U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

Earth Science in the Public Service

1994
Touching the Lives

of Every Citizen,

Every Day

U.S. Geological Survey

Yearbook 

Fiscal Year 1994
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

BRUCE BABBITT, Secretary

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

Gordon P. Eaton, Director

Any use of trade, product, or firm names in this publication is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply 

endorsement by the U.S. Government

United States Geological Survey Yearbook Fiscal Year 1994 

ISSN 0892-3442

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1995

For sale by U.S. Geological Survey, Map Distribution Box 25286, 

Federal Center, Denver, CO 80225
CONTENTS

Hazards

Resources

Director's Message

Information and Data Management

International

Environment Human Resources
A New Look, A New Vision

In this, my first year as Director of the U.S. 

Geological Survey, I felt it was important to set a 

visionary course, one that ensures that the USGS is 

recognized for its excellence in science. By this I 

mean not just the most objective science but science 

that can be used, science that is relevant, science that 

is trusted by all users. I am, justifiably I think, proud 

of the good science the practical science that we 

provide to the Nation.

But I believe that we can do even better. As a 

bureau of the Federal Government, we are determined that the American taxpayers will realize full 

value for their investment of tax dollars and for the 

trust they have placed in both the science and the 

management of the USGS. I have made both a personal and a professional commitment to developing 

a dynamic work environment that emphasizes some 

basic parameters, which I call the 3 C's cooperation, coordination, and communication and the 2 

R's relevance and responsiveness. With these key 

ideas as our watchwords, I am convinced that the 

USGS can be an even more vital, more viable, and 

more valued organization to the broad public that it 

serves.

What you will see in the pages of this Yearbook 

is a reflection of that new vision and a new look. We 

have arranged articles according to four principal 

public policy theme areas Hazards, Resources, 

Environment, and Information. In identifying these 

themes, we seek to communicate more effectively 

how USGS earth science information contributes to 

public policy issues, to cooperate and coordinate 

more efficiently among the many scientific disciplines within the bureau, and to provide a melting 

pot for the incredible diversity of earth science expertise that we embody. Additionally, these themes
require us to focus some of our efforts on ensuring 

that USGS products are relevant and responsive to 

public concerns.

In the same way that the disciplines within the 

earth sciences overlap and are interconnected, so, 

too, are the public policy themes that we have selected. They are not mutually exclusive but rather are 

linked in their inherent need for sound, reliable, and 

impartial earth science information. As John Muir 

once said, "When you try to separate anything in 

nature, you find it is connected to everything else." 

Although the themes can in some ways stand on their 

own, they are all dependent on one another. As you 

will see in the articles in each 

theme section, many could easily be included in other themes as 

well. We hope that presenting 

the ongoing work of the USGS in 

this new way will help our constituents better understand the 

rich diversity of the Earth that we 

study and the challenging task of 

responding to critical earth science questions that require 

answers.

One of the public's most 

basic and persistent questions is, 

"How safe am I from the effects 

of natural hazards?" Answering 

that question is one of the paramount functions of the USGS 

mission. Whether it is the threat 

of earthquakes, flooding, landslides, drought, or volcanic eruptions, the USGS is the Nation's primary 

source of information in addressing the impact of 

these hazards. We have been working hard through 

our various natural hazards programs to reduce the 

huge indirect tax that every citizen must pay to repair 

and rebuild after the occurrence of natural disasters. 

This "disaster tax" burden imposed by earthquakes, 

floods, droughts, landslides, and other such natural 

events now costs the Nation more than $55 billion 

dollars each year. We are determined to reduce that 

tax burden even as it threatens to climb higher as 

more and more people move into disaster-prone 

areas and use more of our finite water supply.

An excellent example of our efforts to reduce the

We hope that presenting the ongoing 

work of the USGS in 

this new way will 

help our constituents 

better understand the 

rich diversity of the 

Earth that we study 

and the challenging 

task of responding to 

critical earth science 

questions that require 

answers.

disaster tax is the Northridge, Calif., earthquake of 

January 1994 (see p. 3). The Northridge earthquake, 

which rocked much of Los Angeles, was comparable 

in size to the earthquake that devastated Kobe, Japan, 

just a few months ago. Although significant losses 

did result in Los Angeles, they were far below the 

5,100 deaths and $100 billion in damages suffered in 

Kobe. The lower losses in the United States came, in 

part, because of improved building design incorporating knowledge gained directly from USGS earthquake studies.

We are usually the source of primary data behind 

the flood predictions that you hear on TV. The USGS 

operates a water data network 

across the Nation that provides 

flood information to the National 

Weather Service and other management and disaster agencies. 

This network and followup studies, such as the Scientific 

Assessment and Strategy Team 

(SAST), were vital to monitoring 

the extensive flooding on the 

Mississippi River in 1993 and 

coping with the aftermath (see p. 

8, 12). A single example will 

suffice to show the value of the 

work perfomed by the SAST the 

town of Valmeyer, III., was relocated from the floodplain to the 

uplands. Our partner in these 

hazard mitigation efforts, the 

Federal Emergency Management Agency, reports that 

the flood-related information provided by the USGS 

saved many millions of dollars in rehabilitation 

efforts and will save millions of dollars more in future 

disaster payments.

Another question that needs to be answered is 

"Do we have enough resources and of good 

enough quality to meet current and projected 

needs?" In the area of energy, we need as a Nation 

to be looking at the broadest spectrum of potential 

resources, as the article on the future of energy gases 

attests (see p. 29). The use of natural resources can 

lead to additional concerns, such as the recent collapse of a New York salt mine (see p. 38) shows. The 

same water network that we use to provide stream-
flow information is also used to make many of the 

water-quality determinations used by local and State 

governments. As the Nation's largest collector of 

water information, the USGS documents the 

improvement or degradation of water quality over 

time. Our National Water-Quality Assessment is the 

only ongoing and truly national analysis of the quality of the Nation's water.

Questions of quality and issues of resource 

degradation lead us into the realm of the environment and what both natural and human activities are 

doing to alter the natural environment. From a longterm study of contaminants in the Mississippi River 

(see p. 52) to establishing a database of mine sites in 

the U.S.-Mexico border region (see p. 47), the USGS 

is actively engaged in understanding the conditions and 

functions of environmental 

systems and determining the 

factors that are changing those 

systems. With this type of 

understanding, we can often 

identify effective, cost-efficient 

methods to clean up or prevent 

environmental contamination 

while still developing resource 

potential. Such an approach is 

needed to protect not only 

plants and animals but also, 

ultimately, human health.

At the core of all USGS work and its value to the 

public is the vast holding of information about the 

Earth, for which we are the Nation's foremost collector and archivist. As the many articles in the information section of this Yearbook demonstrate, earth 

science data are essential to an incredible range of 

resource and environmental issues and concerns. 

We are on the cutting edge of many new technologies and innovations in how to gather, process, display, and disseminate earth science information, 

from a multi-resolution land characterization database designed to monitor changes in land cover (see 

p. 61) to a coastal circulation computer model that 

uses parallel processing to help with site characterization for a new sewage-treatment plant for the city 

of Boston (see p. 70). The data and information that 

the USGS provides are the cornerstone of countless

The data and information 

that the USGS provides 

are the cornerstone of 

countless decisions that 

are made every day by 

policymakers, land planners, and resource managers.

decisions that are made every day by policymakers, 

land planners, and resource managers.

Much of the work that we do is in partnership 

with others. We are at work with more than 1 ,200 

State, local, and other Federal agencies in all 50 

States to provide the earth science information that 

touches and serves the lives of every citizen every 

day. These partnerships produce savings to the taxpayer by avoiding duplicate efforts and by providing 

consistent science that can be reused tomorrow. 

Many of these partners have been with us for many 

years and share with us in the funding of programs 

and investigations that benefit State and local interest 

as well as adding to the national interest by providing information for the public good, as our mission 

mandates. These partnerships 

allow us constantly to test our 

science in the real world.

Our work is also international in scope, reaching out to 

many nations with whom we 

share common concerns and 

similar geology and hydrology. 

International cooperation is 

more than just being a good 

neighbor. As scientists, we benefit immeasurably from the 

exchange of information with 

colleagues in other countries and 

learn more in the process about 

the resources, hazards, and environmental issues of 

our own country. Little is known, for example, about 

the transport and release of mercury or about the 

processes that control its fate in the environment. 

Cooperative mineral resource studies with the U.S. 

Forest Service in Venezuela are providing USGS scientists with information that will help in developing 

remediation efforts worldwide (see p. 88).

I hope that you will find the new look of the 

Yearbook and the new vision of the U.S. Geological 

Survey to be positive changes that ensure we are 

continuing our commitment to provide "Earth 

Science in the Public Service."

Gordon P. Eaton

Director, U.S. Geological Survey

vi

Understanding natural hazards such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, 

landslides, floods, subsidence, and naturally occurring toxic materials is a 

critical public issue facing the Nation and the world. Part of the mission 

of the USGS is to help reduce the "disaster tax" that every citizen pays, 

regardless of where a hazard occurs. Each year for the past several years, 

natural disasters have cost the Nation about $50 billion from the devastation of Hurricane Andrew to the long months of flooding in the Midwest 

to the renewed anxiety caused by the Northridge, Calif., earthquake. The 

USGS has a particular charge to help the Nation understand, prepare for, 

and respond to these natural disasters. Our ability to assist the country in 

coping with natural disasters comes from our unique combination of earth 

science expertise, as the articles in this section show. By better understanding the mechanisms of natural hazards, public policymakers can plan 

and manage in ways that will mitigate the severity of these hazards. 

Through scientific research, societal planning and preparedness, and proper emergency response, the damaging effects of natural hazards will be 

lessened, and economic and social losses can be reduced.
The Northridge 

Earthquake

O

n the morning of January 17, 1994, at 

04:30 (PST) a magnitude 6.7 earthquake 

severely shook the San Fernando Valley and 

other regions in and around Los Angeles in 

southern California. The Northridge earthquake was the most costly earthquake in U.S. 

history, causing estimated losses of $20 billion. Fifty-seven deaths and more than 9,000 

injuries to people in the region were attributed to the earthquake, and 20,000 people 

were displaced from their homes. The earthquake was moderate in size, but, because it 

occurred directly under the populated San 

Fernando Valley, its impact on the people and 

structures of the Los Angeles area was 

immense. Thousands of buildings experienced significant damage, and more than 

1,600 were "red tagged" as unsafe to enter. 

Another 7,300 buildings were "yellow 

tagged" (restricted to limited entry), and 

minor damage was incurred in many thousands of other structures. The 10 to 20 seconds of strong shaking collapsed buildings, 

brought down freeway interchanges, and ruptured gas lines that exploded into fires. But 

the early-morning occurrence was a fortuitous 

life saver, because there were only a few people in many of the large buildings and parking structures that collapsed, and traffic was 

very light on the freeway overpasses that fell.

But the early-morning occurrence 

was a fortuitous life saver...

Early on January 17, the USGS/Caltech 

offices in Pasadena, Calif., became the center 

for seismic information collection and dissemination. The large seismic network that 

monitors earthquakes in southern California 

is operated from this location, and, within 

minutes of the Northridge earthquake, scientists began analyzing data from the network 

and broadcasting the location and magnitude 

to the public. USGS and Caltech scientists 

kept up a steady flow of information to the 

public over the next few days as details about 

the earthquake and its damaging effects were 

inferred from seismic data and observed by 

field crews. To maintain good communications with emergency response groups, a 

USGS liaison was stationed at the headquarters of the Federal Emergency Management 

Agency a few miles away in Pasadena, and a 

California Office of Emergency Services liaison was detailed to the USGS operations center in Pasadena. These efforts to provide 

information about earthquakes continued 

throughout the next few months as the Los 

Angeles area was rocked by hundreds of felt 

aftershocks.

Throughout the mainshock and aftershock sequence, real-time earthquake information was relayed to members of the 

Caltech-USGS Broadcast of Earthquakes 

(CUBE) program. This project is a cooperative effort to develop a system of rapid earthquake information dissemination in southern 

California. Earthquake locations and magnitudes are sent to pagers worn by scientists and 

emergency personnel and to computer displays throughout southern California and 

other parts of the country within about 5 minutes of an earthquake occurrence. Governmental emergency response agencies, water 

and power utilities, railroads, and telephone 

companies all make immediate use of this 

vital information.

U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) scientists responded quickly to the Northridge 

earthquake, investigating and reporting on 

both geological and societal effects. In the 

month following the earthquake, USGS personnel focused on:

 Monitoring the current seismic activity and 

providing information about seismic hazards to local government, media, and the 

public.

 Collecting data on seismic hazards in 

southern California to help mitigate 

damage from future earthquakes.

Seismological Observations

R

llowing the mainshock, there were 

lousands of aftershocks, including 7 

magnitude 5 events, 38 magnitude 4 events, 

and over 300 magnitude 3 events during the 

subsequent 4 months. The locations of the 

aftershocks are distributed across an area of 

about 30X20 kilometers and map out the 

extent and orientation of the fault plane. 

These locations clearly show a plane dipping 

toward the southwest, which is interpreted to 

be the rupture surface of the thrust fault that
34* 30'

34' 00'

-119*00' -118*30' -118*00J

The locations of several thousand aftershocks of the Northridge earthquake are shown on this map by solid circles. The area covered by the 

aftershocks roughly indicates the fault that ruptured under the northern San Fernando Valley. The star is the epicenter of the mainshock, where the 

rupture began. The depth cross section (upper right) shows how the aftershocks outline a fault plane that extends from a depth of 18 kilometers in 

the south up to 7 kilometers in the north.

produced the earthquake. This plane extends 

upward from the mainshock hypocenter at 

18 kilometers toward (but not reaching) the 

surface. Preliminary inversions of seismic 

waveform data indicate slips of as much as

4 meters on the fault plane at depths below 5 

kilometers; little slip occurs on the shallow 

portions of the fault.

The location of the fault plane as 

inferred from the aftershock distribution does

4 Touching the Lives of Every Citizen Every Day..
The body of a Los Angeles Police Department officer lies near his motorcycle after plunging off the 

Antelope Valley Freeway overpass, which collapsed onto the Golden State Freeway during the Northridge 

earthquake.

not correspond to any mapped geologic fault. 

The earthquake occurred, however, within a 

system of known thrust faults that extends 

along the northern edge of the San Fernando 

Valley. Like the fault that produced the 

Northridge earthquake, many of these faults 

are "blind thrusts," which do not extend to 

the surface and therefore are difficult to recognize prior to large earthquakes.

The extensive damage caused by the 

earthquakes was mainly a result of intense 

shaking. The large-amplitude motions were 

recorded on many strong-motion instruments 

within the Los Angeles area, producing one 

of the best data sets of strong ground motions. 

The recordings showed peak accelerations of 

0.5 to 1.0 g in the aftershock area and decreasing to 0.1 g at distances of about 50 km. Several sites close to the epicenter area recorded 

accelerations over 1 g. These high levels of 

ground motion and the resultant widespread 

damage emphasized the need for a better 

understanding of how local geology affects 

the levels of ground shaking. A coordinated 

effort by USGS and university seismologists 

deployed more than 75 portable seismographs for recording aftershocks to study the 

complicated wave propagation and local site 

effects. Instruments were placed in many

severely damaged areas of Northridge, Sherman Oaks, and Santa Monica, as well as the

Like the fault that produced the 

Northridge earthquake, many of 

these faults are "blind thrusts,"

which do not extend to the

surface and therefore are difficult

to recognize prior to large

earthquakes.

A g of acceleration is equivalent to 

the force of gravity. A few sites near the 

Northridge earthquake recorded more 

than 1 g of vertical acceleration. These 

ground movements would have been 

capable of throwing objects (of any 

mass) into the air.

Support for the

Southern

California

Earthquake

Center

A

s a practical example of how its 

national earthquake 

research expertise can 

be applied locally, the 

U.S. Geological Survey 

(USGS) has added $1.2 

million to a cooperative 

agreement with the 

University of Southern 

California (USC) for the 

operation of the Southern California Earthquake Center. Since 

1991, the USGS has 

obligated over $6 million 

in funds in support of this 

vital local center, which 

has been charged with 

educating the public 

about earthquake activity in southern California. Through activities 

such as a public realtime seismic data center, 

an educational outreach 

program for high school 

and elementary school 

pupils, and workshops 

for professors of engineering and seismology, 

USC and USGS scientists 

carry out comprehensive data collection and 

public outreach efforts in 

support of the national 

earthquake research 

effort.

. .through Natural Hazards Research 5
Strong shaking from the Northridge earthquake collapsed this parking structure on the 

campus of the California State University at Northridge. Because the earthquake occurred 

at 4:30 a.m., no people were in the structure.

A ruptured gas main along Balboa Boulevard in Granada Hills caused this fire. Several 

homes in the area burned down, but, because there was no wind, most fires were easily 

contained.

collapsed freeway sites at the interchange of 

Interstate 5 and Highway 14, Highway 118 

near Woodley, and Interstate 10 near La 

Cienega.

Geodetic Observations

B

enchmarks resurveyed by using the 

Global Positioning System (GPS) showed 

significant permanent ground deformation 

caused by the earthquake. Vertical uplifts of 

40 to 50 centimeters and horizontal movements of 2 to 20 centimeters occurred in the 

aftershock region. These movements are consistent with the fault geometry derived from 

seismological observations. Preliminary modeling of the data indicates that slip of 2.5 to 

3.5 meters occurred on a 10X 10-kilometer 

patch of the fault. The motion was primarily 

thrust faulting, and most of the slip occurred 

at depths greater than 6 kilometers. Following 

the Northridge earthquake, a number of GPS 

receivers \vere permanently installed to provide continuous monitoring of deformations 

in the San Fernando Valley and Los Angeles 

basin.

Geological Observations

T

he lack of evidence of tectonic surface 

ruptures suggests that the Northridge 

fault did not extend to the surface. This observation is consistent with seismologic and geodetic data, which show that all slip occurred 

at depths below 5 kilometers. However, there 

were observed regions of surface cracking 

and deformations, which were thought to be 

the result of strong shaking rather than direct 

fault ruptures. The most extensive area of 

ground deformation was in Portrero Canyon 

on the northern side of the Santa Susana 

Mountains, where a series of discontinuous 

tension cracks and normal faults had displacements of as much as 60 centimeters. None of 

the deformation was associated with any previously mapped surface fault. Another system 

of small cracks was studied in Granada Hills, 

where ground deformations caused numerous 

water- and gas-main ruptures. These features 

were also caused by ground shaking rather 

than tectonic faulting.

Extensive landslides occurred in the 

younger sediments of the western Santa 

Susana Mountains, Oak Pvidge, and Big 

Mountain areas. There were thousands of

6 Touching the Lives of Every Citizen Every Day..
landslides, rock falls, and soil failures that 

occurred as far as 70 kilometers from the epicenter. Fortunately, most of these were in relatively unpopulated areas. Rock falls that 

choked the ravine bottoms of many canyons 

in the Santa Susana Mountains presented 

postearthquake hazards. Had heavy rains 

fallen, the rock falls could have been saturated and mobilized into debris flows that 

would have threatened structures near the 

mouths of the canyons.

The extent of liquefaction caused by this 

earthquake was much less than what would 

have been expected, given the historical 

ground-water levels and the strong levels of 

shaking that occurred. The reason was probably the lower-than-average water-table levels 

in the San Fernando Valley. Localized liquefaction and lateral spreading took place in the 

San Fernando Valley (primarily settling basins 

along the Los Angeles River) and other areas 

in Simi Valley, Santa Monica, and Redondo 

Beach.

Building Safety Net(work)s for Earthquakes

C

ontinuing its work to characterize the regions of the Nation where 

earthquakes are a public safety risk, the U.S. Geological Survey 

(USGS) awarded 163 grants, valued at $10 million, to colleges and universities to continue building the critically needed information base for applications such as standards for issuing earthquake forecasts, criteria for 

building codes and seismic safety standards, and national and regional 

seismic networks. The USGS also signed 15 cooperative agreements, valued at $2.8 million, with universities to support the U.S. National Seismic 

Network, one of the key components in understanding earthquake risks 

from a national perspective. Pilot projects are underway with several 

regional networks to develop a common model for integrating regional and 

national networks. Such cooperative research under the USGS-administered National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program underscores the 

value of a national program to help identify earthquake hazards, assess 

earthquake risks, and monitor seismic activity across the United States. The 

close tie-in through State colleges and universities ensures that the USGS 

can work effectively with State and local governments and industry to 

inform them of seismic risks in their areas and to develop building codes 

and seismic safety standards that protect lives and property.

Conclusions

S

cientists have issued frequent warnings 

about seismic hazards in the Western 

United States, and this earthquake tested the 

level of southern California's preparedness. 

Some successful strategies were the result of 

past experiences, and failures pointed out 

areas where more work was needed. On the 

positive side, information gained from scientific efforts of the National Earthquake Hazard Reduction Program, combined with some 

of the better seismic building practices in the 

United States, helped to limit the loss of life. 

In other parts of the world where these types 

of programs do not exist, similar-sized earthquakes (for example, India in 1993 and 

Armenia in 1988) have caused thousands of 

deaths. On the negative side, building 

construction was not adequate to prevent 

widespread structural failures in many communities, such as Northridge, Simi Valley, 

Sherman Oaks, North Hollywood, and Santa 

Monica. The Los Angeles freeways collapsed 

at 7 sites, and another 170 bridges suffered 

varying amounts of observable damage. 

Repair work on the bridges caused traffic 

problems for many months following the 

earthquake.

The large amount of damage caused by 

the Northridge earthquake is a consequence 

of an active geologic structure existing within

an urban environment. The type of fault that 

produced the Northridge earthquake is not 

unique to the San Fernando Valley. Similar 

structures exist throughout the area, and there 

is geologic evidence for several blind thrusts 

in the Los Angeles basin that are capable of 

producing events even larger than Northridge. Large earthquakes on these faults could 

present serious problems for densely populated areas, including downtown Los Angeles, 

which contains many high-rise buildings. 

However, the problem of populated areas in 

close proximity to earthquakes is not limited 

to Los Angeles. Portions of the San Andreas 

fault are adjacent to San Bernardino and San 

Francisco. The Hayward fault passes through 

densely populated areas of Oakland and East 

Bay communities. Portland, Oreg., Seattle, 

Wash., and Memphis, Tenn., all are located in 

earthquake-prone areas. The lessons learned 

from the Northridge earthquake about the 

levels of strong ground shaking produced by 

a moderate earthquake and the subsequent 

damage to populated areas should be applied 

to building construction and earthquake preparedness in all of these cities.

This report was compiled from information gathered by many scientists from the 

USGS, the California Institute of Technology,

Liquefaction is the 

process by which wet, 

loosely compacted soils 

are transformed by 

earthquake shaking to a 

liquid state.

.through Natural Hazards Research 7
For more information on the Northridge 

earthquake, contact Jim Mori at:

Telephone: (818)583-7821 

Fax: (818)583-7827 

Internet: mori@bombay.gps. 

caltech.edu

Earthquakes similar 

in size to the one that 

occurred in Northridge 

are relatively common 

around the world. For 

example, in 1993, there 

were 141 earthquakes of 

magnitude 6.0 to 6.9 

worldwide. Fortunately, 

most of these events 

were not near populated areas.

Earthquakes in 1993

(from the USCS National 

Earthquake Information Center)

1 M 8.0 to 8.9

13 M 7.0 to 7.9

141 M 6.0 to 6.9

the Southern California Earthquake Center, 

and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory.

Jim Mori

is a seismologist and Scientist-in-Charge of the 

U.S. Geological Survey office in Pasadena, Calif.

Lisa Wald

is a seismologist in the Pasadena office 

of the U.S. Geological Survey.

After the Flood of 

1993: The Scientific 

Assessment and 

Strategy Team

I

n late summer 1992, after several years of 

drought, significant precipitation returned 

to much of the upper Mississippi River basin. 

Rain and snow continued over the eastern 

portions of the basin for the remainder of the 

year and saturated the soils. By late spring of 

1993, runoff of tremendous proportions 

flowed into the floodplains. Throughout July 

and August 1993, devastating floods hit the 

lower Missouri River, the upper Mississippi 

River, the Illinois River, and many of their

tributaries. Thirty-eight lives were lost, and 

estimated damages were between $ 10 billion 

and $16 billion.

The Scientific Assessment 

and Strategy Team

T

he Administration, recognizing the high 

cost of repairing levees and other infrastructures, rebuilding and floodproofing 

homes, reclaiming agricultural lands, and 

reestablishing the economic system, decided 

to reexamine the use of floodplains in the 

upper Mississippi River basin.

On November 24, 1993, the Scientific 

Assessment and Strategy Team (SAST) was 

established by the Assistant to the President 

for Science and Technology Policy, the Associate Director of the Office of Management 

and Budget, and the Director of the Office of 

Environmental Policy. The team was made 

up of members from the U.S. Army Corps of 

Engineers, the U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency (USEPA), the Federal Emergency 

Management Agency, the U.S. Fish and 

Wildlife Service, the National Biological Service, the Soil Conservation Service, and the 

U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). The USGS 

was directed to lead this interdisciplinary, 

interagency group.

Landsat Thematic Mapper image 

(from October 17, 1991) of river 

conditions at St. Louis, Mo., prior 

to the 1993 floods showing 

where the lower Missouri River 

and upper Mississippi River 

meet.

8 Touching the Lives of Every Citizen Every Day.
Landsat Thematic Mapper image 

(from July 18, 1993) showing the 

near-maximum stage of the July 

1993 flood peak at St. Louis, Mo.

The SAST mission is to provide scientific advice and assistance to Federal officials 

responsible for decisions about flood recovery in the upper Mississippi River basin and 

to develop information on river-basin management. The formal objectives of the SAST 

are to:

 Develop a database for mapping, scientific 

analysis, and decisionmaking.

 Produce maps showing base information 

and vulnerability to flooding.

 Prepare reports documenting the products 

of the SAST and the methodologies used 

to produce them and identify the monitoring, research, modeling, data management, and distribution requirements 

needed to support integrated river-basin 

management.

The Interagency 

Floodplain Management 

Review Committee

S

hortly after the establishment of the 

SAST, another group known as the Interagency Floodplain Management Review 

Committee (IFMRC) was formed to determine the major causes and consequences of 

the flood of 1993, to evaluate the performance of existing floodplain management 

and related watershed management programs, to recommend changes in policies and 

programs, and to achieve risk reduction, economic efficiency, and environmental 

enhancement in the floodplain and related 

watersheds. The IFMRC also identified legislative initiatives that might be proposed by 

the Administration. As the scientific arm of 

the IFMRC, the SAST provided more than 

150 maps and analyses for IFMRC use. The 

IFMRC has completed its tasks and been dissolved, but the SAST continues to conduct 

analyses and to gather and distribute scientific 

data.

Data and Analysis

T

he SAST's first task was to identify and 

integrate existing data and information. 

Because management of the upper Mississippi River basin is inherently spatial, geographic information systems (GIS) and digital 

image-processing technologies were used. 

Where possible, existing data were integrated. The SAST used readily available 

digital data and also digitized current and 

historical maps. New data were created from 

field information and remote sensing. 

Hydraulic models were run, analyses were

SAST data are being 

made available as they are 

checked for quality. An 

interagency clearinghouse is 

being established to ensure 

that the most current digital 

data are distributed as soon 

as possible. The data will be 

made available online, 

nearline, or offline, depending on the size or type of 

data. Already, some of the 

data are available on the 

Internet by using World 

Wide Web with an XMosaic front end.

SAST data can be 

accessed by opening the 

Uniform Resource Locator 

(URL) and entering:

http://edcwww.cr.usgs.gov/ 

sast-home.html

The clearinghouse is 

being used as a prototype 

for the Federal Geographic 

Data Committee (FCDC), 

which is responsible for 

planning the National Spatial Data Infrastructure, and 

is testing some FGDC concepts. As such, it is part of 

the national information 

infrastructure and the information superhighway.

. .through Natural Hazards Research 9
Computer-generated map 

showing the maximum flood 

extent at St. Louis, Mo., during 

the floods of 1993. Darker 

shades represent flooded areas 

and streams; lighter areas are 

probably clouds.

conducted in the field and by using remote 

sensing, literature was reviewed, results were 

reported, maps were produced, and a digitaldata clearinghouse was established.

Database

T

he SAST built a database of some 240 

gigabytes of digital data, including 

readily available agency data such as 

l:100,000-scale digital line graph files, the 

USEPA's toxins release inventory, and Thematic Mapper (TM) data for the entire upper 

Mississippi River basin as well as TM data for 

the area hardest hit by the floods. It also 

contains less commonly available data, such 

as interpretations of sedimentation and scour, 

and spatial and attribute information on all 

major levees on the main stems of the upper 

Mississippi, lower Missouri, and lower Illinois 

Rivers.

Hydraulic Models

Upland models. The SAST ran hydraulic 

and hydrologic models to estimate the effects 

of various land-treatment practices in the 

uplands. Four distinct watersheds were tested 

in different physiographic regions. The results 

clearly showed that the effects of land treatment varied in regions of different physical 

characteristics.

Floodplain model. A modeling effort was 

conducted to gain a better understanding of 

the effects of levees and different land uses on 

the floodplains. The UNET model, available 

through the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, is 

a one-dimensional, steady-state hydraulic 

model that treats areas affected by levees as 

storage cells. This model was run for the main 

stem of the Mississippi River from Cairo, 111., 

to Hannibal, Mo., along the Missouri River 

from its mouth to Hermann, Mo., along the 

Illinois River from its mouth to Meredosia, 

111., and along the Salt, Meramec, and

... removing the levees would

have lowered the stage of the

floods....

Kaskaskia Rivers from their mouths to the 

first gaging station. Results of running various 

scenarios after calibrating the model to the 

1993 floods as well as two earlier, less intensive floods showed that removing the levees

1O Touching the Uves of Every Citizen Every Day.
would have lowered the stage of the floods, 

but the amount depended on the use to which 

the overbank lands were put. However, the 

flood stage would have been reduced only a 

few feet in most places in a flood the size of 

the 1993 flood. In addition, for overbank conditions that significantly reduced conveyance, 

the flood stage could actually rise. For example, if dense forest covered the floodplain, the 

study showed that the flood would have been 

higher in some locations.

Geomorphology and surficial geology. -SAST 

scientists examined satellite images, aerial 

photographs, and historical maps augmented 

by field observations to determine the location of high-, medium-, and low-energy floodplain terraces at an initial level. These areas 

are being mapped as the analyses are refined. 

Information thus gathered will help identify 

locations suitable for different land uses, 

including agriculture, habitat restoration, 

industry, and commerce.

Analysis

T

he problem of flooding includes both 

upland and floodplain issues. Five current studies are described here.

Regionalization scheme.-The SAST 

drafted a regionalization scheme for the 

uplands based on slope variance, which was 

compared to variables such as topography, 

soil type, soil moisture holding capacity, and 

surface-water ponding. Further refinement of 

this scheme will be useful in determining 

appropriate upland land-treatment practices 

for different places.

Dynamic geomorphology. -The flood of 

1993 provided a unique opportunity to examine the effects of floods on sedimentation and 

scour. "Nature's experiment" left a temporary 

record useful for determining the effect of 

energy variations within the flood on both the 

engineered environment and the natural 

floodplain.

Levees.-The location of levees on the 

floodplain clearly affects their effectiveness 

and durability. The sections of levees that are 

predictably at risk are now known to include 

areas occupied by coarse surficial materials 

deposited by one or more channels active in 

the past, areas along downstream channel 

banks between the bends of meanders, areas 

along tributary channels subject to significant 

crossflow conditions during flooding, and 

areas along narrow passages of water between 

islands and the mainland.

Habitat restoration. Understanding the 

dynamics of the geomorphology on the floodplain improves the chances of finding suitable 

habitat restoration sites. Areas where changes 

in channel and sand bar locations take place 

are sites where new plant growth takes hold. 

These sites are necessary for aquatic species 

that form an important part of the natural 

food web. As these growths mature, new 

places must be created naturally for additional new growth.

Reporting

T

he SAST contributed significantly to 

parts I through IV of the IFMRC report 

and wrote a scientific document that was published as part V of the report. The report is 

the first in a series that will include the database report; proceedings of the hydraulic, 

hydrologic, and ecologic modeling workshop; background reports; and numerous 

articles in scientific journals.

Maps

T)art of the SAST's responsibility is to make

-L data available. A number of maps were 

produced for the IFMRC for its analysis and 

for use by appropriate agencies. The base 

maps portrayed roads and watercourses. 

Mylar overlays showed levees and their ownership, extent of flooding, historical changes 

in stream channels, floodplains having 1 and 

0.2 percent chances of flood occurrence, 

existing habitat locations, and other information. A more detailed set of maps under consideration will show the above information 

plus historical and current land-use and landcover data, floodplain geomorphology, surficial geology, and other variables necessary 

for making decisions on the floodplain. Prototypes will be published in the USGS's Miscellaneous Investigation series of maps and will 

be put on compact disc-read only memory 

(CD-ROM) for distribution.

Some of these data and others have 

already been incorporated into a computerized demonstration capable of answering 

questions such as:

 Where are all of the toxics-release 

inventory sites that were affected by 

the 1993 floods? Are any of them in the 

floodplains?

.through Natural Hazards Research 11
For more information on the SAST or the 

upper Mississippi River basin, contact John 

Kelmelis at:

Telephone: (703) 648-4792 

Fax: (703) 648-4270 

Internet: jkelmeli@usgs.gov

What general locations, according to the 

geomorphic criteria, are most suitable for 

aquatic habitat restoration? 

What levees were overtopped, topped, or 

breached during the 1993 floods?

Conclusion

HPhe upper Mississippi River basin system 

JL is complex, and its various aspects are 

interrelated. Actions taken on one part of the 

system can affect other parts of the system to 

a greater or lesser degree. Therefore, the system must be treated as a whole when making 

decisions on how best to serve the needs of 

different areas within the system. The SAST 

is conducting a customer-driven activity

Missouri River Basin Earth Resources Mapping 

Group

| n addition to flood-related problems, a variety of other earth-scienceU related issues also affect land-, mineral-, and water-use decisions 

throughout the Missouri River basin. To identify and study these issues, 

the U.S. Geological Survey and the geological surveys of Colorado, Iowa, 

Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, North Dakota, South 

Dakota, and Wyoming have formed the Missouri River Basin Earth 

Resources Mapping Group. A major function of the group is to encourage 

collaboration among Federal, State, and local agencies on the collection, 

interpretation, and use of natural resource information within the basin. 

This multidisciplinary effort focuses on interactions between human 

activities and the natural systems of the region. The group has identified 

four regionally important categories of human activity that relate closely 

to a variety of earth-science issues: urbanization, agriculture, mineral or 

energy extraction, and human-induced changes to natural systems. Issues 

associated with urbanization include flooding, ground failure, shrinking 

and swelling soils, subsidence, earthquakes, and extraction of construction materials. Issues related to agricultural activities include ground- and 

surface-water consumption, land and water contamination from agricultural chemicals, depletion of soil nutrients, salinization, wetland loss, and 

accelerated soil erosion, sedimentation, and runoff from cultivated or 

overgrazed lands. Issues related to mineral and energy extraction include 

mine drainage, leaching of waste materials, land subsidence, and accelerated erosion and sedimentation from disturbed lands. Issues associated 

with changes to natural systems include accelerated erosion and sedimentation and the resulting impacts on wetlands and associated habitats. 

These issues, although resulting from activities within the basin, may have 

far-reaching effects outside the basin as well.

