CoYolier Wanor 

I~~ ~ ; -" 
A 

B 

.-

c 

D 

EXPLANATION 

A. Land use-land cover 

B. Transportation DLG 

C. Potential hazardous waste 

D. Hydrography DLG 

om put eri7cd geogra phi c in fo rma ti on systems (G IS) are now widely used to a na lyze and ma nage an 

cnorm ou volume of land usc data assemb led from hu ndreds of so urces. The cove r of th i vo lume is an 

image fr om the Eliza beth Ri ver Geogra phic Info rma tio n System Project in Virgi nia . This stud y. 

co nducted in c operati on with the nviro nmenta l Protecti on Agency, u es techniques deve loped in the 

Geo logica l urvey' G IS Resea rch La boratory in Reston. Va. 

A G IS image i · co n tructed from laye r of digita l info rmatio n. An example of th is proce i hown here. 

T he four laye rs of informa ti on include transpo rtation. hydrog raph y, potentia l haza rd ous waste data. and 

photo-int erpreted la nd use a nd la nd cove r da ta. The e laye rs ca n be combined to crea te products like the 

one hown on the cover. whic h was prod uced by overlayi ng orne of the hydrogra phy.tra n portati on, and 

geog raphic names da ta on the land use data. A simila r plot drawn on a computer sc reen ca n be used to 

acce assoc iated da ta. For example. when a potenti a l haza rd ou waste site is id entified on the cree n, the 

compu ter can return a va riety of tored in forma ti on a bout the site. uch a size , ownership, presence of 

pollut a nt . a nd vegetation . Thu , G IS tec hn ology pro id es a ra pid , effi cient mea ns of ana lyzing data 

acqu ired from a wide va riety of so urces. 

1e1 G IS a ti ities use d igit a l patia l da ta ets to provid e sc ienti ts a nd the public with opportunities to 

obta in u ·eful insights a nd products. The a rticle titled "Geogra phi c Informati on System Development." 

fo und on page I 02 of this vo lume. give more deta iled in fo rmati on on the Geologica l urvey's in volvement 

in th i new a nd ra pidl y ex panding field . 
United 

States 

Geological 

Survey 

Yearbook 

Fiscal Year 

1986 
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

DONALD PAUL HODEL, Secretary 

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

Dallas L. Peck, Director 

United States Geological Survey Yearbook 

ISSN 0892- 3442 

UN ITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1987 

For sa le by th e Superintendent of Documents , 

U.S. Government Printin g Office, 

Wa hington , DC 20402 

CONTENTS 

vn Dedication 

1 Perspectives 

1 Low-Level Radionudide Transport: A Case 

Study 

8 Primary Quadrangle Mapping: A Program in 

Transition 

12 Predicting the Next Major Earthquake in the 

Parkfield Area of California 

17 Geological Survey Missions and Programs 

29 Significant Accomplishments of Research 

Programs: 1986 

49 Geologic Investigations 

67 Water Resources Investigations 

93 National Mapping Program 

105 International Activities 

117 Information Systems Division 

123 Administration 

126 Organization 

128 U.S. Geological Survey Offices 

134 Guide to Information and Publications 

136 Cooperators and Other Financial Contributors 

143 Budget Data 

Bris1lecone pine. M oum El'ans. 

Colorado Fro111 Range. ( ?holOgraph hy Dall'nl?eed. .S. Ceological Survey.) 

': o lorado 's H alief Peak and 

Dream Lake. ( Pho10graph by 

Dall'll l?eed and Da vid C ales . 

. S. Geological S un•er.) 

DEDICATION 

Thi s volume of the U.S. Geologica l Survey Yearbook is p cial, 

th e first we have eve r dedicated to an individual. While we were 

preparing this report, Vincent E. M cKelvey, eminent scienti st and 

former Director of the Geologica l Survey, died. Beca us of hi s d p 

devotion not only to hi s sc ien ce but also to the agency and to th e 

public that he se rved , we dedicate the 1986 Y arbook to Vince's 

memory. 

In any organization, there are always those individuals who stand 

out as exe mplary work ers whose contributions remain long after 

th eir dail y prese nce has ended. Vin ce was one of those peop le. He 

brought more to his time as Director than just hi s ded ica tion to th e 

science of geology; he brou ght a rich understa ndin g of what th e 

Geo logical Survey wa s all about. He held firm to the principle that 

the Survey' s rol e is that of an imparti al fact-finding agency th at 

makes its resu lts available to decisionmakers. He impressed upon 

us the need to pay close atte ntion to national issues and to 

discerning and developing th e ea rth- science information that 

addresses those conce rn s. 

In one of hi s last public statements, Vin ce delivered a sobe rin g 

reminder to eart h sc ientists and our co lleagues in private indu try 

and at all leve ls of governm ent : " Ten yea rs ago, during the Nation 's 

Bi ce ntennial ce leb ration , we first desc ribed the challenge to find 

the minera l and energy reso urces to build a seco nd America in th e 

next seve ral decades. That challenge is still with us: we will have to 

find and develop in the next few decades the sa me amount of 

min eral and energy reso urces that we consumed in our first 200 

years ." To build a seco nd Am erica, th e Nation must have results of 

sc ientifi c research and investigation s that are read il y ava ilabl e and 

readi ly u abl e. 

Vin ce under tood that th e way in which the results of basic 

research and ientifi c inves ti gation are presented ca n be as 

important as th result th emse lves, that how and how soo n we 

m ake those re ults available ca n be as criti ca l as the science we 

develop to produ ce those results. Th e earth-science informat ion 

upon which we base our reputation for respo nsive public se rvi ce 

mu st b co mmuni cated effective ly. Th at need to comm uni cate and 

to be respo nsive to the Nation we serve is a tremendous 

r sponsibility and one that we need to remember in dealing with 

Dedication vii 
viii Dedication 

our cooperators and colleagues and with administrative and 

congressional official s. 

Vin ce described the need to communicate as " one final problem 

that is in itself not primarily of a scientific character but is as difficu lt 

and important as the others-namely, the problem of communicating the results of our work to the public in a way that th ey can be 

understood and used." 

Th e sc ien ce of our Earth is as dynamic and as challengin g as th e 

pl anet we seek to understa nd and desc ribe. Th e issues we deal with 

in th e following pages underscore the importance of a continued 

dedication to the earth sciences . If we are to meet the chall enges of 

the Earth's dynamic nature, unlock its criti ca l resources, and build 

toward a safe and so und " seco nd Am eri ca ," we mu st work hard, 

and we must work together as scientists, planners, managers, and 

legi slators. Through the intensive coope rative framework that has 

been developed during the Geo logica l Survey's long hi story with 

more than 1,000 other Federal, State, and loca l agencies and 

governments and through exchanges with academi c and private 

industry organizations as well as with our many professional and 

scientific counterparts, we will work to ensure that the Nation has 

and will continu e to have the necessary earth-science information. 

As public scie nti sts , we remember the exa mple set by former 

Directo r McKelvey, and we reded icate ourselves to maki ng 

co ntinued strides in understa ndin g the Earth and in providing 

knowledge in a useful fashion to the Nation that we serve. 

Dallas L. Peck 

Director 
Vincent Ellis McKelvey 

1916-1987 

Dedication ix 
Vallecit os ucleor Cem er. Pleasanton. Calif ( Photograph by Dorrell Herd, U.S. Geological urvey.) 
PERSPECTIVES 

LOW-LEVEL RADIONUCLIDE TRANSPORT: 

A CASE STUDY 

By Barbara ]. Ryan 

Introduction 

Sha llow land buri al is the predom inant 

met hod of disposing of low-l eve l radioactive wastes in the United States. Wastes 

from private and commercia l so urces historica ll y have been buried in six commercial 

repos itori es, three of wh ich are currentl y 

acti ve, while wastes generated by the Federal 

Governm ent have been disposed of at seven 

sites (six are currentl y active) operated by 

th e U.S. Department of Energy (fig. 1). Th e 

Low-Level Radioactive Was te Poli cy Act of 

1980 (Publi c Law 96-573) and th e Low-Level 

Radioactive Waste Po licy Am endments Act 

of 1985 (Publi c Law 99-240) may result in th e 

es tab lishment of eig ht or more new commercial disposal ite by 1990. Und r the 

provisions of the acts, each State is respon ibl e for the disposal of low-level radioactive was te ge nera ted within its borders. 

To comp ly with the acts, most States are 

joining in co mpacts with neighboring States 

to develop regional disposal sites . 

Dept. En e rgy Sit es 

• Op e n OC i osed 

*U.S . Geological Survey s tudie s FY 1986 

Th e U.S. Geo log ical Survey has partiCIpated directly and indirectl y (as a techni al 

co nsultant to the U.S. Department of Energy, 

the U.S. Nucl ea r Reg ulatory Commission, 

and the U.S. Environmental Protection 

Age ncy) in hydrogeo logic investi ga tion at 

many of the low-level radioactive waste 

disposa l sites around the country. Field 

st udies have been (a nd in some instances 

continu e to be) conducted at the following 

disposal sites and other related area : 

Argonn e National Laboratory, ill. ; Barnwell, 

S.C. ; Beatty, Nev.; Bellfi eld, . Oak.; Idaho 

ational Engineering Laboratory, Idaho; 

Ma xey Flats, Ky.; O ak Rid ge, Tenn. ; 

ava nn ah Ri v r Plant, Ga. ; Sh effi ld, i ll. ; 

Weldon Spring, Mo.; West Vall ey, .Y. ; 

and Wood Ri ver Junction, R.I. Studi es of 

these sites have id entified many of the 

hyd rogeologic problem enco untered in 

shall ow land burial of low-l evel radioacti ve 

wa tes. Th e objective of the ongoing GeoFigur e I. Locarions of lo 11 ·-

le1•el radioac1i1·e ll"asre disp osal 

sir es and relar ed U. S. Geological 

Sur vey srudies. 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 1 
Figure 2. Aerial view, looking west, of the Sheffield, Ill., 

/ow-level radioactive waste disposal site, summer 1985. (Photograph courtesy of Jerry Abbey 

A erial Photography, Cambridge, Ill.) 

2 Perspectives 

logical Survey Low-Level Radioactive Waste 

Program is to develop hydrogeologic guidelines that can be used by the U.S. Department of Energy to select and operate new 

sites for the di sposal of low-level radioactive wastes and to provide advice and the 

results of studies of processes, environ -

ments, and techniques of hydrogeologic 

evaluations. 

This perspective desc ribes bri efly the 

Sheffield, Ill., study, including the numerou s 

avenu es by which radionuclides ca n be 

transported through the hydrogeologic 

environm ent, and some of th e co nclusions 

reached during the 10 yea rs th at a team of 

Geological Survey scientists has been investigating th e Sheffield site. 

Site Description 

The low-level radioactive waste disposal 

si te nea r th e northwestern Illinois town of 

Sheffield is situated on 20 acres of ro lling 

terrain (fig. 2). Twenty-one trenches were 

co nstru cted in glacia l deposits and filled 

wi th radi oactive waste from Augu st 1967 

through April1978. Burial opera ti ons were 

suspe nded in 1978 when li censed burial 

space was depleted. 

Nin et en of the 21 trenches were constru cted in undistu rb d deposits; the base 

of each trench was at least 10 feet above the 

water tabl e. Two trenche wer onstru cted 

abovetheex i tinglandsurface(lik ara ised 

bed) in fill consistin g of ompacted soil. 

Trenches ranged in length from 35 to 580 

feet, in width from 8 to 70 feet, and in depth 

from 8 to 26 feet. Typi al trench dimensio ns 

and th method of wa t mat rial deposition are shown in figures 3A, 38, and 3C. 

Approx imately 3,200,000 cubic fe t of waste 

were buried in th e 21 tr nch s. 

Role of the U.S. Geological 

Survey 

In 1976, th Geologi al Surv y began a 

study of the mechani ms and av nues by 

which radionuclides might mov within 

and from the Sheffield site. Becaus it wa s 

anticipated that water movement wou ld 

play a primary rol in r leasing radionuclides from the tren ch s, th following 

aspects of th hydrologic envi ronm ent were 

st udied: (1) climatology; (2) surface hydrology, including runoff, ediment transpo rt, and urfa ce co ll apse; (3) geology; 
Figure 3. Methods of lowlevel radioactive waste disposa l at Sheffie ld, Til. A, 

Undated. B, Winter 1977. C, 

Summer 1976. (Pho tographs 

courtesy of US Ecology, Inc., 

Louisville, Ky.) 

A 

B 

c 

(4) unsa turat ed- and aturated-zon hydrology; (5) wa ter chemi stry; and (6) gas 

transpo rt. Re earch int o surfa e-water 

hydrolog y, un atura ted-zone flow, and gas 

tran sport is still being co nducted at th e site. 

Th e order in w hi ch these six resea rch 

topi cs have be n prese nted approximat s 

the mann r in which wat er move throu gh 

the hydrologic cyc le and thu s n ourages a 

process -oriented view of radionu lid 

tran port. The G ologi al Surv y's investigation of climatology and surfa e hydrology at th e site al lows estimation of th e 

rate, tim ing, and amount of infiltrating 

water that would be available to tran sport 

radionu clid s from th e buri ed wa st 

material. Studi es of the geohydrology of 

th e unsaturated ancJ saturat d zones identify 

potential or preferential path s of flow. 

Stud ies of water h mi try and gas tran sport 

define nat ura lly occurring rea tions and 

th effects of low-1 v I wast burial on 

these reactions. 

Climatology 

Mi cro limat e and vapo tran pirati on 

(loss of water from soil and plant to th 

overl ying atmosphere) w restudi ed at th 

site from Ju ly 1982 through Jun 1984. 

Continuou measurements were mad of 

incomin g and em itted long- and sho rtwave radiat ion , net radiation , soil hea t flux, 

so il temperatur e, horizontal wind speed, 

and wet- and dry-bu lb air temperatures. 

Instr uments used to monitor the meteorologica l regim e are shown in figure 4. 

Annua l mean prec ipitation (36 in ches) 

and mean temperatures (51 ° F) were almo t 

identical to long-term averages from nea rby 

National Wea th er Service station s. Three 

methods wer u ed to es timate eva potran spiration: an en rgy bud get, an aerodynami c profile, and a water budget. Yea rly 

e timates fro m all three methods ranged 

from 24.8 to 25.8 inches and averaged 70 

perce nt o f annual precipitation and 75 

perce nt of annua l potential eva po tra nspi ration. Sea ona l trends in eva potran spiration 

ra tes were simi lar to th o e in net rad iation ; 

th e hi ghest rate usuall y o urred in Jul y, 

and th winter mo nths exhibited the lower 

rat s. Precipitati o n th at infi ltrate i either 

stored in th e unsa turat ed zon , where it 

beco mes available for evapo rati o n o r 

tran pirati o n, or moves downward towa rd 

th e sa turated zo ne. Th e amount of water 

stor d in th e un aturated zo n at Sheffield 

is great t in ea rly pring and least in late 

summer. 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 3 
Figure 4. Instruments used 

for meteorological and unsaturated zone monitoring at 

Sheffield. ///. , spring 1984. 

(Photograph by M. Peter 

de Vries, Water Resources 

Division, U.S. Geological 

Survey.) 

4 Perspectives 

data logger 

shelter 

with phone 

to central 

coml)uter 

Water extracted from alfalfa , brome grass, 

and red clover sam pl es co li cted from three 

locations from 1982 through 1985 was 

analyzed for tritium . Tritium is the on ly 

radionuclide in pore water and ground 

water at the site that has been detected in 

concentrations above background levels 

(about 0.2 nanocuries per liter). ( uclear 

Regulatory Commission regulations allow a 

maximum concentration of 3,000 nanocuries per liter of tritium for release into 

water.) Tritium conce ntrations in the plant 

extracts ranged from 1 to 14 nanocuries per 

liter; alfalfa (t he deepest rooted plant) 

contained the highest concentrations. 

Surface-Water Hydrology 

Surface runoff and sed iment transport 

were monitored in three basins that com -

prise two-th ird s of the 20-acre site, in an 

approximately 4-acre undisturbed bas in 

nea r the site, and in four plots that averaged 

100 quare feet in size. Two of the smal l 

plots were located on trench covers, and 

two were in the undisturbed basin. 

Mean annual urface runoff from the 

waste d isposa l site averaged 8 inches from 

jul y 1982 through June 1984, in comparison 

with less than 2 inches from the undisturbed 

basin . Surface runoff from the small onsite 

plot al o was grea ter than that from the 

mall offsite plots; how ver, very little 

runoff o curr d from any plots during 

p riods of hi gh evapotranspiration. 

Annual sed iment carri d in runoff from 

the 20-acr ite (2 tons per acre) wa s more 

than 200 time that carried from th 4-a re 

undisturbed area. However, col laps mov d 

about three times as much edim nt 

annua ll y as urface runoff did. Approximately 300 surface coll ap es (figs. SA, 58) 

were re corded at the site from O ctob r 

1978 through December 1985. Two-thirds 

of the col lapses were record ed in February, 

March, and April. Although collap e rat s 

for th e econd half of the period of re ord 

were 2.5 tim es the rates during the first half, 

the mean volum e of collapse cav iti es during 

the second half was only 43 percent of the 

mean volume of collapses that occurred 

during the first half of the period. In 

addition to affecting the stability of th e 

surface at the site, th co ll apse featur may 

enhan recharge (fig. 58). 

Geology 

Much of the ea rly research at the Sheffield 

site co ncentrated on defining th e complex 

strat igraphy. Lake sed iments, gla ia l till, 

glacial outwash, and wind-deposit d ed i-
Figure 5. Surface collapse 

fea tures at Sheffield, 11/. A, 

Reco llapse creat ed a h o le 

about 4 f eet wide, spring 1984. 

B, Radiation detection probe 

of collapse feature approximately 5 j eer deep, fall 1985. 

( Photograph A by John R. 

Gray and B by M . Peter 

de Vries, Water R eso ur ces 

Di vision, U.S. Geo logical 

Survey.) 

ments compose the unco nsolidated d -

posits at th e site. These sediments are 

underlain by Pennsylvanian-age shales and 

mudstones. Depos it s range from sma ll 

isolated lenses to fairl y extensive, continuous beds; materi als range in size from 

clay-s ized particles to cobbl es. 

A 

B 

Hydrology of the 

Unsaturated Zone 

To study and ollect data on wat r moving 

throu gh the un aturat d zone, a horizo ntal 

tunnel6 feet in diam ter and approximately 

400 fe t lo ng was co n tru ct d b n ath 4 

waste trenche (fig. 6).1n trument in luded 

oil-moistur tensiometers, piezomet r 

extendin g through th tunn I floor to th e 

sa turated zo n , soil- uction lysimet r , and 

gra vity-d rain lys imeters. 

Durin g th pring, whi ch is gen rally a 

wet seaso n in the Midwe t, wat r mov s 

from th surface thro ugh the unsaturated 

zone to th e sa turated zone. Th e h teroge neit y and layerin g of different geologic units ca us the rate of water mov -

ment to vary sub tanti all y throu ghout th e 

site. Sloping interfaces between mat ri al 

th at have differen t physical properties ca n 

provide pref rential pathways fo r flow, 

adding a hori zo ntal co mpo n nt to oth rwise verti ca l water movement in th e unsaturated zone . Beca use of th ompl xity 

of th site, d lin ea ti on of indi vi du al flow 

path s is not practical. 

Concentration of tritium originatin g in 

the buri ed waste va ry seaso nall y in th 

unsaturated zo ne. Increased tritium concentrations occur in th e spring, poss ibl y 

beca use shall ow pore water moves upward 

under th e increas in g influence o f evapotranspiration and deeper pore water moves 

downward as seaso nal recharge to th e 

aturated zo ne. 

Hydrology of the Saturated 

Zone 

More than 100 observatio n wells and 

borin gs were drill ed at and adjacent to th e 

site to st udy the hydrology of th e sa turated 

zo ne. M os t of the geo logic units, with th e 

exce pt ion of a pebbl y sa nd unit, have 

relativel y low hydrauli co nduct iviti es, on 

th e o rd er of 10·

7 to 10·

9 feet per econd. Th e 

hydrauli c condu ct ivity of the pebbly sa nd 

unit, whi ch underlies roughl y two-t hirds of 

th e sit , ranges from approx imately 2x10·3 

to 8x10·

7 feet per seco nd. Th i unit grades 

from a clea n, well-sorted pebbly sand in th e 

eastern part o f th e site to a moderately 

sort ed, silty sa nd in th we tern part. 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 5 
Figure 6. Tunnel entrance, 

looking south, before natural 

grade was reestablished, winter 

1978. (Photograph by James B. 

Foster, Water Resources Division, U. S. Geological Survey.) 

6 Pe rspe ctives 

The generally eastwa rd flow in the 

saturated zo ne probably repre ents th e 

greatest potential for moving radionu clide 

contamination offsite, especially in th e more 

permeab le pebb ly and unit, where relatively hi gh ground-water velocities (u p to 

2,500 feet per year) have been measured. 

Tritium, in addition to hav ing bee n detected 

in severa l wells both ons ite and off ite, has 

been detected in seeps alon g th e edge of a 

strip-min e lake east of th e site (fig. 2). 

Water Chemistry 

Approximately 30 soil-sucti o n lys imeters 

were used to coll ect unsaturated- zone 

pore-wa ter sa mpl es from trench caps, betwE'en the trenche , beneath the trenches, 

and offsite. Observation wells were used to 

coll ect water from th e saturated zone; 

precipitation samples also were collected. 

Samples were ana lyzed for major cations 

and anions, di sso lved o rgan ic carbon 

(DOC), pH , sp cifi c conductance, alka linity, 

gross alpha and beta rad iation , and tritium. 

An alys is indi ated that th e chem istry of 

waters in the flow sys t m is as fo llows: 

precipitation, calcium su lfate; unsa turat ed 

zo ne, ca lcium magnes ium bicarbonate; and 

saturated zo ne, magn esium bi carbonate. 

The chem istry of wate r in the various 

geologic un its wa s influenced by th e units' 

mineralogy. 

For ampling point in the unsa turated 

zo ne, increasing DOC and tritium co nce ntrations co rr ponded to th e proximity 

o f th e tr enches. Offsite, DOC and tritium in 

the unsat urated zone were nea r detection 

limits. For sa mpling points in th e satura ted 

zo n , DOC cone ntration ranged from 

background (0.2 mil ligrams per liter) to 6.3 

mil lig rams per liter, and tritium concentration ra nged from ba ckground (0.2 nanocuries per li ter) to approximat ly 175 nanocuries per liter. 

Gas Transport 

Ba cte ri al decompositio n of buried wastes 

produces gases that are tra nsported from 

the wa ste-d isposa l tre nches through the 

unsaturated zone, to either the atmosphere 

or the satu rated zo ne. A two-d imensiona l 

network of gas piezomete rs, cons istin g of 

five sampling ports in each of three boreholes, was use d to collect gas sa mple 

ana lyzed for nitrogen, oxygen plus argon, 

ca rbon dioxide, methane, ethane, propa ne, 

isobutane, n-b uta ne, ca rbon-14 diox id , 

tritiated water vapor, and rado n-222. 

Natural backgro un d conce ntratio ns and 

gas concentration gradients near th e was te 
trenches were determined for subseq uent 

use in ca lculating fluxes of waste-ge nerat ed 

gases. Horizo ntal gradi ents of ca rbon-14 

dioxid e and methan e th at originated in th e 

buri ed waste were identifi ed. A gradi en t of 

ca rbon dioxid e was indi ca ted but could not 

be accu rately defined, because conce ntration s were affected by downward fl uxes 

of ca rbo n dioxide from the root zone. 

Con centrations of th e other gases were 

measured, but no di scernibl e gradients 

were noted . 

Conclusions 

M any factors affect the qua ntit y, rate, 

and timing of both water and solute movement, and combin ed research efforts at th e 

Sh effield site have led to a bette r understandin g of th e hyd rogeologic environment 

necessary for shallow land bu ri al of lowlevel radioa ctive wastes. In addition to th e 

findings and res ults already mentioned , 

several co nclusions drawn from this resea rch ca n be used by th e U.S. Departm ent 

of En ergy to help se lect and ope rate new 

ites for th e buri al o f low-level radioactive 

was tes . Althou gh th e e co nclusions are not 

al l-encompass ing, th y do represent fac to rs 

th at warrant cons ideration in the disposa l 

of low-level rad ioacti v wastes. 

• A seemingly simple geologic set tin g may, 

in fact, be quit complex. A additional 

drilling and other in vest igat ions are 

co ndu cted and as th e data ba se ex pands, 

previo usly unmapped or generali zed 

lithologic f atures ma y become vident 

and quite signifi ca nt. Th ese fea tures may 

have a major effe t o n water and rad io nucl ide movement, in both th e unsat urated 

and the saturated zone . 

• Scale becomes a signi ficant factor in 

trying to predi ct th e avenues or pathwa y 

for rad ion uclid e tran spo rt. In an area l 

appraisa l, for exa mple, hydrogeologic 

and hyd raulic properti es ca n be averaged 

without introd ucing undue error in th e 

end res ult; in a detai led site tud y, 

however, such averag in g may ca use 

signi fica nt errors. 

• Accurate record s concernin g trench co nstruction , d im ensions, co ntent s, and 

durability of the postburial trench ca p 

are esse ntial for eva luati ng methods of 

d isposal , determinin g potenti al con -

taminants, and mo nito rin g water and 

r ad ionu c lid e mov e m e nt from th e 

trenches. 

• Good surface drai nage, a grass cover, 

and a co mpacted soi l layer are essenti al 

to redu ce soil erosio n, infiltration of 

precipita ti on, and offsite migration of 

radionuclid es. 

• Earl y, co ntinuous, and long-term monitori ng are req uired. Th e site may not 

fun cti on the sa me way over time. Vegetation and erosion co ntinuall y change, for 

exa mple, and trench-ca p collapse may 

occur; precipitation and runoff may 

change; and other natural o r artifi cial 

events may occur to change th e hyd rologi c regime. 

• In designing networks to monitor radionucl id e release to th e biosphere, it may be 

necessa ry to take a mu lti disciplinary approach and investigate radionuclide movement by soi l gases, plants and an imals, 

and surface and gro und wa ter. 

• Constituents released from th e buria l 

trenches may no t be limited to radi o nucl id es . Other inorga ni and o rga ni c 

co nstitu ent s w ere d etecte d at th e 

Sheffi ld site, for exa m ple. 

• Althou gh th e unsaturated zone is diffi cult to monitor because soil tensio ns 

inhibit th e ex tra ction of water, waterquality data from that zone should detect 

th e release of contaminants from th e 

waste tre nches ea rli er th an water-qu ality 

data from th e saturated zone. 

• Lon g-term maintenance is req uired to 

preserve th e site. A vegetati ve cover, for 

exa mpl e, will reduce eros ion and increase eva potranspiration, but th e es tabli shm ent of deepl y rooted plants may 

reduce the effe ctiveness of th e tren ch 

ca p and thu s increase the potential for 

release of rad ion uclid es. Diffe rential 

compacti o n of th e backfill and void space 

crea ted by th e decay and co rrosio n of 

waste co ntain ers ma y also result in the 

coll apse of th e trench ca ps and in tertrench area , providing access to infiltr atin g w ater an d in reas in g th e 

potential for release of rad io nu clid es. 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 7 
8 Perspectives 

PRIMARY QUADRANGLE MAPPING: 

A PROGRAM IN TRANSITION 

By Michael]. Chambers and Randle W. Olsen 

Introduction 

During the past 40 years, the U.S. Geological Survey has provided the Nation's 

map users with primary quadrangle map 

coverage at 1:24,000 scale in the lower 48 

States and 1:63,300 scale in Alaska. This 

effort has produced about 50,000 sepa rate 

maps. By the end of fiscal year 1986, primary 

quadrangle maps and related map products 

were available for about 92 percent of the 

cou ntry. Completion of initial coverage is 

scheduled for the beginning of fiscal year 

1990. 

As the number of areas needing primary 

coverage has decreased and the need for 

revised maps and digital cartographic data 

has increased , the Survey's traditional mapping program has become a program in 

transition . 

Primary Mapping Program 

Th e Primary M apping Program is designed to provide current and accurate 

cartographi c data to the user community 

nationwide. To accomplish thi s objective, 

the program has two long-range goal s: 

(1) to provide primary cartographic data of 

standard content, currency, and accuracy 

to satisfy Federal, State, and local user 

needs and (2) to provide primary cartographic data in digital form from the National Digital Cartographic Data Base 

(NDCDB). 

To attain these long-ra11ge goals and to 

continue the development of the Survey's 

digital systems, two special studies were 

conducted in 1985. One study concerned 

the programmatic issues of transforming 

from graphic to primarily digital techniques 

for map production while coping with a 

growing need to revise existing maps. The 

second study co ncerned the technical 

aspects of the transition . On the basis of 

these two studies, an integrated development production plan was adopted to guide 

the Geological Survey through the remainder of the century. 

Primary Mapping Program 

Objectives 

To provide the Nati on with primary ca rtographi c data o f standard content, currency, 

and acc ur acy , six o bj ec ti ves mu st be 

o btai ned : 

1 Co mpl ete initi al nati o nal coverage at the 

prim ary ma p sca les by fi scal yea r 2000. 

Thi s undertakin g will require th e cb::npleti o n o f 3,200 7.5-minut qu adran gles 

in unmapped areas. 

2. Co nve rt 1,500 ex istin g " T-maps" to publi shed 7. 5-minute fo rm at. T-maps were 

ori ginall y co mpil ed during th e 1950's 

and 1960' s at 1:24,000 scale b ut publi sh d 

at 1:62,500 sca le, whi ch was th e com mon 

map sca le at th at tim e. Thi objecti ve i 

schedul ed fo r compl eti o n in fisca l year 

1991 . 

3. Recompil e 5,000 substandard ma ps o 

th at th ey refl ect th e most accura te and 

current data poss ibl e before th ey are 

di giti zed and entered into th DCDB. 

Thi s effo rt is ex pected to be co mpl eted 

in fisca l yea r 1999. 

4. Reco mpil e 6,280 defi cient maps th at 

refl ect inappropriate co nto ur interva ls 

and (or) incompl ete Publi c Land Survey 

Sys tem data. Th e obj ecti ve is to accompli sh recompilati on o f th ose data by 

fi sca l yea r 1997. 

5. Co nve rt 8,300 provisio nal editio n maps 

to stand ard maps before di giti zin g. Provisional m aps, created to xp edite 

national covera ge, were produced by 

using modifi ed techniques such as handletterin g for contours, elevation s, and 

desc riptive labels. Th e graph ic presentatio n of fea tures and labels must be 
co nsistent with that of sta ndard maps 

before digitizing. 

6. Maintain primary cartograp hi c data 

alread y meeting standa rd s of content, 

currency, and accuracy. About 32,000 of 

the Survey' s primary maps meet these 

sta nd ard s and thus can be digitized withou t revision. The objective is to maintain 

the primary cartographic data in a 10-

yea r cycle of inspection and revision. 

The estimated cost of the work requ ired 

to attain these six goals is approx im ately 

$286 milli o n (1985 dollars). 

Program Development 

As maps are revised, they will be digitized 

according to user requirements. As figure 1 

shows, provisional map conversion will be 

implemented, but the method of conversion 

(graph ic, digital, o r a combinatio n of both) 

is dependent on adva nces in digital 

technology. 

Resources devoted to the ongoing rev;s!On program w ill increase as (1) the 

inventory of existing maps grows through 

1989, (2) the deficient maps are corrected 

through 1999, (3) the maps that lack currency 

(f) 

z 

0 

:::::; 

_J 

35 

are added to the program, and (4) increased 

emp hasis is placed on revision procedures 

to respond to new user requirements. 

Because procedures req uired to omplete 

primary mapping and to convert substandard and deficient maps will be simi lar 

to those used to meet cu rrent requirements, 

the sk ills needed for traditional cartographi c 

operations will remain es ential ly the same. 

MARK II 

The Geological Survey ha been developing a major new production system, 

cal led MARK II, wh ich has as its goa l the 

implementation of advanced automated 

technologies and production procedures 

that will satisfy National Mapping Program 

requirements through the year 2000. At that 

time, the NDCDB shou ld contain digital 

data representing the primary map series 

and oth r sma ller scale series. 

The goals for the MARK II effort within 

the ational Mapping Program are to 

develop and implement sp cific production 

capabi li ties, including the establi shmen t of 

more effective map revision procedures 

and improvements in product quality. The 

production scheme is shown in figure 2. 

EXPLANATION 

Initia l coverage 

CJ T-maps 

l:::::;:;:;:j Substandard maps 

~ Deficient categories 

U Provisiona l map conversion 

86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 

FISCAL YEAR 

Figure I. Long-range plan.for 

narional carr ographic baseline. 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 9 
Fig ur e 2. MA RK II p roduCi ion scheme fo r the 19905 to 

complete digitizing of p rimary 

source maps, to initiate and 

implement a digital map revision 

capability, and to provide users 

with high-quality cartograp hic 

products f rom digit al data. 

10 Perspectives 

source 

maps 

source 

data 

DIGITAL CARTOGRAPHY 

PRODUCTION 

- Digitizing 

~ Edit & 

- Quality 

Control 

I new data 

Geographic 

Information 

System 

data 

to 

users 

~ co 

-a 

OJ 

c 

·-

t; 

X 

Q) 

t 

DATA 

DIGITAL REVISION 

Revision 

Station 

~ Data 

Integration 

revised data I 

+ 

BASE 

Graphics 

Station 

! 

Graphics 

Plotter 

f--i 

1--

magery 

source 

data 

revi sed 

maps ... 

-

- plots 

to 

users 

PRODUCT GENERATION 

MARK II Development 

Objectives 

Th e deve lopment stra tegy proposed for 

MARK II addresses its major producti on 

capa biliti es and has the fo llowing objecti ves : 

• Deve lo pm ent of advanced mass digiti za -

ti o n sys tems, concentra ti ng o n the collect io n o f heav il y symboli zed 1: 24,000-

sca le so urce data. 

• Developm en t of improved data verifi ca -

ti o n and testing proced ures, conce ntratin g o n improved automated data 

chec kin g. Compl etio n of data standards 

is included. 

• Deve lop ment of techniques fo r producing topograp hi c and th emati c graphi c 

produ cts from d igital data co ntained in 

th e NDCDB. 

• Prov i io n of di gital data suitable for 

analys is and appl ica ti o n by geographi c 

in fo rm atio n systems and related technologies. 

• Development o f an improved producti on 

management sys tem to effi cientl y task 

and track multipl producti on acti viti es . 

• Improve ment o f NDCDB o perati o ns and 

stru cture to ensure th at th e data are 

maintain ed for o ptimum use in prod ucti o n. 

MARK II System Design 

Th e MARK II effort will resul t in th e 

impl ementati o n o f adva nced automated 

techn ology and producti o n procedu res in 

Geological Survey map producti on centers. 

To accom pli sh thi s goa l and to provide an 

ord erl y implementation of newly developed 

capabi liti es, th e MARK II producti on sys tem 

has bee n di vided into fo ur fun cti onal 

co m po nen ts, each under a component 

manager and des igned to handle a specific 

po rti o n o f th e producti on process. Each 

co mpo nent has bee n furth er subdivided 

into a seri es of development modul es, 

currentl y numberin g 48, whi ch consist o f a 

set o f defin ed and ass igned ta sks. 

Data produ ction component.- Th e data 

produ cti on component dea ls with all phases 

of d ata co llecti o n, ed iting, process ing, 

qu ality contro l, and revi sion before data are 

entered into th e NDCDB. Thi s component 

is the la rges t and most compli ca ted porti on 

o f the sys tem to be developed. It includes 

bo th th e development o f effi cient mass 

di g iti za ti o n and aut o m at ic f ea tur erecog niti o n ca pabilities fo r traditiona l 

ca rt og raphi c symbol iza ti on and th e deve lo pm ent o f m ethod s fo r ex tractin g 

fea tures from imagery. Th e subsequent 

introducti o n o f new equipment, software, 
and procedures into an already operational 

system w ill require skillful management. 

Data base component.-The data base 

component is designed to implement improvement s in the NDCDB th at will enable 

a central data repository to support almost 

all of th e Survey's map produ cti o n activities. 

Th e develo pment o f two leve ls o f data 

bases is req uired: (1) ope rational data bases 

located in each production center to support 

produ ct ge nerati on and (2) an archiva l data 

base that wi ll provide a ce ntral repos1tory 

for data suppo rtin g the opera tional data 

bases. Th ese data bases will be linked with 

high-speed data co mmuni catio n sys tems to 

transfe r data and to suppo rt the publi c sa le 

and di stribution of products . 

Product gene ration component.-Th e 

produ ct ge nerati o n co mponent is des igned 

to provid e the capabilit y to produce a 

va ri ety of ca rt og raphi c products, both 

grap hi c and di gital, from base category data 

in the NDCDB. 

Producti on management component.-

The production management component 

is designed prim ari ly as a two-way interface 

betwee n the MARK II production ystem 

and the Prim ary Mapping Program production requ irements and aut ho ri zatio n 

systems. Thi s interface w il l includ reportin g 

procedures and productio n track ing to 

ensure that MARK II activities are appropriatel y r lated to th e requirements for 

digital and graphic products. 

Conclusion 

Th e Primary M appin g Program is now in a 

transitional stage. Essent ial to thi s tran sition 

is the atio nal Digital Cartographic Data 

Ba se, which wi ll evolve to become th e 

ce ntral focus of most mapping activ ities, 

in cluding maintenance and revisio n of th e 

primary map se ri es. 

Th e design, development, and implementati o n of th e MARK II system represent 

a major development activi ty within the 

Geo logica l Survey. MARK II w ill tak e 

advantage of modern mappin g technologies 

that wil l permit th e Survey to become more 

respo nsive to user needs for d igital cartographi c data. Th e timing of thi s effort is 

essential to meet known an d anti cipated 

data requ irements. 

Th e Geo logi ca l Survey has com pl eted a 

long-range plan to bring all primary maps 

up to acceptable stand ards by th year 2000. 

To take adva ntage of the benefits associa ted 

with digita l cartograp hy, th e Survey also 

plans to complete load in g primary-scale 

d igital ca rtograp hi c data into th e National 

Di gital Ca rtograp hi c Data Base by the sa me 

year. Th plan is ambitio us but wi ll all ow 

th e Geo logica l Survey to accompli sh its 

mission to full y support Federal , State, and 

private user requ irements for both graphi c 

and d igita l ca rtographi c data products. 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 11 
Figure I. Map C!(lhe Park_jield 

area of al((omia sho11·ing epice11lers of earrhquak e. associared 11 ·irh rhe 1934 and 1966 

Park.field earrhquak es. In / 934, 

only shock s o{ magniwde 4 or 

grearer can be accumrely locared: 

in 1966, shocks of magnirude 2 

o r grearer recorded he111'een 

January 28 and Jun e 30. 1966. 

are sho11·11 . 

12 Perspectives 

PREDICTING THE NEXT MAJOR EARTHQUAKE 

IN THE PARKFIELD AREA OF CALIFORNIA 

By Wi lliam H. Bakun 

In 1985, seismologists from the U.S. Geological Survey and the University of 

Californiil, Berkeley, forecast that a moderate-sized earthquake of magnitude 6 is 

likely to occur in the Parkfield area of 

California within the next several years 

(1985-93). This forecast was the first to be 

officially endorsed and accepted by both 

the National and the California Earthquake 

Prediction Evaluation Councils. Parkfield 

lies along the San Andreas fault in a sparsely 

populated area of the California Coast 

Ran ges 170 to 180 miles from San Francisco, 

about midway to Los Angeles. Five similar 

moderate (magnitude 6) earthquakes have 

occurred on the Parkfield section of the San 

Andreas fault since 1857. The intervals 

between earthquakes (in 1881, 1901, 1922, 

1934, and 1966) have been remarkably 

uniform, the mean being 21 .9± 3.1 years. 

(Although the 1934 earthquake departed 

from the regular pattern by occurring a 

decade too earl y, the 1966 earthquake conformed to the regular pattern in that the 

44-year period between 1922 and 1966 is 

twice the mean interval.) If the next Parkfield earthquake co nforms to the pattern, it 

will occur before 1993, most probably in 

early (January) 1988. Figure 1 shows the 

1934 

() MAIN SHOCK 

FORESHOCKS AFTERSHOCKS w 

0 2 ... ... ::J 

epicenters of earthquakes associated with 

the 1934 and 1966 events. 

The Geological Survey establi shed an 

eart hquak e predi ction xperiment at 

Parkfield to obs rve th e final tages of the 

process leading up to th e predicted earthquake. Four ob ervational networks (seismi c, geodeti c survey, cont inuous strain, 

and cree p) ar now monitoring the centra l 

San Andr a fault near Parkfi eld (fig. 2) . A 

very dense network of seismograph stations 

monitors details of seismi ity within and 

nea r th e prepa ration zone, th e region surroundin g th e pi center of the 1966 earthquake (see fig . 2). Signal from th eismograph s nea r Parkfield ar telemetered 

continously to th e central data-process ing 

fa cility in M enl o Park, Calif. Th e signal s are 

automatically and continously monitored 

by a real-tim processor that, within a few 

minutes, routin ly locates ea rthquak es in 

ce ntral California. Beeper and paging 

sys tems have b en established to notify th e 

appropriate scientists within minutes of all 

significant se ismi city near the preparation 

zo ne. 

A dense geodetic network havin g line 

lengths of 3 to 19 miles spanning the fault 

has been measured every 1 to 2 years since 

1966 

N 

I 

0 5 10 

KM 

... !:::: 3 • • CHOLAME z 

c.? 4 <( • • * * ~ 5 
120° 30' 

PREPARATIO'l ZO'lE 

0 

0 5 

0 kilome ters 5 

Miles 

EXPLANATION 

e TWO- COLOR LASER STATION 'Y WATER WELL 

as• oo· 

\ u> 

~ I 

120 ° 15' 

,& SEISMOMETER 0 MAGNETOMETER C h o l a m eX • CREEPMETER \7 TIL TMETER 

0 DILATOMETER OR EXTEN SOMETER 

1969. Th e lengths of lines spanning th e 

rupture zone are measured several times 

each week by a two-color laser di sta ncemeasuring geod imeter ca pabl e of resolving 

length changes of about 0.04 inches over 

lines 3 to 5 miles long. Borehole volumetric 

strainmeters (dilatometers) also are being 

installed in th e Parkfi eld area to provide 

co ntinuous data having a sensitivity of 

about 1 pa rt per billion over periods of a 

few hours. In addition, a number of wire 

strai nmeters (creepmeters) span the surface 

trace of th e San Andreas fault near Parkfield. 

Th ese cree pmet ers can resolve a few 

fractions of an inch of anomalous fault slip 

and are well suited to detect premonitory 

slip of th e magnitude that may have occurred in 1966. 

Parkfield Earthquake 

Prediction Scenarios and 

Response Plans 

Th e Geological Survey will attempt to 

iss ue a short-term warning (mi nutes to 

days) to governm ent official s of the anti cipated shock o n the basis of precursory 

phenomena record ed by the prototype 

earthquak e predi ction network. Anomalous 

condi ti ons th at would change th e assessment of the ea rthquak e's imminence and 

the action that would be taken by th e 

Survey have been defined . A Survey planning document has been prepared describing the con ditions that would trigger a 

Geologi Haza rds Warnin g to th e California 

Offi ce of Emergency Services (OES). Respo nsibi lit y for co mmunicatin g th ese 

warnings to th e publi c, to loca l govern -

ments, and to the press res ides with OES. 

A probabilistic approach to earthquake 

prediction has been adopted at Par kfi eld. 

Th e likelihood that the anticipated shock 

will occur in th e nea r future increases as 

ano malous co nditio ns (for example, increased sei mi cit y) increase. Couching 

warnin gs in such a fram ework expli citl y 

allows forth possibility th at w arnings will 

not be followed by th e anti cipated magnitude 6 shock in th e nea r future. For 

example, warnin gs will take the form, " There 

is a 1 in 5 chance (0.22 probability) that th e 

anticipated mag nitude 6 shock will occur in 

the next 24 hours; th e probability of th e 

shock in then xt 72 hours is at least 0.37." 

If any of th e four observational networks 

now monitoring the Parkfield area detects 

an anomalous stat with respect to the 

normal background co ndition of then tworks, an alert will be indi ated. If anomalous conditio ns are o bserved from more 

Figure 2. The Parkfield. Calif. 

earthquake prediction experiment. Clusters ofseismometers. 

creepmeters. dilatometers. and 

other geophy sical instru111e111s 

arrayed about centraltwo-tolur 

laser geudi111 eters have been 

deployed along the San Andreas 

f ault at Parkf ield. Th e instrumem s are cent ered in the reach 

of the fault that is expected to 

rupture in a magnitude 6 earthquake so111 e1 ime be11 veen 1985 

and 1993 (111 ost pr bab~ v 19 8). 

Th e epicem er of the 1966 event 

is indicated hy a red asterisk. 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 13 
Figur e 3. Decision pruce.\S 

and l'ario lls alar111 levels triggered by changes recorded by 

the Parkfield earthquak e prediction netii'Ork. 

14 Perspectives 

th an one network, the level of the alert will 

be in creased according to form al ru les. 

Preliminary alert-level criteri a have been 

establi shed for each network type. Seismi c 

alert crit eria are ba ed o n stimat es of the 

probabil ity that an ea rthqu ake is a foreshock to the anticipated magn itude 6 even t. 

Th e crit eri a for th e o th er thr e network 

types are based on how fr quently anomalo us co nditions are ex pect d to oc ur and 

subj ective est imat of th e probabi lity th at 

an anoma lous conditi on will precede a 

magn itud e 6 sho k at Parkfi eld. Tabl s 1 

and 2 describe the responses tri ggered by 

th e different alert levels and th e typ s of 

data provid ed by th e network s that have 

tri ggered th ose alerts since June 1985. 

Fi gu re 3 show th e interrelatio nship 

between th alarm lev I ge nerated by the 

network and the operation of th e alert 

sy tern s. Specifi c cond ition that tri gger 

changes in th e alert levels d fined in tabl e 2 

includ e (1) po tent ial foreshocks at th 1966 

epi enter; (2) eart hquakes anywher within 

th e Parkfield area ; (3) cree p-rate accelerati o ns; (4) rapid chang s in vo lumetri c train 

m as ur d by boreho le di lato m t rs or 

fluctuati o n in wa ter-well I v Is; (5) changes 

in rnagn tic fi eld differen ces; and (6) lin elength hang b tween successiv twocolor geodimeter measurem nt . 

The operation of th Parkfield ea rthquak e 

predi ction network before and during th e 

ant icipated mag nitu de 6 ea rth quake will 

ALARM LEVEL D, C, B, or A 

ALARM LEVELS 

D M 1.5 FORESHOCK 

SMALL GEODETIC CHANGES 

AT ONE SITE 

C M 2.5 FORESHOCK 

SMALL GEODETIC CHANGES 

AT TWO SITES 

B M 3.5 FORESHOCK 

LARG E GEODETIC CHANGES 

AT ONE SITE 

A M 4.5 FORESHOCK 

LARGE GEODETIC CHANGES 

AT TWO SITES 

ALERT LOCAL SCIENTISTS 

EVALUATE NETWORK STATUS 

APPLY COMBINATION RULES 

ALERT 

DIRECTOR USGS, 

CALIFORNIA STATE 

GEOLOGIST 

ISSUE WARNING TO 

NO 

NO 

CALIFORNIA OFFICE OF EMERGENCY SERVICES 
provide information o n which instrumentation systems and interpretive methodologies 

were most va luable and accurate, so that a 

reliable ea rthqu ake prediction system can 

be developed for use in other areas of the 

country that are vulnerab le to major 

damaging earthquakes. 

Table I. £anhquake prediction experime111 alert levels. Parkfield. California 

Ale rt 

level 

n (normal) 

e .............................................. .. 

d ................. . 

c ............ . 

b 

Respo nse 

.. Continue normal 

operati o n . 

. ... Al ert project per onnel; possible equipment 

ma lfunction and repa ir. 

Alert Park fie ld Wo rking 

Group and Data Col lection Operations. 

.. Alert Chief, USGS Offi e 

o f Earthquake , Vel -

ca noe , and Engineering , and respond to 

alert level d. 

Alert Director (USC ) 

and Ca li fo rni a State 

Geologi st (Califo rn ia 

Divisio n o f Mines 

and Geology) and 

respond to alert 

level c. 

Iss ue Geologt c Haza rd 

War ning and respond 

to al rt level b. 

Probability of 

magnitude 6 

ea rthqua ke 111 

nex t 24 (72) hours 

0.001 -0.0035 

0.0035-0.014 

(0.0068-0.028) 

0.014-0.059 

(0.028-0.11 ) 

0.059-0.22 

(0.11 -0. 37) 

0.22 

(> 0.37) 

Table 2. S ummart· o(' Park/il,ld a/ens. Jun e 1985 thr01.1{(h Mar 1986 

Date 

06/ 08/ 85 

07/ 12/ 85. 

08/ 06/ 85 

12/ 14/ 85 

12/ 1/ 5 .. 

12/ 29/ 85 

12/30/ 85 

01 / 01 / 86 

01 / 15/ 86 .. 

01 128/ 86 .. 

01 / 30/ 86 

03/ 04/ 86 ... 

04/ 02/ 86 

04/ 08/ 86 

04/ 26/ 86 

Sei smi c 

Se ismi c 

Continuous strain 

(two-co lor laser). 

eismi c 

Creep 

Creep 

Sei smic 

reep 

Seism ic 

Seismic 

Water-well flu ctuati on 

ei mi c 

Seis mi c 

Cont inuo us strain 

(two -color la se r). 

M = 1.5 

M = 3.0 

Co ei mi and postseismi c 

changes from Kettl eman 

Hill ea rthquake. 

M = 3.1 

1-mm creep urge 

2-mm creep su rge 

M = 2.9 

0.4-mm creep event 

M = 2.6 

M = 2.2 

00.5 partS per 

million fra ti o nal 

hange in water 

volume. 

M = 2.5 

M = 2.1 

Deep slip event(? ) 

M = 2.5 

d 

d 

.d 

Anticipated 

time Interval 

between 

alcns. in 

mont h!) 

2-6 

6-18 

18-54 

> 54 

d } Combine to 

d c-level 

alert . 

d J Combine to d c- level 

alert . 

d 

d 

d } Combine to 

d c-level 

alert . 

d 

d 

d 

d 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 15 
Central Region headquarters 

Buildi ng 25 , Federa l Cente r 

Denve r, Co lorad o 

National Center 

Rest o n, Virgini a 

16 Missions and Programs 

Western Region headquarters 

Building 3, Menlo Pa rk faci lity 

Menl o Par k, Ca lifo rnia 
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY MISSIONS AND 

PROGRAMS 

MISSIONS 

The U.S. Geologica l Survey was established by an Act of Congress on March 3, 

1879, to answer the need for a permanent 

agency at the Federal level to conduct 

investigations into the " geological structure, 

mineral resources, and products of the 

national domain." Although a number of 

laws and executive orders have expanded 

and modified the scope of the bureau's 

responsibilities over its 107-year history, the 

Geological Survey has remained principally 

a scientific and technical agency rather than 

a developmental or regulatory one. Today, 

the Geological Survey is mandated to assess 

onshore and offshore energy and mineral 

resources; to provide information to help 

society mitigate the impact of floods, earthquakes, landslides, volcanoes, and droughts; 

to monitor the Nation's ground- and surfacewater supplies ; to assess the quality of the 

Nation's water resources; and to provide 

mapped information on th e Nation's lands 

and land use. Th e Geological Survey is the 

principal source of scientific and technical 

experti se in th e earth sciences within the 

Department of th e Interior and th e Federal 

Government. 

ORGANIZATION 

Th e Geologi al Survey is headquart red 

in Res ton, Va. It scientifi c prog rams are 

administered thro ugh th Geologi , Water 

Resour es, and Natio nal M apping Divi io ns, 

supported by th e Adm ini strati v and Information Sys t em Divi sio ns. Th e Survey 

on ducts its fun cti ons throu gh an ex tensive 

orga ni za tion of field offi ces lo a ted throu ghout the 50 States and Puerto Ri co. At the 

natio nal level, th e fun ctions o f th Survey 

are coordinat d through Ass istant Dir tors 

for Admini trati o n, Programs, Resea rch, 

Information Sys tems, Int ergovernm ental 

Affairs, En gine rin g Geo logy, and M anag -

ment Appli ca ti o ns. 

BUDGET 

In fi scal year 1986, th e Geologica l Survey 

had obliga tional authori ty for $600.8 million, 

$412.7 milli o n o f whi ch ca me from direct 

appropriatio ns; $8.6 millio n ca me from 

estimated receipts fro m map sa l s, and 

$188.2 milli o n ca me from reimbursement. 

Th e Survey wa s reimbursed for work perform ed for other agencies wh ose needs for 

earth-science ex perti se complement Survey 

program obj ectives. Work do ne for State, 

county, and municipal agencies is almost 

always done o n a cost-sharing basis. 

M ost of th e appropriations and reimbursements received by th e Survey in fi scal 

year 1986 are di stributed through budget 

activiti es th at rou ghl y correspond to its 

geologi c, hydrologic, mapping, and admin istrative areas o f respo nsibility. Budg t 

tabl es appear on page 143 . 

PERSONNEL 

At the end of fisca l year 1986, th e Geologica l Survey had 8,062 permanent fulltime employees. Th e Survey's diversified 

ea rth-science resea rch programs and se rvices are refl ected in its wo rkforce, whi his 

composed o f perso nnel in more than 160 

disciplines; more than half o f that workforce 

possesses a Bachelo r' s or higher level 

degree. Alm ost half of the Survey's staff is 

made up of pro fessio nal cientists, and 

approximately a q uarter consists o f technica l 

peciali sts. Hydrologi ts, geologists, and 

ca rto graphers predo minate amo ng th e 

profes io nal group, whi ch includes members of mo re th an 30 other di sciplines, such 

as geoph ys ics, chemi stry, and engineerin g. 

Perm anent employees are support ed by 

th ose o th er th an full -time perm anent 

empl oyees, in cluding many university 

students and faculty members as well as 

part-time emplo yees. This relatio nship with 

th e academi c community has made th e 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 17 
expertise of many eminent scientists available to the Survey and has provided greater 

flexi bility in solving earth-science problems. 

Students have also proved valuable in 

meeting surges in the work load, especia lly 

du ring the field season. Academic institutions have also provided a means of recruiting young professionals of demonstrated ability for permanent ful l-time 

positions upon completion of their studies. 

AWARDS AND 

HONORS 

Each year, employees of the Geological 

Survey receive awards that range from 

modest monetary awards to recognition of 

their achievements by election to membership or office in professional societies. The 

large number of these awards attests to the 

qual ity of the individuals who are the Geological Survey. The Survey is pleased to 

ack nowledge those individuals who became 

members or officers in professional societies 

and those who received the Department of 

the Interior's highest honor, th e Di stinguished Service Award . 

Professional Societies 

Service in professional societies is o ne of 

the most important contributions a scientist 

can make. Societies play a fundamental ro le 

in di sseminating knowledge as well as 

provide a forum in which new ideas are 

tested. The active parti cipation of Survey 

scienti sts in professional soci eti es attes ts to 

the scientific vitality of the bureau. Th e 

bureau is parti cularl y proud of th ose individuals who have been elected to society 

presidencies or chairmanships o f society 

committees by their profess ional peers. 

Susan W. Kieffe r, Geologist, was elected to 

membership in the ation al Academy of 

Sciences. 

Jo e l L. Morrison, Ass istant Chi ef fo r 

Research, National Mapping Division, was 

elected Pres ident of the Intern ati o nal 

Cartographi c Association . 

lowell f. Starr, Chief, Nati onal Mapping 

Divi sion, was elected Chairman of th e 

18 Missions and Programs 

Committee on Topographi M aps and 

Aerophotogrammetry of the Pan Ameri an 

Institute of Geography and History . 

Alan R. Ste vens, A sistant Chi f, Ea t rn 

Mapping Center, wa el cted Pre ident of 

the American Society of Photogrammetry 

and RemoteS n ing. 

Department of the Interior 

Distinguished Service 

Awards 

Th e high t honor give n by the Depart ment of the In teri o r to its employee is 

the Distinguished Se rvice Awa rd. Symbo li zed by a gold medal , this award fo r 

o utstanding achievement was p.rese nted by 

Sec retary Dona ld Hod I to 13 Geologica l 

Survey employees in 1986. The e individuals 

and the bases fo r their awa rds are: 

Gordon D. Bennett, H yd ro log ist , in 

recognitio n of his outstanding contributio ns 

to th e Geologica l Survey in th e field of 

hydro logy and techn ica l management o f 

wa ter reso urces programs. 

Thomas J. Buc hanan, Ass istant Chi ef 

Hyd ro logist fo r Operati o ns, in recog nition 

o f hi s outstandin g techni ca l and managerial 

co ntributions to th e wa ter resources progra ms o f th e Geologica l Survey. 

Corne lia C. Cameron, Geo lo gist, in 

recogni tion of her excepti onal achievements in th e Geologica l Survey's min eral 

resources programs, fo r her out tanding 

leadership in th e fi eld of p at resources and 

eva luati o ns, and fo r th e excell en e of her 

research in ea rth science. 

The Department o{the Interior:, 

Oi.11ingui.1hed Sa vice A II"Ord. 
William A. Cobban, Geo logist, in recognition of his distinguished research in the 

fie lds of pa leontology and stratigraphy and 

outstanding contributions to geological 

synthes is in the programs of the Geological 

Survey. 

Alden P. Colvocoresses, Cartographer, for 

his outstanding contributions in the use of 

satellite remote sensing for mapping from 

space. 

Robert M. Hamilton, Chief Geologist, in 

r cognition of hi s outstanding achievements 

as a geophysici st and a administrator and 

manager of wide-ranging earth-science 

programs. 

Bl air F. Jones, Research Hydrologist, in 

recognition of his outstanding contributions 

to the Geological Survey in geochemical 

research and scientific leadership. 

Malcolm Ross, Geologist, in r ognition of 

his outstanding leadership in the Geological 

Survey in the study of asbestos minerals and 

in hi s recognition of and empha is on the 

different health effects of individual 

min ral s. 

Francis T. Schaefer, Supervisory Hydrologist, 

in r cogniti o n o f hi outstandin g contributi on to t hni al program d velopment 

and admini strati v manag rn nt in th 

Geologi al ur y. 

Jack J. Stassi, Central R gi o n M anag m nt 

Offi c r, in re ognition of hi outstanding 

contribution to th G ological Survey in 

directing it budg t managem nt a tivities 

and in providing r gional admini trativ 

support rvi c 

John G. Vedder, Geologi in r cognrtron 

of his out tanding ontributions to th 

G ologi al Survey and for hi knowl dge of 

th stratigraph y, tru tural volution, and 

re ourc potential of th Pa ifi margin 

r gion . 

Isaac J. Winograd, Hydrologist, in recog -

nition of hi ex ptional contributions to 

the scien of hydrog ology and the appli cation of thi knowl dge to probl ms of 

water supp ly and disposal of th Nation' 

toxic wa tes. 

Gordon G. Wood, Geologist, in recognitio n 

of his major innovative ach iev rnent in the 

formulation and direction of national and 

international coal resources assessment and 

programs. 

PROGRAM 

DESCRIPTIONS 

Th following sections describe briefly 

th programs of Geological Survey Diviions. 

Geologic Division 

Mission 

Th basic mis ion of the Geologic Divi ion 

i to evaluate the ation's geologic structure 

and th geologic proce that have haped 

it, to a sess it mineral and energy resources, 

and to identify and investigate geologic 

hazards. 

