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United States 

Geological Survey

Yearbook 

Fiscal Year 1977

COVER: Aerial view of lava fountains, 50 meters high, spurting in the early 

morning of July 6, 1975 from fissures near Pohaku Hanalei on the northeast-rift zone of Mauna Loa Volcano, Hawaii, feeding a massive lava flow. 

The city of Hilo, about 40 kilometers downslope was spared. See pages 36- 

40 for an article on the monitoring of active volcanoes. 

(Photograph by Robin T. Ho/comb J
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

CECIL D. ANDRUS, Secretary 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

V. E. McKelvey, Director

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents 

U.S. Government Printing Office 

Washington, D.C. 20402

STOCK NUMBER 024-001-03042-0
Table of Contents

Preface, v

The Year in Review, vi

Perspectives, 7

River-Quality Assessment, 7 Role of Earth Sciences in the Disposal of 

Radioactive Waste, 15 Shut-in Wells on the Outer Continental Shelf, 22 

Planetary Exploration and Understanding the Earth, 24 Mapping 

in Support of Domestic Energy Production, 33 Monitoring Active 

Volcanoes, 36 Replenishing Non-Renewable Mineral Resources, 41 

Games Coastal Area Planners Play, 48 Submarine Landslides, 53

Missions, Organization, and Budget, 65

Organization, 66 Definitions of Budget Terms, 67 Survey 

Budget, 68 Personnel, 71

Topographic Surveys and Mapping, 73

Budget and Personnel, 78 Quadrangle Mapping and Revision, 79 

Small-Scale and Special Mapping, 80 International Cooperation, 84 

The National Cartographic Information Center, 85 Research and 

Development, 86

Geologic and Mineral Resource Surveys and Mapping, 89

Budget and Personnel, 90 Land Resource Surveys, 92 Mineral 

Resource Surveys, 99 Energy Resource Surveys, 102 Offshore Geologic 

Surveys, 105 Astrogeology, 108 International Geology, 109

Water Resources Investigations, 111

Budget and Personnel, 114 National Water Data System, 119 

Critical National Water Problems, 126

Conservation of Lands and Minerals, 133

Budget and Personnel, 136 Outer Continental Shelf Lands, 137 

OCS Planning Schedule, 138 Federal and Indian Lands, 142

Land Information and Analysis, 149

Budget and Personnel, 152 Earth Sciences Applications 

Program, 154 Resource and Land Investigations, 159 

Geography Program, 162 Earth Resources Observation Systems 

Program, 164 Environmental Impact Analysis Program, 168

National Petroleum Reserve in Alaska, 173

Budget and Personnel, 174 History of the Reserve, 174 

Program and Activities, 176

Program Support Activities, 181

General Administration, 181 Procurement and Contracting, 182 

Computer Technology, 182 Geological Survey Library, 184 

Publications Program, 184

Organizational and Statistical Data, 186

Chart of Organization, 186 Headquarters Offices, 188 Selected 

Field Offices, 190 Cooperators and Other Financial 

Contributors, 195 Budgetary and Statistical Data, 202

Index, 225 INDEX | Hi
TABLE 9. Geological Survey obligations for fiscal years 1976-77 69

TABLE 26. Geological Survey budget, by activity and sources of funds, fiscal years 

7972-77 202

TABLE 27. Geological Survey Federal-State Cooperative Program funds, by State, fiscal 

years 7972-77 203

TABLE 28. Geological Survey reimbursable program funds from other Federal agencies, by 

agency, fiscal years 7972-77 205

TABLE 43. Program support funds, by activity, fiscal years 7972-77 215

TABLE 44. Geological Survey end-of-year employment, by organizational unit, fiscal years 

7972-77 216 ' 

TABLE 45. Number of Geological Survey reports approved for publication, by organizational unit, fiscal years 7972-77 217

TABLE 46. Number of maps produced by the Geological Survey, by organizational unit, 

fiscal years 7972-77 217

TABLE 11. Topographic Surveys and Mapping activity obligations for fiscal years 1976-77,

by program 79 

TABLE 29. Topographic Surveys and Mapping direct program funds, by subactivity, fiscal

years 7972-77 206 

TABLE 30. Topographic Surveys and Mapping Federal-State Cooperative Program funds,

by State, fiscal years 7972-77 206 

TABLE 31. Topographic Surveys and Mapping reimbursable program funds from other

Federal agencies, by agency, fiscal years 7972-77 208

TABLE 12. Geologic and Mineral Resource Surveys and Mapping activity obligations for 

fiscal years 7976-77, by program 91

TABLE 32. Geologic and Mineral Resource Surveys and Mapping program funds, by subactivity, fiscal years 7972-77 209

TABLE 33. Geologic and Mineral Resource Surveys and Mapping Federal-State Cooperative 

funds, by State, fiscal years 1972-77 209

TABLE 34. Geologic and Mineral Resource Surveys and Mapping reimbursable program 

funds from other Federal agencies, by agency, fiscal years 1972-77 210

TABLE 13. Wafer Resources Investigations activity obligations for fiscal year 1977, by program 115

TABLE 35. Wafer Resources Investigations direct program funds, by subactivity, fiscal years 

1972-77 211

TABLE 36. Wafer Resources Investigations, Federal-State Cooperative Program funds, by 

State, fiscal years 7972-77 211

TABLE 37. Wafer Resources Investigations reimbursable program funds from other Federal 

agencies, by agency, fiscal years 7972-77 213

TABLE 17. Conservaf/on of Lands and Minerals activity obligations for fiscal years 1976-

77, by program 153 

TABLE 38. Conservation of Lands and Minerals direct program funds, by subactivity, fiscal

years 1972-77 '214 

TABLE 39. Conservation of Lands and Minerals reimbursable program funds from other

Federal agencies, fiscal years 7972-77 214

TABLE 22. Land Information and Analysis Office obligations for fiscal years 1976-77, by 

program 153

TABLE 40. Land Information and Analysis direct program funds, by subactivity, fiscal years 

7972-77 214

TABLE 41. Land Information and Analysis reimbursable program funds from other Federal agencies, by agency, fiscal years 7972-77 215

TABLE 42. Land Information and Analysis Federal-State Cooperative Program funds, by 

State, fiscal years 1972-77 215

TABLE 47. Oil and gas operations on the Outer Continental Shelf lands, calendar years

7972-77 218 

TABLE 48. Revenues from leases on Outer Continental Shelf lands, calendar years 7972-

77 219 

TABLE 49. Oil, gas, and geothermal operations on Federal and Indian lands, calendar

years 1972-77 219 

TABLE 50. Royalties from oil and gas leases on Federal and Indian lands, calendar years

7972-77 220 

TABLE 51. Mining operations on Federal and Indian lands, by activity and by commodity,

fiscal years 7972-77 220 

TABLE 52. Revenues from mining leases on Federal and Indian lands, by commodity, fiscal

years 7972-77 221

iv | LIST OF SELECTED TABLES
Preface

This Yearbook summarizes the progress made by 

the United States Geological Survey during fiscal year 

1977 in its mandated role to identify the Nation's 

land, water, energy, and mineral resources; to classify 

Federally-owned mineral lands and water power sites; 

to regulate the exploration and development of energy and mineral resources on Federal and Indian lands; 

and to explore and appraise the petroleum potential 

of the National Petroleum Reserve in Alaska.

As a report to Congress and the public, it falls 

logically into five parts:

 The Year in Review: a look at the major issues and 

events which affected Survey programs, and 

some performance highlights.

 Perspectives: a series of concise Earth-science essays which address national issues.

 Missions, Organization, and Budget: a description 

of the Geological Survey's major duties and assignments and of the organizational and fiscal 

structures that support its missions.

 A description of the activities and accomplishments 

of each of the nine operating Divisions and 

Offices.

 Statistical Tables: summary data which documents 

program trends, workloads, and significant 1977 

accomplishments.

Supplemented by Professional Paper 1050, "Geological Survey Research 1977," the latest in a series of 

annual reviews of technical results of the Geological 

Survey's research programs, this Yearbook provides a 

comprehensive description of the activities of the 

Federal Government's principal Earth-science agency.

Bin

Denver Federal Center. (Photograph by Dawn Reed.)

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, 1977 YEARBOOK | V
The Year in Review

INTRODUCTION

Fiscal 1977 marked the 98th year the U.S. Geological Survey has endeavored in the unceasing task of 

providing information about the Earth and its physical 

resources, and regulating the activities of lessees engaged in extracting petroleum and other minerals 

from the public domain.

The past year also marked the beginning of a third 

and challenging mission, drawing upon the Survey's 

scientific talents, to explore and assess the petroleum 

potential of a vast 37,000 square miles expanse of 

Alaska's North Slope known as the National Petroleum Reserve in Alaska.

The first two missions require detailed and continuing investigations of the location, character, and extent of the Nation's land, water, mineral, and energy 

resources; a continuing National Topographic Mapping Program; the classification of Federal lands for 

mineral and waterpower potential; and a continuing 

program of technical review, safety inspection and 

royalty auditing of the operations of private parties 

engaged in mineral development on Federal lands to 

assure standards of safety, environmental protection, 

resource conservation, and a fair market return to the 

public for the development of their resources.

V ' P

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i&T%
WATER RESOURCES

The Geological Survey has the principal responsibility for appraising the source, quantity, quality, 

and movement of the Nation's water resources. In 

addition, it is the lead agency for coordinating the 

activities of all Federal agencies in the acquisition of 

water data on streams, lakes, reservoirs, estuaries, and 

ground waters.

Because severe drought conditions prevailed across 

much of the country in 1977, Congress appropriated 

an additional $5 million of Federal matching funds 

for the Federal-State Cooperative Program within the 

Water Resources Division. These funds were used to 

provide information and analyses for planners and 

managers who were concerned with existing and potential water shortages. Stream-flow observations 

were expanded; evaluations were made of changes in 

water-use practices; assistance was given to identify 

supplemental sources of water supply; and determinations were made of changes in lake, reservoir, 

and ground-water storage.

During 1977, plans were made for extensive, indepth analyses of the Regional Aquifer Systems of 

the United States. These analyses will contribute to 

locating and developing adequate supplies of water 

for urban and rural areas in the event of possible 

future drought conditions. Twenty such aquifer systems have been identified and studies will begin in 

1978.

Because of the national interest in energy and the 

emphasis on energy shortages, priority was given to 

hydrologic studies related to coal mining, oil-shale, 

nuclear energy, and geothermal research. Water 

quantity and water quality, both on the surface and 

in the ground, enter the energy equation in a variety 

of ways. These are discussed under the heading, 

"Critical National Water Problems," in the chapter 

which describes the activities of the Water Resources 

Division.

Plans were formulated to establish a National 

Water-Use Data System which will indicate the degree of use and the status of development of the 

Nation's water resources. In the past, detailed information on the occurrence and quality of water resources has been collected and made available but 

relatively little has been done to describe where, how, 

and in what quantities water is being used. This information is essential to determine what part of the 

water resources remains available for future use. 

Competition among types of uses for the available 

water in many parts of the country requires that accurate information is provided so that water can be 

directed toward the area of greatest benefit.

In 1977, some of the first water-quality evaluations 

were made as a result of measuring water-quality 

variables at 345 monitoring stations under the National Stream Quality Accounting Network (NASQAN). 

NASQAN began operation in 1973, having been 

designated by the President's Council on Environmental Quality as the Nation's primary network for 

uniform water-quality assessment. It provides data 

which show geographic patterns of water quality that 

reflect climate, geology, soil types, agricultural practices, human and animal populations, water pollution, and pollution-control practices, By 1979, the 

NASQAN network will be expanded to 525 stations.

As part of the Survey's efforts to monitor the quality of the Nation's water, the Water Resources Division Central Laboratories System made over two and 

one-half million determinations of physical, chemical, 

and biological characteristics of water from 170,000 

samples.

NATIONAL PETROLEUM RESERVE IN 

ALASKA

On June 1,1977, the National Petroleum Reserve in 

Alaska, formerly known as Naval Petroleum Reserve 

Numbered 4, was transferred from the Department of 

the Navy to the Department of the Interior in accordance with the Naval Petroleum Reserves Production 

Act of 1976 (Public Law 94-258, U.S. 94th Congress, 

April 5, 1976). The Secretary of the Interior charged 

the Geological Survey with the responsibility for continuing the Navy's 7-year exploration program on the 

reserve, including:

1. Petroleum exploratory drilling and geological and 

geophysical investigations to locate, test, and 

help assess producible oil and gas accumulations on the reserve.

2. Development and continued production of the 

South Barrow gas field to supply natural gas to 

the native village of Barrow and other communities and installations near Point Barrow, 

Alaska.

3. Restoration to an environmentally acceptable state 

certain areas of the reserve disturbed by previous construction and exploration activities.

The program, originally developed by Navy, involves drilling 26 test wells, collecting 10,000 line 

miles of seismic and gravity data, and conducting 

geologic studies to produce a resource appraisal of 

the petroleum potential of NPRA by the end of fiscal 

year 1980. Except for continuing production of gas 

from the South Barrow gas field, no petroleum

"Nicasso Reservoir, principal storage reservoir for the Marin County, California, Municipal Water District's 180,000 customers, 

as it looked in October 1976. Storage on July 1, 1977, was only 0.3 cubic hectometers (250 acre-feet) of its storage capacity 

of 28 cubic hectometers (22,500 acre-feet)."

THE YEAR IN REVIEW | 1
will be produced from the reserve until authorized by 

Congress.

The Geological Survey established the Office of 

National Petroleum Reserve in Alaska on November 2, 

1976, with headquarters and an operations staff in 

Anchorage, Alaska. An exploration strategy staff in 

Menlo Park, California, selects drilling targets, locates 

seismic surveys, and develops coring and sampling 

programs. A Liaison Office in Reston, Virginia, interacts with the Department of the Interior and serves as 

a focal point for budgetary, contractual, and congressional matters.

The Geological Survey negotiated a contract with 

Husky Oil NPR Operations, Inc., to continue exploratory operations on the reserve. Also, numerous interagency agreements were modified to assure continuing logistical, communications, and operations support for petroleum exploration activities, and an Environmental Impact Statement (begun by the Navy) 

was completed to address exploration throughout the 

reserve.

Sites for seven exploratory wells and two Barrow 

Area development wells to be drilled in 1978 were 

selected in 1977 to provide the lead time necessary to 

assure delivery of materials.

ENERGY AND MINERALS

The task of assessing the minerals and energy resources of the Nation's lands continues to shape and 

direct many of the activities of the Geological Survey.

During fiscal year 1977, the Geologic Division continued mineral resource assessments in Alaska in 

areas judged to have a high mineral potential. Regional assessments under the Alaskan Mineral Resources Assessment Program continues with the publication of the McCarthy quadrangle folio and the 

Tanacross quadrangle folio. Resource assessments of 

14 additional quadrangles, at a scale of 1:250,000, are 

underway. These 14 quadrangles and three previously published quadrangles contain approximately 23 

percent of the Alaska D-2 lands. Similar regional assessments are also underway in the Alaska D-2 lands 

at a scale of 1:1,000,000. This program is designed to 

produce badly needed information on Alaska's mineral resources on lands that may be closed to future 

minerals and energy development under section D-2 

of the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act. Mineral 

resource assessment of about one-half of the D-2 

land area is now completed.

More than 12.5 million hectares (31 million acres) 

have been proposed for wilderness status by other 

Federal agencies since the passage of the Wilderness 

Act in 1964. As required by Congress, an assessment

of the mineral and energy resource potential for each 

proposed wilderness area is needed before granting 

wilderness status and concomitant prohibition of mining activity. The Geological Survey, in cooperation 

with the Bureau of Mines has completed resource surveys on 6.9 hectares (17.0 million acres) of proposed 

wilderness lands.

The Geological Survey is cooperating with 15 State 

Geological Surveys in collecting and analyzing coal 

and related rocks. Analyses to date, show that coal in 

the Western Interior Coal Basin (Iowa, Missouri, Oklahoma, Kansas, and Nebraska) and in the Eastern Interior Coal Basin (Illinois, Indiana, and NW Kentucky) 

contain higher than normal amounts of zinc and cadmium. Analyses also show that coals in the Eastern 

Interior Coal Basin contain higher than normal 

amounts of cobalt, chromium, nickel, and vanadium. 

The Survey also mapped approximately 1,800 square 

kilometers (695 square miles) of land in Wyoming, 

Colorado, Kentucky, Virginia, and West Virginia to 

assess low-sulfur coal resources. An additional 2,300 

square kilometers (888 square miles) were re-evaluated for low-sulfur coal resources on Federal lands in 

Montana and Wyoming.

During fiscal year 1977, oil and gas resource estimates, including field-size distribution, were completed for the Permian Basin in west Texas and New 

Mexico and offshore Gulf of Mexico, Texas, and 

Louisiana.

RESOURCE EVALUATION AND LEASE 

REGULATION

Geological Survey regulatory responsibilities on the 

Outer Continental Shelf and on Federal and Indian 

lands are carried out by the Conservation Division.

Six deep Continental Offshore Stratigraphic Test 

(COST) wells were approved in Federal waters on the 

Outer Continental Shelf (OCS). These wells were 

drilled by industry with the stipulation that they share 

the data with the Department of the Interior. Five were 

completed and one was being drilled at year's end. 

Of the two tests drilled in the Atlantic OCS, the first, 

North Atlantic COST Well No. G-2, was approved in 

December 1976, drilled to 6,667 meters (21,872 feet), 

and completed on August 31, 1977; the second, 

South Atlantic COST Well No. GE-1, was approved 

in January 1977, drilled to 4,040 meters (13,254 feet) 

and completed on June 15, 1977. The other four approved deep Stratigraphic tests were for the Alaskan 

OCS. The Lower Cook Inlet COST Well No. 1 test, approved in June 1977 and drilled to 3,776 meters 

(12,387 feet) was completed on September 24, 1977. 

Three tests were approved for Alaska's Kodiak Shelf.

2 | THE YEAR IN REVIEW
Photograph from United Press International, Inc.

President |immy Carter observes drilling operations while visiting the Zapata 

offshore-drilling platform in the Gulf of Mexico during the summer of 1977.

Kodiak Well No. 1, approved in May 1977 and drilled 

to 2,596 meters (8,517 feet), was completed on July 

18, 1977, and the Kodiak Well No. 2, approved in July 

1977 and drilled to 3,188 meters (10,460 feet), was 

completed on September 3, 1977. Kodiak Well No. 

3, approved in July 1977, was being drilled at the end 

of the fiscal year.

Two open-file reports on completed deep stratigraphic tests were released during fiscal year 1977: 

the Mid-Atlantic COST No. B-2 Open-File Report in 

November 1976 and the Gulf of Alaska COST Well 

No. 1 Open-File Report in January 1977. These deep 

stratigraphic tests provide geologic and engineering 

data useful to participating companies and to the Federal Government as an aid to evaluating tracts to be 

offered in future lease sales.

Contracts for the preparation of 510 Coal Resource 

Occurrence Coal Development Potential Maps 

(CRO-CDP) were let to various consulting firms and 

one university. These maps show thickness of coal 

beds, the configuration of the top of each bed, thickness of overburden, location of such data points as 

drill holes or outcrops, and the distribution of the 

Federal coal resources.

In May 1977, the Geological Survey announced its 

OCS Platform Verification Program to provide guidelines and standards to reduce the risks and enhance 

the integrity of the OCS structures to be installed in

frontier areas. Also published was a document describing the Geological Survey's Policies, Practices, 

and Responsibilities for Safety and Environmental 

Protection in Oil and Gas Operations on the Outer 

Continental Shelf. This document describes current 

activities to minimize the potential for pollution from 

OCS operations. Major elements of other programs 

outlined in the document will be implemented during 1978.

Three "Notices to Lessees and Operators" (NTL's) 

streamlining our royalty accounting system were 

issued. NTL-1 and NTL-1A established use of modernized Federal and Indian lease accounting reports. 

NTL-5 prescribes product valuation procedures to be 

applied to royalty accounting of natural gas. A proposed revision of the oil and gas operating regulations significantly strengthening the section on "Noncompliance and Assessment of Liquidated Damages," 

was published in the Federal Register. Drilling for oil 

and gas on public and Indian lands expanded by 280 

new well starts, an increase of nearly 13 percent 

over fiscal year 1976. Producible well completions 

likewise increased by 7.4 percent.

Cooperative agreements empowering States to enforce environmental protections and reclamation requirements for surface coal mining on Federal lands 

were entered into with Colorado, Montana, New 

Mexico, North Dakota, Utah, and Wyoming.

THE YEAR IN REVIEW | 3
Reserve inventories were completed in 75 Outer 

Continental Shelf oil and gas fields bringing the total 

inventoried to 175 of about 255 fields in the Gulf of 

Mexico. Within each field, every reservoir was also 

mapped and the remaining recoverable oil and gas 

was calculated. Estimates of reserves for other fields 

were made on a field-wide basis. The first annual 

estimated reserves of the Gulf of Mexico were released in Open File Report (77-71) and compilation 

of the first annual estimated reserves of the Pacific 

Outer Continental Shelf was in progress at the end 

of the fiscal year.

GEOLOGIC HAZARDS

The Geological Survey is developing methods to 

delineate and mitigate hazards associated with earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, landslides, ground subsidence, and floods.

Since the discovery of the anomalous land uplift 

in southern California in late 1975, extensive efforts 

are being made to define the shape and extent of the 

uplift, to understand its origin, and to assess its implications for future earthquakes. The uplift extends 

eastward from Santa Barbara to the Colorado River 

over an area of about 90,000 square kilometers 

(35,000 square miles) averaging about 120 kilometers 

(75 miles) in width. The maximum uplift occurred 

north of Palm Springs, reaching 45 centimeters (17.7 

inches). Precise surveys show that the uplift near 

Palmdale, California, decreased from about 35 centimeters (13.8 inches) to about 17 centimeters (6.7 

inches) between 1974 and 1976. It is likely that the 

uplift results from accumulating stresses to be released 

eventually as an earthquake along the San Andreas 

Fault.

The Geological Survey's Reactor Hazard Research 

Program continues investigations on the history and 

nature of recent fault movements to provide a basis 

for assessing the safety and environmental problems 

in siting nuclear facilities. Considerable study is focused on surface fault caused by ground-water withdrawal in the Texas Gulf Coast area.

Mauna Loa Volcano, Hawaii, continues to build 

toward its next eruption. The volcano, which was intensely monitored, continued to inflate with little accompanying seismic activity during the first part of 

the year, but the rate of inflation slowed later in the 

year.

On September 13, the flank of Kilauea Volcano 

erupted with 25-30 meter lava fountains along a 5- 

kilometer (3-mile) fissure in the Heiheiahulu area. 

Eighteen days later, the eruption ceased and a rapidly moving lava flow halted within 400 meters (less than

a quarter of a mile) of dwellings. The Geological Survey had advised Hawaii County Civil Defense officials 

of the unstable conditions, and residents were then 

informed by a press release issued July 29,1977.

SURVEYING AND MAPPING

In fulfilling responsibility for the National Mapping 

Program, the Geological Survey prepares and distributes maps in several series, defines mapping standards, coordinates Federal mapping efforts, and provides a central source for cartographic information.

In fiscal year 1977, the Topographic Division produced 304 intermediate-scale maps, including both 

1:100,000 scale quadrangle maps and 1:100,000- and 

1:50,000-scale county maps. These maps are in heavy 

demand by Federal and State agencies. For example, 

the Bureau of Land Management and the Soil Conservation Service utilize these maps to assemble basic 

map content they need and add their own special information in a tailored edition. As published by the 

Geological Survey, the maps will show metric units of 

measurement.

To meet the increasing requirement for cartographic information in digital form suitable for storage, processing, and recall by computers, a Digital 

Applications team was formed to consider and plan 

the most efficient methods, including equipment, for 

handling large volumes of digital cartographic data. 

As a result of the successful use of the first Gestalt 

Photo Mapper II an advanced instrument that simultaneously produces orthophotographs, contour plots, 

and digital elevation models a second unit has been 

ordered.

Design work was completed for the Airborne Profiling of Terrain System, which combines space age 

inertial positioning and laser ranging as an efficient 

means of establishing, at the speed of flight, a dense 

network of ground positions and elevations for topographic mapping, flood-plain studies, and similar 

applications. Tests of the first prototype of this revolutionary new surveying tool are planned for 1980.

Plans were developed for the systematic conversion 

of contours to the metric system. The sequence of 

contour intervals adopted is 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, and 50 

meters. The choice of contour interval for a given 

map depends on the range of topographic relief to 

be depicted.

Continuing the effort to provide convenient public 

access to information about maps and mapping, the 

National Cartographic Information Center established 

five State-affiliated branch offices, in Arizona, Georgia, New Mexico, South Carolina, and Texas.

4 | THE YEAR IN REVIEW
LAND INFORMATION AND ANALYSIS

The Geological Survey continued its efforts to interpret and present land-resource information in report and map formats that are readily accessible and 

understandable to a wide range of Earth-science data 

users. During fiscal year 1977, the Land Information 

and Analysis Office published reports and maps and 

conducted workshops in an effort to convey scientific 

and engineering data and interpretive information, in 

readily usable form, to support land resource planners 

and decisionmakers at all levels of Government and 

in the private sector.

The Earth Sciences Application Program has been 

instrumental in developing guidelines and procedures 

that enable the Survey to effectively carry out its 

hazard warning responsibilities. The Geological Survey published a statement in the Federal Register 

(April 12, 1977) describing present capabilities and 

limitations for advance recognition and warning of 

geologic-related hazards. Efforts are now being made 

to establish effective warning procedures in cooperation with appropriate local, State, and Federal agency 

representatives.

The Resource and Land Investigations Program 

completed a joint project, with the New England 

River Basins Commission (NERBC), to develop a 

generalized planning methodology to estimate the 

onshore impacts of Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) 

oil and gas development. The results of the study 

are published as a series of reports, and are being 

presented during fiscal years 1977 and 1978 at regional workshops partly funded by EPA. The objective is to transfer the state-of-the-art in planning 

methods to State and local agencies. It is hoped that 

this technical assistance will aid States to mitigate any 

adverse onshore effects of OCS development.

Under the Geography Program's nationwide mapping program, land-use and land-cover maps and 

data were compiled for approximately 1,040,000 

square kilometers (400,000 square miles) bringing the 

total area completed for such mapping to 2,730,000 

square kilometers (1,050,000 square miles) since the 

program began in fiscal year 1975.

The Earth Resources Observation Systems (EROS) 

Program, through its EROS Data Center (EDC) in 

Sioux Falls, South Dakota, produced and distributed 

imagery and data having a value of $2,515,000. 

Landsat products, while totaling only 18 percent of 

the data base, accounted for 62 percent of total sales. 

More than 30 percent of the Landsat product sales 

were for computer compatible tapes, reflecting the increased capability of industry and Federal and State 

agencies to digitally process Landsat data. A new 

digital image processing system being implemented

by the Goddard Space Flight Center and EDC will 

start generating products from Landsat-C data early 

in 1978 which will be superior to those from 

Landsats 1 and 2.

The Environmental Impact Analysis Program had 

lead or joint lead responsibility for the Survey, in the 

preparation of 16 environmental impact statements 

and participated in a nonlead capacity in the preparation of 19 statements. Of the 35 EIS's, 32 were 

energy related. Also, 1,800 impact statements and related documents were reviewed.

ADMINISTRATIVE AND TECHNICAL 

SUPPORT

Major efforts during the year were directed at improvements in handling the increasing administrative workload in Procurement and Contracts, Financial Management, and Property Management. This 

development is part of an overall plan for automating administrative systems. Major portions of the data 

entry and processing activity of the above functions 

are now automated through the use of computer 

terminals, both at Headquarters and in the Regional 

Offices. Information being filed in the Geological 

Survey's Administrative Data Bases is now more timely, more accurate, and more useful. Consequently 

recurring and special reports are available not only 

to administrative managers, but also to managers in 

the Survey's Program Divisions and in the Department of the Interior.

Three Honeywell Multics time-sharing facilities 

were brought online to provide nationwide computer 

access for interactive problem solving. Located in 

Denver, Colorado; Menlo Park, California; and 

Reston, Virginia these facilities exploit existing automatic data processing technology to provide methods 

for scientific computations, data handling, and administrative data processing for the Geological Survey's varied activities.

A record number of maps were reproduced in fiscal 

1977 in the Survey's printing plant. More than 20 

million copies of over 7,380 different maps were 

printed including nearly 3,700 reprints of previously 

published maps. This major thrust in reprinting was 

accomplished to reduce the unusually large number 

of maps out of stock.

Results of many Geological Survey activities are 

not formally published, but are made available to 

the public and the scientific community through 

Open-File Reports. A centrally located facility was 

established in Denver, Colorado, to provide directmail sales of microfiche and paper-duplicate copies 

of Open-File Reports.

THE YEAR IN REVIEW | 5

Perspectives

"// we are to make full use of the earth's resources and at 

the same time maintain a viable environment we must understand the natural forces and processes at work in the earth, the 

rivers, the oceans and the atmosphere. We must know how these 

forces, processes, and materials interact and how and to what extent we perturb them in our activities. In spite of the warnings 

we frequently hear, there is nothing inherently wrong in changing the so-called balance of nature. Nature herself does it continually and man has been doing it with good, bad, and indifferent results since the discovery of fire and agriculture. What is 

dangerous now, with our enormous power to modify the earth 

and its processes, is to act in ignorance of the consequences."

V. E. McKelvey

in ''Earth Scientists Front and Center!"

April 17, 1972

River-Quality Assessment

By Phillip E. Greeson and David A. Rickert'

CONCEPT OF RIVER-QUALITY ASSESSMENT reconnaissance and intensive river-quality assessments

	are envisioned under the program. Reconnaissance

In 1972, the U.S. Geological Survey began a pro- river-quality assessments concentrate on the first obgram of river-quality assessments. The objectives of jective by describing the river quality of the basins 

the program are (1) to define the character, interrela- and by identifying existing and potential river-qualtionships, and apparent causes of existing river-quality ity problems. These are the necessary "problem 

conditions, and (2) to devise and demonstrate the identifiers." Intensive river-quality assessments emanalytical approaches and the tools and methodolo- phasize the second objective and lead to predictions 

gies needed for developing water-quality information of river-quality under various optional management 

that will provide a sound technical basis for planners strategies. They are the "problem analyzers." 

and managers to use in assessing river-quality prob- River-quality problems stem basically from two 

lems and evaluating management alternatives. Both factors the unique hydrology of a river basin and

1 Respectively, Hydrologist and Coordinator of River-Quality Assessment

The Willamette River, Oregon. Program, US. Geological Survey, Reston Virginia 22092; and Hydrologist 

' o and Project Chief of the Willamette River assessment, U.S. Geological

(Photograph from the Oregon State Highway Commission.) Survey, Portland, Oregon 97208.

RIVER-QUALITY ASSESSMENT | 7
man's development and use of the land and water resources. In the. broadest context, river-quality assessment is a problem-oriented approach for developing 

information that is appropriate and adequate for 

sound resource management (fig. 1).

To predict the consequences of any management 

plan, a fundamental understanding of cause-effect relationships is essential. Assessment, therefore, necessarily extends far beyond the basic data on water's 

physical, chemical, and biological qualities to the determination of pollution sources and the prevailing 

hydrologic conditions that cause the observed effect. 

When, by scientific analysis, cause-effect relationships 

are defined and verified, assessment becomes a powerful predictive tool by which alternative plans for 

action can be evaluated. Such evaluations then enable the planner and the decisionmaker to establish 

priorities rationally. (Rickert, Nines, and McKenzie, 

1976a, b.)

For a specific river basin, the process of river-quality assessment involves seven steps: (1) identifying significant problems of major importance in the basin; 

(2) analyzing the hydrology; (3) deciding upon assessment methods appropriate to each problem; (4) collecting data relevant to each problem by intensive investigations; (5) analyzing the data for cause-effect 

relationships, formulating and calibrating predictive

methods by which changes in river-quality variables 

can be projected, and verifying the predicted results 

against observed conditions; (6) forecasting the impacts of various planning alternatives on river quality; 

and (7) presenting the results of river-quality assessment in a manner that is understandable to planners 

and decisionmakers.

OVERVIEW OF THE SURVEY'S PROGRAM

On the basis of a recommendation from the Department of the Interior's Advisory Committee on 

Water Data for Public Use, the Geological Survey began an intensive pilot assessment in January 1973 with 

a study of the Willamette River basin, Oregon (fig. 2). 

The Williamette River was selected for several reasons. First, there was an excellent base of background 

data, particularly on hydrology. Second, social and 

political attitudes in Oregon reflected a keen interest 

in environmental quality. This suggested that the 

people and agencies would welcome the study and 

that results would be used at the State and local levels. 

Third, a river-basin management plan already existed, 

as did several land-use projections. Thus, the study 

could evaluate existing planning alternatives to provide a realistic test of assessment approaches. Fourth,

o

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7

DEVELOPMENT OF

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LONG-RANGE GOALS S>

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DESCRIPTION OF

OPPORTUNITIES

AND PROBLEMS

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IDENTIFICATION

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4

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 1 FORMUIATION OF PIANMIMr;

EVALUATION OF

EXISTING

INFORMATION

/

ANALYSIS OF

1 if ___ A RIVER HYDROLOGY 

DELINEATION OF p ^_

RIVER-QUALITY J~

PROBLEMS 1 r- -i 

1 13

 

ALTERNATIVE AND

PLANS FOR _ . MANAGEMENT

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GROWTH AND '

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< r__ _ _ Jt___ 1 PREDICTIVE 1 T~ 

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| COMMUNICATION | 

DECISIONS

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FIGURE 1. The interrelation of river-quality assessment to river-basin planning. 

(From Rickert, Mines, and McKenzie, 1976a.)

8 | PERSPECTIVES
123°

10 20MILES

, W <*f o

Study areo \ \S/COTTAGE GROVE

I l$( RESERVO/R ?F RESEKyolR m

"iNDEx"MAP~ 

OF OREGON

FIGURE 2. Willamette River basin, Oregon, emphasizing the 

main stem, principal tributaries, and major reservoirs. (From 

Rickert, Mines, and McKenzie, 1976a.)

the Willamette is the largest river in the Nation for 

which all major point-source discharges receive secondary waste-water treatment. Water quality is above 

the stringent State standards, and the river is considered a national success story. Thus, the study could 

include appraisal of the factors to which past improvement was attributed, in addition to evaluating the 

factors that needed to be managed to maintain or 

improve the quality.

The Willamette River basin, a watershed of nearly 

29,800 square kilometers (11,500 square miles), contains the State's three largest cities, Portland, Salem, 

and Eugene, and approximately 1.4 million people, 

representing 70 percent of the State's population

(1970 census). The basin supports an economy based 

on timber, agriculture, industry, and recreation, and 

contains extensive fish and wildlife habitats.

The basin is roughly rectangular, with a north-south 

length of about 240 kilometers (149 miles) and an 

east-west width of 120 kilometers (75 miles). Altitudes vary from less than 3 meters (10 feet) near the 

mouth of the Willamette River to 140 meters (459 

feet) on the valley floor near Eugene and to more 

than 3,050 meters (10,000 feet) in the Cascade Range. 

Average annual precipitation in the basin is about 

1,600 millimeters (63 inches).

The slopes and foothills of the Cascade Range account for more than 60 percent of the basin area. 

About 62 percent of the basin is timberland, located 

largely in the tributary basins. Approximately 33 percent of the area is farmland, and the remaining 5 percent is urban and in other uses.

Specific problems addressed during the study were 

determined in consultation with State, interstate, and 

Federal agencies. The problems included (1) the need 

for maintenance of high-level dissolved oxygen in 

the river and the effects of reservoir release patterns 

on downstream river quality; (2) algal growth potential; (3) occurrence and distribution of trace metals; 

and (4) the significance of erosion potential to proposed land and water uses (table 1). The Willamette

TABLE 1. Existing or potential river-quality problems of the 

Willamette River basin, Oregon, (from Rickert, Mines, and 

McKenzie, 1976a.)

Problem

Relative Selected for 

importance * present study

Nonpoint-source pollution 

Reservoir-release quality __ 

Dissolved-oxygen depletion 

Algal-problem potential ___ 

Trace-metal occurrence __. 

Sanitary quality ________

Accelerated erosion ______

Riverbank esthetics _____

1 1 = greatest importance; 3 = least importance.

assessment has been completed and the results have 

been reported in 10 Geological Survey Circulars (U.S. 

Ceol. Survey Circs. 715). (See references to Mines, 

Jennings, Rickert, Shearman, and others, 1975-77.)

Before discussing the results of the Willamette 

study, let us look briefly at the rest of the Survey's 

river-quality assessment program. In order to develop 

the approaches and methodologies for some of the 

basin problems not encountered in the Willamette 

River study, two additional intensive river-quality 

assessments were started in April 1975. One is of the 

Upper Chattahoochee River basin, Georgia, and the 

other is of the Yampa River basin, in Colorado and

RIVER-QUALITY ASSESSMENT | 9
Wyoming. The Upper Chatahoochee River assessment 

is scheduled for completion in the spring, 1978; 

reports of the Yampa River assessment are in 

preparation.

The Upper Chattahoochee River assessment (Cherry, R. N., and others, 1975) is addressing problems related to thermal loading and heat dissipation; wastes 

from concentrated urban-industrial areas; flow pulsations resulting from hydropower production; and 

sediment sources, transport characteristics, and deposition. The Upper Chattahoochee River basin study 

is demonstrating the kinds of information that can 

be provided as a basis for knowledgeable management decisions regarding basin development and 

future uses of the river in which the maintenance and 

improvement of water quality are prime requisites.

The Yampa River (fig. 3) assessment (Steele, T. D.f 

and others, 1'976a and b) addresses problems related 

to resource development for energy production primarily, the impact on river quality of coal extraction 

and conversion processes. The study incorporated 

the concepts of both reconnaissance and intensive 

assessments. The first phase of the study assessed, 

prior to development of energy-related activities, the 

environmental setting of the basin and the current 

and predicted energy-development plans. Under the 

second phase of the study, the relative impacts on 

the basin of various proposed plans for energyresource development are evaluated. The developed 

and documented methodologies should be readily 

transferable to other energy-rich, semiarid regions of 

the United States.

YAMPAx>RIVER SUBBASIN

10 -r-H r

10 20 30 KILOMETERS

. *40"

FIGURE 3. Yampa River basin, Colorado and Wyoming. (From Steele and others, 1976a.)

10 | PERSPECTIVES
IMPLICATIONS OF THE WILLAMETTE 

ASSESSMENT

The following conclusions (Rickert, Mines, and McKenzie, 1976; Greeson, Velz, and Rickert, 1977) are 

drawn from the Willamette River assessment:

Dissolved-oxygen depletion. Historically, maintenance of high dissolved-oxygen concentration has 

been the critical quality problem in the Willamette 

River, especially during summer low flows (fig. 4). In 

recent years, dissolved-oxygen levels have increased 

dramatically in the summer. Secondary biological 

treatment of all point sources of wastes has effectively 

reduced the discharge of organic, oxygen-demanding 

waste (biochemical oxygen demand or BOD) and, together with streamflow augmentation from storage 

reservoirs, has caused the improvement.

The advent of secondary treatment resulted in continuous discharges of effluents at several industrial installations, rather than the previously used program of 

summer lagooning and winter discharging. Ammonia 

from certain of these effluents was shown by the study 

to be the major cause of oxygen depletion in the 

lower third of the river. Reduction of ammonia loading from a few sources presents a relatively simple 

alternative for achieving a large improvement in 

summer dissolved-oxygen levels.

By contrast, it was found that further reduction in 

the point-source discharge of organic waste beyond 

that achieved by efficient secondary treatment would 

produce insignificant improvement in the dissolvedoxygen concentrations. Certain sources however, 

might require upgrading of their secondary treatment. 

Only about half of the total basinwide loading of 

organic, oxygen-demanding substances presently 

comes from point sources (table 2). The other half

TABLE 2. Dry-weather 1974 ultimate BOD loading, Willamette 

River, Oregon, (from Hines, McKenzic, and Rickert, in press.)

RIVER KILOMETERS ABOj/E J^QUItt.

Newberg

Willdmettei Portland

Falls Harbor

Source

Point

Industrial

Total

Loading 

(Ib/day)

-_ _ 77,100

37,600

54,400

169,100

Percent

46

22

32

100

represents natural background demand from essentially pristine streams and cannot be reduced by pollution control programs.

Even with basinwide secondary treatment and reasonable limitation on ammonia loading, low-flow 

augmentation from headwater streams would be

10

RIVER MILES ABOVE MOUTH

FIGURE 4. Comparison of 1973 with historical DO (dissolved 

oxygen) profiles in the Willamette River for the summer lowflow period. (Historical data are adapted from Gleeson, 1972.)

necessary to maintain the State's high dissolvedoxygen standards. As basin development continues, 

reservoir augmentation to the present flow level probably will be needed even with increased treatment 

removal of oxygen-depleting materials.

Potential for algal problems. Despite the secondary treatment of point-source discharges, nitrogen and 

phosphorus concentrations in the Willamette River 

remain high, creating a potential for algal problems. 

There are several probable reasons why nuisance 

growths have not been observed: lack of other essential trace elements, low water temperatures, high 

summertime turbidities, and short water-detention 

times. The results and comparisons with other rivers 

indicate that the primary reason for favorable algal 

populations in the Willamette River, in spite of high 

concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus, was the 

short detention time of water.

A number of factors discourage the growth of nuisance algae in flowing waters. Perhaps the most important is the constant nutrient influx which prevents 

depletion of major nutrients to the advantage of 

bluegreen algae. The key to algal control in the Willamette River appears to be maintenance of present 

levels of low-flow augmentation, to maintain higher 

streamflow velocities. The detailed biological studies 

indicate that arbitrary standards for permissible nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations are not desirable.

RIVER-QUALITY ASSESSMENT | 11
Trace-metal occurrence. Many materials discharged into river systems can be toxic to aquatic organisms. Most substances enter the river at subtoxic 

levels, but many can be concentrated at successive 

steps in aquatic food chains. Records for the Willamette River basin showed that there was little possibility of problems resulting from industrial organics 

and pesticides but few data existed on the discharges 

of trace metals or of their possible accumulation in 

the water, sediment, and food chains.

To help fill the data void, a study was conducted to 

determine the concentration and distribution of selected metals in river-bottom sediments in order to 

establish baseline data for future comparisons and to 

provide an alert to possible accumulations of metals. 

The concentrations detected in the study suggest that 

no metals were present at levels which might represent a potential ecological threat. There were, however, moderate enrichments of zinc, resulting from 

industrial discharges, and slight enrichments of lead, 

resulting from urban runoff. The procedures developed in the study could be modified to detect the 

extent of trace-metal pollution in virtually any river.

Impact of land-use activity on erosion. Great increases in population and industry over the next 50 

years are predicted for the Willamette Valley. The 

potential impacts of the development on the land 

and the water quality is unknown, but they may be 

very high. For the study, a photomosaic map and an 

erosion-potential matrix were developed to delineate 

the relationships between physiographic factors, types 

of land use, and resultant erosional and depositional 

problems. Together, the map and matrix provide a 

means for making tentative estimates of the erosional 

impact of human activities on various types of terrain. 

They can be used elsewhere for land- and waterresource planning and for the design of improved 

programs for assessing land and river quality.

Implications for the Scientific and Engineering 

Community

While the results of the pilot study are of particular 

importance to decisions affecting the Willamette 

River, certain findings can be extended to the investigative programs of the scientific and engineering 

communities across the Nation. Some already have 

been pointed out such as the importance of lowflow augmentation and the limited impact on the 

river of further reduction of organic, oxygen-depleting wastes. These can be extended readily to other 

river-basin appraisals and could influence decisions 

involving the expenditures of vast sums of money.

Of particular importance to the scientific community is the insight gained as to the types of data 

needed to conduct a sound river-quality assessment.

Short-term, intensive, synoptic studies are needed to 

provide the types of data required for assessment of 

problems in the river. As well as defining cause-effect 

relationships, data from synoptic studies can provide 

knowledge of critical temporal and spatial changes 

in river quality, environmental factors, and waste 

loading, and sufficient data for a given time period 

to define the range of error in results and predictions.

It was found that mathematical models, if properly 

formulated and based on sound and adequate data 

with all the assumptions clearly stated, can be used 

effectively in the practical assessment of resourceplanning alternatives.

There are many problems, however, which are currently difficult or impossible to model in a practical 

and verifiable manner. Such problems include nutrient-algal growth relationships and trace-metal occurrence. In the pilot study, a qualitative-descriptive 

approach was used to develop sound planning information. The descriptive studies demonstrated that 

qualitative approaches can produce adequate and reliable data for assessing key river-quality problems.

The approach of the pilot study and all the methods 

and techniques developed were intended for widespread application to facilitate the assessment of land 

and river quality in many basins. Often the demographic and economic uncertainties in a basin may 

be greater than the river-quality uncertainties, but this 

only increases the need for careful, thorough scientific 

assessment of local problems. Such appraisal can 

provide a starting point for systematic evaluation of 

the impact of socioeconomic and political options 

and of technical alternatives on each specific problem. Sound resource planning and management decisions can be made only on the basis of an intensive, 

coordinated assessment of the entire river basin that 

is keyed to the local problems and conditions.

Implications for Resource Planning and 

Management

The need to study each basin individually is one of 

the broad implications of the study. For instance, a 

special interrelationship in the Willamette River was 

revealed between nutrient concentrations and flow as 

controllers of algal growth. The application of rigid 

nationwide standards might have resulted in expenditures, unnecessary in this basin, to reduce the loading of nitrogen and phosphorus.

Another broad implication is that wastewater treatment is not the sole means of river-quality enhancement, although it plays an important role. More and 

more treatment is not necessarily the answer. Other 

strategies must be considered, for example, low-flow 

augmentation, industrial processing of wastes, and

12 | PERSPECTIVES
E

s:

Collecting bottom sediment samples with a Peterson Crab.

better control of nonpoint sources of pollution and 

urban runoff.

Results of the pilot study also indicate that, when 

expensive management decisions are pending, there 

is no substitute for carefully interpreted, detailed and 

intensive data. Routine monitoring or surveillance 

data, while useful for local management and determining compliance with standards, are seldom adequate for defining the cause-effect relationships that 

control most river-quality problems.

The cost of conducting the dissolved-oxygen element of the study was approximately $125,000. Although a considerable investment, it was small 

compared with the amount that might be spent for 

pollution control in such a river basin over the next 

10 to 20 years. In fact, the General Accounting Office 

(Comptroller General of the United States, 1976) estimated that the results of the study potentially could 

save tens of millions of Federal, State, and local dollars. Such a study is important as a basis not only for 

setting planning and management priorities, but also 

for pointing out potential savings particularly when 

little improvement in water quality would be achieved 

by proposed waste-treatment or other pollutioncontrol programs.

Summary

In 1972, the U.S. Geological Survey began a pilot 

program of river-quality assessments. The objectives 

of the program are (1) to define the character, interrelationships, and apparent causes of existing riverquality problems, and (2) to devise and demonstrate

RIVER-QUALITY ASSESSMENT | 13
the analytical approaches and the tools and methodologies needed for developing water-quality information that will provide a sound technical basis for 

planners and managers to use in assessing river-quality problems and evaluating management alternatives.

The pilot study on the Willamette River basin, Oregon addressed problems related to (1) the need for 

maintenance of high-level dissolved oxygen in the 

river including effects of reservoir release patterns on 

downstream river quality, (2) algal growth potential,

(3) occurrence and distribution of trace metals, and

(4) the significance of erosion potential to proposed 

land and water uses.

Two other pilot assessments were begun in the Upper Chattahoochee River basin, Georgia and in the 

Yampa River basin, Colorado/Wyoming. The Upper 

Chattahoochee basin study is addressing problems 

related to thermal loading and heat dissipation; 

wastes from concentrated urban-industrial areas; flow 

pulsations resulting from hydropower production; 

and sediment sources, transport characteristics, and 

deposition. The Yampa basin study addressed problems related to resource development for energy production primarily, the impact on river quality of coal 

extraction and conversion processes.

The most noteworthy finding of the Willamette assessment was that across-the-board advanced waste 

treatment is not the most effective way of assuring 

that the stringent water-quality standards for dissolved 

oxygen in the river are met. It was found that the 

elimination of two industrial discharges of oxygendemanding ammonia would result in a much greater 

improvement on the Willamette River at considerably 

less cost than advanced waste treatment.

The Willamette Assessment showed that existing 

water-quality data generally are inadequate for defining critical cause-effect relationships that control 

river-quality problems and that intensive, synoptic 

surveys keyed to local problems and conditions are 

needed in most river basins to develop an adequate 

information base for managing key river-quality problems. The study illustrated the fact that rigid standards and regulations are likely to result in unneeded 

expenditures in some river basins. The study concluded that a proper balance can be attained only 

through an intensive, coordinated assessment that is 

keyed to local problems and conditions. A

SELECTED REFERENCES

Cherry, R. N., Faye, R. E., Stamer, J. K., and McCinty, H. K., 1975, 

Work plan for a river quality assessment, Upper Chattahoochee 

River basin: U.S. Ceol. Survey Adm. Rept., 60 p. 

Comptroller General of the United States, 1976, Better data 

collection and planning is needed to justify advanced waste 

treatment construction: U.S. General Accounting Office Rept. 

CED-77-12, 70 p.

Gleeson, G. W., 1972, The return of a river, the Willamette 

River, Oregon: Advisory Comm. on Environmental Sci. and 

Technology and Water Resources Inst., Oregon State Univ., 

Corvallis, 103 p.

Greeson, P. E., Velz, C. J., and Rickert, D. A., 1977, River-quality 

assessments: Water Resources Bull., Vol. 13, No. 3, p. 445-453. 

Mines, W. G., McKenzie, S. W., and Rickert, D. A., Dissolved 

oxygen regimen of the Willamette River, Oregon under conditions of basinwide secondary treatment: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Circ. 715-1 (in press).

Mines, W. G., Rickert, D. A., and McKenzie, S. W., 1976, Hydrologic analysis and river-quality data programs: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Circ. 715-D, 20 p.

Mines, W. G., Rickert, D. A., McKenzie, S. W., and Bennett, J. P., 

1975, Formulation and use of practical models for riverquality assessments: U.S. Geol. Survey Circ. 715-B, 13 p. 

Jennings, M. E., Shearman, J. O., and Bauer, D. P., 1976, Selection of streamflow and reservoir-release models for riverquality assessment: U.S. Geol. Survey Circ. 715-E, 12 p. 

Rickert, D. A., and Mines, W. G., 1975, A practical framework 

for river-quality assessment: U.S. Geol. Survey Circ. 715-A, 

17 p.

Rickert, D. A., Mines, W. G., and McKenzie, S. W., 1976a, 

Methodology for river-quality assessment and application to 

the Willamette River basin, Oregon Summary Report: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Circ. 715-M, 55 p.

Rickert, D. A., Mines, W. G., and McKenzie, S. W., 1976b, Project 

development and data programs for assessing the quality of 

the Willamette River, Oregon: U.S. Geol. Survey Circ. 715-C, 

31 p.

Rickert, D. A., Kennedy, S. W., McKenzie, S. W., and Mines, 

W. G., 1977, A synoptic survey of trace metals in bottom sediments of the Willamette River, Oregon: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Circ. 715-F, 27 p.

Rickert, D. A., Peterson, Richard, McKenzie, S. W., Mines, W. G.,

and Wille, S. A., 1977, Algal conditions and the potential

for future algal problems in Willamette River, Oregon: U.S.

Geol. Survey Circ. 715-G, 39 p.

Shearman, J. O., 1976, Reservoir-system model for the Willamette

River basin, Oregon: U.S. Geol. Survey Circ. 715-H, 22 p. 

Steele, T. D., Bauer, D. P., Wentz, D. A., and Warner, j. W., 

1976a, An environmental assessment of impacts of coal development on the water resources of the Yampa River basin, 

Colorado and Wyoming Phase I work plan: U.S. Geol. Survey Open-File Rept. 76-367, 17 p.

Steele, T. D., James, I. C., II, Bauer, D. P., and others, 1976b, 

An environmental assessment of impacts of coal development 

on the water resources of the Yampa River basin, Colorado 

and Wyoming Phase II work plan: U.S. Geol. Survey OpenFile Rept. 76-368, 33 p.

14 | PERSPECTIVES
Role of Earth Sciences in the 

Disposal of Radioactive Waste

By George D. DeBuchananne

"The basic requirement for a safe repository 

is that the repository and its waste will be 

isolated from mankind and the biological environment for hundreds of thousands of 

years."

INTRODUCTION

Since the beginning of the Atomic Age, man has 

known that disposal of radioactive waste would be 

a serious problem due to the longevity and toxicity 

of radioactive waste. It has also been apparent that, 

as most of the wastes are either in liquid or solid 

form, disposal is in a large part an earth-science problem that requires an understanding of the fate of 

these wastes after disposal.

Radioactive wastes are generated at several different times or stages in the uranium fuel cycle. The 

more important sources of waste result from mining, 

milling, refining, enrichment, and fabrication of the 

fuel, the operation of power reactors, the reprocessing of spent reactor fuel elements or assemblies for 

the recovery and reuse of unused uranium and(or) 

plutonium, the storage or disposal of spent fuel assemblies if not reprocessed and, to a lesser extent, 

nuclear research and development. No repositories

for the storage or disposal of high-level waste exist 

today in the United States.

Nearly all operations that produce or use nuclear 

materials generate radioactive waste. Most of the 

waste comes from Department of Energy military 

reactors, commercial nuclear power plants, and Federal and commercial nuclear fuel cycle activities, such 

as fuel fabrication and reprocessing facilities.

Radioactive wastes can be referred to as high-level, 

transuranic (Tru), and low-level. For the purpose of 

this discussion, high-level wastes include fission products wastes that have a high level of penetrating radiation, high rates of heat generation, and a long toxic 

life. In addition to those high-level wastes generated 

by the reprocessing of spent reactor fuel, one must 

reckon with the spent fuel and assemblies themselves 

if they are to be disposed of without reprocessing 

for recovery of plutonium and uranium. Tru wastes 

are described as those solid or solidified wastes that 

contain long-lived alpha emitters at concentrations 

greater than 10 nanocuries per gram. They generate 

little or no heat, and have radiation levels of less 

than 1,000 millirems ] per hour after packaging. 

Transuranic elements also occur in high-level and 

low-level wastes and in spent fuel. Low-level radioactive wastes are those wastes that have become contaminated through use or origin yet do not fit into 

the above categories.

Sources of Radioactive Waste

According to the Comptroller General's Report to 

Congress (1977), the high-level wastes generated by 

the Department of Energy (DOE) fuel reprocessing 

plants for the military programs amounted to about 

0.27 million cubic meters (74 million gallons) as of 

January 1977. Most of these wastes have been generated and stored at DOE's Hanford facility in Washington, at their Savannah River facility in South Carolina, and at their Idaho National Engineering Laboratories in Idaho. When solidified, those wastes will be 

about 0.19 million cubic meters (7 million cubic feet). 

By the year 2000 it has been estimated that the reprocessing of military wastes could generate an additional 0.11 million cubic meters (4 million cubic feet.) 

of high-level waste.

The only commercial fuel reprocessing plant that 

operated in the United States processed 640 metric 

tons of spent fuel from April 1966 to early 1972, 

generating about 2.4 thousand cubic meters (640,000 

gallons) of high-level liquid waste. Additional commercial high-level waste, in the form of spent reactor

1 Rem: A unit of measure for the dose of ionizing radiation 

that gives the same biological effect as 1 roentgen of X rays: 

1 rem equals approximately 1 rad for X, gamma, or beta radiation.

ROLE OF EARTH SCIENCES IN THE DISPOSAL OF RADIOACTIVE WASTE | 15
UO2 1

ENRICHMENT AND 

CONVERSION

FIGURE 5. Sources of radioactive waste in the light-water fuel cycle. (Modified from "Alternatives for Managing Wastes from 

Reactors and Post-Fission Operations in the LWR Fuel Cycle", ERDA-76-43, UC 70, May 1976.)

16 | PERSPECTIVES
fuel assemblies, from operating nuclear power reactors is accumulating yearly. This spent reactor fuel 

will have to be handled as high-level waste if the 

President's decision to defer commercial reprocessing 

continues indefinitely.

The Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) (1976) 

projects that there will be about 500 large nuclear 

power reactors operating by the year 2000.. NRC 

estimates that these reactors will generate 127,000 

metric tons of spent fuel through the year 2000. If 

these spent-fuel assemblies are reprocessed and the 

resulting wastes are solidified, the additional highlevel wastes have been estimated to total as much as 

6.4 thousand cubic meters (230,000 cubic feet).

In addition to the high-level waste cited above, 

about 0.37 million cubic meters (13 million cubic 

feet) of transuranic contaminated solid waste from 

military and research activities already have been 

either buried or stored retrievably at five principal 

DOE shallow-land burial sites. There are no records 

on the volume of commercial transuranic contaminated waste that has been buried at six State-owned 

shallow-land burial sites.

DOE's predecessor, the Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA), estimated that 

about 0.19 million cubic meters (7 million cubic feet) 

of transuranic contaminated waste will be generated 

commercially through the year 2000. In addition, 

some of the .036 million cubic meters (1.3 million 

cubic feet) of waste being generated by DOE programs each year are contaminated with transuranic 

elements.

The Comptroller General Report to the Congress 

(1976) reports that some 1.17 million cubic meters 

(42 million cubic feet) of other than high-level radioactive waste (commonly called low-level waste) have 

been buried at DOE facilities through 1974. The annual volume of DOE generated low-level waste was 

estimated at about .036 million cubic meters (1.3 

million cubic feet) in 1976, but the volume is expected to gradually decrease in the future.

During the period 1962 through 1973, approximately 0.25 million cubic meters (9 million cubic feet) 

of commercial low-level radioactive wastes have been 

buried at commercial State-owned shallow land 

burial sites. Each year the volume of commercial 

low-level waste buried at commercial sites increases, 

commensurate with the expected growth of the nuclear power industry. In a study, O'Connell and 

Holcomb (1974) projected an average annual volume 

of commercial low-level waste at 0.41 million cubic 

meters (14.5 million cubic feet) for 1981 to 1990 and 

2.2 million cubic meters (78 million cubic feet) for 

the period 1991 to 2000. By the year 2000 it was estimated that approximately 28 million cubic meters

(1 billion cubic feet) of low-level solid waste would 

accumulate. It should be noted that this 1974 estimate by EPA is about 7 times greater than the 1976 

NRC estimate shown in table 3. The difference, in 

part, is believed to be due to different projected 

nuclear growth.

Waste Disposal Concept

Table 3 illustrates the possible volume of accumulated waste that would come from a balanced lightwater reactor power system by the year 2000 for the 

no-recycle and uranium-only recycle options.

Since the beginning of the Atomic Era, many disposal concepts have been considered in the management and disposal of high-level radioactive waste. 

The most promising of these concepts include: (1) 

transmutation, the conversion of a radioactive nucleus to another isotope by bombarding it with radiation or nuclear particles; (2) extraterrestrial disposal, 

where waste would be placed in orbit around the 

sun; (3) ice-sheet disposal, where waste would be 

placed in the polar regions; (4) sea-floor geologic 

disposal, where waste would be placed in the rocks 

underlying the ocean deeps; and (5) deep geologic 

disposal, where waste would be placed in deep continental geological formations.

These five concepts have all been given serious 

consideration, and research is still underway on several of these modes of disposal. After more than 30 

years of study the proposed disposal in deep continental geological formations appears to show the 

best possibility for isolating the waste from mankind. 

The new U.S. Department of Energy is following its 

predecessors, the Energy Research and Development 

Administration and the Atomic Energy Commission, 

in pushing forward the search for a suitable geological environment for a high-level repository.

TABLE 3. Cumulative volumes, in cubic meters, of waste inventory in the year 2000 '

Type of Waste

Mill tailings

Spent fuel

High-level

Transuranic

Hulls and hardware

(transuranic)

Low-level reactor waste

(non-transuranic)

Other low-level

(non-transuranic)

Chemical

Fuel Cycle

No Recycle

780,000,000

55,000"

h

i)

l>

3,800,000

310,000

179,000

Option

U Recycle

690,000,000

6,000 c

6,500"

76,500 e

52,000

3,800,000

300,000

183,000

"400,000 spent-fuel assemblies. ' Volume of HLW in 37,000 con11 Not produced with No-recycle isters.

c 37,000 spent-fuel assemblies in Includes plutonium wastes, 

pool storage awaiting processing.

' Taken from Environmental Survey of the Reprocessing and Waste Management Portions of the LWR Fuel Cycle, NuReg-0116 (Suppl. 1 to WASH 

1248). Nuclear Regulatory Commission 1976, p. 3-16.
National Waste Disposal Program

According to Zerby (1976) in 1976, ERDA announced a greatly expanded program for the management of nuclear waste and created the National 

Waste Terminal Storage (NWTS) program. The object 

of the NWTS program is to provide facilities in various deep geological formations at multiple locations 

in the United States where commercial radioactive 

waste can be safely disposed.

The Department of Energy has the responsibility 

for selecting and constructing Federal repositories for 

radioactive waste. However, the Nuclear Regulatory 

Commission, must license such repositories as being 

safe prior to their construction and use. Furthermore, 

the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is 

charged with the responsibility of determining 

whether or not the license requirements have been 

satisfied and whether or not a given repository, as 

operated, is indeed safe.

The basic requirement for a safe repository is that 

the repository and its waste will be isolated from 

mankind and the biological environment for hundreds of thousands of years. The single most important hydrogeological consideration in the deep burial 

of high-level waste is the isolation of the waste from 

circulating groundwater. If the waste can be so isolated it can be considered to be immobile. Providing complete assurance of immobility for hundreds 

of thousands of years does not appear possible to 

many geohydrologists. The basic problem that must 

be addressed in all considerations of geologic disposal of high-level waste (HLW) can be stated as follows: HLW material which is not in mechanical, 

thermal, or chemical equilibrium with its natural 

environment is placed in a complex geologic host 

with the object of not allowing physical and(or) 

chemical migration of radionuclides away from the 

disposal site into the biosphere in hazardous concentrations. It follows that the > multi-component 

physical-chemical system that will develop in and 

around the repository as a result of waste-rock interaction must be completely understood in order to 

avoid any unforeseen effects. The effects of natural 

disturbance on local equilibrium must be considered 

as well. The major categories of investigation needed 

to resolve these problems are: (1) investigations of 

natural and waste-induced processes; (2) characterization of host-rock media; (3) characterization of environments or regions to evaluate their potential for 

repositories.

The object of these three categories of study is 

ultimately to assess all possible failure modes. Failure may result from both natural and waste-induced 

processes, occurring independently or in conjunction

with each other. Basic information on the effect of 

disposal in host media and its geologic regions, data 

from laboratory studies, and the results of predictive 

containment and transport models all contribute to a 

thorough understanding of possible failure.

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY NUCLEAR 

WASTE DISPOSAL PROGRAM

High-Level Waste Program

The Survey's ongoing nuclear-waste research program in cooperation with DOE, though limited in 

scope, is designed to mesh with DOE's National 

Waste Terminal Storage program which calls for 

early emphasis on salt formations and later studies 

of shales, crystalline rocks and other rock types. Geochemical, hydrological, geologic and geophysical 

work is now underway for salt formations and salt 

domes. A limited effort has begun to evaluate the 

suitability of shales and crystalline rocks as host 

media by a combination of field and laboratory 

studies.

Investigations of natural and waste-induced processes include:

1. Ceochemical interactions of the waste and its 

host media.

2. Analysis of seismic risk and development of seismic design criteria.

3. Nature and effect of climate changes.

Investigations directed towards the characterization of regions include:

1. Geologic remote-sensing evaluation.

2. Regional and borehole geophysical evaluation.

3. Regional geochemical investigations.

4. Hydrogeological evaluation of salt domes and 

anticlines.

5. Hydrogeological evaluation of bedded salt deposits.

6. Hydrogeological evaluation of shales.

7. Hydrogeological evaluation of some rock types 

at the Nevada Test Site.

Low-Level Waste Program

Disposal by burial in shallow trenches of solid 

other than high-level waste (commonly called lowlevel waste) containing radionuclides was initiated 

during World War II at several National laboratories 

as an expedient method of directly protecting personnel from radiation and of isolating the radionuclides from the hydrosphere and biosphere. At that 

time, the volume of such low-level waste was small

18 | PERSPECTIVES
and disposal sites were selected largely as a matter 

of convenience with only generalized considerations 

given to long-term containment. Most of the otherthan-high-level waste consisted of material that had 

become radioactive through use in the nuclear laboratories and production facilities. Typical contaminated materials include glassware, containers, rags 

used to wipe up spills, sweepings, brooms, mops, 

filters, and various and sundry pieces of laboratory 

equipment and hardware for which decontamination was uneconomical or impossible.

After the war, the effort to apply nuclear materials 

to a myriad of peaceful uses resulted in a constantly 

expanding volume of an increasing variety of waste 

types to be disposed. Limited evaluation of the available data collected at the earlier burial sites did not 

indicate any major problems. Also, early studies of 

ion exchange and other sorption processes in the 

laboratory helped to foster a belief that in the Earth's 

subsurface, when all else failed, natural sorption 

processes could be relied on to adequately delay 

movement of most radionuclides. Furthermore, the 

economic attractions of shallow land burial, the ready 

availability of sites, and the opinion that any problem which might develop would be corrected by 

engineered remedial techniques, contributed significantly to the conclusion that this method of waste disposal was satisfactory. This philosophy prevailed 

through the 1950's and 1960's and the burial sites 

became larger and more numerous, until today there 

are 11 geographical localities in the United States 

which are used as burial sites for other-than-highlevel radioactive waste materials.

In addition to the Survey-DOE high-level waste 

program, the Survey-DOE has underway two field 

investigations of other-than-high-level waste disposal one in the arid hydrogeologic environment 

of basaltic rocks of Idaho and the other in the humid 

environment of folded and fractured calcareous shales 

and limestone of east Tennessee. The problem in 

both environments is to describe the micro-hydrogeology of the system so that radiochemical data can 

be related to field observations in order to predict 

waste migration. The results to date of the study in 

Idaho have been very encouraging. Robertson (1974) 

has field tested a predictive digital waste-transport 

model and found it to be accurate. This model will 

be a useful tool for designing a meaningful monitoring system for the Idaho Nuclear Engineering Laboratory area. In the Tennessee program which is just 

beginning, basic hydrologic field data is being collected so that the hydrogeologic system can be adequately described. The hydrologic data will then be 

used to develop a digital hydrologic-flow model of 

the system. After the hydrologic flow model has been

verified, it can hopefully be used to design, construct, 

and verify a model to predict waste-solute transport. 

The predictive transport model would then be used 

to select the most desirable locations for observation 

wells to monitor the waste movement through the 

fracured calcareous shale.

The Geological Survey's own other-than-high-level 

radioactive waste program funded by appropriation 

to the Survey is directed at determining the processes and principles of radioactive waste migration. 

The program also addresses the problem of determining the availability of and uses of water by the 

nuclear industry.

These investigations are both theoretical and applied. Theoretical mathematical simulation and laboratory studies related to radioactive waste disposal are 

already underway at USCS research centers in 

Reston, Va.; Lakewood, Colo.; and Menlo Park, Calif. 

Experiments in the laboratory are being conducted 

with actual materials and solutions collected at the 

different burial sites. The Survey also has initiated 

comprehensive field investigations at the several 

other-than-high-level waste burial sites, with the 

cooperation of the responsible State agencies in New 

York, South Carolina, Kentucky, Illinois, and Nevada, 

respectively. Earlier studies at the Maxey Flats burial 

site in Kentucky were initiated with funds transferred 

from EPA's Office of Radiation Programs. These five 

field investigations in addition to the USCS-DOE 

studies in Idaho and Tennessee will provide from 

seven different hydrogeological environments the 

field data that are essential to establishing hydrogeologic criteria for the siting of shallow-land burial 

grounds.

It should be noted that, in initiating these studies, 

the Survey has received both policy and resource support from the Federal regulatory agencies, such as 

the Nuclear Regulatory Commission and the Environmental Protection Agency as well as the Department 

of Energy. Other studies not involving radioactive 

waste concern waste heat discharges into surface 

waters at nuclear power plants.

In addition to the radioactive waste disposal problems generated by the nuclear industry, there are 

other water-waste related problems involving municipal, industrial, and agricultural waste which are being studied by the Geological Survey.

UNRESOLVED PROBLEMS OF RADIOACTIVE WASTE DISPOSAL

The problem of high-level waste disposal has been 

under consideration by earth scientists since 1955 

when the National Academy of Science gathered together a group of earth scientists to consider the

ROLE OF EARTH SCIENCES IN THE DISPOSAL OF RADIOACTIVE WASTE | 19
geologic, biologic, physical, and chemical ramifications of this problem. Since that time considerable 

effort by scientists at Oak Ridge National Laboratory 

and at the Battelle Northwest Laboratories has been 

directed towards considering the feasibility of disposing of,.liquid high-level waste in deep geologic 

basins and salt mines, and later in disposing of solidified waste in bedded salt deposits.

More recently, since 1974, in response to growing 

pressures for a resolution of the problem of disposing of radioactive waste, earth scientists associated 

with universities, national laboratories, industrial organizations, state geological surveys and the U.S. 

Geological Survey have begun intensive examinations 

of the problem.

Because there will always be some residual uncertainty about basic processes of ground-water migration, waste-rock interaction, tectonism, and varying climate, a conservative approach to the development of these repositories is called for. This conservative approach entails clear and detailed statements of geologic criteria, the development of adequate techniques for verifying that a particular site 

meets the designed criteria, and a plan for long-term 

monitoring of the repository to insure that the processes that actually occur are those that were anticipated or are at least benign.

The potential hazard from unplanned releases of 

waste to the biosphere and hydrosphere is real and 

the risk extends to periods of millions of years. But 

predictions over time frames of millions of years is 

beyond the capability of earth scientists. In practice, 

during an evaluation .of the effect of a particular 

natural event, the fate of the waste will vary with the 

interaction and timing of other unrelated natural 

events, and doubt would always remain about the 

effects of these processes upon the ability of the environment to contain the wastes.

One of the greatest gaps in current knowledge concerns tine chemical interaction between the host 

media/and the waste. High-level radioactive wastes 

generate heat. The highest repository temperatures 

occur during the first tens or hundreds of years. The 

effects of this release of thermal energy on geologic 

media are many and include at least three principal 

categories: mechanical, mineralogical, and hydrologic. Virtually all thermal effects complicate enormously the task of prediction over the intervals of 

geologic time required for the isolation of waste. 

Such complexity increases the uncertainty of geologic 

estimates and in several instances, current technology 

is inadequate to yield any prediction at all.

Geophysical techniques, particularly down-hole 

techniques, are inadequate at this time to adequately 

explore and describe the mass of rock needed for a

repository. The problem of describing the area of a 

repository is amplified by the necessity of not destroying the integrity of geologic containment by excessive drilling of exploratory holes in the repository 

area.

Most of the repository sites will be located within 

the stable part of the North American Continent. 

However, because of the hazard of high-level waste, 

seismic risk must be evaluated for any areas considered for siting. Adequate methods for doing this 

evaluation over very long time periods must also be 

developed to assure repository siting suitability.

One of the major questions that will have to be 

asked about any proposed repository for radioactive 

waste will be the effect of future climate on the 

hydrologic regime and geomorphic setting. Major 

climatic oscillations, with periods on the order of 

tens of thousands of years, have been a feature of 

global climate for at least the past million years and 

may be expected to continue. Therefore, existing 

paleoclimatological data needs to be reviewed from 

the point of view of nuclear waste disposal.

In order for a repository to be acceptable, the host 

rock must be essentially impermeable. This raises the 

question of how to measure permeability in a drill 

hole with such low permeability or insignificant 

ground-water flow. A number of such problems as 

constrained by current technology remain to be 

solved for high-level waste repositories.

As previously stated, earth scientists recognize 

that high-level waste must be isolated from circulating ground waters. In the event, at some later date, 

that such waste is subjected to ground water, it is 

mandatory to be able to predict rates of flow and 

pathways of solutes from the repository sites. Ground 

water in low-permeable crystalline rocks flows principally through fractures. Ground water flow through 

fractured media is not well understood.

Understanding the thermal effect on the rocks surrounding buried waste is extremely important to 

management of high-level waste. The rise of temperature and the dissipation of heat from high-level 

waste must be evaluated. To do this, it is necessary 

to acquire data on thermal conductivity of rocks and 

the effects on temperature, pressure, porosity, mineral composition, and water saturation.

The assessment of rock at any potential high-level 

waste repository involves assessing the potential 

movement of transuranium elements as well as other 

radioactive contaminants. There are several aspects 

of this assessment which need to be fully understood: 

(1) chemical reactions between the radionuclides and 

the natural earth materials through which they are

20 | PERSPECTIVES
being transported are not understood; and (2) the 

effect of the high-level waste heat on the migration 

of radionuclides via ground water has not been 

evaluated.

Many earth scientists are concerned with the reactions that will occur between radionuclides and the 

naturally occuring earth materials. These reactions are 

not well understood, particularly for the transuranium 

and other elements that will be contained in the 

waste.

Existing programs do not fully address the impact 

of man's intrusion on the natural environment. Drill 

holes, mine shafts, and other repository construction 

activities will introduce additional uncertainties that 

will have to be evaluated. All repository openings, 

regardless of depth will have to be sealed by some, 

as yet unknown, technology which will in effect return the site to near virgin conditions. In addition, 

little or no effort has been devoted to the problem 

of monitoring a repository and the surrounding area 

to detect changes which could ultimately lead to a 

leak of the containment.

Radioactive waste problems are dynamic, complex, 

and varied. Therefore, there can be no one simple 

solution to all problems. The different solutions will 

have to be imaginative, working primarily within the 

constraints dictated by the hydrogeologic environment at each proposed disposal site to determine 

what type and classification of radioactive waste can 

be contained by the proposed site for the period of

time required to protect the biosphere and hydrosphere. The waste should be tailored to the environment since man, as yet, is unable to control many 

of the natural processes.

Recognizing all of the unresolved earth science 

problems, will it be possible to isolate radioactive 

waste from man's environment? Geologic containment is the most reasonable alternative for radioactive waste isolation and safe geologic repositories can 

be constructed, once these problems are resolved. A

REFERENCES

The Comptroller General of the United States, 1977, Report to 

the Congress, Nuclear energy's dilemma: disposal of 

hazardous radioactive waste safely, EMD-77-41.

The Comptroller General of the United States ,1976, Report to 

the Congress, Improvements needed in the land disposal of 

radioactive wastes a problem of centuries, RED-76-54.

Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 1976, Final generic environmental statement on the use of recycled plutonium in 

mixed oxide fuel in light-water cooled reactors: (NUREG0002) U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Washington, 

D.C., Aug. 1976.

O'Connell, M. F., and Holcomb, W. F., 1974, A summary of lowlevel radioactive waste buried at commercial sites between 

1962-1973, with projection to the year 2000: ERA, Radiation Data and Reports, v. 15, no. 12.

Robertson, J. B., 1974, Digital Modeling of radioactive and 

chemical waste transport in the aquifer underlying the 

Snake River Plain at the National Reactor Testing Station, 

Idaho: U.S. Geol. Survey Open-file rept. 19 p.

Zerby, C. D., 1976, The National Waste Terminal Storage Program: Symposium on Waste Management, ERDA Conf761020, October 1976.

"The Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) 

(1976) projects that there will be about 500 

large nuclear power reactors operating by 

the year 2000. NRC estimates that these reactors will generate 127,000 metric tons of 

spent fuel through the year 2000."
SfiiiMn Wells on the Outer Continental Shelf

By Charles M. Perrott and Ronald W. Taylor

Shut-in oil and gas wells have been a major concern in the past two or three years to the Congress, 

the Geological Survey, the industry, and the general 

public. Thus, a discussion of the background of the 

problem and what has been done to resolve it is in 

order.

It was mentioned in the last two Annual Reports 

that a Congressional subcommittee has held the view 

that some oil companies deliberately shut-in producible wells and reservoirs (particularly gas wells and 

reservoirs) until higher prices will make production 

more profitable. Industry's response was that reserve 

figures include behind-the-pipe reserves in wells with 

multiple sands which could not be produced concurrently. Where multiple horizons occur, the productive 

sands are produced sequentially.

The Survey initiated action on this matter in January 1975 by asking 10 companies that appeared to 

have the most questionable cases of shut-in wells on 

leases to start production immediately or submit reasons and data explaining why shut-in status should 

be permitted. Subsequently, in March 1975, 3 of these 

10 companies were required to submit additional 

data supporting the shut-in status of their wells. As a 

result of the Survey's review, two companies chose to 

terminate one lease each in fiscal year 1975. Then, in 

fiscal year 1976, one other company terminated two 

leases.

In addition to the above action, in January 1975 the 

Survey made the reporting of shut-in oil and gas wells 

on the Outer Continental Shelf (OCS), a continuing 

project with the establishment of a shut-in well computer data base. Part of the initial problem concerning shut-in wells was caused by confusion and misunderstandings of in-house statistics and records on 

the part of those not familiar with offshore oil and 

gas operations. One reason for this was that in 1974 

the Survey did not explain just what was included in 

the statistic, "Shut-in Producible Zone Completions," 

as reported in our OCS statistics booklet. These figures included all nonproducing completions in all 

wells that had not been permanently plugged and 

abandoned without indicating the reason for the nonproducing status. Such statistics were adequate for 

use in regulatory activities but did not indicate a 

meaningful shut-in status of the wells and completions included therein. For example, the OCS well 

status summary as of December 31, 1974, indicated 

3,124 shut-in oil completions, 948 shut-in gas completions, and 618 nonproductive wells that had not 

been plugged and abandoned. There was no further 

categorization of the shut-in completions nor of the 

wells that had not been plugged and abandoned; 

22 | consequently, it was all too easy to reach the erroneous conclusion that there were approximately 4,700 

oil and gas wells on the OCS that were capable of 

being produced but for some unknown reason were 

not being produced.

In order to properly monitor all OCS oil and gas 

operations, the Survey initiated a program in January 1975 to identify accurately all shut-in oil and gas 

completions so as to categorize them by their potential for future utility. Secondary classifications 

grouped the shut-in completions as to the reason for 

their shut-in status, the informaion thus obtained 

could be used to determine if any of these so-called 

shut-in completions were capable of production and 

delivery of a product to the market place.

In order to standardize the term "shut-in well", the 

Geological Survey in 1975 defined a "shut-in well" 

as any well which at some time in the past was a 

producing well, is not currently producing, and is 

physically in such mechanical condition that the 

former producing interval could be opened for production if any production capability exists.-The expanded definition also included any new wells which, 

in the near-term future, could be producing upon 

completion of drilling operations or construction of 

production facilities or pipelines. The term "oil and 

gas wells" is distinguished from the term "oil and gas 

completions within a well." A "completion" is defined as a perforation, or set of perforations, through 

which the production of oil and/or gas might be obtained from a single formation. Therefore, a single 

well borehole passing through several producing 

zones may contain more than one "completion." A 

"service well" normally has no production of its own 

but is utilized to aid the production of other wells.

As part of the January 1975 survey mentioned 

above concerning the 10 oil and gas companies, all 

oil and gas operators in the Gulf of Mexico were 

directed to submit a list of all shut-in completions 

and to identify each as to its potential for future 

utility and the reason for the shut-in status. By late 

March 1975, all operators had responded and identified approximately 5,400 shut-in completions, of 

which approximately 1,400 had production restoration possibilities, and 400 could be used as a service

TABLE 4. Number of completions by production capability 

as of July 7977

Actively producing

Shut-in with no restoraation potential

I Shut-in with restoration 

| potential

Service (gas injections, 

water injection, etc.)

Drilling status

TOTAL

Oil

3,237

1,557

1,412

----

---_

Gas

2,236

636

816

----

.---

Other

15

25

392

626

Total

5,473

2,208

2,253

392

626

10,952
well at some time in the future. The remaining 3,600 

were identified as having no potential for future utility; therefore, they were not shut-in producible zone 

completions but abandoned completions with no 

value for oil and/or gas production (usually depleted 

or watered out). Approximately 1,300 of the shut-in 

completions were located in wells that were producing from other completions within the well. As an illustration of the significance of this last figure, it 

should be pointed out that it is often uneconomical 

and sometimes harmful to the producing completion 

to attempt a major workover on the other completion of a dually completed well.

The oil and gas wells with indicated reserves were 

not on production because of mechanical problems, 

sand and water problems, low flowing pressures, and, 

in some cases, because the operators were waiting 

for production equipment and facilities or transportation facilities. Also, some wells completed in a gas 

cap were shut-in until the final stages of production 

to conserve reservoir pressure and to prevent loss of 

possible liquid production. The Geological Survey 

also had a verification program in conjunction with 

this 1975 survey; hence the additional check on the 

10 companies mentioned above.

Since the shut-in reporting system of 1975 was 

initiated, it has been updated and improved. Now, 

for instance, complete shut-in statistics are compiled 

for the Gulf of Mexico OCS each month. These statistics are based upon a completely revised shut-in 

reporting system that was begun in March 1977. Any 

well that has zero production for a reporting month 

is considered shut-in and the Survey requires that the 

operator report both the reason for shut-in status and 

the action required to bring the well back on production. An operator is required to file a separate 

report when a major well is shut-in for more than 5 

days. A major well is defined as one capable of producing 200 barrels of oi| or 4 million cubic feet of 

gas daily.

Statistics for the following tables were taken from 

the July 1977 monthly well-status summary for the 

Gulf of Mexico OCS. This area accounts for 95 percent of United States OCS oil production and 99.9 

percent of United States OCS gas production. The 

July statistics are representative of the monthly statistics obtained since the new reporting system was 

begun.

