATIONS

ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICER

REGIONAL OFFICES

Northeastern Reston. VA 

Southeastern Atlanta. GA 

Central-Denver. CO 

Western-Menlo Park.CA

DISTRICT OFFICES
Organizational and Statistical Data

U.S. geological Survey Chart of Organization

OFFICE OF NATIONAL PETROLEUM RESERVE IN ALASKA

CHIEF. OFFICE OF NATIONAL PETROLEUM RESERVE IN ALASKA 

ANCHORAGE, AK

NPHA IIAISON OFFICE 

Htiston, VA

I

NPRA OPERATIONS OFFICE 

Anchorage, AK

EXPLORATION STRATEGY OFFICE 

Menlo Park, CA

1

CONSERVATION DIVISION

CHIFF. CONSERVATION DIVISION 

ASSOCIATE CHIEF

COMPUTER CENTER DIVISION

CHIEF, COMPUTER CENTER DIVISION 

ASSISTANT CHIEF

PUBLICATIONS DIVISION

CHIEF. PUBLICATIONS DIVISION 

ASSOCIATE CHIEF

OFFICE OF THE ASSISTANT CHIEF 

FOR PROGRAMS

Branches 

Systems Analysis

and Programing 

Computer Processing 

Computer Information

OFHCf OF 

Ul I-PROCESSING

KEGIONAI OFFICES

Eastern Washington. DC 

Central Denver CO 

Western Menln Park 

dull ol Mexn c Metame. IA

FlflD OFFICES

Denver. CO 

Menlo Park. CA 

Rolla. MO 

Flagstaff. AR

ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISION

CHIEF. ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISION 

DEPUTY CHIEF

OFFICE OF THF ASSISTANT CHIEF

FOR MANAGEMENT AND

ADMINISTRATION

Branches

Administrative Services 

Plans and Program Management 

Data Systems

OFFICf OF THE ASSISTANT CHIEF

FOR RESEARCH AND TFCHNICAI

COORDINATION

Branches

Technical Coordination

and Standards 

Research and Development

INTERNATIONAI ACTIVIT1FS

PRINTING I1AISON

Eastern Reston.VA

Central Denver. CO

Western Menlo Park. CA

PUBLIC INQUIRIES OFFICES

Hunches

Budget Management

Financial Management

General Services

Management Analysis

Personnel

Procurement and Crintrads

MANAGEMENT OFFICES

Fastern Reston, VA

Central Denver. CO

Western Menlo Park. CA

FIELD OFFICES
U.S. Geological Survey Offices 

HEADQUARTERS OFFICES

12201 Sunrise Valley Drive 

National Center, Reston, VA 22092

[As of September 30, 1978. Update of this list will be found on p. 208]

OFFICE OF THE DIRECTOR

Official Name Telephone Number Address 

Director ___ _ _____________________ H. William Menard (703) 860-7411 National Center, STOP 101

Associate Director __ W. A. Radlinski (703) 860-7412 National Center, STOP 102 

Special Assistant (Washington Liaison) __ Jane H. Wallace (202) 343-3888 Rm. 7343, Interior Bldg.,

Washington, DC 20240

Assistant Director Land Resources James R. Balsley (703) 860-7488 National Center, STOP 104 

Assistant Director Mineral and Water Resources ____ [Vacant] (703) 860-7481 National Center, STOP 171 

Assistant Director Geologic Engineering Henry W. Coulter (703) 860-7491 National Center, STOP 106 

Assistant Director Administration Edmund J. Grant (703) 860-7201 National Center, STOP 201 

Assistant Director Program Analysis Dale D. Bajema (703) 860-7435 National Center, STOP 105 

Assistant Director Eastern Region ____ _ _ William B. Overstreet (703) 860-7414 National Center, STOP 109 

Assistant Director Central Region ____ ____ _ Robert E. Evans (303) 234-4630 Box 25046, STOP 101,

Denver Federal Center,

Denver, CO 80225 

Assistant Director Western Region _____________ George E. Robinson (415) 323-8111 345 Middlefield Road,

Menlo Park, CA 94025

Congressional Liaison Officer _______________ Talmadge W. Reed (703) 860-6438 National Center, STOP 112 

Information Officer _____________________ Frank H. Forrester (703) 860-7444 National Center, STOP 119

TOPOGRAPHIC DIVISION

Official Name Telephone Number Address

Chief _____________________________ Rupert B. Southard (703) 860-6231 National Center, STOP 516

Associate Chief _______________________ [Vacant] (703) 860-6232 National Center, STOP 516

Office of Research and Technical Standards, Chief ____ Roy R. Mullen (703) 860-6291 National Center, STOP 519

Office of Plans and Program Development, Chief __ Doyle G. Frederick (703) 860-6281 National Center, STOP 514

National Cartographic Information Center, Chief ___ Gary W. North, Jr. (703) 860-6187 National Center, STOP 507

GEOLOGIC DIVISION

Official Name Telephone Number Address

Chief Geologist ______________________ Dallas L. Peck (703) 860-6531 National Center, STOP 910

Associate Chief Geologist ________________ [Vacant] (703) 860-6531 National Center, STOP 910

Deputy Chief Geologist, Operations __________ Penelope Henshaw (703) 860-6532 National Center, STOP 910

Deputy Chief Geologist, Program and Budget Donald H. Dow (703) 860-6544 National Center, STOP 910

Office of Scientific Publications, Chief _________ Robert E. Davis (703) 860-6575 National Center, STOP 904

Office of Environmental Geology, Chief ________ John C. Reed, Jr. (703) 860-6411 National Center, STOP 908

Office of Earthquake Studies, Chief Robert L. Wesson (703) 860-6471 National Center, STOP 905

Office of Energy Resources, Chief Charles Masters (703) 860-6431 National Center, STOP 915

Office of Marine Geology, Chief ____________ Charles Masters, (703) 860-6431 National Center, STOP 915

	Acting

Office of Mineral Resources, Chief ___________ George E. Becraft (703) 860-6562 National Center, STOP 913

Office of Geochemistry and Geophysics, Chief ____ Robert Tilling (703) 860-6584 National Center STOP 906

Office of International Geology, Chief _________ John A. Reinemund (703) 860-6418 National Center, STOP 917

WATER RESOURCES DIVISION

Official Name Telephone Number Address

Chief Hydrologist Joseph S. Cragwall, Jr. (703) 860-6921 National Center, STOP 409 

Associate Chief Hydrologist _____________ O. Milton Hackett (703) 860-6921 National Center, STOP 408

Assistant Chief Hydrologist, Scientific Publications and

Data Management ________________ Solomon M. Lang, (703) 860-6877 National Center, STOP 440

Acting 

Assistant Chief Hydrologist, Operations _____ Thomas J. Buchanan (703) 860-6801 National Center, STOP 441

172
WATER RESOURCES DIVISION Continued

Official Name Telephone Number Address 

Assistant Chief Hydrologist, Research and Technical

Coordination _______________________ Leslie B. Laird (703) 860-6971 National Center, STOP 414 

Office of Water Data Coordination, Chief _______ R. H. Langford (703) 860-6931 National Center, STOP 417 

Office of International Activities, Chief _________ James R. Jones (703) 860-6548 National Center, STOP 470

CONSERVATION DIVISION

Official Name Telephone Number Address

Chief ____________________________ Don E. Kash (703) 860-7524 National Center, STOP 600

Associate Chief _______________________ Hillary A. Oden (703) 860-7524 National Center, STOP 600

Assistant Chief, Resources Evaluation __________ Robert L. Rioux (703) 860-7571 National Center, STOP 640

Assistant Chief, Operations _______________ John Duletsky (703) 860-7515 National Center, STOP 620

Assistant Chief, Programs ________________ Harold L. Pumphrey (703) 860-7581 National Center, STOP 630

LAND INFORMATION AND ANALYSIS OFFICE

Official Name Telephone Number Address

Chief ____________________________ James R. Balsley (703) 860-7488 National Center, STOP 104

Associate Chief, Research and Technical Coordination Philip Cohen (703) 860-7471 National Center, STOP 703

Earth Resources Observation Systems Program, Chief __ John M. DeNoyer (703) 860-7881 National Center, STOP 730

Geography Program, Chief _________________ James R. Anderson (703) 860-6344 National Center, STOP 710

Resource and Land Investigations Program, Chief __ J. Ronald Jones (703) 860-6717 National Center, STOP 750

Environmental Impact Analysis Program, Chief ____ Daniel B. Krinsley (703) 860-7455 National Center, STOP 760

Earth Sciences Applications Program, Chief ______ Donald R. Nichols (703) 860-6961 National Center, STOP 720

OFFICE OF NATIONAL PETROLEUM RESERVE IN ALASKA

Official Name Telephone Number Address 

Chief ___________________________ George Crye (907)276-7422 * 2525 "C" Street Suite 400,

Anchorage, AK 99503

Technical Officer _____________________ Valentine Zadnik (703) 860-6208 National Center, STOP 151 

Program Officer ______________________ Keith M. Beardsley (703) 860-6208 National Center, STOP 151

COMPUTER CENTER DIVISION

Official Name Telephone Number Address

Chief ____________________________ Carl E. Diesen (703) 860-7106 National Center, STOP 801

Assistant Chief _______________________ Charles H. Tyler (703) 860-7109 National Center, STOP 801

Office of Teleprocessing _________________ Ralph N. Eicher (703) 860-7119 National Center, STOP 805

PUBLICATIONS DIVISION

Official Name Telephone Number Address

Chief ____________________________ Harry D. Wilson, Jr. (703) 860-7181 National Center, STOP 341

Associate Chief __ ______ Melvin E. Hanes (703) 860-7181 National Center, STOP 341

Assistant Chief, Management and Administration __ Van M. Rayburn (703) 860-7181 National Center, STOP 341

Assistant Chief, Research and Technical Coordination Bernard J. Thien. (703) 860-7183 National Center, STOP 341

Office of Public Inquiries _ ______ Robbie S. Ritchey (703) 860-7185 National Center, STOP 341

Printing Liaison Office _ _ __ __ Jesse R. Upperco (703) 860-7622 National Center, STOP 330

International Activities ____________ A. L. Dilonardo (703) 860-7186 National Center, STOP 341

ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISION

Official Name Telephone Number Address

Chief ___________________________ Edmund J. Grant (703) 860-7201 National Center, STOP 201

Deputy Chief _ _____________ Lewis Menen (703) 860-7203 National Center, STOP 202

Personnel Officer _____________________ Maxine C. Millard (703) 860-6127 National Center, STOP 215

Contracts Officer ______________________ William Burk (703) 860-7261 National Center, STOP 205

* Office of National Petroleum Reserve in Alaska is headquartered in Anchorage, Alaska.

173
SELECTED FIELD OFFICES

TOPOGRAPHIC DIVISION

REGIONAL MAPPING CENTER

Mapping Center

Eastern ___. 

Midcontinent

Chief

Peter F. Bermel 

Lawrence H. Borgerding

Rocky Mountain _________ __________ Albert E. Letey

Western _________________________ John R. Swinnerton

Telephone Number 

(703) 860-6352 

(314) 364-3680,

ext. 111 

(303) 234-2351

(415) 323-8111, 

ext. 2411

Address

National Center, STOP 567 

1400 Independence Rd.,

Rolla, MO 65401 

Box 25046, STOP 510,

Denver Federal Center,

Denver, CO 80225 

345 Middlefield Rd.,

Menlo Park, CA 94025

Region

Eastern 

Central

GEOLOGIC DIVISION

REGIONAL OFFICES

Regional Geologist 

Eugene G. Roseboom, Jr. 

.___ William R. Keefer

Western _______ _______ ___ Joseph I. Ziony

Telephone Number 

(703) 860-6631 

(303) 234-3625

(415) 323-8111,

Address

National Center, STOP 953 

Box 25046, STOP 911, 

Denver Federal Center 

Denver, CO 80225 

345 Middlefield Rd v 

Menlo Park, CA 94025

WATER RESOURCES DIVISION

REGIONAL OFFICES

Regional Hydrologist Telephone Number Address 

Northeastern James E. Biesecker (703) 860-6985 National Center, STOP 433 

Southeastern Robert J. Dingman (404) 881-4395 1459 Peachtree St., NE.,

Suite 200, 

Atlanta, GA 30392 

Central Alfred Clebsch, Jr. (303) 234-3661 Box 25046, STOP 406,

Denver Federal Center, 

Denver, CO 80225 

Western _________________________ William H. Robinson (415) 323-8111, 345 Middlefield Rd.,

ext. 2337 Menlo Park, CA 94025

DISTRICT OFFICES

State District Chief Telephone Number Address

Alabama ___________________________ William J. Powell , (205) 752-8104 P.O. Box V, 202 Oil and

Gas Board Bldg., 

University of Alabama 

University, AL 35486

Alaska _______________________________ Harry Hulsing (907) 277-5526 218 E St.,

Anchorage, AK 99501

Arizona ___________________________ Robert D. Mac-Nish (602) 792-6671 Federal Bldg.,

301 W. Congress St., 

Tucson, AZ 85701

Arkansas __________________________ Richard T. Sniegocki (501) 378-5246 2301 Federal Office Bldg.,

700 W. Capital Ave., 

Little Rock, AR 72201

California ____________________________ Richard M. Bloyd (415)323-8111, 855 Oak Grove Ave.,

ext. 2326 Menlo Park, CA 94025

Colorado ____________________________ James F. Blakey (303) 234-5029 Box 25046, STOP 415,

Denver Federal Center, 

Denver, CO 80225

Connecticut _________________________ David McCartney (203) 244-2528 135 High St.

Room 235 

Hartford, CT 06103 

174
WATER RESOURCES DIVISION/DISTRICT OFFICES Continued

State District Chief

Delaware ___________________ Walter F. White, Jr.

District of Columbia ___________________ Walter F. White, Jr.

Florida ____________________________ Clyde S. Conover

Georgia ___________________________ John R. George

Hawaii ___________________________ Benjamin L. Jones

Idaho ____________________________ Ernest F. Hubbard, Jr.

Illinois _ ______________________ Larry G. Toler

Indiana _ _______ ____________________ Dennis K. Stewart

Iowa ________________________ Oscar Lara

Kansas __________________________ Joseph S. Rosenshein

Kentucky ____________________________ Philip A. Emery

Louisiana __________________________ Albert N. Cameron

Maine _________________________ John A. Baker

Maryland __________________________ Walter F. White, Jr.

Massachusetts __________________ John A. Baker

Michigan ___________ _______ _ _ _ ___ T. Ray Cummings

Minnesota _______________________ Donald R. Albin

Mississippi __________________________ Lamar E. Carroon

Missouri _____________________ _ ___ _ Donald L. Coffin

Montana _____________________ George M. Pike

Nebraska ______________________ [Vacant]