W.H. Lunger

is USGS coordinator of the Missouri River Basin

Resources Mapping Group and an expert

in regional geologic mapping and analysis.

based on a specific regional and national 

need. The team's experience results in lessons 

not only for science but also for science management and for the interaction between science and the decisionmaking process. It is 

advancing science both by research in floodplain dynamics and by applied research in 

floodplain and upland management. The 

team is investigating and testing various data 

sets as well as developing new ones according 

to need. It is a model for improving our 

understanding of data and information 

integration, management, and dissemination 

and is a proving ground for data networking. 

Both Government and private organizations are already basing restoration and pilot 

field study decisions on SAST data. The 

SAST has proven to be an excellent example 

of a temporary, high-performance interagency organization, the results of which will 

be valuable for years to come.

John Kelmelis

is the Director of the Scientific Assessment and 

Strategy Team and was a member of the IFMRC.

Impact of the 1993 

Floods in the Upper

HPhe 1993 floods in the upper Mississippi 

JL River basin were without precedent in 

modern North America. As measured by precipitation amounts, river levels, flood duration and extent, and economic losses, they 

surpassed any previous flood in the history of 

the United States. Seasonal rainfall records 

were broken in 9 Midwestern States, 95 

National Weather Service forecast points 

experienced record flooding, and 45 U.S. 

Geological Survey (USGS) gaging stations 

recorded peak discharges exceeding the 100- 

year-flood value; many of these stations 

remained above flood stage for weeks.

These floods clearly showed that people 

and property throughout the Midwest remain 

at risk to the hazard of riverine flooding; as 

the Nation's population continues to increase, 

this risk is also increasing. Average annual riverine flood damages have exceeded $3 billion

12 Touching the lives of Every Citizen Every Day.
The upper Mississippi River basin is 

one of several ecosystems targeted by 

the Department of the Interior for intensive investigations and coordination 

activity. The U.S. Geological Survey and 

other agencies are contributing scientific 

expertise as one of the cornerstones in 

resource decisionmaking. Enhanced 

scientific understanding will improve 

ecosystem management and help 

resource-management agencies generate solutions that successfully resolve 

environmental problems.

Among the principal and not surprisingfindings of postflood analysis is that flooding 

cannot be fully controlled; therefore, the risk 

of flooding cannot be wholly avoided. Moreover, the costs of flooding have become so 

high that they cannot be fairly or adequately 

shared without an aggressive program of 

damage avoidance and mitigation. Thus, the 

conceptual foundation of floodplain management needs to be redefined. Informed floodplain management requires a new scientific 

focus, one that considers not only where and 

how often but also precisely how it will flood. 

How energetically? With what concentration 

offeree? With what potential for structural 

damage or for extensive scour and deposition 

and where? Detailed geologic, geomorphic, 

and hydrologic assessments of floodplains are 

required to fully answer these questions and 

thus to provide timely and relevant information to support a coordinated program of 

floodplain management by Federal, tribal, 

State, and local government agencies.

To learn the answers to these vital questions, USGS scientists are studying the lower 

Missouri River floodplain between Kansas 

City and St. Louis, Mo. Mapping and analytical activities include:

 Mapping the geomorphology and surficial 

geology of the floodplain.

Landsat Thematic Mapper satellite image showing pre-1993 flood conditions near 

Glasgow, Mo. (September 24, 1992). As the distribution of agricultural fields clearly 

shows, nearly all of the floodplain in this area was under cultivation before the 1993 

floods; wetland areas were primarily limited to the active channel of the Missouri River, 

tributary channels, and immediately adjacent areas. Only one large oxbow lake (upper 

left) remained viable.

through Natural Hazards Research 13
Landsat Thematic Mapper satellite image of the area near Glasgow, Mo., showing flood 

conditions on August 1, 1993, 3 days after the main flood crest in this area. River flow at 

this time was approximately 60 to 80 percent of peak flood flow. Even at this time, flood 

waters (shown in black) covered the entire floodplain from bluff to bluff in most areas. 

One small cloud obscures a small area of the floodplain in the left-central part of this 

image.

Compiling an archive of historical channel 

and floodplain change. 

Analyzing regional patterns of floodinduced erosion and sedimentation. 

Developing conceptual models for predicting levee-failure risks and impacts.

Informed floodplain

management requires a new

scientific focus, one that considers

not only where and how often but

also precisely how it will flood.

These activities are being conducted as part 

of the Scientific Assessment and Strategy 

Team effort collaboratively with researchers 

from several Federal agencies, including the 

National Biological Service, the U.S. Army 

Corps of Engineers, the Soil Conservation 

Service, and the National Aeronautics and 

Space Administration. The results will be 

communicated to policymakers and other 

interested groups through a coordinated 

series of printed maps and digital map 

products.

Different Rivers+Different 

Reaches=Different Flood 

Impacts

C

omparison of the effects of the 1993 

floods on the upper Mississippi and 

lower Missouri Rivers shows that river 

reaches in similar physiographic regions may 

respond very differently during floods. 

Although these rivers and their larger tributaries share a number of common features, 

significant differences in river discharge and 

slope, floodplain width, and sediment load 

strongly affect flood response. For example, 

the floodplain of the lower Missouri River is, 

on average, about twice as steep and half as 

wide as the floodplain of the middle Mississippi. Consequently, impacts of the 1993 

flood were very different along these two

14 Touching the Lives of Every Citizen Every Day.
rivers. Levee breaches along the lower Missouri River commonly resulted in high-velocity flows across its relatively narrow and 

relatively steep floodplain. These high-energy 

flows caused extensive deep scour and thick 

sand deposition across prime agricultural 

bottomlands. In contrast, levee breaches 

along the middle Mississippi River produced 

fewer areas of intense erosion and sedimentation, and impacts were largely limited to passive inundation of large bottomland tracts.

Where the floodplain is narrow, the 

meandering river channeioartitions the 

floodplain surface into distinxt segments, each 

almost completely bounded by the river 

channel and the valley sides. These areas, 

locally termed "bottoms," occur as two distinct morphologic types: the loop bottom, a 

relatively small, roughly symmetrical bottomland area bounded by a single, continuously 

curving meander loop, and the long bottom, 

a larger, roughly rectilinear segment bounded 

by a straight channel reach that typically runs 

along the valley wall. Of the two, the loop 

bottom is much more prone to severe and 

extensive flood-induced scour and 

deposition.

An important characteristic of the Missouri River, like all meandering rivers, is the 

migration of its meandering channel and the 

associated reworking of its floodplain surface. 

Areas reworked during the past two centuries 

are underlain primarily by channel sand and 

gravel that are capped by only minor 

amounts of overbank silt and clay. Thus, they 

provide relatively poor foundations for agricultural levees, and levees located in these 

areas are more prone to catastrophic failure. 

On average, areas reworked during this time 

form approximately one-third of the floodplain; however, most loop bottoms have been 

almost completely reworked.

The downstream gradients of most loop 

bottoms are significantly steeper than the 

average downstream gradient of the floodplain. These steeper gradients are produced 

when fast-moving water overflows the 

upstream margins of meander loops, building 

thick sand deposits. In contrast, the downstream positions of loop bottoms are usually 

flooded much more passively. Where the 

overflows have been concentrated by levee 

failures, die more energetic of them also 

cause extensive scour; if they are channeled 

along existing depressions, these sedimentladen high-energy flows can transport large 

quantities of coarse sand and gravel more 

than 1.6 kilometers from the river channel. In 

contrast, the downstream portions of loop

Landsat Thematic Mapper satellite image showing post-1993 flood conditions near 

Glasgow, Mo. River flow at this time was approximately 8 percent of the flow during 

peak flood conditions. Nine large levee failures occurred in the area of this scene during 

the 1993 floods. Associated areas of thick to moderately thick sand deposits (generally 

greater than 15 centimeters thick) are shown as white areas on this image. Date of 

acquisition December 7, 1993.

through Natural Hazards Research 15
Annotated Landsat Thematic Mapper satellite image summarizing the principal impacts of 

the 1993 floods in the area near Glasgow, Mo. Areas buried by significant thicknesses of 

sand are shown in white, the main stem channel of the Missouri River is shown in gray, 

and other areas of flooding are shown in black.

bottoms are usually flooded much more passively. Where they are unprotected by levees, 

these downstream areas (being lower than the 

average level of the floodplain) are flooded 

first by backwater overflow. This relatively 

passive backwater flooding does not transport 

bedload efficiently; thus, deposits from this 

flooding are generally thin and widely 

dispersed.

Floodplain Flow-Energy 

Zones

T

he floodplains of the lower Missouri and 

middle Mississippi Rivers can be divided 

into at least four flow-energy zones: (1) the 

active river channel (artificially constrained 

into a relatively deep, narrow channel by the 

engineered structures of the present navigation channel system), (2) the active highenergy floodplain (the land surface adjacent 

to the existing river channel constructed primarily by the river in both its natural and 

structurally controlled regimes), (3) the lowenergy floodplain (one or more river terraces 

marginal to the active floodplain area that 

represent older, higher levels of the river valley), and (4) the highest river terraces (not 

inundated by the 1993 floods and at least 

10,000 years old). Where the floodplain is 

narrow, the active channel and high-energy 

zones occupy most of the floodplain surface; 

where the floodplain is wide, the low-energy 

zones typically predominate. These natural 

floodplain zones were impacted differently by 

the 1993 floods, when the high-energy floodplain was actively flooded to depths of 3 to 6 

meters, and extensive areas of deep scour and 

of thick sand deposition were created by local 

concentration of the rapidly flowing flood 

water. All other areas were much less significantly affected.

Levee-Induced Scour and 

Sedimentation Effects

E

xperience from the 1993 flooding 

suggests that the present system of levee 

protection along the lower Missouri River is 

not working. During the 1993 flood, levee

16 Touching the Lives of Every Citizen Every Day.
breaks in agricultural areas focused flood-flow 

energy at hundreds of sites and caused 

extraordinary levee damage, deep scour, and 

extensive sand deposition on the floodplain. 

Locally, breaches through railway embankments and flow diversions around railroad 

and highway bridges also acted to focus 

flood-flow energy and thereby added to the 

scour and deposition problem. On average, 

approximately 5 to 7 percent of the floodplain (5,000 to 7,000 hectares) between Glasgow and St. Louis, Mo., was seriously affected 

by these processes.

More than 90 percent of this damage 

was directly related to levee breaches in the 

high-energy zone. Scour holes, locally known 

as "blow holes" or "blew holes," were eroded 

into the floodplain by the high-intensity flood 

scour associated with these levee breaches. 

The larger holes are as much as 500 meters 

wide and 1,000 meters long. These holes typically attain their greatest depths (as much as 

16 meters) just at the levee break. Stripped 

zones, locally cutting completely through the 

tilled zones of these rich agricultural lands, 

formed immediately downstream of the deep 

scour holes. Within these zones, which locally 

extend as far as 1.6 kilometers downstream 

from the largest breaches, shallow parallel 

channels and grooves as much as 1.5 meters 

deep and scattered scour holes as much as 4 

meters deep and 60 meters long mark the 

locations of major flow paths.

Extensive thick deposits resulting from 

the 1993 flood are generally located downstream from large levee breaches within the 

high-energy floodplain zone. Moderately 

thick to thick sand deposits locally cover 

more than 30 percent of the floodplain in 

some bottomland areas. In contrast, moderate 

to thick flood deposits cover less than 5 percent of the floodplain along most other 

reaches. Deposits related to levee breaches 

are thick enough to conceal preexisting features of the floodplain surface. At the downstream margins of the scour zones associated 

with these breaches, lobe- to crescent-shaped 

sand sheets as much as 1 to 3 meters thick 

formed where the flood flow fanned out from 

the levee break. In some areas, these deposits 

locally extend as much as several hundred 

meters downstream from the scour zone margin. Less extensive deposits of thick sand 

were laid down in the lee of trees and buildings, in borrow pits adjacent to levees, and 

within the channel's riparian fringe.

J.C. Dohrenwend

is a member of the Scientific Assessment and

Strategy Team and was a member of the

Interagency Floodplain Management

Review Committee. He is an expert in

geological hazards and the applications

of surficial geology, geomorphology, and remote

sensing to hazards and ecosystems analyses.

B.D. Stone

is a member of the Scientific Assessment and

Strategy Team and was a member of the

Interagency Floodplain Management

Review Committee. He is an expert

in Quaternary geologic and geomorphic

mapping and analysis.

The Independence Day 

Flood of 1994

I

n July 1994, parts of Alabama, Florida, and 

Georgia were devastated by floods that 

resulted from rains produced by Tropical 

Storm Alberto. The storm took 33 lives and 

caused property damages of nearly $1 billion. 

Ultimately, a total of 78 counties in the three 

States were declared Federal flood disaster 

areas. Whole communities were inundated by 

floodwaters as numerous streams reached 

peak stages and discharges far greater than 

those of previous known floods. Montezuma 

and Newton, Ga., were almost entirely 

encompassed by floodwater from the Flint 

River. Many municipal, industrial, and private water systems were inundated and rendered unserviceable for several days. In 

Macon, Ga., the municipal water-treatment 

plant was flooded, and about 150,000 people 

were without water for 3 weeks. Highway 

traffic was disrupted as hundreds of bridges 

and culverts were overtopped and, in many 

cases, washed out. Roughly 1,000 bridges 

were closed during the flooding, and about 

500 remained closed for several more days 

while temporary repairs were made. Stretches 

of Interstates 75 and 16 were closed for several days, and preliminary estimates of road 

and bridge damage in Georgia were about 

$130 million. Numerous dams failed, emptying recreational lakes and farm ponds. In 

Albany, Ga., sinkholes formed in some areas 

underlain by cavernous limestone, resulting 

in the destruction or condemnation of numerous homes. Thousands of acres of crops

For more information on the upper 

Mississippi River basin, contact 

J.C. Dohrenwend at:

Telephone: (415) 329-5432 

Fax: (415)329-5490 

Internet: dohren@mojave.wr.usgs.gov

OR

B.D. Stone at: 

Telephone: (203) 240-3060

.through Natural Hazards Research 17
Counties declared Federal flood 

disaster areas and streams 

affected by severe flooding in 

Alabama, Florida, and Georgia.

30

Counties Declared as Federal 

Flood Disaster Areas

0 20 40 60 80 KILOMETERS

Subdivision north of Albany, Ga., in floodwater from Kinchafoonee Creek on July 9, 1994.

were damaged or destroyed by rain and 

floodwater. About 471,000 acres of farmland 

in Georgia were affected by the flood; estimated damages were about $100 million.

The death and suffering caused by this 

storm serve to emphasize once again the high 

cost exacted in life and property by flood 

disasters and the attendant importance of preparing for, monitoring, and documenting 

such occurrences.

Tropical Storm Alberto grew from a 

tropical depression that formed off the western coast of Cuba in the Gulf of Mexico on 

June 30. Alberto first came over land on the 

morning of July 3 near Fort Walton Beach, 

Fla. Once ashore, the storm rapidly lost 

energy and was downgraded to a tropical 

depression by that afternoon. The remnants 

of Alberto drifted north to just west of 

Atlanta, Ga., early on July 5, changed course, 

and moved slowly in a southwesterly direction before dissipating on July 7. Slow movement of the storm and abundant tropical 

moisture combined to help produce historical 

rainfalls. Storm rainfall totals greater than 

13 inches were common in areas of Florida, 

Alabama, and Georgia. The highest total

18 Touching the Lives of Every Citizen Every Day..
rainfall of 27.6 inches (July 3-7) and the highest 24-hour rainfall of 21.1 inches (24-hour 

period that ended at 7 a.m. on July 6) were 

recorded in Americus, Ga. The total rainfall 

for Americus was about 0.6 percent of the 

area's mean annual rainfall, and the 24-hour 

high was nearly 2.5 times greater than the 

area's estimated 100-year recurrence-interval 

unit for 24-hour rainfall.

The floods that resulted from Tropical 

Storm Alberto were no less remarkable than 

the rainfall that caused them. On the night of 

July 4 and the morning of July 5, damaging 

flash floods ranged from the southern suburbs 

of Atlanta to Macon. The peak discharge at 

the streamflow-gaging station on Line Creek 

near Senoia, Ga., which has its headwaters 

near Atlanta, was 2.4 times the 100-year 

recurrence-interval flood discharge. The maximum stage at the Senoia gage was 5.2 feet 

higher than any other recorded during its 30 

years of operation. As the rains moved south 

on the night of July 5 and the morning of July 

6, more destructive flash flooding occurred in 

the Americus area. Muckalee Creek at 

Americus, which probably had been affected 

by undetermined amounts of water released 

as a result of local dam failures, peaked on 

July 6 at a discharge about 4.0 times larger 

than the 100-year flood discharge. About 20 

miles south of Americus, a peak discharge 1.4 

times larger than the 100-year flood discharge 

was recorded on July 7 at the streamflowgaging station on Kinchafoonee Creek near 

Dawson, Ga.

As the floodwaters on small streams 

merged and moved downstream, larger 

streams, such as the Flint and the Ocmulgee 

Rivers in Georgia and the Choctawhatchee 

River in Alabama and Florida, surpassed the 

100-year recurrence-interval flood discharges. 

The most widespread flooding was in the 

Flint and the Ocmulgee River basins in Georgia; floods equaled or were greater than the 

100-year recurrence-interval discharge along 

almost their entire lengths. Floods equal to or 

greater than 100-year recurrence-interval discharges were recorded at all Flint River 

streamflow-gaging stations from Lovejoy, 

Ga., about 20 miles south of Atlanta, to Bainbridge, Ga., about 2.9 miles upstream of its 

confluence with the Chattahoochee River at 

the southwestern corner of the State. At the 

streamflow-gaging station at Montezuma, the 

Flint River peaked on July 8 at a stage 6.7 feet 

higher than the 1929 flood, which had been 

the largest flood of this century. Floods on the 

Ocmulgee River were greater than the 100- 

year recurrence-interval discharge from JuliSinkhole that formed in an Albany, Ga., cemetery in the aftermath of flooding from 

Tropical Storm Alberto.

Dwelling in Albany, Ca., in floodwaters from the Flint River on July 14, 1994.

ette, Ga., which is about 20 miles north of 

Macon, to Jacksonville, Ga., which is about 

50 miles upstream from its confluence with 

the Oconee River.

U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) personnel monitored and reported stream conditions from the onset of the storm until 

floodwaters receded. Stream-stage and flow 

information was gathered and reported to the 

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, the National 

Weather Service, the Federal Emergency

A 100-year recurrence interval means 

that an event has a 1 

percent chance of occurring in any given year.

. .through Natural Hazards Research 19
analyzed in the aftermath of the flood will be 

valuable in guiding wise land use and minimizing the effects of future floods.

Timothy W. Hale

has extensive experience in the collection 

and analysis of surface-water data.

Timothy C. Stamey

is a surface-water specialist who has 22 years

of experience in the collection of surface-water

data and the hydraulic analysis of stream systems.

Dwellings in Albany, Ca., damaged by floodwater from the Flint River.

For more information on the Independence 

Day flood, contact Timothy Hale at:

Telephone: (404)903-9100

Internet: twhale@fs1 dgadrv.er.usgs.gov

Management Agency, the Federal Highway 

Administration, various State naturalresource and highway departments, electrical 

power companies, and numerous county and 

city officials as they worked to minimize loss 

of life and property. The flooding was so 

severe and widespread that 17 streamflowgaging stations were heavily damaged or 

destroyed; thus, much of the necessary data 

had to be gathered manually and reported by 

cellular telephone. At the height of the flooding, nearly 40 USGS personnel were working 

in the field to provide hydrologic information 

vital to protecting lives and property.

Even with the superb effort to collect 

current hydrologic information during the 

flood, it was impossible to visit every site 

where data were needed. In some instances, 

bridges and roadways were inundated, and 

floodwaters were too dangerous to risk working from boats. In other cases, personnel simply could not get to the point of interest 

before the floodwater receded. Immediately 

following the flood, field crews were dispatched to flag high-water marks along major 

rivers and many of their tributaries so that 

flood profiles could be determined and indirect determinations of peak discharge at key 

locations could be computed. Reconstruction 

of gaging stations and followup fieldwork 

continued well into the fall of 1994. The 

hydrologic information collected and

Debris-Flow Hazards 

at Mount Rainier

D

ebris flows pose significant hydrologic 

hazards on and near volcanoes in the 

Pacific Northwest. Debris flows are destructive, churning masses of water, rock, and mud 

that travel rapidly down river valleys. They 

typically contain as much as 65 to 70 percent 

rock and soil by volume and have the appearance of wet concrete. Assessment of debrisflow hazards has been a key activity for U.S. 

Geological Survey (USGS) hydrologists. 

Debris-flow hazards near Mount Rainier, 

Wash., have been of particular concern 

because of the volcano's proximity to the 

densely populated Puget Sound region. The 

volcano also lies at the heart of frequently visited Mount Rainier National Park, so visitor 

safety is of further concern.

USGS investigations of giant debris 

flows originating at Mount Rainier have 

provided key natural-hazards information to public officials charged with 

developing comprehensive, long-term 

land-use plans. A preliminary report that 

can be consulted is Open-File Report 

90-385, Sedimentology, Behavior, and 

Hazards of Debris Flows at Mount Rainier. A source of more information about 

glacier-generated debris flows at Mount 

Rainier is Water-Resources Investigations Report 93-4093, Ceomorphic 

Change Caused by Outburst Floods and 

Debris Flows at Mount Rainier, Washington, with Emphasis on Tahoma Creek 

Valley.

20 Touching the Lives of Every Citizen Every Day...
Debris flows at Mount Rainier vary tremendously in size and may form by various 

processes. The smallest but most frequent 

ones begin as glacial outburst floods. Outburst floods originate when water stored at 

the base of glaciers or within pockets in glacier ice is suddenly released. Outburst floods 

have been recorded from four glaciers on 

Mount Rainier-the Nisqually, Kautz, South 

Tahoma, and Winthrop Glaciers. By far the 

most prolific producer of outburst floods, the 

South Tahoma Glacier released 15 between 

1986 and 1992. Outburst floods from the 

South Tahoma Glacier occur during periods 

of unusually hot or rainy weather in summer 

or early autumn and are apparently caused 

by rapid input of meltwater or rainwater to 

the base of the glacier. The exact timing of 

such outburst floods is unpredictable, 

however.

Outburst floods become debris flows by 

incorporating large quantities of sediment 

from valley floors and walls, usually by triggering small landslides that mix with the 

floodwaters. Glacier-generated debris flows at 

Mount Rainier travel downstream at speeds 

of 10 to 20 miles per hour and have steep, 

bouldery snouts (30-60 feet high in the most 

constricted parts of a stream valley) followed 

by a churning mass of mud, rock, and vegetation. Their deafening noise is often accompanied by strong local wind, thick dust clouds, 

and violent ground shaking. These debris 

flows usually follow stream channels, but 

their exact paths are unpredictable. The

flow's bouldery snout commonly clogs the 

stream channel; the moving mass behind the 

snout then overtops the stream banks and 

cuts a new channel, perhaps through forest or 

across trails and roads. Debris flows that originate as outburst floods have repeatedly 

destroyed or damaged roads and facilities in 

Mount Rainier National Park. Out of concern 

for visitors' safety and guided by the results of 

USGS investigations, park managers have 

restricted access to certain areas.

Two sorts of giant but infrequent debris 

flows originating from Mount Rainier pose 

hazards well beyond the National Park 

boundaries. USGS investigations of these

Partially buried table at the picnic 

ground alongside Tahoma Creek 

at Mount Rainier after debris flow 

in the fall of 1986. All traces of 

the picnic ground have since 

been obliterated.

little Tahoma Peak Summit cone

Wr

 ' .'**' Steamboat Prow. ' V

View of the eastern side of 

Mount Rainier showing the 

source area of the Osceola 

Mudflow. The crater left by the 

removal of 0.7 cubic mile of the 

volcanic edifice was later filled 

by volcanic deposits that form 

the present-day summit cone. 

The Osceola Mudflow overran 

Steamboat Prow as it flowed. 

Rock debris on the lower 

Emmons Glacier came from a 

1963 landslide from Little 

Tahoma Peak.

through Natural Hazards Research 21
Because Mount 

Rainier poses a significant hazard to life and 

property in the surrounding heavily populated 

areas (particularly in the 

Seattle/Tacoma metropolitan area), the 

volcano has been designated as a Decade 

Volcano as part of the 

International Decade for 

Natural Hazard Reduction. The USCS has 

begun a multidisciplinary assessment of 

natural hazards associated with the volcano for 

use in developing effective mitigation actions.

For more information on debris-flow 

hazards at Mount Rainier, contact Joseph 

Walder at:

Telephone: (360) 696-7693 

Internet: jswalder@pwavan.wr. 

usgs.gov

giant debris flows have focused on estimating 

their frequency and determining the areas 

likely to be inundated when such flows occur. 

The largest of these debris flows begin as 

enormous landslides. Hot, chemical-laden 

ground water that circulates through a volcano's interior alters the rock to a weak, clayrich form. Such weakened rock may break 

away from the rest of the volcano, particularly during a volcanic eruption. The landslide that produced the enormous Osceola 

Mudflow 5,700 years ago removed 0.7 cubic 

mile of rock from the summit of Mount Rainier. Events of this sort have occurred, on average, about once every 500 to 1,000 years and 

produced debris flows that reached the lowland around Puget Sound, inundating nowpopulated areas near Tacoma and Seattle.

Giant debris flows also form during volcanic eruptions when hot rock avalanches 

move down the volcano's flanks and incorporate snow and glacier ice. Debris flows 

formed in this way occur on average about 

once every 100 to 500 years at Mount Rainier. Although not all are mobile enough to 

reach the Puget Sound lowland, they do inundate presently populated areas in river valleys 

radiating from Mount Rainier.

Along with carrying out scientific studies 

of potential volcanic debris-flow hazards in 

the Cascade Range of Washington, Oregon, 

and California, a key goal of USGS investigators is to prepare hazards assessments that 

can be used by public officials who are concerned with land-use planning and emergency services. Concise summary reports 

aimed at nonspecialist audiences, along with 

maps that delineate types and frequency of 

debris-flow hazards, are being prepared. Spatial data will be made available in forms 

readily accessible to users of geographic 

information systems.

Joseph S. Walder

has worked at the Cascades Volcano Observatory

since 1989, focusing on glaciologicalprocesses

and hazards on volcanoes.

Comet Collision With 

Jupiter

D

iscovery of Periodic Comet ShoemakerLevy 9, which collided with Jupiter in 

July 1994, was one of the more spectacular 

results of a detailed, long-term, telescopic survey of the night sky by U.S. Geological 

Survey (USGS) geologist Eugene M. Shoemaker and two USGS volunteers, Carolyn S. 

Shoemaker and David H. Levy, at Palomar 

Observatory in California.

The Palomar Asteroid and Comet 

Survey was begun in 1983 to improve the statistical base for the study of planet-crossing 

asteroids, particularly Earth crossers, and 

comets. Gene had long been involved in 

research concerning impact craters on Earth, 

the other terrestrial planets, and the satellites 

of the solar system, but little was known 

about the populations of the planet-crossing 

asteroids and comets that produced these craters. He had begun his research on impact 

and crater formation by working on nuclear 

craters at the Nevada Test Site, followed by 

geologic mapping at Meteor Crater in Arizona. In succeeding years, he extended his 

work to lunar cratering problems and lunar 

geology in the Ranger, Surveyor, and Apollo 

missions and then studied cratering on the 

moons of the outer planets during the \foyager missions. To evaluate the ages of geologic units on these distant bodies, it was 

necessary to estimate the flux of asteroids and 

comets in their neighborhoods and the rate at 

which these cosmic bullets produce craters.

An ideal instrument to use in searching 

for these objects is the Palomar 18-inch 

Schmidt telescope. This photographic instrument is capable of covering 60 square degrees 

of sky in a single exposure. The USGS team 

spends 7 nights a month, 11 months of the 

year, observing with the 18-inch Schmidt. 

Over the years, techniques for searching the 

sky have improved steadily. Four-minute 

exposures evolved to 6 and then 8 as new, 

finer grained films were used. At first, on a 

long winter's night, as many as 96 exposures 

were taken. In recent years, that pace has 

slowed to about 60 somewhat longer exposures. The number of planet-crossing asteroids and comets discovered has gradually 

increased.

After each observing run at Palomar, the 

team returns to Flagstaff, where the films are 

scanned with a stereomicroscope, and the 

positions on the sky of objects of interest are 

measured. The orbits of discovered objects 

are used to calculate the probability that they 

will collide with the planets and satellites, and 

populations and impact cratering rates are 

estimated from the number of objects discovered per unit area of sky photographed.

By the winter of 1993, 29 comets and 

44 Earth-approaching asteroids had been 

discovered in the project; at present, the total

22 Touching the Lives off Every Citizen Every Day.
number of newly discovered comets found by 

the Palomar Asteroid and Comet Survey 

stands at 33.

The winter of 1993 was a difficult one at 

Palomar. Stormy weather occurred throughout the world, and Palomar was not exempt. 

In January and February, very few films were 

taken because of rain and clouds. March 

proved no exception and, after the first clear 

night, promised to be almost a "wipeout." 

The Shoemakers, Levy, and a visiting astronomer from France, Philippe Bendjoya, were 

more than a little discouraged the second 

night when a storm approached after observations had barely started. Because films are 

taken in sets of four fields that are then 

repeated to give pairs suitable for stereoscopic examination, a set must be completed 

for anything to be discovered. Two sets were 

down, and a third was started as clouds began 

to cover the sky. Persistence paid off when the 

observers shot through the "holes" in the 

clouds and finished the last half of the third 

set. To take that set, they had used marginal 

film, which was partially light struck as a 

result of the film storage box having been 

opened accidentally in Flagstaff. Had the film 

not been damaged, it would not have been 

"wasted" on a dubious sky. Two days later in 

late afternoon, after scanning all the other 

films, Carolyn started looking at the pairs 

from the damaged film. While scanning a 

field with Jupiter on it, she came across a 

most unusual-looking comet, which was bar 

shaped and had a coma, tail, and wings, 

unlike the usual round comet, which has a 

coma and tail. The team telephoned Jim 

Scotti, who was observing on the Spacewatch

USGS volunteer Carolyn Shoemaker

discovered her first comet in the fall of 

1983. With her discovery of five more 

comets in 1984, she established a new 

record for the rate of comet discovery 

from a ground-based telescope. In 1987, 

retired USGS geologist Henry Holt 

joined the project as a volunteer. In the 

following years, he discovered numerous asteroids, including one that passed 

extremely close to Earth. In 1989, author 

and amateur astronomer David Levy 

became a volunteer in the project. The 

comet project would not have been able 

to continue without the time and effort 

of these dedicated Volunteers for 

Science.

Time sequence of plume rising above the limb of Jupiter from the impact of fragment G, 

the largest fragment of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9. The impact occurred on July 18, 1994, 

at 7:28 UT; minutes later, the first hint of the fireball of superheated gases appeared 

above the shadow of Jupiter (shown as the dark band separating it from the limb of the 

planet). It rose to a height of almost 3,000 kilometers before it collapsed into a thin 

stratospheric pancake. The top image was taken at 7:33 UT in the methane band, the 

second at 7:38 UT in the red, the third at 7:41 UT in the green, the fourth at 7:44 UT in 

the blue, and the last at 7:51 UT in the violet.

. .through Natural Hazards Research 23
Eo

Two views of the impact zone on Jupiter of fragment G of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9. The image on the left 

was made in green light with the Planetary Camera channel of the Wide Field Planetary Camera 2 

(WFPC2). The image on the right is the same field taken through the WFPC2 methane filter. Data for the 

images were obtained in the early morning hours of July 18, 1994. The impact site is visible as a complex 

pattern of circles seen in the lower left of the partial planet image. The small, dark feature to the left of the 

pattern of circles is the impact site of fragment D. The dark, sharp ring at the site of the fragment G impact 

is 80 percent of the size of the Earth. The comet broke up into 21 fragments during a close passage by 

Jupiter in July 1992. Fragment G was one of the brightest and likely the largest of the 21 fragments. The 

remaining fragments continued to impact Jupiter through July 22, 1994. Scientists estimate that the 

combined energy from all the impacts approached the equivalent of 40 million megatons of TNT. Jupiter 

was approximately 477 million miles from Earth when the image was taken.

Jupiter as photographed by the 

Hubble Space Telescope's 

Planetary Camera. Eight impact 

sites are visible. From left to right 

are the E/F complex (barely 

visible on the edge of the planet), 

the star-shaped H site, the impact 

sites for tiny N, Q1, small Q2, 

and R, and, on the far right limb, 

the D/G complex. The D/G 

complex also shows extended 

haze at the edge of the planet. 

The features evolved rapidly on 

time scales of days. The smallest 

features in this image are less 

than 200 kilometers across. This 

image is a color composite from 

three filters at 9530, 5550, and 

4100 angstroms.

m Q

35

£25 *5 

§1

II

85

il

24 Touching the Lives of Every Citizen Every Day...
telescope at Kitt Peak in Arizona. By that 

time, snow was beginning to fall on Palomar, 

but Scotti was not yet clouded out. With his 

more powerful telescope, he was able to confirm the comet and said that he could see five 

separate comets lined up in a bar with wings 

of dust. This comet was 19 9 3e, to become 

known as Periodic Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9, 

for it was the ninth periodic (orbit less than 

200 years) comet discovered by the team of 

the Shoemakers and Levy.

Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 held three 

surprises for its discoverers and the rest of the 

world: (1) it was completely disrupted, its 21 

visible fragments lined up like "a string of 

pearls," as David Jewitt noted in Hawaii; (2) it 

was captured in orbit about Jupiter; and (3) it 

was to impact Jupiter a little more than a year 

after its discovery. Never before had a comet 

been seen so completely disrupted as this 

one. It had been broken up by tidal forces 

during a passage very near Jupiter on July 7, 

1992. In addition, never before had any 

comet been seen in orbit about a planet, 

although two comets had been found shortly 

after escape from temporary orbit about Jupiter. More important, never before had any 

asteroid or comet been predicted to impact a 

planet. Not only the team but also scientists 

from many different fields and much of the 

lay world were elated at the possibility of 

observing and learning from this collision.

More important, never before had

any asteroid or comet been 

predicted to impact a planet.

The "Great Crash of 1994" commenced 

on July 16 and ended on July 22 as large fragments of Shoemaker-Levy impacted Jupiter 

about every 7 to 9 hours. The size of the original comet and the sizes of the individual fragments were not known with any degree of 

certainty because of telescopic limitations. A 

major assist came from the Hubble Space 

Telescope, which was trained on the comet 

during July 1993 in hopes of being able to 

determine the sizes of the nuclei. Preliminary 

estimates of the sizes of the brightest nuclei 

were made, but uncertainties remained 

because of the dust cloud surrounding each

one. Further observations were made with the 

space telescope after its repair in December, 

and improved images of the train of nuclei 

and of individual nuclei were taken up to a 

few hours before impact. Nevertheless, the 

exact sizes remained uncertain. Several scientific teams interested in the dynamics of 

impact modeled the impact of various-sized 

fragments on the basis of a variety of assumptions. One of those groups involving Gene 

and USGS geologist David Roddy worked 

with Paul Hassig of the Titan Corporation to 

carry out numerical modeling of the explosions. They obtained a prediction for a plume 

produced by a 1-kilometer body having the 

density of ice.

Time was reserved on telescopes worldwide so that the impacts could be observed at 

different longitudes depending on impact 

times. Jupiter was observed ahead of time to 

provide a basis for recognizing possible 

changes in the Jovian atmosphere. Amateur 

astronomers were prepared to look for any 

new features large enough to be detected by 

small telescopes. Never before had so many 

eyes been trained on one planet in the same 

week.