TABLE 5. Shut-in oil, gas, and other completions with 

restoration potential by reason for shut-in

Reason 

for Shut-in

Reservoir related 

Well-bore related 

Surface equipment 

related 

Pipeline related 

Platform related 

Regulatory related 

(Safety violations, etc.)

TOTAL

Oil

486 

794 

20

13 

80 

19

1,412

Gas

277 

302 

33

69

115 

20

816

Other

4 

12 

1

5 

3 

0

25

Total

767 

1,108 

54

87 

198

39 ;

2,253 j

The following three tables show: (1) the extent of 

producible shut-in completions (2,253) related to total 

completions (10,952) in the Gulf of Mexico, (2) the 

reasons these 2,253 producible shut-in completion 

are not producing, and (3) the actions required to 

bring them back on production.

Table 4 categorizes completions by production capability. The "other" category adjacent to the shut-in 

statistics includes those completions whose hydrocarbon potential has not been determined.

The Geological Survey classifies a well's shut-in 

status into one of seven major "reasons for shut-in." 

One of these, weather, usually has an effect only during hurricanes or unusually cold weather. Table 5 

lists the restorable shut-in completions in the remaining six categories.

Well-bore related problems account for almost half 

(49.2 percent) of the restorable shut-in wells. Wellbore problems include such deficiencies as holes in 

the tubing or casing strings; tubing or perforations 

sanded up or loaded with water; debris dropped in 

tubing during remedial work; and subsurface safety 

valve problems. The next most common reason that 

a well is shut-in is reservoir-related. Reservoir-related 

problems account for 34 percent of restorable shutin wells. Reservoir problems involve low reservoir 

pressure; high water-oil ratio; reservoir testing; 

reservoir depletion; and wells completed in gas caps 

of oil reservoirs shut-in to conserve the reservoir 

driving mechanism. In addition to reporting the reason for shut-in, operators are now required to indicate the action required to restore the well to production. Table 6 shows the actions required to restore those wells reported shut-in in table 5.

Table 6 indicates that only 10.4 percent of restorable shut-in wells could be restored to production by 

merely opening the master valve on the Christmas 

tree (wellhead). Examples of wells in this category 

include those shut-in for safety violations, those shutin to prevent flaring of gas from oil wells, those shutin to conserve reservoir pressure (gas-cap wells), and 

those shut in to insure safety of operation by avoiding 

simultaneous drilling and production activities on the 

same platform. The remaining 89.6 percent of restorable shut-in wells require some kind of remedial 

work. No completions have been identified as shutin for reasons other than depletion, mechanical failures, or good operating practice. A

TABLE 6. Action required to return restorable 

shut-in completions to production

Action Oil Cos Other Total

Open Surface Valve 

Surface construction or

repairs needed 

Minor workover

required 

Major workover

required 

TOTAL

131

132

431

718

97

182

179

358

235

316

621

1,081

1,412 816 25 2,253 23
Planetary Exploration and Understanding the Earth

By Michael H. Carr

We are witnessing, in the second half of the twentieth century, a unique event in the history of mankind the exploration of the solar system. Those of 

us living in this era are the first to get a close look 

at those planetary bodies whose movements through 

the heavens have intrigued Man since his beginning. 

The event is influencing many of Man's activities, 

subtly affecting his consciousness of himself and his 

place in the universe. Through space exploration we 

have already enhanced our realization of the unique 

nature of the planet Earth, of its fertility and its isolation in a hostile universe. But aside from the philosophical impact, space exploration is providing specific 

knowledge about the Earth and the processes that 

have controlled its evolution. Until the current era 

of space exploration, geologic processes could be 

studied only under the restricted set of conditions 

that prevail here on Earth. There was no way to appreciate what possible evolutionary paths a planet 

might follow, no way to know how the Earth's history, 

internal dynamics and surface processes compared 

with other planets. The mode of the Earth's formation and its early history were particularly difficult 

to evaluate and almost entirely in the realm of pure 

speculation. So access to other planetary bodies with 

better preserved records of their early history and 

where geologic processes have operated under more 

varied and extreme conditions is now providing new 

insights into several areas of gelogy. How these new 

insights have and will affect our knowledge of the 

Earth is the main theme of this review of space-age 

geologic findings.

The exploration of the solar system is well under 

way. Manned exploration of the Moon between 1969 

and 1972 was followed by a period of intense study 

of the lunar samples and a general global synthesis. 

The result is that the history of the lunar surface 

and the general chemical evolution of the Moon are 

now roughly understood. At the same time a vigorous program for unmanned exploration of the 

inner solar system was initiated. The Mariner 10 

spacecraft to Mercury in 1973 revealed a planet 

whose surface so closely resembles that of the Moon 

that similar surface processes can be inferred. This 

was somewhat surprising because the bulk properties 

of the two bodies are so different. The Moon consists 

almost entirely of silicates while Mercury has only 

a thin veneer of silcates over an iron-rich core, comprising 80 percent of the mass of the planet. Very 

little is known about Venus because of its thick

cloud cover. Two Soviet spacecraft have successfully 

transmitted pictures from the surface that reveal a 

rock strewn terrane. Radar images acquired with 

Earth-based antennae indicate the venusian surface 

is fairly smooth with vague circular depressions, 

linear troughs and some large mountains (several 

hundred kilometers across) that could be enormous 

volcanoes. Scheduled orbital missions to Venus with 

cloud penetrating radar in 1978 and possibly 1982 

will provide a much better basis for evaluating the 

geologic evolution of this our closet neighbor and 

the planet that most resembles the Earth in size and 

density. Meanwhile, the exploration of Mars is well 

advanced. The Mariner '71 mission and more recently the Viking missions have revealed an enormously varied surface with huge volcanoes, canyons, 

large river beds, permafrost features and other indicators of a complex history. Future exploration 

may include an unmanned rover mission in the 

1980's and returned samples in the early 1990's.

Exploration of the outer solar system has just begun. Two Pioneer spacecraft have made close observations of Jupiter and are on their way to Saturn. In 

addition, two much more sophisticated Voyager 

spacecraft were launched in 1977 to Jupiter and 

Saturn with arrivals expected in 1979 and 1981 respectively. Of particular interest to geologists are 

the large satellites of Jupiter and Saturn which number more than a dozen. These have a combined land 

area that exceeds the entire land area of the inner 

solar system so far photographed. Their enormous 

range in density and surface properties suggest 

widely different compositions and evolutionary paths. 

Thus within a very few years, the number of planetary 

bodies available for observation will have increased 

from one to about twenty and we will have been 

able to study the effects of numerous geologic processes on planetary bodies with an extremely wide 

range of initial chemistry, size, atmospheric composition and distance from the sun.

The Earth's Early History

How will any knowledge that we gain from studying other planetary bodies affect our understanding 

of the Earth? One of the main benefits will be an improved understanding of the Earth's early history. 

Almost all evidence of what occurred during the first 

billion years of the Earth's history has been erased 

from the surface by subsequent volcanism, mountain 

building and erosion. Yet during this evolutionary

24 | PERSPECTIVES
period life began, the forces of mountain building and 

volcanism were set in motion, and the atmosphere 

probabily assumed approximately its present composition. In the cases of Mars, Mercury and the Moon, 

the evolution of the surface during the first billion 

years was dominated by two processes, meteorite impact and flooding by lava. We have been able to reconstruct the impact history of the Moon at least as far 

back as 4 billion years ago (fig. 6) by correlating 

absolute ages of lunar samples with the number of 

impact craters superimposed on the unit sampled. 

The record previous to that time has been erased by 

extremely intense bombardment. It is now clear that 

the impact rate on the Moon was very high 4 billion 

years ago and declined very rapidly 3.9 billion years 

ago to a much lower rate which has remained approximately constant ever since. This gives the Moon 

its characteristic appearance (fig. 7). Surfaces older 

than 3.9 billion years are very heavily cratered; 

surfaces younger than 3.9 billion years are very 

sparsely cratered. Mercury and Mars appear to have 

similarly experienced an early intense bombardment 

which rapidly declined to a much lower level at a 

later date, although for these planets we cannot confidently date the decline. The Earth, being in the 

same part of the solar system as the Moon, must have

Us

RATE OF 

FORMATION 

OF CRATERS

V

_'X 

I

43210 

TIME BEFORE PRESENT (BILLIONS OF YEARS)

experienced an impact history similar to the Moon. 

Approximately 3.9 billion years ago, much of the 

Earth's surface probably resembled the lunar highlands with the effects of the high impact rate dominating the landscape. The surface was probably saturated with craters and the rocks shattered and fragmented to depths of several tens of kilometers. After 

3.9 billion years ago the appearance must have 

changed relatively rapidly as the impact rate declined 

and the effects of processes such as volcanism and 

erosion became more apparent. Possible major differences are that the Earth's atmosphere would have 

filtered out the smaller objects and the possible 

presence of oceans must have considerably modified 

the effects of large impacts, perhaps resulting in large 

tidal waves, sedimentary deposits, and the filling of 

large impact basins.

On the Moon and Mars, and possibly Mercury, 

extensive lava plains formed after the decline in 

cratering and, at least on the Moon, there is abundant 

chemical evidence of planet-wide volcanism before 

the decline. By analogy there may have been a similar 

era of early volcanism and lava plains formation on 

Earth but all the evidence has been erased. After 3.7 

billion years ago we enter the time span in which 

we can read the historical geologic record as preNUMBER OF

SUPERPOSED

CRATERS

^"*"":<f

*V *v

* »

>t'.A,.'% %>..:

43210 

AGE OF SURFACE (BILLIONS OF YEARS)

FIGURE 6. Crater formation on the Moon. The rate of formation of craters on the Moon decreased rapidly 3.9 billion years ago 

(lett-hand figure). Surfaces that formed before that time are saturated with craters, those that formed after are only sparsely 

cratered, the number of superposed craters depending on the age of the surface (right-hand figure). The Earth has experienced 

a similar cratering history but most of the evidence has been erased by erosion and other processes such as volcanism and 

mountain building.

PLANETARY EXPLORATION AND UNDERSTANDING THE EARTH | 25
FIGURE 7. Front side of the Moon. The lunar surface is divided into densely cratered highlands which mostly formed before the 

decline in the rate of cratering 3.9 billion years ago and the mare which formed after that time. Before 3.9 billion years ago 

much of the land surface of the Earth probably looked like the lunar highlands, but after that time Earth's appearance changed 

rapidly as the impact rate declined and the effects of volcanism and mountain building became more apparent.

served on the Earth. From then on we are no longer 

solely reliant on comparison with other planets to 

determine the sequence of events.

Geologic Processes

Comparison of the Earth with other planets is still, 

however, useful for better understanding geologic 

processes. Unlike any other planet, so far as we know, 

the geologic framework of the Earth's crust is dominated by plate motion; that is, by the lateral motion 

of different parts of the rigid crust with respect to 

each other. These large rigid segments are called 

plates and the relative motions between them are 

described as plate tectonics. 1 So pervasive are the

'Hamilton, W. B., 1976; "Plate Tectonics and Man," in U.S. 

Geological Survey Annual Report, Fiscal Year 1976, U.S. Geol. 

Survey, pp. 39-53.

26 | PERSPECTIVES
effects of these plate movements that little or no 

evidence remains to show what the Earth was like 

before the onset of plate tectonics or what effects 

other processes previously had on the evolution of 

the surface. Comparison with other planets may help 

in both these areas. Mars has many geologic features 

in common with the Earth, features such as volcanoes, 

fracture systems and sedimentary basins. It differs 

by having no oceans, only a very thin atmosphere, 

and no plate tectonics. Mars may give some indication of what the Earth was like before the crust 

broke up into moving plates. For example, centered 

on the Tharsis region of Mars is a bulge in the Martian 

crust approximately 7 kilometers (4.3 miles) high and 

4,000 kilometers (2,485 miles) across. On top are three 

enormous volcanoes and radiating from the center as 

far as 3,000 km (1,864 miles) are numerous fractures 

(fig. 8). So extensive is the fracture set that it affects 

almost a complete hemisphere of the planet. Some of 

the fractures and the volcanoes themselves appear to 

have been the sources of large volumes of lava which 

behave like basalt lavas on Earth. The Tharsis region 

has been studied in great detail. We can assess when 

the bulge formed, the sequence of fracturing, and the 

volcanic history. The most plausible hypothesis concerning its origin is that the formation of the bulge 

was related to separation of the iron-rich core early in 

the planet's history. The Earth may have similarly developed features like the Tharsis region early in its history. The rise, its radial fractures, and its volcanoes 

resemble sites of incipient plate break-up on Earth, 

and we might conclude that Mars tried plate motion 

but didn't quite make it. Perhaps the rigid crust is too 

thick, the planet too small, or several regions like 

Tharsis are required. Whatever the reason, we may 

have preserved on Mars a configuration similar to that 

which prevailed on Earth before plate tectonics and 

we may be observing the effects of a stress system 

similar to that which on Earth caused the initial breakup into crustal plates. We can therefore study the 

stresses in a situation where their effects have not 

been masked by subsequent plate motion.

We can also study other geologic processes in 

situations uncomplicated by plate motion. The evolution of the Earth's crust is affected both by deep 

seated processes originating below the mobile plates 

and by processes related to plate motion. For example, the evolution of Hawaiian type volcanoes is 

affected both by the processes of rock melting deep 

within the Earth and by the movement of the Pacific 

plate upon which the volcanoes sit. On Mars we 

are able to study similar volcanoes where there is 

no crustal motion. The comparison is very revealing 

since the Hawaiian and Martian volcanoes closely 

resemble each other. Both have gently sloping flanks,

large multiple collapse pits at their center and both 

appear to be built largely of fluid lavas which have 

left numerous flow features on their flanks. The 

most obvious difference between the two is size 

(fig. 9). The Martian shields grow to over 20 kilometers (12 miles) in height and more than 500 kilometers (310 miles) across in contrast to a maximum 

width of 120 kilometers (75 miles) and height of 10 

kilometers (6 miles) for the Hawaiian shields. The difference is readily comprehensible as a consequence of 

plate tectonics. The Hawaiian shields are at the southeastern end of the Hawaiian-Emperor chain, a long 

line of extinct volcanoes, many of them submarine, 

that stretches several thousand kilometers across the 

Pacific Ocean. The Hawaiian volcanoes are relatively 

short lived a few million years at most. They become 

extinct as movement of the Pacific plate to the northwest carries them away from the deep source of lava, 

adding another extinct volcano to the chain and causing a new volcano to form over the source. The Martian shields on the other hand are fixed over their 

source and continue to grow for a long period of time, 

perhaps billions of years, constrained only by the 

lava supply and the required pressure to pump it to 

the surface. The Martian shields therefore grow to 

enormous sizes compared to their smaller shortlived terrestrial counterparts. Another point of contrast between the Martian and Hawaiian shields is 

their evolutionary cycle. The Hawaiian shields have 

an initial shield-building phase in which eruption of 

very fluid lavas predominates, as exemplified by the 

Mauna Loa and Kilauea volcanoes. Later the style of 

volcanism changes from the relatively quiet effusion 

of predominately basaltic lavas to more explosive 

activity and more silica-rich lavas, as for example at 

Mauna Kea. This later volcanic stage appears not to 

occur on Mars. If it were caused by deep-seated processes, such as chemical changes in the source regions, 

as has been proposed, then we would expect to see 

similar effects on Mars and we do not. It is likely 

therefore, that the late stage of the Hawaiian volcanoes is in some way related to plate motion. Thus 

comparison with Mars leads us to favor one set of 

hypotheses regarding the final stages of evolution of 

the Hawaiian volcanoes, those that attribute the late 

explosive stage to the effects of plate motion.

Mars also provides a means of studying surface 

processes in totally different environments from those 

that prevail on Earth. For example, pictures returned 

from the Viking mission to Mars reveal a number of 

spectacular landslides (fig. 10). They resemble many 

terrestrial slides that have moved as catastrophic 

avalanches. Because of the threat that they pose, 

considerable work has been done on the causes of 

landslides and their precise emplacement mechanism.

PLANETARY EXPLORATION AND UNDERSTANDING THE EARTH | 27
1000 KILO METERS

CONTOUR, INTERVAL 1 KILOMETER AT 0' LATITUDE

FIGURE 8. The Tharsis region of Mars. The contours (fine lines) outline a bulge in the Martian crust where the largest known volcanoes of the solar system are located. The dark lines schematically represent the radial fracture system around the bulge. 

The rigid outer layer, or lithosphere, of Mars is not divided into moving plates like that of the Earth. We therefore see, preserved on the surface, features such as Tharsis that appear to be the result of processes operating deep within the planet. 

On Earth the effects of such processes are generally masked by the effects of plate motion.

The value of the Martian examples in assessing the the large distances over which some catastrophic terrelative merit of the different proposals arises from restrial slides can travel. Yet we see on Mars landthe fact that conditions there are so different from slides that have travelled many tens of kilometers, 

any that prevail on the Earth. For example, move- much farther than most known terrestrial slides, and 

ment on a cushion of air has been invoked to explain they did so in the presence of an extremely thin

28 | PERSPECTIVES
'atmosphere, less than one hundredth that of the 

Earth. We concluded therefore substantial atmospheric interaction is not necessary to explain the 

efficient motion of terrestrial landslides.

Mars is similarly a laboratory for the study of 

erosion and deposition by the wind. Although thin, 

the Mars atmosphere is capable of erosion, and the 

transport and deposition of debris. On Earth the 

effects of wind action tends to be masked by the 

effects of water. In contrast water appears to have

had only a limited effect in sculpting the Martian 

surface except in very localized areas. Wind action 

appears however to have been continuous, forming 

a wide variety of landforms which we can study in 

detail. Surprisingly little is known of the mechanics 

of wind action. What factors control erosion rates 

and the final form of deposition features are poorly 

understood. Three decades of neglect followed some 

pioneering quantitative work in the thirties and 

forties. Recently however, because of the implications

N

100 200 300 KILOMETERS 

_I

FIGURE 9. Olympus Mons, the largest shield volcano on Mars, is approximately 500 kilometers (about 310 miles) across and 27 

kilometers (about 17 miles) high. The outlines of the Hawaiian Islands are superimposed on the volcano at the same scale. 

The Hawaiian volcanoes grow to only a limited size because the motion of the Pacific plate to the northwest carries volcanoes 

away from the magma source. In contrast, the Martian volcanoes remain fixed over their source of magma for hundreds of millions, perhaps billions of years, and grow to immense size.

PLANETARY EXPLORATION AND UNDERSTANDING THE EARTH | 29
FIGURE 10. a. The Sherman Landslide, Alaska. The landslide formed 27th March 1964 as 30 million cubic meters (a volume 

equivalent to a 1,000 foot-cube) of rock dropped 600 meters (1,969 feet) and moved laterally 5 kilometers (2.7 miles), partly 

over the Sherman Glacier. The longitudinal grooves are approximately 8 meters (about 26 feet) wide and average 600 meters 

(about 2,000 feet) in length. Distal ridges (foreground) arc 3 to 15 meters (about 1 to 5 feet) high and 15 to 150 meters 

(about 5 to 50 feet) across, b. Landslide in the equatorial canyon of Mars. The canyon is approximately 150 kilometers (about 

90 miles) across with walls 2 to 3 kilometers high. Longitudinal striae and the ridges near the toe of the slide are strikingly 

similar to the Sherman slide.

for Mars, there has been renewed interest in the effects of wind. Several laboratories are conducting 

wind tunnel experiments and attempts are being made 

to theoretically model various wind processes. Comparison between Mars and the Earth is particularly 

useful for such aeolian modelling. The values of the 

acceleration due to gravity and atmospheric pressure 

are, for example, very similar in most terrestrial environments but quite different on Mars. The effect 

of varying these two parameters can thus be assessed 

by comparing wind features on the two planets. In a 

related study, Martian dust storms are being analyzed 

in great detail in order to assess the effects of surface 

reflectivity, grain size, the brightness of the grains, 

and temperature gradient in the atmosphere on storm 

initiation. The results are being applied to dust storms 

in the Sahara and the southwestern United States. In 

general there is an increasing recognition of wind 

as an important erosive agent, particularly where soil 

has been de-stabilized by over-grazing or over-cultivation, and planetary studies are stimulating the

studies needed for a better understanding of those 

environmental factors most sensitive in initiating 

erosion.

Cratering is another area where interplanetary 

comparisons may yield a better understanding. Interest in the Moon in the 1960's resulted in considerable experimental and theoretical work. One uncertain factor, which is difficult to test experimentally, 

is the effect of g, the acceleration due to gravity. 

Some of the uncertainties are being resolved by 

examination of craters on several planetary bodies. 

The results are somewhat surprising in that the final 

crater shape is relatively insensitive to gravity: 

craters on the Earth are very similar to those on 

Phobos, one of the moons of Mars, on which there 

is virtually no gravity. It is widely believed that the 

nickel deposits of Sudbury, Ontario, are in an old 

impact crater and oil has been found in some probable impact features in the Williston Basin of North 

Dakota. So better understanding of impact mechanics 

may well have direct economic implications.

30 | PERSPECTIVES
Formation of the Earth

Certainly a major gain of planetary exploration will 

be an improved understanding of the formation of 

the Earth. Before acquisition of lunar samples, it was 

widely believed that the inner planets formed by 

accumlation of material that corresponded in composition to some meteorites. A type of meteorite called 

chondrites was generally assumed as representative of the parent material. It was believed that the 

inner planets formed by cold accretion of chondritic 

debris and later heated up slowly as a result of radioactive decay of the long-lived isotopes of potassium 

(K), uranium (U), thorium (Th). That now-obsolete 

model predicted that the surface of the Moon would 

be chondritic in composition and that no volcanic 

activity could have occurred because of the small 

size of the Moon and the relatively low K, U, and 

Th content of chondrites. We found, of course, that 

contrary to the model, the Moon is not made of 

chondrites and that there is evidence of extensive 

volcanic activity. Our concepts as to how the Moon 

formed, and consequently as to how the Earth and 

other planets formed had, to undergo revision.

Clues as to how planets form come from two main 

sources: (1) the variation in the bulk density of the 

planets with increasing distance from the sun and, 

(2) the chemistry of various obects within the solar 

system. We have at present good chemical information only on the Earth, the Moon, and meteorites. 

There are two theories currently in vogue as to how 

planets form. Both groups of theorists calculate that 

materials condensed out of different parts of the 

gaseous disc or nebula that surrounded the early sun. 

Where the theorists differ is their calculations of the 

extent to which equilibrium is or is not maintained 

between material already condensed and the remaining gases. Both agree in proposing that as the solar 

nebula cooled, different minerals condensed out to 

form solid grains from which the planets accreted.

In brief, on those planets forming close to the sun, 

only materials with high condensation temperatures 

such as CaO, AI 2O,, MgSiO3 , Fe and Ni condensed, 

whereas toward the outer edge of the solar system 

almost everything condensed except hydrogen and 

helium. The net result is that the planets which 

formed from materials that condensed close to the 

Sun are rich in refractories whereas those further 

out are rich in volatiles. In the first or homogeneous 

accretion model, its proponents hold that accretion 

of the planets is slow compared with the dissipation 

of the nebula gases. Equilibrium is maintained between the condensed particles and the remaining 

gases with the result that planets accumulate from 

particles that are essentially homogeneous in composition, the composition depending on position 

within the solar system. In the second or non-homogeneous model, its proponents theorize that accretion 

of condensed particles into planetary bodies is relatively rapid so that continuous equilibrium between 

the condensed phases and the remaining materials 

does not occur. In this view, therefore, the planets 

are built up with an onion ring structure as successive layers are added. Both formation theories can be 

reconciled with the observed density distribution of 

the planets. Discrimination between the two theories 

requires detailed knowledge of elemental abundance 

and isotopic ratios on different bodies. Acquisition 

of data for bodies other than the Earth, Moon and 

meteorites will be necessary to unambiguously discriminate between the two theories.

Accretion of the condensed grains is likely to have 

resulted in substantial heating and melting of at least 

the outer few hundred kilometers of the Earth's crust. 

Evidence for this is deduced mainly from the Moon 

but is corroborated to some degree by sparse data 

from Mars and Mercury. We now know that the Moon 

has a heavily cratered crust, at least 4 billion years 

old, made up of coarse-grained, feldspar-rich igneous 

rocks, that crust must have formed as a consequence 

of melting during a very early episode of heating. The 

event occurred too early to be attributed to heating 

by long lived radio-isotopes. The most likely sources 

of heat are successive impacts and gravitational compression during the final stages of planet formation. 

As the proto Moon increased in size, its gravitational 

field increased and consequently, the impact energy 

of new material being accreted. In the late stages, accumulation was sufficiently rapid to cause melting in 

the outer two to four hundred kilometers creating 

oceans of molten rock from which the lunar crust 

separated. Accretion must have been rapid otherwise 

radiation of energy to space would have prevented 

the required temperature rise. Estimates are that most 

of the accretion took place in less than 10 million 

years and perhaps in as few as 10 thousand years. 

Mars and Mercury also have crusts that apparently 

formed very early in their history so heating must 

have occurred in the later stages of their accretion 

just as it did on the Moon.

We can conclude that the outer part of Earth must 

also have undergone extensive heating during the 

final stages of accretion. In the case of the Earth, however, because of its much larger size, heating must 

have been more intense and probably affected the 

planet to much greater depths than in the case of the 

Moon. In the final stages of accretion the outer parts 

of the Earth are likely to have been molten, and from 

this molten layer the materials that constitute the crust 

of the Earth separated. Thus studies of extraterrestrial

PLANETARY EXPLORATION AND UNDERSTANDING THE EARTH | 31
materials have led directly to a much clearer understanding of the sequence of events during the Earth's 

formative phases, particularly how the crust formed. 

Uncertainties still remain, but as we acquire chemical 

information on other planets, some of these will almost certainly be resolved.

Technique Development

Application of space technology is already taking 

place on a large scale and may ultimately prove the 

most significant effect of space exploration on terrestrial geology. Development of image processing 

techniques and their application to Landsat pictures 

of the Earth is a prime example. During the early 

1960's several digital imaging devices were developed 

for lunar and planetary exploration. These differ from 

the more familiar analog home television in that the 

image is comprised of a large number of discrete 

elements, each with a specific gray level designated 

by a number, much like a picture in a newspaper. 

The Landsat digital devices have several advantages 

over other devices in terms of signal to noise, weight, 

reliability and simplicity of operation and so have 

been flown on almost all planetary probes. They also 

have several analytical advantages that were not fully 

foreseen. Because of their digital format, the images 

can be manipulated in a computer and with each successive mission more sophisticated manipulative techniques were developed. Ways were developed to 

enhance or suppress surface topography and reflectivity, to emphasize linear features, to detect atmospheric haze or subtle color differences on the ground.

The success of these techniques led to the launching of ERTS and Landsat vehicles and the application of image processing methods to a wide variety 

of terrestrial problems from evaluating crop yields to 

estimating pollution levels in lakes. The geologic applications are enormous, and include detection of 

previously unrecognized structural trends in the 

Southeast U.S., detection of mineralized areas in 

Nevada, and geologic reconnaissance of wide areas 

of the Middle East. A considerable effort is under way 

to develop comparable techniques at radar wavelengths because of the potential application to Venus, 

and we can expect a similar feed-back to terrestrial 

problems.

Another area where numerous terrestrial applications are likely is in the handling of large data arrays. 

An enormous amount of data has been acquired on 

the Moon, much of which can be displayed on maps. 

Examples are remanent magnetism, gravity, elevations, surface ages, aluminum/silicon ratios of the 

surface, and electron density. Between forty and fifty 

such data sets exist. Because of the volume of the 

data, their different formats, and limited accessibility, 

comparisons between the different data sets were at 

first extremely difficult. Computer techniques were 

therefore developed to facilitate comparison and to 

aid in interpretation. These techniques, built largely 

upon existing image processing technology, led very 

quickly to clarification of several aspects of lunar 

evolution, particularly the history of the magnetic 

field. The methods are now being applied to terrestrial problems which involve correlation of different 

types of remote sensing data such as gravity and magnetics. Expectations are that the techniques will have 

wide application. Other techniques developed in 

support of the planetary program but now being employed by the U.S. Geological Survey in support of 

terrestrial geology include photogrammetry of images 

with unorthodox geometries, photogrammetry of radar images, and cartography of the sea floor by means 

of sonar.

Summary

In this limited space it is possible to review only 

briefly the significance of planetary exploration for 

comprehending our own planet. One of the most 

significant contributions is a greatly improved understanding of how the Earth formed, and of its early 

history the evolution of its surface. These questions 

cannot be resolved without interplanetary comparisons which provide opportunities to test theories of 

geologic processes with initial conditions and under 

environments quite different from any that prevail 

on the Earth. From a practical viewpoint, the greatest 

impact may be development of new techniques for 

acquiring remote sensing data and for facilitating their 

interpretation. Future geologists may all be planetologists able to call forth non-terrestrial examples for 

comparison as readily as they now do terrestrial 

examples. A

32 | PERSPECTIVES
Mapping in Support of 

Domestic Energy Production

By Stephen F. Pousardien and John D. McLaurin 

INTRODUCTION

The Nation is still in the midst of an "energy crisis." 

In fact, the crisis worsens daily as our dependence on 

imported petroleum increases. Even the much heralded Alaska oil will lessen the problem only slightly 

and temporarily.

In order to ease the effect of dependence on imported energy, America must develop domestic resources. Pertinent resources are not limited to domestic coal, oil, or other energy sources, but include manpower, technology, and public will. These additional 

factors must be included because, by definition, a resource is a supply of anything that is available for use 

or that can supply a need. One other resource that 

must be available if energy resources are going to be 

fully developed while the environment is adequately 

protected, is adequate topographic map coverage.

NEED FOR TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS AND 

RELATED PRODUCTS

Topographic maps and related products are prerequisites for all phases of energy development and 

land-use planning. In the early stages of energy exploration and geologic studies, base maps are essential for describing the location of terrain features, the 

shape of the Earth's surface, and studying the geomorphology of a region. Often the basic topographic 

shapes of a region provide clues to areas with potential energy resources. Furthermore, base maps are 

invaluable for planning geologic studies and investigations and determining access routes to the most 

promising areas. After field studies are completed, 

base maps become the foundation on which the 

geologic information is presented.

Once energy resources are located and identified, 

the basic maps and cartographic data are used to help 

evaluate the economic feasibility of development, 

consider alternative means of extraction, and assess 

the environmental impact of the development. For 

example, maps and digitized map data are used to 

study drainage patterns to determine the effect of 

mining on the local water supply and the relationship 

of the energy resource to the transportation network, 

towns, and villages.

Tasks during the resource development phases are 

monumental. To cite one example, domestic coal production is expected to increase from 670 million tons 

to 1,270 million tons per year in the 9 years, 1976- 

1985. This 600 million ton per year increase is not 

concentrated in one area nor confined to one type of 

mine operation, but is a mix of eastern and western 

coal and of deep and surface mining. The Bureau of 

Mines has calculated that to provide the additional 

production, the coal mining industry must open 177 

new underground mines and 63 new surface mines 

between 1976 and 1985 for an average of one new 

mine every 2 weeks. Such activity underscores the requirement for the topographic maps that must be 

used to plan necessary changes in the transportation

MAPPING IN SUPPORT OF DOMESTIC ENERGY PRODUCTION | 33
network, to estimate the millions of tons of earth to 

be moved during development, to site processing 

facilities, and to plan and design support facilities, 

such as pipelines, waste disposal, and utilities. Maps 

are also a fundamental resource upon which development plans can be displayed and analyzed. Base maps 

and other cartographic data are also used to plan land 

reclamation and evaluate alternative land uses, such 

as parks, range, forestry, industry, and urban development.

Special maps play important roles in planning national energy strategy. A prime example of this use is 

a set of small-scale maps depicting energy flow patterns prepared especially for Congressional committees studying energy transportation problems. These 

maps display such data as energy commodity flow 

petroleum from the Gulf region to the north central 

and northeastern States as an example, quantities of 

commodity, and modes of transport rail, highway, 

pipeline, water, or transmission lines.

The basic map scale used by most governmental 

agencies with responsibilities in the energy field is 

1:24,000. This scale is preferred for general-purpose 

topographic maps used as basic planning documents. 

The content of this series is so widely accepted, the 

Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 

requires strip mining permit applications to include 

maps presenting all information shown on these 

maps.

ENERGY MAPPING REVIEW

Recognizing the increased emphasis on domestic 

energy development and the role topographic maps 

and related products must play in that development, 

the Survey began a comprehensive review late in 

1973 to determine the status of topographic and related mapping for areas with known and potential 

energy reserves. Areas of the country rich in energy 

resources were determined through interviews with 

staff of the various agencies responsible for mineral 

development and conservation and through a review 

of published material. Energy resources considered 

include oil and gas, oil shale, coal, geothermal energy, 

and nuclear fuels.

The review disclosed several requirements to which 

the National Mapping Program was not adequately 

responding; requirements caused by suddenly increased emphasis on domestic energy production. 

These requirements were for maps in areas not previously mapped, revision of previously published maps, 

and new and special products.

Effect on the National Mapping Program

The energy crisis surfaced a new set of priorities 

and requirements for the National Mapping Program. 

Areas that had been of relatively low priority suddenly became very important. Products that had previously been discussed in an academic light became 

production requirements. Survey Cartographers acted 

immediately to satisfy unmet requirements, consistent 

with capacity and other high priorities. Mapping to 

complete 1:24,000-scale coverage either in the form 

of standard topographic maps or orthophotoquads 

was accelerated for the more important Federal coal 

lands, especially those in the Northern Great Plains 

Province. Revision of published 1:24,000-scale maps 

was greatly expanded for all coal reserve areas, eastern and western, Federal and private, producing and 

undeveloped reserves.

Bureau of Land Management (BLM) requirements 

for intermediate-scale base maps to inventory resources for energy development resulted in the initiation during 1976 of a new mapping program. Working jointly, the BLM and the Survey designed a multipurpose series of 1:100,000-scale maps in quadrangle 

format. The Survey is responsible for various base 

categories of data such as transportation networks, 

topography, hydrography, and political boundaries. 

The BLM overprints other information, such as land 

ownership and lease status, required for managing 

Federal leases and planning development of energy 

resources. This map series is designed so that the base 

category information can be separated by feature and 

combined with various overlays of information to produce special maps for special purposes. For example, 

the same basic map data are reformatted to meet the 

Soil Conservation Service needs for intermediatescale county maps and the Defense Mapping Agency 

requirements for 1:50,000-scale training maps.

Further supporting the mapping requirements for 

energy exploration and development are the joint 

topographic/bathymetric maps of the Geological Survey and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). These maps display both the 

topographic information normally collected by the 

Survey and the bathymetric information for the water 

areas collected by NOAA. These products have extensive usefulness in planning offshore activities such as 

locating drilling platforms and planning pipeline collection networks. Environmentalists, coastal zone 

planners, and various Federal and State agencies also 

use these maps to analyze the effect of and to plan 

for onshore facilities to support offshore oil development.

Other map data and products having widespread 

application to energy related problems include aerial 

photographs, map data in digital form, and slope 

maps.

34 | PERSPECTIVES
 Aerial photographs are the basic working tools for 

map compilation and revision. They are also 

directly useful in their original form for many 

purposes. Although black and white panchromatic film is normally used for mapping, other 

types, such as color and infrared films, are exceptionally useful for particular studies.

 Digital map data have many uses in analyzing such 

characteristics as slopes and rainwater runoff and, 

when combined with digitized resource data, 

evaluating potential mineral value and calculating 

overburden. Digital data permit computer analysis in support of management decisions affecting the use of land, water, energy, and mineral 

resources. For example, the Survey's Geologic 

and Topographic Divisions are using digitized 

terrain information and digitized information 

about the depth and thickness of coal beds in 

the northern Great Plains to estimate the amount 

of overburden that must be removed and the 

costs for developing these coal resources.

 Slope maps are prepared to meet specific requirements for maps that identify different ranges of 

terrain slope. These maps are derived from the 

contour data of the published topographic maps.

Considering the already heavy demand for maps 

the finite production capacity, setting priorities is particularly important. Energy-related priorities are combined with other specific mapping requirements in 

choosing new mapping, revision, and orthophotoquad projects.

The Geological Survey is responding as quickly as 

possible to urgent requirements of map users while 

maintaining enough flexibility in map production, 

data display, and data storage to meet the requirements of many different organizations from a single 

set of basic map data. To do so requires development 

of additional capabilities, particularly in generating 

digital data; acquisition of new, more efficient equipment and development of advanced techniques for 

extracting basic map data from various sources. The 

goal is to have the appropriate map or map data 

ready for the user in time to solve the specific problem he is addressing.

Maps are one of the fundamental, although often 

unrecognized, resources of a nation. They are necessary for the solution of many kinds of problems and 

serve many economic and scientific needs. However, 

maps are truly a resource only when sufficient time 

and attention are given to their production well in advance of the date they are needed. A

MAPPING IN SUPPORT OF DOMESTIC ENERGY PRODUCTION | 35
FIGURE 11. Lava fountains, approximately 100 meters high, play 

at the vent during the September 1977 eruption of Kilauea 

Volcano. New lava flows and downed trees in foreground (Photograph by Boone Morrison).

Monitoring Active Volcanoes

By Robert I. Tilling

Certainly one of the most spectacular, awesomely 

beautiful, at times destructive, displays of natural 

energy is an erupting volcano, belching fume and ash 

thousands of meters into the atmosphere and pouring out red-hot molten lava in fountains and streams. 

Countless eruptions in the geologic past have produced volcanic rocks that form much of the Earth's 

present surface. The gradual disintegration and 

weathering of these rocks have yielded some of the 

richest farmlands in the world, and these very fertile 

soils play a significant role in sustaining our large, 

and growing, population. Were it not for volcanic

activity, the Hawaiian Islands with their sugar cane 

and pineapple fields and magnificent landscapes and 

seascapes would not exist to support their residents 

and to charm their visitors. And yet, the actual eruptive processes are catastrophic and can claim life and 

property.

Eruptions of andesitic volcanoes, which dot the 

margins of the moving rigid plates of the Earth's crust, 

are characteristically violently explosive. For example, 

in 1902 a single explosive eruption of Mount Pelee, 

Island of Martinque in the Lesser Antilles, virtually 

destroyed the entire city of St. Pierre, killing some 

30,000 persons. On the other hand, eruptions of the 

Hawaiian volcanoes generally are non-explosive and 

more benign, posing a threat to property, but rarely 

to life. For example, lava flows of the 1960 eruption 

of Kilauea Volcano burned and buried the small village of Kapoho on the eastern tip of the island of 

Hawaii. Not a single person was injured or killed, 

however, because warning signals of impending eruptive activity were detected in time to permit safe 

evacuation of Kapoho residents.

There are presently about 500 known active volcanoes on the Earth, not counting those that lie beneath the sea. Scientists have estimated that at least 

200,000 persons have lost their lives as a result of 

volcanic eruptions during the last 500 years. Little 

wonder then that people living in the shadow of 

active or dormant volcanoes have feared eruptive outbreaks in times past and present. Centuries ago, the 

Romans attributed volcanic and related phenomena 

(including earthquakes) mainly to the movement of 

wind, imprisoned inside the Earth, rushing violently 

out to the surface. The Polynesians believed volcanic 

activity to be caused by the beautiful but wrathful 

Pele, Goddess of Volcanoes, whenever she was 

angered by, or jealous of, actions of other deities or 

of mortals. Today, scientists know that volcanic eruptions occur when buoyant magma (molten rock) that 

formed deep in the Earth ascends and ultimately is 

ejected upon release of gas pressure. More importantly, with precise, sophisticated instruments and refined data analysis, it is now possible to track the 

subsurface movements of magma by monitoring the 

earthquakes and ground changes accompanying such 

movements. Although the present state of knowledge 

does not permit the prediction of the exact time and 

place of eruptions, we can detect departures from 

usual behavior that augur impending activity. Systematic monitoring studies are conducted only on a 

few active volcanoes those in Hawaii, and some in 

Italy, Japan, New Zealand, and Kamchatka (U.S.S.R.). 

The overwhelming majority of active volcanoes are 

not monitored, little understood, and, hence, extremely hazardous if in populated regions.

36 | PERSPECTIVES
Monitoring Techniques

How do volcanologists study restless, potentially 

dangerous, active volcanoes? Basically, volcano monitoring involves the recording and analysis of measurable phenomena ground movements, earthquakes, 

variations in gas compositions, deviations in local 

electrical and magnetic fields, etc. that reflect pressure and stresses induced by the subterranean magma 

movements. To date, monitoring of earthquakes and 

ground deformations before, during, and following 

eruptions has provided the most reliable criteria in 

predicting activity, although other geochemical and 

geophysical techniques hold great promise.

Most of the commonly used monitoring methods 

were largely pioneered and developed by the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory (HVO), established in 

1912 by Dr. Thomas Jaggar, Massachusetts Institute of 

Technology, and operated continuously by the Geological Survey since 1948. The sixty plus years of continuous observations of Kilauea and Mauna Loa, two 

of the world's most active volcanoes, have fostered 

fundamental developments in instrumentation and

measurement techniques, which are increasingly used 

in the study of other active volcanoes the world over. 

Moreover, early major advances in seismic research 

at HVO contributed significantly to subsequent 

systematic investigations of earthquake and related 

crustal processes, now conducted as part of the Geological Survey's Earthquake Hazards Program.

The volcanic plumbing and reservoir system beneath Kilauea can be pictured schematically as a balloon buried under thin layers of sand and plaster. In 

this baloon model, magma is fed from depths into the 

reservoir (analogous to air filling a balloon), the internal pressure increases, and the sand-plaster surface 

layers are pushed upward and outward in order to 

accommodate the swelling or inflation. The net effects 

of such inflation include: the steepening of slope of 

the volcano's surface; increase in horizontal and vertical distances between points on the surface; and, 

in places, the fracturing of the sand-plaster layers 

stretched beyond the breaking point (fig. 12). Such 

rupturing of materials adjusting to magma-movement 

pressures results in earthquakes. A shrinking or

Horizontal and vertical distances 

increase from Stage 1

Volcano shape 

at peak inflation

Distance measurement points

.\«neief A B

Magma reservoir 

inflated

Magma reservoir 

begins to swell

Volcano shape <-- 

Stresse'd returns to normal ' / '~ 

rocks- --

zone of earthqixjkes

STAGE 1 

INFLATION BEGINS

STAGE 2 

INFLATION AT PEAK

STAGE 3 

ERUPTION-DEFLATION

|5E

O'

Stage 2

TIME

Stage 2

Stage 1

TIME

FIGURE 12. Schematic diagrams of three commonly observed stages in the course of a typical Hawaiian eruption. The lower 

part of figure shows idealized graphs of earthquake frequency, tilt, and distance changes as a function of time during 

the three stages. See text for additional discussion. (Modified from illustration by John D. linger in Earthquake Information Bulletin, 1974, vol. 6, p. 7).

MONITORING ACTIVE VOLCANOES | 37
rapidly draining reservoir to feed surface eruptions 

(analogous to deflating or popping the ballon) would 

produce the opposite effects: flattening of slopes, reduction in distances between surface points, and decrease in earthquake frequency (fig. 12).

Let us now go from the balloon model to a real 

volcano. Changes in slope can be measured precisely 

by various electronic-mechanical "tiltmeters" or field 

tilt surveying techniques, which can detect the change 

in slope of a kilometer-long board if raised by the 

thickness of a dime placed under one end! Similarly, 

very small changes in horizontal distances and in 

vertical distances can also be measured respectively 

by an electronic distance measuring instrument that 

utilizes a laser beam and by precise levelling surveys. 

Such changes can be easily detected to a precision 

of a few parts per million. The notion of one part per 

million can be dramatized in terms of a very dry martini 1 drop of vermouth per 16 gallons of gin! The 

frequency, location, and magnitude of earthquakes 

generated by magma movement can be easily and 

accurately determined by data from a properly designed seismic network. For example, the Hawaiian 

Volcano Observatory has recently expanded its seismic networks to 45 stations to better monitor the 

earthquake activity of Kilauea and Mauna Loa on a 

round-the-clock basis.

It must be stressed, however, that the continuous 

monitoring of present-day seismicity and changes in 

volcano shape alone is not sufficient for predicting 

eruptions. The proper analysis of monitoring data requires a basic understanding of the prehistoric eruptive record and behavior of a volcano that can only 

be reconstructed from regional geophysical and geologic studies, and dating and geochemical investigations. Such glimpses into a volcano's prehistoric past 

are critically important, because its historic data base 

is much too brief to allow reliable extrapolation of 

present eruptive behavior and frequency for predictive purposes.

rift zone. The first hint of change leading up to the 

1975 eruption was a marked increase in the number 

of earthquakes beginning in April 1974, more than a 

year before the eruption. Inflation or swelling of the 

summit of Mauna Loa was detected four months later, 

in August, during the annual "laser beam" remeasurement of horizontal distances across the summit crater. 

The 1974 set of measurements showed the first significant increases in the horizontal distances of the 

lines across the summit crater since the inception of 

the precise distance monitoring program in 1967. The 

Hawaiian Volcano Observatory immediately issued a 

press release alerting Hawaii officials and the general 

public to the possible reawakening of Mauna Loa 

from its long slumber.

During the next twelve months, both the grounddeformation and seismic networks on Mauna Loa 

were expanded. Intensified monitoring showed that 

numbers of earthquakes and the rate of summit inflation increased steadily, reaching a crescendo during the summit eruption that began on July 5 of 1975. 

The exact timing of the eruption could not be predicted, even though all premonitory indicators 

pointed toward an eruption any day. Although the 

earthquake frequency tapered off sharply in the 

weeks following the July eruption, swelling of the 

summit resumed, indicating continuing accumulation 

of magma in Mauna Loa's summit reservoir. Measurements made on six separate occasions over a period 

of a year and half following the eruption all demonstrated continued swelling. From analysis of the written records of the past historic eruptive behavior and 

the fact that both the earthquakes and swelling had 

extended out along the northeast rift, Observatory 

scientists suggesed that a flank eruption on the northeast rift was likely sometime before the summer of 

1978, if Mauna Loa were to behave as it has for the 

past 200 years. This conclusion was conveyed to 

members of the Hawaiian Congressional delegation 

and Hawaii Civil Defense officials, announced to the 

media, and published in a scientific journal.

Recent Case Studies

Investigations carried out as part of the Geological 

Survey's Volcano Hazards Program provide case 

studies of monitoring two of the world's most active 

and best understood volcanoes, Mauna Loa and Kilauea on the "Big Island" of Hawaii.

Mauna Loa Volcano last erupted July 5-6, 1975. At 

that time it had been inactive for a quarter of a century since the June 1950 eruption along its southwestHowever, newly observed changes in the geodimeter lines in July of 1977 suggest that Mauna Loa may 

be departing from previous behavior, and the timetable for the predicted eruption may have to be revised. Inflation of Mauna Loa Volcano has slowed. 

The northeast-rift zone has contracted slightly, and 

there has been little seismicity of significance in recent months. According to Observatory scientists, 

the volcano is not shrinking or deflating. The magma 

that accumulated in the summit region over a period 

of more than three years (since April 1974) has not

38 | PERSPECTIVES
Kapoho 

Kapoho Beach Lots

September 13-October 1, 1977 eruption

*t 

Prominent volcanic edifices

\ 

10

10I

15 MILES 

I

15 KILOMETERS

FIGURE 13. Sketch map showing historic lava flows erupted from Kilauea Volcano's east-rift zone, including those of the Sept. 

13-Oct. 1, 1977 eruption. Note the locations of villages and subdivisions relative to these lavas. HGP-A marks the site of a 

1,969 meter-deep test hole of the Hawaii Geothermal Project of the University of Hawaii.

MONITORING ACTIVE VOLCANOES j 39
drained away. Thus, the potential for an eruption is 

still very much present. The new data do suggest, 

however, that the predicted eruption may be farther 

away in time than before the summer of 1978. A new 

forecast of the probable time of eruption is not possible until Mauna Loa's swelling and earthquakes resume and analysis can be made of its changing pattern of eruptive behavior.

These recent developments show that the relatively 

limited time span of intensive monitoring (three 

years and the short historic record (about 200 years) 

are simply inadequate to establish statistically reliable 

probabilities for the exact time and place of the next 

eruption, even though we know Mauna Loa is still 

primed for action.

Kilauea has been closely monitored for a longer 

period of time than for Mauna Loa, but even here we 

have not achieved the necessary state of knowledge 

for prediction of eruptive activity. But there have 

been some notable successes. For example, in the 

early 1970's, several eruptions were predicted with 

sufficient certainty 4 to 8 hours in advance, so that 

Observatory scientists could advise officials of Hawaii 

Volcanoes National Park to evacuate certain sections. 

The Park Rangers were able to safely clear park visitors from the actual outbreak areas in ample time! 

However, there also have been false alarms when 

all of the premonitory indicators signalled movement 

of magma from the summit reservoir, only to have 

the magma injected below ground into the rift zones 

without breaking the ground surface.

In the fall of 1976, increased steaming and dying 

of forest near Heiheiahulu on Kilauea's lower eastrift zone to the north of Kalapana (fig. 13) caused 

Observatory staff members to increase the monitoring 

of this area. Although significant changes were observed, they were ascribed largely to continued southward shifting of Kilauea's south flank following the 

effects of the devastating 7.2-magnitude earthquake 

of November 29, 1975. Since the summer of 1977, 

however, changes in the Heiheiahulu area have taken 

place at an increased rate. Swelling of the general 

area around the Heiheiahulu cone began. The area 

underwent uplift, accompanied by additional southward horizontal movement, suggesting the accumulation of magma in this area, but without the occurrence of increased seismicity, which at Kilauea typically accompanies such magma movement. Additional monitoring instruments were installed, even 

though Observatory records dating back to 1958 show

that similar swelling has occurred here before without the advent of eruption.

Because the east-rift zone of Kilauea has long been 

the locale of recurring lava flows (fig. 13) and eruptive activity could pose a threat to downslope cultivated and populated areas, Hawaii County Civil Defense officials were advised of the unstable conditions. Hawaii residents were informed by a press release issued on July 29, 1977. At 7:30 p.m. (Hawaiian 

Standard Time), September 13, lava fountains 25-30 

meters high spurted along a 5 kilometer-long fissure 

only a few kilometers uprift (WSW) of the swollen 

Heiheiahulu area, following an intense earthquake 

flurry and abrupt deflation that began about 24 hours 

before. The eruption continued intermittently for the 

next 18 days along a restricted part of the fissure. 

Episodes of vigorous fountaining alternated with interludes of relative inactivity or feeble spattering of 

lava. The final and most voluminous phase of the 

activity produced a rapidly moving lava flow, which 

posed a potential threat to the village of Kalapana 

downslope (fig. 13). Unlike the nearby village of 

Kapoho destroyed during the 1960 eruption, Kalapana 

was spared, as the lava fountains stopped on October 

1, and the 15 meter-high flow front slowly ground to 

a halt only about 400 meters from the nearest 

dwellings.

Conclusions

Tremendous strides have been made in recent 

years in intensifying the monitoring of Mauna Loa 

and Kilauea as part of the Volcano Hazards Program, 

and our understanding of the typically non-explosive, 

Hawaiian-type of volcanism has increased markedly. 

But reliable and specific prediction capability for 

eruptions in Hawaii still eludes us. The predictive 

capability is much poorer for explosive andesitic volcanoes, such as those in the Cascade Range of northwestern United States (Mount Rainer, Mount Hood, 

Mount Lassen, etc.), Alaska, and elsewhere around the 

Circum-Pacific "Ring of Fire." The explosive Cascade 

volcanoes, which have only erupted rarely within 

recorded historic times, are potentially much more 

destructive and deadly than Hawaiian volcanoes. 

Should they erupt violently, large population centers 

in the northwest, such as Seattle and Portland, could 

be seriously threatened. Clearly, present intensive 

monitoring of Hawaiian volcanoes must be maintained, and fundamental studies and systematic monitoring of the Cascade volcanoes need to be expanded 

and accelerated. A

40 | PERSPECTIVES
Replenishing Non-Renewable Mineral Resources A Paradox

By Richard P. Sheldon

In 1922 a joint committee of petroleum geologists 

from the American Association of Petroleum Geologists and the U.S. Geological Survey estimated that 

the United States had only 9 billion barrels of oil 

left in the ground either as reserves or as resources 

to be discovered (U.S. Geological Survey, 1922). 

Eleven years later, the 9 billion barrels had been produced and an additional 13 billion barrels had been 

discovered.

In 1952 the President's Materials Policy Commission estimated the Nation's foreseeable copper resource (as of 1950) to be 25 million tons. Twenty-five 

years later, 31 million tons of copper had been produced and an additional 57 million tons of reserve 

had been discovered.

These are two of many examples of carefully reasoned mineral resource predictions by credible highly qualified geologists and engineers that have been ' 

overtaken in a few tens of years by additional production and discovery.

Mineral resource estimates ordinarily are requested 

by national planners when they perceive possible 

future shortages. The 1922 oil estimate was made 

during the "John Bull" oil shortage scare, and the 

1952 copper estimate was undertaken during the 

post-World War II period when the United States was 

thought to be "outgrowing its resource base." The 

engineers and geologists responsibly furnish these 

these estimates, usually qualifying them as conservative, particularly in regard to minerals expected to 

be added by additional discovery. Unfortunately, 

such qualifiers are quite often dropped by many of 

those who use the estimates. These estimates generally deepen the concern over impending shortage, 

but become irrelevant when the period of shortage 

gives way to a period of adequate or even over supply.

Behavior of these non-renewable mineral resources 

over time is opposite to what we intuitively expect. 

Geologists and engineers measure and report resource abundance. The resources they estimate are 

then depleted at ever increasing rates that foreseeably should exhaust the resource. Concern about 

shortages grows. Yet when the time approaches when 

we should have run out of the resource, we find 

paradoxically almost alchemically that we have 

more than we started with. At best we distrust the 

forecaster's ability and at worst his motives. What 

has gone wrong? Are such underestimates going to

continue to be made in the future? To answer these 

questions, the nature and dynamics of resources need 

to be understood.

Nature of Resources

In Webster's dictionary, a resource is defined as a 

fresh or additional stock or store of something available at need. Thus, in the short term, we think of resources as a stockpile of inventoried material with 

immediate availability. If we consider long-term demand, the question of future availability becomes important, so that undeveloped resources, that is 

mineral resources awaiting discovery in the ground 

or living resources yet to be born or planted, must 

be considered. Thus resources have two essential 

characteristics: (1) a demand, and (2) an availability. 

Depending on the time frame being considered, the 

demand and the availability are either immediate or 

potential.

Resource demand. Potential resources are based 

on a projection of future demands, a process that 

carries some risk. For example, in view of the 

threatening deforestation in France in the late 17th 

century, the King planted an oak forest near Paris 

as a reserve to supply, some 200 years hence when 

the trees matured, oak logs for masts and timbers 

for warship construction. His foresight created a 

beautiful forest that still stands, but did little to 

meet the needs of the modern French Navy.

The changing nature of mineral resource demand 

and its affect on resources over time can be seen by 

considering the mineral resources of the State of 

Montana at two times: a thousand and ten years ago 

and ten years ago.

On the one hand, the stone-age Indian living in 

968 in what was to become Montana had a very small 

but highly specialized need for stones. Each year he 

used a few pounds of flint and obsidian for tools, 

arrowheads, and axe heads, a few pounds of sandstone for mortars, a little salt and mineral dye. Their 

value at today's prices would be a few cents, or at 

his prices, a few belts of wampum. The total resources available in his shallow quarries would be 

worth perhaps a few thousands of dollars in our 

terms. Of course, he used so little of his mineral resource that their eventual depletion was of little if any 

concern to him.

REPLENISHING NON-RENEWABLE MINERAL RESOURCES | 41
On the other hand, the industrial-age Montanan 

living in 1968 had tremendous needs for minerals, 

and huge production facilities and mineral resources 

to meet them. Along with his fellow citizens from 

the other 49 states, the Montanan used, on the average, 20 tons of minerals a year. The value of the 

cumulative mineral production of Montana from 

1880 up to 1960 was over 4 billion dollars, showing 

that Montana lives up to its name, the Treasure 

State. In 1968, Montana contained 52 varieties of 

significant mineral deposits ranging from asbestos to 

vermiculite (U.S. Geological Survey, 1968). The most 

important of these were oil, natural gas, coal, copper, 

phosphate rock, and chromium. Their reserves at 

that time were worth 1.17 trillion dollars.

The mineral needs of the stone-age Montanan 

were low, and his assessed resources were correspondingly low. On the other hand, the mineral 

needs of the industrial-age Montanan are large and 

varied, but so are his mineral resources. The difference in mineral needs, supplies and resources between the two ages is staggering. It is no matter that 

the stone-age Montanan was standing on vast deposits of minerals that were to become highly valuable to Montanans a millenium later. To him they 

were rocks to walk on, not resources to use. The 

separation of ages is complete when one realizes 

that the industrial-age Montanan does not even include among his vast mineral resources the small deposits of flint, obsidian and sandstone used by his 

predecessor a millenium earlier.

It is clear from considering this example that even 

though most mineral deposits are permanent and unchanging on the human time frame, mineral resources 

are temporal and changing. V. E. McKelvey pointed 

out (1972, p. 20) that, "Defining resources as materials usable by man, a little reflection reveals that 

whereas it is Cod who creates minerals and rocks, it 

is man who creates resources." One can reflect further 

that a mineral deposit can be characterized as nonnewable, but mineral resources are another thing entirely. By additional effort by man new mineral resources can be "created," not in the sense of creation by the Almighty, but in the sense that a body of 

rock is identified for the first time as useable. Within 

'the limits of geologic availability, one can conclude 

that the character, variety and size of mineral resources depend on the technology that needs them 

and the technology for developing them.

Resource availability. To be anything other than 

a wishful thought, resources must be available or potentially so. A mineral deposit that has been found, 

measured, and determined to be economically mineable at the current .price using current mining and

extraction technology is available and clearly a resource. If the deposit is known and measured, but no 

process is known or foreseen by which the material 

can or could be recovered economically, it is not 

available for use and is not a resource. However, if it 

seems to qualified engineers technologically feasible 

to develop in the future a process to recover the matrial economically, the deposit would be potentially 

available for use and would be called a sub-economic 

resource (U.S. Bureau of Mines, and the U.S. Geological Survey, 1976). For example, in 1950, when the 

6.2 billion tons of U.S. iron ore reserve included no 

taconite, the low-grade taconite deposits were subeconomic and were foreseen to be only potentially 

available. The developing of the technology to drill, 

mine and concentrate taconite made it economic and, 

in fact, the preferred ore, which in 1975 made up 

most of the U.S. iron ore reserve of 17 billion tons.

Another factor of availability is the knowledge of 

the existence of a deposit. It is obvious that a deposit 

must be identified to be available and that an undiscovered deposit is unavailable. Exploration and resource geologists can identify areas where undiscovered deposits might occur and then can make a 

knowledgeable guess about how many deposits exist 

there, and of these how many might be discoverable. 

They also can make knowledgeable guesses about the 

size of such undiscovered deposits. Such deposits can 

then be considered potentially available; that is we 

have the potential to discover them with current exploration techniques. Nearly all of our known deposits that now make up our past production and 

present mineral reserve were once a part of the undiscovered but discoverable resource.

There is no way in which the ultimate amount of 

the undiscovered resources can be determined even 

though some portions of the ultimate amount can be 

estimated. We can predict a discoverable portion of 

undiscovered resources using well supported hypotheses of the occurrence of deposits, as well as an 

additional discoverable portion using poorly supported speculations on the occurrence of deposits. 

These portions make up the hypothetical and speculative categories of undiscovered resources used by 

the Geological Survey and the Bureau of Mines. However, a still further portion of undiscovered ultimate 

resources cannot be predicted because it is undiscoverable using either current or foreseeable future 

exploration technology. For example, some rocks of 

the western United States are mineralized where they 

are exposed, but in large areas where they are covered 

by younger lava flows, they cannot be prospected for 

by anything other than the too-expensive drill or 

shaft. Geologists can confidently predict that many 

deposits exist beneath the lava flows but the deposits

42 | PERSPECTIVES
are not economically discoverable with present or 

foreseeable future technology and cannot be counted 

as a part of our resources. A still further portion of 

undiscovered ultimate resources cannot be predicted 

because of lack of scientific evidence of the existence 

of the deposits. Such deposits probably exist but are 

unsuspected by geologists. A clear hindsight example 

of such a deposit is the Red Sea metalliferous mud. 

On February 17, 1965, marine geologists on the 

oceanographic research vessel, R. V. Atlantis, II, were 

astonished to find that a core of mud taken in the 

central part of the Red Sea was enriched in zinc, 

copper, lead, silver, and gold (Degens and Ross, 

1969). Subsequent surveys showed that the metalliferous muds in the Red Sea are widespread, fairly 

thick and contain large quantities of scarce metals. 

These deposits now are a part of the world's subeconomic resource, but there was no reason whatever before their chance discovery to suspect that 

they existed. They were totally unconceived and 

were certainly not visualized as a part of undiscovered 

resources.

Resource Flow

A common but incorrect way of viewing mineral 

resources is to regard them as the sum of the known 

and predicted economic deposits of commodities in 

current use, and from that to conclude that mineral 

resources in general are fixed and non-renewable. 

As seen in the discussion in the previous section, 

mineral resources consist of known and suspected 

mineral deposits that are counted as resources by virtue of industrial needs for them and subsequently 

are categorized according to knowledge of their 

existence, the economics and technology of their discovery, and the economics and technology of their 

mining and extraction. These factors change over 

time, causing the make-up and magnitude of resources to change. Recognizing that resources are so 

heavily influenced by these temporal economic factors, economists David Brooks and P. W. Andrews 

pointed out in 1974 that in matters of long-term supply, minerals should be treated not as a fixed stock, 

but as a flow that responds to demand.

The misconception of resources as a fixed stock answers part of the question raised at the start of this 

paper, "What has gone wrong with our mineral forecasting?" At a time of concern over threatening 

shortages of minerals, resource geologists and engineers are asked to join forces and estimate the known 

mineral resources and predict the unknown mineral 

resources. They would like to estimate once and for 

all the total or ultimate resources of the country, but 

they cannot. Their problem is this both geologists

and engineers, no matter how technically liberal they 

may be, must stay within the confines both of their 

data and their technical understanding and methodology. They come up with estimates, but each one is 

outdated the day it is published, because continuing 

exploration and study generate new data, and new 

basic research sparks new ideas of occurrence or recovery. In the past, most estimates have turned out 

to be too low, which is expectable. Regardless of the 

liberalism of the estimater, the methodologic conservatism that must be followed insures that the estimate will exclude deposits that are unrecoverable 

with foreseeable technology as well as deposits that 

are undiscoverable as were the mineral deposits 

beneath basalt flows or are unpredictable as were 

the Red Sea metalliferous muds. Over time with the 

accumulation of more knowledge, significant amounts 

of such deposits will become recoverable, discoverable or predictable and add to the total resources.

This is not to .say that rocks, minerals, and their 

natural concentrations are not finite or that geologic 

availability is not a limiting factor in resource magnitude, but only that the conception and perception of 

resources at any given time are likely to be limited.

Mineral Supply System

The mineral supply system of the United States 

yields this flow of most mineral materials from one 

resource category to another progressively from 

speculative-undiscovered resources to refined material production. As we have seen, the system is driven 

by the demands of the industrial-age.

To understand how this supply system works and 

the factors influencing it, one must look at its components. It is commonly conceived to have three 

major phases: research, exploration, and exploitation; however, each of these phases is divided into 

two parts. Research consists of conception and assessment of undiscovered resources; exploration consists of discovery and delineation of mineral deposits; 

and exploitation consists of extraction and processing 

of ores. Table 7 shows this breakdown along with 

the actual activity carried out, the mineral resource 

category developed, and the institutions with the 

prime responsibility.

The flow of material is initiated by research organizations in government, academic, and the private 

sector conducting basic research on geologic processes of rock and mineral formation and distribution. 

Originally all resources were unconceived, and only 

by such basic study and thinking was each kind of 

deposit conceived. Once conceived, the magnitude, 

location and character of the deposits are speculated

REPLENISHING NON-RENEWABLE MINERAL RESOURCES | 43
TABLE 7. Phases of Mineral Supply System

Major 

phases

Detailed 

phases Activity

Mineral resource 

category developed Prime responsibility

RESEARCH

EXPLORATION

EXPLOITATION

CONCEPTION

ASSESSMENT

DISCOVERY

DELINEATION

EXTRACTION

PROCESSING

Research in geologic 

processes, i.e. plate 

tectonics, formation 

of mineral deposits, 

etc.

Geologic, geophysical, 

and geochemical 

mapping, geostatistical analysis

Prospecting

Research on prospecting techniques

Exploration

Research on exploration techniques

Mining and land 

reclamation

Research and 

development on 

extraction

Beneficiation 

reduction and 

refining

Research and 

development on 

processing

UNDISCOVERED 

RESOURCES

RESERVES

SPECULATIVE

HYPOTHETICAL

INFERRED

INDICATED 

AND 

MEASURED

Produced raw 

material

Reserves

Produced refined 

material

Reserves

Universities, Government, 

research organizations, 

private institutes

Government 

Industry

Industry

Government and Industry

Industry

Industry and Government

Industry

Industry and Government

Industry

Industry and Government

on and reported as a speculative undiscovered resource, generally by government and academic research organizations.

In the next phase, mineral resources are further 

defined by government resource agencies and to a 

lesser degree (and mainly for its own purposes) by 

the exploration sector of industry. They conduct 

geologic, geophysical, and geochemical mapping of 

areas of speculative resources. Application of wellsupported hypotheses concerning the occurrence of 

mineral deposits to these regional data allows estimation of hypothetical undiscovered resources. In this 

way the certainty of actual existence of the undiscovered resource is increased to the point that the hypothetical resource estimates have sufficient reliability 

for national planning in government or exploration 

planning in industry.

At this point exploration is initiated by industry. 

The regional maps produced at the assessment stage 

are used to plan a prospecting program. More detailed field studies are carried out to narrow the 

target areas, and finally drilling or tunneling is undertaken to search for the deposit. This activity, when 

successful, develops reserves of the inferred class. 

Further detailed exploration improves the accuracy of

the reserve estimate by better delineating the extent 

and shape of the deposit as well as its grade and 

mineralogy. This activity develops indicated and 

measured reserves which have the degree of certainty 

necessary for the investment by industry of large 

amounts of capital needed for exploitation of the deposit.

The mineral supply system consists of a series of 

sequential steps, each one necessary for the initiation of the succeeding step, and each one designed 

to improve the effectiveness and economic efficiency 

of the total system. The demand for minerals drives the 

resource flow. The overall economic efficiency of this 

system is set by the technologic level and is improved 

by research and development at all phases. That is to 

say, the estimated magnitude of undiscovered resources is increased by improved basic concepts of 

mineral deposits and mapping and resource assessment of potentially mineralized areas. Reserves are 

increased by prospecting, which is made more effective by improvement of prospecting, extraction and 

processing techniques. The increase in resources over 

time is directly related to the amount of effort put 

into improving the technology as well as to the 

amount of exploration effort. That is to say, we replenish, expand and diversify our "non-renewable"

44 | PERSPECTIVES
mineral resources by technologic advance through 

research and development effort.

The relationship between mineral resource supply 

and mineral science and technology can be shown by 

comparing the growth in value of U.S. annual production of principal raw material mineral commodities (fig. 14) with several indices of the growth of scientific and technologic effort in the minerals area. 

The first is the cumulative numbers of scientific articles on the geology of North America (fig. 15). The 

second is the growth of the yearly number of earth

60

scientists in the U.S. (fig. 16). The strength of the geoscience educational system is shown by the growth 

of the number of degree granting, geoscience departments in the U.S. Universities (fig. 16). Finally, increasing sophistication of geoscience is indicated in 

part by the fields of specialization, which are in turn 

measured by the increasing number of National geoI I I I 40

50

40

o

Q

30

O

20

10

I T

1840

FIGURE

material

1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980

YEAR

14. Growth of U.S. annual production of principal raw 

mineral commodities. (From U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1975.)

1840 1860 1880 1900 1920 

YEAR

1940 1960 1980

FIGURE 15. Cumulative number of scientific articles on the 

geology of North America.

I I I

1840 1860 1880 1900 1920 1940

FIGURE 16. Number of geologists and number 

granting geoscience departments.

1960 1980 

of degreescience societies (fig. 17). If the cost to support a geoscientist in terms of salary, administrative and scientific support is taken at $50,000, a conservative figure, 

nearly 2 billion dollars would have been spent in 

1975 to support this geoscience effort. Of course, not 

all of this geologic effort would be directed at the 

mineral supply system, but a major portion would be, 

either directly or indirectly. Also the geologic effort 

is by no means the whole of the effort going into 

resource studies as much effort is made by mineral 

and mining engineers.

1840 I860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980

YEAR

FIGURE 17. Growth of national societies of the American

Geological Institute. 

REPLENISHING NON-RENEWABLE MINERAL RESOURCES | 45
Long-term Mineral Supply

Our mineral resources are replenished by scientific 

and technologic advance, but how long can this keep 

up? Even with replenishment, will we eventually outgrow our mineral resource base? Much thought has 

been given to this question and much diversity of 

opinion exists. Economic geologist, B. J. Skinner, in 

an article titled, "A second iron age ahead?" (1976) 

predicts that the day when "we will have to come to 

grips with the way in which the earth offers us its 

riches ... is less than a century away, perhaps less 

than a half century. When it dawns we will have to 

learn to use iron and other abundant metals for all 

our needs." On the other side, resource economist, 

J. F. McDivitt (1974) believes that ". . . if the peoples 

of the world continue to work closely together and 

to move towards an ever more efficient pattern of resource use, . . . mineral shortages will continue to 

be only a faint cloud on the world's horizon."

The mineral supply system certainly will have to 

deal in the long term with serious constraints if it is 

to keep up with demand. First of all, demand itself 

has been growing exponentially and, of course, that 

sort of growth cannot continue. Brooks and Andrews 

(1974) have suggested that "relative demands (for 

minerals) decline after a point with increase in per 

capita income. Indeed . . . the relative growth is 

sufficiently damped that it was suggested in one study 

that mineral production will need to grow less fast 

in the future than it has grown in the recent past, 

exactly the opposite of most conclusions based on 

trend analysis." This is the same sort of hopeful sign 

that in recent years we have witnessed in some population growth in reaction to increased per capita income. Another constraint to the long-term mineral 

supply system is a threatened shortage of energy. 

Much of the technologic advance that replenishes 

mineral resources is energy intensive, so this could 

be a serious future constraint and in fact, the rise 

in energy costs in the last years has been severely 

felt in most parts of the mining industry. Another 

present major constraint that could increase even 

more is the accommodation of the mineral supply 

system to the regulatory controls and costs concerned with environmental pollution and degradation as well as to the public desire to withdraw from 

mineral entry all public lands judged better used as 

a wilderness or an ecologic reserve. Another possible 

constraint is what B. J. Skinner calls the "mineralogical barrier." Scarce metals in the earth's crust, such 

as copper, lead, nickel, tin, and tungsten, are mostly 

disseminated within the atomic structure of host 

minerals that make up common rock. In that way 

they are accessible to recovery only by chemically

breaking down the host minerals, a feat which requires very large amounts of energy. Such scarce 

metals are now recovered from the geologically rare 

deposits in which they occur as a principal component. Geologist Skinner believes that such deposits 

will soon be depleted. Economists Brooks and 

Andrews argue against this concept by holding that 

"every bit of evidence we have indicates the existence of mineral resources (at lower grades) that 

could be mined and, further, that either as their price 

goes up or as their cost goes down (which is to say, 

as technology of extraction improves), the volume of 

mineable material increases significantly not by a 

factor of 5 or 10 but by a factor of 100 or 1,000." The 

arguments on this critical issue could be better focused by additional scientific information on the 

amounts of mineralized rock available at different 

grades, because existing data are too limited for 

definite conclusions. Thus, it is not certain that the 

geologic availability of lower grade resources to the 

mineral resource supply system is assured so a potential barrier to the resource system remains.

Whether the mineral resource supply system can 

overcome these restraints in the long run depends 

ultimately on the magnitude of those mineral resources that we cannot now assess. They are the resources that we are unable to conceive or for which 

we are unable to foresee the discovery or recovery 

techniques. There is no question that the resources 

we know about are a fixed stock and eventually will 

run out. But, can they be replaced?

Another way of posing this problem is to ask the 

question whether or not an equilibrium of mineral 

use can be established that will last indefinitely or 

nearly so. If the real world of supply and demand is 

likened to a model where mineral resources are fixed 

and demand is dynamic and expanding, minerals will 

run out. But this model is not like the real world 

where supply and demand are dynamically interrelated and mineral shortages set off a whole set of 

changes including higher prices, reduced demand, 

increased conservation, increased substitution, increased recyclying, increased technologic and scientific research, increased exploration and increased exploitation of lower grades ores. In the real world, mineral use has evolved to overcome such shortages as 

firewood from depleted forests, or copper from 

mined out high grade veins, and such evolution will 

continue to operate as new shortages arise. This is 

not to say that such minerals as petroleum in conventional fields, and presently economic deposits of mercury, helium, platinum, and other such geologic rarities will not be exhausted eventually. But our technology likely will evolve to accommodate to a lesser 

or more expensive supply of such minerals, much as

46 | PERSPECTIVES
it has developed without abundant supplies of the 

metals praeseodymium, neodymium, promethium, 

gadolinium, terbium, and the other rare earths, which 

were they abundant, probably would be used widely. 

Mineral economist John E. Tilton in his excellent 

book, The Future of Nonfuel Minerals, concluded:

In the more distant future the twenty-first century 

and beyond depletion could become a more 

pressing problem. It is important to stress this possibility, for the consequences to industrial societies 

could be most severe. At the same time, it should 

be noted that the arsenal available to mankind for 

dealing with this threat is not empty. As pointed 

out above, public policies that support research 

in minerals and reduce their consumption increase 

the likelihood that technological progress will continue to offset the adverse effects of depletion. 

Other policies, such as programs to encourage 

smaller families, to slow the growth of population, 

may be desirable for other reasons as well. Finally, 

even in the absence of such policies, one cannot 

be certain that depletion will ultimately overwhelm 

the cost-reducing impact of new technology. For as 

depletion starts to push mineral prices up, it unleashes forces that stimulate the substitution of 

cheaper and more abundant materials for the increasingly scarce minerals, encourages the search 

for new and unconventional sources of supplies, 

and promotes the development of more cost-reducing technologies. Conceivably, these forces 

could by themselves keep the specter of depletion 

at bay indefinitely.

It seems clear that our long-term mineral supply 

system is much stronger than believed by the analysts 

who regard mineral resources as a fixed and essentially known and fully conceived stock. At the same 

time, we have the responsibility of keeping the system healthy, and some steps should be taken to do

so. The workings of the mineral resource system in 

its full complexity needs examination to better understand the factors that affect it. A statistical monitoring 

series that would give early warning of a weakening 

in the resource replenishment process in any part of 

the system should be devised and set up. Finally, adequate research and development should be carried 

out in order to strengthen weak parts of the mineral 

supply system. A

REFERENCES CITED

Brooks, David B. and P. W. Andrews, 1974, Mineral Resources, 

economic growth, and world population: Science, v. 185, 

no. 4145, p. 13-19.

Degens, Egan and David A. Ross, 1969, Hot brines and recent 

heavy metal deposits in the Red Sea: Springer Verlag New 

York Inc., New York, 600 p.

McDivitt, James F., 1974, Minerals and Men: Published for Resources for the Future, Inc. by The Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore, 175 p.

McKelvey, V. E., 1972, Mineral Resources, Environmental Quality 

and the Limits to Growth: Intermet Bulletin, no. 2, vol. 2, p. 

17-21.

President's Materials Policy Commission, W. S. Paley, chm, 1952, 

Resources for freedom: Washington, D.C., U.S. Covt. Printing Office, 818 p, 5 vols.

Skinner, Brian J., 1976, A second iron age ahead?: American 

Scientist, v. 64, p. 258-269.

Tilton, John E., 1977, The Future of Nonfuel Minerals: The 

Brookings Institution, Washington, D.C., 113 p.

U.S. Bureau of Mines and U.S. Geological Survey, 1976, Principles of the mineral resources classification system of the 

U.S. Bureau of Mines and the U.S. Geological Survey: U.S. 

Geol. Surv. Bull. 1450-A, 5 p.

U.S. Geological Survey, 1922, The oil supply of the United 

States: Bull. Amer. Assoc. of Petrol. Geologists, vol. 6, no. 1, 

p. 42-46.

U.S. Geological Survey, 1968, Mineral and water resources of 

Montana: 90th Gong. Senate Document no. 98, U.S. Govt. 

Printing Office, 166 p.

REPLENISHING NON-RENEWABLE MINERAL RESOURCES | 47
Games Coastal Area Planners Play

OR HOW SIMULATION HELPS PREDICT IMPACTS OE OCS DEVELOPMENT

By J. Ronald Jones, William W. Doyel, and Philip A. Marcus

SAVANNAH. Why would sixty men and women 

converge on a metropolitan hotel, pay handsomely 

for accommodations and most meals just to play 

games? If the name of the game is "see how they 

run" onshore to locate support facilities for offshore 

oil, then gaming or simulation may provide planners 

and citizens alike with new understandings of the 

pressures, benefits and costs stemming from the presence of oil development in their communities.

 The Beaufort Gazette, Monday, July 25, 1977

A NEW ACTIVITY FOR THE SURVEY?

The newspaper article quoted above is typical of 

the interest aroused by the experiential workshops 

being conducted by the Geological Survey with the 

help of the American Society of Planning Officials. 

The Savannah workshop was one of a series helping 

to prepare State and local land-use planners and decision makers for the onshore impacts that may occur 

as the result of OCS oil and gas development. Why 

should the Survey's Resource and Land Investigations 

Program (RALI) even take on this responsibility? And 

why should unconventional technical assistance techniques such as "gaming" be employed?

First, these exercises are sponsored and managed 

by the Resource and Land Investigations Program, 

as the Survey's organization chartered by the Department of the Interior to conduct studies and projects of 

Department-wide scope and interest. Many of Interior's programs affect, impact, or even impinge upon 

the total environment of the Nation's coastal zone. 

An obvious example is the Outer Continental Shelf oil 

and gas leasing and lease-management program operated jointly by the Bureau of Land Management and 

the Geological Survey. Perhaps less obvious are the 

custodianship/land management programs of the National Park Service, of the Fish and Wildlife Service, 

and of the Bureau of Outdoor Recreation; as well as 

the scientific information gathering and interpretation activities of the Survey, the Fish and Wildlife 

Service, and others. The Department, in supporting 

this workshop series is, in effect, saying . . . while we 

must proceed in the development of our OCS energy 

resources to meet critical domestic supply shortages, 

we also have an obligation (as well as the expertise 

and the data) to aid the coastal communities, who may

be heavily impacted by this OCS development, to plan 

for and thus mitigate adverse impacts to their communities. Further, the implementation of any component of a National Energy Plan depends, to a great 

extent, on the support and cooperation of the State 

and local levels of government.

Second, why "gaming"? Because a heterogeneous 

group of State and local planners and decisionmakers with widely varying expertise in planning 

generally, and in impact assessment methodologies 

specifically have to be exposed to a set of highly 

technical and complex ideas, methods, and data. 

There are only 2- 1/2 to 3 days for each workshop, and 

the aim is to send the participants home with new 

skills and knowledge that will help them do their 

jobs better. It was and is believed that an information transfer process involving gaming and simulation exercises could and would be most effective 

(and most enjoyable) if it required, as it does, the active involvement of all participants.

THE RESPONSE OF THE PARTICIPANTS

And gaming does involve the participants. Over 

and over it was interesting to observe the shocked 

even crestfallen faces of senior planners, department heads, and elected officials when, at each 

workshop's outset, they were issued pocket calculators a sure sign of workshop exercises to come! 

During all six workshops a consistent behavior pattern 

was observed of participants: (1) shock at being committed to a "working" workshop; (2) anxiety about 

being able to cope with the computational exercises; 

(3) anger about the workload and late evening sessions; (4) intensity during the game exercise itself; 

(5) camaraderie and group cohesiveness resulting 

from an intense, common experience; and (6) relief 

and self-satisfaction in having learned valuable facts 

and procedures useful in their coastal area planning 

and decisionmaking jobs.

What were we trying to do in so short a time to 

these unsuspecting planners and decisionmakers? We 

were trying in each workshop to impart a basic understanding of offshore activities and onshore facilities, their potential impacts; and how to evaluate, 

set policies, and plan for their development. So we 

had the participants work their way through a four48 | PERSPECTIVES
part curriculum: (1) a lecture series; (2) small-group 

computational exercises; (3) a gaming/simulation 

exercise; and (4) panel and group discussion.

The Lecture Series

The lecture series was intensive, but included 

periodic interruptions for computational exercises. 

Participants were exposed to materials related to the 

following planning and decisionmaking issues:

1. The nature, magnitude, and timing of offshore 

activities such as exploration, development, and production, which require onshore supporting facilities 

which, in turn, generate impacts.

2. The types, numbers, timing, and characteristics 

of onshore facilities such as service bases, platform 

fabrication yards, pipe-coating yards, and refineries, 

among others, which may be associated with offshore 

development.

3. The environmental and socioeconomic effects of 

various facilities on communities.

4. The planning and decisionmaking methodologies available to State and local officials for setting 

realistic planning priorities and for identifying work 

programs to deal with development.

In preparing the lecture series materials, we designed the materials to meet the differing backgrounds of the participants. We therefore presented 

tightly edited, technically competent material, using understandable and eye-catching graphics to supplement the oral presentations. We found that the 

more knowledgeable participants quickly assumed 

roles of "adjunct faculty." We now believe that those 

who had difficulty with the materials are at least 

aware of what it is they didn't know.