Nevada ________________________ _ _ Frank T. Hidaka

New Hampshire ____________________ ___ |ohn A. Baker

Telephone Number

(301) 828-1535 

(301) 828-1535 

(904) 386-1118

(404) 221-4858 

(808) 546-8331 

(208) 384-1750

(217) 359-3918

(317) 269-7101

(319) 338-0581, 

ext. 521

(913) 864-4321 

(502) 582-5241 

(504) 389-0281

(617) 223-2822 

(301) 828-1535

(617) 223-2822

(517) 372-1910, 

ext. 561

(612) 725-7841 

(601) 969-4600

(314) 364-3680, 

ext. 185

(406) 449-5263 

(402) 471-5082

(702) 882-1388 

(617) 223-2822

Address

See Maryland District Office 

See Maryland District Office 

325 John Knox Rd., Suite

F-240,

Tallahassee, FL 32303 

6481 Peachtree Industrial

Blvd., Suite B,

Doraville, GA 30360 

P.O. Box 50166,

300 Ala Moana Blvd.,

Honolulu, HI 96850 

Box 036 Federal Bldg.,

Room 365,

550 W. Fort St.,

Boise, ID 83724 

P.O. Box 1026,

605 N. Neil St.,

Champaign, IL 61820 

1819 N. Meridian St.,

Indianapolis, IN 46202 

P.O. Box 1230,

400 S. Clinton St.,

Iowa City, IA 52240 

1950 Ave. A, Campus West,

University of Kansas,

Lawrence, KS 66045 

572 Federal Bldg.,

600 Federal PI.

Louisville, KY 40202 

P.O. Box 66492,

6554 Florida Blvd.,

Baton Rouge, LA 70896 

See Massachusetts District

Office 

208 Carrol Bldg.,

8600 La Salle Rd.

Towson, MD 21204 

150 Causeway St.,

Suite 1001,

Boston, MA 02114 

6520 Mercantile Way,

Suite 5,

Lansing, Ml 48910 

1033 Post Office Bldg.,

St. Paul, MN 55101 

430 Bounds St.,

Jackson, MS 39206 

1400 Independence Rd.,

M.S. 200,

Rolla, MO 65401 

P.O. Box 1696,

421 Federal Bldg.,

Helena, MT 59601 

406 Federal Bldg., and U.S.

Courthouse,

100 Centennial Mall

North,

Lincoln, NE 68508 

227 Federal Bldg.,

705 N. Plaza St.,

Carson City, NV 89701 

See Massachusetts District

Office

175
WATER RESOURCES DIVISION/DISTRICT OFFICES Continued

State

New Jersey

District Chief 

Harold Meisler

New Mexico _____________________ William E. Hale

New York _____________ Laurance A. Martens

North Carolina ____________ Ralph C. Heath

North Dakota Crady Moore

Ohio _____________________________ David E. Click

Oklahoma __ ______________ James H. Irwin

Oregon ____ ______ Stanley F. Kapustka

Pennsylvania Don C. Perkins, 

Acting

Puerto Rico _ _______________ Craig B. Bentley

Rhode Island _____.__________________ John A. Baker

South Carolina ____ ______________ Rodney N. Cherry

South Dakota ___ _________________ Richard E. Fidler

Tennessee ________________________ Stanley P. Sauer

Texas __________________________ I. Dale Yost

Utah ___________________________ Theodore Arnow

Vermont _________________ ____ John A. Baker

Virginia _________________ ______ William E. Forrest

Washington _______________ __ Charles R. Collier

West Virginia _______________________ David H. Appel

Telephone Number 

(609) 989-2162

(505) 766-2246

(518) 472-3107

(919) 755-4510

(701) 255-4011, 

ext. 601

(614) 469-5553 

(405) 231-4256

(503) 234-3361, 

ext. 4776

(717) 782-3468

(809) 783-4660 

(617) 223-2822 

(803) 765-5966

(605) 352-8651, 

ext. 258

(615) 251-5424 

(512) 397-5766 

(801) 524-5663

(617) 223-2822

(804) 782-2427

(206) 593-6510

(304) 343-6181, 

ext. 310

Address 

P.O. Box 1238,

436 Federal Bldg.,

402 E. State St.,

Trenton, NJ 08607 

P.O. Box 26659,

Western Bank Bldg.,

Room 809,

505 Marquette N.W.,

Albuquerque, NM 87125 

P.O. Box 1350,

343 U.S. Post Office and

Courthouse Bldg.,

Albany, NY 12201 

P.O. Box 2857,

Room 432,

Century Postal Station,

Raleigh, NC 27602 

821 East Interstate Ave.,

Room 332,

New Federal Bldg.,

3d St. and Rosser Ave.,

Bismark, ND 58501 

975 West Third Ave.,

Columbus, OH 43212 

201 N.W. 3d St., Rm. 621,

Oklahoma City, OK 73102 

P.O. Box 3202,

830 NE. Holladay St.,

Portland, OR 97232 

P.O. Box 1107, 4th Floor,

Federal Bldg.,

228 Walnut St.,

Harrisburg, PA 17108 

P.O. Box 34168, Bldg. 652,

Ft. Buchanan, PR 00934 

See Massachusetts District

Office 

2001 Assembly St.,

Suite 200,

Columbia, SC 29201 

P.O. Box 1412,

200-4th St. SW.,

Room 308,

Huron, SD 57350 

A-413 Federal Bldg.,

U.S. Courthouse,

Nashville, TN 37203 

649 Federal Bldg.,

300 E. 8th St.,

Austin, TX 78701 

8002 Federal Bldg.,

125 S. State St.,

Salt Lake City, UT 84138 

See Massachusetts District

Office 

200 W. Grace St., Rm. 304,

Richmond, VA 23220 

1201 Pacific Ave.,

Suite 600,

Tacoma, WA 98402 

3017 Federal Bldg. and

U.S. Courthouse,

500 Quarrier St. E.,

Charleston, WV 25301

176
WATER RESOURCES DIVISION/DISTRICT OFFICES Continued

State

Wisconsin

District Chief 

William B. Mann

Wyoming ______________________ William Dudley

Telephone Number 

(608) 262-2488

(307) 778-2220, 

ext. 2153

CONSERVATION DIVISION

REGIONAL OFFICES

Region Conservation Manager 

Eastern ___________________________ George Brown

Central ____________________ George H. Horn

Gulf of Mexico Outer Continental Shelf Operations __ A. Dewey Acuff

Western ___________________________ [Vacant]

Telephone Number 

(202) 254-3137

(303) 234-2855

(504) 837-4720, 

ext. 9381

(415) 323-8111, 

ext. 2093

Address

1815 University Ave.,

Room 200,

Madison, Wl 53706 

P.O. Box 1125,

2120 Capitol Ave.,

Room 5017,

Cheyenne, WY 82001

Address 

1725 KSt., N.W., Suite 204,

Washington, DC 20006 

Box 25046, STOP 609,

Denver Federal Center,

Denver, CO 80225 

P.O. Box 7944,

434 Imperial Office Blvd.

3301 N. Causeway Blvd.

Metairie, LA 70010 

345 Middlefield Rd.,

Menlo Park, CA 94025

LAND INFORMATION AND ANALYSIS OFFICE

EARTH RESOURCES OBSERVATION SYSTEMS DATA CENTER 

Location

South Dakota

Official in Charge 

Alien H. Watkins

Telephone Number Address

(605) 594-6123 EROS Data Center,

Sioux Falls, SD 57198

Office Chief

NPRA Operations Office _________________ Max Brewer

Exploration Strategy Office _______________ Arthur Bowsher

Telephone Number 

(907) 276-7422

(415) 323-2917

Address 

2525 "C" Street Suite 400,

Anchorage, AK 99503 

345 Middlefield Rd.,

Menlo Park, CA 94025

Region

Eastern 

Central

PUBLICATIONS DIVISION

REGIONAL OFFICES

Official in Charge 

.____ Lewis D. Brown 

.____ John L. Heller

Western ____________________________ Fred Kunkel

Telephone Number 

(703) 860-6761 

(303) 234-4974

(415) 323-8111, 

ext. 2537

Address

National Center, STOP 328 

Box 25046, STOP 303, 

Denver Federal Center, 

Denver, CO 80225 

345 Middlefield Rd., 

Menlo Park, CA 94025

Location

Alaska

PUBLIC INQUIRIES OFFICES

Official in Charge 

___ Margaret I. Erwin

Telephone Number 

(907) 277-0577

Address

108 Skyline Bldg., 

508 2d Ave., 

Anchorage, AK 99501

177
PUBLICATIONS DIVISION/PUBLIC INQUIRIES OFFICES Continued

Location

California: 

Los Angeles

Official in Charge 

Lucy E. Birdsall

San Francisco _______ Jean V. Molleskog

Colorado ________________-- _ Alice M. Coleman

District of Columbia _________ Bruce A. Hubbard

Texas _____ ________ Jimmie L. Wilkinson

Utah _________________________ Wendy R. Hassibe

Virginia ______________ , A. Ernestine Jones

Washington _ _______ Eula M. Thune

Telephone Number 

(213) 688-2850

(415) 556-5627 

(303) 837-4169 

(202) 343-8073 

(214) 749-3230 

(801) 524-5652 

(703) 860-6167

(509) 456-2524

BRANCH OF DISTRIBUTION OFFICES

Location

Alaska 

Colorado

Official in Charge 

Natalie Cornforth

Dwight F. Canfield

Telephone Number 

(907) 452-1951

(303) 234-3832

Virginia _ __ ___ _ ___ George V. DeMeglio (703) 557-2781

ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISION

REGIONAL MANAGEMENT OFFICES

Region

Eastern 

Central

Regional Management 

Officer

Roy Heinbuch 

Thomas J. Lyons

Western __________________________ Avery W. Rogers

Telephone Number 

(703) 860-7691 

(303) 234-3736

(415) 323-2211

Address

7638 Federal Bldg.,

300 N. Los Angeles St.,

Los Angeles, CA 90012 

504 Customhouse,

555 Battery St.,

San Francisco, CA 94411 

169 Federal Bldg.,

1961 Stout St.,

Denver, CO 80294 

1028 CSA Bldg., 19th and

F Sts. NW.,

Washington, DC 20244

1C45 Federal Bldg.,

1100 Commerce St.,

Dallas, TX 75242 

8105 Federal Bldg.,

125 S. State St.,

Salt Lake City, UT84138 

1C402 National Center,

STOP 302,

12201 Sunrise Valley Dr.,

Reston, VA 22092 

678 U.S. Courthouse,

W. 920 Riverside Ave.,

Spokane, WA 99201

Address 

101 12th Ave., Box 12,

Fairbanks, AK 99701 

Box 25286, STOP 306,

Denver Federal Center,

Denver, CO 80225 

1200 S. Eads St.,

Arlington, VA 22202

Address

National Center, STOP 290 

Box 25046, STOP 202,

Denver Federal Center,

Denver, CO 80225 

345 Middlefield Rd., Stop 11,

Menlo Park, CA 94025

178
COOPERATORS AND OTHER FINANCIAL CONTRIBUTORS

[Cooperators listed are those with whom the U.S. Geological Survey had a written agreement cosigned by Survey officials and the cooperating agency, 

for financial cooperation in fiscal year 1978. Parent agencies are listed separately from their subdivisions whenever there are separate cooperative 

agreements for different projects with a parent agency and with a subdivision of it. Agencies with whom the Geological Survey had research contracts 

and to whom it supplied research funds are not listed.]

FEDERAL COOPERATORS

Council on Environmental Quality

Department of Agriculture:

Economics, Statistics, and Cooperatives Service

Forest Service

Science and Education Administration

Soil Conservation Service

Department of the Air Force:

AFWL/PRP Kirtland AFB 

Air Force Academy 

Headquarters (AFTAC/AC) 

Nell is Air Force Base 

Pease Air Force Base 

Vandenberg Air Force Base

Department of the Army:

Corps of Engineers 

Fort Carson Military Reservation 

Rocky Mountain Arsenal 

White Sands Missile Range

Department of Commerce:

Bureau of the Census

Economic Development Administration

National Bureau of Standards

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration:

National Marine Fisheries Service

National Ocean Survey

National Weather Service

Department of Defense Agencies and Joint Service Schools:

Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency 

Defense Civil Preparedness Agency 

Defense Intelligence Agency 

Defense Mapping Agency

Department of Energy:

Alaska Power Administration

Albuquerque Operations Office

Bonneville Power Administration

Chicago Operations Office

Division of Geothermal Energy

Division of Petroleum, Natural Gas, and In-situ Technology

Division of Uranium Resources and Enrichment

Federal Energy Regulatory Commission

Grand Junction Office

Idaho Operations Office

Lawrence Livermore Laboratory

Los Alamos Science Laboratory

Naval Petroleum.and Oil Shale Reserves

Nevada Operations Office

Oak Ridge Operations Office

Office of Environmental Effects

Richland Operations Office

San Francisco Operations Office

Savannah River Operations Office

Department of Health, Education and Welfare 

Department of Housing and Urban Development

Department of the Interior:

Bureau of Indian Affairs

Bureau of Land Management

Bureau of Mines

Bureau of Reclamation

National Park Service

Office of Library and Information Services

Office of the Secretary

Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement

Outer Continental Shelf Program Coordination Office

Trans-Alaska Pipeline

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

Water Resources Council

Department of the Navy:

Civil Engineering Laboratory, Naval Construction Battalion Center 

Naval Facilities Engineering Command 

Naval Oceanographic Office 

Naval Weapons Center, China Lake 

Public Works Center 

U.S. Marine Corps, Camp Pendleton

Department of State:

Agency for International Development

International Boundary Commission, United States and Canada 

International Boundary and Water Commission, United States 

and Mexico

Department of Transportation:

Federal Highway Administration

St. Lawrence Seaway Development Corporation

Department of the Treasury:

U.S. Customs Service

Environmental Protection Agency:

Cincinnati Research Center

Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory

Lake Shagawa

Office of Energy, Minerals, and Industry

Office of Monitoring and Technical Support

Office of Radiation Programs

Office of Research and Development

Office of Water Programs

Region I, Boston, Massachusetts

Region II, Edison, New Jersey

Region V, Chicago, Illinois

Region VIII, Denver, Colorado

Region X, Seattle, Washington

Upper Mississippi River Basin Commission

179
FEDERAL COOPERATORS Continued

General Services Administration

National Academy of Sciences

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

National Science Foundation

Navajo and Hopi Indian Relocation Commission

Nuclear Regulatory Commission

Tennessee Valley Authority

United States Arms Control and Disarmament Agency

United States Civil Service Commission

Upper Mississippi River Basin Commission

STATE, COUNTY, AND LOCAL COOPERATORS

Alabama:

Alabama Highway Department 

Commission of Jefferson County 

Geological Survey of Alabama

Alaska:

Alaska Department of Fish and Game

Alaska Department of Natural Resources: 

Division of Lands and Water Management 

Division of Geological and Geophysical Surveys

Alaska Department of Transportation and Public Facilities

Alaska State Office of the Pipeline Coordinator

Department of Environmental Conservation

Fairbanks North Star Borough

Kenai Peninsula Borough

Municipality of Anchorage

State Policy Development and Planning

Thomas Bay Power Commission

Arizona:

Arizona Department of Health Services

Arizona Game and Fish Department

Arizona State Land Department

Arizona Water Commission

City of Flagstaff

City of Safford

City of Tucson

Flood Control District of Maricopa County

Gila Valley Irrigation District

Maricopa County Municipal Water Conservation District No. 1

Metropolitan Water District of Southern California

Pima County Board of Supervisors

Salt River Valley Water Users' Association

San Carlos Irrigation and Drainage District

Show Low Irrigation Company

University of Arizona

Arkansas:

Arkansas Department of Pollution Control and Ecology 

Arkansas Division of Soil and Water Resources 

Arkansas Geologic Commission 

Arkansas State Highway and Transportation Department

California:

Alameda County Flood Control and Water Conservation District,

Zone 7 

Alameda County Water District

California Continued 

Antelope Valley-East Kern Water Agency 

California Department of Conservation, Division of Mines and

Geology

California Department of Fish and Game 

California Department of Navigation and Ocean Development 

California Department of Transportation 

California Department of Water Resources 

California Water Resources Control Board 

Carpinteria County Water District 

Casitas Municipal Water District

City and County of San Francisco, Hetch Hetchy Water and Power 

City of Lompoc 

City of Merced

City of Modesto, Public Works Department 

City of San Diego

City of Santa Barbara, Public Works Department 

City of Thousand Oaks 

Coachella Valley County Water District 

Contra Costa County Flood Control and Water Conservation

District

County of Modoc, Public Works Department 

County of San Diego, Department of Sanitation and Flood Control 

County of San Mateo, Department of Public Works 

Desert Water Agency 

East Bay Municipal Utility District 

Georgetown Divide Public Utility District 

Goleta County Water District 

Imperial County Department of Public Works 

Imperial Irrigation District 

Indian Wells Valley County Water District 

Kern County Water Agency 

Kings River Conservation District

Lake County Flood Control and Water Conservation District 

Livermore Amador Valley Water Management Agency 

Los Angeles County Flood Control District 

Los Angeles Department of Water and Power 

Madera County Flood Control and Water Conservation Agency 

Madera Irrigation District 

Marin County Department of Public Works 

Marin Municipal Water District 

Merced Irrigation District

Metropolitan Water District of Southern California 

Mojave Water Agency 

Montecito County Water District

Monterey County Flood Control and Water Conservation District 

Napa County Flood Control and Water Conservation District 

North Marin County Water District

180
STATE, COUNTY, AND LOCAL COOPERATORS Continued

California Continued

Orange County Environmental Management Agency 

Orange County Water District 

Oroville-Wyandotte Irrigation District 

Pacheco Pass Water District 

Paradise Irrigation District

Riverside County Flood Control and Water Conservation District 

Sacramento County Department of Public Works 

San Benito County Water Conservation and Flood Control District 

San Bernardino. Valley Municipal Water District 

San Francisco Water Department 

San Luis Obispo County: Engineering Department 

San Mateo County Department of Environmental Management 

Santa Barbara County Flood Control and Water Conservation

District

Santa Barbara County Water Agency 

Santa Clara Valley Water District 

Santa Cruz City, Flood Control and Water Conservation District,

Zone 4

Santa Cruz County, Flood Control and Water Conservation District 

Santa Maria Valley Water Conservation District 

Santa Ynez River Water Conservation District 

Siskiyou County Flood Control and Water Conservation District 

Soquel Creek County Water District 

Terra Bella Irrigation District 

Tulare County Flood Control District 

Turlock Irrigation District 

United Water Conservation District 

University of California:

Division of Environmental Studies (Davis)

School of Forestry and Conservation (Berkeley) 

Ventura County Flood Control District 

Western Municipal Water District 

Woodbridge Irrigation District 

Yolo County Flood Control and Water Conservation District

Colorado:

Arkansas River Compact Administration

Central Yuma Ground Water Management District

City and County of Denver, Board of Water Commissioners

City of Aspen

City of Aurora

City of Colorado Springs:

Department of Public Utilities

Office of the City Manager 

City of Fort Col I ins 

City of Glenwood Springs 

City of Northglenn 

City of Pueblo

Colorado City Water and Sanitation District 

Colorado Department of Health, Water Pollution

Control Division

Colorado Department of Highways 

Colorado Department of Local Affairs 

Colorado Department of Water Resources:

Office of the State Engineer 

Colorado River Water Conservation District 

Colorado Water Conservation Board 

Colorado West Area Council of Governments 

County of Jackson

Denver Regional Council of Governments 

Eagle County Commissioners 

El Paso County:

