The 

BRAIN

in Space

A Teacher’s Guide With Activities for Neuroscience

Educational Product

National Aeronautics and Teachers Grades 5–12

Space Administration
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The Brain in Space

A Teacher’s Guide With Activities for Neuroscience

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Life Sciences Division

Washington, DC

This publication is in the Public Domain and is not protected by copyright.

Permission is not required for duplication.

EG-1998-03-118-HQ
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Acknowledgments This publication was made possible by the National

Aeronautics and Space Administration, Cooperative

Agreement No. NCC 2-936.

Principal Investigator:

Walter W. Sullivan, Jr., Ph.D.

Neurolab Education Program

Office of Operations and Planning

Morehouse School of Medicine

Atlanta, GA

Writers:

Marlene Y. MacLeish, Ed.D.

Director, Neurolab Education Program

Morehouse School of Medicine

Atlanta, GA

Bernice R. McLean, M.Ed.

Deputy Director, Neurolab Education Program

Morehouse School of Medicine

Atlanta, GA

Graphic Designer and Illustrator:

Denise M.Trahan, B.A.

Atlanta, GA

Technical Director:

Perry D. Riggins

Neurolab Education Program

Morehouse School of Medicine

Atlanta, GA
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The Brain in Space: A Teacher’s Guide with Activities for Neuroscience,

EG-1998-03-118-HQ, Education Standards, Grades 5–8, 9–12 7

Contributors

This publication was developed for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)

under a Cooperative Agreement with the Morehouse School of Medicine (MSM). Many individuals and organizations contributed to the production of this curriculum. We acknowledge their

support and contributions.

Organizations:

Atlanta Public School System

Society for Neuroscience

The Dana Alliance for Brain Initiatives

NASA Headquarters:

Code UL, Life Sciences Division

Mary Anne Frey, Ph.D.

Rosalind A. Grymes, Ph.D.

David R. Liskowsky, Ph.D.

Code FE, Education Division

Pamela L. Mountjoy

Education Program Manager

NASA Headquarters

Washington, DC 

Jane A. George

Educational Materials Specialist

Teaching From Space Program

Washington, DC

Gloria Barnes

Publications Manager

Karol Yeatts, Ed.D.

NASA-Ames Research Center

Joseph Bielitzki, D.V.S., M.S.

Morehouse School of Medicine 

Neuroscience Institute:

Peter MacLeish, Ph.D.

John Patrickson, Ph.D.

Holly Soares, Ph.D.

Joseph Whittaker, Ph.D.

Neurolab Education Program Advisory Board:

Gene Brandt

Milton C. Clipper, Jr.

Mary Anne Frey, Ph.D.

Charles A. Fuller, Ph.D.

Rosalind A. Grymes, Ph.D.

William J. Heetderks, M.D., Ph.D.

Peter R. MacLeish, Ph.D.

Charles M. Oman, Ph.D.

Rhea Seddon, M.D.

Jane Smith, Ed.D.

Ronald J. White, Ph.D.

Consulting Editors:

Ron Booth, Ph.D.

James Denk, M.A.

Wyckliffe Hoffler, Ph.D.

Roy Hunter, Ph.D.

Fernan Jaramillo, Ph.D.

Ollie Manley, Ph.D.

Nancy Pearson Moreno, Ph.D.

Barbara Tharp, M.S.

Gregory L.Vogt, Ed.D.

Lesson/Activity Contributors:

Timothy Aman, M.S.

Kenneth M. Baldwin, Ph.D.

Luis Benavides, Ph.D.

Gunnar C. Blomqvist, M.D., Ph.D.

Bernard Cohen, M.D.

Charles A. Czeisler, Ph.D., M.D.
8 The Brain in Space: A Teacher’s Guide with Activities for Neuroscience,

EG-1998-03-118-HQ, Education Standards, Grades 5–8, 9–12

Lesson/Activity Contributors (Continued):

Dwain L. Eckberg, M.D.

Charles A. Fuller, Ph.D.

Kathleen Heffernan, Ph.D.

Stephen M. Highstein, M.D., Ph.D.

Gay Robbins Holstein, Ph.D.

Jerry L. Homick, Ph.D.

Eberhard R. Horn, Ph.D.

Kenneth S. Kosik, M.D.

Bruce L. McNaughton, Ph.D.

Richard S. Nowakowski, Ph.D.

Gina Poe, Ph.D.

Gordon Kim Prisk, Ph.D.

Danny Riley, Ph.D.

Muriel D. Ross, Ph.D.

Janet Silvera, B.Sc.

Dan Sulica, M.Sc.

Kerry D. Walton, Ph.D.

Bonita Waters-Alick, Ph.D.

John B. West, M.D., Ph.D., D.Sc.

Michael L. Wiederhold, Ph.D.
The Brain in Space: A Teacher’s Guide with Activities for Neuroscience,

EG-1998-03-118-HQ, Education Standards, Grades 5–8, 9–12 i

Recommended Guide Usage

The lessons and activities in this guide will

engage your students in the excitement of

space life science investigations after the

Neurolab Spacelab mission. It is our goal that

the information in this guide will inspire both

you and your students to become interested

and active participants in this space mission.

Few experiences can compare with the excitement and thrill of watching a Shuttle launch.

This guide provides an opportunity for you and

your students to go one step further by conducting the experiments on Earth that are relevant to the research conducted in space.

The Brain in Space teacher’s guide is written for

you, the teacher. The activities presented in The

Brain in Space are most appropriate for middle

and high school life sciences teachers and their

students. The NASA Neurolab Space Shuttle

flight, STS 90, was scheduled for lift-off in

April 1998.

National Science and 

Math Education Standards

The Brain in Space activities are compatible

with the National Science and Math Education

Standards. Because many of the activities and

demonstrations apply to more than one subject

area, a matrix chart relates activities to national

standards in science and mathematics and to

science process skills. In each matrix, the science and math content standards are listed

along the left margin. Activities within a given

section that fulfill a listed standard or include

the development of a listed skill are designated

with the symbol “•” in the appropriate column.

Scientific Method

Since scientists’ jobs frequently call for effective

communication of scientific results to the community, special emphasis is placed on involving

students in activities that require the development and delivery of scientific presentations.

Appropriate scientific processes are modeled

throughout The Brain in Space guide to assist

students in acquiring basic investigative skills.

Using The Brain in Space Activities

The Brain in Space activities focus on specific

effects of weightlessness and other aspects of

the space environment on:

• developmental and cellular neurobiology,

• vestibular function,

• spatial orientation and visuo-motor 

performance,

• autonomic nervous system regulation, and

• sleep and circadian rhythms.

Before beginning any hands-on activities with

your students, you may want to learn more

about the nervous system and how it is affected

by the microgravity environment. This information is covered in the following introductory

sections: “The Space Life Sciences” (page 3),

“Space Neuroscience” (page 5), and “The

Nervous System” (page 13). Additional information is provided for you in the “Things to

Know” and “Background” sections in Part II.

This guide begins with an overview of

Neurolab and background information on

space life sciences, space neuroscience, and
ii The Brain in Space: A Teacher’s Guide with Activities for Neuroscience,

EG-1998-03-118-HQ, Education Standards, Grades 5–8, 9–12

space life sciences research. The sections on

space life sciences focus on changes in organisms under conditions of microgravity, whether

or not organisms can withstand these changes,

finding ways to make space flight safer, and

applying space technologies to solve scientific

and medical problems on Earth.

Following Part I are lessons and activities that

demonstrate and/or examine the effect of

weightlessness and other aspects of the space

environment on the nervous system. The many

activities contained in this guide emphasize

hands-on/minds-on involvement, prediction,

data collection and interpretation, teamwork,

and problem-solving. Most of the activities utilize basic and inexpensive materials. In each

activity, you will find diagrams, material lists,

and instructions. A brief science background

section within each activity amplifies the concepts covered.

The length of time required for each activity

varies according to its degree of difficulty and

the developmental level of the students. Many

of the activities can be completed in a single

class period. Others require several periods for

the completion of an investigation.

The guide concludes with a glossary of terms,

NASA educational resources, and a printed

“Teacher Reply Card.” We would appreciate

your assistance by completing and mailing in

the Teacher Reply Card at the end of this guide.
The Brain in Space: A Teacher’s Guide with Activities for Neuroscience,

EG-1998-03-118-HQ, Education Standards, Grades 5–8, 9–12 iii

Objects have observable properties •••••

Substances react chemically • •

Chemical elements •

Describing and measuring motion of an object •

Forces and movement of objects •

Energy (heat, light, electricity,

motion, sound, etc.)

Heat transfer

Light (transmission, absorption, scattering) •

Electrical circuits •

Sun as source of energy on Earth

Organization of living systems •••••

All organisms are composed of cells •••••

Functions of cells necessary for life •••••

Specialization of functions •••••

(cells, tissues and organs)

Basic human body systems •••••

Disease •••••

Reproduction (asexual and sexual)

Heredity, learning and characteristics 

of organisms

Resources needed by organisms • •

Regulation of the internal environment • ••

Behavior ••• •

Populations and ecosystems

Structure of the Earth

Earth forces •••

Soil

Water

Atmosphere and weather

Earth history and the fossil record

Earth in the solar system

Movement and gravity •••

Developmental

and Cellular

Vestibular 

Function

Spatial 

Orientation

Autonomic

Sleep

National Science Education Standards

Grades 5–8 Content Standards

Correlation of Science Themes 

and Activities in The Brain in Space:

Activities for Neuroscience

PHYSICAL 

SCIENCE

LIFE 

SCIENCE

EARTH 

SCIENCE
iv The Brain in Space: A Teacher’s Guide with Activities for Neuroscience,

EG-1998-03-118-HQ, Education Standards, Grades 5–8, 9–12

Methods of science and technology • • • • •

Different contributions by people • • • • •

to science and technology

Trade-offs and unintended consequences • • • • •

in technological designs

Personal health (exercise, safety, nutrition, • • • • •

tobacco, alcohol)

Environmental health • • • • •

Degradation of environments

Natural and human-induced hazards

Risk analysis

Influence of science and technology on society • • • • •

Scientists and engineers work in many settings • • • • •

Ethical codes governing research • • • • •

with human subjects

Limitations of science and technology 

to solving problems

Contributions of men and women to science • • • • •

Science requires different abilities • • • • •

Nature of science (method, research, • • • • •

evaluation)

History of science •••••

Developmental

and Cellular

Vestibular 

Function

Spatial 

Orientation

Autonomic

Sleep

National Science Education Standards

Grades 5–8 Content Standards (Continued)

SCIENCE IN

PERSONAL 

AND SOCIAL

PERSPECTIVES

SCIENCE 

AND

TECHNOLOGY

HISTORY AND

NATURE OF 

SCIENCE
The Brain in Space: A Teacher’s Guide with Activities for Neuroscience,

EG-1998-03-118-HQ, Education Standards, Grades 5–8, 9–12 v

Structure of atoms • •

Structure and properties of matter •

(elements, chemical bonds)

Properties of carbon-containing compounds • ••

Chemical reactions (energy, electron transfer, • ••

role in living systems)

Motion and forces (gravitation, electric forces, •••

charges, magnetism)

Conservation of energy and entropy •

Interactions of energy and matter (waves, •••

electromagnetic waves, conductance)

Cells (structure, chemical, functions, •••••

differentiation)

Molecular basis of heredity •

Biological evolution •

Interdependence of organisms (energy flow •••••

in ecosystems, populations)

Matter, energy and organization in living systems •••••

Behavior of organisms •••••

(nervous system, role of stimuli)

Energy in the Earth system (role of sun, energy •

transfer, global climate)

Geochemical cycles

Origin and evolution of the Earth system

Origin and evolution of the universe 

Aspects and abilities related to •••••

technological design

Scientists in different disciplines •••••

use different methods

Role of new technologies in advancing science •••••

Purposes of science and technology •••••

National Science Education Standards

Grades 9–12 Content Standards

Correlation of Science Themes 

and Activities in The Brain in Space:

Activities for Neuroscience Developmental

and Cellular

Vestibular 

Function

Spatial 

Orientation

Autonomic

Sleep

PHYSICAL 

SCIENCE

LIFE SCIENCE

EARTH 

SCIENCE

SCIENCE AND

TECHNOLOGY
vi The Brain in Space: A Teacher’s Guide with Activities for Neuroscience,

EG-1998-03-118-HQ, Education Standards, Grades 5–8, 9–12

Role of personal and community decisions •••••

in health (nutrition, disease, accidents)

Population growth and carrying capacity

Natural resources (use and limitations)

Environmental quality •

Natural and human-induced hazards

Role of science and technology in solving •••••

local, national and global problems

Contributions of individuals and teams •••••

to science

Ethics in science •••••

Nature of scientific knowledge •••••

History of science (cultural perspectives, •••••

how science advances)

National Science Education Standards

Grades 9–12 Content Standards (Continued)

Developmental

and Cellular

Vestibular 

Function

Spatial 

Orientation

Autonomic

Sleep

SCIENCE IN 

PERSONAL 

AND SOCIAL 

PERSPECTIVES

HISTORY

AND NATURE

OF SCIENCE
The Brain in Space: A Teacher’s Guide with Activities for Neuroscience,

EG-1998-03-118-HQ, Education Standards, Grades 5–8, 9–12 vii

Problem solving •••••

Communication •••••

Reasoning •••••

Connections •••••

Number relationships • ••

Computation and estimation •• ••

Patterns and functions •••

Algebra

Statistics • •

Probability

Geometry ••• •

Measurement •••••

Grades 9–12

Problem solving •••••

Communication •••••

Reasoning •••••

Connections •••••

Algebra

Functions • •

Synthetic perspective

Algebraic perspective

Trigonometry

Statistics • •

Probability

Discrete mathematics

Underpinnings of calculus

Mathematical structure

National Council of Teachers 

of Mathematics Curriculum and

Evaluation Standards

Grades 5–8 

Developmental

and Cellular

Vestibular 

Function

Spatial 

Orientation

Autonomic

Sleep
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EG-1998-03-118-HQ, Education Standards, Grades 5–8, 9–12 ix

Table of

Contents

Part I

National Science Education Standards Review

National Council of Teachers of Mathematics

Curriculum and Evaluation Standards Review

Introduction...........................................................................................1

Overview: Neurolab and The Brain in Space..................................2

The Space Life Sciences.....................................................................3

Space Neuroscience:

A Special Area Within the Space Life Sciences.................................5

Space Life Sciences Research.............................................................6

Neurolab:

A Special Space Mission to Study the Nervous System..................10

The Nervous System .........................................................................13

Part II

Neurolab Lessons & Activities..............................................................21

The Scientific Method.......................................................................22

Activity I: Introduction to the Scientific Method.........................26

Section I: Developmental and Cellular Neurobiology.....................33

Activity I: What Cells Can I See in Muscle and 

Spinal Cord Tissue?..............................................37

Activity II: Target Recognition and Synapse Formation 

During Development...........................................44

Activity III: Motor Skills Development............................................47

Section II: Vestibular Function............................................................55

Activity I: Visualizing How the Vestibular System Works............59

Activity II: Vestibular-Ocular Reflex...............................................66
x

The Brain in Space: A Teacher’s Guide with Activities for Neuroscience,

EG-1998-03-118-HQ, Education Standards, Grades 5–8, 9–12

Table of

Contents

Section III: Spatial Orientation and 

Visuo-motor Performance............................................75

Activity I: Finding Your Way Around 

Without Visual or Sound Cues...............................81

Activity II: Pitch, Roll and Yaw: The Three Axes of Rotation.......87

Activity III: Building a Magic Carpet...............................................89

Activity IV: Building a 3-D Space Maze: Escher Staircase..............95

Section IV: Autonomic Nervous System Regulation.......................101

Activity I: Measuring Blood Pressure in Space.............................105

Activity II: Changing Body Positions:

How Does the Circulatory System Adjust?............117

Activity III: Baroreceptor Reflex Role Play......................................123

Section V: Sleep and Circadian Rhythms..........................................127

Activity I: The Geophysical Light/Dark Cycle.............................131

Activity II: How Quick Are Your Responses? ................................134

Activity III: Measuring Your Breathing Frequency at Rest.............138

Activity IV: How Long Can You Hold Your Breath?.......................142

Activity V: Raising the Level of Carbon Dioxide 

in Your Blood.................................................................146

Section VI: Appendices.........................................................................149

Glossary..............................................................................................150

NASA Resources for Educators.........................................................159
The Brain in Space: A Teacher’s Guide With Activities for Neuroscience,

EG-1998-03-118-HQ, Education Standards, Grades 5–8, 9–12 1

Introduction

Overview: Neurolab 

and The Brain in Space

The Space Life Sciences

Space Neuroscience 

Space Life Sciences Research

Neurolab: A Special Space Mission 

to Study the Nervous System

The Nervous System

Part I
2 The Brain in Space: A Teacher’s Guide With Activities for Neuroscience,

EG-1998-03-118-HQ, Education Standards, Grades 5–8, 9–12

Introduction Overview

In recognition of the tremendous advances that

have been made in neuroscience and the behavioral sciences, the President and Congress designated the 1990s as the “Decade of the Brain.”

In response, the National Aeronautics and Space

Administration (NASA) decided that an important and significant contribution could be made

to the national research effort through a

Shuttle/Spacelab mission (Neurolab) dedicated

to research on the nervous system and behavior.

Neurolab was a seventeen-day life sciences Space

Shuttle mission. It carried a payload of 26 neuroscience experiments in celebration of the

“Decade of the Brain.” Five additional “Neurolab

Program” experiments will fly on other missions. Seven astronauts (plus two alternates)

were selected to fly aboard the Neurolab mission, STS 90, launched in April of 1998.The

Neurolab science payload examined the effects

of weightlessness and other aspects of the space

environment on the nervous system.The

Morehouse School of Medicine, in collaboration

with NASA, has produced this supplemental

instructional guide to increase secondary teachers’ and students’ understanding of the mechanisms responsible for neurological and behavioral changes in space.

Overview:

Neurolab and The Brain in Space
The Brain in Space: A Teacher’s Guide With Activities for Neuroscience,

EG-1998-03-118-HQ, Education Standards, Grades 5–8, 9–12 3

Life evolved on Earth under a unique set of

conditions.These conditions, which make up

Earth’s environment, are very different from the

environment of space. Some of the most notable

differences between conditions on Earth and in

space are related to gravity, temperature, daily

and seasonal cycles, atmosphere, radiation and

magnetic fields. Systems for human space flight

compensate for many of these differences.The

space life sciences use space flight as a unique

laboratory to study the effects of very low levels

of gravity (“weightlessness”) on humans and

other biological systems and look for ways to

counteract those effects that can be detrimental

to human space crew members.

Gravity is an invisible attractive force that is basic

to all matter. The amount of gravity, or “pull,”

exerted by an object depends both on its mass

and its distance from other objects. Earth’s gravity is responsible for keeping in

place the cloud of gases surrounding the planet, known as the atmosphere, and for holding objects on

the surface. Even the moon and

man-made satellites are kept in their

elliptical orbits around the planet by

Earth’s gravitational field.

However, as one moves farther away

from the surface, the pull exerted by

Earth’s gravity becomes weaker. In a

typical Space Shuttle orbit, gravity’s

pull is about 94 percent the pull

experienced at Earth’s surface.

However, astronauts inside their

spacecraft appear to float because

the Space Shuttle and the astronauts

inside are in “free fall.” The orbit

they are traveling in is a curved path that is the

result of the forward motion imparted by rocket

engines during launch and the pull of gravity. By

achieving the right forward speed, the shape of

the Shuttle’s falling path matches the curvature of

Earth. Consequently, the Shuttle remains at a

nearly constant altitude as it falls. Another way of

stating this is that the gravitational pull of Earth is

offset by a centrifugal force in the opposite direction related to the acceleration of the spacecraft.

A falling elevator car, as shown in Figure 1,

is an example of the effect of “free fall.”

This condition can be imagined by considering what would happen if the cables on an

elevator were to break.The elevator and any

passengers inside would fall toward Earth at

the same rate.

Introduction The Space Life Sciences

The Space Life Sciences

Figure 1 Diagram of free fall.

Normal

Weight

Heavier 

Than Normal

Lighter

Than Normal

A B C D

A. Individual experiences normal 

weight.

B. Because of the upward acceleration, the individual’s apparent 

weight increases somewhat.

C. Because of the downward acceleration, the individual’s apparent 

weight decreases somewhat.

D. Because of free fall, no weight is

measured.

No Measured

Weight
4 The Brain in Space: A Teacher’s Guide With Activities for Neuroscience,

EG-1998-03-118-HQ, Education Standards, Grades 5–8, 9–12

Introduction The Space Life Sciences

Since gravity is not completely offset at all

points within the space vehicle, the term

“microgravity” is used to describe the condition of near weightlessness in space. Space life

scientists are able to conduct experiments under

microgravity aboard Space Shuttle missions.

Thus, astronauts circling the planet in a spacecraft do not feel the effects of gravity.

Space life scientists are interested in learning

about changes in organisms under conditions

of microgravity.These changes take place at the

cellular, systemic, and organismal levels.

Studying cellular systems helps scientists to

learn about some of the changes that occur

within whole biological systems in space. Most

are disrupted in some way when exposed to

microgravity. Space life scientists hope to understand how and why changes in cellular and

body systems take place so that they can understand how gravity has influenced evolution,

development, and function on Earth. In terms of

human space travel, there is also a need to

develop effective “countermeasures,” or treatments, to lessen or eliminate the possible detrimental effects caused by the space environment.

A particular focus of space life sciences research

is seeking answers to questions about changes

that occur in the human body when it is

launched from Earth’s surface, remains in the

microgravity environment of space, and then

returns to Earth.

Some of the questions that space life scientists

ask are:

• How does the human body adjust to microgravity? We know, for example, that body

fluids redistribute within the body in microgravity. What happens to the human heart

and blood vessels under these conditions?

• What are some of the changes that take

place in cells and tissues, and why do the

changes take place? For example, we know

that muscles lose mass and that bones lose

minerals after periods of weightlessness.

Space life scientists would like to know why

and how this happens, and whether these

processes can be prevented.

• Do cells reproduce and function normally

in microgravity? 

• Why do some people have motion sickness

during the first few days in space? 

• How do the timing clocks that set the body’s

biological and physiological rhythms change

in microgravity?

As an example of the types of questions examined by space life scientists, consider how the

human heart adjusts to shifts in the body’s fluids

in microgravity. On Earth, gravity pulls fluids

toward the lower parts of the body (Figure 2A).

In microgravity, bodily fluids move from the

feet, legs, and lower trunk toward the upper

body, trunk, and head.This redistribution of fluids causes the heart to become temporarily

enlarged because of the increased upper body

blood volume (Figure 2B).The body reacts to

increased blood volume by eliminating fluids.

This elimination decreases the total amount of

fluid within the cardiovascular system and

allows the heart to return to a smaller size

(Figure 2C).When astronauts return to Earth,

gravity once again pulls body fluids toward the

lower parts of the body (Figure 2D).

The amount of fluid within the heart and cardiovascular system is no longer sufficient for
The Brain in Space: A Teacher’s Guide With Activities for Neuroscience,

EG-1998-03-118-HQ, Education Standards, Grades 5–8, 9–12 5

Introduction Space Neuroscience

normal functioning. Not enough oxygen-containing blood is pumped to the brain and sometimes people returning to Earth tend to faint.

Space life scientists are interested in studying

these types of changes because it is important

to ensure the health of astronauts in space and

facilitate the quick resumption of their normal

lives when they return to Earth. Many of the

bodily changes that occur in space resemble

those we associate with aging. For example, in

space, humans lose density in their bones and

mass in their muscles.They may also suffer loss

of balance, dizziness, and disorientation when

they come back to Earth (Figure 3). Space life

science research into these conditions has the

potential to provide information that could be

helpful to physicians as they cope with problems in people as they age on Earth.

Space Neuroscience: 

A Special Area

Within the Space

Life Sciences

Space life scientists also would like to learn

how space flight and microgravity affect the

nervous system.This area of research is known

as space neuroscience.

The study of the ways in which the

body’s brain, spinal cord, and network

of nerves control the activities of animals and humans is called neuroscience.

Figures 2A, 2B, 2C, 2D Diagram of fluid shift. Used by permission 

(Ronald J.White, 1990)

A B C D

Before

After

Figure 3 Diagram of astronaut showing signs of dizziness 

and disorientation after space flight.
6 The Brain in Space: A Teacher’s Guide With Activities for Neuroscience,

EG-1998-03-118-HQ, Education Standards, Grades 5–8, 9–12

Space neuroscientists, for example, are interested in understanding how microgravity creates

conflicts in the sensory systems of animals.

Animals use signals from their sensory systems

—vestibular (balance), visual, skin, joint, and

muscle—to maintain a stable vision, spatial orientation, eye-head coordination, posture, and

locomotion. In microgravity, the stimuli are

changed. Until they adapt to these changes,

humans experience illusory motions in themselves or in their environments, space motion

sickness, difficulty in eye-head-hand coordination, and trouble maintaining balance.These

disturbances often reoccur after people return

to Earth.

Space Life Sciences

Research

In the early years of space life sciences research, 1948 to 1957, scientists wanted to learn whether

animals could withstand the hazards of space flight before they

attempted to send human beings

into space. The first successful

space flight with live animals took

place on September 20, 1951,

when the former Soviet Union sent

a monkey and eleven mice into

space and back in a rocket.

(Rockets, unlike spacecraft

designed for orbital flights, are

thrust into the atmosphere and

then drop back to Earth without

going into orbit.) The first

unmanned orbital flight took place

on October 3, 1957, when the former Soviet

Union launched Sputnik 1. (Sputnik is a

Russian word meaning “satellite.”) It was followed by Sputnik 2, launched November 3,

1957. Sputnik 2 carried a dog named Laika

housed in a pressurized compartment. Laika

survived for one week only, but the beating of

her monitored heart in space proved that animals could survive the launch. Other studies

with animals in space successfully returned

their passengers to Earth.These experiences

paved the way for human space travel by disproving prevailing scientific theories that some

vital organs might not function in microgravity.

Soviet cosmonaut,Yuri Gagarin, was the first

person to orbit Earth, which he did on April

15, 1961.The first piloted United States flight

was Mercury, Freedom 7, which lifted off on

May 5, 1961, carrying Alan

Shepard, the first American to fly

into space. Subsequent Mercury

flights proved to medical scientists

that human beings could fly into

space safely. However, these flights

also made it clear that the human

body experiences changes, such as

fluid redistribution and weight

loss, during space travel.

The United States-sponsored

Gemini (Figure 4) missions took

place during 1965 and 1966. Inflight medical studies revealed that

additional physiological changes,

such as loss of bone density and

muscle mass, occur during space

flight. Medical scientists concluded

that these changes would not prevent human beings from traveling

Introduction Space Life Sciences Research

Figure 4 Photograph of Gemini.
The Brain in Space: A Teacher’s Guide With Activities for Neuroscience,

EG-1998-03-118-HQ, Education Standards, Grades 5–8, 9–12 7

Introduction Space Life Sciences Research

to the Moon, and in May 1961, President John

F. Kennedy declared that the United States of

America would do just that.

Between 1968 and 1972, 11 manned Apollo

(Figure 5) flights were launched, carrying out

lunar exploration and demonstrating that

humans can survive and work on the Moon,

which has one-sixth the gravity of Earth.The

program included 29 astronauts, 12 of whom

spent time on the lunar surface. Apollo-era

astronauts reported two major changes in their

bodies during their space travel: motion sickness

and changes in sleep patterns.

The close confines of the early Mercury, Gemini,

and Apollo capsules ruled out sophisticated

experimentation because these spacecrafts were

too small to accommodate research equipment.

It was not until 1973, with the advent of NASA’s

Skylab program, which allowed astronauts to

remain in space for periods of up to 84 days,

that scientists were able to conduct detailed

monitoring of astronauts’ bodies in space.

Scientists observed a variety of changes, including shifts in body fluids, disturbances in the 

vestibular system, muscle atrophy, loss of red

blood cells, and decreases in bone density. The

scientific data from the three Skylab missions

remain a significant source of descriptive information for space life scientists for making predictions about human bodily changes in space.

In 1981, the Space Shuttle (Figure 6) was introduced.This reusable spacecraft made it possible

for space life scientists to conduct more elaborate experiments in a special laboratory module,

called Spacelab, which is housed in the payload

bay of the Space Shuttle.This laboratory is a pressurized module designed for scientists to conduct experiments in space. It is made up of two

segments: the core segment, which contains

computers and utilities, and the experiment segment, which contains working laboratory space

and floor-mounted racks that house specimens,

hardware, equipment, and supplies.

Two very important life sciences research programs with origins in the Skylab project were

conducted during Spacelab missions in the

Shuttle era.The first mission, flown in June

1991, provided the first opportunity since

Skylab to study fully the changes that occur in

human physiology when the body is in microgravity.The second mission, which lasted for 14

Figure 5 Photograph of Apollo.

Figure 6 Photograph of the Space Shuttle.
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days, was a continuation of the first mission,

and studied cardiovascular, pulmonary, nervous,

musculoskeletal, and metabolic systems of

humans and rodents.

NEUROLAB SPACE AGENCIES

Six space agencies (Figure 7) participated

in Neurolab and otherwise have led the

way to greater collaboration in space life

sciences research. They are the United

States National Aeronautics and Space

Administration (NASA), the European

Space Agency (ESA), the Canadian Space

Agency (CSA), the Centre National

d’Etudes Spatiales (CNES) of France, the

German Space Agency—Deutsches

Zentium fur Luf-Und Raumfahrt (DLR),

and the National Space Development

Agency of Japan (NASDA). In June 1995,

these agencies developed the

International Strategic Plan for Space Life

Sciences, outlining how the field of space

life sciences could be best developed from

the present into the 21st Century.

The National Aeronautics and Space

Administration (NASA) of the United States

NASA was established in 1958, in response to

the Soviet Union’s launching of Sputnik 1. Its

space life sciences research program seeks to

support long-term human exploration of space

and use the unique characteristic of space as a

research tool to study basic biological processes.

The European Space 

Agency (ESA)

ESA, headquartered in Paris, France, is an international organization comprised of fourteen

member states: Austria, Belgium, Finland,

France, Denmark, Germany, Italy, Ireland,The

Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden,

Switzerland, and the United Kingdom (Figure

8).The Agency was instituted in 1975 with the

merger of two organizations that were already

involved in Europe’s space program since the 

early 1960s.

Introduction Space Life Sciences Research

Figure 7 Diagram of Neurolab’s six participating space agencies.

Figure 8 Diagram of the ESA member states.
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Canadian Space Agency (CSA)

CSA was founded in 1989. Canada also participates in the international space program as an

associate member of ESA and as a member of

the International Space Station Program. CSA

headquarters is located in Ottawa, Canada.The

Canadian space life sciences program has participated in a series of Spacelab missions with

experiments that examine how humans adapt

to space flight.

Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales 

(CNES) of France

CNES, created in 1961, has five locations: headquarters in Paris; rocket activities in Evry; technical activities in Toulouse; launch site in Kourou;

and stratosphere balloon activities in Aire sur

l’Adour.The CNES space life sciences program

was established in 1970 to investigate five areas:

neuroscience; cardiovascular science; musculoskeletal physiology; gravitational biology; and

exobiology.

Deutsches Zentium fur Luf-Und Raumfahrt

(DLR) of Germany

The German life sciences research program

began in 1972 with experiments on radiation

biology. This program now focuses on the

responses of biological systems to space elements, the exploration of

Earth’s ecosystem, and the

acquisition of medical and

technological knowledge to

maintain human presence

in space. DLR’s human

physiology program focuses on the cardiovascular,

nervous, musculoskeletal,

and endocrine systems.