The Computational Exercises

The small-group computational exercises provided 

a needed respite from lectures, and afforded the opportunity for participants to work together and thus 

begin to build the group trust and cohesiveness necessary for the successful operation of the gaming/ 

simulation exercise to follow. Participant groups utilized a step-by-step procedure permitting them to 

create:

1. Offshore oil and gas development scenarios, involving the number of production platforms needed 

to develop an oil and gas find, the development of a 

platform installation schedule, and the calculation of 

both development drilling and production schedules.

2. Onshore impact scenarios, including projections 

of added employment and population (for various

facilities and types of communities); governmental 

and school operating costs and revenues; capital 

costs and revenues; environmental, economic development, demographic, and social impacts; and infrastructure requirements (for example, the need for 

secondary public services).

Workbooks provided both the computational 

algorithms and the assumptions behind them. Participants were shown how the assumptions were derived and were encouraged to challenge them, dissemble the algorithms, "plug in" their own assumptions, and generate their own numbers.

The Gaming/Simulation Exercises

The gaming exercise provided an immediate opportunity for the participants to apply the information, knowledge, and techniques from the previous 

sessions in a realistic but simulated setting that compressed 3 years of events into a 3-hour exercise. The 

overall object of the game was to lead the participants 

to decide, on the basis of the best available information and methods, whether and where to site various 

OCS-related facilities, such as service bases, platform 

fabrication yards, and refineries. The physical setting 

was a hypothetical coastal region, comprised of three 

States and their assorted communities. The participants were assigned roles (seventy in all) ranging 

from fisherman to governor, from environmentalist to 

industrialist, from city council member to TV news 

commentator and were given time to study their 

role descriptions along with descriptions of the physical, economic, and political settings for each State 

and community. Then they were turned loose to interact.

The game was "driven" by the interjection of new 

facts at about 15-minute intervals via news "releases." 

New facts ranged from OCS leasing schedule changes 

to oil and gas find announcements to changes in the 

political situation in the Middle-East. Workshop faculty members circulated throughout the room especially laid out for the gaming exercise, refereed disputes, and functioned essentially as the judiciary system. No other constraints were explicitly imposed on 

the participants.

What invariably occurred next was a scene reminiscent of the floor of the New York Stock Exchange on 

a heavy trading day. Energy levels and intensity were 

high for all participants, and time passed quickly. 

The game demanded frequent reference to the information base and to the planning materials about 

onshore OCS-related facilities requirements and impacts introduced at earlier sessions. Participants were 

being taught the value of information, and that one 

never has enough information in the form that one

GAMES COASTAL AREA PLANNERS PLAY | 49
FIGURE 18. State and local coastal-zone management officials 

participate in realistic and lively simulation game on the onshore impacts of OCS development, under the direction of 

American Society of Planning Officials and RALI Program 

faculty.

j£j potential development site 

 regional gas pipeline 

airfield

prime agricultural land 

wetland

flood hazard area 

water depth (feel)

50 | PERSPECTIVES
prefers when one needs it. This process of making do 

with partial information is the essence of decisionmaking as distinguished from the academic idealized planning exercises presented in earlier sessions.

Without prompting, participants assumed their 

roles, and compromises between disparate groups 

began to emerge. For example, an announcement of 

the closing of a military base in an area already suffering high unemployment provoked a temporary 

coalition between conservationists and elected officials. In another case, a new industry offered to construct a community health services clinic in exchange 

for local acquiescence to the siting of a pipe-coating 

yard that would emit considerable noise pollution. 

In yet another case, property exchanges were negotiated to protect the integrity of a wildlife preserve. 

And so it went, until time was called and the exercise 

was critiqued.

The gaming exercise exposed participants to the 

pressures, uncertainties and conflicts involved in the 

OCS-related facility siting process. The critique then 

provided an opportunity to decide as a group whether 

the objectives of the game had been met, to sort out 

some of the major events and determine why they 

had happened, to think about how they would do it 

"next time," and to evaluate the overall value of the 

gaming exercise itself.

PRODUCTS AND BENEFITS FOR COASTAL 

STATES

Judging from participant response thus far, the 

workshops disseminate needed information efficiently, and in a manner that will likely affect future 

planning and decisionmaking in coastal communities 

anticipating OCS-related impacts. But this is not accidental success. Research and the development of materials began 2 years before the first session and several organizations collaborated in the effort:

The Panel and Group Discussion

For each workshop a panel of individuals who had 

experienced a particular aspect of industrial impact 

relevant to the workshop participant was assembled. 

Panelists were from the region in which the workshops were held and covered such subjects as planning for installation of an offshore drilling platform 

construction yard in Northhampton County, Virginia, 

to development of a marine terminal/storage/pipeline complex in Clallam County, Washington.

The participants were then split into three groups 

to discuss specific problems relating to local reactions 

and methods used as mitigating and control techniques. One group discussed industrial development; 

the second, land-use controls; and the third, policy 

formulation and implementation.

A commonality of problems was apparent in all the 

discussions, as was the fact that many of the traditional approaches to coping with impacts of industrial development are not as useful in reducing adverse socioeconomic impacts as are some of the more innovative 

techniques, such as negotiation with industry and 

contract zoning.

The New England River Basins Commission (NERBC) 

prepared: (1) the most extensive set of facts ever 

assembled describing the kinds of onshore facilities 

likely to be constructed to support OCS oil and gas 

development operations (NERBC, 1976A); (2) three 

scenarios for the development of the North Atlantic 

(Georges Bank) oil and gas resources, along with a 

procedure for developing such scenarios in other 

coastal areas (NERBC, 1976B); (3) a planning methodology, incorporating the facts and scenarios described 

above, designed to aid planners in identifying alternative sites and impacts of various OCS-related facilities 

(NERBC, 1977A); and (4) various materials and graphics designed to support a nationwide series of workshops.

The American Society of Planning Officials (ASPO) 

prepared: (1) a source book which describes the stateof-the-art in industrial facility siting methodologies 

(ASPO, 1977A); (2) an extensive annotated bibliography to the literature, to on-going research, and 

sources of expertise (ASPO, 1977B); and (3) a set of 

issue papers which describe the controversies, history, 

and parties involved in OCS-related activities (ASPO, 

1977C).

In addition, ASPO, with the aid of consultants and 

the RALI Program staff, designed the workshop, the 

gaming exercise, and the multimedia package of materials given to each participant. Further, by means of 

direct communication with each coastal State Governor's office, along with the use of APSO's extensive 

membership list of practicing planners and elected 

planning officials, we were assured that the participants were, in fact, the people who would actually be 

called upon to make facility siting decisions as the 

OCS resources are developed.

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office 

of Research and Development, provided funding for 

ASPO involvement, and participated actively in workshop sessions involving the assessment of environmental impacts.

The Office of Coastal Zone Management of the 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the Bureau of Land Management, and the Conservation Division of the Survey contributed technical

GAMES COASTAL AREA PLANNERS PLAY | 51
assistance and presented valuable materials to the 

workshop participants.

Finally, the Survey's RALI Program conceived the 

entire project, funded the NERBC activity, participated 

in the development of all NERBC and ASPO materials, 

led individual workshop sessions, and managed and 

coordinated each project element.

The above listing of sponsors and contributors show 

the wide range of talents, interests, and resources 

needed to provide technical assistance such as this to 

the land-use planning community. Planning is a broad, 

multifaceted discipline. Planning assistance requires 

an equally broad basis, perspective, and participation.

The Workshop Schedule

From June through October 1977 six regional workshops were held: Newport, Rhode Island; Ocean City, 

Maryland; Savannah, Georgia; Otter Crest, Oregon; 

Biloxi, Mississippi; and Anchorage, Alaska. Each workship used the same basic materials, but was customized to the needs of the region by the selection of 

pertinent examples and the use of local experts to 

augment the permanent faculty. Not surprisingly, each 

gaming exercise produced different siting results. The 

exercise was not intended to produce a "best" result, 

but merely to give coastal State officials the opportunity to engage in a hypothetical exercise using bestavailable information and methods.

A second series of workshops is scheduled for midto-late 1978 same locations, and, hopefully, same 

paticipants. The objectives of the next series are: (1) 

to acquaint participants with the results of planning 

assistance studies currently underway; (2) to investigate more exhaustively both existing and developing 

methods for calculating secondary and tertiary impacts; (3) to give participants a better understanding 

of the economics of information as it relates to improving their decisionmaking ability; and (4) to conduct a new series of gaming exercises involving small 

groups 8 to 10 people, real data, and current issues.

CONCLUSIONS

The history of the development of frontier OCS oil 

and gas areas off the Gulf and Southern California 

coasts indicates that public resistance to such development is at least partly due to fear of the unknown 

and to a lack of confidence in studies that purport to 

assess potential, coastal impacts. This workshop series

attempts to present objective facts, to the extent they 

are knowable, and thus move the debates that will 

inevitably occur about such development away from 

issues of data credibility and toward the more profound issues of values and philosophies.

Results of the workshops thus far indicate that 

coastal area officials are eager and willing to distinguish the objective and subjective elements of the 

issues, and want to become familiar with the important part that scientific information should play in 

determining and thus planning for coastal area impacts. Participant evaluations of the workshops indicate that they believe this kind of hypothetical experience to be valuable indeed.

As the Geological Survey and the rest of the Department of the Interior proceed in their roles in the 

development of oil and gas on the Outer Continental 

Shelf, coastal communities must continue to find ways 

to cope with the development that will inevitably occur. Experiences, particularly of various Gulf Coast 

communities already impacted by OCS development, 

indicate that the communities that plan ahead experience fewer adverse and more positive impacts. The 

workshop series described above provides coastal 

officials with the means to accomplish this planning 

and is thus supportive of Federal energy policy. A

REFERENCES CITED

Marcus, P. A., Smith, E. T., Wong, A. T., and Robertson, S. R., 

1977, DEROCS: A computer program to simulate offshore oil 

and natural gas development scenarios and onshore service 

base requirements: U.S. Ceol. Survey open-file report 77-130, 

256 p.

New England River Basins Commission, 1976 A, Onshore facilities 

related to offshore oil and gas development: Factbook: 

Boston, Mass., New England River Basins Comm., 664 p.

 1976 B, Onshore facilities related to offshore oil and 

gas development: Estimates for New England: Boston, Mass., 

New England River Basins Comm., 296 p.

1977, Onshore planning procedures for OCS-related

development: pt. 3, facility site identification and impact 

assessment: Boston, Mass., New England River Basins Comm., 

58 p. (1977 draft).

Pattison, M. L, 1977, Socioeconomic impacts of outer continental shelf oil and gas development a bibliography: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Circ. 761, 63 p.

Schneider, D. M., ed., 1977, Planning for onshore development: Discussion papers, Chicago, III., American Society of 

Planning Officials, 267 p. (unpublished).

Williams, D. C, and Zinn, J. A., 1977, Source book: Onshore 

impacts of outer continental shelf oil and gas development: 

Chicago, III., American Society of Planning Officials, 180 p.

52 | PERSPECTIVES
Submarine Landslides

By Dwight A. Sangrey and Louis E. Garrison

He had brought a large map representing the sea,

Without the least vestige of land; 

And the crew were much pleased when they found it to be

A map they could all understand.

Lewis Carroll

INTRODUCTION

The maps of many sea regions have undergone 

striking changes in recent years as new tools are 

provided to brush aside the waters electronically and 

permit scientists to peer closely at the sea floor itself. 

Former areas of blank blue paper "without the least 

vestige of land" have come to show an amazing variety of forms mountains, plateaus, mesas, troughs, 

trenches, and canyons that have been mapped until 

the major ocean-bottom features are as well known 

as the major features on land. But nowhere has the 

sea floor been subjected to such microscopic scrutiny 

and its shape and consistency so carefully analyzed 

as in the areas of petroleum production where giant 

oil platforms and their spider web of pipelines stand 

at the mercy of the ocean environment. Here, where 

a small oversight may be very costly, an enormous 

amount of effort is expended in trying to understand 

the subtle environmental clues which ultimately may 

spell the difference between safety and danger, or 

success and failure of the platforms.

Much has been learned from these experiences. 

Areas of the sea floor once thought to be essentially 

immobile are now known to undergo changes at rates 

that are sometimes startling. In extreme cases, maps 

of the seafloor may require annual updating to retain 

their usefulness, and some areas must be resurveyed 

after each major storm or earthquake.

A wide variety of geological processes are responsible for these dynamic qualities, but none is more 

spectacular, or bears more potential for damaging 

offshore platforms than the submarine landslide. In 

the inventory of sea floor instabilities, it is one of the 

most difficult to predict, yet its results can be the 

most disastrous.

In 1969 when Hurricane Camille ripped northward 

through the Gulf of Mexico, three major oil platforms 

standing on the Mississippi Delta were victims of her 

fury. Post-storm investigations revealed, however, 

that they were not bowled over by the force of 

Camille's 322-kilometer (200-mile) per hour winds, 

nor even by the pounding of her more than 15-meter 

(50-foot) high waves. Rather, it is believed that they

were damaged and lost because their foundations 

were shifted by landsliding triggered by the storm.

There had been earlier records of landslide damage, but these were largely confined to pipelines and 

telephone cables supported on the sea floor. The 

classic example was the Grand Banks slump in 1929, 

when an earthquake-induced sea floor failure caused 

damage to telephone cables over a distance of several hundred kilometers (fig. 19).

During the "Good Friday Earthquake" which struck 

the Prince William Sound area of Alaska in 1964, a 

large portion of the waterfront (more than 98-million 

cubic yards) at the town of Valdez disappeared into 

the sea. With it went the docks and warehousing facilities carrying some 30 people to their deaths. Later, 

investigations shown that a massive submarine landslide had occurred, triggered by the earthquake shaking of soft deltaic sediments. At least 100-million 

cubic meters (3,531-million cubic feet) of sediments, 

including the Valdez waterfront, had almost instantaneously moved seaward in this gigantic submarine 

landslide.

Accompanying many of these submarine landslides 

are the dangerous tsunamis, or immense ocean waves 

which spread outward from the slide area and travel 

at high speeds for great distances. These waves strike 

land areas with disastrous results. Many cases can be 

cited, but perhaps the worst on record in human lives 

lost occurred in the Lisbon earthquake of November 

1, 1775, when tsunami waves washed the west coasts 

of Portugal, Spain, and Morocco and left some 60,000 

dead in Lisbon alone.

All landslide phenomena are not so catastrophic, 

nor are all associated with storms and earthquakes. 

In quieter modes, small areas of sea floor muds have 

been observed to move without any obvious force 

functions other than gravity.

For example, in 1974 a jack-up drilling rig in the 

Gulf of Mexico suddenly and without warning moved 

several hundred meters seaward of its original location, shearing conducter pipes and drill string. The 

drilling rig, sitting on unstable sediments, was caught 

up in a submarine landslide but was fortunate enough 

to ride out the slide without overturning. Another

SUBMARINE LANDSLIDES | 53
X \

__u_L-J-x \ \\>

42

Cables b en itially by slump

Cables en initially by turbidity 

current

__ __ __ __ Cable replaced during repair

X Cable break

EXPLANATION

Epicenter Sediment cores cont

9 Sands and silts 

Turbidity current

O Undisturbed hemipelagic sediments

Reflection profile (| Disturbed hemipelagic sediments 

2400 Depth in fathoms

FIGURE 19. Map showing the Grand Banks slump in 1929. Earthquake-induced submarine landsliding caused cable breaks as

noted. (From Heezan and Drake, Bull. AAPG, v48n2p111, 1964).

54 | PERSPECTIVES
drilling rig disappeared during Hurricane Camille in 

1969, and was later found to be completely buried in 

slide debris under the sea floor.

Similarly, in certain areas of the Mississippi Delta, 

repeated pipeline breaks and well-jacket displacements have cost their owners hundreds of thousands 

of dollars annually in repairs and lost production 

time. Although the cause was not understood at the 

time these structures were emplaced; it is now known 

that the area is honeycombed with small slides that 

are either in almost constant motion or periodically 

activate themselves in a burst of movement. Pipelines 

laid across these features are sheared, and nearby well 

jackets sometimes bent grotesquely out of alignment 

when stress accumulation is sufficient.

Submarine slides are an important natural process 

whereby great masses of sediment move from shallower to deeper locations on the ocean floors. Because of the increasing use of shallow sea floor areas

for construction of oil production facilities, it is important to understand the mechanisms of these slides, 

the factors which create a slide, and the warning 

signs that point out the danger. In some cases, construction must be done in slide areas, and structures 

must be designed to withstand their forces. Intensive 

studies, therefore, must be initiated in order to predict these forces and their effect on the structures.

Offshore landsliding presents a broad range of important implications. The conventional arguments 

concerning risk of economic loss or loss of life are 

accentuated by our experiences with such loss and 

the fact that a single offshore structure (fig. 20) may 

cost more than $100 million and support a work 

force of 50 or more people. Another important element is the great risk of environmental damage in 

failures. Although no landslide-related accident to 

date has produced environmental damage, the potential exists and, therefore, we must make every effort 

to minimize the risk.

FIGURE 20. The offshore production platform must support drilling equipment, a complex of processing machinery and safe 

living space for large work crews. We must limit the vulnerability of these structures to landslides.

SUBMARINE LANDSLIDES | 55
NATURE OF SUBMARINE LANDSLIDES

What is submarine landsliding, and how does it 

differ from what we see on land?

There is obviously a wide variety of types and 

causes of sea floor instability and the term "landsliding" is applied very broadly to describe many of 

these phenomena. Different sea floor materials, different environments, and different forms of loading all 

influence the kinds of landsliding which can occur. 

The wide variety of landslide forms is a direct consequence of the infinite mix of these factors. Studies of 

landsliding must concentrate on understanding the 

role of each factor individually and in combination. 

The form and distribution of submarine landslides are 

the consequence of interaction among many factors.

One of the major difficulties with studies of underwater landsliding is that we cannot "see" the form of 

the slide in the way that we can on land. This is one 

of the reasons why the scope and significance of offshort landsliding are just now beginning to be appreciated. As new technology and methods are applied, however, a variety of forms and sizes have been 

revealed, and distributional patterns are taking shape. 

While no formal classification system has yet been 

proposed for underwater landslides, several general 

types can be described. The particular types are inevitable consequences of combinations of materials, 

environment, and loading.

To understand landsliding, submarine or terrestrial, 

it is necessary to describe the features in quantitative 

terms. In its most simplified form, quantification of a 

landslide, such as illustrated in figure 21, involves the 

mechanical balancing of driving forces tending to 

produce failure or movement against the forces resisting movement. Although it may be triggered by 

earthquake shaking or by storm waves, gravity acting 

on the soil mass is the major force which drives a 

landslide. The shearing resistance or strength acting

Original bottom surface 

Position after failure

Failure 

surface

Slump debris

FIGURE 21. When driving forces are greater than resisting 

forces, landslides such as this block slump occur. Simplified 

illustration of force balancing used in quantitative analysis 

of landsliding.

along the failure surface provides the resistance to 

movement. As long as resisting forces are greater, the 

slope remains stable, but when the combination of 

triggering function and gravity become greater than 

resistance, failure results and a slide occurs.

Block slumps are a common and simple form of 

submarine landsliding. A downslope cross-section 

through a block slump would show a relatively undisturbed mass which had rotated or slid with respect 

to its initial position. Any dislocation of sediment 

layers within the feature is usually a good indicator 

of the type and magnitude of movement. On land, a 

cross-sectional profile can be developed from extensive borings or trenches cut through a landslide. Offshore the seismic profile is used to produce much the 

same information from which important features of 

a slide can be defined. For a different perspective, the 

plan view of the sea-bottom surface can be obtained 

using side-scan sonar. As illustrated for the block 

slump (fig. 22), this instrument gives a much clearer 

view of the size and extent of landslide features.

Research on slope stability concentrates on the 

various driving and resisting forces acting on a slope. 

A powerful and frequently-used approach is the 

analysis of existing failures where slide geometry is 

known and samples can be obtained for determination of strength and other properties. Block slumping is particularly adaptive to this approach because 

of the relatively simple form and minimum disturbance of the slide material (figs. 21 & 22).

Block slumping can occur in most continental shelf 

areas where slope gradients are sufficient and in a 

wide variety of materials. It is often the initial failure 

in what becomes a more complex form, such as a 

flow slide or mudflow. Although movement may occur suddenly, block slumps often move more slowly 

than other types of landslides. Nevertheless, the damage potential is high because the relative displacement across a failure surface will shear off almost any 

man-made structure. Structures riding on moving 

slump blocks are also damaged, and their use impaired, when they rise up or sink with respect to the 

sea surface.

Flow slides, in contrast to block slumps, are characterized by a disrupted or chaotic accumulation of 

landslide debris which has flowed downslope from a 

source area (fig. 23). This type of sliding can be associated with a variety of earth materials, but submarine 

flow slides usually occur in relatively weak sediments. 

Flow slides are often associated with a catastrophic 

loading event, such as an earthquake, and some offshore flow slides cover tens of square kilometers. 

These factors, coupled with rapid rates of movement,

56 | PERSPECTIVES
- 300 meters

25 meters

,A,^|l r w .

 - y .-.* > - .

\ \ ." . , : <*-. *

 ?

. A..

~- .-

, fe ^f f 1 4 f ' I . 1 I S I I t

FIGURE 22. Data from the side-scan sonar is as close as we can come to a look at landslides on the surface of the sea bottom.

In this example the characteristics of block slumping are shown.

FIGURE 23. Seismic profile of a flow slide showing its highly disrupted internal structure and the widespread flow of debris

associated with this very destructive form of offshore landsliding.

place the flow slides among the most destructive 

types of offshore bottom-stability problems (fig. 24). 

The deaths and damage at Valdez during the Alaska 

earthquake are typical of the violent and unexpected 

nature of submarine flow slides.

The flow slide is very complex. Original bedding 

and other sedimentary structure are destroyed by the 

flow, the slide material is often not available for

sampling and testing, and analysis is much more difficult because of this disturbance and the rate at which 

failure occurs. Because of their wide distribution and 

extremely high potential to do damage, however, the 

understanding of flow slides is a high-priority research area.

Mudflows are landslide features best developed in 

the submarine environment. They are commonly

SUBMARINE LANDSLIDES | 57
FIGURE 24. Waterfront area engulfed in submarine flow slide at Valdez during the Alaska earthquake in 1964. (Sketch by 

David Laneville; from H. W. Coulter and George Migliaccio, U.S. Geol. Survey, Prof. Paper 542-A, 1969).

found in areas of rapid deposition, as around river The Mississippi River Delta area is an ideal environmouths (fig. 25) where fine grained muds form thick ment for the development of mudflows, and nowhere

masses of extremely soft and unstable material. The have they been studied more intensively. Much of

form of a mudflow may be quite complex (fig. 26) this basic research has been done or supported by

and, to date, their mechanics are poorly understood, the Geological Survey, and we can attribute much of

58 | PERSPECTIVES
U 1500 meters >|

Original surface covered by slid*

FIGURE 25. Seismic profile of a typical Mississippi River Delta mudflow. The rates at which these masses slide down the slope

remains an important unanswered question.

our present understanding of mudflows to this work. 

The extensive production of petroleum from the Gulf 

of Mexico has resulted in a need for better understanding of mudflows and the implications for building safe and reliable facilities. Most of the damage to 

structures and pipelines in the Mississippi Delta area 

is now attributed to this type of bottom instability. In 

an effort to provide better information about these 

problems, the Geological Survey has produced maps 

describing the hazards, surficial geology, and other 

features of the area (fig. 27).

Although the movements of great submarine landslides in today's oceans receive much attention, geological evidence shows that mass sediment failure was 

even more prevalent at various times in the Earth's 

past. When the great glaciers attained their last maximum advance about 25,000 to 30,000 years ago, the 

storage of vast quantities of ice on the continents removed enough water from the world's oceans to 

lower sea level by an estimated 100-150 meters. 

Great expanses of our present continental shelves 

were then land areas, and coastlines lay in regions of 

modern outer shelves. Rivers dumped their sediment 

loads on more steeply sloping sea floors and, as these

deposits grew in thickness, submarine landslides were 

frequent.

Recent studies of shelf edge deposits in the Gulf of 

Mexico show many such fossil slides, now buried 

beneath thin veneers of later sediments (fig. 28). The 

present degree of stability of these slide deposits 

is not known, nor are sufficient data now available to 

indicate what forces would be required to set them 

in motion again.

APPLYING NEW TECHNOLOGIES

As man strikes out into new frontiers, he frequently 

finds that familiar tools and technologies are no 

longer adequate to meet the new challenges. Offshore geological studies are no exception.

Since early 1973 the Geological Survey has investigated the problem of submarine landslides and other 

manifestations of sea floor instability. The Mississippi 

Delta Project, conducted in cooperation with university scientists, industry groups, and other governmental agencies, has taken part in the development 

of many new tools and technologies.

SUBMARINE LANDSLIDES | 59
FIGURE 26. Side-scan sonar records show that the submarine mudflows come in a variety of shapes and sizes. All of them

are potentially destructive to facilities built offshore.

Among the new factors being considered and applied to the problems of submarine bottom stability 

is the role of pore-fluid pressures. Pore pressures are 

the hydrostatic fluid pressures acting within the void 

space of porous materials such as soil and rock. It 

has long been appreciated in geotechnical engineering onshore that the only rational way to evaluate the 

strength of soil and rock materials is to consider the 

pore pressure acting within them. Application of this 

principle offshore has been limited in the past because of the time and expense required to measure 

pore pressures. During the past 2 years, however, significant strides have been made in the development 

and testing of pore-pressure measuring systems for 

use offshore. As part of the Delta Project's SEASWAB 

experiment in the Gulf of Mexico, the first comprehensive set of pore-pressure measurements from a 

deepwater offshore location has been collected (fig. 

29). These data provide a major breakthrough in our

efforts to understand and quantify the destructive 

mudflow phenomena of the Mississippi Delta area.

The use of sound waves reflected from the sea 

floor and from sedimentary layers beneath it is constantly being refined to enable us to detect and 

measure smaller features. High frequency sonar has 

been adapted to be "flown" above the sea floor as 

air-borne radar is flown above a land surface, with 

somewhat analogous results (figs. 22 & 26). Using 

these radar images, project scientists have made mosaics which yield an almost photographic image of 

subtle variations in relief and texture of the sea floor. 

Such images permit geomorphic analyses of submarine features with unprecedented accuracy.

In addition to such new mapping tools, new techniques are being developed to assess the state of 

stability of marine deposits. Industry has extended 

the conventional use of sea floor borings for soil 

samples with the addition of new down-hole tools

60 | PERSPECTIVES
89°20' 89° 10' 89°00' 88°50' 88°40'

29°00' 

28°50'r 

28°40' 

28°30'

EXPLANATION

Modern shelf edge

T + + I Diaplrically uplifted are

 'U' ' !: Outline of valley 

.... .. .. .. Growth fault

I ° o o'o^VI

L_2 ° o I Eroslonal area over a broad uplift

- 3 i- Approximate isopach of mudflow in meters 

I I I I I I I Approximate extent of mudflow

i i ! i i i ! , , Slump

VI V I V IV Buriea" slump scar

FIGURE 27. A map of the Mississippi Delta offshore area indicating the location of geological features, particularly mudflows,

which constitute a potential hazard for development in these areas.

SUBMARINE LANDSLIDES | 61
r;

FIGURE 28. This seismic view across a slide shows that the submarine landslide must be old and immobile. Such slides may be

relatively stable or can be reactivated by man's activities.

that measure sediment strengths with minimum disturbance to the material. For gassy sediments, in 

which all measurements were notoriously unreliable 

until now, Texas A & M University as a part of the 

Delta Project has developed a pressurized core barrel 

which permits sample recovery at down-hole ambient 

pressures. These samples are opened only in special 

chambers on land where appropriate testing can be 

performed under corresponding pressures.

The presence of large amounts of gas in shallow 

sediments has been recognized for some time, but 

until the last 2 years little was known about the geochemical mechanisms and environments producing

this gas. The significance of gas in landsliding- and 

other bottom-sediment instability was completely unknown. As part of the DELTA Project studies, Louisiana State University now has field and laboratory data 

which indicate a clear tie between the geochemical 

environment, gas generation, and sediment strength 

and stability. We are beginning to understand that an 

increase in gas content, as tiny bubbles within the 

soil pores, decreases soil strength and can lead to 

collapse or landsliding. Much work remains to be 

done, but the directions for study have been defined. 

The influence of wave loading on bottom stability is 

another area of significant change and growth in

62 | PERSPECTIVES
understanding of offshore landslides. Only within the 

last decade has there been any suggestion that surface waves could influence bottom-sediment stability, 

except through an erosion process near the coastline. 

We now recognize that wave loading is a major factor in most marine areas and out to depths of water 

in excess of 100 meters. Louisiana State University has 

collected field evidence that surface waves cause sympathetic oscillation of soft marine sediments (fig. 30). 

This motion in turn produces changes in pore pressure, sediment strength, and stability and provides a 

quantitive explanation of the link between submarine 

landslide damage and hurricane or storm waves.

Many offshore areas with high priority for study 

and development lie in close proximity to active plate 

margin areas which are areas of concentrated earthquake activity. The potential for earthquate loading is, therefore, an important factor in any consideration of bottom stability. Earthquakes affect 

marine deposits both by increasing the loading due 

to ground motion and by causing strength decrease 

in the soils as a result of earthquake shaking and an 

increase in pore pressures. That earthquakes cause 

catastrophic submarine landslides is clearly documented but, at present, virtually nothing is known 

about the size, distribution, or frequency of earthquake-induced landslides in the submarine environment. Some of the first comprehensive studies of this 

type are presently being done by the U.S. Geological 

Survey in the Gulf of Alaska. The objective is to evaluate the hazard posed by earthquake-induced landslides and to develop a rational understanding of the 

problem as a basis for avoiding or controlling damage.

FIGURE 29. Installation of the USGS-Texas A&M piezometer 

in South Pass Block 28 as part of the research in the Delta 

Project. Instruments such as this are required to measure insitu pore pressures.

Many other factors significant in submarine landsliding are being identified and studied by an increasing number of scientists in various disciplines. For 

example, rates of mass movement in various types of 

sMding are an important problem. Special loading 

mechanisms such as the impact of sea ice, erosion by 

submarine currents, tectonic deformation, and internal sea waves are being considered in particular areas. 

Another very important new problem is the influence 

of man's activities on submarine slope stability. It is 

now clear that some bottom instability has been 

caused by loads imposed by bottom-supported structures. Other activities such as dredging, mining, and 

soil-structure interaction during earthquakes also 

have potential for producing landslides.

The conception and utilization of all these new 

tools and technologies have paralleled the development of a new "scientist" as well. In the complex 

world of sea floor investigations, this new scientist 

must integrate data from physical measurements, 

from oceanographic modelling, from chemical analyses, biological research, and sedimentological study. 

The interpretations must be compatible with soil engineering practice and should ultimately be translated into a form that can be used by the structural 

design engineer. The new scientist clearly is not an 

individual but one of a team. To advance appreciably 

on these problems requires a group of skilled specialists, each of whom is not only an expert in his own 

field but has rare talent for grasping the ideas of 

his colleagues from other disciplines and weaving 

them firmly into the fabric of his own thinking. Only 

through the directed efforts of a group of such scientists can we hope to understand and predict the phenomena with which we are dealing. A

10 15 20 25 

TIME IN SECONDS

30 35 40

FIGURE 30. Data collected from the Delta Project SEASWAB 

experiments showing that surface waves cause bottom displacement and changes on pore pressure, all of which affects 

submarine landsliding. (Suhayda, J. N., Whelan, T., Coleman, 

J. M., Booth, J. S., and Garrison, L. E., 1976, Marine sediment 

instability: Interaction of hydrodynamic forces and bottom 

sediments: Offshore Technology Conference, OTC Paper No. 

2426.)

SUBMARINE LANDSLIDES | 63
".. . . the classificatiorrx>f the public lands, 

and examirvation-of ttif -geological structure, 

mineral resources, and prcjducts^of the national 

domain." -Act of Mar«ft*re79-*'

,-SSS

J&&Z J*j£~~:-L*Z*
Missions, Organization, and Budget

For nearly a century, the U.S. Geological Survey 

has served Federal, State, and local governments, and 

the public, by collecting, analyzing, and publishing 

detailed information about the Nation's energy, mineral, land, and water resources. The Geological Survey 

was created in 1879 to study the geologic structure 

and mineral resources of the public domain and to 

provide information to support development of the 

West. Congressional and Executive direction later expanded the Survey's authorities and responsibilities 

to include topographic mapping; chemical and physical research, stream-gaging and water supply assessments; supervision of mineral exploration and development activities on Federal and Indian lands; engineering supervision of waterpower permits; and administration of a minerals exploration program.

And, in June 1977, under provisions of the Naval 

Petroleum Reserves Production Act of 1976, jurisdiction of the Petroleum Reserve in Alaska was transferred from the Department of the Navy to the Department of the Interior. Responsibility for administration of the continuing petroleum exploration program on the Reserve and operation of the South Barrow Gas Field was delegated to the Director of the 

Survey by the Secretary of the Interior.

Except for operation of the South Barrow Gas Field 

to supply gas to the village of Barrow and its vicinity, 

the Geological Survey has not departed from its factfinding mission described in the brief authorizing 

legislation of 1879, although program emphasis and

Hallet Peak, Colorado. (Photograph by David Usher.)

balance have changed over the years to meet demands of users of Survey data.

That fact-finding mission has two objectives: First, 

the Survey is charged with increasing the scientific 

knowledge of the extent, distribution, character, and 

origins of the natural resources and of the geologic 

processes that affect the use of the land so that man 

may adjust his activities to the constraints imposed 

by the environment and so that the Earth's resources 

may be managed wisely. The responsibilities delegated 

to the Survey for the exploration program on the National Petroleum Reserve in Alaska call for an engineering and geologic evaluation and assessment of 

the petroleum potential of the Reserve. These 

studies to be completed in 1980 are closely allied 

to this first objective and are needed to assist the 

Department in an adequate petroleum resource appraisal of the Reserve.

Second, and no less important, are the Survey's 

regulatory responsibilities classifying Federal lands 

and supervising mineral lease development on Federal and Indian lands. By working closely with the 

Bureau of Land Management and other land-management agencies, the Survey seeks to identify and conserve the Nation's public resources and to supervise 

their development, so that the public receives its fair 

share for leased resources, and so that damage to 

other resource, environmental, and social values is 

minimized during exploration and development.

Implicit in carrying out the Survey's mission and 

defined objectives are factual and impartial reporting 

of investigations, identification of natural constraints 

on land use and resource development, and analyses 

of the consequences of alternative policies or actions 

related to resource development, conservation, and 

environmental protection.

MISSIONS OF THE SURVEY | 65
ORGANIZATION

The scientific and regulatory mission of the Geological Survey (and the operation of the South Barrow Gas Field) are carried out by six organizational 

units, each of which is responsible for one of the Survey's major programs or budget activities (see organizational chart on pages 186-187 and table 26 in the 

section entitled "Organizational and Statistical Data").

 The Topographic Division produces maps delineating the physical features of land areas in the 

United States and its outlying areas and in Antarctica. The Division also collects and distributes 

information on the availability of aerial photographs and space images, maps and charts, geodetic data, and related cartographic information 

through the National Cartographic Information 

Center.

 The Geologic Division conducts research on geologic processes and the Earth's history and thereby provides the information that permits man to 

adjust intelligently to the Nation's environment 

and to use the Earth's resources wisely. The Division also determines the composition and 

structure of the rocks and materials that lie at 

and beneath the Earth's surface, identifies potential energy and mineral resources (including 

those of the Outer Continental Shelf), and develops and distributes knowledge about natural 

hazards such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, 

and land subsidence.

 The Water Resources Division assesses the quantity and quality of the Nation's water supply, 

develops the knowledge necessary to predict the 

environmental consequences of alternative plans

Baldy Peak, New Mexico. (Photograph by E. F. Pattcrson.)

for developing water resources, coordinates Federal water-data-acquisition activities, collects and 

distributes information about the availability of 

water data through the National Water Data Exchange, and develops and distributes information about natural hazards such as floods and 

land subsidence.

 The Conservation Division classifies the public 

lands with respect to leasable mineral and water 

power sites and supervises exploration and development authorized under leases and permits 

on Federal and Indian lands.

 The Land Information and Analysis Office coordinates and administers interrelated, interdisciplinary programs of the Survey, as well as other 

units of the Department of the Interior, with the 

objective of interpreting and displaying resource 

information in ways that are readily accessible 

and understandable to a wide range of potential 

users, particularly land-use planners and decisionmakers.

 The Office of National Petroleum Reserve in 

Alaska manages the continuing exploration of 

the Reserve during the interim between the 

transfer of jurisdiction from the Department of 

the Navy to the Department of the Interior and 

the effective date of any legislation for a permanent development and production program, enforces regulations and stipulations which relate 

to the exploration program, and operates the 

South Barrow Gas Field to supply gas to the village of Barrow and its vicinity.

The structure of the Geological Survey's budget 

closely parallels the structure of its organization. Each 

program Division (Topographic, Geologic, Water Resources, and Conservation), the Land Information and 

Analysis Office, and the Office of National Petroleum 

Reserve in Alaska (ONPRA) is responsible for one of 

the Survey's major budget activities.

A small activity, Alaska Pipeline Related Investigations, is currently administered by the Geologic Division with technical assistance from the Water Resources Division.

Funds for the program Divisions and the Land Information and Analysis Office are appropriated under 

the heading, "Surveys, Investigations, and Research." 

Although a small SIR appropriation was made in fiscal 

year 1977 for transition of the NPRA function to the 

Department of the Interior, funds related to the exploration activity on the NPRA were appropriated to 

the President and transferred to the Department of 

the Interior. In the future, funds for the NPRA will be 

appropriated under the heading, "Exploration of National Petroleum Reserve in Alaska."
TABLES. Participation of Survey organizational units in areas of study included in the fiscal year 1977 budget

Topographic 

Area of Study Division

OCS oil and gas __________ __ _______

Onshore oil and gas __ _ ___ ___ ______

Coal _

Uranium, geothermal, and oil shale _ _ _ _ _

Metallic, nonmetallic, and ocean minerals _ 

Multipurpose geologic baselines ___ _____

Earthquakes, volcanoes, and landslides _ __

Water-data collection, analysis, and research _ 

Topographic mapping programs ________ X

Earth Resources Observation Systems _ _ _ _ _

Land resource decision products _ _ _ _ _

General administration ____________________

National Petroleum Reserve in Alaska

Geologic 

Division

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X

Water 

Resources 

Division

X 

X

X

Conservation 

Division

X 

X 

X 

X 

X

X

Land 

Information and 

Analysis 

Office

X 

X

Office 

of the 

Director 

and National 

Administra- Petroleum 

tive Reserve 

Division in Alaska

X

X

DEFINITIONS OF BUDGET TERMS

Some of the terms used to describe the budget 

of the Geological Survey, which appear frequently 

throughout the next few chapters, are explained here. 

Funds appropriated directly to the Survey are categorized under several budget activities or broad functional areas; for example, Topographic Surveys and 

Mapping or Water Resources Investigations. These 

activities are further subdivided or categorized as subactivities, programs, and program elements, depending upon the size and complexity of the activity. But 

the term "program" is used more generally and may 

refer to the entire budget, a budget activity, or a 

subactivity or may denote work supported by funds 

from a particular source, especially in the case of 

funds received from reimbursement.

Funds to support programs of the Survey come 

from two sources: (1) annual appropriations and (2) 

reimbursement from Federal and non-Federal agencies. Directly appropriated Federal funds support the 

Survey's directly appropriated programs under each 

budget activity. Funds from State and local agencies, 

other Federal agencies, permittees and licensees of 

the Federal Power Commission, foreign countries, 

and international organizations pay for various information products and services provided by the Survey's reimbursable programs.

Whereas directly appropriated programs for "Surveys, Investigations, and Research" are aimed at resource investigations and research on problems of 

nationwide concern, the reimbursable programs 

enable the Survey to apply its expertise in the Earth

Sciences to the specific problems of the funding 

agencies. The results of these investigations contribute in a very substantial way to the solution of urgent 

national resources problems and respond directly to 

the changing needs of the funding agencies and the 

Survey for Earth Science information. Agencies and 

organizations with which the Survey had formal 

agreements for fiscal cooperation in fiscal year 1977 

are listed in the section entitled "Organizational and 

Statistical Data" beginning on page 195.

Work done for State, county, or municipal agencies may be performed on a cost-sharing basis. Funding arrangements may vary according to the type of 

investigation, and the annual appropriations for Surveys, Investigations, and Research stipulated that Federal funds may not be used to finance more than onehalf the cost of any topographic mapping or water 

resource investigation carried on in cooperation with 

a State or municipality. Within this general 50-percent limitation, each annual appropriation act also 

specifies the dollar amount of Federal funds that shall 

be available for cooperative water resource investigations. On the other hand, appropriated funds may 

be used to pay for more than 50 percent of the cost 

of other cooperative programs of the Survey. The activities jointly funded by State and local reimbursable 

program funds (State share) or direct program funds 

(Federal share) are collectively referred to as the Federal-State Cooperative Program.

Other work related to Surveys, Investigations, and 

Research done by the Survey for specific Federal 

agencies and non-Federal organizations is usually performed on a fully reimbursable basis.

DEFINITIONS OF BUDGET TERMS | 67
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

BUDGET

Direct Federal funds 

" $319.5

Federal share 

$39.6

Other Federal

agencies

$57.0

Transferred

from

U.S. Navy 

(National 

Petroleum 

Reserve 

in Alaska) 

$7.1

Miscellaneous 

non-Federal

sources

$10.2

$39.6

°'-State Cooperate 

TOTAL $433.4 MILLION

OF FUNDS

BUDGET

The total funds obligated by the Geological Survey 

in fiscal year 1977 amounted to $433 million, an increase of $79 million over fiscal year 1976. Part of the 

increase, $7 million, reflects transfer of funds from 

the Department of the Navy for NPRA. Appropriated 

funds for Surveys, Investigations, and Research in fiscal year 1977 provided about 74 percent of the total 

funds available to the Survey. Nearly $114 million was 

provided from Federal, State, and local agencies and 

from miscellaneous non-Federal sources. The allocation of funds to the Survey's activities funded under

Water resources

investigation

$131.5

Land information 

and analysis

$23.5

Conservation of 

lands and minerals 

$67.4

Topographic surveys 

and mapping 

$57.1

Jogic and mineral resource 

and mapping $130.3

General

administration

facilities and

miscellaneous

services

$14.2

Alaska

pipeline

- -related

investigation

$0.3

National petroleum 

reserve in alaska 

$9.1

USE OF

the SIR appropriation (Topographic Surveys and Mapping, Geologic and Mineral Resource Surveys and 

Mapping, Water Resources Investigations, Conservation of Lands and Minerals, and Land Information and 

Analysis) all increased in fiscal year 1977. The largest 

increases were for the Conservation of Lands and 

Minerals activity 67 percent and Water Resources 

Investigations activity 20 percent; other increases 

were more modest. But the overall percentage increase for SIR-funded activities was over 20 percent.

68 | MISSIONS, ORGANIZATIONS, AND BUDGET
TABLE 9. Geological Survey obligations for fiscal years 

7976-77 (dollars in thousands)

I Data in other chapters may differ because of rounding]

Activity

TOTAL

Alaska Pipeline Related

Topographic Surveys and

Geologic and Mineral 

Resource Surveys and

Reimbursable program ____

Conservation of Lands and 

Minerals

Land Information and Analysis _

Direct program

Facilities _ _

Miscellaneous services to

Fiscal year 

1976

itorr^ Q7f|

264,434

89,536

287

52,220

45,354

6,866

115,554

92,322

23,232

112,480

57,176

55,304

41,677

41,489

17,278

14,908

2,370

3,398

9,500

1,576

Transition 

quarter

$102,858

77,570

25,288

85

13,289

11,548

1,741

32,194

24,829

7,365

30,716

15,916

14,800

13,381

13,375

6

8,919

7,795

1,124

1,491

2,530

253

Fiscal year 

1977

$433,400

319,468

113,932

317

57,073

50,311

6,762

130,269

100,007

30,262

131,509

68,555

62,954

67,427

67,239

23,476

17,698

5,778

3,760

9,502

924

400

O

f 300

c

_D

O~o

O

< 200

O

CO

O

100

0

1967 19

4MHI

Total program

WSMmmiiittMim

Reimbursable oroaram JII|II|I|II|IIR

i

70 1977

FISCAL YEAR : 

National Petroleum

Reserve in Alaska 

Direct program ___ 

Allocation Transfer

9,143

2,079

7,064 FIGURE 31. Geological Survey budget, by source of funds, 

fiscal years 1967-77.

SOURCE OF FUNDS / USE OF FUNDS | 69
OCS oil and gas 

Coal 

Uranium, geothermal, and oil shale 

Metallic, nonmetallic,and ocean .minerals 

Earthquakes, volcanoes, and landslide hazards 

Multipurpose geologic baselines 

Water data collection analysis and research 

Topographic mapping programs 

Earth Resources Observation Systems 

Land resource decision products 

National Petroleum Reserve in Alaska 

'

 ' 1 1

 -3 1

, ' - ., - ,1

!

1

 ^

^ FBI

I

p

 ' 'PSSiKiSMj'" i!6ff*SS31-«f»Iis,'°

1

" "IK

1

EXF

EF1^! r* liUDire 

[ZlReirr

LANATI

:t progra 

bursable

ON 

m 

prograrr

FY 1977 DECISION PACKAGES

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 

FUNDS AVAILABLE (millions)

90 100 110 120

FIGURE 32. Distribution of Geological Survey obligations for fiscal year 1977, by areas of study.

O

O

 I m 

O

1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 

FISCAL YEAR

1973 1974 1975 1976 1977

FIGURE 33. Geological Survey budget by activity, fiscal years 1967-77. 

70 | MISSIONS, ORGANIZATION, AND BUDGET
PERSONNEL

While funds available for programs of the Geological Survey have more than tripled since 1968, the 

number of permanent full-time employees available 

to implement the programs remained more or less 

constant through fiscal year 1973 (fig. 34 and table 

44). In fiscal years 1974-77, however, 1,237 additional 

permanent full-time positions were filled, in increase 

of 15 percent over fiscal year 1973. (See figure 35 for 

distribution of the 9,326 permanent full-time employees by organizational unit as of the end of fiscal 

year 1977.) Augmenting the Survey's permanent work 

force were 2,604 employees on the rolls in other than 

permanent full-time positions.

Professionalism denoting employees classified in 

professional or technical positions as defined by the 

Civil Service Commission in programs of the Geological Survey is reflected in the composition of its 

work force. At the end of fiscal year 1977, the Survey 

employed 9,326 people on a permanent full-time 

basis, 50 percent of whom were employed in professional or technical positions (engineering, cartographic, chemical, geologic, geophysics, or hydrologic). The Survey's professional work force provides 

the Federal Government with a significant resource 

of scientific and technical expertise in energy, mineral, land, and water resources, the skills needed to 

fulfill its mission.

12-

I Total employment

| Permanent full-time employment

Water Resoi

Land Information

.and Analysis Office

126

Directors Office, 

Administrative Division, 

and Facilities 

538

Computer Center Division

145 

Publications Divisions

467

Office of National Petroleum

Reserve in Alaska

22

1967

END OF FISCAL YEAR

1977

FIGURE 34. Geological Survey end-of-year employment, fiscal 

years 1967-77.

TOTAL PERMANENT FULL-TIME EMPLOYMENT 9326

FIGURE 35. Distribution of permanent full-time Survey employees by organizational units as of the end of fiscal year 1977.

FIGURE 36. Permanent full-time Survey employees by type.

Other professionals

PROFESSIONAL EMPLOYEES 

BY OCCUPATION ALL EMPLOYEES 

BY EDUCATION
Topographic Surveys 

and Mapping

FEET 

9000

Digital elevation model of Yosemite.
The Digital Profile Recording and Output System (DPROS) developed by the Survey forms a versatile system for digitizing 

and recording terrain profiles from different stereoplotting 

instruments. The digital profile data are stored on magnetic 

tape and can be processed into terrain models by a computer. The data can also be used to control an offline orthophotoprinter (p. 80) producing displacement-free photographic 

images of the terrain.

INTRODUCTION

The National Mapping Program involves the preparation and dissemination of accurate and up-to-date 

basic cartographic data for the United States in forms 

that can be readily applied to the new expanding 

needs of the Nation. Topographic maps, illustrating 

detailed and precisely referenced information about 

natural and manmade features on the earth's surface, 

continue to be the most important product with over 

1,300 new 1:24,000-scale topographic maps published 

during the year ending September 30, 1977 (table 46).

These maps provide fundamental information, both 

natural and manmade, required by a large number of Federal and State agencies in dealing with most 

of the important key national issues including the location and evaluation of energy and other resources, 

examination of environmental impacts and development alternatives and planning and locating a wide 

variety of public works, commercial, and other facilities. In addition to the 1:24,000-scale topographic 

maps, the Geological Survey provides other products 

and services such as orthophotoquads (image maps), 

intermediate scale (1:100,000 and 1:50,000) planimetric and topographic maps, and a wide variety of 

basic cartographic data used by other agencies as base 

materials for special maps they prepare. Fundamental 

to the value of the basic maps is the need for a continual revision of the data shown on the maps.
TABLE 10. Mapping production for fiscal year 7977 (in square miles)

Alabama _ _ _ _ _ _

Alaska __ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ __.

Arizona _ _ ___ _ ___.

Arkansas ______

California __ __ _ _ _ .

Colorado _ _ 

Indiana _ __ _ ____

Iowa _ _ _ __ __ _ _ ____

Kansas _ _ ____ _ __ _ _

Kentucky _ _ __ _ _ __

Louisiana _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

Maine _ __ _

Maryland _ _ _ _ _

Massachusetts _ _

Mississippi _ __ ___

Nevada __ _ _ _ _

New Hampshire ____ _ _

North Dakota __ __ __ __.

Ohio _ ___ 

Oregon __ _ __ _-

South Carolina

Ten nessee

Texas 

Utah ____________ _.

Wyoming _ ______

Puerto Rico .

Virgin Islands ___ _____

l:24,000-scale 

topographic

. _ 1,907

286

3 344

1,147

2,105

1,687

1,945

1,307

2 595

3 792

1,009

1,128

332

1 197

599

948

2,672

3 221

2,011

2,675

3 395

669

2 059

3,363

1,224

1,684

^74

3 '989

6,361

1 533

88

. _ 720

448

2,683

1,655

l:24,000-scale 

orthophotoquads

10,238

2,821

8,754

22,640

5,916

58

4,875

158

14,904

7,465

1,475

3,072

4,240

11 340

7,384

4 771

7,985

6,707

13,804

10,086

7,600

171

30

26,001

15,863

16,320

2,088

8,610

87

848

8,393

1 : 24,000-scale 

revisions

124

4,613

5 995

2,003

4,306

759

198

10

2,583

1,127

89

1,016

337

2,450

1,012

1,316

485

586

2,726

1,273

211

2,185

308

2,666

114

312

55

1,608

1,333

3,888

368

547

1,798

132

137

993

736

5,117

631

778

7,633

1,255

657

197

Intermediate 

scale

16,388

7,048

23,532

19,164

2,859

978

5,560

4,271

4,665

3,451

4,663

2,713

2,310

2,702

1,324

2,051

4,570

2,098

635

3,060

24,585

7,430

689

16,205

411

9,181

1,265

25,066

2,552

557

13,976

2,641

1,946

11,314

2,596

809

1,902

17 090

4,760

692

1,636

3,240

529

9,842

5,742

Approximately 1,100 quadrangles are now revised 

annually and the need for revision continues to grow 

as more of the basic mapping is completed. Agreement was reached in fiscal year 1977 with the U.S.

Forest Service so that they will use their mapping 

capability to revise maps in the national forests, thus 

increasing the total number of maps revised yearly in 

the National Mapping Program.

74 | TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYS AND MAPPING
Fiscal year 1977 saw the initiation of a new effort 

to provide cartographic data in computer readable 

form to meet the requirements of a growing number 

of users. In the years to come, these types of data will 

become an increasingly important element of the National Mapping Program. A significant aspect of this 

effort involved the establishment of a full-time research effort and initiation of an equipment modernization program. Also, limited production on a pilot 

project basis was started in fiscal 1977 to evaluate 

alternative techniques for producing the digital map 

related data and to assess user requirements.

An increasing emphasis on intermediate-scale maps 

was also evident during fiscal year 1977. Agreement 

was reached between the Geological Survey and the 

Defense Mapping Agency for the preparation of 

1:50,000-scale quadrangle maps as part of the intermediate-scale program to meet military training requirements. The cooperative program with the National Ocean Survey, Department of Commerce, to 

provide maps in coastal areas that include both topographic and bathymetric information was expanded 

to include offshore protraction boundaries provided 

by the Bureau of Land Management. These combination maps will become the standard product in all 

coastal areas as maps are revised and should provide 

a single source for much of the data needed in coastal 

resource management.

Other new roles for the Geological Survey are being 

suggested programs for large-scale urban mapping, 

systematic high-altitude photography, and increased 

direct assistance to the map user. These apparently 

diverse requirements should be addressed by the National Mapping Program because of the relationship 

to standard map products and the mapping process 

and the need for coordination and standardization.

Coordination of Mapping

The responsibility for coordinating domestic mapping activities is assigned to the Department of the 

Interior by OMB Circular A-16 and delegated to the 

Geological Survey. Annual priorities for basic mapping are established based on formal requests of 35 

Federal agencies, State Mapping Advisory Committees 

representing 15 States, and cooperators from 37 States 

and Puerto Rico. Requests from private individuals 

and representatives of local governments are also considered. Yearly requests for new and revised topographic mapping a total of 50,596 requests for 

28,303 quadrangles in 1977 far exceed the production capacity and funding level. As such, judgments in 

the establishment of priorities and selection of projects are important. During the past year, emphasis 

has been placed on identifying requirements for digital data through interagency pilot projects. These are 

intended to determine data compatibility and to develop uniform standards.

Special support, from technical assistance to data 

preparation, is being provided for major national programs of the Department of Housing and Urban Develop,ment (Flood Insurance Program), the Soil Conservation Service (Prime Farmlands Program), the 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

(Coastal Zone Management Program), and the Fish 

and Wildlife Service (National Wetlands Inventory).

The increased importance of geographically related 

data to national decisions on energy, economics, and 

ecology increases the need for map data which are 

accurate, up-to-date, and compatible with other related information. As an example, geologic, soils, 

water, land-use, and topographic data must be relatable in order to provide adequate information for 

surface mining decisions. Continued and improved 

coordination between data gathering agencies is a 

necessity for the effective use of these kinds of available data.

Highlights

 Establishment of a full-time Digital Applications 

Team to develop the capability for producing 

digital cartographic data to meet the requirements of Federal and State agencies. Initial production capability was installed and data generation began on a pilot basis in cooperation with 

other Federal agencies.

 Agreement with the Forest Service to jointly revise 

selected 1:24,000-scale maps in national forest 

areas, thereby, substantially increasing the total 

number of maps that can be revised nationally.

 Agreements with South Carolina, Arizona, Georgia, 

and New Mexico to establish State-operated information centers for collecting and distributing 

cartographic data. The centers are affiliated with 

the National Cartographic Information Center.

 Agreement with the Fish and Wildlife Service for 

the Geological Survey to provide two full-time 

advisers to work with FWS in solving cartographic 

problems and for the Geological Survey to provide aerial photography and 1:100,000-scale base 

maps to meet requirements of the National Wetlands Inventory.

 Agreement with the Department of Housing and 

Urban Development for the Geological Survey 

to provide information on existing cartographic 

data and mapping assistance to HUD contractors 

and grantees prior to their preparation of new 

maps. The intent is to avoid duplicate mapping.

NATIONAL MAPPING PROGRAM | 75
Initiation of several metric mapping projects in 

States which have agreed to convert the 7.5- 

minute maps to metric products. Specifically, 

agreement was reached with the Commonwealth 

of Massachusetts to revise and convert the 

topographic maps of the entire State to the 

metric system.

Completion of 304 intermediate-scale maps to meet 

special needs of Federal and State agencies. Agreement was reached with Defense Mapping Agency 

for Geological Survey to produce 1:50,000-scale 

base maps to meet military training needs.

Addition of more than 1,088,600 square kilometers 

(420,300 square miles) of aerial photography to 

the national aerial photo data base.

FIGURE 38. Palm Springs, Calif., 1:24,000-scale orthophotoquad. Combined with marginal descriptive information, a 

high-altitude photograph is differentially rectified to remove 

positional errors caused by camera tilt and terrain variation.

 Development and installation of equipment to produce digital cartographic data during standard 

map compilation and orthophoto production, 

thus providing a capability to produce data not 

previously available from these instruments.

 Publication of 2,500 new and revised maps, ranging 

in scale from 1:24,000 to 1:250,000. In addition, 

about 4,130 orthophotoquads were produced. 

Initial 1:24,000-scale topographic map coverage 

of Georgia was completed during fiscal year 1977 

as a result of a cooperative effort with the State.

FIGURE 37. Status of standard topographic mapping and revision.

EXPLANATION

15' Mapping 

7Vi' Mapping 

Revision in progress
UNITED STATES

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

PALM SPRINGS QUADRANGLE

CALIFORNIA 

7.5 MINUTE SERIES (ORTHOPHOTOQUAD)

PALM SPRINGS, CALIF.
TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYS 

AND MAPPING

Other Federal 

agencies 

$2.89

Misc. non-Federal 

$0.60

State share 

$3.27

Federal share 

$3.27

TOTAL $57.07 MILLION

Quadrangle mapping 

and revision $47.51

Small Scale and 

Special Mapping Direct $5.28 "

National Cartographic 

Information Center

USE OF FUNDS

SOURCE OF FUNDS

Budget and Personnel

The Topographic Surveys and Mapping budget 

covers three subactivities:

1. Quadrangle mapping and revision, including the 

production and revision of the 1:24,000-scale 

maps (1:63,360 in Alaska) and related activities.

2. Small-scale and Special Mapping, including preparation of other maps and map products from 

the intermediate scale to the very small scale 

U.S. base maps.

3. The National Cartographic Information Center for 

the acquisition and dissemination of information about available cartographic data.

For fiscal year 1977, Topographic Surveys and Mapping obligations amounted to $57.1 million (table 11). 

Included are funds from 37 States, which, when 

matched by Federal funds, amounted to $6.5 million 

for cooperative mapping. These cooperative projects 

mutually benefit the State and national programs by 

assuring the completion of map coverage sooner than 

would otherwise be possible.

The program was carried out through a combination of in-house efforts and contracts. The in-house 

effort involved 1,644 career employees, many with 

special training in cartography, data processing, engineering, photographic technology, and the physical 

sciences. About 225 additional employees, many on

78 | TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYS AND MAPPING
TABLE 11. Topographic Surveys and Mapping activity obligations for fiscal years 7976-77, by program (dollars in millions)

[Data may differ from that in statistical tables because of rounding]

Program

Fiscal year 

1976

Transition 

quarter

Fiscal year 

1977

TOTAL $52.22 $13,29 $57.07

Quadrangle Mapping and Revision ______ _ ____ _ _ 43.30

Direct programs ____ ______ 38.26

Reimbursable programs _ ____ 5.04

States, counties and municipalities _ _ _ ____ _ 2.93

Miscellaneous non-Federal _____ ___ ___ __ .33

Other Federal agencies _______________ _ 1.78

Small-scale and Special Mapping ___ _ ___7.19

Direct programs _______________ _ 5.36

Reimbursable programs _ _ ____ _________ ____ 1.83

States, counties and municipalities _______________ .74

Miscellaneous non-Federal _________________ .17

Other Federal agencies _____________________ .92

National Cartographic Information Center ___________ 1.76

Direct programs ________________________ 1.76

10.46 47.51

9.40

2.15

.70

.08

.28

2.41

1.73 

.68 

.18 

.05 

.45

.42

.42

42.39

5.12

2.73

.45

1.94

6.92

5.28

1.64

.54

.15

.95

2.64

2.64

work-study programs, served as temporary aides and 

professional consultants.

QUADRANGLE MAPPING AND REVISION

Aerial photographs of the land surface are essential 

to the mapping process. In fiscal year 1977, the Survey contracted for 1,088,600 million square kilometers 

(420,000 square miles) of aerial photography. Three 

fourths of the photographs were taken from altitudes 

higher than 11,700 meters (39,000 feet) for use in 

photomapping and map revision.

Field control surveys are needed to present map 

features in correct relationship to each other and to 

the earth's surface. Horizontal ground control establishes and maintains correct scale, position, and orientation of the map. Vertical control governs the contours and spot elevations which show the shape of

the terrain. These data are used to prepare the map 

base, the framework on which map detail is complied. 

During fiscal year 1977, 248,500 square kilometers 

(92,950 square miles) of horizontal control and 115,- 

700 square kilometers (44,670 square miles) of vertical 

control were established.

During fiscal year 1977, 1,318 standard topographic 

maps were published, covering 194,600 square kilometers (72,125 square miles), of the U.S. domain (fig. 

37). Most of the maps are in the 7.5-minute series, 

1:24,000-scale or 1:63,360 and 1:25,000 in Alaska. 

In addition to meeting the needs of many users, these 

are also the basic maps from which smaller scale and 

special maps are usually derived. As national coverage 

in the 7.5-minute series increases, the revision mapping workload increases. The need for revision of individual maps is determined based on the amount of 

change detected in comparing the published maps 

with current aerial photographs. Maps are reviewed

QUADRANGLE MAPPING AND REVISION | 79
Digital profile data stored on magnetic tape (p. 73) controls this 

offline orthophotoprinter for production of displacement-free 

photographic images.

cyclicly with emphasis on urban, coastal zone, airports, major transportation corridors, and other areas 

of high national interest. In 1977, 3,987 7.5-minute 

maps were reviewed and 1,081 were revised.

By reprocessing aerial photographs to correct for 

distortion, orthophotographs are produced. In a 

standard quadrangle format with grid and name information superimposed, the orthophotograph is 

called an orthophotoquad and has many applications 

as a map substitute or as a companion product to an 

existing map. About 4,100 orthophotoquads were 

prepared in 1977; printed stock is available for a 

small percentage of these, with the majority available 

for reproduction on request (fig. 39). Such orthophotoquads are normally produced in black-and-white, although techniques are being developed for adding 

color to aid the user in interpreting the imagery.

The orthophotograph may also be combined with 

the line detail of a topographic map. In some areas 

where conventional line maps are ineffective in portraying the special character of the terrain, orthophotomaps are substituted for the line maps. About 

500 orthophotomaps are in various stages of production; the largest projects cover Florida swamps, Minnesota lake regions, and coastal stretches of Louisiana 

and Georgia.

SMALL-SCALE AND SPECIAL MAPPING

To meet the need for basic map data at various 

levels of detail and at scales between 1:24,000 and 

1:250,000, the intermediate-scale map series was inFICURE 39. Status of orthophotoquad production.

EXPLANATION 

Orthophotoquads available

In program

80 | TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYS AND MAPPING
troduced in 1975. The user can select the map content 

from over 20 categories of data and choose county, 

regional, or 30' X 60' quadrangle format. The capability is being developed to provide intermediate-scale 

map data in digital as well as graphic form. In fiscal 

year 1977, priority was given to completing 304 intermediate-scale maps for Federal and State agencies.

As part of the intermediate-scale program, the 

Survey has entered into an agreement with the Defense Mapping Agency for the joint preparation 

of 1:50,000-scale metric topographic maps for areas 

of the U.S. to meet military training requirements. 

Under this agreement, 1,800 maps will be produced 

throughout the conterminous U.S. within the next five

FIGURE 40. Status of 1:250,000-scale map revision and digital terrain data.

EXPLANATION 

1:250,000 scale products

Maps in progress (revision

SMALL-SCALE AND SPECIAL MAPPING | 81
FIGURE 41. Status of the Intermediate-Scale Mapping program.

EXPLANATION

In program

years. Both USCS and DMA will be involved initially 

in the production of these maps with DMA preparing 

128 maps and USGS preparing 129 maps during FY 

1978. The maps will be prepared in accordance with 

jointly prepared specifications and can be used directly in the preparation of other intermediate-scale 

maps as required.

The 1:250,000-scale topographic map series provides the largest scale complete coverage available 

for the United States and is thus valuable to many 

Federal and State agencies with regional concerns. 

The maps are also used by the Survey for preparing 

State base maps, the 1:1,000,000-scale International 

Map of the World, various geologic maps, and special-purpose maps such as those produced for the 

Land Use and Land Cover program.

The 1:250,000-scale maps of Standard Metropolitan 

Statistical Areas are generally revised every five to 

seven years. Most other quadrangles in this series are 

revised every 8 to 10 years. In fiscal year 1977, 31 

revisions were completed and 96 more were in production. Terrain data digitized from the contours on 

the 1:250,000-scale maps are available on magnetic 

tape from the National Cartographic Information 

Center (p. 85).

The joint USCS/NOS program for the preparation 

of topographic-bathymetric maps continues and involves 44 maps at the various scales of 1:24,000, 

1:100,000, and 1:250,000. Four of these maps have 

been published and an additional 40 are in work. 

In fiscal year 1978, 36 additional maps will be entered 

into the program.

During 1977, two shaded relief National Park maps 

were published and one revised map was in work. 

The Park Service has requested two new maps and 

seven revised maps for the next fiscal year.

The experimental folded map program has been expanded to include 22 maps at various scales. These 

maps provide coverage of high-use recreational areas 

and points of significant interest. Analysis of early 

user responses indicates the products have been well 

received, especially in high-use recreational areas.

FIGURE 42. Hilton Head Island and Parris Island lie in an area 

that is being mapped at 1:100,000 scale. On topographic/ 

bathymetric maps such as these, bathymetric data and shoreline information from the National Ocean Survey are combined with USGS topographic data.

82 | TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYS AND MAPPING

K?*'-

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

Formal agreements and reimbursably funded projects between the Geological Survey and various foreign nations continued during fiscal 1977. Two cartographers remain in Saudi Arabia to provide surveying 

and mapping support to the Survey's geologic mission as well as to the country. A 1:100,000-scale Landsat image map of the new Federal Capital Territory 

of Nigeria was compiled for use by the Nigerian Government. Two trainees from Nigeria assisted in the 

preparation of the map as part of an ongoing program of foreign participant training. Other nations, 

including Mali, Nepal, and Trinidad and Tobago, also 

selected members of their mapping agencies for 

training at Survey facilities.

Fiscal year 1977 marked the 20th consecutive year 

that the Survey participated in the National Science 

Foundation's U.S. Antarctic Research Program.

Four Geological Survey cartographers conducted

30 30

\60

Mapped, various 

scales and formats 150

I 1 Sketch maps with 

|___j relief shading L" I Ross Ice Shelf 

planning map

180

FIGURE 43. Status of mapping in Antarctica.
ground surveys and operated satellite-tracking and 

seismological equipment in support of geophysical 

and glaciological studies.

This year, two 1:250,000-scale topographic maps of 

the Antarctic were prepared. In the Dry Valleys area 

eight topographic maps at 1:50,000 scale with 50 

meter contour interval were published. These are the 

first of a new series in Antarctica covering areas of 

special scientific interest. Each map is formatted so 

that it covers 2 degrees of longitude and 15 minutes 

of latitude.

A brochure titled "Maps Published of Antarctica by 

the U.S. Geological Survey" was prepared and published this past year, containing color samples of 

different maps of Antarctica with information and a 

map index for ordering.

The first experimental U.S. Geological Survey map 

containing cartographic data south of the U.S.-Mexico 

border was compiled and distributed at the XI PAIGH 

General Assembly in Quito, Ecuador. This experimental map is the result of an agreement allowing the 

two nations to exchange cartographic information and 

coordinate their mapping efforts.

Seminars and workshops on map maintenance and 

Landsat image mosaicking were conducted by Survey 

personnel at several locations in Central and South 

America. Representatives from 15 Latin American 

countries participated.

THE NATIONAL CARTOGRAPHIC 

INFORMATION CENTER

In fiscal year 1977, the National Cartographic Information Center continued to expand its program to 

improve public access to U.S. cartographic data. Activities during the last year centered on negotiating 

information exchange agreements with other Federal 

agencies, opening additional offices and affiliates and 

developing new information and operating systems.

In January, the Second Federal Coordinating Conference was held with representatives of 34 Federal 

agencies and the States of Florida and Texas. Papers

were presented on NCIC's progress since the first 

NCIC Coordinating Conference in 1974. A series of 

workshops were held during the conference to discuss recommendations for future NCIC activities.

Agreements relating to NCIC were signed in the 

last year between the Geological Survey and the 

Department of Housing and Urban Development 

(HUD) and with the Defense Mapping Agency (DMA). 

NCIC will help HUD contractors and grantees locate 

cartographic data they need before starting HUD 

funded projects. In return, NCIC will be sent descriptions of any data produced during the projects. The 

DMA agreement provides for the exchange of cartographic products and information (including DMA 

domestic photographs).

During the fiscal year, a new office was opened at 

the National Space Technology Laboratories in Bay 

St. Louis, Mississippi as were four new affiliated State 

offices in Arizona, South Carolina, Georgia, and New 

Mexico. The State affiliates expand the services NCIC 

offers by providing more direct access to information 

and assistance.

A project to develop a master file of Survey topographic maps produced since the 1800's was completed in the fall. The file was then duplicated on 

35mm roll microfilm and arranged alphabetically and 

chronologically for each State.

Completion of the file marks a large step in NCIC's 

program to use microfilm to organize the wide array 

of available cartographic data. As part of another 

microfilm information system, the second edition of 

the Aerial Photography Summary Record System 

(APSRS) was published in April, and the Aerial Photography Unit Record System in September. These 

systems are used to locate both aerial photography 

projects and single frames of photography.

To fill the requests for cartographic information the National 

Cartographic Information Center offices use computer indexing systems to catalog and access data. Microfilm and microfiche files permit viewing of both maps and aerial photographs before orders are placed. _
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

As a means of improving the quality and efficiency 

of map production and responding promptly to changing and urgent needs, the Survey continually investigates new cartographic instruments, methods, and 

techniques. Research by the Topographic Division 

continued particularly in development of computerized instruments and techniques for cartographic 

problems. These developments promise the means of 

undertaking tasks that are not practical in conventional cartography and of eventually increasing the 

productivity of the cartographic work force. Chief 

among developments in 1977:

 Camera for Space Shuttle photography. Design 

work has been completed for the large-format 

(23 X 46 cm) cartographic camera to be carried 

aboard an early Space Shuttle mission. Survey 

photographic specialists reviewed the camera 

specifications with NASA and Itek Corporation 

representatives and recommended technical improvements. After the camera is built by Itek, it 

will be tested, calibrated, and certified in the 

Survey's optical laboratory.

 Mosaicking photographic images on film. Working with film rather than paper, the Survey has 

developed an improved method of preparing 

photomosaics. In the new method the separate 

film images are not physically joined, as is done 

with paper prints, but are exposed step-by-step 

onto a single master film. The method is especially valuable in producing multicolor image 

maps, such as a Landsat image map for an entire 

State. Since the multispectral scanner on Landsat obtains simultaneous images in four bands of 

the visible and near-infrared spectrum, two to 

four separate master mosaics can be prepared for 

the area of interest. The separate mosaics are 

used to make photographic color composites or 

lithographic pressplates for publication. Practical 

training on the film-mosaics method was given 

to cartographers in Central and South America 

at the request of the Inter American Geodetic 

Survey and the Government of Chile.

 Shallow-seas mapping with Landsat imagery. As 

part of a continuing investigation of possible 

applications of Landsat imagery to cartographic 

problems, experimental editions have demonstrated that small-scale charts of shallow-sea 

areas can be prepared quickly and accurately. 

These areas are difficult and expensive to chart 

by conventional methods. This finding of the 

Survey's research is of interest to the agencies 

responsible for nautical charting, particularly the 

Defense Mapping Agency.

FIGURE 44. The Ditigal Data Editing System interacts with a

computer to integrate textual and graphic data files and to

provide for editing, collecting, or reformatting digital data.

Digital applications team. Since a single map or 

aerial photograph contains millions of bits of 

information, converting that information to digital form, storing and processing it, combining it 

with related information as needed, and recalling 

it in the form needed by a user present a formidable challenge to the practical cartographer. 

During the year, the Topographic Division 

formed a Digital Applications Team to consider 

the problems of digital cartography, design the 

data bank, select and design equipment, and 

plan the system for supplying data to users on 

request. The products supplied may or may not 

be in visible graphic form. For example, they may 

consist of digital elevation models recorded on 

magnetic tape.

Geographic names information system. Geographic names are of interest to everyone and 

therefore constitute an important element in any 

cartographic data bank. It is estimated that more 

than 3,000,000 geographic names are in active 

use in the United States. An automated information system has been designed, which will eventually encompass all those names together with 

related information, such as location, size, and 

kind of feature. The files are organized primarily 

by State, with complete files now available for 

Massachusetts, Alaska, and Rhode Island. Another 

file contains all the formal decisions of the Board 

on Geographic Names since its founding in 1890.

86 | TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYS AND MAPPING
Digital Cartographic Data Helps Assess the Nation's Coal Resources

Computer readable data speeds up computations.

Map information traditionally drawn as lines 

can now be expressed in numerical terms that are 

input to computers for analysis and output in either 

numeric or graphic form. For example, data produced by the Topographic Division's Digital Cartographic Applications Program are now being used 

to improve the process of evaluating and classifying coal resources of the United States. A major 

problem in evaluating the development potential 

of coal resources is measuring the overburden 

above the coal deposit. This has traditionally been 

done by manually measuring elevation data from

Geological Survey 7.5-minute topographic maps 

and using drill hole information on the depth to 

the coal deposits to compute approximations for 

the overburden.

New equipment procured as part of the Topographic Division's equipment modernization program is now being used to produce a three-dimensional, computer-readable model of the Earth's 

surface. This digital elevation model is used in the 

Geologic Division's computer-based National Coal 

Resources Data System to mathematically compute 

the overburden. This information is combined with 

digital files of the political boundaries and public 

land survey network, also derived by the Topographic Division from 7.5-minute maps, to evaluate 

the potential for mining known coal deposits on 

specific parcels of land. When fully developed, this 

more rapid and accurate method of evaluating and 

classifying coal resources will be used by the Conservation Division and the Bureau of Land Management in planning for the development of the 

Nation's coal resources on Federal land.

In fiscal year 1977, the Topographic Division 

supplied digital data for thirty-three 7.5-minute 

quadrangles. Ultimately about 8,000 quadrangles of 

data will be required to cover the Nation's known 

coal resource lands. A

As established, the files permit ready answers to 

questions about specific features and also permit 

assembly of comprehensive lists, such as gazetteers for States, or selective lists, for example, 

one describing all the streams in six counties. 

Assembly of complete files for the entire Nation 

is a long-range project that will take several years. 

Metric map series. Designs and specifications are 

being prepared for the several new series of 

metric maps, which will eventually replace the 

current series based on U.S. customary units of 

measurement. In consultation with the Defense 

Mapping Agency, specifications for the 1:50,000- 

scale series have been designed to meet both 

military and civilian requirements and thus reduce duplication of efforts. Using a similar concept, the design has been standardized for the 

combined topographic-bathymetric maps of 

coastal areas being produced jointly with the 

National Ocean Survey.

/Automated mapping system. Production trials of 

the Gestalt Photo Mapper II (GPM 2) led to several improvements in software to improve performance and in physical conditions to provide 

a clean-room environment for the photograph 

scanning and printing elements. The GPM 2 is 

an advanced system that automatically correlates 

pairs of aerial photographs and simultaneously 

produces orthophotographs, contour plots, and 

digital elevation models. As a result of the successful trials, a second unit of the GPM 2 has 

been ordered.

SMALL-SCALE AND SPECIAL MAPPING | 87

Geologic and Mineral Resource 

Surveys and Mapping

INTRODUCTION

The Geologic Division conducts nation-wide geologic research and investigation programs through 

continuing research and data collection, as a background for many economic and social decisions. Geologic research is used to determine the structure of 

the Earth and to develop a better understanding of 

processes that influence our lives, such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and landslides. Geologic 

data on the Nation's land, mineral, and energy resources are continually being collected, analyzed, and 

published to inform the public and provide a rational 

basis for utilization with minimum damage to the 

environment of the Earth's surface and atmosphere. 

The geologic programs are distributed among four 

main fields of activity; Land Resource Surveys, Mineral 

Resource Surveys, Energy Resource Surveys, and Offshore Geologic Surveys.

Land Resource Surveys provide geological, geophysical, and geochemical data needed to evaluate 

the Nation's land resources, the effect of human 

activity on the land, and the hazards to human life 

and property posed by natural forces and processes.

Mineral Resource Surveys provide information on 

the Nation's resources of metallic and nonmetallic 

minerals, Studies of processes and mineral formation 

provide a basis for identification of hitherto unknown 

sources of metallic and nonmetallic minerals. These 

studies are applied especially to public lands.

Energy Resource Surveys provide current, systematic, and thorough assessments of the Nation's 

energy resources. Information is established on the 

location, quantity, and quality of energy resources in 

the forms of coal, oil and gas, oil shale, uranium and 

thorium, and geothermal heat.

Offshore Geologic Surveys provide an assessment 

of the potential mineral and energy resources of the 

continental margins of the United States. Studies are 

also made to determine the geological and environmental hazards that may effect the siting of offshore 

drill rigs, production platforms, and pipelines.

Two-man submarine used to study sea-floor features and collect ocean-bottom samples.

Seismic Research Observatory (SRO) borehole seismometer being prepared for installation. Installed at depths of 100 meters 

(328 feet), these record seismic events as part of the Worldwide Standardized Seismograph Network (WWSSN).

INTRODUCTION TO GEOLOGIC PROGRAMS ( 89
GEOLOGIC AND MINERAL RESOURCE 

SURVEYS AND MAPPING

Federal-State 

Cooperative Program

Federal funds $3.49' 

State and local funds $1.40

Miscellaneous nonFederal sources 

$6.44

TOTAL $130.2 MILLION

SOURCE OF FUNDS

BUDGET AND PERSONNEL

In fiscal year 1977, obligations of the geologic and 

mineral resources surveys and mapping activity were 

$130.2 million. This amount was supplemented by 

approximately $1.4 million from 31 States and $22.4 

million from other Federal agencies and miscellaneous 

non-Federal sources (table 12).

At the end of fiscal year 1977, the Geologic Division 

had 2,046 permanent full-time employees and 935 

temporary or part-time employees.

Land Resource 

Surveys 

$50.53 Reimbursable 

$15.33

Mineral Resource 

Surveys $31.70

Reimbursable 

$7.94

Direct $23.76

ibursable 

,77

Energy Resource 

Surveys $29.02

Reimbursable 

$4.15

Offshore Geologic 

Surveys $18.95

USfc Ur

90 | GEOLOGIC AND MINERAL RESOURCE SURVEYS AND MAPPING
TABLE 12. Geologic and Mineral Resource Surveys and Mapping activity obligations for fiscal years 1976-77

by program (dollars in millions)

Fiscal 

year 

I 976

Transition 

quarter

Fiscal 

year 

1977

Total ________________________.

Land Resource Surveys _________________.

Direct Programs ______________________

Earthquake Hazards _____ _______ ______

Volcano Hazards _____________________.

Environmental Aspects of Energy ____________.

Arctic Environmental Studies ____________.

Engineering Geology ___ ____________.

Regional Mapping and Analysis ___________________

Regional Geology __ ____________________

Geophysical Surveys _ __________________

Geochemical Surveys _________________________

Dating and Correlation _______________________

Geologic Processes __________________________

Reimbursable Programs _____________________

States, Counties, and Municipalities __________.

Miscellaneous non-Federal sources __________.

Other Federal agencies _______________

Mineral Resource Surveys __________________________

Direct Programs ________________________

Mineral Resource Assessment _____________________

Wilderness Areas _____________________

Alaska ____________________________

Conterminous States ____________________.

Mineral Discovery Loan Program ___________

Mineral Commodities Assessment ______________

Critical Commodities __________________

Minerals for Energy Production _____________

Mineral Information System and Analysis ________

Resources Processes Technology ______________

Resource Techniques in Geochemistry and Geophysics 

Reimbursable Programs _________________ _

States, Counties and Municipalities _____________

Miscellaneous non-Federal sources ___________

Other Federal agencies ___________________

Energy Resources Surveys ____________________

Direct Programs ______________________

Coal ___________________________________________

Oil and Gas ___________________

Oil Shale ____________________________

Uranium and Thorium _____________________

Geothermal Energy _____________________

Energy Resource Data System _____________

Reimbursable Programs __________________

States, Counties, and Municipalities ____________

Miscellaneous non-Federal sources _________

Other Federal agencies _______________

$115.55

46.61

34.08

11.26

.68

5.23

.37

1.29

15.25

9.23

4.76

1.26

12.53

1.17

.20

11.16

26.36

19.78

6.97

1.46

3.48

1.85

.18

2.02

1.48

.54

1.66

5.23

3.90

6.58

.19

4.74

1.65

23.96

23.00

2.31

5.14

1.07

4.45

8.65

1.38

.96

.03

$32.19

12.95

9.68

3.78

.17

1.20

.10

.36

4.07

2.49

1.26

.32

3.27

.31

.06

2.90

6.97

5.32

1.89

.35

1.03

.46

.05

.55

.42

.13

.69

1.27

.92

1.65

.05

1.05

.55

6.75

5.86

.51

1.23

.28

1.07

2.55

.22

.89

$130.20

50.53

35.20

11.88

.69

6.61

.45

1.29

14.28

8.86

4.11

1.31

15.33

1.08

.26

13.99

31.70

23.76

7.92

1.35

4.44

1.91

.22

2.37

1.73

.64

2.14

5.87

5.46

7.94

.20

6.17

1.57

29.02

26.25

3.19

5.59

1.02

5.36

9.61

1.48

2.77

.93 .89

.03

.01

2.73

Offshore Geologic Surveys ___________

Direct Programs ___________. 