Board of Commissioners

Water Association

Colorado Continued

Frenchman Ground Water Management District

Jefferson County Health Department

Marks Butte Ground Water Management District

Metropolitan Denver Sewage Disposal District No. 1

Pikes Peak Area Council of Governments

Pitkin County Board of County Commissioners

Pueblo Area Council of Governments

Purgatoire River Water Conservancy District

Rio Grande Water Conservation District

Routt County Commissioners

St. Vrain and Left Hand Water Conservancy District

Sand Hills Ground Water Management District

Southeastern Colorado Water Conservancy District

Southern Ute Indian Tribe

Southwestern Water Conservation District

Urban Drainage and Flood Control District

White River Soil Conservation District

Connecticut:

City of Hartford, Department of Public Works

City of New Britain

City of Torrington

Department of Environmental Protection

Northwest Regional Planning Agency

Town of Fairfield

Town of Manchester

Town of Newtown

Town of South Windsor

Town of Wilton

Delaware:

Delaware Geological Survey, University of Delaware 

Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Control 

New Castle County, Public Works Department

District of Columbia:

Department of Environmental Services

Florida:

Brevard County 

Broward County

Broward County Environmental Quality Control Board 

City of Boca Raton 

City of Bradenton 

City of Clearwater 

City of Cocoa 

City of Deerfield Beach 

City of Fort Lauderdale 

City of Gainesville 

City of Hallandale 

City of Hollywood 

City of Jacksonville 

City of Pensacola 

City of Perry 

City of Pompano Beach 

City of St. Petersburg 

City of Sarasota 

City of Tallahassee 

City of Tampa 

City of West Palm Beach 

Collier County 

Englewood Water District 

Escambia County

Florida Bureau of Water Resources Management: 

Florida Department of Environmental Regulation

181
STATE, COUNTY, AND LOCAL COOPERATORS Continued

Florida Continued 

Florida Department of Natural Resources:

Bureau of Geology

Division of Parks and Recreation 

Florida Department of Transportation 

Florida Division of Recreation and Parks 

Florida Keys Aqueduct Authority 

Hendry County 

Hillsborough County 

Lake County

Lake Worth Utilities Authority 

Lee County

Loxahatchee River Environmental Control District 

Manasota Basin Board 

Manatee County 

Marion County 

Metropolitan Dade County 

Miami-Dade Water and Sewer Authority 

Monroe County

Nassau County, Ocean Highway and Port Authority 

Northwest Florida Water Management District 

Old Plantation Water Management District 

Orange County 

Palm Beach County 

Pinellas County 

Polk County

Reedy Creek Improvement District 

St. Johns County

St. Johns River Water Management District 

Sarasota County 

Seminole County

South Florida Water Management District 

Southwest Florida Water Management District 

Sumter County Recreation and Water Conservation and Control

Authority

Suwannee River Authority 

Suwannee River Water Management District 

Town of Highland Beach 

University of South Florida 

Village of Tequesta 

Volusia County 

Walton County

Windermere Water and Navigational Control District 

Winter Haven Lake Region

Georgia:

Chatham County

City of Albany

City of Brunswick

City of Columbus

City of Covington

City of East Point

City of Valdosta

Dekalb County

Department of Natural Resources: 

Environmental Protection Division 

Geologic and Water Resources Division

Department of Transportation

Hawaii:

City and County of Honolulu: 

Board of Water Supply 

Department of Public Works

State Department of Health

Hawaii Continued 

State Department of Land and Natural Resources:

Division of Water and Land Development 

State Department of Transportation

Idaho:

Idaho Department of Health and Welfare , 

Idaho Department of Transportation 

Idaho Department of Water Resources 

Panhandle Health District 

South Central District Health Department

Illinois:

Bloomington and Normal Sanitary District

City of Springfield

Cook County, Forest Preserve District

DuPage County Highway Department

Environmental Protection Agency

Fountain Head Drainage District

Illinois Environmental Protection Agency

Illinois Institute for Environmental Quality

Kane County Highway Department

McHenry County Regional Planning Commission

Metropolitan Sanitary District of Greater Chicago

Sanitary District of Bloom Township

State Department of Registration and Education, Illinois State

Geological Survey and State Water Survey 

State Department of Transportation:

Division of Highways

Division of Water Resources

Indiana:

City of Indianapolis

City of Logansport

Indiana Board of Health

Indiana Department of Natural Resources

Indiana Highway Commission

Ohio River Valley, Water Sanitation Commission

Town of Carmel

Iowa:

City of Cedar Rapids

City of Des Moines

City of Fort Dodge

City of Harlan

Iowa Department of Environmental Quality

Iowa Department of Transportation, Highway Research Board

Iowa Geological Survey

Iowa Natural Resources Council

Iowa State University:

Department of Agricultural Engineering

Engineering and Mineral Resources Research Institute

Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station 

University of Iowa:

Institute of Hydraulic Research

University Physical Plant

Kansas:

City of Wichita

Kansas Department of Transportation 

Kansas-Oklahoma Arkansas River Commission 

Kansas State Board of Agriculture:

Division of Water Resources 

Kansas State Department of Health and Environment

182
STATE, COUNTY, AND LOCAL COOPERATORS Continued

Kansas Continued 

Kansas State Water Resources Board

Northwest Kansas Ground Water Management District No. 4 

Southwest Kansas Ground Water Management District No. 3 

State Geological Survey of Kansas 

Western Kansas Ground Water Management District No. 1

Kentucky:

Kentucky Department of Commerce:

Division of Research and Planning

Kentucky Department for Natural Resources and Environmental 

Protection:

Division of Conservation

Division of Water Quality

Division of Water Resources 

Kentucky Department of Transportation:

Division of Design 

Kentucky Geological Survey, University of Kentucky

Louisiana:

Capital Area Ground Water Conservation Commission 

Louisiana Office of Highways:

Department of Transportation and Development 

Louisiana Office of Public Works:

Department of Transportation and Development 

Sabine River Compact Administration

Maine:

Androscoggin Valley Regional Planning Commission

Cobbossee Watershed District

Department of Environmental Protection

Greater Portland Council of Governments

Maine Public Utilities Commission

Southern Kennebec Regional Planning Commission

Town of Wilton

Maryland:

City of Baltimore, Bureau of Engineering, Water Supply Division

Maryland Department of Health and Mental Hygiene

Maryland Department of Transportation, The State Highway

Administration 

Maryland Geological Survey

Montgomery County, Office of Environmental Planning 

Washington Suburban Sanitary Commission

Massachusetts:

Department of Public Works:

Division of Highways

Division of Research and Materials 

Metropolitan District Commission, Water Division 

State Water Resources Commission:

Division of Water Pollution Control

Division of Water Resources

Michigan:

Branch County 

City of Ann Arbor 

City of Battle Creek 

City of Clare 

City of Coldwater 

City of Flint 

City of Jackson 

City of Lansing 

City of Mason

Michigan Continued 

City of St. Johns 

City of St. Louis 

City of Ypsilanti 

Department of Agriculture 

Department of Natural Resources:

Geological Survey Division 

Department of State Highways and Transportation 

Dickinson County Board of Road Commissioners 

Genesee County Drain Commission 

Huron-Clinton Metropolitan Authority 

Imlay City

Kalamazoo County Metropolitan Planning Commission 

Kent County Airport 

Macomb County Road Commission 

Oakland County-Drain Commission 

Otsego Road Commission 

Tri-County Regional Planning Commission 

Van Buren County Road Commission 

Washtenaw County Metropolitan Planning Commission 

Ypsilanti Township

Minnesota:

City of Apple Valley

City of Eagan

City of Lakeville

Douglas County, Wisconsin Soil and Water Conservation District

Metropolitan Waste Control Commission

Minnesota Department of Health:

Division of Environmental Health 

Minnesota Department of Highways 

Minnesota Department of Natural Resources 

Minnesota Department of Transportation 

Minnesota Pollution Control Agency 

Minnesota State Planning Agency

Mississippi:

City of Jackson

Harrison County Board of Supervisors

Harrison County Development Commission

Jackson County Board of Supervisors

Jackson County Port Authority

Mississippi Air and Water Pollution Control Commission

Mississippi Board of Water Commissioners

Mississippi Geological Survey

Mississippi Marine Resources Council

Mississippi Research and Development Center

Mississippi State Highway Department

Pat Harrison Waterway District

Pearl River Valley Water Supply District

Missouri:

City of Springfield:

Sanitary Services Department 

Department of Conservation 

Department of Natural Resources:

Division of Environmental Quality, Laboratory Services Program

Division of Geology and Land Survey 

Little River Drainage District 

Missouri State Highway Commission 

St. Louis County, Department of Highways and Traffic

Montana:

Department of Natural Resources and Conservation 

Lewis and Clark County, Board of County Commissioners

183
STATE, COUNTY, AND LOCAL COOPERATORS Continued

Montana Continued 

Missoula County Commissioners 

Montana Bureau of Mines and Geology 

Montana Department of Health and Environmental Sciences 

Montana Department of Highways 

Montana State Fish and Game Department 

Montana State University 

Wyoming State Engineer (see a/so Wyoming).

Nebraska:

Blue River Association of Ground Water Conservation Districts

Central Platte Natural Resources District

Kansas-Nebraska Big Blue River Compact Administration

Lower Loup Natural Resources District

Nebraska Department of Roads

Nebraska Department of Water Resources

Nebraska Natural Resources Commission

Nehama Natural Resources District

University of Nebraska:

Conservation and Survey Division

Water Resources Center

Nevada:

Carson City Department of Public Works

Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology

Nevada Department of Conservation and Natural Resources:

Division of Environmental Protection Services

Division of Water Resources 

Nevada Department of Highways 

Nevada Environmental Protection Service

New Hampshire:

New Hampshire Water Resources Board

New Hampshire Water Supply and Pollution Control Commission

New Jersey:

Bergen County

Camden County, Board of Chosen Freeholders

Delaware River Basin Commission

Delaware Valley Regional Planning Commission

Morris County Municipal Utilities Authority

New Jersey Department of Agriculture

New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection:

Division of Fish, Game and Shell Fisheries

Division of Water Resources 

North Jersey District Water Supply Commission 

Passaic Valley Water Commission 

Somerset County, Board of Chosen Freeholders 

Township of Cranford

New Mexico:

Albuquerque Metropolitan Arroyo Flood Control Authority

City of Albuquerque

City of Las Cruces

Costilla Creek Compact Commission

Elephant Butte Irrigation District

New Mexico Bureau of Mines and Mineral Resources

New Mexico Environmental Improvement Agency

New Mexico State Engineer and Interstate Stream Commission

New Mexico State Highway Department

Pecos River Commission

Rio Grande Compact Commission

New York:

Central New York State Parks and Recreation Commission

New York Continued

City of Albany, Department of Water and Supply 

City of Auburn 

City of New York:

Board of Water Supply 

Environmental Protection Administration

County of Chautauqua, Department of Planning and Development 

County of Cortland, Planning Department 

County of Duchess, Civil Defense 

County of Monroe, Water Authority 

County of Nassau, Department of Public Works 

County of Onondaga:

Department of Public Works

Water Authority 

County of Putnam

County of Rockland, Drainage Agency 

County of Suffolk:

Department of Environmental Control

Water Authority

County of Ulster, Ulster County Legislature 

County of Westchester, Department of Public Works 

Department of Transportation 

Hudson River-Black River Regulating District 

Irondequoit Bay Pure Waters District 

New York State Department of Environmental Conservation

(see a/so Pennsylvania)

New York State Department of Environmental Conservation 

New York State Department of Health, Division of Sanitary

Engineering 

New York State Department of Transportation, Bridge Planning

and Railroads Bureau 

New York State Education Department, Museum and Science

Service

New York State Museum and Science Service 

New York State University Agricultural and Technical College 

New York State University, Regents Research, Inc. 

Oswegatchie River-Cranberry Reservoir Commission 

Power Authority of the State of New York 

Rochester Water Bureau 

Town of Brighton 

Town of Clarkstown 

Town of Fishkill 

Town of Warwick 

Town of Waterford 

Village of Nyack

North Carolina:

Agricultural Experiment Station

City of Burlington

City of Charlotte

City of Durham, Department of Water Resources

City of Greensboro

City of Rocky Mount

City of Winston-Salem

State Board of Transportation

State Department of Natural and Economic Resources:

Division of Resource Planning and Evaluation 

State Department of Natural Resources and Community

Development

North Dakota:

North Dakota Geological Survey

Oliver County Board of County Commissioners

State Department of Health

State Water Commission

184
STATE, COUNTY, AND LOCAL COOPERATORS Continued

Ohio:

City of Canton, Water Department

City of Columbus, Department of Public Service

City of Toledo

Geauga County

Miami Conservancy District

Ohio Department of Natural Resources

Ohio Department of Transportation, Division of Highways

Ohio Environmental Protection Agency

Three Rivers Watershed District

Oklahoma:

City of Oklahoma City 

Oklahoma State Department of Highways 

Oklahoma State Geological Survey 

Oklahoma State Health Department 

Oklahoma State Water Resources Board 

State Pollution Control Coordinating Board

Oregon:

Burnt River Irrigation District

City of Corvallis

City of Eugene, Water and Electric Board

City of Lakeside, Lakeside Water District

City of McMinnville, Water and Light Department

City of Medford, Public Works Department

City of Portland:

Department of Public Utilities

Department of Water Works 

City of Rogue River

Columbia Region Association of Governments 

Confederated Tribes of Umatilla Indian Reservation 

Confederated Tribes of Warm Springs Reservation 

Coos Bay-North Bend Water Board 

Coos County, Board of Commissioners 

Department of Environmental Quality 

Department of Fish and Wildlife 

Douglas County, Department of Public Works 

Lane County

Multnomah County, Board of Commissioners 

Oregon State Highway Commission 

Oregon State Water Resources Department 

Rogue Valley Council of Governments

Pennsylvania:

Chester County Commissioners

Chester County Health Department

Chester County Water Resources Authority

City of Bethlehem

City of Easton

City of Harrisburg, Department of Public Works

City of Philadelphia, Water Department

Delaware River Basin Commission

Delaware Valley Regional Planning Commission

Letort Regional Authority

New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (see

a/so New York) 

Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Resources:

Bureau of State Parks

Bureau of Surface Mine Reclamation

Bureau of Topographic and Geologic Survey

Bureau of Water Quality Management

Office of Resource Management

State Soil and Water Conservation Commission

Pennsylvania Continued 

Slippery Rock State College 

State Department of Transportation 

Susquehanna River Basin Commission

Rhode Island:

City of Providence

State Department of Environmental Management:

Division of Land Resources 

State Department of Natural Resources 

State Water Resources Board -

South Carolina:

City of Lancaster

Commissioners of Public Works, Spartanburg Water Works

State Department of Highways and Public Transportation

State Health and Environmental Control

State Public Service Authority

State Water Resources Commission

South Dakota:

Black Hills Conservancy Subdistrict

City of Sioux Falls

City of Watertown

South Dakota Department of Natural Resource Development:

Division of Geological Survey

Division of Water Rights 

South Dakota Department of Transportation

Tennessee:

City of Franklin 

City of Lawrenceburg 

City of Manchester 

City of Memphis:

Light, Gas and Water Division

Public Works Division

Water Division

Lincoln County Utilities Board 

Metropolitan Government of Nashville and Davidson County,

Department of Public Works 

Murfreesboro Water and Sewer Department 

Shelby County 

Tennessee Department of Conservation:

Division of Geology

Division of Water Resources 

Tennessee Department of Public Health, Division of Water Quality

Control

Tennessee Department of Transportation 

Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency 

University of Tennessee

Texas:

City of Austin

City of Dallas

City of Fort Worth

City of Garland

City of Houston

City of Mesquite

Pecos River Commission

Sabine River Compact Administration

State Department of Highways and Public Transportation

Texas Department of Water Resources

185
STATE, COUNTY, AND LOCAL COOPERATORS Continued

Utah:

Bear River Commission

Salt Lake County

State Department of Natural Resources:

Division of Oil, Gas, and Mining

Division of Water Resources

Division of Water Rights

Division of Wildlife Resources 

Utah Geological and Mineral Survey

Vermont:

Agency of Environmental Conservation 

State Department of Water Resources 

Town of Springfield

Virginia:

City of Alexandria, Department of Transportation and

Environmental Services

City of Newport News, Department of Public Utilities 

City of Roanoke, Utilities and Operations 

City of Staunton 

James City County

Southeastern Public Service Authority of Virginia 

Virginia Department of Conservation and Economic Development,

Division of Mineral Resources 

Virginia Department of Highways and Transportation 

Virginia State Water Control Board

Washington:

Chelan County Public Utility District No. 1 

City of Bellevue Public Works Department 

City of Everett 

City of Seattle:

Department of Lighting

Water Department 

City of Tacoma:

Department of Public Utilities

Department of Public Works 

Clallam County Board of County Commissioners 

Hoh Indian Tribe

Lewis County Board of Commissioners 

Makah Tribal Council 

Municipality of Metropolitan Seattle 

Pierce County Board of Commissioners 

Pacific County Board of County Commissioners 

Quileute Tribal Council

Washington Continued 

Quinault Indian Business Council 

Shoal water Bay Tribal Council 

South Columbia Basin Irrigation District 

Spokane County 

Spokane Tribe of Indians 

Tulalip Board of Directors 

Washington State Department of Ecology 

Washington State Department of Fisheries 

Washington State Department of Game 

Washington State Department of Highways 

Washington State Department of Natural Resources 

Yakima Tribal Council

West Virginia:

Clarksburg Water Board

Morgantown Water Commission

West Virginia Department of Highways

West Virginia Department of Natural Resources, Division of Water

Resources 

West Virginia Geological and Economic Survey

Wisconsin:

Dane County Regional Planning Commission 

Douglas County Soil and Water Conservation District 

Madison Metropolitan Sewage District 

Sokaogon Chippewa (Mole Lake), Community of Wisconsin 

Southeastern Wisconsin Regional Planning Commission 

State Board of Soil and Water Conservation Districts 

State Department of Natural Resources 

State Department of Transportation:

Bridge Section

Division of Highways 

Town of Schleswig 

University of Wisconsin Extension, Geological and Natural History

Survey

Wyoming:

Cheyenne Board of Public Utilities

Geological Survey of Wyoming

Water Resources Research Institute, University of Wyoming

Wyoming Conservation Commission

Wyoming Department of Agriculture

Wyoming Department of Economic Planning and Development

Wyoming Department of Environmental Quality

Wyoming Highway Department

Wyoming State Engineer (see a/so Montana)

186
OTHER COOPERATORS AND CONTRIBUTORS

Appalachian Regional Commission

Coastal Plains Regional Action Planning Commission

Government of Algeria

Government of American Samoa

Government of Guam

Government of Iran

Government of Malaysia

Government of Nigeria

Government of the Northern Mariana Islands

Government of Saudi Arabia

Government of Tobago

Government of Trinidad

Missouri River Basin Commission 

New England River Basins Commission

Organization of American States

Ozarks Regional Action Planning Commission

Puerto Rico:

Puerto Rico Aqueduct and Sewer Authority 

Puerto Rico Department of Natural Resources 

Puerto Rico Environmental Quality Board 

Puerto Rico Highway Authority 

Puerto Rico Water Resources Authority

Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands 

United Nations

Virgin Islands:

College of the Virgin Islands

187
Budgetary and Statistical Data

[ Data in these tables may differ slightly from data in the individual division chapters because of rounding; and totals may

sometimes not add because of rounding. ]

TABLE 16 Geological Survey budget for fiscal years 1973 to 1978, by activity and sources of funds

[ In thousands of dollars ]

Budget activity

TotaL_ _ . _ _ _ _

Reimbursable program _ _ _ _ _ _ _

Miscellaneous non-Federal sources. _ _

Other Federal agencies _ _ _ ___ ___

Alaska Pipeline Related Investigations ...