The National Space Development Agency

(NASDA) of Japan

Established in 1969, NASDA oversees development of, and practical space applications for,

Japan. It is responsible for developing and

launching space vehicles and for overseeing

space experiments and involvement with the

International Space Station. Japan has a long

history of collaboration with other space agencies, and is developing the Japanese Experiment

Module (JEM) that will be attached to the

International Space Station.

The Russian Space Agency was not a partner on

Neurolab. However, the Russian Space Station,

Mir, has provided invaluable opportunities for

studying physiological and psychosocial issues

that will play a role in the success of future longduration International Space Station missions.

THE INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION

At present, each Shuttle mission must take all

that is needed for survival and for conducting

science in space. By constructing a permanent

space station, it becomes possible to assemble

equipment and materials for longer-duration

experiments and resupply without disrupting the

scientific experiments.The International Space

Station (Figure 9) will allow

scientists from around the

world to conduct such

experiments. Scientists will

be able to leave a critical

amount of equipment on

the Space Station—certain

equipment will be “stockpiled” so that the astronauts

will not have to return to

Earth for material.

Introduction Space Life Sciences Research

Figure 9 Illustration of the International Space Station.
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President George Bush and the United States

Congress declared the 1990s to be the “Decade

of the Brain.”This declaration recognized the 

spectacular advances that have taken place in

neuroscience research over the past twenty-five

years and encouraged further research. Aptly

called “the last frontier of human biology,”

neuroscience research holds infinite possibilities for greater understanding of how the 

nervous system works and for preventing 

and treating nervous system ailments.

In response to the President’s declaration, NASA

dedicated a Spacelab Shuttle mission to conduct

research on the nervous system and behavior in

space.This 17-day mission, called Neurolab, was

scheduled for launch in April of 1998. Its main

objectives were the study of basic neuroscience

research questions and the exploration of

mechanisms responsible for neurological and

behavioral changes in space.

In keeping with its history of collaboration

with other space agencies, and in order to take

advantage of the talents of the neuroscience

research community, NASA planned the

Neurolab Shuttle mission as a collaborative

effort among NASA, other national research

agencies, such as the National Institutes of

Health (NIH): Division of Research Grants,

National Institute on Aging, National Institute on

Deafness and Other Communication Disorders,

National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute,

National Institute on Neurological Disorders and

Stroke, the National Institute on Child Health

and Human Development, National Science

Foundation (NSF), the Office of Naval Research

(ONR), and international space agencies interested in how microgravity affects the nervous

system.

Accordingly, in July 1993, NASA issued an

Announcement of Opportunity, soliciting proposals for experiments to be conducted on the

Neurolab mission.The announcement was followed by a series of pre-proposal meetings held

in Tokyo, Japan; Chicago, USA; and Glasgow,

Scotland.These meetings provided information

to assist prospective applicants in preparing

their proposals for experiments on the

Neurolab mission. NASA received 172 responses in its call for research proposals—98 from

scientists in the US and 74 from other investigators around the world.

In March 1994, all proposals were reviewed for

their scientific merit by United States and international scientists.The review was managed by

the NIH.The proposals considered most meritorious were later reviewed for their engineering feasibility and appropriateness for the Space

Shuttle environment.Thirty-two proposals that

met these criteria were selected, and the investigators were assigned to Investigator Teams

based on shared subjects, shared hardware, or

common research themes.The teams were

given ten months, called a Science Definition

Period, to develop integrated research plans and

procedures that met their original scientific

objectives while maximizing the use of scarce

Shuttle resources. At the end of this period, the

proposals were subjected to a second round of

reviews managed by NIH to ensure that the scientific value of the experiments remained

intact.Twenty-six proposals were assigned to

the Neurolab Spacelab mission and six were

designated as small payloads to be flown on

other missions because they could be conducted in the mid-deck area on other Space Shuttle

flights. However, all 32 investigations were designated as the Neurolab Program.

Introduction Neurolab

Neurolab: A Special Space Mission to

Study the Nervous System
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Introduction Neurolab

NEUROLAB PARTNERS

The Neurolab mission was remarkable for its

national and international participation.The

Neurolab mission demonstrated how scientists

from around the world are able to work together

to pursue scientific information that will benefit

all people.The experience from Neurolab will

become increasingly important as space life scientists spend longer periods of time conducting

experiments on the International Space Station.

International partners provided some major

pieces of equipment for Neurolab and funding

for investigations from their respective national

research teams. National partners provided funding for the ground-based portions of Neurolab

investigations that are relevant to their respective

missions.The Neurolab Investigators came

together at regularly scheduled meetings, called

Investigators Working Group (IWG) meetings, to

discuss Neurolab experiments, to coordinate and

integrate their experiments, and to decide how

their ground-based experiments would best be

replicated in space. NASA engineers and technicians had primary responsibility for ensuring

that all scientific and engineering elements of the

mission worked together for a successful launch.

SCIENCE TEAMS

Conducting scientific research onboard the

Space Shuttle is very different from doing

research on Earth. All resources, such as electrical power, experimental supplies and space to

store them, work space, and crew time, are

valuable and limited commodities that must be 

judiciously allocated and shared by the investigations.

Four Neurolab science teams (Figure 10) carried out human investigations, and four conducted investigations on other animals.The 

human investigation teams were managed by

the Johnson Space Center (JSC), located in

Houston,Texas. Scientists on these teams examined four areas of neuroscience: the autonomic

nervous system (part of the nervous system that

handles automatic functions like breathing), circadian rhythms and sleep, vestibular function

(balance), and sensory/motor function and performance.The animal investigation teams, managed by the Ames Research Center (ARC), located in Moffet Field, California, included an adult

neuronal plasticity (ability of mature nerve cells

to adapt) team, mammalian development, and

aquatic and insect neurobiology teams.

USING ANIMALS IN RESEARCH

Physical space on the Space Shuttle was very limited so all experiments were designed so they

could be accommodated in the Spacelab. Neurolab carried a variety of species, including rats,

mice, swordtail fish, toadfish, crickets, and

snails, into space.The study of these animals

helped explain the role of gravity in development and other aspects of the nervous system.

Some of the experiments complemented studies

conducted on the human crew; all were based

on important information from ground-based

experiments.

Figure 10 Diagram of locations of the NASA 

centers that manage the Neurolab teams.
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Introduction Neurolab

Experiences with animals in space laid the foundation for human space exploration and for

advancing understanding of changes that occur

in cells and body systems in microgravity. Space

life scientists increasingly use cell cultures and

computer models to understand these changes

and to ask new questions about

living systems in space. Animal

models are used to examine

changes brought about by space

flight on the brain, bones, muscles, heart, and other areas of the

body and to study developmental biology when there are no

other viable alternatives. Much

significant information about

responses of the body to microgravity also has come from

detailed studies of astronauts

themselves, both during and

after space flight.

NASA, in consultation with a

panel of ethicists from the animal protection and regulatory

communities, has developed and

adopted a strict set of guidelines

for animal care and use. All

research procedures involving

animals must meet these regulations, which require that the

fewest number and simplest animals possible be involved. The

NASA Principles for the Ethical

Care and Use of Animals were

developed around the belief that

the use of animals in research

involves responsibility, not only

for the care and protection of

the animals, but for the scientific

community and society as well.

THE CREW CONDUCTS 

SCIENCE IN SPACE

All space missions require years of dedication

and hard work from experts in a variety of disciplines, and the Neurolab Shuttle mission was no

exception.While we often hear

about the incredible feats

achieved by astronauts in space,

we learn less about the role of

thousands of dedicated space

engineers, technicians, technologists, and administrators who

make the launches possible.The

Neurolab crew consisted of nine

astronauts and scientists 

(Figure 11):

• One Commander 

• One Pilot

• One Mission Specialist

trained and designated 

Flight Engineer

• Two Mission Specialists (astronauts), members of the Payload Crew and one of whom

was Payload Commander.

• Two Payload Specialists recommended by the IWG and

selected by NASA, who had

specific qualifications appropriate to the mission.They

were not career astronauts and

returned to their respective

careers after the mission.

• Two Alternate Payload

Specialists, recommended by

the IWG and selected by

NASA, who received training

as Payload Specialists and were

prepared to become payload

specialists if necessary.They

also had special roles during

the mission.

Figure 11B 

Pilot

Scott D.Altman

Figure 11C 

Mission Specialist

Kathryn P. Hire

Figure 11D 

Mission Specialist

Richard Linnehan

Figure 11E 

Mission Specialist

Dave R.Williams

Figure 11F 

Payload Specialist

James A. Pawelczyk

Figure 11A 

Commander

Richard A. Searfoss

Figure 11G 

Payload Specialist

Jay Buckey

Figure 11H

Alternate

Payload Specialist

Chiaki Mukai

Figure 11I

Alternate

Payload Specialist

Alexander Dunlap
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Introduction The Nervous System

OVERVIEW OF 

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Before studying the brain in space, it is helpful

to know something about the normal nervous

system as it functions on Earth. What is the nervous system? What does it do? How does it do

it? Of these three seemingly simple questions,

the first two are reasonably straightforward, but

the third is much more difficult to answer.

Neuroscientists have some ideas about what the

nervous system does, but because there are so

many levels of understanding, and because neuroscience research is unfolding information so

rapidly, our ability to describe how the nervous

system processes information is constantly

changing. Aptly described as the final frontier of

biology, neuroscience research is beginning to

reveal some of the mysteries of the brain, the

spinal cord, the specialized sense organs and the

complicated network of nerves that together

make up the nervous system.

The nervous system keeps us

aware of our environment and

allows us to react appropriately

to external conditions. For

example, if threatened, we use

our senses—e.g., sight, smell,

and hearing—to assess the level

of danger and to avoid, hide

from, or confront the source of

danger. But the nervous system

does much more than enable us

to interact with our environment by sensing and responding to it. After all, we think,

compose music, express love,

experience sadness, do mathematics, and even

study the brain.These are all nervous system

activities that help to make us what we are. How

we are able to perform these activities remains

one of the deeper mysteries of the nervous system.The best computers pale in comparison to

the human brain.Through the actions of our

nervous system, we can carry out, sometimes

with little effort, a wide variety of tasks that

thus far have proven difficult, if not impossible,

for machines.

Over the past thirty years, neuroscientists have

made tremendous inroads into the investigation

of the nervous system and have begun to answer

some of our more complex questions about it.

Neurons

The basic signaling unit of the nervous system

is the nerve cell, or neuron (Figure 12), which

comes in many different shapes, sizes and

chemical contents.

The Nervous System

Figure 12 Diagram of a neuron. Adapted by permission

(Purves, 1997)

Node 

of Ranvier

Myelin Sheath

Cell 

Body Motor End

Brushes

Neuron Cell

Nucleus
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Introduction The Nervous System

Information about the environment is garnered through sensory cells that are specialized to respond to a particular external stimulus. In all sensory systems, the sensory cell

generates an electrical signal in response to

the stimulus via a process called sensory

transduction. The electrical signals are forwarded to the spinal cord or brain, where

they are processed and sometimes transmitted to effector organs, such as muscles or

glands, to produce the appropriate response.

The general layout of neurons is fairly constant. Information is received on structures

known as dendrites, transmitted to the cell

body and passed on via an axon which typically ends on a dendrite of the next cell in

line.The place where an axon contacts a dendrite or effector organ, such as a muscle or

gland, is called a synapse (Figure 13).

The electrical signal in axons is a brief voltage change called an action potential

(Figure 14), or nerve impulse, which can

travel long distances, sometimes at high

speeds, without changing amplitude or

duration.When an action potential arrives at

the end of the axon, it causes the release of a

stored chemical substance called a chemical

neurotransmitter into the synapse.The neurotransmitter can either increase or decrease

the probability that the next cell will fire an

action potential.When it increases the likelihood that the next cell will fire an action

potential, the process is called excitation, the

transmitter is called an excitatory transmitter and

the synapse is an excitatory synapse. When it

decreases the likelihood that the next cell in line

will fire an action potential, the process is inhibition and the transmitter and synapse are called

inhibitory.

The number of synapses that a given neuron

makes on another neuron or the effectiveness of 

a particular synapse in causing excitation or inhibition—synaptic efficacy—is not constant. In 

several cases, particularly during development,

both the number of synapses and synaptic effi2+

Figure 13 Diagram of a Synapse. Adapted by permission (Purves, 1997) Membrane Potential (mv)

Figure 14 Diagram of Action Potential recorded from 

the cell body of a Purkinje neuron in the cerebellum.
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Introduction The Nervous System

cacy are altered. Scientists agree that one

important factor in determining number and

strength of synapses is the level of use of the

system.The effect of use can be particularly

strong during a short window of time during

development called the “critical period.”The

time at which the critical period occurs differs

from system to system.These use-dependent

changes come under the heading of “synaptic

plasticity.” Some plastic changes last a short

time—seconds to minutes—while others last a

long time—hours, days and even years. Our

ability to learn and remember is a manifestation of synaptic plasticity.

In certain systems, the nervous system responds

to changes that take place in such a manner as to

keep the system working more or less the same.

For example, if the amount of neurotransmitter

substance released at a synapse is decreased, then

the number of sensing molecules or neurotransmitter receptors at the synapse might increase to

produce about the same size response as before.

The molecular mechanisms that are used to

detect the changes and to make the appropriate

alterations are not well understood. Space neuroscientists have learned from past experiments

that cells adapt at the molecular and anatomical

levels to the microgravity environment of space.

Neurolab scientists conducted a series of experiments to further understand the molecular and

anatomical bases of plasticity in neurons.

ANATOMY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Neuroscientists divide the nervous system into

two components— the central nervous system

and the peripheral nervous system.The central

nervous system is comprised of the brain and

the spinal cord.The peripheral nervous system

includes the sensory neurons that link the brain

and spinal cord to sensory receptors and efferent neurons connected to the muscles, glands,

and organs.

The Brain

The brain is the most complex organ in the

human body. It is comprised of the cerebrum,

the brainstem, and the cerebellum (Figure 15).

It is surrounded by three protective layers of

tissue called the meninges, and bathed in liquid called the cerebrospinal fluid.This fluid

also protects the brain from injury and provides

nourishment to its surrounding tissues.

The brainstem is a funnel-shaped structure

consisting of three components—the medulla,

the pons, and the midbrain.These three structures contain motor and sensory nerve cells that

receive information from the skin and muscles

of the head, and from the special sense organs

of hearing, balance, and taste. Groups of nerve

cells in the brainstem control many of the automatic functions of our bodies, such as heartbeat, breathing, and digestion, as well as our

overall alertness.

The cerebellum is divided into symmetrical

hemispheres, right and left.The core of the

cerebellum is made up of white matter, and the

exterior is covered by grey matter called the

cortex.The white matter gets its name from its

whitish appearance in fresh tissue and is due to

the presence of an insulating material called

myelin. Grey matter is devoid of myelin and is

mainly comprised of cell bodies of neurons and

glial (non-neuronal) cells.The cerebellum is

divided into three parts, the cerebrocerebellum,

which receives signals from the cerebrum, the

vestibulocerebellum, which receives input

from the brainstem, and the spinocerebellum,

which receives electrical signals from the spinal
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Introduction The Nervous System

cord (Figure 16).The surface of the cerebellum

is shaped by thin folds, called folia.

The cerebellum coordinates motor activity, posture, and balance, and helps us store information about motor skills such as the blink reflex

and the vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR).VOR

helps us keep our eyes fixed on a visual target

while we move our head.

The cerebrum (Figure 15) represents 85% of

the total weight of the human brain. It has a

highly convoluted surface, with ridges called

gyri and valleys called sulci. Neuroscientists and

neurologists have mapped out the different areas

of the cerebral cortex that control the various

sensory and motor activities of the human body.

Like the cerebellum, the cerebrum is divided

into symmetrical hemispheres. Each hemisphere

is divided into four “lobes,” the frontal, parietal,

temporal, and occipital lobes.These lobes have

special functions.The frontal lobe is involved

with planning and movement; the parietal lobe

with sensation; the occipital lobe with vision;

and the temporal lobe with learning, memory,

and emotion.

The cerebral hemispheres surround an area

called the diencephalon, which consists of the

thalamus and the hypothalamus.The thalamus

is a key structure of the cerebrum. It acts as a

gateway for sensory information coming from

the major systems—vision, hearing and balance,

taste and smell—to the corresponding sensory

area of the cerebral cortex.

The hypothalamus regulates the autonomic nervous system, reproduction and homeostasis.

Homeostasis is the process by which our bodies

maintain a stable internal environment in the

face of changing conditions. Many systems of

Figure 15 Diagram of the brain (sideview). Figure 16 Diagram of the brain (rearview).

Left Hemisphere

Parietal 

Lobes

Right Hemisphere

Occipital

Lobes

Cerebrocerebellum

Spinocerebellum

Vestibulocerebellum

Cerebrum

Frontal 

Lobe

Parietal 

Lobe

Temporal Lobe

Occipital 

Lobe

Midbrain

Pons

Medulla

Brainstem

Cerebellum
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Introduction The Nervous System

the body show rhythmic changes within a period of approximately one day—circadian

rhythms.The suprachiasmatic nucleus is

thought to function as the body’s master biological clock and is located in the hypothalamus,

which is a major part of the diencephalon.

The Spinal Cord

The spinal cord lies in the vertebral canal and is

protected by the bony spinal column. In the

spinal cord, the positions of grey and white

matter are reversed within the brain.The grey

matter is on the inside, while the myelinated

nerve tracts, that make up the white matter, are

on the outside.

Thirty-one pairs of peripheral nerves originate

from the spinal cord and spread throughout the

body. Sensory information carried by the afferent (incoming) axons in the peripheral nerves

enters the spinal cord through the dorsal roots.

Motor commands, carried by the efferent (outgoing) axons, leave the spinal cord through the

ventral roots.

NEUROLAB SCIENCE 

AND THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

The Neurolab Shuttle carried twenty-six experiments that studied the effects of microgravity on

the following five aspects of the nervous system: developmental neurobiology; vestibular

function; spatial orientation and visuo-motor

performance; autonomic nervous system regulation; and sleep and circadian rhythms.

Developmental Neurobiology

The human brain and spinal cord are formed

from dividing cells in the fertilized egg. In order

to form a fully developed brain and spinal cord,

cells from the fertilized egg must undergo mitosis, migration and differentiation. Mitosis is the

process by which cells divide. Cell migration

refers to the movement of cells from their birthplace to their final destination. Cell differentiation is the process by which developing cells

mature into their final specialized form.

Scientists believe that proper development of the

nervous system depends upon precise timing of

mitosis, migration, and differentiation. In addition, neural populations must form appropriate

connections to each other early in development

or risk undergoing programmed cell death.The

period in which neural populations establish

connections with each other starts during early

embryogenesis and can continue well into the

postnatal ages. Embryogenesis is a phase of prenatal developmental stages.Thus, early and postnatal developmental stages are critical for normal spinal cord and brain maturation.

The developing nervous system may interact

with gravity in ways scientists do not yet completely understand. Neurolab scientists designed

several experiments using a variety of animals to

study the effects of space environment conditions on the development of the nervous system. For example, one such experiment looked

at the changes in size and neuronal connectivity

of the gravity sensing organs in snail and

swordtail fish. Another set of experiments studied spatial learning acquisition in the rodent

hippocampus, a specialized brain structure

involved in learning and memory.
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Introduction The Nervous System

No Movement

(Starting Line)

Acceleration

(Running)

Deceleration

(Finish Line)

Figure 17 Diagram of how the otoliths sense linear acceleration.

Vestibular Function

Most living organisms have sensory receptors

for sensing gravity and transmitting information

about head and body orientation and motion. In

vertebrates, including humans, this system is

called the vestibular system.The vestibular system is made up of three semicircular canals

and the otolith organs of the utricle and saccule which are located in the inner ear.

The semicircular canals are primarily responsible for sensing head rotation.They contain fluid

and receptor hair cells that are encased in a delicate membrane called the cupula (Figure 18).

Head movements cause the fluid to shift, thereby triggering the hair cells to send sensory

impulses along the vestibular nerve to the higher centers in the brain.The three canals are situated roughly at right angles to one another in

the three planes of space.This allows the canals

to act separately and in combination to detect

different types of head movement. They detect

when we nod in an up and down motion

(pitch), when we tilt our head to the side

towards our shoulder (roll), and when we

shake our head “no” in a side motion (yaw).

The otolith organs are responsible for detecting

linear acceleration (Figure 17), movement of

the head in a straight line (side to side, up and

down, back and forth). The utricle and saccule

are membranous sacs. On the inside walls of

both the utricle and saccule, there is a bed of

several thousand hair cells, whose hair bundles

are covered by small, flat crystals.These crystals

are called otoliths, a word which means “ear

stones.” The utricle and the saccule are often

referred to as “the otolith organs.” When you

hold your head in the normal erect position, the

hair cells in the utricle lie in a horizontal position. When you tilt your head to either side, the

hairs bend, thereby stimulating the hair cells to

send a signal to the brain about the amount of

head tilt.

In the weightless environment of space, tilting

the head does not stimulate the otoliths. Signals

from the otolith organs conflict with the semicircular canals and the visual signals that are

being sent to the brain.The microgravity environment of space affects astronauts in significant ways.They may experience dizziness, get

space motion sickness, and be unable to differ-
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Introduction The Nervous System

entiate up from down.They sometimes become

disoriented because they cannot fully perceive

where their limbs are located.

The Neurolab scientists developed several experiments to study why astronauts feel unsteady on

their feet and experience difficulty with balance

upon return to Earth. One experiment correlated spatial orientation with the axis of eye movement using an off-axis rotating chair capable of

providing accelerations and decelerations. By

using the measurements of astronauts’ eye

movements, scientists were able to determine

how spatial orientation of astronauts changed

and how the vestibular system works in space.

Studies on Earth have shown that movements of

the eyes accurately reveal what happens in the

inner ear.

Luckily for astronauts, the vestibular system is

very adaptable. After a few days in space, the

astronauts float without discomfort. When they

return to Earth’s gravitational environment, their

vestibular system readapts over several days to

its normal functions.

Spatial Orientation

The process by which we align, or position, our

bodies in relation to objects or reference points

in a three-dimensional space is called spatial

orientation.To maintain this sense of “where

we are,” our somatic sensory system processes

signals from our vestibular, visual, tactile, and

proprioceptive (a sense of the movements and

positions of the limbs) systems.

In space, astronauts must maintain their spatial

orientation without the “down” direction signal

which gravity provides on Earth. Astronauts have

to adapt to the sensory disturbances produced

by microgravity. Some depend heavily on vision,

while others orient their bodies in relation to

external references, such as equipment racks or

the floor of the spacecraft.

The Neurolab scientists designed a variety of

novel technologies and tests to show how this

change takes place.The astronauts performed several experiments to determine how spatial orientation and movement is altered in space. These

Figure 18 Diagram of a receptor hair cell.
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Introduction The Nervous System

included a ball-catching test to see how the perception of moving objects changes in microgravity; the use of a virtual environment system to

study body orientation; and the study of the

effects of microgravity on pointing and reaching

tasks. The information collected from these

experiments provided insights into how the nervous system creates balance between information

it gathers from the eyes, inner ears, and joints.

The Autonomic Nervous System

The autonomic nervous system has two major

divisions—the sympathetic and parasympathetic (Figure 73).The main control center in

the brain for the autonomic system is the hypothalamus.The sympathetic system organizes and

regulates the body’s response to stress. For example, sympathetic neurons enable blood vessels to

constrict, speed up heartbeat, dilate our pupils,

stimulate secretion by our sweat glands, and prepare us to respond to emergencies— the socalled “flight or fight” reaction.The parasympathetic system organizes the body’s responses that

save energy and balances the body’s various systems. It slows the heartbeat, constricts the pupils

in our eyes, dilates or expands blood vessels,

stimulates digestion, and generally prepares the

body for relaxation and rest.

These responses are called involuntary or reflex

actions (Figure 19) because they occur automatically to integrate and coordinate the autonomic

system’s responses.The microgravity environment changes these responses, which may cause

problems for the astronauts. One problem is

feeling faint and light-headed shortly after flight

because of low blood pressure. Since the autonomic control of circulation changes in a

microgravity environment, the Neurolab scientists studied how the regulation of functions,

such as blood pressure and blood flow to the

brain is changed in space.

Sleep and Circadian Rhythms

There are daily rhythms to many of our bodily

functions. Many of these rhythms run on an

appropriate 24-hour cycle that is called “circadian rhythm.” These rhythms persist, even if one

lives in a dark place and does not know the

time of day. Circadian rhythms are closely

linked with sleep, and their disruption can easily disturb sleep.

Scientists agree that the “master clock” for circadian rhythms is located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus, which forms part of the hypothalamus.The suprachiasmatic nucleus receives

information from our eyes, and this information is used to synchronize our circadian

rhythms with sunlight.

Astronauts sometimes have trouble sleeping on

Shuttle Missions.The Neurolab scientists studied the astronauts’ circadian rhythms to learn

why sleep is disrupted in space.They also

examined the effectiveness of the hormone

melatonin (which is involved with sleep) as a

sleep aid, and studied how changes in breathing caused by microgravity, affected the astronauts’ sleep.

Doctor

Patient

Figure 19 Diagram of involuntary or reflex action.
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Part II

Neurolab 

Lessons 

& Activities

The Scientific Method

Lessons and Activities

GRADES 5–12
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The Scientific Method The Seven Steps

The Scientific Method

Scientists aim to gain knowledge and reach an understanding of the world

around us.To achieve this goal, scientists must be curious, make observations, ask questions, and try to solve problems. Early scientists tended to

draw conclusions from observations that were largely speculative (e.g., the

Earth was flat or that the sun circled the Earth). By the mid-sixteenth century, some scientists began to realize that far more knowledge could be

obtained by using a systematic approach to obtaining information and solving problems.

One ground-breaking scientist was Andreas Vesalius (1514–1564), the first

physician to write an extensive text about human anatomy based on meticulous dissections of human bodies. In 1620, Sir Francis Bacon published his

Novum Organum in which he attempted to provide a complete method for

studying science. From these early beginnings, the Scientific Method

evolved as an orderly, systematic process for solving problems.

By the mid-nineteenth century, Charles Darwin and other scientists were

following what has become the modern scientific method. According to this

method, the first step is to speculate or create a hypothesis.The second step

consists of carrying out experiments and/or making comparative observations to test the hypothesis.

Steps of the Scientific Method

1. Identify the problem 

2. Collect information about the problem

3. Propose a hypothesis

4. Test the hypothesis by conducting experiments, making 

comparative observations, and collecting data

5. Evaluate the data collected through investigation

6. Draw conclusions based on data and determine whether to 

accept or reject the hypothesis

7. Communicate results and ask new questions
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The Scientific Method The Seven Steps

The problem is a statement of the question to be investigated. Observations

and curiosity help to define exactly what problem should be investigated

and what question(s) answered. Once a problem is defined, a scientist

should collect as much information as possible about it by searching 

journals, books and electronic information sources.This information will

provide a basis for forming the hypothesis.

A hypothesis is often considered to be an “educated guess.”The word

“guess” is inappropriate, however, because a hypothesis should be based on

information gathered. A hypothesis can be defined more accurately as a

“proposed answer to the problem.”The hypothesis is then tested through

experimentation and observation.The results of experimentation provide

evidence that may or may not support the hypothesis.

To be effective, experiments must be properly planned.The plan is called

the procedure, which describes the things that actually will be done to 

perform the investigation.This is where decisions are made about which

variables will be tested and which will be kept constant, what to use as a

control, how many samples to use, how large the sample sizes should be,

safety precautions needed, and how many times to run the experiment.

Many scientists investigate questions that cannot be answered directly

through controlled experiments in laboratories. For example, scientists

studying global warming, the AIDS epidemic and losses of biodiversity

must use comparative methods to examine differences that occur in the

natural world.

When developing the procedure for an experiment, consider the following:

1. Test only one variable at a time.

A scientist wanting to find out “why trees shed their leaves in the fall”

would have to consider the factors that affect trees, such as the type of tree,

the amount of water they receive, the temperature, the length of daylight to

which they are exposed, and the type of soil in which they are growing.

These are the variables which can cause changes to occur in an experiment.

To obtain reliable results, only one variable should be tested at a time. All

others should be kept constant, whenever possible.

If the scientist’s hypothesis states that shorter daylight hours cause trees to

shed their leaves in the fall, trees of the same age should be tested.They

should be placed in the same size pots with the same type of soil, given the

same amount of water, and kept at the same temperature.The only thing

changed should be the number of hours of light to which different groups
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The Scientific Method The Seven Steps

of trees are exposed. Any variable that the experimenter chooses to change,

such as the hours exposed to light, is referred to as the independent 

variable.The change in the experiment that happens as a result of the independent variable, such as the length of time that it takes for the leaves to

fall, is referred to as the dependent variable.

2. Use controls.

The control is used for comparing the changes that occur when the variables are tested. If a number of young oak trees are placed in a greenhouse

and exposed to 10 hours of light to simulate fall conditions, how will the

scientist know if a loss of leaves is due to the amount of light? It could be

due to the temperature that he/she chose, or the amount of carbon dioxide

in the air.To avoid such uncertainty, two identical experiments must be set

up: one in which the trees are exposed to 10 hours of light and the other,

the control, in which they are exposed to light for a longer period of time

to simulate summer conditions. All factors for the control are exactly the

same as for the test, except for the variable being tested, the amount of light

given to each tree.

3. Use several samples.

Using a number of samples prevents errors due to differences among individuals being tested. Some trees are more hearty than others. If only a few

trees are tested, some may lose leaves for reasons that are not related to the

amount of light.This will produce misleading results. Larger numbers of

samples will provide more accurate results.

4. Always use appropriate safety measures.

Safety measures to be followed vary according to the type of experiment

being performed. For example, laboratory-based experiments frequently

require that participants wear protective clothing and safety goggles, and

that dangerous volatile chemicals be used only under a vented fume hood.

5. Repeat the experiment several times.

To make valid conclusions, the scientist must have reproducible results.

Ideally, comparable results should be obtained every time the experiment

is run.
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After the plan, or procedure, is complete, the experiment is run. It is

essential that careful and accurate records be kept of all observations during an experiment.The recorded observations and the measurements

comprise the data. It is always useful to present data

in the form of charts, tables, or graphs, as these provide a visual way to analyze and interpret the results

(Figure 20). When drawing graphs, the independent

variable is conventionally plotted on the horizontal

axis, and the dependent variable is plotted on the vertical axis.

Analysis of data from the experiment allows the scientist to reach a conclusion.The scientist determines

whether or not the data support the hypothesis and

decides whether to accept or reject the hypothesis.

The conclusion should provide an answer to the question asked in the problem. Even if the hypothesis is

rejected, much information has been gained by performing the experiment.This information can be used to help develop a

new hypothesis if the results repeatedly show that the original hypotheses

is inappropriate.

After performing many investigations on a particular problem over a period

of time, a scientist may come up with an explanation for the problem,

based on all the observations and conclusions made.This is called a theory.

A Scientific Theory is an explanation, supported by data, of how or why

some event took place in nature.

Students should be encouraged to understand that the scientific method can be

applied to solving everyday problems, such as “Under what conditions do I study

best?” or “What type of lunch box will keep my lunch coldest?” The activities in this

manual allow students to understand and experience many of the problems addressed,

and hypotheses proposed, by Neurolab scientists. Activities, such as the Escher Staircase

(Pages 95 – 99), simulate actual experiments that were performed on board Neurolab.