Oil and Gas Resource Appraisal _. 

Environmental Investigations ____. 

Marine Geology Investigations _.

Reimbursable Programs ________.

States, Counties, and Municipalities 

Miscellaneous non-Federal sources _ 

Other Federal agencies _____.

18.62

15.47

9.49

4.50

1.48

3.15

.08

3.07

5.52

3.92

2.24

1.37

.35

1.56

.03

1.53

18.95

14.80

9.23

4.25

1.32

4.15

.09

4.06

BUDGET AND PERSONNEL | 91
LAND RESOURCE SURVEYS 

Earthquake Hazards

The goal of the earthquake hazards reduction program is to mitigate potential casualties, damage, and 

social and economic disruption caused by earthquakes. Reductions in the potential for hazard can be 

effected by land-use planning, emergency preparedness, and engineering design and application, all of 

which can be greatly enhanced if geological and seismological data and analyses are sufficiently refined. 

The Geological Survey effort comprises research on 

three major objectives: (1) to delineate and evaluate 

potentially hazardous areas and processes, (2) to develop the capability to predict the time, place, and 

magnitudes of earthquakes, and (3) to acquire and disseminate information on earthquake occurrences. 

Some accomplishments and activities for fiscal year 

1977 were:

Improving and continuing the operation of regional 

seismic nets in urbanized areas at high seismic 

risk central California, southern California, 

Mississippi Valley, South Carolina, and Puerto 

Rico.

Since discovery of the anomalous land uplift in 

southern California in late 1975, extensive efforts 

have been underway to define the shape and 

extent of the uplift, to understand its origin, and 

to assess its implications for future large earthquakes in this region. The extent of the uplift as 

of early 1974 was considerably larger than previously suspected, stretching eastward from Santa 

Barbara to the Colorado River, covering an area 

of about 90,000 square kilometers (35,000 square 

miles) mostly along a band bounded on the 

southwest by the San Andreas Fault (fig. 45). 

Maximum uplift occurred at a point north of 

Palm Springs, reaching about 45 centimeters (18 

inches). However, uplift near Palmdale decreased

FIGURE 45. Area of recent uplift in the Transverse Range and adjacent parts of the Mojave Desert in California, during the

1959-74 period. Uplift occurs along the San Andreas Fault.

\

\

\

\

Area tilted down to the north 

Since early 1974

Isobase of equal elevation change 

Contour interval 0.05 meters

-0.17 

Tectonic subsidence in meter

Fault

Fault showing historic 

surface rupture

92 | GEOLOGIC AND MINERAL RESOURCE SURVEYS AND MAPPING
between 1974 and 1976 from about 35 centimeters (14 inches) to about 17 centimeters (7 

inches). The origin of the uplift is still poorly 

understood, but it is likely that the uplift results 

in some way from the same stresses that store 

energy to be released as great earthquakes along 

the San Andreas FaultA system for interpreting tectonic stress from measurements in bore holes has been developed and 

employed in the seismic regions near Charleston, 

S.C.; in New Madrid, Mo.; and in California. 

While this system based on the hydrofracture 

technique will undoubtedly be improved as experience is gained, it offers the first opportunity 

to measure reasonably directly the fundamental 

tectonic stresses that cause earthquakes.

The Worldwide Seismic Network (fig. 46), managed 

by the Geological Survey, is being upgraded 

through the installation of 13 Seismic Research 

Observatory (SRO) photo data systems. Seven are

now installed and operating. The highly advanced SRO system combines the noise-free sensitivity of the borehole seismometer with a modern digital recording system, effectively replacing 

all six seismographs of the older system and adding the capabilities of a gravimeter and two 

tiltmeters.

 Analyses of older geodetic data identified an early 

20th-century episode of crustal uplift and subsequent collapse in southern California having approximately the same location, size, and shape as 

the present southern California uplift.

 Trench excavations of sedimentary layers disturbed 

by the San Andreas Fault near Palmdale show 

geologic evidence that 5 to 8 major fault slip 

events have occurred there since about 1 A.D.

Volcano Hazards

The principal objective of the Volcano Hazards Program is to mitigate the hazards posed by the active

FIGURE 46. Worldwide Standardized Seismograph Network Observatories.

40°______60°______80°_______IQQ°______|2Q°______140°______160° 180°

WORLDWIDE SEISMIC NETWORK

Active Worldwide Standardized Seismograph 

O tractive Network Observatory

DIGITAL RECORDING OBSERVATORIES

if Seismic research observatory (SRO)

All except Bangui.Ankaro at WWSSN OfeMrvatorin

High-gain long-period (HGIP) observatory 

+ Modified high-gain long-period (ASRO) nUervotnry

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY MARCH 1977

180° ISO"

LAND RESOURCE SURVEYS | 93
volcanoes in Hawaii and in the Cascade Range of 

Washington, Oregon, and California. Mauna Loa Volcano, Hawaii, continues to build toward its next eruption, Kilauea Volcano displays intermittent activity, 

and Mount Baker's fumarolic condition is under surveillance. Major accomplishments for fiscal year 1977 

activities include:

 Intensive monitoring of Mauna Loa Volcano which 

early in the year continued to inflate with little 

accompanying seismic activity, but then slowed 

its rate of inflation later in the year.

 Precise measurement of a triangle linking Mauna 

Kea, Mauna Loa, and Hualalai volcanoes showed 

a significant increase in horizontal distance that 

reflects the inflation of Mauna Loa.

 Participation with Hawaii State and County officials 

and other Federal agencies on contingency planning and lava diversion studies in anticipation of 

a Mauna Loa eruption.

 Initiation of a study to monitor the concentrations 

of mercury found in the atmosphere and plants 

around Kilauea Volcano; since people working 

and living around the volcano may be absorbing 

harmful amounts of this toxic element.

Environmental Aspects of Energy

The Environmental Aspects of Energy program acquires, interprets, and distributes geologic, hydrologic, 

geophysical, geochemical, and related information 

that is essential to the analysis and solution of environmental problems associated with energy-resource development and the planning, siting, and 

construction of energy facilties.

ENERGY LANDS

The development of coal and oil shale, primarily by 

large surface mines, has the potential for causing 

widespread permanent damage to the environment in 

many areas across the country. The Energy Lands 

Program establishes basic knowledge of existing environmental conditions in coal and oil-shale resource 

areas inprder to predict possible changes that would 

be caused by mining coal and oil shale, and then 

monitor the changes during energy development.

The studies include bedrock, surficial, and engineering-geologic mapping, tests of physical properties, climatic effects on ongoing geologic processes, 

rates of weathering, erosion, and inventory of ground 

and surface waters and the effects on aquifers, and inventory of the geochemical setting. Highlights for 

fiscal year 1977 include:

 Completion of the surficial geology in areas being 

mined for coal for fourteen 7 1/2-minute quadrangle maps in the Powder River Basin of Wyoming, fourteen 7 1/2-minute quadrangle maps in the 

San Juan Basin of New Mexico and Colorado, and 

seven 1/2°x1 0 quadrangles in the Williston Basin 

area of Montana.

 Preparation of an engineering-geologic map of the 

Buffalo-Sheridan area of Wyoming that shows the 

effects of coal mining on urban development.

 Preparation of maps showing the availability of 

water, the occurrence and thickness of coal, and 

the geologic hazards of the Kaiparowits Plateau 

area in Utah.

 In conjunction with preparation for evaluating the 

effects of surface mining, determination that a

Puu Kiai, ("Guardian Hill" in Hawaiian), 

America's newest topographic feature 

formed by lava and spatter of the September 1977 eruption on Kilauea's east-rift 

zone. The new hill is about 240 meters 

(800 feet) long, 140 meters (450 feet) wide, 

and 34 meters (110 feet) high. (Photograph 

by Boone Morrison.)
sharp increase in the rate of erosion in the 

Piceance Basin of Colorado began about 1875.

 Completion of a map of eastern United States locating carbonate-rock deposits suitable for use 

in flue-gas scrubbers.

REACTOR SAFETY RESEARCH

The operational safety of nuclear power reactors is 

very sensitive to geologic hazards such as fault movements induced by man's activities, and other failures 

due to foundation and construction materials. These 

hazards are evaluated to meet specific needs arising 

from applications for reactor licenses. Accomplishments during fiscal year 1977 include:

 Determining that the epicenter area of the 1886 

Charleston, S.C., earthquake is now exhibiting 

modest seismic activity along a northwest trend.

 Demonstrating that the ground-water withdrawal 

in alluvial basins can cause surface faulting.

 Documenting the presence of surface faults that

show recent movement in the Texas Gulf Coast 

area.

NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL OVERVIEW

Maps are being prepared, generally at a scale of 

1:7,500,000, which will be useful for understanding 

environmental problems and for making decisions on 

land-use and mineral and energy resource development on a national scale. The following maps have 

been completed in preliminary form:

 Map showing areas of karst (solution) topography 

and related terrains (fig. 47).

 Map showing areas subject to volcanic hazards.

 Map showing areas of possible landslides.

 Map showing the location of present and proposed 

nuclear reactor sites.

 Map showing streams with flow rates of 8.5 cubic 

meters (300 cubic feet) per second.

 Map showing surficial clay, sand, silt, and gravel 

deposits.

FIGURE 47. Generalized map of areas of karst (solution) and analogous terrains in the conterminous United States.

Karst (solution) terrain Karst buried beneath deep soil cover

Terrain or lava 

analogous to karst

Terrain analogous to karst resulting from 

deep-seated piping (erosion by water)

LAND RESOURCE SURVEYS | 95
Permafrost and the Trans-Alasfea Pipeline

Basic scientific research over half a century ago

hePped develop today's Arctic construction techniques.-'

* The 1.2-meter- (4-foot-) diameter trans-Alaska 

hot oil pipeline is elevated above ground, on vertical support members (VSMs), where it crosses 

terrain underlain by permafrost. Heat tubes inside 

each steel VSM remove heat from the ground to 

maintain the frozen condition of the permafrost. 

Reflectors, which extend above the VSMs, dissipate 

the heat. Expansion of the pipeline is handled by

Arctic Environmental Studies

The arctic and subarctic regions of Alaska pose special geologic problems for the development of natural resources, transportation systems, and urban 

areas, primarily because of the unusual environmental 

conditions of permafrost or perennially frozen ground. 

Ice-rich permafrost soils undergo a change in volume 

and a loss in strength when thawed, resulting in severe damage to buildings and other engineering structures. The trans-Alaska oil pipeline (see above) is an 

example of a major engineering structure that required special design and construction procedures in 

order to overcome the adverse effects of permafrost 

soil. Major accomplishments of the program during 

fiscal year 1977 include:

 Continuing the compilation of engineering-geologic 

maps of the Arctic Coastal Plain between Prudhoe Bay and the Canadian border, which covers 

the route of the proposed 314-kilometer (195- 

mile) long Alaska Arctic Gas Pipeline.

a trapezoidal zig-zag configuration. The "shoes" 

under the pipe are teflon coated and allow the pipe 

to slide laterally on the steel crossmember connecting the VSMs. The outside of the pipe consists 

of 1.3-centimeter- (0.5-inch-) thick steel covered by 

11.4 centimeters (4.5 inches) of fiberglass insulation 

which is in turn protected by a skin of thin steel.

 Continuing the engineering geologic mapping of 

the Tanana Valley transportation/development 

corridor between Fairbanks and the Canadian 

border, which covers the route of the proposed 

Alcan Gas Pipeline.

 Determining that northeastern Alaska is subject to 

earthquakes although the region was previously 

considered to be essentially aseismic. Seismic 

stations recorded 69 earthquakes of magnitude 1 

to 4 in a one-year period.

 Continuing the exchange program with Soviet scientists and engineers concerned with pipelines, 

permafrost, and environmental protection.

Engineering Geology Studies

Engineering geology is the application of geologic 

knowledge to civil engineering practices to gain a 

better understanding of the effects of geologic processes and materials on man's use of the land and on 

the design and construction of man-made structures.

96 | GEOLOGIC AND MINERAL RESOURCE SURVEYS AND MAPPING
Permafrost, the perennially frozen ground that 

is present over extensive areas in the Earth's polar 

regions, has long been a curiosity for scientists and 

a headache for engineers.

Members of the U.S. Geological Survey have 

been studying permafrost (perennially frozen 

ground) in Alaska since before the turn of the 

century. In those early years, permafrost was considered only a scientific curiosity. Nevertheless the 

work done by E. K. Leffingwell in northern Alaska 

during nine summers and six winters (1906-1914) 

is a classic example of basic scientific research on 

permafrost. This research resulted in the "contraction crack" theory which explained the origin and 

growth of ice-wedge polygons. This research was 

proved essentially correct many years later by A. 

H. Lachenbruch.

During World War II, the military experienced 

serious large-scale engineering problems in Alaska. 

Differential settlement of the ground surface 

caused by the thawing of permafrost damaged 

large buildings, runways, and other structures. The 

military called on the Survey to help solve these 

engineering problems. Knowledge of permafrost 

gained by the early scientific research in Alaska, 

and in other countries (especially the U.S.S.R.), 

made it possible for the Survey to make recommendations for the proper design of structures and 

the proper construction procedures that would 

minimize the potentially deleterious effects of 

permafrost.

In 1969, several major oil companies proposed 

constructing a 4-foot-diameter, 800-mile-long pipeline to carry hot oil from the Prudhoe Bay field in

northern Alaska to Valdez, an ice-free seaport in 

south-central Alaska. The original plan called for 

the entire pipeline to be buried except for a 45- 

mile section along the northernmost part of the 

route. The original estimate of cost for the project 

was $900 million.

A map prepared by a Survey Geologist, O. J. 

Ferrians, showing the general distribution and character of permafrost in Alaska, indicated that extensive stretches of the pipeline route were underlain 

by ice-rich, fine-grained permafrost soils. It was 

obvious, as a result of past research in Alaska, that 

the industry plan, if allowed, would result in both 

economic and environmental disaster. A hot pipeline would cause the ice-rich permafrost soils to 

thaw. That in turn would cause extensive adverse 

environmental impacts, extremely serious maintenance problems, and even rupture of the pipe. Because of the seriousness of the problem, the Survey initiated a major effort to resolve these problems by taking a lead role in the preparation of 

the Environmental Impact Statement and Technical 

Stipulations covering this project, by engaging in 

a continual dialogue with industry engineers, and 

by preparing special reports.

The fact that the pipeline has been constructed 

with approximately fifty percent of the line elevated aboveground on piles in order to mitigate 

the permafrost-related engineering problems demonstrates the success of the Survey's role in this 

project. Costing almost $8 billion, it turned out to 

be the largest engineering project ever undertaken 

by private enterprise. A

A major objective is the recognition of geologic 

features that may be hazards to man's structures and 

(or) activities. Some accomplishments and activities 

for fiscal year 1977 are:

 Participating in a program to evaluate foundation 

failures, landslides, and liquefaction effects resulting from the March 4, 1977, earthquake in 

Romania.

 Identifying a 15-kilometer (9.3-mile) long scarp 

near Picacho, Ariz., formed since 1961, which is 

attributed to faulting caused by ground-water 

extraction.

 Participating in a review group investigating the 

causes of the Teton Dam, Idaho, failure in June 

1975.

 Continuing studies of the engineering behavior of 

bedrock and surficial materials in relation to surface and underground mining.

 Investigating, for the World Bank, landslides and 

slope stability for municipal utilities modernization at La Paz, Bolivia.

 Investigating a massive ancient landslide at a dam 

and reservoir site in Guatemala.

 Participating in a geologic feasibility study for locating a new capital city for Nigeria.

 Continuing studies related to underground nuclear 

weapons tests at the Nevada Test Site for the 

Department of Defense and the Energy Research 

and Development Administration.

 Continuing investigations of potential media (salt, 

argillite, igneous rock, and shale) for disposal of 

radioactive waste for Energy Research and Development Administration.

Regional Mapping and Analysis

The objective of this program is to increase and refine the knowledge of the geologic framework of the 

Nation. Products of the program are essential to all 

the other geologic work and are widely used by the 

Public. The program provides fundamental information by determining the distribution and physical and

LAND RESOURCE SURVEYS | 97
chemical properties of rocks and other geologic materials, investigating the relative and absolute ages of 

earth materials, and investigating the processes that 

are responsible for the formation, modification, and 

distribution of materials within the Earth and on its 

surface. '

GEOLOGIC MAPPING

The selection of areas to be mapped is guided by 

relevance to environmental and resource problems, 

by the needs of other Federal and State agencies, and 

by the need for geologic information in the area. 

Through cooperative agreements with several States, 

the program furnishes Statewide geologic mapping 

and analysis. Major accomplishments for fiscal year 

1977 include:

 Finishing the detailed geologic mapping of the 

Commonwealth of Kentucky at a scale 1:24,000. 

This 17-year cooperative program has stimulated 

the economic development of the State by providing detailed information on clay, coal, limestone, and other mineral deposits, by providing 

a basis for resource and environmental appraisals. It promises to repay the investment 

many-fold.

 Completing a new geologic map of Colorado at a 

scale of 1:500,000.

 Recognizing that the Pacific plate has repeatedly 

underthrust the North American plate during the 

early and middle Tertiary time in the Olympic 

Mountains of Washington (see Geological Survey Annual Report for 1976, p. 39).

 Demonstrating that the indurated calcic soils 

(caliches) of arid central New Mexico are good 

markers to establish the presence or absence of 

faulting.

 Recognizing that the eastern margin of the Blue 

Ridge may be a zone of post-Triassic tectonic 

uplift.

 Discovering that the Jurupa Mountains south of Fontana, Calif, have been elevated more than 335 

meters (1,100 feet) by relatively recent faulting.

GEOPHYSICAL SURVEYS

Studies of the physical properties of the earth, such 

as variations in magnetism, paleomagnetism, gravity, 

electrical properties, and heat flow, provide useful 

information on the characteristics of rocks beneath 

the earth surface. The development and improvement 

of these measurements and a better understanding of 

what they mean increases the importance of this program. Some of the activities and accomplishments of 

this program for fiscal year 1977 were:

 Developing a technique to eliminate the distortion 

in magnetic maps caused by topographic relief.

Using this technique satellite data can be used 

to produce distortion-free magnetic maps of 

large areas such as the United States.

 Determining from paleomagnetic measurements 

that a large Mesozoic terrane near McCarthy, 

Alaska, originated south of its present position 

with respect to North America. It is an exotic 

fragment fastened to the continent by platetectonic processes.

 Discovering a major crustal feature, the New YorkAlabama lineament, by aeromagnetic mapping in 

the Appalachian basin. It is about 1300 kilometers 

(800 miles) long and strikes northeast from 

northeastern Alabama to the Adirondak uplift. 

The lineament is well defined on a recently completed aeromagnetic map of West Virginia.

 Completing a regional gravity survey of Glacier 

Bay, Alaska, using radar measurements to correct 

for thickness of ice. Large gravity highs associated 

with ultramafic bodies suggest that the bodies 

extend to great depth. These measurements were 

made through ice more than 1,200 meters (3,900 

feet) thick.

GEOCHEMICAL SURVEYS

Geochemical information establishes baseline 

against which to compare future observations. It is 

required for pollution control, environmental health 

research, and energy and mineral resource evaluations. Continuing activities include the development 

of statistical analystical methods, the compilation of 

rock analyses, the operation of a geochemical-data 

system, the investigation of trace elements in the 

human food chain, and studies of the geochemistry 

of urban areas. Major accomplishments for fiscal year 

1977 include:

 Establishing a program to determine trace-element 

concentration in areas of coal strip mines.

 Determining pollution levels of trace metals in soils 

and vegetation around uranium processing 

plants. For example, selenium and molybdenum 

are concentrated in vegetation.

 Demonstrating statistical methods for evaluating the 

trace-element chemistry of marine sediments.

DATING AND CORRELATION PALEONTOLOGY 

AND STRATIGRAPHY

Paleontology, the study of fossils, and stratigraphy, 

the study of sedimentary rocks in which fossils occur 

are important sources of basic geologic information. 

Interpretations are developed to determine the age, 

correlation, and paleoenvironment of sedimentary 

rocks, to study evolutionary changes of species, and to 

provide a framework for major events of the geologic past. Paleontologic and stratigraphic information is used as critically necessary background data in

98 | GEOLOGIC AND MINERAL RESOURCE SURVEYS AND MAPPING
other programs throughout the Survey and provides 

knowledge to respond to future problems that require an understanding of the history of the geologic 

framework of the Earth. Highlights during fiscal year 

1977 include:

 Dating marine and nonmarine Cretaceous age 

rocks in the Atlantic Coastal Plain using fossil 

spores and pollen grains.

 Discovering that some major copper deposits of 

the Wrangell Mountains in Alaska are localized 

in sedimentary rocks that were deposited above 

high tide on-shore and in areas of high salt concentrations. This has led to the discovery of other 

promising copper deposits.

 Refining the age of potential petroleum producing 

rocks of Paleozoic age of the Appalachian Basin 

and the Great Basin-Rocky Mountain region.

 Using a newly developed method of freeing 

radiolarian and other microfossils from chert, 

siliceous shale, and cherty tuffs. This has enabled 

Survey geologists to date sedimentary rocks that 

until now could not be dated directly.

DATING AND CORRELATION ISOTOPE 

GEOLOGY

Studies of isotopes provide some of the basic data 

necessary for understanding Earth history and for 

solving a variety of problems ranging from mineral 

exploration to dating faults, predicting earthquakes, 

storing nuclear wastes, and siting nuclear plants. 

Major activities and accomplishments during fiscal 

year 1977 are:

 Began operation of new, highly sensitive equipment for the more precise dating of material 

less than 40,000 years old. Greater sensitivity of 

the instrument, which measures the amount of 

radioactive carbon-14, is achieved by burying the 

counting chamber 9 meters (30 feet) below the 

surface of the ground.

 Completed a tandem mass spectrometer (fig. 48) 

for the measurement of large isotopic ratios in 

ultrasmall samples.

 Developed a probe using the radioactive isotope 

Californium-252 to analyze coal, encountered in 

drill holes, for heat values, and for content of 

ash, sulfur, and other elements.

GEOLOGIC PROCESSES

Studies of geologic processes are made to support 

the other programs and because many of these processes bear directly on health and the environment. 

Current studies include the thermodynamic properties of uranium compounds as related to the solution 

mining of uranium and the disposal of radioactive 

wastes, the occurrence and characterization of asbestiform minerals and their application to future public

FIGURE 48. Survey scientist operating a new tandem mass 

spectrometer used to measure isotope ratios on ultrasmall 

samples. This sophisticated spectrometer is equivalent to 

two normal mass spectrometers.

health legislation, the mechanism of volcanic eruptions, and gas monitoring of volcanoes as a possible 

means to predict eruptions. Activities and accomplishments for fiscal year 1977 include:

 Determining the eruption history in recent time of 

the basaltic rocks in the Yakima region of Washington. The basalt flows came from many vents 

through the period from about 8 to 26 million 

years ago.

 Establishing a National Center for Thermodynamic 

Data of Minerals to supply refined data for testing proposed theories of geologic processes.

 Determining the oxidation-reduction conditions in 

the upper mantle of the Earth. This could increase the understanding of magma genesis and 

the evolution of the Earth.

MINERAL RESOURCE SURVEYS 

Mineral Land Assessments

Areas judged to have high mineral potential are 

under study in Alaska and the conterminous United 

States as part of continuing systematic investigations 

of the mineral resource endowment of the Nation. 

The Survey also conducts mineral resource assessments of Federal lands administered by other agencies and on lands for which Congressional actions require evaluation of mineral potential before reclassification.

ALASKA

Mineral resource assessments are under investigation in the proposed D-2 lands specified in the Alaska 

Native Claims Settlement Act and in other areas having high mineral potential. The accumulated information and data are published in folios containing a

MINERAL RESOURCE SURVEYS | 99
text and geologic, geochemical, and geophysical 

maps, interpretive maps based on Landsat photos, 

and maps showing the location and nature of potential mineral resources. Highlights of the program during fiscal 1977 include:

 Compilation of a map of the State of Alaska at a 

scale of 1:2,500,000 showing the distribution of 

rock types known to be associated with certain 

kinds of metallic mineral deposits.

 Completion of mineral resource assessments at a 

scale of 1:1,000,000 for approximately half of the 

the D-2 lands.

 Completion of detailed resource assessment studies 

of 4 key mines and mining districts within or adjoining proposed D-2 lands.

 Continuation of mineral resource assessments in 17 

quadrangles at a scale of 1:250,000.

CONTERMINOUS STATES

Comprehensive studies of the mineral resources of 

the conterminous States are being conducted at a 

scale of 1:250,000 in areas with a high proportion of 

Public land and having a high probability for mineral 

deposits. These assessments provide information on 

the existence of present and possible future supplies 

of valuable mineral resources and gives the Federal, 

State, and local governments a basis for making decisions on land-use planning. Major accomplishments 

for fiscal year 1977 include:

 Publishing the "Mineral and Water Resources of 

Wisconsin" report which describes the locations 

and extent of water and mineral resources in the 

State.

 Publishing a reconnaissance geologic and geochemical map of part of the Medford-Coos Bay, Ore., 

2° quadrangle. The geochemistry shows anomalous amounts of molybdenum in the area.

 Discoveries of geochemical anomalies in the West 

End Creek area, Idaho, and in the Wickes district, 

Montana, have spurred extensive exploration by 

industry that resulted in locating significant metal 

resources.

 Discovery of sedimentary phosphate deposits in 

northern Michigan.

WILDERNESS AREAS

Areas of unspoiled beauty are recognized as a national heritage worthy of preservation, but some of 

these areas may also host future supplies of critically 

needed mineral resources. More than 12.5 million 

hectares (31 million acres) have been proposed for 

wilderness status. To date, the Survey, in cooperation 

with the U.S. Bureau of Mines, has completed mineral

resource surveys on 6.9 million hectares (17.0 million 

acres) of land proposed for wilderness. Accomplishments for fiscal year 1977 include:

 Publication of 12 wilderness area mineral assessment reports:

1. Great Bear Wilderness study area, Montana

2. Chama-Southern San Juan Wilderness study 

area, Colorado

3. Mt. Shasta Wilderness study area, California

4. Sheep Mountain Wilderness study area and 

Cucamonga Wilderness, California

5. North Absaroka Wilderness study area, Montana

6. Eagle Cap Wilderness, Oregon

7. La Garita Wilderness, Colorado

8. Contiguous Uncompahgre Wilderness study 

area, Colorado

9. Laramie Peak Wilderness study area, Wyoming

10. Granite Fiords Wilderness study area, Alaska

11. Ramsey's Draft Wilderness study area, Virginia

12. New River Gorge, West Virginia

 Locating significant mineralized resources in three 

of the designated wilderness areas.

1. Good gas potential in the Great Bear area in the 

disturbed belt in Montana.

2. Good potential for copper and molybdenum in 

an altered area in the Chama-Southern San Juan 

area, Colorado.

3. Potential resources of gold, sliver, copper, 

molybdenum, nickel, lead, zinc, platinum group 

metals, uranium, iron, and manganese in the 

North Absaroka Wilderness study area, Montana.

INDIAN LANDS

Joint Bureau of Mines and Geological Survey mineral resource assessments of Indian lands were continued in fiscal 1977. Assessments based on studies 

and interpretations of published and unpublished reports, maps, and tribal records of 36 reservations, 

with a total area of 2,519,978 hectares (6,227,000 

acres), were also completed.

Reconnaissance geologic mapping, and geophysical 

and geochemical studies were completed on the Pine 

Ridge Indian reservation, South Dakota, with an area 

of 763,462 hectares (1,886,556 acres). Similar studies 

are continuing on the Flathead and Fort Belknap reservations in Montana, and the Papago reservation in 

Arizona a combined land area of 2,288,131 hectares 

(5,654,095 acres).

100 | GEOLOGIC AND MINERAL RESOURCE SURVEYS AND MAPPING
Mineral Commodity Assessment

Mineral commodity specialists collect data worldwide on the geologic occurrences and the current and 

probable future availability of mineral commodities. 

They develop new geologic concepts useful in the 

assessment of and exploration for mineral resources. 

Information on the location, quantity, quality, and 

geologic characteristics of deposits of 43 mineral 

commodities is continually appraised. New techniques in exploration are of particular interest to the 

mineral commodity specialist as mineral potential is 

being assessed in new regions and in new geologic 

settings. Major accomplishments for fiscal year 1977 

include:

 Participation of mineral commodity specialists as 

speakers and panelists at seminars and conferences dealing with the geologic and economic 

availability of minerals and fuels. This is an important part of the accumulation, interpretation, 

and dissemination of resource information 

among Federal and State agencies, the public, 

and the industrial and academic sectors.

 Publication of a map of known deposits and occurrences of the platinum-group metals in the conterminous States.

 Determination that Pleistocene age sands in the 

Port Leyden 7Vi -minute quadrangle in New York 

contain 28 million metric tons (31 million tons) 

of titanium minerals and 1.8 million metric tons 

(2 million tons) of zircon in wedge-shaped 

bodies up to 85 meters (279 feet) thick.

 Publication of symposium papers entitled "Lithium 

Resources and Requirements by the year 2000." 

Potential future demand for lithium for energyrelated uses indicates that there is a need to 

identify large new lithium deposits within the 

next decade or two.

 Discovering that Salar Uyuni, Bolivia, is potentially 

the world's largest known lithium deposit and is 

also a major new source of potassium for use as 

fertilizer.

 Discovering that uranium is associated with mercury in the Opalite district of Oregon-Nevada. 

This finding suggests that other opalite-type 

mercury deposits may contain significant 

amounts of uranium.

Mineral Resource Information Systems and 

Analysis

This program provides data on mineral resources 

needed for national mineral policy decisionmaking 

and assists the Survey's energy and mineral resource 

programs. Storage, retrieval, manipulation, and the

display of geologic and commodity information for 

mineral and energy resource evaluation and prediction are continually being improved by new and innovative computer techniques. Highlights for fiscal 

year 1977 include:

 Successful developing and testing a discovery process model which predicts the size distribution of 

petroleum deposits to be discovered with a given 

number of wildcat wells within an exploration 

play. These predictions will form the basis for 

calculating reservoir discovery, development, 

and production costs of future discoveries.

 Developing a quantitive method of integrating 

data from diverse disciplines such as geology, 

geochemistry, geophysics, and remote sensing. 

A recent application of the technique in the 

Coeur d'Alene district of Idaho identified several 

potentially favorable exploration target areas.

 Compiling and publishing a generalized geologic 

map and six mineral distribution maps of South 

America. These maps show the type and size of 

deposits of 15 major mineral commodities copper, lead-zinc, iron, bauxite, nickel, tin, tungsten, 

chromium, manganese, molybdenum, vanadium, 

and precious metals.

 Updating the Petroleum Data System which now 

contains data on more than 70,000 oil and gas 

fields and reservoirs in the United States and 

Canada and is available to any user as a commercial timesharing option at nominal cost. The 

system is being upgraded in two important ways:

1. The U.S. Bureau of Mines is doing special 

studies on all large fields, including evaluation 

of reserves.

2. All field outlines are being digitized in order to 

permit graphical display according to selected 

reservoir parameters included in the statistical 

file.

 Making publicly available the U.S. Geological Survey's CRIB (Computerized Resource Information 

Bank) on a world-wide timeshare computer network. The CRIB master file contains 38,386 records of location, size, character, and other data 

on mineral deposits. Several thousand additional 

records are in various stages of processing.

 Making fully operational a geothermal resources 

data base (CEOTHERM) that contains 2,000 records on fields, wells, and analyses from New 

Zealand, Mexico, Republic of China, and the 

United States.

 Developing the GARNET (Graphic Analysis of Resources by Numerical Evaluation Techniques) 

system which is a set of computer programs deMINERAL RESOURCE SURVEYS | 101
signed to aid the geologist analyze irregularly 

spaced, point-located field observations. The 

GARNET system is a component of the National 

Coal Resources Data System for the computation 

of coal resources and the mapping of relevant 

coal resource information.

Resources Processes

Knowledge is developed and expanded on the 

fundamental mechanisms by which minerals are deposited in large enough concentrations to become 

resource material. This knowledge is essential for accurate assessment of, or successful exploration for, 

mineral deposits. Data obtained from a variety of 

field and laboratory studies range from documentation of mining districts and mineral belts and the collection of relevant geologic observations, maps, and 

samples to experimental studies of the physical and 

chemical properties of minerals and mineralized rock. 

Major accomplishments for fiscal year 1977 include:

 Results from tests on bentonite samples from 

Wyoming and Montana provided the Bureau of 

Land Management and the bentonite producers 

with criteria for evaluating bentonite deposits on 

Federal lands.

 Investigations of sulfide deposits of Precambrian 

age in south-central Colorado which occur 

largely in metavolcanic rocks and were formed 

by volcanogenic processes. Their resource potential, which is greater than previously realized, is 

masked by subsequent metamorphism.

 Investigations of the stratabound copper-silver deposits of the Revett Formation, northwest Montana, formed from metals which were deposited 

with the sediments and were remobilized and 

concentrated in lithological and structural traps 

prior to metamorphism in Precambrian time.

Resource Techniques

Until recently, worldwide efforts to discover mineral deposits have concentrated on those exposed at 

the surface or those concealed by a thin veneer of 

surficial material. Most deposits of this sort have been 

found. Consequently new geochemical and geophysical techniques must be developed for the detection 

and evaluation of buried mineral deposits and for 

these concealed deposits to be appraised accurately. 

Major accomplishments for fiscal year 1977 include:

 Development of new flame atomic absorption 

technique to aid in the determination of trace 

elements. Elements that occur in very small 

amounts are of importance in mineral exploration and assessment and in.various environmental investigations.

 Development of a method for direct spectrographic 

analysis of a fire-assay silver bead to determine 

platinum, palladium, rhodium, and gold in very 

low concentrations (parts per billion).

 Development of a simple field test for the identification of alunite and natroalunite, which are 

potential aluminum resource minerals.

 Discovery of unusually high quantities of copper, 

zinc, and molybdenum in the White River National Forest, south of Aspen, Colorado. Two 

areas of potential mineralization are indicated:

1. Copper-zinc mineralization along Cataract 

Creek.

2. Molybdenum mineralization centered west 

of Hunter Peak.

 Demonstration that regional geochemical sampling 

using deep-rooted plants (phreatophytes) may 

be useful in detecting mineral deposits that are 

covered by as much as 15 meters (49 feet) of 

overburden.

 Development of techniques to analyze satellite 

photographs for reflectance properties of vegetation growing over mineralized areas. Comparison with vegetation reflectance of known nonmineralized areas may lead to the discovery of 

new ore deposits.

 Demonstration, in Clayton Valley, Nevada, that d.c. 

resistivity soundings can be used to explore for 

brine bodies that may contain lithium.

 Demonstration that thermal-infrared (heat) images 

are useful in discriminating geologic units in the 

uranium area of the Texas Gulf Coast Plain.

 Development of a new technique to produce color 

composites of Landsat digital data which accurately discriminate altered ground, show variation within altered areas, and can differentiate 

altered ground from alluvium.

ENERGY RESOURCE SURVEYS

Coal

The Nation's coal resources are being assessed and 

classified into various categories based on geographic 

and geologic distribution, physical and chemical characteristics, and mining availability. This assessment 

involves geologic mapping, evaluation of mining data, 

stratigraphic and petrographic studies, chemical analyses of samples, geophysical and biochemical investigations, organic and non-organic (mineral) constituent studies, depositional environments, diagenesis, 

and geologic history of coal. The data obtained from 

these investigations are entered into the computerized National Coal Resources Data System (NCRDS) 

which now contains approximately 80,000 records.

102 | GEOLOGIC AND MINERAL RESOURCE SURVEYS AND MAPPING
Highlights and major accomplishments for fiscal Oil and Gas

year 1977 include:

 Geologic mapping and assessing the low-sulfur 

coal resources in areas totaling about 1,800 

square kilometers (695 square miles) in Wyoming, Montana, Colorado, Kentucky, Virginia, 

and West Virginia. An additional 2,300 square 

kilometers (888 square miles) of low sulfur coal 

on Federal lands in Montana and Wyoming was 

reevaluated.

 Determining that 137-million metric tons (151 million tons) of coal resources remain in 13 beds 

within the 356-square. kilometer (137-square 

mile) area proposed for a National Park along 

the New River Gorge in West Virginia. Approximately 60-million metric tons (66 million tons) 

of coal resources remain in 12 beds in the smaller 

238-square kilometer (92-square mile) area proposed as the Wild and Scenic New River Gorge.

 Preparing four comprehensive reports on the geology, quantity and quality of coal resources, mining methods and potential development, and 

environmental hazards of mining Federallyowned coal in the Western United States where 

production is anticipated and for which environmental impact statements will be required.

 Standardizing the Coal Resource Classification System with the U.S. Bureau of Mines.

 Cooperating with 15 State Geological Surveys in 

collecting 1,300 samples of coal and related rock 

for chemical analysis. This makes a total of about 

5,000 coal samples analyzed during the past 

several years. These analyses show that coals in 

the Western and Eastern Interior Coal Basins 

contain a higher than normal amount of zinc 

and cadmium and that coals in the Eastern 

Interior Coal Basin contain a higher than 

normal amount of cobalt, chromium, nickel, and 

vanadium.

The primary objectives of the Oil and Gas Resource investigations is to document the amount of 

oil and gas resources that occur in the various petroleum provinces and basins in the United States. To 

accomplish this objective, improved resource appraisal techniques are developed and geological and 

geophysical data upon which new and improved resource estimates can be based are collected and interpreted. Resource appraisal studies are also supported by research in exploration technology, which 

provides up-to-date technical expertise and develops 

new geological and geophysical insights through 

topical investigations. Topical studies are aimed at 

improving techniques in geophysical data interpretation, developing and applying laboratory techniques to identify and evaluate petroleum source 

rocks, predicting reservoir rock quality through geologic studies and specialized geophysical instruments 

(borehole gravimeter), and investigating new exploration techniques such as detection of subsurface hydrocarbon accumulation from surface geochemical 

anomalies. Fiscal year 1977 accomplishments include:

 Publishing a comprehensive report on the Baltimore Canyon investigation of samples and data 

from the Continental Offshore Stratigraphic Test 

(COST) B-2 well that was drilled 56.5 kilometers 

(91 miles) east of Atlantic City, N.J. The report 

states that this offshore region is more likely to 

contain gas than liquid hydrocarbons.

 Completing a new logging vehicle designed to be 

used in making borehole gravity measurements, 

(see below). Initial results indicate that gravity 

logs can be used to measure the organic content which is important in measuring the gas potential in black shales.

FIGURE 49. The Survey's new logging vehicle.
 Completing oil and gas resource estimates, including field size distributions, for the Permian 

Basin in west Texas and New Mexico and offshore Gulf of Mexico, Texas, and Louisiana.

 Completing a study to delinate some of the tar 

sands resources in Missouri. Results of this study 

indicate that past resource estimates may have 

been too large.

 Completing a one-year reconnaissance study of 

the tight gas sands in Uinta, Piceance, and Green 

River Basins and Northern Great Plains areas for 

the Energy Research and Development Administration.

 Continuing studies of the petroleum potential of 

the Northern Montana Disturbed Belt. Information from these studies is needed by the U.S. 

Forest Service to determine which areas are to 

be withdrawn from minerals leasing. Preliminary 

study indicates that the region probably contains gas.

 Publishing a report describing the petroleum geology of the National Petroleum Reserve in Alaska 

(NPRA). The report identifies four separate areas 

in which oil and gas may be found.

Oil Shale

The ultimate aim is to inventory the oil shale resources of the United States and to understand the 

geologic setting in which oil shale occurs. Continuing 

work is concentrated on the Green River Formation 

of Colorado and Utah, which probably contains the 

thickest and richest deposits of oil shale in the world. 

Major accomplishments for fiscal year 1977 include:

 Completing the detailed geologic mapping (1:24,- 

000 scale) of 1,036 square kilometers (400 square 

miles) in the Piceance Basin, Colorado and Uinta 

Basin, Utah.

 Completing the stratigraphic measurement of 21 

sections for a total of 7,620 meters (25,000 feet).

 Completing the logging of 5 drill cores for a total 

of 1,524 meters (5,000 feet).

 Evaluating 210 samples for chemical composition, 

300 samples for mineral composition, and 255 

logs for geophysical data.

Uranium and Thorium

The Uranium and Thorium Investigations program 

consists of interrelated activities in geology, geochemistry, and geophysics. The overall objective is 

to improve the knowledge of the nature and distribution of uranium and thorium in the United States. 

Geologic investigations are concentrated on theories 

of origin, mining district studies, sedimentary basin 

analyses, and geologic framework of unmapped areas.

Geochemical exploration techniques include gaseous 

emanation studies and analyses of stream and spring 

waters and their associated sediment and precipitate. 

Geophysical exploration techniques include measurement of the physical properties of rocks associated 

with uranium deposits and research on radiometric 

equilibrium in uranium ores. Fiscal year 1977 accomplishments and activities include:

 Testing new geophysical logging techniques between widely-spaced drill holes in Texas and 

Wyoming. This work has revealed anomalies that 

may be related to uranium mineralization.

 Developing a better geologic understanding, on 

which to base a uranium resource assessment of 

the deposits in Triassic age rocks on the Colorado Plateau.

 Discovering that a quartz-pebble conglomerate 

of Precambrian age in the Black Hills of South 

Dakota may contain significant amounts of 

uranium.

 Discovering by geologic reconnaissance that the 

Seward Peninsula area of Alaska may contain 

high-grade deposits of uranium, thorium, and 

rare-earth-elements in igneous rock terranes.

 Establishing new stratigraphic correlations in the 

Artillery Peak-Date Creek basin district of Arizona that extend the potential for uranium occurrence into new areas.

 Continuing studies in the Camp Smith area of 

southeastern New York where uranium is associated with massive iron ores of Precambrian 

age.

Geothermal Energy

A number of areas that have promise as sources of 

geothermal energy have been identified and other 

areas of possible geothermal energy are under study. 

The Geothermal Energy Investigations program is also 

developing a scientific basis for more accurate assessment and exploration techniques; this effort complements the technologic research program of the 

Energy Research and Development Administration. 

Some significant results and accomplishments for 

fiscal year 1977 include:

 Geologic mapping of the Newberry caldera in 

central Oregon revealed that silicic rocks are 

much more abundant than previously recognized, suggesting that the Newberry volcanic 

system may have a higher geothermal potential 

than previously believed.

 Investigations of the pressure, volume, temperature, and composition of complex brines led to 

the development of a method for calculating

104 | GEOLOGIC AND MINERAL RESOURCE SURVEYS AND MAPPING
the thermophysical, thermochemical, and energy 

transport properties of geothermal brines. This 

information promises to be useful for resource 

assessment, reservoir modeling, and determination of the production characteristics of geothermal wells.

 Studying the water chemistry of springs and wells 

in the Clear Lake volcanic field of California, in 

conjunction with geologic mapping and geophysical surveys, indicate that a 200°C (392°F) 

hot-water geothermal system underlies the area 

east of the Collayomi fault zone, which is probably the northeast boundary of the Geyser stream 

field.

 Geologic mapping and petrologic studies in the 

Coso Range of California have established two 

relatively recent episodes of volcanism: one occurred from about 4 million to 3 million years 

ago and the other occurred from approximately 

0.5 million years ago to almost the present. This 

indicates that magma may still exist beneath 

the Coso Range with a high potential for geothermal energy.

 Electromagnetic measurements, in the eastern 

Snake River Plain-YeHowstone National Park 

region, reveal a deep conductive layer extending from Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, 

to Raft River, Idaho. These findings should have 

an impact on geothermal exploration and confirm the geothermal resource estimates in the 

Western United States published in USGS Circular 776.

 Monitoring of both distant and nearby earthquakes 

in the Yellowstone National Park area, Wyoming, 

reveals a low velocity zone beneath the Yellowstone thermal area that may indicate the presence of a partly molten body of rock at depth under the Snake River Plain. This could be the 

heat source for a geothermal system of large 

magnitude in southern Idaho.

Energy Resource Data

The Geological Survey continues to build and maintain computer files on energy resource data which 

are used in preparing up-to-date and accurate resource estimates and to meet the public's need for 

such data.

The National Coal Resource Data System (NCRDS) 

can accept and process a wide variety of data related 

to the quantity and quality of coal resources and the 

nature of their enclosing rocks. The system has the 

capability to retrieve coal resource information in the 

form of charts, maps, and reports to meet Federal 

and State requirements.

The Petroleum Data System (PDS) contains information on oil and gas fields and pools in the United 

States. The data cover geologic occurrences, engineering information on reservoirs, and analyses of 

crude oil, brines, and natural gas. Annual and cumulative production data are given as well as size of 

field and number of wells. Fields and pools suitable 

for secondary or tertiary recovery are identified.

Other computer files maintained are:

The United Nations Seabed Data file, which contains a summary of petroleum and selected mineral 

statistics for 120 foreign countries, including offshore 

areas.

The Oil Shale Data Storage and Retrieval system 

which is designed to store data on Fischer assays 

(organic content) and saline minerals in oil shale.

The Computerized Resources Information Bank 

(CRIB) which contains the basic information needed 

to characterize one or more mineral commodities, a 

mineral deposit, or several related deposits.

The Geothermal Resources Computer File 

(GEOTHERM) which contains records on location, exploration, evaluation, and use of geothermal energy 

and resources. Data are included on boreholes, water 

analyses and heat values.

The Well History Control System (WHCS) which 

contains basic information on oil and gas wells, including location, production tests, formations penetrated, cores, drill stem tests, depth, and log runs.

The Uranium-Thorium Data Bank which contains 

data on the physiographic province, rock type, mineralogy, chemistry and precise location of uranium 

deposits. The data are filed in CRIB.

OFFSHORE GEOLOGIC SURVEYS

Oil and Gas Resource Appraisal

The energy resource potential of offshore sedimentary basins is appraised by geophysical and geological data. For deep-penetration beneath the seafloor the geophysical method of common-depthpoint seismic reflection is used and for shallow penetration, high-resolution seismic reflection is used. 

Seismic refraction, ship-borne gravity and magnetics, 

and aeromagnetics are also used. Geologic information is obtained from samples collected by sea-floor 

dredge, shallow core holes, deep stratigraphic test 

wells, and nearby onshore wells and outcrops. Major 

accomplishments and activities for fiscal year 1977 

include:

 Completing oil and gas resource reports in support of leasing activities along the Atlantic Continental Margin.

OFFSHORE GEOLOGIC SURVEYS | 105
Collecting in the Pacific and Alaskan OCS areas 

approximately 8,699 kilometers (5,404 miles) of 

multichannel seismic reflection trackline; 31,807 

kilometers (19,764 miles) of single channel 

seismic reflection; 19,294 kilometers (11,989 

miles) of magnetic data; and 23,381 kilometers 

(14,528 miles) of gravity data, in support of regional geologic and geophysical investigations.

Preparing a magnetic anomaly map with a 50- 

gamma contour interval of the entire Atlantic 

Continental Margin to a depth of 4,000 meters 

(13,123 feet) from George's Bank (Massachusetts) to Florida.

FIGURE 50. Survey scientists launching geophysical equipment 

from the deck of the R/V Samuel P. Lee.

 Mapping the extent and thickness of sedimentary 

basins underlying the Alaskan continental shelfusing geophysical methods. This work was conducted from the R/V Samuel P. Lee (fig. 53). The 

research vessel is continuing to chart basins of 

potential oil and gas accumulation in the Gulf 

of Alaska, Bering Sea, and Beaufort Sea.

FIGURE 51. Lowering a geoprobe from the R/V Sea Sounder 

in Norton Sound, Alaska. Mounted on a tripod, the array 

of instruments is used to photograph the sea-bottom currents and wave pressures that influence the movements of 

sediments.

^
Environmental Investigations

Geologic hazards to offshore structures, including 

drilling platforms and pipelines, may occur in areas 

of active faulting, unstable sediments, and excessive 

underwater erosion. Field studies (see below) which 

provide this information for leasing decisions and 

baseline data were conducted in fiscal year 1977 in 

the north and mid-Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf

areas, in the central and western Gulf of Mexico, off 

the southern California coast and in the Gulf of 

Alaska and Bering Sea. Activities and highlights for 

fiscal year 1977 include:

 Discovering that relatively fresh water extends 

beneath the continental shelf as much as 90 

kilometers (56 miles) seaward from the New 

Jersey coast.
 Deployment of sea-bottom equipment in the north 

and mid-Atlantic OCS areas and in the northern 

Bering Sea to measure the effect of ocean waves 

and currents on sea floor sediments. At the time 

the tanker Argo Merchant broke up equipment 

was deployed to monitor the oil and sediment 

interaction and the oil movement on the sea 

floor.

 Gathering geophysical data and sea-floor samples 

in the Pacific and Alaskan OCS areas to identify 

potential geologic hazards such as submarine 

slides to offshore oil and gas resource development and to support the Bureau of Land Management's environmental baseline study program.

 Completing a report that summarizes the geologic 

and oceanographic' knowledge of the western 

Gulf of Mexico.

FIGURE 52. The Survey carbonate research team assembled a new 

hand-held coring device that can be used above or below 

water. It takes core samples of coral used to study potential 

petroleum reservoir rocks.

Marine Geology Investigations

These investigations focus on obtaining fundamental knowledge of marine and near marine geologic 

conditions and processes in support of many other 

programs and investigations. Geochemical studies of 

deep-sea manganese nodules and development of 

remote-sensing and deep-water instrumentation are 

two examples of programs needed as the Nation develops its Outer Continental Shelf areas for mineral 

and hydrocarbon resources. Other future research 

activities not directed specifically toward OCS development are research on coastal-zone processes, 

mineable minerals in the near-shore areas, and engineering properties of the sea-floor sediments. Highlights of the program for fiscal year 1977 include:

 Establishing a data management system to gather 

data from the other Offshore Geologic Surveys 

programs and prepare them for computer files.

 Continuing studies of marine geologic processes 

which act upon coastal and near shore areas in 

Alaska, Oregon, California, Texas, Puerto Rico, 

and Massachusetts. The Survey engaged in cooperative programs with Texas, Puerto Rico, and 

Massachusetts in mapping bays and estuaries.

 Studies in the Mississippi Delta area have related 

the action of seabottom pressure changes, due 

to storm waves, to the strengths of sediments 

around drilling and/or production platform legs.

ASTROGEOLOGY

Exploration of the Moon and planets by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) 

has provided an opportunity and funds to compare 

geologic materials, geologic processes, and geologic 

histories of other planets with those of the Earth.

The lunar studies evolved from emphasis on geologic mapping to emphasis on studies of processes 

and on the synthesis and analysis of a vast amount of 

geologic, geochemical, and geophysical data collected 

by the Apollo missions.

The planetary studies are focused mainly on Mars 

and Mercury. A geologic map of each of these planets 

is being compiled at a scale of 1:5,000,000. The 

studies of Martian processes are concerned principally with the histories of wind erosion and water 

erosion. Mercury, like the Moon offers another perspective on the history of impact cratering and the 

distribution and source of impacting bodies. Radar 

techniques have been developed to study the geology 

and topography of Venus.

108 | OFFSHORE GEOLOGIC SURVEYS
INTERNATIONAL GEOLOGY

The Survey, in cooperation with the Department of 

State and other Federal agencies, is involved in two 

categories of international activity technical assistance and scientific cooperation.

The technical assistance program is designed to 

 aid the developing countries in studies of their mineral resources, and to strengthen their institutions 

and programs which train earth scientists and engineers. This assistance is requested by the foreign 

countries, funded by either the foreign government, 

international organizations, or other United States 

agencies, with approval by the Department of State, 

and authorized by the Agency for International Development (AID) under the U.S. Foreign Assistance 

Act. During fiscal 1977, technical assistance activities 

were carried out in Argentina, Chile, Mexico, Peru, 

Egypt, Nigeria, Sahel, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, 

the Trucial area, Philippines and Sri Lanka.

Scientific cooperation with foreign countries provides for joint research and exchange of information 

on earth resource problems of mutual interest. This 

cooperation is undertaken partly with funds from 

other United States agencies and partly as an extension of the Survey's domestic programs. It is carried 

out with the approval of the Department of State. In 

fiscal year 1977, scientific cooperation was carried out 

with Mexico, Germany, Russia, Poland, and Romania. 

The Survey also participated with other countries in 

a number of projects in the International Geological 

Correlations Program, jointly sponsored by United 

Nations Education, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS). The Survey guided and coordinated the Circum-Pacific Map Project at the request of the Circum-Pacific Council, and in cooperation with the American Association of Petroleum 

Geologists (AAPG), and the United Nations Coordinating Committee for Offshore Prospecting-East Asia 

(UNCCOP-EA).

FIGURE 53. The R/V Samuel P. Lee, a 63-meter (208-foot) oceanographic research ship on loan from the U.S. Navy, carries out 

geophysical surveys in the Pacific Ocean and Alaskan waters. Its home port is Redwood City, California.

Water Resources 

Investigations

INTRODUCTION

In no area of resources management are the problems more complex, or more vital, than those involving the Nation's water. Managing water supplies is a 

major concern at all levels of government, but the 

Water Resources Division of the Geological Survey 

has the principal responsibility at the Federal level for 

appraising water resources, and for providing basic 

hydrologic data on both surface and ground water.

The Survey's program, through its numerous cooperative arrangements with State and local governments, is uniquely structured to gather and evaluate 

water information scientifically. The Water Resources 

Division presents impartial, factual information and 

analyses for use by Federal agencies, State and local 

governments, and other groups charged with managing and developing water resources. The Division 

provides reports and maps to the public in Federal, 

State, and local publications and in technical journals. 

Additional material is made available for public use 

at selected libraries.

In the Water Resources Division's Federal-State Cooperative Program, 597 State and local agencies provide financial support and services, matching the 

funds appropriated by Congress. This arrangement 

assures that the Geological Survey is aware of and 

can be responsive to water-information needs at all 

levels of government. It also keeps the Federal Government aware of State and local problems and contributes to a valuable exchange of information. 

Through a network of offices in all 50 States, as well 

as in Puerto Rico and Guam (fig. 54), the Water Resources Division works closely with State and local

Burney Falls, Shasta County, California. (Photograph from the 

Department of Water Resources, State of California.)

WATER RESOURCES INVESTIGATIONS | 111
agencies. The addresses of the Division's District 

Offices are listed in the chapter on organizational and 

statistical data.

A major responsibility for water data was assigned 

to the Survey in 1964 when it was designated the lead 

agency for coordinating water-data-acquisition activities of all Federal.agencies, including information on 

streams, lakes, reservoirs, estuaries, and ground water. 

This coordination effort has minimized duplication of 

data-collection activities among Federal agencies and 

strengthens the overall data base and its accessibility.

HIGHLIGHTS

 In response to Congressional interest, an additional 

$2 million of Federal-State Cooperative program 

funds were focused on investigations of hydrologic problems and situations related to coal mining. The program also included activities in other 

high-priority energy areas such as oil-shale hydrology, nuclear hydrology, and geothermal research, as well as land-use planning, environmental quality, and predictive and impact-assessment hydrology.

Because of the widespread persistence of drought 

across the Nation, the Federal-State Cooperative Program concentrated on providing information to assist with planning to ameliorate the 

effects of existing and potential water shortages. 

Studies included indentification of supplemental 

sources of water supply; synoptic sampling of 

water quality; determination of changes in 

ground-water, lake, and reservoir storage; expansion of streamflow observations; and evaluation 

of changes in water-use practices.

Because surging glaciers can cause destructive outburst floods that disrupt transportation corridors, the Division developed methods to identify and study them in many glaciated areas. 

Using Landsat images, the research was aimed at 

ways to predict both the time and intensity of 

future surges.

By the end of the year, 8 regional ground-water 

appraisals had been published as Professional 

Papers to assist planners in developing and managing ground water. In fiscal year 1978, several 

more extensive, in-depth analyses of the aquifer 

systems of the United States will begin.

FIGURE 54. Location of principal offices of the Geological Survey's Water Resources Division in the conterminous United 

States. Cities named are those where regional and district offices are located. In addition to the subdistrict offices noted on 

the map, there are two subdistrict offices in Alaska, three in Hawaii, and one on Guam, all included in the western region.

WESTERN REGION

NORTHEASTERN REGION CENTRAL REGION

ALASKA

 Anchorage

HAWAII

 Honolulu

EXPLANATION 

Regional office 

 District office 

O Subdistrict office 

A Field headquarters

SOUTHEASTERN 

REGION

PUERTO RICO

 San Juan
The second test well of the Madison Limestone 

Ground-Water Study, located in southeastern 

Montana, was drilled to a depth of 2,858 meters 

(9,378 feet). Shut-in pressure of the completed 

well at the land-surface was 2,300 kilopascals 

(333 pounds per square inch); however, flow 

was only 2.8 liters per second (44 gallons per 

minute). These data, in conjunction with data 

obtained from a test well drilled the previous 

year, tend to confirm Division scientists' hypothesis that the Madison will be more productive where it is principally dolomite, rather than 

limestone.

Over two and a half-million physical, chemical, and 

biological characteristics of water were determined in the 170,000 samples analyzed in the 

Survey's Central Laboratories System. This represents a 400-percent increase in sample analyses 

since 1970 and reflects intensified efforts to monitor the quality of the Nation's water resources. 

The Survey's Central Laboratories System is perhaps the largest of its kind in the world. 

Every 5 years the Water Resources Division prepares a water-use report that shows changes in 

water withdrawal and water consumption, and 

indicates trends in water use. In 1977, the most 

recent report, "Estimated Use of Water in the 

United States, 1975," was published. It revealed 

that water withdrawn to meet the needs of commerce and industry, farm irrigation, and urban 

and rural living amounted to an average of about 

1,900 gallons per person per day, a 100-gallon 

increase since 1970, but the smallest percentage 

increase since assessments began in 1950. 

> The four-color series of State Hydrologic Unit Maps 

(scale 1:500,000) was completed by the Office of 

Water Data Coordination. Work is now underway to digitize boundaries of the units. To be 

published as nationwide sheets (scale 1:3.68 million and 1:7.5 million), these editions of the 

maps will be used in planning activities and for 

organizing and disseminating data on both a 

political and a hydrological boundary basis. 

> The Water Resources Division used seasonal highaltitude color infra-red aerial photographs of two 

areas to improve the delineation of hydrologic 

features, specifically wetlands, on Geological Survey 1:24,000-scale maps. The Division cooperated with the Topographic Division to make experimental wetland maps for the Auburndale, 

Florida, quadrangle; and in cooperation with the 

Tennessee Valley Authority, it produced wetland 

maps which relate the date of photography to 

stage-duration curves as an aid in the analysis of 

hydrologic boundaries of wetland classes.

Flood-frequency curves were prepared for all gaged 

sites in the United States that have at least 10 

years of recorded natural (unregulated) streamflow discharges. They were made available for 

inspection by district offices throughout the 

country. This meant that the Program has supplied flood-frequency curves for approximately 

11,000 sites on streams and rivers in all 50 States.

Coastal-zone-management needs led to publication of the "Index to Stations in Coastal Areas," 

by the Office of Water Data Coordination. A 

four-volume subsection of the "Catalog of Information on Water Data," the Index covers the 

Great Lakes area and the Atlantic, Gulf and Pacific Coasts. It provides a ready reference to the 

availability of water data on streams, lakes reservoirs, estuaries, and ground waters located in 

coastal counties.

WATER-DATA COLLECTION ACTIVITIES | 113
WATER RESOURCES 

INVESTIGATIONS

Other Federal 

agencies $26.9

Direct Federal 

furtds $68.6

, Miscellaneous 

'* non-Federal 

sources $2.1

TOTAL $131.6 MILLION

OF

National Water Data System $118.9

Critical National 

Water Problems

Direct $12.7

USE OF

BUDGET AND PERSONNEL

In 1977 approximately 2,840 full-time personnel 

carried out the many water-resource studies and datacollection activities of the Water Resources Division. 

The Division employed 1,495 scientists and engineers 

representing all fields of hydrology, 935 technical specialists and aides, and about 440 persons who provided administrative, secretarial, and clerical services. 

An additional 1,100 part-time employees assisted in 

the collection and analysis of data on water quality 

and quantity.

The $131.6 million obligated in 1977 for the Water 

Resources Investigations activity came from four 

sources:

1. Direct Congressional appropriations for the Federal Program.

2. Congressional, State, and local appropriations for 

the Federal-State Cooperative Program on a 50- 

50 basis.

3. Funds transferred from other Federal agencies.

4. Funds transferred from State and local agencies.

114 | WATER RESOURCES INVESTIGATIONS
TABLE 13. Water Resources Investigations activity obligations for fiscal year 1977, by program (dollars in millions)1 

[Data may differ from that in statistical tables because of rounding]

Source of funds

Program Federal 

program -

FederalState 

Cooperative 

program »

Other

Federal

agency

programs

NonFederal 

programs r>

Total

Percent

change

relative

to fiscal

year

1976

Total $34.6 $68.0 $26.9 $2.1 $131.6 + 17

National Water Data System ______________

Collection, analysis, and dissemination of streamflow, water-quality, ground-water, and sediment 

data 0 __________________________ 

Regional and areal resource appraisals _______

Studies related to critical water problems _____

Core program of hydrologic research _______ 

Other data collection and applied research ______

Hydrologic investigations on public lands (soil 

and moisture conservation) ______________

Publications and other supporting services ______

21.9 68.0 26.9 2.1 118.9 + 15

12.5

.6

____

5.3

 

.2

3.3

33.0

18.5

8.5

__

8.0

 

11.5

7.5

5.0

2.9

 

1.4

.3

.1

___

.3

 

58.4

26.9

13.6

5.3

11.2

.2

3.3

Critical National Water Problems 12.7 12.7 + 46

Accelerated energy research and development 

programs ______________________

Coal hydrology ________________

Oil-shale hydrology _______________

Underground heat storage ___________

Nuclear energy hydrology ___________

Ground-water recharge ______________

Subsurface waste storage ____________

Flood-hazard mapping _____________.

Estuarine and coastal studies ________.

9.6 __ __

5.7 __ __

2.5 __ __

.1 __ __

1.3 __ __

1.2 __ __ __

1.3 __ __

.4 __ ___ __

.2 __ __

9.6

5.7

2.5

.1

1.3

1.2

1.3

.4

.2

Percent change relative to fiscal year 1976 + 18 + 22 + 17

1 From data available Nov. 11, 1977.

2 Federal funds excluding those used to match funds from State and 

local agencies.

3 Includes Federal funds used to match State and local agency funds 

on a 50-50 basis.

4 Funds from 23 other Federal agencies transferred to the Geological 

Survey, Water Resources Division.

Federal Program

The water-data-collection, resource-investigation, 

and research activities of this program support those 

aspects of the National Water Data System where the 

Federal interest is paramount. These include bodies 

of water in the public domain, river basins and aquifers that transcend State boundaries, and other areas 

of international or inter-State concern.

The Federal Program also supports the operation of 

surface- and ground-water measurement stations 

throughout the country as well as sites established to

n Includes unmatched funds from State and local agencies, funds from 

permittees and licensees of the Federal Power Commission, and funds from 

minor miscellaneous sources.

(1 Federal funds include support of coordination of national water data 

and the National Water Data Exchange.

provide data on water quality. The program includes 

the operation of the National Stream Quality Accounting Network, the Survey's Central Laboratories System, analytical studies, hydrologic research, and a 

variety of supporting services. Funds for the Federal 

program in fiscal year 1977 amounted to $34.6 million.

Federal-State Cooperative Program

Most of the activities of the Geological Survey have 

multiple objectives and serve a broad range of government agencies and private groups in need of obSOURCE OF FUNDS / USE OF FUNDS | 115
jective and credible earth-science information. Consequently, as major users of this information, State, 

regional, and local agencies have an important role in 

defining the nature and scope of Survey programs. 

Accordingly, selected projects judged of mutual benefit to the Federal Government and to State and local 

governments are funded on a 50-50 basis. For example, in fiscal year 1977, the Geological Survey 

joined in .cooperative water-resource programs with 

597 State and local agencies (table 14) most of the 

work was conducted by the Survey, but 50 percent of 

the funds was provided by State and local agencies. 

The program totaled about $70 million.

Through contact with the "real" world of water 

conservation, development, and use, the Survey's 

Water Resources Division has been able to develop a 

balanced program that anticipates and responds to 

changing priorities with an interdisciplinary, diversified, problem-oriented approach.

PROGRAM ACTIVITIES

The activities include: collection of long-term multipurpose data (surface water, ground water, and 

water quality); special interpretive studies of the 

physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of 

water resources; and appraisals for environmentalimpact evaluation, energy development, coastal-zone 

management, subsurface waste storage, waste utilization, land-use planning, flood-plain management, and 

flood-warning systems.

The strength of the Federal-State Cooperative Program lies in (1) coordinated programing for water 

information that responds to identified and developing needs of people at all levels and relates to the 

environmental aspects of water use; (2) the acceptability of the water data accumulated through a uniform program in 50 States and several of the territories; and (3) the objective, impartial, non-advocacy 

position of the Survey in carrying out its work.

In fiscal year 1977, the Federal-State Cooperative 

Program emphasized information and assistance to 

State, regional and local agencies responsible for 

water-management decisions related to the drought. 

The importance of this work was recognized by Congress which, in May, appropriated an additional $5 

million of Federal matching funds for drought-related 

activities. Another major service was in coal hydrology; here the focus was on water-supply assessments, 

water-quality problems in mining areas, and watercontrol measures. High-priority investigations also 

included work on other energy-related projects such 

as nuclear hydrology, oil-shale hydrology, and geothermal research, as well as land-use planning, environmental quality, and predictive and impact-assessment hydrology.

TABLE 14. State and local agencies with which the Geological 

Survey had a written agreement for fiscal cooperation (Federal-State Cooperative program) in Water Resources Investigations in fiscal year 7977

Number of agencies

State

Colorado _ _ __ _ __

Connecticut ____ __

Delaware _ _

District of Columbia _ _ 

Florida __ _ _ _ _ __

Hawaii _ _ __ _

Guam __ _ _

Trust Territories __

Idaho _ _ ____ ___

Indiana _ _ ___ __

Iowa _ _ ___ _ _

Kentucky __

Maine _ _ _

Maryland _ _ _

Massachusetts _ _ _ __

Michigan _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

Minnesota _ _ ___ __

Mississippi _ __ _

Missouri _ ___ __ _

Montana __ _ ___

Nevada _ _ _ _ _

New Hampshire _ __

New Jersey _ _

New Mexico

New York

North Carolina _ _

North Dakota

Ohio _ _ ______

Oklahoma

Pennsylvania _ __ _ _

Puerto Rico

Rhode Island _

South Dakota _

Tennessee

Texas _ _ __ _ _

Utah _ _

Washington _ _ ____

Wyoming __

Total

State

2 

5 

5 

3 

6

5 

1 

2 

1 

4

5 

2

3 , 

6 

3 

9

4

3 

3

5 

3

7

2 

5 

5 

5

7

5 

5 

2 

3

4

7 

3 

2 

3 

5

3 

6

4 

2 

2

4

3 

6 

1 

2

1

3

4 

4 

5 

6

206

County

3

40

7

22 

3

4 

1

 

2 

1 

2

 

3

15 

1 

1

7 

1

3 

1

1

1 

4 

1 

2 

1

127

City

2

4

9

8 

3

22

2 

2

1 

3 

3

1

1

3 

1 

2

3

7 

7

3 

1

7 

4

1 

1

2 

5 

5

1

4 

6 

2 

2 

2

130

Other

1

4

23

12 

6

12

ll

1 

4 

1

3

1 

1

 

1 

3 

1 

1

4

1 

6

4

8

2

5 

3

Ji

2

3 

1

1 

14

1

134

Total

2 

8 

16 

3 

78

32 

10 

2 

1 

60

10

7

4 

15 

7 

13 

8

3

4 

7 

3

7

2 

9 

11 

9 

10

9 

5 

3 

12 

11

37 

11 

3 

8 

6

22

14

7

3 

5

7 

14 

10 

4 

2

9 

28 

7 

10 

9

597

116 | WATER RESOURCES INVESTIGATIONS
Examples of reports published during the past year:

 Reaeration-coefficient measurements of ten small 

streams in Wisconsin using radioactive tracers, 

with a section on the energy-dissipation model.

 Analog-model analysis of regional three-dimensional flow in the ground-water reservoir of Long 

Island, New York.

 Ground-water conditions in Utah, spring of 1977.

 Water resources of El Paso County, Colorado.

 Missouri stream- and spring-flow characteristics 

low-flow frequency and flow duration.

 Distribution of nitrate in ground water, Redlands, 

California.

 Theoretical drawdown due to simulated pumpage 

from the Ohio River alluvial aquifer near Siloam, 

Kentucky.

Funds Transferred from Other Federal 

Agencies

Programs for other Federal agencies amounting to 

$26.9 million in fiscal year 1977, consisted of work 

carried out by the Geological Survey to provide support of the missions of these agencies. Examples of 

work performed for other Federal agencies are:

Department of Agriculture

Department of Housing and 

Urban Development

Department of Transportation

Energy Research and Development Administration

Environmental Protection 

Agency

National Aeronautics and 

Space Administration

Tennessee Valley Authority

Department of Defense 

Corps of Engineers

Hydrologic studies on small watersheds; sediment studies; stream 

discharge and quality.

Flood-plain delineation, flood profiles, flood frequency related to 

flood insurance.

Stream-discharge and flood-frequency data; hydrologic studies 

on small watersheds, scour, and 

bank erosion.

Hydrologic and waer-supply exploration studies at nuclearexplosion sites and at both 

operating and potential nuclearwaste sites; research in field of 

radiohydrology related to interaction between radioactive 

materials and the environment, 

both above and below ground.

Municipal waste-disposal-site 

studies; study of relationship of 

ground water to lakes; collection of water-quality information.

Applications of remote sensing 

data collection to problems 

concerning ground water, estuaries, water temperature, lakes, 

glaciers, and snow-cover mapping.

Stream-discharge and flood-frequency data; hydrologic studies 

on watersheds, including sedimentation.

Tidal flows in estuaries; subsidence studies; streamflow data, 

ground-water studies, and sedimentation and water-quality 

studies.

The paragraphs below describe two problems faced 

by other Federal agencies and the cooperative efforts 

begun in 1977 by the Water Resources Division to 

assist in solutions.

Effects of the Proposed Narrows Reservoir on the 

South Platte River, Colorado

Establishment of the proposed Narrows Reservoir 

on the South Platte River will affect the ground-water 

system in the vicinity of the reservoir. First, water will 

move into the aquifer during the filling of the reservoir. Then, once the reservoir is filled, water will 

move either into the reservoir from the aquifer during periods of declining reservoir storage, or into the 

aquifer from the reservoir during periods of increasing reservoir storage. The effects of these gains and 

losses need to be calculated so that the time required 

to fill the reservoir initially and the details of operating rules can be determined.

At the request of the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, 

the Water Resources Division began a study to determine the time required for the aquifer to adjust to 

the filling of the reservoir, the bank-storage seepage 

rates to and from the reservoir, and the changes in 

ground-water discharge to the river downstream from 

the proposed dam during the transient reservoir 

conditions.

A small Price current meter used for measuring stream discharge.
Drought Not

Water Shortage

During a drought, it is obvious that the most immediate concern is over the quantity of water available. 

But the prolonged drought that plagued the Nation during 1977 produced serious, if not as highly publicized, 

problems of declining water quality. For example, concentrations of dissolved solids and minerals reached record, or near-record, high levels in some streams in 

North Dakota, South Dakota, Ohio, and Colorado during the past year. Increases in dissolved-solids concentrations can affect the taste of water, produce physiological side effects, and interfere with some sensitive industrial uses, such as steam generation.

Drought conditions create oxygen deficiencies and elevated temperatures in streams. Near-zero concentrations 

of dissolved oxygen were recorded in some parts of the 

Mississippi and Minnesota Rivers. This deficiency, in 

I combination with higher than normal water temperaI tures, led to scattered reports of fish kills, odor probI lems, algal blooms, and the inability of streams to purify 

I themselves of wastes.

The quality of ground water was also affected; declines in ground-water levels caused by the drought and 

heavy pumping allowed salt water to invade some coastal 

area wells in California. The Del Norte County Health 

Department reported that chloride concentrations at the 

Klamath townsite increased so dramatically that the town 

had to resort to use of bottled water to help meet domestic needs.

Perhaps the most critical drought-related problem affecting water quality was the simple lack of water to flush 

and dilute wastes. In California, for example, the flow of 

the Russian River declined to the point where sewage 

discharges from oxidation ponds accounted for 40-50 

percent of the total flow of the river and the State was 

forced to impose restrictions on sewage discharge into 

the river.

The severe drought of 1977 reaffirmed the necessity 

to think in terms of water quality as well as water quantity when tackling the problems associated with droughts.

Water Quality in Upper Colorado River, Texas

The Colorado River, between Lake J. B. Thomas and 

Colorado City, Texas, contains high concentrations of 

salt resulting from the geologic framework of the 

area and the activities of man. Recent investigations 

suggest that controls on disposal of oil-field brines 

and lowering of ground-water pressure by pumping 

are reducing the quantities of salt reaching the river. 

Water Resources Division scientists, in cooperation 

with the Corps of Engineers, began an investigation 

in 1977 to delineate the areas of saline inflow and to 

determine if the quantities of salt reaching the river 

are decreasing. The decision by the Corps of Engineers whether or not to build salt-control projects in

the upper basin will depend in part on the information obtained in this study. If salt concentration is reduced, the quality of water in the E. V. Spance Reservoir, 15 miles upstream from Colorado City, will be 

greatly improved.

Funds Transferred from State and Local 

Agencies

In this program the Geological Survey is reimbursed by State and local agencies when there is both 

Federal interest and State or local interest in an investigation of water resources but where matching Federal funds are inadequate for cost sharing.

118 | WATER RESOURCES INVESTIGATIONS
ACTIVITIES

National Water-Data System

INTERAGENCY WATER-DATA COORDINATION

During fiscal year 1977 the Survey's Office of Water 

Data Coordination continued to work closely with a 

large number of Federal and non-Federal agencies, 

organizations, and individuals in the planning, design, 

and documentation of water-data networks and in the 

development of standards for data acquisition (table 

15). This coordination effort is mandated by Office of 

Management and Budget Circular A-67 and involves 

approximately 20 Federal agencies and 200 non-Federal agencies that collect water data. It affects about 

50 Federal agencies and more than 600 non-Federal 

agencies that use water data.

TABLE 15. Participation in water-data coordination activities 

with the Geological Survey's Office of Wafer Data Coordination, fiscal year 7977

Activity Participants

1.

Federal

Coordination of Federal water-data programs through the Interagency Advisory 

Committee on Water Data.

Development of recommended methods for 

collecting water data; includes Coordinating Council for Water-Data Acquisition 

Methods (18 Federal agencies).

3. Design and development of national system 

for handling water data through Federal 

Interagency Water Data Handling Work 

Croup.

4. Design of small-watershed network for data 

on water quality; Working Croup on 

Water-Quality Data Needs for Small 

Watersheds.

5. Develop improved communication for interagency coordination, through the Working Croup on Improved Communications 

(Federal).

6. Field coordination and development annually of 21 regional plans and a Federal 

plan for water-data acquisition.

Non-Federal

Consultation with non-Federal community 

of data users through the Advisory Committee on Water Data for Public Use.

Review and consultation with the Working 

Croup on Recommended Methods for the 

"National Handbook of Recommended 

Methods for Water-Data Acquisition."

Assessment of river quality through a Working Croup on River Quality Assessment 

of the Advisory Committee on Water 

Data for Public Use.

Develop improved communications for coordination activities through the Working 

Croup on Improved Communications 

(non-Federal).

31 Federal 

agencies.

26 Federal 

agencies 

and 162 

scientists in 

10 working 

groups.

10 Federal 

agencies.

11 Federal 

agencies.

16 Federal 

agencies.

28 Federal 

agencies including 140 

field officials.

26 Members. 

9 Members.

10 Members.

9 Members.

In December 1976, the Office of Water Data Coordination sponsored a joint meeting of the Advisory 

Committee on Water Data for Public Use (the nonFederal committee) and the Interagency Advisory 

Committee on Water Data (the Federal committee) in 

Denver, Colorado. This first joint meeting provided a 

valuable direct exchange of ideas and views.

Included among the Division's publications in 1977 

were a variety of reports and studies:

 "Index to Stations in Coastal Areas." A 4-volume 

catalog (subsection of the 21-volume "Catalog 

of Information on Water Data") which indexes 

coastal-zone water-data activities on streamflow 

and stage, surface-water quality, and groundwater quality (fig. 55).

 Chapter 5, the "Chemical and Physical Quality of 

Water and Sediment," one of the 10 which will 

make up the "National Handbook of Recommended Methods for Water-Data Acquisition."

 "Federal Plan for the Acquisition of Water Data 

Fiscal Year 1978." Describes water-data activities 

for 1978 and data needs beyond 1978.

 "Development of a Catalog of Information on Surface Meteorological Data." A joint report of the 

Interdepartmental Committee on Meteorological 

Services and the Interagency Advisory Committee on Water Data.

 U.S. Geological Survey Circulars on the Willamette 

River Basin Assessment. Three additional riverquality assessments are currently in progress: the 

Chattahoochee River basin of Georgia and Alabama, the Yampa River basin of Colorado and 

Wyoming, and the Potomac estuary of the District of Columbia, Maryland and Virginia.

The U.S. National Bureau of Standards designated 

the Coordinating Council for Water-Data Acquisition 

Methods as the Federal Interagency Metric Panel for 

Hydrology. This Panel has responsibility for recommending metric units, metric precision and accuracy 

limits, metric conversion factors, and metric conversion of equipment used for all hydrologic measurements. The 10 technical working groups responsible 

for drafting chapters for the "National Handbook of 

Recommended Methods for Water-Data Acquisition" 

submitted recommendations for metric units and conversion factors to be used in the methods described 

in their respective chapters. In addition, liaison has 

been initiated between the United States, Canada, 

and Mexico to foster coordination of methods and 

metrication in hydrology.

The final 6 maps of the new, nationwide series of 

four-color State Hydrologic Unit Maps (scale 1:500,- 

000) were printed. Progress continued during 1977 

on national maps of hydrologic units at scales of

PROGRAM ACTIVITIES | 119
1:3.68 million and 1:7.5 million. The Survey's Eastern 

Mapping Center provided digitized data for all the 

hydrologic units for each State map within the conterminous United States. This data will be utilized to 

(1) compute drainage areas for all the hydrologic 

units, (2) plot hydrologic-unit boundaries on other

maps, and (3) locate stations by computer-searching 

known latitude and longitude coordinates of the hydrologic units and identifying the unit in which any 

water-data collection site is located. Digitized data 

will also facilitate exchange of information between 

existing data bases such as STORET and NAWDEX.

FIGURE 55. Location of areas covered by Catalog of Information on Water-Data in Coastal Areas.

120 | WATER RESOURCES INVESTIGATIONS
An intensive river quality assessment of the 

Willamette River basin in Oregon by the U.S. Geological Survey illustrates "the potential benefits of 

collecting scientifically sound data and using it to 

carefully analyze management alternatives" prior 

to action, according to a 1976 report by the General Accounting Office.* The comment followed 

publication of findings from the Willamette River 

assessment, a Geological Survey program designed 

to demonstrate the benefits of proper water resources planning through the use of sound technical information. The objective of the assessment 

was to show that it is possible to predict the effects 

of various management alternatives before any action is undertaken.

The most noteworthy finding of the Willamette 

assessment was that across-the-board advanced 

waste treatment was not the answer to the problem 

of meeting stringent water quality standards estab-

* Better Data Collection and Planning Is Needed to /ustify 

Advanced Waste Treatment Construction, CED-77-12, CAO, 

Washington, 1976.

lished for the river. Rather, the elimination of two 

industrial discharges of oxygen-demanding ammonia would solve ;he problem.

The Willamette assessment found that existing 

water quality data generally are inadequate for defining critical cause-effect relationships that control river quality problems and that intensive, 

synoptic surveys would be required in most river 

basins to develop an adequate information base 

for managing key river quality problems.

The study illustrates the fact that rigid standards 

and regulations are likely to result in unneeded 

expenditures in some river basins and perhaps undesirable quality in others. It concludes that a 

proper balance can be obtained only through an 

intensive, coordinated assessment that is keyed to 

local problems and conditions.

The General Accounting Office said "the study 

discovered more effective, efficient and economical 

means of achieving desirable water quality" and 

stated this could mean potential savings of tens of 

millions of Federal, State, and local dollars. A

COLLECTION, ANALYSIS, AND DISSEMINATION 

OF BASIC WATER DATA

The collection and analysis of basic water data, such 

as stream discharge, lake stage, water levels in wells, 

the chemical and biological characteristics and sediment loads of streams, and water-use statistics are 

fundamental aspects of water-resource investigations. These kinds of measurements are necessary to

determine how much and what kind of water is available where and when. Comparisons can then be 

made between water used and water needed. Basic 

water data are essential not only for determining the 

adequacy of water supplies but also for designing 

bridges, dams, culverts, and other public works; for 

planning to prevent or lessen the impact of floods 

and droughts; for determining the feasibility of waterPROGRAM ACTIVITIES | 121
TABLE 16. Number and type of measurement sites (stations) of the Geological Survey

Contin 

Partial 

Lake r

Type of station

SURFACE-WATER

TOTAL

discharge (high flow and/or low flow)

eservoir and contents

FederalState 

Federal Cooperative 

program Program

FLOW OR CONTENTS

792 12,728 

713 4,891 

54 7,395 

25 442

Other 

Federal 

agency 

programs

2,483 

1,827 

472 

184

NonFederal 

program 1

591 

389 

42 

160

Total

16,594 

7,820 

7,963 

811

SURFACE-WATER QUALITY

Surface 

Sedirm

TOTAL

;-water stations (excluding temperature only)

jnt stations

745 4,216 

504 3,510 

241 706

1,230 

955 

275

39 

38 

1

6,230 

5,007 

1,223

GROUND WATER

Sites at which water levels and/or pumpage

Approximate number of sites at which well

are collected annually

or spring records are

21,400 

650,000

1 Includes permittees and licensees of the Federal Power Commission.

power and irrigation projects; and for developing 

water-pollution control and recreational facilities.