Because the comet fragments were to 

impact on the far side of Jupiter just beyond 

the limb, it was uncertain whether any explosion forming a fireball plume rising above the 

limb would be seen. Such an event was 

thought to require at least a 1-kilometer fragment breaking up fairly high in the atmosphere and releasing more energy than the 

world's total arsenal of nuclear weapons. The 

plume from fragment A exceeded expectations, and impacts of the brighter, larger 

nuclei produced even larger plumes, some 

rising nearly 3,000 kilometers above the visible cloudtops. To everyone's surprise, each 

plume produced a huge cloud of dark particles that was readily detectable against the 

bright face of Jupiter. Throughout the week, 

as more collisions occurred and Jupiter 

rotated to reveal the impact sites, the Hubble 

Space Telescope imaged the events along 

with other major telescopes, including the 

South Pole Infrared Explorer, which, weather 

permitting, could observe Jupiter continuously. Reports and images flowed worldwide 

over the Internet computer network; by July 

27, about 2 million images had been taken off 

the Internet by private viewers. ShoemakerLevy 9 had become everyone's comet.

The comet collision occurred at a time 

in the world's history when instrumentation 

and communication were capable of recording and extracting a huge amount of

.through Natural Hazards Research 25
For more information on Shoemaker-Levy 

9, contact Larry Soderblom at:

Telephone: (602) 556-7018 

Internet: lsoderbl@usgs.gov

information. Moreover, the impacts occurred 

when Jupiter was high in the sky and had not 

disappeared in the Sun's glare. In addition, 

although it was on the far side of Jupiter, the 

impact longitude was close to,the limb, where 

the fireballs could be seen to,rise above the 

atmosphere. Since that week in July, astronomers and other scientists have been studying 

the results of that once-in-a-millennium event. 

Those interested in the chemistry of the 

comet as well as the chemistry of Jupiter's 

atmosphere have been hard at work. A surge 

in radio emissions during the impacts and a 

brightening of the auroras.at the poles are 

being studied. Computer modeling of the 

impact dynamics continues. Winds.in Jupiter's atmosphere are spreading out and merging the dark material from the various 

plumes, and the evolution of the dark clouds 

is being monitored closely. The long-term

history of this dark material is especially rele^ 

vant to predicting the effects of comet impact 

on Earth. The dark marks in the Jovian atmosphere have persisted well into October.,

Meanwhile, the USGS team continued 

the search at Palomar and discovered three 

more comets. For Gene and Carolyn Shoemaker, Periodic Comet Shoefnaker:Levy 9 

was die fulfillment of Gene's dream to 

observe an impact and Carolyn's to discover 

the comet of the century. The project at Palomar drew to a close at the end of 1994, but 

new work with other telescopes will begin in 

Flagstaff, Ariz. Much remains to be learned 

about asteroids and comets, cratering in our 

solar system, and the Earth's future.

Carolyn Shoemaker

is a USGS volunteer who discovered 

her first comet in the fall of 1983.

26 Touching the Lives off Every Citizen Every Day.

Population growth and expansion place ever-increasing demands on the Nation's 

renewable and nonrenewable resources, including energy, minerals, water, and 

land. As growth continues, competing needs for land and water are heightened. 

Population expansion into the suburbs, for example, has excluded more and 

more land from resource development, particularly for locally derived resources 

like aggregate, which is used for road building. The need for resources competes 

with other important needs, such as conservation and environmental protection. 

The task of identifying areas that are favorable for the discovery and development 

of renewable and nonrenewable resources is more critical now than ever before. 

In addition, the quality of available resources is an ever-increasing concern, 

whether the resource is energy, minerals, or water. The USGS provides fundamental scientific knowledge on the abundance of natural resources and the environmental consequences of their extraction and use. USGS resource studies are 

commonly integrated with studies on hazards and the environment. The articles 

in this section show some of the various aspects of USGS work in resources, from 

monitoring changes in ground-water levels to looking at the environmental effects 

of resource development. USGS resource studies are also a large component of 

comparative studies in other countries that aid in improved understanding of 

domestic resources.
The Future of Energy 

Gases

Over the course of human history, the 

energy sources that people have used 

have become more efficient and cleaner, 

from biomass (wood or peat) to coal to oil. 

The continuation of that trend can be seen in 

the increased global use of gas, a fuel with 

environmental and economic benefits, 

although coal and oil will almost certainly 

continue to be major sources of energy well 

into the 21st century. The trend will probably 

continue with the development of nonpolluting, renewable energy sources, such as solar 

energy, and various forms of nuclear energy. 

Before societies can achieve the goal of developing cleaner, more efficient sources of 

energy, however, it is likely that the role of 

natural gas in the energy mix will increase.

... it is likely that the role

of natural gas in the energy mix

will increase.

the number of exploratory and development 

wells drilled. Such an increase will produce a 

dilemma, however.

Increased drilling will increase reserves 

and could therefore satisfy demand, but drilling will not increase significantly until the 

price of gas goes up; higher prices could then 

diminish demand. Also, use of natural gas is 

intended to reduce the effects of environmental damage caused by fuel use, but numerous 

wells, many in environmentally sensitive 

areas, will need to be drilled to get adequate 

supplies of natural gas.

Understanding the nature and occurrence of energy gases, therefore, is important 

for two critical issues facing our Nation-the 

economy and the environment. The U.S. 

Geological Survey (USGS) is actively 

involved in research on the origin, abundance, and availability of energy gases. This 

research is pertinent to discussions of the 

future energy mix, global warming, the 

dependence of the Nation on imported fossil 

fuels, and the size of gas reserves, all of which 

are concerns faced daily at local, State, and 

national levels.

What Is Natural Gas?

Natural Gas as a Bridge to 

Future Energy Systems

I

ncreased use of natural gas could help to 

create the infrastructure necessary for the 

use of gaseous fuels. Gaseous fuels may be the 

energy of the future, whether as a natural gas 

or as an energy carrier for a gas such as 

hydrogen. Increasing the use of natural gas 

today could begin development of the infrastructure necessary to carry, store, and use 

gaseous fuels. This use might pave the way 

for the ultimate conversion of the present 

liquid- and solid-based fuel system to a gasbased fuel system. Although many people are 

optimistic about future supplies of natural gas, 

the amount of that supply is still uncertain. 

The current production supply of natural gas 

is running low; in order to maintain production, there must be a significant increase in

TVTatural gas usually refers to methane, 

J. ^1 although small amounts of other hydrocarbon gases such as ethane, propane, and 

butane are also present in natural gas 

mixtures. Methane is the simplest of the 

hydrocarbon molecules one carbon atom 

surrounded by four hydrogen atoms-and 

exists in variable amounts in the Earth's 

atmosphere, water, and rock layers.

Natural processes create methane in 

three different ways. Biogenic gas is expelled 

from microorganisms during the digestion of 

organic compounds; thermogenic gas results 

from the decomposition of organic matter 

when heat and pressure are applied; abiogenic gas is created deep within the Earth's 

crust when crustal gases react with minerals 

or when hydrogen- and carbon-rich primordial gases seep from the Earth's interior. Most 

of the methane that is extracted from large 

natural-gas accumulations found in the 

Earth's crust is believed to be either biogenic 

or thermogenic in origin, although abiogenic 

methane may also be present.

29
Naturally occurring gases in the 

Earth's crust are collectively 

referred to as natural gas. Some of 

these gases are combustible and 

give off heat energy when 

burned; they are collectively 

called energy gases. Energy gases 

typically make up more than 75 

percent of all natural gas and are 

mostly hydrocarbon gases, 

which are compounds composed 

of hydrogen and carbon atoms 

only. The flame represents the 

typical proportions of energy 

gases found in natural gas, shown 

in order of abundance. Methane 

constitutes 80 to 100 percent of 

the volume of energy gases. A 

household flame contains nearly 

100 percent methane.

METHANE 

(CH 4 )

ETHANE 

(C2 H 6 )

PROPANE 

(C3H8)

BUTANE 

(C 4 H 10)

HYDROGEN 

(H 2 )

A

V ENERGY 

f GASES

CO

V

NONCOMBUSTIBLES 

NITROGEN (N 2 ) 

CARBON DIOXIDE (C02 ) 

HYDROGEN SULFIDE (H 2S)

NATURAL 

GAS

Energy Gas Resources

T

he contribution of natural gas to meeting 

the world's primary energy requirements 

will depend ultimately on the availability and 

cost of sufficient supplies to meet growing 

demand. Yet uncertainty and disagreement 

prevail concerning global natural gas 

resources.

Commercial quantities of methane are 

present in many geologic environments, and 

the modern era of exploration for natural gas 

has stimulated the development of new technologies and strategies that expand capabilities to find gas accumulations. The most 

common accumulations of gas are associated 

with oil. Gas often forms a pocket between 

the denser oil below and an impermeable cap 

rock above. Where no natural-gas distribution system is available, gas produced in association with oil is often considered a nuisance. 

In many countries, if gas cannot be used as a 

fuel source for field operations, it is often 

vented or flared. In the United States, gas is 

almost never flared but is reinjected to maintain reservoir pressure.

Other natural-gas accumulations are 

termed unconventional, because gas in these 

accumulations either is more expensive to 

extract than gas found in conventional

settings associated with oil or requires new 

technologies for extraction. For instance, gas 

that accumulates where reservoir rock permeability is low is referred to as tight gas. In this 

type of reservoir, there may be large pore 

spaces to hold gas, but, because there is little 

if any connection between the pore spaces, 

the flow of gas to the well bore is greatly 

restricted. Because tight gas is widely disseminated, usually without well-defined boundaries, and is difficult to extract, its ultimate 

resource potential remains uncertain.

Coal-bed gas is another unconventional 

resource. Coal is carbon-rich, woody terrestrial plant material that has been compressed 

and transformed. A byproduct of this transformation is methane, and its presence in coal 

beds is one of the greatest dangers to underground mining at high concentrations in 

mines, methane causes explosions. By 

extracting coal-bed gas before mining, the 

potential danger is reduced and an energy 

resource gained.

Another source of unconventional natural gas that has attracted attention is deep gas, 

which is located in rocks at depths greater 

than 4,000 meters and may represent a potential supply. Methane remains stable at depth, 

whereas oil tends to concentrate in more shallow parts of the crust, either because it has 

been pushed upward by the gas or because it

30 Touching the Lives of Every Citizen Every Day...
PERCENTAGE 

OF TOTAL U.S.

ENERGY 

CONSUMPTION

ELECTRICITY 

GENERATION

TRANSPORTATION 

HOUSEHOLD/COMMERCIAL

ECONOMIC INDUSTRIAL 

SECTORS

PETROLEUM

COAL

HYDRO 

NATURAL GAS

PRIMARY ENERGY 

SOURCES

Total energy consumption in 

1991 for the United States by 

economic sector (left scale) and 

energy source (right scale). The 

Nation's largest share of energy is 

consumed during electricity 

generation, predominantly by 

coal-fired steam plants. 

Transportation, the second largest 

energy-consuming sector, 

depends heavily on gasoline, 

diesel, and aviation fuels, which 

are refined from crude oil 

(petroleum). Technological 

developments that lead to greater 

efficiency of energy consumption 

during electricity generation and 

transportation will substantially 

lessen the Nation's total energy 

requirement.

breaks down at the high temperatures found 

at depths greater than about 5 kilometers. 

Also, as pressure increases, gas compresses; 

compression results in more energy per unit 

volume and, therefore, may enhance the 

desirability of deep exploration.

Gas is also trapped in media other than 

rock. In shallow crustal horizons, enormous 

volumes of gas can be dissolved in brines. 

Although most scientists think brine gas is 

uneconomic, like the vast quantities of gold 

dissolved in sea water, local circumstances 

and ingenuity may combine to give such gas 

limited economic potential.

Gas trapped in the atomic lattice of 

water ice is another unexplored, unconventional resource. These so-called hydrates look 

like dry ice, but hydrates will burn. Although 

huge quantities of gas exist in hydrate form, 

the commercial value of this gas source is yet 

to be demonstrated. Recent studies suggest 

that more than 100 million trillion cubic feet 

of methane exists in gas hydrates worldwide; 

the potential resource may be as much as 

700,000 trillion cubic feet. This amount represents about 10,000 times more gas than the 

global natural-gas consumption in 1990, a 

truly immense quantity. There is, therefore, 

great incentive to learn more about methane 

in gas hydrates and the technology required 

to develop it.

Natural Gas and the 

Environment

A

t present, approximately 90 percent of 

all energy consumed in the United 

States comes from burning fossil fuels. The 

remainder comes from nuclear and hydroelectric power and small amounts of geothermal, wind, and solar power. When fossil fuels 

burn, the carbon-hydrogen bonds are broken, 

and heat is released. Carbon combines with 

atmospheric oxygen to form carbon dioxide 

(CO2J, which is released to the atmosphere, 

while the hydrogen atoms combine with oxygen to form water vapor. Because of its lower 

carbon content, methane combustion produces roughly one-half the CC>2 emissions of 

coal and about two-thirds as much CO2 as oil 

while delivering the same amount of thermal 

energy.

Carbon dioxide and water vapor are the 

two most abundant greenhouse gases. These 

gases, which also include methane, ozone, 

nitrogen oxides (NOX), carbon monoxide, 

and chlorofluorocarbons (CFC's), linger in 

the atmosphere, where they can affect the 

temperature of the Earth's surface as well as 

cause other effects. Short-wavelength energy 

from the Sun passes through the atmosphere 

and reaches the Earth, but the greenhouse

In 1993, the U.S. 

Geological Survey 

assembled a team of 

senior scientists for a 

major study on the role 

of energy gases in the 

Nation's energy mix. 

The "Energy Gases 

Team" produced a series 

of three publications 

under the umbrella title 

The Future of Energy 

Cases, describing the 

origin, distribution, 

development, and use of 

natural gases. The series 

consists of Professional 

Paper 1570, which is 

technical in content; the 

colorfully illustrated Circular 1115, written in 

nontechnical language; 

and a 30-minute video 

appropriate for general 

audiences. The results of 

the study are summarized in this article.

.through Natural Resources Lavestigations 31
For more information on energy gases, 

contact David Howell at:

Telephone: (415)329-5430 

Internet: ' dhowell@usgs.gov

gases prevent some of the longer wavelength 

reradiated energy from escaping back into 

space. By absorbing some of this outgoing 

radiation, the greenhouse effect keeps the 

planet warm and comfortable. Recent concern is focused on manmade changes in the 

composition and concentration of greenhouse 

gases that may cause overheating of the 

planet, or global warming.

Since the industrial revolution, the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere has 

increased by about 25 percent, largely 

because of the increased output of CO2 

caused by burning fossil fuels. To reduce the 

human contribution of greenhouse gases to 

the atmosphere, it has been suggested that we 

should replace high-carbon fuels with low- or 

zero-carbon forms of energy. In this respect, 

natural gas may be a significant improvement 

over coal and oil, although the relative efficiencies and cleanliness of the technologies 

consuming the fuels are also important. However, cessation of fossil-fuel burning would 

not immediately affect the atmosphere. 

Because the residence time of CO2 in the 

atmosphere is estimated to be several hundred years, reducing the CO2 overload will 

be a very slow process.

Methane is also a greenhouse gas, 

roughly 25 times more potent than CO2- In 

contrast to CO2, however, methane has a 

short residence time in the atmosphere. Like 

CO2, the amount of atmospheric methane is 

increasing at an exponential rate. Its sources 

are poorly quantified, but about one-third is 

emitted from natural sources such as wetlands, volcanic regions, termites, and decomposition of methane hydrates. Of the 

remaining two-thirds, more than half comes 

from agricultural activities (rice paddies and 

cattle), and the rest comes from petroleum 

activities, biomass burning, and landfills.

The geologic factors governing the generation, migration, and entrapment of energy 

gases are complex and are ongoing research 

endeavors of the USGS. In addition, the 

USGS gathers information on the size and 

nature of these accumulations, which also 

contributes to a basic understanding of the 

Nation's energy gas resources. Methane, the 

most important energy gas, is formed in 

many ways in nature and is an intrinsic part 

of the natural environment. However, only 

under certain conditions is the gas trapped 

within the Earth's crust in sufficient quantities 

to allow economic recovery. Moreover, by 

gathering geologic data on methane emissions and by studying the geologic aspects of 

global climate, the USGS provides information that can be used in developing national 

policies on environmental issues.

Monitoring the High

r IF^he High Plains aquifer underlies one of 

JL the major agricultural areas in the United 

States. About 20 percent of the irrigated land 

in the United States is in the High Plains, and 

nearly 30 percent of the ground water used 

for irrigation in the United States is pumped 

from the High Plains aquifer. The aquifer 

underlies about 174,050 square miles in Colorado, Kansas, Nebraska, New Mexico, Oklahoma, South Dakota, Texas, and Wyoming. 

Water levels in some parts of the High 

Plains aquifer declined as much as 100 feet 

from the start of widespread irrigated agriculture (about 1940) to 1980. These declines and 

continued irrigation development in the 

region led in 1988 to a U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) program to monitor annual 

water-level changes in the High Plains aquifer. As stated in the Omnibus Water 

Resources Development Act of 1986 (Public 

Law 99-662), the USGS in cooperation 

".. .with the States of the High Plains region is 

authorized and directed to monitor the water 

levels of the Ogallala [High Plains] aquifer, 

and report annually to Congress."

Water levels in some parts of the

High Plains aquifer declined as

much as 100feet from the start of

widespread irrigated agriculture

(about 1940) to 19 80... and led

in 1988 to a U.S. Geological

Survey program to monitor

annual water-level changes in

the High Plains aquifer.

Although this aquifer is known as the 

Ogallala aquifer, the different geologic units

32 Touching the Lives of Every Citizen Every Day.
and ages of the deposits that constitute the 

aquifer necessitated a more inclusive 

designation. The High Plains aquifer consists 

mainly of one or more hydraulically connected geologic units of late Tertiary or 

Quaternary age; the Ogallala Formation 

generally is the principal unit. The average 

saturated thickness was about 190 feet in 1980 

but exceeded 1,000 feet in north-central 

Nebraska. About 66 percent of the estimated 

drainable water in storage by volume in the 

High Plains aquifer in 1980 (3,250 million 

acre feet) was in Nebraska.

Water levels in the High Plains aquifer 

are monitored through an extensive observation-well network. This network comprises 

many smaller networks of observation wells 

maintained by Federal, State, and local agencies. Local water and natural-resource conservation districts are responsible for the largest 

number of the observation wells within these 

networks. The USGS Water Resource Districts are responsible for compiling waterlevel data from various local networks and 

maintaining the water-level database in most 

of the High Plains States.

The observation wells are, for the most 

part, privately owned irrigation wells that are 

well suited for monitoring water-level change 

because their large diameters and large 

pumping capacities make them less prone to 

plugging. Water-level measurements in the 

High Plains usually are made during winter 

and early spring when water levels generally 

have recovered fully from pumping during 

the previous irrigation season and represent 

the highest water levels during the year. A 

small number of specially designed observation wells are equipped with recording 

devices for continuous monitoring of water 

levels in critical areas.

The High Plains water-level monitoring 

network changes from year to year. A small 

number of wells are lost from the network 

each year as a result of well failures (collapsing or plugging) and are not replaceable. In 

some areas, however, additional observation 

wells are added to better define local waterlevel changes. Between 1980 and 1993, waterlevel changes in the High Plains aquifer were 

based on measurements from 6,206 wells. 

Observation wells added to the network after 

1980 permitted water-level change from 1992 

to 1993 to be based on observations from 

8,053 wells.

Water-level declines were substantial in 

several areas of the High Plains before 1980. 

The estimated average area-weighted waterlevel decline from predevelopment (1940) to

1980 for the High Plains was 9.9 feet, which 

represents an average decline of about 0.25 

foot per year. In some parts of the Central 

and Southern High Plains, declines were 

greater than 100 feet. In the Northern High 

Plains, declines were much smaller and less 

extensive largely as a result of later irrigation 

development.

The geographic patterns of water-level 

change in the High Plains since 1980 are similar to the pre-1980 patterns of change. Those 

areas in which water levels declined substantially between 1980 and 1993 tend to be the 

same areas in which declines were large 

before 1980. The magnitude of the declines 

after 1980 in these areas, however, generally 

is much smaller than that before 1980. The 

average water level in the High Plains 

declined 2.09 feet from 1980 to 1993 in comparison with the average decline of 9.9 feet 

from predevelopment since 1980 (see table). 

This difference can be attributed partly to the 

shorter time period from 1980 to 1993 and 

partly to a slower annual rate of decline since 

1980. The average annual rate of decline 

decreased from 0.25 foot from predevelopment (1940) to 1980 to about 0.16 foot from 

1980 to 1993, 64 percent of the pre-1980 rate. 

The annual rate of decline from predevelopment to 1980 might have been substantially 

larger if the total area irrigated in the High 

Plains was comparable to the area irrigated 

after 1980. In 1959, the approximate

Average area-weighted water-level changes in the 

High Plains aquifer from predevelopment to 1980 

and from 1980 to 1993

Area-weighted water-level change

(feet)

State

Predevelopment QQ ~ to 198& 1980 to 1993

Colorado...........

Kansas...............

Nebraska...........

New Mexico.....

Oklahoma.........

South Dakota....

Texas .................

Wyoming..........

High Plains.......

-4.2

-9.9

0

-9.8

-11.3

0

-33.7

0

-9.9

-3.25

-7.26

-3.42

-.41

-.90

-1.96

+.63

-2.09

From U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 

1400-B, published in 1984.

.through Natural Resources Investigations 33
106° 105° 104° 103° 102° 101° 100° 99° 98° 97° 96°

43

42'

41

SOUTH DAKOTA

High

34°^ Plains 

Aquifer 

Boundary

32

50 100 MILES

0 50 100 KILOMETERS 

Water-level change in the High Plains aquifer from 1980 to 1993.

34 Touching the Lives of Every Citizen Every Day.
midpoint of the period from predevelopment 

to 1980, about 6 million acres were irrigated 

in the High Plains. Since 1980, about 14 million acres have been irrigated annually in the 

High Plains.

Several factors appear to have contributed to the smaller average water-level 

decline after 1980, even though the average 

area irrigated more than doubled:

 Precipitation in most parts of the High 

Plains was above normal during 1980 to 

1993. Average annual precipitation for the 

High Plains was 1.81 inches above normal 

from 1981 to 1992.

 Irrigation development in the High Plains 

shifted from areas having large potential 

rates of aquifer depletion to areas where 

potential rates of depletion were smaller. 

After 1950, most of the growth in irrigated 

acreage was in the Northern High Plains, 

where greater potential recharge and 

smaller consumptive irrigation requirements resulted in smaller net withdrawals 

from the aquifer than in the Central and 

Southern High Plains. More than one-half 

of the 14 million acres irrigated in the 

High Plains after 1980 were in the Northern High Plains, largely in Nebraska.

 Advances in irrigation technology, which 

include center-pivot sprinkler irrigation 

and light-weight gated pipe designed to 

apply water more evenly and to minimize 

conveyance and field losses, have greatly 

decreased ground-water pumpage requirements. Irrigation from open ditches, which 

can result in water losses of as much as 50 

percent, is no longer common. Recent 

sprinkler designs, which include the lowenergy, precise-application method, minimize wind losses from center-pivot irrigation. Surge irrigation permits more 

uniform field application by the gravity 

method and lessens the need to exceed 

crop requirements in certain parts of the 

field to assure complete coverage. 

Although much of the excess water 

applied by various methods in the past 

was returned to the underlying aquifer 

through percolation, substantial volumes 

of water were lost by runoff and evaporation of ponded water.

 Irrigation management practices that minimize pumpage costs and conserve water 

have been widely adopted. Agricultural 

production has been converted to crops or 

plant varieties that have smaller consumptive irrigation requirements. Irrigation 

scheduling, which includes monitoring of 

soil and water conditions, commonly

minimizes excess application of irrigation 

water.

Large water-level declines in some areas of 

the High Plains before 1980 prompted 

local regulations to control irrigation withdrawals. State and local agencies were 

granted the authority to monitor and regulate pumpage volumes from existing wells, 

to regulate well spacing, and to limit new 

well construction. Irrigation runoff also 

has been limited in many parts of the High 

Plains since the late 1970's by regulations 

that require such practices as reuse pits.

J.T. Dugan

has coordinated the High Plains Water-Level 

Monitoring Program since 1990.

DA. Cox

served as database manager and

geographic information system specialist

for the High Plains Water-Level

Monitoring Program during 7993-94.

Watershed Modeling 

Systems

C

ompetition for water resources in the 

Western United States has become very 

intense, involving conflicts among agricultural, industrial, and municipal water uses 

and requirements for hydroelectric peaking 

power, recreation, and preservation of habitat 

and endangered species. The job of managing 

water resources has, as a result, become 

exceedingly complex. To deal successfully 

with these complexities, a new generation of 

highly flexible water-management models 

and supporting data is needed, both for shortterm (hours to months) operational simulations and long-term (years to decades) planning studies.

As part of a broad effort to apply its scientific research and technical development 

capabilities to the improvement of resource 

management, the U.S. Geological Survey 

(USGS) is providing the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation with improved data handling, 

reporting, and analytical tools, decision support models, and information to carry out its 

water-management mission. The purpose of 

the collaborative program between these two 

Department of the Interior bureaus is to 

develop, test, and implement water-resources 

models and fully integrated data-management 

systems designed to help water managers and

For more information on the High Plains 

Water-Level Monitoring Program, contact 

J.T. Dugan at:

Telephone: (402)437-5124 

Fax: (818)583-7827 

Internet: jtdugan@usgs.gov !

The Reclamation Act 

of 1902(43 U.S.C. 371 

et seq.) authorized the 

Secretary of the Interior 

to administer a reclamation program that would 

provide the arid and 

semiarid lands of the 17 

contiguous Western 

States (Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, 

Kansas, Montana, 

Nebraska, Nevada, New 

Mexico, North Dakota, 

Oklahoma, Oregon, 

South Dakota, Texas, 

Utah, Washington, and 

Wyoming) a secure, 

year-round water supply 

for irrigation. To perform 

the mission, the Reclamation Service was created within the USGS. In 

1907, the Reclamation 

Service was separated 

from the USGS and in 

1923 was renamed the 

Bureau of Reclamation.

.through Natural Resources Investigations 35
USGS Modular Modeling System. Pre- Model 

process

Postprocess

X-WINDOW INTERFACE

Digital 

elevation 

model 

data

Digital 

data

> Statistics

> Graphics 

Extended 

streamflow 

prediction

>GIS*

* Optimization

> Sensitivity 

Management 

models

*Geographic Information System

water users improve the utilization of water 

and the management of the water-related 

infrastructure in the Reclamation Act States. 

The objective of this program are to:

 Improve environmental quality (including 

protection or enhancement of wetlands), 

improve water quality (including reduction of salinity), preserve in-stream or 

riparian habitat, and protect and enhance 

endangered species.

 Increase the benefits associated with various water uses, such as agriculture, hydropower, municipal and industrial water 

supply, and recreation. Of particular interest are increases that can be achieved by 

using the existing water-resources infrastructure of dams, pipelines, canals, and 

hydroelectric generating capacity.

 Increase the available supply of water by 

more efficient water management and use 

or reduction of nonbeneficial system losses 

(including evaporation or canal seepage). 

The achievement of such improvements 

requires an ability to predict the outcomes of 

a wide range of water-management actions 

under a wide range of hydrologic conditions. 

The predictions needed are of two kinds: 

long-term simulations of the operation of 

complete water-resource systems under a 

modified management strategy and shortterm simulations that predict the effects of 

some specific management action, such as a 

reservoir release or the delivery of some 

quantity of water to a point of demand. The 

techniques used to make either kind of prediction are usually referred to as "modeling." 

The two situations described above require 

planning models and forecasting models, 

respectively. The computer systems, basic 

understanding, and data-management 

requirements for these two types of models 

are much the same, and the development,

testing, and calibration process for both can 

be done jointly by the USGS and the Bureau 

of Reclamation.

Recent developments have brought 

water-resources modeling capabilities to a 

point where the two agencies are poised to 

enter an implementation phase. These breakthroughs include improvements in the scientific understanding of processes related to 

climate and hydrologic interactions, production of runoff, and the interaction of surface 

and ground waters; improvements in the 

quality and timeliness of data, including use 

of satellite data relay, new weather radar (to 

estimate precipitation intensities), and new 

land- and satellite-based techniques for measuring snowpack; and improvements in the 

capability of computer hardware and software. Computer models make it possible to 

test many management scenarios and provide 

graphical results that are easy to evaluate.

The tools involved are relational and 

spatial database-management systems integrated with improved models of the water 

resources of western river basins, as characterized by the USGS Modular Modeling 

System. The models will be used to test and 

improve long-term operating policies responsive to the multitude of competing demands 

for water and other project benefits and to 

produce state-of-the-art operational analyses 

(at hourly, daily, weekly, seasonal, and interannual time scales) necessary to manage these 

water-resources systems efficiently. The benefits of the program are the increased savings 

and revenues associated with improved operations and the savings in capital expenditures 

that would result from more efficient water 

use.

Examples of the types of questions for 

which the models would provide answers 

include:

 How much water would be "saved" by 

implementing conservation measures such 

as canal lining? Will these savings affect 

wetland habitat, ground- or surface-water 

supplies, or water quality downgradient 

from the canal? How could the "saved" 

water be beneficially used, and what are 

the management options?

 How would a new operating policy for a 

reservoir (for example, a lower normal 

pool elevation or increased instream 

flows) affect hydropower revenues, reliability of delivery of water to downstream 

users, total system losses by evaporation 

and seepage, reservoir water quality, and 

water temperature (in the reservoir and 

downstream)?

36 Touching the Lives of Every Citizen Every Day.
 What is the probability that normal reservoir operations will lead to a shortfall from 

contractual water deliveries or reservoir 

pool elevations falling below some critical 

level in the current water year? How 

would a modified operation over the next 

week change this probability?

 How would a new reservoir release schedule (focused on diurnal and weekly fluctuations) affect hydropower peaking 

revenue, channel geometry, beaches, recreational opportunities, and habitat for 

sport fish or an endangered species?

 How would a major land-use change in the 

basin (related to logging, urbanization, or 

agriculture) affect water availability? How 

would changes in climate (storm tracks, 

temperature) affect water availability?

 How could ground-water pumpage, reservoir releases, and artificial ground-water 

recharge operations be optimized to maintain ground-water quality and desired 

water levels?

USGS efforts in this joint program 

include (1) further research, development, 

and refinement of hydrologic modeling tools, 

including writing new computer programs, 

supporting and documenting existing programs, and providing training in the use of 

the models; (2) research on hydrologic 

processes, the results of which would be 

incorporated into the models to improve the 

reliability and scope of the predictions; and 

(3) basin-specific development and calibration of hydrologic models to the selected river 

basins for case studies. Research topics 

include aspects of snow accumulation and 

melt in mountainous areas, changes in channel morphology that result from changes in 

sediment supply and flow regime, long-term 

changes in reservoir water quality (salinity 

and eutrophication), and consequences of soil 

drainage and ground-water development on 

salinity and trace-element contamination. 

The Bureau of Reclamation's efforts 

focus on development and improvement of 

data-management and modeling tools, which 

include modeling of system operations, water 

management and deliveries, and the hydraulics of water delivery to agricultural fields and 

the subsequent drainage and evaporation 

from those fields. Specific topics include 

water use, land use, simulation of the water 

rights system, balancing project benefits, optimization of system operations, stochastic 

hydrologic modeling, runoff forecasting, realtime operational modeling, and expert system 

techniques. As the models become operational, the Bureau of Reclamation plans to

COLORADO

Flow

regulation and

endangered

fish

Native

American

water

rights

NEW MEXICO

Lr

integrate them into current basin-management systems.

Both bureaus are working together to 

ensure that the data and models from one 

bureau interact efficiently with those from 

the other and on basin-specific model calibration and implementation. They also are 

developing integrated training activities in 

support of the program.

A pilot study is currently underway in 

the San Juan River Basin, which is centered in 

the Four Corners area of Utah, Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico. The major management issues relate to streamflow regulation 

and endangered fish, competition for water, 

and Native American water rights. The final 

product of this pilot study will be an integrated system of models, databases, and decision-support tools implemented within the 

operating systems of the Bureau of Reclamation and other agencies responsible for 

aspects of river-basin management. The models, databases, and decision-support tools will 

be thoroughly documented by user manuals 

and technical reports in the scientific and 

engineering literature. The central focus of 

the integrated systems will be a river-basin 

model capable of predicting the timing and 

amount of runoff and simulating the operations of reservoirs and diversions according to 

specified operating rules. The models will be 

used to assess the risk of water shortage or 

flooding over a period of months to years. 

They also will be used to assess the changes 

in these risks associated with changes in 

the operating policies or in the physical 

infrastructure.

Harry R Lins

administers the USGS Watershed

Modeling Program and the Global

Change Hydrology Program.

The San Juan River Basin of 

Utah, Colorado, Arizona, and 

New Mexico and associated 

water-management issues. 

Improved watershed modeling 

systems are being applied 

directly to these issues and others 

being faced by watermanagement organizations in the 

Western United States.

For more information on watershed 

modeling, contact Harry Lins at:

Telephone: (7p3) 648-5712

Internet: hlins@wrdmail.er.usgs.gov

.through Natural Resources Investigations 37
Hydrogeologic Effects 

of the Partial Collapse 

of the Retsof Salt Mine 

in Western New York

T

he Retsof Salt Mine is in Livingston 

County, N.Y., about 25 miles southwest 

of Rochester. This mine, which has been in 

operation for 110 years and is located about 

1,100 feet below land surface, supplies road 

salt to 14 States in the Northeast. It is the largest salt mine in the Western Hemisphere and 

includes an underground area that is roughly 

the size of Manhattan (about 6,500 acres).

An underground room near the southern end of the mine near Cuylerville collapsed on March 12, 1994, and an adjacent 

room collapsed on April 18. Two large, circular collapse features that are several hundred

feet apart have developed at land surface 

above the two collapsed mine rooms. The 

northernmost feature, which is about 700 feet 

in diameter, includes a central area that is 

about 200 feet wide and has subsided about 

20 to 30 feet. The southernmost feature, 

which is about 900 feet in diameter, includes 

a central area that is about 700 feet wide and 

has subsided about 70 feet. The subsidence in 

the collapse area has forced the closure of a 

section of State Route 20A as a result of the 

partial collapse of a State Department of 

Transportation bridge.

During the formation of these collapse 

features, hydraulic connections formed 

between aquifers that previously had been 

isolated from each other by confining units. 

These new connections have provided routes 

for rapid migration of ground water downward to the mine level. Since March 12, 

ground water draining from overlying aquifer 

systems has been progressively flooding the

Location of the Retsof Salt Mine 

and the collapse area and a 

selected hydrograph for the 

period from March 12 to 

August 12, 1994.

Location of 

study area

EXPLANATION

A Well that had 

experienced 

rapid dewatering 

or had gone dry 

as of August 1994

I | Genesee River Valley 

I Genesee Uplands

Livingston 

County

Well in basal gravel

400

MAM J J A 

MONTHS

38 Toudiing the Uves of Every Citizen Every Day.
mine at inflow rates averaging about 18,000 

gallons per minute. This aquifer drainage has 

caused inadequate water supplies in a number of local wells, some of which have actually gone dry. Land subsidence that might be 

related to compaction due to aquifer drainage 

has occurred near Mt. Morris, about 3 miles 

southwest of the collapse area.