It will be exciting for students to compare the results of the control experiments performed on Earth with the results of tests performed in space.

The Scientific Method The Seven Steps

y

x

Data

Figure 20 Diagram of teacher using graph representing data.
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The Scientific Method Learning Activity I

LEARNING ACTIVITY I:

Introduction to the Scientific Method

OVERVIEW Students will learn to make observations,

formulate hypotheses and design a controlled

experiment, based on the reaction of carbon

dioxide with calcium hydroxide.

SCIENCE & Making and recording qualitative

MATHEMATICS observations, drawing conclusions

SKILLS

PREPARATION 10 minutes to gather equipment; 30 minutes 

TIME to prepare calcium hydroxide solution 

Preparation of one liter of lime water

(Teacher should prepare a day ahead of time):

MATERIALS • 10 grams calcium hydroxide powder

• One liter of water

• Filter paper

• Filter funnel

• Large bottle (2 liters)

• Flasks or small bottles

1. Add 10 grams calcium hydroxide 

Ca(OH)2 powder to one liter of water.

2. Cover and shake well. Calcium hydroxide 

is very slightly soluble in water and 10 

grams will provide more solid than will 

dissolve.

3. Allow the suspension formed to settle for a 

few minutes.

4. To separate the lime water from the suspension, use a filter paper and filter funnel

apparatus to filter the suspension.

5. If the lime water filtrate is still slightly 

cloudy, filter for a second time, using a 

new filter paper.

* Ca(OH)2 + CO2 CaCO3 + H2O 

† CaCO3 + H2CO3 Ca++ + 2HCO3

MAJOR 

CONCEPTS

• Our exhaled breath

contains carbon dioxide gas.

• The carbon dioxide

we exhale reacts with

calcium hydroxide in

solution to form insoluble calcium carbonate and water.*

• Formation of calcium

carbonate precipitate

can be used as a test

for the presence of

carbon dioxide.

• If carbon dioxide continues to be bubbled

into lime water (calcium hydroxide solution) after a period of

time, the white precipitate disappears.The

excess carbon dioxide

forms carbonic acid in

the water and the calcium carbonate reacts

with the carbonic acid

to form calcium ions

and bicarbonate ions,

which are soluble in

water.†

Ca(OH)2 = Calcium 

Hydroxide

CO2 = Carbon 

Dioxide

CaCO3 = Calcium 

Carbonate

H2O = Water

H2CO3 = Carbonic 

Acid Gas

Ca++ = Calcium
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The Scientific Method Learning Activity I

6. Keep the lime water tightly closed when not in use, as it will react with 

carbon dioxide from the air and become cloudy.

7. The calcium hydroxide and water suspension can be stored in a large 

bottle, and lime water filtered off when needed.

8. The filtered lime water can be stored in smaller bottles or flasks,

500 milliliters in volume, for use in class. One (1) liter will be sufficient 

for one class of 24 students for days one and two.

CLASS TIME Two or three periods of 40 – 45 minutes

MATERIALS

Day 1: Per student • 1 plastic test tube, 50 milliliters (ml) in volume

• 1 straw

• 10 – 15 ml lime water solution (calcium hydroxide solution)

• Goggles

MATERIALS

Day 2 and Day 3: The materials will vary depending on the design of the students’ experiPer student ments. All students will require test tubes, lime water, foil, and straws.

BACKGROUND Carbon dioxide comprises only 0.033 percent of Earth’s atmosphere, yet it

is the principle inorganic source of carbon for living organisms. Carbon

dioxide and water are the raw materials required by plants for the synthesis

of sugars through photosynthesis. Organisms release carbon dioxide back

into the atmosphere as a waste product of respiration and other cellular

processes.

This activity allows students to test for the presence of carbon dioxide in

exhaled air. On Day 1, each student will blow through a straw into a solution of calcium hydroxide.The carbon dioxide in the air will combine with

the calcium hydroxide to produce a white precipitate of calcium carbonate.

Students will compare their solutions to those of the teacher, in which a

precipitate will not be visible. (Students will not immediately be able to

observe that if they continue to blow into the calcium hydroxide solution,

the white precipitate will disappear.) Students will then generate hypotheses

to explain the divergent results.

The second part of this activity (Day 2) involves designing an experiment 

to test the hypotheses determined in the class discussion on Day 1. It may

be handled in different ways depending on the age of the students.
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The Scientific Method Learning Activity I

GRADES 10–12 For homework, have each student (or team of students) formulate a

hypothesis to explain why they had a precipitate and the teacher did not.

They should design a simple controlled experiment to test the hypothesis.

On Day 2, review students’ procedures and allow them to perform their

experiments, record their observations and draw conclusions. Grades 10 –

12 should be able to complete the activity in two days, grades 5 – 9 in

three days.

GRADES 7–9 Have students work in groups of three to four to formulate a hypothesis

about the disappearance of the precipitate and design an experiment to test

the hypothesis. Encourage each group to investigate a different variable.The

hypothesis and procedure proposed by each group should be presented to

the class and discussed, based on the questions on pages 41 – 42 under Day

2.The students will then run the experiments they designed on Day 3.

FOR GRADES 5–6 Before proceeding, have the whole class participate in a teacher-directed discussion to determine possible hypotheses about the precipitate and how to

design experiments to test each hypothesis.This will help to prepare them

to conduct their experiments the next day.

Note to Teacher: The students’ answers to the discussion questions will vary, depending on the

hypothesis tested and the design of the experiment. The questions are intended to be a check

list to help students determine whether or not they have designed a valid experiment.

DAY 1

PROCEDURE 1. Explain to students that it is important for scientists to make 

careful observations, and inform them that they will practice 

making observations.

2. Direct each student to fill a test tube with 15 ml of the calcium hydroxide solution that you have prepared in advance and to use a straw to 

bubble their breath into the liquid slowly. (Make sure that the solution is 

clear.) Caution them against blowing into the liquid too vigorously.

Note to Teacher: For grades 5 and 6, the test tubes of liquid could be set up ahead of time.

Students should wear goggles while bubbling into the solution.

3. Have the students observe the solution after blowing through the 

straws for approximately 1 – 2 minutes. Students should record their 

observations in their notebooks. Explain that these observations will 

make up students’ data.

Note to Teacher: Most students will get a white precipitate and stop bubbling.Those in 

higher grades may know exactly what happened.
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The Scientific Method Learning Activity I

4. Use the following questions as a basis for a class discussion.

• What gases are present in exhaled air?

Carbon dioxide gas (nitrogen, water vapor and small amounts of 

oxygen are also present).

• What is the clear liquid?

Lime water

• How can we test for the presence of carbon dioxide?

Bubble the gas into the lime water.

• What is a positive test for carbon dioxide?

Carbon dioxide turns clear lime water cloudy.

• Why is a precipitate formed?

Lime water is a solution of calcium hydroxide. It chemically reacts 

with carbon dioxide to form solid calcium carbonate (chalk).

5. When the students are convinced that they know exactly what 

happened, bring out the “teacher’s results.” Explain that you did the 

exact same experiment, but got very different results! Your test tube has

no white precipitate—it is clear.The class now has a problem to solve:

How can there be no white precipitate when the teacher performed 

the same experiment?

6. Discuss with students what factors might affect the production of a precipitate. (DO NOT

tell the students how you

obtained your results.) 

Possible answers might be:

• Time—how long exhaled 

air was bubbled into the 

solution.

• Adults vs. teenagers.

• Rate of bubbling.

• Light vs. dark.

• Temperature of the liquid.

• Any other conditions at time 

of breathing.

7. Explain that all of the factors 

identified by students are 

known as variables.

Figure 21 Diagram of teacher-directed discussion with class.
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The Scientific Method Learning Activity I

DAY 2

PROCEDURE 1. Use the following questions to guide students or groups of students in 

the development of their hypotheses and experimental designs.

• Does the hypothesis offer an answer to the problem?

Yes it does.The problem was, “Why was there no white precipitate

when the teacher performed the experiment?”The hypothesis states 

that the teacher may have exhaled into the solution for a longer time

than the students.

• Does the experiment have a control?

Yes.The control is the average length of time that the students exhaled

into the solution of lime water (possibly about one minute).

• Which materials are needed? Are the materials readily available?

• What conditions are being kept constant?

The conditions kept constant are the temperature of the liquid, the size

of the straws, the rate of bubbling into the liquid and the amount of

lime water used for each test.

• What is the independent variable being tested?

This is the variable that the experimenter chooses to change.

In the example given, it is the increased length of time that the 

students choose to exhale into the lime water.

• What is the dependent variable being measured?

The dependent variable is the amount of precipitate present 

after exhaling into the tube of lime water.

• How will each group present its data?

The data may be presented in the form of a chart (Figure 22).

This can be indicated by using + to represent the density of the precipitate.

DAY 3

1. Allow individuals or teams of students to perform their experiments,

collect data and draw conclusions. A post-experiment discussion is 

recommended to review the conclusions made by each group. Each 

group’s experiment should be evaluated based on the appropriateness of 

the experimental design to test the group’s hypothesis (not whether the 

group actually found the “correct” solution).

Figure 22 Sample of data sheet for

recording precipitate.

Exhale Time Amount of

(observations) Precipitate

0.25 min. +

0.5 min. ++

1.0 min. +++

1.5 min. +++

2.0 min. +++

2.5 min. +++

3.0 min. ++

3.5 min. ++

4.0 min. +
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EG-1998-03-118-HQ, Education Standards, Grades 5–8, 9–12 31

2. For a typical experiment to test the hypothesis that “the length of

time that air was blown into the solution” caused the teacher’s results

to be different, each student in a group of four should use the same size 

tube, the same amount of lime water, run the experiment at the same 

temperature, use the same size straws and attempt to bubble at the same 

rate. Students could estimate how long they exhaled into their liquid the 

first day.This could be the control time. One student in each group 

could blow into his/her tube for the control time. Each following 

student in the group could increase his or her time by two to four 

minutes.

POST-LAB 3. Compare the experiments performed by each group of students. For

DISCUSSION each experiment designed, discuss the variable tested, the control, the

factors kept constant, and the results obtained. Note that the amount of

lime water used, and the size of the straws and test tubes should be the

same for each experiment. A chart, such as the one below, can be developed on an overhead projector.

* Cover test tube with foil to create darkness.

4. From the class observations, it can be seen that only the length of time

affects the amount of precipitate formed. At this point, explain that excess

carbon dioxide bubbled into lime water forms carbonic acid which dissolves the precipitate of calcium carbonate.

The use of the scientific method to systematically test different hypotheses will

enable the students to determine which hypothesis is correct in answering a problem.

The Scientific Method Learning Activity I

Independent Control Constants Observations Variable Tested

1. Length of time breath was 2 mins. Room temperature The precipitate

bubbled into the solution Bubble slowly formed, increased,

(from .25 mins. to 4 mins.) Keep tube in the light then decreased

2. Temperature of Room Bubble for 2 mins. Precipitate formed,

the water (warm/cold) temperature Bubble slowly did not decrease

Keep tube in the light

3. Rate of bubbling Bubble Room temperature Precipitate formed,

(slowly/quickly) slowly Bubble for 2 mins. did not decrease

Keep tube in the light

4. Amount of light (light/ Keep tube in Room temperature Precipitate formed,

dark)* the light Bubble for 2 mins. did not decrease

Bubble slowly

Figure 23 Example of chart comparing experiments.
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Developmental

and Cellular

Neurobiology

Lessons and Activities

GRADES 5–12

Section I
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Developmental and Cellular Neurobiology Introduction

Developmental and 

Cellular Neurobiology

TOPIC Recent studies have shown that microgravity has an effect upon normal

development and function of nerves and muscle.

How will prolonged space flight alter development and normal function of the human neuromuscular system?

INTRODUCTION The human body is composed of three muscle types: skeletal, smooth,

and cardiac muscles (Figure 24). Skeletal muscle controls all voluntary

movement, such as walking, sitting, or throwing a ball. Smooth muscles

perform unconscious or involuntary motions, such as moving food

through the digestive system. Cardiac muscle is heart muscle which is

responsible for pumping blood through the body. All three muscle types

differ from each other in how the nervous system transmits signals to

them and in the types of molecules present within the muscle cells.

Skeletal muscles that are involved in standing and walking are referred to as weight-bearing muscles. Scientists

believe weight-bearing muscles are profoundly affected

by exposure to microgravity. Weight-bearing muscles also

consist of two different fiber types known as slow (or

red) and fast (or white) twitch muscles.The two different muscle types are involved in specialized types of

movement and activity of neurons of the central nervous

system are believed to influence which type of fiber the

muscle will become.

The capacity to perform detailed experiments on both

human and animal subjects in space provides fascinating

opportunities to investigate functional changes in the

absence of gravity’s effects. Is gravity necessary for normal development and function of skeletal muscle? Does

the nervous system require gravity to make functional

contact with weight-bearing skeletal muscle correctly?

Does gravity alter the manner in which the nervous system communicates with muscle? Experimental research can provide

invaluable information about the underlying mechanisms of gravity’s

effect upon human physiology.The Neurolab team investigated how space

flight and microgravity affect the nervous system and its interaction with

skeletal muscle.

Skeletal

Cardiac

Smooth

Figure 24 Diagram of three muscle types.
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Developmental and Cellular Neurobiology Introduction

Things to Know

OVERVIEW OF Weight-bearing muscles are attached to the bones of the body by tendons.

THE SKELETAL Both slow twitch (red) and fast twitch (white) weight-bearing muscles 

NEUROMUSCULAR control body movement by contraction (becoming shorter).The muscles 

SYSTEM contract as a result of signals from neurons that are connected to

the muscle fiber.

Neurons are the basic unit of the nervous system (Figure 25). Each neuron

consists of a cell body with extensions that either send information (axon)

or receive information (dendrite). Neurons that send contraction signals to

the muscle are known as motor neurons and are located in the spinal cord.

The motor neuron’s axon reaches skeletal muscle early in development and

forms a specialized connection known as the motor end plate (Figure 25).

Scientists believe that axonal signals transmitted from motor neurons to the

muscle fiber will determine whether the muscle fiber will become either a

slow twitch or fast twitch type. Slow and fast twitch muscles manage different types of motion necessary to function in gravitational fields.

Slow twitch (red) muscles have a rich blood supply and are capable of

endurance activities, such as marathon running or standing for prolonged

periods. In contrast, fast twitch (white) muscles have a more limited

blood supply and are specialized for very fast contractions and forceful

movements like lifting heavy weights. In addition, fast twitch muscles

fatigue easily. Exposure to microgravity will cause both slow and fast

twitch weight-bearing skeletal muscles to shrink. However, slow twitch

weight-bearing muscles appear to be more vulnerable to microgravity.

Figure 25 Diagram of a neuron cell.

Dendrite

Node 

of Ranvier

Myelin Sheath

Cell 

Body Motor End

Plates

Neuron Cell

Nucleus
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DEVELOPMENT Motor neurons make connections with muscles early in development.The 

OF THE ability of the neuron to find the muscle and make a connection (synapse) 

NEUROMUSCULAR is highly controlled by signals present during the developmental period.

SYSTEM When the neuron first contacts its target muscle, it will make more

synapses than it requires. Once the muscle matures, the extra synapses are

eliminated and the muscle will become either a slow or fast twitch fiber.

Maturation into either a slow or fast twitch fiber will determine whether

the muscle can perform such functions as standing for prolonged periods

in a normal gravitational field or briefly lifting a very heavy weight.

How does microgravity affect neuronal function?

Scientists are studying how microgravity will affect developmental signals

from the neuron to the muscle. It is possible that gravity is required for

the neuron to form functional motor end plates and behave normally.

The development of motor skills, such as

walking, requires maturation of the neuromuscular system. As these systems develop

and become more coordinated, the ability to

walk develops over a definite sequence of

milestones: the baby lifts its head, then successively supports its body with its arms,

turns over, sits up, crawls then walks with

assistance (Figures 26A, 26B and 26C).

Finally, the baby learns to walk alone. This

sequence occurs as muscle and bone strength

increase and the nervous system becomes calibrated to control the timing and strength of

muscle activity and interpret the incoming

sensory signals. Just as one must practice

baseball or the piano to play well, it is also

necessary to practice to learn how to stand up,

walk, jump, and run.

At each step in the process of learning to

move in a coordinated fashion, the baby is

developing in the presence of Earth’s gravity.

In microgravity, important developmental signals from the neuron to the muscle may be

altered during the critical developmental period making it difficult for this motor system to

develop. Experimental studies in microgravity

will help scientists determine what role gravity plays in the normal development of

human neuromuscular systems.

Developmental and Cellular Neurobiology Introduction

Figure 26A Diagram of baby 

supporting body with arms.

Figure 26B Diagram of baby crawling.

Figure 26C Diagram of baby 

walking alone.

DEVELOPMENT 

OF MOTOR SKILLS
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Developmental and Cellular Neurobiology Learning Activity I

LEARNING ACTIVITY I:

What Cells Can I See 

in Muscle and Spinal Cord Tissues?

OVERVIEW Students will observe, on a prepared slide, cells

of muscle and spinal cord tissues.

SCIENCE & Observing, comparing, describing,

MATHEMATICS drawing conclusions

SKILLS

PREPARATION 10 minutes

TIME

CLASS TIME 50 minutes

MATERIALS Each student or group of students will need:

• A compound light microscope

• Prepared slides of skeletal muscle and spinal 

cord tissues (preferably a cross section and 

longitudinal section)

BACKGROUND The body’s motor systems require specialized cells to perform coordinated

movement. Skeletal muscle cells fuse during development, forming cylindrical fibers. As a result, muscle fibers are multinucleated (more than one

nucleus).The motor neuron sends an axon out of the spinal cord through

the nerve and attaches to the muscle to form a motor end plate.

The Neurolab scientists attempted to identify the primary changes that

occur in motorneurons and muscle fibers in the microgravity environment.They conducted experiments with frozen, stained muscle fibers and

spinal cord tissue from rats that were flown into space.To conduct these

experiments, the microscope was used to examine histological sections of

muscle fibers and spinal cord tissues. Analysis determined whether the

fibers were smaller or whether the neuronal cell body was altered.

This activity will allow you and your students to observe cells 

in muscle and spinal cord tissues under the microscope.

MAJOR 

CONCEPTS

• To distinguish

between cell types

that make up 

spinal cord and

muscle tissues.

• To observe and distinguish the nuclei

of cell types and

how nuclei differ

between muscle

cells and motor

neurons.
38 The Brain in Space: A Teacher’s Guide With Activities for Neuroscience,

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Developmental and Cellular Neurobiology Learning Activity I

PROCEDURE 1. Students should be familiar with using the microscope (Figure 27)

before carrying out this activity.

2. Divide class into groups of 2 – 4 students. Each student group should

have one microscope, which they should check to make sure is clean

and working properly.

3. Give each group five prepared slides. Each

group should have one slide of rat muscle

tissue and four slides of rat spinal cord tissue regions.

4. Instruct the students to use two different

magnifications and sketch the cells they

observe on a copy of the Student Activity

Sheet at the end of this activity. Students

should record the magnification used for

each sketch.

5. Have students find and label the nuclei and

the cytoplasm for each tissue. Also have

them identify and label all other parts of the

cells.

6. Make overhead transparencies or photocopies of the photographs

(Figures 28 and 29) and allow students to compare their sketches to

the photographs. Ask students to describe as many differences and similarities between the cells in the two tissues as possible. Have them

report the number of cells that were observed of each tissue type.

Figure 29 Photograph of a magnified smooth muscle cell (x248).

Lens

Body Tube

Revolving

Nosepiece

Objectives

Mechanical

Stage

Stage

Mirror

Rack and Pinion

Substage

Course Focusing

Mechanism

Arm

Fine

Focusing

Mechanism

Base

Figure 27 Diagram of a microscope.

Figure 28 Photograph of a magnified spinal cord cell (x200).
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Developmental and Cellular Neurobiology Learning Activity I

Evaluation

REVIEW 

QUESTIONS 1. Describe the shapes of muscle cells.

Muscle cells are elongated in shape.The nuclei are fairly uniform.

2. Do muscle cells look different from spinal cord cells? 

How do they differ?

Yes.The muscle cells are elongated cylinders and the spinal cells are

somewhat circular.

THINKING 1. If the Neurolab scientists found differences in shapes and/or sizes of 

CRITICALLY these types of cells during their mission, what might this mean about

microgravity?

If the Neurolab scientists found differences in shapes and/or sizes, it

may indicate that microgravity had affected the development or maturation of these cells.

2. How do you think microgravity may affect human muscle and spinal

cord cells?

Microgravity may affect human muscle and spinal cord cells by changing the number of cells during the cell division stage of development

or by altering the shape and size during change in development.

SKILL BUILDING 1. Obtain slides of human skeletal muscle and human spinal cord tissues

and have students compare these to rat tissue.

2. Obtain slides of cardiac and smooth muscles for students to observe.

Have them compare these to the slides of skeletal muscle.

Note to teacher: Prestained slides may be obtained from:

Science Kit & Boreal Laboratories Muscle tissue, cat. #69178-05

Phone: 1-800-828-7777 (price: approximately $6.00 ea.)

Fax: 1-800-828-3299 Spinal cord tissue, cat. # 69242-03

www.sciencekit.com (price: approximately $5.00 ea.)

Wards Natural Science Muscle tissue, cat. #33W3542

Phone: 1-800-962-2660 (price: approximately $6.00 ea.)

Fax: 1-800-635-8439 Spinal cord tissue, cat. # 93W3699

www.wardsci.com (price: approximately $5.00 ea.)
40 The Brain in Space: A Teacher’s Guide With Activities for Neuroscience,

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Developmental and Cellular Neurobiology Student Activity Sheet: Learning Activity I

STUDENT ACTIVITY SHEET

What Cells Can I See?

Name ________________________________________________ Date __________________

OBJECTIVE To compare and contrast the cells of smooth muscle and spinal cord tissues.

DIRECTIONS Obtain a group of prepared slides from your teacher.The teacher will give

your group a microscope (Figure 30) for you to observe the cells on the

prepared slides.

PROCEDURES 1. Your group should have one microscope. Check to make sure that the 

microscope is clean and working properly.

2. You should have five prepared slides. One slide of rat smooth muscle 

tissue and four slides of four regions of rat spinal cord tissue.

3. Use two different magnifications and sketch the cells you observe.

Record the magnification used for each sketch. (First use the lowest 

magnification lens, then rotate to the next magnification.)

4. Find and label the nuclei and the cytoplasm for each

tissue. Also identify and label all other parts of the

cells.

5. Compare your sketches to the photographs or transparencies provided. Describe as many differences

and similarities between the cells in the two tissues

as possible. Report the number of cells that you

observe of each tissue type.

6. After you have completed the muscle tissue, repeat

procedures 3 through 5 using the four regions of

the spinal cord tissue slides.

Figure 30 Diagram of student looking through a microscope.
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Developmental and Cellular Neurobiology Student Activity Sheet: Learning Activity I

Page 2

Name ________________________________________________ Date __________________

Muscle Tissue

MAGNIFICATION 1: ____________________ MAGNIFICATION 2:____________________

Diagram of muscle (sketch) Diagram of muscle (sketch)

Descriptions of number, shape, and size of cells: ______________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________
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Page 3

Name ________________________________________________ Date __________________

Spinal Cord Tissue Region 1

MAGNIFICATION 1: ____________________ MAGNIFICATION 2:____________________

Spinal Cord Tissue Region 2

MAGNIFICATION 1: ____________________ MAGNIFICATION 2:____________________

Descriptions of number, shape, and size of cells: ______________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

Developmental and Cellular Neurobiology Student Activity Sheet: Learning Activity I
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Page 4

Name ________________________________________________ Date __________________

Spinal Cord Tissue Region 3

MAGNIFICATION 1: ____________________ MAGNIFICATION 2:____________________

Spinal Cord Tissue Region 4

MAGNIFICATION 1: ____________________ MAGNIFICATION 2:____________________

Descriptions of number, shape, and size of cells: ______________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

Developmental and Cellular Neurobiology Student Activity Sheet: Learning Activity I
44 The Brain in Space: A Teacher’s Guide With Activities for Neuroscience,

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Developmental and Cellular Neurobiology Learning Activity II

LEARNING ACTIVITY II:

Target Recognition and Synapse Formation 

During Development

OVERVIEW Students will learn that growing axons make

more connections than they require during

development and will maintain only those connections necessary for correct neuromuscular

functioning.

SCIENCE & Inferring, problem-solving, observing,

MATHEMATICS drawing conclusions

SKILLS

PREPARATION 10 minutes

TIME

CLASS TIME 50 minutes

MATERIALS Each team or group of 10 – 16 students will need:

• Five – eight sections of colored string (each a

different color and cut 10 – 20 feet long)— 

one piece for every two students on the team.

BACKGROUND This lesson focuses on neuron/target muscle recognition in neural development.The axon is the long filamentous part of a neuron leading away

from the neuronal cell body.The end of the axon is subdivided into many

filaments, which form the motor end plate (Figure 25). When messages

are transmitted, an impulse flows from the neuron to the target muscle.

Only those synapses which are utilized continuously to perform mature

motor functions are maintained.

The importance and relevance of gravity’s influence on target recognition and synapse 

formation can be determined through investigations of target selection in space.

MAJOR 

CONCEPTS

• Axons must be

able to form permanent connections (synapses)

with their targets.

• Growing axons

must be able to

find and identify

proper target cells

during development.
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Developmental and Cellular Neurobiology Learning Activity II

PROCEDURE 1. Arrange students in two rows (row A and row B), facing away from

each other, with equal numbers in each row. Make sure that the students use string long enough to account for tangling in the middle, as

shown in Figure 31. Students in row A will represent axonal growth

cones. Students in row B will be target muscles.The appropriate target

of each student in row A will be the row B student directly behind

him/her.

2. Give each student in row A an end of one of the cut strings.

3. Give the other end of each string to a student in row B. Make sure that

none of the strings go straight across to the “proper” student. No correct connections should exist at first, and the strings should be crossed

at the outset (Figure 31).

4. To begin, have the first student in row A (the axonal growth cone) tug

on his/her string to simulate the axon searching for its target cells.The

student in row B with the other end (an improper target) will not

know whether the person tugging is the proper neuron or not.

5. You or another student will act as an observer and provide information

about whether the string is connected to the proper target by answering either “yes” or “no,” when the row A person tugs on a string. (A

proper connection is made when the students across from each other

are holding the same colored strings.) If the feedback is “no,” ask the

student in row B to switch strings with the student next to him/her.

6. Have the first student repeat his/her tug until enough switches have

been made to find the “proper” target and elicit the “yes” feedback

from you (or the observer).

Figure 31 Diagram of students demonstrating proper axonal/target connections.

Note: Strings can be tangled in the middle as long as students directly across from each other end up holding the same color.

Should

conclude

Row A Row B
46 The Brain in Space: A Teacher’s Guide With Activities for Neuroscience,

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Developmental and Cellular Neurobiology Learning Activity II

7. Direct the next student in row A to tug, and repeat the process.

Note to Teacher: The strings in between the student rows will become tangled.This is fine. In

reality, neurons are arranged in bundles called nerves. Crossing will inevitably occur, but since

the same colored strings eventually will be held by the students across from each other, students

will understand that despite their potentially confusing path, the proper connections are made.

8. Have the students try the same procedure, but without saying “yes”

or “no.” (This exercise will prove that the correct connections cannot

be made without proper recognition.)

Evaluation

REVIEW 

QUESTIONS 1. What is required for axons to properly connect to their targets?

Axonal growth cones are required to specifically recognize the appropriate target.

2. What happens when any part of the system breaks down?

If a part of the system breaks down, improper functioning of the 

sensory system may occur.

THINKING 

CRITICALLY 1. How might microgravity affect the connections made?

Microgravity may cause binding at improper sites.

2. Is there point-for-point correspondence between neurons originating in a certain area and their target areas?

Yes.There is point-for-point correspondence because the neurons give

rise to the axonal growth cones that specifically form connections to

target sites.

3. How are the specific connections made and maintained?

Specific connections are made by forming stable connections through

target binding.

SKILL BUILDING 1. Have each student in row A record the number of attempts 

before connecting with the appropriate student in row B.

Have students share their data and compute a class average of the 

number of attempts necessary.

2. Have students create another signaling system for guiding the

connection process in the model.
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Developmental and Cellular Neurobiology Learning Activity III

LEARNING ACTIVITY III:

Motor Skills Development

OVERVIEW Students will construct a timeline of the

development of motor skills in humans by

pooling observations of children of different

ages.They also will construct an autobiographical account of their own development.

SCIENCE & Making and recording qualitative and 

MATHEMATICS quantitative observations, creating charts 

SKILLS and tables, drawing conclusions

PREPARATION None

TIME

CLASS TIME 30 minutes to explain the activity, which

requires one week of observation

MATERIALS Each student will need:

• Note pad

• Pencil or pen

• Tape recorder (optional)

BACKGROUND Neurolab experiments tested the hypothesis

that gravitational fields are necessary during

critical periods of mammalian postnatal

development (development after birth) for

the normal sequence of motor system development to occur. This hypothesis suggested

that space rats (and people) would turn out

differently than Earth rats (and people) if

they were weightless during certain critical

times during their development. Neurolab

scientists also used information about normal motor system development to make comparisons with development of

motor skills of rats under microgravity conditions.

MAJOR 

CONCEPTS

• Critical periods exist

during the development process in which

we must interact with

our environments for

development to

progress normally.

• There is a sequential

development of motor

skills that takes place

over time (e.g., from a

baby lifting his/her

head, to supporting

his/her body with

his/her arms, to turning over, to sitting up,

to crawling, to walking

with assistance, and

finally, to walking

alone).

• The nervous system

accounts for the effects

of gravity during the

“programming” of the

motor system.
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Developmental and Cellular Neurobiology Learning Activity III

Reflexes in Babies

The first steps of the investigation will be to find out the ages of babies

and children in each student’s family and, if possible, in neighboring families. Based on information available to different class members, the group

should be able to choose children of different ages to observe. Using the

pooled observations made by students, each student or the class as a

whole should be able to apply their observations and make a chart, or

“timeline” of normal human development.

Should be elicited by a parent and observed by the student.

GRASP REFLEX The grasp reflex is the easiest baby reflex to

observe. If pressure is placed on the baby’s

hand or foot, the fingers or toes will curl up.

The baby will hold tightly onto a finger (Figure

32).

RIGHTING REFLEX This is a good example of the nervous system

developing before muscles do. When a baby is

placed in a sitting position, he/she will try to

keep his/her head straight. If the neck muscles

are not strong enough, the baby will need

some help. When the neck muscles develop,

the baby will be able to hold his/her head up.

STARTLE REFLEX This reflex can be elicited by an unexpected

noise. After hearing a loud noise, a baby’s arms

and legs move together, then out, then up, then

in. At the same time, the hands and legs open

and close.

STEPPING REFLEX If a baby is held under the arms while his/her

feet are touching a solid surface, the baby will

lift one foot up and put it down, followed by

lifting the other foot (Figure 33). The same

reflex can be observed if the baby’s feet are

pressed against a couch. This reflex is seen

from birth to about six to eight weeks of age,

and again between eight and twelve months.

Figure 33 Diagram of stepping reflex.

Figure 32 Photograph of grasp reflex.
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Developmental and Cellular Neurobiology Learning Activity III: Part One

TONIC NECK If the baby is lying on his/her back and not crying and his/her head is 

REFLEX turned to one side, often the arm on the same side will extend while the

leg on the other side will flex (Figure 34).This is the same position you

see when a right-handed baseball player extends his/her arm up to catch

a ball. His/her head will be turned to the right, the right leg will be

extended, and the left arm and leg will be bent.