Other Federal agencies _ ____ _

States, counties, and municipalities

Miscellaneous non-Federal sources _ _

Geologic and Mineral Resource Surveys and 

Mapping 1 _ ___ _____

States, counties, and municipalities __ _

Miscellaneous non-Federal sources

Other Federal agencies _ _ _ _

Water Resources Investigations 2 __ _

States, counties, and municipalities

Miscellaneous non-Federal sources

Other Federal agencies __ _

Reimbursable program _ _ ___ _ _

Other Federal agencies _ ___ _ __

Land Information and Analysis 5 _ _ _

Reimbursable program _ ______

Direct program _____ _____

Direct program _ _ _ _ _ _ _

1973

$211,944

149,971

61,973

28,011

3,620

30,342

1,239

1,239

40,271

35,172

5,099

3,719

600

780

57,979

42,895

15,084

1,556

2,306

11,222

78,103

40,185

37,918

22,736

664

14,518

14,748

14,700

48

3

45

13,125

11,876

1,249

1,249

3,217

3,217

687

687

1974

$249,437

171,983

77,454

32,443

4,695

40,316

890

890

43,664

37,161

6,503

4,942

643

918

73,563

49,877

23,686

1,681

. 2,684

19,321

88,352

45,433

42,919

25,820

721

.16,378

18,213

18,172

41

41

13,003

11,458

1,545

593

952

3,517

3,517

5,475

4,475

1975

$338,764

253,605

85,159

35,124

6,399

43,636

344

344

52,597

45,350

7,247

4,995

594

1,658

114,477

89,018

25,459

1,550

3,751

20,158

101,437

53,420

48,017

28,546

901

18,570

36,082

36,032

50

4

46

16,994

15,461

1,533

33

1,093

407

3,671

3,671

10,309

10,309

1976

$353,970

264,434

89,536

35,006

7,923

46,607

287

287

52,220

43,354

6,866

3,675

501

2,690

115,554

92,322

23,232

1,467

4,936

16,829

112,480

57,176

55,304

29,735

940

24,629

41,677

41,489

188

1

187

17,278

14,908

2,370

130

1,496

744

3,398

3,398

9,500

9,500

Transition 

quarter

$102,858

77,570

25,288

8,956

1,991

14,341

85

85

13,289

11,548

1,741

882

133

726

32,194

24,829

7,365

383

1,120

5,862

30,716

15,916

14,800

7,672

260

6,868

13,386

13,375

6

6

8,919

7,795

6,124

19

469

636

1,491

1,491

2,530

2,530

1977

$433,403

319,460

113,943

39,621

10,229

64,093

317

317

57,073

50,311

6,762

3,268

601

2,893

130,269

100,007

30,262

1 ,403

6,439

22,420

131,509

68,555

62,954

34,761

1,331

26,862

67,427

67,239

188

16

172

23,476

17,698

5,778

189

1,741

3,848

9,154

2,079

7,063

12

3,760

3,760

9,494

9,494

1978

$698,272

576,393

121,879

40,784

12,825

68,270

272"

272

69,520

61,356

8,164

3,320

499

4,345

163,193

123,830

39,363

956

8,510

29,897

146,014

3 78,487

67,527

36,457

1,429

29,641

77,409

77,299

110

9

101

23,226

18,132

5,094

51

2,153

2,890

202,704

202,598

106

3,650

3,650

10,769

10,769

See footnotes at end of table.

188
TABLE 16. Geological Survey budget for fiscal years 1973 to 1978, by activity and sources of funds Continued

Budget activity

Miscellaneous services to other accounts __

Miscellaneous non-Federal sources __ __

Other Federal agencies __ _ _ _____

1973

$2,575

2,575

47

2,528

1974

$2,760

2,760

54

2,706

1975

$2,853

2,853

56

2,797

1976

$1,576

1,576

49

1,527

Transition 

quarter

$253

253

10

243

1977

$924

924

102

822

1978

$1,515

1,515

225

1,290

1 Funds include: Mineral Discovery Loan Program activity for fiscal years 1973 to 

1975; and parts of Geothermal Investigations, Minerals Policy, and Arctic Environmental Studies components of the Special Resource and Environmental Projects activity for fiscal years 1973 to 1975. Funds exclude the Land Resource Analysis program for fiscal years 1973 to 1976.

2 Funds exclude Employee Compensation Payments subactivity for fiscal years 

1973 to 1976.

3 Funds for the Airborne Positioning System, appropriated to Water Resources Investigations are included as obligations of Topographic Surveys and Mapping ($2,172 

thousand).

4 Funds include parts of Geothermal Investigations component of the Special 

Resource and Environmental Projects activity for fiscal years 1973 to 1975.

5 Budget activity funds are reconstructed for fiscal years 1973 to 1975 and include: 

Earth Resources Observation System activity for fiscal years 1973 to 1975; Urban 

Area Studies and Energy Impact Evaluation components of the Special Resource and 

Environmental Projects activity for fiscal years 1973 to 1975; Land Resources Analysis program of the Geologic and Mineral Resource Surveys and Mapping activity 

for fiscal years 1974 and 1975; and the Land Use Data and Analysis activity for fiscal 

year 1975.

6 Funds include Employee Compensation Payments subactivity of the Water 

Resources Investigations activity for 1973 to 1976.

TABLE 17 . Geological Survey Federal-State Cooperative Program funds for fiscal years 1973 to 1978, by State

\ In thousands of dollars ]

State

Total 1 ___ ___ ___

Total State Share 2 ____

Alabama __ __ ___ _ _ __ __ _____

State share ____________________

Alaska _ __ __ _ ___ _ ___ ____

State share __ _ _ _ _____ _ _

Arizona ___ _ _ _ ___ _ __ _ __

State share _ _ ____ _ _ _

Arkansas _____ __ ___ __ ____ _ ___

State share ____ _ _____

California _ ___ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___

State share __ __ ____ _ ___ _

Colorado _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

State share _ ____ _____ _ ____

Connecticut _ _ _ __ _ _ _____

State share _ _____ __ ____

Delaware___ __ __ ____ _ _ ___ _ _

State share _ ___ ____ _ _ _

District of Columbia _ ___ _ _ _____

State share _ _ __ _ ____

Florida __ __ ___ _ __ __ ____ ___ __

State share _ _ _ _ _ _ _

Georgia _ __ __ ______ _ ____ ___

State share ____ __ _ _ ____

Hawaii _ _ ___ ___ ____

State share _ ___ _____ ____

Idaho __ _ ___ _ ___ __ ____ _

State share _ _ ____ ____

Illinois _ _____ __ ___ __ ___ _

State share __ _ _____ _ __ _

Indiana.. _ _____ _ _ __ __ __ __

State share __ __ .__ __ _ __

lowa____ __ __ ________ _ __ ._

State share __ __ ____ ___ _

Kansas _. _____ __ __ __ __ _ _ _

State share _ _ _ _____ _ ____

Kentucky _____ _ _ _ ____ __ _

State share _ __ _ ___ _ __

Louisiana. _ __ __ _ ___ _ _ ____

State share _ __ __ __ _ _ _

1973

$55,633

28,011

____ 928

__ 514

838

__ 399

__ 1,001

510

596

____ 288

__ 4,115

2,053

1,128

.__._ 575

____ 687

,__._ 292

__ 121

81

,____ 3

_ _ 1

3,643

.____ 1,858

._._ 2,008

1,041

__- 653

337

__._ 675

344

646

.__._ 333

1,107

 _ 590

___. 525

259

1,358

__ 676

2,212

1,039

-__. 1,240

674

1974

$65,256

32,443

1,094

554

897

410

1,144

576

857

455

4,789

2,280

1,484

837

814

374

130

74

3

1

5,083

2,552

3,239

1,611

691

339

718

353

544

277

1,363

678

608

299

1,402

686

2,451

1,122

1,900

980

1975

$70,151

35,124

1,212

623

1,162

410

1,248

646

887

410

4,690

2,337

2,445

1,324.

1,069

523

194

106

3

1

5,575

2,781

3,083

1,531

697

341

749

366

645

323

1,288

632

617

302

1,424

716

2,728

1,229

1,740

902

1976

$69,252

35,019

1,124

550

782

407

1,255

639

811

371

4,825

2,473

2,199

1,196

858

415

213

116

3

2

5,763

2,851

2,510

1,243

896

501

852

417

848

459

1,519

779

822

405

1,525

752

2,828

1,300

1,694

862

quarter

$1 7,482

8,986

171

87

202

101

335

177

190

94

1,271

675

662

349

241

108

54

30

1

1,481

735

552

275

191

101

223

111

208

120

366

182

241

121

442

220

717

327

440

227

1977

$79,163

40,617

1,234

607

1,141

561

1,393

700

1,033

481

5,336

2,714

3,052

1,564

871

421

225

121

4

2

6,428

3,202

2,452

1,209

897

460

952

465

1,109

592

1,987

981

1,004

494

1,721

849

3,015

1,433

2,628

1,319

1978

$80,598

40,784

1,074

532

1,275

654

1,552

783

1,118

543

6,079

3,091

3,036

1,561

864

411

192

109

4

2

7,219

3,667

1,706

866

1,000

518

1,131

611

1,092

575

2,006

1,078

1,031

521

2,237

1,113

2,407

1,018

1,856

929

See footnotes at end of table.

189
TABLE 17 . Geological Survey Federal-State Cooperative Program funds for 

fiscal years 1973 to 1978, by State Continued

State 1973 1974 1975 1976 Transition 

quarter 1977 1978

Maine ______________________ $ 168 $ 175 $ 248 $ 313 $ 89 $ 333 $ 382

State share _______________ 91 96 127 181 50 179 191

Maryland_____________________ 695 851 1,011 1,016 243 1,176 1,174

State share __________ _____ 356 435 530 517 125 602 605

Massachusetts__________________ 1,379 1,346 1,618 1,627 368 1,402 1,593

State share _______________ _____ 625 656 810 779 191 684 801

Michigan_____________________ 947 930 1,054 1,078 252 1,101 1,203

State share _______________ 425 436 505 521 123 541 596

Minnesota ___._______________ 1,420 1,903 1,639 1,191 320 1,082 1,759

State share _______________ 727 966 817 625 198 566 949

Mississippi ____________________ 593 645 743 646 170 713 754

State share _______________ 340 325 415 316 85 349 407

Missouri _____________________ 732 657 678 642 207 827 635

State share _______________ 375 322 337 316 105 420 316

Montana _____________________ 402 505 587 596 146 1,330 676

State share __._______________ 223 255 287 301 76 673 338

Nebraska_____________________ 588 705 731 785 187 957 1,048

State share _______________ 298 344 358 396 95 469 522

Nevada _____________________ 640 689 846 922 244 1,063 1,440

State share _______________ 288 304 332 367 103 415 456

New Hampshire_________________ 139 177 172 230 63 248 187

State share _______________ 67 97 73 99 28 103 92

New Jersey ____________________ 856 1,051 977 1,090 276 1,269 1,437

State share _______________ 433 530 501 565 143 642 851

New Mexico __________________ 1,107 1,332 1,439 1,510 338 . 1,537 1,621

State share ________________ 601 662 714 768 175 778 838

New York ___________________ 2,395 2,796 2,977 2,822 727 3,008 3,363

State share _______________ 1,229 1,415 1,585 1,615 407 2,568 1,893

North Carolina _________________ 1,038 1,586 1,885 1,462 379 1,805 1,713

State share _______________ 492 771 942 724 197 894 858

North Dakota _________________ 899 763 998 990 246 834 1,023

State share ________________ 461 369 489 489 125 408 505

Ohio________________________ 1,028 978 1,093 1,255 336 1,598 1,799

State share _______________ 520 481 563 671 175 838 973

Oklahoma ___________________ 634 702 748 786 196 846 936

State share _______________ 340 344 368 386 98 414 462

Oregon ______________________ 828 896 902 899 287 1,230 1,214

State share ________________ 432 439 443 449 163 639 610

Pennsylvania __________________ 2,047 2,357 2,415 2,510 554 2,718 2,688

State share ________________ 1,042 1,195 1,209 1,269 284 1,365 1,366

Rhode Island __________________ 90 97 110 124 31 145 160

State share .__ _____________ 50 52 54 60 16 72 80

South Carolina _________________ 574 546 574 557 142 603 625

State share ________________ 301 279 284 272 71 296 329

South Dakota __________________ 423 471 515 528 146 562 662

State share ________________ 230 227 251 259 73 275 331

Tennessee ___________________ 589 851 952 1,035 280 1,255 1,383

State share ________________ 321 422 470 508 139 615 686

Texas ______________________ 3,794 4,046 4,261 4,351 1,102 4,621 4,525

State share .___..__ _ ___- 1,949 2,027 2,100 2,148 550 2,354 2,244

Utah_________________________ 1,069 1,068 1,361 1,314 334 1,631 1,451

State share ________________ 530 534 838 745 186 810 726

Vermont _____________________ 129 144 130 138 28 134 142

State share _______________ 66 73 64 68 14 70 70

Virginia ________________________________ 793 905 858 737 142 768 778

State share _______._______ 421 466 442 378 78 393 397

Washington___________________ 1,988 2,121 2,208 2,115 509 3,271 2,537

State share._______________ 962 1,037 1,104 1,066 265 1,653 1,243

West Virginia __________________________ 620 946 775 716 175 830 688

State share _______________ 332 521 448 418 105 472 388

Wisconsin ___________________ 1,354 1,563 1,706 1,874 552 1,703 1,883

State share _______________ 638 775 883 999 297 935 1,026

Wyoming...____________________ 612 698 853 754 167 903 901

State share _______________ 310 328 514 397 86 391 381

American Samoa _______________ 64 63 70 40 9 60 64

State share ________________ 32 31 32 20 4 30 32

190

See footnotes at end of table.
TABLE 17. Geological Survey Federal-State Cooperative Program funds for 

fiscal years 1973 to 1978, by State Continued

State

Guam _ __ _____ _

State share _ _ _ _ _

Northern Marianas __ __ _ ___ ___

State share _ _ _ ___ _____

Puerto Rico. ___ _ __ ___ _ ___

State share ___ _____ ___

Trust Territories _ ___ _ _ ___ _

State share _ _ _ _ . _ _

Virgin Islands _ _ _ _ __ _

1973

 _ _ $ 43

21

1,347

_______ 557

125

62

_______ ( 3 )

_______ ( 3 )

1974

$ 62

31

1,303

682

117

58

( 3 )

( 3 )

1975

$ 65

32

1,293

585

170

84

33

31

1976

$ 68

33

1,016

463

170

84

18

9

Transition 

quarter

$ 18

9

185

84

44

22

2

1

1977

$ 70

33

843

396

173

84

32

16

1978

$ 85

47

18

9

922

459

180

90

70

35

1 Includes Federal funds from direct program.

2 Includes reimbursable program funds from States, counties, and municipalities.

3 Included with Puerto Rico funds.

TABLE 18. Geological Survey reimbursable program funds from other Federal agencies for fiscal years 1973 to 1978,

by agency

[ In thousands of dollars ]