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) has 

been working with the Livingston County 

Department of Health since March 1994 to 

provide technical expertise in dealing with 

this situation. A regional ground-water-levelmonitoring network has been established to 

observe the rate, magnitude, and extent of 

aquifer drainage related to the mine collapse. 

Water levels in some wells drilled in the 

floodplain sediments and upland bedrock 

units are showing only expected seasonal 

changes since the collapse. Water levels in 

some wells drilled in glacial deltaic deposits 

and a basal gravel on top of the bedrock surface, however, show significant declines that 

are a result of the aquifer drainage.

A conceptual model of the groundwater-flow system has been developed on the 

basis of knowledge of the hydrogeology of 

similar valleys in central and western New 

York, borehole geophysical surveys of 18 

wells drilled in and adjacent to the collapse 

features, and marine seismic-reflection profiling on the Genesee River. The complex 

ground-water-flow system involves multiple 

aquifers in the glacial sediments and the 

bedrock.

In June 1994, a team of specialists from 

the USGS examined the environmental 

effects of the partial collapse of the mine. 

They compiled a list of recommendations for 

further short- and long-term studies to 

address the major issues of public safety, aquifer drainage, and subsidence.

The USGS continues to monitor 

ground-water levels in the area and is constructing a preliminary numerical model to 

assess the long-term impacts of the partial 

mine collapse on the regional ground-waterflow system.

Dorothy Tepper

is Project Chief of the RetsofSalt Mine study and

has studied ground-water flow in glacial sediments

and bedrock for the past 15 years.

Todd Miller

has studied glacial geology and ground-water flow 

in glacial sediments for the past 16 years.

BillKappel

has studied the interactions of surface water and 

ground water for the past 21 years.

John Williams

is the ground-water specialist for the New York 

District and a borehole geophysics advisor.

The San Francisco Bay 

and Delta: An Estuary 

Undergoing Change

T

he San Francisco Bay Estuary, which is at 

the confluence of the Sacramento and 

San Joaquin Rivers in central California, is 

renowned for its natural beauty, international 

commerce, recreation, and sport fishing. 

However, the estuary has been greatly modified by 150 years of intensifying human activity.

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), 

recognized internationally for its interdisciplinary expertise and experience in the study of 

estuarine processes and as a long-time leader 

in studies of the San Francisco Bay Estuary, 

has provided much of the fundamental 

knowledge about interrelations among the 

hydrology, geology, chemistry, and ecology 

of this complex estuarine system. For example, USGS studies have documented changes 

in the estuary's shoreline; changes in patterns 

of water and sediment movement; contamination of its water, sediments, and organisms; 

and alterations of biological communities. 

The USGS is now focusing field, laboratory, 

and modeling studies on the effects of freshwater flow on the estuary's chemistry and 

biology, the distribution and influence of contaminants on estuarine invertebrates, and the 

processes that influence the character and stability of the remaining wetlands.

More than 95 percent of the historical 

tidal marshes have been leveed and filled, the 

result being losses in fish and wildlife habitat. The flow of freshwater into the estuary 

has been greatly reduced by water diversions 

to support, for the most part, irrigated agriculture. Harbor and channel dredging has 

changed the dredged areas and disposal sites 

and altered water-flow patterns and salinity. 

Contaminants enter the estuary in municipal 

and industrial sewage and urban and agricultural runoff. Introduced exotic species continue to change the bay's biota by altering its

For more information on the Retsof Salt 

Mine project, contact Dorothy Tepper at:

Telephone: (607) 266-0217

Internet: dtepper@wrdmail.usgs.gov

.through Natural Resources Investigations 39
San Francisco Bay in 1848 San Francisco Bay Today

 Tidal Wetlands in 1994

The San Francisco Bay Estuary 

and Delta at the time of the 

discovery of gold in the Sierra 

Nevada foothills (left) and at 

present (right).

food webs. These changes have had marked 

effects on the estuary's biological resources, 

particularly well documented by declines in 

abundance of fish species.

More than 95 percent

of the historical tidal marshes

have been leveed and filled,

the result being losses 

in fish and wildlife habitat. J J

increasing dependence on ground-water supplies in dry years, further loss of tidal wetlands to urban encroachment, and constraints 

on harbor improvements because of potential 

changes in salinity and contaminant levels as 

a result of dredging and spoils disposal.

Conflicts among the many uses of the 

bay/delta system have led resource managers 

and regulators, elected officials, and the public to recognize the need for credible, unbiased scientific information on the significance 

of river-flow diversion, contaminant inputs, 

dredging, and habitat alteration.

Effects of Freshwater Flow

It is not clear which and to what extent 

particular human activities are responsible for 

specific unwanted ecosystem changes. Thus, 

determining which courses of action would 

be most effective in bringing about improvements in the estuary's water quality and restoration of its fish populations has been 

difficult. Potential limitations to additional 

economic development include demands on 

land and water supplies, increasing constraints on diverting water away from the 

delta because of concerns for endangered 

species, pressures to shift consumption of 

managed water from agricultural use to urban 

use, future land subsidence as a result of

C

hanges in the quantity, timing, and 

quality of freshwater that flows into the 

delta and the bay as a result of diversion by 

means of pumps within the delta are implicated in declines of fish species. Young fish 

are physically removed by the pumps, and 

changing flow patterns and salinity distributions create habitat changes. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has proposed a 

salinity standard that would require the salt 

content of the water in ecologically sensitive 

regions of the estuary to be maintained at 

specified levels. There is need for a better 

quantitative understanding of flow patterns 

and salinity distributions within the delta and

40 Touching the Lives of Every Citizen Every Day...
Suisun Bay and the relations between the 

two.

The USGS has conducted broad-scale 

field and modeling studies of water movement and salinity distributions within the 

estuary. In cooperation with other agencies in 

the Interagency Ecological Program (IEP), 

the USGS is applying new technologies to 

measure within-delta water transfers and 

delta outflow into the bay, providing information needed for documenting salt-transport 

mechanisms, and managing freshwater flow 

to meet salinity standards. The USGS also is 

developing statistical models to relate anomalous precipitation, snowpack, temperature, 

and atmospheric circulation to combined 

monthly flows in the Sacramento and San 

Joaquin Rivers.

The relation between freshwater flow 

and contaminant transport to and through the 

estuary is important. For example, USGS 

studies have detected pulses of pesticides 

(applied during winter in the Sacramento and 

San Joaquin Valleys) that flow through the 

delta and upper estuary during winter runoff. These pesticide pulses reach concentrations that have been shown to be toxic to 

aquatic life in the delta and Suisun Bay. At the 

same time, sediments and sediment-bound 

contaminants are being transported through 

the delta into the bay. The mechanisms of dissolved contaminant and sediment transport in 

the bay must be understood in order to estimate organism exposure and evaluate mitigation alternatives.

Correlations between flows and most 

biological populations in the bay and the 

delta are well documented. For example, scientists know that river flow is a source of 

organic matter supporting biological productivity within the estuary and that transfers of 

organic matter among different levels of the 

food web are influenced by fluctuations in 

freshwater inflow. They also know that flow 

conditions are implicated in ecological disruptions (major changes in the estuary's food 

web) that follow invasions by exotic species. 

Unfortunately, many of the underlying causes 

of these changes have not been identified. In 

particular, establishing the connections 

between flow-related habitat features and the 

sustainability of individual fish populations is 

a high priority. The USGS maintains a baseline measurement program (mapping temperature, salinity, turbidity, and chlorophyll in 

the channel and emphasizing sampling of 

benthic invertebrate species abundances 

and phytoplankton blooms) in San Pablo 

Bay, Central Bay, and South Bay that

complements the IEP program in the upper 

estuary and delta. Additionally, USGS laboratory experimentation and modeling efforts 

are providing an understanding of the couplings between water and sediment movement, the biogeochemical cycling of 

nutrients, the population dynamics and primary production of phytoplankton, and the 

establishment of introduced species.

Distribution and Effects of 

Contaminants

C

ontaminants from numerous sources are 

pervasive throughout the estuary and its 

watershed. Agencies charged with protecting 

and enhancing the estuary's biological 

resources recognize the need for a much better understanding of contaminant distribution 

and ecological effects.

The USGS is examining trace-metal and 

pesticide concentrations in sediments and 

benthic invertebrates to provide this understanding. For example, the biological effects 

of pesticides entering the bay during high 

river flows are being examined by conducting 

laboratory toxicity tests on local invertebrate 

species. The USGS also is using models and 

field studies to investigate recycling of metals 

and nutrients from internal sedimentary 

sources in the estuary.

In cooperation with the San Francisco 

Regional Water Quality Control Board and 

the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (COE), 

the USGS also is quantifying the physical factors (for example, tidal currents and wind 

waves) that control resuspension and transport of fine sediment in the shallows of the 

bay to assess the importance of resuspension 

events on metals concentrations in the water.

Wetlands Processes

T

he loss of 95 percent of the estuary's 

wetlands since 1850 has increased the 

importance of the remaining 125 square kilometers, which continue to be threatened by 

development, erosion, pollution, and rising 

sea level. Wetland management agencies (for 

example, the COE and the San Francisco Bay 

Conservation and Development Commission) must develop viable strategies for creating new wetlands in leveed areas used as 

farmland or as salt-evaporation ponds that 

have subsided since being isolated from bay

Agencies participating in the Interagency 

Ecological Program 

include the U.S. Fish and 

Wildlife Service, the 

Bureau of Reclamation, 

and the U.S. Geological 

Survey (all bureaus in the 

Department of the Interior), the U.S. Army 

Corps of Engineers, the 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the California Water Resources 

Control Board, the California Department of 

Water Resources, and 

the California Department of Fish and Came.

.through Natural Resources Investigations 41
To access the USGS 

Home Rage, open the 

Uniform Resources 

Locator (URL) and enter:

http://www.usgs.gov

To access the San 

Francisco Bay Home 

Rage, open the URL and 

enter:

http://bard/bay/ 

access_usgs.html

For more information on USGS San 

Francisco Bay and Delta studies, contact 

Frederic Nichols at:

Telephone: (415) 329-4411

Internet: fnichols@rcamnl.wr.usgs.gov

waters. As an example, filling these areas with 

dredge spoils raises questions about the 

release of contaminants and changes in 

wetland-habitat values. The USGS is participating in the restoration of a 350-acre tract of 

land on San Pablo Bay by monitoring the 

development of tidal channels and flow patterns, changes in geotechnical and geochemical properties of preexisting and new 

sediment (dredge spoils), and sedimentation 

patterns within the restored wetlands and 

adjacent areas. The USGS also is mapping 

wetlands distributions by using remotely 

sensed image data and monitoring physical 

processes (including currents, wind, and 

waves) that alter wetlands and adjacent shallows; by quantifying the distribution and elevations of the shoreline; and by developing 

models that characterize the physical forces 

acting upon wetlands.

Information Transfer

T

he USGS is developing new tools and 

procedures to make existing and newly

developed information about the San Francisco Bay Estuary and Delta readily available. 

The accessibility of existing spatial data scattered among several USGS laboratories will 

be increased by the creation of a World Wide 

Web information interface. World Wide Web 

navigators, such as Mosaic, will enable any 

user with Internet access to browse and 

retrieve information relevant to the San Francisco Bay and Delta (including text, pictures, 

maps, and animations) and interact directly 

with USGS experts.

Long-term USGS monitoring and 

research programs in San Francisco Bay provide needed data, information, interpretations, and assessments that contribute to the 

work of other Federal and State agencies. 

This linkage of science and decisionmaking 

ensures the coordination of activities necessary for effective environmental resource 

management.

Frederic H. Nichols

has participated in USGS studies 

of San Francisco Bay since 1972.

42 Touching the Lives of Every Citizen Every Day.

Issues such as hazardous wastes, environmental degradation, population growth, soil contamination and erosion, water quality and 

adequate water supplies, and atmospheric changes are of paramount importance today as the Nation and the world wrestle with 

the impacts of human activity on the natural environment. 

Understanding the conditions and functions of environmental systems and the factors that are changing them is an important function 

of the USGS scientific mission. Policymakers and resource managers need to have scientific information on both natural and 

impacted environments in order to recognize and mitigate adverse 

effects on these systems from human activities and to develop strategies accommodating natural environmental variation. Improving 

the technical basis for maintaining the environmental systems that 

sustain and improve the quality of human life, as the articles in this 

section discuss, is part of the ongoing work of the USGS.
Nitrate in the South 

Platte River Alluvial 

Aquifer, Colorado

T

he South Platte River alluvial aquifer 

between Denver and Greeley, Colo., 

covers an area of about 75 square miles. The 

predominant land use in the area is irrigated 

agriculture, which has changed the chemistry 

and hydrology of the alluvial aquifer in at 

least two important ways. First, the infiltration 

of irrigation water has resulted in a buildup of 

dissolved nitrate in ground water in the aquifer. Second, it has increased the amount of 

discharge from the aquifer to the South Platte 

River. One objective of the study was to 

determine if naturally occurring processes in 

the aquifer reduce nitrate concentrations in 

the water prior to its discharge to the South 

Platte River, thereby decreasing the effect of 

irrigated agriculture on water quality in the 

river.

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) 

National Water-Quality Assessment 

(NAWQA) Program began in 1991 and 

describes the status of and trends in the quality of the Nation's surface- and ground-water 

resources. The program provides a thorough 

understanding of the natural and human factors that affect the quality of those resources. 

NAWQA plans to conduct investigations in

60 study areas that represent a variety of geologic, hydrologic, climatic, and geographic 

conditions throughout the Nation. The South 

Platte River Basin study unit, which is in parts 

of Colorado, Nebraska, and Wyoming, was 

among the first 20 study units in which work 

was begun in 1991.

The South Platte River alluvial aquifer is 

the most productive aquifer in the basin; most 

of its water is used to irrigate overlying cropland. The aquifer consists of unconsolidated

One objective of the study was

to determine if naturally 

occurring processes in the aquifer

reduce nitrate concentrations

in the water prior to its discharge

to the South Platte River,

thereby decreasing the effect

of irrigated agriculture 

on water quality in the river.

clay, silt, sand, and gravel and ranges in thickness from about 15 to 60 feet and in width

North 

Platte

EXPLANATION 

Basin boundary

 Boundary of alluvial 

aquifer study area

Alluvial aquifer study area in the South Platte River Basin.

45
Relative changes in nitrate 

concentrations and nitrate 

nitrogen isotope ratios in samples 

of ground water from the 

recharge and discharge areas.

Median concentrations of nitrate 

in water in the recharge area for 

indicated river reaches. Median 

concentrations of nitrate were 

calculated for samples collected 

from 1992 through 1994. 

Mass-balance-estimated nitrate 

concentrations in the groundwater discharge are for samples 

collected in April 1994.

Microbial denitrification is a bacterial process that converts nitrate 

) to nitrogen gas

). Nitrogen gas is a 

harmless end product 

and is the major 

component in the air 

we breath.

For more information on nitrates in the 

South Platte River alluvial aquifer, contact 

Peter McMahon at:

Telephone: (303) 236^882 

Internet: pmcmahon@pmcdcolka.cr. 

usgs.gov

Water from 

, discharge area

INCREASING NITRATE CONCENTRATION

II

^ t:

O -ZL

EXPLANATION

Recharge-area 

ground water

- Ground-water 

discharge

- South Platte River -

50 100 150 200 

RIVER MILES

250 300

from about 0.5 to 5 miles. Recharge to the 

aquifer is from infiltration of irrigation water 

and precipitation, and both occur over most 

of the floodplain and terrace deposits 

adjacent to the river. Discharge from the aquifer is to the river.

Long-term agricultural activity on land 

that overlies the South Platte River alluvial 

aquifer has resulted in a buildup of dissolved 

nitrate in water in the recharge area. Nitrate 

concentrations in ground water from the 

recharge area near Greeley ranged from less 

than 0.1 to greater than 45 milligrams per liter 

as nitrogen; the median concentration was 26 

milligrams per liter as nitrogen. The maximum contaminant level for nitrate is 10 milligrams per liter as nitrogen in drinking water 

as established by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Measurement of the stable 

nitrogen-isotope ratios of the nitrate indicated 

that the nitrate was derived from animal 

waste an interpretation that is consistent with 

the long-term practice in the area of fertilizing 

fields with animal manure from feedlots.

Nitrate concentrations in water from the 

discharge area near the South Platte River 

were substantially lower than concentrations 

in water from the recharge area. Nitrate concentrations in ground water from the discharge area ranged from about 2 to 30 

milligrams per liter as nitrogen; the median 

nitrate concentration was 6 milligrams per 

liter as nitrogen. The decrease in nitrate concentrations between the recharge and the discharge areas indicated that nitrate 

concentrations were attenuated along flow 

paths in the aquifer.

Microbial denitrification in aquifer sediments in the discharge area was at least partly 

responsible for the decrease in nitrate concentrations between the recharge and discharge 

areas. For example, concentrations of dissolved oxygen were high in water from the 

recharge area. Denitrifying activity is inhibited in the presence of oxygen; therefore, 

nitrate persists in water from the recharge 

area. In contrast, dissolved oxygen was 

absent or at very low concentrations in water 

in the discharge area, which allowed denitrification in sediments in discharge areas. The 

stable nitrogen isotope ratios of nitrate in the 

ground water increased (became more 

enriched in the heavy isotope 15N compared 

with the light isotope 14N) as the nitrate was 

transported from the recharge area to the discharge area. At the same time, the ground 

water became enriched in dissolved nitrogen 

gas, which is the major product of the denitrification reaction. Increases in nitrate nitrogen 

isotope values and nitrogen gas concentrations along with decreases in nitrate concentrations further indicated that denitrification 

in sediments in the discharge area was at least 

partly responsible for reducing nitrate concentrations in the ground water before its discharge to the river.

A mass balance based on nitrate concentrations in surface-water inflows and outflows 

indicated that the concentration of nitrate in 

ground water that discharges to the South 

Platte River in the study area was much less 

than what would be predicted on the basis of 

nitrate concentrations in the water from the 

recharge area. Differences between groundwater nitrate concentrations in the recharge 

area and those in the discharge area were 

observed elsewhere along a 250-mile segment of the alluvial aquifer from north of 

Denver to Julesburg, Colo.; these differences 

indicate that denitrification may have 

occurred in discharge areas throughout the 

alluvial aquifer in Colorado. Despite the 

effect of denitrification in reducing nitrate

46 Touching the Lives of Every Citizen Every Day..
concentrations in ground-water discharge, the 

process did not completely denitrify the 

ground water. As a result, ground-water discharge still affected the quality of water in the 

South Platte River.

Peter McMahon

has over 10 years of experience as a USGS

hydrologist. His work focuses on the impacts of

biological processes on ground-water quality.

John Karl Bohlke

is a research hydrologist whose recent work has

focused on applications of chemical and isotopic

methods for determining ground-water residence

times and resolving sources, histories, and reactions

of anthropogenic contaminants affecting aquifers.

David Lithe

has worked as a USGS hydrologist in Colorado for

the last 10 years. His areas of interest include

surface-water quality, water use, and the use of

geographic information systems in water studies.

Environmental and 

Resource Studies 

in the U.S.-Mexico 

Border Region

R

atification of the North American Free 

Trade Agreement (NAFTA) reinforces 

the need for geoscience data and information 

in the U.S.-Mexico border region. NAFTA 

will accelerate urban, agricultural, and industrial growth and trade along the border. Such 

growth and the current and anticipated 

potential for increased effects on the environment necessitate development of a large, 

coherent geoscience database. Such a database is vital to both nations in many disciplines, including land-use management, 

urban planning, civil engineering, exploration geology, environmental sciences, environmental regulation, resource management, 

waste treatment, and industrial mineral supply. The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) has 

begun several cooperative projects to compile 

existing data and to provide new data related 

to these issues.

Data on the distribution and characteristics of mineral sites are essential for 

effectively planning industrial and urban 

development and for improving the quality of

life in the border region. A computerized 

mineral-site database containing information 

on more than 10,000 sites near the U.S.- 

Mexico border has been compiled in the 

USGS Mineral Resources Data System. Each 

site record provides the name of the site, its 

location, the commodity mined, the geology 

of the site, a description of the workings and 

deposits, and a history of exploration, development, and production at the site. The database includes both metallic and nonmetallic 

minerals and materials. Analysis of this information indicates that a wide variety of nonfuel mineral commodities are present in the 

border region. Mineral resources and mineral-related issues in the border region that 

will affect the economies of the United States 

and Mexico include the following.

 Many nonmetallic minerals are used for 

improving water quality, isolating waste, 

and mitigating environmental hazards. 

Important resources in the border region 

include diatomite and zeolites for waste 

treatment, clays for sealing waste dumps, 

and limestone for removing sulfur from 

emissions produced in coal- or oil-fired 

power stations. Mineral occurrences and 

abandoned mine sites may be sources for 

acid-mine drainage and elevated levels of 

toxic trace elements in soils and ground 

water.

 Mineral materials such as limestone, sand, 

gravel, and gypsum are widely used in the 

border region as construction materials, 

especially in rapidly growing urban areas.

 The border region produces about 18 percent of the world's copper as well as other 

metallic commodities, including zinc, lead, 

silver, and gold. Metals used in alloy manufacture, such as aluminum, cobalt, nickel,

Mineral-site data are 

available from the Minerals Information Offices of 

the U.S. Geological Survey in digital form or as 

listings, tables, and plots 

and are summarized in 

Circular 1098.

Area defined as the U.S.-Mexico 

border region.

.through Environmental Studies 47
For more information on USGS studies in 

the U.S.-Mexico border region, contact 

Norman J Rage at: 

Telephone: (602) 670-5580

and iron, are produced in relatively small 

quantities or not at all; thus, for economic 

growth, these metals will need to be 

imported into the border region. 

 Minerals such as gypsum, clays, and sulfur 

are used to produce fertilizers, animal 

feeds, and pesticides.

Another important layer of geoscience 

information for the U.S.-Mexico border 

region is a geologic map in digital format. 

The border region extends across six different 

geologic provinces from east to west-from 

the Gulf of Mexico Coastal Plain, across 

ancient rocks of the stable continental platform and remnants of past volcanic eruptions, 

to regions where the Earth's crust has been 

stretched and areas where rocks from ancient 

ocean environments have been stuck on to 

the continent. This complex geology complicates the task of producing a coherent map. 

Geologic maps of the States of Arizona and 

New Mexico are now available from the 

USGS in digital format at a scale of 

1:1,000,000. The geology of the border region 

of Texas is being digitized at a scale of 

1:500,000, as is the geology of California.

Other current investigations pertinent to 

the border region include evaluating hydrologic basins that contain aquifers along the 

border, establishing baseline geochemical 

information in the larger drainage areas, and 

examining the dispersion of metals and the 

natural availability of potentially toxic substances in the region. The San Pedro River 

Valley in southern Arizona and northern 

Sonora, Mexico, is composed of several subbasins. A multidisciplinary study to determine the three-dimensional shapes of these 

subbasins, to describe the relations among the 

subbasins, and to assess the character and distribution of the sediments filling the basins is 

underway.

This project is an essential first step in 

assessing the potential for ground-water contamination in subbasin aquifers. Existing 

geochemical databases are being analyzed 

and evaluated to provide a geochemical baseline. Some of the samples are being reanalyzed for elements particularly important in 

identifying potential sites of pollution. These 

data will also provide a regional hydrogeochemical framework for a large part of 

southern Arizona and for investigations 

related to die USGS National Water-Quality 

Assessment Program in central and southern 

Arizona. Several investigations are being conducted on the dispersion of metals from 

mined and unmined ore deposits. Such data 

will allow the effect of natural mineralization

on the natural distribution of potentially toxic 

systems to be compared with anthropogenic 

activities such as mining.

The establishment and continued construction of a geoscience database, including 

elements of geology, geochemistry, geophysics, and mineral sites, will allow for effective 

implementation of NAFTA. The geoscience 

database forms part of the necessary framework for development of land- and ecosystem-management plans and increased 

infrastructure, industry, and agriculture in the 

border region.

Norman J Page

is Scientist-in-Charge of the USGS Center for

Inter-American Mineral Resource Investigations,

which conducts cooperative mineral resource

investigations, technology transfer and training,

mineral information exchange, and research.

Pesticides in the 

Atmosphere

of the first issues to be addressed by 

the National Water-Quality Assessment 

(NAWQA) Program National Synthesis is the 

presence of pesticides in the environment. 

The goal of the National Synthesis is to use 

existing data and new data collected during 

NAWQA studies to assess the status, trends, 

and cause-and-effect relations for the Nation's 

highest priority national and regional waterquality issues. About 1.1 billion pounds of 

pesticides are used each year in the United 

States to control many different types of 

weeds, insects, and other pests in a variety of 

agricultural and nonagricultural settings.

Total agricultural use and the number of 

different chemicals applied to crops have 

more than tripled since die early 1960's. 

Increased use has resulted in increased crop 

production, lower maintenance costs, and 

control of public health hazards, but concerns 

about the potential adverse effects of pesticides on the environment and human health 

also have grown steadily. The Pesticide 

National Syndiesis begins with detailed 

reviews of existing information on pesticides 

in the hydrologic system, including ground 

and surface waters and die atmosphere. 

Results for the atmosphere are summarized 

below.

Pesticides have been recognized as 

potential atmospheric pollutants since the

48 Touching the Lives of Every Citizen Every Day.
1940's. Early in the history of agricultural pesticide use, off-target drift of applied pesticides 

was a concern. Long-range movement of pesticides was thought to be minimal, if any, 

because of their physical and chemical properties (low volatility and low solubility in 

water). The detection of DDT and other organochlorine compounds in Arctic and Antarctic snow, ice, fish, and mammals changed this 

notion. The atmosphere is now recognized as 

a major pathway by which pesticides can be 

transported and deposited in areas sometimes 

far removed from their sources.

Early in the history

of agricultural pesticide use,

off-target drift of the applied

pesticides was a concern.

Long-range movement

of pesticides was thought to be

minimal, if any, because

of their physical 

and chemical properties....

The geographic distribution of sampling sites for the 127 studies reviewed is 

highly uneven, and many areas of the Nation 

have never been sampled. The most extensive data-collection efforts have been concentrated in the Great Lakes area and California. 

Most of the studies reviewed were short term, 

seldom lasting more than 1 year, and focused 

on sites in or near agricultural areas; as a 

result, the data display a general bias toward 

Uiis land use.

Atmospheric Pesticides

O

ne or more types of pesticides have 

been found in every part of the Nation. 

Although no study analyzed for every pesticide or even representative pesticides from 

every class, taken together, the results show 

that a wide variety of pesticides is present in 

air, rain, fog, and snow. The pesticides 

detected most frequently in the atmosphere 

fall into four main categories-organochlorine

 Atmospheric pesticide ' 

study locations

Q National WaterQuality Assessment 

study unit boundary

Site locations for those studies that sampled for pesticides in one or more atmospheric 

matrices in the United States and the bordering provinces of Canada.

Number of different pesticides detected in air, rain, snow, and fog per State by major 

class. A, Organochlorine insecticides; 6, organophosphorous insecticides; C, triazine and 

acetanilide herbicides; D, other herbicides.

insecticides (such as DDT, chlordane, 

toxaphene), organophosphorous insecticides 

(such as diazinon, malathion, parathion), 

triazine and acetanilide herbicides (such as 

atrazine, cyanazine, metribuzin and acetochlor, alachlor, metolachlor, respectively), 

and other herbicides (such as 2,4-D, DCPA, 

trifluralin). Because of their widespread use 

during the 1950's through the 1970's and their 

resistance to environmental transformations,

.through Environmental Studies 49
Pounds Applied per square mile

H < 3.0112

 3.0112-28.6922

 28.6923-89.8430

 > 89.8430

0 100 200 300 400 MILES

0 200 400 600 KILOMETERS

Atrazine use in 1988 through 

the study area (A) and the 

precipitation-weighted 

concentrations of atrazine 

throughout the Midwestern and 

Northeastern United States from 

mid-April through mid-July 1990 

(B)and 1991 (Q.

organochlorine insecticides have been 

detected in the atmosphere of every State in 

which they were sought. Organophosphorous 

insecticides also have been heavily used for 

decades and are still in high use. As a class, 

they are not as environmentally persistent as 

the organochlorine compounds, but they 

have been detected in most States in which 

analyses have been made. Triazine herbicides 

have been in use since the 1960's, but studies 

in which these compounds are analyzed from 

the atmosphere did not begin until the late 

1970's, when atrazine was found in rain in 

Maryland. Subsequent studies have detected 

high levels of triazine herbicides in rain in 

major corn-producing areas, such as the Midwestern United States. Acetanilide herbicides 

are frequently used in conjunction with triazine herbicides. Although they are not as environmentally stable as the triazine herbicides, 

they have been detected in rain at equivalent 

and even higher concentrations. Many other 

types of herbicides are used in agriculture, 

and many of them have been detected in the

air or precipitation throughout the United 

States.

Most Pesticides Studied 

Have Been Detected

E

vidence from the reviewed literature 

shows that most of the pesticides for 

which analyses have been made have been 

detected in at least one atmospheric matrix. 

Compared with the hundreds of pesticides 

that have been and are being used, the number and variety of pesticides analyzed from 

and detected in air and rain are few. These 

figures do not mean, however, that the majority of pesticides used are not present in the 

atmosphere. There are several reasons why a 

particular pesticide has not been found for 

example, low use, short atmospheric residence time (considering deposition and transformation), the timing of the sampling 

relative to the timing of use, the predominant 

atmospheric phase in which it will accumulate relative to the phase being sampled, and, 

perhaps most important, whether it has been 

analyzed for in the atmosphere.

High Atmospheric 

Concentrations of 

Pesticides Show Seasonal 

Trends

R

sticide occurrences in air, rain, and fog 

iften show seasonal trends; the highest 

concentrations correspond to local use and 

planting seasons. In a recent U.S. Geological 

Survey (USGS) study, samples of rain collected throughout the Midwestern and Northeastern United States were analyzed for a 

variety of triazine and acetanilide herbicides 

used in corn and soybean production. The 

analyses show that the highest concentrations 

occurred where corn was most intensively 

grown and corresponded to the spring and 

summer planting seasons. Observed concentrations for August through March were 

considerably less. There is a very detailed 

and strong relation, both spatially and temporally, between atrazine use and concentrations in rain. Pesticides also have been 

detected at low levels during periods before 

and after the high-use seasons. These off-season occurrences could be the result of the

50 Touching the Lives of Every Citizen Every Day..
volatilization and wind erosion of previously 

applied material or long-range transport from 

areas where the planting/growing season 

started earlier. The more persistent pesticides, 

such as organochlorine insecticides, have 

been detected in the atmosphere at low levels 

throughout the year even though they are no 

longer used in the United States. Another 

source of pesticides in our atmosphere is from 

long-range transport from areas outside the 

United States, such as Mexico, Eastern 

Europe, and Asia, where many organochlorine insecticides that have been banned in the 

United States are still being used in large 

quantities.

exposures than humans are, and the U.S. 

Environmental Protection Agency and the 

National Academy of Sciences have set maximum levels of several pesticides for the protection of aquatic life. The majority of 

pesticides in use today, however, do not have 

such established levels. Pesticide concentrations in rain usually are one order of magnitude or more below the human health 

standards or maximum contaminant levels 

for water. There have been several instances, 

though, where the concentrations of pesticides in rain and fog have exceeded the maximum contaminant level values for aquatic life 

in or near agricultural areas.

Effects of Pesticides on 

Water Quality Not Well 

Documented

Improved Databases Are 

Needed

T

he potential contribution and relative 

importance of pesticides from the atmosphere to a body of surface water depend on 

pesticide levels in atmospheric deposition 

and on how much of the water budget is 

derived from surface runoff and direct precipitation. However, very little research has been 

done on the deposition of pesticides into surface waters. The most clearly documented 

effects of atmospheric pesticides on human 

health and aquatic life, even at the low levels 

commonly found in air, rain, snow, and fog, 

are related to long-lived, environmentally stable organochlorine insecticides that concentrate in organisms through biomagnification 

(food chain accumulation), bioconcentration 

(environment/organism partitioning), or 

both. An example is the organochlorine 

insecticide toxaphene in the Great Lakes 

region. Toxaphene, which is carcinogenic to 

laboratory animals, was never used to any 

great extent in this area but has been detected 

in the air, rain, water, sediments, and fish. 

The most probable source for this contamination is long-range atmospheric transport from 

the high-use areas in the Southern United 

States and Mexico.

Determining the environmental significance of pesticides in air, rain, snow, and fog 

is difficult, and there are no existing national 

standards or guidelines for these matrices. 

The only available guidelines are for contaminants in terrestrial waters. In addition to 

human health concerns, aquatic organisms 

are often more sensitive to low-level pesticide

T

he extent of pesticides in our atmosphere 

and their deposition into surface waters 

are not well known because there is no consistent nationwide monitoring of pesticides 

and their transformation products in atmospheric deposition. Existing data on pesticides in the atmosphere show that pesticides 

have been found in air, rain, snow, or fog 

throughout the Nation and that most pesticides studied have been found. The potential 

significance to water quality has not been 

extensively studied except in the Great Lakes 

area. The effects on the health of humans and 

aquatic organisms brought about by chronic 

exposure to low levels of a wide variety of 

insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides also 

are not well known. Water-quality investigations conducted as part of the NAWQA Program will consider atmospheric deposition as 

a potentially important source of pesticides, 

particularly during high-use seasons in highuse areas, but generally will not conduct 

extensive sampling of atmospheric media. 

The NAWQA Program will work with other 

agencies and programs to encourage the 

development of more comprehensive 

monitoring and the study of atmospheric 

contaminants.

Michael S. Majewski

is a research chemist with the

Pesticide National Synthesis group of the

National Water-Quality Assessment Program.

For more information on pesticides in the 

atmosphere, contact Michael Majewski at:

Telephone: (916) 979-2609, ext. 345 

Internet: majewski@dcascr.wr. 

usgs.gov

.through Environmental Studies 51
For more information about the Mississippi 

River study, contact Robert Meade at:

Telephone: ((303) 236-5009

Internet: rhmeade@dcolka.cr.usgs.gov

Contaminants in the 

Mississippi River

T

he first ever intensive water-quality study 

of the entire Mississippi River system was 

conducted by the U.S. Geological Survey 

(USGS) and others from 1987 to 1992. This 

article is an excerpt from the complete report 

on that study, Contaminants in the Mississippi 

River, 1987-92, edited by Robert H. Meade 

and scheduled for publication in 1995 as 

Water-Supply Paper 2440. The study was

conducted by USGS scientists in cooperation 

with agencies from States along the Mississippi River, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.

Robert H. Meade

is a geologist who has spent the last 20

of his 38 years with the USGS investigating

the waters and sediments of large rivers.

Jerry A. Leenheer

is a hydrologist who has spent 25 years 

with the USGS studying the organic 

geochemistry of water and sediment.

Water discharge, in cubic 

500 kilometers per year

0 TOO 200 KILOMETERS

I <-rl I 35

0 100 200 MILES

3,000 2,000 1,000 0 

DISTANCE UPRIVER. IN KILOMETERS

52 Touching the Lives of Every Citizen Every Day.
The waters of the Mississippi River carry dissolved 

contaminants and bacteria that originate from a 

variety of municipal, agricultural, and industrial 

sources. This map shows the amounts of water 

discharged by the Mississippi River and its tributaries during an average year. About 2 percent of the 

average discharge of the Mississippi River comes 

from municipal and industrial point sources. The 

distribution of contaminants along the Mississippi 

River depends on the nature and locations of their 

sources, the degree of wastewater treatment, and 

the stability of the contaminants and their dilution 

by receiving waters. The graphs show the concentrations of contaminants dissolved in the Mississippi River between Minneapolis-St. Paul, Minn., 

and the Gulf of Mexico. The data in the graphs are 

generalized from chemical analyses of representative samples of water collected at between 10 and 

15 sites along the Mississippi River on as many as 

10 separate occasions from 1987 to 1992 in the 

lower river and on 3 separate occasions during 

1991 and 1992 in the upper river.