• Investigations of geologic hazards provid information for predicting and 

d lineating hazards from earthquakes 

and volcanoes and for identifying engine ring prob lems related to ground 

failure haza rd . 

• R gio nal geologic studies provide geologic maps and reg ional synthe e of 

Drill- core rig in Cajon Pass. 

California. (Photograph courtesy of Lee Silver, Deep Ob ervation and ampling of th e 

Earth 's Continemal Crust, Inc.) 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 19 
detailed geologic data essentia l to 

mineral, energy, and hazard assessments. 

• Offshore geologic studies identify and 

describe the mineral and petroleum 

resources of the offshore areas of the 

United States, including the Exclusive 

Economic Zone, a total area of 3.9 billion 

acres. 

• Mineral resource investigations assess 

the distribution, quantity, and quality of 

the Nation's mineral resources, particular emphasis being placed on strategic 

and critical minerals. 

• Surveys of energy resources provide assessments of the Nation's coal, petroleum, uranium, and geothermal resources and enhance capabilities to 

explore for and develop new sources of 

energy. 

Organization 

Th e headquarters office of the Geologic 

Division is located in Reston, Va., and 

consists of the Office of the Chief Geologist 

and six subordinate offices: Earthquakes, 

Volcanoes, and Engineering; Regional 

Geology; Mineral Resources; En rgy and 

Marine Geology; International Geology; 

and Scientifi c Publi cations . Ass istant Chief 

Geologists for th e Eastern, Central , and 

Western Regions act for the Chief Geologist in ca rr ying out general objectives, 

policies, and procedures for the Division. 

Project operations are conducted by 

personnel located principally in regional 

centers at Reston , Denver, Colo., and 

Menlo Park, Calif. , and at field centers in 

Flagstaff, Ariz., Anchorage, Alaska, and 

Woods Hole, Mass. 

Geologic Hazards Surveys 

Th e Earthquake Ha zards Red u ct ion 

Program cond ucts a national resea rch 

effort to reduce hazards and risk s from 

future ea rthquak es in the United States. 

Specific task s include eva luation of earthquake potential for se ismica ll y active areas 

of the United States and operation of global 

seism ic networks. 

Th e Volcano Ha za rd s Program condu cts 

research on volcanic processes to help 

reduce the loss of life, property, and natural 

20 Missions and Programs 

resources that can result from vol an ic 

eruptions and related hydrologic events. 

The Hawaiian Volcano Obs rvatory and the 

Cascade Volcano Ob ervatory are the 

principal field r sea rch enters for this 

program. 

The Land slid e Haza rd Program emphasizes. fi eld and laboratory research into the 

active ea rth processes that r ult in ground 

failur s u h as land lid , mudflows, and 

debri s flows. 

Land Resource Surveys 

The G ologi Framework and Synthesis 

Program conducts basic geologi research 

to acquire fundamental data on the Nation's 

geologic structure and the environmental 

and dynamic processes that have shaped it. 

Geologic mappi ng, g ophy i al r s arch 

on the properti s of Earth materials, and 

age determinations of ro ks are key components of thi s program . 

Th e Geomagnetism Program measures 

and int erprets changes in the str ngth and 

direction of the Earth's magneti field. 

Eleven geomagnetic ob rvatories provide 

data for continual updating of global 

navigational charts and maps produ ed by 

various Federal agencies. 

The Climate Change Program onducts 

research on th e prehistoric natural vari -

ability of past climate, on the extent of 

man 's influenc on natural patt rns of 

change, and on the magnitude of climate 

change demonstrated in the geologic 

record. 

Offshore Geologic Surveys 

Th e Offshore Geologic Framework Program co ndu cts scientifi investigations to 

acqu ire an understandi ng of basic geologi 

and geophysical cha ra cteri stics of th e continenta l margin s and adjacent slope and 

deep-ocean areas. Results of thes studies 

and analysis of new information are esse ntial for energy and mineral resou rce 

eva luation of th ese areas. 

Th e Coastal Erosion Program provides 

geologic information on th e nature, extent, 

and ca use of coas tal erosion that is used by 

various Federal and State agencies to 

mitigate coastal retreat and land loss. 
M ineral Resource Surveys 

Th e Al as ka and Co ntermin ous Uni ted 

States Mineral Resource Assessment Programs are comprehensive scientifi c surveys 

to id entify signi fica nt new targets for industry ex plo rati o n. 

Th e Mineral Reso urces o f Publi c Lands 

Program assesses th e mineral resource potential o f areas pro posed fo r inclusion in 

the Forest Se rvice and Bureau of Land 

M anage ment secti o ns o f th e Na ti o nal 

Wildern ess Preservation Sys tem to ensure 

th at land pl anners and Co ngress have 

eno ugh inform ati on to make necessary 

decisio ns. 

Th e Strateg ic and Cri tica l Minerals 

Prog ram develops new mineral resource 

assessme nt techniques to identify and 

estimate th e potenti al o f domesti c and 

fo reign min eral resources for U.S. mili ta ry 

and eco nomi c needs. 

Th e Development o f Asse sment Techniques Prog ram ca rri es o ut basic and 

Geologist examining an outcrop 

in the .field. (Photograph b.r 

Fred K. Miller. .S. Geological 

Survey.) 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 21 
Determ1ning seismic velocities 

of near-surface geologic 

materials. (Photograph by 

L.J Hwang, US. Geological 

Survey.) 

appli ed resea rch on the ong1n and the 

geologic, geochemical, and geophysica l 

expressions of mineral deposit systems. 

Energy Geologic Surveys 

Th e Evolution of Sedimentary Basins 

Program st ud ies the tectonic framework 

and depositional, thermal , and diagenetic 

processes of sedimentary basins in the 

United States to develop data esse ntial to 

the successful evaluation of water, mineral, 

and hydrocarbon resour ces. 

The Coal Investigations Program conducts 

geologi c, geophysical, and geochemica l 

research to develop scientifi cally based 

assessments of the quality and quantity of 

the ation's coal resources. 

Th e Oil and Gas Investigations Program 

supports basic and appli ed research on the 

habitat, generation, migration, and entrapment of petroleum. 

Th e Oil Shale Investigations Program 

co nducts research to assess oil shale reso urces, includ ing investigat ion of the 

stru cture and chemi stry of oi l shale deposits 

and identification of deposits suitable for 

exploitation under current envi ro nmenta l 

and technological co nstraints. 

The Uranium / Thorium Investigations 

Program co ndu cts basic research to determine the nat ure and di stributi on of regio nal, national, and foreign uranium and 

thorium resources, including newly forming 

22 Missions and Programs 

uranium deposits and daughter products 

such as radon, that may b hea lth haza rd s. 

Th e Geothermal In vestigations Program 

co nducts ba ic resear h to determine the 

nature, d istribution, and magnitude of g athermal reso urces . These studi es d fine the 

geologic and hyd rothermal regimes of th e 

various classes of geoth erm al r ources and 

identify the crusta l, geochem ica l, and hydroth ermal processes that produce geot h rmal 

systems. 

Th e Wo rld Energy Resources Ass m nt 

Program provid es in formation on worldwide energy re ources for u e by o th er 

agencies in the development of national 

energy, internationa l trade, and foreign 

policies. 

Water Resources Division 

Mission 

The Geologi ca l Survey ha th e principal 

responsibility within the Federal Gov rnment to provide the hydrologic in formatio n 

and un derstandi ng needed by others to 

achieve the best use and management of 

the ation's water resources. To accomplish 

this mission, the Water Resources Division , 

in cooperation with State, local, and other 

Federal agencies: 

• Systematically col lects and analyzes data 

to evaluate the quantity, quality, and use 

of the Nation's water resources and provides results of these investigations to th e 

public. 

• Conducts water resources appraisals 

describing the occurrence, avai lability, 

and physical, chemical, and biologi c 

cha racterist ics of surface and ground 

water. 

• Conducts basic and problem-oriented 

hyd rologic and related research th at aids 

in alleviating water resources problems 

and provides an understandi ng o f hydrologic sys tems sufficient to predict 

their response to natural or manmad 

stress. 

• Coordinates the activities of Federal 

agencies in the acq ui sitio n of water resources data for streams, lakes, reservoirs, 

estu aries, and gro und water. 
• Provides scientific and technical assistance in hydrologic fields to other Federal, 

State, and local agencies, to licensees of 

the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, and to international agencies on 

behalf of the Department of State. 

• Adm ini sters the State W ater Resources 

Research Institutes Program and the 

ational Water Resources Research 

Grants Program. 

Organization 

Water Resources Divi sion headquarters 

is in Reston, Va. The Ch ief Hydrologist, the 

Associate Chief Hydrologist, and four 

Assistant Chief Hydrologists are responsible 

for the overall direction of the Di vis ion. 

National water research programs are 

developed at Divi sion headquarters under 

the d irection of the Assistant Chief Hydrologist for Research and External Coordination. 

General direction of the Division's field 

programs is conducted through four 

Regional Hydrologists, located in Reston , 

Atlanta, Ga., Denver, Colo., and Menlo 

Park, Calif. Fort y-two Di stri ct Offices carry 

out the water re ourc investigations and 

data collection program of the Divi ion in 

aliSO tate , Pu rto Rico, the Virgin Island , 

and the Trust Territori 

National Water Summary Program 

Th ationa l W ater Summary Program 

provides water information on a State-byState and national basis to aid policymakers 

in the analysis and development of water 

policies, legislation , and management 

actions. Changing patterns in availability, 

quantity, quality, and use of water resou rces are summari zed for use by Government officials, natural resources managers, 

and the general public. 

Th prin ipal produ t of the program is 

an annual ationa l Water Summary that 

describes hydrologi events and water 

cond ition forth watery ar and provides a 

State-by-State ov rvi w of specific waterrelated iss u s. 

National Water-Quality Assessment 

Program 

The Geological Survey began a ational 

Water-Quality Assessment Program to (1) 

provide nationally consistent descriptions 

of the current status of water quality in a 

large, diverse, and geographically distributed portion of the ation's water 

resources; (2) provide a baseline for evaluating future trends in water quality and, 

where possible, define trends in water 

quality over recent decades; and (3) provide 

an understanding of the factors influencing 

water quality and thereby provide the basis 

to forecast change and evaluate the likely 

effect on water quality of va rious proposed 

remedial actions. Initial efforts involve four 

surface-water and three ground-water pilot 

studies. 

Hazardous Waste Hydrology 

Programs 

The Geological Survey conducts research 

and investigations into the disposal and 

release of hazardous chemica l and radioactive wastes to provide information that 

will h lp in alleviating their effects on the 

ation ' s water resources. Th Survey 

valuate the xisting and potential effects 

on water resources of earth-science consideration in hazardou waste disposal and 

provides baseline data on the chemical 

contamination of surface and ground water 

to as i t the Department of Energy in 

d veloping procedur and gu idelin s for 

id ntifying uitabl waste di posal sites. 

Handling toxic 11 ·aste material. 

( Ph o tograph b_,. St ep hen C. 

Delaney. U. S. £111•ironmemal 

Protection Agency.) 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 23 
Radioactive wa ste studi es are conducted in 

the Nuclear Waste Hydrology Program, the 

principal emphas is of which is a better 

understand ing of rad ionuclide tran port in 

ground -water systems. onradioactive 

wastes are th e focu s of the Tox ic Substances 

Hydrology Program , which provides research data to mitigate ex isting and future 

co ntamination problems. 

Regional Aquifer Systems Analysis 

Program 

The Regional Aquifer Systems Analysis 

Program is a sys temati c stud y of a number 

of regional ground-water systems that 

represent a significant part of the ation 's 

water supply. The program includes assessment of discharge-recharge dynamics, 

hydrogeologic and chemi ca l controls govern ing response of aq ui fe r systems to stress, 

and development of computer simulation 

models. 

Acid Rain Program 

Th e Geological Survey is providing information needed to improve the scientifi c 

understa ndi ng of the occurrence and effects 

of acid rain, so that judgments ca n be made 

about effective measures for controllin g o r 

all eviating the problem. Components of 

the acid rain research and monitoring 

program include determinati o n of th e 

effects of acid deposition o n lakes, streams, 

and aquifers, operation of the ational 

Trend s etwork, and resea rch into more 

precise methods of measurement. The 

program is coord inated through the Interagency Ta sk Force on Acid Precipitation. 

Hydrologic Data Collection 

Program 

The Hydrologi c Data Collection Program 

provides information on the qu antity, 

quality, locatio n, and use of th e Nation 's 

surfa ce and ground water to support th e 

needs of Federal , State, and loca l governments. Data collection stations are ma intained at selected loca tions to provide 

records on streamflow, rese rvo ir and lake 

24 Missions and Programs 

storag , ground-water lev Is, and th e quality 

of surface and ground wat r. Th data form 

an information base that upports national 

and regional a s s m nt s of water 

resources. 

Federal-State Cooperative Program 

The Fed rai-State Coop rative Program, 

whi ch compri es mor than 40 p rce nt of 

overall Divisio n a tivity, i a partn r hip for 

water reso urce inves ti ga ti ons invo lving 50-

50 cos t harin g betwee n th G ological 

Survey and State o r lo al gov rnm ent 

agencies. One of th e program ' unique 

characteri sti c i th at th e Geologi ca l Survey 

perform most of th work on behalf of the 

cooperators. A va ri ety of hyd ro logic data 

co llection activities and water resources 

inves ti ga tion is includ ed , for whi h th e 

Geolog ica l Surv y repre ent th national 

re pon ibiliti and more than 900 cooperating agencies repr ent State and loca l 

i ntere ts. 

National Research Program 

Ba sic research in the Wat r Resourc 

Di vision focuses on in crea ing understa ndin g o f the fundamental hydrologic 

processes of the ati on's ground- and 

surface-wa ter systems. Knowledge and 

techniques derived from th ese efforts are 

directed at so lving current problem and 

anticipating future problems. Resea rch 

stud ies are co ncentrated in su rfa ce-wat r 

hydrology, geochemistry, gro und -wat r 

hydrology, sediment transport and g amorphology, water chemistry, and ecology. 

State Water Research Institute 

Program 

Th e Stat e Wat er Resea r ch l nstitut 

Program, th e cos ts of wh i hare shared by 

Federal and State Governments, supports 

54 Water Resea rch Institutes at land-grant 

co ll eges or un iversit ies in the 50 Stat , th e 

Di stri ct of Columbia, Puerto Rico, th e 

Virgin Islands, and Guam. Institute resea rch 

proj ects are ca rried out in all water-related 

fie ld s, in clud i ng engineering and th e 

physical, biologic, and social sciences. 
Water Resources Research Grants 

Program 

The Water Resources Research Grants 

Program supports research as defined in 

the Water Resources Research Act of 1984. 

Competitive grants are awarded on a dollarfor-do llar matching bas is to qualified educationa l inst itut ions, foundation s, private 

firms, individua ls, or agencies of local or 

State governments. Research is supported 

on water-resources-related problems of 

national interest. 

National Mapping Division 

Mission 

Th e primary m1ss1on of th e ational 

Mapping Divi sion is to conduct the a tiona I 

Mapping Program. Thi s program, which 

involves co ll ecting, archiving, and di ssem -

inating cartographi c, geographic, and remotely se nsed data, produ ces map and 

related ca rtographic information in graphi c 

and digital form. 

To accomplish this mission, th e Divi ion: 

• Coll ects, compil es, and analyzes information about natural and manmad 

features on the Earth 's urfa and 

do uments hanges in those features. 

• Produces and maintains a series of 

accurat , up-to-date, g n ral-purpo e 

ba se and thematic map . 

• Develop and appli es adva nced cartograp hi c techniques and sy t m to geograp hi information y t ms. 

• D velops and maintains a digital ca rt ograph ic and g agraphic data ba for 

multipurpose need . 

• Coordinat s Fede ral mappi ng, digital 

ca rt ographi c, and r mot sen ing activIties a d signated by th Offi ce of 

M anagement and Budget. 

• Repr ents th natio nal interest through 

parti cipa tion in international mapping 

and trainin g a tivities. 

Th Geologi al Survey i r spo nsible for 

all fun ction th at r late to dam ti g ograp hi nam , includ ing taff support to 

th e interd epartm ental Board on Geographic 

am 

Th e Geological Survey also co mpil es, 

pub lishes , and maintain s the ational 

Gazett er of the Un ited Stat s of Ameri ca 

and manages the ational Geographic 

ames Data Base. 

Organization 

Division headquarters, loca ted in Reston, 

Va., is composed of three primary organizationa l units : Plans and Operation s, 

Research, and Information and Data Services. Four mapping centers (Reston, Rolla, 

Mo., Denver, Colo. and Menlo Park, Calif.), 

th e Earth Resources Observation Systems 

Data Center (Siou x Fall s, S. Dak .), and the 

Printing and Di tribution Center (Reston, 

Denver, and Fa irbank , Alaska) perform th e 

operat ional mapping remot e sensing, 

pri nting, produ ct d istribution , and data 

dissem ination activities. 

Map Production 

Th e Geological Survey prepares, prints, 

and distributes ba e, topographi c, and 

se lected th emati c maps of the Nation th at 

are used extensively for land planning, land 

management, and recrea tion purposes . 

Primary topographic map , including 7.5-

minute map mo tly at 1:24,000 sca le for 

almost al l areas of the lower 49 States and 

15-minute map of Alaska at 1:63,360 sca le 

are especia ll y u efu l where detailed information i needed for all types of land and 

re ourc management. Th ese detail ed maps 

are co ntinu all y updated and rev ised. Current progra m emphasis is on the produ ction 

and maintenan of maps of urban area 

and rapidl y developin g coastal areas, energy 

area , and public lands. 

lntermed iat - ca l maps prepared at th e 

1:100,000- ca le quadrangle format are used 

by th e Burea u of Land M anagement for 

displaying resource inve ntories, th e Bureau 

Can ographer preparing a peel 

coal. ( Ph o10grap h counesy of 

N(// ion a/ Mapping Dil•ision.) 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 25 
of the Census for support of the 1990 

Decennial Census, and other agencies. 

The 1 :250,000-scale map series provides 

co mplete topograp hi c coverage of the 

United States. These maps are widely used 

by Federal and State agencies for preparing 

other base and special-purpose maps. 

Other base maps are avai lable, including 

1 :500,000-scale State base maps and sma ller 

scale U.S. base maps. 

The land use and land cover maps, 

produced in graphi c and digital formats 

primarily at 1:250,000 scale and at 1:100,000 

scale in selected areas, provide the only 

systematic nationwide inventory of land 

use and land cover data. 

The National Atlas program provides 

1:2,000,000- and 1 :7,500,000-scale maps and 

smaller scale maps, digital cartographic 

data, and other information on key physical, 

environmental, cultural, socioeconomic, 

and histori ca l characteristics of the Nation. 

Image Mapping 

The Geological Survey prepares photoimage products in response to specific 

requirements of Federal and State agencies, 

particularly !he Bureau of Land Management, the Soil Conservation Service, the 

Forest Service, and the Customs Service. 

These products include: 

• Orthophotoquads, produced from aerial 

photographs and prepared in standard 

scales and formats meeting Nati onal 

Map Accuracy Standards. 

• Side-looking airborne radar data for use 

in image mapping, geologic mapping, 

and geologic resource su rveys. 

• Landsat Multispectral Scanner and 

Thematic Mapper satel lite data for use in 

preparing image map products. 

Since 1978, th e Geological Survey has 

se rved as the designated lead agency in a 

multi-Federal -age ncy National Hi g hAltitude Ph otography Program to avoid 

duplication in contracting high-a lti tude 

photography and to achi eve a consistent 

and sys tematic photographic data base of 

th e conterminous United States. 

26 Missions and Programs 

Digital Cartography 

The Geologi al Survey cont inu es to 

expand and improve th e National Di gita l 

Cartographic Data Base to make ca rtographi and geographic data avai lable in a 

form suitable for com put r-based ana lyses. 

The Division is responsible for coordinati ng 

digital cartographi c activities throughout 

the Federal Government. Th Divi sion 

chairs the Federa l In teragency Coordinating Committee on Digital Cartography, 

which is responsible for the exchange of 

information and ideas on technology and 

methods for managing and using digital 

spatial data. Current projects include digitizing 1 :100,000- sca le transportation and 

hydrographi c data in cooperation with the 

Bureau of the Census, providing digital 

cartographi c data for derivative maps, and 

digitizing geographic data from 1:24,000-

scale maps to meet new Federal and State 

needs. 

Geographic Information Systems 

Research and Applications 

The Divi sion is working with the other 

Divisions in the bureau to establi sh a sound 

geographi c information sys tems resea rch 

base, to conduct applications projects, and 

to encourage Geological Survey scienti sts 

to use this powerful tool in their investigations. Current emphasis is on the application 

of new techniques in the generation of 

thematic maps, including microcomputerbased map compi lation, Scitex color separations, and image process ing. High priority is 

being given by interdivisional and interbureau groups to the development of data 

standards, data exchange formats, data base 

management systems, and th e definition of 

an adva nced geographic information system 

for ea rth -science studies. 

Earth Resources Observation 

Systems 

Remotely sensed data are produced, 

archived, and distributed through the Earth 

Reso urces Observation Systems (EROS) 
Program . The largest users of the data are 

Government agenci es and private firms 

involved with th e exploration and assessment of ene rgy, mineral , and renewable 

resources. ERO S scientists also conduct 

research lead ing to new and improved 

remote se nsin g and spatial data applications . 

Th e EROS Data Center in Sioux Falls, 

S. Oak ., serves as the repository and publi c 

distribution fa cility for a growin g archive of 

over 8,300,000 aeria l photographs and sidelooking radar images from va ri ous Federal 

programs. Th e center cooperates with th e 

National O ceani c and Atmospheri c Ad -

mini stra tion and the Earth Observation 

Satel lite Company (the com mercial Land sat 

syste m ope rator) to perform fi nal ground 

processing and d istribut ion of Landsat 

satellite data. 

National Mapping Research 

Th Geological Survey has pioneered 

investigations that have led to major 

d velopment and signi fican t chang in 

surveyi ng and mapping. Th e Mapping 

Resea rch Program, which is centered o n 

geog rap hi and cartog rap hi c research , 

emphasizes spati al data ana ly is, applications of remote nsi ng and g agraph ic 

inform ation sys tems, and advanced d igita l 

ca rtographi c produ ction tech niq ues. 

Th e Divi sion has emba rk d o n a major 

resea rch and development plan (MARK II ) 

to move from manual to d igital produ ti on 

and r vi ion of map product . The goa ls of 

MARK II are to implement th adva nced 

ca rtograp hi c sys tem and proc dures r -

qui red to automate map production and to 

stabli h th Nati onal Digital Cartographi c 

Data Ba s . 

Th e Geologi al Su rv y has ex pand d its 

produ ction of multi color sa tellite image 

maps and , in cooperation with th D f nse 

M apping Agency and th e Nati onal Geodeti 

Su rvey, is developing appli ation of th 

NAVST AR Global Positioning System , whi ch 

is a sa tellite navigation and positioning 

system for attaining positio nal data to 

geodetic standards. 

Information Services 

The Geological Survey disseminates much 

of the Nation's earth-science information 

thro u gh its Publi c Inquiries Offices, 

National Cartographi c Information Centers, 

and the Eart h Reso urces Observation 

Systems Data Center. The information 

comes in many forms, from maps and books 

to computer-readable magnetic tapes. Approximately 75,000 different maps and 

books are avai lable for purchase, and about 

5,300,000 copies are sold annually. Additionally, of the approximately 8,300,000 

different aerial and space images available 

for sa le, about 200,000 copi es are sold 

an nually. Geological Survey maps are also 

currently available from more than 3,200 

authorized co mm e r cia l map dealers 

nationwide. 

Administrative Division 

Mission 

The Admini strative Di vision provides 

ad mini strative direction and coordination 

in support of the scientific and technical 

programs of the Geological Survey. This 

su pport i ncl ud es policy gu idance and 

program direction and provides leadership 

and auth ority for various ad ministrative 

management and techni ca l support functi o ns, includin g personnel , financial man -

agement, adm ini strati ve management information sys tems, management analysis 

and improvement efforts, procurement and 

co ntractin g, pro perty and space management, and sa fety. Th ese functions are ca rried 

out at the ational Center in Reston, Va., 

and throu gh regional manage ment offices 

in Denver, Co lo. , and Menlo Park, Cali f. 

Organization 

Th e Divi sio n is composed of five headquarters bran ches. Financial M anagement 

and Sys tems Management are centrali zed 

headquarters fun ction s and have no reGeological Survey Yearbook 1986 27 
gional counterparts. Admin is trative Services, Personnel , and Procurement and 

Contracts provid e operational support to 

Geological Survey fi eld uni ts through the 

regional management offi ces. 

Information Systems 

Division 

Mission 

Th e Information Sys tems Divi sion provides guidance, techni ca l support, and automated data process ing (ADP) se rvices to 

o th er Geo log ica l Survey Divi sions, th e 

Department o f th e Interi or, and o ther 

Governm ent agencies. Th e Di vision also 

supports pl anning and poli cy development 

and prov ides program coordin ati on and 

rev iew fo r Geologica l Survey inform ati on 

systems and ADP techno logy. To meet th ese 

objecti ves, th e Divi sion : 

• Develo ps info rm ati on systems poli cy. 

• Develops lon g-range information resource management plans. 

• Admini sters data bases. 

• Designs, implements, and manages telecommuni ca tio ns network s. 

• Conducts resea rch in com puter science. 

• Guides th e acquisiti o n of ADP resources. 

• Prov ides co m puter suppo rt se rvices, 

co ndu cts user ass istance training, and 

co nsults o n com pu ter sciences. 

Th e Di vision is assisting th e burea u in 

sta bl i hin g a sys tem to improve access to 

28 Missions and Programs 

earth-science information . By mea ns of 

mi cro computers, 27 Geologica l Survey 

publi c contact points (in 20 cities loca ted in 

16 States and th e Di stri ct of Columbia) now 

have availabl e ea rth-s cience information 

data bases to aid use rs o f Geologica l Survey 

data and products. One of th ese information data bases provides data reference 

input fro m va riou s State Governments and 

orga ni zatio ns. Th e Survey has es tablished a 

telecommun ica tions se rvice within th e 

bureau to link programs in differe nt 

Divi sions throu gh a nationw ide communica ti ons network ca lled GEONET. In addition, th e Di vision is des igning loca l area 

networks to integra te a w ide ra nge of 

computing devices . 

Organization 

Th e In formation Systems Division ha its 

headq uarte rs office in Res to n, Va. Service 

centers in Reston and in M enl o Park, Cal if., 

Denver, Colo., and Flagstaff, Ariz., provid e 

assistance to users. 

The Assista nt Directo r fo r In fo rmation 

Systems chairs the Information Systems 

Council , which is co mposed of representatives from each Di vision and each field 

regio n. The council recommends poli cies, 

coordinates computer science research and 

technology, and provides guidelines fo r 

major computer systems and info rmatio n 

manageme nt prog rams fo r the Geologica l 

Survey. 
SIGNIFICANT ACCOMPLISHMENTS 

OF RESEARCH PROGRAMS: 1986 

SELENIUM IN AGRICULTURAL DRAINAGE 

WATER, SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY, CALIFORNIA 

The San Joaquin Val ley is a vital natura l 

reso urce in whi ch over $5 billion worth of 

ag ricu ltural commodities are produced 

annu all y from more th an 5 million acres of 

irrigated farm land . The va lley is also the site 

of several State and Federal waterfowl man -

age ment areas that are key stopping points 

fo r migratory waterfowl along the Pacific 

flyway . Several of these waterfowl management areas presently depend on agri cu ltural 

wastewater for all or part of th eir water 

suppl y. Potenti al adverse effects of agricultural wastewater on waterfowl have 

rece ntl y bee n rea li zed at Kes terson Reservoir, a 1,200-ac re se ri e of shallow impoundments that was jointl y managed by 

the U.S. Bureau of R clamation as an 

agricultura l drainage-water torage facil ity 

and by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service as a 

national wildl ife r fuge. 

Subsurface agri u ltu ra I drainage water 

began flowing to Kesterson R servoir in 

1978 and cea ed in 1985, under a State 

regulatory order. Since 1982, a hi gh incid nee of mortality and birth defects among 

waterfowl u in g the refuge has been linked 

to th presence of hi gh once ntration of 

the trace el ment I nium in th drainage 

water. Th e U.S. Geological Survey found 

that conce ntrat io n of dissolved selenium 

in drainage waters flowin g into the ca nal 

that supplie water to Kest rson Reservoir 

ranged from 140 to 1,400 microgram per 

liter (pa rt s per mill io n). The drainage water 

came from farm drainage systems consis tin g 

of buried grid s of p rforated pipe that are 

design d to lower th water table by 

removing shall ow grou nd water and thu s 

k ep excess ive moist ure from th e rop root 

zone. Sub urfa e drainage sys tems hav 

al ready been in tailed in about 85,000 a r s 

of agri cultural land in th w es tern San 

Joaqu in Vall y, and as mu ch as 200,000 

add it iona l acres of farm land in th western 

va ll ey area are affected by shallow water 

tables and need drainage. Drainage water 

from on ly about 8,000 acres has flowed to 

Kesterso n Reservoir; the drai nage fro m th e 

remaining 77,000 acres ha gone to local 

evaporat ion ponds or to various water conveya nce facilities that eventuall y discharge 

to the San Joaquin Ri ver or tributary sloughs. 

Thu s, the potential problem encompasses 

far more than just Kesterson Reservoi r. 

The U.S. Geo logical Survey, in cooperation with th e U.S. Bu reau of Reclama tion, 

the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and the 

State of Californi a, bega n a 5-year study in 

late 1984 of the sou rce, distribution, mobility, 

and fate of se lenium in water and soil 

throughout the western San Joaquin Vall ey. 

The st ud y is designed to answer key questions about selenium, including: 

• Wh ere does th e se l nium come from? 

• How much se lenium is in the soil? 

• Wh at factors cause selen ium to be released fro m th e soil? 

• How doe elenium get into hallow 

ground water? 

• What i the area l distribution of elenium 

in the shallow ground water? 

• Is elenium contam inating water-supply 

aq uif rs in the area? 

• How much se leni um i reaching the San 

joaq uin River and San Francisco Ba y? 

Although th e st udies designed to add res 

th ese questions are still in their early stages, 

th re have bee n so me impo rtant early 

findings about the distribution of se lenium 

in soi l, ground water, and the San Joaqu in 

Ri ve r. Con idered together, early data from 

all th se studi es ugg st a conceptual model 

of th e processes affectin g the d istributi on 

of se leniu m . Thi s model forms the basis of 

our co ntinuin g studie . 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 29 
Distribution of Selenium 

A first step in understanding th e nature 

and scope of the selenium problem is to 

assess th e prese nt-day distribution of 

selenium in soil and ground water. The 

accompanying map shows the areal di stribution of selenium in the soi l, in shallow 

ground water, and in region al aquifers of 

the western San joaquin Vall ey. The highest 

concentrations of selenium in th e entire 

San joaquin Vall ey are in soi ls and shallow 

ground water located on the western side 

of the valley in the alluvial fan areas of 

Panache and Cantua Creeks, which drain 

the Diablo Range. Concentrations generally 

are low in th e deeper regiona l aquifers 

commonly used for water supply. 

The highest selenium concentrations in 

soil occur between the coalescing fans of 

Panache and Cantua Creeks near the contact 

between the alluvial fa ns and dippi ng sed -

imentary rock s at the western edge of the 

valley. Th e highest concentrations of sel -

enium in shallow ground water were obse rved downgradient from high-selenium 

soils, where evaporation of shallow grou nd 

water greatly increased its selenium conce ntration. 

Depth Distribution in 

Ground Water 

Comparing the distribution of seleni um 

in shallow ground water with that in deeper 

underl yi ng ground water shows that seleniur 

genera ll y decreases with depth. But how 

fast, at what depth, and why? lnitiai data 

from two sites (P1 and P4, fig. 1) point to 

some possible answers to these questions. 

Th e data suggest that the shallowest 

ground water along this section has selenium 

co ncentrations in the 1- to SO-mi crogramsper-liter range. Selenium conce ntrations in 

water more than about 200 feet below the 

water table are mostly less than detectable. 

In between, in the ran ge of 20 to 200 feet 

below the water table, th ere appears to be a 

se lenium-rich zone that probably narrows 

in thickness from P4 to P1 . In addition, data 

from a detailed field-study site located 

south of th e P1 -P4 section (but in a setting 

similar to .that midway between P1 and P4) 

show a s1mdar depth distribution . Since 

data are so sparse at this stage in our studi es 

the challenge is to develop a reasonabl~ 

30 Significant Accomplishments of Research Programs 

ex planation of this pattern th at ca n th en be 

tested . 

Conceptual Model 

On th e basis of the area l di stributi o n data 

for soil s and water shown on the maps, the 

data from multiple-depth sa mpling well s, 

and detailed data from individual fields, a 

working conce ptu al mode l that attempts to 

explain the distribution of el nium at the 

regional sca le has been developed. This 

model, although preliminary and unverified, 

provides a unified fra mework for conti nuing 

stu di es that will undoubtedly resu lt in 

changes and expansio ns to the model. 

Under natural conditi o ns, the hi ghest 

selenium concentrations probably occurred 

in the uppermost part of the aquifer, with 

no fresher water above . Conce ntrations 

were likely hi ghest at low elevations where 

th e natural flow sys tem (fig. 1) brought 

ground water near the land surface, where 

it was evaporated . Concentrations were 

likely low to moderately hi gh in areas 

where the water table was more than several 

feet below the land surface. Initial irrigation 

.of soil s as early as 1900 probably leached 

most of the readily soluble se lenium during 

the first decade or more of irrigation. The 

result appea rs to have been the formation 

of a zone of ground water overlying what 

was the natural surface of the aquifer before 

irrigation began and in which selenium 

co nce ntrations are higher than normal. 

Continuing irri gation in recent decades 

has added progressively fresher wa ter to 

the top of the aquifer as the amo unt of 

readily so lubl e selenium in the soi l was 

depleted . Thus, this fresher water appa rently 

has displaced th e hi gher se leni um water 

downward. Thi s pattern is clea rest where 

the water table has always been too far 

below the land surface for evaporat ion to 

occur. Th e pattern is least clear where the 

water ta ble is close to the land surface, 

wh ere continued evaporation of ground 

water has occurred and thu s affected 

se lenium co nce ntrations. 

Th e low concentrations of selenium in 

th e deep parts of th e aquifer sys tem may be 

related to a combination of the climatic 

conditions under whi ch those aquifer material s and th e water in them were deposited 

and the chemi ca lly reducing co nditions in 

part of th e aqu ifer that greatly red uce the 

solubility of se lenium. Past cl imates in the 
121 °45 ' 

38" 

35° + 

Figure I. elenium concemrolions in ground wa1er in 1he San 

Joaquin Valley of California. 

Coalinga • 

11 9° 

+ 

0.07 

0.09 

0.10 

0.11 

(j) 0.12 

UJ 0.13 _J E i= 0. z 0.15 0. 

UJ .,· u 

a: 0.18 (j) 

UJ 

0... 

0.22 

0.36 

0.59 

0.88 

1.07 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 31 
NATIONAL 

WATERQUALITY 

ASSESSMENT 

PROGRAM 

Locations of the seven pilot 

study areas fo r the .S. Ceolo}!,i('{tl Sun•ey 's 1 ati o nal 

Wat e r- Qualit y A ssessm ent 

Program. 

area have been more humid (and the 

evaporation potential less) and would not 

have favored development of high se lenium 

concentrations. Water and aqu ifer materials 

in the uppermost part of the aquifer have 

been most affected by the pres nt-day arid 

climate and are characterized by chemicall y 

oxidizing conditions that favor high 

selen ium solubility. Low selenium concentrations in some ground water near th e 

trough of the vall y (near P1 ) are probabl y 

due to the ground water's origin in eastern 

valley geologic materials that are naturall y 

low in selen ium. 

The U.S. Geological Survey initiated a 

pilot ational Water-Quality Assessment 

Program in 1986. Pi lot studie in ev n key 

river and ground-water basins are designed 

tote t methods for conducting a nationwide 

assessment of the quality of the ation's 

surface- and ground-water re ources. In 

general term , the purposes of the full-s ale 

programs are to: 

• Provide nationall y consistent descriptions of the current status of water quality 

in a large, diverse, and geograp hi ca ll y 

distributed portion of the ation's wat r 

resources. 

• Where possible, define the trends in 

water quality that ha ve occurred over 

32 Significant Accomplishments of Research Programs 

Thus, the highest selenium oncentrations 

appear to have resulted from a combination 

of the leaching of selenium from sal ine soil 

by irrigation water and the subseq uent 

evaporation of ground water. Greatly increased ground-water recharge brought 

about by irrigation and th insta llation of 

subsurface drain have combined to bring 

se lenium-ri h water to th e land surfa e. 

Economical solution to th agricu ltural 

drainage probl m in the western va ll y 

may, in the future, be bas don controlling 

the ground-water system o that the I niumrich water is not brought to th surface. 

recent decades and provide a ba eline 

for evaluating future trends in water 

qua li ty. 

• Identify and describe the relations of 

both th status and the trends in water 

quality to the relevant natural factors and 

the history of land use and land and 

waste management practices. 

Each pilot study will provide information 

for States and localities to use in identifying 

and addressing their water-quality probl ms. 

Similarly, the ational Water-Quality Assessment Program, when fully implemented, 

will provide a broad base of data useful to 

Federal planners and manager in making 

critical deci ions concerning water-quality 

issues from a national perspective. 
FEDERAL 

GEOGRAPHIC 

EXCHANGE FORMAT 

Th e recent nuclear accident at Chernobyl 

in the Soviet Union, together with the 1979 

accident at the Three Mi le Island nuclear 

plant in Pennsylvania, has focused national 

attention on how authorities might exped ite 

the evacuation of citizens from an affected 

area. Id ea ll y, authorities shou ld have immed iate access to information regarding 

the location of people within a threatened 

area, avai lable transportation routes out of 

the area, weather patterns that influence 

radiat ion dispersal , and the direction and 

rate of poss ibl y co ntaminated streamflow. 

Unfortunately, all the needed information 

is not found in a single, comprehens ive data 

base, nor is it avai lab le in compatible data 

structures and formats. In order to merge 

different yet related types of data into a 

single data base for rapid computer analysi s, 

all the various data elements must be 

uniform in tru ture for co mputeri zed 

handling. 

As a result of di cuss ion concerning the 

excha nge of digital cartogra phic information , the Offi c of Management and Budget 

crea ted the Fed rallnt eragency Coordinatin g Committee on Digital Cartography in 

1983. Con isting of 27 F deral agenci and 

chaired by the Geological Survey, the 

comm ittee was charged with th critical 

task of " developing and adopting, for use 

by all Federal ag n i s, commo n standards 

of on tent , format , and ac uracy for digita l 

cartograp hi c data to in r a its intercha ngeabilit y and en hanc its poten ti al for 

mult iple u e." A first step toward meeting 

the tand ard s i d lineating th e data 

stru cture and forma ts needed to facilitate 

th e int ragency exchange of com put rized 

artographic and geograph ic data (termed 

" patial " data). Th e prototype F dera l 

Geographic Ex hange Format, deve loped 

by th comm ittee, i uch a tep. 

In d ve lopin g th e format, th e comm itt 

had tok e pin mind vera l major ar as of 

co nce rn . Fir t, th forma t cho en wou ld 

have to acco mmodate ex i ting spa tial and 

earth-sci n e data bases as much a poss ible 

to avoid cos tl y reentry of data. Second, the 

format wou ld hav to be fl ex ibl enough to 

hand le future spatial data ba se developments. Finally, the format should not become unwieldy in terms of complexity and 

implementation costs. Thus, si mpli city and 

flex ibility became the primary design goa ls. 

Design of the prototype Federal Geographic Exchang Format was completed in 

fisca l year 1986, and te sting is being 

conducted within and between many 

Federal agencies in diff r nt parts of the 

country. Hydrographic, topographic, geologic, hyd rologi c, demographic, administrati ve, navigational, transportation, land 

survey, soil s, natural reso urces, and other 

types of data are all being used to tes t the 

ca pabilities of the exchange format. Once 

this prototyp t sting is campi ted in 1987, 

the Survey will be respon ible for finali zing 

an operational version of the Federal 

Geograp hi c Exchange Format, th e ultimate 

goal being to make the format a Federal 

In formation Process in g Standard for th e 

exchange of d igital spatial data. 

Interest in th e Federal G ographi Exchan ge Format has now gone beyond 

national bound into the international ar na, 

sin ce the Federal Geographic Exchange 

Form at might become the standard exchang format for a worldwide ca rtographi c 

data base. Incident uch as the relea e of 

radiation that travels worldwid , unco n trained by politica l borders, strongl y 

enforce the need for uch an internationa l 

data ba e and a standa rdi zed means of 

exchanging information. 

NEW MAP OF GLACIAL 

DEPOSITS PROVIDES 

DATA FOR LAND 

PLANNING DECISIONS 

A geo lo g ic map showing a threed imen ional persp ctive of both surficial 

and subsurface un co nso lidated deposits 

over mu h of the northern conterminous 

Unit d States ha been completed by the 

U.S. Geological Survey and is being prepared 

for publ ica tion. Th e map area is th e region 

once cov red by the thick co ntinental ice 

sh et intheU nit dStatesea tof th e Rocky 

Mountains and in parts of Canada, the 

Great Lakes, and th e At lanti offshore (see 

fig. 2A for locat ion of map coverage). The 

map shows the haracter of the surficial 

se dim ent , the total thickn ess of glacial, 

glacia ll y related, and postg lacial sed iments, 

and certain wel l-ma pped buried unit . 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 33 
B 

A 

Map coverage 

Area of map excerpt, 

shown below 

A part of the glacial sediments 

map, simplified 

Scale 1:1,000;000 

0 10 KILOMETERS 

EXPlANATION 

This map shows the character of surficial sediments, in colors, and 

the total thickness of Quaternary sediments, in shades of color. 

Where the location of buried sand and gravel aquifers is well known , 

they are shown diagrammatically. 

D 

D 

D 

D 

D 

D . 

Sediment Mapping 

Till--Unsorted and unstratified ice-lain sediment ranging in 

size from clay to boulders 

Coarse-9rained, stratified sediment- Water-lain sand and 

gravel, with minor silt and clay 

Fine-9rained, stratified sediment- Water-lain clay, silt, and 

very fine sand, with minor coarser sediment 

Areas where Quaternary sediment is patchy, and exposures of 

bedrock and residuum are common 

Exposed bedrock and residuum 

Location of sand and gravel aquifers buried beneath till or 

fine-9rained , stratified sediment 

Thickness Mapping 

Character of the 

surficial sediment 

TILL COARSE FINE 

Total 0--50 [=:J [=:J c::=J 

thickness of 50-100 c=J c::=J c::=J 

Quaternary 

100-200 sediment 

(in feet) 200-400 

Symbols 

- -

Southernmost extent of Late Wisconsinan ice 

Southernmost extent of pre-Late Wisconsinan ice 

Figure 2. Map area andformal.fur !he map uflhe glaci(l{ed Uniled S1a1 es easl uflhe Rocky Moumains. 

1\ . l.ocalion of map area. B. Pari of !he map area. simplified 

34 Significant Accomplishments of Research Programs 
This map conveys, for the first time, the 

regional distribution and thi ckness of glacial 

and postglacia l sediments, which previously 

had bee n shown in detail on local maps 

only. Th e data shown on th e map were 

com piled and reinterpreted from approximately 850 ex isting maps, reports, and 

unpublished data sources. Di scussions with 

geologic authorities for each State enhanced 

the quality of reinterpreta tion and map 

compilation. Most thi ckn ess data were taken 

from reports and drill hole logs and had not 

been publi shed in map form before. Beca use 

a uniform class ifi ca tion system that could 

enco mpass differin g sty les of geologic 

mapping had to be develop d for surficial 

units in the map area, many map pattern s 

are different from those on ex istin g maps. 

For examp le, th e glacial hi story of New 

England is quite different from that of the 

Great Pl ains States, the result being contrasts 

in the glac ial se dim ents and mappin g 

emphases in the two regio ns. Th e uniform 

classifi cation emphas izes simil ar aspects of 

the deposits in th se areas and should, 

th erefore, add to th e effect iveness and 

accuracy of regional as essm nts. 

Portraying not only the surficial geology 

but also th e natur and xte nt of g ologic 

units in th e sub urface, thi s map is in 

e sence a three-dim nsiona l view of the 

outermo t layer of th e Earth . A sma ll portion 

of the map i shown in figur 28. Thi area, 

lo ated in sou thwest rn Ohio, was cov red 

by ice during at leas t two major glacia l 

epi sodes. Befor and between glaciations, a 

network of stream and va lleys existed; the 

major riv r in that network flowed past 

Ham ilton and Dayton , Ohi o, roughly where 

the Grea t Mi ami Ri ver flow today. This 

anci nt va ll ey and its tributari contain a 

major aqu if r sys tem th at erv s th e area's 

indu trial cen ter . Wh en th e most recent 

(late Wi sco n inan ) glacier flowed o r the 

area abo ut 21,000 y ar ago, most of the 

va ll ys wer ov red over wi th till, a poorly 

sort d i -lain sed im nt ; in many va ll ys , 

sa ndy riv r sediment s wer not r moved by 

th gla ier and today se rve as aq uifer 

buri ed b nea th th e till (fig . 28). and y 

s dim nts in th e major river va ll ey common ly occur from th e land urface down to 

bedrock , be a use thi va lley wa th cou rse 

through w hi ch wat r from the melting, 

retrea tin g glacier was channel d. 

This map is the first regional approximation of th e three-dimensional distribu -

tion of sediments over a very large area and 

is intended to supplement, not replace, th e 

more detail ed work on which it is based. 

Detailed mapping, particularly in populated 

areas, is necessa ry to address the site-specifi c 

geologic problems related to man's a tivities 

at and beneath the land surface. Detail ed 

mapping is also required to interpret the 

geologic history and framework of sediments 

for a reg ion. Regional maps such as th one 

discussed here place loca l detailed mapping 

in a regio nal context, permit th e extrapolation of data into unmapped areas, and 

depict large-scaler gional geologic features 

th at are beyond th e scope of deta iled loca l 

mapping. A regional map in many cases will 

point out a probl em or relationship that is 

not apparent on a detailed map and thus 

permit information from the detail ed map 

to be used co rrectly to solve problems 

ari sin g from site- pecifi c activities. 

Surfi ial geologic and s dim nt thi kness 

mapping and th e ability to predict where 

buried aquifers occur are vital tools for 

o lvi ng problems such a the siting of 

landfill and co nstru ction, th e evaluation of 

min eral resources, and the evaluation of 

gro und-water resources and th eir vulnerability to contamin ation. Approximately 40 

perc nt o f th e population in th e conterminous Un ited States re ides within the 

r gion covered by the map, whi ch is less 

than 25 percent of the total area of the 

ou ntry. Population density this hi gh n cesitates regional cooperation, across State 

and other political boundarie , in planning 

and in a s ss ing problems involving waste 

disposal and ground -water management, 

since th e waste of one community can 

unintentional ly contaminate th e drinking 

wat r of another. Information on th e map 

indica! s th e thi ckn ess of the unconsolidated ed iments (whi ch contain numerous 

aq uifers) and also th e ex t nt of certain 

major aq uifers; thi s information ca n be 

used to suppl ement detailed mapping in 

predicting conta minant movement through 

th unco nsol idated ediments. Th e thi ckn ss and compo itio n of th e e sedi ments 

may also influence the generati o n and 

mi grati o n of radon gas and mitigate th e 

effect of acid rai n. 

In add itio n to its appli ca ti o ns for resources 

and land planning, this new map hould 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 35 
Figure 3. Location map of 

the Pan ola Moun tain research 

watershed and graphs showing 

variations in hy drology and 

chemistry of runoff and stream 

water in response to a rainstorm 

October 1, 1985. A, Distribution of major vegetation types 

and data collection stations. B, 

Discharge hydrograph and 5-

minure rainfall rate at gaged 

sites. , Temp oral variability of 

SO/·. H•, and Ca2• concentrations in runoff collected at the 

base of the granite outcrop. D, 

Temporal variability of discharge and the concentrations 

of H 4 +, SO/-. K+, and 

alkalinity in the ·tream at the 

upstream gage. 

help to st imulate research and more detai led 

three-dimensional mapping. For example, 

re earch focusing o n th e creation of a 

digita l geo logi data ba e from th map is 

underway. Subsequent analysis of the digital 

data will permit the production of computergenerated derivative maps that will com bin 

the geologic data ba e with hydrologic, 

cu ltural, and other data ets. These derivative 

maps will deal with a broad pectrum of 

topics in luding bas ic r ear h into glacial 

me hanic and hi tory, regiona l relation 

between glacia l depo it s and hydrology, 

and the need for app lyin g geo logi c data to 

land use, waste di po al , and ground-water 

manag ment decisions. 

w 

~ 15 

w 

"' " 10 :::> 

0 

</) 

ffi 

.. 

B 

c 

10 

A 

11 12 

TIME OF DAY 

200 4()() 

- Coniferous 

c.__] Dec•duous 

200r-------------------------~ 

150 SO/ 

100 

." ~ ......... . -~~-; .·········· 

9~-------~0--------~11 ------ 2 

TI ME OF DAY 

13 

36 Significant Accomplishments of Research Programs 

HYDROCHEMICAL 

RESPONSE OF A SMALL 

STREAM IN THE 

SOUTHEAST TO A 

RAINSTORM 

The hydrologic response and th spatia l 

and tempo ral patt rn of tream chemi stry 

were used to identify severa l key proces s 

regulating tream acid ifi cation and major 

ion chemi stry in a 100-a re res ar h watershed (fig. 3A) at th Panola Mountain State 

Conservat ion Park near rockbridge, Ga., 

IW10'36' 

I 

Mixed 

Outcrop 

Gagmg stations 

A Cont•nuous stream 

• Water quality 

+ Weather 

- 33'38'00" 

~ 100r-----~-----x-------------, 

z~ SO/ ...__/··· ..... · 

Q~ 

~~ 50 

~§ w« 

u> 

zs 

00 

u~ a: 

u 

! 

K ---....~\ 

~ ...... ---- ---- NH, -~ ~ --- -_:_-, -- ALKALI NITY 

TI ME OF DAY 

D 
about 16 miles southeast of Atlanta. During 

a 2-hour period O ctober 1, 1985, the 

forested watershed received a total of 1.30 

inches of rain (fig . 38). Runoff from a 7-acre 

granite outcrop was immediate and generated a w ettin g front that moved down the 

1,480-foot stream channel at about 0.3 foot 

per second. The stream channel at the base 

of th e granite outcrop was dry before the 

storm , and runoff from the granite outcrop 

soaking into th e streambed cau sed the 

wettin g front to move rath er slowl y down 

the chann el. At a gage 656 feet downstream 

from th e base of the granite outcrop, water 

arrived 17 minutes after th e pea k rainfall 

(fig. 38), and flow peaked 12 minutes later. 

Streamflow at th e basin outl et peaked twice; 

th e first peak was co in cident with th e peak 

at th e upstream gage, and the second 

occurred 35 m in utes later. Th e basin, as a 

whol , respond ed like a giant sponge in 

that o nl y 1 to 2 percent of th e precipitation 

was tran sported out of th e watershed by th e 

strea m within several hours of th e torm . 

Overland flow did not occur except on bare 

rock areas, nor did water seep from th e 

bank o f th chann el into th stream above 

th e upstrea m gage. D spite th e large retentio n of water in th e water hed, large 

co mpo iti o nal va riation s o f th e runoff 

occurred spati all y a th e water moved down 

th e tr am chann el and temporall y in interva ls as short a minutes. 

Runoff th at coll ected at th e ba e of th e 

granit o utcrop g nerall y was more acidi c 

(pH 4.1-4.6) than th e rain (pH 4.6). Sulfate, 

th dom in ant acid anion in precipitation , 

wa th e hi gh st o f an y solute in th e runoff 

and th rain. Th e dec rea e in a idit y and 

sulfat co nce ntration s from initi al level in 

th e runoff to a minimum befo re peak 

rainfall int n it y sugge t th at dry d po it ion 

of S0 2 during th previ o us 8-day peri od 

was a major source o f acidity (fi g. 3C). Mor 

th an 50 perce nt of th e runoff acidity was 

attribut ed to th e dry deposition of S0 2 plus 

th e wet d position of sulfuri c acid . 

Durin g th e 12 minutes wh en th e water 

lev I was ri sin g at the upstream gag , th e 

on entration s of s vera I solut s (inclu ding 

K+, SO/·, and NH/) and alkalinit y in r ased 

and th en decreased b fore flow pea ked 

(fi g. 30). Th e NH / co ncentration and 

alkalinit y changes were th e mo t dramatic. 

Alk alinit y in creased from abo ut 10 to 50 

mi cro qui va l nts per liter and th en decreased to less than zero (positive acidity) . 

M eanwhil e, th e ammonium concentration, 

which wa s highly correlated with the 

alkalinity, in creased from about 6 to 40 

microequi valents per liter and th en d -

creased to levels that were lower th an those 

of either th e rain or the runoff from the 

granit e. Th ese variation s are attributed to 

the differential rel ease of solutes from 

organic material , consisting mainly of leaves, 

in the stream channel. These results also 

suggest that the stream alkalinity was partly 

controlled by nitrate reduction and the 

release of H4 +from th e organi c material in 

the channel. 

PRODUCTION OF 

SHADED-RELIEF 

PRODUCTS 

Applications research in generating 

shaded-relief products using Digital Elevation Model data has seen many advances 

recently. Alternative methods for simulating 

illumination and shadowing on terrain 

features, including a convolution by wedgefilter technique and the cosine of the angle 

between slope-normal and the illumination 

direction method, have been investigated. 

The cosine approach has been selected as 

the more flexible and responsive technique 

because of greater control in positioning 

the illumination source, adding ambient 

light, and exaggerating elevation values . 

A shaded-relief image for the entire State 

of South Dakota was generated by using the 

cosine technique; county boundaries were 

added to the final product to aid in 

identifying specific locations within the 

State (fig. 4 ). Work on the South Dakota 

shaded-relief image led to research on 

techniques to en hance standard products 

that include large areas of relatively low 

relief. Topographic detail in lowland areas 

can be enhanced by converting elevations 

to logarithmic values before the shadedrelief image is generated. This technique 

was used successful ly on the Chattanooga, 

Tenn. , 1 :250,000-scale quadrangle to enhance the lowlands in the Valley and Ridge 

province. 

Obtaining a correct impression of the 

relative relief of large areas from shadedrelief images can be difficult. To solve this 

problem, selected ranges of elevation are 

color coded by transforming the color 

elevation image to hue, intensity, and 

sat uration separates. The color-coded 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 37 
Figure 4. This shaded-relief 

image of the State of South 

Dakota was created by mosaicking 40 Digital Elevation Model 

data blocks and simulating 

S un illumination f rom the 

northwest at /0° above the 

h orizo n. Stat e and county 

bo undaries were extra cted 

f rom Digital Line Graph data 

and added to the final shadedrelief image. 

shaded-relief image is then created by 

substituting the black-and-white relief 

image for the intensity separate and then 

retransforming back to standard red, green, 

and blue photographic separates for 

printing. 

Under a cooperative agreement between 

the Geological Survey and the National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 's 

National Ocean Service, shaded-relief 

images were created for the Anchorage, 

Alaska, 1 :500,000-scale sectional air chart 

and the Los Angeles, Calif., 1 :250,000-scale 

terminal air chart. Considerable research 

was conducted on 3 of the 60 1°x1° blocks 

of Digital Elevation Model data for 

Anchorage to improve the data cosmetically 

for input to the shaded-relief process. 

Improvements included (1) replacing localized anomalous elevation values , (2) 

matching terrain features geometrically 

within adjacent 1° blocks, and (3) generating a cosmetically improved terrain surface for a glacial plateau area . The National 

Ocean Service has printed prototype maps, 

which include the computer-derived shaded38 Significant Accomplishments of Research Programs 

relief information, for evaluation . On the 

basis of experience with the Anchorage 

prototype product, the shaded-relief 

product for Los Angeles was produced to 

meet the National Ocean Service's map 

requirements more closely . 

Significant expertise was gained in producing and enhancing shaded-relief prod -

ucts to meet widely varying but very 

specific agency requirements. 

RADON HAZARDS 

IN THE UNITED 

STATES: THE ROLE 

OF GEOLOGY 

In door ra d o n p o ll ution has beco m e 

recognized in the past few years as a leading 

ca use of lung ca ncer, second on ly to 

smokin g. Th e Environmental Protection 

Agency (EPA) estimates th at 5,000 to 20,000 

lun g ca ncer dea th s annua ll y may be at-
tributable to lon g-term exposure to radon 

and its radioactive decay products. The 

natural geologic environment plays a key 

rol e in th e ind oo r radon probl em beca use it 

is th e origina l so urce of the uranium and 

thorium from whi ch radon is derived. Under 

stud ies sponsored by th e EPA (the congressiona ll y de ignated lea d Federal agency on 

th e radon probl em) and th e U.S. Geo logica l 

Survey' Uranium and Thorium Program, 

Survey scienti sts are investigating radon 

generation and migration in th e ground 

and as ess in g the radon ri sk associated with 

soil and bedrock throu ghout th e country. 

A large part of th ese investigations relies on 

past Survey st udies th at established th e 

physica l and chemi ca l properties controlling 

radon ava ilability in th e ground and the 

di stribution of uranium and its decay 

produ cts in man y rocks, so il s, and waters 

aero s th e country. Data rece ntly transferred 

to th e Survey from th e U.S. Department of 

En ergy's ational U ranium Resource 

Eva luation program have also co ntributed 

to th ese inves ti ga tion s. 

Investigators initiall y believed that indoor 

rado n probl ms w r largely crea ted either 

by man 's unintentional u of uranium or 

radium-ri ch building mat rial s or by hou ing 

co n !ru ction o n site that had been con -

taminat d by di po ed uranium wastes. 

M ore rece nt evidence, however, show 

that elevated (greater th an 4 picocuries per 

lit er 1) ind oor rado n gas co nce ntrations are 

far more wid pr ad nat iona ll y than previously th ought and that th e haza rd is 

rea ted by th e entry of radon-rich soil gas 

through th fou ndati o n of a house. To a 

less r degree, th e ga ca n also enter households in th e form of radon-rich gro und 

water used in domesti c water uppli es. 

M o t of th rado n th at ex ists in soil s and 

b drock below and adjace nt to a hou e is 

deri ved from th element radium (whi ch is 

in turn deri ved fr o m uranium and thorium) 

included in th e min ral grains that compos 

th e soil s and bed rock. A fra cti on of th e 

radon th at has form ed fro m radium , whi ch 

is known as th emanatin g power, ps 

into th e pore spaces among th e min eral 

grains and sub equentl y is free to move 

eith er with th e water or air in th e por 

space or by diffusion to other loca tions 

underground. Th e more perm ea bl e th e soil 

or bedrock is, th e more rea dily radon1 I" he ave• age o u1door rad o n co nl<'nt is 0.2 pi cocurics per lit er. 

bearing water or air con tain ed in the pores 

will move. Because radon diffuses far more 

rapidl y through air than it does through 

water and beca use convective flow of air 

throu gh perm ea ble material s is far more 

rapid than that of water, soil gas is th e most 

likely so urce of indoor radon. 