Agency

Total ______ _____

Department of Agriculture _ __ ___ _

Department of Commerce __ __ ____ _

National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration _ _ __ __ _ __

Ozarks Regional Commission ___

Department of Defense _ _ __ _ __

Department of Energy 2 _ _ ___ _

Bonneville Power Administration _ _

Department of Housing and Urban Development __

Department of the Interior _ __ _ _ __

Bureau of Indian Affairs __ _____

Bureau of Land Management __ __ __ _

Bureau of Mines _ _ _____ __ ___

Bureau of Reclamation _ __ _ _ _ __

National Park Service. _ __ _____ __

Office of Saline Water 3 __ _ _ _______

Office of the Secretary :. __ ____

Office of Surface Mining _ __ ____

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service _ _ _ _ _

Department of State _ _ _ _ __ _

Department of Transportation ___ _ _

Environmental Protection Agency _____

National Aeronautics and Space Administration __

National Science Foundation ____ __ _

Nuclear Regulatory Commission ___ _ __ _

Tennessee Valley Authority ___ _ _ _ _

Miscellaneous Federal agencies __ _ __

Miscellaneous services to other accounts ________

1973

$30,342

273

73

8,443

(3,011)

118

2,095

(2,208)

149

207

855

459

156

8

256

2,756

916

6,507

333

255

944

2,528

1974

$40,316

189

356

(M

2,001

60

13,351

(4,029)

136

3,581

(2,312)

340

251

676

529

380

2,177

_ _ _ _ _

1,127

5,672

1,375

_ _ _

212

1,168

2,706

1975

$43,636

179

891

154

434

49

11,247

(3,854)

105

3,069

(9,361)

697

5,114

1,735

721

617

372

1,698

4

1,389

3,449

1,928

1,195

252

1,686

2,797

1976

$46,607

2,008

2,205

1,513

11,965

(4,704)

130

4,624

(6,290)

759

3,682

148

790

576

205

949

470

1,921

3,584

1,650

1,439

216

1,542

1,527

Transition 

quarter

$14,347

605

36

. 772

3,195

(1,926)

32

1,873

(2,362)

277

1,467

267

230

44

45

221

240

777

1,051

40

427

70

499

253

1977

$56,195

2,130

334

1,947

12,308

(8,573)

141

6,003

(12,186)

915

9,011

200

1,199

542

178

1,075

313

2,137

2,648

2,712

1,758

297

1,774

822

1978

$66,874

2,727

183

1,708

15,655

(14,980)

138

3,789

(16,528)

2,385

10,791

108

1,871

791

135

447

1,010

193

3,074

2,763

848

1,318

216

1,882

1,290

1 Included in miscellaneous Federal agencies.

2 Shown as Energy Research and Development and Federal Energy Administration 

prior to October 1, 1977; includes Atomic Energy Commission funds for fiscal years 

1973 and 1974. See also funds from Nuclear Regulatory Commission in fiscal 1975.

3 Merged in 1974 with the Office of Water Resources to form the Office of Water 

Research and Technology.

191
TABLE 19. Topographic Surveys and Mapping direct program funds for fiscal years 1973 to 1978, by subactivity

[ In thousands of dollars ]

Subactivity

Total direct program __ _ __

Quadrangle mapping and revision

Small-scale and special mapping

National Cartographic Information Center 1

1973

$35,172

33,433

1,739

(675)

1974

$37,161

35,046

2,115

(1,043)

1975

$45,350

41,148

2,661

1,541

1976

$45,354

38,266

5,358 '

1,730

Transition 

quarter

$11,548

9,396

1,730

422

1977

$50,311

42,390

5,278

2,643

1978

$61,356

50,657

7,865

2,835

1 NCIC funds included in the Quadrangle Mapping and Revision subactivity prior to fiscal 1975.

TABLE 20. Topographic Surveys and Mapping Federal-State Cooperative Program funds for fiscal years 1973 to 1978,

by State

[ In-thousands of dollars ]

State

Total 1 _ . ____ _._____.-

Total State share 2 _

Alabama ______

State share

Arkansas _ _ _ _

State share _ _ __ _____

California ___ __ ___

State share _ _ _

Colorado _ _ _

State share

Connecticut __ _ _ _ _ _

State share _ __ _

Florida __ _ _ __ _ _ _

State share _ __

Georgia _____ ______

State share _____

Hawaii ______

State share _ _ _ _ _

Illinois _ ___ _ _ _ _

State share _ _

Indiana _ _ _ _ __ _ _ __

State share _______

Iowa _ _ _ _ _____

State share _____

Kansas ___ _ _ _______

State share _ __ ___

Kentucky - ___ _ _

State share _ _

Louisiana _ ______

State share _ __ __

Maine _ _____

State share __ _ _

Maryland _ _ _ __

State share

Massachusetts _ _ _ _

State share _ _ _ _

Michigan _ _ ___

State share

Minnesota. __ _ ___ __ _ _

State share _____

Missouri __ ___ _ __ _

State share _ _ _

Nevada _ ___ _ _________ _

State share _ _ ___ __ __

1973

$7,438

3,719

50

25

_____ 54

27

186

93

40

___ 20

572

286

1,218

609

120

60

136

68

248

124

180

90

50

_____ 25

40

20

22

11

196

98

100

___ 50

708

_____ 354

_____ 130

65

_____ 40

_____ 20

1974

$9,884

4,942

38

19

58

29

198

99

4

2

120

60

578

289

2,294

1,147

30

15

136

68

286

143

278

139

152

76

40

20

20

10

190

95

100

50

1,092

546

134

67

58

29

1975

$9,990

4,995

62

31

72

36

252

126

830

415

124

62

454

227

1,992

996

70

35

136

68

268

134

254

127

120

60

40

20

20

10

250

125

100

50

840

420

134

67

54

27

16

8

1976

$7,350

3,675

48

24

74

37

206

103

420

210

110

55

450

225

1,340

670

70

35

108

54

176

88

266

133

204

102

90

45

40

20

30

15

250

125

100

50

246

123

110

55

58

29

16

8

quarter

$1,764

882

28

14

66

33

158

79

56

28

76

38

244

122

8

4

2

1

64

32

104

52

60

30

22

11

20

10

2

1

6

3

44

22

32

16

1977

$6,536

3,268

32

16

38

19

252

126

678

339

84

42

378

189

580

290

86

43

70

35

94

47

226

113

202

101

330

165

98

49

38

19

32

16

108

54

100

50

4

2

124

62

84

42

1978

$6,640

3,320

30

15

68

34

212

106

486

243

66

33

650

325

360

180

112

56

66

33

134

67

202

101

296

148

410

205

90

45

34

17

20

10

278

139

100

50

478

239

74

37

46

23

See footnotes at end of table.

192
TABLE 20. Topographic Surveys and Mapping Federal-State Cooperative Program funds for fiscal years 1973 to 1978,

by State Continued

State

New York _ _ ___ __ __ _ _ _-

State share _ _ __ _ _ _ _____

North Carolina _ _ _ _ _ _ __

State share _ _ _ _ _ __

North Dakota _ ____ ._ ___ _ 

State share _ ______ _

Ohio __ ___ __ _____ 

State share ___ __ _ _ ___

Oklahoma _ __ _ _ _ _ __ __ 

State share _ _ __ __ __

Oregon _ _ _ _ _ ___

State share _ __ _____ ___

Pennsylvania _ _ ___ _ __-_ _ _ _

State share _ ___ _

Rhode Island _ __ _ _ _ __ 

State share _ _ __ _ ___

South Dakota ___ _ __ _______

State share ___ __ _ __ __ _ _

Texas _ . _ _ __ __

State share _ _ __ __ _ _ _

Utah __-___.___-_-_ __- _ _ __ -

State share _ ___ _ _ _ _ __.

Vermont _ __ _ ___________

State share _ _ ____ ___ _ _

Virginia... _ . ___ _ _

State share _ _ _ _ _ ___ __

Washington _._ _ __ _ _ _ _-_

State share ___ _____

West Virginia ___ _________

State share _ ___ __ _

Wisconsin.. _ _ _ _

State share _ _ _ __ ___ __ __

Wyoming _ __ _ __ _____ ___ _

State share __ _ _ __ ___

Puerto Rico _ _ _ _._ _ _ _

State share ___ __ __ ___

1973

.___ __ $234

117

____ 172

_______ 86

242

._ ___ 121

150

75

____ 112

___ 56

78

_______ 39

_______ 326

_______ 163

_______ 120

.__ ___ 60

50

____ 25

_______ 38

. ____ 19

. ____ 742

____ 371

____ 114

. _ _ __ 57

_______ 20

_______ 10

____ 132

_______ 66

_______ 32

16

____ 298

149

_______ 402

201

10

5

 _ 76

_______ 38

1974

$366

183

672

336

88

44

150

75

110

55

44

22

392

196

50

25

50

25

726

363

120

60

40

20

232

116

34

17

506

253

412

206

10

5

76

38

1975

$226

113

890

445

222

111

150

75

110

55

92

46

312

156

36

18

50

25

44

22

686

343

100

50

34

17

218

109

6

3

228

114

414

207

10

5

74

37

1976

502

251

198

99

150

75

110

55

32

16

224

112

50

25

16

8

682

341

100

50

20

10

188

94

28

14

142

71

410

205

TO

5

76

38

quarter

$12

6

124

62

10

5

38

19

36

18

24

12

32

16

28

14

170

85

40

20

14

7

6

3

26

13

208

104

4

2

1977

632

316

32

16

178

89

96

48

100

50

252

126

18

9

44

22

6

3

666

333

100

50

286

143

10

5

182

91

290

145

6

3

1978

$80

40

578

289

120

60

134

67

88

44

26

13

110

55

6

3

44

22

380

190

126

63

4

2

218

109

22

11

46

23

422

211

12

6

12

6

1 Includes Federal funds from direct program. 1 Includes reimbursable program funds from States, counties, and municipalities.

TABLE 21 . Topographic Surveys and Mapping reimbursable program funds from other Federal agencies for fiscal

years 1973 to 1978, by agency

[ In thousands of dollars ]

Agency

Total __ _ _ ____ __ _

Department of Agriculture _ _ _ _ ___ __ _

Department of Commerce _ __ _ _ _ _ ____ _

Department of Defense _ _ _ _ ____ _ _

Department of the Interior _ _ _ _ __________

Bureau of Indian Affairs. ___ _ _ _ _ _____

Bureau of Land Management ___ _ __ _

Bureau of Reclamation _ _ _ _ _ __ _

National Park Service. _ _____ ______

Office of Territorial Affairs ___ _____ _

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service _ _ _ _ _ _

Department of Transportation _ _ .

National Aeronautics and Space Administration _

National Science Foundation _ _ __ __ __ __

Miscellaneous Federal aeencies ___ _ __ _

1973

$780

35

68

60

8

207

198

272

1974

$918

95

92

238

165

73

235

46

212

1975

$1,658

326

183

441

198

243

4

97

257

350

1976

$2,690

1,256

187

151

284

209

74

1

257

132

111

312

Transition 

quarter

$726

433

42

78

20

58

30

5

138

1977

$2,893

1,468

121

271

544

179

325

10

13

17

65

33

94

297

1978

$4,345

1,939

169

789

760

95

444

10

211

2

203

483

193
TABLE 22. Geologic and Mineral Resource Surveys and Mapping direct program funds for fiscal years 1973 to 1978,

by subactivity .

[ In thousands of dollars ]

Subactivity

Total direct program _ _ _

Land Resource Surveys 1 _ _ _ _

Mineral Resource Surveys i_ _ __ __ _

Energy Resource Surveys. _ _ _ _ _

Offshore Geologic Surveys.. _ _ _ _

1973

____ $42,895

___ 19,246

14,026

_ _ 5,197

4,426

1974

$49,877

23,077

14,971

6,696

5,133

1975

$89,018

33,385

18,017

22,376

15,240

1976

CQ2 122

34,077

19,775

23,080

15,470

Transition 

quarter

$24,829

9,681

5,316

5,863

3,969

1977

$100,007

35,202

23,757

26,250

14,798

1978

$123,830

54,315

26,393

27,828

15,294

1 Funds adjusted for fiscal year 1973 to include geologic mapping in support of Mineral Resource Surveys.

2 Funds adjusted for fiscal year 1973 to exclude geologic mapping and to include the Mineral Discovery Loan Program activity for fiscal 1973.

TABLE 23. Geologic and Mineral Resource Surveys and Mapping Federal-State Cooperative funds for fiscal years

1973 to 1978, by State

[ In thousands of dollars ]

State

Total 1

State share 2 _ _

AlacLa

Arkansas _ _ _ _ ______

State share _ _ _

California- __ _ __ _ _ __ _

State share ______

State share ^_ _ __ _

Connecticut _ _ _ ___

State share _ _

Florida _____ _ __ _

State share _ _

Georgia _ _ _ ___ _ __

State share _ __ _ _ _.

State share __ _ __ _ .

Kentucky _ __ ______ _ _ . State share __ __ _____

Massachusetts _ _ __

State share _ _ _ _ _.

Michigan _ _ _ _ __ _

State share __ _ _______ .

Nevada __ _____ _

State share _ __ _ __ _ __ . New Hampshire

New Mexico _ __ __ _ _ _

State share ______ _ __ _

1973

________ $4,270

. _ 1,556

10

10

332

_ __ _ 135

85

. _ _ 36

. _ 79

. ___ __ 22

._ __ __ 50

. ____ 30

. _ _ 235

.__ ___ 69

_ ____ 1,332

600

27

10

. __ __ 633

. __ 205

216

. __ 65

249

__ __ __ 90

31

_ ___ __ 13

___ ___ 20

_ _ __ 10

1974

$4,254

1,681

10

5

238

93

125

27

362

80

208

75

6

3

16

8

1,454

630

14

7

563

228

178

65

254

90

59

39

40

20

1975

$4,541

1,550

15

5

476

75

165

27

57

21

258

75

10

5

1,599

675

19

9

581

205

158

65

384

105

50

13

11

1976

$3,910

1,479

110

27

99

66

200

75

1,643

718

630

205

148

65

396

110

53

13

18

18

Transition

quarter

$917

413

35

35

62

16

413

176

180

97

45

20

87

25

13

3

2

2

1977

$3,487

1,403

107

27

47

47

144

60

1,682

778

509

184

128

65

413

97

45

7

6

6

1978

$3,061

956

75

27

33

33

148

56

3

3

12

11

911

277

454

183

132

65

751

115

12

12

See footnotes at end of table.

194
TABLE 23. Geologic and Mineral Resource Surveys and Mapping Federal-State Cooperative funds for fiscal years

1973 to 1978, by State Continued

State

New York__ _ _ __ ___ _ 

State share __ _ _ __ 

North Carolina _ __ _ _

State share __ _ __ __

Pennsylvania ___ ___

State share _ _ _ __ _

Texas __ _____ ______

Utah __ __ __ ___ _ ___ _ __ ___

State share __ _ _ _ __

Washington __ ___ __ _

State share _ _ _ _ _ _ _

West Virginia __ __

Wisconsin _ _ _ ___ _

State share _ _ _ __ _

Wyoming _ _ _ _ __

State share _ _ _ _

Puerto Rico __ _ _ _ _ _

State share _ __ _ _

1973

 _ _ _ _ 99

. _ _ _ 12

_ ________ 30

___________ 15

1

_____-_-_._ 3

18

7

122

_ _ _ 30

20

_ _ __ 10

82

_ _ 8

_ _ _ 27

_ _ _ 2

570

_ _ __ 174

1974

$20

10 

40

6

10

5

7

7

67

20

20

10

76

8

26

2

461

243

1975

$21 

10 

18

18

5

5

6

4

134

30

21

10

68

8

11

2

474

183

in_. Transition i y/o quarter

37

4

81

35

3

3

121

8

35

2

336

130

8

5

7

3

17

17

8

2

40

12

1977

$18

18 

6

6

6

3

42

16

1

1

18

6

107

1

208

81

1978

$10

10

8

4

105

20

16

8

135

1

256

131

1 Includes Federal funds from direct program. 2 Includes reimbursable program funds from States, counties, and municipalities.

TABLE 24. Geologic and Mineral Resource Surveys and Mapping reimbursable program funds from other Federal

agencies for fiscal years 1973 to 1978, by agency

[ In thousands of dollars ]

Agency

Total _. __ _ _ _ _

Appalachian Regional Commission _ _ _

Department of Commerce _ ___ __ _ _ __

National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration, _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Department of Defense _ _ ___ _

Department of Energy 1 _ __ _ _ _ _ _

Department of the Interior __ _ __ _

Office of the Secretary ___________

Bureau of Indian Affairs _ _ ____ __

Bureau of Land Management _ ____ _

Bureau of Mines _____ _ _ _ _____

Bureau of Reclamation _ _ ___ ______

Office of Saline Water 2 . ______ _______

Department of State _ _ _ _ ___ _____

Environmental Protection Agency ___ __ __

National Aeronautics and Space

Administration __ _ _ _ _____ ___

National Science Foundation _ _ ____ _ _

Nuclear Regulatory Commission _ _ ____ _

Miscellaneous Federal agencies ____ __ ___

1973

$11,222

1,431

2,134

294

156

156

1,975

4,708

135

389

1974

$19,321

189

2,001

5,670

3,125

224

1,510

4,745

1,329

528

1975 .