As the Mississippi River flows southward from its 

headwaters in the northern States of the Midwest, 

its discharge is more than doubled by the waters it 

receives from the Illinois and Missouri Rivers. This 

combined discharge is more than doubled again as 

it is joined by the waters of the Ohio River. About 

500 kilometers upriver of its principal mouth, the 

Mississippi River bifurcates, and a quarter of its 

discharge is diverted by way of the Atchafalaya 

River to the Gulf of Mexico.

A. Fecal coliform bacteria derived from human 

and animal wastes survive only briefly in river 

water, but their averaged concentrations exceed 

the maximum contaminant level of 2,000 per liter 

for recreational use in much of the Mississippi 

River because of incomplete wastewater 

treatment.

B. Linear alkylbenzene sulfonate (LAS) is a biodegradable detergent primarily derived from 

domestic sewage. Its presence in high concentrations in the Mississippi River in the St. Louis metropolitan area corresponds with elevated counts of 

coliform bacteria and probably reflects the incomplete treatment of wastewater discharged into the 

river.

C. Caffeine is a stimulant chemical in coffee and 

soft drinks. Because it is consumed only by 

humans, it serves as an indicator of domestic 

sewage and illustrates the extent to which sewage 

is diluted by the river. Concentrations of caffeine 

in municipal wastewaters usually range between 

20 and 300 micrograms per liter. The much lower 

concentrations of less than 1 microgram per liter of 

caffeine shown in the graph indicate that municipal wastewaters may be diluted as much as a 

thousand fold after they are well mixed into the 

Mississippi River.

D, E. Agricultural chemicals enter the rivers from 

mostly nonpoint sources, usually as runoff from 

croplands during spring and summer. Nitrate in 

the Mississippi River (D) comes mostly from 

fertilizers. Its concentration in the river fluctuates 

seasonally, depending on when it is applied to 

farmlands and the timing of rainfall and runoff. 

Nitrate concentrations generally are smaller in the 

Mississippi River below the confluence of the 

Ohio River; the major portion of nitrate in the 

Mississippi River is derived from tributaries that 

drain intensively farmed regions in Illinois, Iowa, 

and Minnesota. Atrazine (E) is a preemergent 

herbicide that is used mostly on corn fields and is 

nearly ubiquitous in the Mississippi River. Atrazine 

concentrations usually are greatest near St. Louis 

because of inputs from the Missouri and Illinois 

Rivers and other rivers that drain the farming 

regions of the Corn Belt. Concentrations usually 

are smaller in the lower Mississippi because of 

dilution by water from the Ohio River. Atrazine 

concentrations vary seasonally and occasionally 

exceed the maximum contaminant level of 3 

micrograms per liter during spring runoff in the 

Mississippi River between St. Louis and the Ohio 

River confluence.

F. Ethlenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) is the 

dissolved organic chemical contaminant present at 

the greatest concentration in the Mississippi River. 

Generally considered nontoxic, this chemical is a 

general indicator of industrial contamination and 

is found in the Mississippi River at about onefourth of the concentration found in some 

European rivers.

C, H. Two examples of contaminants from 

industrial point sources are tris-2-chloroethylphosphate (TCLEP) and 1,3,5-tr,imethyl-2,4,6- 

triazinetrione (TTT). TCLEP (C) is a flame retardant 

that is added to polyurethane foams and textiles; in 

the Mississippi River system, it is derived almost 

exclusively from the Illinois River Basin. Its 

exclusive source and its persistence in solution 

make TCLEP a useful tracer and indicator of waters 

from the Illinois River as they mix down the 

Mississippi River with waters from other 

tributaries. TTT (H) is a byproduct of the 

manufacture of methylisocyanate. Its overwhelmingly singular source in the Mississippi 

River system is the basin of the Kanawha River of 

West Virginia, which is a tributary of the Ohio 

River. Proportions of TTT dissolved in the water 

can be used to follow the mixing of the Kanawha 

River with the Ohio River and the Ohio with the 

Mississippi River.

.through Environmental Studies 53
CONCENTRATIONS, IN

NANOGRAMS OF CONTAMINANT

PER GRAM OF SILT

Minneapolis w g

s M

St. Louis 1 §

New Orleans 3

I IU Ic

CONCENTRATION, IN

MICROGRAMS OF LEAD

PER GRAM OF SILT

Minneapolis

St. Louis S o

New Orleans ;o

I s!

T~'

s

x: 

o

s

r -J rr
The suspended sediments that are transported by 

the Mississippi River and its tributaries adsorb and 

carry pollutants. Organic pollutants, such as 

polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB's), and inorganic 

pollutants, such as lead, are many times more 

likely to adhere to sediment particles than they are 

to remain in the dissolved state. The map shows 

the amounts of suspended sediment discharged by 

the Mississippi River and its tributaries during an 

average year near 1990. The graphs show the 

concentrations of the constituents adsorbed on the 

sediments in suspension in the Mississippi River 

between Minneapolis-St. Paul, Minn., and the 

Gulf of Mexico. The data in the graphs are generalized from chemical analyses of representative 

samples of suspended sediment collected at 

between 10 and 15 sites along the Mississippi 

River on as many as 10 separate occasions from 

1987 to 1992 in the lower river and on 3 separate 

occasions during 1991 and 1992 in the upper 

river.

Suspended-sediment discharges in the upper 

Mississippi River are fairly small when compared 

with those of the major tributaries. The sediment 

discharge of the upper Mississippi is increased 

5 to 10 times by the sediment discharge of the 

Missouri River. The average sediment load is 

increased by another significant increment by the 

contribution from the Ohio River.

A. Organic carbon (expressed here as a weight 

percentage of dried suspended silt and clay) is proportionately greater in the uppermost Mississippi 

River, and its proportion decreases downriver. 

Paniculate organic carbon in the Mississippi River 

is mostly natural, but it affects the ways in which 

pollutants, especially organic pollutants, are 

adsorbed by suspended sediment. The Missouri 

and Illinois Rivers transport suspended sediment in 

which organic carbon is somewhat less concentrated; where these two tributaries enter the Mississippi (near kilometer 1850), the organic carbon 

percentages are decreased by dilution. Organic

carbon percentages in the suspended sediment of 

the Ohio River, however, are typically greater than 

those in the Missouri and Illinois Rivers, and the 

organic carbon in suspended sediment is increased 

slightly where the Ohio River joins the Mississippi 

(kilometer 1535).

B. PCB's, which are pollutants that were once 

widely used in industrial applications, are typically 

most concentrated on the suspended sediments in 

the upper Mississippi River near MinneapolisSt. Paul. The difference between PCB concentrations on the suspended sediments near Minneapolis 

and those near St. Louis is the result of the greater 

amounts of suspended sediment in the river at St. 

Louis rather than an indication that MinneapolisSt. Paul contributed 5 to 10 times more PCB's to the 

river than St. Louis did. The high concentrations in 

the upper river decrease rapidly downriver, and 

they are increased significantly only as the suspended sediment from the Ohio River, which 

usually contains more PCB's than the middle 

reaches of the Mississippi River do, enters and 

mixes.

C. Hexachlorobenzene, another organic pollutant 

of industrial origin, is predominantly derived from 

two main sources in the Mississippi River basin 

the Ohio River, which enters the Mississippi at 

kilometer 1535, and the industrial corridor that 

lines the lowermost 400 kilometers of the 

Mississippi River.

D. Lead and other heavy metals are associated with 

the suspended sediments along the length of the 

Mississippi River. Spatial variations in their concentrations are less pronounced than in those of PCB's 

and hexachlorobenzene. However, they do tend to 

be most concentrated on the suspended sediments 

in the river just downstream from MinneapolisSt. Paul (as in the case of PCB's, because of the 

relative scarcity there of suspended sediment), and 

they show slight increases related to more concentrated inputs from the Ohio River.

.through Environmental Studies 55
Hydrogen ion (acidity) levels in 

the Rocky Mountain snowpack 

at the end of the 1992-93 snow 

season. The greatest 

concentrations are in and near 

the Mount Zirkel Wilderness 

Area, Colorado.

Effects of EnergyResource Development 

on Lakes: What Do We 

Need to Know?

T

he alpine and subalpine zones of the 

Rocky Mountains constitute one of the 

largest undisturbed ecosystems in the United 

States. The Wilderness Act and the Clean Air 

Act gave congressionally designated Wilderness Areas special protection from anthropogenic change. However, many Wilderness 

Areas of the Rocky Mountains are located 

near to and downwind from developed or 

economic deposits of fossil fuels, which 

include coal, petroleum, natural gas, and oil 

shale. The need for abundant and reliable 

new energy sources likely will result in 

increased use of fossil fuels in the Rocky 

Mountains and other areas in the West. To use 

these energy minerals without damaging 

nearby Wilderness Areas and other Federal 

lands, we need to understand the present 

status of the Wilderness Areas and the 

potential risk associated with projected 

atmospheric emissions from energy-resource 

development.

Very little is known about the aquatic 

chemistry and biology of Rocky Mountain 

Wilderness Areas, which are characterized by

Inset of Mount Zirkel\ 

Wilderness Area

 

NM

range = 1.7 to 17.4

microequivalents 

per liter

a lack of roads, steep terrain, and a seasonal 

snowpack that lasts about 9 months. Most 

information regarding these areas consists of 

a few synoptic samplings and some monitoring and research at only a few small watersheds. Lack of information on Rocky 

Mountain Wilderness Areas hampers both 

their protection and the development of fossil 

fuels. Without the information necessary to 

predict the effects of new emissions sources, 

the Federal land manager is required by law 

to err in the direction of assuring that damage 

is not done. As a result, worst-case estimates 

of potential risks posed by proposed energyresource development commonly are used.

Most knowledge of the present status of 

the aquatic chemistry and biology of Rocky 

Mountain Wilderness Areas and of the risk of 

damage to them comes from studying acid 

rain and related problems. The National 

Atmospheric Deposition Program monitors 

the chemistry of rain and snow at about a 

dozen sites in the Rocky Mountain area. No 

sites are located in Wilderness Areas, and few 

are located at high elevations. The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) has conducted a survey of snowpack chemistry throughout the 

Rocky Mountains. Generally, the smallest 

concentrations of fossil-fuel combustion 

products, such as sulfate, nitrate, and acidity 

in rain or snow and the snowpack, are found 

in Montana. Concentrations progressively 

increase in Wyoming and Colorado. Some of 

the largest concentrations of sulfate, nitrate, 

and acidity were measured at several sites in 

an area in northern Colorado downwind 

(east) of the Yampa River Valley, an area of 

energy development (especially coal mining 

and electrical generation from coal).

The Western Lake Survey, which was 

conducted by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency in 1985, and numerous smaller 

surveys have indicated that the median acid 

neutralizing capacity, which is a measure of a 

lake's ability to neutralize acidity, is smallest 

in Wyoming and southern Montana and 

greatest in Colorado. Thus, the lakes that 

have the smallest median acid neutralizing 

capacity and thus are the most sensitive to 

acidification tend not to be in the area where 

concentrations of sulfate, nitrate, and acidity 

in wetfall and in snowpack are greatest.

Effects of energy development on wilderness hydrologic systems of median sensitivity are of secondary concern to the Clean 

Air Act and the Wilderness Act; instead, concern is greatest for those systems that are considered to be the most sensitive. Even though 

median acid neutralizing capacity differs

56 Touching the Lives of Every Citizen Every Day..
greatly among regions in the Rocky Mountains, data indicate that lakes where acid neutralizing capacity is small are found 

throughout the Rocky Mountains. Because of 

differences in bedrock geology, soil development, and hydrology, those lakes having the 

smallest acid neutralizing capacity tend to be 

in specific mountain ranges such as the Bitterroot Range (Montana), the Wind River Range 

(Wyoming), the Uinta Mountains (Utah), and 

the Colorado Front Range and the northern 

Park Range (Colorado).

One area having a large concentration 

of sulfate, nitrate, and acidity in wetfall and 

snowpack overlaps with another area having 

a very small acid neutralizing capacity in 

lakes in northern Colorado downwind of the 

Yampa River Valley. At present levels of 

emissions from all sources, this area, which 

includes the Mount Zirkel Wilderness Area, 

likely contains hydrologic systems that are 

the most affected in the Rocky Mountains. No 

lakes are acidic during the summer when all 

sampling has been done. However, the initial 

stages of acidification would be greatest during early snowmelt, when the greatest concentrations of acidity are preferentially 

released. Such episodic acidification most 

likely would first affect small, ephemeral 

snowmelt pools favored by amphibians for 

breeding. Other studies indicate that the tiger 

salamander, which is endemic to the area, is 

sensitive at pH values commonly observed in 

the snowpack and wetfall in and near the 

Mount Zirkel Wilderness Area. Thus, a 

combination of chemistry in wetfall, snowpack, and lakes might be predicted to result in 

biological effects in and near the Mount Zirkel Wilderness Area, which is a Class 1 area 

(those given the greatest level of protection) 

under the Clean Air Act. Farther downwind 

is Rocky Mountain National Park, another 

Class 1 area.

The likelihood that this area is the most 

affected in the Rocky Mountains offers some 

opportunities to protect Rocky Mountain Wilderness Areas in general. Little information 

exists to tell us what aspects of the hydrologic 

and biologic systems of Rocky Mountain 

watersheds are most responsive to acidification. Further, although some damage might 

occur at present levels of emission, it is possible that hydrologic and other processes might 

protect these systems in ways not observed 

elsewhere. Thus, a well-planned evaluation of 

effects on lakes and aquatic organisms would

B

Clean air is critical to maintain spectacular vistas, such as that of Big Agnes Mountain (A). 

Clean air also is critical to the health of wilderness streams and lakes, such as Seven Lakes 

(6). Both photographs are from the Mount Zirkel Wilderness Area of Colorado, which has 

the most acidic snow in the Rocky Mountains.

be useful in predicting the effects of energy 

development and associated emissions everywhere in the Rocky Mountains.

John Turk

has conducted research on the aquatic resources of 

Rocky Mountain Wilderness Areas since 1980.

For more information on aquatic resources 

in Rocky Mountain Wilderness Areas, 

contact John Turk at:

Telephone: (303) 236-4882, ext. 300 

Fax: (303)236-4912 

Internet: jtturk@dcolka.cr.usgs.gov

..through Environmental Studies 57
As the Nation's largest earth-science research and information agency, the USGS maintains a 

long tradition of providing "Earth Science in the Public Service."

The USGS, a bureau of the U.S. Department of the Interior, was established to provide a permanent Federal agency to conduct the systematic and scientific "classification of the 

public lands and examination of the geological structure, mineral resources, and products of 

the national domain."

As a Nation we face serious questions concerning our global environment. Will we 

have adequate supplies of quality water available for national needs? How can we ensure an 

adequate supply of critical water, energy, and mineral resources in the future? In what ways 

are we irreversibly altering our natural environment when we use these resources? How has 

the global environment changed over geologic time, and what can the past tell us about the 

future? How can we predict, prevent, and mitigate the effects of natural hazards?

Collecting, analyzing, and disseminating the scientific information needed to answer 

these questions are the primary mission of the USGS. This information is provided to the public in many forms, such as reports, maps, and data bases, that provide descriptions and analyses of the water, energy, and mineral resources, the land surface, the underlying geologic structure, and the dynamic processes of the Earth.

The design on the front cover represents the four thematic 

"faces" of the USGS. Also reflected are images of the USGS 

mission such as flowing water, topographic contours, geologic 

cross sections, and profiles.
I

pue

-GJ-GJ-GJ-GJ-GJ-GJ-GI- 

-GJ-G -GJ-GJ-G Gj-G j-Gj-Oj-oj-omj-oj-

-01-01-0 -GJ-GJ-G 0 

O

w- J---*~ r jf- T- jf-^- r >* f V-- r 

M* :ftt6 :G_L£j ,G ,. 

G
Providing the public with timely, objective, high-quality technical 

information that is relevant to public issues and useful to policymakers is at the foundation of the USGS mission. In addition to conducting scientific investigations to gather vital data on the Earth, its 

processes, and its resources, the USGS is charged with promoting 

information sharing and providing consistent information management. A focused effort in information management enables the 

USGS to be more productive and more responsive to the public's 

need for information, as the articles in the following section show. 

Through the use of innovative technologies, educational programs, 

and integrated policies for communicating and sharing information, 

the USGS fulfills its mandate of providing "Earth Science in the 

Public Service."
Multi-Resolution Land 

Characteristics 

Monitoring System

T

he U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) has a 

tradition of leadership in land characterization research and development. The 

agency was instrumental in the establishment 

of a comprehensive earth observation program and also developed both a landmark 

strategy for land-use and land-cover classification and a national l:250,000-scale land-use 

and land-cover mapping program. In addition, the USGS met the heed for a catalog of 

Alaska's vegetation resources through a mammoth effort to use Landsat images and digital 

image classification to inventory more than 

75 percent of Alaska's vegetation.

The USGS continues to pioneer efforts 

in land characterization by developing and 

using a prototype land-cover database using 

satellite data. Environmental research and 

management demand current data on land 

cover, but there is no consensus on the format, scale, contents, and frequency of the 

required databases/The common ground 

between organizations is that land characteristics data must reflect multiple scales, 

sources, and times to satisfy a broad range of 

applications and be able to serve as a baseline 

for monitoring changes in land surface.

The USGS began a multi-resolution 

land characteristics monitoring system using a 

baseline of multiscale environmental characteristics and mechanisms for monitoring environmental changes. The system is based on 

the needs of such Federal environmental 

analysis programs as the USGS National 

Water-Quality Assessment (NAWQA), the 

National Biological Survey's Gap Analysis 

Project (GAP), the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's (USEPA) Environmental 

Monitoring and Assessment Program 

(EMAP), and the National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 

Coastal Change Analysis Program (C-CAP). 

It also contributes to the U.S. Global Change 

Research Program. The multi-resolution land 

characteristics monitoring system has three 

objectives: building a global database, building a regional database, and developing a 

multi-resolution monitoring system.

Global Database

A global land-cover characteristics 

-t~\. database has been developed for use in 

global change, sustainable development, and 

environmental assessment applications. This 

activity is an extension of the USGS research 

on conterminous U.S. land-cover characterization.

Regional Database

A regional land-cover characteristics 

database has been devised for use in 

Federal environmental programs. Landsat 

Thematic Mapper (TM) data are the primary 

source of the land-cover characteristics data. 

This activity is a partnership between the 

USGS and the agencies leading the 

NAWQA, GAP, EMAP, and C-CAP 

programs.

Multi-Resolution 

Monitoring System

A multi-resolution monitoring system for 

targeting areas of potential change and 

assessing the types, extent, and causes of 

land-cover change has been constructed. The 

system will use high-frequency, advanced 

very high resolution radiometer (AVHRR) 

data from NOAA and will verify and quantify 

local land changes by using Landsat data.

The initial emphasis is on the first two 

objectives to establish baseline conditions 

from which changes can be monitored.

The initial emphasis is.. . to 

establish baseline conditions from 

which changes can be monitored.

Global Land-Cover 

Characterization

T

he USGS is committed to developing the 

1-kilometer global land-cover characteristics database within 3 years. The project will 

begin with the North and South America

61
APRIL 21-30? 1992 MAY 1-10 9 1992

MAY 21-31? 1992 JUNE 21-30* 1992

These images illustrate temporal changes in vegetation conditions during the early portion of the growing season in North America. The changes 

in tone reflect the amount of photosynthetic activity in each area. Clouds and snow are depicted in white, and black represents areas where data 

are missing. The information is derived from 1-kilometer AVHRR data from NOAA.

For more information on the multiresolution land characteristics monitoring 

system, contact Thomas Loveland at:

Telephone: (605) 594-6066 

Fax: (605) 594-6589 

Internet: Ioveland@edcserver1 .cr. 

usgs.gov

components, which will be completed in 

1995.

The USEPA and the U.S. Forest Service 

are helping fund the database. The United 

Nations Environment Programme is coordinating the participation of international 

experts to help evaluate preliminary landcover descriptions. The Japan Ministry of 

Construction and the National Autonomous 

University of Mexico are providing staff. The 

activity has been accepted by the International Geosphere Biosphere Programme as a 

component of its "fast track" global landcover product.

Regional Land 

Characterization

T

he regional land-cover characterization 

objective is based on agency partnerships 

and a flexible strategy in which the partners 

share in all aspects of the mapping process. 

For example, because each agency develops 

land-cover data to its own specifications, the 

multi-resolution land characteristics monitoring system partners have identified areas in 

which their needs overlap and will share 

interpretations as appropriate.

62 Touching the Lives of Every Citizen Every Day.
In the last year, the EROS Data Center 

(the USGS satellite research and archiving 

facility in Sioux Falls, S. Dak.) purchased the 

required Landsat TM data covering the 

conterminous 48 States and completed the 

processing-including registration and distribution to the partners-of nearly half of 600 

scenes.

The first land-cover classifications developed by the partners are expected in early 

1995. The tentative goal is to have national 

coverage by late 1996.

Monitoring and Change 

Analysis

A multiple-resolution land characteristics monitoring system will support a broad 

range of environmental assessment and earth 

system process studies. The monitoring system will use coarse-resolution data having 

high temporal frequencies such as AVHRR to 

identify anomalous landscape conditions. The 

assessment of anomalies is based on higher 

resolution images such as those from the 

Landsat program.

The multi-resolution land characteristics monitoring system depends on the development of the global and regional land 

characteristics databases. The former will be 

related to the global 1-kilometer AVHRR 

data. The scale of the latter will be commensurate with that of the Landsat data. As these 

databases evolve, so will the structure and 

capabilities of the multi-resolution land characteristics monitoring system

Thomas R. Loveland

is a re mote-sensing scientist as the USGS EROS 

Data Center in Sioux Falls, S. Dak.

National Spatial Data 

Infrastructure

T

he National Spatial Data Infrastructure 

(NSDI) is being established as a means 

to find and cooperatively produce and use 

geospatial data as an information resource for 

the Nation. The NSDI consists of organizations and individuals who generate or use 

geospatial data, the technologies that facilitate 

use and transfer of geospatial data, and the 

actual data themselves. The Federal

Geographic Data Committee (FGDC) is the 

group charged with implementing the NSDI. 

U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) scientists are 

extensively involved in all aspects of NSDI 

development, including providing staff support for the FGDC.

1994 Plan for the NSDI

A

t the March 1994 meeting of the FGDC, 

a plan for the NSDI identified six 

actions:

 Conducting and participating in national 

forums as a means of debating issues, policies, and technical procedures related to 

the NSDI.

 Improving access to geospatial data by 

establishing a clearinghouse and completing a data documentation standard.

 Producing a framework of national digital 

geospatial data on which other data sets 

can be built.

 Developing thematic data sets to meet 

critical national needs.

 Developing educational and training 

programs to ensure the availability of 

trained personnel for future geospatial 

data activities.

 Developing partnerships among all 

sectors to coordinate geospatial data 

collection, management, and use.

Executive Order

O

n April 11, 1994, President Clinton 

signed Executive Order 12906, Coordinating Geographic Data Acquisition and Access: 

The National Spatial Data Infrastructure. The 

order directs all Federal agencies to contribute to the development of the NSDI and lays 

out key activities that Federal agencies must 

conduct in conjunction with State and local 

governments, academia, and the private sector to ensure the evolution and growth of the 

NSDI. Agencies are called upon to:

 Contribute to a national geospatial data 

clearinghouse and use that clearinghouse 

to determine data availability before starting new data collection projects.

 Document data sets according to metadata 

standards and support public access to 

data.

 Cooperatively develop data content standards and other geospatial data standards 

as necessary.

According to 

Executive Order 12906, 

"geospatial data" means 

information that identifies the geographic location and characteristics 

of natural or constructed 

features and boundaries 

on the Earth. This information may be derived 

from, among other 

things, remote sensing, 

mapping, and surveying 

technologies. Statistical 

data may be included in 

this definition at the discretion of the collecting 

agency.

.through Information and Data Management 63
Develop a plan for a national digital 

geospatial data framework. 

Develop strategies to cooperate more fully 

with State and local governments, the private sector, and other non-Federal organizations to share costs and improve 

efficient acquisition of geospatial data.

Agencies are called upon to

develop strategies to cooperate

more fully with State and local

governments, the private sector,

and other non-Federal

organizations to share costs and

improve efficient acquisition

of geospatial data.

The Geological Survey Geographic 

Data Committee (GSGDC) was charged to 

lead in developing the bureau's response to 

the Executive Order. An NSDI Action Plan 

Committee delivered a strategy to the 

GSGDC at the end of August, and an Action 

Plan Implementation Team was activated to 

carry the plan through its initial steps in 

January 1995.

Content Standards for 

Digital Geospatial 

Metadata

data producers and users on the value of 

metadata and the metadata standards.

National Geospatial Data 

Clearinghouse

A network-based clearinghouse for 

geospatial data is being developed to 

provide both metadata and geospatial data. 

Instead of centralizing all information, the 

Internet is used to link the sites where data 

are produced or maintained. By using this 

approach, data producers can control and 

maintain information provided about their 

data. The Internet then is used to find what 

data exist, the quality and condition of those 

data, and the terms for obtaining them.

The USGS has been particularly active 

in clearinghouse efforts. Servers for geospatial 

data and metadata within the USGS include 

the National Digital Cartographic Data Base 

servers at the EROS Data Center, which 

recorded nearly 40,000 downloads during 

their first 3 months, and the Distributed Spatial Data Library, which serves as the testbed 

for Wide-Area Information Server (WAIS) 

software development.

Instead of centralizing all

information, the Internet is used

to link the sites where data are

produced or maintained.

O

n June 8, 1994, the FGDC, under the 

chairmanship of Secretary of the 

Interior Bruce Babbitt, approved the Content 

Standards for Digital Geospatial Metadata. 

The standard is a common set of terms and 

definitions for documenting important 

aspects of geospatial data, including identification, data quality, spatial reference, spatial 

data organization, feature and attribute definitions, and distribution. The standard was 

developed over the last 2 years with input 

from numerous groups.

The USGS began to develop software to 

assist in the creation of metadata compliant 

with the standards. The USGS also sponsors 

training and workshop sessions to educate

Continued development of spatial 

enhancement to the WAIS software, together 

with workshops and training sessions, has 

helped spread knowledge of these new 

capabilities.

NSDI Competitive 

Cooperative Agreements 

Program

T

he NSDI Competitive Cooperative 

Agreements Program was established in 

1994 as a mechanism for the FGDC to use in

64 Toudiing the Lives of Every Citizen Every Day.
.forming partnerships with the non-Federal 

sector to assist in the development of the 

NSDI. This program provides cooperative 

funding to State and local government agencies, institutions of higher education, and (or) 

private organizations to encourage resourcesharing projects through the use of technology, networking, and enhanced interagency 

coordination efforts. Funding for the first year 

totaled $250,000 in nine individual awards. 

Awards were targeted toward two major elements of the NSDI. One element involved 

the development of the National Geospatial 

Data Clearinghouse to increase awareness 

and use of geospatial data; the second 

involved developing and furthering the use of 

FGDC-endorsed standards. 

Awards were given to:

 Kmf-Texas Water Development Board: 

An Internet Node for the State of Texas.

v» North Caro/tna-North Carolina Center for 

Geographic Information and Analysis: 

North Carolina Geographic Data 

Clearinghouse.

 Wisconsin-Wisconsin Land Information 

Board: Wisconsin NSDI Clearinghouse 

Initiative.

 ^Zorirfa-Florida State University: The 

Integration of Citizens and State and Local 

Governments into the NSDI Initiatives.

 /ozca-Iowa Department of Natural 

Resources: Establishing a National 

Geospatial Data Clearinghouse Node in 

Iowa.

 New Mexico-Earth Data Analysis Center, 

University of New Mexico: Conversion of 

New Mexico's Resource Geographic 

Information System Metadata to FGDC 

Metadata Standards.

 Mtnn^ote-Alexandria Technical College, 

Minnesota: Geospatial Data Standards 

Education.

 Montana-Natural Resource Information 

System, Montana State Library: Montana 

GIS Data Clearinghouse.

 New Jersey-New Jersey Department of 

Environmental Protection: Contributing

; New Jersey's GIS User Network and 

Geographic Information to the NSDI.

National Geospatial Data 

Framework

R

epresentatives from local, State, and 

Federal agencies are developing the concept of a geospatial data framework to manage the variety of common information being

collected by the public and private sectors. A 

Framework Working Group, organized by the 

FGDC, is identifying the purpose, goals, and 

content of the framework, how it should 

work, and reasons why organizations should 

participate.

The framework is a basic, consistent set 

of digital geospatial data and supporting services that will provide a geospatial foundation 

to which an organization may add detail and 

attach attribute information. Organizations 

will be able to use such a framework to accurately register and compile other themes of 

data and link the results of application to the 

landscape. Implementation will be phased, 

the goal being to have an initial geospatial 

data framework in place by the year 2000.

Thomas M. McCulloch

is clearinghouse coordinator on the Federal 

Geographic Data Committee staff

Internet: Earth Science 

Link to the Information 

Superhighway

T

he development of high-speed computer 

networks available to the general public 

provides new opportunities for the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) to distribute the 

results of its research, including reports, data 

sets, and maps. Computer networks also 

allow the public to get questions answered 

more rapidly and inexpensively than ever 

before.

The largest of these high-speed networks 

is the Internet. The Internet was developed 

by the Department of Defense Advanced 

Research Projects Agency during the 1970's to 

study computer networking technology. At 

that time, it was called ARPAnet and was 

available to a small number of researchers. In 

the 1980's, it was expanded and supported by 

the National Science Foundation to enhance 

communication within the academic and. 

Government research community. During 

this period, the main backbone of the Internet 

was called NSFnet. In 1993, the Internet was 

opened for commercial (nonresearch) uses. 

The commercialization of the Internet has 

created new methods and opportunities for 

communicating with millions of users.

Today, the Internet is a collection of 

over 20,000 individual computer networks

For more information on the NSDI, contaetr 

Thomas McCulloch at:

Telephone: (703) 648-4543 

Internet: tmccullo@usgs.gov

.through Information and Data Management 65
Sample Mosaic screen showing 

the USGS WWW Library Home 

Page.

The development of 

the U.S. Geological Survey World Wide Web 

Library was accomplished with the help of 

dedicated volunteers 

from the Volunteer for 

Science Program. Special thanks are due to 

volunteer Joann Miller, 

who volunteered more 

than 2,400 hours 

between June 1993 and 

June 1994 to help launch 

this new effort.

The USGS Home Rage 

can be accessed by 

opening the Uniform 

Resource Locator and 

entering: 

http://www.usgs.gov

g Hnv-ierucr HpmcFuqe

mi*-*

! *

Jut

r US. O»ltd»l $*rrrr its 0$ -ui'

For more information on the USGS on the 

Internet, contact William Miller at:

Telephone: (703)648-6721

Internet: bmiller@oemg.er.usgs.gov

that span the globe. Information available on 

the Internet ranges from classic literature like 

Alice in Wonderland and the collected works of 

William Shakespeare to technical reports, 

data sets, and commercial products. The 

Internet now is being expanded to include 

extensive facilities for many kinds of electronic commerce.

One historical problem with the Internet 

has been the difficulty in finding and viewing 

the information that it contained. Because it 

was originally created to support the research 

community, a high level of technical expertise was needed to operate the system. A 

recent technical development has helped 

solve this problem. A program called Mosaic, 

written at the National Center for Supercomputing Applications at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, now provides a 

method by which casual users can access 

Internet and get useful information and services. Mosaic uses text, images, audio, and 

animation to communicate information 

through a computer. The user no longer 

needs to know the technical details for access 

to the Internet. Mosaic can access the many 

different types of information services 

through a graphical user interface.

When accessing the Internet through 

Mosaic, a user can take advantage of active 

references to additional information that are 

embedded within each document. These 

"links" are a little like reference citations in a 

paper document, but they are much easier to 

use. Instead of tracking down the additional 

information in some other publication, the

user simply clicks a mouse button to access 

the new material.

The network of documents created by 

these links, called the World Wide Web 

(WWW), is not a publication or a database. 

The WWW is a virtual library within the 

Internet that contains publications, databases, 

and access to products. This library does not 

physically exist. It is created by many computers on the Internet working together. The 

USGS WWW Library is implemented as a 

distributed computer system; many USGS 

computers participate by providing access 

through Mosaic to the data that they contain. 

The WWW is not just one library but a collection of interaccessible libraries. These virtual libraries conceptually consist of "rooms": 

a reference room, a general reading room, 

and a special collections room.

The reference room of the USGS portion of WWW contains the official publications of the USGS. It is the central location 

for finding USGS information products on 

the Internet. The documents in the WWW 

reference room, unlike those in traditional 

library reference rooms, may circulate. Users 

may "borrow" a document, making a complete duplicate of the document for their full 

use. Many copies of a given document eventually may exist in satellite WWW libraries 

around the world. Because these copies may 

have been modified or altered, users must 

know where to find the original version of 

any given USGS document, data set, or electronic product. The WWW reference room 

provides access to that original version. All 

documents in the reference room of the 

USGS WWW Library have been approved 

for publication by the Director.

The USGS WWW Library, like any traditional library, also contains books, maps, 

data sets, and other products that support the 

mission of the USGS but were not created by 

the USGS, such as historical documents or 

duplicate copies of reports or data sets. Many 

may have been created at the USGS but have 

been extended by others to create valuable 

new products. They are held in the general 

reading room, which is analogous to the 

"stacks" of a paper library.

The USGS uses computers and networks in many phases of its research. Unfinished works in progress are not generally 

released to the public until they have been 

completed and granted Director's approval. 

These resources are kept in the special collections room of the USGS WWW Library. 

Access is restricted, much as access to rare 

books is restricted in a paper library or as

66 Touching the Lives of Every Citizen Every Day.
research collections are restricted in a 

museum.

The USGS WWW Library is accessed 

through its front door, which is called the 

USGS Home Page. Upon entering the 

library, the user is presented with several 

options to help find the information desired. 

Most users will probably be one of three 

types: general public, student or teacher, or 

research scientist. Different areas can be provided on the Home Page for each type of 

user.

The Home Page consists of four major 

areas: (1) a navigational tool for finding information, (2) a short introduction to the USGS, 

(3) a menu of options for using the resources 

of the library, and (4) information on how to 

contact the USGS. A user needs merely to 

click a mouse button on any of the underlined 

words or phrases to be shown the new page 

of information selected.

A variety of USGS information is currently available on the Internet. Many publications, including some written for a general 

audience, are available. Job announcements 

and news releases are regularly posted and 

updated. Many data sets are available for 

direct downloading or can be ordered on the 

network for delivery in other formats. The list 

of available information is growing as USGS 

customers become aware of this service.

A "visitors center" is being added to the 

USGS WWW Library to guide the public on 

tours through the USGS. These predefined 

paths through the body of information available from the USGS on the Internet will 

make the service more useful and entertaining for the public, especially students and 

teachers. Sample tours will include "Geographic Information Systems," "Earthquake!", 

and "The Water Cycle."