For older students, this activity can be extended to include the study

of the development of language among children of different ages.

The main objective of the activity is to gather information by observation and to learn that there is a time-related course of human

development. Students also will learn whether the development of

certain skills depends on strength, the nervous system, or both, and

if development progresses in a front-to-back, head-to-tail, or other

sequence. Over the course of the activity, students will observe

human development, take a “family history” from their parents, and

write an autobiography.They will then compare the accuracy of

what they learned about human motor development by direct

observation, “hear-say” information, and memory.

Note to Teacher: It is important to emphasize that growth and development is a continuous process and that milestones are

not reached at a particular age, but over a range of ages.

PROCEDURE Part One: Observing Development

1. Survey the students in the class to determine the numbers and ages of 

each student’s siblings (and younger friends and neighbors). From the 

list provided, choose babies, toddlers, and children (up to about seven –

eight years of age) to include in the activity and to be observed by 

different members of the class. Suggest to the students that their parent(s) or 

guardian(s) provide this information.

2. Assign students or groups of students to observe babies, toddlers and

young children from the list during the course of the following week.

3. Tell the students to observe their subject(s) carefully, take notes and fill

out the class survey sheet, listing development skills and reflexes (see

Student Activity Sheet on page 50).

4. If this activity is extended to language development (which may be the

most interesting for high school students), tape recorders may be used to

document sounds.

5. Based on the class data, have each student or group of students

describe the timeline of the acquisition of motor (and language, if

applicable) skills in children.

Figure 34 Diagram of tonic neck reflex.
50 The Brain in Space: A Teacher’s Guide With Activities for Neuroscience,

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Developmental and Cellular Neurobiology Student Activity Sheet: Learning Activity III

STUDENT ACTIVITY SHEET

Observing Development of Younger Subjects

Name ________________________________________________ Date __________________

1. What are the “vital statistics” of your subject?

______ weight ______ number of siblings

______ height ______ position in family (what number child?)

______ weight and length at birth ______ twin

______ gender

2. Can your subject do the following? Place a check next to each action your subject can perform.

Movement

______ lift head ______ sit up with support

______ hold head up and look around ______ sit up without support

______ support body with arms ______ reach and pick up a toy

______ roll over ______ crawl

______ grab something, hold onto it ______ crawl up stairs

Awareness of Self and Others

______ follow family members with eyes ______ recognize own name

______ smile ______ point at things

______ laugh ______ wave good-bye

______ recognize self in mirror ______ copy sounds

______ recognize hands ______ say first words

______ recognize feet

Walking

______ stand up from sitting or crawling position ______ jump on one foot

______ stand without falling, if holding onto something ______ hop

______ stand alone ______ skip

______ walk while holding onto something ______ jump

______ walk alone ______ run

______ stand on one foot ______ walk up stairs

Skilled Movement

______ eat with a spoon ______ throw a ball straight ______ catch a ball (if so,

______ drink from a cup ______ draw a straight line what size ball?)

______ drink from a glass ______ make a circle around a drawing of a house

______ use a knife and fork ______ copy a circle, triangle or drawing of a house

3. How many different kinds of controlled movements can your subject make? __________

Add from above.
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Developmental and Cellular Neurobiology Learning Activity III: Part Two

Part Two: Autobiographies

1. Have students fill out developmental surveys (as before) about their

own development with their parent(s)’ or guardian(s)’ help (pediatricians often have this type of information from “well child” exams). See

Student Activity Sheet on page 53.

2. Student should identify the sources of their information (e.g., self, parent, doctor, document, etc.).

3. Have each student use his or her own developmental surveys to create

an autobiographical description of his or her own development from

birth until age six.

Evaluation

REVIEW 1. Are motor skills acquired in a particular sequence during development?

QUESTIONS The acquisition of motor skills follows the development of the nervous

system.The nervous system, as well as motor skills, develops from the

head down. Babies can control their arms before their legs.This is

because the motor cortex, which controls fine movements, develops

over a roughly three-month period from 4 – 7 months. The development of sensory ability, such as improved vision is due to development

of the connections between the retina and the brain.

2. What determines the sequence? Is it influenced by age, weight or 

gender?

The sequence is determined by the growth of the nervous system.

Since strength is also important, developments of the muscular system 

also plays an important role.

For the purposes of this discussion, the sequence is not influenced by 

gender (although girls and boys develop particular skills at different 

rates). Weight only plays a role in the case of underweight babies—

malnutrition can delay development.

3. Is there a difference between what one observes and what one

remembers? Why?

Yes. Relying on memory can be worse than not remembering at all

because memory can be selective—we only remember some aspects of

our experiences. Also, memory can be incorrect or inaccurate because

it is influenced by emotion, by what we expect, or by what we want to

remember.
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Developmental and Cellular Neurobiology Learning Activity III

THINKING 1. If available, have students bring in pictures of themselves between the 

CRITICALLY ages of 0 – 2 years and put the photos on a board. Have students use

their data bases (Student Activity Sheet: Observing Your Own

Development) to try to guess the ages of their classmates in each of the

pictures (Figure 35).

2. Is knowledge of the subject’s age useful

developmental information? Does this

requirement vary according to the overall age

of the subject (e.g., each hour, day, week,

month, or year)?

3. What might happen to a person that developed under microgravity if he/she were

exposed to conditions of increased gravity,

such as Earth?

The purpose of the Neurolab experiments

was to gather data that would help us

answer this question. However, there were

some hints from other experiments—it was

thought that the motor control and strength

of animals that developed under conditions

of reduced gravity would be different from

those of animals that developed on Earth. As

animals learn to walk, the nervous system is

fine tuned to the conditions they experience. The fact that babies are 

born with very little motor control means that what they experience as

they gain particular motor skills may influence their development.

An animal from the Moon visiting Earth for the first time would feel

very heavy and would find it hard to move.This is because postural

muscles needed to support its body against the force of gravity would

be very weak. The circulatory system would also have problems

because it would be harder for the heart to pump blood up to the

head. The animal might feel faint.

SKILL BUILDING 1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of each source of 

information used in this activity? What is the accuracy of each source? 

For example, ask each student about jumping rope.

• Can your sister, brother, neighbor jump rope?

• When did the parent of your subject say he/she could first 

jump rope?

• Do you remember when you could first jump rope?

How old was I?

Figure 35 Diagram of student observing development of another student.
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Developmental and Cellular Neurobiology Student Activity Sheet: Learning Activity III

STUDENT ACTIVITY SHEET

Observing Your Own Development

Name ________________________________________________ Date __________________

1. What are your “vital statistics”?

______ weight ______ number of siblings

______ height ______ position in family (what number child?)

______ weight and length at birth ______ twin

______ gender

2. At what age could you do the following? 

Movement

______ lift head ______ sit up with support

______ hold head up and look around ______ sit up without support

______ support body with arms ______ reach and pick up a toy

______ roll over ______ crawl

______ grab something, hold onto it ______ crawl up stairs

Awareness of Self and Others

______ follow family members with eyes ______ recognize own name

______ smile ______ point at things

______ laugh ______ wave good-bye

______ recognize self in mirror ______ copy sounds

______ recognize hands ______ say first words

______ recognize feet

Walking

______ stand up from sitting or crawling position ______ jump on one foot

______ stand without falling, if holding onto something ______ hop

______ stand alone ______ skip

______ walk while holding onto something ______ jump

______ walk alone ______ run

______ stand on one foot ______ walk up stairs

Skilled Movement

______ eat with a spoon ______ throw a ball straight ______ catch a ball (if so,

______ drink from a cup ______ draw a straight line what size ball?)

______ drink from a glass ______ make a circle around a drawing of a house

______ use a knife and fork ______ copy a circle, triangle or drawing of a house

3. How many different kinds of controlled movements could you make? ____________

Add from above.

(from birth to age six)
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Vestibular

Function

Lessons and Activities

GRADES 5–12

Section II
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Vestibular Function Introduction

Vestibular Function

TOPIC How will the body maintain a sense of balance in space?

The vestibular system is the part of the nervous system 

that controls balance.

INTRODUCTION The human body has a remarkable system for maintaining a sense of orientation and equilibrium. Human beings can keep their balance while

walking on a tight rope (Figure 36) 100 feet above the ground, doing

repeated pirouettes in a ballet performance, and dodging in and out of

traffic on a busy street. How does the body calculate and control its movement so precisely?

Balance and equilibrium involve constant interpretation by the brain of sensory information coming

from all over the body.This information includes

visual cues, touch sensations, and signals from the

inner ear. Normal movements and stimuli encountered in the every day environment do not upset

our equilibrium. However, we all have experienced

dizziness and difficulty walking after spinning

around in a circle. What causes this disorientation,

and how does the body return to equilibrium?

Astronauts experience similar sensations of dizziness and disorientation during their first few days

in the weightless environment of space. Upon

returning to Earth’s gravity, they must re-adapt and frequently have difficulty standing upright, stabilizing their gaze, walking, and turning corners. How do different environmental conditions and stimuli affect astronauts’ orientation, movement, and equilibrium? The Neurolab team studied these issues to gain a better understanding of the intricate functions of

the human balance and sensory systems.

Things to Know

THE One of the most important components in the control of balance is the 

VESTIBULAR vestibular system. Part of the neuro-sensory system (“neuro” refers to 

SYSTEM nerves, “sensory” to the senses), the vestibular system processes information about motion (acceleration, movement, and orientation) and helps

the body to maintain or restore equilibrium.This system is key to our

senses of balance and self-motion and to our ability to distinguish

between motion of the body itself and motion of things outside the body.

Figure 36 Diagram of student maintaining balance 

while walking a tightrope.
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Vestibular Function Introduction

The vestibular system (Figure 37)

is comprised of three semicircular

canals, two membranous sacs

called otolith organs in the inner

ear, and areas of the brain that

process information from these

organs. Within the inner ear, the

three semicircular canals are

shaped like inner tubes of tires.

They contain fluid and hair cells.

Hair cells have a small organ called

the “hair bundler,” which is

formed by dozens of small hairs.

These small hairs extend into the

semicircular canals. When the fluid in the canals shifts or moves, the hair

cells also bend and signal the brain about the direction in which they are

being moved.The brain uses this information to determine the direction

and speed in which the body is accelerating or decelerating.

The semicircular canals help the body maintain balance and equilibrium

and are oriented along three axes. Semicircular canals also help us to

maintain our fixed gaze, even in the presence of complex body movements (Figure 38A). One canal is horizontal. Its hair cells are maximally

bent when the head is turned in the yaw axis (shaking from side-to-side

to communicate “no”) (Figure 38B). Another canal is perpendicular to

the horizontal axis. It is oriented like the wheels of a bicycle headed

straight. The hair cells in this vestibule respond maximally to pitching

motions of the head (when the head moves up and down to communicate “yes”) (Figure 38C). The third canal is perpendicular to both of the

others, and its hair cells are bent most when the head rolls from one side

in a “maybe” shrug (Figure 38D).

Figure 37 Diagram of the vestibular system.

Figure 38B Diagram of 

yaw axis movement.

Figure 38A Diagram of

no movement.

Figure 38C Diagram of 

pitching motion.

Figure 38D Diagram of 

rolling motion.

Figure 38 Diagram of how the semicircular canals help the body maintain balance and equilibrium.

A B C D

Semicircular

canals

Otolith organs
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Vestibular Function Introduction

Within the otoliths, the hair cells are stuck

into a gelatine-like membrane called the

otolithic membrane. When the body

moves, the otolithic sac moves with it.

However, because the otolithic membrane

is loaded with rocks (otoliths), inertia

causes it to lag (Figure 39).This lag causes

the hairs to bend, stimulating the hair

cells. When the head tilts, the sac also tilts

and the weight of the rocks causes the hairs

to bend.This way the otolith sack detects 

linear motion and tilt.

In addition to the vestibular system, the

eyes also play an important role in balance.

Visual signals that are sent to the brain provide information about body

position and motion relative to one’s surroundings.These signals work in

concert with those from the vestibular, tactile (touch), and motor (muscles, joints) systems to tell the brain what is happening.The eyes also

automatically move in a direction opposite of the head to maintain a stable visual image.This coordination of eye and head movement is called

the vestibular-ocular reflex and can take various forms. For example, one

type of vestibular-ocular reflex, known as nystagmus, occurs when a person is spun around and then suddenly stops.The eyes respond by moving

in the direction opposite to the direction of spin in an attempt to stabilize

the field of vision until equilibrium is restored.

MOTION AND The perception of our body’s position, known as proprioception, is 

PERCEPTION determined through sensors in our joints, skin, and muscles.These sensors detect touch, pressure, movement, and the contraction of muscles.

The input from these sensors allows us to determine, or establish, the

exact position of most parts of our body and coordinate our movements.

The coriolis effect occurs when the head is in motion and constantly

changing direction. For example, coriolis effects occur when one is on a

boat that is rocking and rolling, or is in an airplane experiencing turbulence, or in a car with soft suspension going around a lot of curves. In

these situations, acceleration information is bombarding each of the semicircular canals at the same time.The vestibular organs make connections

with many centers, such as the cerebellum (to coordinate motion), and to

the eyes (to coordinate head-eye movements).The vestibular organs also

make connections with the hypothalamus, which controls many autonomic functions.This connection is responsible for nausea and dizziness

when the vestibular system is over-stimulated.

Figure 39 Diagram of a hair cell.

Otolithic membrane

lags because of inertia
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Vestibular Function Learning Activity I

Vection is the illusion that the body is moving in a circle (circular vection) or in a line (linear vection)

when, in fact, external visual cues are moving relative

to the body. For example, vection occurs while we are

sitting in a parked car, reading, or looking ahead. We

sometimes “feel” as though the car is rolling, when, in

reality, the vehicle next to the car has started moving

(Figure 40).Visual cues, especially those located in the

periphery of one’s vision (things a person can see out

of the corner of his or her eye) strongly affect sense of

movement, even without any sensations in the inner

ear vestibular system, and without any actual movement

of the body.

LEARNING ACTIVITY I:

Visualizing How the Vestibular System Works

OVERVIEW In this activity, students will learn about the

effects of different types of motion on the

hairs suspended in fluid in the inner ear.

SCIENCE & Observing, collecting and recording 

MATHEMATICS quantitative data, measuring angles of 

SKILLS rotation, calculating averages, creating

charts, creating models, drawing 

conclusions

PREPARATION 15 minutes (at least one day before the 

TIME activity)

CLASS TIME 50 minutes

MATERIALS Each group of 3 – 4 students will need:

• One tube of super glue (should be

water resistant and adhere to glass and 

hair-like fibers) OR a hot glue gun and 

glue sticks

• Automatic turntable (such as for 

pottery class), centrifuge, or other 

rotating device (such as a Lazy Susan or

old record player)

MAJOR 

CONCEPTS

• Hair cells within the

vestibular system are

affected by movement

of the head in different

directions.

• Movement causes fluid

in the inner ear to shift,

bending the hairs

attached to the hair cells.

• Hair cells send messages

to the brain indicating

the direction of movement.

• Hair cells specifically are

sensitive to changes in

the speed or direction of

motion.

B

A

Figure 40 Diagram of vection.
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Vestibular Function Learning Activity I

MATERIALS (cont.) • Set of false eyelashes or strands of another 

fuzzy or wispy material

• Clear glass jar or cylinder with lid

• Water

• Watch

• Note pad

• Pen or pencil 

BACKGROUND In this activity, students create a model that permits them to visualize the

movement of fluid and bending of hairs in the inner ear in response to

motion. It also demonstrates how the vestibular system maintains or

restores equilibrium despite movement.

The vestibular system is key to our senses of balance and self-motion.

Located in the inner ear, the vestibular apparatus is comprised of three

canals containing fluid and receptor cells, called hair cells. Long hairs

extend from the hair cells into the canals and are embedded in the cupula.

Motion of the head causes the fluid in the canals to shift or move, which

in turn, causes the hairs to bend.The direction of the movement determines the direction in which the hairs are bent. When motion ceases, the

vestibular system reacts in the opposite direction until equilibrium is

reached again and the hairs are motionless.

In this activity, students will observe the importance of acceleration and

deceleration in producing movement of hairs suspended in fluid. Students

will be able to see how water within a rotating cylinder first accelerates,

and then decelerates, as the movement stops. Because the speed is constantly changing during this movement, hairs within the cylinder will be

bent to different degrees. While accelerating, they bend more; while

decelerating, they straighten. If rotation continues at a constant speed in a

constant direction, the hairs remain in a stable unbent position.

In this exercise, students can observe and compare how the “hairs” move

as a container of fluid is rotated in different directions, with acceleration

and deceleration, and at a constant speed.These observations can then be

compared to the way in which the vestibular organs respond to different

types of head movements. Students can measure and compare the

amount of time it takes to restore equilibrium with different degrees of

motion and acceleration.
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Vestibular Function Learning Activity I

PROCEDURE 1. At least one day before actually performing the activity, glue (or have 

the students glue) the false eyelashes or strands of other fuzzy material 

to the inside of the beakers, jars or glass cylinders. Attach to 

the side of the cylinder (not the bottom).

2. Organize students into pairs or groups of 3 – 4, depending on the

amount of materials available.

3. Have one student from each group fill the cylinder with water. Let the 

water settle until it is motionless.

4. Direct the students to rotate the cylinder quickly 90 degrees to the 

right (maintaining the vertical position of the cylinder) and observe 

what happens to the hairs on the eyelashes (Figure 41B).

5. Have the students rotate the cylinder 90 degrees in the other direction 

and record observations.

6. After the motion stops, have students quickly rotate the cylinder 180 

degrees to the right, this time using a watch to measure the 

amount of time required for the hairs to return to the straight position.

Have students record the time (Figure 41D).

7. Direct the students to repeat this procedure, with each student taking a 

turn rotating the cylinder, observing the watch, and recording the 

time. Have them record the name of the person who rotated the 

cylinder and the person who observed the watch beside the 

measured time.

8. Have the students calculate the average time required for the hairs to 

come to rest after rotating the cylinder, and to record their calculations.

9. Have students quickly rotate the cylinder 90 degrees to the right and

then immediately rotate 180 degrees to the left, measuring the time

required for the hairs to stop moving. Have them record their observations.

Figure 41 Diagram of furry or wispy material or false eyelash in motion.

Figure 41A at rest. Figure 41B 90 ̊rotation. Figure 41C motionless. Figure 41D 180 ̊rotation.

A B C D
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Vestibular Function Learning Activity I

10. Have students present their data from steps 7, 8 and

9 in tabular format (Figure 43).

11. If a rotating device or turntable is available, have students place the cylinder on the device and rotate

slowly (so as not to splash or dislodge the eyelashes)

at an even rate for one minute (Figure 42). Have

them time one minute using the watch. Ask the students to observe what happens to the hairs as they

continue to spin, and after rotation is stopped. Have

them record their observations.

EVALUATION At this point, students should understand how rotation of varying direction and magnitude affects the motion of hairs suspended in fluid.

REVIEW 1. How did the direction of rotation affect the direction in which the 

QUESTIONS hairs bent?

The hairs bent in the opposite direction of the rotation.

2. Was there a difference in the time required for the hairs to stop 

moving after the 90 degree and 180 degree rotations? How do you 

explain this?

Students’ answers will vary. There should be no difference in the time 

because both stops were sudden and the movement was not continuous.

3. What happened to the hairs when the rotation was continuous for 

one minute? What happened to the hairs when the rotation suddenly

stopped? What do you think happens to our vestibular system when

we spin continuously for a period of time? What happens when we 

stop suddenly?

The water and hair cells moved together which allowed the hair cells 

to straighten out when the motion was constant for one minute. When

Understanding the Vestibular System

Figure 43 Example of chart to record motion observations.

90 degrees 180 degrees 90/180 degrees 1 minute rotation Person Person 

(observations) (time) (time) (observations) rotating w/stopwatch

Figure 42 Diagram of students 

observing fuzzy material in action.
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Vestibular Function Learning Activity I

the hairs suddenly stopped, the water caused them to move forward.

The hair cells move in the direction of the spinning. When suddenly 

stopped, we fall forward and if we try to stand up we experience dizziness.

THINKING 1. In step 7, each student took a turn at each task. Were the times 

CRITICALLY measured the same or different for each student? What might 

account for the differences in time?

2. If the water in the cylinders was replaced with another substance 

that was more dense, such as liquid detergent, or less dense, such as 

air, how would the movement of the hairs change? 

What if the hairs were in a vacuum? What other factors might affect

movement? 

If the hairs were placed in a dense liquid, the movement would be 

slower and not as obvious. If they were placed in a less dense substance, movement would be faster and more obvious. If they were 

placed in a vacuum, there would be no movement of the hairs.

3. Why do patients who are bed-ridden for long periods of time often 

experience dizziness and difficulty standing upright?

These patients experience dizziness because their vestibular systems 

have not been required to function. Due to the lack of movement, when

the patients stand, the vestibular systems are activated and their bodies 

have to adjust.

SKILL BUILDING Have students pool their measurements from the different trials and 

calculate class averages. How much did the individual measurements vary from the class averages? What does this tell us about

incorporating several trials into the design of an experiment?
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Figure 44A at rest. Figure 44B 90 ̊rotation. Figure 44C motionless. Figure 44D 180 ̊rotation.

Vestibular Function Student Activity Sheet: Learning Activity I

STUDENT ACTIVITY SHEET

Visualizing How the Vestibular System Works

Name ________________________________________________ Date __________________

OBJECTIVE To learn about the effects of different types of motion on the hairs

suspended in fluid in the inner ear.

MATERIALS • Tube of super glue

• Rotating device

• Fuzzy or wispy material

• Clear glass jar or cylinder with lid

• Water

• Watch

• Note pad

• Pen or pencil

DIRECTIONS Work in groups of four, maximum.Your group will need all of

the materials.

PROCEDURES 1. At least one day before actually performing the activity, glue the fuzzy 

material to the inside of the beaker or glass cylinder. Attach the fuzzy 

material to the side of the beaker or cylinder (not the bottom).

2. Have one member from your group fill the cylinder with water.

The water should settle until it is motionless.

3. Rotate the cylinder quickly 90 degrees to the right (maintaining the 

vertical position of the cylinder) and observe what happens to the 

fuzzy material (Figure 44B).

A B C D
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Vestibular Function Student Activity Sheet: Learning Activity I

Page 2

Name ________________________________________________ Date __________________

4. Rotate the cylinder 90 degrees in the other direction and record

observations.

5. After the motion stops, quickly rotate the cylinder 180 degrees to the 

right, this time using a watch to measure the amount of time 

required for the hairs to return to the straight position (Figure 44D).

Record the time.

6. Repeat the procedures, with each student in your group taking a turn 

rotating the cylinder, observing the watch, and recording the time.

Using the chart, record the name of the person who rotated the cylinder and the person who operated the watch beside the measured 

time.

7. Calculate the average time required for the hairs to come to rest after 

rotating the cylinder, and record your calculations.

8. Quickly rotate the cylinder 90 degrees to the right and then

immediately rotate 180 degrees to the left, measuring the time

required for the hairs to stop moving. Record your observations.

9. Present your data from steps 6, 7, and 8 in tabular format (Figure 45).

10. If a rotating device is available, place the cylinder on the device and 

rotate slowly (do not splash or dislodge the fuzzy material) at an even 

rate for one minute. (Use the watch to time one minute.) 

Observe what happens to the hairs as they continue to spin, and after 

rotation is stopped. Record your observations.

Understanding the Vestibular System

Figure 45 Example of chart to record motion observations.

90 degrees 180 degrees 90/180 degrees 1 minute rotation Person Person 

(observations) (time) (time) (observations) rotating w/watch
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Page 3

Name ________________________________________________ Date __________________

Vestibular Function Student Activity Sheet: Learning Activity I

Understanding the Vestibular System

90 degrees 180 degrees 90/180 degrees 1 minute rotating Person Person 

(observations) (time) (time) (observations) rotating w/watch
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Vestibular Function Learning Activity II

LEARNING ACTIVITY II:

Vestibular-Ocular Reflex

OVERVIEW In this activity, students will perform various

investigations to understand the vestibularocular reflex and learn about the importance 

of visual cues in maintaining balance.

SCIENCE & Observing, communicating, collecting quantitaMATHEMATICS tive data, calculating frequencies, drawing 

SKILLS conclusions.

PREPARATION 10 minutes

TIME

CLASS TIME 50 minutes

MATERIALS For IIA of the activity, each pair or group of students 

will need the following items:

• Pen or pencil

• Note pad

• Book

IIB of the activity will require the following:

• Chair that rotates smoothly—preferably 

with back and arms, such as a desk chair

• Watch or clock with second hand

• Note pad

• One blindfold (optional)

• Protractor

• Chalk

• String or yarn (3 feet)

• Push pin

• Yard stick for drawing lines

• Pen or pencil

MAJOR 

CONCEPTS

• The vestibular 

system helps to

maintain balance

and equilibrium.

• Vestibular-ocular

reflexes coordinate

eye movement 

relative to head

movement.

• The nystagmus

(one type of

vestibular-ocular

reflex) helps the

eye to stabilize the

field of vision

after movement.

The eyes usually

move in the direction opposite the

initial movement.
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Vestibular Function Learning Activity II

BACKGROUND This lesson is similar to some of the exercises the Neurolab team conducted as they studied the vestibular function in space. It helps to demonstrate

the importance of gravity and visual cues to the human balance and sensory systems. Gravity provides a continual downward force, which the

vestibular system (particularly the otolith organs) uses to process information about motion and orientation.To understand the effects of space

travel on the vestibular system, Neurolab scientists studied how the

vestibular system reacts to certain stimuli, within Earth’s gravitational field

and under microgravity conditions.

The following activities will demonstrate the vestibular-ocular reflex,

which is the body’s way of coordinating signals from the visual field with

signals from the vestibular organs of the inner ear.This reflex is extremely

important for stabilizing vision when we are moving. When the head

rotates or tilts in any direction, the eyes move in the opposite direction to

compensate, maintaining a stable visual image.Therefore, movements of

the eyes can provide clues about what is happening in the vestibular system.The eyes respond similarly to movement of objects outside the body.

However, the vestibular-ocular reflex occurs only when the vestibular system is stimulated (in other words, when the head moves).

During these activities, students will observe eye movements and monitor

the stability of the visual field during different types of movements:

saccadic, the fast movement of the eye and smooth pursuit, the slow

movement of the eye during the vestibular-occular reflex. In IIA, students

will compare stability of a moving image under two conditions:

(1) when the object of vision is moving but the head is stationary; and

(2) when the head is moving but the object is stationary. When the head

is stationary, the vestibular system is not activated, and the image blurs

more quickly. When the head is moving, the vestibular system is stimulated and works together with visual and proprioceptive sensory systems to

maintain a stable image.

In IIB, students will compare the effects of rotation on the sensation of

spinning under varying conditions: (1) when the visual system is activated;

(2) when the visual system is not activated; and (3) when the otolith

organs are activated by a downward movement.

PROCEDURE IIA: Stability of Moving Images

1. Assign each student a partner.

2. Have the partners stand about five feet away from each other. One 

student will be the subject, the other will be the recorder.
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Vestibular Function Learning Activity II

3. Tell the subject to look at his or her

partner, and then to look away to a

book placed about three feet away.The

recorder should look at the subject’s

eyes and determine the type of eye

movement he or she is exhibiting.The

recorder should record the type of eye

movement, saccadic or smooth pursuit.

4. Have the students reverse roles and

repeat steps one through three.

5. Next, have each subject focus on the

end of a pen or pencil held by the

recorder about one foot in front of the

subject’s face.Tell the subject to hold

his or her head still while the recorder

moves the pen or pencil back and forth slowly in front of the subject’s

eyes. Instruct the recorder to move the pen or pencil from one side to

the other as though he or she were trying to hypnotize the subject 

(Figure 47A).

6. Each partner should record the types of eye movement that are 

exhibited by the other: saccadic or smooth pursuit.

7. Let the team members switch roles and repeat the exercise.

8. Finally, have one student from each team hold a pen or pencil about a 

foot in front of his or her partner’s face while the partner keeps his or 

her eyes on the pen or pencil. Both of the students should move their 

heads around while observing (Figure 47B).

9. Have the students record their observations of each other’s eye 

movements.

10. Discuss these observations with the students. Ask if the eye 

movements were the same in each trial. Have students compare and 

contrast their observations.

Figure 47A Diagram of techniques for testing 

saccadic (fast eye movement).

1 foot

Figure 47B Diagram of techniques for testing 

smooth pursuit (slow eye movement).

1 foot

Figure 46 Diagram of student observing saccadic eye movement.

3 feet

5 feet
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IIB: Effects of Rotation on Vision

1. Instruct students to draw a circle on the floor by attaching a

three-foot string to a piece of chalk and attach the other end to

a push pin. Have the students establish a dividing line by drawing a line through the center of the circle.They should then

align the center point of the protractor with the center of the

dividing line of the circle. Direct the students to place a mark

outside of the circle at the dividing line (0 ̊).They should

place another mark outside of the circle at 120 ̊. The students

should make sure that the marks are visible to the person rotating the chair (Figure 48).

2. Select one rotating chair with arms for this activity and place 

the chair at the center of the circle. Since students will be spinning in the chair, caution them to exercise care. Students sitting in the 

chair should hold the arms of the chair during the rotation.

3. Before beginning, demonstrate to students how to turn the chair carefully, so that the student sitting in the chair does not tumble out. If

necessary, review the procedure with the students to make sure that

they understand what they are supposed to do.

4. Have students conduct the activity in groups. One student will be the

subject, a second student will spin the chair and the remaining students will be recorders and time keepers.

5. Have each subject sit erect in a rotating chair. Another team member

should turn the student in the chair

for a full minute at 120 degrees per

second, then suddenly bring the student to a full stop (Figure 49).

6. The other members of the team

should observe the eyes of the student

sitting in the chair after it has been

stopped. Using the watch, they should

time how long it takes for the effect

of spinning on the student’s eyes to

stop and record their observations.

Vestibular Function Learning Activity II

Figure 49 Diagram of student 

rotating student 120 degrees per second.

Dividing

Line Center Point

Protractor

Figure 48 Diagram of 

120 degree floor drawing.
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Vestibular Function Learning Activity II

7. Have the students repeat step 3, but

instruct the student in the chair to hold

his or her head forward during spinning.The other partners should observe

how long this student’s eye movement

lasts after the chair has stopped and then

record these observations (Figure 50).

8. Have students within the groups switch

roles so that they all will have an opportunity to participate in the various roles

of this activity.

9. Have the students in each group summarize their data and present a group

average of time required to stabilize eye

movement after the spinning, both in

step 3 and step 5.

Evaluation

REVIEW

QUESTIONS 1. What does the vestibular-ocular reflex do?

The vestibular-ocular reflex coordinates eye movement relative to head 

movement.

2. What does the vestibular system do?

The vestibular system helps the body to maintain balance. It helps the 

body to determine the difference between motion of the body and 

motion of things in the world.

3. What is the difference between “saccadic” and “smooth pursuit”? 

There are two components of eye movement during the vestibularocular reflex.The fast movement of the eye is called “saccadic” and the 

slower movement is called “smooth pursuit.”

4. Why is the vestibular system important to movement?

It helps the body to maintain balance and to adjust to movements of 

the body as well as movements outside of the body.

5. What is motion sickness?

The symptoms of dizziness, drowsiness, and nausea that are caused by 

the coriolis effect or pseudo-coriolis effect.