$20,158

179

434

2,648

2,895

817

5,719

243

3,741

1,735

1,056

2,938

1,604

1,195

673

1976

$16,828

342

1,513

2,443

3,401

2,330

370

1,851

109

359

2,800

1,538

1,439

663

quarter

$5,862

772

739

1,480

1,209

44

144

915

71

35

73

977

35

427

150

1977

$22,420

176

1,947

1,902

6,396

3,957

467

3,192

138

149

11

477

190

2,433

2,618

1,758

566

1978

$29,897

14

1,708

3,107

12,062

7,210

1,796

4,927

60

427

503

364

2,667

645

1,318

299

1 Shown as Energy Research and Development and Federal Energy Administration, 

prior to October 1, 1977; includes Atomic Energy Commission funds for fiscal years 

1973 and 1974. See also funds from Nuclear Regulatory Commission in fiscal year 

1975.

2 Merged in 1974 with the Office of Water Resources to form the Office of Water 

Research and Technology.

195
TABLE 25. Water Resources Investigations direct program funds for fiscal years 1973 to 1978, by subactivity

[ In thousands of dollars ]

Subactivity

Total direct program '

National Water Data System _ _ _

Federal program _ ____

Energy hydrology 3 _

1973

______ $40,185

37,523

_ _ ._ 16,334

21,189

2,662

1974

$45,433

42,993

17,695

25,298

2,440

1975

$53,420

48,191

21,183

27,008

5,229

1976

$57,176

48,494

20,487

28,007

8,682

Transition 

quarter

$15,916

12,816

5,724

7,092

3,100

1977

$68,555

55,826

21,809

34,017

12,729

1978

$78,487

70,393

35,424

34,969

8,094

1 Direct program funds exclude the Employee Compensation Payments subactivity for fiscal years 1973 to 1978.

2 Federal share of Federal-State Cooperative Program.

3 Prior to 1978, shown as Critical National Water Problems.

TABLE 26. Water Resources Investigations, Federal-State Cooperative Program funds for fiscal years 1973 to 1978,

by State

[ In thousands of dollars ]

State

Total 1__

State share 2

Alabama __ __ __ _

State share _ _ _ __

Alaska _ _ _ _ __ _ _ __

State share _ __ _ _ _

Arizona. _ _ _ _ _ _

State share _ _ __ .

Arkansas _ __ _ _ _ _

State share _ __ _ _ _

California __ __ _ _____

State share _ __ __ _

Colorado __ _ __ ___

State share _ _ _ _

Connecticut _ _ _ _ _

State share

Delaware ___ _ _____

State share

District of Columbia __ _ _

State share _ _ _ __ .

Florida _ _ ____ _ _ _

State share _ __ _ __ _ _.

Georgia.. ___ _ _ __

State share __ ______

Hawaii __ ______

State share _ _______

Idaho __ _ _-____.

State share _ _ _____ _ _

Illinois __ __ _ _ _

State share _ __ _ __

Indiana __ __ _

State share _ _ __

Iowa _ _ _ _ _ _____ _ _

State share _ _ _

Kansas _ ___ ____

State share _ __ _

Kentucky _ _ _ _ _ _

State share _ __ __ _ __ .

Louisiana _ _ _ __ _ _

State share __ __ __ _.

Maine __ _____

State share __ _ _

Maryland ________ _ _ .

State share __ __ __ _ _ _.

1973

. ____ _ $43,925

._ __ 22,736

.__ __ __ 868

._ __ _ 479

._ _ _ 506

.____ __ 264

. _ 1,001

510

457

225

3,850

._ __ _ 1,938

_ _ _ 1,078

._ _ 545

_ __.._ 412

._ _. _ 203

121

_________ 81

__ _ 3

. _ _ 1

3,071

_________ 1,572

790

__ 432

653

________ 337

________ 675

. __ __ 344

.__ _ ._ 526

273

_ _ _ 973

523

525

.__._____ 259

________ 1,110

. ___._ 552

_ ___ __ 698

________ 348

1,190

649

128

._ _ _ _ 71

.__ __ __ 646

.__ ____ 335

1974

$51,118

25,820

1,044

529

659

317

1,144

576

674

399

4,229

2,101

1,480

835

486

239

130

74

3

1

4,505

2,263

939

461

691

339

718

353

514

262

1,227

610

592

291

1,116

543

719

353

1,748

904

135

76

817

418

1975

$55,554

28,546

1,135

587

686

335

1,248

646

650

347

4,381

2,190

1,615

909

687

386

194

106

3

1

5,055

2,521

1,081

530

697

341

749

366

575

288

1,152

564

617

302

1,156

582

875

427

1,620

842

208

107

972

511

1976

$57,742

29,735

1,042

509

782

407

1,255

639

627

307

4,520

2,304

1,779

986

548

285

213

116

3

2

5,257

2,593

1,170

573

896

501

852

417

778

424

1,411

725

646

317

1,259

619

981

480

1,604

817

273

161

986

502

quarter

$14,763

7,672

165

84

202

101

335

177

162

80

1,170

607

504

270

123

64

54

30

1

0

1,405

697

308

153

191

101

223

111

200

116

364

181

177

89

338

168

244

121

418

216

69

40

241

124

1977

$68,778

35,756

1,112

546

1,141

561

1,393

700

888

435

5,037

2,541

2,374

1,225

643

319

225

121

4

2

6,050

3,013

1,872

919

811

417

952

465

1,039

557

1,893

934

778

381

1,519

748

1,003

490

2,530

1,270

295

160

1,144

586

1978

$70,805

36,457

1,044

517

1,275

654

1,552

783

975

482

5,784

2,927

2,550

1,318

650

322

192

109

4

2

6,566

3,339

1,334

. 675

880

458

1,131

611

1,026

542

1,872

1,011

829

420

1,941

965

1,086

536

1,766

884

348

174

1,154

595

See footnotes at end of table.

196
TABLE 26. Water Resources Investigations, Federal-State Cooperative Program funds for fiscal years 1973 to 1978,

by State Continued

State

Massachusetts _____ _ _ __ .

State share _______ _____

Michigan _ _ _ ______ _ __ _ _ _

State share _ ____ _______

Minnesota ___ _ _ ___ __ _ _

State share ____ ______

Mississippi __ _ _ __ _ __

State share __ _ ___ _ _

Missouri _______ ___ _ __

State share _ _ __ _ _ _

Montana _ ______ _ _ _

State share _ __ _ __ _.

Nebraska _ _____ __ _ _ .

State share _ _ __ _ _ _ _

Nevada __ __ _ ____ _ _______

State share _ _ _ ___ _ ___

New Hampshire ______ _ __ _.

State share _____

New Jersey _ _ _ _

State share _ _ _ _ _

New Mexico _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ .

State share __ _ _ _ .

New York. __ __ _ __ _ ____ .

State share _ __ _ _ _ _

North Carolina ____ ___ _.

State share _ _ _ ___ _

North Dakota __ ___ _ __ __ .

State share _ _ ___ _ _

Ohio __ _______ _ _ __ __.

State share _ ____ _

Oklahoma.. _____ _ ___ _

State share _ _ _ _ __ __

Oregon ___ _ _ ___ __ _ _ _

State share _ __ _ ______

Pennsylvania __ ___ _ __ _ .

State share __ _ _______

Rhode Island _ _____ _ _ _

State share ___ _ _______

South Carolina ___ _____ .

State share _ __ __ __ __

South Dakota __ __ __ _ __ __

State share _ ___ _ _ _ .

Tennessee __ ___ _ __ _ .

State share _ ___ _ _ _ .

Texas___ ___ _ __ _ _______

State share _ _ _____ _ _ .

Utah ___________ .___.______ .

State share _ __ __ _ __.

Vermont __ _____ _ ______

State share _ ________

Virginia, ___ _ _____ ___ .

State share _ _ __ _ ___ .

Washington __ _ __ _ __ __ .

State share _ __ __ _ ____

West Virginia __ ___ ______ __.

State share ______ __ ___

Wisconsin ____ __ __ ________

State share ____ _ _

Wyoming _ _ _ __ _ _ _ .

State share _ _ __ _____

American Samoa ____ _ _ _ __.

State share _ _ - _ _.

Guam _ _ _ _______ ___

State share _ __ ___ __ .

Northern Marianas _ _ __ __ ___

State share __ _ _ _ __ __

1973

$ 550

322

.__ _ __ _ 631

______ 310

_______ 712

. _ ________ 373

...___ 593

.___ __ 340

_ _ _ _ 602

.__ ___ 310

_____ 402

____ ____ 223

_ _ ____ 588

. ____ _ _ 298

_ ______ 351

._ ___ _ 178

_ _ 108

.__ _ __ 54

_-______-_ 856

433

_ _____ 1,087

._ __ _ 591

-__-_____- 2,161

1,112

. _ _ _ 767

____________ 394

_ _ _ _ 657

. _ _____ 340

878

._-_._____-_ 445

__ __ _ 522

_ _ _ 284

___i__ 750

. _ ____ 393

1,691

. _______ 864

_ _ __ 90

.. _ ____ 50

_____ 454

241

___ _ ___ 373

. ____ _ _ ' 205

.__ _ ___ 551

_-_______- 302

3,049

. _ _ _ _ _ 1,575

937

. _ _. __ 466

109

____________ 56

. _ _ _ _ 661

.-____-__._ 355

__-__ ___ 1,834

916

_____ 302

. _ _ ___ 173

870

. _______ 429

. _ _____ 575

___________ 303

___________ 64

 __ ___ 32

43

. _ ____ 21

1974

$ 593

333

652

321

811

420

645

325

523

255

505

255

705

344

377

185

118

58

1,051

530

1,292

642

2,410

1,222

876

430

675

325

828

406

592

289

852

417

1,955

994

97

52

546

279

421

202

801

397

3,320

1,664

941

467

104

53

673

350

2,020

1,000

420

258

1,075

561

662

321

63

31

. 62

31

1975

$ 787

480

796

390

799

397

743

415

544

270

587

287

731

358

408

200

122

60

977

501

1,412

706

2,730

1,462

977

479

776

378

943

488

638

313

810

397

2,103

1,053

110

54

533

261

465

226

908

448

3,575

1,757

1,255

784

96

47

640

333

2,068

1,074

526

324

1,224

668

832

507

70

32

65

32

1976

$ 747

449

830

406

945

502

646

316

532

261

596

301

785

396

468

228

177

86

1,090

565

1,476

742

2,822

1,615

960

473

792

390

1,105

596

676

331

867

433

2,186

1,107

124

60

557

272

478

234

1,019

500

3,669

1,807

1,177

691

118

58

549

284

2,006

1,017

511

314

1,343

786

709

390

40

20

68

33

quarter

$ 182

91

207

103

320

198

170

85

131

67

146

76

187

95

125

62

50

25

276

143

336

173

715

401

255

135

236

120

298

156

160

80

263

151

522

268

31

16

142

71

118

59

280

139

932

465

286

161

28

14

128

71

496

259

132

75

336

191

163

84

9

4

18

9

1977

$ 785

446

873

426

1,078

564

713

349

503

249

1,330

673

957

469

566

276

203

96

1,269

642

1,531

772

2,990

2,550

1,095

536

802

392

1,420

749

750

366

1,130

589

2,466

1,239

127

63

603

296

518

253

1,249

612

3,955

2,021

1,525

757

134

70

482

250

3,219

1,632

647

380

1,395

784

790

387

60

30

" 70

33

1978

$ 861

479

971

481

1,281

710

754

407

561

279

676

338

1,048

522

643

318

187

92

1,427

841

1,609

826

3,273

1,843

1,111

557

903

445

1,665

906

848

418

1,188

597

2,578

1,311

154

77

625

329

618

309

1,383

686

4,145

2,054

1,317

659

138

68

560

288

2,410

1,212

642

365

1,445

807

754

374

64

32

85

47

18

9

See footnotes at end of table.

197
TABLE 26. Water Resources Investigations, Federal-State Cooperative Program funds for fiscal years 1973 to 1978,

by State Continued

State

Trust Territories _

Virgin Islands _ __ _

State share __ _ _

1973 1974 1975

$701 $766 $745

_____ __ __ 345 401 365

125 117 170

_______ __ 62 58 84

_ ______ ( 3 ) ( 3 ) 33

_ _ _ _ 31

._.,. Transition 

quarter

$604

295 

170 

84

18

9

$145

72 

44

22

2

1

1977

$635 

315 

173 

84 

32 

16

1978

$654

322 

180 

90 

70

35

1 Includes Federal funds from direct program.

2 Includes reimbursable program funds from States, counties, and municipalities.

Included with Puerto Rico funds.

TABLE 27. Water Resources Investigations reimbursable program funds from other Federal agencies for fiscal years

1973 to 1978, by agency

[ In thousands of dollars ]

Agency

Total . _ _ _ _ _ -

Department of Agriculture ___ __ _ _ _

Department of Defense _ __ ___

Department of Energy 2 _ _

Bonneville Power Administration ___ _ _

Department of Housing and Urban Development--

Department of the Interior _ _ _

Bureau of Indian Affairs _ _ _

Bureau of Land Management

Bureau of Mines _ _

Bureau of Reclamation _ _ _

National Park Service _ _

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service _ _ _ _ _

Department of State _ __ _ _

Department of Transportation __ _ _

Environmental Protection Agency _ _ __

National Aeronautics and Space Administration _

Tennessee Valley Authority __ __ _

Miscellaneous Federal agencies

1973

$14,518

273

73

6,953

877

I 1 8

1,801

1,984

89

207

855

459

256

781

916

343

255

262

1974

$16,378

261

(')

7,554

904

101

3,018

2,026

175

178

676

529

367

667

1,127

284

212

325

1975

$18,570

565

154

8,391

959

105

2,252

3,190

256

1,130

721

617

361

642

47

1,389

235

67

252

494

1976

$24,631

753

1,733

9,367

1,142

130

4,624

3,668

179

1,749

39

790

576

205

589

214

1,921

213

216

191

Transition 

quarter

$6,868

172

36

2,414

446

32

1,873

1,035

113

494

196

155

45

148

31

571

14

70

58

1977

$26,862

662

37

'10,135

2,177

141

6,003

4,597

269

2,406

62

1,040

518

161

598

242

1,847

60

297

207

1978

$29,641

788

11,759

2,918

138

3,789

6,410

494

3,407

48

1,434

791

236

507

193

2,610

59

216

392

Included with miscellaneous Federal agencies funds. 2 Prior to October 1, 1977, shown as Energy Research and Development. Includes 

Atomic Energy Commission funds for fiscal years 1973 and 1974.

198

TABLE 28. Conservation of Lands and Minerals direct program funds for fiscal years 1973 to 1978, by subactivity

[ In thousands of dollars ]

Subactivity

Total direct program

Federal and Indian lands __ __ __

1973

. __ $14,700

8,114

6,586

1974

$18,172

10,957

7,215

1975

$36,032

23,196

12,836

1976

$41,489

26,194

15,295

Transition 

quarter

$13,347

9,119

4,255

1977

$67,239

37,970

29,269

1978

$77,299

45,995

31,304
TABLE 29. Conservation of Lands and Minerals reimbursable program funds from other Federal agencies for fiscal

years 1973 to 1978

[ In thousands of dollars ]

Agency 1973 1974 1975 1976 Transition 

quarter 1977 1978

Total $45 $41 $46 $186 $6 $172 $101

Department of Defense _______

Miscellaneous Federal agencies

24

21

25

16

25

21

25

161 172 101

TABLE 30. Land Information and Analysis direct program funds for fiscal years 1973 to 1978, by subactivity

[ In thousands of dollars ]

Subactivity

Total direct program _ _ _ _ _ .

Earth Resources Observation Systems __ .

Environmental Impact Analysis __ __ _ _ .

Land Resource Data Applications 1 __ ___ .

1973

$11,876

10,357

1,519

1974

$11,458

8,962

2,496

1975

$15,461

8,284

2,605

2,013

2,559

1976

$14,908

8,158

2,040

2,341

2,369

Transition 

quarter

$7,795

4,840

1,310

747

898

1977

$17,698

9,545

3,172

2,527

2,454

1978

$18,132

9,719

3,260

2,600

2,553

1 Prior to 1978, this subactivity was shown as "Earth Sciences Applications" and 

'Resource and Land Investigations."