Ro cks and so il enri ch d in uranium or 

rad ium , such as tho se fo und in areas 

und erlain by gra nite or bl ack shales, and 

th e hi ghl y porous and perm eab le coa rse 

sa nds and gravels overly ing such geologic 

fo rm ation are first-order concerns with 

rega rd to indoor rad o n accumulation . A 

ran ge of 50 to 200 picocuries per liter in 

indoor air is cia sified by th e EPA as evere; 

levels grea ter than 200 picocurie p r lit r 

are co nsidered ex treme. M easured soil gas 

radon levels in the United States range from 

10 to 40,000 pi cocuries per liter; however, 

mos t measurement fall with in a ran ge 

con id ered no nhaza rd o u . Simple ca lculations of th e amount of radon ge nera ted by 

o il havi ng an " ace ptable" range of 

radi um content suggest that even th e e 

oi Is ca n ge n rate radon in soi I gases at 

leve l we ll above th o e co n id ered safe for 

ind oo r air (100-400 picocuries per liter of 

radon, in comparison with th e sa fe leve l o f 4 

pi cocuri s per liter). Th ese data sugge t that 

many oils ca n pos rado n ha za rd s if th e 

mechani sm that perm it large qu antiti es of 

soi l gas to ent er a tru cture are present. 

Certain hou i ng con truction practi ces, such 

a unven til ated crawl spaces, sump pumps, 

and th use of cind er blo k for foundation 

wa ll either crea te pa agewa ys for significant amount o f oi l gas to enter a ho use or 

provid sto rage spa ce for th e radon. lncrea d co n ern about en rgy loss has led 

to improved in ulation techniqu es, so th at 

house do not " brea th e" a mu ch as they 

d id befor , and ind oor air is no t vented 

rea dily to th e o ut sid . Thu s, a ce rtain perc nt ag o f ho mes, eve n in areas where 

radon levels in o il are average, is likely to 

have sli ghtl y eleva ted radon leve l (4-20 

pi ocuri e per lit er). 

Current Geolog i al Surv y inves ti ga ti ons 

o f th in door ra do n problem fo u o n 

as ess in g ri sksa tthree leve l : (1) identifying 

ar a wh ere g o logic co nditio ns are uch 

th at in door radon is likely to be a probl m, 

regard le ~ of th e co n tru tion practices 

used ; (2) identifyin g areas wh ere geologic 

fac tor co ntribute to sli ghtl y to moderately 

eleva ! d radon I vels in oi l and (or) wat er 

and wh ere hou ing o n tru cti o n practices 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 39 
Figure 5. t oea/io n 1~ ( 1he 

l? e adin f!, Pr o n g ar e a uf 

Penn.l.t•h •ania. Ne 11 · Jersey. ,Ve11 · 

York. and Conneclict/1 and an 

illu.\/rcl/io n .l·ho ll'ing ltu 11 · radon 

in so il f!. O.\ and ground ll'aler 

~/ li rmes s1 rue lures. 

crea te co nditi on that allow mod rate 

amounts of soil gas to enter; and (3) 

identifying area where little or no ri sk 

ex ist , no matter what type of construction 

practi ces ar used. To date, these investigation h ave produ ce d a number o f 

conclusions : 

1. Uranium and thorium deposits will produce moderat ely (20-50 picocuries per 

liter) to extremely (> 200 pi cocuri per 

liter) eleva ted ind oor radon level in 

homes sited thereon, unle s ex traordinary 

preca utions are taken to prevent soil ga 

in filtration. Maps showing th e locations 

of uranium and thorium concentra tion s 

should be a primary guid e in assess in g 

th e radon haza rd s of a pecific area . 

2. Soils fo rm ed in areas w here rainfal l i 

ab und ant and where the bedrock is 

composed predomina ntl y of ba alti c 

volca ni c rocks or of ed iments derived 

from such rock pose little or no hazard 

of elevated indoo r radon levels. 

3. Fractured bedrock increa es the li kelih ood of radon seepage to th e surfac , 

probably in two ways. Fi rst, fractures 

provide conduits along which ground 

water co nta in ing uranium (ions) may 

have been transported in the past and in 

which trace amo unts of uranium or 

radium may have precipitated . Second , 

fractu red rocks can be permeable enough 

to permit the upward migration of radonri ch gro und water o r radon gas. 

J " t"r '-~ .... A-15 

Philadelphia ® / 

r 

/-

---;l 

Washington, DC \ 

®f) l (_ \ 

40 Significant Accomplishments of Research Programs 

4. Granites and ome m tamorphic rocks 

co mmonly o ntain signifi ant amounts 

of uranium and may be pot nti al so urce 

of radon . However, th e uraniu m content 

of gra nites does vary, and th e g ologic 

natur of radon ava il abilit y in granite is 

not w II under tood. Furt her tu dy of 

thi a pect wou ld be us fu l, beca u e 

decomposing gran it oft n form perm abl soil . 

5. Bl a k shal of marin e origin , now fou nd 

o n land in va ri o u ba ins, co ntain modera tely high to high o n entration of 

uranium (7 to as mu h a 170 parts per 

mil lion). Per isten t slightl y to moderately 

levated indoor radon I ve l m to be 

associated with th e rocks. 

6. Them chani al grindin g of rocks pi ked 

up and ca rri ed along by gla iers has 

enhanced th e pos ibility for radon to 

esca pe from th e ed iment d po ited by 

glaci r in the north ern parts of the 

cou ntry. 

7. Highl y porou and permeab le diment 

provide cond uit s for large vo lume of 

o il gas to migrat from one plac to 

ano th er in th e ubsurfa . Becaus th e 

length of the path that radon can trav I 

through oi l incr ases before d caying 

awa y, th vol ume of oil gas th at accumul ates in crea es by th cube of that 

length . 

8. An imperm ab le soil layer abov a 

permeab le soil layer create a sig ni ficant 

-- Radon is a product of the natural decay of 

uranium. The indoor hazard was first 

discovered in the Reading Prong area . 

--The U.S. Geological Survey is 

• Mapping deposits 

• Sampling soil 

• Sampling well water 

• Cooperating with EPA to determine 

toxic sites throughout the country 

-- Radon gas found in dwellings and water supply 
hazard if the bottom of th e foundation of 

a struct ure is placed below the upper 

layer. Soil gases will b vented to the 

surface through the opening made in the 

impermeab le soil. Indoo r ve nting also 

becomes mor pronounced when wat r 

satura t s the surface soil layers during a 

rain o r during snowmelt wh r the 

ground freez and thaws seasonall y. 

9. A ignificant percentage of hom s located 

in area underlain by limestones and 

dolomite eems to have sl ightly to 

moderately elevated leve ls of indoor 

radon , and cavern in the ca rbonate 

rock persi tently accumulate moderately 

to xtreme ly elevated levels of radon. 

Although th e rocks are not known to 

hav elevat d uranium concentrati ons, 

they often produce soil that not o nl y 

have a hi gh capacity for absorbing any 

uranium and radium moving in shallow 

ground waters but also are wel l uited to 

emanate the radon that subsequently 

forms . 

Since th e indoor radon ha zard wa fir t 

di scov r din th e Reading Prong area of th e 

orth ea tern nit d tat ( ee fi g. 5), 

G ol ogical urv y ienti t hav appli d 

th ' ir ex p rti to und r tandin g th e g alog ic facto r involved at fi ve area in th e 

R ading Pro ng r gion of P nn ylvani a, ew 

Jer ey, w Y rk , and Co nn ti cut and at 

ve ral o th er sit es de ignated for tud y by 

th e EPA. pr liminary va luation f 10 

tate , a part o f EPA' tate A sistan e 

Program, will be compl et d in earl 1987, 

and oil gas mea urement t chniqu are 

bein g d v lop d and t t d. 

WATER AND 

SEDIMENT IN THE 

ORINOCO RIVER 

During the last 5 years, the U.S. Geological 

Survey has been studying the streamflow 

and sediment transport of the Orinoco 

River of Venezuela and Colombia. Proyecto 

Orinoco-Apure (Orinoco-Apure Project) is 

being conducted in collaboration with the 

Venezuelan Ministerio del Ambiente y de 

los Recursos Naturales Renovables (M inistry 

of the Environment and Renewable Natural 

Resources), which is interested in evaluating 

the river's potential for navigation, hydroelectric power generation, and other uses 

and in assessing the possible environmental 

consequences of these uses. Geological 

Survey research hydrologists welcomed the 

opportunity to develop new techniques for 

measuring and sampling large rivers and to 

study one of the world's great rivers, 

especially one that is largely unmodified 

and, in many parts of its basin, still unaffected 

by man's activities. 

The Orinoco River ranks third in the 

world (after the Amazon and the Zaire) in 

water discharge to the oceans (equivalent 

to two Mississippi Rivers). Draining nearly 

400,000 square miles of Colombia and 

Venezuela (fig. 6), it derives its water flow in 

approximately equal portions from the 

Guayana Shield on its eastern bank and 

from the Andes Mountains and pre-Andean 

plains on its western bank. Although equal 

in quantity, the waters entering from these 

two sides are markedly different in quality. 

Tributary waters that drain the Guayana 

Shield contain very little suspended sediment and, for rivers of this size, some of the 

lowest concentrations of dissolved elements. Tributaries that drain the Andes, on 

the other hand, contain much larger concentrations of dissolved elements and sus -

pended sediment. Inflows from the major 

tributaries require 120 to 250 miles of 

downstream transport after entering the 

main stem before they are completely mixed 

with other waters of the Orinoco. Because 

the concentrations and compositions of 

suspended and dissolved material introduced by western bank tributaries are so 

markedly different from those introduced 

by eastern bank tributaries, downstream 

mixing of these tributary contributions to 

the main stem can be traced by their 

chemical and sedimentary signatures. At 

least 90 percent of the 150 to 200 million 

tons of suspended sediment carried annually 

by the Orinoco River to its mouth is derived 

from the Andes . 

Di stin ctly differ nt wet and dry seasons 

result in an annua l fluctuation of 40 to 50 

feet in th e level of th e river; large sa nd 

waves th at form on the cha nnel bed in 

response to hi gh-water flow co nditi ons are 

exposed during low-wat r co nditi ons and 

are thu ava ilab l for detailed study. Th ese 

sa nd waves vary from 330 to 660 feet in 

length , tand 6.5 to over 13 feet high at their 

crest , and contain well-developed int rna I 

str uct ure sim il ar to those fo und in some 

ancien t sand ton es. One co nseq uence of 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 41 
Figure 6. The400.000-squaremile drainage basin of the 

Orinoco River in Venezuelaand 

Colombia. The sand-dune area 

is shown in red. 

thi s ex posure of the channel bed during the 

low-water season is the transport of these 

sediments upriver by the wind. Trad e winds 

reach their greatest strength during the dry 

seaso n and recycle upriver a visible fraction 

of th e fin e sand that the river transports 

downriver during the high-water season. A 

large area of sand dunes west of the Orinoco 

Ri ver (fig. 6), thousands of square mil es in 

extent, attests to the persistence and impo rtance of this process in recycl ing the 

sa nds of the Orinoco Ri ver. 

DIGITAL 

CARTOGRAPHIC AND 

EARTH-SCIENCE 

DATA MERGE 

In the last several years, the Geological 

Survey has made a substantial commitment 

to the production of digital cartographic 

data. The types of digital data being produced routinely include Digital Line Graphs 

and Digital Elevation Models, both of which 

originate from the Survey's standard topographic map series at various scales and 

projections. Data compiled by other Federal 

agencies also are becoming available in 

digital form as a result of the overall increase 

in automated data processing capabilities. 

Census information, geochemical data, and 

geophysical data are now typically disseminated on computer-compatible tapes, 

and a wide range of computer programs are 

42 Significant Accomplishments of Research Programs 

Caribbean Sea 

60'W 

1'N + 

available to support information processing 

needs. Some typical data bases include the 

U.S. Department of Energy's National 

Uranium Resources Evaluation Program and 

the Geological Survey's Rock Analysis and 

Storage System (RASS). A logical extension 

of digital data production and dissem ination 

has been the development of techniques 

for merging data sets from these disparate 

data bases to generate thematic displays for 

various kinds of earth-science investigations. 

Research is being conducted to define 

methodologies for merging and integrating 

digital data sets in response to the needs of 

the Survey and other Government agencies. 

This work has resulted in procedures that 

can be adapted to generate derivative 

products and graphic displays using a broad 

range of digital data to represent multidisciplinary information in cartographic 

form . 

One example involved the generation of 

a geographically referenced display of the 

anomalous distribution of lithochemical data 

with reference to the topography and 

political boundaries within the State of 

Missouri (fig. 7). The lithochemical data 

were retrieved from the Survey's RASS data 

base, interpolated to a surface grid, transformed logarithmically, and processed to 

show the distribution of lead having logarithmic values above a certain level. The 

surface of anomalous distribution was color 

coded and merged with a shaded-relief 

image produced from 30-arc-second digital 

elevation data available from the National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 

The outline of the State of Missouri was 
created by using Digital Line Graph files 

from a 1 :2,000,000-scale map base and was 

used to delimit the area of elevation and 

lithochemical data to be displayed. Digital 

processing techniques were used to generate graphic annotation (latitude, longitude, scale bar, and title) and descriptive 

information (color and distribution plot 

explanations). 

The resulting product is an example of 

how multiple data sets can be processed, 

merged, and displayed to represent multivariate spatial relationships. As more tabular, 

statistical, and cartographic data become 

available in digital form, methods for 

effectively manipulating these data must be 

developed if their utility is to be fully 

realized. 

FRONTIER PETROLEUM 

PROVINCE IN THE 

EASTERN UNITED 

STATES 

About 200 million years ago, in th e Triassic 

and Jurass ic geologi c Periods, an extensive 

system of fault-bounded basin d velop d 

along the astern margin of orth America 

as a resu lt of co ntinenta l rifting and the 

formation of th e Atlantic Ocea n. Interdi sciplinary stud y of these bas ins was undertak en by U.S. Geological Surveys ientists in 

response to national co ncern over petroleum and mineral suppli es in unex plored or 

underexplored areas. Organi c geochemical 

studies were begun to eva luate petrol um 

resource potential and the relationship 

between organic matter and minerali za tion. 

Resourc as essm nt and exploration for 

petroleum and minerals in the eastern rift 

basin are hampered by th e lack of outcroppin g rock in the expo ed ba ins and 

by the thick sedimentary cover over th e 

basins buried o n the coastal plain and 

offs hore. Exploration recon nai sance had 

focused on a thick seq uen ce of organicrich shales in th Tri ass ic portion of th e 

ewark basin. Unfortunately, th e temperatures of these shal es through time have 

been too hi gh to promote petroleum 

generation and pre ervation. Rece nt systematic samplin g of Triassic and Juras ic 

rocks ha reveal d the presence of less 

thermally alt r d hal es of Early Jurassic age 

in the Hartford (Con necti cut and 

Massachusetts) and ewark ( ew J rsey, 

ew York , and Pen n ylvania) basins (fig. 8). 

A clea r precursor-product relation hip ex ist 

betwee n indigenous organic matter in the 

Jura sic shales and migrated organic matter 

(l iquid and solid) in overlyi ng stai ned sa ndsto ne and v 1n filling . 

Mineralized veins crosscutt ing sedimen tary and volcanic strata are a common 

feature of th e Hartford and ewark basins. 

By studying th e composition and texture of 

these veins, it is possib le to reconstruct th e 

history of flu id flow. Sma ll bubbles trapped 

Figu r e 7. Distribution of 

anomalous concentrations of 

lead, color coded and merged 

with a shaded-relief image 

(A lbers equal-area conic proje ction). for th e State of 

Missouri. 

Geological Surve y Yearbook 1986 43 
Fig ure 8 . Loca1ions oj1he 

Har({ord and ewark basins. 

EXPLANATION 

1. ewark ( . J -Pa.-1 . Y.) 

2. Hartford (Conn.-Mass.) 

100 200 300 MILES 

0 100 200 300 400 KILOMETERS 

in the mineral s (fluid inclusion ) ca n be 

analyzed to determine the temperature 

and compositi on of migrating fluids. Resu lts 

of these studi es indicate that multiple 

ge neratio ns of mineralizing fluid s and 

petroleum fluids migrated through open 

fractures in th e e rocks. 

The zone of so urce rocks havi ng properti s that permit the ge nera ti o n and mi gration of petrol eum in th e Hartford and 

ewar k basins is inferr ed to be a littl more 

th an o ne-half mile thick and to encompass 

th e Trias ic-jurass ic boundary. A geologically bri ef epi ode of high flow during 

44 Significant Accomplishme nts of Research Programs 

the ea rl iest j ura sic is proposed to account 

for the narrow, shallow " oi l window." 

Exte nsive Early j urass ic lava flows are consis tent wi th the proposed high heat flow 

that occurred late in the sedimentary hi story 

of these bas ins. 

Petro leum exploration ta rgets in the 

exposed rift basin are limited by tilt ing and 

erosion that have stripped awa y most 

potentia l reservoirs. W here th upper 

portion of the section is preserv d, however, exploration targets are hallow and 

relatively inexpensive to dri ll. Th e pr ence 

of thin but widespread organic-rich hales 

havin g moderat e to excel lent petrol eum 

so urce potential indicates that reservoir 

properties rather than th ermal history or 

source-rock quality have probabl y limited 

petroleum accumulation. Th e potential for 

petroleum accumulation in th e buried 

basins is grea ter than that in th e exposed 

basins because th ere ha been less erosion 

of possi ble reservoirs. Th e regional geologic setting, the qua lity of potential sou rce 

rock s, and the prese nce of migrated petroleum in th e exposed basins are ca u e fo r 

optimi sm that th buried ba in will become a major fronti er area fo r petro leum 

ex ploration. 

SEAWATER INTRUSION 

IN A COASTAL 

AQUIFER: A CASE 

STUDY OF PAJARO 

VALLEY, CALIFORNIA 

Characterizing awater intru io n into 

coasta l aq uifer is a co ntinuing chall enge 

for hydrogeologists because it is diffi cult to 

pred ict th e behavior of th e ground -wa ter 

rese r vo ir s und e rgo in g en cro ac hment. 

M ost in v stigators have approached th e 

problem by describ i n g the landward 

movem nt of an interfa c between seawater and freshwater; th is approa h asumes th at seawa ter infiltrates from an 

offshore o ut cro p of the aquifer. If a coasta l 

aq uifer is ove rlain by a lea ky co nfining 

layer, howeve r, th e anal ysis i less clear cut, 

becaus eawa ter can migrat e downward 

thro ugh thi s layer. 

A rece nt U.S. Geologi ca l Survey inves tiga tion id entifi ed mu ltip le pathways for sea -

water intrusion and attempted to qua ntify 
the individual co ntributions of these sou rces 

in Pajaro Vall ey, Calif. , a coastal area of 

ground-water development. Application of 

a two-d imensional solute-transport mod el 

simulated th e hydrodynamic intera ction of 

lateral and ve rti ca l flow, alo ng with th e 

movement of seawater contamination. 

An anal ys is of th e so urce of ground water 

durin g th e past decade of development 

indicates th at, within the study area, approximately 60 percent of recharge to th e aq uifer 

comes from ve rti ca l leakage across confining beds. O f thi s 60 percent, two-thirds 

comes from th e ocea n and th e water table 

through th e overlying co nfining layers, and 

one-third comes fro m the deep aq uifer 

through the underlying confining layers. 

Most of th e remai ning 40 percent of recharge comes fro m lateral boundary flow 

into the area of investigation; o nl y 5 percent 

enters th e aqu ifer from the offs hore 

outcrop. 

Hydrogeology indicates three principal 

pathways or sources for seawater contamin -

ation of the primary aquifer: (1) downward 

leakage from the water table, (2) downward 

leakage from th e ocean, and (3) landward 

flow through the offshore outcrop. Onshore, brackish water in the sloughs and the 

Pajaro estuary co ntaminates the water table 

aquifer and ca n leak through the confining 

la ye rs to the primary aquifer. Similarly, 

offshore, seawater ca n leak through the 

co nfining layers between the ocean floor 

and the primary aquifer and into the primary 

aquifer. In addition, the primary aq uifer 

cro ps out in the northern wall of the 

Monterey Submarine Canyon ; at this outcrop, seawater can flow horizontall y into 

the aquifer. 

To anal yze the individual contribution of 

each of the three so urces, three simulations 

were run . Each simulatio n examined the 

effect of only one sou rce by eliminating the 

contamination from the other two. 

Comparing the model-simulated onshore 

impacts of all three sources reveals interesting differences in the rates of contamination from each sou rce. Onshore 

conta mination caused by leakage from the 

ocean and the water table is relatively 

consta nt; leakage from these two sources 

will dominate onshore contamination until 

th e year 2020. In contrast, contaminant 

inflow from the aquifer outcrop is slow and 

will be the last of the three sou rces to cause 

onshore contamination . Although co ntamination from the offshore outcrop is 

potentiall y larger than that from leakage, its 

effect in the sim ulation will not be felt 

onshore until the mid-1980's. This relation 

is believed to be typical for seawater 

intru sio n of shallow stratified coastal 

aquifers. Anal ysis suggests that there will be 

a significant time interval , following the 

initial observation of seawater intrusion, in 

which to take remedial action to control 

future contamination. 

FORMATION OF 

MISSISSIPPI 

VALLEY-TYPE LEAD 

AND ZINC DEPOSITS 

" Mi ss issippi Valley-type" lead and zi nc 

deposits represent o ne of the world's major 

so urces of these two metals as well as an 

important potential so urce of accessory 

cobalt, silver, copper, and ni ckel. Recent 

fluid inclusion resea rch on the Mississippi 

Valley-type deposits of M isso uri and 

Arkan sas, toget her with a ynth esis of 

geologic in formatio n from many other 

sources, has led to the development of a 

predictive model for the ori gi n of these 

deposits. The model is ba ed o n a new 

under tanding of the stru ctura l framewor k 

in which these deposit fo rm and should 

serve as a guide to future exploration for 

lead and zinc. Until recentl y, little wa 

known about the fac to r th at loca li ze ore 

deposition in Mi ssiss ippi Va ll ey-type depos it . Although much remains to be 

lea rn ed, it is now possible to identify 

structurally favorable ex ploration sites. 

More efficien t assessment and development of both domest ic and foreign resources of lead, zinc, and acce sory metal s 

hou ld result. 

Th e O za rk regio n of th e midcontinent 

(M issouri, Arkansas, Kansas, and Oklahoma ) hosts th highly productive Southeast Mi ssouri and Tri-State d istrict a well 

as the mai ler orthern Arkansas and Central 

Mi ouri distri cts . Studies of these Mi ss issippi Va ll ey-type lead and zinc districts 

indi cat that th ey formed approximately 

co ntemporaneou ly from fluid s originating 

in a sedim entary basin (Arkoma basin) to 

the o uth. Col li sio n of the orth and South 

American co ntinenta l plates approx imately 

300 million yea rs ago fo rm ed the Ouachita 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 45 
mountain belt in central Arkansas and 

pla yed a major role in driving hot sali~e 

fluids from deep in the Arkoma bas1n 

northward, ultimately to form th e ore deposits. ew computer modeling of fluid 

systems has confirmed th e viability of longdistance fluid migration through highly 

permeable sandstone and carbonate 

aquifers. 

Evid ence fo r th e timin g and th e our e of 

th e flui ds th at for med the 0 La rk depo its i 

provided by fl uid inclusions in or -related 

minerals and by techniqu for dating ce rtain 

mineral . Tiny sa mples of th fluid from 

whi ch th e ore depos its fo rm ed are tra pped 

in th e ore min erals an d prov ide in for mati o n 

on th e fluid ' ori ginal temperature and 

chemi stry. Strong similariti e in th e fluid 

chemi stri es of th e d posi ts indi cate a ingle 

fluid ource, while an in reds ing temperature gradi ent to th sout h indi ca tes a 

so uth ern flui d ource. Dating techniqu 

ba ed o n th e remane nt mag neti m in th e 

rock and o n therma l annea lin g of fi sia n 

trac ks in th e min ral zircon indi ca te the 

pa sag of hot flui d through r gional 

aquifers approx imately 300 million y ar 

ago. Th e tim ing o f flui d migrati on is co nsistent with th timi ng of contin ntal calli io n and fo rmation of th Ouachi ta fo ld 

belt to the sou th. In addit ion, th e age o f ore 

formation in many of the O za rk d pos its 

ca n be ta bli shed as no gr ater than approx ima tely 300 mill ion yea rs. 

ombin ing fluid in ision re ea rch with 

there ults of research on regional stru cture, 

da ti ng , and ground-water hydrology link 

Mississ ippi Va lley-t ype lead and zinc occu rr ences wi th th e margin o f large, 

str uctu rall y deform ed sedimentary basins. 

D ep-ba in flui dsa re xpell ed a a result o f 

bas in margi n deform ati o n; if aquifers of 

ad quat reg io nal ex tent and po rosity are 

present , ho t brin es capa ble of transportin g 

metal in soluti o n may reach di stant ored posi ti o n ite . 

Thi model appli e to mar th an th e 

O za rk d pos its; it also des rib th e gen sis 

and tru tural settin g o f Mi ss iss ippi Vall eyyp ~ de p os it as oc iat ed with t h e 

Ap palac hi an ba sin and fo ld belt and 

Mi ss iss ippi Vall ey-type deposit in Canada 

(for xa m ple, Pin e Point, Robb Lak e, 

an isiv ik, and others) and Swed n (Laisva ll). 

Future inves tiga tiom will probabl y show 

th at o th er Mi ss i sippi Vall y-t ype lead and 

Line depos its worldwid ca n be de cribed 

within th g neral framew ork o f thi s 

model. 

46 Significant Accomplishme nts of Research Programs 

COMPUTER 

SIMULATION OF FLUID 

FLOW AND MOVEMENT 

OF DISSOLVED 

SUBSTANCES IN THE 

SUBSURFACE 

ENVIRONMENT 

Ad va n e in comput r simul ati on are 

allowin g o phi ti ca ted anal ys i o f th e sub· 

surface nviro nm nt a a mul tifaceted 

nati o nal reso urce fo r wat r suppl y, energy 

produ cti o n, energy and mat ri al storage, 

and wa te i alati o n. U . . Geologi al Survey 

resea rch i developing computer te hnology 

to imulat th e mov ment o f flu id , heat, 

and di olved ub tan ces in th e ub urface 

and to disp lay th ir behav ior in numeri cal 

and graphi c o utput. Usin g o mputer , 

hydrologi ts ca n tud y th e natur of the 

subsurfa e enviro nm nt in a cope and 

depth no t prev io usly poss ible and can 

develop meth od fo r th e o pti ma l us and 

preservatio n o f th at environment. 

Alth o ugh th e gradu al d velopment of 

th is im ul ati o n modeling ha taken place 

ove r th las t 20 y ars, rece nt adva nce in the 

Geologica l Survey' resea rch program allow 

both analys i o f more rea li sti c and complex 

processes and mo re detail ed simul ati on of 

parti cular fi eld areas. In anal yzing subsurface 

ch mi ca l tr anspo rt, fo r exa mpl e, models 

now simul at th movement o f multiple 

chem ica l so lut es th at und rgo va ri ous 

chemi ca l r actions with o ne ano th er and 

with ubsurface solids. Th ese advance 

permit stud y o f th e di sp r ion of taxi and 

radioacti ve w::Js tes in th e subsurface, as well 

as stud y o f natural hydrogeologi processes 

th at affect th e stru cture o f th e Earth's rust. 

In coastal aquifers wh er seawater intrusion 

int o wat r upplies is a on ce rn , new im· 

ulati o n method s allow detailed study of th e 

hydrol og y of these systems, giving insight 

into th path of intruding saltwater and 

allowin g s hemes to b developed that 

minimi z th e impact of intrusion. 

Simulation and optimi zation (m ath e· 

mati ca l) techniqu es are being appl ied by 

Geol ogical Survey scienti sts to provide 

alternative de igns and plans for poli cy· 

makers and engineers concerned with the 
best use and (o r) control of developments 

in the subsurface. Thi s computer program 

carries out man y simulations of a fi eld 

sys tem, readjustin g th e control va ri abl es 

(that is, th e position and pumpin g rate of 

well s) on each simul ation until an optima l 

developm ent scheme is found und er th e 

desired cond iti ons. 

Th e goal of developing analytica l hydrologic tools in the form of an intellig nt 

simul ator that automatica ll y organizes itself 

to simul ate a particular subsurface sys tem 

from raw data is clos to reali za tion. Thi s 

adva nce is base d on signi fica nt development in model id entifi arion and in mod el 

param et r-estimation methods. Th ese deve lopme nt s also have direct application to 

th e efficient design of networks for collecting the data o n w hi ch the ana ly is of 

su bsurface syste ms is based . 

LAKE HYDROLOGY 

RESEARCH 

Lakes are an important national resource 

used for water suppl y, for cooling water for 

industries and utilities, as a source for food , 

and for recreation. Lakes are hydrologicall y 

com plex, and they are often mismanaged 

because their function within the hydrologic 

system is not well understood. To address 

this problem, the U.S. Geological Survey 

initiated a program of research on lakes in 

different climatic and geologic settings 

throughout the United States. A few recent 

results of that research follow. 

Numerical modeling of ground-water 

movement near lakes indi cates that seepage 

to and from lakes is highl y dynamic and 

dependent o n the timing and areal distribution of recharge to ground water. The 

common concentration of recharge directly 

adjacent to a lakeshore causes increased 

rates of seepage to th e lake very quickly 

following, o r even during, a period of 

rainfall. This process is particularly important 

along areas of a lakeshore that might 

ord inaril y have seepage out of the lake, 

because th e concentrated recharge reverses 

the direction of seepage and therefore 

ca uses ground water to seep into the lake. 

This phenomenon has been observed at 

many locations in the United States, such as 

Mirror Lake, N.H., Williams Lake, Minn., 

Cotto nwood Lak e, N. Dak., and Island Lake, 

Nebr. 

In add ition to bei ng concentrated directly 

adjace nt to lake shorelin es, ground -wa ter 

recharge is also freq uentl y co ncentrated in 

depre ions in upland areas betw en lakes. 

In th e sa nd hill s region in western ebraska, 

for exa mpl e, wat er table mounds occur in 

uplands characterized by many topographi c 

depress io ns beca use of th greater opportunity for re harge in those depres ions. 

In co ntrast, wh ere there are nod press ions 

in the upland, trou ghs on the water tabl e 

surface occur beca u recharge is minimized. Th e normal seepage of wa ter to and 

from lakes differs in thi s region in that water 

seepi ng from a lake usuall y does not move 

to adjacent lower lakes because of th e 

presence of these water table mounds o r 

trou ghs. 

Kn owledge of conce ntrated recharg near 

lake ha res o r in topographic depressions is 

also important fo r understand in g groundwater quality. For exam pl e, in the Cotto nwood Lak area of North Dakota, freq uent 

reve r als of the dire tion of ground-water 

flow between adjac nt w tlands in cr a 

the co ntact time of gro und water with th e 

rock matri x and res ult in increas d alinity 

in local ar as of th e ground-wa ter sys tem . 

Thi increa d alin ity ultimatel y affects th e 

quality of water in the wet lands that th e 

ground wa ter seeps int o . Al so, th ese 

differences in the qual ity of ground wa ter 

eepin g in to a lake o r wet land commonl y 

affect the di tributi on of aq uati c plants and 

micro copi animal s li vin g o n the bottom 

of th lake or wetland. In o rne cases, th e 

chemi ca l q ualit y of gro und -water seepage 

is indicated by the presence of aqua tic 

organism in th e lak or w tland. 

Detailed tudy of ee page patterns in 

lakeb d ha al o r ulted in a gr ater 

understanding of th e im pact of tran pi ration 

by n ars hore upl and plan t . For exa mple, 

during dri r period of th e yea r, when 

ground-water I ve l are low, nea r hore 

plants oft n lower gro und -wa ter leve ls to 

th point where lak wa ter will se pinto 

ground wat r, ev n if th e regiona l gradient 

of th wat r tabl is toward th e lake. 

Re arch o n th e interacti o n of lak sa nd 

ground wat r is important fo r under tandin g th water balanc of lakes, th chemi ca l 

chara teri ti cs of lakes , and the distributi o n 

o f aquatic plants and mi croscopi c animal s 

and pl ants in lak es, whi ch in turn prov ide 

guidance for th e ucce sful managem nt of 

lake co ys t ms. 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 47 
48 Geologic Investigations 
A I 2:30 a.m. local lime on March 

27. I 986. A ugus1 ine volcano 

erup1ed in Cook lnle1. 180 miles 

sow hwe.1·1 of Anchorage. A Iaska. 

Th e Landsa1 5 sa!ellile acquired 

a Them cu ic Mapper image of 

1he volcano a1 10:46 a.m . Ash 

f alling 1hro ugho u1 1he area 

cunailed air !raffle. power usage, 

and business aCI ivi1 ies. The U.S. 

Geo logical Sur vey m oni10rs 

Augus1ine and !he 5 1 o1her 

ac1ive volcan oes in 1he Uni1ed 

S1(/{ es. ( Pho10graph cou,.,esy of 

Ean h Obser va1 ion a1 elli1 e 

ompany. Lanham. Mel.) 

GEOLOGIC INVESTIGATIONS 

MISSION AND 

OUTLOOK 

During fiscal year 1986, the Geologi c 

Divi sion of the U.S. Geological Survey 

co ntin ued its programs to assess energy and 

mineral resources onshore and offshore, 

to identify and investigate geologic hazards, 

and to determine th e Nation's geologic 

framework, the geologi c processes that 

shaped it, and their relation to long-term 

climati c changes. 

The articl es in this chapter describe some 

of the most significant accomplishments of 

the Geologic Divi sion during fiscal year 

1986. Although these articles cover on ly a 

select few of the Division 's acti vities, th ey 

show how basic geologi c research simultaneous ly spu rs new developments in the 

geosciences and provides th e basic information requi red to condu ct mi ss ions 

ce ntral to th e needs of th e Natio n. 

MAJOR PROGRAMS 

Th e Geologi c Di vision program is presented to Congress under five major 

program headings. A di scuss ion of accompli shments under these subactivities 

durin g fi scal year 1986 and th e outlook for 

the fut ure follow. 

Geologic Hazards Surveys 

A r gio nal ea rlh quak haza rd a ses m nt 

in the Provo- all Lake Cit y-O gd n ar a o f 

Utah wa ·o ndu t d in fisca l yea r 1986 . 

Effo rt with tate <J nd loca l offi ial to en ure 

that th res ult o f th is tudy are u d to 

impl ement haza rd red u li o n p rac ti c 

ont inu . A imi lar re ea rch · ffort in th e 

Pug t ound r gion of W as hin gto n State i 

plann d. 

lnsta ll ati n o f in trum ntati o n for th 

pro to type arth qu ake pred ictio n ex periment at Parkfi ld, ali f. , w as o nt inu d in 

fi sca l yea r 1986 ; add iti onal insl rum nt s w ill 

b in stall d and alibrated in fi s al y ar 

1987. (See " Pr d ietin g th e nex t maj or earth -

quak in th e Parkfi ld area of Californ ia," 

p. 12, for more in fo rm ati o n.) 

A tudy o f the ff t o f rece nt ea rth -

qu akes in M xi o and Chi l prov ided data 

th at ca n b applied to improving kn owledge 

f simil ar i mi c ev nts th at mayo ur in 

the nit d Sta tes. For xa mpl e, th e tud y 

gr atly improved und erstandin g o f th 

deva tatin g ro le th at un co n o lidated sediments ca n pl ay in amplifyin g gro und 

hakin g. 

Fi sca l yea r 1986 was a y ar o f unusual 

vo lca ni c a ti vity in Al a ka and Hawaii 

(a dditi o nal info rm atio n rega rdin g th 

Al a kan erupti o n i fo und o n p. 58 ). 

M o nito ring and haza rd ass menl o f all 

val ani ca ll y active regio n of th atio n 

co ntinu . Geolog ic Di visio n scienti sts also 

as i t d the Offi ce o f Foreign Di aster Asi tance of th e Agency for Intern ati o na l 

Deve lo pm ent d uring the erupti o n o f 

va do del Ruiz in Colombia. (See " lnt rnati o nal acti viti e ," p. 105, for more info rm ati o n.) 

Coo perati ve Federal- tate land slid e 

hazard a ses m nt stud ie w ree tabl i hed 

infi al y ar 1986withthe Stateso fArizo na, 

Colo rado. Idah o, M aine, va da, N w 

M ex ico, Ohi o, Orego n, Utah, and th 

o mmonwea lth o f Puerto Ri o . Pro babi li ty 

studi es of landslide occurrence in th e San 

Francis o Bay ar a of Cali fornia and the 

W a atch Fro nt in Utah to id ntify dominant 

landslid pro es e amenable to low- cost 

land lid e haza rd r du cti o n and a landslid 

haza rd a sess ment of th e Pittsburgh region 

of Pennsy lva nia ar al o planned. 

Land Resource Surveys 

A nationwide survey of g o i nee info rm atio n use r co ndu t d by th e ati o nal 

Re ea r h Co uncil indi ca ted th at larg - al 

g n ral-purpo e g ol ogi maps are th e 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 49 
products most in demand by private and 

public consumers. In response to this 

survey, the Geologic Framework and 

Synthesis Program will be redirected to 

become the National Geologic Mapping 

Program. Although most of the basic research functions of the former program will 

be preserved , its emphasis will be shifted to 

systematic, prioritized geologic mapping. 

The Federal-State Cooperative Geologi c 

Mapping component of the Geologic 

Framework and Synthesis Program will be 

pre erved as an element of the ational 

Geologic Mapping Program. Thirty-one 

Federal-State cooperative projects were 

underway in fiscal year 1986. 

Significant activities under the Deep 

Continental Studies component of the 

Geologic Framework and Synthe is Program 

are addres ed in articles on the TransAlaska Crustal Tran ect and the Salton Sea 

Scientific Drilling Pr ogram (see p. 60, 55 ). 

Pl an are underway to establish the Deep 

Continental Studies component as a sepa rate 

program beca use of its close associat ion 

with the Continental Lithosphere Program 

(co nducted by the ational Science Foundation) and with the Continental Scientific 

Drilling Program (conducted jointly by the 

Geological Survey, the U.S. Department of 

Energy, and the ational Science Foundation). 

R search under the Climate Change 

Program ha established the long-term 

history of lake-level fluctuations in the 

Uni ted States. The geo logic record indicates 

that historical lake levels are abnormally 

low and that the trend from natural va riation 

indicat s a long-term rise in lake levels. 

The e studi s illustrate that basic research 

ca n be u eful in identifying and resolving 

environmenta l policy issues associated with 

pot ntially significant eco nomi c impacts. 

Geologic Divi ion cientists contin ue to be 

directly invo lved with the U.S. Army Corps 

of Engineers and other concerned Federal 

and State agencies in addressing the hazards 

reated by changing lake levels in areas 

su has the Great Lakes, including advising 

those agencie on th feasibility of mitigation trategi s. 

Mineral Resource Surveys 

Th ational Min ral Reso urce Assessm nt Program is described in this chapter 

50 Geologic Investigations 

(see p. 53). Data previous ly gathered by 

programs within the Mineral Resource 

Survey 's subactivity have been used to 

establish a national geochemica l data base 

for identifying and monitoring areas where 

soil and water are contaminated. The first 

step in this plan was to compile existing 

data; areas w here insufficient data ex ist are 

being identified , and plans are being 

developed to implement a schedule of 

sampling and resampling. 

Fi sca l yea r 1986 saw the acquisition of 

software to produce digital mineral resource 

as essment maps compatible with land use, 

census, and other geograph ic and water 

information maps produced in other information system of the Geological Survey. 

This compatibility will facilitate comparisons 

of mineralized locatio ns with other social 

and economic conditions within a geographic area. 

Energy Resource Surveys 

In fiscal year 1986, the Uranium and 

Thorium Investigation Program began using 

geologic data to identify areas having high 

potential for indoor radon hazards. Further 

information on this effort is contained in 

this chapter (see p. 38 ). 

In cooperation with the Kentucky Geological Survey, a study to characterize the 

quantity, quality, and accessibility of lowsu lfur coal in eastern Kentuck y began. 

Included in that effort are an economic 

evaluation of the area's potential for coal 

production and compu ter modeling of th e 

coal deposits. This type of study may be 

expanded to include other coal-bearing 

areas in the Appalachian region. 

Offshore Geologic Surveys 

The Coastal Erosion Program, established 

in fiscal year 1986, is designed to provide 

geologic information on the nature, extent, 

and cause of coastal erosion to the various 

Federa l and State agencies that make 

decisions pertaining to the arrest and (or) 

mitigation of coas tal retreat and land loss. 

Th e current focus of the program is the 

hi ghly vulnerable coastal segments of the 

Loui siana barrier island system. 

The results of sonar surveying of the sea 

floor of the Gulf of Mexico and of submarine 
massive sulfide depos its along the juan de 

Fuca and Gorda Ridges, offshore Washington 

and Orego n, are addressed in this chapter 

(see p. 62, 51 ). Future plans include verificat ion st udi es of potential mineral reso urces and previously unknown sea-floor 

features and hazards id entified by the sonar 

surveys. 

HIGHLIGHTS 

Submarine Massive Sulfide 

Deposits 3!]< _ ____,_--L-.L__J.__j___j____L_.:U-..1.--L-'-' 

By William R. Normark EXPLANATION 

The U.S. Geological Survey began a 

program in 1980 to study hydrothermal 

processes as ociated w ith massive sulfide 

mineral deposits on the deep-sea floor. 

Through 1984, the field stud ies under this 

program were primarily co ncern ed with 

th outhern juan de Fuca Ridge, an area 

270 nauti cal mil e west of ewport, Or . 

(s ite A, fig. 1), that li outsid th Exclusive 

Economi Zone (EEZ) of the United tales. 

The ju an d Fuca Rid g is a 12-m il -long 

gment ftheaxisofanocean icspr ading 

ridg chara t rized by voluminous young 

volcanic ex tru sio ns r lat d to the growth of 

o ean crust. Th rna siv ulfide deposits, 

which were discovered in 1981, o cur within 

a narrow, approximately 100- to 165-footwide lin ea r d press ion und erlain by glassy 

she t-flow la va . The three largest sulfide 

d posits were xami ned by u ing the 

re arch submersibl Alvin in S ptember 

1984, and exte nsive mineral , hydrothermal 

fluid , and biologic sa m pi s were recov red. 

Si nee 1984, resea r hers at the Pacific Marine 

Environmental Laboratory of th e ational 

0 ean ic and Atmospheri Administration 

( OAA) have worked closely with the Geolog ica l Survey to provide a jointly maintained acoustic transponder positioning net 

in th ju an de Fuca area. A joint diving 

program u in g th e Alvin submersible is 

planned, as is development of a long-term 

effort to monitor th hydrothermal sy terns . 

Th e focus of the progra m shifted in 1985 

to th Gorda Ri dge, w hich i outheast of 

the Ju an de Fuca Rid g and li es entir ly 

wit hin th U.S. EEZ (fig. 1). Poss ible hyd rothermal sulfide deposit w re identified 

durin g th e lat summer of 1985 along the 

Convergent margin 

Ridge axis 

Transform fa ult 

• 

Study site 

Boundary of 

Exclusive Economic Zone 

ridge and on re lated volcanic and transform 

fault zones. These studies were coordinated 

through th joint State-Federal Gorda Ridge 

Ta sk Force, formed in 1984 to determin e the 

ex tent of hydrotherma l mineral deposits 

along the Gorda Ridg and to establish a 

baseline for env ironmenta l studies, shou ld 

lea in g of the deposit occur. The Surveyled cru i es involved ancillary programs for 

scientist s from Oregon State Un iversity 

(OSU ), who were supported through the 

ta k force. The e cru i e focused on (1) the 

diment-filled Escanaba Trough, which 

characterizes the sou th ernmost part of 

Gorda Ri dge; (2) the northern end of Gorda 

Rid ge, in an area referred to as GR-14 (site 

B. fig. 1); (3) the Blanco Fracture Zone, 

whi h connects the juan de Fuca and Gorda 

Ri dges; and (4) the President jack on 

ea mounts group (site C, fig. 1). 

Escanaba Trough 

In September 1985, Survey scientist led a 

re ea rch team, inclu ding geo logists and 

gPop hy icist from OSU , that discovered 

rna ive sulfid e and re lated petro l urn 

deposi t in the Escanaba Trough. After 

regional geophysical surveying of th 

E ca naba Trough was completed, two detail d st udy areas (D and F, fig. 1) were 

elected. Volcanic domelike intrusions 

pi rce and uplift the 1,640-foot-t hi ck faulted 

Figure I . Loc a1i o n map 

showing Juan de Fuca and 

Gorda Ridges and generaf,,•ork 

loca1ions. Si1e A, .Juan de Fuca 

s1 udy area; B. G R-14: 

Presidem Ja ckson eam oums: 

D and F. main /9 5-86 work 

areas in 1he EH·anaba Trough: 

£, addilional dome explored in 

1986. 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 51 
Figure 2. H y drothermal 

mound. Small/edges of sulfide 

can be seen in sediment, and a 

constructional mound or chimney is visible in the foreground. 

Most of the animals shown are 

not specific to hydrothermal 

vents, but the greater-thannormal biologic density in this 

area may reflect hydrothermal 

activity. Width of photograph 

is approximately 9 f eet. 

ediment fill of the trough in these two 

areas. Hi gh heat flow and microseism ic 

a ti vit y chara cteri zed th e volcan ic centers. 

The southern st udy area (F , fig . 1) yielded a 

mudstone that has iron ulfides and interbed ded petroleum-rich layers th at contain 

a much as 5 percent organic ca rbon. 

Th se two st ud y areas were th e main 

focus of fieldwork in Jul y 1986. Deta il ed 

mapping indicated th at the Escanaba Trough 

ed iments have been uplifted locally (o n 

fault syste m th at are no t well understood) 

to ex pose mas ive sulfid es and are cut by 

yo un g volcanic peaks. In addition, small 

chimn eylik e deposits ar found on top of 

the sed iment cover in many areas {fig. 2). 

The sed im en t-h osted samples recovered 

from site F on figur 1 in 1985 consi st mostl y 

of iro n sulfid es; a sing! ample contains 

petroleum that precipitated from th e hydroth rm al fluid . I otopic data demonstrate 

th at the sulfides in th e sa mples were derived 

from both oceanic cru tal rock s and th e 

sed im nt s in th e Esca naba Tro ugh and that 

these d po its were apparent ly actively 

fo rmin g at th e time that th ey w ere 

recovered. 

ulfide deposit we re photographically 

mapped in 1986 at num rou s locations in 

two areas ( ite D and F, fi g. 1); site F is th e 

arn e area where sulfide was dredged in 

1985. In addition, a gravity core from site E 

in figur 1 re overed dim nt cut by 

52 Geologic Investigations 

ulfid e ve in s, and ma sive ulfid e was 

re ov red in 11 dr dge fro m th e two main 

tud y areas. Unl ik th ampl s dredged in 

1985, most of th e fragments recovered are 

ri ch in zi nc, copper-iron , and lead sulfides, 

in addition to va ri o us iron-sulfide phases. 

Semiquantitative anal yses of th ese sa mples 

demonstrate that so me co ntain more than 1 

pe rce nt of both copp rand I ad and more 

ilver th an had bee n previously reported 

for dee p-sea polymetallic sulfid e. Most of 

th e deposi ts appear to be sediment hosted. 

Northern Gorda Ridge 

Detail ed surveying and sa mpling along 

th e north ern axis of th e Gorda Rid ge (GR14) (s ite B, fig . 1) indi ca ted two potential 

targets for sulfide deposition. Th e first target 

is along th e ea tern wal l of th e ax ial val ley 

and coi ncides with the inferred so urce of a 

hydrotherma l plume mapp din the water 

column by NOAA and OSU scienti sts. Th e 

target zone is a ridge between the wall of 

th e axia l val ley and a broad terrace at a 

depth of 9,500 feet. On the basis of a water 

chemi str y anomal y, the target is thou ght to 

be a zo ne o f active hydrot hermal discharge. 

Th e se ond target is in the axial valley, 

where photographic surveys identifi ed an 

area of hi gh biologic density, and the rock 
appear to be altered sulfid e. o samples of 

hyd roth ermal material have been recovered 

from thi s target area, which is located 

within a zo ne of yo ung basalt pillow and 

sheet flows. 

Blanco Fracture Zone 

Dredging during a cruise alo ng the Bl anco 

Fracture Zone recovered samp les of basalt 

and ga bbro genera ll y altered to gree nsto ne. 

Th ese samp les conta in common pyrite and 

chal copy rit e that precipitated from hydro -

thermal fluids. The samp les have complex 

texture resulting from severa l stages of 

hyd roth ermal precipitation and altera ti on 

and from brecciation due to deformation. 

Th ese sa mpl es are now being ana lyzed at 

OSU. 

President jackson Seamounts 

Dredging along th Pre id nt j ackson 

Seamounts chain ( ite C, fig. 1) recover d 

pillow basalt, pillow breccia, and hyaloclas tite (a deposit of sma ll ang ul ar fragments 

formed w hen lava flow into water and 

causes granulation or hatt ring of the lava) 

encru t d wit h hydrothermal mangane 

ox ides. The pill ow bre cia and hyaloclastite 

are ment d w ith iron ox id es and q uartz 

of hydrothermal origin. These depo its are 

simil ar to tho recov r d from th e summit 

of th acti veLoihi Seamountoff th e oa tof 

Hawai i and probably fo rm ed several million 

years ago when the amounts w re volcani all y active. 

1986 Sea Cliff Submersible Program 

Th e work of Survey sc ienti sts on th e 

Res arch Vessel 5. P. L e provided the geologic ba e maps and sample localiti es need d 

to ca rry out mann d submersible operations 

in 1986 usi ng the research submersible Sea 

Cliff. Th is ubmer ibl progra m was conduct d by a t am co mposed of perso nn I 

from th Survey, OAA, the Minerals 

Manag ment Service, and a ademia under 

a program directed by the Gorda Rid ge 

Ta sk Force. 

Future Studies 

Analytical results for the samp l s in hand 

will be used to select the mo t promising 

areas for furth er stud y. Pl ans for add itiona l 

submersib le su rveys in fiscal year 1987 are 

being developed with the U.S. avy. 

The National Mineral 

Resource Assessment 

Program 

By Frederick 5. Fisher 

Systematic mineral resource studies of 

the Un ited States are conduct d und r the 

U.S. Geologica l Survey's ational Mineral 

Re ource Assessment Program ( AM RAP). 

AMRAP provides compre hensive and 

timely assessments of th known and 

inferred min ral resources of the conterminous United States, Alaska, and the U.S. 

territories. The result of thes mineral 

resou rc urv y are used for domestic and 

foreign po li cy decisions, resource management, land use planning by State and loca l 

governments, and identification of resources and target areas for industry exploration. The investigation are cond ucted 

at variou cale , dep nding on legislative 

o r adm inistrative requirem nts. 

AM RAP consi st of two program elements: th e Alaska Mineral Resource Assessment Program (AM RAP) and the Conterminous Un ited States Mineral Assessment 

Progra m (CUSMAP). Each element opera tes 

at four interconnected levels, each more 

detai led th an it s predecessor. Levell studie 

produce Statewide and regional synthese 

of the minera l re ource of th e conterminous Uni ted States and Alaska fro m th 

publi hed lit ratur . Level II investigations 

are cond ucted at sca les of 1:500,000 to 

1:1,000,000 and are tud i s of mineral 

province based on th e published litera ture 

and on comp leted I ve il II proj cts. Level l I 

st udi es in cl ud e tabul ations of th e geologic 

characteri sti of mineral resources and 

summary maps of favorable provin ces . Lev I 

Ill studi es are mo tl y of 1:250,000-sca le 

(1° X 2° ) quadrangles and are carried out by 

tea ms of g o logists, geochemi sts, geophysicist , and min ral economists. Levell II 

studi es also include regional mineral su rveys 

of entire national forests, as req uested by 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 53 
the U.S. Forest Service. Level IV studies are 

composed of detailed basic research 

projects on specific areas, including mining 

di stricts or particular mineral deposits, and 

on techn i al topics that will aid in determining the setting and character of mineral 

resources. They are also used when specific 

assessments of small tracts of land are 

needed under short deadlines (for example, 

when decisions regarding wilderness suitability are required). As concepts of oredeposit formation evolve, as new data are 

generated by the regional level Ill studies, 

and as the mineral needs of the Un ited 

States change, it is sometimes necessary to 

reexamine selected geologic terranes and 

ore deposit s. These recurring mineral 

resource assessments are conducted as 

level IV studies. 

The major emphasis of the NAMRAP 

program in 1986 was on Ieveii II and level IV 

projects. In fiscal year 1986, the Geological 

Survey coordinated its work on six 1°X 2° 

quadrangles in the conterminous United 

States with the Geological Surveys of 

Arkansas, Georgia, Idaho, Kansas, Missouri, 

Minnesota, Nevada, South Carolina, and 

Utah. Coordination of work in two 1°X 2° 

quadrangles in Alaska will continue with 

the Alaska Divi sion of Mining and Geology. 

The Geological Survey is also conducting a 

mineral resource assessment of the Challis 

ational Forest in Idaho. Level IV mineral 

surveys of 256 U.S. Bureau of Land Management wilderness study areas are underway 

in 10 Western States (Arizona, California, 

Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, New 

M exico, Oregon, Utah, and Wyoming). 

Preliminary results of mineral resource 

as essments of the Glens Falls ( ew 

Hampshire, New York , and Vermont), 

Springfield (Missouri), and Tonopah 

(Nevada) 1°X2° quadrangles under the 

CUSMAP element were presented at three 

public meetings in fiscal year 1986 to 

representatives from the mining industry, 

universiti es, and various State and Federal 

government agencies. New CUSMAP mineral assessment were begun in the Delta 

(Utah) and Hai ley (Idaho) 1°X2° quadrang! in formal cooperative programs 

with th e Utah Geological and Mineral 

Surv y and the Idaho Geologica l Survey, 

r spe tively. Final colored mineral resource 

a sessmen t maps showing the resource 

pot ntial for ba e, precious, and energy 

minerals have been publi hed for the 

Wallac (Idaho) and Charlotte (Nort h 

54 Geologic Investigations 

Carolina and South Carolina) 1°X 2° quadrangles. Mineral resource potential in the 

Charlotte quadrangle is high for commodities that have been historically important (namely, construction materials, 

lithium, kyanite-sillimanite, and barite). New 

areas favorable for the occurrence of large 

lead, zinc, and silver deposits in the Wallace 

quadrangle were identified, as were occurrences of platinum-group metals, gold, 

molybdenum, and tungsten. Preliminary 

results of the Challis 1 °X 2° CUSMAP project 

have been published ; new areas favorable 

for the occurrence of gold and silver were 

identified along the 160-mile length of the 

trans-Challis fault system, and potentially 

large resources of vanadium, si lver, zinc, 

barite, and lead were also identified in a 

belt of rocks 9 to 27 miles wide and 50 miles 

long in central Idaho (fig. 3). 

To accelerate mineral resource surveys of 

the Steese and White Mountains areas of 

Ala ka, the Geological Survey is coordinating 

its work in the Livengood and Circle 1°X 2° 

quandrangles with th e State of Alaska. Th e 

results of these su rveys will provide the 

Burea u of Land Manag ment with improved 

mineral information for developing land 

use plans for the two areas. In addition , 

I vel Ill field st udies are underway in 11 

other 1 °X2° qua nd ra ngles in 1986 as part of 

the AMRAP element. A d ta iled level IV 

stud y is also being condu cted on the Red 

Dog zinc-lead-silver deposit in th e Delong 

Mountains of northwestern Alaska and on 

similar deposits in near by parts of the 

western Brook Range (including analys is 

of cores that have been made avail able by 

coop ratin g industr y scienti sts). Examples 

of other level IV stud i s include (1) eva luation of th e unu ual characteri st i s of th e 

min ral deposits of th e south ern Ambler 

district, where the copper-base metal ocurrences are ri h in coba lt ; (2) delineation 

Figure 3. Th e Triumph mine. 

one of Idahos larger silver 

producers. i.1 one of many mines 

loN11 ed ll'ithin 1 northwest· 

trendinx he ft o(highly mineral· 

i:ed h/ack shales. Thi.l he ft ll'a.\ 

jlr.1t delineated and described 

hr .field .\1/ICiies of t he ha//i; 

and Ha iley C SM A P projects. 

( Ph otograph court esy of the 

Idaho Geological Sur vey.) 
of the tectonic environments of terranes 

that host numerous base- and preciousmetal deposits of the Delta district in the 

eas tern Alaska Range; and (3) analys is of 

geochem ica l enviro nments and gold in 

streams of Alaska's numerous placer districts. 

In addi ti o n, the fut ure importance of 

Alaska 's apparentl y large resources of such 

critical commodities as tin and chromium is 

being addressed through detailed multidisciplinary stud ies in the Seward Peninsu la, 

the southern Alaska Range, and the uplands 

of interior Alaska. Final mineral resource 

asses ment maps were published for the 

Lake Clark, Petersburg, and Philip Smith 

Mountains 1°X2° quadrangles in the southern Alaska Range, the {( panhandle" of 

so utheastern Alaska, and the eastern Brooks 

Range. New areas favorable for the occurrence of tin lodes and large low-grade 

molybdenum deposits were identified in 

the Lake Clark quadrangle. New areas 

favorable for the occurrence of si lver, 

barium , and base-metal deposits were 

identified in the Petersburg quadrangle. 

Promising new occurrences of gold and 

antimony were identified in the Phi li p Sm ith 

Mountains quadrangle. 

In fi ca l year 1986, th Geological Survey, 

in coopera tion with the Fore t Service, 

mad a mineral re ource a se ment of the 

Black Hills ational Forest to provide the 

mineral information nece sary for fore t 

planning. Deposits in the Black Hill a tiona I 

Forest are urrently being mined for gold, 

si lv r, ba e meta l , pegmatite products, 

lime ton e, oil and gas, and and gravel, and 

dimension tone. Uranium, vanad ium, 

tungsten , gyp urn, and industrial sa nd have 

been produ ced with in th e forest in the past. 

Th e commoditi e , in addition to molybdenum, rar -earth el ments, thorium, and 

fluorine, ar still ava ilabl e for future deve lopm nt. Final results of thi s level Ill 

st ud y have bee n published as U.S. Geologi ca l Survey Bull etin 1580. 

Th e leve l IV mineral surveys of Bureau of 

Land Management wi lderness study ar as 

are mu ltid i ipli nary stud ies ca rri ed o ut on 

tracts ranging in size from 3 to 242,000 acres. 

Thi s part of the program commenced with 

the passage of the Federal Land Management and Po li cy Act of 1976, which required 

th e Geo logica l Survey and the U.S. Bureau 

of Min s to co nduct surveys to determine 

" the minera l va lu es, if any," of areas 

recommended to Congress by the Secretary 

of the Department of the In terior as being 

su itable for inclusion in the ational Wilderness Preservation System. By the end of 

fiscal year 1986, approximately 70 reports 

on the mineral resource potential of 106 

wilderness study areas had been published ; 

by the end of the wilderness st udy program 

in 1991 , the Geo logica l Survey will have 

exami ned approximately 400 separate areas 

covering about 11 million acres. 

Over the next seve ral decades, AM RAP 

is schedu led to complete the mineral 

resource assessment of over one million 

square miles, more than one-fourth of the 

area of the entire United States. In Alaska, 

new geochemical and geophysical techniques are being d veloped and applied to 

look for co ncea led ore deposits in areas 

where the surfi cial cover of muskeg and 

glacia l deposit is extensive. In the conterminous United States, clusters of completed 

CUSMAPquadrangles in the northern Rocky 

Mountains, the midcontinent, and the Great 

Basin are providing th e basis for new 

concepts of the mineralization process and 

th e description of new ore deposit models. 