Figure 50 Diagram of student rotating student

120 degrees per second while head is in pitched position.
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Vestibular Function Learning Activity II

THINKING 1. Why do people who have problems with their vestibular systems 

CRITICALLY suffer from motion sickness?

If the vestibular system is damaged, the signals going to the brain are 

inappropriate or missing, causing motion sickness.

2. How is motion sickness related to visual cues?

The symptoms of motion sickness may be triggered by visual stimuli.

The pseudo-coriolis effect is inducted by visual illusions of self-motion.

3. What would happen if the vestibular system were destroyed? 

Explain how one would act and feel.

A person would have problems adjusting to movement and maintaining 

balance.The person may experience some motion sickness.

4. Why might a person experience motion sickness when not moving 

or in an IMAX theater?

The visual illusions would overload the vestibular system producing 

the pseudo-coriolis effect.

5. Will the vestibular system adapt to microgravity? Without gravity to

give us a constant downward reference, how will the roles of 

visual and touch cues change?

The vestibular system would respond and adapt to microgravity. Without gravity, the vestibular system would have to make adjustments to 

the constant movement of the body just as it does when astronauts are 

in space.

SKILL BUILDING Have students use the Internet to

locate resources related to disorders of

the vestibular system (Figure 51).

How might Neurolab research provide insight into these disorders?

Figure 51 Diagram of student using the Internet.
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Vestibular Function Student Activity Sheet: Learning Activity II (IIA)

STUDENT ACTIVITY SHEET

IIA. Stability of Moving Images

Name ________________________________________________ Date __________________

Head Position Description of eye movement Subject Recorder

(stationary or side-to-side) (smooth or saccadic)
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STUDENT ACTIVITY SHEET

IIB. Effects of Rotation on Vision

Name ________________________________________________ Date __________________

Head Position Description Length of time for Person in chair Person spinning

of eye movement eyes to stop moving (subject) (observer)

Vestibular Function Student Activity Sheet: Learning Activity 2 (IIB)
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Spatial

Orientation and

Visuo-motor

Performance

Lessons and Activities

GRADES 5–12

Section III
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Spatial Orientation and Visuo-motor Performance Introduction

Spatial Orientation and

Visuo-motor Performance

TOPIC Gravity is an important component that enables organisms to establish

frames of reference and maintain a sense of orientation with respect to

objects in the environment.

How did the Neurolab astronauts maintain their sense of spatial orientation in a microgravity environment?

INTRODUCTION Perception of where one is located with respect to certain landmarks in

the environment (self-orientation), and where specific objects are located with respect to each other (object-orientation), are interdependent.

Our abilities to recognize and interact with objects in the environment

depend on proper perception of self-orientation as well as objectorientation.

Our perception of self-orientation depends on input from our external

sensory organs (exteroceptors), such as our eyes, ears, and nose. It also

depends on input from our internal sensory systems (interoceptors).

These include proprioception, which is a system of specialized receptors

and nerves in our bodies that monitor the positions of our muscles and

joints. Another example is the vestibular system located inside the head

near each ear.This system responds to rotations and accelerations of the

head as well as to gravity. Under ordinary conditions, the input to the

brain from all of these sensory systems are consistent with one another.

However, in microgravity conditions, the vestibular information that the

brain receives changes, and this sometimes leads to motion sickness, as

well as to illusory perceptions.

Things to Know

RELATIVE The term frame of reference refers to a coordinated system for specifying 

POSITION AND the locations and movements of objects. For example, map makers use the 

PATH ANALYSIS North and South poles, and the equator, to establish a frame of reference

for the Earth.This allows us to specify locations in terms of their latitude

and longitude.

Similarly, the brain uses its sensory organs to establish and maintain a

frame of reference to specify locations of objects with respect to the body.
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Spatial Orientation and Visuo-motor Performance Introduction

For example, in the Northern Hemisphere, vision can be used to establish

“East,” the direction from which the sun is seen to rise in the morning,

and “West,” the direction where the sun sets in the evening. Locations and

movements of the body and other objects can then be specified within

this frame of reference. For example, one may think, “To go home, I must

travel eastward.”

Vision can also potentially provide a frame of reference for “up.” For

example, we know that to see the sky we look “up,” or that to determine

the direction of the ground on which our feet rest we look “down.”

Information about “up” and “down” is also provided independently by

the otolith organs, a component of the vestibular system that responds

directly to gravity.

NAVIGATION When you travel from a location in the environment to which you later

want to return, your brain is confronted with the problem of how to navigate back home. One way your brain might accomplish this task is to use

some form of Path lntegration.This is an automatic process performed by

the brain to try to continuously keep track

of how far you have traveled, and in what

direction, over each segment of your path,

and then use this information to compute

your current position relative to your

starting point. Many animal species, even

those with very simple nervous systems,

are able to utilize some form of path integration to navigate. For example, ants can

navigate their way back home after foraging in search of food (Figure 52).

Our brains are able to construct and store

spatial maps that specify our current location with respect to important landmarks.

These maps are formed by combining information from interoceptors with

corollary discharge. A corollary discharge is a copy of the motor commands that the brain sends to the muscles. For example, if the brain is trying to figure out how far the body has walked since leaving home, it has

two obvious sources of information. One is to examine the corollary discharge of the signals that were sent to the leg muscles. In other words, the

brain knows how many steps you have walked because it was the brain

itself that sent the commands to the leg muscles that caused you to walk.

An independent source of this same information comes from proprioception which supplies the brain with detailed information about positions

and movements of the muscles and joints in the legs. Similarly, the

Figure 52 Diagram of path integration.

Tree

Home path

Ant hill

Outgoing path
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Spatial Orientation and Visuo-motor Performance Introduction

vestibular system sends information to the brain every time you accelerate

or decelerate in speed, or rotate to turn a corner.

Finally, this information about your current location is augmented by

vision, olfaction, and audition. For example, through vision, you can tell

that you are in your classroom by looking around, through olfaction, you

can tell that you are near the cafeteria by the way it smells, and through

audition, you can know that you are near your classroom because you

can hear the sound of your students talking.

Under ordinary circumstances, the information supplied to the brain from

these various sources is consistent and thus the spatial maps that are

formed by the brain are accurate. In mammals, there is a specialized structure called the hippocampus that appears to play a

major role in storing these maps (Figure 53). The hippocampus is a seahorse-shaped structure located deep

in each hemisphere of the brain. Self-orientation is

coded in the hippocampus in the neural firing patterns

of specialized neurons called place cells.These place

cells buzz with electrical activity whenever an animal

knows it is located in a certain place. Different place

cells are active in different locations. By recording the

activity from many place cells at the same time, scientists essentially can read an animal's mind and tell

where the animal thinks it is located.

SPATIAL In microgravity conditions, the vestibular information that the brain 

ORIENTATION IN receives is changed. In order to understand why this is so, we 

MICROGRAVITY need to understand how the vestibular system operates.The vestibular system is composed of two subsystems called the semicircular canals and

the otolith organs.There are three semicircular canals and they signal to

the brain whenever the head is rotated. One responds to yaw motions

(motion that occurs when you shake your head side-to-side), a second to

pitch motions (motion that occurs when you do a back flip), and a third

to roll motions (motion that occurs when you turn cartwheels).The

otolith organs send two kinds of information to the brain. First, they signal whenever you accelerate or decelerate (the feeling of being sucked

into the back of the car seat when you press on the gas pedal to pass

another car). Second, they respond to gravity to tell you which end of

your body is “up,” and which is “down.”

Figure 53 Diagram of the hippocampus within the brain.
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Imagine that you are performing a cartwheel to your left. As you first start

the motion, your semicircular canal signals that your head is starting to

rotate to the left, and simultaneously your otolith organs are signaling that

the “up” direction is shifting from the top of your head towards your

right ear. Halfway into the cartwheel, your semicircular canal continues to

signal that your head is rotating to the left, and now your otolith organs

signal that the top of your head is in the “down” position. If you have

your eyes open, the input to your brain will be consistent with the input

from your vestibular system because the world will look “upside-down.”

Similarly, the proprioceptive inputs from your muscles will indicate that

the force from the floor shifted from your feet to your hands. If you were

to turn the same cartwheel under the condition of microgravity, the input

from your semicircular canals and from vision would be identical, but the

input from the otolith organs would be inconsistent because it would not

signal that the direction “up” shifted during your cartwheel. Also the

force exhibited by the floor on your muscles would be less in microgravity.

This kind of inconsistent input is a regular occurrence in

the brains of astronauts during a space flight. Astronauts

experience the spacecraft and Earth from their bodily

attitudes. Because the “down cue” that Earth’s gravity

provides to the otolith organs, as well as to the proprioceptive receptors in the muscles and joints are not present in microgravity, the crew must rely on vision to

become oriented and figure out where they are located

in relation to the space they occupy. In daily life on

Earth, the “floor” is always beneath our feet and people

are upright. However, in weightlessness, free floating

crews view the cabin interior, and each other, from many

orientations. For example, when floating in symmetrical

cabin interiors, the surface beneath their feet feels like

“the floor,” even if they are floating upside-down with

their feet touching the ceiling (Figure 54). As a result,

space flight often causes altered spatial orientation, illusions of body orientation, changes in visuo-motor performance, and space motion sickness.

TRICK MAZE One Neurolab animal experiment tried to determine whether or not 

EXPERIMENTS spatial maps in the hippocampus are disrupted by the inconsistent inforON NEUROLAB mation provided to the brain under conditions of microgravity. Neurolab

scientists used a unique set of trick mazes designed to fool the animals

into thinking they were in one place, based on corollary discharge and

proprioception (where the animals thought their legs should have taken

them), when in reality they were in another place (which they were able

Spatial Orientation and Visuo-motor Performance Introduction

Figure 54 Diagram of free floating.
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Spatial Orientation and Visuo-motor Performance Introduction

to see from what their eyes told them). One maze

was called the Escher Staircase (Figure 55) and another was called the Magic Carpet (Figure 56). Scientists

wanted to see whether the animals’ hippocampi were

telling them they were “'home” or not by measuring

the activity of the place cells in the hippocampi.

In the Escher Staircase, there was a route around

three inner walls of a corner of a cube. In the presence of gravity, you could not walk around the staircase because you cannot walk along the sides of

walls. However, in the absence of gravity’s effect, it

was possible to follow a route that combined three 90

degree “yaw” turns with three 90 degree “pitches”

and end up back home at the starting point.The animal did not have any input from its otolith organs

informing it that it had been walking on the wall instead of the floor during part of the route. It had been predicted that even though the animal

was back to where it started, it would be confused.The visual system

would tell the brain that all the visual landmark cues indicated that the

animal was back where it started the maze, but the path analysis performed by the brain would probably think the animal needed to turn one

more corner to return home (as would be the case if the animal had not

been able to walk on the walls).

The Magic Carpet maze played a similar trick that was possible only in

the absence of gravity’s effect. It was a plus-shaped maze that could pitch

and roll the animal so they ended up facing 180 degrees in the opposite

direction to where it had started without ever turning around. Again, the

visual cues told the animal it had turned around, but path analysis would

not. It was believed that the hippocampal place cells would put more

emphasis on path analysis computations than on visual information.Thus,

the prediction was that when the animal returned to its starting position,

the hippocampus would underestimate the animal’s true position by 90

degrees on the Escher Staircase and by 180 degrees on the Magic Carpet.

Figure 55 Diagram of an Escher Staircase.

Figure 56 Diagram of the Magic Carpet.

56A In hand 56B After roll 56D Starting position

A B C D

56C After roll and pitch
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Spatial Orientation and Visuo-motor Performance Learning Activity I

LEARNING ACTIVITY I:

Finding Your Way Around 

Without Visual or Sound Cues

OVERVIEW In this activity, students will play a series of

simple games to investigate navigation without

visual and sound cues.

SCIENCE & Observing, collecting quantitative data, creating

MATHEMATICS graphs, interpreting data, drawing conclusions,

SKILLS communicating

PREPARATION 15 minutes

TIME

CLASS TIME 45 minutes

MATERIALS • Access to an open area

• Measuring tape

• Timer (watch or clock with second hand)

• Graph paper, one sheet per student

• Pencil (pen or chalk is acceptable),

one per student

• Bell

• Blindfold, one per student

• Candy to reward for foraging

• Statistical calculator

BACKGROUND The brain is able to interpret information from

several different body systems to estimate position.Visual cues, information from the otolith

organs in the inner ear, sound cues, and information from the motor system are used to determine spatial orientation.

This activity allows students to investigate how well the central nervous system is able 

to estimate position based on information other than visual and sound cues.

MAJOR 

CONCEPTS

• The brain combines information

from several different sources to estimate position.

• Inertial navigation

(navigation based

on motion-related

cues) can provide

direction without

visual or auditory

cues.

• The environment

can be navigated

with some success

by solely using

feedback received

by the brain from

self-motion sensors in the body.
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Spatial Orientation and Visuo-motor Performance Learning Activity I

PROCEDURE 1 Navigating Without Visual or Sound Cues

1. Have each student take a partner and a blindfold to an open area.

2. Designate an area as “home” base by placing a piece of paper on the 

ground where the students are, or mark the spot with tape forming an 

“X” on the ground or on the floor.

3. Have one member (subject) of each student team tie the blindfold 

over his/her eyes so he/she cannot see anything.This is a test to see if 

the student can navigate without visual cues. Encourage the students 

not to cheat.

4. Once blindfolded, each subject should walk around continuously for 

30 seconds, like an ant foraging for food, and then try to return to 

the same spot where he/she started (Figure 57). Have the students 

make at least four turns as part of the path.They may go anywhere, as 

long as they try to end up at the starting place after 30 seconds. Each 

student’s partner should let him/her know how much time has elapsed

every 10 seconds. Have the partners move around so that the subjects 

cannot use the sound of their partners’ voices as the cues for “home.”

5. Make sure that the partners do not give the blindfolded students any 

hints.The environment should be as quiet as possible so that students 

receive no sound cues. Once each blindfolded student believes he/she 

has returned to home base (or, after the 30 second time limit is 

Figure 57 Diagram of student walking blindfolded to show how 

inertial navigation can provide direction without sight or sound.

Blindfold

Position chart

Home path

Subject

Assistant

Start

End distance

End
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reached), instruct him/her to remove the blindfold and measure how 

far he/she is from the starting mark.This distance should be recorded.

Instruct the students not to worry if they end up far away from “home”

after their first try.

6. To add excitement, distribute little packets of candy at random 

and have the students forage on hands and knees blindfolded, starting 

from a location called home, marking the floor (or pavement, if you are 

outdoors) with something they cannot feel, such as chalk.Then ring a 

bell and have them try to get back to home base within five seconds.

The students might pretend that they are foraging ants and that the bell 

is a danger signal.Thus, they would try to get back “home” quickly.

Each student should have the opportunity to try this experiment at least once.

PROCEDURE 2 Using Quantitative Information to Assist 

Navigation Without Visual or Sound Cues

Note to Teacher: Encourage students not to make any audible clues that might alter results.

The environment should be quiet.

1. Have your students repeat the previous activity, again blindfolded. But 

this time, instead of having the blindfolded students wander around 

randomly, have them count the number of steps they take in each 

direction.

2. The partner should help the blindfolded

student by writing down the number

and direction of steps taken by the blindfolded student. Partners can try to chart

the student’s course by drawing the student’s position at each step on a 

sheet of graph paper (Figure 58).

3. At 30 seconds, the blindfolded students

should try to find their way “home” by 

guessing where they are, using how far 

they have gone in each direction as a

cue. Direct each blindfolded student to

tell his/her partner how far, and in which

Spatial Orientation and Visuo-motor Performance Learning Activity I

Figure 58 Diagram of a position chart.
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Spatial Orientation and Visuo-motor Performance Learning Activity I

direction(s) he/she thinks he/she needs to travel in order to reach 

home. (It is acceptable if the partner looks at the chart to see if the 

blindfolded student is correct, but the partner should not give any hints.)

4. The student should now try to find home. Once the blindfolded 

students reach the place they believe to be “home,” have their partners 

measure the distance from where the students ended to the actual 

starting place, or “home.” Have students compare their estimates of the

distance to home with the actual measurements. Each student should 

try the experiment.

PROCEDURE 3 Using a Pre-established Pattern to Navigate

Without Sound or Visual Cues

1. All students should be blindfolded for this exercise. As many students 

can participate at one time as available space will allow.

2. Students should blindfold themselves and try taking

10 steps forward from their “home” mark.They

should then turn 90 ̊ to the right, take 10 more

steps, turn 90 ̊ to the right again, take 10 more

steps, and stop (Figure 59). Ask the students if they

think they are back to where they started yet.

3. Have the blindfolded students turn 90 ̊ to the

right and take 10 more steps. Have the students

add all their 90 degree turns to determine how

many degrees they have rotated in total.

4. Ask the students where their brains tell them they

are. Direct them to lift their blindfolds and see if

they are “home.”The students should measure how

far they are from their mark and record the measurement. If the students counted accurately, they

should be close to the place where they started.

5. Have students compare measurements from the three trials. Have them 

identify the trial in which they navigated most accurately and the trial 

in which they were least accurate in returning to home. Why do they 

think the results varied from one trial to another?

Figure 59 Diagram of a pre-established pattern.

Home

(start here)

90 ̊

90 ̊ 90 ̊

2 3

1 4
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Spatial Orientation and Visuo-motor Performance Learning Activity I

Evaluation

REVIEW

QUESTIONS 1. What types of information does the brain use for navigation and 

determining position?

The brain receives and utilizes sensory information from the eyes, ear,

and nose to determine position.

2. Is it possible to estimate position using information from only one 

or two sources?

Yes. It is possible.

THINKING 1. What is the minimum amount of sensory information needed for

CRITICALLY navigation?

A minimum of two sensory information is needed for navigation.

2. Was navigation successful without visual cues?

3. How much error occurred when using each of the tactics?

4. Which tactic produced the least error? Why?

5. How much more or less difficult would the task have been if one 

could walk up and down walls?

SKILL BUILDING 1. Have students pool the class data from each of the trials, compute the 

mean distance from “home” for each trial and, using a statistical 

calculator, find the standard deviations (averages) of each of the trials.

Have them use this information to decide whether the results of each 

trial are different or not.

2. Have student teams devise their own experiments to further investigate 

navigation without visual cues.
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Spatial Orientation and Visuo-motor Performance Student Activity Sheet: Learning Activity I

STUDENT ACTIVITY SHEET

Finding Your Way Around 

Without Visual or Sound Cues

Name ________________________________________________ Date __________________

Student Name Procedure 1 Procedure 2 Procedure 3

Total

Average
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Spatial Orientation and Visuo-motor Performance Learning Activity II

LEARNING ACTIVITY II:

Pitch, Roll and Yaw: The Three Axes of Rotation

OVERVIEW This exercise will help students understand 

how the visual and vestibular systems work

with the hippocampus to determine location

and direction.

SCIENCE & Observing, measuring, visualizing objects in 

MATHEMATICS three dimensions, drawing conclusions

SKILLS

PREPARATION None

TIME

CLASS TIME 45 minutes

MATERIALS No materials needed

BACKGROUND The body is capable of rotating in three different ways (roll, pitch, and yaw).This activity

will help students understand the three axes

of rotation.

Body in Rolling Motion

The sideways motion of a body doing a 

cartwheel (Figure 60) is called a roll.

Body and Head Pitching

The motions of the body when somersaulting (Figure 61) are called a

head over heels pitch.The head is up, then down, then up, then down.

Throwing a football or a baseball is also a pitch motion.

Yaw

When you stand up and turn left and right, the motion you have made is

called a yaw axis motion (Figure 62). One “yaws” when spinning around

in a rotating chair, or when doing a pirouette.

MAJOR 

CONCEPTS

• Without gravity’s

effect as a reference,

it is difficult to detect

the body’s orientation.

• In microgravity, astronauts’ brains will rely

on place cells within

the hippocampus for

information about

position.

• Place cells are more

strongly influenced

by computations

based on path integration than by 

visual cues.
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Spatial Orientation and Visuo-motor Performance Learning Activity II

HEAD There are cells deep within the brain that tell the hippocampus in which 

DIRECTION direction the head is facing in the yaw axis.These are called head-direction

CELLS cells.The head direction cells always specify direction relative to some

important landmark. In the classroom, the front of the classroom might

provide a landmark to form a frame of reference labeled by the brain as

“forward” (facing the front of the classroom) and “backward” (facing the

back of the classroom). When facing the front of the classroom, the headdirection cells tell the hippocampus that the head is facing forward.

When the head is turned to face the back of the

room, another set of head-direction cells becomes

active and tells the hippocampus that the head is

facing backward. Yaw motions are sensed by the

vestibular system even if the eyes are closed. They

are not influenced by gravity and can be sensed even

when upside-down. Unlike yaw motions, the pitch

and roll motions usually have gravity for a reference.

This is because the otolith organs that respond to

gravity are activated along with the semicircular

canals during these motions.Thus, the responses of

the vestibular system to “pitch” and “roll” will be

altered in microgravity conditions compared to

these responses in Earth’s gravity.

PROCEDURE 1. The roll, pitch and yaw motion diagrams to the

right can be emulated by your students outdoors

or in a large area such as a hallway.

2. Demonstrate each of the movements or show the

figures on an over-head chart. Then let all of the

students attempt each of the different rotations.

3. To begin the rolling cartwheel motion (Figure

60), have the students lead with their right

hands, with their left ears facing up to the sky.As

they roll along or rotate in the correct direction,

their right ears will face upward, while their left

ears are down, and so on.

4. For pitch (Figure 61), have students attempt both a head-over-heels

pitch (summersault) and a pitching motion with the arm. Students can

also shake their heads “yes.”

5. For yaw (Figure 62), have students stand and turn left, then right.

Students also should try spinning in a pirouette.They can also shake 

their heads side-to-side as if gesturing “no.”

Figure 62 Diagram of 

yaw axis motion.

Figure 61 Diagram 

of body pitching.

Figure 60 Diagram of

rolling motion.
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6. Explain to students that the body has different systems to sense yaw,

pitch, and roll movements. Introduce the concept of head direction 

cells, which tell the hippocampus whether the head is facing forward 

or turned toward the back. Ask them to identify which type of rotation

the head direction cells would be detecting. Mention that the head 

direction cells are not influenced by gravity, whereas the pitch and roll 

motions usually have gravity for a reference.

LEARNING ACTIVITY III:

Building a Magic Carpet

OVERVIEW Students will compare and contrast pitch and

roll motions by using a Magic Carpet maze

similar to one that was used for Neurolab

investigations.

SCIENCE & Observing, measuring, visualizing objects in 

MATHEMATICS three dimensions, drawing conclusions

SKILLS

PREPARATION None

TIME

CLASS TIME 45 minutes

MATERIALS Each student or team of students will need:

• Scissors

• Two strips of cardboard or posterboard 

(2.5 inches wide and 18 inches long)

• Metal paper fasteners (tang pins)

BACKGROUND The Neurolab Magic Carpet experiment was designed to investigate

“pitch” and “roll” in microgravity.The Magic Carpet is a maze shaped like

a plus symbol that can work only in a weightless environment.This maze

allowed the astronauts to pitch and roll animals in space, so that without

making any yaw turns, the animals ended up facing the opposite direction

from where they started.

Spatial Orientation and Visuo-motor Performance Learning Activity III

MAJOR 

CONCEPTS

• Roll is a sideways

motion.

• Pitch is a headover-heels movement.
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Spatial Orientation and Visuo-motor Performance Learning Activity III

Neurolab scientists used this trick maze to fool animals into thinking they

were in one place based on their self-motion cues, while their visual systems gave them conflicting information about their locations.The scientists wanted to know whether rats’ hippocampi told them they were

“home,” or not, by measuring the activity of place cells.

PROCEDURE 1. Tell students they will be creating another puzzle that was used by 

Neurolab scientists to investigate navigation and spatial orientation in 

space.

2. Have the students follow the four steps for building a Magic Carpet.

How to Build a Magic Carpet

I. Cut two strips of cardboard 2.5 inches wide and 18 

inches long.

II. Put a hole in the center of each strip and fix the two 

together, perpendicular to one another, with a bent tan pin.

Do not split the tangs of the pin when attaching the strips.

III. Hold the tang pin in the hand (palm up), with the head of 

the tang pin pointing up and the tangs pointing down.

IV. Mark the end of the Magic Carpet that is farthest away from

you with an “X” to represent an animal, as if the animal 

were facing you.

3. The Magic Carpet will allow the students to perform the 

following roll and pitch maneuvers, as shown in Figures 64A and 64B.

4. To perform roll maneuvers, the Magic Carpet should be turned so the 

head of the tang is pointing down and the student’s hand is on top.

Explain to the students that if an animal were on Earth, it would have 

fallen to the ground. When this experiment is performed in space, the 

animal will remain on the Magic Carpet, even when it is turned upside

down, because there is little gravity.

Figure 63 Diagram of 

construction of a Magic Carpet.
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5. To examine pitch maneuvers, have the students turn their wrists and 

elbows upward so the head of the tang is on top again. Ask them if 

they see how the “X” is now on the end of the maze closest to them,

as if the animal were facing away from them.The students should note 

that the animal did not have to make any yaw axis motion, yet it ended

up facing 180 ̊ away from where it started (Figures 64C & 64D).

6. Now rotate the Magic Carpet 180 ̊ in a yaw motion so that the “X” ends

up where it started as if the animal were facing you.

Evaluation

REVIEW 

QUESTIONS 1. Which two types of rotation does the Magic Carpet use?

Pitch and roll.

2. How does the brain track movements and position?

The hippocampus gets information from many different parts of the 

brain, and integrates it to assess where the animal is in space.The hippocampus uses self-motion cues (vestibular, muscular, body position 

senses), visual (sight) and auditory (sound) cues.

THINKING 1. If the animal’s brain is not properly encoding pitch and roll motions,

CRITICALLY what will its hippocampus tell it about where it is?

If the animal has not moved, except for a 180 ̊ roll, then the 

hippocampus will not indicate that the animal has moved, and the 

hippocampal map should indicate that the animal is in the same place.

Spatial Orientation and Visuo-motor Performance Learning Activity III

Figure 64 Diagram of the Magic Carpet.

64A In hand 64B After roll 64C After roll and pitch 64D Starting position

A B C D
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Spatial Orientation and Visuo-motor Performance Learning Activity III

2. Will its vestibular system indicate that it has moved at all?

The vestibular system should indicate some disturbance, but it cannot 

give the hippocampus accurate pitch and roll information without 

gravity.

3. What will its visual cues tell it?

No visual cues have been removed, therefore, the animal will receive 

accurate information regarding its position.

4. What will its place cells do?

If the hippocampus has not yet learned how to use this new set of 

visual cues, then it will rely on the self-motion cues from the vestibular

system and we think it will tell the animal that it has not moved.

5. What if the animal was turned 180 degrees in the yaw axis

(a movement like helicopter blades)? Have the students

demonstrate (Figure 65).

Since the yaw movements don’t depend on gravity, the

vestibular system should accurately inform the hippocampus

that the animal has moved 180 ̊ and is now facing in the

opposite direction.

6. Where does the “X” end up?

Where it started.

Note to teacher: If the animal is sensing motion with its vestibular system, it

will not accurately sense that it has motion. It will only detect that it has undergone a 180 degree “yaw,” and this would indicate that it is 180 degrees from

where it started.Vision will indicate that the animal is back where it started. It

is predicted that the animal will think it has rotated 180 degrees because the

place cells are influenced more by the vestibular system than by the inertial navigation system.

1.

2.

3.

180 ̊ Yaw

Figure 65 Diagram of a 

helicopter blade movement.
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Spatial Orientation and Visuo-motor Performance Student Activity Sheet: Learning Activity III

STUDENT ACTIVITY SHEET

How to Build a Magic Carpet

Name ________________________________________________ Date __________________

OBJECTIVE To compare and contrast pitch and roll motions by using a Magic Carpet

similar to one that was used for Neurolab investigations.

MATERIALS • Scissors

• Two strips of cardboard or poster board 

(2.5 inches wide and 18 inches long)

• Metal paper fasteners (tang pin)

DIRECTIONS You will be creating another puzzle that was used by Neurolab scientists

to investigate navigation and spatial orientation in space. Follow the four

steps to building a Magic Carpet (Figure 66).

PROCEDURES 1. Cut two strips of cardboard 2.5 inches wide 

and 18 inches long.

2. Put a hole in the center of each strip and fix 

the two together, perpendicular to one 

another, with a bent tang pin. Do not split 

the tangs of the pin when attaching the 

strips.

3. Hold the tang pin in the hand (palm up),

with the head of the tang pin pointing up 

and the tangs pointing down.

4. Mark the end of the Magic Carpet that is 

farthest from you with an “X” to represent an

animal, as if the animal were facing you.

Figure 66 Diagram of 

construction of a Magic Carpet.
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Spatial Orientation and Visuo-motor Performance Student Activity Sheet: Learning Activity III

Name ________________________________________________ Date __________________

5. The Magic Carpet will allow you to perform the following roll 

and pitch maneuvers, as shown above.

6. To perform roll maneuvers, the Magic Carpet should be turned so the 

head of the tang is pointing down and your hand is on top (Figure 

67B).

7. To examine pitch maneuvers, turn your wrists and elbows upward so 

the head of the tang is on top again (Figure 67C).

Page 2

Figure 67 Diagram of the Magic Carpet.

Figure 67A In hand Figure 67B After roll Figure 67C After roll and pitch Figure 67D Starting position

A B C D
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Spatial Orientation and Visuo-motor Performance Learning Activity IV

LEARNING ACTIVITY IV:

Building a 3-D Space Maze: Escher Staircase

OVERVIEW Students will create Escher Staircase models

similar to those that were used by the Spatial

Orientation Team to investigate the processing

of information about pitch, roll, and yaw.

SCIENCE & Observing, measuring, visualizing objects in 

MATHEMATICS three dimensions, drawing conclusions

SKILLS

PREPARATION None

TIME

CLASS TIME 45 minutes

MATERIALS Each student or team of students will need:

• Scissors

• Three strips of cardboard or posterboard 

(two inches wide and two feet long)

• Three metal paper fasteners (tang pins)

• Light-weight ball (ping-pong)

• Magic marker

BACKGROUND The Neurolab Escher Staircase experiment was

designed to investigate whether, within microgravity, the hippocampus received inaccurate

information about pitch and roll motions, but

still had a fully functional yaw motion detection system. On board

Neurolab, investigators used the weightless environment to pit the

vestibular and proprioceptive (which is hampered by the microgravity

environment) against the visual cues of position.

The Escher Staircase is a maze that can be run only in microgravity, because

it requires movement up and down and sideways along three of the walls

that make up the inside of the cube.There is no distinction between horizontal and lateral movements in a microgravity environment. Rats running

MAJOR 

CONCEPTS

• Without gravity as a

reference, the information provided to

the brain about

“pitch” and “roll”

motions will be 

distorted.

• In microgravity,

astronauts’ brains

will rely on place

cells in the hippocampus for 

information about

position.

• Place cells are more

strongly influenced

by vestibular and

proprioceptive systems visual cues.
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Spatial Orientation and Visuo-motor Performance Learning Activity IV

the maze in microgravity made three 90 ̊ pitches

and three 90 ̊ yaws to end up where they started.

The maze is named after the artwork created by

M.C. Escher. Escher, an artist, incorporated optical

illusions into his work.

PROCEDURE

1. Discuss the trick maze experiment that the 

astronauts conducted during the Neurolab mission (this experiment is described in the 

“Things to Know” section).Tell students that 

they will be constructing an Escher Staircase 

similar to the one that was used for the 

experiment.