TABLE 31 . Land Information and Analysis reimbursable program funds from other Federal agencies for fiscal years

1973 to 1978, by agency

[ In thousands of dollars ]

Agency 1 973

Total _______ _ _____ . _____ $1,249

Department of Housing and Urban Development _ _ _ __

Department of the Interior ____ _ _ _ _____

Bureau of Mines _ __ ___ __ _ _ _ _

Office of Surface Mining _ _ _________ __ _

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service __ __ _ _ _ _

Department of Transportation _ ___ _ _ _ _ _ _

National Aeronautics and Space Administration __ 1,249 

Ozarks Regional Commission _ ___ ___ _ _

Miscellaneous Federal agencies _ _ _ _ ________

1974

$1,000

10

339

48

35

13

408 

60

87

1975

$407

11

11

179 

49

168

1976

$744

15

8

3

4

443 

31

255

Transition 

quarter

$636

40

40

179

206

60

151

1977

$3,848

3,088

3,088

6

100

122

532

1978

$2,890

2,148

2,013

135

100

35

607

199
TABLE 32. Land Information and Analysis Federal-State Cooperative Program funds for fiscal years 7973 to 7978,

by State

[ In thousands of dollars ]

State

Total 1 __ _ _ _ ___ . _ _____ __ _

Total State share 2

Alabama __ __________

State share __ _ _ __

California __ _ _ _____ __

State share _ _

Florida __ _ __ _ _

State share __ __ _ _ __

Hawaii _ _ __ _ _ _

State share _ _

Missouri _______

State share _ _ _ _ __

New Jersey _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _

State share ______ __ _ _ _

North Carolina __ __ _ _

State share _ _ __ _ _

Pennsylvania _____ __

State share __ _ __ _ _

West Virginia _ _____

State share __

1 Includes Federal funds from direct program.

TABLE 33. Program

1973 1974 1975

$66

33

66

33

1976

$250

130

34

17

56

33

100

50

60

30

quarter

$38

19

6

3

32

16

1977

$362

190

90

45

200

109

72

36

1978

$92

51

50

25

8

4

10

10

24

12

2 Includes reimbursable funds from States, counties, and municipalities.

support funds for fiscal years 7973 to 7978, by activity

[ In thousands of dollars ]

Program support activity

Administrative Expenses 1 __

General Administration 2 _ __ _

Direct program assessments 3 _ _

Reimbursable program assessment 4 _ _

Electronic data processing and related services 5 __

Funded by Survey programs 6 _ _

Funded by miscellaneous accounts 7

Publication services _ _

Funded by Survey programs 6

Funded by miscellaneous accounts 7 _

1973

$7,173

3,217

2,352

1,604

6,168

4,177

1,991

11,656

11,147

509

1974

$8,197

3,517

2,770

1,910

6,987

4,828

2,159

11,932

11,432

500

1975

$10,806

3,671

5,126

2,009

8,425

6,129

2,296

13,004

12,488

516

1976

$11,451

3,398

5,766

2,287

7,432

6,700

732

15,468

14,662

806

Transition 

quarter

$3,675

1,492

1,466

717

1,922

1,908

14

3,705

3,469

236

1977

$13,982

3,760

7,015

3,207

12,728

12,631

97

15,412

14,719

693

1978

$16,486

3,650

9,092

3,744

15,318

14,987

331

16,445

15,421

1,024

1 Obligations of the Director's Office for executive direction and of the Administration Division for management services.

2 Direct program funds of the General Administration budget activity. Obligations 

reconstructed for fiscal years 1973 to 1975 to include Employee Compensation Payments.

3 Assessments made on direct program funds of other budget activities.

4 Assessments made on reimbursable program funds of other budget activities. No 

assessments are made on cooperative funds from State and local governments.

5 Obligations of the Computer Center Division.

6 Obligations charged to Survey program activities.

7 Obligations charged to the Miscellaneous Services to Other Accounts activity for 

reimbursable work done for other agencies.

TABLE 34. Geological Survey end-of-year employment for fiscal years 7973 to 7978, by organizational unit

Organizational unit

Total _ _ __ __ __ .

Permanent employment _ _ _

Other than permanent employment..

Topographic Division __ __ _____

Permanent employment _ _ __ _ _

Geologic Division __ _ _ _ ___

Permanent employment _ __ _

1973

9,387

8,089

1,298

2,020

1,758

262

2,147

1,766

381

1974

9,921

8,357

1,564

1,956

1,762

' 194

2,406

1,888

518

1975

10,435

8,999

1,436

1,877

1,719

158

2,572

2,135

437

1976

'11,868

1 9,049

2,819

1,859

1,664

195

3,170

2,089

1,081

1977

M 1,930

2 9,326

2,604

1,870

1,644

226

2,981

2,046

935

1978

3 12,577

9,587

2,990

1,909

1,642

267

3,173

2,060

1,113

See footnotes at end of table.

200
TABLE 34. Geological Survey end-of-year employment for fiscal years 1973 to 1978,

by organizational unit Continued

Organizational unit

Water Resources Division _ _ _ _ _

Other than permanent employment

Conservation Division ___ __ _ _

Land Information and Analysis Office

National Petroleum Reserve in Alaska ... _ _

Director's Office ____ __ ___ _ _-

Administrative Division __ _ _ _ ______

Facilities 4 . _ __ ______ ___

Computer Center Division _ ____

Publications Division ___ ___ _ _

1973

3,419

2,900

519

568

547

21

72

52

20

57

55

2

382

341

41

174

153

21

548

517

31

1974

3,611

2,910

701

647

612

35

85

68

17

64

62

2

408

366

42

15

15

182

159

23

547

515

32

1975

3,610

2,957

653

990

926

64

114

89

25

66

57

9

441

398

43

30

30

198

178

20

537

510

27

1976

4,131

2,895

1,236

1,242

1,143

99

175

116

59

71

59

12

468

403

65

51

37

14

154

125

29

527

498

29

1977

3,946

2,840

1,106

1,586

1,498

88

191

126

65

25

22

3

76

63

13

508

424

84

58

37

21

174

145

29

501

467

34

1978

4,170

2,950

1,220

1,759

1,633

126

200

127

73

30

23

7

91

64

27

526

448

78

58

37

21

172

144

28

472

442

30

1 Includes 20 Bureau clerical pool in fiscal year 1976.

2 Includes 14 Bureau clerical pool in fiscal year 1977.

3 Includes 17 Bureau clerical pool in fiscal year 1978.

4 Administrative Division personnel assigned to the operation of the Survey's Headquarter facilities.

TABLE 35 . Number of Geological Survey reports approved for publication for fiscal years 1973 to 1978, by

organizational unit

Organizational unit

Total ._

Book reports 1 _ __ _ __ _ _ _ _ .

Journal of Research articles 2 _ ______ .

Open-file reports. _ _ _ _ ___ .

Basic data reports ____ _______

Outside publications 3 __ _

Topographic Division _ __ __ ___ .

Open-file reports _ _ _ __ ___ _ .

Outside publications __ _ ____ .

Geologic Division ____ ____ ___ .

Book reports _ _ ___________

Journal of Research articles _ _ _ __ _ .

Open-file reports.. ... _ __ __ _.

Outside publications _ _ _ _ _ _ . Water Resources Division __ _ __ _ _ .

Book reports __ ___ _ ________ .

Journal of Research articles ________

Open-file reports __ __ _ _ _ _ __.

Basic data reports __ _ ___ __ _ __ . Outside publications _ _ ____ ___ .

1973

2,548

147

.____ 107

..___ 380

.____ 255

. _ 1,659

53

2

._ __ 51

. __ 1,419

..___ 91

. __ 79

216

. __ 1,033

.____ 953

. _ 54

.__._ 26

. __ 149

_____ 255

469

1974

2,755

155

90

440

230

1,840

53

1

52

1,546

96

69

245

1,136

1,002

56

20

181

230

515

1975

2,888

144

85

570

256

1,833

33

33

1,811

90

70

379

1,272

926

50

15

152 '

256

453

1976

3,418

146

101

781

207

2,183

36

36

2,209

101

62

499

1,547

1,061

42

38

264

207

510

quarter

883

29

19

215

44

576

6

6

578

16

14

145

403

245

11

5

55

44

130

1977

3,735

179

93

851

102

2,531

41

3

38

2,527

108

62

581

1,776

943

42

23

215

102

561

1978

3,713

225

95

943

76

2,374

38

4

34

2,496

95

75

704

1,622

949

122

15

173

76

563

See footnotes at end of table.

201
TABLE 35. Number of Geological Survey reports approved for publication for fiscal years 1973 to 1978, by

organizational unit Continued

Organizational unit '

Conservation Division __

Book reports _

Journal of Research articles

Open-file reports. _ _ _ _

Outside publications

Director's Office 4_ __

Book reports _

Journal of Research articles __

Open-file reports _ _

Outside publications _ _

1973

17

13

__ _ 4

106

. _ 2

. _ 2

102

1974

18

2

11

5

136

1

3

132

1975

44

1

32

11

74

3

7

64

1976 ]

28

13

15

84

3

1

5

75

Fransition 

quarter

15

1

10

4

39

1

5

33

1977

78

1

48

28

146

5

6

7

128

1978

80

55

25

150

8

5

7

130

1 Book reports include Survey Professional Papers, Bulletins, Water-Supply Papers, 

Circulars, and other report series.

2 Before January 1973, articles were published as part of the annual "Geological 

Survey Research" Professional Paper.

3 Articles by Survey authors published in non-Survey technical and scientific 

journals and periodicals, in symposium proceedings, and the like.

4 Includes reports of the Land Information and Analysis Office, Administrative 

Division, Computer Center Division, and Publications Division.

TABLE 36. Number of maps produced by the Geological Survey for fiscal years 1973 to 1978, by organizational unit

Organizational unit

Total 1 __. _ _._ _ _ __ . __ .

Topographic Division __ _ _

Quadrangle maps _ _ _ _ _ _

New standard quadrangles

Orthophotoquads __ __ _

Revisions __ _____

Reprints _ _ __ _ _ _

Small-scale and special maps

1 :250,000 series __

Other ______ _ _

Reprints _ _ _ _ _ _

Intermediate scale _ _ __ _

Topographic maps indexes _ _ _

Geologic Division 2 __ _

Water Resources Division 3

Director's Office 4_ ___ _ ______

1973

10,304

5,313

_ __ 5,117

___ 2,347

49

1,118

1,603

148

57

5

2

25

59

48

__ 320

4,650

84

4,566

_ __ 8

13

1974

7,361

4,938

4,780

2,052

15

966

1,747

121

50

8

63

37

215

2,192

52

2,140

9

7

1975

8,722

7,288

7,087

2,016

2,869

923

1,279

171

52

4

2

24

80

9

30

229

1,198

58

1,140

5

2

1976

9,099

7,339

6,757

1,405

3,197

656

1,499

582

37

6

34

112

73

259

61

285

1,358

653

705

14

103

Transition 

quarter

2,310

2,080

1,970

237

730

165

838

114

5

1

6

54

32

16

71

109

70

39

46

1977

11,354

10,508

10,012

1,318

4,127

1,081

3,486

496

31

14

1

117

304

29

384

361

60

301

14

87

1978

10,263

9,604

8,948

1,083

4,467

1,322

2,076

656

50

7

7

84

452

56

488

164

79

85

2

5

' Additional maps are produced for inclusion in book reports. 

! Geologic and geophysical maps.

3 Includes hydrologic unit maps.

4 Miscellaneous maps and charts.

202

TABLE 37. Oil and gas operations on the Outer Continental Shelf lands for calendar years 1973 to 1978

Activity

Number of exploration permits issued.

Lease sales:

Area (acres in thousands) _ _ __

Bonuses (dollars in thousands)

1973

____ 350

6

276

. _ 1,515

187

1,033

67.8

_ _ $3.082,463

1974

400

5

1,006

5,006

356

1,762

35.4

$5.022,861

1975

486

4

1,374

7,248

321

1,680

23.4

$1.088,133

1976

422

4

536

2,827

246

1,278

45.9

$2,242,899

1977

472

3

358

1,843 "211

1,101

58.

$1,568,565

'1978

640

5

500

2,695

168

8,849

9 62.6

$1.400.000

See footnotes at end of table.
TABLE 37. Oil and gas operations on the Outer Continental Shelf lands for calendar years

1973 to 1978 Continued

Activity

Status of leases:

Total number of leases supervised __ _ _

Total area (acres in thousands^ __ __ __

Number of producing leases _ _______

Area (acres in thousands) _____

Percentage __ _ __ _ _ ___

Number of nonproducing leases __ __

Area (acres in thousands) __ __

Percentage ____ ____

Lease operations:

Number of platforms _ _ __ __

Number of new well starts _ __ _______

Number of new wells completed _ __

Number of new zones completed __ _ _

Oil zones ___ __ _ __

Gas zones. _ __ __ _ _ _ _____

Service zones __ _ _ _____

Total number of completed wells __ _

Total number of completed zones _ _ __

Oil zones __ _ __ _______

Gas zones _ _ _ _ _ _ __ ___

Service zones __ _ ._

Other zones 2 _____ _ __ _ _

Pipeline (miles under supervision) 1

Production:

Oil and condensate (barrels in millions) ___

Percentage of domestic production

Gas (cubic feet in billions) __________

Percentage of domestic production _ _

Gasoline and LPG 4 (gallons in millions) _

Percentage of domestic production

1973

_ _ 1,266

5,614

726

3,039

57.3

_ _ 540

2,575

42.7

2,016

820

420

600

304

288

8

____ 6,421

10,187

6,868

2,987

____ 332

6,450

____ 395

11.8

3,212

14.0

__ 1,635

6.1

1974

1,590

7,247

748

3,147

47.0

842

4,100

53.0

2,059

816

310

398

226

155

17

6,218

8,750

4,418

2,403

416

1,513

6,700

361

11.2

3,515

16.0

2,032

7.9

1975

1,792

8,321

790

3,253

44.0

1,002

5,069

56.0

2,084

892

392

515

225

277

13

6,104

9,074

4,519

2,765

325

1,465

7,150

330

10.8

3,459

17.2

1,983

7.9

1976

1,996

9,432

833

3,477

41.7

1,163

5,956

58.3

2,100

1,041

432

530

264

258

8

6,770

13,407

6,760

3,648

333

2,666

7,400

317

10.8

3,596

18.1

1,924

8.0

1977

2,148

10,235

896

3,893

41.7

1,252

6,342

58.3

2,255

1,158

528

651

292

347

12

7,914

10,700

4,877

3,098

404

2,321

9,650

304

10.2

3,738

18.8

2,055

8.4

M978

2,250

11,500

980

4,250

43.5

1,270

7,250

56.5

2,360

1,275

630

869

410

450

9

8,544

11,400

5,200

3,180

400

2,620

3 12,400

291

10.0

4,180

21.1

2,250

9.2

1 Estimated.

2 New classification since 1974.

3 Includes DOI and DOT jurisdictional pipelines.

4 Liquified petroleum gas.

TABLE 38. Revenues from leases on Outer Continental Shelf lands for calendar years 1973 to 1978

[ In thousands of dollars ]

Total revenue _ __ __

Minimum royalties.- _ __ _ _ __ . Rentals _ _ _ _

Number of accounts _ _ __.

Shut-in-gas payments.

Totals: 

Royalties __ _ __ __ _.

Production value _ _ _ _______

Number of accounts __ __ _ __.

Oil and condensate:

Royalties _ __ __ _ __ __ . Production value. _ __ __ _ _.

Gas:

Royalties _____ _ _ . Production value _ __ _ _

Gasoline and LPG 3 : 

Royalties __ __ ___ ___ . Production value __ _ __ _ .

All Others 4 :

Royalties _ __ __ _ __ _.

Production value ___ __ __ .

1973

._ __ __ $3,494,981

. _____ _ 3,082,462

. _ _ __ 2,391

. ___ _. 8,949

__________ (647)

_ ___ __ 53

. _ _ 401,126

__________ (2,486,865)

._____._- (1,158)

... _ __ 271,491

. _____ (1,620,732)

 _ ___. 118,245

__________ (736,878)

. _____ 7,768

. _____ (105,437)

__________ 3,622

._ _ _ (23,818)

1974

$5,598,758

5,022,861 

2,048 

13,533 

(1,036) 

32

560,284 

1 (3,570,054)

(2,260)

384,367 

(2,398,794)

142,257 

(881,634)

19,797 

(254,744)

4,468 

(38,832)

1975

$1,723,758

1,088,133 

2,086 

17,522 

(1,203) 

40

615,545 

(3,924,915)

(2,468)

399,527 

(2,428,849)

195,198 

(1,205,678)

16,376 

(216,043)

4,444 

(74,345)

1976

$2,967,861

2,242,899 

2,128 

23,371 

(1,430) 

38

699,425 

(4,395,905)

(2,850)

1977

$2,509,742

1,568,565 

1,679 

19,830 

(1,239) 

21

919,647

(5,774,056)

(3,378)

412,303 441,147 

(2,533,410) (2,683,000)

268,090 449,323 

(1,652,843) (2,766,397)

19,656 27,688 

(246,449) (314,642)

5 624 (CR) 1 ,489 

(30,262) (CR) (9,436)

1978 1

$2,465,000

1,400,000 

2,000 

21,000 

(1,400) 

20

1,042,000 

6,499,000

(3,400)

452,000 

2,769,000

566,000 

3,468,000

22,000 

(250,000)

2,000 

12,000

1 Estimated in part.

2 Includes $3,950,000 of lost oil and gas.

3 Liquified petroleum gas.

4 All others includes salt, sulfur, oil, and gas lost.

5 Credit due to productive leases transferred to Louisiana Supreme Court decree of 

June 16, 1975.