Salton Sea Scientific Drilling 

Program 

By john H. Sas 

The Salton Sea Scientific Drilling Program 

(SSS DP) is the first large- cale d ri IIi ng project 

undertaken by the U .. Continental Scientifi c Drillin g Progra m. Th e objective of the 

SSSDP were (1) to drill ad ep wel l into the 

Salton Sea Geotherma l Field in the Imperial 

Valley of Ca li for ni a; (2) to retrieve a high 

percentage of core and cuttin gs along the 

entire depth of the well; (3) to obta in a 

compre hen ive suit of g ophysica l logs; 

(4) to conduct flow test at two depths (and 

to take fluid amples therefrom ); and (5) to 

ca rry out severa l downhole experiment . 

These acti viti es wil l enab le the U.S. Geolog ica l Survey to tudy th phy ical and 

hemical proce es involved in an acti ve 

hydroth ermal ystem driven by a rno ltenro k hea t sou rce. Thi s program, orig inall y 

co nceived by Wilfred A. Elder , a faculty 

member at th Univer it y of California at 

Ri verside, wa oordinated und er an interagency accord among the Geo logi ca l 

Survey , the U.S. D partrnent of Energy, and 

the at ional S ienc Foundation. 

The Imperial Vall y of Californ ia and the 

adjoinin g M ex icali Val ley of Mexico (fig. 4) 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 55 
Figure 4. The Imperial Valley 

of California and the Mexicali 

Va lley of Mexico. Major faults 

are shown by solid and dashed 

lines. and volcanic centers are 

shown bv solid circles. Majo r 

geo t herrnal fie lds are indicated 

by solid triangles. The Salton 

Sea Scientific Drilling Program 

(SSS DP)site is marked by a red 

asterisk. 

33" 

32" 

EXPLANATION 

Fault 

• Volcanic center 

... Geothermal field 

D 

Recent alluvium 

'~;-;::_~,J 

Crystall ine rocks 

c:J 

Quaternary 

sedimentary rocks 

0 10 20 30 KILOMETERS 

are of grea t eco nomic interest for geothermal energy development becau se of 

th e large quantities of very hot brines 

(300 °C or hotter) that are accessible within 

a few thousa nd feet of the surface. These 

areas also are of scientifi c interest because 

th e so urce o f heat for th e brines is molten 

roc k th at rises high in to th e Earth 's cru st 

(occas ionall y even being ex trud ed as volca noes). Th e occurrence of molten rock at 

relatively shall ow depths results from th e 

str etching and thinnin g of the crust ca used 

by th e relative motion of th e Pacific and 

North Am erica n plates . Th e Imperial Valley 

is also the so uth ern terminu s of th e San 

56 Geologic Investigations 

4 Meso de 

Son Lu is 

Meso de Andrade 

Andreas fault and th e site o f numerous 

ea rthqu akes. 

Th e Geologica l Survey was involved in 

man y aspects of th e SSSDP, includin g 

parti cipation at all management levels, fro m 

the program's Executi ve Steering Committee 

through th e Science Coordin ating Committee to actual o n-site management of all 

scientifi c activiti es. Most importa ntl y, Survey 

scienti sts were active in several experiments, 

includin g coll ectio n and analyses of fluid 

sampl es, measurements of temperature and 

other properties, and ana lyses of rock 

samp les tak en from th e we ll. Survey 

personne l also served on th e Scientifi c 
Experiments Comm ittee that eva luated all 

proposa ls fo r downho le scientifi c experiments, minera logic and petrographic studies 

of the drill core and cuttings, and geochem ical ana lyse of fluids recovered from 

the well. In add ition, th e Survey's Water 

Resources Divi sio n provided a research 

logging ve hicl e and tra ined personnel to 

make physical measurements, aid in obtaining fluid samples from the well, and 

deploy downhole instrumentation. 

Th e well was begun on O ctober 23, 1985, 

and completed to a depth of 10,564 feet on 

March 17, 1986. The various stages of the 

drilling, coring, and scientifi c experiments 

are eas il y envisioned from the " time lin e" 

shown in figure 5. Wh ere the line is nearly 

vertica l, dri lli ng was proceed ing very rapidl y. 

The more nearly horizonta l the line, the less 

drilling progre s was being made. In comparison with a conve ntional exploration 

well , the average rate of penetration for th e 

SSSD P research wel l was slower because of 

the numerous core runs and the large 

amount of time devoted to other engineering and scientific a tivities (for example, 

logging, injectivity tests , flow tests) . For a 

well of thi depth in this environment, a 

normal amount of tim was spent combating drilling problem and " fishing" for 

pieces of m tal inadvert ntly left in the 

hole. 

Oc t. 

0 

1.000 

2.000 

3 .000 

4,000 

5 .000 

Nov. Do c 

lnje c tlvlty test 

!Ish {stabilizer blades) 

lnje c tlv ity tests 

llah (tw ist otl) 

logging 

The eventual technologica l and scientific 

payoff from the SSSDP shou ld be impressive, 

o n the basis of the wea lth of downhole 

information and samples obtained: 

• The 36 cores recovered are unprecedented fo r a deep we ll in such a ho ti le 

regime. These co res provide a basis for a 

systematic study of (1) the gradua l alteration and metamorphism of the n arsurface unconso li dated lake and delta 

sedi men ts of th e Colorado River to den e 

metamorphosed crystalline rock at depth 

and (2) the intrusion into these rock of 

two diabase si ll s or dikes that were penetrated during co rin g. 

• Tech nological advances in borehole 

instrumentation prompted by the project 

have allowed the accumu lation of r liable 

temperature and pressure data above 

270 °C through a combin ation of modifying conventiona l mechanical recording 

devices and provid ing therma l protection of soph isticated electron ic memory 

for downhole recording. 

• Geophysical measurements made in the 

we ll at high temp ratures wi ll be correlated w ith the co rrespond ing physical 

properties of the cored rock and, in turn, 

will greatly aid the interpolation of 

diagnostic " signatures" between cored 

intervals. 

Jan. Feb. Apr. 

.5 

6 .000 r set .~'1;: ~~ ~~~ & turbo mo tor shalt) 

7 .000 

6 .000 

9 .000 

10.000 

11 ,000 

0 

FL0 ~ TEST ) 18 /" 10 !~ ~~ ~:n~:nt 8 ,227 ' 19 

18 • C o re loc atio n 

20 

21 

2 2 

23 

2 < 

r dire c tional drilling 

3 < 

35 36 

logging 

c ementing 

hang liner 

FLO W TEST / 

10,56 4 ' 

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 

Days 

2 . 5 

3 . 5 

Figure 5. Depth of the Salt on 

ea Sc ientific Drilling Program 

11·e// as a f unction of time. 

umhered solid circles sho 11 · 

pth ~ at 11'hich cores 11 ·ere 

tak en. 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 57 
• Anal yses of fluid s and gases recovered 

durin g flow tests, combined with data 

from measurements of solid sa mples, will 

result in a better understanding of th e 

processes that form ore mineral s (many 

of which were abundant in th e core 

sa mpl es). 

Th e SSSDP ex ceed ed its targ t depth of 

10,000 fee t, and a comprehensive set of 

cuttin gs, cores, and downho le logs was 

obtained. Two flow tes ts at different depths 

were success full y completed. Hydrologic 

conn ecti o n between th e different produ cing hori zons, how ever, will make th 

data from th e dee per test diffi cult to 

interpret. Temperature loggi ng done by 

th e Geologi cal Survey to es tabli sh the equilibrium profi le is continuing. A propo alto 

condu ct furth er lo ng-term flow te ts and to 

deepen th e well is now under considerati on. 

If th ese acti viti es are uccessfu l, th ey will 

grea tl y increase the scientific yield of th e 

SSSDP. 

Th e SSSDP prov ides a model for scientifi c 

cooperation amo ng governm ent agencies, 

universiti es, an d priva te industry. The Geological Survey's o n-site science management team prov id ed coord in ati on and 

liaiso n amo ng Chi ef Scientist Elders, th e 

prime contractor, th e leasehold er, and 

parti cip;:Jti ng scientists. Th e Survey tea m 

and th e Chief Scientist were members o f a 

Site Coo rdin ati o n Com mi ttee es tabli shed 

by th e drilling, engi neerin g, and scientific 

parti cipants at the we ll loca ti on to rev iew 

dail y progress and ma ke decisions o n how 

best to achieve th e scientific goals of th e 

proj ect w ithin techno logical and mo netary 

limit . Th e proj ct obj ecti ve of "scienc 

dri vi ng th e drill ," a primary goa l o f th e U.S 

Co ntinenta l Scientifi c Drilling Program, was 

met in large measure. 

Three Volcanoes Erupt in 

Alaska 

By Thomas P. Miller 

Al as ka has over 40 hi stori call y acti ve 

vol ca noes and normall y average one eruption a yea r. Al as kan vo lcanoes were unusually acti ve in 1986. Au gustin e, Pa vlo f, 

and Akutan volcanoes all erupted vigorously; at one tim e in Apri l, all three were 

eruptin g. 

58 Geologic Investigations 

Augustine Volcano 

Au gustin e Vo lcano, located on an uninhabited island in lower Coo k Inlet 180 

miles southwest of An chorage and 60 miles 

wes t o f th e Kenai Peninsula, went into 

major xplo ive erupti o n about 2: 30 a.m. 

(Alaska stand ard tim e) on March 27, 1986. 

Th e erupti o n was not unex pected . An 

increase in very small ea rthqu akes and in 

the amount o f steam emitted from th e 

summit area of th e vol ca no b ginn ing in 

mid -Febru ary were stro ng indi ca tion that 

Au gu tin e was heading for an erupti o n. Th e 

prin ipal haza rd s o f a typi ca l Au gustine 

erupti o n are (1) dangers posed to aircraft by 

airborne a h and (2) th e remo te poss ibility 

th at th ere will be a mass ive fa ilure of the 

volcani c dom e re ulting in a landslideindu ced tsun ami imil ar to th o ne generated during an erupti o n in 1883. In th e 

w eek before the erupti o n, th e Federal 

Aviati o n Admini strati o n (FAA) and th e U.S. 

Air Fo rce (U SAF) we re bri efed o n th e 

poss ibil ity of an erupti o n, th e type of 

eruption to be ex pected, and th e potenti al 

effects o n aircraft and air traffi c; info rmation and li aiso n procedures we re al o 

es tabli sh ed . Th e in creased acti vit y at 

Au gustin e and th e potenti al haza rd s to th e 

popul ace w ere d iscussed seve ral tim es with 

th e Al aska Di visio n o f Em ergency in th e 

mo nth before th e erupti o n. 

Erupti ve acti vity at Au gustine from M arch 

27 until April 8 was characteri zed by mo re 

o r less co ntinu o us eruption of va ryin g 

amounts o f stea m and as h in a coi,Jmn 

10,000 to 12,000 fee t high, pun ctu ated by 

majo r ex plosions th at sent as h-ri ch plum s 

to heights o f 30,000 to 40,000 feet. Th ese 

majo r eve nt s were visibl e o n FAA and USAF 

radar and were ass ociated w ith stro ng 

seismi c activit y. Th e many pyrocl as ti c flows 

ge nerated durin g ex pl os ive ash erupti o ns 

were largely confin ed to channels and 

gull eys in th e breached north ern summit 

area and fo rm ed fan-shaped deposits o n 

th e di stal flank s. Th e flow s moved at 

es timat ed speeds of 75 m il es per hour o n 

th e steeper part s of th e co ne and, in some 

instances, reached th e sea 5 mil es from th e 

summit. Temperatur es o f 550° C w re 

measured in fumaro les in th e pyroclasti c 

deposits. 

A dome-building eruptive ph ase bega n 

o n April 23 wh en blo ky lava was ex trud ed 

from a vent o n th e southern side of th 

summit. 0 cas io nal py rocl as ti c fl ows ac-
companied th e dome-bu ilding phase. This 

new lava bega n to move slowly down the 

nort hern flank of th e vo lcano, and, by the 

aftern oon of April 28 wh en th is phase 

ended , the flow had desce nded to an 

elevation of about 2,000 fee t. Augustin e was 

in a quiesce nt state from April 28 until 

Augu st 20, when apparentl y new domebuilding acti vit y began in th e summit area. 

During the first several days of th e March 

eruption, ai rbor n a h ca rri ed by o utherl y 

wind into the most dense ly popul ated 

parts of Alaska , in cluding An chorage, had 

se vere eff cts on air traffic. Although 

An chorage Intern ationa l Airport was never 

· officia ll y clo ed, most of th e major interstate 

and intern ati onal air ca rri ers ca ncelled or 

diverted fli ghts away from An chorage. 

Ash fa lling thro ugho ut th Cook Inlet 

area had a mod erate to s vere effect o n 

co mmerce and the populace. Mo t of southce ntral Alaska d rives its electri city from 

natural ga -powered generators loca ted on 

th e wes tern ide o f upper Cook Inl et. 

Beca use th ese ge nerator could have been 

damaged by inge ting airborne as h, publi c 

ut ilit y official s co nsidered hutting th m 

down and drawing o n pow r generated 

from n ighboring utiliti o ut ide th e immediate ar a. Apr di t d hortfall in pow r 

suppl y led to r quest to rv power 

on M arch 27. um erou ompa ni e , governm nt agen ie , reta il out I t , re taurants, 

bank , and oth r es tab li hment eith er 

closed or redu c d th eir op rati on and se nt 

mployees hom , and postal serv ice was 

ca nce ll ed for th day. Th ere was al o 

co nsidera bl e co n ern about th e eff ct of 

th a h on ma hin ry, parti ularl y automobil es, and electroni quipm nt. Lowlying communiti e in th e low r Cook Inl et 

area wer co n ern ed with th possibi lity of 

a tsun ami . 

A th e r suit of ext nsive di scuss ion over 

th pa st yea r, th U.S. G ologica l Surv y, 

the Geo ph y i al l nstitut of th Univer it y 

of Ala ska , and th Ala ska Di vision of Mining 

and Geology (DMG) had d ve lop d an 

informa l wo rkin g ag r m nt on how to 

respond to an rupti o n in th oak Inl et 

ar a. lmm diately befo re and during th e 

rupti o n, th e three organizat ion impl ement d thi s agre ment. Th e Geoph ys ica l 

Institut e and th DMG o n entrat d on 

se ismi cit y b ause they hav a network of 

fiv e s ismomet r in place o n th e island 

that telemet r th e data to th e Geophy ica l 

Instit ute in Fairbank . Th e Surv y co ncentrated on making daily observation fli ght , 

correlatin g vi ual reports from pilots, fi hing 

boats, and other ob ervers, and responding 

to inquiri es from governm ent age nci and 

th e media. Between th e main eruptive 

eve nts, heli co pt r- upported t ams from 

th e Survey and the Geophys ical Institut e 

visited and studi ed th e volcano. Th e pyroc last i flow w er sa mpl d, fumarol 

temperatur s w re mea ured, and ism ic 

equipm ent was repa ired. Thi s clo ommuni ca tion and cooperation between th 

Geologi al Survey in Anchorage and th e 

DMG and th e Geo ph ys i al Institute in 

Fairbanks resulted in an efficient flow of 

information to those Stat and Fed ral 

agencies co ncern ed with public hea lth and 

afety as well a to th media and th e 

genera l publi c. 

Pavlof Volcano 

On April16, 1986, Pavlof volcano, a 8,925-

foot-hi gh stratovolcano 600 miles southwest 

of Anchorage near the tip of the Alaska 

Peninsula, bega n eruptin g after 10 days of 

increased seismicit y and continu ed to be 

acti ve through August 21. A new vent on 

th e eastern flank of th e volca no, about 150 

feet in diameter and 500 feet below the 

summit, was the source of much of the 

recent activity and mark th e first change in 

vent geometry since the 1960's. 

Pavlof is th e most consistentl y active 

vo lca no in th Aleutian arc, having erupted 

over 30 times since the late 1700's. The 

current eruption, whi ch appea rs to be th e 

largest and longest in the pa t 30 years, is a 

typi cal strombolian eruption characterized 

by sporadi c emi ss ions of dark-colored ash 

to heights of 12,000 to 15,000 feet (occasionally to 50,000 feet) and ex plo ive 

eje tion of incandesce nt ba altic spatter to 

heig hts of 700 feet above th e vent . Onl y 

minor amount of ash emi ss ion were associated with the explosive ejection of 

in candesce nt bombs, and th e erupti on 

plumes were characterized by more or le s 

rhythmi c puffs of dark-brown to bl ack as h 

that se ld o m rose above an es tim ated height 

of 10,000 to 12,000 feet. Th e inca nd scent 

spatter fo rm ed breadcru stlik e blocks ca ll ed 

bombs as much as 12 feet in diameter. 

Fallback of the patter has resulted in the 

formation of hot, bouldery, mudflowlike 

fea tures that are marked by abundant steam 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 59 
fumaroles on th e northwes tern and eastern 

flanks of th e volcano. Th e erupti ve explosions that occurred at closely spaced 

intervals of 5 to 15 seconds during the times 

when the vent was observed suggest a 

moderately high rate of magma rise in the 

conduit. Thunderlike noi ses cou ld be hea rd 

downwind from the vent for 50 mi les. Th e 

nea rest towns, Cold Ba y and Kin g Cove 30 

mil es away, received light dustings of ash, 

bu t, because of its remote location and the 

natu re of its erupti ve activity, the volca no 

poses little threat to life. 

Akutan Volcano 

In the eastern Aleutian Islands, Akutan 

Volcano recorded its seventee nth reported 

eruptio n in the past 200 yea rs in late April 

through ea rl y June 1986. The eruption was 

characterized by sporadic ejection of ash to 

heights of 15,000 feet from a 4,275-foothigh intracaldera cone. o ashfalls were 

recorded in the nearby villages of Dutch 

Harbor and Akutan, and th e eruption was 

not co nsidered a hazard. 

A Deep Look at the 

Continent: The Trans-Alaska 

Crustal Transect 

By Robert A. Page 

O ver the last decade and a half, geologists 

have lear ned that the Pacific edge of the 

North American co ntinent compri ses a 

coll age of accreted crusta l fragments, or 

terranes, each of which may be as large as a 

county or State. Th e rocks of adjacent 

te rranes reflect d ifferent origins and hi stories. Many terra nes are exotic, ha vi ng been 

carried far from th eir point of origin by 

movement of the plates that compose th e 

Earth's mobile geologi c skin . These o bse rvations, many of which were made by Geologi ca l Survey geologists working in Alaska, 

led to the concep t th at co ntinents grow by 

the accretio n of terranes. 

The accretiona ry character of the western 

North American continent has been reasonab ly well establi shed by geologic studi es of 

rocks exposed at the Earth 's su rface. How -

ever, the vert ica l ex tent and subsu rfa ce 

60 Geologic Investigations 

co mpositi o n of the co nstitu ent terran es are 

largely unknown. In addition, understanding 

of the tectonic processes by which terranes 

are formed , tran ported, accreted , and 

deformed is primitive at best. 

Geologists and geop hys icists of the Geologica l Survey have em barked on the TransAlaska Crusta l Transect (TACT) proj ct, a 

major investi gation of th e stru cture, composition, and evolution of the Alaska n crust. 

Begun in 1984, thi s stud y is provid ing 

important insig hts into the process of 

accretion. In add iti o n, TACT is furnishing 

the first precise information o n the structure 

and compositi o n of the Alaskan crust for a 

depth range of a few miles to 20 to 30 miles. 

Scientists from uni versiti es, Al aska's Geologica l Survey, and the petrol eum industry 

are col laboratin g on va ri o us as pects of this 

inves ti ga tion . 

Th e TACT project focuses on the northso uth tr ans-Alaska oil pipeline corridor (see 

inset map, fig. 6) and exte nds offshore 

across the Pacific and Arcti c conti nental 

margins. The pipeline corridor traverses a 

number of major geologic stru ctures, and 

th e only highway cross ing the State runs 

parallel to it. To decipher the deep structure 

of the crust and constrain models of its 

composition, TACT in corporates a wide 

range of geoph ys ica l techniques . On e key 

technique involves the precise timing of 

explosion-generated seismic waves along 

75-mil e-lon g profil es to determine the 

configuration and velocities of rock layers 

within the Earth (fig. 7). 

Investi gations along the southern segment 

of the tran sect have identified two mechanisms by which th e conti nent has grown. 

One is th e accretion of terranes; the ot her 

is th e past in g of layers of subducted oceanic 

cru stal and upper mantle rocks onto th e 

bottom of the co ntin ental cru st. 

The south ern margin of Alaska is an 

active co nvergent plate boundary. Th e 

Pa cifi c plate is moving northward along thi s 

margin relative to Alaska-part of th e North 

Ameri ca n plate-at a rate of about 2 in ches 

per year. Wh ere th e two plates co llide at 

the Aleutian trench o utboard of th e continenta l margin, the denser rocks of th e 

Pacifi c plate are thru st benea th the co ntin ent. As the oceanic plate is subducted 

beneat h th e co ntinent, it deforms and is 

heated. Th e deform ation is reflected in a 

landward-dipping in clined zone of ea rth -

quakes. Hea ting gives ri se to th e inl and 

chain of vo lca noes that roughly parallel s 
SOUTH 

59 ' 

I 

GULF OF ALASKA 

OCE AN 

6 0' 

I 

C OAST CONTINENTAL SH ELF LINE 

IN ITIAL FOCUS OF TACT STUDY 

61 ' 

I 

CHUGA CH 

MOUNTAIN S 

6 2' 

I 

WRANGELL 

VO LC AN O 

NORTH 

;;) OCEANIC CRUSTAL R ~ PRINCE WILLIAM TERRANE 

Figure 6. Diagrammatic 

section through the margin of 

sowhern Alaska illustrating 

relation among surficial accreted terranes . . ubducted duplexes ofoceanic rocks (stippled 

layers). and earthquakes (solid 

circles). Light stippling indimtes 

relatively loll' seismic velocities: 

~ ----- ocks ! OCEANIC MAN TLE R;;-....._ 

~ l(s -......-...... 

.. 

w 

0 

25 

PACIFIC 

PLATE 

---- --- . . . -.--~ 

.. 

' 

NORTH 

AMERICAN 

PLATE 

... 

\ 

25 50 MI LES 

HORI ZO NTAL SC ALE 

\ 

25 

heavy stippling indicates high 

velocities. The continent has 

~ gro 11 ·n hath by a cretion and by 

~ underplating with suhducted 

l: 

~ 

.. 

UJ 

0 

50 

ot·ermic rocks. Inset shows the 

location of the section (heavy 

solid line) and the row e of the 

Trans-A Iaska Crustal Transect 

(dashed line). 

I'ACIFIC OCEAN 

75 L---------------------------~L-------------------------~ 75 

the trench. This chain includes Augustine 

Volcano, which erupted in March of 1986 

(see article on Alaskan volcanic activity). 

The depth of the in clin ed earthqu ake zone 

beneath the volcanoes is typically 60 to 70 

miles. 

This type of comp ressiona l subducti on 

tectonics has dominated the evolution of 

the south er n margin of Alaska for th e past 

200 million years. The exposed rocks of the 

Chugach Mountains bordering the Pacific 

are predominantly of marine sedimentary 

ong1n. As a consequence of convergent 

plate motion, sed iments deposited in the 

ocean adjace nt to the contin ent have been 

transported and accreted to the continent. 

New geologic stud ies have documented 

major episodes of deformation and metamorphism associated with the process of 

acc retion. At least 25 miles of shall ow 

thrusting alon g the Border Ranges fault 

sepa ratin g two major terranes causes the 

seaward accretionary terrane to be pushed 

northward beneath an older terrane. AdFigure 7. eismic reflection 

profiling along the Richardson 

High,vay north of the Alaska 

Range. Vibrating the ground in 

unison, the trucks in the fo reground generate seismic wa1•es. 

reflections of which are used to 

d e tec t bou ndaries betiVeen 

buried rock masses of co ntrasting velocity. This technique 

is one of tii'O seismic profiling 

met hods employed in the TransA Iaska Crustal Transect. 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 61 
jacent to this fault, uplift and erosion of 20 

to 25 miles of terrane have exposed highly 

metamorphosed, subducted sed imentary 

rocks in the younger terrane and rocks of 

the deep root of an ancient volcanic chain 

in the older terrane. 

Seismic profiles completed by TACT 

through the Chugach Mountains indicate 

that the accretionary terrane of metamorphosed marine sedimentary rocks is 

thin relative to its areal extent. Beneath the 

northern part of the range, the terrane is 

floored at a depth of about 5 miles by a 

horizonta l layer of rocks characterized by 

low seismic velocities. The Border Ranges 

fault apparently does not offset but rather 

merges into the low-velocity layer. This 

layer is inferred to be a weak zone that has 

accommodated major movements between 

the accreted terrane and the underlying 

crustal rocks. 

Deeper within the Earth, the seismic 

profi les reveal a stack of north-dipping 

layers exte nd ing to depths of at least 25 

miles. The seismic velocities are alternately 

low and high in successive layers. The 

observed velocities are similar to those 

measured in oceanic rocks of the lower 

crust and upper mantle. Thus, pai rs of layers 

are possibly duplexes of subducted oceanic 

crustal and mantle rocks that have been 

emplaced beneath the edge of the continent; four such duplexes have been 

confirmed. 

Ea rthquakes provide an additional dimension to the interpretation of inferred 

subduction duplexes. Along the transect 

corridor beneath the central Chugach 

Mountains, smal l shocks occur either at 

depths shal lower than 5 miles, within the 

thin accreted terrane, or between depths of 

about 20 and 25 to 30 miles, within the 

deepest of the four duplexes. This pattern 

suggests that the deepest duplex is currently 

being subducted or at least was subducted 

more recently than the overlying duplexes. 

The lack of earthquakes at depths of 

between 5 and 20 miles suggests that the 

upper three duplexes are older and are 

now attached to the continent. Thus, initial 

results from TACT indicate that Alaska has 

grown by underplating as we ll as by 

accretion. 

New insights into processes of continental 

growth stemming from the TACT project 

will stimulate ideas on how mineral and oil 

resources form and where they might be 

concentrated. Such insights are widely 

62 Geologic Investigations 

applicable throughout western North 

America . By providing a better picture of 

Alaska 's geologic framework, especially in 

the subsurface, TACT wi ll also contribute to 

understanding the origin of Alaska 's earthquakes and volcanoes. 

A Sonar View of the Floor 

of the Gulf of Mexico 

By Bon n ie McGregor 

Data Collection 

During the late summer and fall of 1985, 

the Geologi cal Survey continued its Exclusive Econom ic Zone (EEZ) mapping 

program in coo peration with the United 

Kingdom 's Institute of Oceanographi c Sciences (lOS). A sidesca n sona r survey of the 

Gulf of Mexico and the sea floor around 

Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands was 

completed. The survey used a sonar system 

known as Geologic Long-Range Inclined 

Asdic (GLORIA) that was developed by the 

lOS. One hundred and twenty thousand 

square nautical miles of sea floor in the Gu lf 

of Mexico were mapped in 71 days during 

three legs (fig. 8). Separated by port stops in 

ew Orleans, La., and Tampa, Fla., the legs 

were punctuated by Hurricanes Danny and 

Elena. 

A preliminary mosaic of sonar images of 

the gulf's sea floor was constructed at sea at 

a scale of 1:375,000. These data were merged 

with GLORIA data coll ected in 1982 on the 

continental slope in the northwestern gulf. 

Th is prelimina ry mosa ic provides a rea ltime (as the data are being coll ected) 

reconnaissance-scale view of the sea floor 

from the shelf edge seaward to a water 

depth of more than 10,000 feet, the depth of 

the abyssa l plains in the gulf. 

Laboratory Analysis 

The next step in the prog ram is to use 

computers for image processing of the 

digital sonar data. In cooperation with the 

Survey's National Mapping Division (NM D), 

the sonar data are being rad iometrical ly 

and geometrica ll y corrected and improved 

by using the Mini-I mage Process in g System 

developed by NMD. Software is currently 
30' 

being developed to make digital mosaics of 

the imagery and display the images on a 

map at a selected projection. This technique 

will be used to prepare the 2°X 2° imagery 

maps for the atlas of the Gulf of Mexico and 

Pu erto Ri co GLORIA data. This atlas, to be 

published in early 1987, will be the second 

in a series that displays the results of the 

Survey's EEZ mapping program . 

Geologic Perspective of the 

Gulf of Mexico 

The geologic s tting of the EEZ in the Gulf 

of Mexico, a small ocean basin, is different 

than that of the EEZ off the west coas t. Th e 

spread ing rid g rests and cratered underwater volcanoes, whi ch attest to th e dynamics of formation of th Earth 's crust and 

the floor of th e Pacifi c, ar not seen in the 

gu lf. Instead, GLORIA imagery shows a 

sediment-ca rp eted sea floor th at contains a 

re ord of th dynami c processes that have 

laid down and molded th at muddy ca rpet. 

Fea tur s that have more than 650 fee t of 

reli ef and sea-floor lopes of up to 1,312 feet 

ar present in the gulf. Th ese fea tures are 

not val ani c, however, but were formed by 

processe uch as erosion of th e dge of th e 

ca rbonate Florida Platform that formed the 

Fl orid a Escarpm nt. AI o, th e weight of 

thi ck accumu lations of sediment dumped 

into th e gulf by rivers, such as th Rio 

Grande and th e Mi siss ippi, has ca used a 

Ju rassic-age layer of salt to flow upward and 

seaward and form domes and rid ges th at 

are flank d by basins, many of which are 

ov r 3,200 feet deep and fi lled with sed iments. Movement of th e sa lt controls the 

complex morphology of th e continental 

slope seaward of Texas and Louisiana. Salt 

tectonics and thick accumulations of sed iments in this region along the upper slope 

have contributed to an offshore oil and gas 

field ca ll ed the Flexure Trend. Because this 

frontier area is loca ted in deep water, 

advanced exploration and production technologies are required for the development 

currentl y underway in the Green Canyon 

area of the trend . 

The co mplex morphology and dynamic 

movement of the salt have made the geology 

and evol ution of the Texas-Louisiana slope 

difficult to unravel. The GLORIA imagery 

provides a new perspective on this problem 

because it allows identification of sa lt 

pinnacle more than one-half mile across 

and domes and basins 25 miles across. The 

sea ward edge of the salt front is marked by 

the Sigsbee Escarpment, which is approximately 2,300 feet high . Pil es of talus lying 

along the base of the escarpment suggest 

that erosion and deposition are occurring 

th re. Three reentrants present in the sal t 

front mark th e loca tions of ca nyon systems 

that provided pathways for sediment transport from the Texas- Loui siana shelf edge to 

the deep water of th e gulf. The sonar image 

shows one channel mea ndering on the sea 

floor from the escarpment southward toward th e Sigsbe Abyssa l Plains (fig. 9}. 

Sediment th at appear to have b en reworked by bottom currents in thi s channel 's 

levees sugg t that thi s chann el is no longer 

actively transpo rtin g sediment in th e form 

of density flows. The prese nce of the 

channel, however, atte ts to the geologica lly 

re ent movement of the sa lt blocking th e 

path of thi s channel on the slope. Other 

remnant pathway th at ca n be identified on 

th e lope provide clu es to the di stribution 

of sed im ent deposition ce nters. Th ese 

Figure 8 . Location of 

GLORI A surveys in the Gulf of 

Mexico. 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 63 
F igur e 9. Sidescan so nar 

mosaic shows the Sigsbee £scarpmem (bright band) sea11•ard 

of Texas and !_ouisiana. A reemrant in the escarpment has a 

submarine channel associated 

ll'ith it. This channel can be 

traced over80 miles meandering 

across the sea j7oor. For scale, 

the parallel stripes that are the 

ship s track s are spaced approximately 12 miles apart. 

depos iti o n center may be the sites of 

additional oi l and gas fie lds along the flexure 

tre nd. 

Ri vers and submarin ca nyons are an 

important clue to understa ndi ng th e distribution of sed iments in the gulf. Th e 

Missis ippi Canyon and fan are strikin g 

features on the GLOR IA imagery in the 

central and eastern gu lf. The ca nyon and 

the channel that is its seaward extensio n 

(fig. 10) can be traced across almost 300 

mil es toward the sou th ea t to a point du e 

west of sout hern Fl orid a. Anot her mea nderin g channel is clearly visible in th e northeas tern gulf startin g seawa rd of DeSoto 

Canyon and meande rin g for about 100 

mil es to the south para llel to the Florida 

Es carpment Canyo ns (fi g. 11 ), who e deepwater meandering chann els are important 

cond uits for th e transport of sediments by 

density currents . Like rivers o n land, wh en 

th ese density currents are thick eno ugh, 

th ey co nstruct levees by overba nk flow, 

depositin g mud as th ey spread out away 

from the co nfines of th e chann el. Th e 

han nel from DeSoto Canyo n has built up 

it floor and levees above the surrounding 

ea floor. Thi s type of hanneli zed flow is a 

major means of di stributin g diments in 

d ep water. An und rsta nding of ca nyonfan systems is va lu abl e for petro leum 

explo rati o n and productio n, beca use man y 

oil fi elds are associated wi th ancient ubmarin e fa ns. 

64 Geologic Investigations 

Bes id s channel ized flow, submarin e 

sli des and debri s flows make a signifi ca nt 

co ntribution to th e di stributi on of sed iments in the deep gulf. GLORIA imagery 

shows that a se ri es of mass ive debri s fl ow 

has fill ed the Mi ss iss ippi Can yo n and buri ed 

part s of the M ississippi chann el and the 

chann el from th e DeSoto Canyon area. 

Th ese debris-flow deposits cover about 

20,000 square mil es (a bout one-third the 

area of th e State of Fl o rida ). Th e very 

in tri cate flow patterns o n the sea floo r pose 

interes tin g qu est ions about the dynami cs of 

sedim ent movement across th e sea floor 

wh ere th e gradient is 1° o r less. Submarin e 

slid e deposits also cover areas ranging from 

1,500 to 19,000 squ are mil es in th e DeSoto 

Canyon area and o n th e slope in the nort hwestern gulf. Mass wast in g is also an 

important process in di stributin g sed iments 

in the gulf. Th e trigger me hani sms for 

th ese submarin e landslides, their re lat ion 

to sea -level flu ctuation s, and whet her they 

are sy nchro nous are all question s to be 

addressed. 

Th e Florida Esca rpm ent, whi ch flanks the 

gulf on the eas t, has approximately 6,500 

fee t of reli f and a slope of about 40° and is 

composed of out ropping Cretaceo us li mesto nes. Beca use of th e steep slope of th e 

esca rpm ent, its morphology co uld not be 

we ll defined by co nventio nal profilin g 

sys tems towed at th e sea surface. For th e 

f irst time, GLO RIA im ages show the di s-
sected mo rphology of the escarpment and 

how it changes along its length. Massive 

flat-floored box canyons cut the escarpment 

toward the south, and sma ller dendritic 

canyons o cur to th north. Studying the 

evolution of this carbonate cl iff and the 

processes that hape it is an integral part of 

understanding the sea cape of the floor of 

the Gu lf of Mex ico . 

Continuing analysis of the GLORI A data 

wi ll identify pot ntial sites for detailed 

study aimed at solving th e probl ms discussed above. The Geo logica l Survey will 

be conducting GLORIA survey of the 

Atlantic coast in fiscal year 1987 and plann ing 

additional GLORI A surveys of the Alaskan 

and Hawai ian EEZ's. 

Figure I 0. Th e Mississippi 

channel can be seen on 1he 

sidescan m osaic m eandering 

across i1s f an in approxim{/{elr 

8,000 fen of "'Oier. The brig/11 

area. marked by s11 ·irling palferns are 1he debris flo II'S 1ha1 

also blank e1 1he fan . 

Figur e II . idescan m osaic 

oflhe seafloor a! a wafer dep1h 

of app roxima1ely 9,900 fee l in 

1heeas1ern Gu(fof Mexicu. Th e 

brig /11. b illowy lobes are a 

com inua1 ion of 1 he debris.f7o 11 'S 

seen in f igure I 0. The debris 

f lo ws 1ermina1e agains11he base 

of 1he Flo rida Escarpmenl. 

ll'hich is disseCi ed by numerous 

small canyons. The channel .from 

De S o10 Canyo n m eanders 

across 1he sea floor f or 100 

miles before being buried by 1he 

debris jlo li'S. 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 65 

Parrs ojrhe Sourheasrern Unired 

Srares were hir by a severe 

hy drologic droughr during rhe 

jirsr 6 m omhs o/ 1986. lndicarive 

of rhe droughr. rhe warer level 

in rhe Rose River near Sky line 

Driv e in 1 he h enandoah 

arional Park. Va., was clearly 

far below normal on Augusr 3, 

1986. (Ph orographed by A. R. 

Powers, War er Resources Division, U. S. Geological Survey.) 

WATER RESOURCES 

INVESTIGATIONS 

MISSION 

The mission of the U.S. Geological 

Survey's Water Resources Division is to 

provide the hydrologic information and 

understanding needed to best use and 

manage the Nation's water resources for 

the benefit of the people of the United 

States. To accomplish this mission, the 

Division, in cooperation with State and 

local governments and other Federal 

agencies: 

• Systematically collects data needed to 

continually determine and evaluate the 

quantity, quality, and use of the Nation's 

water resources. 

• Conducts analytical and interpretive 

water-resources appraisals to describe 

the occurrence and availability of and 

the physical , chemical, and biological 

characteristics of surface and ground 

water. 

• Conducts supportive basic and problemoriented research into hydraulics, hydrology, and related fields of science and 

engineering to improve the basis for 

field investigations and measurement 

techniques and to understand hydrologic 

systems in order to predict quantitatively 

their response to natural or manmade 

stress. 

• Provides to the public the water resources data and the results of water 

resources investigations and research 

through reports, maps, computerized 

information services, and other forms of 

public releases. 

• Coordinates the activities of Federal 

agencies in the acqu isition of water 

resources data for streams, lakes, reservoirs, estuaries, and ground water. 

• Provides scientific and technical assistance in hydrology to other Federal, 

State, and local agencies, to licensees of 

the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, and, on behalf of the U.S. Department of State, to international agencies. 

PROGRAMS 

The four Water Resources Division programs are the Federal Program, the FederalState Cooperative Program, Assistance to 

Oth er Federal Agencies, and the NonFederal Reimb ursable Program . 

Federal Program 

The Federal program is specifically identified in annual congressional appropriations 

and provides for the col lection of waterresources data, investigations of resources, 

and research activities in areas where the 

Federal interest is paramount. Th es e 

interests include water resources in the 

public domain, river basins and aquifers 

that cross State boundaries, and other areas 

of international or interstate concern. 

Federal-State Cooperative 

Program 

The Federal-State cooperative program is 

based on the concept that Federal, State, 

and loca l gove rnm ents have a mutual 

interest in evaluating, planning, developing, and managing the Nation 's water 

resources. The Water Resources Divi sion 

represe nts national interests, and the cooperating agencies represent State and 

local interests; the costs are shared 50-50, 

the Federal share coming from direct con -

gressional appropri ations. The Geological 

Survey has cooperative agreements with all 

50 States. Projects ge nerally respond to 

recognized problems or define a potential 

o ne. In emerge ncy situations, such as 

drought or flood, events are monitored, 

and the data accumulated under the cooperative program are made available for 

use by the public. 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 67 
Principal offices of 1 he U. S. 

Geological Sur vey's Wafer Resources Division in 1he com erminous Uni1ed S1a1 es. Ci1ies 

named are 1hose where Regional 

and DislriCI Offices are local eel. 

Puerl o Rico is incluclecl in 1he 

S o u1h ea.Hern Reg io n, and 

A Iaska and Hawaii are incluclecl 

in 1he Wes1ern Region. 

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

WATER RESOURCES DIVISION OFFICES 

Pacific 

Time Zone 

Ancho<age fc---------r---Kauol 

(I ., <s O.ou 

• •. •· Honolulu 7.:c;~ A~ 

~ Hawu 

Alaska Hawaii Guam 

Alaska-Hawaii nme Zone 

Assistance to Other Federal 

Agencies 

Th e Geological Survey performs a wide 

variety of water-resources investigations to 

meet the specific needs of ot her agencies. 

Investigations are funded by reimbursements to the Geologica l Survey from the 

agencies requesting the work. 

Non-Federal Reimbursable 

Program 

The non-Federa l reimbursable program 

covers situations where there is both Federa l 

and State interest in the investigation of 

water reso urces but where matching Federal 

funds are either unavail able or are not 

othe rwise appli cable to cost sharin g. Unmatched funds are provided to the Geological Survey by State and local age ncies 

for these studies. 

Eastern 

Time Zone 

Sat~ Ju•n Sl Thom.s 

C7 Sl ~ 

Puerto ~ "' """' Rico Virgin Islands 

AUantic nme Zone 

HIGHLIGHTS 

EXPLANATION 

0 Regoonal Office 

• OtslnCtOtflce 

StatewM:teOf SubdtSlnC10tfK:e 

6 F~ Office 

G Gull Coast Hydrosctenee Cen~er 

L NabOnal Water· 

Oualrty LabotalOf'Y 

A Bl~~c= 

T USGS Nat100al 

Tnumng Center 

WAD RegiOnal 

Bounda'Y 

.. ... Ttmelone 

This section describes some significant 

accompli shm ents of the Water Resources 

Division's major programs duri ng fiscal year 

1986. 

The Modification of San 

Francisco Bay, 1850 to 1986 

By Samuel N. Luoma 

Introduction 

Estuaries have lo ng been a focus for 

man 's activi ties because of their wide va ri ety 

of I ivi ng and non I ivi ng resources. U nfo rtu -

nately, these activities alter th e character of 

est uarin e ecosystems. Tributary ri vers are 

dammed and diverted, shorelin es are 

modified, fi sh communities are endangered, 

68 Water Resources Investigations 
and water quality is degraded by wastes. The 

San Franci sco Bay estuary is no exception. 

As the estuary of the Sacramento and San 

joaquin Ri vers, San Francisco Bay receives 

runoff from 40 percent of California's 

surface area. Human population around 

the estuary began to grow rapidly after the 

1848 di scovery of gold in the Sierra Nevada 

foothil ls, and that growth continues today. 

The accompanying socioeconomic development around the bay and in its watershed 

has caused physiographi c alterations of the 

estua ry, directly changed the species 

compos ition of its biota, altered freshwater 

inflows, and cha nged its water quality. 

Physical and Chemical Changes 

Because a bay is a dynamic system, its 

physiography is in a continuous state of 

change. Changes in the physiography of 

San Francisco Bay accelerated during the 

late 1800's as a resu lt of the gold min ing, 

farm ing, and land development that accompan ied population growth . Between 

1853 and 1884, tens of millions of cubic 

yards of rock and earth were excavated in 

th gold fields of the Sierra Nevada by 

hydraulic mining (the use of water under 

high pressure to expose ore deposits). The 

debris from this process choked creeks and 

rivers throughout the drainage basin, and 

much of the mud and sand eventually 

reached San Francisco Ba y. By 1900, from 1 

foot to over 3 feet of this material had been 

deposited on the bottom of the bay, the 

result being a perman nt reduction in the 

open-water area of the bay through shoaling 

and a reformat ion of bottom topography 

that reduced th e water volume of the bay 

and altered tidal circulati on patterns. The 

tidal marshes also were modified by land 

d velopment arou nd the bay. Marshes were 

filled and diked to cr ate farm land , 

evapora tion ponds for sa lt, and land for 

residentia l or industrial developments. Of 

the orig inal 850 sq uare mil es of freshwater 

and sal twater marsh , less than 50 sq uare 

mil es remain undiked today (fig. 1). 

Fres hwater inflows into the bay have 

been continually reduced by the increase 

in irrigated agricu lture in Ca lifornia' s 

122' ,- -

EXPLANATION 

• leveed or filled marsh 

• Ex1s1ing marsh 

\0 20 MILES I 

I 

_j 

Central Val ley and by the export of water to 

arid areas south of the bay. The dams, 

reservoirs, and canals used to manage the 

water that flows toward San Francisco Bay 

comprise the world's largest manmade 

water system , which has a storage capaci ty 

of about 16 mi llion acre-feet. This water 

system removes 40 percent of the histori c 

(1850) flow of the Sacramento and San 

Joaquin Rivers for consumption within the 

bay watershed . Another 24 percent of that 

flow is exported for municipal and agricultural u e in central and south ern 

California. The resu lt is that freshwater flow 

into San Francisco Bay is presently less than 

40 percent of hi storic levels. If water use 

con tinues to increase as projected, average 

freshwater flow into San Francisco Bay will 

drop to 30 percent of the hi stori c average 

by the year 2000. 

Di sposa l of the waste products from 

man ' activities also has cha nged the quality 

of water in th bay and its tributaries. For 

example, U.S. Geological Surv y stud ies 

have hown that, ince 1950, the maximum 

annual concentration of ulfate ha in -

creased threefold and that of nitrate fivefold 

in th San Joaquin Ri ver (fig. 2). Th se 

changes r fl t th increased u e of fertilizers and soil amendments and (or) th fact 

that mor and more soi l is being expo ed to 

weathering because of the expan ion of 

irri gated agricul ture. 

Figure I. DistribLIIion of tilldik ed t ida/marshe around an 

Fran scisco Bay hefore I 50 

(/e1•eed or f illed marsh) and at 

presem (existing marsh). 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 69 
Figure 2. Maximum annual 

concemrations of(A) dissolved 

sulfate and (B) nitrate in the 

San Joaquin River near its 

mowh. Lines are least-squares 

regressions. 

3000 

..... 

~ 

"ai 2000 0 

E 

::i. 

..... 

. ~ 

" Q) 

0 

E 

::i. 

~ 

e 

.... 

z 

300 

200 

100 

• A 

L---L-~--~--~--_J--~ __ _J 

1950 1960 1970 1980 

Industria l and domestic wastes, as well as 

urban runoff, are di scharged at more than 

100 locations within the bay itself. Additional 

co ntamination resu lts from da il y accidenta l 

spills of industrial chemicals and oi l; sma ll 

oil spill s alone number 200 to 300 annua ll y. 

Togeth er, th ese wastes co ntain , among 

num erous co nstituents, more than 300 tons 

of trace metal contaminants annual ly and 

large quantities of trace o rga ni cs included 

in th e ge neral category of oil and grease. 

Nutrients accumulate in South San Francisco 

Bay durin g the summer in co ncentrations 

mo re th an twi ce those observed during th e 

winte r, appa rentl y because di scha rges from 

waste treat ment faciliti es combine with 

redu ced natural flushing during the dry 

summer and autumn. 

Ecological Changes 

Scarce documentation of the hi stori c 

co nd ition of San Francisco Bay and its 

environs makes it diffi cult to assess how 

changes in phys iography, freshwater inflows, and waste di scharge have affected 

ecologica l interaction s in th e ba y; however, 

th e effects ca n be in fe rred. For exa mpl e, 

half of th e migratory bird s on th e Pacific 

fl yway winter on or near San Francisco Bay. 

Th e loss of th e food and habitat once 

prov ided by th e o ri gi nal marshl ands sur70 Water Resources Investigations 

roundin g th e bay has affected the size of 

the bird populations. 

In other cases, ecologica l im pacts ca used 

by hi storic changes ca n be deduced from 

simil ar changes observed over sho rter 

periods of time. For example, Geological 

Survey studi es comparing ecologica l interactions during years of differing ri ver-flow 

cond itions have led to several co nclus ions 

about th e effects that reduced river inflows 

have o n the estuary. 

Studies during th e 1977 drought suggested that, in the north ern bay, redu ced 

summer flows (less than 3,500 cubi c feet per 

seco nd) ca used reduced populations of 

phytoplankton (m icros copi c plants th at are 

the ultim ate food resource for th e watercolumn food chain), w hi ch in turn reduced 

the producti o n of zooplankton that fed on 

th e plants and correspondingly redu ced 

th e number of striped bass that fed on the 

zoo plankton . Th e studi es suggested several 

different processes that mi ght have contributed to such an effect. One is th at low 

ri ver flows ph ys ica ll y move the zone of 

ma ximum phytoplankton productivity into 

a part o f th e est uary less suitable for plant 

growth. Anot her is th at more phytoplankto n are eaten by botto m-dwel ling invertebrates at low flows, beca use these anim als 

migrate upstream and grow to large populations w hen high sa liniti es move upstream. 

Thu s, food that is usuall y consumed by fish 

is transferred to commerciall y less va luable 

bottom-dwell ing orga ni sms w hen river fl ow 

is reduc.ed. 

Reduced freshwater infl ow also reduc s 

th e estuary's ca pacity to di lu te, transform, 

or fl ush co ntamin ants th at are discharged 

into th e bay. Survey scient ists measured 

tr ace-co ntamin ant co n ce ntr at io n s in 

bottom -dwellin g invertebrates over a 7-

yea r period to determine if freshwater 

inflow influenced con taminant d ynami cs in 

th e se mie ncl osed south ern ar m of the bay 

(Sou th Bay). M easurements show that conce ntrati o ns of th e heavy metal sil ver are 

lower during yea rs of hi gh river flow th an 

they are durin g yea rs of low fl ow and th at, 

in each yea r o f th e 7-yea r period, conce ntrati o ns of sil ver in organ isms living nea r 

a sewage outfa ll dec reased after winter 

floods. Thu s, fr es hwater inflow has a positive in flu ence on th e effecti veness o f 

natural processes that help ass imilate 

potentiall y tox ic wa stes in Sout h Bay. 

Th e ecologica l effects of waste d ischarge 

are espec iall y difficult to determine, and 
conclu sive documentation is complicated, 

especiall y in a syst em subj ect to as many 

different potential stressors as th e San 

Fran cisco Bay is. Industrial wastes were 

impli ca ted in th e collapse of the bay's large 

oyster industry in the early 1900's, but the 

actual cau se was never conclusively determined. Survey studies have shown th at 

distribution of tra ce contaminants in the 

bay is patch y; localized areas exhibit intense 

enrichment, wh il e other areas show little 

contamination . What has been established, 

however, is th at improvements in sewage 

trea tm ent that began in th e 1960's have 

redu ced som of th e adverse effects of 

waste d ischarge. Summ er depletion of 

di sol ved o xyge n in th e ex treme reach of 

South Ba y, a typi cal occurrence two or 

three decades ago, no longer occurs, and 

co nce ntrations of di ease-ca using bacteria 

in bay w aters are greatly reduced from 

levels documented in th e 1960's. 

Althou gh it is diffi cult to directly link 

specifi c human activiti es with most specifi c 

ecologica l changes, it is cl ea r th at th e San 

Francisco Bay ecosys tem is very different 

today from w hat it was befo re 1850. Th e 

si ngl most impo rt ant factor in th at change 

has been th e succe ful invas ion of th e ba y 

by spe ies th at are no t native to th e sys tem, 

and ma n's acti viti es are wi th o ut ques tion 

th pri ma ry so ur e of th ose in va din g 

speci s. Bet we n 1869 and th e earl y 1900's, 

la rge q uantiti e (up to 100 ca rl oads per 

yea r) of li ve eastern o yster were shipped 

from th e east co as t to Cali forni a for 

maturing o n bay mudfl ats. Th e eastern 

oyster never naturali zed, but large numbers 

of east coas t invertebrates that were unint ention all y shipp d with th e oys ters did 

beco me establi shed. Additi onal species that 

bored int o ship hu ll s or coll ected in ship 

ballast also were r I a ed into th e bay . In 

all , approximately 100 new invertebrat 

pecies success fully invaded th e bay . Nea rly 

all co mmon bottom-dwelling macro invert brat es now present in shall ow mudflat 

zo nes and a number of th e important 

invert ebrate and plant species li ving in th e 

wat er co lu mn ar introdu c d. A large 

number of introduced fi h species also has 

becom e established . Of the 42 fi sh pecies 

inhabiting the sloughs of Sui sun Ba y, 20 are 

introduced. Th e striped bass, whi ch at one 

point yielded annual commercial catches of 

450 ton s per year and whi ch remains a 

primary sport fish ery, was intentionally 

introdu ced in 1879. 

Another important ecological change in 

San Francisco Ba y has been th e shift in th e 

nature of th e fi sh popul ations. Commercial 

fi sheri es in salmon, sturgeon, sardines, fl atfi sh, crab, shrimp, and striped bass and 

oysterin g all thrived in th e bay in th e earl y 

1900's. All commercial fishin g has since 

been halted to preserve wh at stocks rem ain 

for spo rt fishin g, and co mmercial oyst r 

and Dungeness crab acti vities have collap5e d co mpl etely. Today's commercial 

fishin g in th e bay is res tricted to herrin g and 

an chov ies, species represe ntative of th e 

smaller, mo re rapid reprodu ce rs at low er 

trophi c levels th at do minate th e fish ri es o f 

di sturbed and ex pl o ited enviro nm ents 

elsewh ere. 

On e factor contributin g to th e shifts in 

th e fi heri es of migratory specie has been 

th e management and di sruption of th e 

natural fl ow o f ri ve r w ater into th e ba y. 

Co nstru cti o n of Sh as ta Dam in 1944, fo r 

exa mpl e, eliminated half of th e sa lmonid 

spawnin g habitat in th e Sacramento Ri ver 

sys tem. Durin g th e summer, wh en water 

moves upstr ea m in th e chann els o f th San 

Joa quin Delta sys tem beca use o f pumping 

fo r w ater di version, hundreds of millions of 

j uve nile sa lm o n and striped bass (as much 

as 25 to 30 percent o f a typi cal year cl ass) are 

drawn into th e wa ter diversio n pumps and 

kill ed . Equ al numbers appea r to be lost to 

numerou mall siph o ns and pumps th at 

loca ll y o llect irri gati o n water in th e delta. 

O ve rfishin g, eliminati o n of essential habitats, changes in water quality, and, perhaps, 

so m hifts in natural factors, such as ocean 

t mperature, also may have contributed to 

change in th e fi sheri es , althou gh th e 

sp cifi c contribution? of an y of th ese factors 

are diffi cult to demo nstrate. 

Conclusions 

Studi es by th Geologica l Survey have 

ho wn th at th e future w ell-being of Sa n 

Francis o Bay depend on better understanding it interacting ph ys ica l, chemi ca l, 

and bio logic process . Su ch under tanding 

is bes t achi eved by multidi sciplinary resea rch hav in g lo ng-t erm o bje tives focused 

o n und erstandin g th e estu ary as a natural 

entit y but within th e hi tori c context imposed by th e onse t of intense human 

ac ti viti s a ce ntur y ago. Beca use San 

Francisco Bay is similar to other e tu ari es, 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 71 
such studies wi ll help in understanding and 

pres rving valuable estuarine ecosystems 

elsewhere. 

Drought Conditions in the 

Southeastern United States 

By Harold G. Golden 

Parts of the Southeastern United States 

were hit by a severe drought during the first 

8 mont hs of 1986. Rainfall during winter and 

spring was much below normal everywhere 

in the Southeast except Arkansas, Florida, 

and Louisiana. As of September 1, a significant long-term drought seemed likely to 

occu r throug hout much of this area unless 

rainfall were to be substan tiall y above 

nr:nmal during the last 4 months of the yea r. 

Climatologic Conditions Associated 

with the Drought 

The conditions that produced the record 

dryness in th e Southeast are closely linked 

with general atmospheric circulation. The 

jet stream, for example, did not penetrate 

as deeply or as frequently into the Southeast 

as it commonly does during the winter 

months. As a result, cyclonic storms, which 

typically form in and move through the 

Gulf and Southeastern Atlantic States, were 

di sp laced farther north and west. This displacement effectively deprived much of 

the South east of its usual abundant winter 

moisture. During the pring months, when 

the track of the jet stream and surface storm 

sy terns seaso na ll y migrate northward in 

respo nse to weakened temperature gradients across th e mid latitudes of the Northern 

Hemi sp here, the pattern of frequent northward displacement persi sted. The relatively 

weak atmospheri flow over the Eastern 

United States produced little precipitation ; 

thus, the moi ture problem was aggravated 

by the in reased seasonal demand for water 

for eva potranspiration, agri ulture, and 

domestic use. Whereas much of the usua l 

spring and early summer precipitation is 

as ociated w ith warm fronts and a moist 

so ut hw sterly wind flow, the Southeast 

main ly experienced more sca ttered precipitation along cold front s. Also, dry 

westerly and northwesterly winds were 

common over the region and tended to 

72 Water Resources Investigations 

suppress the normall y widespread and 

abundant thundershowers. 

The severity of th situation in the Southeast was further comp licated by the fact 

that imilar atmospheric conditions had 

persisted sin e autumn 1984. Alt hough the 

water deficit was producing th " drought 

of the century" by summer 1986, precipitation from Dece mber 1985 through j uly 1986 

was one of the lowest of record for that 

8-month period. Precipitation was in the 

normal to above-normal range across most 

of the Southeast during August and early 

September, but drought conditions still 

persisted. Since 1875, ex treme dryness in 

the Sout heast has not typically occurred as a 

single-year event. Rath er, droughts frequently tend to persist or recur seasonally 

over 2- to 4-year periods. Further, unusuall y 

dry years are rarely follow d by abnormally 

wet years. Th e general pattern during the 

past ce ntury has b en for very dry yea rs to 

be followed by either less dry condition or 

near-normal precipitation. 

Hydrologic Conditions Associated 

with the Drought 

Precipitalion .-For the first 8 months of 

1986, precipitation ranged from 48 to 100 

percent of norma l. The percentage of 

norma l precipitation for January through 

August at key stations in eight States in th e 

Sout heast is shown in figure 3. Also shown is 

the monthly precipitation for the current 

year, the normal monthly precipitation, 

and the previous m inimum of record for 

Atlanta, Ga. , Raleigh. N.C., Nashvi lle, Tenn., 

and jackso n, M iss. Precipitation at Atlanta 

during the first ha If of 1986 set a new record 

low and was the second lowest for the 6-

mont h period of record at Raleigh and 

Nashville. The hyd rographs in figure 1 

indicate that, du ri ng years of deficient rainfa ll , little sign ificant precipitatio n occurred 

during the period August through O ctober. 

The grap hs also show that, du ring yea rs of 

normal precipitation , sign ificant rainfa ll 

occurred du ri ng j uly and August. Because 

of high evapotranspiration rates during the 

summer, however, runoff and groundwater recharge are lower than those from 

equivalent precipitation in the wi nter and 

sp ri ng. Conseque ntly, the retur n of no rma l 

precipitation fo r the re main der of the year 

would do little to all eviate the d rought. 
VI 

w 

X 

u 

50 

~ 40 

~ 

i 

0 

r: 30 -{ 

>-

0:. 

u 

w it 20 

w 

> 

r: 

:5 

::> 10 ::;; 

::> 

u 

NASHVILLE, TN 

/ 

" 

EXPLANATION 

- Normal (1951- 1980) 

-- 1941 (M inimum year) 

1986 

(Source: NOAA, NWS) 

J F M A M J J A S 0 D 

MONTH 

35° N < 

30° 

.I 

f 

"' w 

J: 

u 

i!; 

i!; 

;i 

0 

i= 

<{ 

... 

ii: 

u 

w 

0:: 

Q. 

w 

> 

i= 

s 

::> 

::;; 

::> 

u 

RALEIGH, NC 

50 

40 

30 

l' .... -.... 