The USGS WWW Library has been 

available on an experimental basis since June 

1993. During the 1-year period from June 

1993 to June 1994, use of the service grew at 

about 20 percent per month. More than 

10,000 people per month are now accessing 

more than 100,000 pages of information per 

month, and use of the service continues to 

expand.

The Internet has become a crucial tool 

for disseminating USGS information and 

products in fulfillment of the USGS mission.

William Miller

studies computer systems and their 

application to the earth sciences.

GeoMedia2 Shows the 

Wonder of Earth 

Science

T

he best teachers are those who instill a 

sense of wonder in their studentswhether about earth processes, the evolution 

of life, or the rise and fall of ancient civilizations. Evoking curiosity about the Earth continues to challenge educators, particularly as 

science literacy has declined in the United 

States. As environmental issues become more 

complex, the country needs informed citizens 

capable of making decisions and voting on 

legislation about natural resources and hazards and planning for the 21st century. Legislation known as "Goals 2000: Educate 

America" calls for assistance to States and 

local communities in meeting the President's 

education goals. Making the United States 

first in the world in math and science is one of 

the goals of this legislation.

To meet these educational challenges, 

the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) has been 

exploring new ways of communicating earth 

science topics to pre-college students. 

Through a long-term research and development project, the USGS has been assessing 

the effectiveness of teaching earth science 

through the use of hypermedia, a computer 

technology that allows users to choose their 

own path through information in a variety of 

formats.

In 1991, the USGS began to develop its 

first earth science computer system based on

The concept of hypertext, also known as hypermedia, was first proposed 

in 1945 by one of the first computer scientists, Vannevar Bush, in an article 

titled "As We May Think," which was published in the Atlantic Monthly. 

Bush envisioned a device called the memex where all types of information, 

such as books, pictures, records, and letters, could be stored. Bush imagined that the information could be accessed in a nonlinear method more 

closely aligned to cognitive processes by creating links between associative material. The term was popularized by Ted Nelson, a leading proponent of hypertext technology, in 1965. Today, hypertext has come to mean 

a software environment for creating nonsequential database management 

systems. Hypertext techniques provide the capability to create associative 

links between structured and unstructured information that may include 

text, graphics, animation, and sound.

.through Information and Data Management 67
ENHOUSE

EFFECT

Computer screen from GeoMedia2 showing table of contents.The application was 

designed for Apple Macintosh computers and developed by using Macromedia Director 

authoring software, which is produced by Macromedia, Inc.

hypermedia technology. The objective of this 

research and development project was to 

design and implement a hypermedia educational system aimed at middle-school 

students. The project resulted in the development of a prototype entitled GeoMedia, which 

presents information on the water cycle, 

earthquakes, and understanding maps. Each 

of the three modules contains animations, 

illustrations, text, a glossary of terms, and a 

reading list. GeoMedia was distributed on digital compact disc to earth science teachers in 

the United States from 1992 to 1994. To date, 

approximately 2,500 discs have been distributed to educators who agreed to participate in

For more information on developing 

educational hypermedia systems, contact 

Denise Wiltshire at:

Telephone: (703)648-7114

Internet: dwiltshi@ridgisd.er.usgs.gov

OR 

Carmelo F. Ferrigno at:

Telephone: (703) 648-7142

Internet: cferrign@ridgisd.er.usgs.gov

GeoMedia Computer

Configuration

Requirements

Macintosh

Macintosh suite of computers with 

System 7.0 or later 

13-inch or larger color monitor 

5 megabytes of memory 

CD-ROM drive

Windows

In 1995, GeoMedia (volumes 1 and 2) 

will be replicated for Windows. Configuration requirements for computers 

running Windows have not been determined at this time. Additional information on these forthcoming products is 

available from the authors of this article 

or InterNetwork Media, Inc., at the 

address listed below.

Address inquiries about purchasing 

GeoMedia discs to:

InterNetwork Media, Inc.

1130 Camino Del Mar, Suite H

Del Mar, CA 92014

the project by evaluating the information on 

the disc.

Favorable responses to GeoMedia from 

USGS employees and the educational community led to the development of a second 

hypermedia system on global environmental 

change. Again, the targeted academic level is 

middle school. The basic design of GeoMediaZ 

is patterned after the original system a tour 

of earth science topics with video-game overtones. GeoMedia2 includes three modules: the 

carbon cycle, the greenhouse effect, and the 

monitoring of environmental change over 

time. The graphical user interface is the same 

but incorporates a few modifications based on 

teacher evaluations of GeoMedia. The modules 

each contain four sections: animation, elements, glossary, and further reading. The 

carbon cycle module illustrates the movement of carbon through the environment and 

the effect of human interactions on the cycle. 

The greenhouse effect module explains a natural environmental process that traps heat in 

the lower part of the Earth's atmosphere to 

keep the planet warm enough to sustain life. 

In the time and change module, students

68 Touching the Lives of Every Citizen Every Day.
learn about the geologic history of the Earth 

and the evolution of living organisms. 

GeoMediaZ focuses on the many changes that 

have occurred throughout the 4.5-billion-year 

history of the Earth in the physical, chemical, 

geological, and biological characteristics of 

the planet. The USGS multimedia educational team will continue to distribute 

GeoMediaZ to teachers participating in the 

project until the fall of 1995, when both volumes will become available commercially.

Plans are underway to develop a hypermedia system that enables students to navigate through a nonsequential arrangement of 

information and further participate in the 

creative process by authoring their own multimedia reports. This application will explain 

earth science processes that relate to natural 

hazards, such as volcanoes and earthquakes. 

Students will explore earth science topics by 

selecting geographic regions that are notable 

for natural hazards. The approach to the 

information will be by using maps and satellite images instead of picking topics from a 

table of contents, which was the approach 

used in GeoMedia. The USGS expects to 

complete this prototype by the winter of 

1996.

The USGS continues to design software 

that is in concert with national curriculum 

standards and reform movements, such as 

Project 2061 sponsored by the American 

Association for the Advancement of Science 

(AAAS). The AAAS emphasizes several key 

concepts for teaching science in a report entitled "Science for All Americans." Among the 

principles of learning discussed in the report 

are two key philosophies embraced by the 

team during the software design process: (1) 

do not separate knowing from finding out and 

(2) science teaching should reflect scientific 

values by welcoming curiosity, rewarding 

creativity, and encouraging a spirit of healthy 

questioning.

DeniseA. Wiltshire

is a writer and information scientist currently 

serving as a multimedia producer for the USGS.

Carmelo R Ferrigno

is a USGS computer scientist specializing in

scientific data visualization and multimedia

application development.

Using Geographic 

Information, Image 

Processing, and 

Animation Systems to 

Visualize a Digital 

Terrain Flyby

A. errain flyby animation tools are being 

used by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) 

and other agencies such as the National 

Aeronautics and Space Administration, the 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and the Department of Defense to 

analyze terrestrial and extraterrestrial data 

and to showcase data. To reduce the costs of 

buying analytical software to construct and 

view these animations, a multidivision, multiagency technology assessment project 

focused on integrating readily available commercial geographic information systems software (ARC/INFO), free image processing 

software (Khoros), and low-cost terrainrendering software (Surveyor) to merge 

several USGS data sets and produce terrain 

flybys.

The merged data sets included a digital 

orthophoto quadrangle (DOQ), a digital elevation model (DEM), and the transportation 

and hydrography digital line graph (DLG) 

layers for a mountainous area in Idaho. The 

DOQ data are a photograph of the Earth's 

surface. The DEM is a series of regularly 

spaced elevation points for this same area. 

The DLG is the line data from the digital data 

used in the production process of the USGS 

paper maps. Preprocessing of the data was 

performed with ARC/INFO software. After 

merging a DOQ,image and the DLG images, 

computer scientists used routines constructed 

in Khoros to produce red, green, and blue 

images, which were then reformatted for 

input to Surveyor. Surveyor software was 

then used to produce several DOQand DLG 

terrain flybys. Integrating the three existing 

software packages and using the best features 

of each saved money by eliminating the need 

to procure a single equivalent expensive software package

.through Information and Data Management 69
Perspective of the McCal I, Idaho, 

digital orthophoto quadrangle 

showing elevations, roads, and 

streams.

For more information on digital terrain 

flybys, contact Robert C. Clark at:

Telephone: (703)648-7123

Internet: bclark@ridgisd.er.usgs.gov

Products generated by this project were 

made available to the public and private 

sectors.

Robert G. Clark

is a USGS computer scientist who has worked 

in technology assessment for the past 9 years.

Parallelizing a Coastal 

Circulation Computer 

Model

T

he transport of water and its properties 

are governed by the laws of mass, 

momentum, and energy conservation. These 

laws have been translated into equations that, 

in turn, have been coded as Fortran computer 

language routines in a computer model called 

ECOM-si. This model is used by the U.S. 

Geological Survey (USGS) to investigate the 

flow of water and transport of waterborne 

constituents in the coastal ocean. Most 

recently, for example, it has been used to 

answer questions related to the construction, 

placement, and operation of a new sewage 

treatment plant and ocean outfall for the city 

of Boston, Mass. Specifically, ECOM-si is 

used to predict time and space dependencies

of water properties such as surface elevation, 

velocity, temperature, salinity, and dissolved 

constituent (for example, nonreactive dye 

released at the Boston outfall site) concentration as functions of winds, precipitation, 

atmospheric heating and cooling, tides, and 

river inflows.

ECOM-si is a three-dimensional, 

time-dependent, finite-difference hydrodynamics circulation model that uses a curvilinear coordinate system to define a spatial 

domain consisting of discrete cells. The computer program calculates velocity, temperature, salinity, and dye concentration for every 

cell in the grid at evenly spaced intervals in 

time called time steps. In the Massachusetts 

Bay study case, the model runs on a grid of 

68x 68x11 or roughly 50,000 cells representing the bay and Boston Harbor. This grid provides spatial resolution of 600 to 6,000 meters 

horizontally and 30 centimeters to 14 meters 

vertically. The model's time step is roughly 

6 minutes.

Use of the model can be time intensive. 

Computer simulations of 1 year of dissolved 

constituent transport take roughly 10 days to 

complete on a Sun SPARC station 2, 3 days 

on an IBM RISC 6000 model 580, 0.8 day 

on a Cray X-MP, and 0.15 day on a Cray 

C90 single central processing unit (CPU) 

system. To make calculations at finer spatial 

and temporal scales, which some coastal

7O Touching the Lives of Every Citizen Every Day.
circulation problems require, and to make 

calculations over longer simulation periods 

without extending the total length of time 

required to complete the calculations, new 

techniques for solving the model's equations 

must be explored.

One promising approach for accelerating these computations is splitting the model's 

computations over multiple processors (parallelizing the model). For example, the model's 

computations can be divided for distributedmemory multicomputer systems such as the 

Thinking Machines Corporation's (TMC) 

Connection Machine CM-5. A CM-5 uses 

multiple processors to execute a parallel program. This program typically consists of separate tasks running on separate processors. All 

processors can execute the same task for 

independent data sets or different tasks for a 

single data set. In any case, a processor may 

have to communicate data that is, send or 

receive the results of computations to or from 

another processor to proceed with its own 

calculations.

To perform a large-scale circulation simulation on a distributed-memory multicomputer, the serial computation can be split "in 

time," "in space," or both. An example of 

time splitting is dividing the problem so 

that each parallel processor performs the

calculations for a given month of a year-long 

simulation. This procedure is clearly inefficient, because each month's result depends 

on the previous months' results; consequently, a processor has to sit idle while waiting for the previous months' processors to 

finish. Space splitting has the potential to be 

much more advantageous. In space splitting, 

subsections of the model grid are distributed 

to the processors, and calculations for all the 

subsections are performed simultaneously. 

There remains a need for adjacent subsections to communicate information to one 

another, so processors must be able to communicate during the calculation process. The 

efficiency of this communication is a key to 

achieving good parallelization of the 

ECOM-si code. At present, the focus of the 

research presented here is on this spatial partitioning of the ECOM-si model grid; the 

Massachusetts Bay model is being used as a 

test case.

Automatic parallelizing compilers typically do not convert existing serial code into 

optimally efficient parallel code. However, 

the process of receding a serial program is 

made simpler by such parallel languages as 

Fortran 90 or TMC Fortran, both of which 

are well suited for scientific computations. 

These languages permit a single operation,

Three-dimensional perspective 

view of the ECOM-si model grid 

for Massachusetts Bay as viewed 

from south to north. Cape Cod is 

in the foreground, and Boston 

Harbor is in the background on 

the left. ECOM-si calculates 

temperature, velocity, salinity, 

and dye concentration as a 

function of time in each of the 

roughly 50,000 grid cells shown 

in the figure.

.through Information and Data Management 71
Administrative Support for Information Management

interior Department Electronic Acquisition System. The

 Washington Administrative Service Center (WASC) of the 

U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) is heading the Department of 

the Interior (DOI) effort to establish electronic commerce 

(EC) projects in support of an Executive Order. In June 1994, 

the USGS began using EC at two pilot procurement offices in 

Reston, Va., and Denver, Colo. Three additional sites within 

the DOI are participating in the EC pilot: the U.S. Bureau of 

Mines in Pittsburgh, Pa., and Denver, Colo., and the Minerals 

Management Service in Herndon, Va.

Use of EC and the Interior Department Electronic Acquisition System (IDEAS) is expected to streamline small purchase 

activities and reduce procurement costs. DOI's early success 

with EC has already come to the attention of other Government agencies: the Treasury, Commerce, and Energy Departments have approached DOI about supporting their EC 

initiatives.

Electronic commerce involves creating requests for quotations (RFQ's) in a standard electronic format that can be 

transmitted to an electronic bulletin board on a commercially operated value-added network (VAN). Commercial 

vendors subscribe to one of several VAN's to access Government RFQ's and to submit quotations to Government agencies electronically. An electronic purchase order can be 

issued to the winning vendor, and unsuccessful vendors also 

can be notified of their status electronically. Currently, DOI 

requirements are posted on 15 VAN's via the FEDNET Gateway operated by the Department of Defense.

The DOI EC pilots have resulted in immediate savings to 

the Government by improving processing time and effort in 

the procurement offices, expediting purchasing through 

paperless processing, and reducing prices that the Government pays for products. Since the use of EC began, the 

reduction of paper in the purchasing process has decreased 

the 5- to 10-day processing time to 2 to 5 days and has 

resulted in savings in effort for both the Government and 

vendors. In addition to the reduced time frame, competition 

has increased. The number of vendor responses (quotes) has 

averaged 10 per RFQ.

USGS Modernizes Product Sales and Inventory 

System. The USGS modernized the product sales and 

inventory system used for USGS maps and books and

improved its accounting for product sales by modifying the 

Federal Financial System (FFS) Inventory Subsystem. The new 

system represents a pioneering effort to integrate the Departmental accounting system with a major business application, 

because the revised FFS Inventory software is fully integrated 

with the current DOI FFS application. The system ensures 

the integrity of the financial data available to the bureau 

financial system for fiscal year-end reporting to the Department; eliminates accounting weaknesses; reduces manual 

processing; integrates USGS product sales billing and 

accounts receivable information with the FFS; and improves 

inventory management capabilities. In its first 2 months of 

operation by employees who meet the demands of the public and of other Federal agencies for USGS maps and other 

earth science information products, over 20,000 orders were 

processed, representing the sale of several hundred thousand 

USGS products.

EROS Data Center Adds Space for Data Storage. The 

USGS EROS Data Center (EDC) in Sioux Falls, S. Dak., is a 

data archiving, processing, distribution, and research facility 

for remotely sensed and other earth science data. The EDC 

has been a partner in the land satellite (Landsat) program 

since 1972, first with the National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration (NASA), then with the National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration, and currently with Landsat's 

commercial operator, the Earth Observation Satellite Corporation. The Land Remote Sensing Policy Act of 1992 established the USGS as the permanent archive for Landsat data.

A contract valued at $8,654,200 was competitively 

awarded by the USGS for the construction of a 65,000- 

square-foot addition to the EDC. The addition will house 

computers and peripherals that will also support the highspeed and high-volume processing and storage of data gathered by NASA under the Earth Observing System program, 

the principal component of NASA's "Mission to Planet 

Earth." The first satellite launch in support of the program is 

scheduled for 1998; subsequent launches will follow over 

the next 15 years. The EDC will be the archiving, processing, 

and distribution center for all land processes data from this 

program as well as the sole repository for all Landsat data 

collected by the five satellites operated during the program's 

20-year life.

For more information on coastal circulation 

computer modeling, contact Harry L. Jenter 

at:

* Telephone: (703) 648-5916 

Internet: hjenter@stress.er.usgs.gov f/,.:/;; : OR- .

i VVang at:

Internet: pwang@stress.er.usgs.gov

such as addition, to be executed in parallel on 

the respective components of two objects. To 

code an efficient parallel program, the programmer must still be aware of the hardware 

characteristics (the computational and communications speeds of the parallel machine) 

as.well as software issues such as data layout. 

In the ECOM-si serial code, calculations 

involving discrete cells often take three forms: 

operations that combine matrices by using

the same subscript values, those combining 

matrices indexed by differing values, and 

those combining matrices having different 

dimensions.

A conversion of the ECOM-si code to 

TMC Fortran is currently underway. Preliminary versions of the code have been tested by 

using 64 and 128 CM-5 processor systems. 

These tests have been performed with relatively small numbers of grid cells, and

72 Touching the Lives of Every Citizen Every Day.
performance gains over serial workstations 

have been attained. At present, the Massachusetts Bay model runs at speeds comparable to 

those of a Cray X-MP. However, the code 

needs to be optimized, and data partitioning 

needs to be improved to achieve better performance.

The key to a successful parallel implementation of the coastal circulation model is 

to achieve a balance between computation 

and communication speeds. Further, it is 

important to use algorithms that lend themselves to parallelization for the particular 

parallel system being employed. As CPU 

development bumps up against the serious 

engineering barriers of faster computer clock 

speeds, parallel computing may become the 

only option for increasing model computation speed as well as for increasing the size of 

the model grid available to address coastal 

ocean resource management questions in the 

future.

Harry L.Jenter

is a research hydrologist at the USGS.

Pearl Y. Wang

is a professor of computer science 

at George Mason University.

"National Water 

Conditions" Report 

Goes "Online"

T

he monthly "National Water Conditions" report was made available on the 

Internet in October 1994. Within a month, 

circulation of the new electronic format had 

exceeded that of the former paper version, 

and it continues to increase. Readers can view 

maps of monthly streamflow conditions, 

ground-water levels, and charts of monthly 

streamflow at more than 200 stations. 

Response to the new electronic format and 

the timeliness has been enthusiastic.

The "National Water Conditions" 

report, which is produced in cooperation with 

Environment Canada, had been published 

monthly since 1944 and mailed free to 5,000 

subscribers. Postage and printing costs, however, continued to rise, and readers wanted to 

see the information more quickly. In August 

1994, a team was formed to investigate electronic distribution of the report; by October,

Awards for Digital Orthophoto 

Quarter Quadrangle and Digital Line 

Graph Production

A

s part of expanded partnerships with industry, the U.S. Geological 

Survey (USCS) has contracted with seven firms to produce digital 

orthophoto quarter quadrangles, or DOQ's. DOQ's are digital images of 

aerial photographs that combine the image characteristics of a photograph 

with the geometric qualities of a map. These innovative cartographic products are used by planners, engineers, and Government agencies to update 

changes in land use, transportation, and utility corridors and can also be 

used to analyze vegetation patterns, manage timber resources, assess wildlife habitats, delineate floodplains, and identify areas of potential soil erosion. DOQ's are part of the National Digital Cartographic Data Base and 

are available to the public. Additionally, DOQ's are shared with requesting 

State agencies and Federal Government agencies such as the Soil Conservation Service, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the U.S. Forest 

Service, and the National Park Service.

Orders worth a total of $1.8 million also were placed under 10 contracts with private firms for digital line graph (DIG) production services in 

support of the USGS's responsibility to administer the national mapping 

program and to populate the National Digital Cartographic Data Base 

(NDCDB). The services performed by the companies holding these contracts include digitizing features portrayed on USGS topographic quadrangle maps at scales ranging from 1:24,000 to 1:100,000 and processing 

these data into one of two DLG-compatible formats. These contracts are a 

means through which all Department of the Interior bureaus can digitize 

base category data from USGS topographic base maps in a form that the 

USGS can upgrade and (or) enter into the NDCDB and thereby eliminate 

duplicate projects conducted by individual bureaus.

the team's recommendations had been 

accepted, and the first electronic version was 

released.

Readers can view the report by using 

the popular Mosaic software package, which 

is available at no cost over the Internet. 

Mosaic is used for many scientific and commercial presentations because of its ability to 

show text and graphics. A key decision was to 

discontinue the paper version of the report 

and to focus on producing the electronic version. The Mosaic software allows users to 

print individual pages on their own printers.

Producing an all-electronic report introduced several new opportunities. Page limits 

imposed by the paper report restricted 

streamflow charts to only six to eight carefully 

selected stations. The new format allows users 

to customize their own reports either by 

selecting stations from a scrolling list of more 

than 200 station names or by pointing to a 

map of the stations. Because printing and

Earth science information ranging from the 

latest flood data through 

scientific animations of 

currents in Boston Harbor and flyovers of digital landscapes to the 

latest USGS press 

releases can be found by 

accessing the USGS 

Home Rage on the 

World Wide Web. To 

reach the Home Fage, 

open the Uniform 

Resource Locator (URL) 

and enter: 

http://www.usgs.gov.

To access the 

"National Water Conditions Report," open the 

URL and enter: 

http://h2o.usgs.gov

.through Information and Data Management 73
STREAMFLOW DURING DECEMBER 1994

Normal

Below 

normal

mailing have been eliminated, sections of the 

report can be released as soon as they are prepared (similar to the "early" and "late" editions of a newspaper), so that a delay in one 

section does not delay the whole report. As a 

result, more information gets to more users 

faster and at less cost.

The new "National Water Conditions" 

report has been a big success so far. Readers 

have accessed it from more than 4,000 sites 

from all over the world. A new (and instantaneous) "feedback" page included with the 

report has returned many positive comments 

and indicated great interest in more such publications. As one reader said, "Every time I 

see real solid information added to the web I 

am absolutely delighted. Great job all of 

you."

Kenneth J. Lanfear

is responsible for ensuring that "cybersurfers"

on the Internet can find and retrieve the

water-resources information that they need.

Example of the map of monthly 

stream conditions shown in the 

"National Water Conditions" 

report.

For more information on the "National 

Water Conditions" online report and other 

digital water-resources information, contact 

Kenneth Lanfear at:

Telephone: (703) 648-6852 

Internet: lanfear@usgs.gov

Accessing the World Wide Web 

server requires a program that can communicate with the hypertext transfer 

protocol (HTTP) and that can display the 

hypertext, graphics, audio, and scientific 

visualizations that are currently available. Mosaic, a program from the 

National Center for Supercomputer 

Applications, will allow this information 

to be displayed on computers using 

HTTP, Gopher, WAIS, Telnet, or FTP protocols. Internet users who do not have 

access to the World Wide Web can still 

retrieve a number of USGS databases by 

using FTP protocols. For example, the 

National Cartographic Data Base, which 

includes both cartographic and topographic digital databases at scales ranging from 1:24,000 to 1:2,000,000 can 

be found at "edcftp.cr.usgs.gov." The 

data are in directories found under the 

"/pub/data" directory. For further information on the USGS World Wide Web 

server, contact "Webmaster@usgs.gov."

A Distributed Spatial 

Data Library for the 

U.S. Geological Survey

A conceptual design is being implemented 

for an online library of spatial data, programs, and documentation to support hydrologic studies in the U.S. Geological Survey 

(USGS). Called the Distributed Spatial Data 

Library (DSDL), it is a set of local spatial data 

libraries that will house spatial data and data 

indexes for common use. The library concept 

includes definitions of format and organization of spatial and attribute data, programs, 

and associated documentation used by USGS 

databases and applications programs; programs required to query and evaluate the 

data stored in the library; and the anticipated 

processing environment in which the library 

would operate. These concepts are being 

used to implement and populate the DSDL 

in nearly 100 offices that collect digital spatial 

data within the USGS by September 1995.

74 Touching the Uves of Every Citizen Every Day...
Conceptual Organization of 

the Distributed Spatial 

Data Library

T

he library includes a core of common 

spatial data, metadata that document 

each data set, software that is designed to 

operate on specific data sets or to work generically within a geographic information system 

(GIS), and indexes and help files for the available supported software. Standard "recipes" 

for the preparation or use of specific data layers would be developed by authors and users 

of the data sets, thus relating the various 

pieces in what are termed "data-automation 

guidelines."

New emphasis has been placed on the 

value of digital information within the Federal 

Government in general and on digital spatial 

data in particular. Office of Management and 

Budget Circular A-130 specifies that agencies 

must make information available in digital 

form and make more information electronically accessible through online computer networks, such as the Internet, or through dial-in 

bulletin board services. The need for a DSDL 

has long been recognized by the user community. The Federal Geographic Data Committee (FGDC) began a prototype spatial data 

clearinghouse activity in late 1992 to identify 

spatial data holdings, their applicability, and 

their availability. Proposals to develop a 

National Information Infrastructure and a 

National Spatial Data Infrastructure underscore this general requirement to organize 

and document spatial data holdings and to 

improve access to them (see p. 63).

At present, GIS software does not provide for the consistent management of 

descriptive information about data sets, 

known as metadata, or permit discovery and 

retrieval of such data, computer programs, 

and recognized techniques among users in 

either a local- or a wide-area network setting. 

A need exists in the USGS and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) to 

develop an online system to manage digital 

spatial data, associated computer programs, 

standardized procedures and data-set-naming conventions, and related documentation 

to support a variety of hydrologic and database applications in a distributed processing 

environment. The USEPA is assisting in the 

development of this online system with the 

USGS.

The premise of DSDL-applying a 

distributed database approach to disparate

Data-automation guidelines

1 1 III

Metadata 

base

(index)

Vector 

data

Raster 

data

II 1 1 II

Spacial 

data 

programs

1 1

1

Program 

index

1

User interface

collections of spatial data-was adopted by the 

FGDC in 1993 as part of a prototype spatial 

data clearinghouse. The clearinghouse prototype involved more than 60 participating Federal, State, and private organizations in the 

preparation and online dissemination of 

descriptions of spatial data holdings. The 

USEPA also has begun to apply DSDL concepts and software in the development of its 

spatial-data-management plan and has been 

helping develop the software tools required to 

make DSDL a reality.

Design of the Data 

Structure

I

f a library concept is to be successful and 

be accepted by the end user, all data types 

must be identifiable and accessible through a 

common set of tools. A library is defined as a 

collection of map themes that have the same 

inherent tiling, or partitioning, structure. Multiple map libraries, which correspond to different collections of data, may be created and 

managed at a single site. Tiles are defined as 

closed geographic areas or units of map management by which data are produced, edited, 

and distributed. Some States build map libraries in which the tiling unit is a township 

because lands are administered in those units. 

Updates are typically processed by township, 

reports are typically written by township, and 

queries are typically run against a given township. Some States manage their map data by 

quadrangle because they are collected by 

quadrangle. For scientific applications, it is 

preferable that data be managed in units that 

correspond to the way the data were collected 

and the way they will be used. Collections of 

stream traces, like the USEPA River Reach 

File, should be logically organized by river 

basin rather than by quadrangle. Other data

Conceptual organization of 

DSDL. At the core of DSDL are 

collections of vector and raster 

spatial data sets and programs 

that work on specific or general 

types of data. The data sets and, 

in particular, their documentation can be indexed by textual 

content and by geographic 

location, or footprint. Users must 

be able to browse existing data 

holdings before beginning a new 

project to avoid reprocessing or 

digitizing existing data. They 

should be able to query the 

holdings of a database on the 

basis of a combination of text 

terms and geographic extent 

through the interactive 

definitions of a polygon on the 

screen and to have potential 

matches listed and accessible.

.through Information and Data Management 75
may be organized by State or county or by 

project area.

A library of data layers for the conterminous United States (CUSA) is maintained by 

the USGS in Reston, Va., and contains smalland intermediate-scale data sets giving full 

coverage of the lower 48 States. These data 

are prepared for Statewide, regional, and 

national analysis and are often used as backdrop maps or for the preparation of base-map 

materials. The CUSA library has been distributed internally within the USGS on 

CD-ROM for reference by water-resources 

applications, such as the National Water 

Information System.

Data Access in a 

Distributed Environment

that are kept in the local office and are in constant local use. Rather than creating a centralized repository of digital spatial data, 

individual offices with GIS capability will 

manage and post spatial data, programs, and 

documents from the local site. A central 

directory of servers-a "who's who" of digital 

spatial data-will be created by the USGS 

Reston DSDL office but only as a referral service to aide the discovery of actual data distributed in the field. This directory of servers 

also will reference other catalogs of earth science information known to be held in WAIS 

servers by the USGS and other earth science 

agencies. The accessibility of information has 

been greatly increased by World Wide Web 

clients such as Mosaic, which also are able to 

access and query these stores of data via gateway programs.

To access the USGS 

node of the National 

Geospatial Data Clearinghouse, open the Uniform Resource Locator 

(URL) and enter:

http://h2o.er.usgs.gov 

Then click on: 

USGS Node of the 

National Geospatial 

Data Clearinghouse 

Then click on: 

Spatial search

For more information on the DSDL, contact 

Douglas Nebert at:

Telephone: (703) 648-5691 

Internet: ddnebert@usgs.gov

I

t was originally anticipated that specialized 

software would be needed to provide nonproprietary access to spatial data, programs, 

and documentation, such as guidelines and 

data dictionaries. In late 1991, the Wide Area 

Information Server (WAIS) software was 

identified by the USGS as a potentially useful 

public-domain software system for the dissemination of earth science data. The WAIS 

software was jointly developed by Apple 

Computer, Thinking Machines Corporation, 

and Dow Jones and Peat Marwick as a means 

to rapidly index and to provide access to 

searching through entire text documents by 

using unstructured text queries across a widearea network. The WAIS software has proved 

robust enough to permit custom enhancements, such as fieldlike data retrieval, spatial 

indexing and retrieval of documents, and support of multiple file types (for example, a text 

file, a graphic file, and a binary data file all as 

a result of a single query) by USGS and collaborating authors.

The WAIS software is being used by the 

DSDL project for online posting of digital 

data set documentation, graphic "snapshot" 

files, compressed GIS data layers for 

retrieval, data-dictionary entries, and software 

available within the USGS. Spatial extensions 

to WAIS were done in concert with the 

FGDC's Geospatial Data Clearinghouse 

Workgroup to provide Internet accessibility 

to data and descriptive information held by 

primarily Federal users of GIS.

The concepts of DSDL and WAIS rely 

on the fact that the data most likely to be 

updated and properly maintained are those

Publication of Digital 

Spatial Data

T

he USGS and the USEPA have developed a spatial-data-documentation program (DOCUMENT) that facilitates the collection and management of important metadata. 

This program facilitates the collection of 

information that will be mandatory for data 

transfer by using the Spatial Data Transfer 

Standard. DOCUMENT will document any spatial data set that will be used in hydrologic 

investigations to prepare soft- or hard-copy 

maps or will be accessed by more than one 

user. It also manages four types of information-basic data-set characteristics, a data dictionary, references to published source(s), and 

a narrative section for extended discussion of 

data automation techniques and revisions. 

Where such information exists, all four types 

of information will be collected and managed 

for all types of spatial databases to facilitate 

appropriate use and reuse of the data. The 

output of the DOCUMENT program has been 

modified to be compliant with the FGDC 

Content Standard for Digital Geospatial 

Metadata. This modification allows exchange 

of metadata in a common set of terms.

Placement of standardized and reviewed 

data in DSDL will permit access to local data, 

remote data libraries, and indexes and will 

provide a mechanism for the automated 

retrieval of published spatial data sets across 

the wide-area network. Documented digital 

spatial data sets must be published on a digital medium suitable for distribution or placed

76 Touching the Lives of Eveiy Citizen Every Day.
online to provide automated access, online 

indexes of approved digital spatial data sets 

will be developed to refer prospective users 

either to the online location of the data or to 

where a copy of the distribution medium can 

be obtained.

Douglas D. Nebert

has worked for the last 12 years on information

systems development and applications of geographic

information systems in the USGS.

Experiments with 

Volume Visualization

S

cientific visualization has proven to be an 

effective tool for the display of earth 

science data. The U.S. Geological Survey 

(USGS) has used visualization to portray 

flooding in the Mississippi River Basin, sewage outflow distribution in Boston Harbor, 

and the growth and distribution of hydrilla in 

the Potomac River. Volume visualization 

(W) is an emerging technique in the field of 

scientific visualization that extends its applicability. W is the science of generating images 

from volume data sets consisting of information that defines the internal attributes of a 

model as well as surface attributes.

In W, three-dimensional (3-D) objects 

are represented as collections of small cells. 

These cells have attributes associated with 

them that can be portrayed in many ways, 

including color coding. Images of these cells 

are then rendered to portray objects that 

convey a sense of depth or thickness or both 

to the viewer. Modern computer hardware 

and software allow rapid manipulation of 

these renderings for closer investigation. 

Object rotation, subsetting, zoom in and 

zoom out, and arbitrary slicing of cross sections in 3-D space to view internal structures 

are a few of the features that make W a valuable visualization tool.

Volume visualization has been successfully applied to earth science data. USGS 

computer scientists have developed techniques that allow exploration of the vertical 

sequence of the coal beds on the Crow Indian 

reservation in Montana (fig. 1). These visualizations proved valuable in identifying irregularities in the original coal models that 

scientists had been using.

Computer scientists are also investigating the use of W to visualize and interacFinancial Management Process 

Redesign

D

uring FY 94, the Washington Administrative Service Center of U.S. 

Geological Survey (USGS) led a team for the Department of the Interior to identify financial procedures and financial systems areas where 

increased efficiency and savings could be obtained through modernization, streamlining, standardization, and reduction or elimination of unnecessary, labor-intensive, and duplicate activities. This effort, the Financial 

Management Best Practices Project, focused on the reinvention of accounting, payment, and reporting processes as well as on supporting automated 

systems functions to significantly increase customer satisfaction and 

reduce related costs.

Significant, tangible benefits to the customers and reductions in costs of 

at least 20 percent are readily achievable by this approach. Greater use of 

technology such as automated systems interfaces in particular, the electronic transmission of invoices and receiving reports would speed up 

payments to the public and reduce the effort associated with making the 

payments. Placing the capability to enter data, make adjustments, and create reports in the hands of end users would empower the end user, increase 

customer satisfaction with timeliness, accuracy, and ownership of the information, and reduce costs associated with duplicate data entry, reconciliations, and reports development.

The Best Practices Project Team completed a thorough and accurate 

benchmarking of a Federal administrative function, the methodology and 

framework of which can be used on a governmentwide basis and across 

different administrative disciplines to generate large savings through 

identifying broadly applicable efficiencies and meaningful performance 

measures.

Canyon DEM

-Wall

Cook

Brewster Carlson

lively construct 3-D models of aquifers. 

Volume visualization should prove useful in 

studying flow vectors within these structures.

USGS computer scientists have been 

experimenting with the W tools available in 

the commercial software package Application 

Visualization System (AVS) from Advanced 

Visual Systems, Inc. These tools are known as 

the undefined cell data (UCD) modules of 

AVS. Research has been performed on a Silicon Graphics Indigo workstation with 96 

megabytes of random access memory and 2

Figure 1. Three-dimensional 

visualization used to portray 

surface topography and coal beds 

in the northern region of parcel 1 

of disputed lands adjacent to the 

Crow Indian Reservation in 

Montana.