2. Have each student or pair of students follow 

the five steps below to build an Escher Staircase.

How to Build an Escher Staircase

I. Cut cardboard into three strips (A, B and C) that are 

two inches wide and two feet long.

II. Punch holes near the top and bottom of each strip.

III. Bend the center of each strip to a 90 degree angle.

IV. Use the tang pins to connect strip A to strip B, and strip B 

to strip C at the holes.

V. Orient the strips at the tang joints so that they are 90 

degrees relative to each other, and then connect strip C to 

strip A.

VI. Draw an arrow on the ping-pong ball.

3. After students have built the Escher Staircase model, have them move 

the light weight ball along the maze for one full circuit with the arrow 

pointing in the direction of travel (Figure 68). Have them think about

whether it would be possible to walk along the maze in the presence 

of gravity. What about in space? What types of information would the 

brain need to remain oriented while walking along the staircase?

Fold

Fold Fold

Tang pin

A A

B

B

C

C

Ping-pong ball

Figure 68 Diagram of a student model of an Escher Staircase.

Fold

C

C

Fold

B

B

Fold

A A

Figure 69 Diagram of the

construction of an Escher 

Staircase.
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Spatial Orientation and Visuo-motor Performance Learning Activity IV

Evaluation

REVIEW 

QUESTIONS 1. Describe yaw, pitch, and roll.

Yaw motions are in the horizontal plane relative to your body, for 

example, shaking your head “no.”

Pitches are turns in the vertical plane, for example, bending over forward to touch your toes.

Rolls are turns along the long axis of your body, for example, when 

you accidentally roll off the bed when you are sleeping.

2. For which of these rotational movements does the brain depend on 

gravity to process information about the movement?

Pitches and rolls.

THINKING

CRITICALLY 1. How many yaw axis turns did the students’ hands make?

Three 90 ̊ yaw axis turns complete one full circuit on the Escher 

Staircase.

2. How many pitches? If an animal has no way of encoding the pitch 

turns, what will the inertial navigation tell the animal’s hippocampus 

after it has made one full circuit? What will the visual cues tell it?

Three 90 ̊ pitches complete one full circuit on the Escher Staircase.

Inertial navigation calculations should tell the animal that it has only 

made 270 ̊ worth of turns and it needs to move forward and make one

more 90 ̊ yaw turn before completing the circuit.Visual cues are 

accurate. If the animal uses the visual cues quickly, it would accurately 

indicate that animal’s true position in the environment.

3. Which system will the hippocampus rely on the first time the 

animal is exposed to the maze, having not yet learned the visual 

relationships between landmarks?

Scientists hypothesize that the animal will rely on selfmotion cues 

(inertial navigation) at first, because it has not spent enough time in 

the environment to have learned how the visual cues map out.

4. What about the second day it runs the maze?

The animal will have spent enough time looking at the environment to

be able to rely on its placement to tell where it is.

5. Can you make only three 90 degree turns in the yaw axis in space,

yet end up right back where you started?

Not if you are also moving forward.
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Spatial Orientation and Visuo-motor Performance Learning Activity IV

6. Without gravity as a reference for sensing the pitch and roll motions,

how can you tell if you are back where you started?

Using yaw and translational movement cues along, you can keep fairly 

good track of where you are relative to where you started, only if you 

have not moved up or down. Without gravity to help your vestibular 

system keep track of pitches and rolls, if you make translational movements after a pitch, your map calculation of your position will be 

inaccurate.

SKILL BUILDING 1. The artist M.C. Escher created a number of paintings that present 

gravity-defying optical illusions. Have students find more examples of 

his work using resources at the library or on the internet.

2. Have students create their own artworks that present paradoxes or 

illusions in their design.
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Spatial Orientation and Visuo-motor Performance Student Activity Sheet: Learning Activity IV

STUDENT ACTIVITY SHEET

How to Build an Escher Staircase

Name ________________________________________________ Date ________________

OBJECTIVE To understand how the brain processes information about 

pitch, roll, and yaw.

MATERIALS • Scissors

• Three strips of cardboard or poster board 

(two inches wide and two feet long)

• Three metal paper fasteners (tang pins)

• Light-weight ball (ping-pong)

DIRECTIONS You will be constructing an Escher Staircase similar to the ones that 

were used for the experiment. Follow the five steps below to build an

Escher Staircase.

PROCEDURES 1. Cut cardboard into three strips (A, B, and C) that are two inches

wide and two feet long.

2. Punch holes near the top and bottom of each strip.

3. Bend the center of each strip to a 90 degree angle.

4. Use the tang pins to connect strip A to strip B, and strip B to

strip C at the holes.

5. Orient the strips at the tang joints so that they are 90 degrees

relative to each other, and then connect strip C to strip A.

After you have built the Escher

Staircase (Figure 71), move your

hands or a light weight ball along the

maze for one full circuit.Think about

whether it would be possible to walk

along the maze in the presence of

gravity. What about in space? What

types of information would the brain

need to remain oriented while walking along the staircase?

Fold

C

C

Fold

B

B

Fold

A A

Figure 71 Diagram of an Escher Staircase.

Fold

Fold Fold

Tang pin

A A

B

B

C

C

Figure 70 Diagram of Ping-pong ball

construction of an Escher 

Staircase.
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Autonomic 

Nervous System 

Regulation

Lessons and Activities

GRADES 5–12

Section IV
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Autonomic Nervous System Regulation Introduction

Autonomic Nervous System Regulation

TOPIC How did the bodies of Neurolab astronauts function in space?

The autonomic nervous system is the control center 

of automatic body functions.

INTRODUCTION In the course of daily living, we seldom think about the many processes

that are occurring automatically within our bodies. Fortunately, we don’t

have to remember to direct our process of digestion; to maintain our

body temperature at 37 ̊celsius; or to control blood pressure and the flow

of blood within our circulatory system. All of these processes (and many

more) are governed by a component of the nervous system known as the

autonomic nervous system—the body’s automatic control center.

One of the many questions that the Neurolab team asked concerns what

happens to blood pressure regulation in a weightless environment.The

circulatory system functions to distribute blood throughout the body

under conditions created by Earth’s gravity. For example, when you stand,

the pull of gravity draws blood away from your head and toward your

feet. However, you do not faint from lack of oxygen-carrying blood to the

brain. Why not? The answer lies in the body’s ability to regulate blood

pressure. In spite of standing rapidly, the pressure is adjusted in order to

maintain a constant flow of blood to the brain.The level of blood pressure—the pressure within your arteries—is determined by the pumping of

blood into the vessels by the heart and the resistance to blood flow by

those blood vessels.Your blood flow to the brain does not change because

your autonomic nervous system responds to the challenge of gravity on

blood flow by modulating the blood pressure.

This section contains three activities that will help you and your students explore 

the autonomic nervous system’s regulation of blood pressure.

Things to Know

THE HEART The heart and blood vessels called arteries are responsible for carrying 

AND BLOOD FLOW oxygen, nutrients, and other substances to all parts of the body. Metabolic

waste products are removed from the tissues by the blood and carried to

specific organs designed to remove them from the body by capillaries and

veins. Blood moves through the heart and body because of a very simple

principle: blood (or for that matter, any fluid) flows according to pressure

difference—from where pressure is higher to where pressure is lower. The
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heart, which acts as a pump, is responsible for creating pressure within the

closed confines of the circulatory system.

Blood pressure within a blood vessel is defined as the force exerted by the

blood against the walls of the vessels. Blood pressure within the arteries

rises and falls with the cycles of the heart, or stages by which blood is

pumped through the four chambers of the heart and out to the circulation.

Blood passes through the heart in a fixed sequence.The heart has four

valves—the tricuspid, pulmonary, mitral, and aortic—which regulate blood

flow between chambers and between the heart, the pulmonary vessels, and

the systemic vessels (Figure 72). First, blood enters the right atrium from

very large veins (the superior and inferior vena cavae).The right atrium

squeezes, the tricuspid valve opens, and blood flows to the right ventricle.

Next, the right ventricle squeezes, the tricuspid valve closes, the pulmonary

valve opens, and blood is injected into the pulmonary artery. Blood then

travels through the lungs, where it takes on oxygen and discharges carbon

dioxide, and enters the left atrium through the pulmonary veins.The left

atrium squeezes, the mitral valve opens, and blood flows into the left ventricle. Finally, the very muscular left ventricle squeezes, the mitral valve closes, the aortic valve opens, and blood is ejected into the aorta, the largest

artery of the body. From there, the oxygen-rich blood is carried to other

parts of the body by a branching system of vessels.

The walls of the blood vessels contain concentric layers of smooth muscle.

These muscles and the muscles of the heart are controlled by autonomic

nervous system nerves that regulate blood vessel size. A decrease in the

diameters of the blood vessels makes it

more difficult for blood to flow through

the vessels.When this decrease in size

occurs, greater pressure is required to

force the blood through the vessels.This

increased pressure is exerted by the heart

as it forces blood into the aorta. In contrast, when the smooth muscles of the

blood vessels relax, increasing the diameters of the vessels, resistance to blood

flow is reduced and less blood pressure

is required to maintain a given flow rate.

Not only does the autonomic nervous

system control the diameter of blood

vessels, it also modulates the rate at

which the heart pumps—either by

speeding it up, or slowing it down.

Through these functions, the autonomic

Figure 72 Diagram of the heart and course of Adapted by permission–Ron White nervous system regulates blood pressure.

blood flow through the heart chambers.

Autonomic Nervous System Regulation Introduction
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Autonomic Nervous System Regulation Introduction

REGULATION OF The challenge of maintaining constant blood flow to the brain and other 

BLOOD PRESSURE tissues while subjected to the effects of Earth’s gravity is met by the

BY THE NERVOUS regulation of blood pressure by the autonomic nervous system.The brain

SYSTEM receives continuous information regarding the pressure exerted by the

blood on the wall of the larger arteries.This is accomplished by pressure

sensors (baroreceptors) strategically located in the wall of these vessels,

especially one of the major arteries to the brain (internal carotid artery).

These sensors transmit pressure information through nerves to the brainstem where the autonomic nervous system (Figure 73) monitors this

information and reflexively makes the appropriate adjustment of the

blood pressure. For example, if the blood pressure momentarily falls

below a given set point, the autonomic nervous system increases the

resistance to blood flow by reducing the diameter of various arteries

within the body and increases the rate and force of contraction of the

heart, which together result in an appropriate increase in blood pressure.

Figure 73 Diagram of the Autonomic Nervous System.

SYMPATHETIC DIVISION PARASYMPATHETIC DIVISION

Slows 

heartbeat

Stimulates

digestion 

Constricts

airways

Stimulates

salivation

Dilates Stimulates pupil

pupil

Inhibits

salivation

Constricts

blood vessels

Relaxes

airways

Accelerates

heartbeat

Stimulates secretion

by sweat glands

Inhibits

digestion

Stomach

Gall bladder

Pancreas

Liver

Stimulates gall

bladder to

release bile

Dilates blood vessels

in intestines and 

rectum

Stimulates urinary

bladder to

contract

Stimulates ejaculation Stimulates penile erection

Inferior

mesenteric

ganglion

Stimulates

secretion of 

epinephrine and

norepinephrine

Relaxes urinary

bladder

Stimulates

glucose

production

and release

Cranial

Cervical

Thoracic

Lumbar

Sacral

Cranial

Cervical

Thoracic

Lumbar

Sacral

Celiac

ganglion
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Autonomic Nervous System Regulation Learning Activity I

The Neurolab Autonomic Team investigated the adaptive changes in the

regulation of blood pressure in the microgravity environment of space.

They were particularly interested in understanding more about why some

astronauts faint from low blood pressure when they try to stand upon

their return to Earth from space missions. Focus has been directed on possible changes in the sensitivity of the pressure sensors and possible changes

in the autonomic nervous system in its ability to effectively coordinate

changes in arterial resistance and heart rate in the appropriate modulation

of blood pressure, after exposure to microgravity for extended periods.

LEARNING ACTIVITY I:

Measuring Blood Pressure in Space

OVERVIEW Students will learn how to measure heart rate 

and blood pressure accurately and to obtain

consistent measurements during repeated tests.

SCIENCE & Observing, communicating, collecting 

MATHEMATICS quantitative data, creating charts and graphs,

SKILLS drawing conclusions

PREPARATION 10 minutes

TIME

CLASS TIME 25 minutes

MATERIALS Each group of students will need:

• Watch or access to clock with a second hand

• Stethoscope*

• Sphygmomanometer*

• Alcohol wipes to clean stethoscope ear plugs 

after each use

• Copy of student activity sheets: “Determining

Pulse Rate Manually,” “Determining Heart 

Rate with a Stethoscope,” and “Measuring 

Blood Pressure with a Sphygmomanometer.”

*These may be obtained from the school nurse.

MAJOR 

CONCEPTS

• The heart supplies

the energy to move

blood through 

the system.

• Blood moves from

where pressure is

higher to where

pressure is lower.

• Blood pressure is

recorded as systolic (highest

pressure in the

pulse) and diastolic (lowest pressure in the pulse).
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Autonomic Nervous System Regulation Learning Activity I

BACKGROUND This lesson introduces students to two tools—the sphygmomanometer

and the stethoscope—that are used to measure blood pressure and heart

rate and engages them in measuring blood pressure and heart rate

changes that occur when the body assumes different postures—lying,

sitting, and standing.The Neurolab Autonomic Team was interested in

obtaining information on the astronauts’ blood pressures in the microgravity environment.They used more sophisticated instruments to continuously measure blood pressure and heart rate. Blood pressure is generally

obtained by using a sphygmomanometer and a stethoscope. Heart rate

can be obtained by using the stethoscope (Figure 74) to listen to the rate

at which the heart beats or by palpating arteries that are close to the surface of the body, and counting the pulse beats.

During this activity, students will hear the sounds of

the blood as it is pumped into the aorta to identify

sounds caused by blood turbulence as a result of two

sets of valves within the heart that close at slightly different times.The first and second heart sounds, which

occur in close sequence, represent the closing of different valves. When using a stethoscope, the doctor

will hear these valves’ closure as “lup dup, lup dup,

lup dup.” Heart rate is determined by counting either

the “lups” or “dups.” Usually it is easier to count the

latter during the relatively long pause. (This is the

diastole or resting period that occurs between the second and first heart sounds.)

Students also will learn to find their pulse points and

to take (or count) their pulse beats. Palpating pulse

occurs as a result of the expansion of an artery from the blood pushed

out by the contraction of the left ventricle. Expansion of an artery, or

pulse, can be felt in the neck, at the front of the elbow, behind the knee,

and in the foot. Most physicians and nurses palpate the radial artery pulse.

It can be felt in the forearm, on the thumb side, where the forearm meets

the palm.

Heart rate, or the speed at which the heart is beating, can be measured in

several ways.The simplest method is to record the electrical activity of the

heart with an electrocardiogram. However, counting heartbeats heard

through a stethoscope or pulse beats felt in the wrist or neck for a period

of time are other ways to determine heart rate.

Figure 74 Diagram of student measuring

heart rate with stethoscope.
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Determining Pulse Rate Manually

PROCEDURE Note to Teacher:You may want to invite a nurse to assist younger students in identifying

heart rate by counting the number of pulse beats. Divide the class into teams of three. One student will be the subject, one will count the pulse beats, and one will record the results.

1. Have the student counting the pulse beats place the tip of his/her index

and middle fingers on the radius (the bone on the thumb side of the 

human forearm), and then gradually move the fingertips toward the 

center of the subject’s wrist (Figure 75).

2. Tell the student not to begin counting the pulse beats until the subject 

is stationary.The student can begin counting the subject’s pulse beats 

when the second hand of the watch is on 12. (Have the student do this

for 30 seconds and he/she should record his/her answers.)

3. Have the student count the number of pulse

beats felt during 30 seconds and record on

chart (Figure 76).

4. Each pair of students should take at least 

three measurements of each other’s pulse 

rate. Have students record the results.You 

also may want each student to calculate 

his/her average pulse rate. Record the 

average pulse rate of all the students on a 

class chart on the board.

5. Have the student repeat procedures three and

four with the same subject and record the 

number of pulse beats in 30 seconds.

6. Ask the students whether, based on the 

results shown on their individual charts, the 

subjects of each of the tests were in a steady 

state.Why or why not?

Autonomic Nervous System Regulation Learning Activity I

Figure 75 Photograph of a manual pulse rate count.

Student Name Pulse Rate

Figure 76 Chart for recording pulse rate.

Pulse Rate Data
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STUDENT ACTIVITY SHEET

Determining Pulse Rate Manually 

Name ________________________________________________ Date __________________

OBJECTIVE To learn how to measure heart rate accurately by counting pulses and to

obtain consistent measurements during repeated tests.

MATERIALS • Watch or access to clock with second hand.

• Note pad

• Pen or pencil

DIRECTIONS This activity requires a team of three. One student will be the subject. One

student will count pulses and one will record the results.

PROCEDURE 1. The student being measured should sit comfortably in a chair with feet

flat on the floor.

2. The student selected to take the pulse should 

place the tip of your index and middle fingers

on the radius (the bone on the thumb side of 

the subject’s forearm) and then gradually move 

the fingertips toward the center of the subject’s wrist (Figure 77).

3. Do not begin counting the pulse beats until 

the subject is stationary.You can begin counting the subject’s pulse beats when the second 

hand of the watch is on 12. (Do this for 30 

seconds.)

4. Count the number of pulses felt during the 30

seconds and multiply the result by two to 

express the pulse rate as heart beats/minute.

Record your answers (Figure 78).

5. Take at least three measurements of each 

other’s pulses. Record the results.

6. Repeat procedures three and four with the

same subject and record the number of beats.

Autonomic Nervous System Regulation Student Activity Sheet: Learning Activity I

Figure 77 Photograph of a manual pulse rate count.

Student Name Pulse Rate 

Figure 78 Chart for recording pulse rate.

Pulse Rate Data
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Autonomic Nervous System Regulation Learning Activity I

Listening to Heart Sounds 

with a Stethoscope

PROCEDURE Note to Teacher: This experiment should be done in pairs of students of the same gender.

1. The first task is for students to learn how to use a stethoscope.They 

should take care to make accurate measurements. Students may work in

pairs or groups of four, depending on materials available.

2. Have one student within each group place the stethoscope’s earplugs in

his/her ears. (As the stethoscope hangs down from the student’s ears,

the metal tubes should be held slightly in front of the student.)

3. Direct each student with a stethoscope to apply the bell (stethoscopes 

usually have two heads—a bell and a diaphragm (Figure 79) very 

lightly to the chest of another student (preferably 

male, so that the heart sounds will be louder).The 

diaphragm, applied firmly, is better for high-pitched

sounds.The stethoscope should be placed to the left 

of the sternum (or breastbone) of the student who 

is being tested (Figure 74).

4. As the student listens, he/she should move the

stethoscope around on the subject’s chest, to the left

of the sternum. Have students notice the loudness of

the sounds. In general, sounds will be louder when

the stethoscope is close to the structure generating

the sounds (the heart, in this case) than when it is

far away. Make sure that students are able to identify

the two sounds (“lup dup”) typically made by the

heart.

5. Have the students take turns with the stethoscope,

so that all have a chance to hear and identify heart

sounds.

Ear plugs

Bell/diaphragm

Rubber Tube

Metal tubes

Figure 79 Diagram of stethoscope.
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Student Name Heart Rate

Beats Per 30 Secs.

Figure 80 Chart for recording heart rate.

Individual Heart Rate Data

Student 1.

Student 2.

Autonomic Nervous System Regulation Learning Activity I

Determining Heart 

Rate with a Stethoscope

PROCEDURE Note to Teacher: This experiment requires at least three students.The experiment should be

done by two students of the same gender.Another student should be the recorder.

1. Have the student being measured sit comfortably in a chair with feet 

flat on the floor.

2. Have one student place the stethoscope’s earplugs in his/her ears. (As 

the stethoscope hangs down, the metal tube parts should be directed 

slightly ahead).

3. Instruct the student to apply the bell of the stethoscope very lightly 

to the subject’s chest on the left side of the breastbone.

4. Tell the student to listen to the subject’s heart rates by moving the 

stethoscope around the subject’s chest. Inform the student that 

sounds will be louder as you get closer to the heart valves. Have one 

student record the number of beats in 30 seconds on the chart on 

the Student Activity Sheet (Figure 80).

5. The student should take at least three measurements.

6. Have the students select another subject of the same gender and 

repeat procedures two and three.

7. To convert heart rate to beats/minute, students should multiply values

in Figure 78 by two.
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Autonomic Nervous System Regulation Student Activity Sheet: Learning Activity I

STUDENT ACTIVITY SHEET

Determining Heart Rate with a Stethoscope

Name ________________________________________________ Date __________________

OBJECTIVE To learn how to measure heart rate with a stethoscope.

MATERIALS • Watch or access to a clock with a second hand

• Stethoscope

• Pen or pencil

• Note pad

DIRECTIONS Do the following procedures and record your data on the chart.

PROCEDURE 1. One person from your group should place the stethoscope’s 

(Figure 81) earplugs in his/her ears. (As the stethoscope 

hangs down, the metal tube parts should be directed slightly 

ahead.)

2. This person should then apply the bell very lightly to the chest

on the left side of the breastbone of a classmate who is the 

subject. (Students of the same gender should perform this 

activity on one another.)

3. The person applying the bell should listen to the classmate’s 

heart rates by moving the stethoscope around the chest.

Sounds will be louder when he/she gets closer to the heart’s 

valves.

4. Listen to the number of beats while 

watching the clock.

5. Record the number of beats heard per 30

seconds on the chart (Figure 82).

6. Take at least three measurements.

7. Select another student (of the same gender)

in the group and repeat procedures two and

three.

Ear plugs

Bell/diaphragm

Rubber Tube

Metal tubes

Figure 81 Diagram of stethoscope.

Student Name Heart Rate 

Beats Per 30 Sec.

Figure 82 Chart for recording heart rate.

Individual Heart Rate Data

Student 1.

Student 2.
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Autonomic Nervous System Regulation Learning Activity I

Measuring Blood Pressure with 

a Sphygmomanometer

PROCEDURE 1. Introduce the students to the sphygmomanometer. Most of them will 

have had their blood pressure taken at some time at a doctor’s office. Ask

for a show of hands of students who have had their blood pressure 

measured.

2. With a student, demonstrate how to use the stethoscope and sphygmomanometer together to measure blood pressure.

3. Have the person being measured sit comfortably in a chair with feet

flat on the floor.

4. Be sure that the person has not over-exerted himself/herself during the

last thirty minutes, e.g., exercising.

5. Attach blood pressure cuff over the brachial artery.

This artery is located inside the arm approximately one

inch above the bend of the arm (Figure 83).

6. Place the earplugs of the stethoscope in the operator’s

ears.

7. Pump the blood pressure cuff up to approximately 200

millimeters of mercury.

8. Place the diaphragm of the stethoscope just above

bend of arm. Slowly release cuff at two millimeters of

mercury per second.

9. Listen carefully for the first two consecutive beats.This

is your systolic blood pressure reading.

10. Continue to listen carefully until you hear the last of

the two consecutive beats.This is your diastolic blood

pressure reading.

11. Release the pressure from the cuff.

12. Record your readings (Figure 85).

13. Remove the cuff.

Figure 83 Photograph of measurement of blood pressure.
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Autonomic Nervous System Regulation Student Activity Sheet: Learning Activity I

STUDENT ACTIVITY SHEET

Measuring Blood Pressure with a Sphygmomanometer

Name ________________________________________________ Date __________________

OBJECTIVE To learn how to measure blood pressure with a sphygmomanometer (an

instrument for measuring arterial blood pressure consisting of an inflatable blood pressure cuff, inflating bulb, a gauge showing the blood 

pressure, and a stethoscope).

MATERIALS • Watch or access to clock with a second hand

• Stethoscope

• Sphygmomanometer 

• Alcohol wipes to clean stethoscope ear plugs 

after each use

• Pen or pencil

• Note pad

DIRECTIONS Do the following procedures and record your data in the table.

PROCEDURE 1. Have the person being measured sit comfortably in a chair with feet 

flat on the floor.

2. Be sure that the person has not over-exerted himself/herself during the last thirty minutes, such as by exercising.

3. Attach blood pressure cuff over the brachial artery.This

artery is located inside the arm (Figure 84).

4. The operator should place the earplugs of the stethoscope

in his/her ears; place diaphragm of stethoscope just above

bend of subject’s elbow.

5. Use the inflating bulb to pump the blood pressure cuff up

to approximately 200 millimeters of mercury.

6. Slowly release cuff at two millimeters of mercury per 

second.

Figure 84 Photograph of measurement of blood pressure.
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Autonomic Nervous System Regulation Student Activity Sheet: Learning Activity I

7. Listen carefully for the first two consecutive beats.This is your systolic

blood pressure reading.

8. Continue to listen carefully until you hear the last of the two consecutive beats.This is your diastolic blood pressure reading.

9. Release the pressure from the cuff.

10. Remove the cuff.

11. Record your readings (Figure 85).

Blood Pressure Data

Student Name Blood Pressure

Diastolic Systolic

Figure 85 Chart for recording blood pressure.

Name ________________________________________________ Date __________________

Page 2
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Autonomic Nervous System Regulation Learning Activity I

SIGNIFICANCE • Blood pressure measures utilizing the stethoscope and sphygmoOF THE TWO manometer cuff will yield the systolic and diastolic pressures.

MEASURES

TAKEN • Heart rate can be monitored with a stethoscope placed near the valves 

of the heart.

• Taking pulse palpitations by placing the tip of the index and middle

fingers on the radius will also yield heart rate.

Pulse = heart rate

Sphygmomanometer and stethoscope = diastolic and systolic pressures 

Evaluation

At this point, your students should understand two basic tools necessary

for studying the heart and circulatory system, the stethoscope and sphygmomanometer.They should also know how to measure and record individual heart rates.

REVIEW

QUESTIONS 1. What different methods can you use to measure heart rate?

The simplest way to measure heart rate is to count the pulse beats.

Pulses can be found wherever an artery is accessible. Most people use the

radial pulse, located at the wrist. Heart rate can also be measured from 

beat-by-beat blood pressure recordings or from the electrocardiogram.

2. What is responsible for the movement we call pulse?

The pulse occurs when a sudden rush of blood stretches the artery.

Arteries stretch as the left ventricle ejects part (over 55%) of its volume

into the aorta—the largest artery.

3. Why do we take measurements of both systolic and diastolic to 

determine blood pressure?

To determine the maximum and minimum pressures in the circulatory 

system.

THINKING 1. Using the class data, have students determine if the heart rate and blood 

CRITICALLY pressure averages they observed from their classmates are high, low or 

average for their age group. Ask students to identify and find resources 

necessary to make this determination.

SKILL BUILDING 1. Have students use resources at the library or on the Internet to 

investigate lifestyle habits that may cause high blood pressure

(hypertension).

2. Based on their research, have students design a lifestyle for someone 

who may suffer from hypertension.
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Autonomic Nervous System Regulation Learning Activity I

CONCLUSION Explain that the astronauts on the Neurolab mission used different methods to study blood pressure.They used a small cuff device on the finger

(photoplethysmograph) that actually measures the amount of light passing through the tissues of the fingers at different times (Figure 86). As the

heart beats, light transmission through the finger varies with the amount

of blood in the finger.The pressure in the cuff is regulated continuously

to maintain light transmission in the finger at a constant level. Pressure in

the cuff is measured by an electronic pressure gauge, and this measurement is used as an accurate index of actual blood pressure.You may want

to make an overhead transparency of the photograph below to show to

students.

When you believe your students are comfortable with, and have mastered

measuring blood pressure, the next activity can be assigned as an extension to the previous one. It will allow students to see how the body adapts

to changes of posture and the regulation of blood pressure.

AIR

Figure 86 Diagram of a Photoplethysmograph around a finger.

Bladder

Arteries

Air

Bone Detector

Light

Emitting

Diode
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Autonomic Nervous System Regulation Learning Activity II

LEARNING ACTIVITY II:

Changing Body Positions:

How Does the Circulatory System Adjust?

OVERVIEW Students will make and compare measurements of heart rate and blood pressure from

three body positions: sitting, standing, and lying.

SCIENCE & Observing, communicating, collecting quantitaMATHEMATIC tive data, recording data in tables and graphs,

SKILLS interpreting data, drawing conclusions

PREPARATION None

TIME

CLASS 30 minutes

MATERIALS Each group of students will need:

• Watch or clock with a second hand

• Stethoscope*

• Sphygmomanometer* (an instrument for 

measuring arterial blood pressure consisting 

of an inflatable blood pressure cuff, inflating 

bulb and a gauge showing the blood pressure) 

• Alcohol wipes to clean stethoscope ear plugs 

after each use

• Copies of Activity Sheet: “Changing Body 

Positions”

• Table or bench long enough for a student to 

lie down

*These may be obtained from the school nurse.

BACKGROUND This activity goes to the “heart” of one of the body’s fundamental mechanisms: regulation of blood pressure. When you stand, blood tends to collect in the lowest parts of the body. Such translocation of blood could present problems if the body did not have a method to counteract it. For

example, if you do not have adequate blood flow (and thus, oxygen) to

MAJOR 

CONCEPTS

• When a person is

standing on Earth,

his/her brain is

above the heart

and gravity is

pulling fluids

toward the Earth.

• The brain must

have adequate

blood flow.

• On Earth, blood

flows to the brain

because the pressure within the

system is high

enough to force

blood upward

against the pull of

gravity.
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the brain, you will faint. Fortunately, blood within the circulatory system

flows under pressure that is high enough to counteract the force of gravity and allows blood to reach your brain even when you are standing.

This activity will demonstrate one way in which the body responds to changes in posture.

While conducting the activity, students will measure heart rate and blood

pressure in three different body positions—(1) sitting, (2) standing, and

(3) lying (Figure 87). Since students will be spending a short period of

time in each position, they probably will find that heart rate and blood

pressure have not reached a steady state

when they make their measurements.

Students should document these

changes during the time spent in each

of the positions. Measurements made

every two minutes will allow students

to observe some of the effects of

changes of body positions.

As discussed in the previous lessons

and activities, scientists on the

Autonomic Team used tools that allow

for much more precise measurements

of blood pressure and heart rate. After

this activity, students should have a

very good idea about how the body adapts to changes of posture, based

on their own experimental data.

PROCEDURE 1. Have students conduct this activity in groups of four. One student in 

each group should serve as the subject, one should measure heart rate 

(measured as number of pulse beats felt in one minute), one should 

measure the blood pressure from the other arm, and the other should 

record measurements as they are called out (Figure 88).

2. Explain to the groups that they will be investigating changes in heart rate 

and blood pressure that occur when the body moves from sitting to 

standing to lying. Ask the students to think about and predict changes 

that might happen. Explain that measurements for each position will take

seven minutes with a maximum of 30 seconds allowed for subject to 

change positions.

3 1 2

Figure 87 Diagram of three different body positions.

Autonomic Nervous System Regulation Learning Activity II
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3. Pulse beats should be counted for 30 seconds and blood pressure

should be measured within one minute. Both of these should be measured simultaneously within one minute. For each position, three sets

of measurements are made at two-minute intervals. Students making

measurements should call out their results to the group recorder, who

should write the values on the data sheet.

4. Have the groups conduct their experiments as follows:

• Subject sits quietly for three minutes.

• Students should take measurements of 

heart rate and blood pressure simultaneously for seven minutes.