I 

20 ' / 

.. EXPLANATION 

10 Normal (1951- 1980) 

1933 (M inimum year) 

1986 

(Sou rce : NOAA, NWS) 

J F M A M J J A s 0 N D 

MONTH 

71 

~ 

EXPLANATION 

Precipitation Gage-Number is January- August 

1986 precipitation, in percent of normal (1951- 80) 

25° 

95° w 90° w 

JACKSON, MS 

60 

<I) 

w 

X 

u 50 ~ 

~ 

z' 40 0 

r: 

~ 0:. 30 u 

w 

a: 

0. 

w 20 > ~ ~ 

i= . - EXPLANATION 

:5 / .- ::> I Normal (1951 - 1980) 

::;; 10 1952 (M inimum year) ::> ,. . u ... . 1986 .. ,.. . (Source: NOAA, NWS) 

J F M A M J J A s 0 N D 

MONTH 

Streamflo w. - Redu ced strea mflow was 

ev ide nt in 1985, wh en th e fl ow of many 

strea ms w as o nl y 50 to 80 perce nt o f no rm al 

fo r th e yea r. Th e redu ced fl ows continued 

into th e first 8 mo nths o f 1986, wh en many 

stream s had th e low es t flows of record fo r 

th e season . Fi gure 4 shows th e cumulati ve 

. 

85° w so' w 

J 

75 ° w 

ATLANTA, GA 

50 

~ J: 

u 

i!; 40 

i!; 

z' 

0 

i= 30 

~ ii: 

u 

w 

0:: 20 Q. 

w 

> i= 

s 10 ::> 

::; 

::> 

u 

-x- - "' 

. 

/ 

. / 

I ' . __ , . EXPLANATION 

Normal (1951- 1980) 

1954 (M inimum year) 

1986 

(Source : NOAA, NWS) 

J F M A M J J A S 0 D 

run off as a perce ntage of no rmal. Fl ows 

thro ugh Au gust 1986 we re less th an 40 

perce nt o f no rmal from Mi ss iss ippi to o rth 

Carolin a (fi g. 4). Fl ows in oth er parts of th e 

d ro ught area were less than 80 perce nt of 

no rma l, except fo r southern Georgia, wh ere 

heavy rains fe ll in late Febru ary. However, 

MONTH 

Fi gur e 3. Januar y -A ug ust 

1986 precip itation as a p ercent aRe ofnormal precipitation 

at selected sites in the outheastern United States. 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 73 
BUFFALO RIVER NEAR LOBELVILLE, TENN. 

100.~ c--.--~------~.--.--.--.--.--.---r~ 

0 

z 

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u 

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(/) 

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100 

10 

M A M A S 0 N D ON~ 

MONTH 

EXPLANATION 

Median of daily streamflow for years 1927- 1985 

Max-min of daily streamflow for years 1927-1985 

Daily mean streamflow for cu rrent year 1986 

CONECUH RIVER AT BRANTLEY, ALA. 

· ; 

''•· 

·!~· •; 

~ :' . ···:" 

.f't 

~ rr , j\. 

I ·' 

M A M J ASOND 

MO TH 

EXPLANATION 

Median of daily streamflow for years 1937-1985 

M ax- m1n o f daily streamf low for y ea rs 1937-1985 

Daily mean streamflow for curren t year 1986 

74 Water Resources Investigations 

0 

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SOUTH YADKIN RIVER NEAR MOCKSVILLE, N.C. 

M A M J J A S 0 N D MONTH 

EXPLANATION 

Median of daily streamflow for years 1938- 1985 

M ax- min of daily streamflow for years 1938-1985 

Daily mean streamflow for current year 1986 

ALTAMAHA RIVER AT DOCTORTOWN, GA. 

~ c--.--.--.--.---.--.--~-.---.--,.---,--, 

,~ L__L~--J_~~~_L __ L__L~~_L~~~ 

MAMJ ASOND 

MO TH 

EXPLANATION 

M edian of daily streamflow for yea rs 1931- 1985 

M ax-min of daily streamflow for yea rs 1931-1985 

Daily mean streamflow for current year 1986 

F igure 4 . January-A ug ust 

/ 986 runoff as a percentage of 

normal run oj{ at selected sites 

in the Southeast ern United 

l(ltes. 
little preCipitation occurred in southern 

Georgia until August, and streamflows were 

low from March through july. 

Daily mean streamflows for the first 8 

months of 1986 and the previous minimum 

daily flows of record for the entire year for 

selected stations also are shown in figure 4. 

Flows at stations in Tennessee, Mississippi, 

orth Carolina, and Georgia were below 

the previous minimums of record for this 

period . The hydrograph trends through 

August indicate that serious flow deficiencies have developed, and new record 

minimum flows have been or may be set in 

many streams in the most severely affected 

parts of the Southeast. 

The july 1986 runoff expressed as a 

percentage of normal July runoff (reference 

period 1951-80) is shown in figure 5. The 

jul y runoff pattern is similar to that shown 

for the period january through August. July 

runoff at many stations in the Southeast was 

the lowest of record for that month and the 

lowest runoff month ever in comparison 

with normal. 

Ground-wat e r co nditions.-Groundwater levels in the areas affected by drought 

generally were below average at midyear. 

In parts of the Pi edmont, water levels in 

june and july were lower than those during 

the same period of the 1981 drought. A new 

30° N 

'EXPLANATION 

record low-water level was established at 

Atlanta in late May, and the level continues 

to be below the minimum of record. In part 

of southwestern Georgia, large withdrawals 

for irrigation have resulted in record lowwater levels. Elsewhere in southwestern 

Georgia, below-normal precipitation reduced recharge and increased demands for 

irrigation to the extent that water levels 

could reach record lows by the end of the 

summer. 

Ground-water levels in Tennessee generally have been below normal since 

December 1985, and record low-water 

levels were reached at two wells in middle 

Tennessee during April and May 1986. 

Water levels recovered slightly following 

rains in late May and early june and at that 

time were near normal throughout the 

State; however, ground-water level s continued to decline and were near record low 

levels in August. 

Ground-water levels in unconfined 

aquifers in North Carolina were above 

average until April or May 1986 and then 

receded to below-normal levels as deficient 

rainfall continued . After rainfall in late 

August, levels were above normal in the 

Piedmont and in the Coastal Plain. 

Reservoir conditions.-ln the Tennessee 

River basin, many reservoirs did not reach 

' ' 

' I 

I 

-----~--------

1 

I 

.&11 STREAM GAGING STATION-Number is July 

1986 runoff, in percent of normal (~951-1980) 

I 

25°N ~~-~ 0 ----------~----------_j----------~~----------~75° ~ W 

95 w 900 w 850 w 800 w 

Figure S. July 1986 runoff as 

a percentage of normal runof 

at selected stream-gaging sites 

in the Southeastern United 

tates. 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 75 
normal summer levels in 198S and have 

remained below normal through June 1986. 

These low reservoir levels are having a 

negative impact on hydropower generation, 

recreation, water quality, navigation, and 

legal commitments for minimum flows on 

some regulated streams. 

Lake Lanier in northern Georgia is the 

primary water supply for metropolitan 

Atlanta and is the most popular recreation 

lake of all the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 

reservoirs nationwide. In early September, 

Lake Lanier was at the lowest level (1S feet 

below normal pool level) recorded for that 

time of year, and boaters were warned to 

watch for submerged objects. 

Impact of the Drought 

Agricu/ture.-According to weekly State 

weather and crop reports from the U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, soybeans, corn, 

peanuts, cotton, and peaches were generally rated in the fair to poor range and in 

many areas were under stress in early july. 

South Carolina reported that winter wheat 

yields were down SO percent in the midlands of the State. Soil moisture was rated 

very low in more than SO percent of 

Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, 

and Tennessee. Pastures were in poor condition, supplemental feeding was required 

in many localities, and ranchers were 

sending more cattle to market than usual. 

Final estimates of crop and other agricultural damage from the drought will not 

be available until after fall harvest. 

Water supply.-At midyear, only a few 

shortages in surface-water supplies had 

been noted. Low stream levels at a few small 

municipal intakes created problems that 

were alleviated by placing temporary dams 

in the streams. One power company has 

placed a temporary dam on the Altamaha 

River in Georgia to provide sufficient levels 

for the water intakes at the nuclear energy 

plant near Baxley, as was necessary during 

the 1981 drought. 

Ground-water shortages in domestic 

wells were noted primarily in the northern 

third of Georgia and in southern Tennessee, 

where several hundred wells were reported 

dry. Most muni ci pal needs in this area are 

supplied by streams and springs. 

76 Water Resources Investigations 

Water quality.-At midyear, several 

reservoirs in the Southeast had low dissolved oxygen concentrations that could be 

harmful to some types of fish and reduce 

the capacity of lake water to assimilate 

waste released into streams. As streamflows 

continue to decline and temperatures 

remain in the high nineties, more waterquality problems could develop. Contingency plans are available whereby the 

regulatory agencies of several States can 

curtail the disposal of waste into streams if 

conditions warrant. 

/rrigation.- lrrigation withdrawals in 

southwestern Georgia wi II exceed the withdrawals made during the 1980-81 drought if 

the present trend continues. Irrigation use 

in other areas, although not as large, is 

following the same pattern . Water shortages 

have occurred as some irrigation ponds in 

North Carolina have gone dry. 

Management Actions 

Restrictions on wat er use.-Th e first 

major restrictions on water use in the regi on 

were in the Atlanta metropolitan ar a, 

wh ere several water authorities limited or 

banned all outdoor water use. Heavy 

demands ca used by the drought either 

exceeded the storage and distributi on 

capac iti es of th e systems or approached th e 

max imu m amo unt of withdrawals permitted . By mid-Jul y, many other juri sdi ctions in Georgia, orth and South 

Carolina, and Tenn essee also report ed 

restri ction s on water use. 

Hydropower generation.-ln june, th e 

Southeast Power Admini stration (SE PA) 

reported power purchases from other 

so urces to redu ce hydro power generation 

by SO perce nt at fa cili ties in north ern 

Alabama and northern Georgia. Similar 

reductions w ere projected fo r july, Au gust, 

and September. As of midyear, no redu ctions in ge neration had been reported 

in the Cumberland sys t m or in other SEPA 

systems. 

The Tenn essee Vall ey Authority reported 

that hydropower generation for January 

throu gh M ay was on ly SO percent of normal 

beca use of co nservation measures at reservoirs in th e Tennessee bas in . One power 

compan y in Alabama reported that hydro-
power ge neration was about 70 percent 

below average in May and about 60 percent 

below average in June beca use of conservation measures. The South Carolina 

Electric and Gas Compan y ceased hydropower generati o n at Lake Murray on June 

13, and generation had been minimal 

before that time. 

Reduction in waste releases. - Th e South 

Carolina Department of Health and Environmental Control reported th at at least one 

industria l facilit y curtailed its waste release 

because of low streamflow. 

State actio ns.-Tenn essee co nsidered 

declarin g a drought emergency; however, 

rainfal l in M ay and june postponed that 

action. Kentu cky has instituted a W ate r 

Watch Program designed to encourage 

citi ze ns' groups to adopt a local water 

resource and promote its natural and 

cultu ral benefits. Efforts are underway to 

use thi s program to monitor drought conditions and promote conservation during 

drought periods. Georgia has instru cted 

water authorities in no rth ern Georgia to 

implement w ater co nservation measures in 

each jurisdict io n as dictated by loca l 

co nditi ons. 

Summary 

Th e Southeastern United States ex perienced a sev re drought in 1986 caused by 

well-below-normal precipitati on. Persistent 

displacement of th e track of the jet stream 

fa rth er to th e no rth and west si nce autu mn 

1984 effectively deprived the Southeast of 

its usua l abundant wint r and sprin g 

moi ture. Agri culture, navigation, hydropower ge neration, and lega l commitments 

for minimum flows o n some reg ul ated 

strea ms are al l affected by th e drought, and 

some jurisdi ctions have had to ban all 

outdoor wat er use. 

A significa nt long-term dro ught could 

occur throughout much of th e Southeast 

unless precipitation is substantiall y above 

norma l during the last 4 mo nths of 1986. 

Unfortunately, unusuall y dry yea rs are 

rare ly fo llowed by abnormally wet yea rs, 

and th e genera l patte rn duri ng th e past 

century has been for very dry years to be 

fo llowed by either less dry conditions or 

only near-normal precipitation. 

Great Salt Lake: 

An Expanding Sea in the 

Utah Desert 

By Doyle Stephens 

Background 

The w es tern part of Uta h is desert having 

an annual precipitation of about 5 inches, 

whereas precipitation is about 20 in hes 

along the centra l, densely populated part of 

the State. Althou gh precipitation in th e 

mountain s east of the population corridor 

is as much as 60 inches annually, Uta h is an 

arid State overa ll. In the midst of this 

drynes is Great Salt Lak e, the country's 

largest lake o utsi de of the Great Lakes 

region. However, beca use its sa linity ranges 

from ·1.5 to 5 times that of seawa ter, it is 

actuall y America's largest inland sea. Alth o ugh a large lake has occupied the same 

area for the last 32,000 yea rs, o nl y in 

relatively recent times have the contraction 

and expa nsio n of the lake ca used concern 

for the inhabitants of its shorelin es. 

Great Salt Lake is un ique among lakes of 

the Western Hemisphere because of its size 

and sa lt co ntent. It is a terminal lake (that is, 

it has no o utlet to th e sea), th e fourth largest 

such lake in the world . About two-thirds of 

its annual infl ow comes from the Bea r, 

Weber, and jo rdan Ri vers. Precipitation to 

the lake surface co ntributes abo ut 30 

percent and ground water 3 percent of th e 

annual inflow. The size of Great Salt Lake 

varies co nsiderabl y, depending o n its surface eleva tion, whi ch in turn varies with 

climatic changes. At an elevati on of 4,200 

feet above sea leve l (the approximate 

average level around which the lake has 

fluctuated during historic tim e), the lake 

covers about 1,700 sq uare miles; its maximum depth is 34 feet. At an eleva ti o n of 

4,209.25 feet, the lake covered abo ut 

2,300 squ are mi les. Th e sa linity of th e lake 

brine also has varied co nsiderably, both 

tempora ll y and aeri all y. The brine has 

co ntain ed as much as 27 per en t sa lt, about 

eight tim es more than ocean water; in 1984, 

however, the sa li nity of the maiJl (sout hern) 

part of the lake was on ly about 6 percent 

and by 1986 was near 5 percent. 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 77 
Large and rapid changes in the level of 

the lake have had a profound effect on 

roads, railroads, recreational facilities, wildlife management areas, and industrial installations around the lake. Excessi e dilution 

of the brine also affects recreation and 

industry based on the brine. The reco rdbreaking 12.2-foot rise in the southern part 

of the lake from September 18, 1982, to june 

6, 1986, coupled with the dilution of that 

part of the lake to its smallest known 

hi storic salinity, resulted in sever economic 

impacts on all of man's installations and 

activities on the lake. 

Lake Levels 

Prehistoric-Great Salt Lake i a remnant 

of a much larger water body (Lake 

Bonneville) that had a maximum depth of 

about 1,000 feet and covered about 20,000 

quare miles in Utah, evada, and Idaho 

during the latter part of the Pl eistocene 

Epoch. The lake rose in a series of three 

major steps to rea h its freshest water 

co nditions and highest elevation of approximately 5,200 feet about 17,000 years ago and 

then overflowed into the Columbia River 

drainage. Great Salt Lake, as the remnant of 

this prehi storic lake, decl ined to below 

historic levels from about 14,500 to 12,700 

years ago; for about 8,000 years, the lake has 

flu ctuated near its present elevation of 

about 4,200 feet. 

Hi tori c.-The earliest known measurement of the surface level of Great Salt Lake 

was mad e in 1843 by John C. Fremont, who 

reported that the lak e was 4,200 feet above 

sea level on th e basis of barometric readings. No actual measurements are available 

for the period 1844-74, but G.K. Gilbert, the 

first Chief Geologist of the U.S. Geological 

Survey, indirectly determined the lake level 

for that p riod by using reported observations of the depth of water over the sandbars between the mainland and Antelope 

and Stansbury Islands. 

The rapid ri se of the lake during the 

period 1862-73 and the ontinued high 

level s of the lake for several years after 1873 

were of considerable concern to the settlers 

in Salt Lake City. They feared that the city 

and adjacent farm lands might be flooded if 

the lake rose further. The newspaper 

Lau r-Day Saint ' Millenia/ Star reported 

th at, on September 8, 1876, "a party of 

78 Water Resources Investigations 

gentlemen, accompani ed by a surveyor, 

left for the north -west shore of the Salt 

Lake, with a view to determining the 

feasibility of cutti ng an outlet forth waters 

in that direction, and thereby greatly reducing the body of water of th Lake. They 

coa ted the west shor to the extreme 

northwe t, a distance of forty miles, finding 

no point where an out! t was possible, 

there being an average incline of the desert, 

from the present water line, of four to six 

inches to the mile." The declin of the lake 

during en uing years ended th concern at 

that time. 

During the 31 year following the historic 

high level of 1873, the lake declined almost 

16 feet and, in ovember 1905, reached a 

then-hi storic low level of 4,195.8 feet. From 

1907 to 1910, the lake rose almost 7 feet , the 

steepe t rise during a 5-year period since 

th e beginning of record keeping. During 

th e next 14 years, the lake rose an additional 

foot to peak at 4,205.1 feet in May 1924. The 

lake gradually declined to a low of 4,193.7 

feet in November 1940 and then ros again 

to a peak of 4,200.95 f et in June 1952. 

Another lengthy period of decline fo llowed, 

and, in October 1963, the lake reached an 

all-time historic low level of 4,191.35 feet 

and covered only about 1,000 square miles. 

Because the overa ll trend of the lake level 

had been downward for the 90 years 

preceding 1963, many people thought that 

the lake would never rise again and would 

actua ll y become dry. With that notion, 

railroads, interstate highways and other 

roads, wildfowl management areas, recreational facil iti es, and industrial installations for the processing of lake brine were 

establ ished on the exposed lakebed. In 

1964, however, the lake began to ri se again; 

by june 1976, it had risen approximately 11 

fe t to 4,202.25 feet. Again, concerns grew 

about a potential ca lamity for facilities and 

installations around the lak e, and the 

feasibi lit y of pumping water out of the lake 

into the des rt to the west was studied. In 

1977, however, the lake began to decline 

because of unusually li ght snowfall during 

the preceding winter, and thu s the concern 

ended once again. On September 15, 1982, 

th e lake surface elevation was at 4,199.65 

feet, approxima tely the sa me as it had been 

135 years ea rli er when the pioneers arrived. 

Dramatic rises of 1982-86.-Th e lake 

began to rise on September 18, 1982, in 

response to a se ri es of storms ea rli er in the 

month. Then, on September 26, a record -
breaking 2.27 in ches of rain was recorded at 

Salt Lak e City International Airport, the 

most precipitation ever measured for a 

single day during the 108 years for which 

records have . been kept for the city. The 

total pr cipitation (7. 04 inches) for the 

month made it the wettest September on 

record for the ity. Th e total annua l precipitation at Salt Lak e City during 1982 was 

22.86 inches, in comparison with an annual 

average of 15.63 inches. 

The unusually intense rainfall resulted in 

unseasonably large inflow to Great Salt 

Lake, both from precipitation directly on 

the lake and from surface streams. Th 

flows in the Bear, Weber, and Jordan Rivers 

from October to December 1982 were 2 to 

3.8 times greater than average. Great Salt 

Lake continued to rise rapid ly throughout 

the autumn in response to the immense 

surface inflow and to the cool weather and 

extensive cloud cover that greatly reduced 

evaporat ion. Snowfall in the drainage basin 

of Great Salt Lake was greatly above average 

from autumn 1982 through spring 1983 and 

thus provided potentially enormou s 

quantiti s of water for the lake. The largest 

report ed snowfal l was 845 inches at Alta, 

about 20 mile outheast of Salt Lake City. 

On jun 1, the snow cover in the basins 

draining into the lake ranged from about 

2.4 to 5.2 times greater than average. 

Snowmelt in 1983 began about a month 

later than usual, and the snowwater content 

increased until mid-May. Because oil 

moi tur in the drainage basin was considerably greater than average, the potential 

for water to infiltrate into the ground was 

diminished . The major snowmelt began at 

the end of May, and record breaking quantities of water flowed into the lake. From 

Janu ary to May, streamflow was 1.7 times 

greater than average in the Bear Ri ver, 3.6 

times greater in the jordan River, and 1.6 

times greater in the Weber Ri ver, and new 

record flows were recorded for the Bear 

and jordan Ri vers. 

The large streamflows continued for 

many weeks; the lake continued to rise 

until June 30, when losses by evaporation 

finally exceeded the inflow, and the lake 

level peaked at 4,204.75 feet. The rise from 

September 18, 1982, to june 30, 1983, was 5.1 

feet, the greatest easonal rise ever recorded . This ri se represented a net increase 

in the volum e of the lake of about 6 million 

acre-feet, equiva lent to the volume of water 

used by the combined populations of 

California and New York in 1 year. 

During summer 1983, precipitation was 

above average, and evaporation was relatively small because the cloud cover was 

greater than usual. These conditions resulted in a decline of only 0.5 foot in the 

lake level. Excessive precipitation continued 

throughout the fall and culminated in the 

wettest December ever recorded at Salt 

Lake City. By yearend , Salt Lake City had 

received 24.26 inches of precipitation during 

1983, about 1.6 times the average. Snowfall 

from janu ary to June 1984 also was above 

average, and, by May 1, the snow cover 

ranged from near normal to about two 

times greater than average. 

The lake rose stead il y from October 1983 

through june 1984, primarily in response to 

Th e Bear River National Wildlife Refuge was inundated by 

Great Snit Lake in 1983 and 

remained underwater through 

1986. (June 19. 1986. photograph by Doyle Stephens, Water 

Res ources Division, U. S. Ceological Sur vey.) 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 79 
surface inflow that resulted from the excessive precipitation. The precipitation at 

the Salt Lake City International Airport was 

about 1.5 times greater than average for the 

9-month period, and the resultant inflow 

from the three major surface tributaries to 

the lake during that period greatly exceeded 

their average flows. The Bear Ri ver flow was 

2.7 times greater, the Weber Ri ver flow was 

2.1 times greater, and the Jordan River flow 

was 5.2 times greater. The flow in the Bear 

River during water year 1984 was the 

greatest measured during 95 years of record. 

When the lake level peaked on July 1, 1984, 

it was at an altitude of 4,209.25 feet above 

sea level and covered an area of about 2,300 

square miles. 

The lake started to decline during Jul y 

1984 and reached a seasonal low of 4,207.85 

feet on O ctober 1, 1984. It then rose to 

4,209.95 feet by May 21 , 1985, the highest 

level since 1877. The precipitation at Salt 

Lake City Internationa l Airport during 1984 

was 21.55 inches, the third successive year 

in which precipitation exceeded the average 

by more than 40 percent. 

Between May 21 and November 1, 1985, 

the lake level declined 1.55 feet because of 

evaporation during a warm summer. The 

lake then began its autumnal rise during the 

wettest and snowiest ovember on record , 

when more than 27 inches of snowfall was 

recorded at Salt Lake City International 

Airport. January through March 1986 were 

characterized by unusually warm temperatures and less-than-average precipitation. 

On February 19, 1986, the lake rose an 

unprecedented 1.5 to 2 inches in response 

to a week of storm activity in northern Utah. 

This rise represented a 1-day inflow of 36 

billion gallons, or 7 gallons for every person 

on Earth. April precipitation exceeded 150 

percent of normal in most of northern 

Utah, and both April and May were the 

third wettest on record at Salt Lake City 

International Airport. On May 12, 1986, the 

Ia ke reached 4,211.65 feet , surpassi ng the 

recognized hi storic peak of 4,211.6 feet set 

in June 1863. By the end of May, the water 

content of the snowpack in the drainage to 

Great Salt Lake ranged from 144 to 264 

percent of normal. 

The lake continued to ri se during the first 

week of June in response to record inflows 

from the Bear, Weber, and Jordan Rivers. 

Inflow to the lake since O ctober 1985 was 4 

million acre-feet, surpassi ng the 1983 record 

of 3.5 million acre-feet during an equ ivalent 

80 Water Resources Investigations 

time period. On June 6, the lake peaked at 

4,211.85 feet. Th e 30 million acre-feet of 

water in the lake on June 6 was about equal 

to the usable storage capacity of all the 

freshwater lakes and reservoirs in Utah and, 

if spread evenly, would have covered the 

State to a depth of 6.5 inches. 

The 1986 peak elevation was short lived, 

however; on June 7, 5-foot waves on the 

lake caused a breach in the Amax Magnesium Corporation dike at the southwestern end of the lake. By Jun e 10, the 

leve l of the sout hern part of the lake had 

declined 5 inches; the flow of water from 

the lake into the previously sha ll ow brine 

ponds was estimated at 370,000 acre-feet. 

The net rise of the lake from September 18, 

1982, to June 6, 1986, was 12.2 feet. By 

comparison, the previously recorded maximum net rise during a 4-year period was 6.8 

feet from 1906 to 1910. 

Economic Costs 

In 1983, the State of Utah b gan studying 

va ri ous methods of controlling the level of 

the lake. The three methods that appeared 

to have the most merit were (1 ) pumping 

water out of the lake into the desert to th e 

west, (2) impounding water on the Bear 

Riv er for diversions that would decrease 

inflow to the lake, and (3) breaching the 

Southern Pacific Transportation Company 

railroad causeway and thereby decreasing 

the water level in the southern part of the 

lake where most of the damage was occurring. The first two methods involved 

extensive construction and a considerable 

delay before their effects on the level of the 

lake would be felt. The third method 

promised relatively quick results and was 

approved in 1984 by the Utah Legislature. A 

300-foot-wide breach was completed at the 

western end of the causeway on August 3, 

1984, at a total cost to the State of $3 million. 

In spit e of all contro l efforts, the surface 

area of the lake rose 12.2 feet il nd increased 

its size 640 square miles between 1982 and 

1984. These increases caused approx imately 

$285 million in damages to roads, railroads, 

wildfowl management areas, recreational 

f aci I i ti es, and industrial installations that 

had been establi shed on the exposed 

lakebed. 

Continued economic losses through 1985 

prompted the Utah Legislature to appro-
priate an additional $71.7 million on May 

14, 1986, fo r dikes and pumps designed to 

contain th e lake and reduce its volume. 

Water w ould be pumped from nea r the 

western end of th e Southern Pacific Tra nsportation Co mpany ca usew ay over a land 

ridge and th en allo w ed to f!ow into th e 

wes tern dese rt to crea te a new lake abo ut 

500 squ are mil es in area and an average of 

2.5 feet dee p. Eva po ration would reduce 

th e wa ter vo lum e, and th e co ncentrated 

brine wo uld th en be recycl ed back into 

Grea t Salt Lake. 

Declining Salinity 

Befo re th e So uthern Pacifi c Transportatio n Co mpany railroad ca useway dividing 

the lake was co mpl eted in 1959, min eral 

co nce ntrati o ns in th e lake probabl y were 

fa irl y unifo rm , and sa lini ty was dependent 

on lake vo lum e. In 1869, fo r exa mpl e, wh en 

the lake was within a few feet of its hi stori c 

high level, th e lake water co ntained 15 

perce nt brine m in erals by weight. In 1930, 

however, w hen th e lake level was abo ut 10 

feet lower, the mineral co ntent was 21 

perce nt. 

Th e railroad causeway was constructed 

mostl y of gravel and sand capped with 

boulder-sized riprap and was originall y 

breached by two bo x culverts, each 15 feet 

wide. Th e causew ay se parates th e lake into 

two parts; about two-thirds of th e lake is 

south o f th e ca useway, and about one-third 

is north of it. Th e southern part of th e lake 

receives most of the freshwater inflow, 

wh ereas th e north ern part receives most of 

its water in th e form of brine th at moves 

thro ugh the cul verts and ca useway from 

th e south ern part. Th ese factors, in conjunctio n with th e restri ction o f flow by th e 

ca useway, have ca used differences in th e 

sa liniti es and w ater levels of th e two parts of 

th e lake. Th ese differences in creased 

steadil y throughout th e 1960's. Sin ce 1966, 

wh en measurements of th e water level in 

th e north ern part were begun, th e water 

level in th e so uthern part has been co nsistentl y hi gher; th e difference reached a 

max imum of 3.7 feet on jul y 1, 1984. 

Th e ca useway was breached with a 300-

foot-wide o pening on Au gust 3, 1984, to 

prov id e fl ood relief to areas al o ng th e 

southern shore of th e lake. Within 2 mo nths, 

the difference in water levels north and 

so uth of th e ca usewa y had decreased to 

0.75 foot; within 1 year, it had decreased to 

0.5 foot . 

Wa ves lash at the tracks of the 

Southern Pacific Transportation 

Company causeway across Great 

Salt Lak e on June 19, 1986, 

shortly af ter the lake peaked at 

4,211 .85 fee t. (Photograph by 

Doyle St ephens, Water Resources Division, U.S. Geological Sur vey.) 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 81 
Th e brine north of the cau seway remained 

rel ativel y constant and nea r saturati on from 

1919 to 1982; di solved min eral co ntent w as 

about 27 percent, regardl e s of changes in 

lak e I ve ls. Th e concentration decreased 

somewh at, however, durin g th e large lakelevel ri ses o f 1983 and 1984, and a light but 

stea dy decrease continu ed after th breach 

of th e ca useway and a th lake cont inu d 

to rise thro ugh M ay 1986. By ju ne 1986, th 

salin ity north of the cau seway had d creas d 

to abo ut 17 perce nt; so uth o f th e auseway, 

it w as o nl y 4.8 percent. At thi s alin ity, 

wh ich is abo ut 1.5 times that of seaw ater, 

th e famed bu oyancy o f Grea t Salt Lake is 

consid erabl y diminished. 

Can th e salinity o f Great Sa lt Lake ever 

dec rease to th at of the ocean? Th e lake 

would have to be diluted by a vo lum o f 

fr eshw ater suffi cient to raise it I vat ion to 

abo ut 4,218 f et, w hi hi 6 feet higher than 

th e "1986 pea k. At thi s ele atio n . the lake 

wo uld be so hall ow and expa nsive o n th e 

w este rn shore th at evapora ti o n wo ul d 

qui ckl y co ne ntra te the sa lts; it i thus ve ry 

doubtful that seawa ter-! vel sa lin ity wil l 

occur in the near future. 

Cyclic Patterns in Lake Levels 

Th e lake reacts to com pl ex annu al and 

lo ng-t erm cycles in cli matic pa tt erns. Th 

diffi cult y in deter mining th e exact ca use of 

th e recen t ri se (a nd consequentl y in predi ctin g fu ture level ) is du e to a seri es o f 

th ese cycles superi mposed o n o ne ano th er. 

As ex pect d, th e lake ri ses wh en large 

qu antiti es o f pr ci pitati o n are received 

wi thi n its bas in ; how ever, thi s patt ern i 

modifi ed by the qu antity o f mo isture in th 

so il and by th e tim e o f o ns t of th e 

eva porati on season. Analys is o f hi stori c pr -

cipitati on and drought patterns for th e area 

indi ca te a 118- to 146-year return peri od for 

large q uantities of precipitati o n. Some 

cl im ato logi ts predict th at it i rn o re lik ely 

th an no t th at, in th e n xt 100 yea rs, another 

peri od o f excessive pr cipitati on will result 

in the ex pan io n o f th is unique inland sea. 

Th e qu esti o n th en b comes, 11Will thi s 

occur b fo r th e lake has fuli y reced d 

fro m its most recent ex pansio n? " 

82 Water Resources Investigations 

Water-Quality Trends in the 

Nation's Rivers 

By Richard A. Smith 

A comprehensive Federal prog ram for 

nati o nwid e collecti o n of wat r-qu alit y data 

w as e tab li hed by th .S. Geo logical 

Survey in th e ea rl y 1970's in re ponse to a 

growin g int erest in mo nito rin g trends in 

w ater quality. Th e prog ram, th ational 

Str ea m Q ualit y A co untin g N e twor k 

( A QA ), maintain a netwo rk of about 

500 w at r-qu ality stati o ns loca ted near the 

jun cti o ns of majo r U.S. ri ve rs. Alth o ugh th e 

netwo rk repre ents o nl y a small fracti on of 

the ati o n's mo nito rin g ca pabilit y (State 

and loca l governm nt mo nito r va ri ous 

as pects o f w ater qu alit y at mor th an 60,000 

loca ti o ns), th e fac t th at amplin g and 

labora to ry meth o ds hav remain ed esse nti ally th e ame at all station s makes th e 

program uniqu in th e pi cture th at it provid es o f lo ng-term chang in wat r q uality 

at th e nati onal level. 

Usin g d ata fr om th e ASQA program, 

Geologi al urv y scien ti sts rc cn tl y conducted a nati o nwide analys is of waterqu ality tr ends fo r th e yea rs 1974-81 , a period 

o f majo r change in a nu m ber o f factors 

in flue ncing th e water qu alit y o f ri vers in the 

Un it ed St ates. Th e fo ll owing fo ur key 

facto rs-point- and nonpoint-source pollution, sa linit y, and tox ic trace elements-are 

no teworth y. 

Effects of Point-Source Pollution 

Controls on Water Quality 

Point-source po llu tion contro l has be n 

a major water-qu ality improvement effort 

fo r several decades, and th e effectiven ss 

of such control has bee n a longstanding 

iss ue. In th e decade following passage of 

th e Clean Water Act in 1972, di scharge of 

oxyge n-demanding wastes from mun icipal 

sewage trea tm ent plants decli ned an estim ated 46 perce nt nationall y, and sim il ar 

discharge from industrial sources decreased 

at least 70 perce nt. Redu ctions of thi s magnitude in point-source pollu tio n would be 

ex pected to produce improvements in two 
wa ter-q uality va ri abl es in parti culardissolved oxygen concentration and fecal 

bacteri a counts. In fact, changes in o nly o ne 

of these variabl es w ere cl earl y visible in the 

records from water-quality networks for 

the 8-year period 1974-81. Widespread decreases in feca l coliform and fecal streptococcus bacteria (fi g. 6) during th e stud y 

peri od co rrelated with areas of improved 

was te trea tm ent. In contras t, increases in 

dissolved o xygen con ce ntrations occurred 

with o nl y moderate frequ ency and were 

only wea kl y correlated with changes i'l 

pollutio n loads occurring upstrea m of the 

sa mplin g stations during the sa me peri od, 

although co ncentrations were most noti ceabl e with in 30 miles of sa mpling stati ons. 

Trends in Nonpoint-Source Pollution 

Nonpo int-source po ll ut io n may prevent 

the att ainm ent o f nati o nal water-qu ality 

goa ls eve n after co mpl ete implementation 

of pl ann ed po int-source contro ls. Suspe nd ed se dimen t and nutrients from agri -

cultu ra l so urces are usuall y cited as the 

most damaging non point-source pollutan ts 

na ti onall y. Damages ca use d by soi l erosio n 

• • 

• 

• v 

• • ' 

• 

• 

• • • 

• .. v 

.v .. • 

• 

• 

i 

• 

... • 

• •• 

. v. • 

• • • 

• 

EXPLANATION 

Boundary of Regional Drainage Basin 

Trend in Flow-Adjusted Concentration 

i Increase 

'iJ Decrease 

• No Trend 

and related nutrient impacts on aquati c 

ecosystems have been roughl y estimated to 

equal $3.5 bi llion annually. Despite th e 

widely acknowledged severit y of nonpointso urce pollution, th ere have been few 

stud ies of long-term trends in th e specific 

aspects of water qua lity most affected by 

no npoint sources . 

Of particular interest are th e effects of 

changes in agri cultural acti vity o n suspended sediment and nutrient concentrati o ns. Beca use of rapidl y ri sing farm production, ferti lizer appli cation rates increased 

68 percent between 1970 and 1981 , continuin g th e lon g-term history o f fe rtilizer 

use as on e of nearl y continu ous increase. 

Ana lys is of nation al network data indi cates 

that, from 1974 to 1981, nitrogen co ncentrati o ns in rivers fo llowed a distin ctly 

different trend, both in frequency and in 

geographi c di stribution , from those fo llow ed by phosphorus and suspended sediment conce ntrati ons. Increases in phosp ho ru s and suspend ed se diment co nce ntratio ns occurred with onl y moderate 

freq uency and were largely confin ed to th e 

major mid co ntinent basins. In contrast, 

ni tra te conce ntrations increased with great 

frequency and were wid ely di stributed from 

the Farm Belt eastward (fig. 7) . 

F igur e 6. Tr end in f lo H·-

adjusted concemration offeccd 

streptococcu bacteria at waterqualit y n e t wo rk stat io ns, 

1974-8 1. 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 83 
Fig ur e 7 . Tren d in f lowadjusted concentration of nitrate 

at water-quality network stations, 1974-81. 

• 

• • • w • 

I 

v v- .v 'Jir:j • 

v • i 'J • 

• 

• • 

• 'J .,. • 

• 

EXPLANATION 

Boundary of Regional Drainage Basin 

Trend in Flow-Adjusted Concentration 

A Increase 

'iJ Decrease 

• No Trend 

Th e major ca uses o f the trends in suspended sed iment and nutri ent co ncentrati o ns w ere determ ined by correlatin g the 

trend patterns w ith data pertain ing to 

sources of sedimen t and nutrients in th e 

bas ins upstrea m of the sa mpling stations. 

The differences in nitrogen and phosphoru s 

trend patte rns appear to be the res ult of 

three factors. First, atm ospheri c depos itio n 

appears to have played a large rol e in th e 

hi gh frequ ency of nitrate concentrati ons, 

especiall y amo ng fo res ted basins in the 

Midwest and Eas t. Second, th e low frequ ency o f and stro ng association between 

phos ph o ru s and suspended sed iment conce ntrat io ns suggest th at ge ~ in th eir 

pattern s may reflect tempora ry storage o f 

sed im ent-bound ph osph o rus in stream 

hannels. Beca use nitrate transport is less 

dependent on th e gradual downstrea m 

movement of eroded sediment than phosph o ru s transport is, th e obse rved patt ern o f 

nitroge n increases may refl ect th e effects o f 

increased ferti lizer appl ica tion during th e 

1970's more fu lly th an phosphorus and 

sedim ent pa tterns do. Third, point-source 

po llution control efforts du ring the stu dy 

peri od w ere directed mu ch more toward 

ph ospho ru s th an tow ard nitrogen. Th e 

effect of this po licy w ere obse rved in the 

greater ra ti o of phospho ru s decreases to 

in creases and in th signifi ca nt correlatio n 

84 Water Resources Investigations 

betwee n phos pho ru s decrea es and po intsource loads. 

Trends in Salinity 

One sig nifi ca nt ge neral finding of the 

water-qu alit y stud y was th e high frequency 

of in creases in several of th e di ssolved 

substances that co ntribute to sa lini ty in 

rive r wa ters. Increases in sa li nity were 

numero us in co mpariso n with bo th th e 

frequ ency o f decreases and th e absolute 

number and represe nted a substanti al ri se 

in sal t co n ce ntratio ns (an ave rage 30-

p rce nt increase among the statio ns showing 

a stati stica ll y signifi ca nt trend ). Alth ough 

mu ch o f t he change is attributab le to 

in creases in sodium and chloride, in creases 

in sulfate, potass ium, and magnes iu m also 

co ntributed sig ni fi cantl y to the ri se in 

certain basins. 

O n th e basis of anal ys is of co ncurrent 

changes in basin co nd itio ns, several factors 

appear to have been responsible fo r th e 

ge neral pattern o f increased sa linity. First, 

th e moderate correlation o f ch lo ride trends 

w ith bas in popu lation changes d uring the 

stud y period reflects the fa ct that hu man 

was tes are a major sou rce o f chloride in 

many o f th e bas ins. Second , the use o f 
highway salt increased nationall y by a factor 

of more than 12 b etween 1950 and 1980 and 

thu s stands out as a significant contributor 

to total stream sa linit y. Increasing chlorid e 

conce ntration s were signifi cantl y correlated 

with hi gh rates of and large increases in th e 

use of highway sa lt, esp eciall y in th e Ohio, 

Tennessee, lower Missouri , and Ark ansas -

Red River basins. Fin all y, increases in sulfate 

were es peciall y frequ ent in th e Missouri, 

Arkansas, and Tennessee River basins and 

we re hi ghl y correlated with changes in 

surface coal production durin g th e 1974-81 

period . Sulfate increases were not significan tly corr elated with underground coal 

produ cti o n in th e basins, however. Al so, 

des pite th e fact th at irri gated agri culture is 

known to have a large influ ence on th e 

sa lin ity o f ce rtain Western ri vers, chloride 

increases we re not signifi ca ntl y co rr la ~e d 

nation all y with changes in acreage under 

irriga ti o n in th e basi ns. 

On e interes tin g aspect o f th e geogra phi c 

sa linity pattern is th at sa linity cl ea rl y decreased in th e upper Colo rado Ri ver basin 

during th e 1974-81 peri od, in contras t to th e 

pa ttern o bserved in mu ch of th e rest o f th e 

ation. Decreases in chl orid e concentrati ons in th e Co lo rado drainage are notewo rth y in view of th e hi story of sa lini ty 

probl ems in th e bas in , and th e decreases 

have rece ntl y bee n traced to the temporary 

effects of reservoir fi IIi ng during the earl y 

1970's. 

Trends in Toxic Trace Elements 

W ater-qu ality record s fr o m netwo rk 

stati o ns in clude data o n th e co ncentrati o ns 

of a number o f trace elements know n to be 

or suspected o f being tox ic to man. Alth ough aw areness of potenti al sources of 

metal s and o th er toxic substances in w ater 

has in creased, littl e has bee n kn own abo ut 

actual trends in th eir conce ntrati o ns until 

thi s nati o nwid e analys is. Increases were 

es peciall y frequ ent in th e data for two tox ic 

metal s, arseni c and cadmium, and strong 

evidence suggests th at th e predominant 

ca use of thi s trend was th e same for both : 

atmospheri c depositio n of produ cts from 

fossil fu el combustion. Arse ni c and cadmium 

increases w ere signifi ca ntl y correlated with 

es tim ated atmosph eri c depos itio n rates but 

not with measures of other known sources, 

including metal s manufacturin g and fertil -

izer and pesti cid e use. Further support for 

th is conclusion com es from recent studi es 

of lak e sediments indi ca tin g th at depos ition 

of arseni c and ca dmium has in creased since 

th e late 1950 s. 

One toxic element th at has shown a hi gh 

frequ ency of decrease in th e Nati on's ri vers 

is lea d (fi g. 8). Similar declin es have bee n 

repo rted for airborne lead in many U.S. 

citi es, and decl ines in lea d con centrati ons 

in bulk precipitatio n, strea m wa ter, and 

lake sedim ents have been observed at 

selected sites in th e North east. A likely 

ex pl anati o n fo r th e o bse rved decreases in 

enviro nmental lead is the large drop in the 

use of lea ded gasoline th at bega n in the 

mi d-1970's. Nati onwid e use o f leaded gasolin e dec lin ed 47 perce nt fro m 1974 to 1981 , 

th e peri od o f study for water-qu ality trends. 

Leaded gaso line is recog ni zed as th e major 

source of enviro nmental lead, altho ugh its 

di stri buti o n in aquati c sys tem has been 

poo rl y known. Decreases in stream-l ead 

co nce ntratio ns at wa ter-q ua lity network 

stations were hi ghl y correlated with both 

th e level and ra te of decli ne in th e use of 

leaded gasoline in the bas ins during the 

stud y period. Th e steepest rate of decline in 

lead in both str ea ms and gasoline occurred 

during 1980, whi ch saw a 32-perce nt drop in 

th e lea d co ntent of gasoline and a 14-

perce nt declin e in th e volum e of leaded 

gasoline use d. 

Summary 

Th e an alysis of water-qu ality trends in th e 

Natifor's ri ve rs fo r the period 1974-81 has, 

fo r th e most part, shown improved conditi o ns for many pollutants. Decreases in 

contaminati o n by fecal colifo rm and fecal 

strept ococcus bacteri a refl ect improved 

waste treatm ent, although, correspondingly, 

improvements in dissolved oxygen content 

have bee n slower th an ex pected. Declines 

in airborn e lea d and in strea m-lead co ncentratio ns correspond with decreases in 

th e lea d co ntent of gaso lin e and in the 

volume o f lea ded gaso lin e used . Oth er 

trends refl ect th e increased use of fertili zers 

and hi ghway deicin g sa lts and th e in creased 

depos ition o f th e tox ic metals arse ni c and 

ca dmium, bo th produ cts of foss il fu el 

combusti on. 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 85 
Figure 8. Trend in concentration of dissolved lead at waterqualit y network sta ti o n s. 

1974-81. 

• 

• 

• • 

• 

J • 

• •• • • 

• • 

v' "{~ 

. ' ) . I • 

• • ( .. l • 

>!'(_ • • ,. 

( ( . . • • • 

'(" • 

EXPLANATION 

Boundary of Regional Drainage Basin 

Trend in Concentration 

l Increase 

V Decrease 

• No Trend 

• j• 

v .• 

Measurement, Movement, 

and Fate of Contaminants: 

Research on Organic 

Substances in Water 

By jerry A. Leenheer 

The movement and fate of most contaminants introduced into surface and 

ground waters are frequently related to the 

prese nce and nature of organic substances 

of natural and contaminant origin . Th e 

bindin g of insoluble contami nants with 

solubl e or coll oidal (a fine-grained material 

suspended in a liquid) organi c substances 

greatly increases the mobility of the contaminant. The binding of contaminants with 

organic co nstituents of bed sediments 

provides a reservoir for the slow release of 

contam inants to the water column, and 

these sed iments are a direct source of 

co ntamina t ion for benthic (bottom -

dwelling) organisms. Contaminants bound 

to sedime nt are freque ntl y difficult to 

ex tract for laboratory analyses, and assessing the extent of sed iment contamination becomes impossible. Binding of contaminants to organic substan ces may either 

enh ance or retard th e deg radation of 

orga ni c contam inants. Th e presence of 

natural organic solutes in water, for exa mple, 

86 Water Resources Investigations 

• • • 

~v v • 

v 

. "' 

• 

enhances the photolytic degradation of 

certain o rgani c co ntamin ants, but the 

bindin g of contamin ants to organic substan ces ca n retard the rate of biological 

d grada ti on of the contaminant. 

The U.S. Geologica l Survey has established 

a com prehensive research program to study 

the chemistry of both organic contaminants 

and natural organic substances in water. 

Th e first method of determining pesticides 

in water was esta bli shed in the late 1960's. 

Resea rch ex perti se in natural organic substances in soil, sediment, and water led to 

th e establishment of the International Humic 

Substances Society in 1982. Th e U.S. Geologi ca l Survey's research program, which is 

balanced between studi es of natural organic 

substances and organic contaminants, has 

achieved new and valuable insights on the 

binding mechani sms (processes that ca use 

humi c substan ces to attach to con taminants) 

that affect th e movement and fate of 

co ntaminants in water. 

The measurement of binding constants, 

which is the ratio of bound contaminant to 

free co ntaminant, is being investigated for a 

variety of organic contaminants bound with 

different types of humi c substan ces under 

varying chemi ca l and physical conditions in 

water. Binding-constant data are required 

for mathematical models that predict contaminant transport in water under varying 

environmental conditions. 
An example of the binding of organic 

contamina nts with humic substances 

(partiall y degraded organic materials of 

natural origin) in soils and sediments is 

illustrated by the molecular model in figure 

9. This model shows that humic substances 

are comprised of complex mixtures of 

molecules that associate to form semiordered membrane structures having polar 

exteriors that associate with water and nonpolar interiors that associate with nonpolar 

organic contaminants. Insoluble organic 

contam inants may be "solubilized" by 

humic substances if the humic aggregate 

structure is sma ll enough to be transported 

with dissolved constituents in water. If the 

humic aggregate structure is larger or if it 

exists as a surface coating on a mineral 

surface, the contaminant will be absorbed 

by the soil or sediment and will not be 

dissolved in water in transport processes. 

Changing chemical and physical conditions 

in water, such as variations in pH, salinity, 

temperature, and suspended sediment, can 

cause changes in the molecular configuration of the humic aggregate structure that 

result in the release or absorption of organic 

contaminants in water. 

Studies of contaminant transport in water 

require accurate and very sensitive analytical 

methods. To follow specific contaminants 

over a long flow path, the method used 

must have a wid range of measurement, 

becaus ontaminant concentrations are 

diluted several orders of magnitud during 

transport. An example of applying improved 

analyti al methods to th assessment of 

ground-water contamination to obtain a 

better understanding of contaminant transport processes i provided by a study of 

ground-water contamination by domestic 

ewage at Oti s Air Force Base on Cape Cod, 

Mass. This study was conducted in cooperation with the Massachusetts Department of 

Environmental Quality Engineering Division 

of Wat r Pollution Control. A portion of the 

study involved measuring the areal extent 

and rate of transport of trichloroethylene 

(TCE) and per hloro thylene (PCE) in 

ground water. TCE and PCE are the most 

common co ntaminants found in ground 

water because they are widely used as 

cleaning solvents, because they are moderately soluble in water, and because they 

are not readily degraded by sewage treatment processes. The volatility of these contaminants permits them to be purg d from 

water by passing air through the water; an 

A 

• • • .. • • • .,. • • ,, • ... J'--, 

,, • ,_ ,. ,' ._., __ 

...... ,_ ~ _·:, ~ 

• ' ~ -• .... •• -, ,_ 

• ,, _, ,, • • 

' --

• ---.; 

• - • . -- - • • 

• • ~ • • 

B 

c 

adsorbent trap recovers the contaminants 

from the air for subsequent analytical 

determination. 

The first analytical method developed for 

measuring TCE and PCE in water is known 

as the "sparge and trap" procedure. This 

method has a lower limit of dete tion of 1 

microgram per liter and an upper limit of 

100 micrograms per liter. The areal extent of 

TCE- and PCE-contaminated ground water 

Figure 9. Conceprual models 

il/usrrating the binding of nonpolar organic conraminants with 

humic substances in soils and 

sediment. A , Hum ic acid 

molecule. A mphiphiles are 

molecules consisring of a polar 

(hydrophilic) part (rhe carboxylate group) and a nonpolar 

(hydrophobic) parr. The carboxylate group is an acid group 

rhar gives rhe molecule polar 

properties and thor binds positively charged meral ions (positive counter-ions). The unionized polar group i a hydroloxy l 

group (for example, alcohol or 

phenol). B, Humic acid aggregate structure that exists in 

soil, sediment, and water as 

colloids or larger particles. 

Purple units represent nonpolar 

organic contaminants that partition int o the nonpolar portion 

of the aggregare structure. C, 

Organic oating on a mineral 

surface of humic acids and 

natural lipids oriented inro a 

membrane-rype strucrure. The 

green and blue unirs represent 

diglyceride lipids, and the purple 

unirs represent organic contaminanrs. The two surfaces of rhe 

membrane are polar, and rhe 

inrerior is nonpolar. The organic 

membrane is auached to the 

mineral surface by polar interocr ions. 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 87 
Figure 10. Concentration of 

trichloroethy lene plu perchlo roerhylene in a co ntaminant plume determined by 

the '·sparge and trap " procedure at Oris Air Force Base 

on Cape Cod, Mass. 

Figure II. Concentration of 

tri chlo roethy len e plus perchlo roe rh y lene in a co ntaminant plume determined by 

the Grob closed-loop-stripping 

procedure at Oris Air Force 

Base on Cape Cod, Mass. 

determined by the "sparge and trap" 

procedure is shown in figure 10. Onl y three 

compounds, including TCE and PCE, were 

detected by this procedure. 

A more sensitive method for detecting 

volatile organic contaminants is the Grab 

closed-loop-stripping procedure, which is 

based on recycling air through a water 

sample and isolating the vo latile contaminants on a 1-milligram carbon trap. The 

method has a detection range from 0.01 to 

20 micrograms per liter. The areal extent of 

Coonomessetr 

Pond 

0 1000 2000 3000 FEET 

EXPLANATION 

-10.0- Line of equal concentration 

Single screened interva l 

Well cluster 

OTIS AIR FORCE BASE 

EXPLANATION 

-- 10.0- Line of eq ual concentration 

Single screened interval 

Well cluster 

88 Water Resources Investigations 

grou nd-water contam in ation by TCE and 

PCE, as determined by the Grob closedloop-stripping procedure and hown in 

figure 11 , is significantly greater than that 

shown in figure 10. More importantly, over 

50 contam in ants were detected by the Grob 

closed-loop-strippin g procedure. 

The contrast between figures 10 and 11 

illustrates that th e definition of co ntaminated water depends on th e ability to 

measure co ntaminants at very low concentrations. The most sensitive m thod of 

detecting organic co ntaminants is to 

measure volatile co ntaminants in water. 

Nonvolatile organic contaminants cannot 

presently be measured at trace concentrations, and many nonvolatil e organic contaminants are discharged in signifi cant 

quantities into water resources without 

detection . 

National Water Summary 

1985 

By Edith B. Cha e 

Th e aliona l Water Summary 1985-

H ydro /o gic Events and Surface-Wat er Reources, Water-Supply Paper 2300, focuses 

on the surface-water resources of the 

United States. Surface water is extensively 

developed and managed to provide water 

for public drinking suppli es, irrigation, 

industries, hyd roelectric power, nav igation, 

and recrea tion and to ensu re sufficient 

streamflows to maintain fish and wildlife 

habitats and adequate water quality. Surface 

water represents 77 percent of the Nation's 

total freshwater withdrawals; in o nl y 10 

States does surface water provid e less than 

half of the total withdrawals. 

The first part of th e National Water Summary 1985, " Hydrologic Conditions and 

Water-Related Events," relates variability of 

precipitation to streamflow in water year 

1985 (a water yea r begins O ctobe r 1 and 

ends September 30 of th e following year). 

Below-normal precipitation resulted in deficient stream flows and drought along much 

of the west coast, in the northern Rocky 

Mountains and northern Hi gh Plains, in 

central Texas, and along the entire east 

coast. Th ese hydrologic conditions mark a 

sign ificant change from th e normal to 

above-normal pattern of precipitation and 

streamflows that have prevailed during the 
previous two water years. Above-normal 

precipitation and streamflow patterns did 

persist in some parts of the country; for 

exampl , reco rd-high water levels continued in Great alt Lake, and, at the end of 

the wat r year, th Colorado River at Cisco , 

Utah, recorded it twenty-ninth consecutive 

month of above-normal flow. R cord-high 

monthly mean wat r level s in Lake 

Michigan, Huron, St. Clair, and Erie also 

wer re orded. De pit the ex treme drynes 

in so m areas of the country, th combined 

yea rl y averag flow of the ation' three 

largest rivers-the Mis i sippi, the St. 

Lawr nee, and th Columbia-was 9 percent above normal. 

During 1985, ix hurrican s struck the 

U.S. mainland, the largest numb r to make 

landfall sin 1916. Although the effects 

were more socio co nomic than hydrologic, 

thes hurrican es did provide onsid rable 

relief to the drought-plagu d a t coast by 

repl nishing soil moisture, in creas ing runoff, and r storing reservo ir levels. In 

September 1985, for example, Hurricane 

Gloria ontribut d nough rainfall to bring 

De laware Ri ver basin reservo irs to nearnorma l levels and to end wat er-u se 

restrictions and reduced diversions for the 

New York City and north rn ew )ers y 

area that had been in effect sine May 1985. 

" Hydrolog ic Perspectives on Water 

Issues," the second part of the report, 

di cusse supply and demand. Surfacewater reservoirs, a major source of water in 

many parts of the country, are used to 

provide reliable water supplies and to help 

smooth out the seasonal or annual variations 

in treamflows. In the United States, 2,654 

reservoirs and controlled natural lakes 

having capacities of over 5,000 acre-feet 

provid about 480 mi llion acre-feet of 

storage. Storage capacity is dominated by 

large re ervoir -the 574 largest reservoirs 

account for almost 90 percent of the total. 

In addition, there are perhaps as many as 

50,000 mailer reservo irs having capacities 

rang ing from 50 to 5,000 acre-feet and 

about 2 million smaller farm ponds. Reservoirs help reduce the size of floods and 

increa e the amount of water in river 

channels during low flow; th y also trap th 

ed iment carri d by rivers . Consequently, 

riv r channels downstream from dams will 

change in re ponse to new patterns of 

str amflow by releases from reservoirs. 

High con truction costs for major water 

proj cts, environmental con erns, lega l 

onstraints, eco nomic con iderations, and 

increasing competition for water all point 

to an urgent need for better managem nt 

of existing water upplies. New projects 

Persistent deficient streamflow 

due to prolonged below-normal 

precipitation is indicated by the 

intrusion of wood ferns and 

maple saplings imo the flood 

plain of the Rose River in the 

Shenandoah ational Park. 

Va .. on August J, 1986. (Photograph by A. Ryan Powers, 

Water Resources Division, .S. 

Geologia:/ Lavey.) 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 89 
generally are designed and developed 

independently of existing projects, and 

some limited attempts are made to operate 

water-supply projects as integrated regional 

systems. In several parts of the country, 

water supply has been improved by implementing coordinated management techniques for existing systems. 

In the Washington, D.C., metropolitan 

area, water supplies were increased by 

implementing better management procedures instead of by major new construction. Suppliers coordinated operation 

by adopting flexible operating rules that 

call for "saving" water in local reservoirs 

when Potomac River flows are high and 

taking water from local reservoirs at a rate 

higher than that normally allowed under a 

safe-yield (the amount of water that can be 

continuously withdrawn from storage at an 

acceptably small risk of interrupting the 

supply) constraint on withdrawals for short 

periods of time during low Potomac flows. 

The joint operation of supplies has solved a 

water-supply problem of almost 30 years' 

standing and is between $200 million and $1 

billion less expensive than previously 

evaluated alternatives. 

Water is a valuable economic commodity. 

Water transactions, which can be a change 

in the location of or in the type of water use 

that is undertaken voluntarily for the mutual 

benefit of the involved parties, are becoming more commonplace. For example, 

water previously used for irrigation in the 

U.S. Bureau of Reclamation 's Emery County 

Project in Utah has been leased by the Utah 

Power and Light Company for cooling in a 

coal-fired thermoelectric powerplant. 

Water banks are becoming more common. 

Our ing the 1976-77 drought in California, 

the Federal Water Bank purchased water 

from the California State Water Project and 

the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation 's Central 

Valley Project and sold 42,544 acre-feet, at 

an average price of $61 per acre-foot, to 

water users who would suffer the greatest 

damage from the drought. In 1984, Idaho's 

Water Supply Bank , under legislative 

autho ri ty to operate 1-year leases, leased 

276,167 acre-feet on the upper Snake Ri ver 

to 13 lessees for $2.50 per acre-foot. Members of the Northern Colorado Water 

Conservancy District frequently trade water 

at fair market prices. 

Water transactions are easier when suppliers and buyers have accurate estimates of 

the amount of water available. Likewise, 

90 Water Resources Investigations 

timely knowledge of hydrologic conditions 

is a key element in improving water management. Data on floods and other extreme 

hydrologic events must be co ll ected and 

transmitted without delay. Some waterresources agencies have begun to implement very sop hi sticated communications 

and data-processing technologi s to collect 

and analyze up-to-date hydrologic data, so 

that management decisions can be made 

on a day-by-day or even an hour-by-hour 

basi s. Hydrologic data-collection instruments automatically col lect and communicate data from hydrologic gaging 

stations to the Geostationary Operational 

Environmental Satellites (GOES). Relay of 

environmental data by these at llites can 

be accomplished at any time from almost 

any point in the Western Hemisphere. In 

1985, about 1,500 hydrologic stations reported through GOES. These stations are 

connected through the U.S. Geological 

Survey's Distributed Information System 

network of approximately 70 minicomputers. 

The final part of the report, " State 

Summaries of Surface-Water Resources," 

reemphasi zes the importance of surface 

water to the Nation by portraying the 

avai labilit y, use, and development of 

surface-water resources and related management activities in each State, the District 

of Columbia, Pu erto Rico, the U.S. Virgin 

Islands, the Trust Territory of the Pacifi c 
islands, Saipan , Guam, and American 

Samoa . Th ese summaries point out the 

many similarities as well as the differences 

in surface-water resources among the States 

and Territories. Multicolored maps show 

river basins, reservoirs, and hydropower 

plants, graphs present seasonal variations in 

precipitation and streamflow, and tables 

depi ct stati stics on streamflow and surfacewater use. 