. .through Information and Data Management 77
Figure 2. Surface mesh generated via AVS.

X

Figures. Top view of UCD model.

Figure 4. Side view of UCD model.

For more information on volume 

visualization, contact Gerry Lebing at:

Telephone: (703) 648-6626 

Internet: glebing@usgs.gov

gigabytes of disk space. Similar hardware and 

software configurations are available at the 

USGS Scientific Visualization Laboratory in 

Reston, Va.

Volume visualization provides scientists 

with a realistic view of objects in space. Data 

visualization of a two-dimensional gridded 

data set is relatively simple when AVS is 

used. The surface mesh depicted in figure 2 

was generated from an ASCII file of gridded

data containing 95 rows and 59 columns. 

Each line of the ASCII file contained three 

entries: x, y, and thickness, where x and y are 

location coordinates and thickness is a function of the two. These surface representations 

can be effective as a visualization of some 

earth science models such as the terrain characteristics of a watershed. This image does 

not, however, provide the visual cues that 

help the user form a mental conception of a 

volume in space. Seeking to improve this 

visualization, USGS computer scientists 

began investigating the use of UCD, which 

represents geometric structures as a collection 

of cells in 3-D space. With minor data restructuring, UCD proved to be an effective tool for 

portraying this data set as a volume (figs. 3, 4), 

which allows scientists to show detailed spatial relationships of coal beds.

Construction of UCD models varies in 

complexity. Small, gridded, 3-D data sets can 

usually be transformed into UCD by using 

AVS-provided modules. Public-domain modules available from the AVS International 

Center have also proven useful in converting 

data to UCD. Additionally, USGS computer 

scientists have developed algorithms that 

transform earth science data into UCD structures.

Application of W techniques to earth 

science data will be an ongoing endeavor for 

USGS researchers. These techniques have 

already demonstrated their usefulness in the 

display and analysis of some types of geologic 

models. Future research will investigate the 

use of UCD to help model and depict flow 

vectors inside of aquifers. As the use of W is 

expanded, it should continue to prove a valuable tool in the understanding of earth science phenomena.

Gerry Lebing

is a computer scientist with the USGS.

Technology Transfer 

and Outreach: The 

USGS at Work with 

Industry

Within the U.S. Geological Survey 

(USGS), technology transfer and outreach historically have been accomplished by 

publication and widespread dissemination of

78 Toudling the Lives of Every Citizen Every Day...
scientific information. However, since the 

passage of the Technology Transfer Act of 

1986, the USGS has been able to participate 

in a broader range of proprietary exchange 

activities, which have included individual 

licensing and partnership projects designed to 

enable private industry to address specific 

competitive concerns.

Under the enabling legislation, Federal 

agencies may develop Cooperative Research 

and Development Agreements (CRADA's) 

for scientific research or application purposes. 

The agreements may be between one or 

more Federal laboratories and one or more 

non-Federal parties (units of State or local 

governments, industrial organizations), 

including corporations, partnerships, and 

industrial development organizations; public 

and private foundations; or nonprofit organizations.

During FY 94, the USGS negotiated six 

CRADA's, seven licenses, and one technology transfer interagency personnel exchange 

with the Department of Energy. In total, the 

projects are expected to add more than a million dollars a year to USGS outreach and 

research efforts.

The executed CRADA's are collaborative arrangements under which the participant and the USGS jointly contribute 

research staff, equipment, technical information, and occasionally funds into (but not out 

of) the USGS to investigate issues of interest 

to industry. Areas of research and development within all CRADA's span the four 

USGS themes of resources, hazards, environment, and data gathering and information 

management.

Resources

A

CRADA has been executed with a 

consortium of oil companies to evaluate the potential petroleum resources of 

Kazakhstan (see p. 85). Another agreement is 

for studies of the nucleation and growth of gas 

hydrates. A third CRADA is with the Electric 

Power Research Institute and the U.S. 

Department of Agriculture to develop a computer model that managers of hydroelectric 

power installations can use to predict water 

availability within a river basin. This model 

will be used to predict summer and fall water 

volume available for power generation on the 

basis of winter and spring climatological factors and other parameters.

Hazards

A

CRADA with the Pacific Gas and 

Electric Company of California will 

develop a real-time earthquake notification 

system that allows power stations time to shut 

down their generators before an earthquake 

occurs.

Environment

A

CRADA will develop reliable methods 

for predicting the effectiveness of coalcleaning procedures in removing potentially 

hazardous trace elements before the coal is 

used in electric generation plants. Another 

CRADA is for the development and demonstration of a water-monitoring system.

U.S. Geological Survey 

Network Control Center

T

elecommunications is key to sharing 

information and technology among 

U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) locations. From the Network Control Center, 

located at the National Center in Reston, 

Va., the USCS monitors activity at 13 

major telecommunications sites. Two 

hundred field locations are monitored 

for potential problems, and the flow of 

data going to and coming from each 

location is measured. The Network 

Control Center augments contractor 

monitoring of the network, which is 

done 24 hours a day, 7 days a week.

.through Information and Data Management 79
For more information on videoconferencing, contact Jay O'Donnell at:

Telephone: (703) 648-7070 

Internet: jodonnel@usgs.gov

Data Gathering and 

Information Management

C

RADA's will enhance USGS 

geographic information system (GIS) 

software and incorporate USGS standards 

into commercial GIS software; research the 

technology needed to collect, update,

manage, and use digital geographic databases; and develop software for feature 

extraction and classification from image

sources.

Videoconferencing

To reduce travel costs and enhance productivity, the U.S. Geological 

Survey (USGS) is taking advantage of advances in technology, such as faster 

computer chips and better video signal compression techniques, that have 

reduced videoconferencing costs to an affordable level. The USGS evaluated emerging standards and different videoconferencing systems and for 

maximum flexibility selected a fully integrated video system for a test 

phase. Existing USGS digital transmission lines provided the necessary circuitry for videoconferencing trial conditions. The three USGS sites selected 

for this trial were Reston, Va., Denver, Colo., and Menlo Park, Calif., where 

nearly 50 percent of the USGS workforce is stationed. The results of a 6- 

month trial period showed that videoconferencing could be an effective 

alternative to travel and could enhance communications among sites.

Videoconferencing has shown a steady growth in use from two to three 

meetings a week to six to seven meetings a week since the test phase in 

1990. Two more locations Rolla, Mo., and Sioux Falls, S. Dak.-have 

been added to the network. Dedicated videoconferencing rooms at most 

sites make the equipment readily available and easy to use.

Videoconferencing has changed rapidly in the last few years. New 

video compression techniques now permit relatively high video quality at 

even lower data rates. Improvements in hardware and software have 

brought video technology to the desktop; in the very near future, video 

equipment and services will be available to smaller USGS field offices. As 

with all emerging technologies, costs have decreased, so the technology is 

now affordable for a wide customer base. Just as the personal computer 

has improved dramatically in a short time, it is expected that improvements 

in videoconferencing hardware and software will continue at a rapid pace. 

By the late 1990's, videoconferencing is expected to be as widespread as 

the use of facsimile machines is today.

A primary concern in acquiring new videoconferencing equipment is 

compatibility with existing USGS video equipment and interoperability 

with videoconferencing equipment throughout the Department of the Interior, other Federal agencies, and nongovernmental organizations. Although 

the vast majority of projected videoconferencing use will be within the 

USGS community, the ability to videoconference with organizations outside of the USGS is essential. With the recent emergence of international 

video standards (with which existing USGS equipment is compatible), all 

future procurements of videoconferencing equipment will specify that new 

equipment must be compatible with industry standards.

Jay O'Donnell

has over 25 years of telecommunications

experience and currently manages USGS

voice and video telecommunications activities.

National Performance 

Review: Reinvention 

Lab at the U.S. 

Geological Survey

U

.S. Geological Survey (USGS) information exists in many forms-maps, books, 

photographs, diskettes, CD-ROM's, and videotapes. Most of these products, including 

more than 130,000 different maps and 

reports, are distributed from a central facility 

in Denver, Colo. More than 5 million products were distributed in FY 93 to the general 

public, Federal and State organizations, private industry, and a network of commercial 

map sellers for resale to the public.

Over the past several years, numerous 

studies have attempted to address specific 

problems related to information and product 

distribution. The current distribution system 

has been in place for more than 50 years; during that time, no substantive design changes 

have occurred. Recent studies have recognized several critical issues:

 Quality customer service is not 

sustainable.

 Computer systems do not support effective 

management.

 The culture of the USGS places little or no 

value on the operation.

 Processes are encumbered with real and 

perceived policies and procedures.

 Personnel policies are not flexible enough 

to accommodate changing workloads.

In June 1993, information and product 

distribution was identified as the subject for 

the first round of Reinvention Lab activities at 

the Department of the Interior as part of the 

National Performance Review called for by 

Vice President Gore. A team was chosen from 

several levels of employees: warehouse staff, 

first-line supervisors, and program managers. 

Using reengineering processes (beginning 

with a "clean plate," identifying root causes of 

problems and organizational core competencies, and benchmarking the approaches used 

by the best in the business), the team 

developed a three-tiered approach that was

8O Touching the Lives of Every Citizen Every Day.
approved by USGS management in October 

1993.

The new three-tiered approach to information and product distribution recognizes 

that distribution is a part of a wider customer 

service environment. The tiers are interrelated but functionally distinct: (1) information 

exchange, (2) product distribution, and (3) 

product supply. Tier 3 activities supply products to Tier 2, which then distributes those 

products; Tier 1 is the information environment in which customers (assisted by USGS 

information specialists) identify and order the 

products that they need. Tiers 1 and 3 are 

functions that exist in many parts of the 

USGS, whereas Tier 2 involves activities in 

the warehouse at the Denver Federal Center.

A core team began working to implement this design in November 1993, focusing 

on Tier 2. Recommendations were submitted 

to management in March 1994, and implementation began in May. Meanwhile, two 

new teams were established to address Tiers 1 

and 3. These teams included representatives 

from USGS operating divisions, and each 

included a member of the core team to act as 

a liaison and ensure an integrated approach.

As the Tier 1 and Tier 3 teams worked on 

their respective issues, the core team began 

the implementation process.

In July 1994, the Federal Financial 

System Inventory Subsystem-a new computerized accounting and inventory systemcame online. The technological transition to 

this system accompanied an organizational 

change that merged the Branch of Distribution and the Earth Sciences Information Center at the Rocky Mountain Mapping Center 

into the new Branch of Information Services. 

The goals of this new branch were consistent 

with the goals of the National Performance 

Review, spearheaded by Vice President Gore.

Implementation of Tier 2 plans have 

involved process streamlining, cross-functional position descriptions, personnel 

changes, training, further definition of implementation plan elements, and planning for 

the changes that will result from the branch's 

move to new quarters. The Tier 1 and Tier 3 

teams have gathered and analyzed information concerning larger information and product supply issues. Implementation has already 

begun in some areas and will ultimately integrate the activities of all three tiers.

.through Information and Data Management 81

International
International studies in earth science and technology are an important adjunct 

to the domestic research and investigations of the USGS. Authorization for foreign investigations is provided by the Organic Act, the Foreign Assistance Act, 

and related legislation. Activities are conducted under bilateral or multilateral 

agreements that require approval by the U.S. Department of the Interior and the 

U.S. Department of State. In the theme areas of hazards, resources, environment, and information, domestic research objectives are expanded and 

advanced through comparative studies of the geology, hydrology, and topography of other countries. Information about existing and potential foreign 

resources of interest to public and private sectors in the United States is 

obtained through collaborative research and is incorporated into databases that 

are worldwide in scope. USGS international activities futher the foreign policy 

objectives of the Department of State for example, by revitalizing the earth 

sciences in central and eastern Europe. International programs of other Federal 

agencies, academia, and the private sector are supported as well through international activities. Training programs for foreign scientists lead to technology 

exchange that directly benefits the U.S. private sector. Fostering cooperative 

relationships with foreign counterpart earth science institutions facilitates technology transfer, data exchange, and the creation of research partnerships in 

areas of mutual interest that benefit all of the participating nations.
Opening New Doors to 

Scientific Cooperation 

and Exploration for 

Energy Resources in 

the Former Soviet 

Union

T

he immense territory of the former 

Soviet Union, which spans almost 12 

time zones, contains keys to a large part of the 

Earth's geologic history and huge resources of 

oil, gas, and coal. For decades, much of this 

part of the world was closed to Western scientists interested in cooperative geoscience studies. With the breakup of the Soviet Union in 

1991, however, many parts of the newly 

independent states have become accessible 

to the Western World, not only for joint 

research efforts but also for commercial ventures in exploring for and producing energy 

resources.

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) 

currently has cooperative energy projects in 

five countries of the former Soviet Union. 

These projects cover a broad spectrum of 

activities to assess and characterize energy 

resources, provide technical assistance to 

improve the efficiency of exploration and 

development of these resources, and develop 

data sets and other information to help these 

countries attract international investment. 

USGS activities in Russia, Armenia, the 

Ukraine, and Kyrgyzstan are supported by 

the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) through a service agreement 

to provide technical assistance in the area of 

oil, natural gas, and coal resources. USGS 

research in Kazakhstan is supported by a 

Cooperative Research and Development 

Agreement (CRADA) with U.S. and European petroleum companies (see "Technology 

Transfer and Outreach: The USGS at Work 

with Industry," p. 78).

Russia.-In 1994, USGS scientists began 

a 3-year cooperative program with several 

research institutes of the Russian State Committee on Geology and the Use of Underground Resources (ROSKOMNEDRA). The 

overall goals are (1) to improve the ability of 

Russian and U.S. petroleum geologists (in 

both the public and private sectors) to communicate in mutually understandable terms 

and concepts, (2) to improve the efficiency 

and effectiveness of the exploration programs

of the Russian petroleum industry and to 

encourage participation by the U.S. private 

sector, and (3) to make available to die U.S. 

petroleum industry a considerable quantity of 

exploration data not previously available to 

the West.

Under the program, the USGS will train 

Russian specialists, procure equipment, and 

provide the technical design to establish five 

petroleum technology facilities at Russian 

research institutes. Three centers will be 

established in ROSKOMNEDRA research 

institutes in the city of Moscow. These centers 

will specialize in seismic data processing; the 

geochemical analysis of oil, natural gas, and 

organic matter extracted from petroleum 

source rocks; and the digitization of petroleum-related geologic information for conversion to geographic information system 

formats. A second seismic data processing 

center and a geochemical laboratory will be 

established at ROSKOMNEDRA institutes 

in Tyumen, West Siberia.

...the USGS will train Russian 

specialists, procure equipment, 

and provide the technical design

to establish five petroleum

technology facilities at Russian

research institutes.

The products of this program will 

include:

 A digitized base map of petroleum basins 

at a scale of 1:5,000,000.

 Digitized geologic and topographic maps 

of Russia at a scale of 1:2,500,000, with an 

accompanying cadastre (database) of oil, 

gas, coal, and mineral deposits.

 Regional seismic profiles from key Russian 

petroleum basins, reprocessed from the 

original Russian data by using modern 

processing software.

 Geochemical analyses characterizing the 

source-rock potential of significant Russian 

oil and gas basins and incorporation of 

these data into petroleum basin models 

and exploration strategies. 

These products, together with other data

produced by the petroleum technology

85
. - 

0° - '/// I\\\ "180 

,20° , / / i \ \ ~

^ Frar* Josef /Arctic Ocean\

Map of the former Soviet Union 

showing Russia, Armenia, the 

Ukraine, Kyrgyzstan, and the 

Republic of Kazakhstan.

centers, will also be used to support several 

cooperative research projects involving 

USGS and Russian specialists. These projects 

will contribute to a better understanding of 

the amounts and distribution of oil and gas 

resources in the principal petroleumproducing basins of the Russian Federation. 

During the first stage of this program, 

project scientists from the USGS and 

ROSKOMNEDRA will concentrate their 

efforts in the Timan-Pechora Basin, which is 

located in northern Russia just west of the 

northern Ural Mountains. This petroleumrich basin is one of the most favorable regions 

for oil and gas exploration in Russia and 

should attract the attention of international 

petroleum companies. Using this basin as an 

example, collaborative research will demonstrate how modern equipment and methodologies can provide new insights in petroleum 

geology and improve the efficiency of oil and 

gas exploration.

Armenia, Armenia is an ancient country rich in historical, cultural, and natural 

resources. However, with the exception of 

hydropower and nuclear power, Armenia's 

energy resources were not extensively developed while it was part of the Soviet Union 

owing to the availability of inexpensive 

imported sources of energy, such as natural 

gas and residual fuel oil. Following the 

breakup of the Soviet Union, Armenia's subsequent war with Azerbaijan, and the resulting cutoff of energy supplies, Armenia has 

suffered major energy shortages that have 

reached crisis conditions each winter since 

1991-92.

Responding to the acute need to assess 

the nation's energy resources, the Armenian 

Ministry of Mineral Resources began a coal 

exploration program that included mapping, 

exploratory trenching and excavation, core 

drilling, and geochemical analyses. To support this program, the USGS, with support 

from USAID, conducted a preliminary

86 Touching the Lives of Every Citizen Every Day...
assessment of coal and other solid fuel 

resources in 1993. The Armenian coal 

deposits evaluated in the preliminary study 

were found to be similar to Appalachian coals 

and Gulf Coast lignites in the United States 

that are used extensively for industry and for 

generating electricity.

On the basis of the preliminary assessment, the USGS began an expanded program of coal exploration and development in 

1994. USGS scientists will train Armenian 

geologists to assess their country's coal 

resources, to develop efficient exploration 

strategies, and to provide the Armenian 

Government with a plan for increasing the 

nation's energy self-sufficiency. This cooperative effort will include exploration drilling 

and geophysical logging, establishment of 

laboratories for coal-quality analysis, creation 

of computer facilities for developing databases and estimating coal resources, geologic 

framework studies that will aid in devising 

coal-development strategies, and evaluation 

of data for best-use scenarios. The program 

will ultimately provide Armenia with the 

facilities and expertise necessary to explore 

for coal and independently determine the 

best means of developing its coal resources.

Ukraine.-There are three full petroleum basins and part of a fourth basin within 

Ukrainian territory and on the Black Sea and 

Azov Sea shelves. Onshore, these basins have 

been extensively explored to depths of 3 to 4 

kilometers. Although the Ukraine will probably never achieve energy self-sufficiency, preliminary indications are that exploration at 

greater depths could significantly ease this 

country's dependence on imported oil and 

gas. In an effort to assist the Ukraine in modernizing its petroleum exploration capabilities, USGS scientists are currently conducting 

a cooperative program that will (1) establish a 

modern seismic processing facility and train 

Ukrainian geophysicists in seismic processing 

techniques, (2) assist Ukrainian scientists in 

developing a comprehensive database of 

petroleum information to guide exploration 

strategy, (3) perform geochemical analyses of 

petroleum source rocks from the DnieperDonets Basin, and (4) conduct a quantitative 

assessment of Ukrainian conventional and 

unconventional petroleum resources. This 

work is being conducted collaboratively with 

the Ukrainian National Geophysical Institute 

and the National Petroleum Exploration 

Company.

Preliminary work on this project began 

in 1994, when a Ukrainian geophysicist spent 

several months at the USGS Central Region

center in Denver, Colo., using the USGS 

interactive seismic data processing system to 

reprocess Ukrainian seismic data from the 

Dnieper-Donets Basin. The resolution of the 

resulting profiles is much higher than that of 

the profiles processed with older technology. 

This enhancement of processing capabilities 

will directly influence exploration for oil and 

natural gas by allowing Ukrainian geologists 

and geophysicists to identify potential structural and stratigraphic petroleum traps that 

could not be seen on the old profiles.

Once the seismic processing facility is 

established in the Ukraine, scientists will 

begin to reprocess and reevaluate comprehensive seismic data sets from the DnieperDonets and Carpathian Basins. These data 

will help Ukrainian geologists and geophysicists identify new petroleum exploration 

targets. This capability, together with other 

products of this effort, will provide the 

Ukraine with information needed to expand 

petroleum production and attract foreign 

investment in petroleum exploration, which 

will help support the Ukrainian economy.

Kyrgyzstan.-Located in southern Asia 

between China and Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan 

is relatively small in size; its economy is less 

than 1 percent of the former Soviet Union's 

economy. The country does, however, possess enough coal resources to provide for its 

own heating and power generation needs and 

still have coal left for export. All of the coal 

presently mined in Kyrgyzstan about 2 million tons annually is used for heating. Coal in 

some unmined deposits may be suitable for 

steel production. Rocks deposited in central 

and eastern Asia 150 to 200 million years ago 

contain major coal deposits and are mined 

extensively for electric power generation and 

domestic and industrial heating. Coals of the 

same age also occur in Kyrgyzstan, but most 

deposits are in rugged terrain that may limit 

access for exploration, mining, and transportation. Also, some of the coal is of low rank 

and therefore less suitable for mining.

In 1994, the USGS began a project on 

behalf of USAID to assist in an assessment of 

the nature, extent, and characteristics of 

Kyrgyzstan's coal resources. A team of USGS 

specialists will work with counterparts from 

Kyrgyz organizations responsible for coal 

exploration, recovery, and utilization. The 

team's research will be integrated with supplementary efforts by mining engineers and 

utilization specialists provided by USAID. 

The project will result in an assessment of the 

total coal resources as well as an evaluation

.through International Activities 87
for more information on USGS activities in 

$^$fi|ii£t Soviet Union, contact Raul

e: (703) 648-6287 

ilbiernefe phearn@usgs.gov

^1 rnisine information on the USGS Energy 

i|> , © ntaet Ravid Houseknecht at:

l|($tiistekn®usgs.gov -.: : - ..-W" ' ' \J W

of the status of exploration, recovery, and 

utilization capabilities and options.

Kazakhstan.-The Republic of Kazakhstan is the second largest republic of the 

former Soviet Union (more than 2.7 million 

square kilometers) and is thought by many 

specialists to possess petroleum resources as 

large as some of the significant fields found in 

the Middle East. For example, the North Caspian Basin of western Kazakhstan, which is 

larger than the petroleum-rich Permian Basin 

of West Texas, contains several supergiant oil 

and natural gas fields (5-25 billion barrels of 

oil equivalent). Relatively little is known, 

however, about the geologic evolution and 

structure of this basin or about the oil and gas 

potential of other basins in southern and eastern Kazakhstan.

In conjunction with Kazakh and Russian 

scientists, the USGS has been conducting 

research in Kazakhstan and eastern Siberia 

on the ancient rocks that host these massive 

oil and gas deposits since 1987. In 1994, the 

USGS developed an innovative CRADA 

with U.S. and European oil companies to 

study the Kazakh deposits. This new 3-year 

international cooperative research venture is 

the first of its kind between the USGS and 

private industry. These studies are being conducted in collaboration with Kazakh scientists 

from the Ministry for Geology and Conservation of Mineral Resources in Almaty, Kazakhstan, and with Russian scientists from the 

Institute of Oceanology of the Russian Academy of Sciences in Moscow, Russia.

This research is currently being conducted in the Bolshoi Karatau and Malyi 

Karatau mountains of southern Kazakhstan, 

which are the northwestern extension of the 

Tien Shan Mountains of Kyrgyzstan and 

China. Project scientists are attempting to 

understand the geologic nature and evolution 

of the oil-bearing rocks of southern Kazakhstan and, subsequently, to conduct comparative 'Studies on similar rocks in the Ural 

Mountains of Russia. These data and interpretations are being used to develop surface 

analogs that can help in exploring for supergiant oil and gas fields in the North Caspian, 

Volga-Ural, and Timan-Pechora Basins and in 

other similar basins of Asia. Papers coauthored by USGS, Kazakh, Russian, and 

industry scientists will assist in understanding 

the geologic origin, evolution, and potential 

of hydrocarbon resources in Kazakhstan. 

These publications will also be vital references for understanding the geologic development and potential energy resources in

neighboring regions of Kyrgyzstan, Russia, 

and China.

Gregory R Ulmishek

is a geologist specializing in the petroleum geology 

of Russia and countries of the former Soviet Union.

Brenda S. Pierce

is a coal geologist who has studied coals and coal 

quality in many parts of the United States and the

world.

DavidJ. Taylor

has worked in the seismic processing and 

interpretation field for over 20 years.

Warren EAgena

is a seismic data processing specialist who has 

several years'experience in international work.

KR. Landis

is a solid-fuel specialist with more than

four decades of experience in domestic and

international coal resource assessment.

Harry E. Cook

is an authority on the origin, evolution, and

sedimentology of carbonate reefs and carbonate

platforms in the Republic of Kazakhstan.

Mining and 

Environmental 

Mercury in Venezuela

D

ecades of intense exploitation of small, 

"informal" gold placer mines in the 

Guayana Shield region of eastern Venezuela 

(figs. 1A, B) have resulted in deforestation, 

erosion, and release of the toxic metal mercury over a broad region. Severe mercury 

toxicity has been a recognized human health 

issue in Venezuela and greater Amazonia for 

some time but has now reached critical levels. 

Mercury in the environment is toxic to people both when it is inhaled as metal vapor 

and when it is ingested as methylated mercury, which commonly accumulates in fish. It 

is estimated that global atmospheric mercury 

levels have tripled in the past century, owing 

exclusively to human activities. Some of this 

atmospheric mercury eventually settles out 

over land and becomes incorporated into 

plants, animals, and soils.

Placer gold is concentrated in ancient, 

highly weathered sedimentary rocks and in

88 Toudiing the Lives off Every Citizen Every Day.
modern placers derived from these rocks. 

Mercury was used to extract gold from ore by 

the earliest European settlers, and the technique was adopted by local mine workers. 

The mercury amalgamation process unfortunately is still widely used in Venezuela 

because there is no effective, low-cost alternative (fig. 2). The process involves relatively 

simple, inexpensive methods (such as the use 

of hand-hewn wooden riffles and traps), so it 

is accessible to even the smallest mining operations. The mercury amalgamation technique 

is nearly identical to the techniques used by 

miners in California during the mid-1800's 

and in the early Alaska gold-rush period 

some 40 years later.

These small but numerous mining operations in Venezuela recover only a fraction of 

either the total gold or the added mercury. 

For example, tailings that were sampled 

downstream from a sluice-box operation in 

the Rio Caroni Basin showed that effective 

gold recovery is commonly less than half. In 

addition, the mass of mercury lost to the environment is estimated to be about 1.0 to 1.5 

times the mass of gold recovered. Of this 

mercury, about 40 percent is associated with 

the tailings. The rest is lost to the atmosphere 

when the amalgam is roasted during the gold 

recovery process. Although the amalgam is 

squeezed by hand to remove excess mercury, 

much still remains in the tailings. The tailings 

themselves are released into rivers during 

mining, excavations, and natural weathering.

The widespread use of mercury in the 

informal exploitation of surficial deposits was 

prohibited by presidential decree in Venezuela in July 1991. However, centuries of use 

combined with the recent upsurge in gold 

mining activity have left an estimated 40 tons 

of mercury behind in the forests and rivers.

To assess both the extent and the severity of the mercury contamination problem in 

the Guayana Shield, it is necessary to understand the biogeochemical cycling of mercury 

in this complex tropical ecosystem. Unfortunately, little is known about either the transport and release of mercury or the processes 

that control its form, sorption, and deposition. 

Because the high temperatures and humidity 

in the tropics accelerate many chemical and 

biological reaction rates, mercury moves 

rapidly through terrestrial ecosystems and 

accumulates readily in aquatic ecosystems.

Cooperative studies of these issues by 

the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), the 

U.S. Forest Service (USFS), and the Venezuelan Government go back several years. 

Specifically, the Corporation Venezolana de

60° W

' ^ \

, ^ Guayana'Shi^fJ-^

Figure 1/4. Location of the Guayana Shield of the Amazonian craton, South America. 

(Map by G.B. Sidder and V. Mendoza.)

Guayana (CVG), under the bilateral Venezuelan Cooperative Project with the USGS, 

requested technical assistance in remediating 

some of the environmental damage caused by 

mining. In 1991, the USGS and the USFS 

presented a short course on environmental 

considerations and reclamation in mineral 

development for Tecnica Minera (TECMIN), 

the branch of CVG that deals with mining 

issues in eastern Venezuela. In 1992-93, the 

USGS completed the geology and mineral 

resource assessment of the Venezuelan 

Guayana Shield (published in 1994 as USGS 

Bulletin 2062). During that period, various 

geologists at the USGS Center for InterAmerican Mineral Resource Investigations in 

Tucson, Ariz., laid the groundwork for a joint 

study of the distribution of mercury in the 

environment.

..through International Activities 89
Figure 1 B. Geography of 

northern South America. Dark 

shaded area indicates the 

Venezuelan part of the Cuayana 

Shield. (Map by C.B. Sidder and 

V. Mendoza.)

70° 66° 62 56°

4° -

Amazon '3

Federal

Territory

0° -

Figure 2. Cold miner panning 

ore using a wooden "batea." 

Mercury is added to the panned 

concentrate and combines with 

minute gold particles to form an 

amalgam. The amalgam is then 

"roasted" (commonly by using a 

blowtorch), and mercury is 

driven off as a vapor. Unused 

liquid mercury is often lost to the

For more information on environmental 

studies in Venezuela, contact Larry Cough 

at:

Telephone: (303)236-5513 

Fax: (303) 236-3200 

Internet: lgough@helios.cr.usgs.gov

USGS scientists play an important role 

in defining the research needs that will be 

critical to understanding the extent and relative severity of mercury contamination in this 

environmentally sensitive region. For example, in 1993, a symposium on mercury in 

tropical ecosystems was held in Puerto

Ordaz, Bolivar State, \fenezuela. Scientists 

and engineers from the Venezuelan Government and mining interests (CVG), the USFS, 

the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 

U.S. mining companies, and the USGS participated in 5 days of discussions that centered on the extent of available information

9O Touching the Lives of Every Citizen Every Day.
and areas needing further research. The 

USGS and USFS then summarized the 

recommendations of the workshop and 

proposed areas of future collaboration with 

Venezuela.

Larry P. Gough

conducts regional environmental geochemical

studies with the USGS and is an expert

in the biogeochemical cycling of metals.

Flayd Gray

is the former USGS resident scientist

in Venezuela and is in charge of the

CVG-TECMIN/USGS bilateral project.

Contaminant 

Migration in Fractured 

Swedish Rock

S

ince 1989, scientists from the U.S. 

Geological Survey (USGS) and the Swedish Ministry of the Environment and Natural 

Resources have worked together to advance 

the state of the art in evaluating specific sites 

for a nuclear-waste repository in Sweden. As 

part of their efforts to ensure public safety, the 

Swedish agency responsible for building the 

nuclear-waste repository has, for the past 20 

years, made unprecedented measurements to 

characterize the underground environment in 

which the waste will be isolated. The goal is 

to ensure that the repository function will not 

be compromised by water flow through rock 

fractures or any other process.

Sweden's plan is to isolate the waste 

from contact with people for more than 

100,000 years in manmade horizontal tunnels, 500 meters below ground, in solid granitic rock. Dangerous nuclear fuel rods would 

be sealed in containers covered with a thick 

shell of copper and buried in impermeable 

bentonite-clay-lined holes in the bottom of 

each tunnel. When disposal is complete, the 

tunnels would be refilled and the land surface 

restored. If research can prove the safety of 

this theory, then actual construction of disposal facilities could begin within 10 years.

At the depth of the planned repository, 

subsurface rock is saturated with water; 

although the rock is virtually a solid granite, it 

is highly fractured. The potential safety hazard caused by such fractures is that water can 

flow through them and, as a result, around 

and through the repository, corroding the

canisters, dissolving the toxic radionuclides 

contained within, and carrying them to the 

surface where people may be exposed to the 

radiation. This type of rock also is found 

extensively in the United States.

Recent work on this project includes 

hydrogeologic characterization of the bedrock at a site in southeastern Sweden. The 

illustration shows all of the structures 

(fractures) found in the bedrock to date in the 

cooperative project. The image is based on an 

integrated interpretation of Swedish data on 

geology, geophysics, and geochemistry by 

scientists from the USGS and Sweden. 

Because water flows through most of these 

structures, the area is more permeable than 

expected in such bedrock and less than ideal 

for subsurface waste isolation.

In the United States, toxic waste contaminates many bedrock areas; as it does in 

Sweden, the waste migrates with water that 

flows through fractures. The paths of contaminant migration through such fractures are 

extremely complicated. Most often, it is not 

economically feasible to further an understanding of how the contaminant is spreading 

and what procedures are required for site restoration. Through cooperative projects with 

agencies in Sweden, the USGS is sharing data 

collected at sites in Sweden and conducting 

analyses in cooperation with international 

teams to clarify how water and contaminants

A view of structures found 

underground at the site of an 

underground laboratory in 

fractured granitic rock. The block 

shown is 2 kilometers wide in 

each direction and 1 kilometer 

deep. The relief shown at the 

Earth's surface is Aspo Island, 

located on the coast of southeastern Sweden.

. .through International Activities 91
For more information on the fractured rock 

environment in Sweden, contact Clifford 

Voss at:

Telephone: (703) 648-5885 

Internet: cvoss@qvarsa.er.usgs.gov

For more information on the Water 

Resources Working Group'bf the Middle 

'last Peace Initiative, contact Anna Lenox

Telephone: (?03) 648-5053 

internet: alenox@qvarsa.er.usgs.gov

move through fractured rocks. By employing 

the advanced measurements made in Sweden

By employing the advanced

measurements made in Sweden

and through research efforts

shared with teams

of international scientists,

the USGS has an opportunity

to make significant advances

in understanding and

remediating similar problems

within the United States.

and through research efforts shared with 

teams of international scientists, the USGS 

has an opportunity to make significant 

advances in understanding and remediating 

similar problems within the United States.

Clifford I. Voss

is a research hydrologist who has worked extensively 

in the Swedish fractured-rock environment.

Scientific Contributions 

to the Middle East 

Peace Initiative

I

n an effort to achieve a just and lasting 

peace among Israelis, Palestinians, and 

Jordanians, U.S.-led bilateral negotiations on 

Middle East peace were convened in Madrid, 

Spain, in October 1991. The talks, which were 

cosponsored by Russia, Canada, the European Union, and Japan, have played a key 

role in making possible the historic 

Declaration of Principles on Interim SelfGovernment Arrangements signed by Israeli 

and PLO representatives on the White House 

lawn in September 1993 and the Peace Treaty 

signed by Israeli and Jordanian representatives during October 1994 in Eilat on the 

Jordan-Israel border.

Multilateral working groups to the 

Middle East Peace Initiative were formed in 

January 1992 to consider five major problem 

areas-arms control and regional security, 

environment, economic development, refugees, and water resources-in support of the 

ongoing negotiations and to build confidence 

among regional parties. The U.S. Department 

of State requested several Federal agencies, 

which included the U.S. Geological Survey 

(USGS), to provide technical support and 

advice to the Multilateral Water Resources 

Working Group (WRWG). Water-data 

enhancement, water-supply technology, and 

water management were selected as topics of 

vital importance, and the USGS was designated as the lead Federal agency for waterdata enhancement. Since 1992, the USGS has 

provided one or more technical experts as 

members of the U.S. delegation to each of the 

WRWG meetings.