• After seven minutes, the subject should 

stand. New measurements should begin 

as they did in the previous trial.

• After seven minutes, the subject should 

lie on table. Once again, measurements 

should begin as they did in the previous 

trials.

5. After all the data have been collected, the students should convert 

the 30 second counts of heartbeats into heartbeats per minute by 

multiplying each of the values by two. Have students create two charts:

one of heart rate vs. time and another of blood pressure vs. time.

6. Ask the class to compare the two charts of heart rate and blood 

pressure. How are the two charts similar? How are they different? 

What do the results tell us about how the circulatory system adapts to 

posture changes? Have students think about what might happen to this 

activity were it conducted under conditions of microgravity.

Evaluation

REVIEW

QUESTIONS 1. How does blood flow to the brain? 

Blood flows to the brain (and every where else in the body) on the 

basis of pressure. For blood to flow to the brain, the pressure must 

be lower in the brain than in the arteries that carry blood to the brain.

2. Where does the blood go when the body is in a standing position? 

In a sitting position?

Measuring

heart rate

Counting

pulse beats

Figure 88 Diagram of a group taking measurements of blood pressure

and counting pulse beats while subject is lying on table.

Autonomic Nervous System Regulation Learning Activity II
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Autonomic Nervous System Regulation Learning Activity II

Blood goes to the lowest part of the body, according to the degree of 

gravitational pull.Tall people, who have much higher columns of blood

than short people, are more prone to experience reductions of blood 

pressure when they stand. Less blood is pooled in the sitting position 

because the height of the column of blood is less than in the standing 

position.

3. What happens to blood flow, blood pressure, and heart rate when the 

body moves from lying to sitting?

The heart rate begins to speed; this occurs very rapidly, often within 

one second. Speeding of the heart helps to prevent a major fall in 

blood pressure. Also, the vessels constrict to increase resistance to flow 

and keep blood pressure up.

CRITICAL 1. Challenge your students to think about how the circulatory system

might respond to changes in a microgravity environment.Which aspects

of the system might stay the same? Which might be different?

Absence of gravity causes major changes in the circulation. The most

important of these is that there is no gravitational pull of blood toward

the feet when a person stands. Pressure in the feet is the same in lying

and standing positions. Therefore, blood

redistributes from the lower body to the

upper body. The autonomic nervous system

does not have to adjust to body positions as

on Earth. This is not to say that there is no

autonomic nervous system control of the circulation in space.

2. Ask students to think about why people feel

faint or dizzy (Figure 89A) when they stand

up very rapidly. Or conversely, why are people instructed to put their head between

their knees (Figure 89B) when they feel

faint?

Rapid standing causes a rapid fall of blood

pressure. The fall of pressure reduces blood

flow to the brain momentarily, until the regulatory mechanisms in the brain and circulation can kick in and restore pressure to 

normal levels. By putting one’s head between

the knees, the head becomes dependent,

pressure in the arteries of the brain increases,

and blood flow to the brain increases.

THINKING

CRITICALLY

Figure 89A Diagram of 

individual who feels faint.

Figure 89B Diagram of individual

with head between the knees.
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Autonomic Nervous System Regulation Learning Activity II

Figure 90 Photo of a pressure chamber.

SKILL BUILDING 1. After each group has graphed the sets of measurements they obtained 

from the experiment, have them produce a written interpretation of 

the data. Let each group share its write-ups with the class.

APPLICATION Your students should now have a better understanding of how heart rate

and blood pressure change in response to body movement.The

Autonomic Team studied similar questions under conditions of microgravity.They used different methods, however, to gauge the postural

responses in space. One of the main issues is that, although astronauts can

stand in space, they (and their circulatory systems) do not experience the

pull of gravity as they do on Earth.To simulate the gravity environment,

the astronauts had the lower halves of their bodies enclosed in a chamber

that was sealed around their waists. Suction was applied to the chamber

so that a reduced pressure drew blood to the lower body.The actual

chamber that was used is shown in Figure 90.
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STUDENT ACTIVITY SHEET

Changing Body Positions

Name ________________________________________________ Date __________________

OBJECTIVE To measure the changes of heart rate and blood pressure with changing

body positions.

MATERIALS • A watch or clock • Stethoscope • Alcohol wipes

with a second hand • Pen or pencil • Note pad

• Sphygmomanometer

DIRECTIONS Follow the procedures and record data on the charts (Figures 91 and 92).

PROCEDURE 1. Four students are required to do this activity. (One is the subject, one 

counts pulses, one measures blood pressure, and one records results.

Select the role each person in your group will perform.

2. Have one student from your group sit quietly in a chair with feet flat 

on the floor.

3. One student should count the number of

pulse beats for 30 seconds, then multiply that

number by two and call out the number to

the recorder. (Heart rate is expressed as pulse

beats per minute.)

4. Simultaneously, another student should measure blood pressure within one minute and

call out the number to the recorder.

5. Take three separate measurements at two

minute intervals.

6. The recorder should write the numbers called

out on the chart.

7. Repeat procedures “2” – “6” with the student

subject standing.

8. Repeat procedures “2” – “6” with student 

subject lying.

9. In order to calculate the heart rate, multiply

the number of pulse beats per 30 seconds by

two.

Sitting Standing Lying Minutes

Diastolic Systolic Diastolic Systolic Diastolic Systolic

Autonomic Nervous System Regulation Student Activity Sheet: Learning Activity II

30 

30

30

30

30

30

Beats Beats Beats Minutes Seconds Sitting Standing Lying

1 

2

3

Heart Rate

Blood Pressure

Figure 92 Chart for recording blood pressure.

Minute 1

Minute 2

Minute 3

Figure 91 Chart for recording heart rate.
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Autonomic Nervous System Regulation Learning Activity III

LEARNING ACTIVITY III:

Baroreceptor Reflex Role Play

OVERVIEW In this activity, the students will learn the

importance of maintaining adequate arterial

blood pressure through a role playing exercise

which demonstrates the baroreceptor reflex

(BR) arc—a human model of the BR loop.The

BR arc will demonstrate how the brain processes information and sends out signals to the

heart and arteries.

SCIENCE & Prediction, observing, collecting quantitative 

MATHEMATICS data and interpreting data

SKILLS

PREPARATION 10 minutes

TIME

CLASS TIME 45 minutes

MATERIALS • Index cards to be used as cue cards 

indicating students’ roles (nine students per 

group)

BACKGROUND Baroreceptors are specialized neural receptors that sense changes in blood

pressure.The baroreceptor reflex relies on sensing pressure changes in the

aorta and carotid artery. If stimulation of the baroreceptors is altered,

such as in a microgravity environment, a change would occur in the firing frequency of the nerves connected to the baroreceptors that send signals to the brain.

The baroreceptor reflex circuit includes both sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves to the arteries and heart in order to maintain proper 

arterial blood pressure.The baroreceptor reflex can either increase or

decrease arterial blood pressure in order to return it to normal levels. If

the arterial blood pressure increases, the firing rate of the baroreceptors

increases, sending a greater frequency of impulses through the afferent

(inflowing, i.e., towards the brain) baroreceptor nerves.The reflex in this

instance will cause activation of the vagus nerve, decreasing the rate of

heart contraction to reduce arterial pressure. If the pressure falls, decreased

MAJOR 

CONCEPTS

• If development in

microgravity alters

the development

of the baroreceptor

afferent neurons,

the circuit may not

function normally

on Earth.

• The functions of

each part of the

baroreceptor reflex

are required to

properly maintain

arterial blood 

pressure.
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Autonomic Nervous System Regulation Learning Activity III

firing and frequency of impulse result. In turn, the sympathetic nerves are

activated, thereby causing the heart to contract more rapidly and of blood

vessels to constrict, which will increase arterial blood pressure.

Through this reflex circuit, arterial blood pressure is maintained. It is

crucial to maintain blood pressure within this specified range because the

organ functions of the body depend upon an adequate supply of blood at

a relatively constant pressure.

PROCEDURE This activity requires nine students per group.

1. Students should be arranged in groups of nine to represent the parts of 

the baroreceptor reflex loop according to the diagram in Figure 94.

2. Explain the role of each student so that the students will have a clear 

understanding of their roles before the activity begins (Figure 93).

3. Tell the student playing the arterial pressure (student #1) to squeeze 

the arm of the baroreceptor (student #2) firmly to represent increased 

pressure. In turn, instruct the baroreceptor (student #2) to use a number system to signal increased or decreased pressure to the baroreceptor

afferent (student #3).The number system could be one to signal low 

pressure, two to signal normal pressure and three to signal increased or

high pressure.

Position Role Task

1 Arterial pressure Squeeze the arm of student #2

2 Baroreceptor Assign the numeric value according to pressure to student #3

3 Baroreceptor afferent Relay the numeric value to student #4 or #5

4 Vasomotor center If the number is low (low pressure), student #4 becomes activated

5 Vagal center If the number is high (high pressure), student #5 becomes activated

6 Vagus nerve Receive information from student #5 and tell student #8 (heart) 

to decrease rate of pumping

7 Sympathetic nerves Receive information from student #4 and tell student #8 (heart) 

to increase rate of pumping and tell student #9 (arteries) to 

constrict to increase pressure

8 Heart Tell student #1 what to do

9 Arteries Tell student #1 what to do, then student #1 tell student #2 what 

to do

Figure 93 Chart of students’ positions, roles and tasks representing the baroreceptor reflex loop.
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Autonomic Nervous System Regulation Learning Activity III

Figure 94 Diagram of a baroreceptor reflex loop involved in maintaining proper blood pressure.

4. Direct the baroreceptor (student #2) to report these numbers to the 

two areas of the medulla—the vasomotor center (student #4) and 

vagal center (student #5).

EXPLANATION Note to the teacher: At this point, use procedures 5 through 8 to help the students understand how the baroreceptor reflex loop works.

5. Once the baroreceptor signals high pressure, the vagal center will tell 

the vagus nerve to go into action.

6. The vagus nerve goes to the heart and tells it to stop pumping quite so 

hard and fast.The heart will tell arterial pressure to relax the grip on 

the baroreceptor’s arm to reduce the number reported by the baroreceptor to two, normal pressure.

7. If the baroreceptor signals number one (low pressure), the vasomotor 

center tells the sympathetic nerves to go into action.

8. The sympathetic nerves tell the heart to increase its pumping rate and 

the arteries to constrict. The arteries and the heart tell the arterial 

pressure to increase the grip to two, normal pressure. In this case,

the baroreceptor would signal normal pressure.

Once pressure is back to normal, you can introduce certain things that

would change the pressure. For instance, you could say that a lion was

just spotted and the heart should automatically tell pressure that it

increased its pumping, the vessels should tell pressure that they constricted and the pressure should go to number three (high pressure).

Number correlates to the position (see procedure).
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Autonomic Nervous System Regulation Learning Activity III

Evaluation

REVIEW 1. What two things are primarily responsible for making arterial blood

QUESTIONS pressure increase or decrease?

The rate at which the blood is pumped into the arteries by the heart 

and the resistance to blood flow within the arteries are primarily 

responsible for changes in arterial blood pressure.

2. What areas of the brain are involved with the baroreceptor reflex?

The areas of the brain that are involved in the baroreceptor reflex is the

vasomotor center and vagal center.

3. What part of the loop might microgravity influence through its 

presence during human development?

Any part of the baroreceptor reflex loop could be influenced by lack of

gravity during human development. The baroreceptor nerves were 

studied on Neurolab.

4. Why is blood pressure so important?

An appropriate blood pressure is important to maintain blood flow 

through the blood vessels to the brain and other vital organs.

THINKING Have your students write a brief paragraph and explain why they do 

CRITICALLY not faint when they stand up. You also can have them explain why they

feel light-headed for a few moments when they stand up quickly.
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Sleep 

and Circadian

Rhythms

Lessons and Activities

GRADES 5–12

Section V
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Sleep and Circadian Rhythms Introduction

Sleep and Circadian Rhythms

TOPIC How did the Neurolab astronauts’ sleep patterns change 

in microgravity?

Did these changes affect the astronauts’ reaction times

and/or performances?

INTRODUCTION Human sleep occurs in a daily circadian rhythm.The periods spent between

sleep and wakefulness (or rest and activity) are coordinated with the environmental light/dark cycle. The circadian timing system (CTS) acts as a

master control to ensure that the various physiological “systems” of the

body (including the nervous system, the respiratory system, the cardiovascular system, and others) work together in a synchronized and coordinated

fashion. If the CTS is not working properly, an organism’s health and performance will be negatively affected.

When astronauts fly in space, there is a sunrise and

sunset every 90 minutes (one each orbit). Considering

that the Space Shuttle is flying at 17,000 miles per

hour and that the astronauts need to control the

Shuttle for landing and maintaining orbit, we can

begin to understand why it is important that astronauts remain alert and focused. However, since the

astronauts’ circadian timing systems have no normal

“days” or “nights” (Figure 95), the astronauts’

rhythms must rely on the light schedule of the Space

Shuttle and their internal clocks.

Things To Know

CIRCADIAN 

TIMING SYSTEM The Circadian Timing System (CTS) contains a “clock” located within the

hypothalamus of the brain.This “clock” helps to synchronize bodily functions with the external environment.Through its connections with the

retina of the eye, it receives and monitors information about the external

light/dark cycle. Based on this information, the clock organizes an animal’s physiology, biochemistry, and behavior.The CTS ensures that the

body’s internal environment is appropriate for the tasks that the body has

to perform. By coordinating the body’s internal clock with sunrise and

sunset, the body synchronizes the daily rhythms that help optimize the

body for daily living.

What time is it?

Figure 95 Diagram illustrating an astronaut’s CTS

having no normal “day” or “night” cycle.
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Our circadian clocks tell our bodies when it

is time to go to sleep and when it is time to

wake (Figure 96). For example, in humans,

our body temperatures rise before we awaken, remain high during the day when we

are active, and drop as we sleep at night.

People whose rhythms are not working

properly may fall asleep at the wrong time,

or may not be able to sleep when they

should.This can be dangerous, since certain

activities, such as driving, learning in

school, working, or even playing, require us

to be alert.

The CTS influences sleep and wakefulness

through its connections with various brainstem nuclei. These nuclei use several neurotransmitters to determine the degree or

level of sleep or wakefulness (alertness). This is accomplished through

brainstem projections to the thalamus and cerebral cortex. In turn, the

CTS modulates this neuronal circuitry to appropriately adjust the durations

of sleep and wakefulness, as well as the levels of consciousness during the

24-hour light/dark cycle.

Experiments in which individuals have been deprived of environmental

time clues (for example, the light of day) have shown that the body’s daily

cycles are driven by the CTS clock. For example, the subjects in these

experiments continue to eat and sleep on a daily cycle, but the timing of

that cycle is determined by the internal clock, which is close, but not

equal to, the 24-hour day. Without the CTS or daily light/dark cues, individuals would generally wake up and go to sleep later each day. However,

the length of time spent in sleep and/or wakefulness would remain relatively the same during a typical 24-hour cycle.The importance of proper

CTS function is illustrated by the fact that conditions such as jet-lag, problems resulting from working night shifts, and some sleep and mental disorders are associated with dysfunction of the CTS.

During space missions, astronauts may have disrupted sleep and work

schedules.This can produce physical symptoms, such as fatigue and general feelings of discomfort (malaise).This could affect the ability of crews to

perform their tasks during a mission.The Neurolab Sleep and Circadian

Rhythms Team examined nervous system regulation of sleep and wakefulness during the mission and examined how alterations in sleep patterns

affected astronauts’ abilities to carry out certain tasks in space.

Sleep and Circadian Rhythms Introduction

2400

1800 0600

1200

Dark

Light

Figure 96 Diagram illustrating the 24-hour light/dark cycle.
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Sleep and Circadian Rhythms Introduction

The Neurolab experiments examined the physiology of the Circadian

Timing System (CTS) and homeostatic control (equilibrium in the body

with respect to various functions) of animals exposed to space flight. This

data was compared to those of animals kept in similar environments on

Earth. Some of the animals were exposed to a light-dark cycle and some

were exposed to constant light.The constant light environment did not

provide any time cues to the animals, allowing the scientists to examine

the innate characteristics of these animals’ CTS clocks.

SLEEP AND

RESPIRATION Scientists also believed that astronauts’ sleep patterns and quality of sleep

would be affected by other factors as well. For example, they hypothesized that, during sleep, the relationship between respiration and heart

rate would change in microgravity.They also believed that, during sleep,

there would be less oxygen in the arterial blood.Therefore, the astronauts

would awaken more easily.The scientists also tested the hypothesis that,

when the astronauts were awake, breathing responses to carbon dioxide

and low oxygen (hypoxia) levels were increased in microgravity.They

believed this would also disrupt sleep.The scientists expected to find that

in microgravity, the chest and abdomen do not move in synchrony during

sleep, thereby adding to sleep disruption.
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Sleep and Circadian Rhythms Learning Activity I

LEARNING ACTIVITY I:

The Geophysical Light/Dark Cycle

OVERVIEW Students will discover how the light/dark

cycle is dictated by the rotation of Earth. In

addition, they will examine the annual

changes in the duration of light each day as

the planet orbits the sun.

SCIENCE & Observing, communicating, modeling,

MATHEMATICS drawing conclusions

SKILLS

PREPARATION None needed

TIME

CLASS TIME 50 minutes

MATERIALS • Globe

• Flashlight

• Pencil

BACKGROUND Astronauts do not experience the 24 hour light/dark cycle that is normal

for Earth. Instead, while they are orbiting the planet, they experience 

sunrise and sunset every 90 minutes.Thus, their Circadian Timing Systems

(CTS) cannot use external light cues to reset their internal clocks. In 

general, body functions that occur rhythmically every 24 hours are 

called circadian rhythms.The body’s primary biological clock is the

suprachiasmatic nucleus located in the hypothalamus. It regulates 

many of the body’s internal, or endogenous (produced within the 

organism), rhythms.

The external light/dark cycle, in other words, the hours of daylight 

(diurnal cycle) and hours of darkness (nocturnal cycle), is particularly

important in maintaining regularity of the CTS.The sleep/wake cycle is

particularly susceptible to becoming disrupted by changes in external

light-dark cues.The sleep/wake cycle is one of the endogenous rhythms

of the body.

MAJOR 

CONCEPTS

• The light/dark cycle

is accelerated for

astronauts orbiting

Earth.

• Changes in the

light/dark cycle may

lead to disruptions

of sleep and other

bodily cycles.
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Sleep and Circadian Rhythms Learning Activity I

The CTS maintains coordination of the organism by monitoring the 

environment and resetting an internal clock to match the external environment. Disruptions in this process can affect alertness and performance.

When astronauts fly in space, their CTSs have nothing (no normal “days”

or “nights”) by which to set themselves.Thus, the astronauts’ rhythms

must rely on the light schedule of the Space Shuttle and their internal

clocks, which may also be altered by the absence of the force of gravity

during space flight.This activity will help students understand the changes

that occur in the light/dark cycle experienced by astronauts while they

orbit Earth.

PROCEDURE 1. Have students mount a flashlight (Figure 97) so that it is stationary 

and directed at a globe.

2. Instruct students to rotate the globe slowly from west to east (or left 

to right) to mimic the daily rotation of Earth.

3. Direct students to change the angle of the tilt of

Earth as it faces the sun.The students should

observe how the tilt of Earth’s axis alters where

the sun shines upon the surface. Have them

identify when a particular part of Earth is experiencing “day” and when it is experiencing

“night.”

4. Help students visualize the accelerated

light/dark cycle that occurs during orbit by

having one student rotate a pencil or other

object around the globe as it continues to spin

on its axis.

5. Discuss the implications of changes in the light/dark cycle for 

astronauts aboard an orbiting space craft.

Evaluation

REVIEW 

QUESTIONS 1. What causes light/dark cycles on Earth?

The sun and the rotation of Earth.

2. How do these cycles change for astronauts aboard a spacecraft in 

orbit?

The Shuttle orbits once every 90 minutes, which provides a “sunrise”

and “sunset” every 90 minutes. (Of course, if the astronauts are not 

near a window, this is not seen.)

Figure 97 Diagram of the geographical light/dark cycle.
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Sleep and Circadian Rhythms Learning Activity I

THINKING 

CRITICALLY 1. Ask students what happens if the Circadian Timing System is not

working properly.

The sleep/wake cycle will be interrupted and other functions in the 

body will no longer be properly coordinated.

2. Ask students to think about what might happen to people whose

rhythms are not working properly? 

How might these problems affect certain types of jobs here on Earth?

They might become sleepy at inappropriate times (e.g., on the job);

excessive tiredness; decrease in motor performance (e.g., driving,

riding a bike, catching a ball), etc.

SKILL BUILDING 1. Have students construct a list of

types of jobs that might cause

problems with the Circadian

Timing System, or that might

work against the body’s natural

sleep/wake cycles.

2. Have students use the Internet or

library resources to learn about

recently discovered ways to reset

the body’s internal clock to

reduce or eliminate jet lag. How

is this related to problems experienced by astronauts? Figure 98 Diagram of students constructing job lists.
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Sleep and Circadian Rhythms Learning Activity II

LEARNING ACTIVITY II:

How Quick Are Your Responses?

OVERVIEW In this activity, students will learn what reaction

time is and how it is measured.

SCIENCE & Observing, collecting and recording 

MATHEMATICS quantitative data, calculating averages,

SKILLS drawing conclusions

PREPARATION 10 minutes

TIME

CLASS TIME 50 minutes for each of two parts

MATERIALS Each group of students will need:

• Ruler

• Scissors

• Pen or pencil

• Meter stick

• Note pad

BACKGROUND When the sleep/wake cycle is disrupted, people can become fatigued and

may not perform as well as they usually do in a variety of situations.This

activity will allow students to learn about reaction time (the time interval

between the presentation of a stimulus and the body’s voluntary reaction to

that stimulus) and how reaction time might be affected by lack of sleep.

A Reaction Time Test will be used as a means of determining the time it

takes to react or respond to a given/presented stimulus. Usually, such tests

are performed multiple times to account for the normal range of variation

in measurements. In Neurolab, a computerized test determined astronauts’ reaction times accurately.The corresponding test to be used on

Earth depends on gravity and will not work in the weightless environment of space.

Reaction times can vary even for the same individual, because when subjects are tired, reaction times can be longer.This lesson focuses on the

normal range of reaction time, how it is measured, and how it varies with

alertness level.

MAJOR 

CONCEPTS

• Reaction time can

vary even for the

same individual.

• When subjects are

tired, reaction time

can be slower.
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Sleep and Circadian Rhythms Learning Activity II

PROCEDURE Part One: Learning to Measure Reaction Times

Have students work in pairs to do the following activity:

1. Before beginning, have each student assess, on a scale of one 

to ten, how sleepy they are—with “1” being not at all sleepy,

“5” being somewhat sleepy and “10” being ready to fall 

asleep instantly.

2. Within each team, have one student hold a ruler with centimeters (between the thumb and forefinger) vertically at the 

30 cm mark with the 0 mark toward the floor (Figure 99).

3. Instruct the student’s partner to position his/her forefinger 

and thumb at the 0 cm end of the ruler without touching it,

so that he/she will be able to grab the ruler easily by closing 

his/her finger and thumb together (Figure 99).

4. Tell the partner to observe the ruler carefully and then have 

the first student release the ruler.

5. Direct the partner to close his/her thumb onto the ruler to stop it as

soon as the ruler moves.

6. Have the student mark the place where the partner’s fingers were when

he/she stopped the ruler.The student should discard the first result if 

the ruler moved less than five centimeters.

7. Have the students repeat the release/catch process 20 times and record 

and average the results on a chart (Figure 100).

8. Have the students change places so that all will have an opportunity 

to do this activity.

9. As a class, plot the average values of each student’s reaction times as a 

histogram, as shown in Figure 101. Have students think about what 

really is being measured in the activity, and how distance in centimeters reflects reaction times.

10. Have students calculate the average value of their reaction times and the 

average value of their sleepiness scores.To do so, add the values together 

and divide the sum by the number of values.

11. Ask the students to identify the normal range of reaction times in their 

class population. Example: If sleepiness score is a “3” and the average 

reaction time is ___, add 3 + ___ and divide the sum by ___ (number

28

27

26

25

24

23

Figure 99 Diagram of the 

forefinger and thumb position.

Figure 100 Example of chart 

for recording reaction times.

Release # Result

Reaction

Times

Average

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20
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Sleep and Circadian Rhythms Learning Activity II

of values.) Discuss reaction time variance and alertness level. Ask the students about the times when distances less than 5 cm occurred during the

trials. Why was it important to discard these results?

Part Two:The Effects of Being Tired 

on Reaction Times

This exercise is designed to test the students’ reaction times after they 

are feeling tired. Have students follow the steps below in order to 

obtain accurate results.

1. Have each student take a ruler home.

2. Inform students that they will need to ask someone at home to help

them with this activity, and suggest that the students perform this

activity on a Friday or Saturday night so as not to disrupt their weekly

routines.

3. Have students ask their parent(s)/guardian(s) for permission to stay up

one or two hours beyond their normal bed time. (Remind the students

that their partners also will have to stay up.)

4. Instruct students to perform 20 trials of reaction times tests before they

go to bed. Inform them that they must be feeling tired and ready to go

to bed before doing this exercise. (Ask students to evaluate how sleepy

they feel using the same scale as in the previous activity.)

Figure 101 Example of histogram of the values of students’ reaction times.

30

28

26

24

22

20

18

16

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
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Sleep and Circadian Rhythms Learning Activity II

5. Direct the students to repeat the activity after they have each had a

good night’s sleep. (Again, ask them to evaluate how sleepy they feel

using the same scale as in the previous activity.)

6. Have students calculate their average reaction times during each trial

(night and morning).

7. Compile another set of class averages and a histogram (Figure 101) as

before. Have students discuss the results. Have them think about and

discuss the physical and mental symptoms of being tired and how

these might have affected their reaction times.

Evaluation

Students should now have some understanding of how lack of sleep or

fatigue can influence their abilities to respond quickly.

REVIEW 

QUESTIONS 1. What happens to reaction time when one is sleepy or tired?

Reaction time is slower.

2. What are physical signs of being tired? 

What are mental signs of being tired?

One physical sign of being tired is inaccurate motor coordination.

A mental sign of being tired is lack of concentration.

THINKING 

CRITICALLY 1. Ask the students whether or not the sleepiness scores were greater just 

before going to bed or in the morning.

2. Ask the students whether or not reaction times were longer in their 

tests performed just before going to sleep or in their tests done in the 

morning at school.

3. Discuss with the students what would happen if one was not allowed

to sleep for the whole night, and then performed the reaction time 

test. (Make sure students understand they should NOT do this!)

The reaction time would become slower if there were no sleep during 

the whole night.

SKILL BUILDING 1. Have students conduct a survey of family and friends by asking them

to report their sleepiness scores throughout a 24-hour cycle. Are any

general trends obvious among all persons surveyed. When are most 

people alert? When are most people sleepy? How could this 

information be used to design job or school schedules?
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Sleep and Circadian Rhythms Learning Activity III

LEARNING ACTIVITY III:

Measuring Your Breathing Frequency at Rest

OVERVIEW Students will learn to measure their resting

breathing rates.

SCIENCE & Observing, collecting and recording quantitaMATHEMATICS tive data, charting data, drawing conclusions

SKILLS

PREPARATION None needed

TIME

CLASS TIME 50 minutes

MATERIALS Each team of students will need:

• Watch or access to a clock with a second 

hand

• Chair

• Pen or pencil

• Note pad

BACKGROUND Breathing involves the movement of air in and out of the lungs.This facilitates the exchange of O2 (oxygen) and CO2 (carbon dioxide) between the

blood and the external environment, a process known as respiration. The

levels of O2 and CO2 are tightly regulated and help to determine the rate of

breathing frequency. Changes in the control of breathing can lead to altered

levels of O2 and CO2 in the blood. During space flight, the respiratory patterns and motions of the chest and abdominal wall are altered. Neurolab

scientists used an array of measurements to correlate the changes in respiratory patterns and oxygen levels in the blood that occur during sleep and

with sleep disturbances.

The number of breaths taken per minute is referred to as breathing frequency or respiratory rate. In a resting person, the average is around 15 breaths

per minute, although there are large variations from person to person.

Breathing frequency is usually altered while exercising or doing other activities in order to provide the body’s cells and tissues with a continuous and

adequate oxygen supply. The name given to the amount of air that is

inhaled or exhaled in a single normal breath is “tidal volume,” because

breathing occurs cyclically—“in” then “out,” “in” then “out”—rather like

the tides in the ocean.

MAJOR 

CONCEPTS

• Breathing rate is

controlled by the

interaction of special pacemaker

cells in the brain.

• Breathing frequencies are different

for each person.
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Sleep and Circadian Rhythms Learning Activity III

Special receptor cells (ventilatory chemoreceptors) near major blood vessels and on the ventral surface of the brainstem (medulla oblongata) are

designed to detect levels of oxygen or carbon dioxide in the blood (often

referred to as “blood gases”) and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), respectively.

These receptors utilize neuronal pathways to send messages to other centers in the brain which adjust ventilation according to the levels of blood

gases detected. Scientists now believe that the microgravity environment

in space affects the regulation of ventilation and that this may also affect

sleep cycles in space.

Oxygen is essential for many processes within the body, especially cellular

respiration. The air we breathe contains about 21% oxygen and 0.05%

carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is produced as waste during cellular respiration and must be released out of the body through the lungs. Exhaled

gas normally contains about 5% carbon dioxide. Both oxygen and carbon

dioxide combine with components of the blood in reversible biochemical

reactions.

Aortic Arch

H2

O2

CO2

Respiratory Control Centers

Stretch Receptors

(in lung)

Rib Cage

Diaphragm

Medullary Rhythmicity

Area (MRA) and

Pre-Bottzinger Complex

(located beneath the

nucleus ambiguus)

Pons

Medulla

Figure 102 Diagram of the centers in the brain.
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Sleep and Circadian Rhythms Learning Activity III

Centers in the brain (Figure 102) control breathing rate. Although there

are several respiratory control regions in the nervous system, two main

sites are primarily responsible for regulating breathing and the supply of

oxygen to the lungs as well as the rest of the body. One site is the ventral

surface of the medulla in the brainstem.This site detects only pH or carbon dioxide levels in the blood.The other main site is the carotid bodies,

found in the neck.These sites are sensitive to carbon dioxide, oxygen and

pH, although their principle purpose is to detect low blood oxygen levels.

These receptors are known as chemoreceptors because they sense and

respond to specific dissolved chemicals in plasma.These ventilatory chemoreceptors send signals to the nervous system whenever blood gases deviate from the desired set point (e.g., low oxygen or high carbon dioxide).

PROCEDURE 1. Have students work in pairs. Direct one student of each pair to sit 

quietly with his/her eyes closed.

2. Instruct the partner to observe the student’s breathing carefully by 

watching the rise and fall of the chest, counting the number of 

complete breaths that the student makes over the course of one 

minute using the watch or clock. Have the partner record the number 

of breaths per minute.

3. Direct the students to change places 

with their partners, so all students 

can find their breathing rate at rest.

4. Have the class plot the values of 

breathing frequencies as a line chart.

It should look something like the diagram in Figure 103. Have the students 

calculate the mean (average) value or 

breathing frequency for the entire class.

5. To calculate a mean value, add the values together and divide the sum by

the number of values.

6. Discuss the results with the class. Have 

students identify the range of breathing frequencies in the class.

Figure 103 Example of a line chart used to plot 

values of students’ breathing frequencies.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

30

28

26

24

22

20

18

16

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

0
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Sleep and Circadian Rhythms Learning Activity III

Evaluation

REVIEW

QUESTIONS 1. What is breathing rate?