The adequacy of the Nation's water 

supplies depends, in part, on future demands and types of water use and on the 

legal, institutional, and managerial arrangements that are used by the States to manage 

and allocate water. But whatever specific 

techniques are adopted by each State to 

manage and develop its water resources, 

increasing competition for available supplies will in crease the demand and underscore the need for water information and 

knowledge about the hyd rol ogic processes 

that control the availabi lity, quantity, and 

quality of the Nation's water supplies . With 

the publi cation in September 1985 of the 

third National Water Summary, the U.S. 

Geological Survey continues its effort to 

make water information avai lable to a wide 

aud ience. 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 91 
92 National Mapping Program 

Cart ographer Douglas£. Clark 

performs a semiaut

omatir· /ine-

following procedure at a Lase

r-

trac station. 

(Photograph by 

National Mapping Di

vision.) 
NATIONAL MAPPING 

PROGRAM 

MISSION 

The U.S. Geological Survey, through the 

ational Mapping Division, provides cartograp hic and geographic products and information for the United States, territories, 

and U.S. possessions. The products include 

several se ries of topographic maps in both 

graphic and digital form, photoimage maps, 

land use and land cover maps and associated 

data , geographic names information, 

geodetic control data, and remotely sensed 

data. 

The products are generated by four 

regional mapping centers in Reston, Va ., 

Rolla, Mo., Denver, Colo., and Menlo Park, 

Calif., and by the Earth Resources Observation Systems Data Center in Sioux Falls, S. 

Dak . The Division's Printing and Distribution Center, headquartered in Reston, Va., 

prints, stores, and distributes all Geological 

Survey maps and related texts. The Divi sion 

also operates Public Inquiries Offices and 

ational Cartographic Information Centers 

throughout the country; along with the 

Earth Resources Observation Systems Data 

Center, these outlets provide information 

about and fill orders for cartographic, 

, o 

geograph ic, earth-science, and remotely 

sensed data. 

MAJOR PROGRAMS 

AND ACTIVITIES 

M ajor programs and acti vities of the 

Di visio n in support of the ational M apping 

Program are: 

• Primary mapping and rev1s1on , which 

include the production and revision of 

7. 5-minute 1 :24,000-scale topographic 

map in the conterminous United States 

and Hawa ii and 15-minute 1:63,360- sca le 

topographic maps in Alaska . A few maps 

have been prepa red at 1:25,000 cale in 

specific States. During fiscal year 1986, 

about 925 revised and 1,250 new primary 

quadrangle maps were published. Publi shed topographic maps are ava ilable fo r 

about 92 percent of Alaska and for 90 

percent of the ot her 49-State area (fig. 1). 

Twenty-four States have complete 7.5-

minute series map coverage. 

Figure I. S tatus of availability of primary quadrangle 

maps. Some maps will initially 

be available in manuscript form 

only . 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 93 
Figure 2. tatusofl:IOO.OOOscale t opograp hic mapping 

program. Alaska. Ha waii, and 

Puerto Rico are not currently 

included in the 1: 100,000-sca/e 

quadrangle mapping program. 

• Intermediate-scale, smal l-scale, and 

special mapping, which includes the 

preparation of maps and map products 

from th e interm ediate-scale (1 :50,000 and 

1 :100,000) se ries to the small- sca le 

(1 :250,000) seri es and other small er sca le 

U.S. base maps. Complete topographi 

coverage of th e United States is avai lable 

at 1 :250,000scale. The Division completed 

planimetri c coverage of th e United States 

at 1:100,000 scale in 1986,5 yea rs ahead of 

the origina l co mpletion date. Topographic coverage of the conterminous 

United States is more than 50 percent 

complete in one or more of the fol lowing 

intermediate-sca le series: 1 :50,000-sca le 

quadrangle maps, 1:50,000- or 1:100,000-

sca le county maps, and 1 :100,000-scale 

quadrangle maps (fig. 2). M ore than 200 

topographic-bathymetri c maps have been 

published for coastal area planning. Land 

use and land cover maps are com plete 

for 3 million square miles and are available in th e 1 :250,000-scale or, in selected 

areas, in the 1 :100,000-sca le quadrangle 

format. 

• Digital ca rtography, which includes the 

production of base ca tegories of ca rtographic data at standard sca les, accuracies, 

and formats sui table for computer-based 

analyses (fig. 3). Categories include the 

Public Land Survey System, boundaries, 

hydrography, transportation, and elevation data from 7.5-m in ute quadrangle 

maps; hydrogra phy and transportation 

data from 1 :100,000-scale quadrangle 

maps; boundari es , Census tracts, hydrologi c units, Federal land ownership, 

94 National Mapping Program 

land use and land cove r, and elevation 

data co mpil ed at 1:250,000 sca le; and 

boundari es, tran sportation , and hydrography data from 1 :2,000,000-scale 

National Atlas sectiona l maps. 

• Information and data servi es, which 

include the acquisition and di ssemination 

of information about U.S. maps, charts, 

aeri al and pace photographs and images, 

geodeti c co ntrol, ca rtographi and geographi c di gital data, and oth r related 

information; d istribution of earth -science 

information to th e publi c; and sa le of 

maps and map-related products directly 

and through co mmercial map dealers. 

• Cartographic and geographic r sea rch 

and developm ent, which include efforts 

to improve the quality of sta ndard 

products, to provide new prod ucts, to 

red uce cos ts and increase prod ucti vity, 

to acquire innovative and more useful 

eq uipment, and to design and develop 

techniqu es and sy terns to advance th e 

mapping of hi gh-priority areas of the 

country. 

• International activities, which include 

the coordination of Divi sion participation in international ca rtographi c, geographic, survey ing, remote se nsing, and 

oth er map-related activities. 

BUDGET AND 

PERSONNEL 

Fund i ng for th e National M apping 

Divi sion for fiscal yea r 1986 totaled approxi-
EXPLANATION 

- lnwork 

- Available 

A 

EXPLANATION 

- lnwork 

- Available 

B 

Figure 3. S tatus of digital cartographic produ ction. A, Digital Line Graphs from primary -scale 

data. B, Digital Elevation Models f rom high-altitude photographs. Limited digital cartographic 

data are available or are authorized f or production in the Anchorage area of Alaska and on the 

Hawaiian islands of Hawaii and Oahu. 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 95 
mately $110 mil lion . Funding sources included direct congress ional appropriations, 

funds tran sfe rred from other Fede ral 

agencies, joint funding agreements throu gh 

the Federa l-State Cooperative Program, and 

funds received from the sa le of published 

maps and o th er ca rtographi c product to 

non-Federal custom ers. 

Th e p erma nent fu ll -time perso nn el 

strength of the Divi sion at the end of fiscal 

yea r 1986 was 1,710 and included a work 

force skill ed in cartograph y, geograp hy, 

computer cience, engin eering, physical 

science, photographi c and remote se nsin g 

technology, and information dissemination. 

HIGHLIGHTS 

The following section describe highlights 

of so me of the Di vision 's major activiti es. 

Mapping Coordination 

The Geological Survey, throug h the 

at io nal Mappin g Division, ann ually ca nvasses more than 30 Federal agencies to 

coordinate su rveying and mappi ng activities 

fi nanced in whole or in part by Federal 

funds. Under O ffice of Management and 

Budget (OMB) Circular A-16, the Geologica l 

Survey is mandated, through th e Department of the Interior, to exercise Governm entwide leadership in assuring coo rdin ated planning and execution of its 

mappin g program , th e National Atl as, and 

map information activ ities. This mandate is 

extended to State and local government 

agencies whose programs and cartographic 

req uire m ents are funded by Federal 

agencies. The Geologi cal Survey also arranges for Federa l agencies to exchange 

information concern ing technologica l developments in ca rtographi c activities. 

Th e annual ca nvass is in iti ated in the 

seco nd quarter of the fisca l yea r. Participants 

id entify th eir mapping requirements and 

give them priority ranking accordin g to 

their program goa ls. Upon receipt of the 

Federal req uirements, the Geologi ca l Survey 

plans its upco ming yea r's production in 

accordance w ith ca pacity and funding levels. 

As th e use of digital ca rtograph ic data 

began to spread throughout the Federal 

Governm ent, OMB establi shed the Federal 

96 National Mapping Program 

Interagency Coordinating Committee on 

Digital Cartography in 1983 to: 

• Fa cili tate th e coordination of Federal 

digital ca rtographi c data activities, including the ex hange of data. 

• Advi e th e Geologica l Survey regarding 

whi ch ca tego ries of digital artographic 

data ar n ed d in th e National Digital 

Cartograph ic Data Base. 

• D ve lop Federal stand ards o f content, 

format , and accura y for digital ca rtographi c base data. 

In March 1986, OMB issued a directive 

con tinuin g the charter of th ommittee 

throu gh 1989. Th e comm ittee i haired by 

the Geological Survey o n behalf of the 

Depa rtm ent of the Interi or. In june 1986, 

the committee distribut d to severa l Federal 

age n ie a draft Fede ral digital cartographic 

data exchan ge format fo r review and 

testing. Thi draft exchange format is a 

major step in th e development of Federal 

data standard . 

Th e Geological Survey also chairs the 

In terior Di gital Cartography Coordinating 

Committee, which ha been actively co· 

ordinating a wid e range of iss ues associated 

with digital artographic activities within 

the Department of the Interior since 1982. 

The co mmittee ha increas ingly focused its 

efforts on coordin atin g th e implementation 

of geographi c information system technology with the natural resource manage· 

ment mission of th e Department. 

Geological Survey-StateFederal Cooperative Efforts 

in Digital Cartography 

Cooperative efforts play a major role in 

the Digital Cartography Program. The task 

of building the National Digital Cartographic 

Data Base is enormous. Excluding Al aska, 

there are nearl y 54,000 7.5-minute 

quadranqles. For each of these quadrangles, 

eight data files must be collected. The 

Survey ca nnot digitize this amount of data 

within a reasonable time without the assistance of Federal and State agencies. 

Traditionally, the Geologi ca l Survey has 

cooperated with Federal and State agencies 

to augment its financial and production 
resources and to increase the output of the 

National Mapping Program. Since the Digital 

Cartography Program began, the number 

of cooperative projects has increased 

significantly. 

During fiscal year 1986, the Geological 

Survey completed work on a project begun 

the preceding fiscal year to provide Digital 

Elevation Models (DEM's) to the Defense 

Mapping Agency for about 1,600 quadrangles. (DEM's are three-dimensional terrain models.) Several smaller DEM projects 

were completed in cooperation with the 

Oregon State Office of the U.S. Bureau of 

Land Management and the U.S. Forest 

Service. A work-share project is underway 

with the Forest Service to provide DEM's 

and orthophotoquad coverage for the Boise 

National Forest in Idaho. 

Work continued during fiscal year 1986 

on a joint funding project with the State of 

Connecticut whereby boundaries, hydrography, and transportation Digital Line 

Graphs (DLG's) will be produced for all 7.5-

minute quadrangles in the State by the 

beginning of calendar year 1988. (DLG's 

represent linear map features.) 

A work-share project with the U.S. Bureau 

of the Census to digitize hydrography and 

transportation DLG's from the 1:100,000-

scale quadrangle maps of the conterminous 

United States is scheduled for completion 

in june 1987 (fig. 4). 

The Geological Survey and the Forest 

Service signed a landmark agreement in 

fiscal year 1986 for the exchange of DEM 

data. Each agency agreed to provide 208 

DEM's by the first quarter of fiscal year 1987. 

The Forest Service will enhance its terrain 

data files to produce standard DEM files for 

entry into the National Digital Cartographic 

Data Base. In return, the Survey will provide 

an equal number of DEM's for quadrangles 

located in national forests. The agencies 

will exchange 713 DEM's each in fiscal year 

1987. The exchange agreement will continue 

at least through fiscal year 1989. 

An agreement was also signed in fiscal 

year 1986 by the Geological Survey and the 

Idaho Transportation Department to cooperate in producing Public Land Survey 

System, boundary, hydrography, and transportation DLG's in the State of Idaho. The 

agreement includes a data exchange, patterned after the DEM agreement with the 

Forest Service, and a cost sharing arrangement. This agreement will eventually result 

in the completion of DLG production statewide, assisting not only the State agencies 

but also the several Federal agencies that 

administer about 80 percent of the land in 

Idaho. 

The agreements with the Forest Service 

and the State of Idaho are the beginning of 

a trend toward multiagency participation in 

building the National Digital Cartographic 

Data Base. This trend will make standard 

Geological Survey digital cartographic data 

available in greater quantities and at earlier 

dates. Also, interagency participation in 

Geological Survey digital cartographic data 

production will widen the use of those data, 

increase the number of applications, and 

promote compatibility among those systems. 

Figure 4. S1arus of available 

I: I 00.000-scale hydrography 

and /ransp on alion digi10l da10. 

This da10 base, 1he resul1 of a 

Geological Survey- Bureau of/he 

Census projecl, is expeaed 10 

be comple1ed during fiscal year 

1987. The da10 will be considered 

preliminary umil final processing 1hrough edge-malching 

sofllvare. 

Geological Survey ¥earbook 1986 97 
Earth-Science Data Base 

Archive and Distribution 

As the Nat ion's principal earth-science 

resea rch agency, the Survey has acquired 

vast amounts of scientific data, which are 

used to study, ana lyze, and provide information about the Earth . The data cover 

both natura l and human-induced phenomena, as well as detailed mapping information and measurements of the Earth's 

resources. In many cases, these data are 

sca ttered or unavai lable to a broad sector of 

natural resource scienti sts and managers 

and lack the ease of access and orga ni zation 

necessary for widespread use. 

To make valuable earth-science data more 

readily ava ilabl e to Federal and State 

agencies and the general public, the 

National Mapping Division has accepted 

the responsibility for acquiring, arch iving, 

and distributing select earth-science digital 

data sets origina lly compiled by the Survey 

or its coope rators. This activity is generall y 

limited to those data sets that are national in 

character and geographica ll y referenced, 

co ntain relevant data of significant genera l 

interest and appli cability, and are suitable 

for use with existing spatial data bases and 

(or) geographic information systems. The 

decision to archive and distribute a data set 

takes into account its compatibility with 

data sets already archived , the merits of 

preparing merged data sets, the need for 

user-specified products (digita l, graphi c, or 

tabu lar) derived from the data set, and the 

need for reformatting the data set to make 

it more useful. 

For example, the Division's Earth Reso urces Observation Systems Data Center 

currently arch ives and distributes digital 

earth-science data collected by the National 

Uranium Resources Evaluation (~~U E) 

Program of the U.S. Departme nt of Energy. 

From 1974 to 1980, the Federa l Government 

syste matica ll y evaluated the uranium resources of the conterminous Un ited States 

and Alaska. Earth-science resea rch in the 

NU RE Program included geochemi ca l and 

strea m-sed im ent reconnaissance sa mpling, 

coord inated rock sa mpling and analyses, 

airborne radiometric and magnetic surveys, 

geo logic mappin g and ore-deposit studi es, 

subsurface geologic investigations (borehole 

dri ll ing), technology appli cation studies, 

development of resource estimation methodologies, and uranium resou rce evaluatio ns incorporatin g resea rch results. Severa l 

98 National Mapping Program 

years of data collection generated substantial 

geologic, geophys ica l, and geochemical data 

that ca n be used in other ea rth -science 

research. 

Nearly all data from the NU RE Program 

are orga ni zed and retri evable by reference 

to a rectangular grid sys tem that orresponds 

to th e 1 :250,000-sca le topograp hi c quadrang le system used by the Survey. In this 

system, a to tal of 621 q uad rangles cover the 

co nterminous United States and Aldska (468 

for the co nterm inous States and 153 for 

Alaska). However, not all categories of 

NURE data are avai lable for all quadrangles. 

The NU RE data are on ly th first of many 

earth-science data sets that might eventually 

be archived and distributed. 

Satellite Radiometer Data 

Acquisition and Product 

Generation 

The Geological Survey, in cooperation 

with the National O ceanic and Atmospheric 

Adm i ni stratio n (NOAA), is building a 

reception and processing system for NOAA 

Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (A VH R R) satellite data at the Earth 

Re sources Observation Systems Data 

Center. The system, planned to be operational by May 1987, will ensure that limited 

quantities of geographical ly referenced 

AVHRR data for the contermi nous United 

States, needed to support Federal earthscience research and land management 

programs, are routin ely available within 24 

hours of a satellite overpass. Th e system will 

have the ca pability to receive and process 

as many as six daytime data swaths daily and 

to collect predawn passes on request. All 

data will be screened and categorized in 

terms of quality and cloud cover. A researcher will be able to obtain a digital tape 

of original or processed (georeferenced) 

data and a floppy disk and (or) a photographic product of the processed data and 

to have the data merged with line data from 

the Survey's 1 :2,000,000-scale Digital Line 

Graph or other map files. 

The Survey has investigated using AVHRR 

data to supply the information needs of 

selected Department of the Interior bureaus. 

A few obvious land science applications 

include fire-fuels mapping, image mapping, 

rainfall distribution monitoring, and vegetation monitoring. A cooperative research 
effort between the Survey and the U.S. 

Bureau of Land Management (USBLM) 

illustrates one application of AVHRR data. 

The USBLM operates an Initial Attack 

Management System for fire management 

in the Western United States. The data base 

and model for predicting the probability of 

fire ignition from lightning strikes contain 

weather, terrain, and fire-fuel (vegetation) 

information, all at 1-km resolution. Firefuel types, suitable for inclusion in the 

Initial Attack Management System, can be 

determined from vegetation cover types 

identified by digital processing of timeseries AVHRR data. The USBLM is now 

using AVHRR data operationally. 

In another example, image mapping of 

entire countries and continents is becoming 

increasingly important for the study and 

monitoring of limited global resources. 

Research on advanced image mapping techniques has demonstrated that AVHRR data 

are suitable for producing image maps at 

scales of 1:4,000,000 and smaller. An image 

map for the entire conterminous United 

States is being prepared for a fraction of the 

cost and time that would be required if data 

from other sensors, such as Landsat multispectral scanners, were used (fig . 5). 

Monitoring requires repetitive coverage, 

and the monitoring of vegetation may 

require weekly, or even daily, acquisitions. 

Monitoring of annual vegetation growth 

and decay provides useful information to 

the resource scientist and land manager. 

The frequency of overpasses and the collecFigure 5. A mosaic of five 

color-composite Advanced Very 

High Resolution Radiometer 

(A V HRR ) im ages of the 

Western United States. tate 

boundaries from Geological 

Survey 1:2.000,000-scale Digital 

Line Graph data were digitally 

superimposed on the mosaic. 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 99 
tion of midday thermal infrared data provided by the AVHRR data offer a unique 

opportunity to observe and measure 

moisture-related anomalies. Also, using 

AVH RR data for repetitive mapping of snow 

cover, changes in water areas or apparent 

turbidity, thermal mixing within water 

bodies, and vegetation conditions on a 

watershed provides the research hydrologist 

with synoptic repetitive coverage from 

which to derive information for use in 

hydrologic models. 

These examples address only a few areas 

in which AVH RR data have been applied . 

The prospects for broader application of 

AVH RR data will increase when the reception and processing system becomes fully 

opera tional in 1987. 

Global Positioning System 

Applications in the 

Geological Survey 

The scope and varied nature of the 

Geologica l Survey's programs are reflected 

in the survey ing demands that these 

programs generate. Because positioning 

requirements for activities such as mapping 

control, iceflow studies, fault monitoring, 

marine gravity, and airborne laser profiling 

vary enormously, a multiplicity of equipment 

and techniques is necessary. However, the 

Geological Survey has recently begun applications testing of a new geodetic surveyi ng system that is expected to substantially replace existing methods. 

The Global Positioning System was designed by the U.S. Department of Defense 

to provide a continuous, worldwide navigation capability. The system will comprise 18 

Earth-orbiting satellites, a network of 

ground-control stations to monitor and 

update the satellite orbits, and user equipment to track the satell ites and determine 

the u er's pos ition in three dimensions. At 

present, on ly six satellites are operational; 

co nsequent ly, effective use of the system is 

limited to a few hours a day. An 18-satellite 

system providing round-th e-clock navigational and positioning capabilities is scheduled to be in operation by 1990. 

Th e Global Positioning System can be 

us d for real-time navigation or precise 

surveying. Real-time navigation accuracy is 

about 15 meters. Survey accuracy obtainable 

100 National Mapping Program 

by using relative positioning techniqu es is 

better than 1 centimeter ± 1 part per 

million over distances of a few meters to a 

few thousand kilometers. Relative positioning 

requires two receivers, one at each end of 

the survey line, tracking the same sa t !lites 

simultaneous ly. First-order accuracy is possible with as littl e as 30 minutes of observationa l data. 

The Survey now has five Texa Instruments 

Tl-4100 Global Positioning System survey 

units (fig. 6). The Geologic Division in 

Fig ur e 6. art og raph e r 

Edward Cyran operates a Texas 

lns1rurnen1s Tl-41 00 Global 

Posil ioning Sys1em survey uni1 

(top). omrnands are e111 ered 

through a hand-held comrol 

display unit. and data are logged 

om o magnetic-tape casse11es. 

The dual- casseu e dri ves are 

shown in the fo reground on top 

of the receiver-processor unit. 

Because the lead on the tripodmoumed antenna (bo 11 om) is 

100 f eet long, the sur vey unit 

can be left in the vehicle at 

many survey sites. 
Men lo Park, Calif., is using three of the 

units to test and develop the system's 

application for crustal motion studies. The 

ationa l Mappi ng Division is us ing the 

other two units to establish a Global 

Positioning System surveying capability in 

its mapping centers and to develop applications such as mapping control, subsidence monitoring, and dynamic positioning of airborne systems. Several pilot projects 

are in progress, including one to test the 

Global Positioning System's ability to provide 

vert ical mapping control and another 

comprising a 50-station subs idence survey 

for the Water Resources Division in the 

Sacramento District of California. A new 

dynamic relative positioning technique that 

promises to yield decimeter accuracy will 

soon be tested . 

The Denali Image Map 

Mount McKinley in Denali ational Park, 

Alaska , has perhaps the greatest relief of 

any land mountain in the world ; it rises over 

5,000 meters (17,000 feet) above its surrounding base. As such, it challenges the 

map maker to produce a satellite image map 

that will not be badly distorted by relief 

displacement. Moreover, the area presents 

a stark contrast between the snow and ice 

and the summer vegetation coverage. 

Scene selection for any image mosaic 

project is difficult, and the snow, cloud 

cover, and short summer season in the 

northern latitudes combine to restrict the 

usable number of images to a select few. 

Thus, the Denali Nationa l Park and Preserve 

Satellite Image Map (fig. 7) is a mo aic of 

nine separate Landsat multispectral scanner 

scenes acquired over a 5-year period. Two 

of the images were recorded by Landsat 5, 

and their orbital and image characteristics 

are different from those of the other seven 

images recorded by Landsat 3. The mosaic 

involves three of the four wavebands 

recorded by the Landsat multispectral 

scanner. 

Fi gur e 7. Redu ce d -sc aie 

mosaic of the Denali ationa/ 

Park and Preser ve Sat ellit e 

Image Map prepared fr om nine 

Landsat multispectral scanner 

scene . Mount McKinley is in 

the center of the mosaic. 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 101 
The geometry of each image is digitally 

corrected during the mosaicking process 

through the use of ground-contro l points 

and seam-control (tie) points between 

adjacent images. Such corrections reduce 

internal geometric problems and permit 

the mosaicking of adjacent scenes without 

appreciable alignment erro rs. 

The digital data as received contained a 

considerable number of missing elements 

and lines of data. To produce an optimum 

image, these missing data bits were 

artificially created. In add ition, the rad iance 

differences between adjacent images were 

minimized by computer to create a scene 

that appeared to be continuous. 

An area such as Denali has only a limited 

number of identifiable control points in 

addition to its hi gh relief. Because Mount 

McKinley is near one of the satellite groundtracks (orbital paths), relief displacement is 

much less than it would be if the mountai n 

were nearer the image edge. This positioning 

was of particular importance, since usable 

control points were found on ly at the lower 

elevations. 

A lin e map of the Mount McKinley area 

was originall y produced in 1958 as the 

" Mount McKinl ey Natio nal Park" and 

revised in 1972. When the park area was 

expa nded and renamed Denali ational 

Park and Preserve in 1980, additional map 

revisions were made. The 1986 revised map, 

portraying a special-interest area, contains 

portions of six standard 1 :250,000-scale 

maps. Th e revised line map and the satellite 

image map, both covering the identical 

area, we re printed back-to-back on a 

durable plastic-coated material suitable for 

outdoor use. 

The Denali image map demonstrates that 

Landsat data can be converted into highly 

usable image maps even under such adverse 

co nditi o ns as extreme relief, cloud cover, 

and high scene contrast. 

Consolidation of Product 

Distribution Operations 

For ma ny years, the maps, books, and 

reports of the Geological Survey have been 

distributed by the National M app in g 

Di vision through three facilities in Arlington 

102 National Mapping Program 

and Alexandria, Va., a facility in Denver 

Colo. , and a facilit y in Fairbanks, Alaska. ' 

As part of an overall effort to red uce costs 

and improv operatio ns, the Geological 

Survey is consolidating the four distribution 

facilities in the conterm inous Un ited States 

into one major faci lity loca ted in Building 

810 of the D nve r Federal Center (the 

Fa irbanks facilit y w ill remain in operation). 

Elimination of duplicate map inventories 

and record keeping systems, streamlining of 

inventory and order-processing systems, 

improvement of current warehouse practices, and reduction of transportation costs 

through expanded use of full-carload shipments are just a few of the anticipated 

improvements. 

An estimated annual savings of about $1 .1 

million will result. The total cost of the 

consolidation will be about $2.9 million, 

which includes moving costs, new equipment, and renovation of Building 810 

(primarily to add office space). 

During fiscal year 1986, all distribution 

operations in the three Virginia facilities 

were relocated to the Denver Federal 

Center. Di stribut ion operations in the 

present Denver facility (Building 41) will 

co ntinue during a phased relocation to 

Buildi ng 810. Complete consolidation is 

scheduled for the end of fisca l year 1988, 

when the necessary building modifications 

are ex pected to be finis hed. 

Geographic Information 

System Development 

To en hance Geologi ca l Survey activities 

in collect in g and disseminating earth -

science information, part of the National 

Mapping Di vision's resea rch efforts during 

fiscal yea r 1986 was devoted to improving 

access to and exchange of data among 

varying ca rtographi c and thematic data 

bases, improving the ca pabilities of ex isting 

geographic information systems (GIS's), 

implementin g advanced GIS co ncepts, and 

developing and encouraging new or improved applications of GIS technology 

within the Departm ent of the Interior. 

Specific areas of research were: 

• Data stru cture- To facilitate hori zontal 

and vertical integration, to improve 
storage and processing, and to define a 

format for data exchange between CIS's. 

• Data capture-To improve data colledion 

and editing capabilities, to evaluate and 

implement automatic line-following 

systems for coll ecting certain kinds of 

data, and to improve procedures for 

collecting and tagging attribute and 

textual data. 

• Data query and analysis-To provide 

storage for large volumes of data, to 

maintain topology between spatial , 

textual , and attribute data, and to facilitate query and retrieval of data for 

analysis. 

• Data output-To provide a flexible and 

diverse abi l ity to produ ce usercu stomized products. 

The National Mapping Division also 

conducted numerous projects with other 

Survey divisions, Department bureaus and 

offices, and Federal and State agencies. 

These projects demonstrated the applications of Survey data bases and GIS technology to ongoing programs and provided 

feedback for design of the National Digital 

Cartographic Data Base. Conterminous 

United States Mineral Assessment Program 

and Alaska Mineral Resource Assessment 

Program activities with the Geologic Division 

required predictive model development 

and application to multiple spatia l categories. The Federal Land Information 

System (fig . 8) required coordination with 

the Geologic Divi sion, the U.S. Bureau of 

Land Management, the U.S. Bureau of 

Mines, and others to investigate a nationwide data base using data categories derived 

by other agencies, together with data from 

the Survey's National Digital Cartographic 

Data Base . The John Day Ri ver Basin Project 

with the Water Resources Division and the 

State of Oregon required the merging of 

numerous data categori es into a GIS for 

analysis and appli cation to land and water 

resources policy planning. 

Projects with other Federal agencies, such 

as the Soil Conservation Service, will define 

how products can be better used and 

implemented through digital spatial ana lysis 

techniques for specific agency responsibilities. 

Red 

Orange 

EXPlANATION 

= Areas favorable for zinc 

on Federal land 

= Areas favorable for zinc 

on non-Federal land 

= Federal land 

= Non-Federal land 

Figure 8. Federal Land Inf ormation System data showing 

areas fa vo rable f or zin c on 

Federal and non-Federal land 

in A Iaska. Land ownership data 

are fr om the U. S. Bureau of 

Land Managem ent 's A Iaska 

Automated Land and Mineral 

Record System. Data resolution 

is one township. Mineralfa vorability data are f rom the Geological Sur vey's Regional Alaska 

Min eral Resource Assessmem 

Program (data f or southeastern 

A Iaska were not available). Data 

were digitized from I: 1,000,000-

sca/e maps. Blue lin es are 

Geological Sur vey I :250.000-

sca/e quadrangle boundaries. 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 103 
104 International Activities 
Colombia :S eva do del Rui:: 

volcan o seven weeks before if. 

devas1a1ing ovember 13, 19 5. 

erup1i o n . (?holograph by 

Darrell Herd. U.S. Geological 

Survey.) 

INTERNATIONAL ACTIVITIES 

MISSION 

Under the Organi c Act, as revised, and 

the Foreign Assistance Act and related legislation, the U.S. Geological Survey is 

authorized to condu ct investigations in 

foreign countri es when such studies are 

deemed by the Departments of the Interior 

and State to be in the interests of the U.S. 

Government. Th ese internationa l activities, 

a part of th e Survey's program for more 

than 40 years, are undertaken on the basis 

of th ese principal objectives: 

• To expa nd the scope of and he I p ach ieve 

domestic resea rch objectives through 

the comparative study of scientific 

phenomena abroad and in the United 

States. 

• To obtain information about existing and 

potenti al fore ign resources of interest to 

the United States. 

• To develop and maintain relations with 

counterpart institutions and programs 

that will faci litate scientifi c cooperation 

and exchange. 

• To provide support for the international 

programs of other Federal agencies, including those of th e U.S. Department of 

State, that co ntribute to foreign pol icy 

objectives. 

MAJOR PROGRAMS 

AND ACTIVITIES 

Two genera l types of activit i comprise 

th urv y' major international programs. 

Techni al a i tance to foreign countri es or 

international organ iza ti o ns i fund ed by 

other Federal agen i , int ernational orga ni za tions, or fore ign gov rnm nts as 

authorized und r the Foreign As i tan 

Act. Some program involv tran ferring 

technology to foreign nationa ls through 

advice, training, and d monstration; om 

require urvey personn I to a omplish all 

proj ct ta ks alone. Bilatera l or mu lti latera l 

cooperative ventures with foreign aun t rpart organ izat ions und r Gov rnm entapprov d coop rative agreements to 

achi ve commo n research objective use 

both fund appropriat d for urv y r ar h 

and funds or other financial r sour es mad 

avai lab le by the ooperating ountries or 

organizat ion . Participant in uch aoperative res arch activiti spay their own 

expen . Activities in th is category range 

from informal scienti t-to- ci ntist di -

cuss ion and correspo nd n , throu gh 

formal, jointly staffed research proj ts, to 

multinational project focu ing on particular probl m or topi and oordinat d 

int rnationally . Related activit ies include 

in titutional d v lopm nt, ex hang of 

cienti ts, training of foreign national , and 

representation of the Survey or the U.S. 

Government in internationa l organization , 

commis ions, or associations. 

Sixty-eight foreign nationals from 45 

countrie participated in training programs 

at the Geological Survey during fisca l year 

1986. Twenty-nine attended Surveysched ul d training cou rses, and 39 rece ived 

on-the-job training at various Survey fa iliti e in the United States. The Survey al o 

provided cooperative research opportunitie to 45 exchange foreign scie nti st . 

Countries where th e Geo logical Survey 

carried on int rnational activities in fiscal 

year 1986 are hown in figure 1, and types 

of activit ies are li ted in table 1. The following ummaries more fully describe 

various aspe t of the programs. 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 105 
O o 

ANTARcnCA 

e--TAIWAN 

r- ~~c_~-- BANGLADESH 

~ Pt-ti LIPPINES 

,·<~ co ,.-PALAU 

~ PAPUA 

·- ~ fj' -~ ~NW G~I EA NDON ES A~ ~ '• 

-:·, .. 

() 

,...,...FIJI 0 

NEW 

C ALEDONIA 

!J Al'Ew 

U'ZEALANO 

Fi gu re 1. Co un tries with 

whom the U.S. Geological Sur· 

vey carried on international pro· 

grams in fiscal year I 986. 

Table l. International scientific activities conducted by the U.S Geological Survey in fisca l year 1986 

Coun try or 

region 

Bangladesh ....................................... __ .... __ ..... __ 

ameroon ---- ------------- -- -------------------------- -----------

ircum-Pacific ------ ----------------- --- ------------------------

Colombia ------------ ------------------ -· ------ ------------------

Costa Ri ca ------------------------------- -- -----------------------

East Asia --------------------- ---------------------- ---------------

El Salvador -----------------------------------

Fiji --- ----------------------------------- -- --- -----------------------

Gabon ........ --------------·------·---------------- -------- -.... .. . 

Guatemala ....................................................... . 

106 Inte rnational Activities 

Acti ity 

Tec hni ca l Assista nce Ac ti viti es 

Pl anning for institutional modernization in the Geological Survey o f Bangladesh; 

training of chemi ts. 

Geologic program review and re ommenda tions; investigation of 10xic gas explosion of 

Lake yos . 

Earthquake and tsunami pot ntial 

evado del Rui z volcano disaster respon e; earthquake monitoring and ha zard 

mitigation; Orinoco River sediment studies. 

Coal , mineral, and geothermal energy resources ass ssments; transport and 

bioavailability of toxi c metals in rivers. 

U.S. Government representation at United Nations (U .. ) regional meetings in Thailand 

and China; participation in vo lca nologica l haza rd s cou rse in Indo nesia sponsored by th e 

U . . Educational , Scientific and Cultural Organi za tion ; parti cipation in U .. co urse in 

Indonesia on economic a pects of coa l exploration , evaluation, and exploitation ; 

participation in petro leum resources assessment workshop in Malaysia; parti ci pation in 

U.N. workshop in Thailand on fertili zer minerals; ea rthquak e hazard mitigation 

pro •ram for South a t Asia. 

Earthquake hazards red uction 

Study of oastal sediment di tributi on 

Geologic investigation of Moanda mangane e mine 

Earthquake hazards reduction 
Table I. international scientific activities conducted by the U.S. Geological Survey in fiscal year 1986- Continued 

ountry or 

region 

Honduras ....................................................... . 

Hungary ......................................................... . 

Indonesia 

Technica l Assistance Acth•ities 

Geothermal en rgy resources assessment 

Basin ana lysis and petroleum exploration resea rch 

Volcanic monitoring and re earch ; marine geology and geophysi s; proposal for 

national coal resource management ystem. 

Ital y ........................................... ..................... Seismic and volcanic monitoring 

Jordan .. .. ..... ... ............................................. ..... Seismic network ; compu ter sy terns; oil shal a essment ; ground-wat r mod ling 

Kenya .............................................................. Regional remote sensing facility; Landsat imagery; map publication 

Kuwait ............................................. ... .. ....... Sand and gravel resources assessment project definition 

Latin Ameri ca ......... ....................................... .. Organization and participation in workshop on gold deposit mod ling, Brazil ; olcano 

early warning di aster assistance. 

Liberia .. ........................... ......... .. ..................... . Gold and diamond resour asses ment project definition 

M auritania ......... ............................... ................ Mineral and energy re ou rce as essment project definition 

M ex ico ..................................... ..... .................. Cerro Prieto geothermal energy program 

Morocco ......................................................... . Landsat base-map ompilation; mineral depo it a sessment; geophy ical in tigation 

Mozambique .................................................... Mineral re ources asse ment review and recommendation ; geologic and ca rtographic 

program definition ; training and in tituti onal development. 

Pakistan ............... ............................................. Coa l resources assessment ; national planning for coa l exploration, geodata enter, and 

coal analytical laboratory sys tem; participation in First Paki tan National oal 

Conference. 

Pal au ...................... .................... ...................... Gold resources as ssment 

Panama ........................................................... . Earthquake mitigation; geologic mapping, min ral resources xploration, and training 

program definition. 

Papua ew Guinea ............................................ Mineral resource data sys tem and ass m nt ; Bai raman Ri ve r landslide dam 

onsul tancy. 

Paragua y .......................................................... Hydrologi hazard related to floods 

Peru ............................................................... . 

Philippines ......................................... ............ . 

audi Arabia .................... ............................... . 

outh Pa cific ................................................... . 

Sudan ............................................................. . 

Taiwan ......................................................... . 

Th ai land ........ ......................... ........................ . 

United Arab Emirates ....................................... . 

Venezuela ....................................................... . 

Mineral re ources asses ment 

Mineral depo it modeling wo rk shop and sympo ium 

G ologic mapping and mineral re ources asse sment ; hydrologic tudies; Landsat image 

ba e map ; sei mic studies. 

Hyd rocarbon resource studie of crui s data from Tonga, Vanuatu, o lomon Islands, 

and Papua ew Guinea ; U .. Government representation at U . . regional meeting in 

olomon Island ; coa tal mapping workshop. 

Land at ba e-map compi lation; map publication 

Land subsidence investigations 

Coal re ource a e sment program definition 

Water re ources re onnaissance of Abu Dhabi ; marine geology and environmental 

geochemistry program defini tion. 

Sediment tudies of O rinoco Ri ver; min ral re ou rces assessmen t project definition; 

seismic consultancy. 

Wes t lndi s ..................... ................................. Streamflow and stream- ediment studi e 

Worldwide ...................................................... Global ismi etwork ; hydrologic training course; remote sensing work shop 

cientific Cooperative Activities 

Antarctica Topographic and satell ite image mapping; marine geologic and geophysical surveys; 

mineral resources studies; seismi c studies; geodesy; glaciology. 

Argentina ........................................................ Seismic studi es 

Aus tra lia .......................................................... Anta rctic resea rch ; tectonics and reso urces stud ies of South Pacifi c 

Bolivia .............................................................. Seismic studies 

Botswana .................................. ........................ Seismic studies 

Braz il ............................................ .................. Technology transfer in remote sensing; mineral resources assessment workshop; seismi c 

studies; sink-hole studies. 

British Virgi n Islands ................................... ....... Geologic examinations and geochemical sampling 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 107 
Table 1. frllernationa/ scientific activities conducted by the U.S. Geological Survey in fiscal year 1986- Co ntinued 

Canada ---- ----------- --------------- --------------------- ---------

Central African Republ ic -- ---- ------- -------------- -- -----

Chile __ ______ ____ ____ ________ __________ __ _____ _________ ___________ __ _ 

Circum-Pacific _______________ ------ ____________________________ _ 

Costa Rica ------- -------- ----- --------------------------------- -- -

Dominican Republi c ----------------- -----------------------

East Asia ---------- -- _____ __ ____ ____ _________ __ _____ ___ ------------

Federal Republic of Germany -------------------------- --

Finland ___ __ ___ _______ ___ _____ __ -- ---- --- ___ ______ ------- ____ __ ___ _ 

Fra nee ___ ___ ---------_-------- ______________ ---------------- ___ ____ _ 

Greece ------------------------------------------------------------

Green Ia nd -------- _________________ --------- __ ------ __ __ ----------

Hungary 

Iceland ------------------------------------ -- ----------------------

India -- -------------- -- -- -- -------- ------- --- --- -------------- -------

Indonesia _____ _____________ _ ------- ------------------------------

Israel ___ __ ______ ________ ____ __ __ ______ ______ ___ __________________ ___ _ 

Ital y ---------- ---- -- ------- ----- --------------------------------- ---

Ivory Coast ------------------ ------------------------------------

japan ---------------- -- ------ --------------------------------------

Latin America --------------------- -----------------------------

Mexico ------------- ------- -------- -- ------------------------------

ew Caledonia _____ ___ _______ ___ ------- ____________ ________ __ _ 

New Zea Ia nd ___ ___________ __ __ _____ ____________ ___ _____ ______ __ _ 

orway ------------------------------------------------------------

Paraguay __ ____ __ ___ ----------------------- ______ __ __ _____________ _ 

People's Republi c of China ------------ -- -------- -- --- --- --

Philippines --------- ---- --- -- ------- --------- --------------------

Po rt uga I _____ ____ ___ ______ ____ ________ ________ __ ___ __________ __ __ _ 

Senegal -- ------ -- ------ --- ---- --------- ------------------ -- ------ --

South Africa --- --------- --------- -------- ---- --- ---------------- Spain ____ ___ __ _________ __________ _____ __ ___ _______ ____ __ ___ ______ ___ _ 

108 International Activities 

Scientific Cooperative Activities 

Strategic mineral s inventory; deep-ocea n sulfide mineral deposit stud ies ; deep cru stal 

studies; Great Lakes seismic reflection profiles; borehole geophysics; cartographic data 

exchange; thematic mapping; geographic information systems; remote sensing; water 

resources studies ; strong-motion studies; geomagnetic studies; acid rain studi es; lake 

eutrophication; sea ice studie _ 

Seismic studies 

Earthquake st udies 

Coordination of compilations for geologic, tectoni c, mineral resources, and energy 

resources maps; ca rtographic and themati c design, drafting, and preparation of maps 

for publication. 

Limnology of high-altitude tropical forest lakes 

Offshore insular shelf studies 

Preparation of base map at 1:2,000,000 sca le in eight sheets cove ring a total area of 

approximately 12 million square miles; pilot study of circu m-Borneo sed imen tary basin 

analysis. 

Strategic minerals inventory; marine seismic studies of continental margins; radioactive 

waste; petroleum resources assessment; Antarctic research ; marine mineral s research; 

sea ice studies. 

Mineral resources data systems exchange 

Marine hyd rotherma l mineralogy; geophysical and geochemical studies; sediment 

transport studies; radioactive waste studies; marine data-base software development; 

sea ice stu dies; remote sensing in polar regions. 

Geochemistry of petroleum; structural geology studies 

Airborne radar sou ndings 

Seismic stratigraphy; seismic modeling; electromagnetic, mineralogic, paleomagnetic, 

and pal eoenvironmental studies. 

Volcanic, geothermal, and glacial studies 

Science and technology review for possible cooperative program development; coa l 

basin analysis and coal resources assessment workshop; seismic studies. 

Pilot study of peat resources potential in Sumatra; stud y of chromite sa nds 

Stable isotope geochemistry of sedimentary phosphate deposits 

Volcanology; marine geology; mathematical modeling of estuarine flow 

Seismic studies 

Joint panels on earthquake prediction, wind and seismic effects, marine geology, and 

marine mining; ore deposit resea rch; seismi ca lly induced landslide studies; debris flow 

and mudflow studies; digital cartog raphic development exchange. 

Technica l support for Pan American Inst itute of Geography and History; sa tellite 

mapping project definition; mapping standards and multilingual terms. 

Seismology and seismic risk assessment; base-map compilation of U.S. border area 

Study of chromite sa nds 

Antarct ic research 

Watershed geochemistry; fulvic and humic acid resea rch; sea ice studies 

Seismic studies 

Surveying, mapping, and geographic information systems; surface-wat er hydrologic 

st udies; isotope hydrology; China digital seismic network; Beijing digital seismi c 

network computer system; magnetic and deformation observations; crustal stress 

measurements; intraplate active faults and ea rthquakes; fault zone xenoliths ; landslide 

and debris flow studies; ophioli tes; Paleozoic-Mesozoic boundary; paleomagnetism of 

Proterozoic rocks of China; strata-bound copper deposits; geochronology of minera ls 

of China; geochronology of mineral deposits; antimony and mercury deposits; 

pyrophyllite deposits. 

Study of chromite sands 

Massive sulfide studies; remote sensing 

Paleontologic studies 

Strategic mineral s inventory; seismi c studies 

Ground-water geochemistry and flow systems; remote se nsing for mineral deposits; 

ea rthquake resea rch; marine geology and oceanography of co ntinental margins; wa ter 

resou rces management for reducing environmental pollution; epithermal gold-a lunite 

deposits; hydrogeochemical processes in the Canary Islands; sampling and observation 

network s; Almadenrtype mercury deposits. 
Table 1. International scientific activities conducted by the U.S. Geological Survey in fiscal year 1986- Continued 

Scientifi c Coope rative Activities 

Sweden ........................................................... . Subsurface contaminant migration 

Tanzania ............................. ........................... .. Seismic studies ; testing of local fertilizer materials 

United Kingdom ............................................. . Marine geology, GLORIA sonar mapping; world coal resources ; strategic minerals 

inventory; digital cartographic development exchange; Antarctic research; sea ice 

studies. 

U.S.S.R . .. .. ...................................................... .. Joint committee on earthquake prediction 

Yugosl avia ................................. ...................... . 

Worldwide .................................................... .. 

Soil condition and soi l structure; seismology and ea rthquake hazards; geochemical 

surveys; granite-metamorphic complexes; ground-water modeling project definition; 

soil sciences project definition; mineral nitrogen in ground water, soils, and plants; coal 

resources project definition; agrohydrology; geophysical research in coa l mines. 

International Strategic Minerals Inventory; World Energy Resources Program; Global 

Seismic Network . 

International Agrogeology 

Activities 

The "green revolution " now tak ing place 

in many developing countries has placed 

new importance on the fie ld of agrogeology. 

In recognition of this importance, the Geologica l Survey has begun field studies and 

seminars on discove ring agricultura l minerals such as phosphate and zeolite and 

resea rch on eco nomical d irect applications 

of those m ineral s as fertili zer. Although 

new hybrid crops can provide the increased 

productivity needed to break the cycles of 

famine brought on by continued population growth and climatic variability, most 

farmers in developing countries cannot 

afford the fertilizers needed to maintain 

those crops. To be affordable, fertilizers 

must be produced loca ll y or at least regionally. Geological Survey researchers have 

devised a method of applying loca ll y ava ilable unprocessed rock phosphate directl y 

as fertilizer. Rapid plant growth is supported by the sustain ed rel ease of phosphorous, and the quick solution and flushing from the soil com mon to chemical 

fertilizers do not occur. Tests show that 

applying ammoniated zeolite with rock 

phosphate res ults in greater plant productivity and redu ce d costs; th e method is 

thus very attractive to developing countries. 

Resu lts of this resea rch into a generally 

neg lected aspect of the " green revolution " 

we re presented at a meeting on " Agrogeo logy in Eastern and Southern Africa," 

held June 23 throug h 27, 1986, in Zomba , 

Malawi . 

In a re lated study, Geologica l Survey and 

Yugoslav scientists are eva luating a method 

whereby the large amounts of liquid waste 

generated in commercia l hog-feeding lots 

in Slove nia can be absorbed by natural 

zeolite and then used as fertilizer. At present, 

these wastes have no use and constitute a 

major environmental problem . Also in 

Yugoslavia, the Geologica l Survey and the 

U.S. Department of Agriculture are participating in an interdisciplinary study of the 

poss ible relation between high levels of 

nitrate and nitrite in ground water and the 

occurrence of endemic kidney disease. 

Similar high levels of nitrate and nitrite 

occur locally in the United States, apparently 

cause d by the flushing of ammon ia from 

chemical fertilizer. 

Geological Survey scientists advised the 

Government of Mauritania on agricultural 

min eral s as part of a review of a national 

plan to combat the advance of the desert. 

Field agricultural trials used local rock 

phosphate as fertili zer and peat to increase 

the organic content of the soil; agricu ltural 

lim e and gypsum resources were also 

evaluated. 

Geologic Hazards 

Colombia 

On November 13, 1985, evado del Ruiz 

volca no in centra l Colombia erupted , killing 

an es timated 22,000 people. The vo lcanic 

eruption triggered numerous mudflows, 

one of which inundated the town of Arm ero, 

about 50 mil es west of Bogota. 

The Geologica l Survey was requested by 

the Government of Colombia and the Office 

of Foreign Di sas ter Ass istance (OFDA) of 

the U.S. Agency for International Development (A ID) to provide technical assistance 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 109 
in response to this disaster; within 3 days, a 

seve n-man tea m and volcano monitoring 

equipment were at the site. Within a week, 

th e Survey team had deployed telemetered 

seismographs to relay immediate readings 

to th e scient ists and several electroni c 

di stan ce-mea suring (EDM) reflectors to 

measure deformation of th e volcano's shape. 

Ten days after th e eruption, a team of three 

Survey scienti sts evaluated th e debris flow 

hazard at th e volcano and installed a telemetered detector to help provide ea rl y 

warning of flood waters or mudflows moving 

downstream. 

Survey and Colombian scientists and 

uni versity tea ms from th e United States and 

other countries had seismi c and gro und 

networks operating effectively w ithin 1 

month ; five telemetered seismograp h 

stations, four telemetered tiltmeters, and 

several EDM lines were also insta ll ed. The 

Survey provided co ntinous staffing and additional equipment until earl y Febru ary 

1986, wh en th e Survey ag reed w ith 

AID/ OFDA to effect an orderly transfer of 

equipment to the Colombians and to 

provide training and gu irlance to ensure its 

optimum use. Th e Survey assisted the 

Colombians in establi shing a volca no logical observatory at Mani za les, which now 

serves as a foca l point fo r monitoring Rui z 

and other volcanoes. Japan, Canada, and 

Swit ze rland also provided moni toring 

equipment and staffing su pport to the 

observatory. 

As an o utgrowth of the Colombia disaster 

response, an agreement was signed by the 

Survey and AID/ OFDA in August 1986 to 

establi sh the five- yea r In terage ncy Volcano 

Earl y W arnin g Di saster Assistance Program. 

Ass isted during th e first phase by technical 

services and support from the Smithsonian 

Insti tution, the Survey wil l estab li sh a 

program capa bl e of providing rapid , costeffecti ve technical emergency repsonse and 

assistance for actual or potential volca no 

crises in Latin Am eri ca. The need for such a 

program has been demonstrated by recent 

volcano d isaste rs at Taca na and El Ch ichon 

in M ex ico, Rui z in Colombia, Rabaul in 

Papua New Guinea, and Mayan in th e 

Philippines. 

Cameroon 

M o re than 1,500 people were kill ed and 

300 injured on Au gust 21 , 1986, when a 

110 International Activities 

lethal gas burst occurred in Lake Nyos in 

northwestern Cameroon. A cloud of ca rbon 

dioxide co ntaining apparently m inor 

amounts of hydroge n sulfide and related 

co mpounds infiltrated at least three villages 

(Nyos, Subum, and Cha) . A gas cloud of 

similar ori gin kill ed 37 people at nearby 

Lak e M anous on Au gust 15, 1984. 

Lake Nyos, approximately 200 miles northwest of the ca pito l of Yaounde, is in a 

basa lti c maar crater of prehistoric but 

Ho locene age (10,000 years ago), o ne of at 

least 30 volca ni c crater lakes in the 1-

milli o n- to 10,000-yea r- o ld Cameroon 

volca ni c line. Th ese vo lca noes are part of a 

chain of vents th at follows a tectonically 

active zo ne of cr ustal weakness extending 

from the island of Pagalu in the Atlanti c 

O cea n northeastward through Cameroon 

and part of Nigeria. 

Th e Geo logi ca l Survey, at the req uest of 

AID/ OFDA, sent one volcanologist and two 

geochemists to eva luate th e di sas ter. Two 

limnologists from Brown and Duke Universities, two representatives from the 

Environmental Protecti on Agency, and two 

foren sic medi ca l experts from the Un ited 

States also investi gated the disaster. Geologi ca l Survey scientists are anal yz ing fie ld 

information and samples to determine the 

ca u se of the gas eb ullition and to 

recommend methods for assessing the risks 

of such a di saster recurring at Lake Nyos, at 

similar lakes in Cameroon, or elsewhere. 

Energy and Mineral 

Resources Studies 

The Geologi ca l Survey conducts resea rch 

o n fore ign energy and minera l resources to 

ex pand th e basis for assessing domes ti c 

energy and m ineral resource potential and 

to determine th e ava il abili ty of foreign 

resources fo r satisfyi ng U.S. and world needs. 

During 1986, Survey scienti sts: 

• Continued stud ies o f foreign petroleum 

resou rces through th e World En ergy 

Resources Program and reported on th e 

petroleum potenti al of the Balti c Basin 

and several basins in China and South 

Asia. 

• Continued to coordin ate th e International Strateg ic Mineral Inventory 

(ISM I) and publi shed ISMI reports on 

nickel and platinum. Geoscience organ-
izations from Canada , the United 

Kingdom, West Germany, Australia, and 

South Africa provide data and collaborate in this worldwide compilation 

of the major sources for strategic 

minerals. 

• At the request of local governments, the 

Department of State, and AID and in 

support of U.S. foreign policy objectives, 

conducted reconnaissance studies of 

manganese in Gabon, titanium sands in 

Mozambique and Mauritania, nickel and 

platinum in Morocco, su lfide deposits in 

Japan, and gold and other minerals in 

Costa Ri ca , Liberia, Palau, and Papua 

ew Guinea. 

• In cooperation with the U.S. Bureau of 

Mines, provided field training and 

orientation co nsultations in the United 

States and in foreign countries for 

Reg ion al Reso ur ces Offi cers and 

Minerals Reporting Offi cers from U.S. 

Embassies around the world and adv ised 

and assisted various offices in the 

Departme nt of State that are the 

principal users of this m ineral and energy 

resou rces information . 

• Undertook an assessment of the coa l 

resources potentia l in Pakistan und er an 

agreement with AID and in cooperation 

with the Geological Survey of Pakistan . A 

ational Coal Exploration Plan, which 

summarized known resources both 

locally and regionally and evaluated 

present and project d coal demands, 

use, and exploration requirements, was 

developed and presented to the Government of Pakistan for use in formulating 

the Pakistan Seventh Five-Year Plan . An 

in-depth review of the coal analytical 

laboratory system recommended that it 

be extensively upgraded and strengthened to nsur accurate, rel iable, and 

internationally comparab le ana lytica l 

results. A simi lar review of the national 

geodata c nter recommended its regenerat ion and overall strengthening to 

function as a repository for data nationwide. First-year a tivities in the assessm nt of coa l resources in southern Sind 

Province produced a project work plan, 

a coa l exploration drilling plan, specifications of contract for a coal exploration 

drilling company, compi lation of base 

maps and available coa l resources data, 

co ll ection of 40 coa l samples for laboratory ana lyses, preliminary geologic mappin g, and strati graphi c and geophysical 

records of three exploratory core holes 

that indicate basin-edge i nterfi ngeri ng 

of marine and continental environments. 

• Conducted a mineral resource assessment 

in Costa Ri ca, supported financially by 

AID and in cooperation with the Central 

American School of Geology of the 

University of Costa Ri ca , the General 

Directorate of Geology, Mines, and 

Hydrocarbon in the Ministry of Industry, 

Energy, and Mines of Costa Ri ca , and the 

Los Alamos ational Laboratory. Maps 

produced during the investigations show 

gravity, aero magnetics, terrane, volcanic 

framework , ve in -sample locations, 

known mineral localities, and domains 

favorable for mineral deposits . On the 

basis of domain maps and tonnage and 

grade models additiona l investigations 

are recommended to search for undiscovered mineral deposits in a number 

of areas. Detailed and regional geologic 

mapping integrated with available geologic, geophysical , and geochemica l information and newly derived modeli ng 

studies in the Cordillera de TilaranMontes de Aguacate gold area improved 

u ndersta ndi ng of the overa ll controls for 

the origin of gold ore. This knowledge 

can be used to search for extensions of 

the known gold district as well as for 

concealed gold deposits in areas of 

similar geology. 

• Also funded by AID and in cooperation 

with Los Alamos ational Laboratory, 

evaluated geothermal areas in Costa Ri ca 

and Honduras with counterparts from 

the respective national electric 

companies. Additional studies have been 

recommended for two volcani c areas in 

Costa Ri ca-Rin con de Ia Vieja and El 

Tenorio-that have the potential for geothermal development. Geochemical study 

of thermal fluids having temperatures of 

120 ° C in the St. Ignacio area of Honduras 

indicates that the site is favorab le for 

geothermal development, even though 

the fluids are from a sedimentary rock 

reservoir rather than being associated 

with a recent volcano. 

Hydrology and 

Hydrogeology Studies 

Technical assistance in hydrology was 

extended by Water Resources Division perGeological Survey Yearbook 1986 111 
so nnel in fiscal yea r 1986 to 13 foreign 

nations, primarily in Africa, the Mideast, 

and the Caribbean region. Activities ranged 

from hydrologic hazards eva luati ons (toxic 

gases from Lake yos in Cameroon, mudflows from Nevada del Rui z volca no in 

Colombia, and flooding on the Parana and 

Paraguay Rivers in Para guay) to consultation and assista nce in water resources data 

coll ectio n and anal ysis (water-q uality model ing in the People's Rep ublic of China, 

sediment stud ies in the Orinoco River in 

Venezuela, and water resources reconnaissa nce of Abu Dhabi in the United Arab 

Emirates). 

Scientific cooperation with scientists from 

at leas t 15 nations included studies of 

hydrologic systems or conditions not readily 

avai lable in the United States, the scientific 

resu lts of which contribute directly to the 

und erstand ing and resolution of domestic 

water resources problems (for example, 

mudflow studies in Japan, geochemistry of 

regional ground-water flow systems in Spain, 

and lake eutrophication in Canada). Oth er 

cooperative projects were undertaken to 

support the missions of other Federal 

agencies (for example, airborne radar ice 

sounding in Greenland, evaluation of nitrogen in grou nd water in Yugoslavia, and 

marginal sea ice studies in the Arctic). 

Visiting scientists from, ew Zealand and 

China also participated in year-long hydrologic research projects in the United States, 

including studies on the effect of fluid 

produ ction from hot-water we ll s on thermal 

features and mathematical modeling of 

sediment transport in harbors and 

estuaries. 

U.S. domestic water programs have and 

will continue to accrue sign ificant benefits 

from the scientific knowledge ga ined from 

these cooperative efforts. In particular, the 

avai lability of a unique 2,500-year record of 

extreme hydrologic events in China and the 

o pportunity to study sed iment transport in 

the Ye llow Ri ver, the world's most sed imentladen river, will sign ifi cantly en hance our 

hyd rologic knowledge and abi lity to resolve 

domestic water problems. 

Topographic and 

Geographic Mapping 

A protocol on scientifi c and techn ica l 

cooperatio n in surveying and mapping 

112 International Activities 

st udi es was sig ned by the Geological Survey 

and the ational Burea u of Surveying and 

Mapping ( BSM ) of the People's Republic 

of China in April1985. The first meeting of a 

Joint W orking Group was held in B ijing in 

August 1985 to deve lop work plans. In 1986, 

the BSM conducted a functional r quirements stud y for a geograp hi c information 

system design and sent five people to the 

Un ited States to study geograph ic information systems at the Geological Survey and 

other Federal agencie . The BSM subseque ntl y drafted a requirem nts document 

showing the planned sys tem onfiguration 

that was reviewed by the BSM and the 

USGS. Appropriate comput r equipment 

and programs were evaluated, and personnel were exchanged to study data 

acq ui siti on, map feature clas ification, and 

data-base management. 