203
TABLE 39. Oil, gas, and geothermal operations on Federal and Indian lands for calendar years 1973 to 1978

Activity

Competitive oil and gas lease sales 2 :

Tracts offered:

Number of tracts: _ _

Area (acres in thousands)

Tracts sold:

Number of tracts _ _ _

Area (acres in thousands)

Percentage of tracts sold _ _ _

Bonus (dollars in thousands) _____

Regulatory and supervisory operations 3 :

Status of oil and gas leases:

Total number of leases supervised

Total area (acres in thousands)

Number of producing leases. _ _ _

Area (acres in thousands) _ _

Percentage _ __ _____

Number of nonproducing leases _ _ _

Area (acres in thousands) _ __ _.

Percentage __ _ _

Oil and gas lease operations:

Number of new well starts _

Number of new wells completed

Number of new zones completed _ _ _ _ .

Oil zones _____ _ __

Gas zones _ _ _ _ _ _ _ .

Service zones _ _ __ __ _ __ .

Total number of completed wells _ _

Total number of completed zones __ _ .

Oil zones _ _ _ _ _

Gas zones __ _ _ _ _ _

Service zones _ _ _ _ _ .

Oil and gas production:

Oil and condensate (barrels in millions)

Percentage of domestic production _ .

Gas (cubic feet in billions) _ _ _

Percentage of domestic production _ __.

Gasoline and LPG 4 (gallons in millions)

Percentage of domestic production

Status of geothermal leases:

Total number of leases in effect

Total area (acres in thousands) _ _ __ .

1973

339

86,681

311

89,315

91.7

$2,203

115,761

79,116

11,953

5,902

10.3

103,808

73,214

89.7

1,848

1,132

1,172

507

601

64

38,199

39,991

23,139

11,083

5,769

208

6.2

1,153

5.1

669

2.5

1974

421

98,064

295

65,247

70.1

$2,296

123,652

89,829

12,386

6,349

10.0

111,266

83,480

90.0

2,312

1,280

1,341

701

579

61

38,372

40,251

22,791

11,487

5,973

208

6.4

1,234

5.6

567

2.2

1975

420

102,367

356

112,401

84.8

$8,203

125,720

 93,717

12,961

6,564

10.3

112,759

84,153

89.7

2,277

1,569

1,646

923

606

117

38,218

40,292

21,868

12,272

6,152

200

6.6

1,111

5.3

521

2.1

552

1,270

1976

480

96,900

356

74,616

74.2

$4,934

125,817

93,682

13,541

6,794

10.8

112,276

86,888

89.2

2,032

1,525

1,391

789

542

60

37,835

39,470

21,101

12,211

6,158

195

6.7

1,209

6.1

461

1.9

915

1,760

1977

509

95,194

334

80,529

65.9

$7,821

127,006

97,036

14,219

7,208

11.1

112,847

89,828

88.9

2,619

1,763

1,817

900

833

84

39,050

40,760

21,481

12,963

6,316

190

6.4

1,166

5.9

300

1.2

1,064

2,017

1978 1

500

89,500

465

85,000

94.9

$14,000

129,800

101,000

15,000

8,700

11.5

114,800

93,000

92.0

3,425

1,880

1,910

980

839

91

40,200

42,663

22,461

13,802

6,400

186

6.4

1,191

6.0

240

1.0

1,140

2,017

1 Estimated in part.

2 On Federal lands only.

3 On Federal and Indian lands.

4 Liquified petroleum gas.

TABLE 40. Royalties from oil and gas leases on Federal and Indian lands for calendar years 1973 to 1978

[ In thousands of dollars ]

Commodity

Total production value _

Oil and condensate:

Production value _ _

Gas:

Royalties __ _

Gasoline and LPG 2 :

Royalties __ _________

Production value _ _ _ _ _

All others:

Production value _ _ _ _ _ _ _

1973

__._ $ 34,568

(1,074,758)

100,963

(783,149)

_ _ 31,263

(248,768)

2,323

(42,398)

19

(443)

1974

$ 219,630

(1,728,536)

176,566

(1,349,656)

39,798

(315,490)

3,238

(62,758)

28

(632)

1975

$ 243,345

(1,915,768)

193,608

(1,459,088)

47,508

(374,785)

3,789

(76,632)

440

(5,263)

1976

$ 279,066

(2,156,497)

200,864

(1,499,835)

' 74,616

(593,659)

3,132

(60,636)

454

(2,367)

1977

$ 315,607

(2,459,120)

199,602

(1,496,983)

111,519

(880,367)

3,888

(76,309)

598

(5,461)

1978 1

$ "*4R 71 1

(2,697,550)

211,000

(1,585,000)

132,000

(1,019,000)

5,000

(83,800)

715

(9,750)

1 Estimated in part. 2 Liquified petroleum gas.

204
TABLE 41. Mining operations on Federal and Indian lands for fiscal years 1973 to 1978, by activity and by

commodity

[ Acres and tons in thousands ]

Activity and commodity

Total number of leases supervised 

Total area in acres _ _ __ _ _ -_-___

Total number of producible mines __

Total production in tons _ _ __ -

Coal:

Number of leases supervised

Area (in acres) _ _ __ _ _ ___ __

Production (in tons) ___ ______

Percentage of domestic production _ __ _ __

Oil shale:

Number of leases supervised _ ___ ____ __

Area (in acres) ________

Phosphate:

Number of leases supervised.. ____ __ _

Area (in acres) __ _ _ _____

Production (in tons) _ _ ___ _

Percentage of domestic production _ _ __

Potash:

Number of leases supervised. __ ______

Area (in acres) _ __ ___ _ _

Production (in tons) 2 ___ _____

Percentage of domestic production _ __

Sodium:

Number of leases supervised. __ _ _ __ __

Area (in acres) _ . ___ _ _ _ _

Production (in tons). _ _ __ _ _ ____

Percentage of domestic production _ _

Other commodities:

Number of leases supervised _ _ _ _

Area (in acres) __ _ ______ ___ _ __

Production (in tons) ___ _ _ _ _

1973

2,579

7,566

338

42,028

561

1,038

24,247

 4.1

219

131

3,156

7.4

163

246

3,442

75.5

84

132

2,336

50.5

1,552

6,019

8,847

1974

2,488

7,830

377

54,978

563

977

32,139

5.4

4

20.4

194

100

6,258

14.0

158

238

3,551

79.2

84

132

2,092

45.4

1,485

6,363

10,938

1975

2,479

7,977

435

76,113

565

1,023

43,590

7.2

4

20.4

194

100

5,772

11.8

1 61

237

3,302

87.8

84

132

2,826

58.9

1,471

6,465

20,623

1976

2,557

9,096

450

81,554

570

1,057

52,491

7.9

4

20.4

279

114

6,937

13.9

163

237

3,576

81.3

89

136

3,311

69.2

1,452

7,532

15,239

Transition 

quarter

2,575

9,167

450

21,000

573

1,060

14,000

8.5

4

20.4

280

114

1,500

12.0

163

237

1,000

83.0

90

138

950

79.4

1,465

7,598

3,550

1977

2,425

8,891

460

89,276

562

1,054

74,439

10.8

4

20.4

279

114

4,432

9.0

160

231

3,677

90.3

90

133

2,629

38.8

1,330

7,339

4,099

1978 1

2,143

8,533

470

95,400

565

1,056

. 78,300

11.0

4

20.4

278

114

4,640

9.5

163

233

3,296

84.5

91

133

3,955

54.9

1,042

6,977

5,209

1 Estimated in part. 2 Converted to refined tons, estimated in part.

TABLE 42. Revenues from mining leases on Federal and Indian lands for fiscal years 1973 to 1978, by commodity

I In thousands of dollars ]

Commodity

Total revenue ___ _ _ _ _.

Bonuses ... __ _ _.

Total royalties ___ _ _ __

Total production value _

Coal:

Royalties _ _ __ __ __ _ _ _ _

Copper:

Fluorspar:

Production value _ ____ _ _ __

Lead:

Production value _ _ _ _

Limestone:

Royalties _ __ _ _ _ _ _ ______

Phosphate:

Royalties _ _ __ __ _ __

1973

$16,484

34

. __ 16,450

. __ (335,282)

4,044

__ (93,307)

158

(2,691)

_ . 86

(865)

2,192

_ _ (54,640)

4

(54)

842

(11,314)

1974

$470,464

1 449, 192

21,272

(463,811)

5,535

(140,307)

563

(6,087)

31

(322)

3,241

(75,319)

6

(86)

1,618

(31,158)

1975

$31,596

4

31,560

(681,281)

8,335

(224,947)

1,331

(7,140)

5,109

(11,340)

10

(83)

1,538

(28,383)

1976

$36,479

50

36,429

(813,221)

10,949

(337,312)

1,328

(7,347)

11

(180)

3,677

(81,564)

1,868

(25,769)

Transition 

quarter

$11,012

12

11,000

(240,000)

3,000

(97,000)

328

(1,750)

5

(100)

950

(22,000)

500

(6,000)

1977

$54,758

54,758

(1,138,046)

16,667

(560,334)

3,121

(39,046)

1

(9)

5,751

(127,433)

2,038

(28,697)

1978

$59,434

59,434

(1,332,863)

18,791

(684,322)

1,611

(17,715)

33

(734)

5,781

(125,281)

13

(265)

3,011

(46,849)

See footnotes at end of table.

205
TABLE 42. Revenues from mining leases on Federal and Indian lands for fiscal years 1973 to 1978,

by commodity Continued

Commodity

Potash:

Production value

Sand and gravel:

Production value _ _ _

Silica pumice:

Sodium:

Royalties

Uranium:

Zinc:

Other commodities:

1973

. _ _ 3,270

._ _ (75,872)

- _ - 623

- - - (6,846)

.- . 1

(14)

2 547

.- __ - (58,179)

2,303

(18,822)

. _ _ _ _ 336

- (8,207)

42

(4 490) '

1974 1975

3,962 5,565 

(96,897) (132,518)

633 842 

(7,430) (18,774)

2,439 5,046 

(56,240) (109,590)

2,224 2,664 

(22,014) (16,938)

936 1,006 

(22,806) (24,413)

84 56 

(5,146) (3,155)

tn->£. Transition iy/b quarter

6,321 1,800 

(144,693) (40,000)

505 125 

(12,431) (3,200)

7,364 2,600 

(155,612) (51,000)

3,191 800 

(23,912) (6,000)

1,001 350 

(22,240) (8,000)

214 542 

(2,161) (4,950)

1977

5,960 

(142,116)

336

(3,211)

7,412 

(150,851)

11,961 

(52,589)

1,439 

(31,550)

72 

(2,210)

1978

5,862 

(149,631)

399

(5,100)

10,970 

(222,464)

12,282 

(66,022)

550 

(12,121)

131 

(2,359)

1 Includes bonuses of $448,797,000 from four competitive oil shale lease sales.

TABLE 43 . Information products ordered from the EROS Data Center for fiscal years 1975 to 1978

[ In thousands of dollars ]

Product

Totals. _ _

Apollo, Gemini, and Skylab 

images and photographs __ 

Landsat computer-compatible

Miscellaneous Landsat special 

products

TABLE 44. U.S.

Activity

Library acquisitions: 

Total items

Books and monographs _ _ _ .

Bound and unbound issues of

Pamphlets and reprints

1975 1976 Transition quarter 1977

Images Value Images

414,084 $1,610 407,395

190,031 567 148,993 

28,049 113 9,664

879 169 2,289 

195,125 760 246,449

Geological Survey Library

[ N.A.,

1973 1974

. _. 84,208 91,047

.. _ 7,183 11,600

45,499 48,095

. _ 2,425 2,901

20.653 19.439

Photographs, negatives, slides and

1.019 812

Field record notebooks and related 

materials _ 308 382

New serial titles _ _ .. __ 650 434

Value Images

$2,589 104,414

735 51,195 

86 1,405

404 1,010 

1,238 50,804

125

operating statistics

not applicable ]

1975 1976

136,106 116,927

12,891 11,796

49,775 58,360 

2,798 6,927 

21,777 20,873

3,485 15,387 

45,000 1,888

380 1,104 

___ 592

657 631

Value Images Value

$718 325,992 $2,515

221 190,471 789 

15 3,534 52

178 1,887 371 

274 130,100 1,083

30 __ 220

for fiscal years 1 973 to

Transition .< _ 

quarter

25,077 1 70,960

1,666 11,731

14,890 60,122 

1,863 7,197 

3,102 14,045

3,222 8,261 

125 3,111

209 362 

66,131

204 358

1978

Images

313,347

196,875 

2,896

2,853 

110,723

7978 1

1978

115,839

12,208

61,815 

1,695 

14,298

1,898 

3,693

382 

19,850 

384

Value

$3,219

974 

50

535 

1,441

219

Estimated 

total 

holdings

2,362,803

352,401

780,187 

367,682 

402,318

228,768 

60,817

14,057 

156,573

N.A.

See footnotes at end of table.

206
TABLE 44. U.S. Geological Survey Library operating statistics for fiscal years 1973 to 1978 1 Continued

Activity

Library circulation: 

Total items. - _

Maps _

Other (slides, aerial photos, well logs,

Inter library loans: 

Total items - _____

1973

2 66,327

63,980

2,347

16,308

13,818

2,490

11,358

1974

2 61,565

59,402

2,254

15,252

13,073

2,179

14,047

1975

2 80,991

76,658

4,333

20,356

16,965

3,391

14,774

1976

2 95,814

87,611

8,203

18,977

15,144

3,833

17,765

Transition 

quarter

2 24,575

23,058

1,517

4,767

3,407

1,360

3,836

1977

112,766

80,855

6,736

25,175

19,705

15,123

4,582

28,507

1978

104,654

79,712

6,028

18,914

23,147

17,777

5,370

26,955

Estimated 

total 

holdings

N.A.

N.A.

N.A.

N.A.

N.A.

N.A.

N.A.

N.A.

1 Statistics include the operations of the Survey's main library in Reston, Va., and branch libraries in Denver, Colo., Menlo Park, Calif., and Flagstaff, Ariz. 

1 Does not include slides, aerial photos, microforms, negatives, or well logs.

Q-OtCA/w

207
Update for U. S. Geological Survey Offices 

HEADQUARTERS OFFICES

OFFICE OF THE DIRECTOR

'Official Name

Associate Director ....................................... Joseph S. Cragwall, Jr.,

Acting

Assistant Director Mineral and Water Resources ............ George H. Davis,

Acting

Assistant Director Eastern Region ......................... [Vacant]

Official

GEOLOGIC DIVISION

Name

Associate Chief Geologist ................................ Gordon P. Eaton

Deputy Chief Geologist, Program and Budget ............... David A. Seyler

Telephone Number

(703) 860-741 2 

(703) 860-7481 

(703) 860-741 4

Telephone Number

(703) 860-6531 

(703) 860-6544

Official

WATER RESOURCES DIVISION

Name Telephone Number

Chief Hydrologist ....................................... O. Milton Hackett, (703) 860-6921

Acting 

Associate Chief Hydrologist ............................... [Vacant] (703) 860-6921

Official

LAND INFORMATION AND ANALYSIS

Name Telephone Number

Associate Chief ......................................... Gene A. Thorley, .

Acting 

Earth Resources Observation System Program ............... Frederick J. Doyle,

Acting

(703) 860-7471 

(703) 860-7881

PUBLICATIONS DIVISION

Official Name Telephone Number

Chief .................................................. William B. Overstreet, (703) 860-71 81

Acting

SELECTED FIELD OFFICES

TOPOGRAPHIC DIVISION 

REGIONAL MAPPING CENTERS

Mapping Center Chief Telephone Number

Special .. .. . ....................................... Roy E. Fordham

GEOLOGIC DIVISION

(703)860-7760

Region

Eastern

REGIONAL OFFICES

Regional Geologist

... Avery Drake

Telephone Number

(703) 860-6631

Region

Central

CONSERVATION DIVISION

REGIONAL OFFICES

Conservation Manager Telephone Number

........... [Vacant] (303) 234-2855

Western ................................................ John J. Dragonetti (41 5) 323-81 11, 

ext. 2093

Address

National Center, STOP 102 

National Center, STOP 171 

National Center, STOP 1 09

Address

National Center, STOP 91 0 

National Center, STOP 910

Address

National Center, STOP 409 

National Center, STOP 408

Address

National Center, STOP 703 

National Center, STOP 730

Address

National Center, STOP 341

Address

1925 Newton Square East, 

STOP 560, 

Reston, VA 22090

Address

National Center, STOP 953

Address

Box 25046, STOP 609, 

Denver Federal Center, 

Denver, CO 80225

345 Middlefield Rd., 

Menlo Park, CA 94025

PUBLIC INQUIRIES OFFICES

Official in charge Telephone Number

California: 

Menlo Park Bruce S. Deam

Address

345 Middlefield Rd., 

Menlo Park, CA 94025

(415) 323-2817

 6U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1979 O 281-359/38
As the Nation's principal conservation agency, tK& 

Department of the Interior has responsibility for most 

of our nationally owned public lands and natural resources. This includes fostering the wisest use of our 

land and water resources, protecting our fish and 

wildlife, preserving the environmental and cultural 

values of our national parks and historical places, and 

providing for the enjoyment of life through outdoor 

recreation. The Department assesses our energy and 

mineral resources and works to assure that their development is in the best interest of all our people. 

The Department also has a major responsibility for 

American Indian reservation communities and for 

people who live in Island Territories under U.S. Administration.