The Survey maintains continuous discharge records 

at 7,820 stream sites, analyzes water quality at more 

than 5,000 stream sites, and measures water levels or 

other parameters periodically in more than 21,000 

wells (table 16).

The ground-water site inventory file component of 

the computerized data-storage system (WATSTORE) 

now contains records for 650,000 wells and springs. 

In another year the number of records will be increased to provide data for one million such sites. The 

system is designed to accommodate up to 209 data 

elements for each site, including site location and 

identification, hydrogeologic characteristics, well-construction history, and numerous "one-time-only" 

measurements, such as discharge temperature. The 

automation of well inventory records will greatly enhance their value and utility in ground-water surveys 

and systems modeling.

Central Laboratories System

During the past year, the Survey's Central Laboratories System began reorganization of two large, highly complex, automated laboratories in Atlanta and 

Denver. Services that were once provided by the Albany Central Laboratory in Albany, New York, are 

now supplied from the other two locations. In 1977 

the Central Laboratories System made over two and 

one-half million determinations of physical, chemical, 

and biological characteristics of water in more than 

170,000 samples. Survey analysts anticipate processing more than 200,000 water samples in 1978.

Among the new devices that have been added to 

the Central Laboratories System are automated sample changers, equipment for automatically mixing

and combining chemicals with samples, instruments 

that record their own readings, and minicomputers 

that can compute results and then examine them for 

possible errors. Analytical results are transmitted directly from the laboratories by way of computer terminals to more than 50 Survey field offices, as well as 

to a computerized data bank in Reston, Virginia.

The Denver Central Laboratory, constructed in late 

1976, is a 4,554-square-meter (49,000-square-foot) 

laboratory complex in the Denver suburb of Arvada, 

Colorado. It houses, in addition to the Central Laboratory, numerous other laboratories devoted to methods development, quality assurance, and basic and 

applied research.

Denver Water-Quality Lab.

122 | WATER RESOURCES INVESTIGATIONS
National Water Data Storage & Retrieval System 

(WATSTORE)

Most of the streamflow and stream-quality data that 

the Survey collects and analyzes are not only published in various Federal and State reports but are also 

filed in computer storage. WATSTORE, the data storage and retrieval system for the National Water-Data 

System, now contains approximately 70 percent of the 

streamflow and water-stage data and 35 percent of 

the quality of ground- and surface-water data collected by the Federal sector.

Three major files of WATSTORE are now available 

to non-Survey users: the Daily Values File, Station 

Header File, and Ground-Water Site-Inventory File. 

This means that the enormous volume of surfacewater and ground-water inventory data collected by 

the Water Resources Division and other agencies may 

be accessed directly by users nationwide through their 

own computer terminals. These three files, plus others 

in the WATSTORE system, are available through more 

than 50 terminals located in Survey, field offices and 

through more than 40 terminals located in other Federal or State offices.

In the past year, WATSTORE was augmented by a 

major revision of the peak-flow data base. This data 

base contains the annual maximum streamflow (peak 

discharge) and the annual maximum gage height 

(stage) values obtained at surface-water sites. By the 

end of the year, the peak-flow data base contained 

more than 400,000 annual maximum values. The file 

is used primarily to compute flood-flow frequency.

National Water Data Exchange (NAWDEX)

The National Water Data Exchange (NAWDEX) was 

established in 1976 to assist users to identify, locate, 

and acquire needed water data. The program was expanded in 1977 with the establishment of 52 Local 

Assistance Centers to provide convenient access to 

NAWDEX services. These centers are located in 45 

States and in Puerto Rico. They include the facilities of 

50 Geological Survey district and sub-district offices, 

the Texas Natural Resources Information System in 

Austin, Texas, and the Water Resources Research Institute of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State 

University in Blacksburg, Virginia.

NAWDEX provides a nationwide service for indexing and describing the characteristics of data available 

throughout the Federal and non-Federal sectors of the 

water-data community. Requests for needed water 

data are referred to those organizations that can best 

respond to the requests. All data in the WATSTORE 

system are also available through the NAWDEX Local 

Assistance Centers. Two computerized data bases are 

maintained and accessible to the Local Assistance

Centers via computer terminals: (1) a Water Data 

Sources Directory which identifies more than 300 organizations that collect water data, and (2) a Master 

Water Data Index which currently identifies and describes the water data available from more than 

200,000 sites nationwide. As of July 1977, there were 

14 Federal and 43 non-Federal members of NAWDEX.

National Stream Quality Accounting Network 

(NASQAN)

The National Stream Quality Accounting Network 

(fig. 56) was established by the Geological Survey to 

provide a nationally uniform basis for continuously 

assessing the quality of U.S rivers. At each of 

NASQAN's 345 monitoring stations virtually the same 

water-quality variables (more than 50) are measured, 

with the same frequencies, using the same methods 

of sampling and analysis. Stations generally are located at the downstream end of 345 water-quality 

accounting units (subregional drainage basins) which 

collectively encompass the surface of the Nation. 

Present plans are to expand the network to 525 stations by 1979.

More than 3 years of data are now available from 

NASQAN. The data show geographic patterns of water 

quality that reflect climate, geology, soil types, agricultural practices, human and animal populations, water pollution, and pollution-control practices. A preliminary comparison of data from the period 1975 

through 1977 suggests that several aspects of water 

quality improved significantly. Although it is too early 

to identify trends confidently, the improvements at 

many locations are concurrent with the implementation of new water-pollution controls.

Many aspects of water quality are determined by 

natural factors, such as the credible areas of the Sierra 

Nevada and the Cascade and Rocky Mountains; the 

highly mineralized soils in the semiarid and desert 

regions of the Southwest and Great Plains; and the 

leached, nutrient-deficient soils of the rainy East, 

South, and Northwest. Rivers of most of the Midwest 

and Southwest, for example, are characterized by 

moderate to high levels of dissolved constituents as 

well as nutrients, sediment, and biota (floating and 

attached aquatic plants and indicator bacteria).

Problems caused by high concentrations of nutrients and large densities of aquatic plants are especially common in rivers of the agricultural regions of the 

Midwest. Many of the rivers in the heavily populated 

areas of the Midwest and Northeast have high bacteria levels; and parts of the Midwest, Great Plains, 

and Southwest also show high bacteria counts, often 

caused by livestock wastes and accentuated during 

periods of low streamflow.

PROGRAM ACTIVITIES | 123
Chemical quality, except for nutrients, of the rivers 

of the United States is best, by most standards, in the 

Northeast, Southeast and Northwest. Waters in these 

areas generally contain small amounts of dissolved 

solids and major and minor chemical constituents, 

are considered soft except in Florida and carry

relatively small amounts of sediment. Many of these 

waters, however, carry moderate or high levels of 

major nutrients derived from cultural activities and 

have correspondingly high densities of attached and 

floating plants. High counts of indicator bacteria also 

show signs of local pollution at some sites.

FIGURE 56. National Stream Quality Accounting NetworkEXPLANATION 

 Existing 345 

x Add fiscal year 78 _.....- 100 

o Add fiscal year 79 ____ 80

Total 525

'*

124 | WATER RESOURCES INVESTIGATIONS
RESEARCH PROGRAM

The dual objectives of the basic and problemoriented research program are to provide sufficient 

understanding of hydrologic systems so that quantitative prediction of response of these systems to 

either natural or man-made stress can be made, and 

to support the Division's programs by providing operational and interpretive tools, such as instrumentation for data collection, analytical methods, and 

mathematical prediction models.

The activities of the research program, managed 

under 12 separate disciplines (see 1976 Annual Report of the U.S. Geological Survey), are broadly 

categorized in the areas of surface water, ground 

water, and quality of water. Research progress in 

these categories can be subdivided into four stages: 

development, verification, documentation, and operational.

A sampling of significant research findings:

 Studies of the summer ice pack of the Arctic Ocean 

indicate very large areas where the ice concentration is as low as 50 percent. This appears to be 

a significant finding since all earlier estimates put 

this limit at about 90 percent.

 Experiments indicate that the bromide ion can be 

used to trace ground-water movement in highly 

permeable dolomitic rocks. Analysis of the bromide ion by neutron activation allows the detection of very low ionic concentrations. Comparisons with tritium produced essentially identical 

breakthrough curves.

 The chemical mass transfer program, PHASEQ, was 

completed and tested in the laboratory and in 

the field. This program permits an analytical understanding of mineral-water reaction sequences 

in ground waters and permits correction of carbon-14 dates of ground water for chemical 

reactions.

 The oilspill resulting from the December 1976 

breakup of the tanker, Argo Merchant, on Nantucket Shoals, provided an opportunity to verify, 

apply, and extend an oilspill trajectory model 

previously developed as part of an oilspill risk 

analysis for the proposed North Atlantic Outer 

Continental lease area. Deterministic simulations 

of the oil slick trajectory, using the observed 

time series of winds, correlated closely with the 

observed slick location.

 Models were developed to estimate the rates of 

water usage in energy conversion and transportation as a function of local meteorological and 

hydrologic conditions. The analysis considered 

thermal electric power plants and coal gasification plants using either once-through cooling, 

cooling ponds, cooling towers, and water utilization in coal slurry pipeline systems.

 Chemical modelling of ground-water chemistry in 

the Madison aquifer of the western United States 

may make it possible to predict water chemistry 

prior to drilling new wells in that region.

« Techniques have been developed to estimate the 

limits of sediment yields of a stream in order to 

maintain near "natural" conditions when the 

drainage area is impacted by construction areas. 

The transfer value of this technique is high not 

only in the field of urban hydrology but also with 

reference to highway construction and surface 

mining.

 Procedures are being developed for relating the 

ability of chemical extractants used for sediment 

metal analysis to the metal extraction ability of 

bottom-dwelling aquatic deposit feeders. Application could allow relatively quick estimation of 

bioavailability of sediment-bound metals by 

chemical extraction as opposed to lengthy bioassay experiments.

 Bioassay experiments conducted in a small flowing 

California stream indicated that (a) After equilibration with the flowing water containing 

110Mg/L nitrate (NO.-N), an algal mass was 

found to remove about 80 percent of the nitrogen during the day and 50 percent at night. Algal 

removal of phosphate (PO.-P), whose initial concentration was 1lMg/L, was almost constant over 

the 24-hour period; and (b) Addition to stream 

of 104ug/L zinc and 25Mg/L cadmium stopped 

night-time uptake of nitrate although some daytime uptake continued. A halt to algae uptake of 

silica also resulted, suggesting cessation of diatom growth.

SUPPORTING SERVICES

This program supports the publication of reports

and maps and the management of the U.S. Geological Survey National Training Center at Lakewood, 

Colorado.

The enormous amount of data gained from the 

water-data-network and the information obtained 

from special investigations, studies, and analyses are 

published in Water-Supply Papers, in Professional 

Papers, in articles in the U.S. Geological Survey Journal of Research, in Hydrologic Investigations Atlases, 

and in other formats such as circulars, manuals, and 

open-file reports.

In 1977, the Training Center offered 71 courses in 

hydrology and related subjects in which 1,300 scientific and technical personnel participated. Students 

included not only Survey personnel but also representatives of cooperating State agencies and foreign 

hydrologic organizations. Some training courses were 

held outside of Denver at locations that provided 

either a hydrologic setting or laboratory facilities esPROGRAM ACTIVITIES | 125
sential to the presentation of the course material. The 

subject matter of the courses ranged from instructions 

on the operation of hydrologic instruments to the 

programming of sophisticated hydrologic computer 

models. Video tapes of many of the courses are available on a loan basis to field offices throughout the 

country.

INTERNATIONAL ACTIVITIES

The Agency for International Development, other 

U.S. Government agencies, and several international 

organizations sponsor and support selected activities 

for which the Water Resources Division provides 

technical assistance. Increasingly, projects are being 

financed by the countries in which the work is done 

and whose personnel are trained by the Water Resources Division.

The U.S. National Committee on Scientific Hydrology, which represents the hydrological community of 

the United States to programs such as UNESCO's International Hydrological Program (IHP) and the World 

Meteorological Organization's Operational Hydrological Program, assisted with the preparation of the 

United States contribution to the World Water Conference held in Argentina in March 1977. It also 

provided a major input to the preliminary draft of 

activities for the second (1981-1986) phase of UNESCO's IHP as well as assisted with the organization 

of meetings and preparation of reports which are: 

parts of the current (1975-1980) phase.

The 1977 program of technical assistance included 

year-long advisory services to Kenya, Saudi Arabia, 

and Yemen Arab Republic as well as short-term technical missions to eight developing countries. Twentyfour foreign water scientists and technicians received 

classroom and on-the-job training from the Division.

Critical National Water Problems

COAL HYDROLOGY

Adequate water supply may well be a critical factor 

limiting the development of coal resources in the 

Western States. Water enters the energy equation in 

many ways: the impact of mining on the quantity and 

quality of the basic resource; the need for water to 

aid in land restoration after mining; water required 

to support the increased populations involved in mining and processing coal; water for conversion of the 

coal to other forms of energy (liquid or gaseous fuels 

and/or electrical energy); water as a transportation 

medium for coal being carried to some other location via slurry pipelines.

Survey studies aimed at answering basic questions 

about water availability and related effects of coal 

mining range from collection of basic data on water

quantity and quality through complex laboratory investigations of gases and organisms in water to analyses of regional aquifer systems such as the Madison 

aquifer investigation. Now in the second year of a 

5-year study, the Madison aquifer has been modeled 

by cjigital computer to assess the existing data deficiencies and the sensitivity of the regional analysis to 

various types of information. This analysis guides 

data-collection efforts, an important consideration 

where expensive, deep drilling is required.

As highlighted at the beginning of this chapter, a 

2,858-meter (9,378-foot) hole was drilled and tested 

in southeastern Montana. During 1977, other detailed 

testing was also done in the first Madison test well 

which had been completed in Wyoming in October 

1976.

OIL- SHALE HYDROLOGY

For the Nation to utilize the tremendous potential 

of the oil-shale deposits in the Western States, several 

critical problems must be solved: (1) disposal of the 

spent shale after processing; (2) availability of water 

to operate processing plants and to supply the populations necessary to operate them; and (3) disposal 

of water which may be encountered in both underground and surface mining and which can be highly 

saline.

One technique, being explored by industry, to 

minimize the problem of spent shale disposal is to 

remove a small percent of the shale in place, break 

the remainder into small pieces with explosives and 

obtain part of the oil from the oil shale by burning it 

in place and distilling the vapor produced. This 

method of development will require that hydrologic 

models be available which can predict the effects of 

in-situ techniques on the ground-water system, and 

vice versa. A complex three-dimensional hydrologicgeochemical model of the Piceance basin, Colorado, 

is under development by Survey scientists.

Baseline hydrologic data, against which to assess 

the impacts of development, are being collected on 

springs, water levels in wells, water quality, sediment 

loads in streams, and stream discharge. One technique being evaluated as a long-term method of evaluating the impacts of oil-shale development on 

surface-water quality is to collect and evaluate the 

benthic (bottom dwelling) invertebrate populations in 

different aquatic habitats. Any long-term changes in 

this animal population should be a reflection of longterm changes in water quality at each site.

NUCLEAR HYDROLOGY

One of the most serious problems related to the 

development of the nuclear industry is the disposal of 

radioactive wastes. These wastes are classified as high126 | WATER RESOURCES INVESTIGATIONS
level if they result from the reprocessing of reactor 

fuels, and low-level if they are from any other source. 1 

Unlike many of man's wastes which degrade more 

rapidly, many nuclear wastes may remain a threat to 

the environment for a long time. Some high-level 

wastes must be safely isolated from the biosphere for 

a quarter of a million years before the radiation level 

declines to a point where it can be considered safe. 

Low-level wastes have been disposed at six commercial field sites in different hydrogeological settings for 

more than 20 years.

The Geological Survey, in cooperation with the 

Energy Research and Development Administration, is 

characterizing several potential regions for the disposal of high-level waste. Studies are in progress in 

areas of bedded salt in New Mexico, Utah, New York, 

and Michigan; at salt domes in Louisiana and Texas; 

and in shales in Colorado, Nevada, and North and 

South Dakota. Granite and similar crystalline rocks are 

also being studied on a nationwide basis; investigation of specific sites in granitic rocks of southern 

Nevada was initiated in 1977.

Low-level waste sites are being investigated in the 

field to determine the amount and direction of movement of radionuclides under actual field conditions. The radionuclides can move by erosional 

processes, by ground-water transport, or as gaseous 

emissions. Geologic materials collected at the field 

sites are being evaluated in the laboratory to assess 

their effectiveness in retaining radionuclides by sorption and ion exchange. Studies at the low-level waste 

sites are designed to gather information and develop 

geohydrologic criteria for more suitable location of 

future burial sites.

In connection with both low- and high-level waste 

field studies, theoretical and laboratory studies are 

under way to:

 Detect and identify radionuclides by borehole geophysical techniques.

 Use digital modeling techniques to predict groundwater flow and quality.

 Evaluate geochemical kinetics of radionuclides.

 Predict the movement of radionuclides in the unsaturated zone.

 Predict the behavior of transuranic elements in the 

geologic environment.

1 Low-level radioactive waste contains such relatively weak concentrations of radioactivity that shielding to prevent personal exposure is not required. High-level radioactive waste is defined as 

the fission product waste resulting from reprocessing spent fuel 

to separate uranium and plutonium from the fission products. 

Under present reprocessing methods, significant amounts of 

long-lived transuranic elements remain in high-level wastes. The 

President's decision during 1977 not to reprocess spent reactor 

fuel rods adds an additional category of waste.

 Predict the transfer of heat in aquifers.

 Improve the use of tracers in studying ground-water 

movement.

GEOTHERMAL PROGRAM

As part of the Survey's Geothermal Energy Investigations program, the Wafer Resources Division had 

19 ongoing research projects and several supporting 

activities in 1977. These projects supplement the 

geological, geochemical, and geophysical studies by 

the Geologic Division. Some financial support was 

provided by the Energy Research and Development 

Administration.

The 19 research projects cover the following studies 

and investigations:

Type

Number of 

projects

Development and application of borehole geophysical 2 

techniques and shallow- to intermediate-depth test 

drilling. 

Analytical and experimental studies of mass and energy 2

transport in geothermal systems.

Numerical-modeling studies. 3 

Land-subsidence research in geothermal areas. 1 

Ceochemical studies. 4 

Areal and regional hydrologic studies, principally in 6 7 

Western States Idaho, Oregon, Nevada, Utah, Colorado, and Montana; and also including a large-scale 

study of the potentially important geopressured-geothermal resource of the Gulf Coast of Louisiana and 

Texas.

In 1977 some significant accomplishments included:

 Testing of a high-temperature acoustic televiewer 

to a depth of 3,050 meters (10,000 feet) and a 

temperature of 200°C (392°F) in a borehole and 

of a high-temperature acoustic-velocity probe in 

a laboratory. Development of this kind of equipment is particularly important to improve understanding of fractured-rock geothermal reservoirs.

 Determination of rock-water chemical interactions 

for selected constituents in about 100 springs and 

geysers in liquid-dominated geothermal systems 

in the western United States. Eighty-two percent 

of the waters analyzed exhibit equilibrium with 

either fluorite or calcite and 41 percent are in 

equilibrium with both phases. In hot-spring systems having a wide range in calcium and fluoride 

concentrations, a delicate balance exists among 

pH, and the solubility of carbon dioxide, calcium 

fluoride and calcium carbonate. These findings 

indicate that hot-spring waters are generally in 

equilibrium with the solids with which they are 

in contact.

 Modification of a numerical model that describes 

the movement of steam in a vapor-dominated 

geothermal system to include the effects of heat

PROGRAM ACTIVITIES | 127
conduction in the overburden, the weight of the 

steam column, and the effects of condensation 

when production is terminated. 

 Detailed chemical analyses of about 100 formation 

water samples from 15 oil and gas fields in 

coastal Texas and Louisiana show that (a) the 

salinity of water in the geopressured zone ranges 

from about 20,000 to more than 150,000 mg/L 

dissolved solids; (b) samples from many gas wells 

yield low salinities that are not representative of 

the true salinity of formation water because they 

are diluted by the condensed water vapor produced with natural gas; and (c) the concentrations of hydrogen sulfide, silica, and mercury are 

low in geopressured waters and the concentrations of toxic components (boron, ammonia, for 

example) are moderately high.

UNDERGROUND HEAT STORAGE PROGRAM

The feasibility of repetitively storing large amounts 

of thermal energy in the form of heated ground water 

is being evaluated.

Field tests were conducted near Mobile, Alabama, 

by the Water Resources Institute at Auburn University, Alabama, jointly funded by the Survey and the 

Energy Research and Development Administration 

through the Office of Water Research and Technology. The Geological Survey is serving as technical 

monitor. A large quantity of once-through power 

plant cooling water from the Alabama River was injected into the aquifer. Although a large quantity of 

heated water was stored, a not unusual occurrence of 

progressive but partially reversible aquifer clogging 

was observed. A second experiment is now under way 

in which water pumped from a shallower aquifer will 

be artificially heated and then stored in the aquifer. 

Two cycles of injection and withdrawal are planned 

for the second experiment.

Field data from such tests will permit verification of 

digital aquifer-system models. These models are kindred to models being developed for geothermal 

studies and waste-heat disposal studies, all of which 

are complementary.

GROUND-WATER RECHARGE

Studies on ground-water recharge include the use 

of both spreading basins (shallow ponds) and injection wells. In the semiarid High Plains of Texas and 

New Mexico, methods are being developed to predict 

the amount of water that can be returned to aquifers 

by studying the fundamental principles that control 

movement of water into aquifers, the rock-water interactions that occur during storage, and the diffusiondispersion phenomena accompanying water movement after emplacement. In one recent test involving 

the recharge of about 430,000 m 15 (15,000,000 ft. 5 ) of

water, water moved through a 2-meter (6.6 foot) thick 

clay bed at the rate of about 0.1 meter (4 inches) per 

day. This rate of movement had been predicted from 

the lag in barometric pressure change across the bed, 

based on a recently described method. This prediction was far different from any based on laboratory 

analyses of cores from the clay bed. Thus, the new 

method offers great promise for estimating permeability of layers at depth. Other recent tests have demonstrated the utility of polyelectrolyte flocculants 

(chemicals that cause very fine sediments to settle out 

of the water) to clarify sediment-laden shallow lake 

water before recharging it.

Recharge of highly treated sewage by use of spreading basins is being studied on Long Island. Instrumentation is emplaced in a manhole in the center of the 

basin to study the long-term water quality and clogging effects of such recharge. This instrumentation is 

also facilitating a study of the movement of viruses into the aquifer during recharge.

MAPPING IN FLOOD-PRONE AREAS

The mapping program in flood-prone areas is directed toward rapid identification of areas subject to 

inundation. A high priority has been given it in order 

to meet the flood-plain management and land-use 

planning needs expressed in recommendations of the 

Task Force on Federal Flood Control Policy (House 

Document 465, 89th Congress) and the National Flood 

Insurance Act of 1968.

In 1977 the Water Resources Division published 

approximately 200 maps of flood-prone areas. Since 

the beginning of the program in 1969, nearly 12,700 

maps and 1,000 descriptive pamphlets have been 

published. The maps identify the flood-prone areas in 

virtually all the developed and developing sections 

of the country.

Flood-prone-area maps show on a 7.5-minute 

quadrangle topographic map base (scale 1:24,000; 1 

centimeter on the map equals 240 meters) the approximate boundaries of areas having a 1-percent 

chance of being flooded in any given year. The maps 

are used extensively to meet local planning needs and 

to meet objectives of the National Flood Insurance 

Act of 1968 and the National Disaster Protection Act 

of 1973. The Water Resources Division field offices 

stock the flood-prone-area maps which are available 

for distribution to the public without charge.

In addition to conducting reconnaissance flood 

mapping, the Geological Survey is one of several 

agencies conducting flood-insurance studies for the 

Department of Housing and Urban Development. 

These studies include flood-profile information and 

delineation of 100-year floods (floods with a 1-percent 

chance of occurring in any given year) on city or com128 | WATER RESOURCES INVESTIGATIONS
The 1977 Johnstown Flood, Johnstown, Pa.

A lifeline across floodwaters. (Johnstown Tribune-Democrat.) A 

Flood waters up to porch level at this home. (Jujulah Corp.) ^

munity maps of scales such as 1:4,800 (1 centimeter 

on the map equals 48 meters). Since 1970, such 

studies have been undertaken by the Survey in about 

600 communities.

Documentation of those major floods that occur 

every year in the United States provides the information required for the judicious management of flood 

plains. Field investigations of the Johnstown, Pennsylvania, flood of July 1977 were completed; the final 

report is in preparation. The September 1977 flood in 

the Kansas City area, Kansas and Missouri, is under 

investigation. The formal report on the flood caused 

by the failure of the Teton Dam, Idaho, in June 1976 

was completed. In addition, in 1977 the Geological 

Survey and the National Weather Service (National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) began 

preparation of joint reports on investigations of three 

disastrous floods: in Maine in February 1976; in Colorado in July 1976; and in the Appalachian areas of 

Kentucky, Tennessee, Virginia, and West Virginia in 

April 1977.

The National Water Data Storage and Retrieval System (WATSTORE) maintains a Peak Flow File of flood

records for more than 12,000 surface-water sites and 

contains more than 390,000 peak observations. This 

file of annual maximum streamflow (peak discharge) 

values and gage-height (stage) values is available for 

public use through the Survey's WATSTORE system.

PROGRAM ACTIVITIES | 129
Remote sensing is a data-gathering technique 

that permits measurements, at a distance, of 

emitted and reflected electromagnetic energy. That 

energy provides information on the nature of the 

objects and surfaces from which it radiates. Since 

World War II this technique has developed rapidly, primarily in response to the increasing need to 

obtain information about large areas, including information on water-resource evaluation, flood 

monitoring, and land-use changes.

Water resources are especially amenable to investigation by remote sensors. For example, surface water is perhaps the easiest land-cover category to classify and extract as a map theme, and 

water has a profound influence on vegetative 

growth and plant succession which are indicators 

of hydrologic conditions and change. Water has 

the highest specific heat of any substance commonly found in nature; therefore wet areas tend 

to have thermal characteristics which differ from 

those of adjacent dry areas. These differences, and 

other dynamic water conditions, such as effluent 

discharge, generally can be detected using thermal 

sensors.

Remote sensing is a useful tool that complements rather than replaces conventional techniques. Thus data from ground, air, and space can 

be combined to provide valuable information that 

may not be easily obtained from the ground 

alone.

The Water Resources Division has benefited 

from the synoptic look provided by remotelysensed data. It has enabled it to:

 Study dynamic processes such as water circulation in estuaries, snow and ice accumulation i 

and melting, and environmental changes. Jj

 Delineate, inventory, and map hydrologic cate- 1 

gories such as wetlands, floods, and drainage j 

basin variables. |

 Monitor or assess environmental changes, river fj 

basin conditions, and the distribution of water. I

 Provide information for water-management de- | 

cisions such as location of data-collection i 

sites, snow line mapping, and available 1 

ground- and surface-water resources. 1

SUBSURFACE WASTE STORAGE

The objectives of the Survey's subsurface-wastestorage program are to determine the fundamental 

principles of waste movement into and through the 

subsurface. An understanding of these principles is 

necessary to devise protection for fresh-water resources and to predict the long-term impacts of storage and disposal of wastes on water resources from 

surface and subsurface placement of both liquid and 

solid wastes. Water and waste managers use the data 

generated by this program and the resultant knowledge when they assess the degradation of water that 

is being caused or will be caused by various methods 

of waste disposal at different sites. They also use it, 

along with other factors, when they try to decide 

whether a site and method are or are not acceptable.

The data may indicate that other methods must be 

devised or other sites evaluated.

Legislation prohibiting disposal of waste in streams 

and by incineration into the air has caused increased 

disposal on and beneath the land surface. Many 

chemicals react or are sorbed, degraded, diluted, or 

dispersed while moving through the unsaturated and 

saturated soils and aquifers, but many are not sorbed 

or do not react. Also, the earth materials have limited 

capacity which may be exceeded. Leachate formed by 

water percolating through waste, or waste injected 

into an aquifer, will eventually cause some degradation to some amount of water in an aquifer downgradient from the disposal point. Although groundwater contamination is limited in area, the impact on 

ground water is long lasting, and a body of contaminated water tends to expand with time. The chemicals

130 | WATER RESOURCES INVESTIGATIONS
or substances which are not sorbed or do not react 

are diluted or dispersed as they move with the ground 

water. However, each year many new points of pollution are created and few are eliminated so that the 

amount of polluted ground water is increasing from 

year to year.

The subsurface waste-storage program includes 

studies ranging from simulation modeling of waste 

transport in thick unsaturated sediments to determining the velocity of deep ground-water circulation by 

means of isotope content of the native water. Other 

studies include: mapping of potential waste-injection aquifers in the Texas and Atlantic Coastal Plains 

and the Appalachian Basin; determining the impact of 

injecting treated sewage into saline aquifers in Florida 

and recharging treated sewage into glacial aquifers in 

Long Island; investigating the generation and movement of leachate from oil-shale and coal strip-mine 

wastes; developing predictive models of waste transport in ground water accounting for dispersion, dilution, and other physical and chemical reactions; 

adapting oilfield borehole-geophysical techniques to 

water-well research; and in-situ measurement of tectonic stresses and spectrographic identification of 

wastes.

ESTUARINF. AND COASTAL STUDIES

One of the most critical coastal problems facing the 

Nation today is the health of its estuaries. Concentration of population, industry, and shipping in estuaries 

and adjacent areas, combined with their location at 

the lower end of the frequently sewage-laden rivers, 

has led to serious doubts about their ability to become more than community cesspools. Increasing upstream withdrawals of fresh water for cities, industries, and farms worsen the problem by reducing the 

inflow to, and thus the flushing of wastes from, estuaries. In most cases, the data on which to document 

this general degradation, or on which to plan programs for its amelioration, do not exist.

During 1977, an intensive investigation was initiated in the Potomac estuary to provide a scientific 

base of understanding necessary for designing an estuarine data program.

Studies continued on the. biogeochemistry and circulation patterns in San Francisco Bay. Other estuarial 

studies were conducted in California, North Carolina, 

South Carolina, and Texas. The continuous withdrawal of fresh water from coastal aquifers and the ensuing 

problems of salt water encroachment have heightened the need for hydrogeologic data in coastal areas. 

Numerous areal projects in several coastal States have 

been carried out to satisfy these needs.

Other investigations in Florida and New York addressed similar data needs for the artificial recharge of 

coastal aquifers and the disposal of wastes by deep 

well injections.

SELECTED REFERENCES

Cragwall, Joseph S., 1976, National goals in water resources investigations: Notes of remarks to the National Capitol Section, 

American Water Resources Association, Washington, D.C., 

March 25, 1976, 9 p.

Cragwell, Joseph S., 1976, Credibility of water data: Speech to 

the Association of Western State Engineers, Topeka, Kans., 

Sept. 22, 1976, 10 p.

Ficke, J. F., and Hawkinson, R.O., 1975, The National Stream 

Quality Accounting Network (NASQAN) Some questions and 

answers: U.S. Ceol. Survey Circ. 719, 23 p.

Murray, C. Richard, and Reeves, E. Bodette, 1977, Estimated Use 

of Water in the United States in 1975: U.S. Geol. Survey Circ. 

765, 39 p.

Office of Water Data Coordination, 1976, Summary of Eleventh 

Meeting, Advisory Committee on Water Data for Public Use 

and Interagency Advisory Committee on Water Data: U.S. 

Ceol. Survey, 62 p.

Office of Water Data Coordination, 1977, Index to stations in 

coastal areas, Pacific Coast: U.S. Ceol. Survey, 275 p.

U. S. Geological Survey, 1977, Water Resources Review, May 

1977: U.S. Ceol. Survey, 16 p.

PROGRAM ACTIVITIES | 131

Conservation of Lands 

and Minerals

INTRODUCTION

The Conservation Division performs several regulatory functions delegated to the Geological Survey by 

the Secretary of the Interior under laws governing the 

leasing, mining and use of mineral and water resources on Federal and Indian lands. These responsibilities are accomplished in two major missions:

 Classification of public lands in terms of their potential for leasable mineral resources and their 

value for waterpower and water-storage purposes, and evaluation of mineral tracts on public 

land that are subject to competitive leasing or 

to sale or exchange.

 Supervision of operations associated with the exploration, development and production of minerals from leased Federal, Indian and Outer 

Continental Shelf lands, including the collection 

of royalties and certain rentals which result from 

mineral production.

Data acquired by the Geological Survey while carrying out these functions also provides information 

to support the missions of other Federal agencies 

who share responsibilities for the sound development 

of resources and protection of the environmental 

characteristics found on public lands. These agencies 

include the Bureau of Land Management (BLM), the 

Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), the National Park Service (NPS), and the Bureau of Reclamation (BR) within 

the Department of the Interior, as well as the Department of Defense (DOD), the Forest Service (FS), the 

General Services Administration (GSA), and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).

A geophysicist evaluates seismic information to determine 

whether subsurface geologic structures exist which might contain commercial quantities of oil and gas. This information 

is used in the economic evaluation of tracts offered in oil and 

gas lease sales and helps determine whether drilling and production activities can be conducted safely.

President Jimmy Carter and Senator Johnston (La.) observe drilling operations while visiting the Zapata offshore drilling platform in the Gulf of Mexico during the summer of 1977.

REGULATORY FUNCTIONS | 133
USGS Puts It All Together in New Regulations'

for Outer Continental Shelf

Oil and Gas Operations

Policies, Practices, and Responsibility 

for Safety and Environmental Protection 

in Oil and Gas Operations on the 

Outer Continental Shelf

States

ment <>f tht- Int* 1 

ieai Survey 

June 1^77

An organized and systematic program to assure 

safe, environmentally sound exploration, development, and production of oil and gas found on the 

Outer Continental Shelf is described in a recently 

published Survey document.

This OCS program incorporates many recommendations from recent independent studies of 

offshore oil and gas production activities by the 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the 

National Academy of Engineering, the University of 

Oklahoma, and the Council on Environmental

* Policies, Practices and Responsibilities for Safety and Environmental Protection in Oil and Gas Operations on the 

Outer Continental Shelf, p. 25, U.S. Geological Survey, Washington, 1977. Copies may be obtained free of charge by writing Chief, Conservation Division, U.S. Geological Survey, National Center, Mail Stop 620, Reston, VA 22092.
Quality. Recognizing that the responsibilities of 

the Geological Survey on the OCS are extensive, 

specific elements of this program have been designed to assure that all OCS operations are conducted in a way that best emphasizes safety of operations and prevention of environmental damage. 

The functional elements of this lease-regulatory 

program are based on the concept that fundamental responsibility for safe OCS operations lies 

with each lessee and that it is the role of the 

Geological Survey to provide oversight of the entire sequence of activities associated with oil and 

gas production. In a major review of the program, 

several existing Geological Survey procedures have 

been revised and new procedures introduced to 

reflect an increasing emphasis on the responsibilities 

of each lessee. These new and revised functional 

elements extend beyond actual lease activities in 

some instances. New requirements, for example, 

stipulate that safety equipment comply with standards developed by the Geological Survey and that 

drilling and production platforms be designed and 

installed in accordance with new Geological Survey criteria. Even inspection procedures covering 

actual offshore facilities have been modified 

through addition of a provision which requries 

each lessee to perform a prescribed inspection 

routine at periodic intervals and take specified 

corrective action for any deficiency. Other major 

components of the program require lessees to report equipment failures, conduct a design analysis 

of offshore platform production systems, and perform other related actions with the intention of 

identifying and eliminating problem areas and so 

prevent accidents.

The regulation of OCS oil and gas activities is 

a continuing process requiring constant review of 

program components and objectives. As oil and 

gas production activities become more complex 

and are undertaken in sometimes hostile new environments off the Alaskan and Atlantic coasts, 

for example this "new direction" in regulatory 

activity seeks to ensure that offshore oil and gas 

operations will be carried out in a way that emphasizes safety of operations, with a minimum risk 

of environmental damage. A

In fiscal year 1977, more than 17.5 percent of domestically produced oil, 24.1 percent of all natural 

gas and 9.0 percent of the nation's coal were derived 

from leased public lands onshore and offshore, clearly 

demonstrating the importance of the Federal land 

contribution to the nation's supply of petroleum and 

mineral resources. The production of these minerals 

has also had a significant impact on the nation's 

economy. For example, in fiscal year 1977, the value 

of all commodities produced from leased Federal 

lands exceeded $8.5 billion, while lease rentals and 

royalties from the production of minerals and various 

bonus payments provided more than $1.2 billion in 

revenue for the Federal Government.

Increased demands for energy and other minerals 

required amending and revising of public laws governing the operations of the Conservation Division to 

assure that exploration and development of resou'rces 

on Federal lands are conducted in a manner that 

guarantees timely production of minerals while also 

protecting the environment.

FIGURE 57. Production from Federal and Indian lands as percentage of total U.S. production in fiscal year 1977.

Highlights

Activities of the Division in carrying out its responsibilities during fiscal year 1977 included:

 Completion of tract evaluations for 2 lease sales 

covering 0.538 million hectares (1,329,024 million acres) in the Gulf of Mexico and Gulf of Alaska which occurred during this fiscal year.

 Drafting, revision and updating of Outer Continental Shelf Orders (operating regulations) for the 

Atlantic, Gulf of Mexico and Pacific areas.

 Supervision of operations on 1,993 offshore oil and 

gas leases covering 3.8 million hectares (9.4 million acres).

 Supervision of operations on 127,810 onshore oil 

and gas leases covering 41.7 million hectares 

(103.1 million acres).

 Supervision of operations on 2,523 mineral leases 

covering 3.6 million hectares (9.0 million acres).

 Collection of $1,200 million in rents and royalties 

from the leasing of minerals on Federal lands.

 Evaluations of tracts for 14 geothermal lease sales. 

Subsequently, more than 40,892 hectares were 

leased in 59 tracts, with a total bonus paid to the 

Government of $2,693,750.

REGULATORY FUNCTIONS | 135
CONSERVATION 

OF LANDS 

AND MINERALS

Other Federal 

agencies $0.2

Regulation and 

research $16.8

FEDERAL AND 

INDIAN LANDS

Direct Federal appropriation $67.0

OUTER CONTINENTAL 

SHELF LANDS

Regulation of 

operations 

$18.4

Classification and 

evaluation $10.8

TOTAL $67.2 MILLION

SOURCE OF FUNDS USE OF FUNDS

Budget and Personnel

Shortages of some energy commodities during the 

winter of 1976-77 and policy decisions designed to 

stimulate greater production and use of coal accounted for marked increases in responsibilities and 

activities of the Conservation Division during the fiscal year. Appropriation for Division programs to support onshore development of energy and mineral

resources on public and Indian lands increased to 

$29.2 million in fiscal year 1977, an 89.9 percent rise 

from the previous year.

Program activities related to Outer Continental 

Shelf energy development represented 56.3 percent 

of total program funding for the year, or $38.3 million. This represented a 38.8 percent rise over the 

previous fiscal year budget allocations for this program area, reflecting a continuing Administration

136 | CONSERVATION OF LANDS AND MINERALS
TABLE 17. Conservat/on of Lands and Minerals activity obligations for fiscal years 1976-77 by program (dollars in millions) 

[Data may differ from that in statistical tables because of rounding]

Program

Fiscal 

year 

1976

Fiscal

Transition year 

quarter 1977

TOTAL __________ $41.4 $13.4 $67.2

Outer Continental Shelf Lands _

Regulation of OCS oil and gas _

Research on OCS safety devices _

OCS oil and gas tract selection

and evaluation ________

26.2

12.2

.5

13.5

9.2

3.4

.1

5.7

38.0

16.3

.5

21.2

Federal and Indian Lands ____ 15.2 

Regulation of operations ____ 10. 

Oil and gas _ __:.________

Energy minerals (coal and uranium) _______ _ _ _ _

Oil shale ____________ 

Ceothermal ___ _ _______

Nonenergy minerals

15.2

10.8

7.0

1.0

.4

1.0

1.4

4.2

3.0

1.9

.3

.1

.3

.4

29.2

18.4

9.8

5.6

.8

.8

1.4

Resource classification and evaluation ______ _______

Oil and gas __ ___ 

Coal ________________ 

Oil shale_____________- 

Ceothermal _____________

Nonenergy minerals ________

Water-resource development __

4.4 1.2 10.8

.3 

2.2

.3 

1.0

.2

.4

.3 

8.6 

.4 

.7 

.3 

.5

1 Total direct program. Reimbursable program amounted to $189,000, 

bringing the total program to 67.

policy to expand the leasing and development of offshore energy resources in a timely manner.

The number of full-time Division employees rose 

24 percent, from 1,143 in fiscal year 1976 to 1,498 in 

fiscal year 1977. More than 81 percent of these new 

positions were filled by professionals, primarily geophysicists, geologists and petroleum and mining 

engineers. Additional management personnel hired 

during the same period improved the over-all program direction.

PROGRAMS AND ACTIVITIES

The principal activities of the Conservation Division focus upon two major programs: (1) the classification and evaluation of mineral resources on Federal lands, both onshore and offshore; and (2) the 

supervision of mineral development and extraction 

operations occurring on those lands under lease. The 

evaluation program involves the determination of the 

present dollar value of Federal mineral tracts being 

considered for lease, sale or exchange. Although 

leases for mineral development on Federal lands are 

offered and issued by the Bureau of Land Management, and those for Indian lands by the Bureau of 

Indian Affairs for the involved tribes, operating regulations governing the exploration, development, and 

production of mineral resources from Federal and 

Indian land leases are implemented and enforced 

by the Conservation Division of the Geological Survey. This implementation includes supervision of the 

computation and collection of royalties and certain 

rental payments from operators of leases, which are 

transmitted to the Treasury.

Outer Continental Shelf Lands

Federal jurisdiction over coastal waters and the underlying land generally begins 3 miles offshore, where 

State domain ends, and extends to the limit of the 

Continental Shelf. The first offshore wells were drilled 

off California in the 1890's from piers which extended 

from the shore. Production technology, at that time, 

was largely based on extensive on-and near-offshore 

fixed platform experience. In 1938, the Creole Field 

was tapped in the Gulf of Mexico, marking the oil 

industry's first move into open waters more than a 

mile from shore. The first well put down out of sight 

of land, and drilled from a mobile platform, was located in shallow water roughly 12 miles off the Louisiana Coast in 1947. Between 1954 and 1966, Federal 

leases were sold to the highest bidder without any 

concerted effort to assess the true value of the resource prior to sale.

Since about 1970 the geological and geophysical 

mapping techniques and evaluation procedures utilized have become far more sophisticated. Exploratory wells can now be drilled from fixed, semi-submerged, or floating platforms in more than 1,500 feet 

of water, with far greater confidence that petroleum 

resources found in those water depths could be produced. By the end of fiscal year 1977, more than 

14,500 wells had been drilled offshore in Federal 

waters. Total production from these wells reached 

more than 307 million barrels of oil and 102,037,000 

cubic meters (3,603 million cubic feet) of natural gas.

SOURCE OF FUNDS / USE OF FUNDS | 137
CO 

00

n 

O

z

(/) 

m 

70

FIGURE 58. Proposed OCS Planning Schedule as of August 1977

1977 1978 1979 1980 

z

SALE AREA

Cl Cook Inlet

42 N. Atlantic

43 South AtlanticGeorgia Embayment

45 Gulf of Mexico

65 Eastern Gulf of Mexico

51 Gulf of Mexico

49 Mid-Atlantic

48 Southern California

58 Gulf of Mexico

54 South AtlanticBlake Plateau

Federal/State Beaufort Sea 

(near shore) Alaska

55 Gulf of Alaska

62 Gulf of Mexico

46 Kodiak

52 North Atlantic

53 Central and Northern 

California

60 Cook Inlet

56 South AtlanticGeorgia Embayment

59 Mid-Atlantic66 Gulf of Mexico

57 Bering-Norton

A

f

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N

T

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D

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F

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]

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F

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/

F

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F

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P

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m 

73

C Call for Nominations F 

D Nominations Due 

T Announcement of Tracts P 

E Draft Environmental N 

Statement S 

H Public Hearing

Final Environmental

Statement

Proposed Notice of Sale

Notice of Sale

Sale

Sales are contingent upon a reasonable assumption that techno

and development. A decision whether to hold any of the lease 

completion of all necessary studies of the environmental impac

as a result of the environmental, technical, and economic stud

process; a decisio'n may, in fact, be made not to hold any sale 
Rents and royalty payments totaling more than $885 

millions from DCS production have been collected 

for the Government by the Geological Survey.

OCS Resource Evaluation

The offshore resource evaluation activities of the 

Conservation Division focus upon identifying potential areas for future lease sales, and advising the 

Bureau of Land Management in their selection of 

specific tracts to offer for sale. Using geophysical information and available well data, geologists and 

engineers estimate the amount and value of the oil 

and gas on each tract to be offered, and analyze 

the probable costs of producing these resources, 

thereby arriving at an estimate of the fair market 

value for each lease. They also identify geologic or 

other environmental hazards so that exploration, development, and production can be accomplished in 

an environmentally safe manner. The Division established its present comprehensive offshore resource 

evaluation program in 1969.

 Six deep Continental Offshore Stratigraphic Test 

(COST) wells were approved in Federal waters on 

the Outer Continental Shelf (OCS). These wells 

were drilled by industry with the stipulation that 

they share the data with the Department of the 

Interior. Five were completed and one was being 

drilled at year's end. Of the two tests drilled 

in the Atlantic OCS, the first, North Atlantic 

COST Well #G-2, was approved in December 

1976, drilled to 6,668 meters (21,872 feet), and 

completed on August 31, 1977; the second, 

South Atlantic COST Well #GE-1, was approved 

in January 1977, drilled to 4,040 meters (13,254 

feet), and completed on June 15, 1977. The other 

four deep Stratigraphic tests were approved for 

the Alaskan OCS. The Lower Cook Inlet COST 

Well #1 test, approved in June 1977 and drilled 

to 3,776 meters (12,387 feet) was completed on 

September 24, 1977. Three tests were approved 

on Alaska's Kodiak Shelf. Kodiak Well #1, approved in May 1977 and drilled to 2,596 meters 

(8,517 feet) was completed on July 18, 1977, and 

the Kodiak Well #2, approved in July 1977 and 

drilled to 3,189 meters (10,460 feet), was completed on September 3, 1977. Kodiak Well #3, 

approved in July 1977 was being drilled at the 

end of the fiscal year.

 Shallow "off-structure" test drilling approved during fiscal year 1976 was carried out on the Kodiak 

Shelf off the Alaskan coast. Tests drilled in this 

program ranged from 150 to 1,200 meters (500 

feet to 4,000 feet) in depth and provided valuable 

data for future offshore lease sales.

 To support tract evaluation, the Division obtained, 

from private geophysical contractors, more than 

60,200 kilometers (37,400 miles) of commondepth-point seismic data helpful in determining 

the locations of potential hydrocarbon deposits. 

These firms also supplied 57,300 kilometers 

(35,600 miles) of high-resolution seismic data to 

enable geophysicists and geologists to chart the 

presence and location of shallow geophysical 

hazards.

 An additional 36,700 kilometers (22,800 miles) of 

magnetic data and 1,770 kilometers (1,100 miles) 

of gravity data to support the resource evaluation 

program also were purchased. Total costs of acquiring all these data reached $7,671,563.

 Tract evaluations were begun during fiscal year 

1977 for Sales # 45, 57, and 65 in the Gulf 

of Mexico, Sales # 42 and 43 on the Atlantic 

Outer Continental Shelf, Sales # 48 off the 

Pacific coast, and Sales # 46 and 60 off the 

Alaskan coast.

 A drainage and development lease sale comprising 

61 tracts in the Gulf of Mexico was held on November 16, 1976, in New Orleans, Louisiana. 

Bids totaling $379 million were offered and accepted for 43 tracts sold.

 A lease sale covering 233 tracts in the Gulf of 

Mexico was held June 23, 1977, in New Orleans, 

Louisiana. Bids totaling $1.7 billion were offered 

and accepted for 124 of these tracts, located 

offshore Texas, and Louisiana. Additional bids of 

$43.9 million on 28 tracts were rejected by the 

government as being insufficient. One tract in 

this sale brought a bid of more than $77 million.

A large "jack-up" type offshore oil drilling rig.
Supervision of Operations

Following each lease sale by the Bureau of Land 

Management (BLM), the Geological Survey becomes 

the agency responsible for supervising oil and gas 

exploration, development and production activities of 

the lessees on Outer Continental Shelf lands. This is 

to ensure that operations are conducted in compliance with Department of the Interior regulations for 

conservation of the mineral resources and protection 

of the ocean environment, and that royalties collected 

for the Government are correct and current. Royalties 

may be collected either in the form of monies or 

taken in kind (a portion of the resources produced) 

for sale to persons other than the producer. Supervision of operations by companies holding offshore 

leases involves:

 Review and approval of proposed company operating plans;

 Periodic on-site inspection and review of exploration, development and production operations 

and procedures;

 Computation, collection, and accounting of rents 

and royalties associated with production of oil 

and gas from Federal leases.

During fiscal year 1977, Conservation Division personnel were responsible for supervising oil and gas 

operations on 1,970 leases and test well operations 

covering more than 3,770,000 hectares (9,312,000 

acres) on the Outer Continental Shelf areas of the 

Alaska, Pacific, Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic coasts. 

Most of these inspection activities occurred on the 

Gulf of Mexico, where the largest number of operations are underway.

The Geological Survey reviewed and approved 

more than 540 exploration and development plans in 

the Gulf of Mexico in fiscal 1977.

More than 2,655 drilling rig and 2,250 production 

platform inspections were made during the fiscal year. 

As a result of these on-site inspections, 683 warnings 

for improper operations were issued. In addition, production from 1,043 zones beneath 39 platforms was 

temporarily halted until deficiencies in drilling or production procedures were corrected.

Production of petroleum products from the Outer 

Continental Shelf totaled more than 307 million barrels of oil and 102 million cubic meters (3,603 billion 

cubic feet) of gas during the fiscal year and resulted 

in collection of more than $885 million in rent and 

royalty payments for the Government.

TABLE 18. Status of Outer Continental Shelf Orders at the end of fiscal year 1977

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

U.S.

Order number and title

Marking of Wells, Platforms, and Fixed Structures _ .

Drilling Procedures _ _ _

Plugging and Abandonment _ _ _ __ _ __ ___ .

Suspensions and Determination of Well Producibility _ .

Subsurface Safety Devices _ ____ _ _ _ _ .

Completion of Oil and Gas Wells ____ _ ____ .

Pollution and Waste Disposal _ _ _ _

Platforms and Structures __ _ _ __ __ __.

Oil and Gas Pipelines _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _

Sulfur Drilling Procedures _ ___ _ ___

Oil and Gas Production Rates, Prevention of Waste, and

Protection of Correlative Rights

Public Inspection of Records

Production Measurement and Commingling

Approval of Suspensions of Production __ _

Geological Survey Standard GSS-OCS #1 _ _

Gulf of

Mexico

area

Effective

8/28/69.

Effective

1/1/75.

Effective

8/28/69.

Effective

8/28/69.

Effective

6/5/72.

Effective

8/28/69;

being revised.

Effective

10/1/76.

Effective

10/1/76.

Effective

10/30/70.

Effective

8/28/69.

Effective

5/1/74.

Effective

2/1/75.

Effective

10/1/75.

Effective

1/1/77.

Effective

2/1/76.

Pacific

area

Effective

6/1/71.

Effective

5/1/76.

Effective

6/1/71.

Effective

6/1/71.

Effective

6/1/71.

Effective

6/1/71.

Effective

6/1/71.

Effective

6/1/71.

Effective

6/1/71.

Effective

6/1/71.

Effective

5/1/75.

Effective

12/1/74.

Effective

2/1/76

Gulf of

Alaska

area

Effective

3/1/76.

Effective

3/1/76.

Effective

3/1/76.

Effective

3/1/76.

Effective

3/1/76.

Effective

3/1/76.

Not Applicable.

Effective

3/1/76.

Effective

2/1/76.

Atlantic

area

OCS

Effective

7/1/76.

Effective

7/1/76.

Effective

7/1/76.

Effective

7/1/76.

Effective

7/1/76.

Effective

7/1/76.

Not Applicable.

Effective

7/1/76.

Effective

2/1/76.

140 | CONSERVATION OF LANDS AND MINERALS
TABLE 19. Hydrocarbon spills on Outer Continental Shelf, 

calendar years 7977-76 

[50 barrels equals 6.8 tonnes]

Spills of 50 barrels Soil

or more

Calendar

year

1971

1972

1973

1974

1975

1976

Number

112

4 *

8 -

23

Barrels

spilled

1,285

150

22,175

22,721

266

3 4,714

Tonnes

spilled

174

20

2,997

3,070

36

637

Number

1,245

1,159

1,171

1,129

1,126

949

Is of less than

50 barrels

spilled

1,493

1,032

921

667

711

523

Tonnes

spilled

202

139

124

90

96

71

!9,935 barrels spilled from a ruptured storage tank (1/9/73) and 7,000 

barrels spilled from a leaking barge (1/26/73).

2 19,850 barrels spilled from a pipeline broken when a ship's anchor 

dragged on the seabed (4/17/74).

3 4,000 barrels spilled from a pipeline tie-in broken by a shrimp trawl 

drag (12/18/76).

Since 1971, production of oil from existing OCS 

leases has been decreasing while production of natural gas has been increasing slightly. The use of gas to 

generate electricity, as a residential heating fuel, and 

as a feedstock for the production of chemicals, plastics, and synthetics has grown to the point where demand clearly exceeds supply, resulting in several regional shortages and the closing of some industrial 

plants during the winter of 1976-77. A primary response by Government has been to stimulate further 

exploration and development on existing leases 

through an accelerated offshore resource development program. This is particularly important, since 

from 3 to 10 years are needed on the average to produce additional resources from new lease discoveries. 

There has been a significant rise in requests for approval of exploration and notices of intent to drill 

which could lead to the development of still undiscovered resources on all the continental shelf areas.

Research and development of enhanced recovery 

techniques as well as investigation of potential new 

energy sources like the geopressured zones in the 

Gulf of Mexico may result in significant new domestic 

supplies of gas and geothermal energy for the Nation 

during the coming years.

TABLE 20. Fires and explosions on the Outer Continental 

Shell, calendar years 1970-76

Calendar year

1970

1971

1972

1973

1974

1975

1976

Number 

of events

12

19

31

30

22

27

32

Injuries

31

1699

15

11

14

Fatalities

171020

MO0

a A tanker collided with a platform. Oil escaping from the tanker 

ignited and set the ship afire. Six men died in the blaze (8/15/75).

FIGURE 59. Oil and gas production from Outer Continental 

Shelf lands, calendar years 1967-77.

1/3

 t 

LU 

Q£O

350

300

250

200

150

67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77

ft 3000

LLJ 

U- u

COzO

_ 1 

 onnn

1500 

innn

68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77

Z

2500

2000

1500

O

1000

500

69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77
450

400

350

2

Z ' o

300

250

200

150

67 68 ' 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77

3500 

£ 3000

LU 

Li.

u

CO

g 2500

O

5 2000

1500 

1000

67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77

3000

2500

2000

Z

1500

Z

o

1000

500

Federal and Indian Lands

In order to assure that the government retains title 

to potentially exploitable mineral and water resource 

development areas on Federal lands, the Survey's 

Conservation Division staff identify the leasable mineral and waterpower resources and classify the lands.

Field surveys and analyses are conducted on site to 

compile geologic, engineering and related data. This 

information is used to:

 Determine the extent and content of leasable minerals on Federal lands.

 Identify existing waterpower and reservoir sites.

 Classify the lands as to their potential for waterpower or mineral development.

 Outline the boundaries of potentially valuable mineral leasing areas.

 Add, modify or eliminate areas withheld from disposal for their mineral or waterpower leasing 

potential.

Information from these activities, as well as Survey 

comments and recommended procedures for leasing, 

are supplied to the Bureau of Land Management and 

the Bureau of Indian Affairs the agencies responsible 

for the sale of mineral resource development leases 

on Federal and Indian lands respectively.

Following the issuance of mineral leases by BLM 

and BIA, Conservation Division personnel also supervise, as they do on the Outer Continental Shelf, all 

activities by lessees associated with mineral exploration, development and production on Federal and 

Indian lands, again assuring that procedures are conducted in accordance with Federal regulations and 

environmental policies.

ONSHORE OIL AND GAS

Roughly 6 percent of the Nation's domestic oil and 

gas supplies is produced from facilities located on 

Federal and Indian lands in 33 states.

All unleased areas within the boundaries of Known 

Geologic Structures (KGS) (those structures with 

producible oil and gas fields) must, by law, be leased 

competitively. Using information supplied to the Survey by lease operators, including drill core sample 

data, well logs, production records, and geologic 

structure maps, Conservation Division personnel 

make a series of analyses to determine the fair 

market value of the resources thought to be producible from each unleased tract in a Known Geologic 

Structure.

FIGURE 60. Oil and gas production from Federal and Indian 

lands, calendar years 1967-77.

67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77
TABLE 21. Status of Federal land classification, fiscal year 7977

[Acres in thousands]

Commodity

TOTAL ___ __ _.

Oil and gas _ _ ____ __ _.

Oil shale _______ __ __

Coal __ _ . _ _ _____ _

Geothermal resources _ _ _ _

Phosphate ___ __ ___ ___ _

Potassium _ _ _ __ ___ _ ___

Sodium _ _ _ __ _ _ __ _ __ _

Sulfur ________ . _______

Mineral

withdrawn

. __ 45,379

14 177

20,171

1,620

9,411

Classified

Nonmineral

38,169

101

33,430

4,638

lands

Mineral

43,016

4

41,975

412

625

Prospectively

lands *

2,355,408

1,476,019

14,369

17,946

350,976

103,192

30,599

88,212

268,502

5,593

Known

Undefined

6,550

5,928

2

53

567

leasing areas

Defined

29,359

11,873

13,507

3,249

64

378

288

1 These figures represent the total acreage for each leasable mineral 

commodity and, because some acreage contains more than one mineral 

commodity, do not reflect total acreage prospectively valuable.

When a new oil and gas discovery is made on a 

Federal lease, the area is designated as an "Undefined Known Geologic Structure." The Bureau of 

Land Management then halts any additional noncompetitive leasing until the boundaries of the newly discovered petroleum bearing geologic structure 

can be accurately defined and a legal description of 

the structure is published in the Federal Register.

The leasing of Indian lands is administered by the 

Bureau of Indian Affairs on behalf of various tribes or 

individual Indian allottees. The Bureau of Indian Affairs usually relies on the Geological Survey to parcel 

tracts to be leased, provide analyses of expected 

mineral values, supply guidance in the acceptance or 

rejection of high bids offered by producers, and supervise resulting production in accordance with Federal mineral development and environmental regulations.

The Conservation Division has more than 6.7 million hectares (161/2 million acres) of land under classification within Known Geologic Structures. In fiscal 

1977, the Bureau of Land Management held 13 lease 

sales, in which 444 tracts covering 33,096 hectares 

(81,780 acres) were offered for development.

Regulatory procedures associated with onshore oil 

and gas development differ from those used in mining 

and geothermal operations because of the different 

regulations and technologies involved. All, however, 

involve the basic components of review and approval 

of development plans, regulation of exploration, development and production activities, and the collection of appropriate royalties. In oil and gas production, however, the Conservation Division must also 

approve off-lease storage arrangements, the mixing 

of various products in transportation systems (commingling of light and heavy crude oil in a pipeline, 

for example), and plans r^y various producers to cooperatively develop a single area. The Division also

approves methods of production measurement, and 

the establishment of sales contracts. The Federal Government generally receives VQ of produced resources 

as royalty from onshore production. The cost of shipping government oil to refineries is deducted from 

the "Vs" as a legitimate cost to the Government, 

whether royalties are paid in cash or in kind.

At the close of fiscal year 1977, the Conservation 

Division was administering 13,800 producing oil and 

gas lease accounts covering 3,684,000 hectares 

(9,100,000 acres) on Federal and Indian lands. This 

number was 2 percent higher than the 13,541 active 

leases under management the previous year.

Production from these onshore leases during 

fiscal year 1977 totaled 188 million barrels of oil 

and 32.6 million cubic meters (1,150 billion cubic 

feet) of natural gas. Income from rents and royalties 

for these leases totaled $297 million by the close of 

the fiscal year, an increase of 6 percent, or $18 million over the previous year.

The Survey's Conservation Division processed 

16,554 applications for exploratory drilling and producing operations, approved 3,078 new exploration 

and development wells, prepared 3,066 environmental analyses of proposed operations, and conducted 

22,130 on-site inspections of drilling and producing 

operations.

Because most of the easily discovered oil and gas 

deposits have been developed, advanced techniques 

are now required to enhance recovery and maintain 

production levels from these already developed deposits. Substantial new supplies remain to be found, 

but these are believed to be smaller in scope, located 

in remote areas, and more costly to develop and 

transport to the marketplace than the currently produced reserves. However, partly because of significant 

increases in the price of oil and gas, the search for 

new supplies onshore accelerated in 1977.

PROGRAMS AND ACTIVITIES | 143
COAL

More than nine percent of the Nation's 1977 coal 

production occurred on Federal and Indian land 

leases, primarily in Arizona, Utah, Wyoming, New 

Mexico, Colorado, North Dakota and Montana. It is 

principally in the High Plains that large deposits of 

coal, generally with a low sulfur content, lie close 

enough to the surface to be mined economically using surface mining techniques. Surface mining involves the use of large power excavation and earth 

moving equipment to remove overburden, expose 

the underlying coal seams, strip away the coal, and 

replace the surface material and replant vegetation.

In other areas of the West particularly in the 

mountain areas, and in most parts of the Eastern 

United States the depth of overburden is too great 

for economical surface mining. Here, underground 

mining methods must be used.

The Conservation Division maintains a coal resource evaluation program to compile, and if necessary to acquire basic engineering and geologic information. This effort involves systematic test drilling to obtain core samples of coal and overlying 

rocks and preparing geologic field maps to delineate 

the quantity, quality, and extent of coal resources. 

These activities are carried out in order to locate and 

designate Known Recoverable Coal Resource Areas 

(KRCRAs) on public lands. During fiscal year 1977, 

the Conservation Division received geophysical logs 

and core samples from approximately 1,500 test holes 

drilled in the States of Colorado, Montana, North 

Dakota, New Mexico, Utah, and Wyoming. Information from these drilling activities was used in the 

definition of 10 new KRCRA's covering about 1,700,- 

000 hectares (about 4,200,000 acres) and the addition 

of about 40,000 hectares (100,000 acres) to 4 existing 

KRCRA's.

Activities include coal resource evaluations for Federal lands offered for competitive lease. The Survey 

also reviews data submitted by preference right lease 

applicants to determine if the commercial quantities 

requirement has been met. In order to assess the potential commercial value of Federally owned coal resources in lease tracts, the Conservation Division 

compiles and analyzes all available geologic, engineering, environmental and economic information 

pertinent to the tracts and considers current industry 

recovery techniques and costs and the present and 

foreseeable market demand and pricing pictures. 

Two products of this analysis are Coal Resource Occurrence (CRO) and Coal Development Potential 

(CD?) maps, prepared for use in BLM's and the Department's land use planning. Contracts were issued 

calling for the acquisition of over 500 CRO/CDP maps 

over the next 12 month period while interim producFICURE 61. Areas of active coal projects of the Conservation 

of Lands and Minerals activity on Federal lands during fiscal 

year 1977.

tion of CRO/CDP maps provided coverage for over 50 

quadrangles. Coal resource economic evaluations 

were conducted for 2 sales, and commercial quantities 

test data for 5 Preference Right Lease Applications 

were reviewed.

As of the end of fiscal year 1977 the Secretary of 

the Interior was conducting a review of the general 

coal leasing system adopted by the previous administration. It is expected that this system will be 

modified or totally reconstructed to reflect a deeper 

concern for the environment, increased public participitation, and a more responsive relationship with 

the affected state and municipal governments. Additional data gathering and analysis, finalization of Departmental policy and possibly additional environmental impact statements will be necessary before 

any general coal leasing may be resumed.

Existing leases on Federal and Indian lands cover 

more than 435,042 hectares (1,075,000 acres) and during fiscal year 1977, more than 61,700,000 metric tons 

(68,000,000 short tons) of coal were produced from 

578 coal leases, primarily in Western States. Conservation Division personnel performed 533 on-site inspections of production operations, approved 124

144 | CONSERVATION OF LANDS AND MINERALS
EXPLANATION

j__j Land valuable prospectively for coal

^^H Known recoverable coal resource areas (KRCRA)

FIGURE 62. Status of coal classification on Federal and Indian 

lands in the Western United States.

amendments to mining, exploration and transportation plans, and participated in preparation of 121 

environmental impact analyses related to pending 

mining plans. Royalties from all producing coal lease 

accounts on Federal and Indian lands totaled 

$15,526,000 in fiscal year 1977.

CEOTHERMAL RESOURCES

There are several areas in the conterminous United 

States and Alaska where subsurface geologic formations or the radioactive decay of various minerals 

creates heat near the earth's surface. This heat, is 

"stored" in rocks some of which may be permeated 

by water. In some areas this hot water may be locked 

underground by impermeable materials, while in 

other locations it may freely circulate to the surface 

through series of fissures and porous rock formations. 

In the latter case, the water may appear naturally 

as hot springs, or geysers.

The temperature of the water at depths may far 

exceed the boiling point, but the added pressure at 

these depths keeps the water from becoming steam. 

The drilling of a geothermal well, however, allows 

the water to rise toward the surface, decreases the

pressure upon it, and at the higher "superheated" 

water temperatures turns a portion of the water to 

steam. That steam can drive turbine generators to 

create electricity. Geothermally heated water or air 

can also be used directly to heat buildings, dry crops, 

melt snow and a variety of other applications. Most 

homes and businesses in Iceland, for example, are 

heated with geothermal waters.

In order for a geothermal reservoir to have the potential for commercial development as an energy 

source, it must possess several characteristics including these :

 A minimum reservoir temperature of 170°C 

(338°F).

 A depth near enough to the surface to permit 

drilling within current technological limits 

roughly 3,050 meters (10,000 ft) or less.

 Adequate permeability of the subsurface rock formations to provide a continuous flow of fluid at 

a relatively rapid rate.

 Sufficient subsurface water, or a means of pumping back into the Earth the fluids used in production, so that a means of conveying the heat 

to the surface is available and circulation over a 

period of many years is assured.

With the passage of the Ceothermal Steam Act by 

the Congress in 1970, the responsibilities of the Geological Survey were broadened to include geothermal 

resource evaluation, classification of lands with resource potential, and the regulation of Federal geothermal lease operations.

Rules and regulations governing geothermal steam 

resource development were published in 1973 and a 

geothermal leasing program was initiated by the Department of the Interior the following year. Between 

1974 and the close of the transition quarter, 172 

geothermal lease tracts were offered and bids totaling more than $15,495,000 were accepted. By the 

close of the transition quarter, 120 geothermal exploration plans had been approved and more than 39 

exploratory wells had been drilled.

During the past fiscal year, 117 geothermal tracts 

covering 75,690 hectares (187,000 acres) were offered 

for lease. 14 sales were held resulting in receipts of 

$2,693,754.

For leases already under development, 13 exploratory drilling plans were approved and the Survey's 

Conservation staff performed 75 on-site inspections 

of drilling operations.

Resource evaluation studies during the past year 

resulted in the classification of 37,603 hectares (92,917 

acres) of land as Known Ceothermal Resource Areas 

(KGRA's), which are subject to competitive leasing.

PROGRAMS AND ACTIVITIES | 145
By the close of fiscal year 1977, a total of 45 geothermal wells had been drilled on public lands in 

California and Utah. Of this number, 19 wells were 

considered capable of providing geothermal energy 

in commercial quantities. Many of these wells are located in northern California, in a large geothermal 

field known as "The Geysers." The only commercial 

geothermal electric generating stations currently operating in the United States are located at the Geysers 

on non-Federal land.

Although all completed wells capable of providing commercial quantities of hot water or steam in 

other geothermal areas have been capped, pending 

development of sufficient steam or needed facilities 

to convert the geothermal resources into other forms 

of useful energy, it has been estimated that geothermal development could provide at least 1,500 

megawatts for use in Western States by 1985.

OIL SHALE

Following establishment of the prototype OilShale Leasing Program by the Department of the Interior in 1971, four tracts were offered for lease by 

competitive bidding after preparation of an environmental impact analysis covering the resources and the 

proposed methods of development. These leases for 

prototype oil shale development in the Green River 

Formation in Colorado and Utah covered 8,300 hectares (20,400 acres) and resulted in the acceptance 

of bonus bids totaling nearly $450 million.

The terms of each lease required the lessees to collect two years of environmental baseline data and to 

file a Detailed Development Plan for review and approval by the Geological Survey before the close of 

the third lease year. The lessees have completed the 

environmental baseline programs and have conducted investigations to determine the extent and 

quality of oil shale resources contained in the lease 

area. Data and information accumulated have been 

provided to the U. S. Geological Survey and are available to other agencies and the public.

The Detailed Development Plan for Federal Oil 

Shale Lease Tract C-b was formally approved on 

August 30, 1977. The lessees, Ashland Colorado, Inc. 

and Occidental Oil Shale, Inc., bid more than $117 

million for the 5,000 acre tract located in the Piceance Creek basin in Colorado, about 25 miles northwest of Rifle. The approved Plan will result in the development of a more than 300 foot-thick zone of oil 

shale using the modified in-situ process, an underground recovery technique. According to the plan, a 

system of shafts and several mine levels will be developed in the underground shale deposit. Approximately 20 percent of the shale will be mined during

this development and deposited on the surface and 

revegetated. The remaining shale in the development 

zone will be explosively "rubblized" in columns 

called "retorts," several hundred feet on a side. Each 

retort will then be ignited at the top, and the oil collected in sumps and pumped to the surface for further 

processing. Escaping gas is also carried away in special shafts to the surface, where it may be burned to 

generate power. This method will recover approximately 190 million cubic meters (1.2 billion barrels) 

of shale oil over the 60 year projected tract life from 

the 447 million cubic meters (3.0 billion barrels) of 

in place resource within the indicated zone. The 

lessees will be required to adhere to the environmental restrictions of the lease and the DDP has been designed to monitor the effect of shale oil production 

on the environment.

During fiscal year 1977, the Detailed Development 

Plan for Federal Oil Shale Lease Tract C-a was submitted by Gulf Oil Corporation and Standard Oil 

Company of Indiana for production of shale oil using 

modified in situ methods. The lessees bid more than 

$210 million for the 5,000 acre tract located in the 

Piceance Creek basin in Colorado about 18 miles 

southeast of Rangely. The Plan proposes the development of an up to 750 foot-thick zone of oil shale. 

Development rock removed from the underground 

mine and hoisted to the surface will be retorted in 

surface retorts during commercial operations. The insitu retorts will be rubblized by a method similar to 

sub-level caving, then ignited and retorted in place.

The lessees of tracts U-a and U-b; Phillips Petroleum Company, Sunoco Energy Development Co., 

and Sohio Petroleum Company; located in the Uinta 

Basin of Utah were granted an injunction by the Federal District Court during fiscal year 1977. The injunction was the result of legal conflicts with regard 

to unpatented pre-1920 oil shale placer mining claims 

and the State of Utah's in-lieu land selections. A Detailed Development Plan was submitted by the 

lessees in June of 1976 for development of the 

tracts by underground room and pillar-mining methods with surface retorting of oil shale. This Plan has 

not been approved because of the injunction.

There are an estimated recoverable 3.6 billion tons 

(3.3 billion metric tons) of oil shale containing 30 

gallons (114 liters) or more of oil per ton, in the four 

tracts now under lease. A potential supply of 510 

million cubic meters (3.2 billion barrels) of oil might 

be extracted if the oil shale technology now proposed 

proves viable upon actual demonstration.

Brine recovery operations from Federal lease land at Searles 

Lake, California. Major products of this operation include 

potash, soda ash, borax, and salt cake.

146 | CONSERVATION OF LANDS AND MINERALS
WATERPOWER CLASSIFICATION

Because potential waterpower and water storage 

sites are becoming increasingly scarce, their value is 

growing. Such water sites on Federal lands are classified to preserve the right of the Government to authorize and license development of hydroelectric 

and water storage projects and to assure that the 

value of the sites will be properly considered in land 

use planning and land disposal actions.

More than 5.7 million hectares (14 million acres) 

of Federal land are presently classified as potential 

waterpower or water storage sites. During fiscal year 

1977, 10,600 hectares (26,300 acres) were classified 

or reclassified. The Survey's Conservation staff also 

provided detailed site information for more than 100 

water resource planning areas to Federal land management agencies during the fiscal year.

OTHER LEASEABLE MINERALS

Federal and Indian lands contain a variety of leaseable minerals beside oil, gas and coal. Enriched compounds of uranium, used to fuel today's nuclear 

powered electrical generating stations, are derived 

from uranium oxide, 9.6 percent of which is mined 

from Indian land leases in the Western States of 

New Mexico and Washington.

Other valuable metallic minerals also come from 

acquired public lands as well as Indian lands. At 

present, more than 3.7 percent of the nation's domestically produced copper, 31 percent of the zinc, 

55 percent of the sodium, and 72 percent of our domestic lead supplies are extracted from leases on such 

lands. Production of metallic minerals totaled 3,521,- 

316 metric tons, worth $361 million, during fiscal 

year 1977 and supplied more than $16 million in 

royalties.

Phosphate and potash deposits are now under 

more intense development following a dramatic rise 

in the demand for fertilizers in recent years. More 

than 88 percent of the nation's domestically produced 

potash, for example, now comes from Federal leases 

in New Mexico and California.

Sulfur is another element valuable in the production of certain acids, chemicals, and rubber compounds. Native sulfur is brought up from offshore 

wells in a manner similar to oil and gas production. 

Hot brine is pumped into a subsurface formation 

where it dissolves deposits of sulfur. The mixture is 

then pumped back to the surface, where separation 

techniques remove the sulfur for commercial sales.

During fiscal year 1977, the Survey carried out 

429 on-site inspections of prospecting permits and 

leases and determined the appropriate royalties for 

more than 14,815,000 metric tons of non-energy minerals produced from Federal and Indian lands. These 

materials had a market value of approximately $537 

million and brought $24.6 million in royalty revenue 

to the Federal government.

REFERENCES

Adams, M. V., John, C. B., Kelly, R. F., LaPointe, A. E., and 

Meurer, R. W., 1975, Mineral Resources Management of the 

Outer Continental Shelf: U.S. Ceol. Survey Circ. 720, 32 p.

Danenberger, Elmer P., Oil Spills, 1971-1975, Gulf of Mexico 

Outer Continental Shelf: U.S. Ceol. Survey Circ. 741, 47 p.

Duncan, D. C., Swanson, V. E., 1965, Organic-Rich Shale of the 

United States and World Land Areas: U.S. Geol. Survey Circ. 

523, 30 p.

Godwin, L. H., Haigler, L. B., Rioux, R. L, White, D. E., Muffler, 

L. ). P., and Wayland, R. G., 1971, Classification of Public 

Lands Valuable for Geothermal Steam and Associated GeoThermal Resources: U.S. Geol. Survey Circ. 647, 18 p.

National Coal Association, 1976, Coal Facts 1975-1976, 95 p.

U.i>. Geological Survey, 1974, Leasing and Management of 

Energy Resources on the Outer Continental Shelf: U.S. Geol. 

Survey INF-74-33, 40 p.

U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the Energy Research 

and Development Administration, 1975, Assessment of Geothermal Resources of the United States: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Circ. 726, 155 p.

U.S. Geological Survey, 1976, Geothermal Steam Act of 1970 

and Regulations on the Leasing of Geothermal Resources: 

U.S. Geol. Survey, 45 p.

U.S. Geological Survey, 1977, Policies, Practices and Responsibilities for Safety and Environmental Protection in Oil and 

Gas Operations on the Outer Continental Shelf: U.S. Geol. 

Survey, 25 p.
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Land Information and Analysis

INTRODUCTION

Headlines of local as well as national news items 

about land resources commonly contain words such 

as lack, damage, and shortage in describing deficiencies in some aspect of environmental quality, 

energy or mineral resources, quantity and quality of 

water resources, or efficient use of the land. These 

negative connotations reflect the increasing land-resource and area needs of our society, troubled by 

limited and diminishing resources. These problems 

have caused a new interest by officials at all levels of 

government and by the general public, in the need 

for information for planning and problem solving 

especially for solving problems related to wise use 

of the Nation's land resources.

Concern about the environment led to enactment 

of the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969; 

recent Federal, State, and local land-use legislation; 

and intensive study of the impact of shortages of 

energy and mineral resources. As a result, an unprecedented need exists for earth-science and resources information for planning and decisionmaking. For example, determination of the environmental

A major environmental problem centers on energy development 

and its associated impacts on land use. In frontier areas, such 

as the Kenai-Cook Inlet region of Alaska, the magnitude of 

such impacts from offshore oil and natural gas development 

is clearly visible.

impact resulting from accelerated development of 

energy resources, particularly the strip mining of 

Western coal deposits, requires greater knowledge of 

regional hydrology and of the utility of reclamation 

methods in restoring mined lands for future use.

Much of the earth-science information required to 

evaluate impacts of alternative uses of the land and 

to facilitate related planning and decisionmaking is 

derived from more than one of the Geological Survey's core disciplines geology, hydrology, cartography, and geography. In the past the Geological 

Survey responded to the need for such information 

on a case by case basis, but during recent years it 

became obvious that a more formally structured approach to conducting multidisciplinary land-resource 

and environmental studies that require expertise 

from.more than one discipline was necessary. It also 

became obvious that closer interaction between the 

compilers and users of the data, land-resource planners and decisionmakers, was necessary to provide 

the needed data in an understandable and usable 

form. The Land Information and Analysis Office was 

established in 1975 to help serve that purpose.

The Land Information and Analysis Office provides 

scientific and engineering data and interpretive information developed by the Geological Survey and 

other Bureaus of the Department of the Interior, to 

support environmental planning and decisionmaking 

for land use at all levels of government and in the 

private sector. Explicit in this mission is the translation of scientific and engineering information on 

activities involving land and other natural resources 

into readily understandable language and formats so 

as to encourage its use by elected officials, planners, 

public interest groups, the legal profession, social 

scientists, and the general public.

The objectives of the Land Information and Analysis Office are:

 Development and application of multidisciplinary 

earth-sciences, other natural sciences, and geographic technology in support of land-resources 

planning and decisionmaking.

 Mapping current land use and land cover.

INTRODUCTION / LAND INFORMATION AND ANALYSIS | 149
Sand and gravel, stone and clay are the stuff and 

substance of which our modern cities are built, but 

unless careful advanced planning is done, valuable 

deposits of these resources may be covered over, 

cut off, or otherwise rendered inaccessible by the 

relentless outward spread of urban development. 

Their protection requires a whole suite of coordinated actions: (1) Future needs must be forecast 

and potential resource sites identified; (2) Measures must be taken to protect the deposits from 

other preemptive use, although if there is no need 

for immediate extraction, interim temporary uses 

could be permitted; (3) Adequate space for processing plants, access roads, and buffer zones should

 Accomplishment of Geological Survey activities 

directly related to the requirements of the National Environmental Policy Act.

 Collecting, processing, and distributing remotely 

sensed data, and applying other aspects of space 

technology in support of land-resources planning 

and management and environmental impact 

analysis. 

The task of achieving these objectives is carried on

by five multidisciplinary programs:

Earth Sciences Applications (ESA)

Resource and Land Investigations (RALI)

Geography

Earth Resources Observation Systems (EROS)

Environmental Impact Analysis (EIA)

Principal Issues

The principal issues faced by the Land Information 

and Analysis Office in fiscal year 1977 continued basically to fall within these two dynamically evolving 

categories.

1. The recent rapid growth of Federal and State legislation responding to concerns such as energy 

development, coastal-zone management, natural hazards reduction, environmental impact, 

and water quality has greatly stimulated need 

for earth-science information to plan and manage land and water resources. Examples are the 

demands on the research and data-collection 

activities of the Geological Survey recently 

required by Federal programs such as the De150 | LAND INFORMATION AND ANALYSIS
be reserved. In urbanizing areas, companies holding mineral resource land normally will protect 

their investments by requesting appropriate governmental action, but effective protection of resources remote from presently urbanized areas 

may depend upon the preparation of land-use 

plans before requests are received from developers. Measures to assure the protection of mineral resources can be incorporated in land-use 

plans and regulations.

The quarry seen in the photograph is in Northern 

Virginia where the Earth Sciences Applications Program is coordinating an urban area study. It is an 

example of an area where planning for resource 

protection may be appropriate. In the vicinity of 

the quarry, the Dulles Airport noise envelope encompasses a nonurbanized part of a rock formation that is valuable as a source of construction 

aggregate. To ensure the preservation of this resource, and its accessibility in the future, adjacent 

sites could be set aside now. A decision to preserve 

the area for future quarrying should be based on 

analyses of the economic costs and benefits of future quarrying in this area, the costs and benefits 

of importation of construction materials from other 

areas, the environmental disruption from extraction and processing, and the value of other preemptive uses of the mineral resource lands. Ultimate reclamation and utilization of the site for 

noise-free underground facilities, water storage, or 

waste disposal in a sequential operation might provide maximum benefit. However, regional and local planning and regulatory agencies can provide 

for and encourage mineral resource preservation 

and use only when basic information about the resource is available to them at the time that landuse plans are being formulated A

Y- f

8 MILES 

I

8 KILOMETERS

EXPLANATION

Single event noise contour 100 EPNdB1 

Concorde departure

Diabase outcrops

I | Diabase within 100 EPNdB noise envelope 

X Quarry

EPNdB Effective perceived noise level in decibels

2.

partment of Housing and Urban Development's 

Community Block Grants/Entitlement Grants 

and Comprehensive Planning Assistance Program, National Flood Insurance Program, and 

Disaster Relief Act, and EPA Waste Treatment 

Management Planning Program, the Department 

of Commerce Coastal Zone Management Program, and related State and local legislation and 

regulations.