The BSM also se nt experts to the United 

States to study remote sensing equipment, 

facilitie , and operations, and the Survey 

sent representatives to China to discuss 

project implementation technique and 

equipment requirements. Comparative projects using the Bl ack Hills area in the United 

States and the in gxiang area in China were 

also begun. Th e project work emphasized 

applications of digital image processing for 

mapping, map revision, and thematic maps. 

Antarctic Surveying and 

Mapping 

Surveying and mapping are two of the 

many activities necessary for the ational 

Science Foundation's successful operation 

of its multifaceted scientifi c and exploration 

effort in Antarctica. For the twentieth year, 

Survey personnel performed seasonal fieldwork to obtain geodetic control data and 

aerial photography in su pport of ea rth, 

biologic, and mapping sc iences. Yearround data acquisition, cata loging, and data 

dissem ination activities cont inu ed in th e 

Scientific Comm ittee for Antarctic Research 

Library for Geodesy and Cartography, which 

is maintained by the Survey. A topographi c 

reconnaissance map covering 25,000 sq uare 

mil es was published during the fiscal yea r 

and provides a base for displaying scientifi c 

information in a spatially accurate manner, 

for plann ing future expeditions, and for 

cond ucti ng search and rescue mission ~ 
Application of Remote 

Sensing Techniques 

The Geological Survey has expanded its 

mapping program in Antarctica to include 

the use of co lored, digitall y enhanced 

Landsat multispectral scanner (MSS) images 

to increase existing map coverage and to 

improve upon previously published Landsat 

maps. The first product-a digitally enhanced mosa ic image of the McMurdo 

Sound region (fig. 2)-covers four complete 

and two partia l 1 :250,000-scale topograph ic 

quad rang les and shows rock and ice in 

much more detail than previously compiled 

black-and-wh ite paper-print mosaics of the 

region do. 

In addition to providing maps, digitally 

processed Landsat images should play an 

important part in solving a variety of Antarctic research problems. Special-purpose 

images have been prepared showing bedrock or ice features only (fig. 3); maps made 

from such images will be used to locate 

specific types of ice or rock for resea rch 

purposes. Identifying these features in 

remote areas saves time and money because 

of the difficulties in reaching these areas on 

the ground. Special-purpose images may 

also show blue ice areas, wh ich are significant beca use most of the approximately 

Figure 2. False-color mulrispecrral digiral m osaic of rhe 

M c Murdo Sound region in 

Lamberr co nfo rmal co ni c 

projecrion. Ross Island {A) is 

ropped by Mounr £rebus {8). 

an acri ve volcano. McMurdo 

Srarion on rhe island is locared 

ar rhe rip of a f inge r/ik e 

peninsula exrending roward rhe 

sourhwesr (C). Ice-free valleys 

in rhe cenrer of image are rhe 

Dry Valleys (D). 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 113 
Figure 3. Special-purpose image of 1he By rd Glacier region high/igh1ing areas of soil or rock exposure 

(red). Diffused ligh1 and dark areas in 1he lop rig/11 oflhe image are clouds and !heir shadows. Isola! eel red 

spo1s on 1he glaciers (!he smoolh-looking upper ponion of 1he image) are compwer errors. 

114 International Activities 
6,000 meteorite fragments (25 percent of 

the total found on Earth) found in Antarctica 

have been in blue ice areas. 

Digitally enhanced images show ice rises, 

flow lines on ice streams and ice shelves, 

and buried mountain ranges more clearly 

than previous images do, and linear scarps 

and ancient valleys are clearly reflected on 

ice surfaces in places. 

Because distinctive flow and crevasse 

features in floating parts of ice streams and 

outlet glaciers remain visible just below 

their grounding zones for many years, 

imaging the same area twice over an interva l 

of several years yields time-lapse measurements of glacier velocity to a first order of 

accuracy. This technique offers a rapid , 

cost-effective method of obtaining average 

velocities of many ice streams and outlet 

glaciers near their termini . 

A cooperative project with the Norsk 

Polari nstitutt of Norway was setup to analyze 

digitally enhanced Thematic Mapper (TM) 

images of an area in Queen Maud Land. 

These images have a ground resolution of 

about 100 feet, three times better than the 

resolution of MSS images. Discrimination 

between clouds and snow is also better in 

TM near-medium infrared-wavelength 

bands than it is in bands of MSS, which are 

in visible and near-infrared wavelengths. 

These TM bands also reveal splotchy markings on the snow, which are not observed in 

visible wavelengths and which may be 

caused by variations in grain size. The 

excel lent resolution of these images makes 

them a valuble tool for expeditions doing 

traverse planning. 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 115 
NWLAX : 72 

NWI.C:N:;: 168 

SEIAT: 24 

SE:I.CN;: 66 

N1\ME: MINERAL RESaJRCES DIITA 

ACX!IYM: MRL'S 

RESPC:.N . ORii\NIZATIOO: USGS/GO 

ooorACT: MEllL:nl , 

liiXm:SS : u.s. 

'l'El.El'IDlE: 

TIME SP1\N OF DIITA: 

01\TA SEr STAnJS: 

ACCESS ME:IH:>D: 

NU1IIER OF REX:Xli1!E: 

BYTES PER REXXlRO: 

<n!P!1I'ER 'tYPE: 

<n!P!1I'ER IDCATIOO: 

O!Ml: 

FCIRMAT FOR DIITA SEI': 

DIITA SEl' DESClUPI'IOO: 

920 

IN GrnERAL, MRL'S CDNSISIS OF A SEr 

EX1'ENI', t:JEroSrrs OF AND IE jl.iJiiiiiiW~=;.i: 

RELATED 

= ~mE, 8'{ SO 'lHE ~ ~~~~~~ .. ~~ .......... Ev~ 'IO ESTABLISH A REXXlRIJ, E!mUES ARE IN Nl\'IURAL I.ANGUl\GE "mXT 

WHEREVER ro5SIBIE, IJ.Il' CERrAIN E!mUES ARE RIGIDLY FORMATI'EO OR 

COOED OR BJIH, 'lHE ORii\NIZATIOO OF 'lHE FilE, =mER Wl'Ili 'lHE 

PRlGRAM USED, PROVIDES FOR IUGHLY SEUX:I'IVE RE:miE\IAIS , 

RE:I'RIEVED lNF0!1MATICN Cl\N BE PRINI'EO IN W'l OF 'lliREE ARRANGEMDII'S, OR IT Cl\N BE PASSED 'IO A ~ PRlGRAM FOR Ft.JRll!m 

PRX:ESSING, SUO! 1>S MAPS AND C1lliER GRAFHICS. 

l<E'iW:JRtiS : 

== MINE 

MINERAL 

MINERAL t:JEroSIT 

us 

USGS 

GEOGRAPHICAL CXlVERAGE: 

OORlD 

CXlVERAGE DESOUPI'ICN: 

OORlD 

lXlCl.IMDII'ATICN: 

NONE 

CXJolMENl'S : 

NONE 

01\TA SET 'tYPE: l\l1I'CMII'l'E[ 

OORillWES'I'ERl IATI'IUDE: 72 

116 Information Systems Division 

co nserva tion was 

Florida's cast coast. 

data on groundwater 

lM 

lM 

[NJ 

~ 

Roads 

Streams 

Railroads 

Po It tical Boundaries 

is Peripheral in the news Canal in and n~~~~~~~-~~~~~IIII!II"'IIIIJI""!IIII"""",. l :~· June, 1982. Applications for water rights imperil existing domestic well supplies in 

Colorado. In the Great Lakes states drought plans we re being de veloped f or Illinois. 

Tapping Lake Michigan by Chicago s uburbs not ncnr the lak e was co ndemned as 

expensive. Knlamazoo, Mich iga n. is cou nting o n groundwater as supp li es for th e 

foreseeable future . Abundant water will be an even larger fa ctor in the development of 

Ohio's industr y. Projections for Wisconsin arc increases in agricultural usc :1nd decrea ses 

in industrial usc. However, groundwater pollution by nitrates f rom fertili zers is being 

detected in some Wisconsin wells. (C:usar-FRC) 

(U) 

CD ROM 1echnology, a revolulionary new way 10 dis1ribu1e 

eanh-science daw. (Design by 

Mani Quigley and £.1. McFaul, 

U.S. Geological Survey; pholograph by William Dize, U.S. 

Geological Survey.) 
INFORMATION SYSTEMS 

DIVISION 

MISSION 

The Information Systems Division provides 

support and advice to the Director of the 

U.S. Geological Survey, the Divisions of the 

Geological Survey, the Department of th e 

Interior, and other Government agencies 

on matters relating to information technology and automated data processing 

(ADP). It provides these computer se rvi ces 

for use rs of large-scale general-purpose 

computers and smaller special-purpose 

computers. The Divi sion assists users in 

acquiring ADP and tel ecommunications 

equipment and software, coordinates and 

improves information systems through 

system analysis and design, and conducts 

research into better ways to use dataprocessing technology to solve mission -

related problems. The Division is responsible 

for managing all voice, data, and radio 

communications in th e Geological Su rvey. 

BUDGET AND 

PERSONNEL 

The Division had a budget of $15.9 million 

for fiscal year 1986, whi ch was funded by 

providing servi ces to other Geological 

Survey Divi sions, to the Department of the 

Interior, and to other Federal agencies. 

Division staffing consi sted of 148 full-time 

employees, primarily computer specialists, 

computer analysts, mathematicians, computer scientists, systems programmers, and 

computer techni cians. Part-time and intermittent employees and contract computer 

operations personnel assisted in fulfilling 

the mission of the Division. These employees 

served customers through four ADP service 

centers located in Denver, Colo., M enlo 

Park, Ca lif., Flagstaff, Ariz., and Reston, Va. 

CURRENT ACTIVITIES 

In fiscal year 1986, th e Divi sion, assisted 

by other Divi sions of the Geologica l Survey, 

substa nti al ly enlarged the Earth Science 

Data Directory, an automated system for 

improving access to earth-science information . The d irectory contains information 

abo ut earth- cience data bases maintained 

by State and Federal agencies and nongovernmental entities. 

The Di vision assisted in establi sh ing a 

telecommunications plan that provides a 

comp rehensive, cost-effective, unified approach to voice and data telecommuni atio ns se rvices with in the Geological Survey. 

The plan supports and links diverse program 

elements through the management of a 

nati onwide data communi ca tion s network 

ca lled GEO ET. 

In addition , the Di visio n was involved in 

other activities such as the Reston Service 

Center, geog rap hi c information systems, 

and bureauwide personnel administrative 

systems. 

HIGHLIGHTS 

Earth Science Data 

Directory 

By C. R. Baskin 

The Earth Science Data Directory is a 

com puterized catalog of approxi mately 800 

references for sources of earth- science and 

natura l resources data . Maintained on a 

mainframe computer in Reston, Va., th e 

directory is accessible throu gh a variety of 

co mputer terminal s and is extremely easy 

to use. A number of search routines ca n be 

used to loca te refere nces. 

During fiscal year 1986, age ncies from 36 

States either entered o r agreed to enter 

references to their data into the directory. 

In add iti o n to the Geological Survey, 13 

Federal agencies provided directory references, and some references were received 

from nongovernmental sources. Users of 

the di rectory included people fro m 20 

Geological Survey sites, 24 State agencies, 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 117 
Ambidextrous skills helped at 

the Geological Survey 's old 

switchboard. 

The new answering console: 

simplified yet superior. 

severa l other Federa l agencies, other State 

and loca l agencies, and the private sector. 

Telecommunications 

By Telecommunications Services 

The Geological Survey implemented a 

telecommunications system to meet the 

growin g demand for voice and data communications. A computerized voice/ data 

telephone system was in tailed in Reston , 

Va.; installation of a similar system was 

begun in Menlo Park, Calif.; and a nation -

wide co mmuni cat ion s network called 

GEONET was acqu ired. Th ese changes in 

the telecommunications system have significa ntly affected the way in which the 

Geologica l Survey performs its mi ss ion. 

Insta llation of the new telephone system, 

ca lled the computerized branch exchange, 

118 Information Systems Division 

involv d r w1nng th e Res ton and M enlo 

Park faciliti s, installing more th an 5,000 

t lephon s, training emp loyees to use the 

ystem and testing to nsure th at th system 

fulfilled the need of it us rs. Features 

availabl · on th system include speed 

dia ling, all forwarding, au tomatic all back, 

ca ll pickup, ca ll wa iting, phone mail, and 

confer n e ca lling. The standard black telephon wer r plac d by multifunction 

tou h-tone tel phon s, but the more 

triking hang took pia in th communi ation center, wh r le tronic 

witches rep laced mechani al r lays. 

The new system is a fully automatic digital 

telephon witching sys tem that ha access 

to the Federal Tel communication Sy tern 

(FTS) , Divi io n erv ic enter , and 

GEO ET, the Department of th Interior's 

nationwide data communication network. 

GEO ET provides ready a cess to more 

than 100 Geological Surv y computers 

throughout th United Stat sand to several 

public networks. GEO ET lin ks computers 

of the Geological Survey with those oprated by the Fish and Wildlife Service the 

atio nal Park Service, th Minerals Management Servi e, the Bureau of Mines, the 

Bureau of Reclamation, and the Department's O ffice of the Solicitor. The network 

is also used by the Bureau of Land Management and the Offi ce of Surface Mining. 

More than 4,000 people use GEO ET 

each month, initiating a quarter of a million 

compute r sess ions, transmitting about 2 

billion characters of data, and logging approximately 46,000 hours of network time. 

GEO ET operation is monitored around 

the clock by a vendo r-owned, vendoroperated network control center, w hich is 

responsible for keeping GEO ET in an 

operational statu s 24 hours a day, 7 days a 

week. Th at respo nsibility includ es maintaining GEO ET hardware and coordinating 

with loca l telephone com pani es to keep 

t e lep hon e c ir cuit s in an o p era tin g 

cond ition. 

Reston Service Center 

By Theodore }. Herrman and 

Thoma s }. Fau lds 

Th e Info rmation Systems Division Service 

Center in Res ton, Va. , provides large-sca le 

computing resou rces for the scientific, techni ca l, and admin istrative staffs of th e Geo-
/::: SA f£LLITE NCO£.$ 

0 San a NPS B4C"30 E 'I ::>ES "'PS 

HOST COio<PUTERS 

etwork Con trol enter in Malvern, Pa .. is manned 24 hours a 

day by Tymnet technicians in support of G £0 ET. 

SOL 

G£0 ET. the Department of 

Int erior-Geological urvey telecommunication service using 

state-of-the-art packet switching 

technology. Blue lines indicate 

links betll'een host computer 

locations and backbone nodes. 

Red lines indicate backbone 

node links. SOL, Office of the 

olicitor: FWS. Fi hand Wildlife Service: MMS. Minerals 

Management S ervice: PS, 

ational Park Service; BOM. 

Bureau of Mines: BO R. Bureau 

of Reclamation: OSM. Office 

of Surface Mining: USC . U. S. 

Geological Sur vey. 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 119 
logical Survey. Through GEO ET, the Department of the Interior's nationwide data 

communication network, users ca n acce s 

two Amdahl mainframe computers, an IBM 

mainframe computer, and a VAX minicomp uter, all of which are installed at th 

Reston Service Center. ewly con tructed 

in 1985, th is facility provides a modern, 

secure loca tion for some of the Geological 

Survey's shared computers, commun ications 

equipment, and other computer ervi ng 

many of the program needs of the Geological Survey and other Departme nt 

bureaus. 

The Service Center provide up-to-date 

protection for the electronic equipment. A 

sophisticated u n interruptibl e power suppl y 

isolates the computers and communications 

sys tem from power surges or failures. Diesel 

generators activate during long power 

failures to ensure stable, continuous operation. During fiscal year 1986, the Amdahl 

computers were upgraded and are now 

controlled by new operating ystems . 

Fiber-optic cables connect the computers 

to high-speed laser printers that can produce quality graphics, and modern magnetic 

disk tech nology provides 50 billion bytes of 

online sto rage. Comprehensive secu rity 

softwa re protects the computers and the 

data from unauth orized access; the tape 

library is automatically controlled to provide 

protection against accidental erasure; and 

new communications links permit easy and 

reliable transmission of data between mainframes and microcomputer . Large vol umes 

of printed output can be directed to highspeed printers, while higher quality printing 

can be handl ed by laser printers. 

Contributions to 

Geographic Information 

Systems 

By Richard A. MacDona ld 

A geograp hi c information system is an 

integrated set of computer hardware and 

softwa re that is used to acquire, store, 

ana lyze, and display digital spatial data. The 

Divi sio n ass isted the program Di vis ions in 

geographic information system activities 

and undertook so me initiatives of its own in 

fisca l year 1986. Divi sion personnel were 

train ed to use the geographi c informa ti on 

120 Information Systems Division 

syste m us d in most of the Geo logi al 

Survey, so that th ey could bett r assi tin the 

co mputer scien asp cts of that sys t m. A 

prototype g ographi information sys tem, 

funded by the Geological Survey and using 

artificial intellig nee methods, wa delivered 

by the Univer ity of Ca li fornia , Santa 

Barbara , to th Geological Surv y for 

further r finement and u . Thi s software 

resides on the Divi ion's VAX minicomputer. 

The Divi ion is xpanding th system's 

graphic capabilitie , writing routine to 

interface with other geographi information 

sy terns, in orporating expert apabilities, 

and extending th qu ry language used by 

th e system. 

Th Divi ion inv stiga ted th use of 

gen raJ-purpose micro omputers in geograph ic information sy t m . A low-cost 

image analysis and digiti zing work station 

wa assembled from hardwar and software 

componen ts gen rally avai lable in the 

marketplace. Prin cipal element of the 

system were a microcomputer having an 

expansion interface, a digiti zing tablet, a 

video scanner, a high-re o lution color 

monitor, and softwar for imag enhancement and analy i . 

Because geograph ic information sys tems 

perform many calculations, th y function 

poorly on conventional computer ystems. 

The Division inve tigat d the use of concurrent processors as po sibl candidates 

for processing geograph ic information 

system data. During fiscal year 1986, Divi sion 

employees received training and spent time 

processing a Geological Survey system on a 

parallel processor. Tests indicated that this 

technology is promising for use in geographic information systems. 

Workin g with microcomputers and 

various softwa re systems led to investigating 

data exchange capabiliti s among softwa re 

packages and among data bases . Translation 

programs were developed to allow transfer 

of data from one processing system to 

another. On e set of programs trans lates 

data from the sour e system to a common 

fi le format, wh il e a second set trans lates 

data to a target sys tem format from the 

common file format. 

The Divi sio n continued to resea rch new 

techno logies to support the massive storage 

requirements of geograp hi c information 

systems. Two promising systems using optical storage devices were developed as 

prototypes. Compact Disc-Read Only 

Memory was tested as a low-cost method of 
distributing geographic information systems 

data. An inexpensive reader similar to the 

audio compact disc players used in music 

systems is connected to a personal computer 

and used to access a disc containing up to 

540 megabytes of data. Readers were distributed to a number of offices in the 

Geo logical Survey, along with a prototype 

disc containing files of earth-science data. 

The second prototype system used a 

different technology. A Write Once Read 

Many optical disc system can record data as 

well as read it. The prototype study 

examined the efficiency and economics of 

using optical storage devices for archiving 

data. The optical storage unit was connected 

to the Division minicomputer in Denver, 

Colo. Seismic data stored on magnetic tapes 

were written into the Write Once Read 

Many system to ensure more accurate data 

for greater periods of time and faster 

retrieval of data kept in a smaller storage 

area . 

Personnel Administrative 

Systems 

By Larry C. Harms 

The Division began several prototype 

bureauwide personnel administrative systems in fiscal year 1986. The Automated SF52 system, the Vacancy Announcement 

system, and the Paypers Query system were 

all developed on the Amdahl computer 

system by using the Model 204 Data Base 

Management system. The SF-52 system will 

allow Geological Survey Divisions and 

personnel offices to electronically create, 

approve, and route personnel actions nationwide. The Vacancy Announcement system 

will enable the Survey to electronically 

create and mail vacancy announcements 

nationwide. The Paypers Query system will 

provide a central source of personnel information for the entire bureau. The success 

of these activities will facilitate the automation of other personnel activities such as 

position descriptions. 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 121 
122 Administration 
U.S. Geological Survey Na1ional 

Cenler in Res/on, Va. (?holOgraph by William Dize, U.S. 

Geological Survey.) 

ADMINISTRATION 

MISSION 

The Administrative Divi sion provides 

administrative direction and coordination 

for the su pport service aspects of the 

scie ntifi c, research, and technica l programs 

of the U.S. Geological Survey. The administrative services include financial management, personnel services, procurement, 

property and space management, management analysis and improvement, safety and 

occupational health, and administrative 

systems management. 

BUDGET AND 

PERSONNEL 

The cost of the centra l administrative 

serv ices provided by the Administrative 

Di vision totaled about $26 million in fiscal 

year 1986. Divi sion staffing consisted of 

about 430 employees, loca ted primarily at 

the Resto n, Va., headquarters and at two 

Regio nal Management O ffices in Denver, 

Colo., and M enlo Park, Calif. 

HIGHLIGHTS 

Volunteer for Science 

Program 

During fiscal year 1986, the Geological 

Survey launched its Volunteer fo r Science 

Program, a service-oriented program designed to ace pt volunteer services from 

individual s or groups interested in science 

and public s rvi ce. Th e Volu nteer for 

Science Progra m relates directly to the 

national " Take Pride in America" ca mpaign, 

which, among other things, encourages 

citi zens to become more knowledgeable 

and ca reful about publ ic land use and 

fosters responsibility and respect for the 

Nation's natural resources. 

Th e Geo logica l Survey's Volunteer for 

Science Program rece ived imm ediate 

bureau, academic, and comm unity support 

and interest. During the program's first 

three months, program coordinators and a 

bureauwide network of key i.ndividuals 

en li sted about 55 volunteers, who provided 

servi ces in library research , hydrologic and 

geologic field assistance, laboratory work , 

co mputer assistance , procurement assistance, and administrative clerical support. 

Additionally, over 300 citizens, concentrated 

in the San Francisco area of California, 

volunteered to collect rainfall data for 

landslid e hazard stud ies. The Geological 

Survey expects increased participation 

during fiscal year 1987 and development of 

a quality corps of vol unteers, who will make 

signifi cant contributions to our mission. 

Streamlined Personnel 

Processing 

As part of a continuing effort to improve 

administrative practices, the Geological 

Survey reviewed its personnel processing 

system and identified actions that could 

streamline those processes and save manpower and dollars. Efforts are now underway 

to increase automation, eliminate duplication, increase delegations of authority to 

managers, and increase standardization in 

personnel documentation. In support of 

the President's Management Improvement 

Program and the Department of the 

Interior's Reform 88 management initiatives, 

action has been taken to automate Personnel 

Action Requests and vacancy announcements in fiscal year 1986. The automated 

Personnel Action Request system will be a 

prototype for application throughout the 

Department of the Interior. Efforts are also 

in progress to increase the use of standardized position descriptions, performance 

standards, and job selection factors and to 

identify and eliminate dupl ication of 

personnel recordkeeping and systems 

through expanded direct access to the 

integrated payroll-personnel system. 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 123 
Co nsolidation of wareho use 

acti vities at Building 810 in 

D e nv e r ha s allowed th e 

Geological Sur vey to increase 

the efficiency of map and book 

distribution. Th e new facility 

off ers more space, a more centralized distribution point, and 

the opportunity to use improved 

storage and shipping techniques. 

124 Administration 
Landsat Data Acquisitions 

The Geological Survey entered into a 

contractual agreement with the Earth Observation Satellite Company (EOSAT) to 

purchase Landsat satellite data for the 

Geological Survey and other interested 

Federal agencies through 1994. Previously, 

the Geological Survey and other Federal 

agencies acquired data from the National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration . 

1 n 1984, Congress passed Public Law 98-365, 

which resulted in the Department of Com -

merce's awarding EOSAT exclusive marketing rights for the data as part of the con -

tract transferring the Landsat satellite system 

to the private sector. Federal agency data 

acquisition costs under the agreement are 

expected to be approximately $5 million 

per year. 

Consolidation of 

Operations at the Denver 

Federal Center 

Pla ns have bee n completed to bring two 

of the Geologica l Survey' s public service 

organizations-the Geologic Division's Core 

Library and the National Mapping Division's 

consolidated Map Distribution Centerinto the Denver Federal Center. This action 

not only reduces costs but also is consistent 

with Government initiatives to move more 

Federal agency operations into Governmentowned space. 

The Core Library, which contains about 

4,900 cores from holes drilled by Federal 

and State agencies and private companies, 

has been occupying leased space and has 

had little room for expansion. Not only will 

relocation to the Denver Federal Center 

make the Core Library more accessible to 

the public and to Geological Survey scientists, but it will also increase the Survey's 

ability to accept rock collections from other 

organizations and ensure that they are 

properly maintained . The consolidation of 

the Map Di stribution Center at the Denver 

Federal Center allowed the release of 

expensive leased space in northern Virginia. 

The newly consolidated center will be the 

public's source of Geological Survey maps 

and publications. 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 125 
IORGANIZATION OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

U.S. Department of the Interior 

DIRECTOR 

I I 

ASSOCIATE DIRECTOR 

ASSISTANT DIRECTORS STAFF OFFICES 

Engineering Geology Washington Lia•son 

Programs Equal Employment Opportu nl!y 

Administration Cong ressional liatson 

Research Public Affaors 

Information Systems 

Intergovernm ental Affairs 

I I 

ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISION GEOLOGIC DIVISION 

Chief Chief Geolog ist 

Deputy Chief Associa te Chief Geologist 

Associa te Chief Geologist for Program 

'--- r 

I Office of Intern ational Geology 

Branches 

Financial M anagem ent Off1ce of Scientific Publications 

Administrative Services 

System s M anagemen t Branches 

Personnel I- Eastern Technical Report s Procurement and Contracts Central Technica l Reports Off1ce ol Reg1onal Geology 

Western Technical Reports 

Library and Information Services Branches 

Western Regional Geology 

Central Reg1onal Geology 

Eastern Reg1ona1 Geology 

Office o f M tneral Resources Isotope Geology 

Paleontology and Stratigraphy 

Branches Astrogeo logy 

A laskan Geology 

I- W est ern M ineral Resources 

Central M ineral Resources Off1ce o f Earthquakes 

Eastern M ineral Resources Volcanoes and Engineering Exploration Geochemistry 

Geophysics 

Analytical Chemistry Branches 

Resou rce A nal ysis Tec tonophysiCS 

Eng1neering Seismology and 

Geology 

Seismology 

Office of Energy and M arine Geology Engineering Geology and 

Tectonics 

Global Sei smology and 

Branches Geomagnetism 

I- Coal Resou rces Igneous and Geothermal 

Oil and Gas Resou rces Processes 

Energy M inerals 

Pacific M arine 

Atlantic Ma ri ne 

Assistant Chief Geologists 

M anagement Offices 

..... Eastern Region 

Central- Denver, CO Central Region 

Western- M enlo Park, CA Western Region 

126 Organization 
I 

Organizational Data 

I 

I I I 

INFORMATION SYSTEMS DIVISION NATIONAL MAPPING DIVISION WATER RESOURCES DIVISION 

Chief Chief Chief Hydrologist 

Assoc1ate Chief Associate Chief Associa te Ch1ef Hydrolog1st 

ASSIStant DiviSIOn Chief 

for Research ~ Ass1st ant Ch1ef HydrologiSt for 

ScientifiC In formatiOn M anagement 

- Policy Planning Offices 

and Coordina tion GeographiC and Ca n ograph1c 

Research Assistant Chief Hydrologist for Systems and Techmques - Operations Development 

Ass•stant Dtv lston Ch•ef Assistant Chief Hydrologist for 

Off1ce o f M anagem ent Serv1ces for Plans and Operations Research and External Coordination 

1- Branches Offices - Offices 

M anagement lnforma t10n Program M anagement Hydrologic Research 

Budget and Adm.n tstra tion Plans and Coordmation Ex·ternal Research 

International Activtties W ater Data Coord ination 

Qff,ce o f Customer Serv1ces 

Ass•stant DtviSIOn Ch1ef Assistant Chief Hydrologist for 

Branches for Information and Data Serv ices Program Coord ination and Technical 

1- Applied Technology Suppon 

Acqut sitton Suppon Offices Offices Technology Assessm ent 

Technology Informa tion - Product Otstribution Policy ~ 

Publica tions Liaison and Rev•ew Ground W ater 

National Canographic and W ater Quality 

Surface W ater Geographic Information Service 

Office o f Public Inquiries Atmospheric Deposition Analys is 

Computer and Commun1cat•on Serv1ces National W ater Summary and Long -Range 

Planning 

- Branches 

Communication Services 

Computer Serv1ces Field Centers Regional Offices 

Eastern M apping-Reston. VA Nonheastern- Reston, VA 

Offic& o f Field Serv1ces ~ M id-Cont inent M apping-Rolla, MO - Southeastern-Atlanta, GA 

Printing and Distribution- Reston, VA Central- Denver, CO 

- Denver Service Center Rocky M ountain Mapping- Denver, CO W estern- M enlo Park, CA 

M enlo Service Center Western M apping- M enlo Park, CA District Offices Flag staff Serv1ce Center EROS Data - Sioux Falls. SD 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 127 
U.S. Geological Survey Offices 

Headquarters Offices 

12201 Sunrise Valley Drive 

National Center, Reston, VA 22092 

Office Name 

Office of the Director 

Director ...................................................................... Dallas L. Peck 

Associate Director .................................................... Doyle G. Frederick 

Special Assistant (W as hi ngton Li aison) 

and Deputy Ethics Cou nselor ............................ Jane H. Wallace 

Ass istant Director for Research .............................. Bruce R. Doe 

Ass istant Director for Engineering 

Geology -·······--······--·······-··-·····································James F. Devine 

Ass istant Director for Adm ini stration .................... Jack ]. tassi 

Assistant Director for Programs ......... . .... Peter F. Bermel 

Assistant Director for Management 

Applications .................................... ----·-·-·--······ ..... Edmund ]. Grant 

Assistant Director for Intergovernmental 

Affairs ..................................................................... John]. Dragonetti 

Assistant Director for Information 

Systems .................................................................... Jame E. Bie ecker 

Director's Representative-Central 

Region ........ ---··--------·-····-····--··--·-······························ Harry T ou rtelot 

Director's Representative-Western 

Region ..................................................................... George Gryc 

Congression al Li aiso n Office r ·················--···-·-··--···Talmadge W. Reed 

Chief, Publi c Affairs Offi ce ...................................... Donovan B. Kell y 

Staff Ass istant (Special Issues) -········-···--·-·-·············Harold M attraw 

Special Assistant to th e Director for 

Alaska ·--····-·······························-····-------······-··-·-··-···Phil ip A. Emery 

National Mapping Division 

Chief ·-··················-·····························-·-·····-·----·-·········-Lowell E. Starr 

Associate Chief ···············--··-···-··································Roy R. Mullen 

Ass istan t Di visio n Chief for Research .................... Joel L. Morrison 

As istant Di visio n Chief for Pl ans 

and Operati o ns -·······-···-···············-·························Ri chard E. Witm er 

Ass i tant Di vi si on Chief for Informa tion 

and Data Service ................................................. Ga ry W. orth 

Geologic Division 

Chief Geologist ......................... --·······-·-······-·············Robert M . Ham ilton 

Associate Chief Geologist.. ...................................... Willi am F. Cannon 

Ass i tant Chief Geologist for Program .................. Benjamin A. Morgan 

Depu ty Ch ief Geologi t for Scientific 

Person nel -·-·····································-············--·········Penelope M . Hanshaw 

Po li cy an d Budget Offi cer ...................................... Norman E. Gunderson 

Offi c of Scientific Publi cations, Chief ................ Jo hn M . Aaro n 

O ffice o f Regiona l Geology. Ch ief ........................ Eugene H. Roseboom, Jr. 

Offi ce of Ea rthqu akes , Volcanoes, 

and Engineeri ng, Chief ·-····-·-··--·----···-·················-John R. Fil so n 

Offi ce of Energy and M ari ne G o logy, 

Chief ................................................................... Gary W. Hi ll, Act ing 

Offi ce of Mineral Re ou rce , Chi ef ...................... Glenn H. All cott 

Offi ce of Intern ational Geology, Chief ................ A. Thomas Ovens hine 

128 Geological Survey Offices 

Telephone 

Number 

(703) 648-7411 

(703) 648-7412 

(202) 343-3888 

(703) 648-4450 

(703) 648-4423 

(703) 648-7200 

(703) 648-4430 

(703) 648-4191 

(703) 648-4427 

(703) 648-71 08 

(303) 236-5438 

(415) 323-8111 

ext. 2711 

(703) 648-4457 

(703) 648-4460 

(703) 648-7413 

(907) 271-4398 or 

(907) 263-7429 

(703) 648-5748 

(703) 648-5745 

(703) 648-4640 

(703) 648-4611 

(703) 648-5780 

(703) 648-6600 

(703) 648-6601 

(703) 648-6640 

(703) 648-6628 

(703) 648-6650 

(703) 648-6077 

(703) 648-6959 

(703) 648-6714 

(703) 648-6470 

(703) 648-6100 

(703) 648-6047 

Address 

ational Center, Stop 101 

National Cent r, Stop 102 

Rm. 7343, Interior Bldg., 

Washington, DC 20240 

ati onal Center, top 104 

ational en ter, top 106 

National nter, Stop 201 

National Center, top 105 

ational Cent r, top 107 

ational Center, top 109 

at ional Center, Stop 801 

Box 25046 , Stop 406, 

Denv r Federal Center, 

Denver, CO 80225 

345 Middlefield Rd. , top 144, 

Menlo Park, CA 94025 

ational Center, Stop 112 

ational Center, top 119 

ational Center, Stop 121 

Gould Haii-APU Campus, 

Universit y Drive, 

Anchorage, AK 99504 

ational Center, Stop 516 

ational Center, Stop 516 

ational Center, Stop 519 

at ional Center, top 514 

ationa l Center, Stop 508 

Nationa l Center, Stop 911 

Nationa l Center, Stop 91 1 

atio nal Center, Stop 911 

Nati onal Cen ter, Stop 911 

National Center, Stop 910 

ati ona l Center, Stop 904 

ati o nal Cen ter, Stop 908 

atio nal Center, Stop 905 

Nati onal Cen ter, Stop 915 

Nati onal Center, Stop 913 

ational Center, Stop 917 
Office Name 

Water Resources Division 

Chief Hydrologi st ...................................................... Philip Cohen 

Associate Chief Hydrologi st ................................... Robert C. Averett 

As istant Chief Hydrologist for Scientific 

Information Management .................................. James F. Daniel 

A sis tan t Chief Hyd rologi t for Research 

and External Coordination .................................. Marshall M. Moss 

Assistant Chief Hyd rologist for Program 

oordination and Technical Support... ............ John . Fischer 

Assistant Chief Hydrologist for 

Operations ............................................................. William B. Mann IV 

Offi ce of Hydrologic Research, Chief .................. Roger G. Wolff 

Offi ce of Water Data Coordination, 

Chief, A ting .......................................................... Donald K. Leifeste 

Offi ce of External Research, Chief, 

Acting .................................................................... Marshall M. Moss 

Offi ce of Atmospheric Deposi tion 

Analysi , Chief ..................................................... Ranard J. Pickering 

Offi ce of Ground Water, Chief ............................. Eugene P. Patten, Jr. 

Office of Surface Water, Chief, Acting ................ VerneR. Schneider 

Office of Water Quality, Chief, Acting ............... .David A. Rickert 

Office of ational Water Summary and 

Long-Range Planning, Chief ............................. David W. Moody 

Information Systems Division 

Chief ............................................................................ James E. Biesecker 

Associate Chief .......................................................... Doug R. Pos on 

Offi ce of Cu torner ervices, Chief, Acting Virginia L. Ro s 

Office of Computer and Communication 

Service .... ............ ........................ ............... ......... acant 

Office of ManagementS rvice ........ Wendy A. Budd 

Offi e of Field ervice Fr d B. ower 

Administrative Division 

hi f 

Administrative Op rations Office r 

Bran h of P r onnel, hief 

Branch of Procuremen t and Contract , 

Chi f 

Branch of Finan ial Manag rnent , 

hi f 

Branch of Admini trati e ervice , 

Chi f 

Branch of y terns 1Jna~crn nl. hief 

Selected Field Offices 

National Mapping Division 

Regional Centers 

Eastern... . .... 

Mid- ontinent 

Ro ky Mountain 

........... Ja k J. Sta i 

... Timothy alkins 

Maxine . Millard 

.. Paul A. D nett 

..... Roy Heinbu h 

. William F. Go man, Jr. 

... Phillip L. M Kinney 

K. Eri Ander on 

Lawr nee H. Borgerding 

Merle E. o uthern 

W e t rn ........................ . ............................. John R. Swinnerton 

Printing and Distribution .. Vacant 

Public Inquiries Offices 

Alaska .... ..... ..... ......... ........... . ........ Eli zabeth . Behrendt 

Telephone 

Number 

(703) 648-5215 

(703) 648-5216 

(703) 648-5699 

(703) 648-5041 

(703) 648-5229 

(703) 648-5031 

(703) 648-5043 

(703) 648-5016 

(703) 648-5042 

(703) 648-6874 

(703) 648-5001 

(703) 648-5301 

(703) 648-6862 

(703) 648-6856 

(703) 648-7108 

(703) 648-7106 

(703) 648-7178 

(703) 648-7157 

(703) 648-7103 

(303) 236-4944 

(703) 648-7200 

(703) 648-7204 

(703) 648-7442 

(703) 648-7373 

(703) 648-7604 

(703) 648-7338 

(703) 648-7256 

(703) 648-6002 

(314) 341-0880 

(303) 844-5825 

(415) 323-8111 , 

ext. 2411 

(703) 648-5181 

(907) 561-5555 

(907) 271-4307 

Address 

ational Cent r, top 409 

ational Center top 408 

ation al Center, Stop 440 

National Center, Stop 436 

ational Center, top 414 

ational Center, top 441 

ational Center, top 436 

National Center, top 41 7 

ational Center, Stop 436 

National Center, Stop 416 

ationa l Center, Stop 411 

ational Center, Stop 415 

ational Center, Stop 412 

ational Center, Stop 407 

ational Center, Stop 801 

ational Center, Stop 801 

ational Center, Stop 805 

ational Center, Stop 807 

ational Center, top 802 

Denver Federal C nter 

ational Center, Stop 201 

ational Center, Stop 203 

ational Center, top 215 

ational Center, Stop 205 

ational Center, Stop 270 

ational Center, Stop 207 

ational Center, Stop 206 

ationa l Center, Stop 567 

1400 Independence Rd., 

Rolla. MO 65401 

Box 25046, top 510, 

Federal Center, 

Denver, CO 80225 

345 Middlefield Rd ., 

Menlo Park, CA 94025 

ational Center, Stop 580 

Room 101 , 4230 Un ivers it y Dr., 

An horage, AK 99508-4664 

E-146 Federal Bldg. , 

Box 53, 701 t. , 

Anchorage, AK 99513 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 129 
Office Name 

California: 

Los Angeles .......................................................... Lucy E. Birdsa ll 

Menlo Park ............................................................ Bruce S. Deam 

San Francisco .......................................................... Patri cia A. Shiffer 

Colorado .................................................................... Irene V. Shy 

Di stri ct of Columbia .................................................. Bruce A. Hubbard 

Texas ............................................................................ John P. Donnell y 

Uta h .............................................................................. Wendy R. Hassibe 

Virginia .................................. ...................................... Margaret E. Counce 

Washington ................................................................ Jea n E. Fl echel 

Distribution Branch Offices 

Alaska .......................................................................... Natalie Cornforth 

Colorado ................................................................... Dwight F. Canfield 

Earth Resources Observation Systems 

Data Center 

South Dakota .............................................................. AIIen H. Watkins 

Geologic Division 

Regional Offices 

Eastern .......................................................................... Jack H. M ed lin 

Central ........................................................................ Harry A. Tourtelot 

Western ..................................................................... Carroll A. Hodges 

Water Resources Division 

Regional Offices 

Northeastern .............................................................. Stanley P. Sauer 

outheas tern .............................................................. James L. Cook 

Central ...................................................................... James F. Blakely 

130 Geological Survey Offices 

Telephone 

Number 

(213) 894-2850 

(415) 323-8111 , 

ex t. 2817 

(415) 556-5627 

(303) 844-4169 

(202) 343-8073 

(214) 767-0198 

(801 ) 524-565 2 

(703) 648-6892 

(509) 456- 2524 

(907) 456-0244 

(303) 236-7477 

(605) 594-6123 

(703) 648-6660 

(303) 236-5438 

(415) 323-8111 

ext. 2214 

(703) 648-5817 

(404) 221-5174 

(303) 236-5920 

Address 

7638 Federal Bldg., 

300 . Los An gele t. , 

Lo Angele , CA 9001 2 

345 Middlefi eld Rd ., 

top 533, Bldg. 3, 

M enlo Park, CA 94025 

504 Cu tomh o use, 

555 Batt ery t., 

San Francisco, CA 94111 

169 Fed ral Bld g., 

19fi1 Stout St., 

Denver, CO 80294 

1028 G A Bldg. , 

18th and F St s., W ., 

Washi ngton, DC 20405 

1 C45 F deral Bldg., 

1100 Commerce t. , 

Dalla , TX 75242 

8105 Federal Bldg., 

125 S. State t. , 

al t Lake City, UT 841 38 

1C402, ational Center, 

top 503 

678 U.S. Courthou e, 

W. 920 Riverside Ave., 

pokane, WA 99201 

1011 2t h Ave., Box 12, 

Fairbanks, AK 99701 

Box 25286, Stop 306, 

Denver Federal Center, 

Denver, CO 80225 

EROS Data Center, 

Sioux Fal ls, D 57198 

at io nal Center, St op 953 

Box 25046, Stop 911 , 

Denve r Federal Center, 

Denve r, CO 80225 

345 M iddlefie ld Rd., Stop 19, 

M enlo Park, CA 94025 

at ional Center, Stop 433 

Ri chard B. Russell 

Federal Bldg., 

75 Spring St., SW., 

Suite 772, 

At lanta, GA 30303 

Box 25046, Stop 406, 

Denver Federal Center, 

Denver, CO 80225 
Office Name 

Western ..................................................................... John T. Conomos 

District Offices 

Alabama ..................................................................... Vacant 

Alaska .......................................................................... Philip A. Emery 

Arizona ........................................................................ Robert D. Mac ish 

Arkansas ...................................................................... Ector E. Gann 

Cal ifornia .................................................................... John M . Klein 

Colorado .................................................................... Charles A. Pascale 

Connecti cu t (See Massachusetts) 

Delaware (See Maryland) 

District of Columbia (See Maryland) 

Florida ......................................................................... Irwin H. Kantrowitz 

Georgia ........................................................................ Jeffrey T. Armbruster 

Hawaii .......................................................................... ). David Camp, Acting 

Idaho ......................................................................... Ernest F. Hubbard, Jr. 

Ill inois ...................................................................... Larry G. Toler 

Indiana ........................................................................ Dennis K. Stewart 

Iowa ............................................................................ Richard A. Engberg 

Kansas .......................................................................... Joseph . Rosen ·hein 

Ken tu cky .................................................................... Aiired L. Knight 

Louisia na ...................................................................... Darwin D. Knochenmus 

Maine (See Massachus tt s) 

Maryland .................................................................... Herbert). Freiberger 

Massachusetts ............................................................ Ivan C. james II 

Mi chigan .................................................................... T. Ray Cummings 

Minnesota .................................................................. Donald R. Albin 

Telephone 

Number 

(415) 323-8111 , 

ext. 2337 

(205) 752-8104 

(907) 271-4138 

(602) 629-6671 

(501 ) 378-6391 

(916) 978-4633 

(303) 236-4882 

(904) 681-7620 

(404) 221-4858 

(808) 541-2653 

(208) 334-1 750 

(217) 398-5353 

(317) 927-8640 

(319) 337-4191 

(913) 864-4321 

(502) 582-5241 

(504) 389·0281 

(301 ) 828·1535 

(617) 223-2822 

(517) 377-1608 

(612) 725-7841 

Address 

345 Middlefield Rd., Stop 470, 

Menlo Park , CA 94025 

520 19th Ave., 

Tusca loosa, AL 35401 

4320 University Dr., Suite 201 , 

An chorage, AK 99508 

Federal Bl dg., 

300 W. Congress St., 

Tucson, AZ 85701 

2301 Federal Office Bldg., 

700 W. Capital Ave., 

Littl e Rock, AR 72201 

Room W-2235, Federal Bl dg., 

2800 Cottage Way, 

Sacramento, CA 95825 

Box 25046, Stop 415, 

Denver Federal Center, 

Denver, CO 80225 

227 orth Bronaugh St., 

Suite 3015, 

Tallahassee, FL 32301 

6481 Pea chtree Industrial 

Blvd., Suite B, 

Doraville, GA 30360 

P.O. Box 50166, 

300 Ala Moana Bl vd., 

Rm 6110, 

Honolulu, HI 96850 

230 Collins Rd ., 

Boise, ID 83702 

Champaign County Bank 

Plaza, 102 E. Main St., 

4th Floor, 

Urbana, IL 61801 

6023 Guion Rd., Suite 201, 

Indianapoli s, IN 46254 

P.O. Box 1230, 

Room 269, Federal Bl dg., 

400 S. Cl inton St., 

Iowa City, lA 52244 

1950 Constant Ave., Campus 

West, University of Kansas, 

Lawrence, KS 66044 

572 Federal Bldg., 

600 Federal Pl., 

Loui sville, KY 40202 

P.O. Box 66492, 

6554 Florida Bl vd., 

Baton Rouge, LA 70806 

208 Carroll Bldg., 

8600 La Sa lle Rd ., 

Towson, MD 21204 

150 Cau eway St., Suite 1309, 

Boston, MA 02114 

6520 M erca ntile Way, Suite 5, 

Lansing, M l 48910 

702 Post Offi e Bl dg., 

St. Paul, MN 55101 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 131 
Office Name 

Mississippi ................................................................ Andrew G. Lamonds, Acting 

Missouri ...................................................................... Dani e l P. Bau e r 

Montana ...................................................................... )oe A. Moreland 

e braska ...................................................................... Willi am M. Kast ne r 

evada (See Id aho) 

ew Hampshir e (See Massachusetts) 

ew je rsey ................................................................. Donald E. Vaupe l 

ew Mex ico ...................................................... . ...... Ro bert L. Knutill a 

ew York ................................................. .................. Lawre nce A. Martens 

ort h Carolina .......................................................... James F. Turne r 

orth Dakota ............................................................. L. Grady Moore 

Ohi o ........................................................................... Steven M. Hindall 

O klahoma .................................................................. Charles R. Burchett 

Oregon (See Washington) 

Pen nsylvania ............................................................ .David E. Click 

Telephone 

Number 

(601 ) 960-4600 

(314) 341-0824 

(406) 449-5302 

(402) 471-5082 

( 609) 771-0065 

(505) 766-2246 

(518) 472-3107 

(919) 856-4510 

(701 ) 255-4011 , 

ext. 601 

(614) 469-5553 

(405) 231-4256 

(717) 782-4514 

Pu erto Ri co ................................................................ Ferdinand Qui nones-Ma rquez (809) 783-4660 

Rh ode Isla nd (See Massachusetts) 

Sout h Caro lina ....................... . ..................... Rod ney . Cherry 

South Da ko ta ............................ . ....................... Ri cha rd E. Fidler 

Tennessee .................................................................... Larry R. Hayes 

Texas ........................................................................... Charl es W. Bo ning 

Utah .............................................................................. Russell W. Cruff, Acting 

Vermont (See Massac husetts) 

Virginia (See Maryland ) 

Washingto n ............................................................... Garald G. Parker, Jr. 

132 Geological Survey Offices 

(803) 765-5966 

(605) 353-7176 

(615) 251-5424 

(512) 482-5766 

(801) 524-5663 

(206) 593-6510 

Address 

Suite 710 Fede ral Bld g., 

100 West Capito l St. , 

jackson , MS 39269 

1400 Independ ence Rd. , 

Stop 200, 

Ro ll a, MO 65401 

428 Fe d e ral Bldg. , 

301 South Park Ave ., 

Drawe r 10076, 

He le na, MT 59626 

406 Federa l Bld g. , 

100 Centennial Ma ll , orth, 

Li nco ln , E 68508 

Suite 206, 

Mountain View O ffice Park, 

810 Bear Tave rn Rd ., 

West Tren ton, J 08628 

Weste rn Bank Bld g. , Rm. 720, 

505 Marquette, W., 

Albuquerque, NM 87102 

P.O . 1669, 343 U.S. Post Offi ce 

and Courthouse, 

Albany, Y 12201 

P.O . Box 2857, Rm. 436, 

Century Postal Station, 

300 Faye tteville Street Mall , 

Ra le ig h, C 27602 

821 East Int erstate Ave. , 

Bisma rck, NO 58501 

975 West Third Ave. , 

Columbus, OH 43212 

Rm. 621, 

215 Dean A. McGee Ave., 

Oklahoma City, OK 73102 

P.O . Box 1107, 4th Floor, 

Fede ral Bldg. , 

228 Walnut St., 

Harrisburg, PA 17108 

GPO Box 4424, 

Bld g. 652, GSA Center, 

San Ju an , PR 00936 

Suite 658, 1835 Assembl y St. , 

Columbia, SC 29201 

Rm. 317, Federa l Bld g. , 

200 4th St., SW., 

Hu ron, SD 57350 

A-413 Federal Bl dg., 

U.S. Courthouse, 

ashvil le , TN 37203 

649 Federal Bldg., 

300 E. 8th St., 

Austin, TX 78701 

1016 Administr at io n Bld g., 

1745 W. 1700 South, 

Sa lt Lake Ci ty, UT 84104 

1201 Pac ifi c Ave. , Suite 600, 

Tacoma, WA 98402 
Office Name 

West Virginia ...................... ...................................... David H. Appel 

Wisconsin ....................................... . 

Wyoming ..................................... . 

Administrative Division 

Regional Management Offices 

. ................ Vernon W. orman 

.............. Ri chard M . Bl oyd 

Cen tral ........................................................................ George A. Honold 

Western ...................................................................... George F. Hargrove, Jr. 

Telephone 

Number 

(304} 347-5130 

(608} 274-3535 

(307} 772-2153 

(303} 236-5900 

(415} 323-8111 

Address 

603 Morris t. , 

Charl eston, WV 25301 

6417 Normandy Ln., 

M adison, W I 53719 

P.O. Box 1125, 

2120 Capi tal Ave., Rm . 4004, 

Cheyenne, WY 82003 

Box 25046, Stop 201 , 

Denver Fed eral Center, 

Denver, CO 80225 

345 Middl efield Rd., Stop 211, 

Menlo Park , CA 94025 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 133 
Guide to Information and Publications 

Throughout this report, reference has been made to information 

services and publications of the U.S. Geological Survey. Duri ng fisca l 

year 1986, the Survey produced over 6,078 new and revi sed topographic, hydrologic, and geologic maps; printed 15,043,050 copies of 

6,078 different maps; distributed 6,346,266 copies of maps; and sold 

5,285,320 copies for $8,567,898. Th e numbe r of reports approved for 

publication by the Geological Survey in fiscal year 1986 was 4,698, with 

68 percent designated for publication in professional journals and 

monographs o utside the Su rvey and the remainder scheduled for 

publication by the Survey. In addition , 154,900 copies of technical 

reports were distributed , of which 50,360 copies were sold for $198,261 , 

and 1,025 open-file reports were released , of which 27,606 copies were 

sold for $269,439. 

To buy maps of all areas of the United States and to request Survey 

catalogs, pamphlets, and leaflets (limited quantities free), writem visit: 

U.S. Geological Survey 

Office and Customer Services Section 

Federal Center, Box 25286 

Denver, CO 80225 

To buy Alaskan maps, residents of Alaska may write or visit: 

U.S. Geological Survey 

Alaska Distribution Section 

101 12th Avenue, Box 12 

Fairbanks, AK 99701 

To buy Survey book publications, to request Survey circulars, or to 

obtain information on the availability of microfiche or paper-duplicate 

copies of open-file reports, write: 

Publi cations and Open-File Services Section 

Federal Center, Box 25425 

Denver, CO 80225 

To get on the mailing list for the monthly list of New Publications of 

the Geological Survey (free), write: 

U.S. Geological Survey 

Computer Operations Office 

582 ational Center 

12201 Sunrise Valley Drive 

Reston, VA 22092 

To subscribe to Earthquakes and Volcanoes, write: 

Superintendent of Documents 

Government Printing Office 

Washington, DC 20402 

To obtain information on programs, publications, and services or to 

obtain copies of reports and maps, visit the U.S. Geological Survey 

Public Inquiries Offices at the following addresses: 

Alaska : 

Room 101 

4230 University Dr. 

Anchorage, AK 99508-4664 

E-146 Federal Bld g. 

Box 53 

701 C St. 

Anchorage, AK 99513 

California : 

7638 Federal Bldg. 

300 . Los Angeles St. 

Los Angeles, CA 90012 

Bldg. 3, Stop 533 

345 Middlefield Rd . 

M enlo Park , CA 94025 

504 Customhou se 

555 Ba nery St. 

San Francisco, CA 941 11 

134 Guide to Information and Publications 

Colorado : 

169 Federal Bldg. 

1961 Stout St. 

Denver, CO 80294 

Texas: 

1C45 Federal Bldg. 

1100 Commerce St. 

Dallas, TX 75242 

Utah: 

8105 Federal Bldg. 

125 S. State St. 

Salt Lake City, UT 84138 

Virginia : 

1C402 ational Center 

12201 Sunrise Vall ey Dr. 

Reston, VA 22092 

Washington : 

678 U.S. Courthouse 

W. 920 Riverside Ave. 

Spo kane, WA 99201 

Washington, DC: 

1028 General Services Admin . 

Bldg. 

18th and F Sts., W. 

Washington , DC 20405 

To obtain information on cartographic data, write or visit the U.S. 

Geological Survey National Cartographic Information Centers (NCIC) 

in the following States: 

Alaska: 

U.S. Geological Survey 

National Cartographic 

Information Center 

4230 University Dr. 

Anchorage, AK 99508-4664 

California: 

Western Mapping Center 

National Cartographic 

Information Center 

345 Middlefield Rd. 

Menlo Park , CA 94025 

Colorado: 

Rocky Mountain Mapping 

Center 

National Cartographic 

Information Center 

Box 25046, STop 504 

Bldg. 25, Federal Center 

Denver, CO 80225 

Mississippi: 

ational Space Technology 

Laboratories 

National Cartographic 

Information Center 

U.S. Geological Survey 

Bldg. 3101 

NSTL Station, MS 39529 

Missouri: 

Mid-Continent Mapping 

Center 

atio nal Cartographic 

Information Center 

1400 Independence Rd . 

Rolla, MO 65401 

Virginia: 

Natio nal Cartograph ic 

Informat ion Center 
507 National Center 

12201 Sunrise Va lley Dr. 

Reston, VA 22092 

To obtain information on aerial photographs and satellite and space 

images, write or visit: 

U.S. Geologica l Survey 

EROS Data Center 

Sioux Fall s, SD 57198 

To obtain assistance in locating sources of water data, identifying 

sites at which data have been collected, and specific data, write: 

U.S. Geologica l Survey 

National Water Data Exchange 

421 Nati o nal Center 

12201 Sunrise Va lley Dr. 

Reston, VA 22092 

To obtain information on ongoing and planned water-data acquisition activities of all Federal agencies and many non-Federal organizations, write: 

U.S. Geological Survey 

Offi ce of Water Data Coordination 

417 ational Center 

12201 Sunrise Va lley Dr. 

Reston, VA 22092 

To obtain information on water resources in general and about the 

water resources of specific areas of the United States, write: 

U.S. Geological Survey 

Hydrologic Info rmation Unit 

419 National Center 

12201 Sun rise Valley Dr. 

Res ton, VA 22092 

To obtain information on geology topics such as earthquakes, 

energy and mineral resources, the geology of specific areas, and 

geologic maps and mapping, write: 

U.S. Geological Survey 

Geologic Inquiries Group 

907 National Center 

12201 Sunrise Valley Dr. 

Reston, VA 22092 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 135 
Cooperators and Other Financial Contributors 

Cooperators li sted are those with whom th e U.S. Geological Survey 

had a writren agreement cosig ned by Survey officials and the cooperating age ncy for financial cooperation in fiscal year 1986. Parent 

agencies are listed separately from their subdivisions whenever there 

are sepa rate cooperative agreements for different projects with a 

parent agency and with a subdivision of it. Agencies with whom the 

Geological Survey has resea rch con tracts and to whom it supplied 

research funds are not listed. 