Number of breaths per minute.

2. What regulates breathing rate?

A large number of things contribute—the blood levels of CO2, O2,

limb motion, e.g., running. The main influence is blood CO2.

THINKING 

CRITICALLY 1. Is the class mean (average) resting breathing rate close to 15 breaths 

per minute? Why do most people have similar resting breathing rates?

2. The results farthest from the mean should be considered. Is this 

normal? (The answer is probably “yes,” because there is some range in

breathing frequencies in any given population.)

SKILL BUILDING 1. Survey the class about exercise habits and physical activities. Are

students able to detect any relationship between physical activity and

resting breathing rate?

2. Have students use resources on the Internet and in the library to

investigate the effects of certain respiratory disorders on breathing rate

and ventilation in general.
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Sleep and Circadian Rhythms Learning Activity IV

LEARNING ACTIVITY IV:

How Long Can You Hold Your Breath?

OVERVIEW Students will learn how reduced carbon 

dioxide levels in the blood lower the need to

breathe by comparing breathing rates before

and after hyperventilation.

SCIENCE & Observing, collecting and recording 

MATHEMATICS quantitative data, drawing conclusions

SKILLS

PREPARATION None needed

TIME

CLASS TIME 50 minutes

MATERIALS Each team of students will need:

• Pen or pencil

• Watch or access to a clock with second hand

• Chair

• Note pad

BACKGROUND Carbon dioxide, produced from cellular respiration, is carried in the blood in three main forms:

1. dissolved as CO2 (5%)

2. bicarbonate ions (HCO3) (75%)

3. bound to hemoglobin and other blood proteins 

(Carbamino compounds) (20%)

Carbon dioxide levels are monitored by cells on the ventral medulla in the

brainstem and by the carotid bodies in the neck, which respond to

changes in CO2 levels and pH levels. Unlike the brainstem, the carotid

bodies also respond to plasma O2 levels.

A raising of the arterial blood carbon dioxide levels above normal is called

hypercapnia. Hypercapnia can result from insufficient ventilation to clear

carbon dioxide from the lungs.This might occur with a lung disease that

impairs carbon dioxide removal from the blood, even when ventilation is

adequate. In general, increases in blood carbon dioxide levels lead to

MAJOR 

CONCEPTS

• The brain acts as a

central collection

agent of information about breathing

from carbon dioxide

sensors, the oxygen

sensor, mechanical

sensors of breathing

movements, and the

cerebral cortex.

• Amounts of carbon

dioxide in the blood

affect breathing.
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Sleep and Circadian Rhythms Learning Activity IV

increases in ventilation. Conversely, hyperventilation (rapid shallow

breathing) may drastically lower carbon dioxide levels in blood and will

trigger a slowdown in ventilation.

Oxygen levels also affect ventilation. Hypoxia results from insufficient

fresh air reaching the lungs, the blood, and tissues.

The Neurolab team investigated the changes that space conditions cause in

ventilation and the regulation of blood gases. Under microgravity conditions, changes in cerebral blood flow may affect the chemoreceptors in the

brain. Sleep may be affected because ventilation, or lack of ventilation, is a

powerful wakening stimulus. If there are alterations in the control of ventilation in weightlessness, then these may contribute significantly to the

poor quality of sleep that Shuttle crews sometime experience.

PROCEDURE Note to teacher: encourage the students not to cheat by changing their normal breathing patterns before starting this activity. Students with respiratory ailments, such as asthma or allergies, should not participate in the breath-holding part of this activity.

1. Have students conduct this activity in pairs: one student will be the 

“subject,” and the other will be the “observer.” Make sure that the

observer has a pen and a watch with a second hand.

2. Have the subject student sit quietly (no talking or moving) in a chair.

3. Instruct each subject to inhale normally, then tell

him/her to stop breathing and signal the observing student by raising his/her finger.

The observer should note the starting time.

4. Each subject should hold his or her breath as

long as he/she possibly can (Figure 104).Tell

each student to force himself or herself to continue holding his/her breath even if he/she feels

like he/she has to breathe.

5. Instruct each observer to record how long

his/her subjects held their breaths.

6. Ask the subject to take a short rest, then to breathe

rapidly and deeply for 30 seconds (this is called

hyperventilation). Immediately after hyperventilating and at the end of an expiration (outward

breath), have each subject hold his/her breath,

and signal the observing student as before.

Figure 104 Diagram of student recording how

long student can hold her breath.
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Sleep and Circadian Rhythms Learning Activity IV

7. Again, instruct the subject to hold his/her breath as long as possible.

8. Have the observer record how long the subject held his/her breath.

9. Have the students switch roles, so that each student has an 

opportunity to do the activity.

10. Have the members of the class compare the breath-holding times 

with and without prior hyperventilation.

11. Check to see if there is any difference. Hyperventilation reduces the 

level of carbon dioxide in the lungs by blowing it off. The resultant

reduction in blood carbon dioxide lowers the need to breathe.

12. Ask your students if, at the point they thought they really had to

breathe, they could talk themselves out of it, even if only for a few

seconds. (There is a strong voluntary component to ventilation.)

13. Have your students compare the individual results of breathing

frequency from Activity One and breath-holding time for this activity.

Is there a correlation? Although it may be hard to see, in general,

people with a lower response to inhaled carbon dioxide can hold 

their breath for a longer period of time than those with a higher 

response.

14. Ask the students to describe what finally forced them to breathe. (The

answer is, their brain.) The brain acts as a central collection agent of 

information from a lot of places—carbon dioxide sensors, the oxygen

sensor, mechanical receptors that sense the absence of breathing 

movements, and the cerebral cortex.The complex interaction of all 

these inputs will finally make the students react by breathing.

Evaluation

REVIEW 

QUESTIONS 1. What limits how long one can hold 

his/her breath?

Many things—CO2, O2, pulmonary 

stretch receptors, voluntary control.

CO2 is the most important in normal 

people.

2. Where are carbon dioxide levels 

detected in the body?

They are located on the ventral surface of 

the medulla—the base of the brain 

(Figure 105).

Figure 105 Diagram of the

location of the medulla.

Medulla
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Sleep and Circadian Rhythms Learning Activity IV

3. How can levels of carbon dioxide in the body be changed by 

breathing patterns?

If you breathe less, CO2 increases, if you breathe more, CO2 decreases.

Exercise produces more CO2, which means we must breathe more to 

eliminate it.

THINKING 1. What factors, other than high carbon dioxide, might cause

CRITICALLY breathlessness?

Low levels of oxygen, or hypoxia. If you have skied at high altitudes,

you may have experienced this.The factors that contribute to increased 

breathing during exercise are many, complex, and still not completely 

understood. Nevertheless, we have all experienced the sensation of 

being short of breath and of breathing more when we exercise.

2. Why might the control of ventilation change in weightlessness?

The major reasons are: (1) changes in cerebral blood flow alters the 

central CO2 response; and (2) changes in carotid chemoreceptor 

responses in the neck that senses O2. (Evidence suggests reason #2 

may be more important in weightlessness.)

3. What effect might the change in the control of ventilation have on

sleep in weightlessness?

It may alter the “sleep architecture,” which will increase arousals 

(awakenings) and reduce the quality of sleep.

SKILL BUILDING 1. What represents the fizz in

bottled or canned soda (Figure

106)? Why can’t we see the bubbles unless the bottle or can is

opened? 

CO2. Under pressure, the CO2

remains dissolved in the soda liquid. The reduction in pressure

brings it out of the solution.

Use resources on the Internet or

in the library to learn more about

the relationship between pressure

and dissolved gases.

Figure 106 Diagram of carbonated soft drinks.
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Sleep and Circadian Rhythms Learning Activity V

LEARNING ACTIVITY V:

Raising the Level of Carbon Dioxide in Your Blood

OVERVIEW In this activity, students will learn about the

effects of increased carbon dioxide in the

bloodstream.

SCIENCE & Observing, collecting and recording

MATHEMATICS quantitative data, drawing conclusions

SKILLS

PREPARATION None needed

TIME

CLASS TIME 50 minutes

MATERIALS Each team of students will need:

• Large paper bag

• Pen or pencil

• Watch or access to a clock with a

second hand

• Note pad

• Chair

BACKGROUND When carbon dioxide levels increase in arterial blood, receptors in the medulla within

the brainstem trigger an increase in breathing frequency. In this activity, blood carbon

dioxide levels are increased by having students cover their mouths and noses with a

paper bag as they breathe. Within the bag

carbon dioxide levels will increase because

of the higher concentration of carbon dioxide in exhaled air. Because the

carbon-dioxide rich air is “rebreathed,” it leads to increases in the carbon

dioxide in arterial blood or hypercapnia.

PROCEDURE 1. Have students work in pairs to conduct this activity.

Note to teacher:Some students may find this exercise uncomfortable. Students with respiratory ailments should not participate as subjects).As in previous activity, one student 

within each pair should be the “subject,” and the other should be the “observer.”

MAJOR 

CONCEPTS

• Breathing can be

involuntarily modified by raising the

level of carbon dioxide in the blood.

• Increasing the CO2 in

the blood will stimulate ventilation.

• Unlike some other

rhythms in the body,

breathing can readily

be modified by will.

One can, given some

thought, breathe

more slowly and with

larger breaths. If a

person is distracted,

however, breathing

will return to his/her

personal “normal”

frequency.
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Sleep and Circadian Rhythms Learning Activity V

2. Within each team, have the student “subject” sit quietly (no talking or 

moving). Have the observing student count the number of breaths

taken by the subject over each 15-second segment of a two minute 

total time period and record the results.

3. After two minutes, have each subject place a paper bag over his/her

nose and mouth, and continue to breathe in and out, as in the diagram

in Figure 107.

4. Tell the subject to try to keep a good seal 

against the face and nose to ensure that only air 

from within the bag is breathed. Encourage the 

subject to relax as much as possible and 

breathe normally.

5. Direct each observing student to watch the bag 

and write down the number of breaths taken by 

the subject every 15 seconds.The observing student should record the number of breaths for 

two minutes or until the subject removes the 

bag (if students feel faint they should remove 

the bag and breathe normally).

6. After the subject removes the bag, have the observing student ask the 

subject to rate how breathless he/she feels on a scale of one to ten.

(One is “not breathless at all,” five is “moderately breathless” and ten is

“as short of breath as one could possibly be.”) The observing student

should record this data.

7. Have the students exchange places and repeat the activity.

Evaluation

REVIEW 

QUESTIONS 1. What type of breathing response occurs when blood levels of carbon

dioxide occur?

Breathing frequency and tidal volume (size of breaths) increase and 

total ventilation increases.

2. Where are the changes in arterial blood concentrations of carbon

dioxide detected?

On the ventral surface of the medulla in the base of the brain.This is 

termed a “central” response.

Figure 107 Diagram of student breathing in and out of paper bag.
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Sleep and Circadian Rhythms Learning Activity V

THINKING 1. Why did breathing frequency increase when the mouth and nose

CRITICALLY were covered with the paper bag? 

As carbon dioxide began to build up in the bag, this “re-breathing 

experiment” served to increase the carbon dioxide in the arterial 

blood.This condition of hypercapnia stimulates the central ventilatory 

chemoreceptor in the ventral medulla, causing an increased breathing 

frequency.

2. What happened to the tidal volume over the course of the rebreathing experiment?

An increase in both breathing frequency and tidal volume results in a 

large increase in total ventilation.

3. What might happen to a person if the levels of arterial carbon 

dioxide increased while they were sleeping?

Breathing might increase and they could be awaken.

SKILL BUILDING 1. Have students pool their observations and create a class chart of

breathing rates.
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Section VI

Appendices

Glossary

NASA Resources for Educators

Teacher Reply Card

GRADES 5–12
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Appendices Glossary

Glossary

Acetylcholine–The neurotransmitter at motor neuron synapses, in autonomic ganglia and a variety of central synapses; which causes cardiac inhibition, vasodilation, gastrointestinal peristalsis,

and other parasympathetic effects.

Afferent–Inflowing; conducting towards a center, denoting certain arteries and veins.

Alpha Receptors–A type of receptor for the neurotransmitter, norepinephrine.

Ampula–A saccular dilation of a canal or duct.

Aorta–Large artery that carries blood from the heart to be distributed by branch arteries throughout the body.

Aortic–Relating to the aorta on the aortic orifice of the left ventricle of the heart.

Aperture–An inlet or entrance.

Artery–A relatively thick walled, muscular, pulsating blood vessel conveying blood in a direction

away from the heart.

Atrium–A chamber or cavity to which are connected several chambers or passageways. Usually

used to describe a chamber of the heart that receives blood from the veins.

Autonomic–Acting independently of volition; relating to the autonomic nervous system.

Axons–Tail-like branch of a neuron that carries the action potential from the nerve cell body to a

target.

Axonal–Pertaining to an axon.

Baroreceptor–Any sensor of pressure changes. For regulation of blood pressure, important

baroreceptors are located in the aorta and arotid arteries.

Beta Receptors–A type of receptor for the neurotransmitter, norepinephrine.

Brainstem–The entire unpaired subdivision of the brain, composed of the thombencephalon,

mesencephalon, and diecephalon as distinguished from the brain’s only paired subdivision the

telecephalon.

Bifurcation–A forking; a division into two branches.
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Appendices Glossary

Cupula–A delicate membrane within the semicircular canals that contains fluid and receptor 

hair cells.

Carotid Artery–Either of the two main arteries that supply blood to the head.

Catecholamine–Refers to several neurotransmitters, such as epinephrine, norepinephrine and

serotonin.

Caudal–Pertaining to the tail.

Cerebellum–Prominent hindbrain structure concerned with motor coordinator, posture, and balance. Composed of a three-layered cortex and deep nuclei.

Cholinergic–Refers to synaptic transmission mediated by the release of acetocholine.

Chordamesoderm–That part of the protoderm of a young embryo which has the 

potentiality of forming notochord and mesoderm.

Coagulate–To convert a fluid or a substance in solution into a solid or gel.

Coriolis Effect–Occurs when the head is in motion and constantly changing direction.

Cortex–The outer portion of an organ, such as the brain.

Corticospinal–Of or relating to the cerebral cortex and spinal cord; the corticospinal fibers are

columns of motor fibers that run on either side of the spinal cord and are continuations of the

pyramids of the medulla oblongata.

Cytokinesis–Changes occurring in the protoplasm of the cell outside the nucleus during cell

division (mitosis).

Cytology–The study of anatomy, physiology, pathology, and chemistry of the cell.

Dendrite–One of the two types of branching protoplasmic processes of the nerve cells (the other

is the axon).

Diencephalon–That part of the prosencephalon composed of the epithalamus, dorsal thalamus,

subthalamus, and hypothalamus.

Distal–Far from the point of attachment of origin. Situated away from the center of the body.

Distend–To enlarge from internal pressure.

Dorsal–Pertaining to the back.
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Appendices Glossary

Dorsal Thalamas–The large part of the diencephalon located dorsal to the hypothalamus and

excluding the subthalamus and the medial and lateral geniculate bodies.

Ectodermal Cells–The outer layer of cells in the embryo.

Efferent–Conducting (fluid or a nerve impulse) outward from a given organ or part thereof.

Electrocardiogram–Graphic record of the heart’s integrated action currents obtained with the

electrocardiograph.

Embryo–An organism in the early stages of development.

Embryonic–Of, pertaining to, or in the condition of an embryo.

Epi–Upon, following, or subsequent to.

Epinephrine–A catecholamine that is the chief neurohormone of the adrenal 

medulla.

Epithalamus–A small dorsomedial area of the thalamus corresponding to the hadenula and its

associated structures.

Escher, M.C. (June 17, 1898 – March 27, 1972)–Native graphic artist of The Netherlands who

designed the Escher Staircase.

Exteroceptors–One of the peripheral end organs of the afferent nerves in the skin or mucous

membrane, which respond to stimulation by external agents.

Extracellular–Outside the cells.

Fascicle–A band or bundle of fibers, usually of muscles or nerve fibers.

Fiber–A strand of nerve tissue, especially axons or dendrites.

Folia–Plural of folium; a broad, thin, leaflike structure.

Frontal Lobe–The portion of each cerebral hemisphere, anterior to the central sulcus.

Gametocytes–A cell capable of dividing to produce gametes.

Gametes–One of two haploid cells undergoing karyogamy.

Ganglion–An aggregation of nerve cell bodies located in the peripheral nervous 

system.
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Appendices Glossary

Glossopharyngeal–Relating to the tongue and the pharynx.

Gradients–Change of temperature, pressure or other variable as a function of distance, time, etc.

Gyric–Plural of gyrus; one of the prominent rounded elevations that form the cerebral hemispheres.

Hippocampus–The complex internally convoluted structure that forms the medial margin (hem)

of the cortical mantle of the cerebral hemisphere.

Hypertension–High blood pressure.

Hypo–Prefix denoting deficient, below normal.

Hypothalamus–The ventral and medial region of the diencephalon forming the walls of the ventral half of the third ventricle.

Inertial–The tendency of a physical body to oppose any force tending to move it from a position

of rest or to change its uniform motion.

Inhibition–Depression or arrest of a function.

Innervation–The supply of nerve fibers functionally connected with a part.

Karyogamy–Fusion of the nuclei of two cells, as occurs in fertilization or true conjugation.

Lateral–On the side farther from the median.

Lumen–Space in the interior of a tubular structure, such as an artery of the intestine.

Medulla–The caudal (hind) portion of the brainstem.

Medial–Relating to the middle or center.

Meiosis–A special process of cell division comprising two nuclear divisions in rapid succession

that result in four gametocytes, each containing half the number of chromosomes found in

somatic cells.

Meninges–One of the membranous coverings of the brain and spinal cord.

Mesencephalon–That part of the brain stem developing from the middle of the three primary

cerebral vesicles of the embryo.

Metencephalon–The anterior of the two major subdivisions of the rhombencephalon.
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Appendices Glossary

Microtubule–Any of the minute cylindrical structures in cells distributed in the protoplasm and

made up of protein subunits.

Migration–Passing from one part to another.

Mitosis–Cell division that results in nuclei having the same number of chromosomes as the parent nucleus; the usual process of cell division with non-reproductive tissues.

Mitotic–Relating to or marked by mitosis.

Mitral–Relating to the mitral or bicuspid valve of the heart.

Myelencephalon–The brain.

Myelinated–Refers to an axon that is ensheathed in the fatty, insulating substance, myelin.

Neonatal–Relating to the period immediately succeeding birth and continuing through the first

28 days of life.

Nerves–A whitish cordlike structure composed on one or more bundles of myelinated or

unmyelinated nerve fibers, or more often mixtures of both, coursing outside of the central nervous system, together with connective tissue within the fascicle and around the neurolemma of

individual nerve fibers.

Neural–Relating to any structure composed of nerve cells or their processes, or that on further

development will evolve into nerve cells.

Neurolemma–A cell that enfolds one or more axons of the peripheral nervous system.

Neurons–Nervous system cell consisting of the nerve cell body, dendrites and axon.

Neurotransmitter–Any specific chemical agent released by a presynaptic cell, upon excitation,

that crosses the synapse (gap between cells) to stimulate or inhibit the postsynaptic cell.

Neurula–Stage in embryonic development after the gastrula state, in which the prominent

processes are the formation of the neural plate and the plate’s closure to form the neural tube.

Neurulation–Processes involved in the formation of the neurula stage.

Norepinephrine–A neurotransmitter found in the brain and sympathetic nervous system.

Nucleus–In cytology, typically a rounded or oval mass of protoplasm within the cytoplasm of a

plant or animal cell, in which the chromosomes are located.
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Appendices Glossary

Occipital Lobe–The posterior, somewhat pyramid-shaped, part of each cerebral hemisphere.

Olfactory–Relating to the sense of smell.

Optics–The science concerned with the properties of light, its refraction and absorption, and the

refracting media of the eye in that relation.

Organs–Any part of the body exercising a specific function as of respiration, secretion, digestion.

Organogenesis–Formation of organs during development.

Otolith–Crystalline particles of calcium carbonated and a protein adhering to the gelatinous

membrane of the maculae of the utricle and saccule.

Oxygenation–Addition of oxygen to any chemical or physical system.

Palpating–Examination with the hands, for example, when feeling the heart or pulse beat.

Parasympathetic–Pertaining to the division of the autonomic nervous system that organizes the

body’s responses that save energy and balance the body’s various systems.

Parietal–Relating to the wall of any cavity.

Peripheral–Relating to or situated at the periphery (or edge) of something or extremeties; the

outer part or surface.

Periphery–The part of a body away from the center.

Peristalsis–The movement of the intestine or other tubular structure, caused by successive waves

of involuntary muscular contractions.

Pharynx–The upper expanded portion of the digestive tube, between the esophagus below and

the mouth and nasal cavities above and in front.

Pitch–An up and down movement.

Plasma–The fluid portion of the circulating blood.

Postnatal–Occurring after birth.

Postganglionic–Relating to or being an axon originating from a cell body within an autonomic

ganglion.

Postsynaptic–Pertaining to the area of the distal side of a synaptic cleft.
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Appendices Glossary

Presynaptic Cell–Pertaining to the area on the proximal side of a synaptic cleft.

Preganglionic–Situated proximal to or preceding a ganglion, referring specifically to the preganglionic motor neurons of the autonomic nervous system (located in the spinal cord and brainstem).

Proliferation–Growth and reproduction of similar cells.

Prophase–The first stage of mitosis or meiosis, consisting of linear contraction and increase in

thickness of the chromosomes.

Proprioception–The sense or perception, usually at a subconscious level, of the movements and

positions of the body and especially its limbs, independent of vision.

Prosencephalon–The anterior primitive cerebral vesicle and the most rostral of the three primary

brain vesicles of the embryonic neural tube.

Pulmonary–Relating to the lungs, to the pulmonary artery, or to the aperture leading from the

right ventricle of the heart into the pulmonary artery.

Proximal–Nearest the trunk or the point of origin said of part of a limb, or an artery or a nerve.

Pyro–Prefix referring to fire, heat or fever.

Radius–The lateral and shorter of the two bones of the forearm.

Receptor–A structural protein molecule on the cell surface or within the cytoplasm

that binds to a specific factor, such as a hormone, antigen, or neurotransmitter.

Replicate–One of several identical processes or observations; to repeat.

Rhombencephalon–That part of the developing brain that is the most caudal (towards the tail)

of the three primary vesicles of the embryonic neural tube.

Roll–To cause to revolve by turning over and over on or as if on an axis.

Rostral–Towards the front or head.

Somatic–Relating to the soma or trunk, the wall of the body cavity, or the body in general.

Saccule–One of the otolith organs of the vestibular system.

Spatial–Relating to space or position in three dimensions.

Sternum–A long, flat bone, articulating with the cartilages of the first seven ribs and with the

clavicle, that forms the middle part of the anterior wall of the thorax.Breast bone.
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Appendices Glossary

Stethoscope–An instrument originally devised by Laennec for aid in hearing the respiratory and

cardiac sounds in the chest, but now modified in various ways and used to listen to vascular or

other sounds anywhere in the body.

Stress–Reactions of the body to forces of a deleterious nature, infectious, and various abnormal

physiologic equilibrium.

Sub–Prefix, denoting beneath, less than the normal, inferior.

Subcortical–Beneath the cerebral cortex.

Sulcus–One of the grooves or furrows on the surface of the brain, bounding the several convoluntions or gyri.

Sympathetic Ganglia–Those ganglia of the autonomic nervous system that receive

efferent fibers originating from preganglionic visceral motor neurons in the intermediolateral cell

column of thoratic and upper lumba spinal segments.

Sympathetic–Part of the autonomic nervous system of vertebrates that organizes and regulates

the body’s response to stress.

Synapse–The functional membrane-to-membrane contact of the nerve cell with a target cell

(another nerve cell or other type of cell).

Synthesis–A building up, putting together, composition stage in the cell cycle; production of a

molecule through chemical processes.

Tectum–Any rooflike covering or structure.

Telencephalon–The anterior division of the prosencephalon, which develops into the olfactory

lobes, the cortex of the cerebral hemispheres, and the subcortical telencephalic nuclei, and the

basal ganglia.

Temporal Lobe–The lowest of the major subdivisions of the cortical mantle, forming the posterior two-thirds of the ventral surface of the cerebral hemisphere.

Thalamus–The large ovoid (an oval egg-shaped form) mass of gray matter that forms the larger

dorsal subdivision of the diencephalon.

Tricuspid–Having three points, prongs, or cups. As the tricuspid valve of the heart.

Ulna–The medial and larger of the two bones of the forearm.

Utricle–The larger of the two membranous sacs in the vestibles of the labyrinth, lying in the

elliptical recess.
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Appendices Glossary

Vagal–Relating to the vagus nerve.

Vagus Nerve–The nerve responsible for slowing heart rate; part of the parasympathetic nerve 

system.

Vasoconstriction–Narrowing of the blood vessels.

Vasodilation–Widening of the lumen of blood vessels.

Vasomotor–Causing constriction of the blood vessels.

Vein–A blood vessel carrying blood toward the heart; all the veins except the pulmonary carry

dark or oxygenated blood.

Ventricle–The thick-walled chambers of your heart that pump blood into your lungs and body.

Ventro–The belly.

Ventrolateral–Both ventral and lateral.

Vestibulo-Ocular Reflex (VOR)–A reflex that allows your eye to remain fixed on an object

although your head or the object is moving.

Vestibular–Relating to the sense of balance.

Yaw–A side-to-side movement.
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Appendices Resources

NASA Resources for Educators

NASA’s Central Operation of Resources for Educators

NASA’s Central Operation of Resources for Educators (CORE) was established for the national and

international distribution of NASA-produced educational materials in audiovisual format.

Educators can obtain a catalogue and an order form by one of the following methods:

• NASA CORE

Lorain County Joint Vocational School

15181 Route 58 South

Oberlin, OH 44074

• Phone: (440) 774-1051, Ext. 249 or 293

• Fax: (440) 774-2144

• E-mail: nasaco@leeca.esu.k12.oh.us

• Home Page:http://spacelink.nasa.gov/CORE

Educator Resource Center Network

To make additional information available to the education community, the NASA Education

Division has created the NASA Educator Resource Center (ERC) network. ERCs contain a wealth of

information for educators: publications, reference books, slide sets, audio cassettes, videotapes,

telelecture programs, computer programs, lesson plans, and teacher guides with activities.

Educators may preview, copy, or receive NASA materials at these sites. Because each NASA Field

Center has its own areas of expertise, no two ERCs are exactly alike. Phone calls are welcome if

you are unable to visit the ERC that serves your geographic area. A list of the centers and the

regions they serve includes:

AK, AZ, CA, HI, ID, MT, NV, OR,

UT, WA, WY

NASA Educator Resource Center

Mail Stop 253-2

NASA Ames Research Center

Moffett Field, CA 94035-1000

Phone: (650) 604-3574

CT, DE, DC, ME, MD, MA, NH,

NJ, NY, PA, RI,VT

NASA Educator Resource Laboratory

Mail Code 130.3

NASA Goddard Space Flight Center

Greenbelt, MD 20771-0001

Phone: (301) 286-8570

CO, KS, NE, NM, ND, OK, SD,TX

JSC Educator Resource Center

Space Center Houston

NASA Johnson Space Center

1601 NASA Road One

Houston,TX 77058-3696

Phone: (281) 483-8696

FL, GA, PR,VI

NASA Educator Resource Laboratory

Mail Code ERL

NASA Kennedy Space Center

Kennedy Space Center, FL 32899-0001

Phone: (407) 867-4090
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Appendices Resources

KY, NC, SC,VA, WV

Virginia Air and Space Museum

NASA Educator Resource Center for

NASA Langley Research Center

600 Settler's Landing Road

Hampton,VA 23669-4033

Phone: (757) 727-0900 x 757

IL, IN, MI, MN, OH, WI

NASA Educator Resource Center

Mail Stop 8-1

NASA Lewis Research Center

21000 Brookpark Road

Cleveland, OH 44135-3191

Phone: (216) 433-2017

AL, AR, IA, LA, MO,TN

U.S. Space and Rocket Center

NASA Educator Resource Center for 

NASA Marshall Space Flight Center

P.O. Box 070015

Huntsville, AL 35807-7015

Phone: (256) 544-5812

MS

NASA Educator Resource Center

Building 1200

NASA John C. Stennis Space Center

Stennis Space Center, MS 39529-6000

Phone: (228) 688-3338

NASA Educator Resource Center

JPL Educational Outreach

Mail Stop 601-107

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory

4800 Oak Grove Drive

Pasadena, CA 91109-8099

Phone: (818) 354-6916

CA Cities Near the Center

NASA Educator Resource Center for

NASA Dryden Flight Research Center

45108 N. 3rd Street East

Lancaster, CA 93535

Phone: (805) 948-7347

VA and MD's Eastern Shores

NASA Educator Resource Lab

Education Complex

Visitor Center Building J-1

NASA Wallops Flight Facility

Wallops Island,VA 23337-5099

Phone: (757) 824-2297/2298

Regional Educator Resource Centers

Regional Educator Resource Centers offer more educators access to NASA educational materials.

NASA has formed partnerships with universities, museums, and other educational institutions to

serve as RERCs in many states. A complete list of RERCs is available through CORE, or electronically via NASA Spacelink at http://spacelink.nasa.gov

NASA On-line Resources for Educators

NASA On-line Resources for Educators provide current educational information and instructional

resource materials to teachers, faculty, and students. A wide range of information is available,

including science, mathematics, engineering, and technology education lesson plans, historical

information related to the aeronautics and space program, current status reports on NASA projects, news releases, information on NASA educational programs, useful software and graphics
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Appendices Resources

files. Educators and students can also use NASA resources as learning tools to explore the Internet,

accessing information about educational grants, interacting with other schools which are already

on-line, and participating in on-line interactive projects, communicating with NASA scientists,

engineers, and other team members to experience the excitement of real NASA projects.

Access these resources through the NASA Education Home Page:

http://www.hq.nasa.gov/education

NASA Television

NASA Television (NTV) is the Agency's distribution system for live and taped programs. It offers

the public a front-row seat for launches and missions, as well as informational and educational

programming, historical documentaries, and updates on the latest developments in aeronautics

and space science. NTV is transmitted on the GE-2 satellite,Transponder 9C at 85 degrees West

longitude, vertical polarization, with a frequency of 3880 megahertz, and audio of 6.8 megahertz.

Apart from live mission coverage, regular NASA Television programming includes a Video File

from noon to 1:00 pm, a NASA Gallery File from 1:00 to 2:00 pm, and an Education File from

2:00 to 3:00 pm (all times Eastern).This sequence is repeated at 3:00 pm, 6:00 pm, and 9:00

pm, Monday through Friday. The NTV Education File features programming for teachers and students on science, mathematics, and technology. NASA Television programming may be videotaped for later use.

For more information on NASA Television, contact:

NASA Headquarters

Code P-2

NASA TV

Washington, DC 20546-0001 

Phone: (202) 358-3572 

NTV Home Page:http://www.hq.nasa.gov/ntv.html

How to Access Information on NASA’s Education Program, Materials, and Services,

EP-1998-03-345-HQ

This brochure serves as a guide to accessing a variety of NASA materials and services for educators. Copies are available through the ERC network, or electronically via NASA Spacelink. NASA

Spacelink can be accessed at the following address: http://spacelink.nasa.gov
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The Brain in Space

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development and improvement of these materials. Your evaluation and suggestions are

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6. How did you use this educator guide?

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7. Where did you learn about this educator guide?

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