The increasing concentration of the Nation's 

poulation in urban areas and the need for 

greater and more efficient use of land have 

focused attention on the opportunities and constraints the Earth poses to growth and development. For example, Chicago is excavating vast

underground cavities for storage of storm-water 

runoff; and cities throughout the United States 

are placing utilities, communication, and transportation networks in tunnels. These trends, 

along with the increase in high-density, major 

structures in urban areas, have escalated the 

requirements for accurate earth-science data in 

support of planning and decisionmaking.

The Survey has already done much to foster the 

integration of earth-science information into the 

planning process through urban-area studies and 

other means. Much research is still needed on data 

content and interpretation and on application of the 

results of the Survey's work to a broad spectrum of 

resource and environmental management.

PROGRAMS AND PRINCIPAL ISSUES | 151
LAND INFORMATION 

AND ANALYSIS

State and local 

funds $0.19

Miscellaneous nonFederal sources 

$1.74

Direct Federal 

funds $17.70

Reimbursable 

$2.39 W^.

Earth Resources 

Observation Program 

$11.94

Environmental Impact 

Analysis Program 

$6.26

Geography Program 

$2.72

Land Resource Data 

Applications 

$2.56

Reimbursable^ 

$0.11

Direct $2.45

TOTAL $23.48 MILLION

SOURCE OF FUNDS

Budget and Personnel

Obligations for Land Information and Analysis 

Office activities in fiscal year 1977 amounted to $23.48 

million, an increase of 36 percent over fiscal year 

1976 (table 22).

Cooperative programs with State agencies were 

carried on by the Geography program for land-use 

and land-cover mapping.

The work of the Land Information and Analysis 

Office is partly accomplished through contracts to 

private industry and through research grants. Of fiscal year 1977 funds, $7.4 million (31 percent) were expended on contracts. Contract services were the

FUNDS

major source of operational support at the EROS Data 

Center.

The programs of the Land Information and Analysis 

Office were carried out by 205 full-time career employees in 1977; at the end of the year 126 were assigned to the Office's programs (table 44), and 77 

were assigned to other Survey offices in support of 

the work of the Land Information and Analysis Office. 

There were also 65 other than full-time employees. 

In addition, contract support services at the EROS 

Data Center amounted to 279 man-years. Personnel 

of the Topographic, Computer Center, and Administrative Divisions are also assigned to the EROS Data 

Center.

152 | LAND INFORMATION AND ANALYSIS
TABLE 22. Land Information and Analysis Office obligations for fiscal years 1976-77 (dollars in millions)

[Data may differ from that in statistical tables because of rounding]

D, ,~~* Fiscal year Transition Fiscal year 

________________________Progrom_________________________________1976___________quarter__________1977

Total ____________________________________ $17.28 $8.92 $23.48

Earth Resources Observations Systems program ____________ 10.32_________5.46_________11.94

Direct program __________________________________ 8.16 4.84 9.55

Reimbursable program _____________________________ 2.16 .62 2.39

Miscellaneous non-Federal sources ______________________ 1.50 .47 1.74

Other Federal agencies _________________________ .66 .15 .65

Environmental Impact Analysis program _____________________ 2.04 1.31__ _______6.26

Direct program ____________________________________ 2.04 1.31 3.17

Reimbursable program ______________________________ _ _____________________3.09

Other Federal agencies ___________________________ ___ ____ 3.09

Geography program _______________________ 2.53 .77 2.72

Direct program __________________________________ 2.34 .75 2.53

Reimbursable program __________________________ .19 .02 .19

States, counties, and municipalities __________________ .13 .02 .19

Other Federal agencies ____________________________ .06

Land Resource Data Applications program (ESA and RALI) _________ 2.39 1.38 2.56

Direct program ___ _______________________________ 2.37 .90 2.45 

Reimbursable program ___________________________ .02 .48 .11

Other Federal agencies ______________________________ .02 .48 .11

Highlights Compilation of land-use and land-cover maps and

	data for approximately 1,040,000 square kilo- 

	meters (400,000 square miles), bringing the total

 Publication of "Flood-Prone Areas and Land Use area mapped to 2,730,000 square kilometers

Planning," one of the final interpretive reports (1,050,000 square miles) since the nationwide

stemming from the San Francisco Bay Region En- land-use mapping program started in fiscal year

vironment and Resource Planning study, describ- 1975.

ing the development and use of maps of flood- Procurement of the EROS digital image processing

prone areas and other flood-plain information in system (EDIPS), which will permit processing of

regional and local land-use planning. Much of much improved imagery products from the

the information and many of the techniques pre- Landsat-C satellite data. Installation will be comsented are applicable in communities through- pleted in early 1978.

out the Nation. Participation in a lead or joint-lead responsibility

 Conduct of a series of regional workshops (partially in the preparation of 18 environmental impact 

funded by EPA) to acquaint State and local coast- statements and participation in a non-lead caal zone management officials with planning pacity in the preparation of 20 impact statemethods and information for assessment of on- ments, most of which were energy related. Reshore impact of oil and gas exploration and de- view of 1,800 impact statements and related 

velopment on the Outer Continental Shelf. documents.

BUDGET AND PERSONNEL | 153
Publication in the Federal Register on April 12, 

1977, of a description of the Survey's capabilities 

and limitations for advance recognition and 

warning of geologic-related hazards and the procedures to be followed in carrying out the responsibilities delegated under the Disaster Relief 

Act of 1974.

EARTH SCIENCES APPLICATIONS 

PROGRAM

Program and Activities

The Earth Sciences Applications (ESA) Program was 

established to direct and coordinate multidisciplinary 

Geological Survey projects aimed at providing earthscience information for land-resource decisionmaking. 

The program's objectives are threefold: (1) To interpret, demonstrate, and encourage the use of earthscience information for land-resource decisionmaking 

through specially designed projects and report products, and through interaction with and technical assistance to users; (2) to stimulate, coordinate, and 

integrate multidisciplinary land-resource studies in 

the Survey; and (3) to serve as the focal point within 

the Survey for multidisciplinary studies in support of 

the work of other Federal, State, and local agencies.

Urban Area Studies

To accomplish its objectives, the Earth Sciences 

Applications Program has emphasized projects designed to interpret, and assist in the application of, 

earth-sciences information bearing on land-use conflicts in selected urban-centered areas of the United 

States (fig. 64).

These urban area studies are conducted by personnel from the Geologic, Water Resources, and Topographic Divisions supported by allocations of personnel and funds from the Earth Sciences Applications 

Program. In fiscal year 1977, about $1.6 million were 

allocated to urban area studies. In addition, these 

studies were able to build upon about $0.5 million 

of related research conducted by the other divisions 

of the Survey in the project areas.

Selected Applications

Fairfax County in Virginia. A preliminary map 

showing mineral-resources availability in Fairfax 

County was released early in fiscal year 1977. On the 

basis of the mineral-resource map and supporting 

data, the County planning staff has initiated studies of 

the socioeconomic aspects of sequential development 

of lands, a practice that allows mineral recovery in

tcnown resource areas without foreclosing other potential high-value land uses. These studies ultimately 

could lead to the development of ordinances to encourage such sequential uses.

A series of interpretive ground-water maps and 

supporting data have been prepared which indicate 

that sufficient ground water probably is available in 

parts of Fairfax County to serve as a significant supplementary source of supply, at least on an intermittent basis during periods of shortage. Because of prevailing near-drought conditions and diminished surface-water availability in the summer of 1977, the 

County Board of Supervisors requested the Survey 

to prepare a proposal for a drilling program to verify 

the preliminary conclusions presented in the maps 

and accompanying text. The request also expressed 

Fairfax officials' long-term concerns for adequate 

water supplies. The proposal was approved, and work 

started in September 1977 on the program. The potential ground-water resource tentatively defined by 

Fairfax County project studies may represent a significant alternative for consideration in metropolitan 

water-supply planning.

Puget Sound area of Washington. A report on the 

effects of recent volcanic activity at Mount Baker on 

water quality of Baker Lake was released early in 

fiscal year 1977. On July 13, 1977, a major snow and 

ice avalanche occurred in Sherman Crater on Mount 

Baker, partly filling the East Breach of the crater rim, 

through which acidic water drains from the crater. 

Data from a previous ESA study were used by Puget 

Sound project personnel to assess the hazard potential of a possible damming of the crater water by the 

avalanche and later sudden release of the accumulated acid water. The evaluation was released to the 

public by the Mount Baker Information Committee, a 

group formed by Federal, State, local, and power 

company officials concerned over possible effects of 

increased activity of Mount Baker.

As a consequence of the severe drought in the 

Pacific Northwest, the Washington State Department 

of Ecology requested additional copies of a recent 

report relating climatic factors to land-use planning in 

the Puget Sound basin for the use of State officials in 

drought response planning. This report, as well as 

others stemming from Puget Sound project studies, 

has also been used by the Seattle District, U.S. Army 

Corps of Engineers, in their regional planning studies.

Colorado Front Range Urban Corridor. A comprehensive report on the causes and effects of the 

disastrous flood of the Big Thompson River in northern Colorado in August 1976 is being prepared by 

personnel of the Geologic and Water Resources Divisions, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Admin154 | LAND INFORMATION AND ANALYSIS
\

EXPLANATION

A-Sherman Peak B-Lahar Lookout C-New ice pits opened since avalanche 

D Crater lake, now covered by avalanche, was here

E Steam plume from a large fumerole that opened last year (one of 

the indications of increased thermal activity 1976}

F-Avalanche debris G-Black buttes remnants of old volcanic crater

FIGURE 63. Avalanche in Sherman Crater on Mount Baker, 

Washington.

, ^ -K-^r-ii^? , _,^ _

*- v '^*^^^il,vS' ^fea

'i^t^^^:^^:^^

^^^fm^^^W?^^^
Geologic Disasters: from .Resignation to Hope

Results of landslide, Palos Verdes, Los Angeles, Calif., 1957. If the high landslide potential of this area 

had been recognized before construction took place, extensive losses could have been prevented.

istration, and the Colorado Geological Survey. The 

report will be published in the near future in the 

Geological Survey Professional Paper series and will 

describe the weather conditions contributing to the 

flood, the geologic and hydrologic effects, and the 

hazards that resulted. In addition, technical assistance 

will be provided to aid in developing preparedness 

and mitigation plans.

Geologic-Related Hazards Information

Under the broad responsibilities assigned to the 

U.S. Geologic Survey in the Organic Act of 1879, the 

Survey has, for many decades, undertaken studies of 

earthquakes, volcanoes, and other natural hazards.

In recent years, as knowledge of these and related 

geologic phenomena increased, the Survey developed capabilities for predicting some potentially hazardous events in certain areas. The Survey has the 

implicit obligation to inform civil authorities and the 

public of such predictions.

Under the provisions of Public Law 93-288, the 

"Disaster Relief Act of 1974" (88 Stat. 143), and subsequent delegations of responsibility, the Director, 

Geological Survey, is directed to ". . . provide technical assistance to State and local governments to insure 

that timely and effective disaster warning is provided 

. . . for an earthquake, volcanic eruption, landslide, 

mudslide, or other geological catastrophe."

156 | LAND INFORMATION AND ANALYSIS
After thousands of years of being burned, buried, and 

buffeted by the assaults of earthquakes, volcanoes, and 

other geologic upheavals, Man may at long last be acquiring the ability to mitigate if not avoid altogether the 

consequences of these natural hazards to life and property. This, at least, is the implication of a statement published in the Federal Register in April 1977 by the Geological Survey which describes its capabilities and proposed procedures for providing information on geologicrelated hazards to Federal, State, and local authorities. 

The statement also spells out a proposed policy for the 

issuance of "Notices of Potential Hazards," "Hazard 

Watches," and "Hazard Warnings" if any geologic processes or conditions are identified that could be hazardous 

to life or property.

Geologic processes and conditions that could result in 

harm to people and property include earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, landslides, mudflows, subsidence, faulting, and fissuring of the ground surface, and glacier-related phenomena such as release of glacier-dammed lakes 

and rapid ice surges or retreats. Under certain conditions, 

these events may occur suddenly and affect large numbers of people and property over a wide area; in other 

instances, however, the processes involved occur slowly 

or affect very limited areas so that few if any people are 

endangered.

Scientists can now predict some hazardous events with 

relative accuracy, but continuing research is needed to 

enable reliable predictions of other types of events to 

be made. Prediction of the precise location, time, and 

magnitude of specific earthquakes, for example, cannot 

generally be made now. On the other hand, continuous 

monitoring of Kilauea ' and Mauna Loa volcanoes in 

Hawaii by an array of instruments and by systematic 

measurements permits the assessment of the likelihood 

of impending activity, although predictive capability has

not been achieved tor volcanoes in Washington, Oregon, 

and California that have erupted within the last 150 

years, or for volcanoes in Alaska.

The time, place, and magnitude of landslides can be 

predicted only in small, individual landslide areas in 

which detailed geologic and engineering studies have 

been conducted. On a larger scale, however, some areas 

and geologic formations can be identified as being particularly susceptible to landsliding. The Palos Verdes 

landslide shown in the photograph is in one of these susceptible areas. Glacier-related hazards can, in some cases, 

be predicted if adequate field measurements and historical data are available. Specific subsidence events caused 

by ground-water withdrawal can be anticipated in certain 

areas, such as in parts of Alabama, California, and Texas 

where studies are underway. Once subsidence involving 

slow compaction of sediments is initiated, the rate can 

be measured and, in some cases, the ultimate amount 

can be estimated.

When and where information is obtained that suggests 

the development of a hazardous condition, the Geological Survey will attempt to authenticate it, and communicate such information to appropriate State, local, and 

Federal authorities and to the public. The Survey recognizes that Earth Sciences information, provided in accordance with its expertise, is only the first of many 

kinds of information needed by State and local governments and the public to avoid or mitigate the effects of 

geologic hazards. The actual adoption of the most effective mitigation measures by local authorities will result from a cooperative effort by agencies at all governmental levels and by non-governmental organizations and 

the public. Decisions for adoption of such mitigation 

measures should be based upon a broad range of Earth 

Science, engineering, and socioeconomic information. A

As the focal point for multidisciplinary land-resource studies in the Survey, the Earth Sciences Applications Program has been instrumental in developing 

guidelines and procedures to enable the Survey to 

carry out its hazard warning responsibilities effectively. On April 12, 1977, a statement was published 

in the Federal Register describing the Geological Survey's capabilities and limitations for advance recognition and warning of geologic-related hazards and 

the procedures proposed to be followed in carrying 

out the responsibilities delegated under the Disaster 

Relief Act of 1974. The Federal Register notice was 

distributed to all Governors, State Geologists, and 

State emergency-preparedness agencies, as well as

to appropriate Federal agencies. Efforts are now 

underway to establish effective communications procedures for hazards information and warnings in cooperation with designated State and Federal agency 

representatives.

Tunneling-Feasibility Studies

Tunneling-feasibility studies for rapid-transit systems, funded by the Department of Transportation 

through the Earth Sciences Applications Program, 

were completed in fiscal year 1977 for the central 

business districts of Minneapolis-St. Paul, Minn., and 

Los Angeles, Calif, (fig. 64). The objectives of these 

two projects were to assess the need for, and the

EARTH SCIENCES APPLICATION PROGRAM | 157
availability of, hydrologic and geologic data relevant 

to the construction, maintenance, and operation of 

underground transit systems for the two metropolitan areas. A series of data and interpretive maps for 

each of the projects is being prepared for publication. 

Discussions are underway with the Department of 

Transportation concerning possible follow-on studies 

of the effects of various geologic and hydrologic conditions on tunneling costs.

Program Highlights and Other Activities

About 50 data and interpretive book reports and 

maps were prepared during fiscal year 1977 by projects funded through the Earth Sciences Applications 

Program. Educational and technical assistance activities continued to play a major role in furtherance of 

program objectives. Among the more significant accomplishments of the program during the year, in 

addition to those described above, were:

 Publication of "Flood-Prone Areas and Land-Use 

Planning Selected Examples from the San 

Francisco Bay Region, California/' one of the 

final interpretive reports from the San Francisco 

Bay Region Environment and Resource Planning 

Study, a project jointly supported by the Geological Survey and the Department of Housing 

and Urban Development's Office of Policy Development and Research. The report (Prof. Paper

942) describes the development and use of maps 

of flood-prone areas for the San Francisco Bay 

region, the application of these maps and other 

flood-plain information to regional and local 

land-use planning, and the use, regulation, and 

management of flood plains. It also describes 

measures which can prevent or reduce flood loss 

through control of flood-plain use and protective 

measures. Much of the information and many of 

the techniques can be used by planning groups 

involved in the reduction of flood losses in communities throughout the Nation.

Approval for publication of "Nature to be commanded . ..," a guide to the use of earth-sciences 

information for land-use planning. This report 

illustrates and explains how earth-sciences information has been applied to land- and waterresource planning and decisionmaking in selected example areas across the Nation.

Participation in a symposium on geology in Federal land-use decisions, sponsored by the American Geological Institute. The symposium, an 

outgrowth of a series of meetings between geollogists of many Federal agencies, explored the 

present and future role of geologists in Federal 

land-use decisions. Federal representatives discussed the uses of land-use information services 

for the land-management, regulatory, and project functions of Federal agencies.

FIGURE 64. Location of urban area and tunneling studies

EXPLANATION 

Urban area studies Tunneling studies

 Completed FY 1976 O Completed FY 1977 

A Ongoing FY 1977

 Planned for FY 1979
 Presentation of a seminar on earth sciences in planning, in cooperation with the American Institute 

of Planners and Virginia Polytechnic Institute and 

State University. The seminar was attended by 

professional planners from city and county governments, private consultants, and county planning commissioners from Virginia and the Washington, D.C., metropolitan area. Much of the 

content of lectures and many of the examples 

presented were from the Baltimore-Washington 

and Fairfax County urban area studies.

RESOURCE AND LAND INVESTIGATIONS 

Program and Activities

The Resource and Land Investigations (RALI) Program was established in 1972 by the Secretary of the 

Interior to provide ". . . the organizational framework 

to mobilize more effectively the Department's technological capacity and scientific competence for objective analysis of the alternatives in land use, to provide, with appropriate collaboration by other agencies of government, the knowledge base for efficient 

and safe land and resource development, and to 

evaluate the tradeoffs between resource development 

and environmental protection concerns." The Geological Survey was assigned the role of "lead agency" 

to manage the RALI program to set about the task 

of improving technical communication between the 

collectors and analysts of resource and land information and the planners, managers, and decisionmakers 

in government, industry, and the public sector.

The Resource and Land Investigations (RALI) Program undertakes projects which address multidisciplinary natural-resources management problems 

that run through the missions of many Bureaus of 

the Department. The program's clientele are primarily Federal, State, and local land-use planners, but 

also others that require a suite of earth-science, biological, and socioeconomic data, methods, and technologies that are not available from any single Departmental bureau.

Program activities involve:

 Product evaluation in which the utility and reliability of resource planning methods and technologies and the usefulness of information products are tested against real world problems of 

the planning community. An example of this 

activity is the ongoing study with the Council of 

State Governments to find more efficient and 

accurate ways for States to communicate their 

natural-resource data needs to Federal dataproducing programs.

 Methodology development where the existing 

information base is used to generate, analyze, 

and evaluate alternatives in land and resource 

planning and decisionmaking. An example of this 

activity is the joint Resource and Land Investigations Program/Bureau of Indian Affairs/Colville 

Confederated Tribes study utilizing a high-technology approach to support land-resources management via a computerized geographic information system.

Colville planning meeting.

RESOURCE AND LAND INVESTIGATIONS PROGRAM | 159
Investigation of Geologic Hazards It's The Laui in Santa Clara County

Those wishing to build in or near potentially 

hazardous areas in Santa Clara County, California, 

may be required to file a geologic site report prior 

to development of such areas, according to a 

change made in the County Ordinance Code by 

the Board of Supervisors in 1974. The need for 

such a report is determined by a designated County 

official for each proposed development on the 

basis of County hazard maps. Each report must: 

(1) be prepared by an engineering geologist registered in the State; (2) be submitted to the County 

for approval; and (3) specify the remedial measures 

to be undertaken that will make the development 

safe. Santa Clara County is one of the largest and 

fastest growing counties in the San Francisco Bay 

region. The County, and in particular its areas of 

greatest geologic hazards, are relatively undeveloped. Most of the geologic hazards have been 

identified and mapped.

A map of composited geologic hazards based 

in large part on Geological Survey data, was prepared by the County Planning Department as the

official geologic-hazards map for use in the County 

subdivision, building, and grading ordinances. A 

portion of the composite map is shown here. Reproducible copies of the map at a scale of one inch 

equals one mile are available from the County. 

Ten maps (maps numbered 7a through k in the 

official ordinance) from the San Francisco Bay Region Environment and Resource Planning Study 

(an urban area study conducted by the Geological 

Survey in cooperation with the Development of 

Housing and Urban Development) were adopted 

and specifically cited in the ordinance.

Open File Report 76-547 entitled "Use of USGS 

Earth Science Products by County Planning Agencies in the San Francisco Bay Region, California" 

contains other examples of applications of USGS 

information. The County has a state-certified engineering geologist in its Land Development Engineering Department who participated in the development of the ordinance and who has major responsibility for its day-to-day administration. A

 Technology transfer which includes the packaging of information in usable forms, the conduct 

of workshops and other educational events, and 

the provision of short-term technical assistance 

to the State and local planning community. An 

example of this activity is the ongoing series of 

regional workshops with the American Society 

of Planning Officials to acquaint State and local 

coastal zone management officials with the planning methods and information base available to 

help them anticipate more accurately the onshore effects of Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) oil 

and gas resource development.

 Information dissemination which includes the 

compilation of directories, catalogs, and bibliographies to land-resource data, technologies, 

and sources of expertise.

Accomplishments

 Completion of a joint project with the Energy Research and Development Administration (Argonne National Laboratory) to develop methods 

for integrated mining, reclamation, and regional 

land-use planning.

 Initiation of an interagency agreement with the 

Argonne National Laboratory to conduct six regional workshops to transfer the results of the 

joint project (see above) to working planners, 

mining engineers, and concerned public officials.

 Completion of a joint project with the New England River Basins Commission (NERBC) to develop a generalized planning methodology to 

estimate the onshore impacts from the development of Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) oil and 

gas resources.

 Sponsorship of a series of 12 regional workshops 

for coastal State and local planners (2 to be 

held at each of 6 coastal locations, at 1-year 

intervals in Atlantic City, N. J.; Ocean City, 

Md.; Savannah, Ga.; Otter Rock, Ore.; Biloxi, 

Miss.; and Fairbanks, Alaska) with the objective 

of transferring the state-of-the-art planning

160 | LAND INFORMATION AND ANALYSIS
Subdivision, Building, and Grading Ordinance Amendment

The Board of Supervisors of the County of Santa 

Clara, State of California, do ordain as follows:

SECTION 6: Building Permits.

Section C3-36 of the Santa Clara County Ordinance Code is added to read:

C3-36: Geologic Report.

Section 301(b)7 is amended to read: 

Section 301 (b) 7. Give such other information as reasonably may be required by the Building 

Official, such as a geologic report, which shall be 

necessary where the County determines that such report is needed on the basis of the County hazard 

maps.

SECTION 7: County Hazard Maps.

Article 3 is added to Chapter IV of the Santa 

Clara County Ordinance Code to read:

Article 3. County Geologic Hazard Haps.

Section C12-277. Definition. Whenever 

the land development regulations refer to County 

hazards maps, the reference is to the official 

Santa Clara County geologic hazards maps as herein 

adopted and which may be amended from time to time 

by resolution of the Board of Supervisors, which maps 

are the basis for determining whether a geologic report shall be required. The adopted maps are identified as follows:

Map Number 

and Name

Part of Ordinance No. NS 1203.31.

EXPLANATION

Where geologic report normally is required

Where geologic report may be required 

Where geologic report normally is not required

Part of official Geologic Hazards Map, from Santa Clara County Seismic 

Safety Plan (Santa Clara Planning Department, 1975). Scale, 1:250,000.

methods for estimating the onshore impacts of 

DCS oil and gas development. (Workshops are 

partly funded by EPA and are managed by the 

American Society of Planning Officials.)

Completion of the South Florida Environmental 

Study with the publication of Geological Survey Professional Paper 1011, "The Environment 

of South Florida: A Summary Report." The report summarizes and interprets the results of 

51 technical studies prepared by seven Federal, 

State, and local agencies and presents the information in a form suitable for analysis by planners and land-use decisionmakers.

Initiation of an agreement with the Council of 

State Governments to assess the extent to which 

the various land record systems of the State of 

Wisconsin are amenable to automation and 

consolidation, and publication of "Natural Resource Data Needs Recommendations" by the 

Council of State Governments.

 Completion of Critical Areas and State Land Inventory Systems Projects, begun originally in cooperation with the Office of Land Use and Water 

Planning of the Department of the Interior.

In little more than 4 years, the program and its 

cooperators, grantees, and contractors have published, released, or have in preparation, more than 

70 reports, maps, inventories, or directories. The 

distribution of publications resulting from one supported activity, the Council of State Governments' 

Task Force on Natural Resource and Land-Use Information, had exceeded 30,000 copies by the end 

of fiscal year 1977. The program has also sponsored 

or co-sponsored 1 national symposium and 14 

regional or national workshops designed to transfer 

technical knowledge to State and local resource 

planners. Additional workshops are scheduled in 

fiscal year 1978 on topics including mined-area reclamation, coastal zone planning, and natural-resource information systems.

RESOURCE AND LAND INVESTIGATIONS PROGRAM | 161
GEOGRAPHY PROGRAM

Programs and Activities

The Geography Program links and integrates social science information and the techniques of geographic analysis with earth-science information collected by the Geological Survey. Activities include:

 Mapping land use and land cover on a nationwide 

basis.

 Developing and demonstrating land-use and landcover mapping techniques, using remotely sensed 

data and a geographic-information system.

 Conducting field investigations and participating 

in multidisciplinary studies that contribute to 

solutions of planning and technical problems 

arising from interactions of land-use practices 

and environmental factors.

 Contributing to the National Atlas project.

Planning and implementing programs designed to 

promote wise use of the land depend in part on a 

knowledge of the present distribution of, and temporal changes in, different types of land use and land 

cover and on a knowledge of where urbanization 

and other types of development are occurring. The

FIGURE 65. Status of land-use and land-cover mapping.

EXPLANATION

Maps on open file

Planned production FY 78

162 | LAND INFORMATION AND ANALYSIS
location, area, and percentages of various types of 

land use and land cover are among the types of 

statistical data used by Federal and State legislators 

and local officials to determine land-use policy, to 

project demands for different types of land use, to 

predict where future development pressures will occur, and to formulate plans for regional development. Current land-use and land-cover data also support Federal and State planning for developing 

energy resources, managing public lands, siting facilities, developing recreational areas, managing 

water resources, and assessing potential and actual 

natural disaster damages.

National Land-Use and Land-Cover 

Mapping and Data Compilation

In fiscal year 1977, the Geography Program continued the nationwide land-use and land-cover mapping and data-compilation effort, established by the 

Geological Survey in fiscal year 1975 as the Land Use 

Data and Analysis program and designed to alleviate 

or remedy many of the shortcomings of various types 

of existing data. Maps of current land use and land 

cover for the entire Nation are being compiled at a 

scale of 1:250,000, and at a scale of 1:100,000 where 

such new intermediate-scale base maps are available 

(see fig. 65). Additional maps of Federally-owned 

lands, political units, Census county subdivisions, and 

hydrologic units are being prepared in overlay format in order to relate to the current land-use and 

land-cover data on these areal units.

The classification system being employed to map 

land use and land cover places primary reliance on 

remotely sensed data as the principal type of source 

material used in mapping. The system was developed 

after consultation with many Federal and State agencies, and it incorporates common terminology and 

can accommodate land-use and land-cover data 

'gathered in greater detail.

A computerized geographic-information system 

has been developed to store and retrieve the data 

compiled under the national land-use and land-cover 

mapping program and related research projects. The 

system includes: (1) entry of digitized land-use and 

land-cover maps and other related data; (2) editing 

and updating of the data base; and (3) retrieval, 

manipulation, and automated plotting of the data for 

area measurement, comparative analysis with other 

data, and other analytic applications. Statistical summaries are prepared that present land-use and landcover data for counties, watersheds, Census county 

subdivisions, and Federally-owned land.

Experimental and demonstration land-use and landcover maps are produced to test various techniques

of mapping, methods of detecting change, applications of remotely sensed data, regional applications, 

classification variation, computer applications, and 

combinations of map scale and minimum mapping 

unit.

The Geography Program has provided technical 

assistance to users of Geological Survey land-use and 

land-cover data and maps, and to those who desire 

to use the data in conjunction with computer software developed by the Geography Program or who 

need the data converted to use with other systems. 

For example, the Geography Program is cooperating 

with and assisting the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 

the Bureau of Outdoor Recreation, the Bureau of 

Land Management, the Environmental Protection 

Agency, the Soil Conservation Service, the Forest 

Service, the Appalachian Regional Commission, the 

Ozarks Regional Commission, the Pacific Northwest 

Regional Commission, and many State and local 

agencies to utilize the Geological Survey's land-use 

and land-cover data in their resource management 

and planning.

Accomplishments

Accomplishments of the Geography Program during fiscal year 1977 included:

 Compilation of land-use and land-cover maps and 

data for approximately 1,040,000 square kilometers (400,000 square miles) during the year, 

the third year of the national land-use mapping 

effort, bringing the total area completed for 

such mapping to 2,730,000 square kilometers 

(1,050,000 square miles). As in the first two years 

of the program, the emphasis continued on mapping coastal areas, energy-production areas, 

other areas for which such mapping was desired by other Survey units and other Federal 

agencies, and areas for which cooperative agreements for land-use and land-cover maps had 

been made. Land-use and associated maps for 

81 quadrangles were released to the open file 

in fiscal year 1977, bringing the total released 

to 153.

 Completion of research on the compatibility of 

land-use and land-cover pattern on Geological 

Survey maps of the Chattahoochee River basin 

in Georgia. These area measurements are being 

compared with field samples of river pollutants 

and sediments by the Survey's Water Resources 

Division.

 Completion of research on the compatibility of 

Geological Survey data files on land use and 

land cover with U.S. Bureau of the Census data 

on population in the Jacksonville, Florida, area.

GEOGRAPHY PROGRAM | 163
 Mapping was completed under cooperative agreements for the States of West Virginia, Alabama, 

and Missouri. Arkansas, Louisiana, Kansas, Florida, Pennsylvania, and the Atlanta Metropolitan 

Region were previously mapped under cooperative agreements.

 Training seminars on map compilation were conducted for personnel from the States of Kansas, 

Pennsylvania, and Missouri.

 Land-use and land-cover data for forty-three 

1:250,000- scale quadrangles covering 760,000 

square kilometers <295,000 square miles), and 

data from 258 associated maps comprising a 

total of 3,470 meters (11,385 feet) of map polygon boundary lines, were digitized through a 

contract for automated laser line-following digitizing and entered into the Geography Program 

information system.

 Completion of a series of sixteen 1-day seminars 

jointly sponsored by the Geography Program, 

LIA, and the Topographic Division, which involved Survey personnel and members of the 

Commission on Geographical Data Sensing and 

Processing of the International Geographic 

Union, on the status, and trends in handling 

digital spatial data in the U.S. Geological Survey.

 Completion of a 3-year joint demonstration 

with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), the EROS Program, and on 

behalf of the Pacific Northwest Regional Commission, of the use of Landsat digital data in 

land-resource management.

 Establishment of a 3-year Applications System 

Verification Test (ASVT), with NASA, for assessing the utility of Landsat digital data for updating maps in the Geological Survey's national 

land-use and land-cover program.

 Completion of the first phases of experiments in 

North Dakota, Kansas, and Nevada, testing the 

use of digital land-cover monitoring techniques 

in regions of diverse environments for unique 

patterns of land-cover change.

 Establishment of a Geography Program resident facility at NASA Ames Research Center, enlarging 

the Survey's capabilities to conduct continuing 

research and quasi-operational tasks using large 

capacity computers and digital data from Landsat 

satellites.

 Release to the National Technical Information Service (NTIS) of the first magnetic tape product (derived by machine processing of 1973 Landsat 

digital data) containing land-cover information 

of the Washington urban area, including the District of Columbia, and parts of Maryland and 

Virginia.

 Statistical summaries of land use and land cover 

tabulated by associated map sets were completed for the State of Kansas.

 Preparation of initial versions of vegetation/landcover maps of the 100,000 square kilometers 

(38,000 square miles) of the National Petroleum 

Reserve in Alaska (NPRA) in support of Department of the Interior land-use studies and environmental assessment of that area.

 Demonstration of a laser-exposing technique for 

making plates for lithoprinting color, for a landuse and land-cover map in digital format and 

with accompanying area statistics.

 Establishment of a Geography Program post at the 

Institute for Behavioral Science, University of 

Colorado, for the study of institutional responses 

to the information available on environmental 

hazards.

 Completion of research reports on the effect of 

land-use and land-cover conditions on the local 

climatic patterns around urban areas.

 Completion of an analysis of changes in land use 

and land cover in southern Idaho during past 

periods of phosphate mining.

 Initiation of research at the request of the Bureau 

of Outdoor Recreation to inventory sites favorable for recreational development as shown on 

Geological Survey maps of land use and land 

cover for barrier islands and beaches along the 

Atlantic and Gulf coasts and for selected urban 

areas.

 Publication of Professional Paper 1059, "GIRAS: A 

Geographic Information Retrieval and Analysis 

System for Handling Land Use and Land Cover 

Data," which details the design and development of the computer-based information system 

being used in the national land-use and landcover mapping and data-compilation program.

EARTH RESOURCES OBSERVATION 

SYSTEMS PROGRAM

Program and Activities

The Earth Resources Observation Systems (EROS) 

program, administered by the Geological Survey for 

the Department of the Interior, develops techniques 

to obtain and to analyze remotely sensed data and 

promotes the use of these techniques in fulfilling the 

resource and environmental inventory and management responsibilities of the Department. This objective is accomplished in cooperation with the National 

Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), the 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

(NOAA), and other Federal agencies.

164 | LAND INFORMATION AND ANALYSIS
Program personnel work closely with representatives of the Department's bureaus and offices to coordinate and jointly sponsor applications of remotesensing technology. Much of the research, which has 

resulted in the demonstration of numerous new applications, has been made possible by the experimental data acquired through the NASA's Landsat 

and Skylab programs and their aerial remote-sensing 

research program. Other research draws on data collected by other systems, such as the environmental 

satellites of NOAA and aerial remote-sensing activities sponsored by Department of the Interior bureaus 

and other Federal and State agencies.

EROS Data Center

The EROS Data Center in Sioux Falls, S. Dak., maintains an extensive archive of satellite imagery and 

aerial and space photographs of the Earth, processes 

and distributes photographic and digital products, 

and provides extensive user training and technical 

assistance in the use of remotely sensed data. The 

Data Center's archive is a major component of the 

Survey's National Cartographic Information Center.

TRAINING AND ASSISTANCE

A major function of the EROS Data Center is to 

communicate the results of remote-sensing research 

to potential users. Technical training programs, ranging in length from a few days to one month, stress 

the use of remotely sensed data to particular applications such as forest inventories or mineral exploration.

During fiscal year 1977, the Data Center held training courses and workshops for 650 participants. In 

addition to 17 discipline-oriented courses and 1 technical symposium, 3 new courses in digital techniques 

were included in the training program. At the request of the Bureau of Land Management, computer 

methods of enhancing and analyzing imagery data 

from the 2-million-acre Denali test site in Alaska 

were demonstrated to Bureau representatives who 

are cooperating with NASA in the establishment of 

an operational information system.

The 8th and 9th International Workshops given at 

the Data Center and 2 similar courses given in Buenos 

Aires were attended by 120 foreign participants. 

EROS Data Center staff also cooperated with Water 

Resources Division of the Survey and NASA in conducting 2 workshops on the use of Landsat and Geostationary Orbiting Earth Satellite (GOES) data collection platforms in Bolivia and Chile.

Orientation courses were presented to participants 

in the National Petroleum Reserve of Alaska environmental assessment project; to Bureau of Mines personnel concerning strip mine monitoring; and to 

members of the Mining Enforcement Safety Administration concerning ground stability in surface 

and underground mines.

DATA ANALYSIS LABORATORY

Begun as an adjunct to formal training courses, 

the Data Analysis Laboratory (DAL) has become a 

focal point for demonstrating and developing new remote-sensing techniques. Sophisticated instruments 

such as the Interactive Digital Image Manipulation 

System (IDMS), densitometers, additive color viewers, 

zoom transferscopes, and stereoviewers are available 

to users with technical guidance from experienced 

machine operators and resource scientists. There 

were about 600 visitors to the DAL in 1977 participating in such activities as:

 Compositing data from Landsat, aeromagnetic, 

gravity, and topographic sources to aid in interpreting geological anomalies (Geologic Division, Geological Survey).

 Experimentation with the use of portable IDIMS 

terminals in remote desert areas that are under 

study (Bureau of Land Management).

 Use of IDIMS in mapping phreatophytes (waterloving plants) along the Colorado River to determine the feasibility of an operational resources inventory (Bureau of Reclamation).

 Combining radar and Landsat data as an experiment in image enhancement (EROS).

APPLICATIONS ASSISTANCE FACILITIES

User assistance and training are conducted also at 

Applications Assistance Facilities (AAF's) in Mississippi, Fairbanks, Alaska, Phoenix, Ariz., and the Canal 

Zone.

In accordance with plans made in 1972, the 

Phoenix AAF was transferred to the Arizona Resources Information System, in the State government, 

and the Menlo Park EROS function was combined 

with the Western Region National Cartographic Information Center (NCIC). The AAF's and NCIC regional offices maintain browse files and microfilm of 

aircraft and satellite imagery and have terminals to 

the main computer complex at Sioux Falls. A new inquiry, ordering, and accounting system has permitted 

more efficient processing of inquiries and purchasing of imagery through the regional centers.

DATA PRODUCTION AND DISSEMINATION

The EROS Data Center produces and distributes 

materials from data collected by satellites and aircraft. 

Dollar volume of these products sold in fiscal year 

1977 amounted to $2,515,000 (table 23). Landsat

EARTH RESOURCES OBSERVATION SYSTEMS | 165
products, while totalling only 18 percent of the data 

base, accounted for $1,674,000, or 62 percent of the 

total sales. Sales of digitally enhanced scenes totalled 

$137,000 and computer compatible tapes $371,000, 

more than 30 percent of total Landsat sales, reflecting 

the increased trend toward digital processing of Landsat data. Foreign users and industry are the principal 

purchasers of Landsat data, accounting for 32 percent 

and 27 percent, respectively, of the total sales. The 

Federal government is the next largest purchaser at 

about 24 percent. Academia, private individuals, and 

State and local agencies account for the remainder.

TABLE 23. Sale of data from satellites and aircraft 

in fiscal year 7977

Landsat imagery ______ $1,303,000 

CCT's _______ 371,000

Total Landsat ___________ $1,674,000 

Manned satellites ____________ 52,000

Total value of space products _______ $1,726,000 

NASA aircraft _______ $ 366,000 

USCS aircraft ________ 423,000

Total value of aircraft products ________ 789,000

Total value of air and space products _____ $2,515,000

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING SYSTEM

The digital image processing system being implemented by Coddard Space Flight Center and the 

EROS Data Center will provide products from Landsat-C data in 1978 which will be superior to those 

which have been available from Landsats 1 and 2. To 

simulate products of this new system, images from 

Landsats 1 and 2 were computer enhanced (fig. 66), 

on a special order basis, by means of a laser-beam 

film recorder controlled by a digitally modified computer compatible tape. Terrain brightness and feature edges were enhanced, striping was reduced, and 

distortions were removed. About 175 scenes were 

enhanced in this way; image quality approximates that 

which will be routinely available when the production system becomes operational next year.

Status of Landsat Satellites

Landsat-1, although designed to last only 1 year, 

began its sixth year in orbit in July 1977. Even though 

both of its tape recorders and band 4 of its multispectral scanner are no longer functioning, the satellite is still transmitting useful data to ground stations 

in the United States, Canada, Brazil, and Italy. Canada 

opened a second receiving station in 1977, Iran has 

one nearly completed, and several other countries 

are planning to build receiving stations.

Eighty-five research studies, reflecting the broad 

range of disciplines using Landsat-1 data, were summarized in Professional Paper 929 entitled, "ERTS1, A New Window on Our Planet," and published in 

1976. This award-winning publication is being reprinted after having sold out in 6 months and is 

now being translated into Japanese by Professor H. 

Takeuchi of Tokyo University for the Asakura Publishing Company.

Landsat-2, launched in January 1975, has lost one 

of its two tape recorders but is otherwise performing well. The format of the data from the two Landsats is identical, permitting interchangeable use.

Landsat-C is to be launched early in 1978 into an 

orbit at the same altitude so it will also have the same 

data format, assuring continuity to users. The sensors 

will be virtually the same as those on Landsats 1 and 

2 except that a thermal band is being added to the 

multispectral scanner, and the Return Beam Vidicon 

camera system, little used on Landsats 1 and 2, is being modified to improve the resolution by a factor 

of ten.

COVERAGE OF TRUST TERRITORIES

To determine its usefulness in mapping shallow 

seas and analyzing changes due to major storms, 

Landsat-2 coverage was acquired of parts of the Trust 

Territories of the western Pacific, which are administered by the Department of the Interior. Because only 

one of the four tape recorders on Landsats 1 and 2 is 

still working, coverage of areas out of range of ground 

stations, such as the Trust Territories, had to be obtained on a priority basis by special arrangement with 

Goddard Space Flight Center.

W. T. PECORA MEMORIAL SYMPOSIUM

Two hundred and twenty-five participants attended 

the second W. T. Pecora Memorial Symposium on 

mapping with remotely sensed data, sponsored by 

the American Society of Photogrammetry, at Sioux 

Falls, S. Dak., in October 1976.

In October 1977, the third Pecora Symposium, on 

applications of satellite data to petroleum and mineral 

exploration, was sponsored by the American Society of Petroleum Geologists. More than 600 participants from 30 nations attended.

Proceedings of the first Pecora Symposium were 

published by the Survey as Professional Paper 1015.

Accomplishments

 Approval for publication for approximately 30 

manuscripts concerning agriculture and vegetation, activities of the EROS Data Center, geology, 

luminescene studies, floods, urban change detection, wetlands and wildlife habitat, and two 

maps.

166 | LAND INFORMATION AND ANALYSIS
W090-88I W089-30I W089-00I

IW090-30 W090-00I 

09RPR76 C N30-25/W089-33 N N30-25/W089-29 HSS 5

W089-30I N029-30I 

D 9UN EL51 FEII8 I90-6I7B-N- I -N-P-2L NRSfl ERTS E001 

3- 15360-5 02

I!

OCDCD

FIGURE 66. A Landsat-2 image (band 5) of New Orleans, La., which has been computer enhanced at the EROS Data Center.

 Participation in planning of future satellites, such Visits of nearly 19,000 people to the EROS Data

as Landsats C and D, Seasat, and the Space Center to become acquainted with applications

Shuttle, by communicating to NASA the par- of remotely sensed data.

ticular data requirements of scientists of the Continued training and demonstration of new apSurvey and other bureaus in the Department. plications in the field of remote sensing.

EARTH RESOURCES OBSERVATION SYSTEMS J 167
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ANALYSIS 

PROGRAM

Program and Activities

The Environmental Impact Analysis (EIA) Program 

provides an integrated Geological Survey response to 

the requirements of the National Environmental 

Policy Act (NEPA) through:

 Direction, coordination, and expertise in the preparation of environmental impact statements (EIS) 

for which the Survey has lead or joint-lead responsibility.

 Scientific and technical support of the preparation 

of statements for which the Survey has contributing responsibility.

 Technical analyses and review of statements and 

related documents prepared by other agencies.

 Manuals, guidelines, and training courses on the 

preparation and review of statements.

 Environmental research.

NEPA requires that a Federal agency contemplating 

a major action that could significantly affect the 

quality of the environment must prepare a detailed 

statement of the possible environmental impacts. The 

Act further requires that statements must be reviewed 

by other Federal agencies having pertinent jurisdiction or expertise. In final form, the statement plays an 

essential role in an agency's decisionmaking process.

The Geological Survey becomes involved as a lead 

agency in the preparation of statements through the 

Conservation Division's regulation of mineral-resource exploration, development, extraction, and reclamation operations on Federal lands. The Survey 

becomes involved as a participating agency, in a nonlead role, both through its regulatory function, as 

described above, and through its special expertise in 

the areas of geology, hydrology, and mining and 

petroleum engineering.

In accordance with guidelines set by the Council 

on Environmental Quality (CEQ), Federal agencies 

submit environmental impact statements to the Department of the Interior for review. The statements 

are assigned by the Department to one or more 

bureaus, primarily on the basis of legal jurisdiction 

or special expertise.

The principal objectives of the Environmental Impact Analysis Program are to:

 Provide a core group of multidisciplinary specialists to assure the continuity of quality standards 

through acquired expertise in the preparation 

and review of EIS's and thorough associated research and training.

 Reduce the time necessary for preparation and review of EIS's while providing thorough and complete coverage of required subject material.

The Environmental Impact Analysis Program is organized functionally into three branches: (1) the 

Preparation Branch which coordinates, reviews, and 

provides expertise to the work of task forces preparing EIS's; (2) the Review Branch which provides 

technical analysis and review of EIS's and related 

documents prepared by Federal agencies; and (3) 

the Research and Training Branch which promotes 

and conducts environmental research and provides 

guidance and training in task force management and 

EIS preparation.

In fiscal year 1977, new guidelines on five specific 

aspects of EIS preparation were compiled and existing 

guidelines and manuals were updated for task force 

leaders and members. A study concerned with developing methodologies for delineating, measuring, 

and monitoring environmental impacts of phosphate 

strip mining in southeastern Idaho was prepared and 

is in final processing prior to publication.

The EIS process has, in the past, resulted in extremely lengthy documents. During fiscal year 1976, 

research was begun, aimed at reducing the large size 

of EIS's. A fundamental objective of the research is 

to reduce the bulk but still maintain the standards of 

quality and thoroughness necessary for decisionmakers. Preparation of a prototype site-specific EIS 

demonstrating reduction of bulk and maintenance of 

quality was started during the year.

During fiscal year 1977, the EIA Program initiated 

studies of the application of a computer simulation 

model in the EIS process for measuring environmental 

changes or impacts that would result from Federal 

actions. With the assistance of the State of Montana 

and the U.S. Bureau of Land Management, a project 

was begun to investigate the impact of coal development in Montana on demography, land and water 

use, and environmental residuals. The model output is in the form of graphic simulations of various 

impacts of given sets of events between the years 

1970 and 2000, the most important of which is simulation of the adverse affects of boomtown growth on 

industrial productivity and the social structure of 

the region.

Accomplishments

During fiscal year 1977, the Survey:

 Took lead or joint-lead responsibility for the preparation of 18 EIS's. Sixteen EIS's concerned the 

development of onshore coal, uranium, and 

oil and gas. One concerned critical minerals,

168 | LAND INFORMATION AND ANALYSIS
FIGURE 67. Locations for which environmental impact statements (EIS's) were in progress or completed during fiscal year 1977.

I Locality numbers are keyed to table 24.1

EXPLANATION

 EIS in progress, USGS lead

A EIS in progress, non-USGS lead

D EIS completed, USGS lead

 EIS completed, non-USGS lead

and one concerned proposed mining legislation 

(fig. 67 and table 24). Five of these statements 

were completed during the year. 

Participated in a non-lead capacity in the preparation of 20 EIS's for which other Federal agencies 

had the lead responsibility (fig. 67 and table 

24). Eighteen of these EIS's were energy related,

involving principally coal leasing and development, uranium, and geothermal energy. Seven of 

these EIS's were completed during the year.

Reviewed and commented on 1,800 EIS's and related documents.

Initiated studies of the application of systems dynamics modeling in the EIS process.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ANALYSIS PROGRAM | 169
TABLE 24. Environmental impact statements completed or in progress during fiscal year 1977

I Locality numbers are keyed to fig. 67 |

Title State Locality 

number Project description

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY LEAD OR JOINT-LEAD RESPONSIBILITY

Westmoreland coal mine 1 __________________ Montana

Crow Shell (Young's Creek) coal mine ____________ ____do

Northern Powder River regional coal leasing and mining __ ____do

Decker Coal Mines 1 _______________________________ ____do

Eagle Butte coal mine 1 ____________________________ Wyoming

East Gillette coal mine ___________________________ ____do

Caballo coal mine _________________________________ ____do

Pronghorn coal mine ____________________________ ____do

Coal Creek coal mine _______________________________ ____do

Rochelle coal mine _______________________________ ____do

Bear Creek uranium mine and mill' __________________ ____do

Phosphate leasing and development 1 ________________ Idaho

Oil-shale tract leasing ________________________________ Colorado-Utah

Central Utah regional coal leasing and development _____ Utah

Southern Utah regional coal leasing and development ____ ____do

National Petroleum Reserve in Alaska __________________ Alaska

Samovar Hills exploratory drilling __________________ ____do

Mining law reform ri ___________________________ Nationwide

1 Determine impacts of proposed 

mining and reclamation plan 

in the Crow-ceded area in 

south-central Montana.

2 Evaluate impacts of mine and 

transportation system on 

Crow Indian Reservation.

3 Evaluate individual and cumulative regional impacts of 

leasing and mining in southcentral Montana.

4 State of Montana and U.S.C.S. 

project to determine impact 

of proposed mining and 

reclamation plan.

5 Determine impacts of Amax 

Coal Co.'s proposed mine 

north of Gillette.

6 Determine impacts of KerrMcGee Co.'s proposed 

mine north of Gillette.

7 Determine impacts of Carter 

Oil Co.'s proposed mine 

southeast of Gillette.

8 . Evaluate impacts of Mobil OilConsolidation Coal Co.'s 

mining and reclamation 

plan southeast of Gillette.

9 Determine impacts of Atlantic 

Richfield Co.'s proposed 

mining and reclamation 

plan south of Gillette.

10 Evaluate impacts of Peabody 

Coal Co.'s project in eastern Powder River basin.

11 Determine impacts of Rocky 

Mountain Energy Co.'s mining and milling operation 

in the national grasslands 

south of Gillette -

12 Determine separate and collective impacts of 16 mining 

plans on Federal leaseholds 

in southeastern Idaho.

13 Evaluate impacts of leasing 4 

tracts for in-situ production 

of shale oil.

14 Evaluate individual and cumulative regional impacts of 

leasing and mining.

15 Evaluate individual and cumulative regional impacts of 

leasing and mining.

16 Evaluate impacts of alternative 

plans for development, production, transportation, and 

distribution of petroleum 

resources in the reserve.

17 Determine impacts of Texaco 

Oil Co.'s proposed oil 

and gas exploratory drilling program.

Determine impacts of proposed legislation to reform 

the mining law of 1872.

See footnotes at end of table.

170 | LAND INFORMATION AND ANALYSIS
TABLE 24. Environmental impact statements completed or in progress during fiscal year 7977 Continued

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PARTICIPATION

Project State Locality 

number Lead agency

West-central North Dakota regional coal leasing and

development ________________________________ North Dakota

Colstrip No. 3 and No. 4 power transmission line _______ Montana ____

Westmorland coal leasing 1 ______________________ ____do ____________

Targhee (Island Park) geothermal __________________ Idaho _____________

Eastern Powder River coal leasing supplement __________ Wyoming _________

Southwest Wyoming regional coal leasing and

development ________________________ ____do

South-central Wyoming regional coal leasing and

development _______________________________ ____do

Regional coal leasing and development 1 _____________ Northwest Colorado

Northwest Colorado coal leasing supplement __________ Colorado ________.

Emery coal mine and power-generation plant 1 _______ Utah _____-_-_____.

Alunite mining and processing 1 __________________ ____do

Northwest New Mexico uranium study _______________ New Mexico

Navajo-Hopi land dispute ________________________ ____do _________

El Paso coal mine and gasification plant 1 ______________ ____do ___--__.___

Exxon uranium exploration leasing 1 _______________ ____do _________.

Navajo-Consolidated coal mine supplement 1 ___________ ____do ___________

United Nuclear Dalton Pass ______________________ ____do ___________

Mobile Oil Crown Point ___________________________ ____do ______.___.

Star Lake-Bisti regional coal leasing and development ___ ____do ____-_-____

Northern Tier Pipeline _________________________ Northern U.S. _____

18 Bureau of Land Management.

19 Bonneville Power Administra- 

	tion.

20 Bureau of Indian Affairs.

21 Forest Service.

22 Bureau of Land Management.

23 Do.

24 Do.

25 Do.

26 Do.

27 Do.

28 Do.

29 Bureau of Indian Affairs.

30 Do.

31 Bureau of Reclamation.

32 Bureau of Indian Affairs.

33 Do.

34 Tennessee Valley Authority.

35 Do.

36 Bureau of Land Management.

37 Do.

1 Completed.

2 Joint-lead responsibility with Nuclear Regulatory Agency and Forest Service.

3 Not shown on fig. 67.

Provided technical information, gathered by other 

Survey programs, to the U.S. Forest Service for 

7 EIS's on geothermal energy resources and to 

the Bureau of Land Management for 8 EIS's on 

leasing of the U.S. Outer Continental Shelf.

Presented training seminars for personnel assigned 

to task forces.

Initiated a prototype site-specific EIS to demonstrate ways to reduce the size of environmental 

impact statements.

Prepared guidelines on five specific aspects of EIS 

preparation to assist task forces in the writing of 

EIS statements.

Prepared a research paper concerned with impact 

monitoring methodologies in EIS preparation.

Initiated an environmental study on the National 

Petroleum Reserve in Alaska to evaluate impacts 

of alternative plans for development, production, transportation, and distribution of petroleum resources in the Reserve.

pi.**..

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ANALYSIS PROGRAM | 171

INTRODUCTION

On June 1, 1977, the National Petroleum Reserve 

in Alaska, formerly known as Naval Petroleum Reserve Numbered 4, was transferred from the Department of the Navy to the Department of the Interior 

in accordance with the Naval Petroleum Reserves 

Production Act of 1976 (Public Law 94-258, U.S. 94th 

Congress, April 5, 1976). The Secretary of the Interior 

charged the Geological Survey with the responsibility 

for continuing the Navy's 7-year petroleum exploration program on the Reserve. Specific tasks for the 

Geological Survey include:

1. Petroleum exploration by means of drilling and 

geological and geophysical investigations to locate, measure and test producible oil and gas 

accumulations on the Reserve, and to build an 

information base to assess the petroleum potential of this region.

2. Development and continued production of the 

South Barrow gas field, or other such fields as 

may be necessary, to supply natural gas at 

reasonable and equitable rates to the native village of Barrow and other communities and installations at or near Point Barrow, Alaska, including Department of Defense and agencies of 

the U.S. Government.

3. Restoration to an environmentally acceptable 

state of certain areas of the Reserve disturbed 

by previous construction and exploration.

The exploration program originally proposed by 

the U.S. Navy is to be completed during fiscal year 

1980. This program provided for drilling twenty-six 

test wells, conducting 10,000 line-miles of seismic 

and gravity surveys, and collecting geologic data to 

produce a reasonable resource appraisal of the petroleum potential of NPRA. Except for continuing the 

operation of South Barrow gas field or other such

Drilling at South Harrison Bay No. 1 on the North Slope, 

at 40°F. (Photograph by Valentine Zadnik.)

field to supply gas in the vicinity of Barrow, the legislation prohibits production from the Reserve and all 

development leading to production of petroleum 

until authorized by Congress.

The exploration program is closely coordinated 

with other studies on the Reserve. The legislation 

requires a Presidential study to determine the 

best overall procedure to be used in the development, production, transportation, and distribution of 

the petroleum resource on the Reserve, including 

alternative procedures (Section 105 (b) (1)). In addition, an Interior-established task force study is to determine the values of and best uses for the lands 

contained in the Reserve, taking into consideration 

the native, scenic, historical, recreational, fish and 

wildlife and wilderness values, mineral potential other 

than petroleum, and other values of such lands (Section 105 (c) (1)).

HIGHLIGHTS

 Completion by the Navy, with the assistance of the 

Geological Survey, of an Environmental Impact 

Statement in May 1977 analyzing exploration 

activities throughout the Reserve.

 Establishment of the Office of National Petroleum 

Reserve in Alaska and recruitment of staff.

 Modification of the contract with Husky Oil NPR 

Operations, Inc., for exploratory operations on 

the Reserve.

 Negotiation of interagency agreements for continuing logistical, communications, and operational 

support for petroleum exploration activities.

 Selection of eight exploratory drilling sites, one 

Barrow area gas-exploration drilling site, and 

two Barrow area gas-development drilling sites.

 Location of 2,081 miles of seismic lines.

 Cooperation and coordination with other agencies 

and groups involved in related activities on the 

Reserve.

NATIONAL PETROLEUM RESERVE IN ALASKA | 173
BUDGET AND PERSONNEL

The Survey received an appropriation of $1,848,000 

during fiscal year 1977 for expenses during the transition period and for organizing and staffing a newly 

established Office of National Petroleum Reserve in 

Alaska (ONPRA). The U.S. Navy budget for Naval 

Petroleum Reserve Numbered 4 for fiscal year 1977 

was $100,492,000. Of this amount, $7,169,633 unobligated funds and $32,017,733 obligated funds were 

transferred to ONPRA on June 1, 1977, to continue 

the exploration effort through the remainder of the 

fiscal year and to support continuing logistical requirements. Additionally, the Office of Naval Research transferred $240,000 to ONPRA to continue 

the operation of the South Barrow Gas Field.

At the time of transfer of the Reserve, five fulltime positions were transferred to the Geological Survey from the Department of the Navy. At the end of 

fiscal year 1977, ONPRA was allocated 32 permanent 

full-time positions and four part-time positions.

HISTORY

President Harding, on February 27, 1923, signed an 

Executive Order creating Naval Petroleum Reserve 

Numbered 4 after early Geological Survey explorers 

described oil seeps along the northern coast of Alaska. 

The Reserve was established as a potential source of 

petroleum during an emergency or crisis. Roughly, 

the boundary of the Reserve extends south from Icy 

Cape to the crest of the Brooks Range, east along 

the divide to longitude 155°37', north to the Colville River and then along the river to the Arctic 

Ocean (fig. 68). The Reserve encompasses 23,680,000 

acres and occupies more than half of the North 

Slope of Alaska. During the several years following the formation of the Reserve, exploration 

activities consisted primarily of field geological studies 

conducted by the Geological Survey. This work established the general framework of the geology of the 

area. World War II brought attention to the need for 

vast quantities of fuel required for mechanized 

weapons and in 1944 (Reed, 1958) the Navy undertook an exploration program which continued until 

1953. This program included drilling of 36 test wells 

and collection of 3,400 line-miles of seismic surveys. 

Several small oil and gas accumulations were discovered but only the South Barrow gas field was developed because of its proximity to the native villages 

and Government installations near Barrow. During 

this period, the Geological Survey conducted extensive studies on the Reserve and published most of 

the technical data. Geological studies continued on

Pt. Barrow

PACIFIC

iocafion of Reserve in Alaska

FIGURE 68. Location map of the National Petroleum Reserve 

in Alaska. More than 100 miles north of the Arctic Circle, 

the National Petroleum Reserve in Alaska encompasses a 

37,000-square-mile area approximately the size of Indiana. 

Most of the Reserve is above the Brooks Range in the nearly uninhabited "North Slope." Its largest village, Barrow, protrudes into the Arctic Ocean and is inhabited by the 2,000 

northernmost citizens of the North American Continent.

the Reserve and in adjacent areas from 1953 to the 

present with emphasis on regional resource appraisal, 

surficial geology and pipeline related investigations.

Although the total objectives of the early Navy exploration effort were not met by the time it was recessed, it was successful in yielding valuable technical 

data concerning Arctic operations. These served as 

the basis for later industry petroleum exploration 

activities in Northern Alaska, and for construction of 

major Government facilities.

As a result of the oil embargo of late 1973, Congress directed the Navy to resume exploration on the 

Reserve. The Navy commenced a 7-year program of 

acquiring and interpreting 10,000 line-miles of seismic and gravity data, and began a proposed 26 well 

exploratory drilling program.

Drilling seismic shot hole in the central part of NPRA at 

 29°C( 20°F). (Photograph by Irvin Tailleur.)

174 | NATIONAL PETROLEUM RESERVE IN ALASKA

Drilling on Top of the World

Environmental and other concerns make the winter season 

the preferable time for drilling operations.

Photograph by Valentine Zadnik.

The Navy prepared an Environmental Impact Statement for what was known as Zone A, located in the 

northeast sector of the Reserve, because this sector 

was thought to have the highest probability of containing producible oil and gas. The Navy drilling program had two major objectives: (1) exploration of a 

possible extension of the Prudhoe Bay trend along 

the northeast edge of the Reserve, and (2) discovery 

of additional gas deposits in the Barrow area to ensure an adequate supply to meet increasing demand. 

The first objective resulted in no new discoveries of 

oil or gas and the results strongly suggest that the 

Prudhoe Bay geologic model does not extend into 

the Reserve. However, several shows of oil and gas 

were noted in some of the recent tests. The second 

objective resulted in the completion of a successful 

gas well in a new field east of the South Barrow gas 

field. The South Barrow gas field is currently the sole 

sources of gas for the village of Barrow. To the date 

of the transfer of the Reserve, the recent Navy exploration program expended $167 million, collected 

7,600 line miles of seismic and gravity data throughout the Reserve, drilled seven exploratory wells in 

the northeast part of the Reserve, and constructed a 

semi-permanent support camp at Lonely, Alaska.

PROGRAM AND ACTIVITIES

Early in 1976, in anticipation of the transfer of the 

Reserve to the Department of the Interior, the Geological Survey established liaison with the Navy and 

its contractors and began reviewing and evaluating 

geological and geophysical data held by the Navy. A 

planning group was established to affect a smooth 

transition and to study ways to best continue the 

Navy exploration program. The petroleum potential 

of the Reserve was studied more fully and in June 

1977 a special report, "The Petroleum Geology and 

Hydrocarbon Potential of Naval Petroleum Reserve

176 | NATIONAL PETROLEUM RESERVE IN ALASKA
Distance, darkness, and the ravages of some of 

the world's worst weather boost the cost of drilling an exploratory oil well to between $10 and 

$30 million on the National Petroleum Reserve in 

Alaska, a 37,000 square-mile tract of land lying between the Brooks Range and the Arctic Ocean. 

Supplies come either by barge through the Bering 

Strait during the brief summer retreat of the Arctic 

ice or by year-round airlift. Because there is a 1- 

year lead-time for shipment of bulk materials and 

equipment from Seattle, planning and design of 

wells and purchase of materials must begin 18 

months in advance of actual drilling. Environmental 

and other concerns make the winter season the 

preferable time for drilling and seismic operations. 

But this is also a period of extreme cold, high 

winds, and near total darkness. Protection of the 

sensitive arctic vegetation and the large distances 

between base camp, drill sites, and seismic crews 

require extensive use of aircraft for supply and 

crew rotation. To keep ground-bearing pressure to 

a minimum, overland transport is by terra-tired vehicles, rolligons, or tracked vehicles over previously staked winter trails and ice roads. Wherever possible, cross country routes use lake ice and bay 

ice again to minimize damage to the tundra.

The permanently frozen ground (permafrost) requires special methods for all construction work 

and for water supply and disposal. At each drill 

site (approximately 9 acres), all facilities such as 

housing, maintenance shops, drilling equipment, 

and fuel and material storage facilities are placed 

on a 4- and 5-foot thick sand or gravel pad to insulate the permafrost. Except for the drilling rig 

and associated equipment which are placed on 

timber piles embedded in the permafrost, all structures are supported about 12 inches above the pad 

by timber blocks to retard heat transfer from structures into the pad and underlying permafrost. Each 

drill site has a landing strip constructed of gravel 

or prepared on lake ice. In the case of deep wells, 

which require 150 to 300 drilling days to complete, 

drilling may be conducted year-round or divided 

into two winter seasons with a recess during the 

summer months. For year-round drilling, construction of an all-weather airstrip capable of handling 

C-130 Hercules aircraft and an all-weather road between the airstrip and pad must be constructed.

The 500,000 to 600,000 gallons of fuel required 

to drill a medium-depth well (12,000 feet) must be 

supplied to the site by rolligon in 85 to 100 trips 

or by C-130 aircraft in 100 flights. More than twice 

this amount of fuel is required for a deep well 

(20,000 feet). Fuel storage on-site is about 70,000 

gallons, a 10-day supply, to ensure that adequate 

fuel is available during bad flying weather.

Project headquarters staff in Anchorage and field 

personnel communicate primarily by telephone, 

utilizing a satellite and a transportation ground 

station located at the base camp at Lonely. The 

base camp at Lonely on the Arctic Ocean is the 

main offloading point for the barges and is the 

main source of supply for individual drilling sites. 

The semi-permanent camp will accommodate approximately 80 workers. A

No. 4, Northern Alaska" (U.S. Geological Survey 

Open-File Report 77-475), was released.

On November 2,1976, the Office of National Petroleum Reserve in Alaska was established with headquarters in Anchorage, Alaska. An operations staff, 

located in Anchorage, manages the development and 

production activities of the South Barrow gas field 

and supervises day-to-day petroleum exploration 

activities of the contract operator, Husky Oil NPR 

Operations, Inc. An exploration strategy staff established in Menlo Park, California, maintains close liaison with the technical staff of the contractor and 

subcontractors, located largely in Houston, Texas. 

This strategy staff also arranges for special technical 

support from units within the Geological Survey at 

the Western Field Center or from outside consultants. 

The group formulates exploration strategy, selects 

drilling targets, designates coring and sampling intervals, locates seismic shot lines, and performs geologic field studies. An ONPRA Liaison Office located

at the USGS National Center in Reston, Va., interacts 

with Department of the Interior offices and serves as 

a focus for budgetary, contractual, and congressional 

matters.

The exploration program in fiscal year 1978 includes three major and interacting elements: drilling, 

geophysical investigations, and geologic studies. In 

addition to continued exploration for gas in the Barrow area, the planned drilling program provides for 

the drilling of four medium depth test wells (wells 

which can be completed in one winter drilling 

season) and two deep test wells (wells which require 

more than one winter drilling season), and the construction of two drilling pads for the fiscal year 1979 

drilling season. The goal of the exploration drilling 

program is to sample, with test wells, a sufficient 

number of different geologic structures within NPRA, 

identifiable from geophysical data, to provide a resource appraisal of the Reserve which will assist Congress in determining the best use of the land within

PROGRAM AND ACTIVITIES | 177
the Reserve. The fiscal year 1978 program represents 

an expansion to areas of the Reserve outside of Zone 

A to test apparent structural traps in areas where 

regional geologic trends and seismic data suggest 

possible favorable stratigraphic relationships or new 

intervals that have not previously been drilled in 

northern Alaska. Emphasis will be placed on evaluation of data acquired in the drilling of wildcat wells, 

to be used for guidance of the future program of exploration and resource evaluation. Laboratory geochemical studies are planned to identify the type and

amount of organic material in rocks from the wells 

and to determine thermal history and source rock potential of these rocks. Similar studies will be carried 

out on outcrop samples. Studies of selected rock units 

to determine their depositional environment, reservoir potential, structure, and stratigraphic relationships also will be carried out in the field and will 

utilize past and future well data. Table ^5 summarizes 

the exploration wells recently drilled by the Navy and 

the wells planned by the Survey during fiscal year 

1978.

TABLE 25. Exploration wells recently drilled by the Navy and exploration wells planned by the Survey during fiscal year 1978

Name

Cape Halkett 

No. 1

East Teshekpuk 

No. 1

South Harrison Bay 

No. 1

Atigaru Point 

No. 1

West Fish Creek 

No. 1

South Simpson 

No. 1

W. T. Foran 

No. 1

Inigok Test Well 

No. 1

Tunalik Test Well 

No. 1

Kugrua Test Well 

No. 1 

South Meade Test Well 

No. 1

Drew Point Test Well 

No. 1

North Kilikpuk Test Well 

No. 1

i * Date Date 

Location spudded ' completed

18 mi ESE of 3/24/75 5/23/75 

Lonely

25 mi S of 3/12/76 5/11/76 

Lonely

50 mi SE of 11/21/76 1/27/77 

Barrow

44 mi SE of 1/12/77 3/10/77 

Lonely

51 mi SE of 2/14/77 4/21/77 

Lonely

41 mi WSW of 3/9/77 4/18/77 

Lonely

23 mi ESE of 3/7/77 4/16/77 

Lonely

60 mi S of 

Lonely

22 mi SE of 

Icy Cape

33 mi E of 

Wainwright 

45 mi S of 

Barrow

14 mi W of 

Lonely

37 mi SE of 

Lonely

> (being planned)

Total 

depth

9,900 ft.

10,664 ft.

11,290 ft.

11,535 ft.

11,427 ft.

8,805 ft.

8,864 ft.

19,775 ft. 

(projected)

19,980 ft. 

(projected)

12,200 ft. 

(projected) 

9,825 ft. 

(projected)

8,300 ft. 

(projected)

7,250 ft. 

(projected)

Deepest horizon 

penetrated

Argillite basement 

(Devonian or older)

Granite basement

Lisburne Croup 

(Mississippian)

Argillite basement 

(Devonian or older)

Kayak shale 

(Mississippian)

Argillite basement 

(Devonian or older)

Argillite basement 

(Devonian or older)

Argillite basement 

(projected)

Argillite basement 

(projected)

Argillite basement 

(projected) 

Argillite basement 

(projected)

Argillite basement 

(projected)

Kuparuk River sandstone (projected)

Status

Dry; plugged and 

abandoned.

Dry; plugged and 

abandoned.

Poor oil and gas 

shows; plugged 

and abandoned.

Poor oil and gas 

shows; plugged 

and abandoned.

Poor oil and gas 

shows; plugged 

and abandoned.

Plugged and 

abandoned.

Oil and gas 

shows; plugged 

and abandoned.

1 Drilling began.

"Shooter" and recorder vehicles on seismic shot line in central part of NPRA, February 1977. (Photograph by Irvin Tailleur.)

\
Photograph by Irvin Tailleur.

Summer field work by USCS geologists in the Southern Foothills augments geophysical studies and exploration drilling.

Geophysical investigations will be conducted in 

three separate areas of the Reserve: (1) 651 line miles 

of detail, high resolution seismic data in the Barrow 

area; (2) 393 line miles of less-detailed seismic data 

in the Umiat area; and (3) 1,037 line miles of reconnaissance seismic data (widely spaced) in the Southern Foothills. The reconnaissance and semi-reconnaissance data will be used to help locate drilling 

sites for future exploratory wells. The high resolution 

seismic data will aid in continuing exploration for gas 

in the Barrow area.

Engineering geology investigations will provide information on the source of suitable construction materials, selection of sites for airfields, road and drilling 

pads, definition of permafrost problems, and possible 

effects of exploration activities on the environment.

In the Barrow area during fiscal year 1978, three 

wells will be drilled; two confirmation wells in the 

recent East Barrow gas discovery and one exploratory 

well in an adjacent untested structure. In addition, 

operation and maintenance of the South Barrow gas

field will be continued to ensure an uninterrupted 

supply of gas to users in the Barrow area.

The environmental restoration of areas disturbed 

during previous construction and petroleum exploration activities will be continued in close coordination 

with the Bureau of Land Management, which has the 

responsibility of managing the surface of NPRA. Approximately two million dollars are planned for this 

activity.

REFERENCES

Carter, R. D., Mull, C. C., Bird, K. ]., June, 1977, The petroleum 

geology and hydrocarbon potential of Naval Petroleum Reserve No. 4, Northern Alaska: U.S. Ceol. Survey Open File 

Kept. 77-475.

Reed, J. C., 1958, Exploration of Naval Petroleum Reserve No. 4 

and adjacent areas, Northern Alaska, 1944-1953: U.S. Ceol. 

Survey Prof. Paper 301, 192 p.

U.S. Geological Survey, 1973, Map Series: Alaska Map E.

U.S. 94th Congress, April 5, 1976, Naval Petroleum Reserve Production Act of 1976: U.S. Public Law 94-258.

PROGRAM AND ACTIVITIES | 179
Honey

A Computer operator answers an inquiry from a remote user 

about mounting a magnetic tape.

' The public map-sales counter in the Central Region Branch 

of Distribution, in Denver, served about 28,000 customers in 

fiscal 1977. Self-service shelves in the background contain the 

most popular Colorado topographic maps.
Program Support Activities

INTRODUCTION GENERAL ADMINISTRATION

Essential Survey managerial, administrative, and 

technical services are furnished by:

 The Office of the Director, through the Director, the 

Associate Director, the Assistant Directors, and 

their respective staffs (excluding the Land Information and Analysis Office) provides executive 

direction, coordinates interagency and intrabureau activities, and guides program development.

 The Administrative Division supplies the Survey's 

programs with budgetary, financial, procurement, 

personnel, and other administrative services and 

manages the Survey's National Center in Reston, 

Virginia.

 The Computer Center Division operates a nationwide computing system and provides Survey scientists with a wide range of automatic data-processing services.

 The Publications Division edits the Survey's scientific and technical publications, as well as its nontechnical booklets; prepares geologic, hydrologic, and other thematic maps for printing; 

prints maps, distributes maps, books, and monographs; and answers inquiries from the public 

about the Survey's work and reports.

Although the Geological Survey Library is operated 

and funded for the most part by the Geologic Division, it is also described in this section because it 

provides service to the research activities of all Survey programs.

Program support activities are financed by direct 

appropriations ("General Administration" and "Facilities" budget activities, table 26), assessments on direct 

and reimbursable program funds of other budget activities (table 26), and reimbursements from other 

agencies ("Miscellaneous services to other accounts," 

table 26).

General administrative expenses include the executive direction and coordination of Survey programs by 

the Director's Office and the provision of financial, 

procurement, personnel, and other administrative 

services by the Administrative Division.

During fiscal year 1977, general administrative expenses (table 43) amounted to $14.0 million. These 

expenses were funded from three sources: (1) the 

"General administration" budget activity, about $3.8 

million; (2) assessments on the directly appropriated 

activities, $7.0 million; and (3) assessments on the 

reimbursable programs, $3.2 million. No assessments 

are made on cooperative funds from State and local 

governments. Despite the Geological Survey's larger 

budget, greater number of employees and increased 

use of grants and contracts, general administrative expenses continued to represent only about 3.2 percent 

of the total Survey budget and have increased less 

than one-half of one percent over the past 5 years.

AUTOMATED SYSTEMS

The Administrative Division has installed several 

new automated systems:

 The Procurement Management Information System 

maintains an inventory by fiscal year of all procurements processed in the Administrative Division's Procurement and Contract functions in 

both the Headquarters and Regional Offices. 

Video terminal data entry minimizes the clerical 

workload and increases the timeliness and accuracy of the data captured for the system. Reports 

on the number and dollar amount of these procurements are produced from the system to inform officials of procurement activities. Work is 

already underway to expand the system to provide additional reports and input to the new Departmental Procurement Information System.

INTRODUCTION / GENERAL ADMINISTRATION | 181
130

120

no

100

90

80

20

n

Small purchases 

Contracts 

I Grants

i 

i

1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977

FIGURE 69. Geological Survey expenditures on grants, contracts, and small purchases, fiscal years 1972-77. Does not 

include contracts for National Petroleum Reserve in Alaska.

The Property Management System maintains and 

provides Headquarters and Regional Offices with 

accurate records on the identity, location, custody, cost, and disposition of all Survey-owned 

property. Daily data entry through a network of 

video terminals ensures a current and accurate 

informational data base from which internal and 

external reports are produced. Outputs from this 

system are distributed to the Divisions as well as 

to the Department of the Interior and General 

Services Administration. One advantage of this 

system is that microfilm and microfiche are now

used instead of paper in the production of two 

master reports. That alone results in the elimination of 230,000 paper files.

 The Financial Management System processes payments, accounting, and payroll data through the 

use of remote computer terminals. This system 

has improved input quality and has reduced the 

time lag between receipt of bills and payments 

to vendors. An increased workload has been managed without corresponding increases in staff.

A separate but related project is the conversion 

of computer-generated reports from hard copy 

to microfiche in order to streamline processing 

and to store financial records more efficiently. 

Ultimately, the majority of the one-half million 

documents handled annually will be on microfiche rather than paper.

PROCUREMENT AND CONTRACTING ACTIVITIES

Procurement and contracting activities continued to 

increase in volume and complexity (fig. 69). Procurements last year ranged from off-the-shelf scientific instruments to complex research and development and systems design, as well as a wide variety 

of professional and nonprofessional services.

In response to the increased level of Geological 

Survey procurements, two publications were issued: 

(1) "Writers Guide for Specifications, Work Statements, and Purchase Descriptions" and (2) "Small 

Purchase Training Guide."

A manual providing easy incorporation of standard 

provisions, clauses, and articles into the procurement 

documents for all types of Geological Survey contracts and solicitations, was drafted. The manual will 

have a detailed overview of each clause and article, 

describing its advantages, limitations, applications, 

and citing pertinent legislation and regulations.

COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY

Scientific research within the Geological Survey is 

supported by a nationwide system of computer facilities managed by the Computer Center Division.

The primary location of batch computing work is 

Reston, Virginia, and consists of two IBM 370/155 

computers. Together, these computers provide highspeed magnetic core memory for 8 million characters of information and online magnetic disk storage for 8.9 billion characters of information. During 

fiscal year 1977, more than 1,100 users from 101 remote locations submitted approximately 370,000 jobs 

to these computers. Most of the terminals used to access the batch system are operated by the Program 

Divisions.

182 | PROGRAM SUPPORT ACTIVITIES
Three new large-scale time-sharing facilities were 

brought online during fiscal year 1977. Located in 

Denver, Colorado; Menlo Park, California; and Reston, Virginia, these new computing facilities utilize 

Honeywell Multics (Multiplexed Information and 

Computing Service) computers. Each Multics system 

provides high-speed magnetic core memory for 2 million characters of information, bulk-store memory 

(faster than disk) storage for 8 million characters of 

information, and 1.2 billion characters of disk storage. 

These facilities allow the scientist to access the computer from a typewriter-like terminal and work interactively with the computer for problem-solving.

Approximately 1,400 users are registered on one or 

more of the three systems and are currently averaging 

more than 20,000 interactive sessions per month.

In addition, the Survey operates a number of other 

large computers:

 Burroughs Corporation Model B-6700 computer 

at the Earth Resources Observation Systems Data 

Center in Sioux Falls, South Dakota.

 Systems Engineering Laboratories, Inc., Model 86 

computer at the Mid-Continent Mapping Center, 

Rolla, Missouri.

 Digital Equipment Corporation Model 11/20 and 

Model 11/45 computers at Flagstaff, Arizona.

The Geological Survey has obtained many minicomputers and mini-computer type devices to support local field and laboratory investigations. These 

computers are dedicated to a specific local requirement and operate in real time.

Some examples of computer applications in operations or under development during 1977 are listed:

 Development of geologic data bases dealing with 

mineral resources, energy resources, and geochemical analyses.

 Operation of a real-time seismic monitoring and 

earthquake detection network.

 Maintenance of the National Water Data Storage 

and Retrieval System including ground-water 

data.

 Simulation of surface-water and ground-water behavior in areas expected to be mined for coal 

and oil shale.

 Production of automated cartographic methods to 

prepare maps from spatial digital data.

 Use of Generalized Uncertainty Economic Simulation System (GUESS) for analysis of lease sale 

tracts.

 Tracking of Bureau of Land Management and Geological Survey activities leading to OCS lease 

sales as an aid to interbureau and interdivisional 

program coordination.

Automated Property Management System.

Development of Property Management System to 

provide Headquarters and Regional Administrative Offices with a current inventory of USGS 

controlled property.

Provision of custom enhancements to Landsat pictures with areas of special geologic interests.

Development of program to optimize and enhance 

the inquiry, order, and account transaction processing system for EROS data.

Development of a method of tracking oil spills 

from satellite-obtained data.

Highlights of computer support activities included:

Installation of three Honeywell Multics timesharing 

computers at the Denver facility in November 

1976, the Menlo Park facility in December 1976, 

and the Reston facility in January 1977.

An intensive training program conducted at all 

three time-sharing facilities. Over 300 man-days 

of instructions in the use of the new timesharing computers were provided by Honeywell 

and in-house instructors to Survey employees.

Acquisition of TYMNET data communications service, a commercial service that provides low-cost 

access to the Honeywell computers from any location in the U.S.

Establishment of procedures to allow outside user 

access to some of the information files maintained on Survey computers.

PROCUREMENT AND CONTRACTING / COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY | 183
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY LIBRARY PUBLICATIONS PROGRAM

The Geological Survey Library is one of the largest 

Earth-Science libraries in the world. The main library 

is located at the Survey's National Center in Reston, 

Virginia; branches are located at major research 

centers in Denver, Colorado; Menlo Park, California; 

and Flagstaff, Arizona. These libraries collectively contain more than 2 million items, including books, 

monographs, serial and periodical issues, pamphlets, 

' single-sheet maps, photographs and negatives, aerial 

photographs, microforms, well logs, field record 

notebooks, and related materials. Although these 

holdings are intended primarily to support the research activities of the Geological Survey, the library 

also serves other Government agencies, State geological surveys, academic institutions, and research organizations throughout the country.