Cooperating office of the Geological Survey 

g-Geologic Division 

n- ational Mapping Division 

w-Water Resources Division 

State, County, and Local Cooperators 

Alabama: 

Alabama Department of-Environmental Management (w}, Highways (w); Alabama Surface Mining Commi ss ion (w); Autauga County 

Commission (w); Birmingham, City of (w); Coffee County Commission (w); Dauphin Island (w); Geologi ca l Survey of Alabama 

(g,n,w); Hefl in, Cit y of (w); Huntsville, City of (w); j efferson County 

Commission (w); Montgomery, City of (w); Tuscaloosa, City of (w); 

University of Alabama (w) 

Alaska: 

Alaska Department of-Fish and Game (w), Natu ral Resou rces (n}, 

Division of-Geological and Geophysical Surveys (w), Mining and 

Geology (g), Technical Services (w}, Transportation and Publi c 

Facilities (w); Alaska Power Authority (g,w); Anchorage, Municipality 

of-D partment of Health and Human ervices (w), Department of 

Community Planning (w), Department of Solid Waste Servi ces (w}, 

Water and Wast ewater Service (w); Di llingham, City of (w); Fairbanks 

orth Star Borough (w); juneau, City and Bo rough of (w); Kenai 

Peninsula Borough (w); Matanuska Susitna Borough (w); Petersburg, 

City of (w); Sitka, Ci ty and Borough of (w); Wasilla, City of (w) 

Ameri ca n Samoa: (See Hawaii) 

Arizona: 

Arizona Bureau of Geology and Mineral Technology (g); Arizona 

Departm ent of-Health Services, Bureau of Water Quality Control 

(w), Water Resources (w); Arizona Stateland Dept. (w); Gila Valley 

Irrigation District (w); Mari co pa County- Flood Control District (w), 

Muni cipal Water Conserva ti on Distri ct o. 1 (w); M etropolitan 

Water Di strict of Southern Cal ifornia (w); Salt River Valley Water 

Users Association (w); San Carlos Irrigation and Drainage Di strict 

(w); Show Low Irrigation Company (w); Tu cson, City of (w); 

University of Ari zona Board of Regents (w); Arizona Municipal 

Water Users Association (w) 

Arkansas: 

Arkansas Department of-Park s and Tourism (w), Pollut ion Control 

and Eco logy (w); Arkansas Soil and W ater Conserva ti on Commission 

(w); Arkansas Geological Commission (g,n,w); Arkansas State Highway and Transportation Department (w); Arkansas-Oklahoma: 

Arkansas River Compact Commi sian (w) 

California: 

Alameda County-Flood Control and Water Conservat ion District 

(Haywa rd ) (w), Flood Control and Water Conservation Di stri ct, Zone 

7 (Pl easanton) (w), Water District (w); Antelope Valley-East Kern 

W ater Agency (w); Calaveras County Water Di stri ct (w); California 

Coastal Conservancy (w); alifornia Department of-Boating and 

136 Cooperators and Other Financial Contributors 

Wat erways (g,w), Conservation (g), Hea lth S rvi s (w), Park s and 

Recreation (w), Water Resources-Central Distri ct (Sacramento) (w), 

Northern Di st ri ct (Red Bluff) (w), an joaqui n Di st ri ct (Fresno) (w); 

California Offi ce of Emergency Servi es (n) ; California Water 

Resources Control Board (w); Carpinteria County Water Di stri t (w); 

Casitas Municipal W ater Di stri ct (w); Coachella Valley Water Distri ct 

(w); Contra Costa County Flood Control and W ater o n ervat ion 

District (w); Crestline-Lake Arrowhead Water Agen y (w); Desert 

Water Agency (w); East Bay Municipal Utilit y Di trict (w); Ea t Valley 

Water District (w) ; El Dorado, County of (w); Fresno Metropolitan 

Flood Con trol Di stri ct (w) ; Georgetown Divide Public Uti lit y District 

(w); Goleta County Water District (w); Humboldt Bay Municipal 

Water Di strict (w); Imperial County Department of Publ ic Works (w); 

Imperial Irrigation District (w); Indian Wells Valley Water Di trict 

(w); lnyo County Wat er Department (w); jurupa Community VCS 

District (w ); Kern County Water Agen cy (w); Kin gs Ri ver Conservation Distri ct (w); Los Angeles Department of Water and Power 

(w); Madera Irrigation Di trict (w); Marin County Departmen t of 

Public Works (w); Marin Municipal Water Di strict (w); Merced, City 

of (w); Merced Irrigation Di tri ct (w); Modoc County Department of 

Public Work (w); Mojave Water Agency (w); Montecito Coun ty 

Water District (w); Monterey Coun ty Flood Control and Water 

Conservation District (w); evada Irriga tion District (w); Newport 

Beach, City of (w); O akda le-South San joaquin Irri gation Di strict (w); 

Orange County-Enviro nmenta l Management Agency (w), Water 

Distri ct (w); Oroville-Wyandotte Irrigation District (w); Pacheo Pass 

Water District (w); Pacific Gas and Electric Company (w); Pacifi c 

Power and Light Compan y (w); Paradise Irrigation District (w); Placer 

County Water Agency (Fore thill ) (w) ; Rainbow Municipal Water 

District (w); Rancho Cali forni a Water District (w); Regional Wat er 

Q ua lit y-Lahontan R gion (w); Riv rsid ounty Flood Control and 

Water Conservation District (w); Rock Creek Limited Partnership 

(w); Sacramento Munici pal Utility District (w); Sacra mento Regional 

County Sanitation District, Department of Public Works (w); San 

Benito County Water Conservation and Flood Control Distri ct (w); 

San Bernardino County Flood Control Distri ct (w); San Bernardino 

Valley Municipal Water Distri ct (w); San Diego, City of (w), Water 

Utility (w); San Diego, County of, Department of-Planning and 

Land Use (w), Publi c Works (w); San Diego County Water Authorit y 

(w); San Fran cisco, City and County of, Hetch Hetchy Water and 

Power (w); San Francisco Water Department (w); San Lui s Obispo 

County Engineering Department (w); San Mateo County Department 

of Publ ic Works (w); Santa Barbara, City of, Department of Publi c 

Works (w); Santa Barbara County-Flood Control and Water 

Conservat ion District (w), Water Agency (w); Santa Clara Valley 

Water District (w); Santa Cruz County Flood Control and Water 

Conservation District (w); Santa Maria Valley Water Conserva ti on 

Di strict (w); Scotts Valley Water District (w) ; Shape Energy Development Corporation (w); Siski yo u County Flood Control and Water 

Conservation District (w); Sonoma County-Pl anning Department 

(w), W ater Agency (w); Southern California Edi so n Company (w); 

Tahoe Regional Pl ann ing (w); Terra Bella Irrigat ion District (w); 

Tulare County Flood Control Distri ct (w); Tu olumne, County of (w); 

Turlock Irrigation Di stri ct (w); United Water Conservation Di stri ct 

(w); Uni ve rsity of California-Berkeley (g), Cooperati ve Extension 

(w); Ventura County Publi c Works Agency (w); W estern Municipal 

W ater Distri ct (w); Wood bridge Irriga tio n Di strict (w); Yolo County 

Fl ood Control and Water Conservation District (w); Yuba County 

W ater Agency (w) 

Colorado: 

Arkansa s Ri ver Compact Administration (w); Arvada , City of (w); 

Aspen , City of (w); Aurora , City o f (w); Bou lder, County of, 

Depa rtment of Publi c Works (w); Breckenridge, Town of (w); Castle 

Rock, Town of (w): Cherokee Water and Sanitation District (w); 
Cherry Creek Ba sin Authority (w); Colorado Departmen t of-Health 

(w ), Highways (g), at ural Resources (w); Colorado Di vision ofMined Land Reclamation (w), Water Reso urces, Office of th e State 

Engineer (w) ; Colorado Geological Survey (w ); Colorado River 

Water Conservation Di st ri ct (w); Colorado Springs, Cit y ofDepartme nt of Pu blic Utilities (w ), Offi ce of the City Manager (w); 

Delta County Board o f Count y Commissioners (w); Denver, City and 

ounty, Board of Water Commissioners (w); Denver Regional 

Council of Governm ents (w); Dolores Wat er Conservancy Di stri ct 

(w); Douglas. oun ty of (w); Eag le Count y Boa rd of Commissioners 

(w); Englewood , City of, Bi-Cit y Wastewater Trea tment Plant (w); 

Evergreen M etro District (w); Fort Collins, City of (w); Fountain 

Valley Authority (w); Fruita , Cit y of (w); Garfield, County of (w); 

Glendale, Cit y o f (w); Glenwood Springs, City of (w); Grand County 

Board of Commi ssioners (w); Ki owa-Bijou Ground Water Managemen t Distri ct (w); Larim er-Weld Regiona l Council of Governm ents 

(w ); Longmont. City of (w); Lost Creek Ground Wat er Management 

District (w); Lower Fountain Water- Quali ty Management Association 

(w); Metropolitan Denve r Sewage Disposal District o. 1 (w); 

Mineral , County of (w); Moffat County Commissioners (w); Northern 

o lorado Water Conserva ncy Distri ct (w) ; orth Lajunta Water 

Conserva ncy District (w); Pikes Peak Area Counci l of Governments 

(w); Pitk in Count y Board of Commissioners (w); Pueblo Board of 

Water Works (w); Pu eblo Civil Defense Agency (w); Pu eblo West 

M etropolitan Di strict (w); Purga toire Ri ve r Water Conservancy 

Di strict (w); Ri o Bl anco County Board of County Commissioners (w); 

Ri o Grande Wat er Conservation Di strict (w); St. Charl es Mesa Water 

Di stri ct (w); Southeastern Colorado Water Conservancy Di strict (w); 

Sou thwestern Colorado Water Conservancy Dist ri ct (w); Steamboat 

Springs, Cit y of (w); Tho rn ton, City of (w); Trinchera Conservancy 

Di st ri ct (w ); Uncompahgre Vall ey Water Users Association (w); 

Upper Arkansas River Water Conservancy District (w); Upper Yampa 

Wat er Conse rva ncy District (w); Urban Drainage and Flood Control 

Di tri ct (w); Water Users o. ·1 (Rangely) (w); Yellow jacket Water 

Conserva ncy Di st ri ct (w) 

Connecticut: 

Connecticut Depa rt ment of Environmental Protection (g,n,w); Fairfield , Town of, Con erva tion Commi sion (w); ew Britain, City of, 

Board of Water Commi ioners (w); Simsbury, Town of (w}; South 

entral Con n cti cu t Regional Water Authorit y (w); Torrington, Cit y 

o f (w) 

Delaware: 

Delawa re Department of atural Re ources and Environmental 

o ntrol (w); Geologi ca l Survey (w) 

District of Columbia: 

Departm nt of Publi c Works (w) 

Florida: 

Bi g Cypress Ba in Board (w); Boca Raton, City of (w); Bradenton, City 

o f (w); Br vard County, Board of County Commissioner (w); 

Broward ounty-Environmental Quali ty Control Board (w), Utilit y 

Di vision (w), Water R source Management Divis ion (w); Cape 

Coral , Ci ty o f (w); Clearwa ter, City of (w); Collier, County of (w); 

Collier Mosquito Control Di stri t (w); Cocoa, City of (w); Coordi nating Council on the Restorati on of Ki ss immee Ri ver Valley and 

Taylor Creek- Nubbins Slough Basin (w); Daytona Beach, City of (w); 

Englewood Wat r Di stri t Boa rd of upervi ors (w); Escambia Count y 

Boa rd of County Commi ss ioner (w); Flagler County Board of 

Cou nty ommissio ners (w); Florida Department of-Environmental 

Regu lation, Bureau of Wat er Re ou rces M anagemen t (w), Divi sion of 

Recrea tion and Parks (Hope ound) (w), Di vision of Recreation and 

Park s (Tallahass e) (w), atural Resources (n), Division o f Marine 

Resources (w); Transportation {n,w); Florida Institut e of Phospha te 

Resea rch (w); Fl orida Key Aqueduct Authority (w); Fort Lauderda le, 

City of (w}; Fort Walton Bea ch, City of (w); Gainesvi lle, City of (w}; 

Hallandale, City of (w); Henory, County of (w); Highland B ach , 

Town of (w); Hillsborough, County of (w); Hollywood, City of (w); 

Indian River, Cou nt y of (w); jacksonvi lle, City of (w); jacksonvi lle, 

Consolidated City of, Department o f Heal th and Environmental 

Services (w); Ja cksonville Electric Authority-Production Engineering 

Division (w), Research and Environmental Affairs (w); Jacksonvi lle 

Plan Departmen t (w); Jacksonvi lle Beach, City of (w); juno Beach, 

Town of (w ); Jupiter Inlet Di strict (w); Lake County-Board of 

Count y Commi ssioners (w), Pollution Control Department (w); Lee 

County, Board of Count y Commissioners (w); Leon CountyCourthouse (w), Department of Publi c Works (w); Manatee Count y 

Board of County Commissioners (w}; M arion County Board of 

County Commissioners (w); M etropolitan Dade County Department 

of Environment Resources Management (w); Miami-Dade Wat er 

and Sewer Authorit y (w); Northwest Florid a Water M anagement 

Di stri ct (w); Old Plantation Water Control Di strict (w}; O range 

County Board of County Commissioners (w); Palm Beach Coun tyBoard of County Commissioners (w), Solid Waste Authority (w); 

Pasco, County of, Utilities Department (w); Perry, City of (w); 

Pinell as, County of (w); Plant City, City of (w); Polk County Board of 

County Commissioners (w); Pompano Beach, City of, W at r and 

Sewer Department (w); Quincy, City of (w); Reedy Creek Improvement Distri ct (w}; Sanibel, City of (w); Sarasota, City of (w} ; Sarasota, 

County of (w); South Dade Soil and Wat er Conservation District (w); 

South Fl o rida Water Management Di st ri ct (w); Southwest Florida 

Regional Pl anning Council (w); Southwest Florida Water M anagement Dist ri ct (w); St. Johns, County of (w); St. johns River Wat er 

Management Di stri ct (w); Stuart, City of (w); Sumter County Recreation and Wat er Conservation and Control Authority (w); Suwannee 

Ri ve r Authority (Live Oak ) (w}; Suwannee River Authority (Trenton) 

(w); Suwannee River Wat er Management Di stri ct (w); Tallahassee, 

City of-Electric Department (w), Streets and Drainage (w), Underground Utilities (w); Tampa, City of (w); University of Central Florida 

(w); University of Florida, Center for W etland s (w}; Walt on, County 

of (w); We t Coast Regi onal Water Suppl y Authority (w); Winter 

Park, City of (w) 

Georgia: 

Albany, City of, Water, Gas, and Li ght Commission (w); Bibb County 

Board of Count y Commission ers (w); Brun wick, City of (w); Clayton 

County Water Authority (w); Consolidated Government of Columbus 

(w); Covington, City of (w); Georgia Department of- atu ral 

Resources-Environmental Protection Division, Water Management 

Branch (w), Geological Survey (n,w}; Transportation (w)-Materials 

and Research (w); Helena, City of (w); Macon-Bibb County Water 

and Sewage Authority (w) ; Moultree, City of (w) ; Thomaston, City o f 

(w); Thomasvil le, City of (w); Valdosta, City of (w) 

Guam: (See Hawaii) 

Hawaii: 

Am erican Samoa, Government of (g,n,w); Guam, Government of 

(w); Hawaii Depa rtm ent o f-Hea lth (w), Land and atural Resources, 

Di vis ion of Water and Land Development {g,w), Transportation (w); 

Honolulu, City and County o f, Board of Water Supply (w); Tru st 

Territory of the Pacifi c slands- ede rat ed States of Micronesia (w)-

State o f Kosrae (w ), State of Po nape (w), State of Truk (w), State of Yap 

(w); Northern Mariana Islands, Government of (w); Republi c of 

Palau (w) 

Idaho: 

Idaho Department of-Fish and Game (w), Heal th and Welfare (w), 

Lands (n), at ural Resources (n), Water Resou rces (w); Idaho 

Geologi cal Survey (g); Middleton, City of (w); Orofino, City of (w); 

Shoshone, County of (w); Sun Valley Water and Sewer Di strict (w); 

Teton County Board of Commi ssioners (w); Th e Shoshone-Bannock 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 137 
Tribes, Fort Hall India n Reservation (w); Universit y of Idaho (w); 

Water District o. 01 (Idaho Falls) (w); Wes t Cassia Soil and Water 

Conservation District (w) 

Illinois: 

AVM Lockport Division of Water Resources (w); Bloomington and 

o rmal San ita ry District (w); Cook County Forest Preserve District 

(w); Deca tur, Ci ty of (w); DuPage County Public Works (w); Illinois 

Department of-Energy and atural Resou rces, State Water Survey 

Di vision (w), Nuclear Safety (w), Transportation, Division of Highways 

(n), Division of Water Resources (n,w); Illinois Environmental Protect ion Agency (w); Ill inois State Geological Survey (g,n), Water 

Survey Division (w); M etropolitan Sanitary District of Greater Chicago 

(w); Springfield, City of (w); University of Chicago (g) 

Indiana: 

Carmel, Town o f (w); Elkhart, Cit y of, W ater Works (w); Indiana 

Department o f- Environmental Management (w), Highways (w), 

atural Resources (n), Division of Water (w); Indianapoli s, Cit y of, 

Department of Publi c Works (w) 

Iowa : 

Carroll, County of, Health Department (w); Ceda r Rapids, Cit y of 

(w); Charl es, City of (w); Clear Lake, Ci ty of (w); Des Moines, Ci ty of 

(w), W ater Works (w); Fort Dodge, Cit y of (w); Gutherie, County of, 

Health Department (w); Iowa Department of-Transportation, 

Highway Division (w), atural Resources (w); Iowa Geologi ca l 

Survey (n,w); Iowa Sta te Uni versi ty (w); Marshalltown, Cit y of (w); 

University of Iowa-Institute of Hyd rauli c Research (w), Hyge nic 

Laboratory (w), Ph ysica l Plant (w); Siou x City, Cit y of (w); Union 

El ectri c Company (w); Waterloo, City of (w) 

Kansas: 

Arkansas Ri ver Compact Administration (w); Hays, Ci ty of (w); 

Kansas Departm ent of-Hea lth and Environment (w), Transportation (w); Kansas Geologica l urvey (n,w); Kansas State Board of 

Agri culture. Di visio n o f Water Resources (w); Kansas Water Offi ce 

(w); Sedgwick, County of (w); Southwest Kansas Ground Water 

Management District o. 3 (w); Western Kansas Ground Water 

Management Di stri ct No. I (w); Wi chita, City of (w) 

Ke ntucky: 

Eli za bethtown, City o f (w); Jefferson, Count y o f, Department of 

Pu blic Wo rk s and Transportation (w); Ken tu cky Department ofatural Resources and Environmen tal Protection Cabinet (w), 

Transportation Cabinet, Di vision of Design (w); Louisvi lle, City of 

(w); Uni ve rsi ty of Ken tu cky, Kentucky Geological Survey (n,w); 

University of Louisville (w); Western Kentucky University (w) 

l o uisiana: 

Capital-Area Groundwater Conservation Commission (w); East Baton 

Rouge Pari sh (w); Jefferson Pari sh Departmen t of Public Utilities (w); 

Lo ui siana D partment of-Natural Resources-Geologica l Survey 

(g,w), Environmental Quality (w), Offi ce of Conservation (w); 

Transportation and Developmen t- Office o f Highways (w), Offi ce of 

Publi c Work s (n,w); Sabine Ri ver Compact Admini stration (w); 

Slidel l, Ci ty of (w) 

Maine : 

Androscoggin Vall ey Regional Pl anning Commi ssion (w); Cobbossee 

Watersh d District (w) ; M ai ne Depa rtment o f- Conservation, 

Geologica l urvey (g,n,w), Environmental Protection (w), Transportati o n (w) 

138 Cooperators and Other Financial Contributors 

Maryland: 

Anne Arundel County Pl anning and Zoning Offi e (w); Baltimore 

County- Departm ent o f Permits and Licenses (w), Departm ent of 

Publi c Works (w), Offi ce of Planning and Zoning (w); Calvert, County 

of (w); Caroline, County of (w); Carroll County Board of County 

Commi ss io ners (w); Howard Count y Department of Publ i Wo rk s 

(w); M aryla nd Department of-Health and M ental Hyg iene, Office 

of Environmental Progra ms (w), Transport ati on, State Highway 

Administration (w); M aryland Geologica l Survey (g,n,w); M aryland 

W ater Resources Admini st ration (w); M on tgomery CountyDepartment of En vi ronmental Protection, Offi ce of Environmental 

and Energy Pl anning (w ), Storm Water M anagement (w ); Poolesv ille, 

Town of (w); St. Marys County Commiss ioners (w); Upper Potomac 

River Comm ission (w); Was hington Suburban Sanitary Commiss ion 

(w ) 

Massachusetts: 

Barnstable County Commissioners (w); Brewster, Town of (w); Cape 

Cod Pl anning and Economic Development Commis ion (w); Harwi ch, 

Town of (w); Massachusetts Department of-Environmental M anagement, Di vision of Water Resources (w ), Environmental Q uality 

Engineering, Di vision of Water Po llution Con trol (w), Fi heri es, 

Wildlife, and Environmental Law Enforcement, Divi sion of Fi sheries 

an d Wildlife (w ); Publi c Works, Hazardou W a te Facili ty (w); 

M etropo litan District Commission, Water Division (w) 

Michigan: 

Ann Arbor, City of (w); Battl e Creek, City of (w); Cad il lac, City of, 

Wastewater Treatment Pl an t (w); Clare, Ci ty of (w); Coldwater, City 

of, Board of Public Utilities (w); Elsie, Village o f (w); Fl int, Ci ty of, 

Department of Publ ic Wo rk s and Utiliti es (w); Genesee County Drain 

Commission, Divi sion of Water and Was te Services (w); Grand 

Traverse, Cou nty of (w); Huron-Cl into n Metropolitan Authorit y (w); 

Imlay, City of (w); Kalamazoo, City of, Department of Pu blic Util iti es 

(w); Lansing, City o f, Boa rd of Water and Light, Water and Stream 

Division (w); M acomb, County of (w); M ason, City of (w ); Michigan 

Departm en t of-Agri culture (w), atural Resou rces (w), Transportation (w); O akland County Drain Commission (w); Otsego Coun ty 

Road Commission (w); Portage, City of (w); Van Buren County Board 

o f Co mmiss io ners (w); W ayne, Count y of, Di vision of Environmental 

Hea lth (w); Ypsi lanti, City of (w) 

Minnesota: 

Beltrami County SWCD (w); Elm Creek Conservation Commission 

(w); Fo nd Du Lac Reservation Bu siness Committee (w); Lower Red 

Ri ver Watershed Management Di strict (w); M etropo litan Was te 

Control Commis ion (w); Minneso ta Department of- atural 

Resources, Di vision of Waters (w), Transporta tio n (w); Minnesota 

Geologi ca l Survey (g); Red Lake Tribal Reserva tio n Business Committee (w); St. Paul, City of (w), Water Util ity (w); Universit y of 

Minnesota (w); W esmin Resource, Conserva tion and Development 

Association (w) ; White Earth Reserva ti on Business Commu nity (w) 

Mississippi: 

Gulf Regional Pl anning Commission (w); Harriso n, Cou nt y ofBoa rd of Supervisors (w), Development Commi ssion (w ); Jackson, 

Cit y o f (w ); Jackson, County of-Board o f Supervi sors (w). Port 

Authority (w); Mississippi Department of-Highwa ys (w). Natural 

Resources-Bureau of Geology (w ). Bureau of Land and Water 

Resou rces (w ), Burea u of Pollution Control (w); Mi ss issippi Research 

and Development Center (n,w); Pat Harri son Wat erway District (w); 

Pearl Ri ve r Basin Development Di stri ct (w); Pea rl Ri ver Valley Wat er 

Supply Dist ri ct (w) 
Missouri: 

Litt le River Drainage District (w); Missouri Department ofConservation (w), Health (w), atural Resources-Division of Envi ronmental Q ua lity (w), Division of Geology and Land Survey (n,w), 

Land Reclamation Commission (w); Missouri Highway and Transportat ion Commission (n,w); Springfield, City of, City Utilities, Engineering Department (w) 

Montana: 

Daniels, County of (w); Helena, City of (w); Montana Bureau of 

Mines and Geology (g,w); Montana Department of-Fish, Wildlife, 

and Parks (w), Health and Environmental Sciences (w), Highways (w), 

Natural Resources and Conservation (w), State Lands (w); State of 

Montana, Governor's Office (w); Salish and Kootenai Tribes of 

Flathead Reserva tion (w); University of Montana (w) 

Nebraska: 

Central Platte atural Resources District (w); Kansas-Nebraska Big 

Blue River Compact Administration (w); Linco ln, City of (w); Little 

Blue atural Resources District (w); ebraska Department ofEnvironmental Control (w), Water Resou rces (w); ebraska atural 

Resources Commission (w); University of ebraska, Conservation 

and Survey Divi sion (w) 

Nevada: 

Carson City Department of Public Works (w); Clark County Department of Public Works (w); Douglas County Department of Publi c 

Works (w); Elko, County of (w); Las Vegas Vall ey Water District (w); 

Legislative Counsel Bureau (g); Makay School of Mines (w); evada 

Bureau of Mines and Geology (g,n,w); evada Department ofConservation and atural Resources-Division of Environmental 

Protection (w), Division of Water Resou rces (w), Transportation (w); 

evada Senate Interim Finance Committee (w); ye, County of (w); 

Reno, City of (w); Taho Regional Planning Agency (w); University of 

evada-Reno (w) 

New Hampshire: 

Conway, Town of (w); ew Hamp hire Department of Resources 

and Economi c Development (g); ew Hampshire Water Re ources 

Board (w) 

Ne w Je rsey: 

Camden County Board of Cho en Freeholders (w); Cranford, 

Township of (w); Delaware River Basin Commission (w); Greenwich, 

Township of (w); Logan, Town hip of (w); Morri County Municipal 

Utilities Authority (w); ew jersey Department of Environmental 

Protection , Division of Water Resour es (g,w); North Jersey District 

Wat er upply Commission (w); Pas aic Valley Water Commission 

(w); Somerset ou nt y Board of Chosen Freeholders (w); West 

Wind sor Township Environm ntal Commission (w) 

Ne w Me xico: 

Alamogordo, City of (w); Alamo avajo Chapter (w); Albuquerque, 

City of (w); Albuquerque Metropolitan Arroyo Flood Contra! 

Authority (w); Canadian River Munici pal Water Authority (w); 

Costilla Cr ek Compact Commission (w); El Pa so Water Utility (w); 

Highlands University (w); )em 7. River Indian Water Authority (w); 

La s Cru es, City of (w); avajo Indian Nation (w); New Mexi co 

Bureau of Mi nes and M ineral Resources (g,w); New Mexico En -

vironmental Improvement Divi ion (w); ew Mexico Department of 

Highways (w); w M ex ico Interstate Strea m Commission (w); 

Office of the State Engineer (w); Pecos River Commission (w); 

Pueblo of A oma (w); Pu eblo of Laguna (w); Pueblo of Zuni (w); 

Raton, City of (w) ; Rio Grande Comp~ct Commis ion (w); Santa Fe 

Metropolitan Water Board (w); Veremejo Con ervancy District (w) 

New York : 

Amherst, Town of, Engineering Department (w); Auburn, City of (w); 

Brookhaven, Town of (w); Chautauqua, County of, Department of 

Planning and Development (w); Cheektowaga, Town of (w) ; Cornell 

University-Department of Natural Resources (w), Departm nt of 

Utilities (w); Council of Great Lakes Governors (w); Dutches , 

County of, Environmental Management (w); Heritage Task For e 

(w); Hudson-Black River Regulating District (w); Irondequoit Bay 

Pure Waters (w); Kiryas Joel, Village of (w); Long Island Regional 

Planning Board (w); Monroe, County of, Department of Health (w); 

Montgomery, County of, Planning Department (w); assau, County 

of-Department of Health (w), Department of Publi c Works (w); 

New York City Department of Environmental Protection, Air Resources-Water Resources-Energy (w); ew York State Department 

of-Environmental Conservation , Division of Water (w), Transportation, Bridge and Construction Bureau (w); ew York State Power 

Authority (w); yack, Village of, Board of Water Commissioners (w); 

Oneida, County of, Planning Department (w); Onondaga, County 

of-Department of Drainage (w), Water Authorit y (w); Orange, 

County of, Department of Public Works (w); Oswego, County of, 

Department of Health (w); Putnam, County of, Department of 

Health (w); Suffolk, County of-Department of Health Sciences (w), 

Water Authority (w); Sul livan, County of, Planning Department (w); 

Temporary State Commission on Tug Hill (w); Ulster, County of, 

County Legislators (w); Westchester, County of-Department of 

Planning (w), Department of Public Works (w) 

North Carolina: 

Ayden, Town of (w); Charlotte, City of (w); Durham, City of, 

Department of Water Resources (w); Farmville, Town of (w); Greene, 

County of (w); Greensboro, City of (w); Greenville, City of, Utilities 

(w); Guilford County S.W.C. D. (w); Jacksonville, City of (w); Jones, 

County of (w); Kinston, City of (w); LaGrange, Town of (w); ew 

Bern, City of (w); orth Carolina State Department of-Human 

Resources (w), Natural Resources and Community Development 

(g,n,w), Tran portation, Division of Highways (w); North Carolina 

State University (w); Onslow, County of (w) ; Orange, County of (w), 

Water and ewer Authority (w); Pinetops, Town of (w); Raleigh, City 

of (w); Rocky Mount, City of (w); Snow Hill, Town of (w); Stantonsburg, Town of (w) 

North Dakota: 

Burleigh County Water Resources District (w); Di cki nson, City of 

(w); Lower Heart Water Resources District (w); Nort h Dakota State 

University (w); Oliver County Board of Commissioners (w); Public 

Service Commission (w); State Departmen t of Hea lth (w) ; State 

Water Commission (w) ; 

Northern Mariana Islands: (Se e Hawaii) 

Ohio: 

Akron, City of (w); Canton, Ci ty of, Water Department (w ); 

Columbus, City of (w); Freemont, City of (w); Geauga, County of (w); 

Lucas, County of (w); Miami Conservancy District (w); Northwood, 

City of (w); Ohio Department of- atural Resources (w), Transportation (n,w); Ohio Environmental Protection Agency (w); Ri chwood , 

City of (w); Ross, County of (w); Sandusky, County of (w); Seneca Soil 

and Water District (w); Wood County of (w); Williams, County of (w) 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 139 
O klahoma: 

Ada, City of (w); Altus, City of (w); Central Oklahoma Master 

Conservancy District (w); Fort Cobb Reservoir Master Con ervancy 

District (w); Foss Reservoir Master Conservancy District (w); Lawton, 

City of (w); Lugert-Aitus Irrigation District (w); Mountain Park 

Master Conservancy District (w); Oklahoma City, City of (w); 

Oklahoma Department of Transportation {n,w); Oklahoma Geological Survey, University of Oklahoma {g,n,w); Oklahoma State 

Health D partment {w); Oklahoma Water Resources Board (w); 

Tulsa, City of (w) 

Oregon: 

Benton County Board of Commissioners (w); Confederated Tribes 

of-Umatilla Indian Reservation {w), Warm Springs Indian Reservation {w); Coos Bay- orth Bend Water Board (w); Douglas, County of, 

Department of Public Works {w); Eugene, City of, Water and Electric 

Board (w); Lane Council of Governments (w); McMinnville, City of, 

Water and Light Department {w); Oregon Department of-Fish and 

Wildlife {w), Geology and Mineral lndustrie (g,n), Transportation, 

Highway Divi sion (w), Water Resources (w); Portland, City of, Bureau 

of Water Works (w) 

Pennsylvania: 

Allentown, City of (w); Bethlehem, City of (w); Chester, County of, 

Water Resources Authority {w); Delaware River Basin Commission 

(w); Erie, County of, Department of Health (w); Harrisburg, City of, 

Department of Public Works {w); Indiana, County of (w); Lancaster 

County Planning Commission (w); Letort Regional Authority {w); 

Media Borough Water Department {w); Millcreek, Township of (w); 

eshaminy Water Resources Authority {w); ew York State Department of Environmental Conservation (w); Philadelphia, City of, 

Water Department (w); Pennsylvania Department of-Environmental Resou rces (Pada r)-Bureau of Abandoned Mines Reclamation (w), Bureau of Mining and Reclamation (w), Bureau of Oil and 

Gas Management {w), Bureau of Waste Management (w), Bureau of 

State Parks (w), Bureau of Topographic and Geologic Survey (g,n,w), 

Bureau of Wat er Quality Management (w), Office of Resources 

Management (w); Su squehanna River Basin Commission (w); University Area Joint Authority (w); Warren County Commis;ioners {w); 

Washington, County of-Conservation Di strict (w), Supervisors {w); 

Williamsport, City of {w) 

Puerto Rico: 

Puerto Ri co Aqueduct and Sewer Authority {w); Puerto Rico 

Departmen t of-Agriculture {w), Health (w), atural Re ources 

(g,w), Transportation and Publi c Works (w); Puerto Ri co Electric 

Power Authority {w); Puerto Ri co Envi ronmental Qual ity Board {w); 

Puerto Rico Industrial Development Company (w); Pu erto Ri co 

Mineral Resources Development Corporation (g); Pu erto Ri co 

Planning Board (w) 

Rhode Island : 

arragansett Bay Wat er Quality Commission (w); Rhode Island State 

Department of Environmental Management, Division of Water 

Resources (w); State Water Resources Board {w) 

South Carolina: 

Charleston Commission of Public Works (w); Cooper River Water 

Users Association {w); Grand Strand Water and Sewer Authority {w); 

Myrtle Beach, City of (w); outh Carolina State-Department of 

Highways and Public Transport ation (w), Geological Survey (w), 

Health and Environmental Control (w), Publi c Service Authority (w), 

Water Resour es Commission (w); Spartanburg Water Works, 

Commissioners of Public Works (w); Wacca maw Regional Planning 

and Deve lopment Commis ion (w) 

South Dakota: 

Ea st Dakota Water Development District (w); Lower james Conervancy ubdistrict (w); Ogallala Sioux Tribe (w); Rapid City, City of 

140 Cooperators and Other Financial Contributors 

(w); ioux Fall , City of (w); South Dakota Department of-Game, 

Fish and Parks (w), Transportation (w), Water and Natural Re ourcesGeological Survey ci nee Center (g.w), Water Quality Divi ion {w); 

South Dakota School of Mi nes and Te hnology (w); Watertown, City 

of (w); West Dakota Water Developm nt District (w) 

Tennessee: 

Alcoa, City of {w); Bartlett, City of {w); Di ck on, City of (w); Eastside 

Utility Di tri ct {w); Lawrenceburg, City of (w); Lin co ln, ounty of, 

Board of Public Utilities (w); Memphi s, City of-Light, Gas, and 

Water Divi ion {w), Public Works Divi ion (w); Metropolitan Government of a hville and Davidson County {w); Murfree boro Wat er 

and Sewer Department {w); North tewart Utility Di tri t {w); afe 

Growth Team {w); helby, County o f (w); Tennessee Department 

of-Conservation, Geology Divi sion (g,w), Health and Environment 

(w)-Division of uperfund {w), Office of Groundwat r Prote tion 

(w), Office of Surfa e Mining and R clamation (w), Tran portation 

{w); Tennessee Wildlife Resource Agency {w); Tenne see Technological University {w); University of Tenne ee, Wat r Re ources 

Re earch Center (w) 

Texas: 

Abilene, City of (w); Alice, City of {w); Arlington, City of (w); A then 

Municipal Wat er Authority (w); Austin, ity of {w); Bexar-Medi naAtascosa Counties, Water lmpro ement District o. 1 (w); Bistone 

Municipal Wat er upply Di trict (w); Brazo Ri ver Authority (w); 

Carrollton, City of (w); Coastal lndu trial Water Authority {w); 

Colorado River Muni cipa l Water Distri ct (w); Corpus Christi, City of 

(w); Dallas, City of (w); Dallas, County of {w), Publi c Work s 

Department (w); Dalla -Fort Worth Airport (w); Edwards Underground Water Di stri ct {w); El Paso, City of, Publi c Service Board {w); 

Fort Bend, County of (w); Franklin, County of, Water Di trict (w); 

Gainesvi lle, City of (w); Cal ve ton, County of {w); Garland, City of 

{w); Georgetown, City of {w); Graham. ity of (w); Greenbelt 

Municipal and lndu trial Water Authority {w); Guadalupe-Blanco 

Ri ver Authority (w); Harris, County of, Flood Control Di strict (w); 

Harris-Calve ton Coastal Subsidence Di strict (w); Houston, City of 

(w); Lower Colorado Ri ver Authority (w); Lower eches Valley 

Authority (w); Lubbock, City of {w); Mackenzie Municipal Water 

Authority (w); acogdoches, City of (w); orth Central Texas 

Municipal Water Authority {w); North as t Texas Municipal Water 

District (w); Orange, County of {w); Pecos River Commission (w); 

Red Bluff Wat er Power Control District (w); Reeve , County of, 

Water Improvement Di st ri ct o. 1 (w); Runaway Bay, City of (w); 

Sabine Ri ver Authority of Texas (w); Sabine Ri ve r Compact Administration {w); San Angelo, City of (w); San Antonio, City ofEngineering Depa rtment {w). Public Service Board {w), Wast Wat er 

Management Department (w), Water Board (w); San Antonio River 

Authority (w); San Jacinto Ri ver Authority (w); Tarrant, County of, 

Water Control and Improvement District o. 1 (w); Texas A & M 

Resea rch Foundation (g); Texas Bureau of Economic Geology (g); 

Texas Parks and Wildlife Department (w); Texas Water Commission 

(n,w) ; Texas Water Deve lopment Board (w); Titu s, County of, Fresh 

Water Supply Distri ct o. 1 (w); Trinity River Authority (w); Upper 

Guadalupe River Authority (w); Upper eches River Municipal 

Water Authority {w); Upper Trinity Basin Water Quality Compact 

(w ); West Central Texas Municipal Water Distri ct (w); Wi chita, 

County of, Water Improvement Distri ct o. 2 (w); Wichita Falls, City 

of (w); Willas Fork Drainage District (w); Wood, Count y of (w) 

Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands: {See Hawaii) 

Utah: 

Bear River Commission (w); Sa lt Lake, County of-Board of Coun ty 

Commissioners (w), Division of Flood Control and Water Qual ity (w); 

Utah Department of-Natural Resources-Geological and Mineral 

Survey (g,n,w), Oil, Gas and Mining Divi sion (w), State Lands and 

Forestry Division (n), Water Resources Division (w). Water Rights 

Divi si on (w), Wildlife Resources Division (w); Transportation (w); 

Utah Health Department, Div ision of Environmental Health (w) 
Vermont: 

Agency of Environmental Conservation (n); Office of the State 

G ologist (g); Vermont Departmen t of Water Resources and Environmental Engineering (w) 

Virginia: 

Alexandria, City of, Department of Transportation and Environmental Services (w ); Charles City, County of (w); Hanover, County of 

(w); james City, County of, Department of Public Work s (w); Jame 

City Service Authority (w); ew Kent, County of (w); ewport ews, 

City of, Department of Publi c Uti liti es (w); orthern Virginia 

Pl anning Di stri ct Commission (w); Roanoke, City of, Utiliti es and 

Operati ons (w); Sou th eastern Public Service Authority of Virginia 

(w); University of Virginia, Department of Environmental Sciences 

(w); VirginiaD partment of-Conserva tion and Economic Development, Di vision of Mineral Resources (g,n), Highways and Transportation (w); Virginia Polytechni c and State Uni versity (w); Virginia State 

W ater Control Board (w); William sburg, City of (w); York , County of 

(w) 

Washington : 

Bellevue, City of, Publi c Works Department (w); Centralia, City of, 

Light s Department (w); Chelan , County of, Publi c Ut ility Di tri t o. 

1 (w); Cowlitz County Board of Commissioners (w); Douglas, County 

o f, Publi c Utility Distri ct o. 1 (w); Hoh Indian Tribe (w); Kitsap 

County Board of Commissioners (w); King, County of (w), Department o f Publi c Wo rk s (w); Lewis, County of, Board of Commissioners 

(w); Municipalit y of Metropolitan Seattle (w); Pend Orielle, County 

of (w); Pierce, County of (w); Pullman, City of (w); Pu yal lup Indian 

ation (w); Quinau lt Business Committee (w); San juan County 

Board of Commissioners (w); Seattle, City of-Departm ent of Lighting 

(w), Department of Parks and Recreation (w); Skagit, County of (w), 

Department of Publi c Works (w ); Snohomi sh, County of (w); South 

Kin g, County of. Regional Wat r As o iation (w); Ta coma, City ofPublic Util iti es D partment (w). Public Works Departmen t (w); 

Yakima Tribal Council (w); Wa hington Department of-Ecology 

(w). Em rgen y Management (w). Fisheries (w). atural Resources 

(g,n,w). Tran sporta ti on (w); Univer ity of Wa hington (g); Wh atcom, 

County of, Depa rtment of Publi c Works (w) 

W est Virginia: 

Mar hall County ommi ion (w); M o rgantown , City o f, Water 

Commission (w); Washi ngton Publi c ervi ce District (w); West 

VirginiaD partment of-Highways (w), atural Resources, Di vi ion 

of Wat er Resource (w); West irginia Geological and Eco nomic 

Survey (g,w) 

Wisconsin: 

Bad River Tribal Council (w); Beaver Dam, City of (w); Dan e, County 

of-Departm nt of Publi Works (w). Regio nal Planning ommission 

(w); Delavan, Town of (w); Delavan Lake anitary Di trict (w); Fond 

duLac, ity of (w); Forest ounty Potawatomi ommuni ty (w); Fox 

Vall ey Water Quality Plann ing Agen y (w); Gr en Lake Sanitary 

Di stri ct (w) ; Lac du Flambeau Indian Re ervat ion (w) ; Madi on 

M etropolitan ewage Di stri ct (w); M edford , Cityof (w); M enominee 

Indi an Trib of Wi co nsi n (w); Middleton, it y of (w); Morri Lak 

Management Di tri ct (w); orway , Town of (w); Okauchee Lake 

M anagem nt District (w); Oneida Tribe of Indians (w); Park Lake 

Management Distri t (w); St. Croix Tribal Council (w); Sou thea tern 

Wi scon in Regional Pl anning Commission (w) ; tockbridge-Mun e 

Tribal Council (w ); The Distri ct of Powers Lake (w); Thorp, City of 

(w); Univer ity o f Wi sconsi n, Extension, Geological and atural 

Hi story urvey (g,n,w); Waukesha Water Utility (w); Waupun , City of 

(w); Wi s o nsin Department of- atural Re ource (w), Transportati o n (n), Di vi ion of Hi ghway (w); Wo lf Lake Management District 

(w); Wood, County of (w) 

Wyoming: 

Afton, Town of (w); Attorney General (w); Cheyen ne, City of (w); 

Lin co ln , Count y of (w); Sullette, oun ty of (w); Uinta, ount y of (w); 

Water Developmen t Commission (w); Wyoming Department ofAgriculture (w), Eco nomic Planning and Stabilization Board (w), 

Environmental Quality (w), Highways (w); Wyomi ng G ological 

Survey (g); Wyomin g State Engineer (n,w) 

Federal Cooperators 

Central Intelligence Agency (g) 

Department of Agriculture: 

Agricultural Stabilization and Con ervation Service (n); Fore t ervice 

(n,w); Agricultural Research Service (w); Soil Cons rvation ervi ce 

(g,n,w); Statistical Reportin g Service (n) 

Department of the Air Force: 

Air Force Academy (w); Boiling Air Force Base (g) ; Francis E. Warr n 

Air Force Base (w); Han co m Air Force Base (g); Headquarter , 

AFT AC/ AC (g); O ccupa tional and Environm ntal Health Laboratory 

(w); Vandenberg Air Force Base (w) 

Department of the Army : 

Aberdeen Proving Ground (w); Avionics Rand D Activity (g); oastal 

Engineering Research Center (g); Corp of Engineers (g,w); Fort Bli s 

(w); Fort Carson Military Reserva tion (w); Jefferson Provi ng Ground 

(w ); Mobility Equ ipm nt Research and Developmen t Command (g); 

Pi ca tinn y Ar ena l (w); R earch Offi ce, Triangl Park , .C. (g); 

Waterways Experiment Station (g); White and Missile Range (w) 

Department of Commerce: 

Census (n); Coastal Pl ai ns Regional Action Planning ommission (g); 

National Bureau of Standard (g); ational 0 ean Survey (n); 

ational O cean ic and Atmo ph ric Admini tration (g,n); National 

Marine Fisherie Service (w); ational Weat her Ser ice (g,n,w) 

Department of Defense Agencies : 

Defense Advanced Resea rch Projects Agency (g); Defense Logistics 

Agency (w); Defense Mapping Agency (g,n); Defense uclear 

Agency (g); Defense Intelligence Agency (g,n) 

Department of Energy: 

Albuquerque Operations O ffice (g,w); Bonneville Power Admini tra ti on (n,w); Chicago Operation Office (g,w); Idaho Operations 

Office (w); Lo Alamos ational Labora to ry (g); Lawrence Li ve rmore 

Labora tory (g); evada Opera tions Office (g,n,w); Oak Ridge 

Operations Offi ce (w); Offi ce of Energy Re earch (g); Procu remen t 

Operations Offi ce (g,w); Ri ch land Opera ti ons Offi ce (g,w); an 

Francisco Operation (g); Sandia ational Laboratorie (g,w); 

avanna h Ri ver Operation Offi ce (n,w) ; United States Arms Control 

and Di armament Agency (g); Westem Area Power Administration 

(g,w) 

Department of Health and Human Services (w) 

Department of the Interior: 

Bureau of Indian Affairs (g,n,w ); Bureau of Land Management (g); 

Bureau of Mine (g); Bureau of Reclamation (g,n,w) ; Mineral 

Manag ment Service (g,n,w): ational Park Service (g,w); Offi ce of 

the Secretary (g,w); Offi ce of urface Mining Reclamation and 

Enforcement (g,n,w); U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (g,n,w); Water 

and Power Resources ervi ce (g) 

Department of Justice (w) 

Department of the Navy: 

aval Explosive Ordnance Disposal Tes t enter (g); aval Oceanographi c Offi ce (g); Naval Weapons Center, China Lake (g,w); Office 

of a va l Resea rch (g); U.S. Marine Corps Air Ground Combat Center 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 141 
(w); U.S. Marine Corps Air Station, Cherry Point (w); U.S. Marine 

Corps, Camp Lejeune (w); U.S. Marine Corps, Camp Pend leton (w) 

Department of State: 

Agency for International Development (g); International Bou ndary 

and Water Commission, U.S. and Canada (n,w); International 

Boundary and Water Commission, U.S. and Mexico (n,w); International Joint Commission, U.S. and Ca nada (w) 

Department of Transportation: 

Federal Highway Administrat ion (g,n,w); St. Lawrence Seaway (w); 

U.S. Coast Guard (g,w) 

Department of Treasury: 

U.S. Customs Service (n) 

Environmental Protection Agency (n): 

Corvallis Environmenta l Resea rch Laboratory (w); Enviro nmen tal 

Monitoring Systems Laboratory (g,w); Environmental Resea rch 

Laboratory (w); Offi ce of Administration and Resources Management 

(n,w) ; Offi ce of Environmental Engineering and Technology (g); 

Office of Pesticides Programs (w); Office of Waste Programs Enforcemen t (w); RobertS. Kerr Env ironmental Research Laboratory, 

(w) 

Federal Emergency Management Agency (g,w) 

Federal Energy Regulating Commission Licensees (w) 

142 Cooperators and Other Financial Contributors 

General Services Administration (w) 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (g,w) 

National Research Council (n) 

National Science Foundation (g,n,w) 

Navajo and Hopi Indian Relocation Commission (w) 

Nuclear Regulatory Commission (g,n) 

Tennessee Valley Authority (n,w) 

Veterans Administration (g,w) 

Other Cooperators and Contributors 

Government of Peru (g) 

Government of Saudi Arabia (g,n,w) 

People's Republic of China (g,w) 

United Nations: 

Uni ted ations Development Program (g,w) ; U ESCO (w); World 

Meteorological Organ iza ti on (w) 
Budget Data 

Geological Survey budget for fiscal years 1981 to 1986, by activity and sources of funds I 

[Dollars in th ousa nd : totals may not add because of rounding] 

Budget activity 1981 

Total .............. .. .......... .... ..... ............................. ... ..... . $769,757 

Direct program ............................................................................... . 623,057 

Reimbursable program ....................................... ....................... ... . 146,700 

States, counties, and municipalities ......................................... . 48,700 

Miscellaneous non-Federal sources ....................................... . 19,605 

Other Federal agencies ............................................................. . 78,395 

National Mapping, Geography, and Surveys ...................... ........... . 89,177 

Direct program ............................................................................... . 77,449 

Reimbursable program ...................................................... ........... . 11 ,727 

States, counties, and municipalities ......................................... . 2,985 

Miscellaneous non-Federal sources ....................................... . 1,095 

Other Federal agencies ............................................................. . 7,648 

Geologic and Mineral Resource Surveys and 

Mapping ..................................................................... .................. . 208,287 

Direct program ............................................................................... . 162,756 

Reimbursable program ................................................................. . 45,531 

States, counties, and municipalities ......................................... . 758 

Miscellaneous non-Federal sources ....................................... . 13,192 

Other Federal agencies ........................ ..................................... . 31 ,761 

Water Resources Investigations ............................................... ....... . 194,016 

Direct program ................. .............................................................. . 115,458 

Reimbursable program ................................................................ .. 78,558 

States, counties, and municipalities ......................................... . 45,138 

Miscellaneous non-Federal sources .................... ................... . 2,088 

Other Federal agencies ............................................................ .. 31 ,332 

Conservation of lands and Mineral.s ............................................... . 127,001 

Direct program ............................................................................. .. 125,739 

Reimbursable program ................................................................. . 1,262 

Miscellaneous non-Federal sources ............................. .......... . 29 

Other Federal agencies ............................................................ .. 1,233 

Office of Earth Sciences Applications ........................................... . .. 23,205 

Direct program .............................................................................. .. 18,849 

Re imbu rsable program ................................................................ .. 4,356 

States, co unties, and municipalities ........................................ .. 

Miscellaneous non-Federal sources ....................................... . 3,139 

Other Federal agencies ............................................................. . 1,217 

National Petroleum Reserve in Alaska 

Direct program ............................................................................... . 107,001 

Allocation transfer ........................................................................... . 

Reimbursable program (Federal) ................................................. . 

General Administration ..................................................................... . 3,8% 

Direct program ............................................................................... . 3,8% 

Reimbu rsab le program (Federal) ................................................. . 

Miscellaneous non-Federal sources ....................................... . 

Other Federal agencies ............................................................. . 

Facilities ................................................................................................. . 11,909 

Direct program .................................................... ........................... . 11 ,909 

Reimbursable program ............................................................. .. .. . 

Miscellaneous services to other accounts ..................................... . 5,266 

Reimbursable program ................................................................. . 5,266 

Miscellaneous non-Federal sources ....................................... . 62 

Other Federal agencies ........................................................... .. . 5,204 

Barrow Area Gas Operations ........................................................... . 

Direct program ....... ........................................................................ . 

11 ncludc!\ 19X2 ap pro p ri4111 0n lor M 1ncral-. Management Sen tee. 

1982 

$661,842 

509,983 

151 ,859 

50,418 

24,376 

77,065 

88,133 

77,687 

10,446 

3,000 

1,100 

6,346 

212,355 

163,731 

48,624 

480 

16,844 

31 ,300 

190,096 

108,637 

81 ,459 

46,938 

2,679 

31 ,842 

130,468 

129,868 

600 

210 

390 

20,853 

14,359 

6,494 

3,482 

3,012 

2,196 

3,407 

3,407 

10,093 

10,093 

4,236 

4,236 

61 

4,175 

1983 

5556,054 

396,909 

159,145 

51 ,972 

21 ,215 

85,958 

91,611 

81,138 

10,473 

2,700 

1,204 

6,569 

206,517 

159,190 

47,327 

490 

14,293 

32,544 

199,697 

115,096 

84,601 

48,782 

3,914 

31 ,905 

18,452 

11 ,132 

7,320 

1,728 

5,592 

16,313 

14,931 

1,382 

1,382 

9,167 

9,022 

145 

7,917 

7,917 

96 

7,821 

6,400 

6,400 

1984 

55%,177 

423,885 

172,292 

55,801 

21 ,142 

95,349 

112,447 

90,985 

21 ,462 

27,000 

2,362 

16,400 

217,584 

164,354 

53,230 

988 

15,030 

37,212 

220,390 

129,441 

90,949 

52,113 

3,600 

35,236 

15,%2 

15,642 

320 

320 

10,608 

10,463 

145 

6,186 

6,186 

150 

6,036 

13,000 

13,000 

21)irccl program include' $4 2.~ 06\ or cu rren t year. II lo r md cllllltl.' appro pna11nn. a nd ."50 lor ta ... t yea r\ unobliga ted halancc. 

J l ncludc ... X.56X for mar rCCC ipb J'fC\\Oll'l) 'ho" n umkr direct prograrn column. 

1985 1986 

5604,664 5600,852 

417,021 412,667 2 

187,643 188,185 

59,454 59,945 

26,075 12,111 

102,114 116,129 

115,155 112,562 

85,469 84,11 7 

29,686 28,445 

1,937 1,975 

9,450 9,5683 

18,299 16,902 

216,921 206,463 

169,851 165,585 

47,070 40,878 

1,016 1,320 

13,261 348 

32,793 39,210 

238,131 248,598 

133,408 135,152 

104,723 113,446 

56,500 56,650 

3,327 2,161 

44,896 54,635 

15,354 14,515 

15,244 14,246 

110 269 

1 

110 268 

13,089 13,615 

13,049 13,567 

40 48 

6,014 5,099 

6,014 5,099 

37 33 

5,977 5,066 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 143 
U.S. Geological Survey budger aurhoriry fo r fiscal year 1986, by appropriarion 

[Dollars in thousa nds) 

Activity/ ubacti vit y/ Pro gram Element 

Surveys, Investigations, and Research 

National Mapping, Geography, and 

Surveys ............................................................................... . 

Primary Mapping and Revision ..................................... . 

Digital Cartography ........................... . 

Small, Intermediate, and Special 

Mapping .................. . ............................... . 

Intermediate-Scale Mapping ........................ . 

Small-Scale and Other Special M apping 

Federal Mineral Land Information ..................... . 

Land Use and Land Cover Mapping ...... . 

Image Mapping ........................................................... . 

Advanced Cartographic Systems .......................... . 

Earth Resources Observation Systems ....... . 

Data Prod uction and Dissemination .................. . 

Appli cations and Research ...... . 

Cartographic and Geographic Information ..................................... . 

Side-looking Airborne Radar. 

Geologic and Mineral Resource Surveys and 

Mapping ................................................................................. . 

Geologic Hazards Surveys ........................................................ . 

Ea rthq uake Haza rd s Reduction ....................... . 

Volcano Hazard s ................................................................ . 

Landslide Haza rds ...................... . 

land Resource Surveys ......... . ................. . 

Geologic Framework ........................................... . 

Geomagnetism ..... . ........................ . 

Clima te Change .. . .......................... . 

Mineral Resource Surveys ............ ... ..... . .. . 

Alaska .... . .......................... . 

Conterm inous States ..... 

Mineral Resou rces o f Pu blic Lands 

Strategic and Critical Minerals 

Development of Assessment Techniques 

Energy Geologic Surveys .... 

Evolution o f Sedimentary Basi ns . 

Coal Investi gati o ns ... 

Onshore Oil and Gas Investigatio ns 

Oil Shale Inves tiga tions .... 

Geoth ermal Inves tigations 

Uranium-Thorium Investigations .. 

World Energy Resource Assessment 

Offshore Geologic Surveys. 

Offshore Geologic Framework . 

Coastal Erosion 

144 Budget Data 

Fiscal 

yea r 

1986 1 

enacted 

$84,117 

36,018 

12,871 

13,903 

5,441 

2,005 

1,441 

3,751 

1,265 

7,088 

8,965 

4,556 

4,409 

3,371 

1,901 

165,574 

47,347 

34,332 

10,161 

2,854 

21,634 

18,634 

2,054 

946 

44,575 

9,467 

5,782 

7,600 

9,188 

12,538 

26,725 

4,669 

7,604 

4,617 

557 

3,139 

5,642 

497 

25,293 

23,802 

1,491 

Activit y I ubacti viiy I Program Element 

Water Resources Investigations ........................................... . 

National Water Resources Research and Information 

System-Federal Program 

Data Collection and Anal ysis 

ational Water Data and Information Access 

Program 

Coordination of National Water Data Activities 

Regional Aquifer System Analysis 

Core Program Hydrologic Research 

Improved Instrumentation 

Water Resources Assessment 

Toxi c Substances Hydrology 

uclear Waste Hydrology 

Acid Rain 

Scientific and Technical Publications 

ational Water-Quality Asse sment Program 

National Water Resources Research and Information 

System-Federal-Stale Cooperative Program 

Data Collection and Analysis, Areal Appraisals, and 

Special Hyd ro logical Studi es ..... 

Water Use 

Coal Hydrology 

National Water Resources Research and Information 

System-Stale Research Institute and Research 

Grants Program .... ........... . 

State Water Resources Research Institutes 

National Water Resources Research Grants 

Program 

Program Administration 

General Administration 

Executive Direction 

Administrat ive Operations 

Reimbursements to the Department of Labor 

Facilities 

ational Center-Standard Level User's 

Charge 

ational Center-Facilities Management 

TOTAL, Surveys, Investigations, and 

Research 

Fisca l 

year 

1986 1 

enacted 

$134,802 

72,875 

19,492 

2,090 

903 

13,474 

8,082 

1,888 

1,287 

11 ,182 

7,020 

2,998 

2,081 

2,378 

49,774 

41 ,956 

3,670 

4,148 

12,153 

6,159 

4,767 

1,227 

14,246 

5,790 

6,818 

1,638 

13,567 

11,329 

2,238 

41 2,306 

1

Funding shown represents nppropriated dolbrs and does not include reim- bursnble fu nding from Federal, State, and other non-Federal sources. 
Geological Survey reimbursable program fund from other Federal agencies for fiscal years /981 to 1986. by agency 

[Dollar in thousand s) 

Budget aclivily 

Total ....................................................... .................................. . 

Department of Agriculture .. ............................................................ .. 

Department of Commerce ............................................................... . 

ational Oceani c and Atmospheric Administration ............... . 

Ozarks Regional Commission .................. .. ................................... . 

Department of Defense ..................................................................... . 

Department of Energy ...... ............................................................... . 

Bonneville Power Administration .............................................. .. 

Department of Housing and Urban Development ................. . 

Department of the Interior .............................................................. .. 

Bureau of Indian Affairs ................................................................ . 

Bureau of Land Management ...................................................... .. 

Bureau of Mines .. ......................................................................... .. 

Bureau of Reclamation .................................................................. .. 

Minerals Management Service ................................................. . 

National Park Service ............................................... ..................... .. 

Offi ce of the Secreta ry ................................................................... . 

Office of Surface Mining .............................................................. .. 

Fish and Wildlife Service .. 

Department of State ......... .. .. ........ ............................................ .. 

Department of Transportation .................. ..................................... .. 

Environmental Protect ion Age ncy .................................................. .. 

ational Aeronautics and Space Administration ........................ .. 

ational Science Foundation .. .. ........................................... .. 

uclear Regulatory Commission .................................................... .. 

Tennessee Valley Authorit y......... .. .......................................... .. 

Miscellaneous Federal agencies ...................................................... .. 

Miscellaneous services to ot her accounts .. ............................ ...... .. 

Yearbook Staff 

John Keith 

Bonnie D'Agostino 

Sandye Holmes 

Eloise Byrd 

Marti Quigley 

John Cordyack 

198 1 

$78,395 

3,567 

823 

18,490 

10,885 

81 

188 

22,553 

3,999 

13,800 

299 

2,231 

1,121 

154 

469 

480 

2,272 

273 

1,259 

5,065 

2,001 

1,781 

317 

3,717 

5,204 

Editor-in-Chief 

1982 

$76,675 

2,675 

1,781 

21 ,459 

10,529 

75 

20,328 

5,001 

10,551 

275 

1,800 

1,015 

100 

1,176 

410 

3,445 

500 

675 

3,885 

1,958 

1,544 

290 

3,431 

4,175 

1983 

$85,958 

2,774 

111 

5,750 

25,429 

5,858 

103 

23,955 

4,796 

7,150 

200 

3,411 

5,284 

1,957 

223 

606 

328 

573 

483 

883 

3,716 

1,300 

2,272 

151 

4,882 

7,821 

Geologic Division Coordinator 

Wat er Resources Di vi ion Coordinator 

ational Mapping Di visio n Coordinator 

Information Systems Division Coordinator 

Administrative Di vision Coordinator 

1984 

$95,349 

2,770 

910 

6,139 

33,707 

13,828 

120 

16,167 

4,299 

3.446 

56 

3,524 

2,347 

1,037 

244 

95 

1,119 

700 

600 

1,012 

3,999 

774 

2,003 

250 

6,334 

6,036 

1985 

$102,1 14 

3,066 

61 7 

6,876 

31 ,883 

15,893 

132 

19,859 

5,530 

2,900 

54 

8,510 

744 

1,122 

17 

90 

892 

619 

458 

1,476 

3,979 

242 

1,236 

247 

9,554 

5,977 

1986 

$116,129 

2,756 

104 

8,675 

27,343 

24,341 

170 

18,852 

5,033 

2,447 

122 

8,734 

342 

1,043 

701 

129 

301 

8,625 

133 

1,878 

4,340 

162 

1,154 

264 

12,264 

5,066 

Geological Survey Yearbook 1986 145 
As the Nation's principal conservation agency the Department of the Interior has responsibility for most of our nationa lly owned public la nds and natural resources. This includes 

fostering the wisest use of our land and water resources, 

protecting our fish and wildlife, preserving the environmental and cultural values of our national parks and historical 

places, and providi ng for the enjoyment of life through outdoor recreation . The Department assesses our energy and 

mineral resources and works to as ure that their development is in the best interest of a ll our people. The Department 

a lso has a major responsibility for American Indian reservation communities and for people who live in Isla nd Territories 

under U.S. Administration .