Computerized search service has been extended to 

the Denver and Menlo Park libraries, both of which 

now are equipped and staffed to handle search requests from Geological Survey personnel. Negotiations are underway to access other geoscienceoriented data bases, including GeoArcb/ves, produced 

in England. Computerized files such as Geo-Ref, GeoArch/ves, and Tulsa provide the Survey's reference 

librarians with superior bibliographic tools for more 

efficient exploitation of the library's wealth of primary 

source literature.

The Reston library is investigationg current techniques used to produce computer-generated book 

catalogs. An appropriate software program used in 

conjunction with the magnetic tape record of the 

library's cataloging output will enable the library 

staff to discontinue the manual processing and editing of catalog cards. It is expected that the fourth 

supplement to the Catalog of the U.S. Geological 

Survey Library will be a computer-generated product.

A manual has been written for cataloging maps by 

means of the Ohio College Library Center (OCLC) 

on-line system. Library catalogers are now devising 

guidelines that will satisfy the Survey library's requirements for map cataloging while being compatible 

with the OCLC procedures set forth in the manual. 

Present planning continues to emphasize cooperative cataloging by those repositories with significant 

holdings of Earth-Science maps.

The demand for library services continued unabated, highlighted by the large number of requests 

received from both Survey and non-Survey users for 

energy, environmental, and mineral resources information. Statistics on library acquisition, circulation, and lending/borrowing activities will be found 

in table 54.

Results of research and investigations conducted by 

the Geological Survey are made available to the public through increasingly diverse information services 

and publications.

The number of reports approved for publication 

by the Geological Survey continues to increase. 

About 60 percent of the 3,737 reports prepared 

in fiscal year 1977 were designated for publication in 

professional journals and monographs outside the 

Survey; about 23 percent were placed in open file; 

and the remainder were scheduled for publication by 

the Survey (table 45). The Survey also produced over 

11,300 topographic, hydrologic, and geologic maps 

in fiscal year 1977 (fig. 70 and table 46).

The Publications Division edits the Survey's scientific and technical publications (including professional papers, bulletins, water-supply papers, and circulars) which are printed by or through the Government Printing Office. The Division also prepares 

nontechnical booklets designed to communicate 

many of the Survey programs to the public in a clear 

and understandable manner. In addition to providing 

reproduction manuscripts for geologic, hydrologic, 

and other thematic maps, the Division prints and distributes all Survey maps. The majority of maps are 

reproduced in the Survey's modern printing plant in 

Reston, Virginia, although in recent years a substantial number of maps have been printed by commerFIGURE 70. Number of maps produced, fiscal years 1970-77.

Hydrologic maps including 

flood-prone area maps.

Topographic maps

Geologic maps\

184 | PROGRAM SUPPORT ACTIVITIES
cial firms under contract. The Eastern Distribution 

Center and all nine Public Inquires Offices distribute 

books to the public as agents of the Superintendent 

of Documents. The Public Inquiries Offices also provide a "grass roots" communication network to the 

public by answering a broad range of inquiries dealing with the Survey's work and reports.

Highlights of the Publications Division's program 

in fiscal year 1977 included:

 Printing of 23.5 million copies of 7,719 different 

maps.

 Distribution of 8.7 million copies of maps of which 

5.7 million copies were sold for $5.0 million.

 Transmittal of 183 technical manuscripts to the 

Government Printing Office for printing.

 Distribution of 326,659 copies of technical reports 

of which 64,518 copies were sold for $174,603.

Guide to Publications

Throughout this report, reference has been made 

to information services and publications of the Geological Survey. This section describes how and where 

the public may acquire information and obtain products.

To buy Survey book publications; to buy maps of 

areas east of the Mississippi; or to request Survey 

circulars, catalogs, pamphlets, and leaflets (limited 

quantities free), write or visit:

U.S. Geological Survey 

Branch of Distribution 

1200 S. Eads Street 

Arlington, Virginia 22202

Include check payable to U.S. Geological Survey.

To buy maps of areas west of the Mississippi; or to 

request Survey catalogs, pamphlets, and leaflets 

(limited quantities free), write or visit:

U.S. Geological Survey

Branch of Disrtibution

Box 25286, Bldg. 41, Federal Center

Denver, Colorado 80225

Include check payable to U.S. Geological Survey.

To buy Alaskan maps, residents of Alaska may write 

or visit:

U.S. Geological Survey 

Distribution Section 

310 First Avenue 

Fairbanks, Alaska 99701

Include check payable to U.S. Geological Survey.

To get on the mailing list for the monthly list of 

"New Publications of the Geological Survey" (free), 

write:

U.S. Geological Survey

Mailing List Unit, 329 National Center

12201 Sunrise Valley Drive

Reston, Virginia 22092

To start a subscription to the "Journal of Research 

of the U.S. Geological Survey," the "Earthquake Information Bulletin," or the "Preliminary Determination of Epicenters," write:

Superintendent of Documents 

Government Printing Office 

Washington, D.C. 20402

"Journal of Research": $18.90 per year (plus $4.75 for foreign 

mailing)

"Earthquake Information Bulletin": $3.00 per year (plus 750 

for foreign mailing)

"Preliminary Determination of Epicenters": $4.35 per year 

(plus $1.10 for foreign mailing)

Include check payable to Superintendent of Documents.

To buy books and maps of local areas and general 

interest, visit the Public Inquiries Office in the following states:

Alaska:

108 Skyline Bldg., 508 2d Ave. 

Anchorage, Alaska 99501

California:

7638 Federal Bldg., 300 N. Los Angeles Street 

Los Angeles, California 90012

504 Customhouse, 555 Battery Street 

San Francisco, California 94111

Colorado:

1012 Federal Bldg., 1961 Stout Street 

Denver, Colorado 80294

Texas:

1-C-45, Federal Bldg., 1100 Commerce St. 

Dallas, Texas 75242

Utah:

8105 Federal Bldg., 125 S. State Street 

Salt Lake City, Utah 84138

Virginia:

1-C-402, National Center, 12201 Sunrise Valley Drive 

Reston, Virginia 22092

Washington:

678 U.S. Courthouse, W. 920 Riverside Avenue 

Spokane, Washington 99201

Washington, D.C.:

1028 General Services Bldg., 19th and F Streets, NW 

Washington, D.C. 20244

To obtain information on cartographic data, write 

of visit:

U.S. Geological Survey

National Cartographic Information Center

507 National Center

12201 Sunrise Valley Drive

Reston, Virginia 22092

To obtain information on satellite and space photography, write or visit:

U.S. Geological Survey 

EROS Data Center 

Sioux Falls, South Dakota 57198

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY LIBRARY/ PUBLICATIONS PROGRAM | 185
U.S. Geological Survey Chart of Organization

DIRECTOR

ASSOCIATE DIRECTOR

ASSISTANT DIRECTORS

LAND RESOURCES

ENERGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES

ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION

ADMINISTRATION

PROGRAM ANALYSIS

EASTERN REGION

CENTRAL REGION

WESTERN REGION

TOPOGRAPHIC DIVISION

CHIEF. TOPOGRAPHIC DIVISION 

ASSOCIATE CHIEF

OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND 

TECHNICAL STANDARDS

Branches

Research and Design 

Field Surveys 

Photogrammetry 

Cartography 

Aerial Photography 

and Image Technology

OFFICE OF PLANS AND 

PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT

Branches 

Planning 

Programing 

National Cartographic 

Information Center 

International Activities

MAPPING CENTERS

Eastern Reston.VA 

Mid-Contment-Rolla. MO 

Rocky Mountain Lakewood. CO 

Western-MenloPark,CA 

Special Mapping 

Center-Reston.VA

WASHINGTON LIAISON OFFICE

LAND INFORMATION AND ANALYSIS OFFICE

CHIEF. LAND INFORMATION AND ANALYSIS OFFICE 

ASSOCIATE CHIEF, RESEARCH AND TECHNICAL COORDINATION

EARTH RESOURCES OBSERVATION 

SYSTEMS PROGRAM

RESOURCE AND LAND 

INVESTIGATIONS PROGRAM

GEOGRAPHY PROGRAM

EARTH SCIENCES 

APPLICATIONS PROGRAM

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT 

ANALYSIS PROGRAM

GEOLOGIC DIVISION

CHIEF GEOLOGIST

DEPUTY CHIEF GEOLOGIST. OPERATIONS 

DEPUTY CHIEF GEOLOGIST. PROGRAM AND 

BUDGET

OFFICE OF ENVIRONMENTAL 

GEOLOGY______

Branches

Eastern

Central

Western

Kentucky Geology

Engineering Geology

Special Projects

Astrogeologic Studies

Paleontology and Stratigraphy

OFFICE OF EARTHQUAKE 

______STUDIES_______

Branches

Seismic Engineering 

Seismicity and Earth Structure 

Earthquake Mechanics and

Prediction 

Earthquake Hazards

OFFICE OF ENERGY RESOURCES

Branches

Oil and Gas Resources

Coal Resources

Chemical Resources

Uranium and Thorium Resources

OFFICE OF MARINE GEOLOGY

Branches

Pacific Arctic Geology 

Atlantic--Gulf of Mexico Geology

WATER RESOURCES DIVISION

CHIEF HYDROLOGIST 

ASSOCIATE CHIEF HYDROLOGIST

OFFICE OF MINERAL RESOURCES

Branches

Eastern

Central

Western

Alaskan Geology

Exploration Research

Office of Resource Analysis

OFFICE OF GEOCHEMISTRY 

AND GEOPHYSICS

Branches

Experimental Geochemistry

and Mineralogy 

Field Geochemistry

and Petrology 

Isotope Geology 

Regional Geochemistry 

Analytical Laboratories 

Petrophysics and Remote

Sensing 

Electromagnetism and

Geomagnetism 

Regional Geophysics

OFFICE OF INTERNATIONAl 

_______GEOLOGY_______

Branches

Latin American and African Geology

Middle Eastern and Asian Geology

REGIONAL OFFICES

Eastern Reston. VA 

Central-Denver. CO 

Western- Menlo Park.CA

OFFICE OF THE ASSISTANT CHIEF

FOR RESEARCH AND TECHNICAL

COORDINATION

DEPUTY ASSISTANT CHIEF 

FOR RESEARCH

1

Branches 

Surface Water 

Ground Water 

Quality of Water

OFFICE OF THE ASSISTANT CHIEF

FOR SCIENTIFIC PUBLICATIONS

AND DATA MANAGEMENT

OFFICE OF THE ASSISTANT CHIEF 

__ FOR OPERATIONS

ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICER

REGIONAL OFFICES

Northeastern Reston. VA 

Southeastern Atlanta. GA 

Central-Denver. CO 

Western-Menlo Park.CA

DISTRICT OFFICES
Organizational and Statistical Data

OFFICE OF NATIONAL PETROLEUM RESERVE IN ALASKA

CHIEF, OFFICE OF NATIONAL PETROLEUM RESERVE IN ALASKA 

ANCHORAGE, AK

NPRA LIAISON OFFICE 

Reston, VA

PLANS AND MANAGEMENT OFFICE 

Anchorage, AK

NPRA OPERATIONS OFFICE 

Anchorage. AK

EXPLORATION STRATEGY OFFICE 

Menlo Park, CA

CONSERVATION DIVISION

CHIEF CONSERVATION DIVISION 

ASSOCIATE CHIEF

COMPUTER CENTER DIVISION

CHIEF COMPUTER DIVISION 

ASSISTANT CHIEF

OFFICE OF THE ASSISTANT CHIEF 

FOR PROGRAMS

OFFICE OF THE ASSISTANT CHIEF 

FOR RESOURCE EVALUATION

Branches

Onshore Evaluation

Marine Evaluation

Mineral and Water Classification

OFFICE OF THE ASSISTANT CHIEF 

FOR OPERATIONS

Branches

Mining Operations 

Onshore Oil and Gas Operations 

Marine Oil and Gas Operations

PUBLICATIONS DIVISION

CHIEF PUBLICATIONS DIVISION 

ASSOCIATE CHIEF

Branches 

Systems Analysis

and Programing 

Computer Processing

Computer Information

OFFICE OF 

TELEPROCESSING

REGIONAL OFFICES

Eastern-Washington. DC 

Central-Denver, CO 

Western-Menlo Park 

Gulf of Mexico OCS

Operations-Metaine. LA

FIELD OFFICES

FIELD OFFICES

Denver. CO 

Menlo Park.CA 

Rolla. MO 

Flagstaff AR

ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISION

CHIEF. ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISION 

DEPUTY CHIEF

OFFICE OF THE ASSISTANT CHIEF

FOR MANAGEMENT AND

ADMINISTRATION

Branches

Administrative Services 

Plans and Program Management 

Data Systems

OFFICE OF THE ASSISTANT CHIEF 

FOR RESEARCH AND TECHNICAL 

_____COORDINATION_____

Branches

Technical Coordination

and Standards 

Research and Development

NTERNATIONAL ACTIVITIES

PRINTING LIAISON

OFFICE OF PUBLIC 

INQUIRIES

Branches

Budget Management

Financial Management

General Services

Management Analysis

Personnel

Procurement and Contracts

REGIONAL OFFICES

Eastern - Reston VA 

Central-Denver, CO 

Westera-Menlo Park. CA

PUBIIC INQUIRIES OFFICES

MANAGEMENT OFFICES

Eastern Reston. VA 

Central-Denver. CO 

Western-Menlo Park. CA

FIELD OFFICES
U.S. Geological Survey Offices

HEADQUARTERS OFFICES

12201 Sunrise Valley Drive 

National Center, Reston, VA 22092

OFFICE OF THE DIRECTOR

Official Name Telephone number Address

Director ____________________________ V. E. McKelvey i703) 860-7411 National Center, STOP 101 

Associate Director ______________________ W. A. Radlinski (703 860-7412 National Center, STOP 102 

Washington Liaison Officer _______________ George W. Whetstone (202) 343-3888 National Center, STOP 103

Rm. 7343, Interior Bldg., 

Washington, DC 20240

Assistant Director Land Resources ____________ James R. Balsley (703) 860-7488 National Center, STOP 104 

Assistant Director Energy and Mineral Resources __ Mentis R. Klepper (703) 860-7481 National Center, STOP 171 

Assistant Director Environmental Conservation ____ Henry W. Coulter (703) 860-7491 National Center, STOP 106 

Assistant Director Administration ____________ Edmund J. Grant (703) 860-7201 National Center, STOP 201 

Assistant Director Program Analysis __________ Dale D. Bajema (703) 860-7435 National Center, STOP 105 

Assistant Director Eastern Region ____________ William B. Overstreet (703) 860-7414 National Center, STOP 109 

Assistant Director Central Region ____________ Robert E. Evans (303) 234-4630 Denver Federal Center,

Box 25046, STOP 101, 

Denver, CO 80225 

Assistant Director Western Region __________ George E. Robinson, (415) 323-8111 345 Middlefield Rd.,

Acting Menlo Park, CA 94025 

Information Officer _____________________ Frank H. Forrester (703) 860-7444 National Center, STOP 119

TOPOGRAPHIC DIVISION

Official Name Telephone number Address

Chief _______________________________ Rupert B. Southard, (703) 860-6231 National Center, STOP 516

Acting

Associate Chief ________________________ Rupert B. Southard (703) 860-6232 National Center, STOP 516 

Office of Research and Technical Standards, Chief __ Roy R. Mullen (703) 860-6291 National Center, STOP 519 

Office of Plans and Program Development, Chief ___ Doyle G. Frederick (703) 860-6281 National Center, STOP 514 

National Cartographic Information Center, Chief ___ Gary W. North, Jr. (703) 860-6187 National Center, STOP 507 

Special Mapping Center, Chief _______________ Roy E. Fordham (703) 860-7760 National Center, STOP 560,

1925 Newton Square East, 

Reston, VA 22090

GEOLOGIC DIVISION

Official Name Telephone number

Chief Geologist _______________________ Dallas L. Peck (703) 860-6531

Deputy Chief Geologist, Operations ___________ Robert E. Davis (703) 860-6532

Deputy Chief Geologist, Program and Budget _____ Donald H. Dow (703) 860-6544

Office of Scientific Publications, Chief ________ Walter P. Ketterer, (703) 860-6575

	Acting

Office of Environmental Geology, Chief _______ John C. Reed, Jr. (703) 860-6411

Office of Earthquake Studies, Chief ____________ Robert M. Hamilton (703) 860-6471

Office of Energy Resources, Chief ____________ Charles Masters (703) 860-6431

Office of Marine Geology, Chief _._________ Charles Masters, (703) 860-6431

	Acting 

Office of Mineral Resources, Chief _____________ George E. Becraft (703) 860-6562

Office of Geochemistry and Geophysics, Chief ____ Robert Tilling (703) 860-6584

Office of International Geology, Chief ________ John A. Reinemund (703) 860-6418

Address

National Center, STOP 910 

National Center, STOP 910 

National Center, STOP 910 

National Center, STOP 904

National Center, STOP 908 

National Center, STOP 905 

National Center, STOP 915 

National Center, STOP 915

National Center, STOP 913 

National Center, STOP 906 

National Center, STOP 917

WATER RESOURCES DIVISION

Official Name

Chief Hydrologist ______________________________ Joseph S. Cragwall, Jr.

Associate Chief Hydrologist _______________________ O. Milton Hackett

Assistant Chief Hydrologist, Scientific Publications and

Data Management ______________________________ Solomon M. Lang,

Acting 

Assistant Chief Hydrologist, Operations ______________ Thomas J. Buchanan

188 | U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OFFICES

Telephone number

(703) 860-6921 

(703) 860-6921

(703) 860-6877 

(703) 860-6801

Address

National Center, STOP 409 

National Center, STOP 408

National Center, STOP 440 

National Center, STOP 441
Official

WATER RESOURCES DIVISION Continued

Name Telephone number Address

Assistant Chief Hydrologist, Research and Technical

Coordination _____________.._________ John D. Bredehoeft, (703) 860-6971 National Center, STOP 414

Acting

Office of Water Data Coordination, Chief ________ R. H. Langford (703) 860-6931 National Center, STOP 417 

Office of International Activities, Chief .________ James R. Jones (703) 860-6548 National Center, STOP 470

CONSERVATION DIVISION

Official Name Telephone number Address

Chief ____________________._________ Russell G. Wayland, (703) 860-7524 National Center, STOP 600

Acting

Associate Chief _____________..________ Vacant (703) 860-7524 National Center, STOP 600 

Assistant Chief, Resources Evaluation .._________ Robert L. Rioux (703) 860-7571 "National Center, STOP 640 

Assistant Chief, Operations _______ .________ John Duletsky (703) 860-7515 National Center, STOP 620 

Assistant Chief, Programs _______._________ Harold L. Pumphrey (703) 860-7581 National Center, STOP 630

LAND INFORMATION AND ANALYSIS OFFICE

Official Name Telephone number Address

Chief _____________________________ James R. Balsley (703) 860-7488 National Center, STOP 104

Associate Chief, Research and Technical Coordination _ Philip Cohen (703) 860-7471 National Center, STOP 703

Earth Resources Observation Systems Program, Chief __ John M. DeNoyer (703) 860-7881 National Center, STOP 730

Geography Program, Chief ________________ James R. Anderson (703) 860-6344 National Center, STOP 710

Resource and Land Investigations Program, Chief ___ J. Ronald Jones (703) 860-6717 National Center, STOP 750

Environmental Impact Analysis Program, Chief ____ Daniel B. Krinsley (703) 860-7455 National Center, STOP 760

Earth Sciences Applications Program, Chief _____ Donald R. Nichols (703) 860-6961 National Center, STOP 720

OFFICE OF NATIONAL PETROLEUM RESERVE IN ALASKA

Official . Name Telephone number ' Address

Chief _____________________..________ George Gryc (907) 276-7422 *2525 'C Street - Suite 400

Anchorage, AK 99503 

Liaison Officer _______________._________ Valentine Zadnik (703) 860-6208 National Center, STOP 151

COMPUTER CENTER DIVISION

Official Name Telephone number Address

Chief _______________________________ Carl E. Diesen (703) 860-7106 National Center, STOP 801

Assistant Chief _______________ .________ Charles H. Tyler (703) 860-7109 National Center, STOP 801

Office of Teleprocessing __________________ Ralph N. Eicher (703) 860-7119 National Center, STOP 805

PUBLICATIONS DIVISION

Official Name Telephone number Address

Chief ____________________. _________ Harry D. Wilson, Jr. (703) 860-7181 National Center, STOP 341

Associate Chief ______________. _________ Melvin E. Hanes (703) 860-7181 National Center, STOP 341

Assistant Chief, Management and Administration __ Van M. Rayburn (703) 860-7181 National Center, STOP 341

Assistant Chief, Research and Technical Coordination __ Bernard J. Thien (703) 860-7183 National Center, STOP 341

Office of Public Inquiries __________________ Robbie S. Ritchey (703) 860-7185 National Center, STOP 341

Printing Liaison Officer _________. ________ Jesse R. Upperco (703) 860-7622 National Center, STOP 330

International Activities _________._________ A. L. Dilonardo (703) 860-7186 National Center, STOP 341

ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISION

Official Name Telephone number Address

Chief _____________________. ________ Edmund J. Grant (703) 860-7201 National Center, STOP 201

Deputy Chief ______________.__________ Lewis Menen (703) 860-7203 National Center, STOP 202

Personnel Officer __..___________. ________ Maxine C. Millard (703)860-6127 National Center, STOP 215

Contracts Officer ____________.._________ William Burk (703) 860-7261 National Center, STOP 205

Office of Notional Petroleum Reserve in Alaska is headquartered in Anchorage, Alaska.

HEADQUARTERS OFFICES | 189
SELECTED FIELD OFFICES

Mapping Center

TOPOGRAPHIC DIVISION

REGIONAL MAPPING CENTERS

Chief Telephone number

Eastern ___________________________ Peter F. Bermel

Midcontinent ________________..__________ Lawrence H. Borgerding

Rocky Mountain _________________________ Albert E. Letey

Western _________________________________ John R. Swinnerton

(703) 860-6352 

(314) 364-3680 

, ext. 111 

(303) 234-2351

(415)323-8111, 

ext. 2411

Address

National Center, STOP 567 

1400 Independence Rd.,

Rolla, MO 65401 

Box 25046, STOP 510,

Denver Federal Center,

Denver, CO 80225 

345 Middlefield Rd.,

Menlo Park, CA 94025

Region

GEOLOGIC DIVISION 

REGIONAL OFFICES

Regional Geologist

Eastern ______________________________________ Eugene H. Roseboom, Jr.

Central _____________________________ William R. Keefer

Western ________________________________________ Joseph I. Ziony

Telephone number

(703) 860-6631 

(303) 234-3625

(415) 323-8111

Address

National Center, STOP 953 

Box 25046, STOP 911, 

Denver Federal Center 

Denver, CO 80225 

345 Middlefield Rd., 

Menlo Park, CA 94025

WATER RESOURCES DIVISION 

REGIONAL OFFICES

Region Regional Hydrologist Telephone number Address

Northeastern __________________________ Francis T. Schaefer, (703) 860-6985 National Center, STOP 433

Acting

Southeastern ___________________ Leslie B. Laird (404) 881-4395 1459 Peachtree St. NE.,

Suite 200, 

Atlanta, CA 30392

Central ______________________________ Alfred Clebsch, Jr. (303) 234-3661 Box 25046, STOP 406,

Denver Federal Center, 

Denver, CO 80225

Western __________________________ William H. Robinson (415) 323-8111 345 Middlefield Rd.,

ext. 2337 Menlo Park, CA 94025

DISTRICT OFFICES

State District Chief Telephone number Address

Alabama _____________________________ William J. Powell (205) 752-8104 P.O. Box V, 202 Oil and

Cas Board Bldg. 

University of Alabama 

University, AL 35486

Alaska ______________________________ Harry Hulsing (907) 277-5526 218 E St.

Anchorage, AK 99501

Arizona _____________________________ Robert D. MacNish (602) 792-6671 Federal Bldg.

301 W. Congress St. 

Tucson, AZ 85701

Arkansas ___________________________ Richard T. Sniegocki (501) 378-5246 2301 Federal Office Bldg.

700 W. Capital Ave. 

Little Rock, AR 72201

California ____________________________ Lee R. Peterson (415) 323-8111 855 Oak Grove Ave.

ext. 2326 Menlo Park, CA 94025

Colorado ____________________________ James E. Biesecker (303) 234-5092 Box 25046, STOP 415

Denver Federal Center 

Denver, CO 80225

Connecticut __________________________ David McCartney (203) 244-2528 135 High St.

Room 235 

Hartford, CT 06103

190 | U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OFFICES
WATER RESOURCES DIVISION / DISTRICT OFFICES Continued

State District Chief

Delaware __________________________ Walter F. White, Jr.

District of Columbia ___________________ Walter F. White, Jr.

Florida _______________________________________ Clyde S. Conover

Georgia _ _ ________________ John R. George

Hawaii _______________________________________ Benjamin L. Jones

Idaho Edwin E. Harris

Illinois _________________________________________ Lawrence A. Martens

Indiana ___________________ Dennis K. Stewart

Iowa ______________________ Sulo W. Wiitala

Kansas ____ ___ _ __________________________ Joseph S. Rosenshein

Kentucky ____ ______________________________ Philip A. Emery

Louisiana _________________________________ Albert N. Cameron

Maine ____________________________________ John A. Baker

Maryland _ _________________________ Walter F. White, Jr.

Massachusetts _______________________________ John A. Baker

I

Michigan _ ___ _____________________ T. Ray Cummings

Minnesota _____________________________ Donald R. Albin

Mississippi ___ ___________________________ Lamar E. Carroon

Missouri ____________________________________ Donald L. Coffin

Montana _________ _____________________ George M. Pike

Nebraska ___________________________ Kenneth A. Mac Kichen

Nevada _______________________________ Frank T. Hidaka

New Hampshire _____________________________ John-A. Baker

New Jersey _______________________________ Harold Meisler

Telephone number

(301) 828-1535 

(301) 828-1535 

(904) 386-1118

(404) 221-4858 

(808) 546-8331 

(208) 384-1750

(217) 359-3918

(317) 269-7101

(319) 338-0581 

ext. 521

(913) 864-4321

(502) 582-5241

(504) 389-0281

(617) 223-2822 

(301) 828-1535

(617) 223-2822

(517) 372-1910 

ext. 561

(612) 725-7841 

(601) 969-4600

(314) 364-3680 

ext. 185

(406) 449-5263 

(402) 471-5082

(702) 882-1388

(617) 223-2822 

(609) 989-2162

Address

See Maryland District Office 

See Maryland District Office 

325 John Knox Rd., Suite 

F-240

Tallahassee, FL 32303 

6481 Peachtree Industrial 

Blvd., Suite B 

Doraville, GA 30360 

P.O. Box 50166 

300 Ala Moana Blvd. 

Honolulu, HI 96850 

Box 036 Federal Bldg. 

Room 365 

550 W. Fort St. 

Boise, ID 83724 

P.O. Box 1026 

605 N. Neil St. 

Champaign, IL 61820 

1819 N. Meridian St.

Indianapolis, IN 46202 

P.O. Box 1230 

400 S. Clinton St. 

Iowa City, IA 52240 

1950 Ave. A, Campus West 

University of Kansas 

Lawrence, KS 66045 

572 Federal Bldg. 

600 Federal PI. 

Louisville, KY 40202 

P.O. Box 66492 

6554 Florida Blvd. 

Baton Rouge, LA 70896 

See Massachusetts District

Office

208 Carroll Bldg. 

8600 La Salle Rd. 

Towson, MD 21204 

150 Causeway St. 

Suite 1001

Boston, MA 02114 

2400 Science Parkway 

Red Cedar Research Park 

Okemos, Ml 48864 

1033 Post Office Bldg. 

St. Paul, MN 55101 

430 Bounds St.

Jackson, MS 39206 

1400 Independence Rd. 

M.S. 200

Rolla, MO 65401 

P.O. Box 1696 

421 Federal Bldg. 

Helena, MT 59601 

406 Federal Bldg. and U.S. 

Courthouse 

100 Centennial Mall 

North

Lincoln, NE 68508 

227 Federal Bldg. 

705 N. Plaza St. 

Carson City, NV 89701 

See Massachusetts District

Office

P.O. Box 1238 

420 Federal Bldg. 

402 E. State St. 

Trenton, NJ 08607

SELECTED FIELD OFFICES | 191
WATER RESOURCES DIVISION / DISTRICT OFFICES Continued

State

New Mexico

District Chief

William E. Hale

New York _____________________________ Robert J. Dingman

North Carolina ________________________ Ralph C. Heath

North Dakota ________________________ Walter R. Scott

Ohio _______________________________ David E. Click

Oklahoma ________________________ James H. Irwin

Oregon ______________________________ Stanley F. Kapustka

Pennsylvania _______________________________ Norman H. Beamer

Puerto Rico ________________________ Ernest D. Cobb

Rhode Island ____________________________ John A. Baker

South Carolina ____________________________ John S. Stallings

South Dakota _____________________________ John E. Powell

Tennessee ________________________________ Stanley P. Sauer

Texas I. Dale Yost

Utah __________________________________________ Theodore Arnow

Vermont ___________________ John A. Baker

Virginia ________________________________________ William E. Forrest

Washington __________________________________ Charles R. Collier

West Virginia _________________________________ David H. Appel

Wisconsin William W. Barnwell

Wyoming ____________________________________ Samuel W. West

Telephone number 

(505) 766-2246

(518) 472-3107

(919) 755-4510

(701) 255-4011 

ext. 227

(614) 469-5553 

(405) 231-4256

(503) 234-3361 

ext. 4776

(717) 782-346b

(809) 783-4660

(617) 223-2822

(803) 765-5966

(605) 352-8651 

ext. 258

(615) 251-5424

(512) 397-5766

(801) 524-5663

(617) 223-2822

(804) 782-2427

(206) 593-6510

(304) 343-6181 

ext. 310

(608) 262-2488

(307) 778-2220 

ext. 2153

Address

P. O. Box 26659

Western Bank Bldg.

Room 809

505 Marquette N.W.

Albuquerque, NM 87125 

P. O. Box 1350

343 U. S. Post Office and

Courthouse Bldg.

Albany, NY 12201 

P. O. Box 2857

Room 432

Century Postal Station

Raleigh, NC 27602 

P. O. Box 778

Room 332

New Federal Bldg.

3d St. and Rosser Ave.

Bismarck, ND 58501 

975 West Third Ave.

Columbus, OH 43212 

201 N.W. 3d St., Rm. 621

Oklahoma City, OK

73102 

P.O. Box 3202

830 N.E. Holladay St.

Portland, OR 97232 

P.O. Box 1107, 4th Floor,

Federal Bldg.

228 Walnut St.

Harrisburg, PA 17108 

P. O. Box 34168, Bldg. 652

Ft. Buchanan, PR 00934 

See Massachusetts District

Office 

2001 Assembly St.

Suite 200

Columbia, SC 29201 

P. O. Box 1412

200-4th St. S.W.

Room 308

Huron, SD 57350 

A-413 Federal Bldg.

U.S. Courthouse

Nashville, TN 37203 

649 Federal Bldg.

300 E. 8th St.

Austin, TX 78701 

8002 Federal Bldg.

125 S. State St.

Salt Lake City, UT 84138 

See Massachusetts District

Office 

200 W. Grace St., Rm. 304

Richmond, VA 23220 

1201 Pacific Ave.

Suite 600

Tacoma, WA 98402 

3017 Federal Bldg. and

U.S. Courthouse

500 Quarrier St. E.

Charleston, WV 25301 

1815 University Ave.

Room 200

Madison, Wl 53706 

P. O. Box 1125

2120 Capitol Ave.

Room 5017

Cheyenne, WY 82001

192 | U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OFFICES
CONSERVATION DIVISION 

REGIONAL OFFICES

Region

Conservation 

Manager

Eastern _________________________________ George Brown

Central _________________________________________ George H. Horn

Gulf of Mexico Outer Continental Shelf Operations ___ A. Dewey Acuff

Western ______________________________________ Hillary A. Oden

Telephone number 

(202) 254-3137

(303) 234-2855

(504) 837-4720, 

ext. 9381

(415) 323-8111, 

ext. 2093

Address

1725 K St., NW., 

Suite 204 

Washington, DC 20006

Box 25046, STOP 609, 

Denver, Federal Center, 

Denver, CO 80225

P.O. Box 7944, 

434 Imperial Office Bldg., 

3301 N. Causeway Blvd., 

Metairie, LA 70010

345 Middlefield Rd., 

Menlo Park, CA 94025

LAND INFORMATION AND ANALYSIS OFFICE 

EARTH RESOURCES OBSERVATION SYSTEMS DATA CENTER

Location Official in charge Telephone number Address

South Dakota _______________________ Alien H. Watkins (605) 594-6123 EROS Data Center,

Sioux Falls, SD 57198

NATIONAL PETROLEUM RESERVE IN ALASKA 

DISTRICT OFFICES

Office Chief Telephone number Address

NPRA Operations Office __________________ Max Brewer (907) 276-7422 2525 'C Street - Suite 400

Anchorage, AK 99503

Plans and Management Office _____________ Earle Ausman (907) 276-7422 2525 'C' Street - Suite 400

Anchorage, AK 99503

Exploration Strategy Office _____ __________ Irvin Tailleur, (415) 323-2915 345 Middlefield Rd.,

Acting Menlo Park, CA 94025

PUBLICATIONS DIVISION 

REGIONAL OFFICES

Region Official in charge Telephone number Address

Eastern _____________________________ Lewis D. Brown (703) 860-6761 National Center, STOP 328 

Central ______________________________ John L. Heller (303) 234-4974 Box 25046, STOP 303,

Denver Federal Center, 

Denver, CO 80225 

Western ____________________________ FredKunkel (415)323-8111, 345 Middlefield Rd.,

ext. 2537 Menlo Park, CA 94025

PUBLIC INQUIRIES OFFICES

Location Official in charge Telephone number Address

Alaska _________________________ Margaret I. Erwin (907) 277-0577 108 Skyline Bldg.,

508 2d Ave., 

Anchorage, AK 99501

California:

Los Angeles ________________________ Lucy E. Birdsall (213) 688-2850 7638 Federal Bldg.,

300 N. Los Angeles St., 

Los Angeles, CA 90012

San Francisco ______________________ Jean V. Molleskog (415) 556-5627 504 Custom House,

555 Battery St., 

San Francisco, CA 

94411

SELECTED FIELD OFFICES | 193
PUBLIC INQUIRIES OFFICES Continued

Location

Colorado

District of Columbia

Official in charge 

Alice M. Coleman

Bruce A. Hubbard

Texas ___________________________________ Jimmie L. Wilkinson

Utah __________________________ Wendy R. Hassibe

Virginia ___________________________________ A. Ernestine Jones

Washington ______________________________ Eula M. Thune

Telephone number 

(303) 837-4169

(202) 343-8073

(214) 749-3230

(801) 524-5652

(703) 860-6167

(509) 456-2524

Address

1012 Federal Bldg.,

1961 Stout St.,

Denver, CO 80294 

1028 CSA Bldg., 19th and

F Sts. NW.,

Washington, DC 20244 

1C45 Federal Bldg.,

1100 Commerce St.,

Dallas, TX 75242 

8105 Federal Bldg.,

125 S. State St.,

Salt Lake City, UT 84138 

1C402 National Center,

STOP 302,

12201 Sunrise Valley Dr.,

Reston, VA 22092 

678 U.S. Courthouse,

W. 920 Riverside Ave.,

Spokane, WA 99201

BRANCH OF DISTRIBUTION OFFICES

Location Official in charge 

Alaska ___________________________________ Natalie Cornforth

Colorado _________________________________ Dwight F. Canfield

Virginia _________________________________ George V. DeMeglio

Telephone number 

(907) 452-1951

Address

310 First Ave.,

Fairbanks, AK 99701

(303) 234-3832 Box 25286, STOP 306,

Denver Federal Center, 

Denver, CO 80225

(703) 557-2781 1200 S. Fads St.,

Arlington, VA 22202

ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISION 

REGIONAL MANAGEMENT OFFICES

Region

Regional Management 

Officer

Eastern __________________________________ Roy Heinbuch

Central _____________________________________ Thomas ]. Lyons

Western ___________________________________ Avery W. Rogers

Telephone number

(703) 860-7691 

(303) 234-3736

(415) 323-2211

Address

National Center, STOP 290 

Box 25046, STOP 202, 

Denver Federal Center, 

Denver, CO 80225 

345 Middlefield Rd., 

Menlo Park, CA 94025

194 | U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OFFICES
COOPERATORS AND OTHER FINANCIAL CONTRIBUTORS

[Cooperotors listed ore those with whom the U.S. Geological Survey had a written agreement for financial cooperation in fiscal year 1977, cosigned 

by responsible officials of the Geological Survey and the cooperating agency. Agencies with whom the Geological Survey had research contracts and to whom it supplied funds for such research are not listed. listed. Parent agencies agencies are listed separately from 

separate cooperative agreements for different projects were made with the parent agency and with a subdivision

their subdivisions where 

of the parent agency.]

FEDERAL COOPERATORS

Department of the Army:

Corps of Engineers 

Jefferson Proving Ground 

Rocky Mountain Arsenal 

White Sands Missile Range

Department of Commerce:

Bureau of the Census

Coastal Plains Regional Commission

Economic Development Administration

National Bureau of Standards

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Environmental Research Laboratories

National Ocean Survey

National Weather Service

Civil Service Commission 

Council on Environmental Quality

Department of Agriculture:

Agricultural Research Service 

Forest Service 

Soil Conservation Service 

Statistical Reporting Service

Department of the Air Force:

AFWL/PRP Kirtland AFB 

Air Force Academy 

Headquarters (AFTAC/AC) 

Pease Air Force Base 

Vandenburg Air Force Base

Department of Defense:

At Jlinced Research Projects Agency

Civil Preparedness Agency

Defense Mapping Agency

Defense Nuclear Agency

U.S. Arms Control and Disarmament Agency

Department of Housing and Urban Development

Department of the Interior:

Alaska Power Administration

Bonneville Power Administration

Bureau of Indian Affairs

Bureau of Land Management

Bureau of Mines

Bureau of Reclamation

Fish and Wildlife Service

National Park Service

Office of Library and Information Services

Office of the Secretary

Water Resources Council

Department of the Navy:

Civil Engineering Laboratory, Naval Construction Battalion Center

Marine Corps, Camp Pendleton

Naval Facilities Engineering Command

Naval Oceanographic Office

Naval Petroleum and Oil Shale Reserves

Naval Weapons Center, China Lake

Public Works Center

Department of State:

Agency for International Development 

Bureau of Intelligence and Research 

International Boundary and Water Commission

Department of Transportation:

Federal Highway Administration

Office of the Secretary

St. Lawrence Seaway Development Corporation

Department of the Treasury:

U.S. Customs Service

Department of Energy:

Albuquerque Operations Office 

Argonne National Laboratories 

Chicago Operations Office 

Division of Ceothermal Energy 

Division of Oil, Gas, and Shale 

Division of Petroleum, Natural Gas, and

In-situ Technology 

Fossil Energy 

Grand Junction Office 

Idaho Operations Office 

Laramie Energy Research Center 

Los Alamos Science Laboratory 

Morgantown Energy Research Center 

Nevada Operations Office 

Oak Ridge Operations Office 

Office of International Program Support 

Richland Operations Office 

San Francisco Operations Office 

Savannah River Operations Office

Environmental Protection Agency:

Cincinnati Research Center

Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory

Enforcement Division

Office of Energy, Minerals, and Industry

Office of Radiation Programs

Office of Research and Development

Office of Water Programs

St. Anthony Falls Hydraulic Laboratory

Upper Mississippi River Basin Commission

Federal Power Commission

General Services Administration

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

National Science Foundation

Navajo-Hopi Relocation Commission

Northeast River Basin Commission

Nuclear Regulatory Commission

Ohio River Basin Commission

Tennessee Valley Authority

COOPERATORS AND OTHER FINANCIAL CONTRIBUTORS | 195
STATE, COUNTY, AND LOCAL COOPERATORS

Alabama:

Alabama Highway Department 

Commission of Jefferson County 

Geological Survey of Alabama

Alaska:

Alaska Department of Fish and Came

Alaska Department of Highways

Alaska Department of Natural Resources

Alaska Geological and Geophysical Survey

Alaska Pipeline Coordination Office

City of Anchorage

City of Seward

Department of Environmental Conservation

Fairbanks North Star Borough

Kenai Borough

Arizona:

Arizona Game and Fish Department

Arizona Highway Department

Arizona Water Commission

City of Flagstaff

City of Safford

City of Tucson

Department of Health Services

Flood Control District of Maricopa County

Gila Valley Irrigation District

Maricopa County Municipal Water Conservation District No. 1

Pima County Board of Supervisors

Salt River Valley Water User's Association

San Carlos Irrigation and Drainage District

Show Low Irrigation Company

University of Arizona

Arkansas:

Arkansas Department of Pollution Control and Ecology 

Arkansas Division of Soil and Water Resources 

Arkansas Geological Commission 

Arkansas State Highway Commission

California:

Alameda County Flood Control and Water Conservation District

Alameda County Water District

Antelope Valley-East Kern Water

Association of Monterey Bay Area Governments

California Department of Conservation, Division of Mines and

Geology

California Department of Transportation 

California Department of Water Resources 

California Water Resources Control Board 

Carpentaria County Water District 

Casitas Municipal Water District 

City and County of San Francisco, Hetch Hetchy Water and

Power

City of Lompoc 

City of Merced

City of Modesto, Public Works Department 

City of San Diego 

City of San Rafael

City of Santa Barbara, Public Works Department 

Coachella Valley County Water District 

Contra Costa County Flood Control and Water Conservation

District 

County of Madera, Flood Control and Water Conservation

Agency

County of Modoc, Public Works Department 

County of San Diego, Department of Sanitation and Flood

Control

County of San Mateo, Engineer and Road Commissioner 

Desert Water Agency

California Continued

East Bay Municipal Utility District

Georgetown Divide Public Utility District

Goleta County Water District

Humboldt County, Department of Public Works

Imperial County Department of Public Works

Imperial Irrigation District

Indian Wells Valley County Water District

Kern County Water Agency

Lake County Flood Control and Water Conservation District

Livermore Amador Valley Water Management Agency

Los Angeles County Flood Control District

Los Angeles Department of Water and Power

Madera Irrigation District

Marin County Department of Public Works

Marin Municipal Water District

Merced Irrigation District

Metropolitan Water District of Southern California

Mojave Water Agency

Montecito County Water District

Monterey County Flood Control and Water Conservation

District

Napa County Flood Control and Water Conservation District 

North Marin County Water District 

Orange County Environmental Management Agency 

Orange County Water District 

Oroville-Wyandotte Irrigation District 

Pacheco Pass Water District 

Paradise Irrigation District 

Riverside County Flood Control and Water Conservation

District

Sacramento County Department of Public Works 

San Benito County Water Conservation and Flood Control

District

San Bernardino County Flood Control District 

San Bernardino Valley Municipal Water District 

San Francisco Water Department 

San Luis Obispo County:

Engineering Department 

Santa Barbara County Water Agency 

Santa Clara Valley Water District 

Santa Cruz County Flood Control and Water Conservation

District

Santa Margarita and San Luis Rey Watershed Planning Agencies 

Santa Maria Valley Water Conservation District 

Santa Ynez River Water Conservation District 

Siskiyou County Flood Control and Water Conservation District 

Solano Irrigation District 

Terra Bella Irrigation District 

Tulare County Flood Control District 

Turlock Irrigation District 

United Water Conservation District 

University of California:

Division of Environmental Studies

(Davis)

School of Forestry and Conservation 

Ventura County Flood Control District, Riverside County 

Western Municipal Water District 

Woodbridge Irrigation District 

Yolo County Flood Control and Water Conservation District

Colorado:

Arkansas River Compact Administration

Boulder City-County Department of Health

City and County of Denver, Board of Water Commissioners

City of Aspen

City of Aurora, Department of Public Utilities

City of Colorado Springs:

Department of Public Utilities

Office of the City Manager 

City of Fort Collins

196 | COOPERATORS AND OTHER FINANCIAL CONTRIBUTORS
STATE, COUNTY, AND LOCAL COOPERATORS Continued

Colorado-Continued 

City of Pueblo

Colorado City Water and Sanitation District 

Colorado Department of Local Affairs 

Colorado Department of Natural Resources:

Division of Water Resources

Division of Wildlife

Geological Survey 

Colorado Department of Public Health, Water Pollution

Control Commission

Colorado River Water Conservation District 

Colorado State University, Department of Earth Resources 

Colorado Water Conservation Board 

County of Jefferson

Denver Regional Council of Governments 

Eagle County Commissioners 

El Paso County:

Board of Commissioners

Water Association

Jefferson County Health Department 

Kiowa-Bijou Groundwater Management District 

Metro Denver Sewage Disposal District No. 1 

North West Colorado Council of Governments 

Park County Board of County Commissioners 

Pikes Peak Area Council of Governments 

Pitkin County Board of County Commissioners 

Pueblo Area Council of Governments 

Rio Grande Water Conservation District 

Routt County Health Department 

Southeastern Colorado Water Conservancy District 

Southern Ute Indian Tribe 

Southwestern Water Conservation District 

State of Colorado, Department of Highways 

Urban Drainage and Flood Control District

Connecticut:

City of Hartford, Department of Public Works

City of Torrington

Department of Environmental Protection

Town of Fairfield

Town of Farmington

Town of Manchester

Town of Newton

Town of South Windsor

Town of Wilton

Delaware:

Delaware Geological Survey, University of Delaware 

Department of Highways and Transportation, Division of

Highways

Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Control 

New Castle County, Public Works Department

Florida:

Brevard County

Broward County

Broward County Air and Water Pollution Control Board

City of Bradenton

City of Clearwater

City of Cocoa

City of Deerfield Beach

City of Fort Lauderdale

City of Gainesville

City of Hallandale

City of Hollywood

City of Jacksonville

City of Juno Beach

City of Lake Worth

City of Miami-Dade Water and Sewer Authority and the

City of Miami Beach 

City of Pensacola 

City of Perry

Florida Continued 

City of Pompano Beach 

City of Riviera Beach 

City of St. Petersburg 

City of Sarasota 

Cijy of Tallahassee 

City of Tampa 

City of West Palm Beach 

Clay County Development Authority 

Collier County 

Englewood Water District 

Escambia County

Florida Bureau of Water Resources Management 

Florida Department of Natural Resources: 

Bureau of Geology 

Division of Parks and Recreation 

Florida Department of Transportation 

Florida Keys Aqueduct Authority 

Hendry County 

Hillsborough County 

Lake County 

Lee County

Loxahatchee River Environmental Control District 

Manasota Basin Board

Manatee County, Board of County Commissioners 

Marion County 

Martin County 

Metropolitan Dade County 

Monroe County

Northwest Florida Water Management District 

Orange County 

Palm Beach County 

Pinellas County 

Polk County

Reedy Creek Improvement District 

Sarasota County 

Seminole County

South Florida Water Management District 

Southwest Water Management District 

St. Johns River Water Management 

Sumter County Recreation and Water Conservation and Control

Authority

Suwanee River Authority 

Suwanee River Water Management District 

Village of Tequesta 

Volusia County 

Walton County

Winderemere Water and Navigational Control District 

Winter Haven Lake Region

Georgia:

Chatham County

City of Brunswick

City of Valdosta

Dekalb County

Department of Natural Resources:

Environmental Protection Division

Geologic and Water Resources Division 

Department of Transportation

Hawaii:

City and County of Honolulu

Honolulu Board of Water Supply

Maui County, Department of Public Works

State Department of Health

State Department of Land and Natural Resources

State Department of Transportation

Idaho:

Idaho Department of Health and Welfare 

Idaho Department of Transportation 

Idaho Department of Water Resources

STATE, COUNTY, AND LOCAL COOPERATORS | 197
STATE, COUNTY, AND LOCAL COOPERATORS Continued

Illinois:

Bloomington and Normal Sanitary District 

City of Springfield

Cook County, Forest Preserve District 

DuPage County Highway Department 

Environmental Protection Agency 

Fountain Head Drainage District 

Illinois Division of Transportation:

Division of Highways

Division of Waterways 

Illinois Institute for Environmental Quality 

Kane County Highway Department 

Lake County Highway Department 

McHenry County Regional Planning Commission 

Sanitary District of Bloom Township 

State Department of Registration and Education, Illinois

State Geological Survey and State Water Survey 

State Department of Transportation 

The Metropolitan Sanitary District of Greater Chicago 

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Environmental Studies 

Program

Indiana:

City of Indianapolis

City of Logansport

Indiana Board of Health

Indiana Department of Natural Resources

Indiana Highway Commission

Ohio River Valley, Water Sanitation Commission

Town of Carmel

Iowa:

City of Cedar Rapids

City of Des Moines

City of Fort Dodge

Iowa Department of Transportation, Highway Research Board

Iowa Geological Survey

Iowa Natural Resources Council

Iowa State University

University of Iowa:

Institute of Hydraulic Research

University Physical Plant

Kansas:

City of Wichita

Kansas Department of Transportation

Kansas State Department of Health

Kansas State Water Resources Board

Kansas-Oklahoma Arkansas River Commission

State Geological Survey of Kansas

State Highway Commission of Kansas

Kentucky:

Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Protection 

Kentucky Department of Transportation 

Kentucky Geological Survey, University of Kentucky 

University of Kentucky, Division of Research and Planning

Louisiana:

Capital Area Ground Water Conservation Commission 

Louisiana Department of Highways 

Louisiana Department of Public Works

Maine:

Androscoggin Valley Regional Planning Commission 

Cobbossee Watershed District 

Department of Environmental Protection 

Greater Portland Council of Governments 

Maine Department of Transportation

Maine Continued

Maine Public Utilities Commission

South Kennebec Regional Planning Commission

Town of Wilton

Maryland:

City of Baltimore, Bureau of Engineering, Water Supply

Division

Maryland Department of Health and Mental Hygiene 

Maryland Department of Transportation, The State Highway

Administration 

Maryland Geological Survey

Maryland National Capital Park and Planning Commission 

Montgomery County, Department of Environmental Protection 

Washington Suburban Sanitary Commission

Massachusetts:

Department of Public Works:

Division of Research and Materials

Division of Highways 

Metropolitan District Commission 

State Water Resources Commission:

Division of Water Pollution Control

Division of Water Resources

Michigan:

Albion Township

Branch County

Calhoun Soil Conservation District

City of Albion

City of Ann Arbor

City of Battle Creek

City of Coldwater

City of Jackson

City of Lansing

City of Mason

City of Saline

City of St. Johns

City of St. Louis

City of Ypsilanti

Department of Agriculture

Department of Natural Resources, Geological Survey Division

Department of State Highways and Transportation

Genesee County Drain Commission

Imlay City

Kalamazoo Metropolitan Planning Commission

Kent County Airport

Macomb County Road Commission

Oakland County:

Department of Public Works

Drain Commission

Tri-County Regional Planning Commission 

Van Buren Road Commission

Washtenaw County Metropolitan Planning Commission 

Ypsilanti Township

Minnesota:

City of Lakeville

Douglas County, Wisconsin Soil and Water Conservation District

Metropolitan Council of the Twin Cities Area

Metropolitan Waste Control Commission

Minnesota Department of Highways

Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, Division of Waters

Minnesota State Planning Agency

Mississippi:

City of Jackson

City of West Point

Harrison County Board of Supervisors

Harrison County Development Commission

Jackson County Board of Supervisors

198 | COOPERATORS AND OTHER FINANCIAL CONTRIBUTORS
STATE, COUNTY, AND LOCAL COOPERATORS Continued

Mississippi Continued 

Jackson County Port Authority

Mississippi Air and Water Pollution Control Commission 

Mississippi Board of Water Commissioners 

Mississippi Geological Survey 

Mississippi Marine Resources Council 

Mississippi Research and Development Center 

Mississippi State Highway Department 

Pat Harrison Waterway District 

Pearl River Valley Water Supply District

Missouri:

City of Springfield 

City of Springfield, Utilities 

Department of Conservation 

Department of Highways 

Department of Natural Resources:

Division of Environmental Quality, Clean Water Commission

Division of Geology and Land Survey 

Little River Drainage District 

Missouri State Highway Commission 

Ozark Gateway Regional Planning Commission 

St. Louis County

Montana:

Department of Natural Resources and Conservation

Lewis and Clark County, Board of County Commissioners

Missoula County Commissioners

Montana Bureau of Mines and Geology

Montana Department of Health and Environmental Sciences

Montana Department of Highways

Montana State Fish and Game Department

Montana State University

Rowell County Commissioners

Nebraska:

Blue River Association of Ground Water Conservation Districts

Clay County Ground Water Conservation District

Filmore County Ground Water Conservation District

Hamilton County Ground Water Conservation District

Kansas-Nebraska Big Blue River Compact Administration

Lower Elkhorn Natural Resources District

Lower Platte South Natural Resources District

Nebraska Department of Roads

Nebraska Department of Water Resources

Nebraska Natural Resources Commission

Seward County Ground Water Conservation District

University of Nebraska, Conservation and Survey Division

Upper Big Blue Natural Resources District

York County Ground Water Conservation District

Nevada:

Carson City Engineering and Building Department

Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology

Nevada Department of Conservation and Natural Resources

Nevada Environmental Protection Service

Nevada State Highway Department

New Hampshire:

New Hampshire Department of Resources and Economic

Development

New Hampshire Water Resources Board 

New Hampshire Water Supply and Pollution Control

Commission 

Strafford-Rockingham Regional Council

New Jersey:

Bergen County

Camden County Board of Freeholders

New Jersey Continued 

Delaware River Basin Commission 

Delaware Valley Regional Planning Commission 

Morris County Municipal Utilities Authority 

New Jersey Department of Agriculture 

New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection 

North Jersey District Water Supply Commission 

Passaic Valley Water Commission 

Rutgers State University 

Township of Cranford

New Mexico:

City of Albuquerque

City of Las Cruces

Costilla Creek Compact Commission

Interstate Stream Commission

New Mexico Bureau of Mines and Mineral Resources

New Mexico State Engineer

New Mexico State Highway Department

Pecos River Commission

Rio Grande Compact Commission

New York:

Board of Hudson River-Black River Regulating District 

Central New York State Parks Commission 

City of Albany 

City of Auburn 

City of New York:

Board of Water Supply

Environmental Protection Administration 

County of Chautauqua 

County of Cortland 

County of Duchess Civil Defense 

County of Nassau, Department of Public Works 

County of Onondaga:

Department of Public Works

Water Authority

County of Putnam, Highway Department 

County of Rockland Drainage Agency 

County of Suffolk:

Department of Environmental Control

Water Authority

County of Ulster, Ulster County Legislature 

County of Westchester, Department of Public Works 

Department of Transportation 

Monroe County Water Authority

New York State Department of Environmental Conservation 

New York State Education Department, Museum and Science

Service

New York State Environmental Conservation Research, Inc. 

New York State Museum and Science Service 

Oswegatchie-Cranberry Reservoir Commission 

Power Authority of the State of New York 

Town of Brighton 

Town of Clarkstown 

Town of Warwick 

Village, of Nyack

North Carolina:

Board of Transportation

City of Asheville, Public Works Department

City of Burlington

City of Charlotte

City of Durham, Department of Water Resources

City of Greensboro

City of Winston-Salem

State Department of Natural and Economic Resources: 

Division of Environmental Management 

Division of Resource Planning and Evaluation

State Water Commission

STATE, COUNTY, AND LOCAL COOPERATORS | 199
STATE, COUNTY, AND LOCAL COOPERATORS Continued

North Dakota:

North Dakota Geological Survey

Oliver County Board of County Commissioners

State Water Commission

Ohio:

City of Canton

City of Columbus, Department of Public Service

City of Toledo

Miami Conservancy District

Ohio Department of Natural Resources

Ohio Department of Transportation

Ohio Department of Transportation, Division of Highways

Ohio Environmental Protection Agency

Three Rivers Watershed District

Oklahoma:

City of Oklahoma City, Water Department 

Oklahoma Department of Highways 

Oklahoma Geologic Survey 

Oklahoma State Health Department 

Oklahoma Water Resources Board 

State Pollution Control Coordinating Board

Oregon:

Burnt River Irrigation District

City of Corvallis

City of Eugene, Water and Electric Board

City of Lakeside, Lakeside Water District

City of Medford, Public Works Department

City of McMinnville, Water and Light Department

City of Portland:

Bureau of Water Works

Department of Public Utilities 

Columbia Region Association of Governments 

Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla Indian Reservation 

Confederated Tribes of the Warm Springs Reservation 

Coos Bay-North Bend Water Board 

Coos County, Board of Commissioners 

Department of Fish and Wildlife 

Douglas County, Department of Public Works 

Lane County

Multnomah County, Board of County Commissioners 

Oregon State Highway Commission 

Oregon State Water Resources Department 

Rogue Valley Council of Governments

Pennsylvania:

Chester County Commissioners

Chester County Health Department

Chester County Water Resources Authority

City of Bethlehem

City of Easton

City of Harrisburg

City of Philadelphia, Water Department

Delaware River Basin Commission

Delaware Valley Regional Planning Commission

Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service

Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration

Letort Regional Authority

Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Resources:

Bureau of Surface Mine Reclamation

Bureau of Topographic and Geologic Survey

Bureau of Water Quality Management

State Soil and Water Conservation Commission

Pennsylvania Department of Transportation

Susquehanna River Basin Commission

Rhode Island:

City of Providence

Coastal Resources, Graduate School, Universtiy of Rhode Island

Rhode Island Continued 

State Department of Natural Resources 

State Water Resources Board

South Carolina:

Commissioners of Public Works, Spartanburg Water Works 

State Health and Environmental Control 

State Highway Department 

State Public Service Authority 

State Water Resources Commission

South Dakota:

Black Hills Conservancy Subdistrict

City of Sioux Falls

City of Watertown

East Dakota Conservancy Subdistrict

South Dakota Department of Natural Resource Development

South Dakota Department of Transportation

Tennessee:

City of Franklin

City of Lawrenceburg

City of Manchester

City of Memphis, Board of Light, Gas, and Water

Commissioners

Lincoln County Public Utilities Board 

Metropolitan Government of Nashville and Davidson County,

Department of Public Works 

Murfreesboro Water and Sewer Department 

Tennessee Department of Conservation: 

Division of Geology 

Division of Water Resources 

Tennessee Department of Public Health, Division of Water

Quality Control

Tennessee Department of Transportation 

Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency

Texas:

City of Austin

City of Dallas, Public Works Department

City of Fort Worth

City of Houston

County of Dallas

Pecos River Commission

Sabine River Compact Administration

State Department of Highways and Public Transportation

Texas Water Development Board

Utah:

Bear River Commission

Salt Lake County

State Department of Natural Resources:

Division of Water Resources

Division of Water Rights

Division of Wildlife Resources 

Utah Geological and Mineral Survey

Vermont:

State Department of Water Resources 

Town of Springfield

Virginia:

City of Newport News, Department of Public Utilities

City of Roanoke

City of Staunton

County of Fairfax

Southeastern Public Services Authority of Virginia

Virginia Department of Conservation and Economic

Development, Division of Mineral Resources 

Virginia Department of Highways 

Virginia State Water Control Board

200 | COOPERATORS AND OTHER FINANCIAL CONTRIBUTORS
STATE, COUNTY, AND LOCAL COOPERATORS Continued

Washington:

City of Everett 

City of Seattle:

Department of Lighting

Water Department 

City of Tacoma:

Department of Public Utilities

Department of Public Works 

Department of Natural Resources 

Lewis County Board of Commissioners 

Lower Elwah Tribal Council 

Makah Tribal Council 

Municipality of Metrolopitan Seattle 

Nisqually Indian Tribe

Pacific County Board of County Commissioners 

Port Gamble Tribal Council 

Quileute Tribal Council 

Quinault Resource Development Project 

Spokane County

State of Washington, Department of Ecology 

Suquamish Tribal Council 

Swinomish Tribal Senate 

Tulalip Tribe Board of Directors 

Washington State Department of Fisheries 

Washington State Department of Came 

Washington State Department of Highways 

Yakima Tribal Council

West Virginia:

Clarksburg Water Board 

Morgantown Water Commission

West Virginia Continued

West Virginia Department of Highways

West Virginia Department of Natural Resources, Division of

Water Resources 

West Virginia Geological and Economic Survey

Wisconsin:

City of Madison Engineering Department

City of Middleton Department of Public Works

Dane County Regional Planning Commission

Douglas County Soil and Water Conservation District

Horsehead Lake Protection and Rehabilitation District No. 1

Southeastern Wisconsin Regional Planning Commission

State Board of Soil and Water Conservation Districts

State Department of Natural Resources

State Department of Transportation:

Bridge Section

Division of Highways

The University of Wisconsin-Extension, Geological and Natural 

History Survey

Wyoming:

City of Cheyenne, Board of Public Utilities

City of Riverton

Geological Survey of Wyoming

State Highway Commission of Wyoming

Teton County 208 Planning Agency

Wyoming Department of Economic Planning and Development

Wyoming Department of Environmental Quality

Wyoming State Department of Agriculture

Wyoming State Engineer

OTHER COOPERATORS AND CONTRIBUTORS

American Samoa:

Department of Public Works

Appalachian Regional Commission 

Coastal Plains Regional Commission 

Government of Algeria 

Government of Saudi Arabia

Guam:

Environmental Protection Agency

Ozarks Regional Commission

The Federal Power Commission:

Permittees and licensees

Puerto Rico:

North Metropolitan 208 Area Wide Planning Commission 

Puerto Rico Aqueduct and Sewer Authority 

Puerto Rico Department of Natural Resources 

Puerto Rico Environmental Quality Board

Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands 

United Nations

Virgin Islands:

College of Virgin Islands 

Department of Public Works 

Planning Office

STATE, COUNTY, AND LOCAL COOPERATORS / AND OTHER COOPERATORS | 201
Budgetary and Statistical Data

[Data in these tables may differ slightly from data in the individual division chapters because of rounding] 

TABLE 26. Geological Survey budget, by activity and sources of funds, fiscal year 7972-77

[In thousands of dollars, details may not add to totals because of roundingl

Budget activity

Total _ _ _

Direct program _ _ . _

Reimbursable program _ _ _ _ __

States, counties, and municipalitiesMiscellaneous non-Federal sourcesOther Federal agencies _ _______

National Petroleum Reserve in Alaska __

Direct Program _ _ _ _

Alaska Pipeline Related Investigations. _

Direct program _______ _____

Reimbursable program __ _ _

Other Federal agencies _ ______ 

Topographic Surveys and Mapping _ _

Direct program _ __ ___ _

Reimbursable program _ _ _

States, counties and 

municipalities __ _ _ __ __

Miscellaneous non-Federal 

sources _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

Other Federal agencies _ _ __ _

Geologic and Mineral Resource 

Surveys and Mapping 1 _ _ _

Direct program _ _ _ _ __ _

Reimbursable program __ _ _

States, counties, and 

municipalities __ _ _ _ __

Miscellaneous non-Federal 

sources _ _ _ __ _ _ _

Other Federal agencies _ _ _

Water Resources Investigations 2 _

Direct program _ __ _ _

Reimbursable program _ _ _ _ __

States, counties, and 

municipalities _ _ _ _

Miscellaneous non-Federal 

sources _ _ ___ _ _

Other Federal agencies _ _ _ _

Conservation of Lands and Minerals 3

Direct program __ _ _____ _

Reimbursable program _ _____

Miscellaneous non-Federal

Other Federal agencies _ __ __

Land Information and Analysis 4 _

Direct program __ __ _ _ _

Rembursable program _ ___ __ _ 

States, counties, and

Miscellaneous non-Federal

Other Federal agencies _ __ __

See footnotes at end of table.

1972

$188,996

130,951 

58,045

25,857 

3,383 

28,805

1,401

1,339 

62

62 

38,737

34,545 

4,192

3,204

357 

631

51,529

34,244 

17,285

1,359

2,317 

13,609

71,324

37,446 

33,878

21,294

679 

11,905

13,467

13,441 

26

1

25

7,289

6,714

575

575

1 973

$211,944

149,971 

61,973

28,011 

3,620 

30,342

1,239

1,239

40,271

35,172 

5,099

3,719

600 

780

57,979

42,895 

15,084

1,556

2,306 

11,222

78,103

40,185 

37,918

22,736

664 

14,518

14,748

14,700 

48

3

45

13,125

11,876

1,249

1,249

1974

$249,437

171,983

77,454

32,443 

4,695 

40,316

890

890

43,664

37,161 

6,503

4,942

643 

918

73,563

49,877 

23,686

1,681

2,684 

19,321

88,352

45,433 

42,919

25,820

721 

16,378

18,213

18,172 

41

41 

13,003

11,458

1,545

593 

952

1975

$338,764

253,605 

85,159

35,124 

6,399

43,636

344

344

52,597

45,350 

7,247

4,995

594 

1,658

114,477

89,018 

25,459

1,550

3,751 

20,158

101,437

53,420 

48,017

28,546

901 

18,570

36,082

36,032 

50

4 

46

16,994

15,461

1,533 

33

1,093 

407

1 976

$353,970

264,434 

89,536

35,006 

7,923

46,607

287

287

52,220

45,354 

6,866

3,675

501 

2,690

115,554

92,322 

23,232

1,467

4,936 

16,829

112,480

57,176 

55,304

29,735

940 

24,629

41,677

41,489 

188

1 

187

17,278

14,908

2,370 

130

1,496 

744

Transition 

quarter

$102,858

77,570 

25,288

8,956 

1,991

14,341

85

85

13,289

11,548 

1,741

882

133 

726

32,194

24,829 

7,365

383

1,120 

5,862

30,716

15,916 

14,800

7,672

260 

6,868

13,386

13,375 

6

6 

8,919

7,795

1,124 

19

469 

636

1 977

$433,400

319,468 

113,932

39,622 

10,230

57,016 

9,143 

2,079 

7,064

317

317

57,073

50,311 

6,762

3,268

601 

2,893

130,269

100,007 

30,262

1,403

6,439 

22,420

131,509

68,555 

62,954

34,761

1,331 

26,862

67,427

67,239 

188

16 

172

23,476

17,698

5,778 

190

1,741 

3,847

202 | BUDGETARY AND STATISTICAL DATA
TABLE 26. Geological Survey budget, by activity and sources of funds, fiscal years 7972-77 Continued

Budget activity

General Administration 5 _ _.

Direct program ___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ .

Facilities _ _ __ _ _____ _ _ _ __.

Direct program _ ____ __ __.

Miscellaneous services to other

Reimbursable program _ _ _ _ __.

Miscellaneous non-Federal 

sources _ _ _____________

Other Federal agencies _______

1972

3,187

3,187

35

35

2,027

2,027

29

1,998

1 973

3 /217

3,217

687

687

2,575

2,575

47

2,528

1 974

"* 117

3,517

5,475

5,475

2,760

2,760

54

2,706

1 975

3,671

3,671

10,309

10,309

2,853

2,853

56

2,797

1976

3 

'398

3,398

9,500

9,500

1,576

1,576

49

1,527

Transition 

quarter

1 491

1,491

2,530

2,530

253

253

10

243

1977

3,760

3,760

9,502

9,502

924

924

102

822

1 Funds include: Mineral Discovery Loan Program activity for fiscal 

years 1972-75; and parts of Geothermal Investigations, Minerals Policy, 

and Arctic Environmental Studies components of the Special Resource 

and Environmental Projects activity for fiscal years 1972-75. Funds exclude the Land Resource Analysis program for fiscal years 1973 75.

8 Funds exclude Employee Compensation Payments subactivity for fiscal 

years 1972-75.

3 Funds include parts of Geothermal Investigations component of the Special Resource and Environmental Projects activity for fiscal years 1972-75.

 'Budget activity funds are reconstructed for fiscal years 1972-75 and 

include: Earth Resources Observation System activity for fiscal years 1972- 

75; Urban Area Studies and Energy Impact Evaluation components of 

the Special Resource and Environmental Projects activity for fiscal years 

1972-75; Land Resources Analysis program of the Geologic and Mineral 

Resource Surveys and Mapping activity for fiscal years 1974-75; and the 

Land Use Data and Analysis activity for fiscal year 1975.

n Funds include Employee Compensation Payments subactivity of 

Water Resources Investigations activity for fiscal years 1972 75.

the

TABLE 27. Geological Survey Federal-State Cooperative Program funds, by State, fiscal years 1972-77

[In thousands of dollars]

State

Total 1 _ ________ __ ___ .

Total State share 2 _ _ _ .

Alabama _ _ _ _ _ ________

State share _ _ __ _ _ ___ _ .

Alaska _ ___ _ __ _ __.

State share _ __ __ _ _ _ __.

Arizona _____ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ .

State share __ _ ______ ___ _ _

Arkansas _ ___ _ __ _ _ __.

State share ______ _ ____ _ _.

California __ ______

State share _ __ ______ ___ ____

Colorado ___ _ _ _ _____ _

State share __ _ __ __ _ __

Connecticut __ _____

State share __ _ _____ __ ______

Delaware ___ _ _ __ _ _ _ __

State share _ ___ _ _ __ __ _

District of Columbia _ ___ __ _ _

State share _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _

Florida _ __ __ _ _ _____ __ __

State share ______ _ _ _ __ _

Georgia _____ ___ ____ __

State share _ _ _ ___ __ _ _

Hawaii _ _ _ _ _ _ ___ ___ _

State share __ __ _

Idaho ____ _ _ ____

State share _ __ ___ _ __

1972

.____ $50,651

. _ 25,857

839

.__ 461

619

330

1,021

. __ 540

._ __ 506

. __ 250

._ __ 3,893

. __ 1,936

995

507

617

, __ 304

 111

__ 75

2

1

3,398

_ 1,719

799

__ 437

622

__ 314

__ 619

307

1973

$55,633

28,011

928

514

838

399

1,001

510

596

288

4,115

2,053

1,128

575

687

292

121

81

3

1

3,643

1,858

2,008

1,041

653

337

675

344

1 974

$65,256

32,443

1,094

554

897

410

1,144

576

857

455

4,789

2,280

1,484

837

814

374

130

74

3

1

5,083

2,552

3,239

1,611

691

339

718

353

1 975

$70,151

35,124

1,212

623

1,162

410

1,248

646

887

410

4,690

2,337

2,445

1,324

1,069

523

194

106

3

1

5,575

2,781

3,083

1,531

697

341

749

366

1 976

$69,252

35,019

1,124

550

782

407

1,255

639

811

371

4,825

2,473

2,199

1,196

858

415

213

116

3

2

5,763

2,851

2,510

1,243

896

501

852

417

Transition

$117,482

8,986

171

87

202

101

335

177

190

94

1,271

675

662

349

241

108

54

30

1

1,481

735

552

275

191

101

223

111

1977

$79,195

39,638

1,232

606

1,141

561

1,393

700

1,061

495

5,278

2,685

3,040

1,558

897

434

225

121

4

2

6,500

3,238

2,462

1,214

811

417

952

465

See footnotes at end of table.
TABLE 27. Geological Survey Federal-State Cooperative Program funds, by State, fiscal years 7972-77 Continued

State 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 Transition 

quarter 1977

Illinois __.___________ 653 646 544 645 848

State share _______________ 341 333 277 323 459

Indiana ______________ 994 1,107 1,363 1,288 1,519

State share __________________ 491 590 678 632 779

Iowa _________________________ 517 525 608 617 822

State share _________________ 255 259 299 302 405

Kansas ________________________ 1,362 1,358 1,402 1,424 1,525

State share __________________ 675 676 686 716 752

Kentucky ______________________ 2,033 2,212 2,451 2,728 2,828

State share __________________ 1,008 1,039 1,122 1,229 1,300

Louisiana ______________________ 1,212 1,240 1,900 1,740 1,694

State share __________________ 655 674 980 902 862

Maine ________________________ 163 168 175 248 313

State share _________________ 89 91 96 127 181

Maryland _____________________ 620 695 851 1,011 1,016

State share _________________ 321 356 435 530 517

Massachusetts ___________________ 1,159 1,379 1,346 1,618 1,627

State share __________________ 614 625 656 810 779

Michigan ______________________ 859 947 930 1,054 1,078

State share __________________ 417 425 436 505 521

Minnesota _____________________ 1,369 1,420 1,903 1,639 1,191

State share __________________ 681 727 966 817 625

Mississippi ______________________ 592 593 645 743 646

State share __________________ 357 340 325 415 316

Missouri ________________________ 792 732 657 678 642

State share __________________ 413 375 322 337 316

Montana ______________________ 401 402 505 587 596

State share __________________ 221 223 255 287 301

Nebraska ______________________ 553 588 705 731 785

State share ___________________ 274 298 344 358 396

Nevada ________________________ 578 640 689 846 922

State share __________________ 271 288 304 332 367

New Hampshire __________________ 100 139 177 172 230

State share __________________ 50 67 97 73 99

New Jersey _____________________ 822 856 1,051 977 1,090

State share __________________ 418 433 530 501 565

New Mexico ____________________ 963 1,107 1,332 1,439 1,510

State share _________________ 509 601 662 714 768

New York ______________________ 2,224 2,395 2,796 2,977 2,822

State share __________________ 1,111 1,229 1,415 1,585 1,615

North Carolina ___________________ 946 1,038 1,586 1,885 1,462

State share _____________'____ 457 492 771 942 724

North Dakota ___________________ 714 899 763 998 990

State share __________________ 361 461 369 489 489

Ohio __________________________ 990 1,028 978 1,093 1,255

State share __________________ 518 520 481 563 671

Oklahoma _____________________ 614 634 702 748 786

State share __________________ 333 340 344 368 386

Oregon ________________________ 727 828 896 902 899

State share ___________________ 372 432 439 443 449

208

120

366

182

241

121

442

220

717

327

440

227

89

50

243

125

368

191

252

123

320

198

170

85

207

105

146

76

187

95

244

103

63

28

276

143

338

175

727

407

379

197

246

125

336

175

196

98

287

163

1,109

592

2,053

1,014

978

481

1,619

798

2,957

1,404

2,620

1,315

335

180

1,164

596

1,544

755

1,101

541

1,078

564

713

349

813

413

1,330

673

957

469

1,049

408

248

103

1,269

642

1,537

778

3,008

1,573

1,833

908

892

437

1,570

824

860

421

1,200

624

See footnotes at end of table.

204 | BUDGETARY AND STATISTICAL DATA
TABLE 27. Geological Survey Federal-State Cooperative Program funds, by State, fiscal years 7972-77 Continued

State 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 Transition 

quarter 1977

Pennsylvania _________________ 2,167

State share _________________ 1,092

Rhode Island ___________________ 92

State share _________________ 50

South Carolina __________________ 403

State share _________________ 212

South Dakota ___________________ 424

State share _________________ 236

Tennessee ____________^____________ 538

State share _________________ 294

Texas _______________________ 3,717

State share _________________ 1,925

Utah _________________________ 967

State share _________________ 486

Vermont __________________ 125

State share ________________ 64

Virginia ______________________ 797

State share _________________ 420

Washington ____________________ 1,800

State share ________________ 881

West Virginia ________________ 482

State share _________________ 263

Wisconsin ____________________ 1,285

State share ________________ 619

Wyoming ________________________ 589

State share __________________ 316

American Samoa __________________ 72

State share _____________________ 36

Guam ______ ________________,__ 36

State share __________________ 18

Puerto Rico ____________________ 1,042

State share _________________ 494

Trust Territories ________________________ 105

State share _______________ 52

Virgin Islands ___________________________ 12

State share _________________________ 6

2,047

1,042

90

50

574

301

423

230

589

321

3,794

1,949

1,069

530

129

66

793

421

1,988

962

620

332

1,354

638

612

310

64

32

43

21

1,347

557

125

62

2,357

1,195

97

52

546

279

471

227

851

422

4,046

2,027

1,068

534

144

73

905

466

2,121

1,037

946

521

1,563

775

698

328

63

31

62

31

1,303

682

117

58

2,415 

1,20?

110

54

574

284

515

251

952

470

4,261

2,100

1,361

838

130

64

858

442

2,208

1,104

775

448

1,706

883

853

514

70

32

65

32

1,293

585

170

84

33

31

2,510

1,269

124

60

557

272

528

259

1,035

508

4,351

2,148

1,314

745

138

68

737

378

2,115

1,066

716

418

1,874

999

754

397

40

20

68

33

1,016

463

170

84

18 

q

554

284

31

16

142

71

146

73

280

139

1,102

550

334

186

28

14

142

78

509

265

175

105

552

297

167

86

9

4

18

9

185

84

44

22

2

1

2,716

1,364

127

63

603

296

568

278

1,265

620

4,655

2,371

1,631

810

134

70

672

345

3,277

1,656

804

459

1,825

996

907

393

60

30

70

33

843

396

173

84

32

16

1 Includes Federal funds from direct program.

" Includes reimbursable program funds from States, counties, and municipalities.

3 Included with Puerto Rico funds.

TABLE 28. Geological Survey reimbursable program funds from other Federal agencies, by agency, fiscal years 7972-77

[In thousands of dollars]

Agency 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 Transition 

quarter 1977

Total __________________ $28.805

Appalachian Regional Commission ________ ______

Department of Agriculture ______________ 268

Department of Commerce _____________ 85

National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration ________________ ______

Department of Defense _______________ 9,123

Department of Housing and Urban

Development _________________ 1,202

See footnotes at end of table.

$30,342 $40,316 $43,636 $46,607 $14,347 $57,289

273

73

8,443

2,095

189

356

2,001

13,351

3,581

179

891

154

434

11,247

3,069

2,008

2,205

1,513

11,965

4,624

605

36

772

3,195

1,873

2,130

334

1,947

12,308

6,003

BUDGETARY AND STATISTICAL DATA | 205
TABLE 28. Geological Survey reimbursable program funds from other Federal agencies, by agency, fiscal years 7972-77 Continued

State

Department of the Interior _ _

Bonneville Power Administration __

Bureau of Indian Affairs

Bureau of Land Management __ __ __

Bureau of Mines __ _ __ _ __ _ __

Bureau of Reclamation _ _ _ _ _

Bureau of Sports Fisheries _ _ _ _

Fish and Wildlife Service _

National Park Service _ _ _

Office of Saline Water _ _

Office of the Secretary _ _ _ _

Office of Territories __ _ _ __ _

Department of State __ _ _ _

Department of Transportation __ __ _ __

Department of Energy 2 _ __

Environmental Protection Agency _ _ _

National Aeronautics and Space

Administration __ _ _ _

National Science Foundation _____

Nuclear Regulatory Commission

Ozarks Regional Commission _ _ _ _

Tennessee Valley Authority _ ___

Miscellaneous Federal Agencies _ _ _

Miscellaneous services to Other accounts ___

1972

1,714

101

205

80

656

11

101

508

31

21

2,789

3,112

627

6,017

906

198

766

1,998

1973

2,208

118

149

207

855

256

459

156

8

2,756

3,011

916

6,507

333

255

944

2,528

1974

2,312

136

340

251

676

380

529

2,177

4,029

1,127

5,672

1,375

60

212

1,168

2,706

1 975

9,361

105

697

5,114

1,735

721

372

617

1,698

4

3,854

1,389

3,449

1,928

1,195

49

252

1,686

2,797

1976

6,290

130

759

3,682

148

790

205

576

949

470

4,704

1,921

3,584

1,650

1,439

216

1,542

1,527

quarter

2,362

32

277

1,467

267

45

230

44

221

240

1,926

111

1,051

40

427

70

499

253

1977

12,186

141

915

9,011

200

1,199

178

542

1,075

313

8,573

1,947

2,648

2,712

1,758

297

1,964

822

1 Included in miscellaneous Federal agencies.

3 Prior to October 1, 1977, shown as Energy Research and Development and Federal 

Energy Administration. Includes Atomic Energy Commission funds for fiscal years 1972-74. 

See also funds from Nuclear Regulatory Commission in fiscal year 1975.

TABLE 29. Topographic Surveys and Mapping direct program funds, by subactivity, fiscal years 1972-77

[In thousands of dollars!

Subactivity

Total direct program

Quadrangle Mapping and Revision l

Small Scale and Special Mapping _ _ __ _

National Cartographic Information Center 2 __

1972

$34,545

32.710

1,835

(300)

I 973

$35,172

33,433

1,739

(675)

I 974

$37,161

35,046

2,115

(1,043)

1 975

$45,350

41,148

2,661

1,541

1 976

$45,354

38,266

5,358

1,730

Transition 

quarter

$11,548

9,396

1,730

422

I 977

$50,311

42,390

5,278

2,643

1 Funds are reconstructed for fiscal year 1972 and include the Map Revision and 

Maintenance subactivity.

2 National Cartographic Information Center funds included in the Quadrangle Mapping 

and Revision subactivity prior to fiscal year 1975.

TABLE 30. Topographic Surveys and Mapping Federal-State Cooperative Program funds, by State, fiscal years 7972-77

[In thousands of dollars]

State

Total 1 __

Alabama _ _ _ ______ _.

State share ___ ___ _

Arkansas __ _ _ _ __ _ _ __ _ __ _ _ _ .

State share _ ___ _ _ _.

1972

_ _ $6,408

_ _ 3,204

_ __ 50

25

46

23

1973

$7,438

3,719

50

25

54

27

1 974

$9,884

4,942

40

20

58

29

1975

$9,990

4,995

62

31

72

36

1 976

$7,350

3,675

48

24

74

37

Transition 

quarter

$1,764

882

28

14

1977

$6,568

3,284

30

15

66

33

See footnotes at end of table.

206 | BUDGETARY AND STATISTICAL DATA
TABLE 30. Topographic Surveys and Mapping Federal-State Cooperative Program funds, by State, fiscal years 7972-77 Continued

State

California ___ ___ _ ___ __.

State share _ _______________

Colorado _ -__ __ ___ __ _ .

State share ___ _ ____

Connecticut _ _ _ ______

State share _ _ __ _ _ __

Florida _ _____ _ ________

State share _____ _ _ __

Georgia _ ___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

State share __ _ _ _ ______

Illinois _ _ __ - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ____

State share __ __ _ _ _

Indiana __ _ _ _ __ _ _ ____

State share _____

Iowa ___ _ _ _ __ _ _ __

State share _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ____

Kansas __ __ _______

State share _ _ __ _ _ _

Kentucky _ __ _ _ ___ __

State share _ _ __ _ __ __

Louisiana _ _ _ _ __ __ _ _ _ _ __

State share ___ _ _ _ __ _ _ _

Maine _ _______ ____ __

State share ___ _ __ _

Maryland __ ____ _ _ _____

State share _ _ __ _ _ ___

Massachusetts

State share __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

Michigan ___ __ ' ____ __ _____

State share __ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

Minnesota _______________________

State share ___ __ _ __ __

Missouri _____ ___ __________

State share __ ___ _ _________

Nevada ____ __________ ____

State share __

New Mexico __ __ _ _ _

State share __ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ __ _

New York ___ ____________ . State share _ __ _____ _.

North Carolina __ __ _ __ _ _ _ _.

State share __ __ __ ___

North Dakota. _ ___ _ ___ __ .

State share _ __ ___ _ __.

Ohio _ ________ _ ___ _ ,_.

State share _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

Oklahoma _ __ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _.

State share _ _______ _ _.

Oregon __ _ _ __ __ __ __ __ _

State share _ __ _ _ __.

1972

. _ _ _ 186

____ 93

__ _ 40

20

_ ___ 580

290

- - - 56

____ 28

 ___ 150

_ ___ 75

____ 136

_ ___ 68

__ 266

__ _ 133

____ 210

__ __ 105

____ 60

____ 30

 __ 40

_______ 20

__ 20

10

__ __ 200

_ __ 100

 _ 100

_ _ __ 50

_ ___ 734

____ 367

_____ 184

_ ____ 92

____ 40

_ _ __ 20

 ___ 380

- __ 190

- ___ 220

. __ _ 110

. ____ 112

. __ _ 56

.___ __ 150

75

. ___ 126

. _ _ 63

60

. __ 30

1 973

186

93

40

20

512

286

1,219

609

120

60

134

67

248

124

182

91

50

25

40

20

22

11

196

98

100

50

708

354

130

65

40

20

234

117

172

86

242

121

150

75

112

56

78

39

1 974

198

99

4

2

120

60

578

289

2,294

1,147

30

15

136

68

286

143

278

139

152

76

40

20

20

10

190

95

100

50

1,092

546

134

67

58

29

366

183

670

335

88

44

150

75

110

55

44

22

1 975

252 126'

830

415

124

62

454

227

1,992

996

70

35

136

68

268

134

254

127

120

60

40

20

20

10

250

125

100

50

840

420

134

67

54

27

16

8

226

113

890

445

222

111

150

75

110

55

92

46

1976

206

103

420

210

110

55

450

225

1,340

670

70

35

108

54

176

88

266

133

204

102

90

45

40

20

30

15

250

125

100

50

246

123

110

55

58

29

16

8

502

251

198

99

150

75

110

55

32

16

Transition 

quarter

66

33

158

79

56

28

76

38

244

122

8

4

2

1

64

32

104

52

60

30

22

11

20

10

2

1

6

3

44

22

32

16

12

6

124

62

10

5

38

19

36

18

24

12

1977

194

. 97

666

333

110

55

450

225

590

295

70

35

160

80

200

100

100

50

272

136

90

45

40

20

20

10

250

125

100

50

110

55

70

35

660

330

90

45

150

75

110

55

70

35

See footnotes at end of table.

BUDGETARY AND STATISTICAL DATA | 207
TABLE 30.- Topographic Surveys and Mapping Federal-State Cooperative Program funds, by State, fiscal years 7972-77 Continued

State

Pennsylvania _ _

State share __ _ __ _ __ .

South Carolina

State share ___ _ ______

South Dakota _

State share __ _ _ _.

Tennessee _ _ _

State share __

Texas _ _ _.

State share __ _ __

Utah ... _ _ __ _ _ _ _

State share _____ __ _ .

Vermont _ _ _ _ _ _ _

State share _ _ _ __ _ _ .

Virginia __ _ __

State share

Washington __ __ _ _ _

State share

West Virginia _ _

State share

Wisconsin _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

State share

Wyoming __ _ _ __ _ __

State share "

Puerto Rico _ _

State share

1 Includes Federal funds from direct program.

2 Includes reimbursable program funds from States,

TABLE 31. Topographic Surveys and

1 972

550

275

50

25

12

6

694

347

72

36

20

10

166

83

32

16

206

103

400

200

10

5

50

25

1973

326

163

120

60

50

25

38

19

742

371

114

57

20

10

132

66

32

16

298

149

402

201

10

5

76

38

1 974

392

196

50

25

50

25

726

363

120

60

40

20

232

116

34

17

506

253

412

206

10

5

76

38

1975

312

156

36

18

50

25

44

22

686

343

100

50

34

17

218

109

6

3

228

114

414

207

10

5

74

37

1 976

224

112

50

25

16

8

682

341

100

50

20

10

188

94

28

14

142

71

410

205

10

5

76

38

Transition

32

16

28

14

170

85

40

20

14

7

6

3

26

13

208

104

4

2

1 977

250

125

50

25

16

8

700

350

100

50

190

95

16

8

156

78

412

206

10

5

counties, and municipalities.

Mapping reimbursable

fiscal years

[In thousands

Agency

Total _ .

Department of Agriculture _ __ .

Department of Commerce

Department of Defense

Department of the Interior

Bureau of Indian Affairs

Bureau of Land Management

Bureau of Reclamation

Fish and Wildlife Service

National Park Service _ _

Office of Territories

Department of Transportation

National Aeronautics and Space

Administration _ _

National Science Foundation _ _ .

Miscellaneous Federal Agencies

1972

$631

21

21

138

256

216

I 973

$780

35

68

60

8

207

198

272

program funds

7972-77

of dollars]

1 974

$918

95

92

238

165

73

235

46

212

from other Federal agencies, by agency,

1975

$1,658

326

183

441

198

243

4

97

257

350

1 976

$2,690

1,256

187

151

284

209

74

1

257

132

111

312

Transition 

quarter

$726

433

42

78

20

58

30

5

138

1 977

$2,893

1,468

121

271

544

179

325

10

17

13

65

33

94

297

208 | BUDGETARY AND STATISTICAL DATA
TABLE 32. Geologic and Mineral Resource Surveys and Mapping direct program funds, by subactivity, fiscal years 1972-77

[In thousands of dollars]

Subactivity

Total direct program

Land Resource Surveys 1 _____ _ _.

Mineral Resource Surveys 2 __ _

Energy Resource Surveys ___ _ _ _ _.

Offshore Geologic Surveys _ _ _ .

1 Funds adjusted for fiscal years 1972-73

Mineral Resource Surveys.

3 Funds adjusted for fiscal years 1972-73

the Mineral Discovery Loan Program activity

1972

_ $34,244

._ _ 15,154

._ _ 13,524

. _ 3,144

._ _ 2,422

to include geologic

to exclude geologic

1 973

$42,895

19,246

14,026

5,197

4,426

mapping in

mappinq and

I 974

$49,877

23,077

14,971

6,696

5,133

support of

to include

1 975

$89,018

33,385

18,017

22,376

15,240

1 976

$92,322

34,077

19,775

23,080

15,470

Transition 

quarter

$24,829

9,681

5,316

5,863

3,969

1 977

$100,007

35,202

23,757

26,250

14,798

for fiscal years 1972-73.

TABLE 33. Geologic and Mineral Resource Surveys and

State

Total 1 _

State share - _

Alabama _ _ ___ ___

State share _ _____

Alaska __ _ ___ _____ __ _ _

State share __ __ ___ __ _ _.

Arkansas _ _ ____ _ __ __

State share _.. _ _ _ __ _ _ _ .

California __ __ -- - --

State share _____

Colorado __ ____ _ ___

State share _ _ _ _

Connecticut ___ _ __ __ __ _

State share ________

Georgia _ _ _ ___ _ __ _ ___

State share __ __ __ _ _

Hawaii __ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

State share _ ___ __ _ ___ _

Idaho __ ____ ___ __

State share _ _ _

Iowa __ _ _____ __ __ _

State share __ _ __ _

Kansas _ __ ___ _ _

State share _ __ ___ _ _

Kentucky __ __ _ _ ___ _ __ _

State share _ _ _ __ _ _ ___

Maryland ____ _ _____ __

State share _ ___ __ _ _ ___

Massachusetts _ _ _ _ _ _ _

State share _ _ _ _____

Michigan ____ __ __ ___

State share _ . _ ___ _ _ ____

Minnesota __ _ __ _ ___ _ _ _ _

State share _ _ __ _ _

Nevada ____ ___ __ _ _ ___ _

State share _ .. _ _

New Hampshire _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _

State share _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _

New Mexico _ _ _ _ __ __ _ _ __.

State share ______

[In

1972

$2,941

1,359

._ __ 160

80

51

______ 25

. __ _ 71

______ 33

. __ 42

20

141

. _ _ 69

._ 2

__ _ 1

_ _ 1,158

_ __ 575

__ __ 20

__ 10

417

_ _ 205

__ __ 153

65

__ _ 192

80

__ 25

_ _ 13

Mapping Federal-State

thousands of

1973

$4,270

1,556

10

10

332

135

85

36

79

22

50

30

235

69

i

1,332

600

27

10

633

205

216

65

249

90

31

13

20

10

dollars!

1 974

$4,254

1,681

10

5

238

93

125

27

362

80

208

75

6

3

16

8

1,454

630

14

7

563

228

178

65

254

90

59

39

40

20

Cooperat/ve

1 975

$4,541

1,550

15

5

476

75

165

27

57

21

258

75

10

5

1,599

675

19

9

581

205

158

65

384

105

50

13

11

funds, by State, fiscal years

1 976

$3,910

1,479

110

27

99

66

200

75

1,643

718

630

205

148

65

396

110

53

13

18

18

Transition

$917

413

35

35

62

16

413

176

180

97

45

20

87

25

13

3

2

2

7972-77

1 977

$3,487

1,403

107

27

47

47

144

60

1,682

778

509

184

128

65

413

97

45

7

6

6

See footnotes at end of table.

BUDGETARY AND STATISTICAL DATA | 209
TABLE 33. Geologic and Mineral Resource Surveys and Mapping Federal-State Cooperative funds, by State,

fiscal years 7972-77 Continued

State

New York _ _ _ _________________

State share ___ ___ __ _

North Carolina _ __ _ __ _

State share _ _ _ _ __

Pennsylvania __ _ _ _

State share ___ _ _ __________

South Carolina _ _ _ _ _ _ _

State share _ ______ _________

Texas _ _ ___ _ ______ __

State share _ _______ ______

Utah __ _ _ ______ _________

State share ___ ___________________

Washington ___ __ ___ ____________

State share _ ___ ________________

West Virginia __ _ __ _ ___________

State share _ ______ ___ __

Wisconsin __ __ _ _ _ ____ _ _ _ _

State share _ _ ____ _ __ _____

Wyoming _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _

State share _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

Puerto Rico ___ _ _______ ______

State share __ _ ___ ___ __

Virgin Islands ________ _____________

State share _ _ _ _ ______

1 Includes Federal funds from direct program.

3 Includes reimbursable program funds from States,

1972

35

6

15

8

11

3

58

20

55

8

15

2

320

136

counties, and

TABLE 34. Geologic and Mineral Resource Surveys

1973

99

12

30

15

3

3

18

7

122

30

20

10

82

8

27

2

570

174

1 974

20

10

40

6

10

5

7

7

67

20

20

10

76

8

26

2

461

243

1975

21

10

18

18

5

5

6

4

134

30

21

10

68

8

11

2

474

183

1 976

37

4

81

35

3

3

121

8

35

2

336

130

Transition

8

5

7

3

17

17

8

2

40

12

1 977

18

18

6

6

6

3

42

16

1

1

18

6

107

1

208

81

municipalities

and Mapping reimbursable program

by agency, fiscal

[In thousands

Agency

Total ___________

Appalachian Regional Commission ___ _

Department of Defense _ _ _ _ _____

Department of Housing and Urban

Development _ ______ _ _ __

Department of the Interior __ _ _ __

Office of the Secretary _ _ ___ _ __ _

Bureau of Indian Affairs __ _ _ _ ___

Bureau of Land Management ___________

Bureau of Mines ___ _ _ _ _____

Bureau of Reclamation __ __ _ _

National Park Service _ _ _ _ _ _ _

Office of Saline Water _ _ _ __

Department of Commerce __ __ _ __

National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration __ _ _ _ __ ___

Department of State ___ __ ___ _ _ _

Department of Energy 1 _ ___ _ _ _ __

National Aeronautics and Space

Administration _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _

National Science Foundation ______ _

Nuclear Regulatory Commission _ _ _ . Miscellaneous Federal Agencies _ _ __ .

1 972

._ $13,609

3,219

281

134

80

23

31

1,987

2,090

5,038

650

210

I 973

$11,222

1,431

294

156

156

1,975

2,134

4,708

135

389

years 7972-77

of dollars]

1974

$19,321

189

5,670

224

2,001

1,510

3,125

4,745

1,329

528

1 975

$20,158

179

2,648

817

5,719

243

3,741

1,735

434

1,056

2,895

2,938

1,604

1,195

673

funds from

I 976

$16,828

2,443

2,330

370

1,851

109

342

1,513

359

3,401

2,800

1,538

1,439

663

other Federal agencies,

Transition 

quarter

$5,862

739

1,209

44

144

915

71

35

772

73

1,480

977

35

427

150

1 977

$22,420

1,902

3,957

467

3,192

138

149

11

176

1,947

477

6,396

2,433

2,618

1,758

756

1 Prior to October 1, 1977, shown as Energy Research and Development and Federal 

Energy Administration. Includes Atomic Energy Commission funds for fiscal years 1972-74. 

See also funds from Nuclear Regulatory Commission in fiscal year 1975.

210 | BUDGETARY AND STATISTICAL DATA
TABLE 35. Wafer Resources Investigations direct program funds, by subactivity, fiscal years 7972-77

[In thousands of dollars]

Subactivity 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 Transition 

quarter 1977

Total direct program *

National Water Data System _ 

Federal program __________

Federal-State program 2 _____

Critical National water problems

$37,446 $40,185 $45,433 $53,420 $57,176 $15,916 $68,555

34,849 37,523 42,993 48,191 48,494 12,816 55,826

14,841

20,008

16,334

21,189

17,695

25,298

21,183

27,008

20,487

28,007

5,724

7,092

21,809

34,017

2,597 2,662 2,440 5,229 8,682 3,100 12,729

1 Direct program funds exclude the Employee Compensation Payments subactivity for 

fiscal years 1972-77.

-' Federal share of Federal-State Cooperative Program.

TABLE 36. Water Resources /nvest/gat/ons, Federal-State Cooperative Program funds, by State, fiscal years 7972-77

[In thousands of dollars]

State 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 Transition 

quarter

See footnotes at end of table.

1977

Total 1 _______________ $41,302 $43,925 $51,118 $55,554 $57,742 $14,763 $68,778

State share a __________ 21,294 22,736 25,820 28,546 29,735____7,672 34,761

Alabama _____________________ 789 868 1,044 1,135 1,042 165 1,112

State share __________________ 436 479 529 587 509 84 546

Alaska _______________________ 459 506 659 686 782 202 1,141

State share __________________ 250 264 317 335 407 101 561

Arizona _ ____ ___ _______ 1,021 1,001 1,144 1,248 1,255 335 1,393

State share _______________ 540 510 576 646 639 177 700

Arkansas _______________________ 409 457 674 650 627 162 888

State share __________________ 202 225 399 347 307 80 435

California _ ______________ 3,636 3,850 4,229 4,381 4,520 1,170 5,037

State share ___________________ 1,810 1,938 2,101 2,190 2,304 607 2,541

Colorado _ ____________ 953 1,078 1,480 1,615 1,779 504 2,374

State share _ ____________ 487 545 835 909 986 270 1,225

Connecticut i ______________ 436 412 486 687 548 123 643

State share _ ______ 215 203 239 386 285 64 319

Delaware __ _______ 111 121 130 194 213 54 225

State share ____________ 75 81 74 106 116 30 121

District 

State 

of 

share 

Columbia 

_________________ 

___________________ 

1111202

2333314

Florida _. _______ 2,818 3,071 4,505 5,055 5,257 1,405 6,050

State share _____________ 1,429 1,572 2,263 2,521 2,593 697 3,013

Georgia _____________ 741 790 939 1,081 1,170 308 1,872

State share ____________________ 408 432 461 530 573 153 919

Hawaii __ _ 622 653 691 697 896 191 811

State share _ ____________ 314 337 339 341 501 101 417

Idaho 619 675 718 749 852 223 952

State share _ _____ 307 344 353 366 417 111 465

Illinois _ . 503 526 514 575 778 200 1,039

State share ________ 266 273 262 288 424 116 557

Indiana _ 858 973 1,227 1,152 1,411 364 1,893

State share ___ _ 423 523 610 564 725 181 934

Iowa 517 525 592 617 646 177 778

State share 255 259 291 302 317 89 381

Kansas _____ 1,096 1,110 1,116 1,156 1,259 338 1,519

State share ____________ 542 552 543 582 619 168 748

BUDGETARY AND STATISTICAL DATA | 211
TABLE 36. Water Resources Investigations, Federal-State Cooperative Program funds, by State, fiscal years 7972-77 Continued

State 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 Transition 

quarter 1977

Kentucky _____________________ 665 698 719 875 981 244 1,003

State share ________________J_ 328 348 353 427 480 121 490

Louisiana _______________________ 1,152 1,190 1,748 1,620 1,604 418 2,530

State share ___________________ 625 649 904 842 817 216 1,270

Maine _______________________ 123 128 135 208 273 69 295

State share __________________ 69 71 76 107 161 40 160

Maryland _______________________ 580 646 817 972 986 241 1,144

State share __________________ 301 335 418 511 502 124 586

Massachusetts __________________ 542 550 593 787 747 182 785

State share ___________________ 309 322 333 480 449 91 446

Michigan _______ __ 606 631 652 796 830 207 873

State share ______________ 302 310 321 390 406 103 426

Minnesota _____________________ 635 712 811 799 945 320 1,078

State share ______________________ 314 373 420 397 502 198 564

Mississippi ______________________ 592 593 645 743 646 170 713

State share ______________.___ 357 340 325 415 316 85 349

Missouri _______________________ 608 602 523 544 532 131 503

State share __________________ 321 310 255 270 261 67 249

Montana _______________________ 401 402 505 587 596 146 1,330

State share __________________ 221 223 255 287 301 76 673

Nebraska ______________________ 553 588 705 731 785 187 957

State share __________________ 274 298 344 358 396 95 469

Nevada _______________________ 346 351 377 408 468 125 566

State share __________________ 171 178 185 200 228 62 276

New Hampshire ________________ 75 108 118 122 177 50 .203

State share _________________ 37 54 58 60 86 25 96

New Jersey ____________________ 822 856 1,051 977 1,090 276 1,269

State share __________________ 418 433 530 501 565 143 642

New Mexico ____________________ 963 1,087 1,292 1,412 1,476 336 1,531

State share ___________________ 509 591 642 706 742 173 772

New York ______________________ 1,844 2,161 2,410 2,730 2,822 715 2,990

State share ___________________ 921 1,112 1,222 1,462 1,615 401 2,550

North Carolina __________________ 691 767 876 977 960 255 1,095

State share __________________ 341 394 430 479 473 135 536

North Dakota ____________________ 602 657 675 776 792 236 802

State share __________________ 305 340 325 378 390 120 392

Ohio __________________________ 840 878 828 943 1,105 298 1,420

State share _________________ 443 445 406 488 596 156 749

Oklahoma ______________________ 488 522 592 638 676 160 750

State share __________________ 270 284 289 313 331 80 366

Oregon _______________________ 667 750 852 810 867 263 1,130

State share ___________________ 342 393 417 397 433 151 589

Pennsylvania ____________________ 1,602 1,691 1,955 2,103 2,186 522 2,466

State share __________________ 809 864 994 1,053 1,107 268 1,239

Rhode Island ____________________ 92 90 97 110 124 31 127

State share ___________________ 50 50 52 54 60 16 63

South Carolina ___________________ 403 454 546 533 557 142 603

State share __________________ 212 241 279 261 272 71 296

South Dakota ____________________ 374 373 421 465 478 118 518

State share ___________________ 211 205 202 226 234 59 253

See footnotes at end of table.

212 | BUDGETARY AND STATISTICAL DATA
TABLE 36. Water Resources Investigations, Federal-State Cooperative Program funds, by State, fiscal years 7972-77 Continued

State 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 Transition 

quarter 1977

Tennessee __________________________ 526

State share _________________ 288

Texas _______________________ 3,023

State share _________________ 1,578

Utah _________________________ 884

State share _________________ 447

Vermont _____________________ 105

State share _________________ 54

Virginia _______________________ 631

State share _________________ 337

Washington ___________________ 1,710

State share _________________ 845

West Virginia __________________ 276

State share _________________ 160

Wisconsin ______________________ 830

State share _________________ 411

Wyoming _________________________ 564

State share _________________ 309

American Samoa _____________________ 72

State share _________________ 36

Guam _______________________ 36

State share _________________ 18

Puerto Rico ___________________ 672

State share _________________ 333

Trust Territories ___________________ 105

State share _ ___________ 52

Virgin Islands _________________ 12

State share ___________________ 6

551

302

3,049

1,575

937

466

109

56

661

355

1,834

916

302

173

870

429

575

303

64

32

43

21

701

345

125

62

801

397

3,320

1,664

941

467

104

53

673

350

2,020

1,000

420

258

1,075

561

662

321

63

31

62

31

766

401

117

58

908

448

3,575

1,757

1,255

784

96

47

640

333

2,068

1,074

526

324

1,224

668

832

507

70

32

65

32

745

365

170

84

33

31

1,019

500

3,669

1,807

1,177

691

118

58

549

284

2,006

1,017

511

314

1,343

786

709

390

40

20

68

33

604

295

170

84

18

9

280

139

932

465

286

161

28

14

128

71

496

259

132

75

336

191

163

84

9

4

18

9

145

72

44

22

2

1

1,249

612

3,955

2,021

1,525

757

134

70

482

250

3,219

1,632

647

380

1,395

784

790

387

60

30

70

33

635

315

173

84

32

16

1 Includes Federal funds from direct program.

3 Includes reimbursable program funds from States, counties, and municipalities.

3 Included with Puerto Rico funds.

TABLE 37. Wafer Resources Investigations reimbursable program funds from other Federal agencies, by agency, fiscal years 7972-77

[In thousands of dollars]

Agency 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 Transition 

quarter 1977

Total __________________ $11,905 $14,518 $16,378 $18,570 $24,631 $6,868 $26,862

Department of Agriculture 

Department of Commerce 

Department of Defense ___

Department of Housing and Urban 

Development ___________

Department of the Interior ____.

Bonneville Power Administration 

Bureau of Indian Affairs ____.

Bureau of Land Management __. 

Bureau of Mines ________.

Bureau of Reclamation ______.

Fish and Wildlife Service _______

National Park Service ________

268

85

5,879

921

1,497

101

154

273

73

6,953

1,801

1,984

118

89

207

261

(M 

7,554

3,018

2,026

101

175

178

565

154

8,391

2,252

3,190

105

256

1,130

633

101

508

855

256

459

676

367

529

721

361

617

753

1,733

9,367

4,624

3,668

130

179

1,749

39

790

205

576

172

36

2,414

1,873

1,035

32

113

494

196

45

155

662

37

10,135

6,003

4,597

141

269

2,406

62

1,040

161

518

See footnotes at end of table.

BUDGETARY AND STATISTICAL DATA | 213
TABLE 37. Wafer Resources Investigations reimbursable program funds from other Federal agencies, by agency, fiscal years

7972-77 Continued

Agency

Department of State _ _ _ _ _ .

Department of Transportation

Environmental Protection Agency _ _

Department of Energy 2 __ _ _ _ _ _ _ .

National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration _ _ _ _ _ ___ _ _.

National Science Foundation __ _

Tennessee Valley Authority ___ _ _ .

Miscellaneous Federal agencies _ _ _ __.

1972

802

627

1,022

266

198

340

1973

781

916

877

343

255

262

1974

667

1 127

904

284

212

325

1 975

642

47

1,389

959

235

67

252

494

1976

589

214

1,921

1,142

213

216

191

Transition 

quarter

148

31

571

446

14

70

58

1977

598

242

1,847

2,177

60

297

207

1 Included with miscellaneous Federal agencies funds.

2 Prior to October 1, 1977, shown as Energy Research and Development. Includes Atomic Energy Commission funds for fiscal years 1972-74.

TABLE 38. Conservation of Lands and Minerals direct program funds, by subactivity, fiscal years 7972-77

[In thousands of dollars!

Subactivity

Total direct program _ _

Outer Continental Shelf Lands _ _ _ _ .

1 972

$13,441

7,626

5,815

1 973

$14,700

8,114 

6,586

1 974

$18,172

10,957 

7,215

TABLE 39. Conservation of Lands and Minerals reimbursable program funds

[In thousands of dollars]

Agency

Total _ _ .

Miscellaneous Federal agencies __ ___

TABLE 40. Land Information

Subactivity

Total direct program __ _ .

Earth Sciences Applications __ _ __.

Resource and Land Investigations __ _ __

Geography _ __ _ _ _

1972

$25

25

and Analysis 

[In

1972

$6,714

970

5 744

1973

$45

24 

21

1974

$41

25 

16

direct program funds, 

thousands of dollars]

1973

$11,876

1,519

10,357

I 974

$11,458

1,580 

916

8,962

1 975

$36,032

23,196 

12,836

1 976

$41,489

26,194 

15,295

from other Federal agencies

1 975

$46

25 

21

by subactivity,

1975

$15,461

1,600 

959 

2,013 

8,284 

2,605

1976

$186

25 

161

Transition 

quarter

$13,347

9,119 

4,255

, fiscal years

Transition 

quarter l

$6

6

1 977

$67,239

37,970 

29,269

7972-77

1977

$172

172

fiscal years 1972-77

1 976

$14,908

1,629 

740 

2,341 

8,158 

2,040

Transition 

quarter

$7,795

407 

491 

747 

4,840 

1,310

1 977

$17,698

1,433 

1,021 

2,527 

9,545 

3,172

214 | BUDGETARY AND STATISTICAL DATA
TABLE 41. Land Information and Analysis reimbursable program funds from other Federal agencies, by agency, fiscal years 7972-77

[In thousands of dollars|

Agency

Total _ _ _ _ _ _ _____

Department of Defense ____ _ _ _ _ _.

Department of Housing and Urban 

Development _ __ ____ __ _ _______

Department of the Interior _ _ ___ _

Bureau of Land Management __ _ __.

Bureau of Mines ___ _ _ ___ ___ .

National Park Service _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

Department of Transportation _ _ __ _ _

National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration __ ___ _ _ _ .

Ozarks Regional Commission __ _ _ _ _

Miscellaneous Federal agencies ___ _ _.

1 972 1 973 1 974

$575 $1,249 $952

__ ____ 10

__ ____ 339

__ __ _ 48

__ __ __ 35

_ __ __ __ 13

. _ 575 1,249 408

__ 60

87

1975

$407

11

11

179

49

168

1 976

$744

15

8

3

4

443

31

255

Transition 

quarter

$636

40

40

179

206

60

151

1 977

$3,848

3,088

3,088

6

100

122

532

TABLE 42. Land Information and Analysis Federal-State Cooperative Program funds, by State, fiscal years 7972-77

fin thousands of dollars]

State

Total 1 _ _ ______

Total State share " _ _ _ .

Alabama _ _ _ ___ ___ _ __ .

State share _ _ ______ _ _ _ __ _ _ .

Florida ___ ___ _ _ ___ _ _ ________

State share _ _ __ _ ___ ___ __ _ .

Missouri __ _ _ _ __ __ _ _ __ _ __.

State share __ ___ ___ ___ .

North Carolina _ ___ __ ___ _____

State share __ ___ _ _ _ _ _ .

Pennsylvania __ _ _ _ _ _ ___ ___ _ _ __

State share _ _ _ _ _ _

West Virginia _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___

State share _ ___ __ _ _ _ _

1972 1973 1974 1975

.___ ______ ______ ______ $66

. __ __ __ __ ____ 33

.___ ____ __ _ __ 66

. _ __ __ __ ___ 33

1976

$250

130

34

17

56

33

100

50

60

30

Transition 

quarter

$38

19

6

3

32

16

1 977

$362

190

90

45

200

109

72

36

1 Includes Federal funds from direct program.

- Includes reimbursable funds from States, counties, and municipalities.

TABLE 43. Program support funds, by activity, fiscal years 7972-77 

[In thousands of dollars]

Program support activity

General Administrative 

Expenses 1 _ _ _ __ _ _ _ __ _ _.

General Administration a _ _ _ _ __ _.

Direct program assessments 3 _ __ ___.

Reimbursable program assessment 4 _ _.

1972

._._ $6,422

3,187

1,669

1,566

1 973

$7,173

3,217

2,352

1,604

1 974

$8,197

3,517

2,770

1,910

1 975

$10,806

3,671

5,126

2,009

1976

$11,451

3,398

5,766

2,287

Transition 

quarter

$3,675

1,492

1,466

717

1977

$13,982

3,760

7,015

3,207

See footnotes at end of table.

BUDGETARY AND STATISTICAL DATA | 215
TABLE 43. Program support funds, by activity, fiscal years 7972-77 Continued

Program support activity

Electronic data processing and related 

services 6 __ _ ____ _

Funded by Survey programs 6

Funded by miscellaneous accounts 7

Publication services __ __ _ __ __ _

Funded by Survey programs 0

Funded by miscellaneous accounts ~

1972

4,862

3 351

1,511

_ 10,667

_ 10,297

370

1973

6,168

4,177

1,991

11,656

11,147

509

1 974

6,987

4,828

2,159

11,932

11,432

500

1975

8,425

6,129

2,296

13,004

12,488

516

1976

7,432

6,700

732

15,468

14,662

806

Transition 

quarter

1,922

1,908

14

3,705

3,469

236

1977

12,728

12,631

97

15,412

14,719

693

1 Obligations of the Director's Office for executive direction and of the 

Administration Division for management services.

- Direct program funds of the General Administration budget activity. 

Obligations reconstructed for fiscal years 1972-75 to include Employee 

Compensation Payments.

3 Assessments made on direct program funds of other budget activities.

4 Assessments made on reimbursable program funds of other budget

activities. No assessments are made on cooperative funds from State 

and local governments.

5 Obligations of the Computer Center Division. 

"Obligations charged to Survey program activities.

7 Obligations charged to the Miscellaneous Services to Other Accounts 

activity for reimbursable work done for other agencies.

TABLE 44. Geological Survey end-of-year employment, by organizational unit, fiscal years 7972-77

Organizational unit

Total __ _ _

Permanent employment _ __ _ __

Other than permanent employment __ __

Topographic Division _ _ __

Permanent employment _ _

Other than permanent employment

Geologic Division ____ _ _

Permanent employment

Other than permanent employment

Water Resources Division _____

Permanent employment _

Other than permanent employment _

Conservation Division _ _ _ _

Permanent employment

Other than permanent employment

Land Information and Analysis Office _

Permanent employment

Other than permanent employment

National Petroleum Reserve in Alaska _

Permanent employment _____

Other than permanent employment _

Director's Office _ _

Permanent employment ___

Other than permanent employment

Administrative Division _ _ _

Permanent employment _ _

Other than permanent employment ___

Facilities 1 _ _ _ _ _ _ _

Permanent employment _ _

Other than permanent employment

Computer Center Division

Permanent employment _ _ _ _

Other than permanent employment _ _ _ _

Publications Division __ __ _

Permanent employment _ __

Other than permanent employment

1972

9 '224

8,002

1,222

2,045

1,828

217

2,060

1,706

354

3 '409

2,876

533

549

529

20

51

39

12

64

51

13

360

326

34

170

150

20

516

497

19

1 973

9,387

8,089

1,298

2,020

1,758

262

2,147

1,766

381

3,419

2,900

519

568

547

21

72

52

20

57

55

2

382

341

41

174

153

21

548

517

31

1 974

9,921

8,357

1,564

1,956

1,762

194

2,406

1,888

518

3,611

2,910

701

647

612

35

85

68

17

64

62

2

408

366

42

15

15

182

159

23

547

515

32

1 975

10,435

8,999

1,436

1,877

1,719

158

2 '572

2 135

437

3,610

2,957

653

990

926

64

114

89

25

66

57

9

441

398

43

30

30

198

178

20

537

510

27

I 976 -

11,868

9,049

2,819

1,859

1,664

195

3,170

2,089

1,081

4,131

2,895

1,236

1,242

1,143

99

175

116

59

71

59

12

468

403

65

51

37

14

154

125

29

527

498

29

1977 ;!

11,930

9,326

2,604

1,870

1,644

226

2,981

2,046

935

3,946

2,840

1,106

1,586

1,498

88

191

126

65

25

22

3

76

63

13

508

424

84

58

37

21

174

145

29

501

467

34

1 Administrative Division personnel assigned to the operation of the 

Survey's Headquarter facilities.

-Includes 20 Bureau clerical pool in fiscal year 1976 count date at 

end of transition quarter.

Includes 14 Bureau clerical pool in fiscal year 1977.

216 | BUDGETARY AND STATISTICAL DATA
TABLE 45. Number of Geological Survey reports approved lor publication, by organizational unit, fiscal years 7972-77

Organizational unit

Total __ __ __ _ __ _ .

Book reports 1 _ ___ _ _ _ _ _ _ .

Journal of Research articles 2 _ _ .

Open-file reports _ ________ _.

Basic data reports __ _ __ _ _ __ .

Outside publications _ _ _ _ _ _.

Topographic Division __ _ _ ________

Book reports ___ ___ __ _ _ _ __.

Journal of Research articles _ ___ __ .

Outside publications __ ___ _ ______

Geologic Division _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Book reports _ __ _ _ _ __ _ __

Journal of Research articles _ _ __ __.

Open-file reports ______________ _

Outside publications _ _ _ _ _ _

Water Resources Division _ _ _______ .

Book reports __________ ___ .

Journal of Research articles _ __ _

Open-file reports __ _ __ _ __ .

Basic data reports _ ___ _ _ _

Outside publications _______ __ _ _.

Conservation Division _ _ ______ __ _.

Book reports ___ __ ____ _____

lournal of Research articles

Open-file reports _ ____ _ _ __

Outside publications _ __ _ _ _ _

Director's Office 3 _ ___ ____

Book reports ___ _ _ __

Journal of Research ______

Open-file reports ______

Outside publications _ _ _ __ _ _

1972

. __ 2,351

163

_ __ 106

. __ 447

. _ 196

1,439

. __ 42

.__ _ 42

. __ 1,329

._ _. 102

. __ 78

. __ 258

891

875

59

OQ

- *° v 

. __ 180

._ _ 196

412

15

.. - 1

__ _ 8

__ 6

_ - 90

.__ _ 1

__ _ 1

__ 88

1 973

2,548

147

107

380

255

1,659

53

2

51

1,419

91

79

216

1,033

953

^4

26

149

255

469

17

13

4

106

2

2

102

1974

2,755

155

90

440

230

1,840

53

1

52

1,546

96

69

245

1,136

1,002

56

20

181

230

515

18

2

11

5

136

1

3

132

1 975

2,888

144

85

570

256

1,833

33

33

1,811

90

70

379

1,272

926

50

15

152

256

453

44

1

32

11

74

3

7

64

1 976

3,418

146

101

781

207

2,183

36

36

2,209

101

62

499

1,547

1,061

42

38

264

207

510

28

13

15

84

3

1

5

75

Transition 

quarter

883

29

19

215

44

576

6

6

578

16

14

145

403

245

11

5

55

44

130

15

1

10

4

39

1

5

33

1 977

3,735

179

93

851

102

2,531

41

3

38

2,527

108

62

581

1,776

943

42

23

215

102

561

78

1

48

28

146

5

6

7

128

1 Book reports include U.S. Geological Survey Professional Papers, 

Bulletins, Water-Supply Papers, Circulars, and other report series.

2 Before January 1973, articles were published as part of the annual 

"Geological Survey Research" Professional Paper.

n Includes reports of the Land Information and Analysis Office, Administrative Division, Computer Center Division, and Publications Division.

TABLE 46. Number ol maps produced by the Geological Survey, by organizational unit, fiscal years 7972-77

Organizational unit

Total 1 _ __ ... _-_ .__.

Topographic Division __ ____ _

Quadrangle maps __ _ ___

New standard quadrangles _ _

Orthophotoquads _ __ _ __ _ _ _.

Revisions ___ __ _ _ ___ _______

Reprints _ _ ___ ______

Small scale and special maps ____ _

1:250,000 series __ _ _ __ .

Antarctica _ _____ _ _ _ _ __ __

State bases _______ ___ _ _ _ __

Other ________ _ __ _ _

Reprints _ __ __________ ____ .

Intermediate scale __ _ _ __ __ .

Topographic maps indexes _ _ __ __

Geologic Division 2 __ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ __

1 972

6,094

.__ _ 4,817

4,641

.__ - 2,544

1 223

874

. _ _ 112

. __ 26

._ _ 8

. __ 20

_ _ 58

. __ 64

315

1 973

in iru

5,313

5,117

2,347

49

1,118

1,603

148

57

5

2

25

59

48

320

1 974

7,361

4,938

4,780

2,052

15

966

1,747

121

50

8

63

37

215

1 975

8,722

7,288

7,087

2,016

2,869

923

1,279

171

52

4

2

24

80

9

30

229

1 976

9,099

7,339

6,757

1,405

3,197

656

1,499

582

37

6

34

112

73

259

61

285

Transition 

quarter

2,310

2,080

1,970

237

730

165

838

114

5

1

6

54

32

16

71

1 977

11,354

10,508

10,012

1,318

4,127

1,081

3,486

496

31

14

1

117

304

29

384

See footnotes at end of table.

BUDGETARY AND STATISTICAL DATA | 217
TABLE 46. Number of maps produced by the Geological Survey, by organizational unit, fiscal years 7972-77 Continued

Organizational unit 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 Transition 

quarter 1977

Water Resources Division 3 

Hydrologic maps ___. 

Flood-prone area maps _.

Conservation Division 4 _. 

Director's office 4 ______.

952 4,650 2,192 1,198 1,358 109 361

47

905

10

84

4,566

13

52

2,140

9

7

58

1,140

5

2

653

705

14

103

70

39

46

60

301

14

87

1 Additional maps are produced for inclusion in book reports.

2 Geologic and geophysical maps.

3 Includes hydrologic unit maps,

4 Miscellaneous maps and charts.

TABLE 47. Oil and gas operations on the Outer Continental Shelf lands, calendar years 1972-77

Activity

Number of exploration permits issued __

Lease sales:

Number of sales _ __ _ __ _ ______

Tracts offered:

Number _ _ _ ______ __ __

Area (acres in thousands) 

Tracts sold:

Number _ _ _ __ ___ _ __ _

Area (acres in thousands)

Percentage of tracts sold ______

Bonus (dollars in thousands) _ _ _ _ _ _

Status of leases:

Total number of leases supervised _ __

Total area (acres in thousands) _ _ __ __

Number of producing leases _ _ _

Area (acres in thousands) _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Percentage _ _ _____ _ 

Number of non-producing leases __

Area (acres in thousands) _ _____ _

Percentage _ _ _ ___ _ _ _ _ _____

Lease operations:

Number of platforms _ _ _ _ _ _

Number of new well starts _ _ _ _ _ _ _

Number of new wells completed _ _____

Number of new zones completed _ __ __

Oil zones __ ___ _ _ ____ __

Gas zones _____ _ __ ______________

Service zones _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

Total number of completed wells _ _

Total number of completed zones _ __ _ _

Oil zones __ _ _ _ _______ _

Gas zones __ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ ___

Service zones _ ___ _ _ _____

Other zones 1 ___ _ ___ ___ _

Miles of pipeline under supervision

(estimated) _________ _ _ __

Production:

Oil and condensate (barrels in millions). _

Percentage of domestic production _ _

Gas (cubic feet in billions) _ _ _

Percentage of domestic production

Gasoline and LPG (gallons in millions) ____

Percentage of domestic production

1972

254

2

210

971

178

826

84.8

$2,251,348

1,023

4,339

698

2,915

68.2

325

1,424

31.8

1,963

847

338

496

306

180

10

6,032

9,716

6,740

2,680

296

6,000

412

11.9

3,038

13.5

1,737

6.5

1 973

350

6

276

1,515

187

1,033

67.8

$3,082,463

1,266

5,614

726

3,039

57.3

540

2,575

42.7

2,016

820

420

600

304

288

8

6,421

10,187

6,868

2,987

332

6,450

395

11.8

3,212

14.0

1,635

6.1

1 974

400

5

1,006

5,006

356

1,762

35.4

$5,022,861

1,590

7,247

748

3,147

47.0

842

4,100

53.0

2,059

816

310

398

226

155

17

6,218

8,750

4,418

2,403

416

1,513

6,700

361

11.2

3,515

16.0

2,032

7.9

1 975

486

4

1,374

7,248

321

1,680

23.4

$1,088,133

1,792

8,321

790

3,253

44.0

1,002

5,069

56.0

2,084

892

392

515

225

277

13

6,104

9,074

4,519

2,765

325

1,465

7,150

330

10.8

3,459

17.2

1,983

7.9

1976

422

4

536

2,818

246

1,278

45.9

$2,242,896

1,996

9,432

833

3,477

41.7

1,163

5,956

58.3

2,100

1,041

432

530

264

258

8

6,770

13,407

6,760

3,648

333

2,666

7,400

317

10.8

3,596

18.1

1,924

8.0

1 977

450

2

358

1,843

255

1,351

71.2

$1,568,630

2,200

10,550

900

3,700

40.9

1,300

6,850

59.1

2,200

1,150

546

706

360

340

6

7,290

10,822

4,431

3,045

379

2,967

1 0,203 «

307

10.6

3,603

18.4

2,188

8.6

1 New classification since 1974.

- Includes DOI and DOT jurisdictional pipelines.

218 | BUDGETARY AND STATISTICAL DATA
TABLE 48. Revenues from leases on Outer Continental Shelf lands, calendar years 7972-77

[Dollars in thousands]

Total revenue _ _____

Bonuses ___ ___ __ _ _ _ _

Minimum royalties ___ ____ _ _____

Rentals ___ _____ ___ __

Number of accounts _ __ __

Shut-in-gas payments __ _____ _

Totals: 

Royalties __ _______ ____

Production value _ _ _ _ _ __

Number of accounts _ _ _ _ _ _

Oil and condensate: 

Royalties _ _ _ _ ___ _ __ _ _

Production value _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _

Gas: 

Royalties _ _ _ _ _ ___ _ _ _

Production value _ ________ _

Gasoline and LPG: 

Royalties __ _ ___ ___ ___

Production value ___ ____ _____

Salt: 

Royalties __ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _

Production value _ _ _ __ _

Sulfur: 

Royalties _ _ _ __ _ _ ____

Production value _ __ ___

1972

__ _ $2.624,958

__ __ 2,251,347

__ ___ 2,020

 _ 7,985

_ _ ___ (529)

_____ 50

_____ 363,556

__ ._ (2,229,179)

(912)

__ __ 247,689

___ __ (1,453,968)

__ __ 105,892

___ __ (663,648)

_ ____ 6,525

 ___ (89,214)

11

_-__ _ (65)

3 439

---_ _ (22,287)

1973

$3,494,981

3,082,462

2,391

8,949

(647)

53

401,126

(2,486,865)

(1,158)

271,491

(1,620,732)

118,245

(736,878)

7,768

(105,437)

11

(69)

3,611

(23,749)

1 974

$5,598,758

5,022,861

2,048

13,533

(1,036)

32

560,284 '

(3,570,054)"

(2,260)'

384,367

(2.398,794)

142,257

(881,634)

19,797

(254,744)

10

(62)

3,853

(34,820)

1 975

$1,723,758

1,088,133

2,086

17,522

(1,203)

40

615,545

(3,924,915)

(2,468)

399,527

(2,428,849)

195,198

(1,205,678)

16,376

(216,043)

8-

(54)

3,738

(69,738)

1976

$2,967,861

2,242,899

2,128

23,371

(1,430)

38

699,425

(4,395,905)

(2,850)

412,303

(2,533,410)

268,090

(1,652,843)

19,656

(246,449)

(3) a

(20)

(1,652)

(36,777)

1977

(estimated)

$2,259,215

1,356,000

2,150

29,200

(1,200)

40

871,825

(5,454,385)

(3,250)

440,000

(2,648,000)

404,000

(2,494,000)

27,825

(312,385)

(2) 1'

(2) :1

1 Includes $3,950,000 of lost oil and gas.

2 Productive salt leases transferred to Louisiana by Supreme Court decree of June 16, 1975.

 '"All currently producing sulfur leases have been turned over to the 

State of Louisiana by Supreme Court decree of June 16, 1975.

TABLE 49. Oil, gas, and geothermal operations on Federal and Indian lands, calendar years 7972-77

Activity

Competitive oil and gas lease sales on 

Federal lands only: 

Tracts offered: 

Number of tracts ______ __

Area acres __ __ ___ ______ _.

Tracts sold: 

Number of tracts __ __ _ _ _ _ .

Area acres __ ______ _ __.

Percentage of tracts sold _ _ _ _ _.

Bonus (dollars in thousands) _ _ ___ _.

Status of oil and gas leases: 

Total number of leases supervised _ _ _.

Total area (acres in thousands)

Number of producing leases _ _ _.

Area (acres in thousands) _ __ _ _ . Percentage __ ___ _ ___

Number of non-producing leases _ ___ .

Area (acres in thousands) _ _ _ _ .

Percentage __ _ _ _ _ __ _

Oil and gas lease operations: 

Number of new well starts _

Number of new wells completed

Number of new zones completed

Oil zones __ ____ _ ___ ______

Gas zones __ __ ___ _ _ __.

Service zones _ _ _ _ _ _ ___ _ __ .

1972

464

130 546

279

88,326

60.1

$1,118

113,158

75 '213

11,640

5,741

10.3

101,518

69,472

89.7

1,956

1,045

1,081

660

374

47

1973

339.

86,681

311

89,315

91.7

$2,203

115,761

79,116

11,953

5,902

10.3

103,808

73,214

89.7

1,848

1,132

1,172

507

601

64

1 974

421

98,064

295

' 65,247

70.1

$2,296

123,652

89,829

12,386

6,349

10.0

111,266

83,480

90.0

2,312

1,280

1,341

701

579

61

1 975

420

102 397

356

112,401

84.8

8,203

125,720

93,717

12,961

6,564

10.3

112,759

84,153

89.7

2,277

1,569

1,646

923

606

117

1 976

480

96,900

356

74,616

74.2

$4,934

125,817

93,682

13,541

6,794

10.8

112,276

86,888

89.2

2,032

1 525

1,391

789

542

60

1977 

(estimated)

320

69,300

994

64,400

91.9

$7,038

129,000

106,500

13,800

9,100

10.7

115,200

97,400

89.3

2,448

1,652

1,692

862

736

94

BUDGETARY AND STATISTICAL DATA | 219
TABLE 49. Oil, gas, and geothermal operations on Federal and Indian lands, calendar years 1972-77 Continued

Activity

Oil and gas lease operations Continued: 

Total number of completed wells _ _____

Total number of completed zones _ _ _

Oil zones _ __ _ ___ _ _ _ _

Gas zones __ __ _ _ _ _ _____

Service zones _-_ __ __ __ ________

Oil and gas production: 

Oil and condensate (barrels in millions) _ 

Percentage of domestic production _ _

Gas (cubic feet in billions) _ _ __ _ __

Percentage of domestic production _ _ 

Gasoline and LPG (gallons in millions) _ _ _ 

Percentage of domestic production _ _ _

Status of geothermal leases: 

Total number of leases in effect _ _

Total area (acres in thousands) _ _

1 972

37,441

39 159

23,282

10,421

5,456

217 

6.3

1,124

5.0 

641 

2.4

1 973

38 199

39,991

23,139

11,083

5,769

208 

6.2

1,153

5.1 

669 

2.5

1 974

38,372

40,251

22,791

11,487

5 973

208 

6.4

1,234

5.6 

567 

2.2

1975

38,218

40,292

21,868

12,272

6,152

200 

6.3

1,111

5.3 

521 

2.1

552

1,270

1976

37,835

39,470

21,101

12,211

6,158

195 

6.7

1,209

6.1 

461 

1.9

915

1,760

1977 

(estimated)

38 529

39,950

21,091

12,800

6,268

188 

6.6

1,150

5.8 

577 

2.2

1,032

2,017

TABLE 50. Royalties from oil and gas leases on Federal and Indian lands, calendar years 7972-77

[Dollars in thousands]

Commodity

Total royalties

Total production value

Oil and condensate: 

Royalties _______

Production value _ __ ___ __ _

Gas: 

Royalties _ _ __ _ __ __ _ .

Production Value _ _ __ _ .

Gasoline and LPG:

Production value ___

All others: 

Royalties _ _ ___ _ _ _ _ _ _

Production value __ _

1 972

$115,204

. _ (918,360)

87 594

(678,085)

25,905

. _ (206,625)

1,686

. _ (33,226)

19

(424)

1973

$34,568

(1,074,758)

100,963

(783,149)

31,263

(248,768)

2,323

(42,398)

19

(443)

1 974

$219,630

(1,728,536)

176,566

(1,349,656)

39 798

(315,490)

3,238

(62,758)

28

(632)

1975

$243,345

(1,915,768)

193,608

(1,459,088)

47,508

(374,785)

3,789

(76,632)

440

(5,263)

1976

$279,066

(2,156,497)

200,864

(1,499,835)

74,616

(593,659)

3,132

(60,636)

454

(2,367)

1 977

(estimated)

$297,150

(2,327,185)

191,000

(1,435,000)

99,900

(791,000)

4,600

(93,685)

750

(7,500)

TABLE 51. Mining operations on Federal and Indian lands, by activity and by commodity, fiscal years 7972-77

Activity ond commodity

Total number of leases supervised- _ 

Total area (acres in thousands)---- 

Total number of producible mines. _ 

Total commodity production (tons 

in thousands)

Coal:

Area (acres in thousands) _ _

Percentage of domestic production _ __

Phosphate:

Area (acres in thousands) _ _

Production (tons in thousands)

Percentage of domestic production __

1 972

2,647 

5,924 

343

39,004

560

934

18,966

3.2

226

136

3,124

7.7

1 973

2,579 

7,566 

338

42,028

561

1,038

24,247

4.1

219

131

3,156

7.4

1974

2,488 

7,830

377

54,978

563

977

32,139

5.4

194

100

6,258

14.0

1 975

2,479 

7,977 

435

76,113

565

1,023

43,590

7.2

194

100

5,772

11.8

1976

2,557 

9,096 

450

81,554

570

1,057

52,491

7.9

279

114

6,937

13.9

Transition 

quarter

2,575 

9,167 

450

21,000

573

1,060

14,000

8.5

280

114

1,500

12.0

1977

(estimated)

2,591 

9,223 

460

99,217

578

1,075

68,000

9.0

279

114

5,125

9.0

220 | BUDGETARY AND STATISTICAL DATA
TABLE 51. Mining operations on Federal and Indian lands, by activity and by commodity, fiscal years 7972-77 Continued

Activity and commodity

Potash:

Area (acres in thousands) _____

Production (tons in thousands) 1 __ _ _.

Percentage of domestic production _ ___

Sodium: 

Number of leases supervised __ ___ _ _

Area (acres in thousands) __ _ _ ___

Production (tons in thousands) _ __ _ _

Percentage of domestic production _ _

Oil shale: 

Number of leases supervised ___ _ _ __

Area (acres in thousands) _ __ _ _ _ __

Production (tons in thousands) ___ _ _

Other: 

Number of leases supervised ______ _ _

Area (acres in thousands) _ ___ ___ ____.

Production (tons in thousands) _ ..

1972

164

249

3 345

72.0

87

133

2,606

66.5

1,610

4,472

10,963

1 973

163

246

3,442

75.5

84

132

2,336

50.5

1,552

6,019

8,847

1974

158

238

3,551

79.2

84

132

2,092

45.4

4

20.4

1,485

6,363

10,938

1 975 .

161

237

3,302

87.8

84

132

2,826

58.9

4

20.4

1,471

6,465

20,623

1 976

163

237

3,576

81.3

89

136

3,311

69.2

4

20.4

1,452

7,532

15 ' 239

Transition 

quarter

163

237

1,000

83.0

90

138

950

79.4

4

20.4

1,465

7,598

3,550

1 977 

(estimated)

160

231

4,890

89.0

90

133

2,527

55.0

4

20.4

1,480

7,650

18,675

1 Converted to refined tons, 1977 estimated in part.

TABLE 52. Revenues from mining leases on Federal and Indian lands, by commodity, fiscal years 7972-77 

[Dollars in thousands; details may not add to totals because of rounding]

To

Be

Coal: 

Royalties .

Production 

Phosphate:

Production

Potash: 

Royalties

Production

Sodium: 

Royalties __

Production

Copper: 

Royalties

Production

Fluorspar: 

Royalties __

Production

Lead and zinc 

Royalties

Production

Limestone: 

Royalties

Production

Commodity

»nuses __ _ _ _.

Total royalties _.

Total production v

value _ __ ___.

value __ __ ______

value __ _ _

value _ _ _ _ _

value _ __ __

value _ _ _ _ ______

value _ _ _______

value _ __

1 972

_ $14

. _ _ 14

'alue _ __ (301

. ______ 3

___________ (78

(9

. __ ___ 3

(72

2

__________ (59

__________ (2

. . _ _ 1

(42

Sand and gravel: 

Royalties __

Production value _ _ ______ (9

i,841

t,841 

,665)

1,119 

l,256)

811

',674)

,104 

,227)

:,531 

',728)

153 

,995)

70 

(698)

,695 

,195)

3

(20)

886 

,713)

1973

$16,484

34 

16,450 

(335,282)

4,044 

(93,307)

842 

(11,314)

3,270 

(75,872)

2,547 

(58,179)

158 

(2,691)

86

(865)

2,192

(54,640)

4 

(54)

623

(6,846)

I 974

$470,464

449,1 921 

21,272 

(463,811)

5,535 

(140,307)

1,618 

(31,158)

3,962 

(96,897)

2,439 

(56,240)

563 

(6,087)

31

(322)

3,241 

(75,319)

6

(86)

633

(7,430)

1 975

$31,596

4 

31,560 

(681,281)

8,335 

(224,947)

1,538 

(28,383)

5,565 

(132,518)

5,046 

(109,590)

1,331 

(7,140)

5, 

(115,

(18,

109 

340)

10 

(83)

842

774)

1976

$36,479

50 

36,429 

(813,221)

10,949 

(337,312)

1,868 

(25,769)

6,321 

(144,693)

7,364 

(155,612)

1,328

(7,347)

11 

(180)

3,677 

(81,564)

(12,

505 

431)

Transition 

quarter

$11,012

12 

11,000 

(240,000)

3,000 

(97,000)

500 

(6,000)

1,800 

(40,000)

2,600 

(51,000)

328

(1,750)

5 

(100)

950 . 

(22,000)

125 

(3,200)

1977-

$52,531

50 

52,481 

(1,059,553)

15,526 

(510,857)

1,591 

(20,424)

6,279

(148,751)

7,016 

(143,387)

2,831 

(31,925)

1 

(12)

5,652 

(125,265)

188

(1,534)

See footnotes at end of table.

BUDGETARY AND STATISTICAL DATA | 221
TABLE 52. Revenues from mining leases on Federal and Indian lands,, by commodity, fiscal years 7972-77 Continued

Commodity

Silica pumice: 

Royalties __ _ __ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _.

Production value _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

Uranium: 

Royalties _ _ ___ _ ___ __.

Production value _ ___ _ _ .

Zinc: 

Royalties __ ________________

Production value _ __ ___ .

Other: 

Royalties _ _ ______ _

Production value _ _ _ _

1972

2 205

(18 394)

214

(5 219)

. ____ 50

(2,546)

1 973

1

(14)

2,303

(18,822)

336

(8,207)

42

(4,490)

1 974

j

2,224

(22,014)

936

(22,806)

84

(5,146)

1975

2,664

(16,938)

1,006

(24,413)

56

(3,155)

1976

3 191

(23,912)

1,001

(22,240)

214

(2,161)

Transition 

quarter

800

(6,000)

350

(8,000)

542

14 950)

1 977 2

13

(1,197)

11,955

(45,322)

1,388

(30,258)

41

(621)

1 Includes bonuses of $448,797,000 from four competitive oil-shale 

lease sales.

- 1977 estimated in part.

TABLE 53. Information products ordered from the EROS Data Center, fiscal years 1975-77

[Dollars in thousands; dollar amounts may not add to total .because of rounding]

Totals _____ _ _

Landsat images __ _ _ _ _ _

Landsat computer-compatible data 

tapes __ _ _ ___ _

Gemini, Apollo, and Skylab images 

and photographs _ _

Aerial photographs _ _ __ _ _ _

Miscellaneous Landsat special

197

Images

414,084

195 125

879

28,049

190,031

'5

Value

$1,610

760

169

113

567

1 97

Images

407 

'395

246,449

2,289

9,664

148,993

'6

Value

<t? 58Q

1,238

404

86

735

125

Transition

Images

104 414 '

50,804

1,010

1.,405

51,195

quarter

Value

$718

274

178

15

221

30

197

Images

125 QQ2

130,100

1,887

3,534

190,471

7

Value

$2,515

1,083

371

52

789

220

TABLE 54. U.S. Geological Survey Library operating statistics, fiscal years 7972-77 J

[N.A., not applicable]

Activity

Library acquisitions: 

Total items

Bound and unbound issues 

of periodicals and

Books and monographs _ 

Pamphlets and reprints ___ 

Single-sheet maps ___ __

Photographs, negatives, 

slides and transparencies _ __ ___

Aerial photographs ___

Field record notebooks 

and related materials _

New serial titles (number 

of titles) _ _ ______

1972

Q4 445

50,322

7,693 

2,660 

19,817

12,558

1,100

295

959

1973

84,208

45,499

7,183 

2,425 

20,653

7,121

1,019

308

650

1974

91,047

48,095

11,600 

2,901 

19,439

7,818

812

382

434

1 975

136,106

49,775

12,891 

2,798 

21,777

3,485

45,000

380

657

1 976

116,927

58,360

11,796 

6,927 

20,873

15,387

1,888

1,104 

592

631

Transition 

quarter

25,077

14,890

1,666 

1,863 

3,102

3,222

125

209

204

1 977

170,960

60,122

11,731 

7,197 

14,045

8,261

3,111

362 

66,131

358

Estimated 

total 

holdings

2,246,964

718,372

340,193 

365,987 

388,020

226,870

57,124

13,675 

136,723

N.A.

See footnotes at end of table.

222 | BUDGETARY AND STATISTICAL DATA
TABLE 54. U.S. Geological Survey Library operating statistics, fiscal years 7972-77 * Continued

Activity

Library circulation: 

Total items _

Books and periodicals _ _

Other (slides, aerial photos, 

well logs, microforms,

Interlibrary loans:

1972

69,302 2

66,627 

2,675

19,156

16,138

3,018

13,093

1973

66,327 "

63,980 

2,347

16,308

13,818

2,490

11,358

1 974

61,656 =

59,402 

2,254

15,252

13,073

2,179

14,047

1 975

80,991 2

76,658 

4,333

20,356

16,965

3,391

14,774

I 976

95,814 -

87,611 

8,203

18,977

15,144

3,833

17,765

Transition 

quarter

24,575 =

23,058 

1,517

4,767

3,407

1,360

3,836

1 977

112,766

80,855 

6,736

25,175

19,705

15,123

4,582

28,507

Estimated 

total 

holdings

N.A.

N.A. 

N.A.

N.A.

N.A.

N.A.

N.A.

N.A.

1 Statistics include the operations of the Survey's main library in -Does not include slides, aerial photos, well logs, microforms, or negaReston, Va., and branch libraries in Denver, Colo., Menlo Park, Calif., and fives. 

Flagstaff, Ariz.

Geological Survey Flagstaff Field Center. (Photograph by Cordon Swann.) BUDGETARY AND STATISTICAL DATA | 223

Index

Administration of U.S. Geological Survey, vi, 181-182

automated systems, 5,181-182

Financial Management System, 182

Procurement Management Information System, 181

Property Management System, 182

'Aerial Photography Summary Record System (APSRS)," 85 

Alaska

Alaska Arctic Gas Pipeline, 96

Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act, 2, 99

Alaskan Mineral Resources Assessment Program, 2, 

99-100

Alcan Gas Pipeline, 96

arctic environmental studies, 96

D-2 lands, 2, 99-100

earthquake-induced submarine landslides, 63

"Good Friday Earthquake," 53

Kodiak Shelf, 2, 139

National Petroleum Reserve in Alaska (NPRA), vi, 66, 

104, 173-179

North Slope, vi, "174

Office of National Petroleum Reserve in Alaska 

(ONPRA), 177

permafrost, 96-97

South Barrow gas field, 1, 174, 176

submarine landslides, 63

trans-Alaska oil pipeline, 96-97

Valdez disaster of 1964, 53 

Alaska Arctic Gas Pipeline, 96 

Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act, 2, 99 

Alaskan Mineral Resources Assessment Program, 2, 99-100 

Alcan Gas Pipeline, 96 

Antarctica

mapping status, (figure) 84

U.S. Antarctic Research Program, 84 

Applications Assistance Facilities (AAF's), 165 

Astrogeology, 108 

Automated mapping system, 87

Gestalt Photo Mapper II (GPM 2), 87

Block slumps, 56

Brine, 147

Budget of the Geological Survey, 67-70, (table) 202-203 

budgetary decision packages, 70

Budget by source and use

Conservation of Lands and Minerals, 136-137 

Geologic and Mineral Resource Surveys and Mapping,

90-91

Land Information and Analysis, 152-153 

National Petroleum Reserve in Alaska, 174 

Topographic Surveys and Mapping, 78-79 

Water Resources Investigations, 114-115

Budget terms, definition of, 67

'Catalog of Information on Water Data," 113 

Central Laboratories System, 113, 122 

Circum-Pacific Map Project, 109 

Coal, 33, 87, 102-103, 126, 144-145

Colville Indian technical assistance, 159

digital resource data, 102

digital topographic applications, 87

Known Recoverable Coal Resource Areas (KRCRA's), 144

National Coal Resources Data System (NCRDS), 102

resource assessment 103

Coal Development Potential (CDP) maps, 3, 144 

Coal hydrology, 1, 126; see also Madison Aquifer Study 

Coal mapping, 144

Coal Resource Occurrence (CRO) maps, 144 

Computer Center Division, 182-183 

Computerized Resource Information Bank (CRIB), 101 

Conservation of Lands and Minerals, 133-147

budget, 136-37

Continental Offshore Stratigraphic Test (COST) 

wells, 2-3,139

evaluation of shallow "off-structure" testing, 139

land classification responsibilities, 133, 137

lease regulation responsibilities, 133, 137

Outer Continental Shelf lands, 137-142

OCS planning schedule, (table) 138

personnel, 137

resource evaluation of OCS lands, 139 

Continental Offshore Stratigraphic Test (COST) wells, 2, 139 

Cooperators, Federal, list of, 195 

Cooperators, State, County, and local, list of, 196-201 

Cooperators and contributors, other, list of, 201

Data Analysis Laboratory (DAL), 165 

Dating and correlation, geologic

of fossils, 98

of isotopes, 99

Delta Project. See Mississippi Delta Project 

Denver Central Laboratory, 122 

Digital Applications Team, 75, 86 

Digital map data, 35, 76

'Disaster Relief Act of 1974," Public Law 93-288, 156-157 

Drought, 1, 112, 118, 121 

D-2 lands, 2, 99-100

Earth, geologic history, 24-30

Earth Resources Observation Systems (EROS) Program,

5,70,150,164-167

Applications Assistance Facilities (AAF's), 165 

Data Analysis Laboratory (DAL), 165 

data production and dissemination, 165 

digital image processing system, 166 

Landsat satellites, 166

INDEX | 225
Earth Sciences Applications (ESA), 150, 154-159

applications and program, 154

Colorado Front Range urban corridor study, 154-156

Fairfax County (Va.) study, 154

geologic-related hazards information, 156-157

Puget Sound area study, 154

responsibilities under "Disaster Relief Act of 1974," 

Public Law 93-288, 156-157

tunneling-feasibility studies, 157-158

urban area studies, 154 

Earthquake Hazards Program, 37, 92-93 

Earthquakes, 4, 36-40, 92-93 

Energy

environmental aspects, 94-95

resource data, 105 

Energy Resource Surveys

coal, 102-103

data, 105

geothermal energy, 104-105

National Coal Resources Data System (NCRDS), 102

National Petroleum Reserve in Alaska (NPRA), 104

oil and gas, 103-104

oil shale, 104

Uranium and Thorium Investigations program, 104 

Environmental Impact Analysis (EIA) Program, 5, 150, 168-171 

Environmental Impact Statements (EIS's), 169-171 

Environmental overview, national, 95 

EROS. See Earth Resources Observation Systems 

EROS Data Center, 5, 152, 165

information products, (table) 222 

EROS Digital Image Processing System (EDIPS), 153, 166 

Estuarine and coastal studies, 131

Federal and Indian lands

coal, 144-145

geothermal resources, 145-146

mineral leasing, 142-147

mining lease revenues, (table) 221

mining statistics, (table) 220

oil and gas royalties, (table) 220

oil, gas, and geothermal lease statistics, (table) 219

oil shale, 146

waterpower classification, 147 

Federal Cooperators, list of, 195 

Federal lands, classification status, (table) 143 

Federal-State Cooperative Program funds, (table) 203-205

Geologic Division, (table) 209

Land Information and Analysis Office, (table) 215

Topographic Division, (table) 206

Water Resources Division, 115, (table) 116, (table) 211 

Field offices, U.S. Geological Survey, selected list of, 190-194 

Fires and explosions, OCS wells, 141 

Flood mapping, 128-29 

Flow slides, 56-57

Geography Program, 5, 162-164

Land-use and Land Cover Mapping, 163 

Geologic and Mineral Resource Surveys and Mapping

astrogeology, 108

budget, 90-91

direct funds, (table) 209

Energy Resource Surveys, 89, 102-105

Federal-State Cooperative Program funds, 

(table) 209-210

Land Resource Surveys, 89, 92-98

Mineral Resource Surveys, 89, 99-102

Offshore Geologic Surveys, 89, 105-108

personnel, 90 

Geologic hazards

earthquakes, 4, 53, 92-93, 97

Geologic Division research, 92

Santa Clara County Ordinance, 160-161

submarine landslides, 4, 53~63

to offshore oil and gas platforms, 53, 107-108

volcanoes, 4, 36-40, 93-94

warning responsibilities, 156-157 

Geologic mapping, 98 

Geologic processes, 24-32, 99

comparison between planets, 26-32 

Geological Survey, 1-6, 65-72, 180-185, (chart of

organization) 186-187 

Geophysical surveys, 98 

Geothermal resources, 101, 104-105, 127-128, 145-146

Known Geothermal Resource Areas (KGRA's), 145

lease regulation, 145

Geothermal resources data base (GEOTHERM), 101 

Geothermal Steam Act of 1970, 145 

Gestalt Photo Mapper II (GPM 2), 4, 87 

Graphic Analysis of Resources (GARNET), 101 

Ground water, recharge, 128

Hawaiian Volcano Observatory (HVO), 37, 38 

Headquarters O.ffices, U.S. Geological Survey, 188-189 

Heiheiahulu eruption of 1977, 40 

Hydrologic studies, 1

coal mining, 126

geothermal energy, 127

nuclear energy, 126

oil-shale, 126

Indian lands

lease supervision, 143

mineral assessments, 100 

Interior, Department of

OCS leasing schedule, 138 

International cooperation

Earth Resources Observation Systems, 165

Geologic Division, 109

Topographic Division 84, 85

Water Resources Division, 126

Gas

Federal and Indian lands, 142

OCS activities, 137

policies and regulations offshore, 3 

Geochemical surveys, 98 

Geographic names information system, 86-87

Johnstown (Pa.) flood of July 1977, 129

Kilauea Volcano (Hawaii), 4, 27, 94 

Known Geologic Structures (KGS), 142-143 

Known Geothermal Resource Areas (KGRA's), 145

226 | INDEX
Known Recoverable Coal Resource Areas (KRCRA's), 144 

Kodiak Shelf (Alaska), 2, 139

Land classification status, (table) 143

Land Information and Analysis Office, 149-171

budget, 152-153

Earth Resources Observation Systems (EROS), 164

Earth Sciences Applications (ESA), 154

Environmental Impact Analysis (EIA), 168

EROS digital image processing system (EDIPS), 153

Federal-State Cooperative Program funds, (table) 215

Geography program, 162

Resource and Land Investigations (RALI), 159

personnel, 152 

Land Resource Surveys, 89, 92-98

Arctic environmental studies, 96

earthquake hazards, 92-93

environmental aspects of energy development, 94-95

geochemical surveys, 98

Kilauea Volcano, 94

Mauna Loa Volcano, 94

Mount Baker, Washington, 94

reactor safety research, 95

regional mapping, 97-99

San Andreas Fault, 93

volcano hazards, 93-94

Worldwide Seismic Network, 93 

Landsat satellites, 5

status of, 166 

Landslides, 4, 97

Martian, 27-29

submarine, 53-63 

Leases

Federal and Indian lands, 142-147

Outer Continental Shelf (OCS), 48, 134-135, 141

OCS revenues, 219

regulation by Conservation Division, 133, 137-147

royalties, 220 

Library, U.S. Geological Survey, 184

Catalog of the U.S. Geological Survey Library, 184

operating statistics, (table) 222

Madison Limestone Ground-Water Study, 113, 125 

Mapping

automated system, 87

digital data for, 35, 72, 76, 81, 86, 87

for domestic energy production, 33-35

Gestalt Photo Mapper II (GPM 2), 4, 87

hydrologic features, 113,130

intermediate-scale maps, 76, 80-82

metric map series, 87

mineral distribution, 101

National Cartographic Information Center, 85

national land-use and land-cover mapping and data 

compilation, 163

1:24,000-scale coverage maps, 34, 73, 78, 79

1:25,000-scale maps in Alaska, 76, 79

1:50,000-scale maps, 34, 73, 81

1:63,360-scale maps in Alaska, 76, 78, 79

1:250,000-scale maps, 81, 82

1:1,000,000-scale maps, 34, 73, 75, 82

orthophotoquads, 76, 77, 80

shallow-seas, 86

slope maps, 35

special maps, 80-82

topographic, 72-87

U.S. Antarctic Research Program, 84 

Mapping of coal

Coal Development Potential (CDP) maps, 144

Coal Resource Occurrence (CRO) maps, 144

digital map data, 35, 87 

Mapping of flood-prone areas, 128 

Mapping production, (tables) 74, 217, 218 

Mapping revision, topographic, 75, 76 ,80 

Marine geology, 108 

Mars, 24-25, 27-31 

Mauna Loa Volcano, 4, 27, 38, 94 

Metric map series, 87 

Mineral Resource Surveys, vi, 89, 99-102

Alaska D-2 lands, 99-100

Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act, 2, 99

conterminous states, 100

Indian lands, 100

information systems, 101-102

mineral commodity assessment, 101

mineral land assessments, 99-100

resource techniques, 102

resources processes, 102

wilderness areas, 100 

Mineral resources, 41-47, 99-102

Federal lands classification, 133, 137

sub-economic, 42 

Mineral supply system, 43-47 

Minerals

Bureau of Mines and U.S.G.S. joint assessments, 100

commodity assessment, 101

information systems and analysis, 101-102

leasing and regulation of, 133, 147

long-term supply 46-47

resources assessment, 99-102

resources processes, 102

resources techniques, 102

wilderness areas, 100

Mining leases, Federal and Indian lands, 147, (table) 221 

Mining operations, Federal and Indian lands, (table) 220 

Missions of the Geological Survey, 65 

Mississippi Delta Project, 59-62 

Moon, history and formation, 24-25, 31 

Mount Baker, Washington, 94, 154-155 

Mudflows, 57-58

Narrows Reservoir, South Platte River (Colorado), 117 

National Cartographic Information Center (NCIC), 85

"Aerial Photography Summary Record System

(APSRS)," 85

National Coal Resources Data System (NCRDS), 102 

National Disaster Protection Act of 1973, 128 

National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, 149 

National Flood Insurance Act of 1968, 128 

National land-use and land-use mapping and data

compilation, 163

National Mapping Program, vi, 4, 34, 73 

National Petroleum Reserve in Alaska (NPRA), 1, 66, 173-179

exploration wells, (table) 178

location map, (figure) 174

Naval Petroleum Reserve Numbered 4,173

Office of (ONPRA), 177

INDEX | 227
National Science Foundation, U.S. Antarctic Research

Program, 84 

National Stream Quality Accounting Network

(NASQAN), 1, 115,123 

National (nuclear) Waste Terminal Storage (NWTS)

program, 18

National Water Data Exchange (NAWDEX), 120, 123 

National Water Data Storage & Retrieval System

(WATSTORE), 122-123, 129 

National Water-Data System, 119-126 

National Wetlands Inventory, 75 

Naval Petroleum Reserve Numbered 4, 1, 173; see also 

Alaska; National Petroleum Reserve in Alaska 

Naval Petroleum Reserves Production Act of 1976

(Public Law 94-258), 1, 65, 173 

Nuclear energy

high-level radioactive wastes, 127

hydrologic studies, 1, 126-27

low-level radioactive wastes, 127

reactor safety research, 95

sources of radioactive waste, 15

unresolved problems of radioactive waste disposal, 19

OCS Platform Verification Program, 3 

Offshore Geologic Surveys, 89, 105-108 

Oil and gas offshore, 137-141

environmental investigations, 107-108

lease regulation, 134-135, 140-141

lease revenues, (table) 219

leasing, 48, 134-135

leasing schedule, 138

marine geology, 108

Outer Continental Shelf operations, (table) 218

production, 137, 141

resource evaluation, 103-104, 105-106, 139

royalty auditing, 137, 139

shut-in wells, 22-23

status of operating regulations, (tables) 140, 218 

Oil and gas onshore, 142-143

environmental impact analysis, 143

Known Geologic Structures (KGS), 142-143

lease regulation, 133, 142-147

production, 142

resource evaluation, 103-104

royalties, (table) 220

Undefined Known Geologic Structure, 143 

Oil and gas royalties, Federal and Indian lands, (table) 220 

Oil, gas, and geothermal operations, Federal and Indian

lands, (table) 219 

Oil shale

Federal Oil Shale Lease Tracts, 146

hydrology, 1, 126

lease regulation, 146

modified in-situ process, 126, 146

resource investigations and evaluation, 104, 146

wastes, 126, 146 

Oil spills,

Outer Continental Shelf (OCS), 141 

research, 125 

ONPRA. See National Petroleum Reserve in Alaska,

Office of

Organizational and statistical data, 202-223 

Organizational chart of U.S. Geological Survey, 186-187

Orthophotoquads, 76, 77, 80 

Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) lands

Continental Offshore Stratigraphic Test (COST) 

wells, 2-3, 103, 139

drilling, shallow "off-structure" test, 139

fires and explosions, 141

hydrocarbon (oil) spills, 141

leasing, 48, 134-135,138-139

shut-in wells, 22-23 

Outer Continental Shelf Orders, 135, (table) 140

Permafrost, 96-97

Personnel, U.S. Geological Survey, 71 

chart of organization, 186-187 

end-of-year employment, (table) 216 

Conservation Division, 137 

Geologic Division, 90 

Land Information and Analysis Office, 152 

Office of National Petroleum Reserve in Alaska, 174 

Topographic Division, 78 

Water Resources Division, 114 

Petroleum Data System, 101 

Planetary bodies, comparison of history and

formation, 24-32 

Planetary studies, 108 

Plate tectonics, 26-27 

Plutonium, 15 

"Policies, Practices, and Responsibilities for Safely and

Environmental Protection in Oil and Gas Operations 

on the Outer Continental Shelf" (published in 

1977), 3, 134 

Public Law 94-258. See Naval Petroleum Reserves

Production Act of 1976 

Publications Division, 184 

guide to publications, "185

Quadrangle mapping, 79-80

Radioactive waste, 15-21

commercial low-level, 17

definition, 15, 127

high-level (HLW), 15, 17, 18, 127

low-level, 15, 17, 18, 127

plutonium, 15

transuranic elements (Tru), long-lived, 15, 127

uranium, 15 

Radioactive waste disposal, 15,17,18, 19, 20, 21

National Waste Terminal Storage (NWTS) program, 18 

RALI. See Resource and Land Investigations Program 

Reactor safety research, 95 

Regional aquifer systems,

analyses by Geological Survey, "113, 125 

Regional geologic mapping, 97-99 

Reports approved for publication, number, (table) 217 

Research and development

Geography Program, 163-164

Geologic Division, 89

Topographic Division, 86~87

Water Resources Division, 125 

Resource and Land Investigations Program 

(RALI), 5,48-52, 159-161

228 | INDEX
River-quality assessment, 7-15, 119, 121

Upper Chattahoochee River basin, 9, 10 

Willamette River basin, 8, 9,11, 12,121 

Yampa River basin, 9, 10

San Andreas Fault, 4, 93

SEASWAB experiment. See Mississippi Delta Project

Shut-in wells, 22-23

Slope maps, 35

Small-scale maps, 34, 80-83

Solar system exploration, 24-32

Space-shuttle photography, 86

State, County, and local cooperators

list of, 196-201 

Submarine landslides, 53-63

flow slides, 56-57

mudflows, 57-58 

"Surveys, Investigations, and Research," 66

Topographic mapping 33-35, 72-87 

Digital Applications Team, 75, 86 

digital cartographic data, 76, 86, 87 

direct funds, (table) 206 

intermediate-scale maps, 76, 80-82 

National Cartographic Information Center, 85 

1:24,000-scale maps, 73, 75, 76, 78, 79 

1:25,000-scale maps in Alaska, 79 

1:50,000-scale maps, 73, 75, 81 

1:63,360-scale maps in Alaska, 78, 79 

1:100,000-scale maps, 73, 75 

1:250,000-scale maps, 82 

1:1,000,000-scale maps, 82 

orthophotoquads, 76, 80 

production, 74 

quadrangle maps, 79-80 

small-scale maps, 80-82 

special maps, 80-82 

status of standard program, (figure) 76

Topographic Surveys and'Mapping, 72-87 

activity obligations, (table) 79 

budget, 78-79

geographic names information system, 86-87 

international cooperation, 84-85 

research and development, 86-87

U.S. Geological Survey. See Geological Survey 

Upper Chattahoochee River basin, 9, 10, 14 

Uranium, 15, 104 

Uranium/thorium

geologic hazards and reactor siting, 95

Volcanoes

Cascade Range in Washington, Oregon, and

California, 94

geologic hazards, 4, 36-40, 93-94 

Hawaiian, 4, 27, 94

Hawaiian Volcano Observatory (HVO), 37, 38 

Kilauea Volcano, 4, 27, 94 

Martian, 27

Mauna Loa Volcano, 4, 27 38, 94 

monitoring, 36-40, 94 

Mount Baker, Washington, 94, 154-155

Waste, nuclear, 15-21, 126-27 

Waste storage, subsurface, 130 

Wastewater treatment, 12 

Water data, basic, 121 

Water data collection

Water Resources Division, 111-131 

Water Data Coordination, Office of, 113 

Waterpower

classification, 147 

Water problems, critical national, 126-131

nuclear wastes, 19, 127 

Water Resources Division, 111-131

activity obligations, (table) 115

budget, 114-118

Central Laboratories System, 113, 122

Denver Central Laboratory, 122

direct funds, (table) 211

Federal-State Cooperative Program, 112,115-117

Federal-State Cooperative Program funds, 

(table) 211-213

geothermal research, 112

international activities. See International cooperation, 

Water Resources Division

Madison Limestone Ground-Water Study, 113, 125

National Stream Quality Accounting Network, 115, 123

National Water Data Exchange (NAWDEX), 120, 123

National Water-Data System, 119-126

National Water Data Storage & Retrieval System 

(WATSTORE), 122, 123

nuclear hydrology, 112, 126-127

Office of Water Data Coordination, 113, 119

oil-shale hydrology, 112, 126

oilspill research, 125

personnel, 114

research, 125

water-data coordination, interagency, 119 

WATSTORE. See National Water Data Storage & Retrieval

System

Wilderness area, mineral-land assessments, 100 

Willamette River basin, 8, 9, 11, 12, 14, 119, 121 

Work force of Geological Survey, 71 

Worldwide Seismic Network, 93

Volcanism

Earth, 24-25, 27 

Mars, 25, 27-28

Yampa River basin, 9, 10, 14 

Year (1977) in review, 1-6

INDEX | 229
As the Nation's principal conservation agency, the 

Department of the Interior has responsibility for most 

of our nationally owned public lands and natural resources. This includes fostering the wisest use of our 

land and water resources, protecting our fish and 

wildlife, preserving the environmental and cultural 

values of our national parks and historical places, and 

providing for the enjoyment of life through outdoor 

recreation. The Department assesses our energy and 

mineral resources and works to assure that their development is in the best interest of all our people. 

The Department also has a major responsibility for 

American Indian reservation communities and for 

people who live in Island Territories under U.S. Ad,- 

ministration.