In addition, the USGS has been 

involved in successful efforts to use science as 

a catalyst to build confidence and friendship 

among Palestinian, Israeli, and Jordanian scientists and political leaders while advancing 

awareness of the need for cooperation in the 

field of water resources. Beginning with a 

study tour of the Colorado River Basin, the 

USGS, which was assisted by other Federal 

water agencies and the Department of State, 

has worked to demonstrate to Middle Eastern 

water managers and officials the necessity for 

management of scarce water resources on a 

regional, rather than a national, basis. USGS 

scientists then designed a water-data questionnaire that was distributed to all parties in the 

region. The questionnaire responses 

advanced USGS understanding of water data 

in the Middle East while providing an opportunity for cooperation among Middle Eastern 

water agencies.

On the basis of responses to the questionnaire, USGS scientists, who were assisted 

by water experts from the European Union 

and Canada, visited Palestinian, Israeli, 

Jordanian, and Egyptian water agencies to 

assess the availability and adequacy of water 

data and to develop recommendations for 

improvements in existing water-data collection systems. Following the mission to the 

region, the USGS developed and hosted a 

workshop for regional parties to devise plans 

for standardizing methods for water-data collection and analysis. This highly successful 

workshop resulted in a request from the 

Department of State for the development of a 

Middle East Water Data Banks Implementation Plan. The plan, which was written by the

92 Touching the Lives of Every Citizen Every Day.
USGS, received consensus approval from 45 

nations and international organizations convened at the sixth meeting of the Multilateral 

Water Resources Working Group in Athens, 

Greece, in November 1994.

Implementation of the plan is scheduled 

to begin in 1995, and the USGS will play a 

key role as facilitator, advisor, and mentor as 

well as advocate of U.S. national interests. 

The collection of hydrologic and hydrometeorologic data is the basis upon which a watermanagement program must be built. A major 

objective of the plan will be to support the 

concept of data comparability among the 

parties. This task includes establishing, or 

upgrading and strengthening, water-data 

programs while maintaining data-collection 

standards that will enable the parties to 

exchange water data. Implementation of the 

multimillion-dollar plan will be shared by 

donor nations throughout the world through 

contributions of technical expertise, equipment, and funding.

40* 50'

Anna Lenox

coordinates USGS contributions to and is the U.S.

representative to the Water Resources Working

Group of the Middle East Peace Initiative.

Water in the Desert: 

Ground-Water Studies 

in the United Arab 

Emirates

T

he United Arab Emirates (UAE) is a 

Middle Eastern country that comprises 

seven federated Emirates, or sheikdoms, and 

encompasses an area of 83,000 square kilometers. Located on the northeastern coast of 

the Arabian Peninsula between Qatar and

60*

30*

20*

10*

KINGDOM

OF 

- SAUDI ARABIA

UNITED ARAB 

EMIRATES

v^ ^ /*»^*^ »* ^^^^J^^J^**-*^- 

^9 is^T*-' ^0^^^*^^**^^^^**^-^^ .

">-,! VP ^T', ~^-»r^T-i_Vj- ' ~j-LT

200 KILOMETERS

DJIBOUTl -ZHHHj

Arabian Peninsula and location 

of the United Arab Emirates.

.through International Activities 93
Locations of area of intensive 

study from 1988 to 1993 and 

USCS Ground-Water Project test 

boreholes, July 1994.

EXPLANATION

Kingdom

of 

Saudi Arabia

Sultanate

of 

Oman

For more information on ground-water 

:Stj|djes in the United Arab Emirates,

f|!|||&fet Anna Lenox at:

(703) 648-5053 

tWttfjfc alenox@qvarsa.erusgs.gov

Oman, the UAE was known as the Trucial 

States until the termination of their defense 

treaty with Great Britain and the establishment of an independent federation in 1971. 

Abu Dhabi Emirate, which has an area of 

about 67,000 square kilometers, is the largest 

of the seven Emirates. The natural resources 

of Abu Dhabi are characterized by an abundance of oil and a serious scarcity of 

freshwater.

In 1988, at the request of the U.S. 

Ambassador to the UAE, the U.S. Geological 

Survey (USGS) entered into a 5-year agreement with the National Drilling Company 

(NDC), which is an agency of the Abu Dhabi 

Government, to carry out ground-water 

investigations in the Emirate. The NDCUSGS Ground-Water Research Project office 

is located about 160 kilometers from the Arabian Gulf in the inland oasis city of Al Ain, 

which means "The Spring" in Arabic. The 

project is staffed by 6 to 8 USGS employees 

who serve 2-year assignments and 49 NDC 

employees (1 from Canada and 48 from the 

UAE and other African, Middle Eastern, and 

Far Eastern countries, including Nigeria, 

Egypt, Yemen, Jordan, Sudan, Somalia, India, 

Bangladesh, and the Philippines). About 20 

percent of the workforce are UAE nationals, 

and 80 percent are expatriates who reside in 

the country on work visas.

The first phase of the study was to evaluate the fresh and slightly saline ground water 

of the 10,000-square-kilometer Al Ain area 

and the 14,600-square-kilometer Liwa Crescent area to provide the Emirate with a sound 

scientific basis for utilizing and managing its 

limited water resources. Additional objectives 

were to conduct research in arid-zone hydrology and to provide training in hydrologic 

techniques to the diverse international staff of 

hydrologists and technical support personnel. 

The initial phase was completed in 1993, and 

the agreement was extended for an additional 

5 years to accommodate the second phase, 

which extends the evaluation of water 

resources to include the unstudied areas 

within the Emirate. A major element of the 

combined evaluations is the drilling, logging, 

testing, and sampling of about 165 wells and 

test holes, drawing on the expertise of numerous USGS researchers and other technical 

specialists.

The project has addressed a broad variety of research topics, such as wadi (stream) 

channel geophysical techniques, isotopes and 

trace elements in ground water, reinterpretation and reprocessing of petroleum seismic 

survey data, Landsat/SPOT (Satellite pour 

PObservation de la Terre) composite mapping, borehole geophysical techniques, and 

tectonics and stratigraphy. Training activities 

conducted for project employees by USGS

94 Touching the Lives off Eveiy Citizen Every Day.
permanent and temporary duty personnel 

include classes and workshops on such subjects as borehole geophysics, report writing, 

water chemistry, aquifer-test analysis, groundwater modeling, and geographic information 

systems. In addition to the in-house training, 

NDC employees have attended several training courses at the USGS National Training 

Center in Denver, Colo., and at other U.S. 

educational institutions.

The NDC-USGS Ground-Water 

Research Project has successfully developed 

special procedures and techniques for drilling 

water wells, interpreting petrophysical logs, 

reprocessing existing petroleum seismic data, 

constructing water wells, and reinterpreting 

uphole-velocity survey data associated with 

petroleum exploration, all of which have 

direct application to investigations in the 

United States. In meeting its basic objective 

of providing a sound scientific basis for water 

management, the project has refined the 

understanding of the hydrogeologic framework of the Emirate, mapped the areal 

extent of fresh and brackish ground water, 

established hydrological and meteorological 

monitoring networks, and compiled maps of 

water levels and water quality. This information has been used, in conjunction with wateruse inventories, to develop a hydrologic budget and a ground-water model that can be 

used as a tool to evaluate and manage the 

nonrenewable ground-water resources 

of this strategically important, oil-rich Middle 

Eastern ally.

Craig Hutchinson

heads the NDC-USGS Ground-Water 

Research Project in AlAin, UAE.

Anna Lenox

coordinates USGS international water 

resources activities.

Toward a Safer World: 

Natural Disaster 

Reduction

T

he risk from natural hazards is increasing 

with time worldwide. As a nation's 

population grows, more people are concentrated in a small number of large metropolitan areas having vulnerable buildings and

lifeline systems. In the United States, for 

example, much of the population lives in hazard-prone regions. The 12,000 miles of U.S. 

coastline are subject to hurricanes, storm 

surges, and tsunami flood waves; areas in and 

adjacent to the floodplains along the 6 million 

miles of the Nation's river system are vulnerable to flooding; areas in or near known active 

fault zones are threatened by possible damaging earthquakes. Whereas the number of 

deaths from natural hazards is decreasing, 

direct economic loss is increasing. Successful 

warning programs have caused a decline in 

casualties owing to floods, tsunamis, and wildfires; mitigation and preparedness programs 

have reduced casualties for earthquakes. 

However, building density and the rising cost 

of building and construction materials contribute to increasing economic losses.

The first world conference to address 

loss of life and other concerns related to natural disaster reduction was convened in Yokohama, Japan, by the United Nations (UN) on 

May 23-27, 1994, at the midpoint of the 

UN's International Decade for Natural 

Disaster Reduction (IDNDR). Hosted by the 

Government of Japan, the conference was 

attended by more than 2,000 participants 

representing 148 nations, UN bodies, specialized agencies, intergovernmental and nongovernmental organizations, and regional 

banks. Scientific and technical disciplines 

involved in risk assessment, mitigation, and 

warning systems for earthquakes, floods, 

severe storms, volcanic eruptions, tsunamis, 

landslides, wildfires, and droughts were represented at the conference.

The outcome of the conference was 

summarized in the Yokohama Statement and 

Plan of Action for a Safer World, which specified activities at community, national, subregional, regional, and international levels. The 

plan calls upon governments of every country 

at risk from natural hazards to develop strategies for reducing the potential impacts of 

future natural disasters. It also calls upon 

more developed countries to assist less developed nations through technology transfer and 

other means of assistance.

Each country attending the conferenceprepared and distributed a national report 

that gave the status of current activities and 

plans for the future on risk assessment, mitigation, warning systems, and international 

cooperation. A call was made for accelerated 

technology transfer (that is, transfer and 

enhanced utilization of information, data, and 

experienced people) to reduce the increasing

.through International Activities 95
For more information on the International 

Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction, 

contact Walt Hays at:

Telephone: (703) 648-6711 

Fax: (703)648-6717 

Internet: lhuey@usgs.gov

toll of deaths and economic impacts worldwide, especially in developing countries.

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) 

conducts research, facilitates the transfer of 

technology to end users, and fosters the adoption and implementation of public policies 

and professional practices to reduce losses 

from earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, landslides, and hydrologic hazards in the United 

States and abroad. Many USGS research 

projects contribute to IDNDR goals of risk 

assessment, mitigation, warning systems, and

Colorado Student Wins International Poster 

Contest on Hazards

The International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction Secretariat 

sponsored an exhibit of children's art from around the world, which was 

displayed at the May 1994 world conference in Yokohama. Participating 

countries held student poster contests and chose winners in three 

categories.

One of the contest winners was Paige Murphy from Horace Mann Middle School in Denver, Colo. Raige's poster (above), which shows the power 

of a tornado as well as people making themselves safe, was also selected to 

be on the cover of the U.S. national report presented at the conference.

In 1992, Horace Mann became a USGS partnership school, a program 

in which resources are shared and USGS employees assist students with 

math and science activities.

international cooperation. For example, the 

goal of the urban hazard, risk, and mitigation 

program for earthquakes is to develop methodologies and strategies for making land-use, 

zoning, business, and consumer decisions 

about loss-reduction measures in urban centers throughout the Nation. Another example 

is the multidisciplinary studies of Mount 

Rainier, an active volcano in the Cascade 

Range of Washington State, 21 miles 

southeast of the Seattle-Tacoma metropolitan 

area. This volcano has been designated for 

focused research as a Decade Volcano, 1 of 

only 14 worldwide (see p. 20).

The USGS operates the National 

Seismic Network and a nationwide streamgaging network. The seismic network is a satellite-based system consisting of digital seismicity and strong-motion instruments located 

in earthquake-prone regions of the Nation. 

Local seismicity networks managed by universities complete the national network. The 

stream-gaging network consists of more than 

7,000 stations where continuous records of 

streamflow are collected and another 3,000 

stations where intermittent records are collected. At the continuous-record stations, the 

flow rate can be determined at any moment 

on any day of the year. This information, collected in cooperation with many other Federal, State, and local agencies, is vital to 

predicting and studying floods and droughts.

The USGS organizes and conducts postdisaster investigations in the United States 

and abroad. Through its international programs, it provides technical assistance and 

training in support of the IDNDR's goal of 

international cooperation.

Walt Hay es

is an internationally recognized expert on natural 

hazards and their effects on society.

96 Touching the Lives of Every Citizen Every Day.
EXPLANATION

m.;. j Countries having international agreements

_^ with the USGS

H| Agreements that began during FY 1994

Scientific and technical cooperation in 

earth sciences with the Swedish 

Nuclear Power Inspectorate

Scientific and technical cooperation in 

earth sciences with the Geological 

Survey of Finland

Scientific and technical cooperation in 

earth sciences with the Polish Institute 

of Geology

Scientific and technical cooperation

in earth sciences with the Geological

Survey of Norway 

Scientific and technical cooperation in

earth sciences with the University

of Bergen

Cooperative program in 

geologic sciences with 

the British Geological 

Survey

Scientific and technical 

cooperation in earth 

sciences with the 

GeologicatJSurvey of 

Czech Reotiblic

Cooperation in the 

mapping sciences with 

the Russian Federal 

Service on Geodesy and 

Cartography

NETHERLANDS 

BELGIUM

Scientific and technical 

cooperation in earth 

sciences with the 

Geological Survey of 

Slovak Republic

Scientific and technical cooperation 

in earth sciences with the Osservatorio 

Geofisico Sperimentale, Ministry 

of Universities and Scientific Research

Cooperation in 

geological sciences 

with the Bureau de 

Recherches Geologiques et Minieres

250 KILOMETERS

Cooperation in geological sciences with 

the Istituto Sperimentale Modelli e Strutture

Scientific and technical cooperation in 

earth sciences with the Committee of 

Geology and Mineral Resources

..through International Activities 97
Scientific and technical 

cooperation in earth 

sciences with the 

Directorate of Geology

TUNISIA

ISRAEL 

Establish global

telemetered

seismic network

station with

the Earth Science

Research

Administration

Mediterranean Sea

JORDAN

Scientific and technical 

cooperation in earth 

sciences with the 

Natural Resources 

Authority KUWAIT

UNITED ARAB 

EMIRATES 

Scientific and 

technical 

cooperation 

in earth 

sciences with 

the National 

Drilling 

Company

WESTERN 

SAHARA ,

MAURITANIA

Scientific and technical 

cooperation in earth 

sciences with the 

Egyptian Geological 

Survey and Mining 

Authority

SENEGAL,

^

GAMBIA I

GUINEA'1 

BISSAU

SIERRA V J\ 

LEONEX

NIGERIA

DWIEROOI

; 

/-"'"CENTRAL 

AFRICAN REPUBLIC

Establishment of global telemetered 

seismic network station with the 

Cote D'lvoire Lamto Geophysical Station

Seismic research observatory station in Bangui 

with the French Office of Scientific and 

Technical Research Overseas

South Atlantic

Establishment of global telemetered seismic network 

station with the Geological Survey of Botswana -

SUDAN

Scientific and technical 

cooperation in earth 

sciences with the 

Institut Superieur pour les 

Etudes et la Recherche | 

Scientifique et Technique

TANZANIA

Tenth extension 

work agreement 

related to geology, 

geophysics, and 

mineral resources 

with the Ministry 

of Petroleum and 

Mineral Resources

Indian Ocea,

.ZIMBABWE,

NAMIBIA

EXPLANATION

| | Countries having international agreements

___ with the USGS

m Agreements that began during FY 1994

0 1000 MILES

SOUTH 

AFRICA I 

(Walvis 

Bay)

1 BOTSWANA^

SWAZILANC 

LESOTHO/^,

SOUTH AFRICA /

BIQUE

MADAGASCAR

Scientific and technical cooperation in 

earth sciences with the Geological 

Survey Department

\ 

1000 KILOMETERS

Installation and operation of an integrated 

real-time system to acquire global seismic 

data with the Department of Mineral and 

Energy Affairs

98 Touching the Lives of Every Citizen Every Day..
Scientific and technical cooperation in earthquake studies with the 

State Seismological Bureau

Scientific and technical cooperation in earth sciences with the Chinese 

Academy of Geological Sciences

Scientific and technical cooperation in surface-water hydrology with 

the Bureau of Hydrology of the Ministry of Water Resources

Scientific and technical cooperation in surveying and mapping studies in the 

development of geographic information systems, the application of remotesensing information, and the development of map-production management 

systems with the Bureau of Surveying and Mapping

Scientific and technical 

cooperation in the earth 

sciences with the Korea 

Institute of Geology, 

Mining and 

Materials

Sea of 

Okhotsk

KAZAKHSTAN Scientific and technical cooperation 

in the earth sciences with the 

State Geological Center

MONGOLIA

TAIWAN

Cooperation in 

hydrology, water 

resources, and 

global climate 

change with the 

Public Works 

Research Institute, 

Ministry of 

Construction

Cooperation in earth 

sciences with the 

Geological Survey 

of Japan

Technical cooperation in 

seismology and earthquake-monitoring systems 

development with the 

Central Weather Bureau

EXPLANATION

| | Countries having international 

___ agreements with the USGS 

HH Agreements that began during FY 1994

INDONESIA ^Yy^e, 

~/"-~Q:v>

Scientific and technical cooperation 

in the earth sciences with the 

Department of Mines and Energy

.through International Activities 99
Cooperation in surveys, mapping, and remote-sensing 

activities in the areas of international border mapping, 

and the accessing of global change data with the Canadian 

Surveys, Mapping, & Remote Sensing Sector of the 

Department of Energy, Mines, and Resources

Statement of intent regarding cooperation in geological 

sciences with the Geological Survey of Canada

Scientific and technical 

cooperation in earth 

sciences with the 

Icelandic Council of 

t<v Science

Countries having international 

agreements with the USGS

Nova Scotia

Atlantic 

Ocean

1OO Touching the Lives of Every Citizen Every Day...
Scientific and technical cooperation in earth and 

mapping sciences with the Ministry of Energy and Mines

Scientific and technical cooperation in earth and 

mapping sciences with the Guyana Geology 

and Mines Commission

SURINAME

FRENCH GUIANA (FRANCE)

0

Establishment of global telemetered 

seismic network station with 

the University of Brasilia

Scientific and 

technical cooperation 

in earth and mapping 

sciences with the 

Ministry of Energy 

and Mines

Scientific and technical 

cooperation in earth 

sciences with the 

Ministry of Mines and 

Metallurgy

Establishment of 

global telemetered 

seismic network station 

with the Academia 

Nacional de Ciencias 

de Bolivia/Observatorio 

San Calixto

Scientific cooperation 

in earth sciences 

with the Servicio 

Nacional de 

Geologia y Mineria

Scientific and technica 

cooperation 

in earth sciences 

with the Chilean 

Nuclear Energy 

Commission

£ Establishment of global telemetered 

seismic network station with 

the Comision Nacional de 

Desarrollo Regional Integrado 

del Chaco and the National 

University of Asuncion

500 MILES

500 KILOMETERS

Establishment of global telemetered seismic network 

station with the Institute Nacional de Prevencion Sismica

' Statement of intent regarding cooperation in earth 

sciences with the Secretaria de Mineria

EXPLANATION

| | Countries having international agreements

___ with the USGS

HH Agreements that began during FY 1994

.through International Activities 101
Gulf of Mexico

Technical cooperation in cartography, geographic 

information systems, and remote sensing with the 

Institute of Statistics, Geography, and Information

Scientific and technical cooperation in earth and 

mapping sciences with the National Autonomous 

University of Mexico

Scientific and technical cooperation in earth and 

mapping sciences with the Secretariat of Energy, 

Mines, and Parastatal Industry

Scientific, technical, and policy cooperation 

in the earth and mapping sciences with the 

Ministry of Natural Resources

Technical cooperation in resources 

management and development 

with the Organization of American 

States in Latin America

EXPLANATION 

[ | Countries having international agreements

with the USGS 

HI Agreements that began during FY 1994

0 150 MILES 

0 150 KILOMETERS

Tasman Sea

New Zealand

Pacific Ocean

Scientific and technical cooperation 

in topographic mapping of portions 

of Antarctica with the Department of 

Lands and Surveys

Worldwide:

Cooperation in the International Decade for Natural 

Disaster Reduction with UNESCO (United Nations 

Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization)

Establishment and operation of a global resource data 

base facility with the U.N. Environmental Program and 

U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration

1O2 Touching the Lives of Every Citizen Every Day..
 ftsasffi-- iSKip^^w m

Juman Resources

Honors and Awards

E

ach year, U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) 

employees receive awards and honors 

that range from certificates of excellence and 

monetary awards to recognition of their 

achievements by election to membership or 

office in professional societies.

Distinguished Service 

Award

T

he highest honor given by the 

Department of the Interior to its employees is the Distinguished Service Award. Symbolized by a gold medal, this award for 

outstanding achievement was presented to 16 

USGS employees in 1994:

 Earl E. Brabb, for outstanding contributions to the field of environmental geology 

and for contributions to the direction of 

the geologic hazards and geographic information systems programs of the USGS.

 Max C. Brewer, for outstanding contributions to geology and geophysics and their 

applications to environmentally sound 

engineering design practices and for sound 

management of logistical operations in the 

permafrost environment of the Arctic.

 T.John Conomos, for exceptional 

achievements in estuarine research and 

management of water programs in the 

nine-State USGS Western Region.

 Avery A. Drake, Jr., for significant contributions toward a better understanding of 

the geology of the Appalachian Mountain 

chain.

 William W. Dudley, Jr., for exceptional 

contributions in the interdisciplinary fields 

of ground-water hydrology and engineering geology.

 Warren I. Finch, for outstanding contributions to uranium resource assessment 

studies and for his many contributions to 

the administration of USGS scientific programs.

 Anita G. Harris, for outstanding research 

and leadership in conodont paleontology, 

biostratigraphy, paleotemperature assessment, and hydrocarbon resource potential 

programs of the USGS.

 Robert M. Hirsch, for exceptional contributions to the USGS in the fields of statistical hydrology, program planning, and 

research management and for leadership

contributions to the development of the 

National Water-Quality Assessment Program and the Global Change Research 

Program. Hirsch was also awarded the 

Presidential Rank of Merit for serving as 

Acting Director of the USGS during a 

period of transition, for career-long efforts 

to apply basic hydrologic research to realworld problems, and for consistently 

developing successful program contributions in both the scientific and the policy 

arenas.

Irwin H. Kantrowitz, for outstanding 

contributions to the management of 

bureau water-resources programs, particularly in Florida, and for significant contributions to the Regional Aquifer Systems 

Analysis Program. 

Vance C. Kennedy, for significant 

research in the field of solute transport in 

stream water and bed sediments and in 

acid rain geochemistry and as a leader in 

the development of acid rain programs 

and policies.

Janis C. Nash, for significant contributions to bureau human resources management programs.

Richard W. Paulson, for exceptional contributions in the field of real-time hydrologic data-collection systems development 

and the management of National Water 

Summary activities. 

James R. Plasker, for outstanding 

achievements as an engineer, cartographer, and manager of the USGS National 

Mapping Program. His innovative 

approaches to technical and management 

issues have led to production agreements 

with other Federal agencies. 

Hedy J. Rossmeissl, for outstanding scientific and management contributions to the 

USGS National Mapping Program, particularly the development and testing of the 

Spatial Data Transfer Standard, and for 

advancing the acceptance and promulgation of the standard as a Federal Information Processing Standard. 

John H. Stewart, for outstanding contributions to understanding the geology of 

western North America. His studies have 

provided important clues for developing 

mineral assessments of undiscovered mineral deposits.

Ralph J. Thompson, for outstanding service and contributions to the scientific data 

management, processing, and information 

systems activities of the USGS.

105
Personnel, 

by Occupation

 

/At /|\ /A\ /|\ IA\

II II 11 II 

 

/At /U /A\ .1*.. 'At

M II H II M

IA\ /|\ /A\ /|\ /A\ "ff"*i[" "M n H

/A\ /|\ /A\ /|\ ;A\

 H »M» K ii II ii II n

/At /|\ /A\ /|\ /A\

ii II '""MM

/A\ /|\ /A\ /|\ /A\

 f. E 

II II II II II

 

/A\

 Technical 3047

/At /fA /At /it/At 

n n n ii n

/it /!t/it /lit/it n M n n ii

/A\ /|\ /A\ /|\ /A\ m* E «M» E *m*

n II n II n

* ! *

Hydrologists 

1804

ffftf

/A\ /|\ /A\ /|\ /A\

'"""

Administrative and Clerical 

1397

;A\ /|\ /A\ /|\ /A\ *^fc* * ii * *^fc* * ii * *JB* II II II II II /it/t/At/t/i.

/A\ Geologists 

H 1056

 

/At/it

Other Scientists and 

Engineers 670

/A\ /|\ /A\ /|\ /A\

H" II* H V H

Cartographers 521

;A\ /|\ /A\ /|\ /A\ *^1* * ii * *^fc* * * *^1*

n II n II n

Computer Specialists 472

/A\ /|\ /A\ /|\ /A\

*^fc* * || * *^fc* * || * *^fc*

II II II II II

Other/Wage Board 467

 

/At/jit/At 

n n n

Geophysicists 293

 

/A\ /|\ Chemists 

M II 235

1994 total = 9962

Meritorious Service Award

T

he Meritorious Service Award is the 

second highest award granted by the 

Department of the Interior and is given for 

significant contributions to the earth sciences 

and to management and administration of 

USGS scientific programs. Recipients in 1994 

were:

Rex V. Alien, Donald E. Anders, Dudley J. 

Andrews, Emil D. Attanasi, Roy A. Bailey, 

John A. Barron, Richard J. Blakeley, David 

M. Boore, Roger D. Borcherdt, Eurybiades 

Busenberg, NormaJ. Campbell, Wallace H. 

Campbell, Philip J. Carpenter, Michael A. 

Domaratz, Wendell A. Duffield, Thomas D. 

Fouch, Marvin O. Fretwell, Donald L. 

Gautier, Judith A. Gunnells (posthumous), 

Carl E. Hedge, Flora A. Heggem, Thomas G. 

Hildenbrand, C.Judy Huffman,James R. 

Jancaitis,Joan L.Johnson, Donald G. 

Jorgensen,John R. Keith, Yousif K. Kharaka, 

Hugh H. Kieffer, William J. Kockelman 

(posthumous), Gerald F. Lindholm, 

Thomas L. Loesch, Baerbel K. Lucchitta, 

Richard B. McCammon, Bonnie A. 

McGregor, Edward J. McFaul, John S. 

McLean, Cornelius M. Molenaar, Donald G. 

Moore, Charles W. Naeser, Charles E. 

Ogrosky, Robert N. Oldale, Paul P. Orkild, 

Robert C. Pearson, John K. Peterson, Ernest 

L. Ray (retired), Bruce L. Reed, Charles L. 

Rice, Dale E. Robertson, David H. Root, 

Keven S. Roth, Robert O. Rye, Andrei M. 

Sarna-Wojcicki, David H. Scott,John F. Slack, 

Robin U. Spriggs, William D. Stanley, 

Elaine M. Stout, William J. Strahle, Wayne R. 

Thatcher, Ted G. Theodore, Tracy L. Vallier, 

James N. VanDriel, Bruce R. Wardlaw, 

Florence R. Weber, Barbara L. Whitford, 

Paul L. Williams, Kathryn C. Wortman, 

Thomas L. Wright, Sherman S.C. Wu, 

Jeffrey C. Wynn.

Superior Service Award

T

he Superior Service Award is the third 

highest award granted by the Department of the Interior and is given for significant acts, services, or achievements that

materially aid the accomplishment of the 

USGS mission. Recipients in 1994 were:

David P. Adam, Lee W. Aggers, 

Karl W. Ahlstrom, Tau Rho Alpha, 

William C. Andrle, Janet N. Arneson, 

Brian F. Atwater, Robert A. Ayuso, 

Colleen A. Babcock, Stanley Baldys III, 

Brian S. Bennett, Darleen K. Berry, 

Russell D. Berry, Julio L. Betancourt, 

Elisabeth M. Brouwers, David P. Brown, 

Alex P. Cardinell, Thomas J. Casadevall, 

Paul R. Celluzzi, Michael J. Chambers, 

Robert G. Clark, Harold S. Cogle III, 

Thomas H. Cooper, John E. Cotton, 

Harry R. Covington, David P. Dee, Ronald E. 

DeMatteo, Allan D. Druliner, Stephenson D. 

Ellen, Keith H. Elliott, Michael R. Elliott, 

Sherman R. Ellis, Stephen J. Field, 

Michael A. Fisher, Carolyn Gail Folger, 

MartaJ.K. Flohr, Douglas W. Franz, 

David Frishman, Ronald G. Garrett, Karl W. 

Gatson, Eric L. Geist, William C. Good, 

David L. Govoni, Gregory N. Green, Thomas 

P. Grover, David E. Hair, John R. Hebron, 

Henry E. Herlong, Debra K. Higley, 

Richard A. Hollway, Anton L. Inderbitzen, 

Ronald V.James, Francis J. Jelinek, Evan C. 

Jenkins, David A.John, Margaret F.Johnson, 

Robert L.Johnson, Robert F.Johnstone, 

Diane N.Jones, Michael T.Jones, Gail E. 

Kalen, Kenneth R. Kauffman, Carol Kendall, 

Mary C. Kilpatrick, Randolph L. Kirk, 

Randolph A. Koski, Thomas R. Loveland, 

Brent H. Lowell, Jean Louise Marlowe, 

George T. Mason, Jr., Jill McCarthy, 

Robert G. McCausland, Alfred S. McEwen, 

Benjamin F. McPherson, Robert J. Miller, 

John A. Moody, Edward N. Moser, Jerry M. 

Motooka, Vivian S. Olcott, RobertJ.Omang, 

Kenneth J. Osborn, William S. Parks, 

Jocelyn A. Peterson, Lawrence R. Pettinger, 

M. Jeanne Placanica, James E. Poole, 

Earl Reaves, George O. Riddle, Donald O.

Rosenberry, Jane D. Rothenbuehler, Roger P. 

Rumenik, Kenneth A. Salts, Robin A. 

Schmutzler, Robert B. Scott III, William B. 

Scott, Marvin G. Sherrill, Jeffrey D. Simley, 

Floyd L. Snow, Louis T. Steyaert, Jeffrey D. 

Stoner, Thomas A. Stum, Lindsay A. Swain, 

James W. Terry, John E. Terry, Jr., Charles H. 

Tibbals, Alfred Travnicek, John Van Brahana, 

George VanTrump, Jr., Robert F. Wakelee, 

Robert H. Webb, J. Shelley Welch, 

Judith C. Wheeler, Joe D. Wildman, 

John H. Wittmann, David M. Wood, 

Robin D. Worcester, David L. Wright, 

Chester T. Wrucke, Ross A. Yeoman, 

Robert S. Zech.

106 Touching the Uves of Every Citizen Every Day.
Unit Awards for Excellence 

of Service

rpthe Financial Management Best 

J. Practices Team received a unit award 

from the Department of the Interior for 

developing new financial management procedures for the Department. The team was 

charged with following the recommendations 

of Vice President Gore's National Performance Review team, which called for the 

review of all Interior administrative activities 

for possible streamlining, increased efficiency, and cost reductions. The team developed a list of recommended improvement 

opportunities for each major component of 

the Department and its bureaus.

The Eighth Annual V.E. McKelvey 

Forum Organizing Committee received a 

unit award from the Department of the Interior for its outstanding efforts in planning and 

managing this major national forum for the 

exchange of information on the latest 

research discoveries and emerging theories in 

the field of energy resources.

The USGS Transition Team received 

a unit award in recognition of exceptional service in the pursuit of new directions for the 

bureau. Within a 2-month period, the team 

reviewed the bureau's missions, program priorities, and organizational and managerial

structure and provided a set of issues and 

options for addressing them to the newly 

appointed USGS Director in a report entitled 

"A Vision for the Twenty-First Century."

Awards and Honors 

Received by USGS 

Employees in 1994

Paul Barton received the Penrose 

Medal, the highest award of the Geological 

Society of America, in recognition of his 

career-long contributions to the understanding of ore-forming processes.

Michael H. Carr received the G.K. 

Gilbert Award for outstanding work in the 

field of astrogeology, including a broad range 

of extraterrestrial topics such as cosmic dust 

and nuclear fallout, lunar mapping, and the 

geology of Mars.

Ralph Cheng received the Federal 

Engineer of the Year award for scientific contributions to the fundamental understanding 

of hydrodynamics in bays and estuaries and 

for studies of the importance of long-term 

water-movement patterns relative to key 

water-quality issues such as the fate of pollutants in tidal ecosystems.

(Left to right) Secretary of the 

Interior Bruce Babbitt; Vice 

President Al Core; Wendy 

Hassibe, Mike McDermott, K. 

Lea Cinnodo, Ed Burke, and 

Mary Buchwald (all of USGS); 

and Sharon Kemp (National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration) at the Vice 

President's National 

Performance Review awards 

ceremony, May 31, 1994.

..through Human Resources 1O7
Menlo Park 

Open House

25,000 Visitors More than 200

exhibits 400 USGS volunteers

 Great Time! Great Fun 

Great Science!

May 

21&22 

994

1O8 Touching the Lives of Every Citizen Every Day...
Eliot Christian received the Government 

Computer News award for outstanding leadership in data management, especially the 

use of standards-based data dissemination 

technology.

Charles G. Cunningham was designated an Honorary Visiting Professor by the 

National University of San Luis, Argentina. 

He was honored by the Executive Council of 

the Faculty of Sciences for his contributions to 

economic geology studies at the Ag-Zn-Pb-Sn 

deposits at Cerro Rico de Potosi in Bolivia.

Harold J. Gluskoter received the Gilbert H. Cady Award from the Coal Geology 

Division of the Geological Society of America 

for his distinguished contributions to coal 

geology.

Rosalind Helz was elected President of 

the Geological Society of Washington (GSW), 

only the second woman ever to have held this 

office. Of the 30 geologists who founded 

GSW in 1893, 28 were from the USGS.

Richard B. McCammon received the 

William C. Krumbein Medal, the highest 

award of the International Association for 

Mathematical Geology, for career-long contributions in the field of mathematical 

geology.

Douglass Owen received an Outstanding Achievement Award from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency for his 

commitment and contributions to the scientific and public understanding of wetland 

resources in Colorado and the Rocky Mountain region.

Geoffrey Plumlee received the Society 

of Economic Geologists' Lindgren Award for 

his chemical models of ore deposits and for 

his work on mine drainage and environmental remediation at the Summitville mine in 

southwestern Colorado and other mines.

David Roddy (emeritus) received the 

Barringer Award from the International Meteoritic Society for his studies of impact and 

explosion craters and for his career-long work 

in the field of impact crater mechanics.

Robert L. Schuster received the first 

Civil Engineering Alumni Achievement 

Award from Purdue University and was also 

named an Honorary Member of the Association of Engineering Geologists. Highlights of 

his career include an investigation of the 

causes of the 1976 failure of the Teton Dam in 

Idaho, the study of ground-failure hazards 

along the Columbia River in Oregon and 

Washington, slope stability analysis of glaciofluvial terraces on Lake Roosevelt for the 

Spokane Indian Nation, and a study of the

Geologic Division Women's Advisory Committee

T

he Women's Advisory Committee (WAC) of the Geologic Division 

continues to address issues that affect not only women but all employees of the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). Several issues that are now coming to the fore in response to President Clinton's Family-Friendly Work 

Place initiative Guly 11,1994) have long been goals of the WAC. WAC has 

supported alternative work schedules, alternative work sites (flexiplace), 

maternity and paternity leave, pre-tax deductions for dependent (child and 

elder) care, and elimination of sexual harassment and gender discrimination. WAC also has strongly recommended the formation of a USCS-wide 

Advisory Committee on Human Resources and stands prepared to help put 

the USGS on the cutting edge of human resource leadership in the Federal 

Government.

WAC designed a 3-year training program for all first-line supervisors, 

both official and unofficial, to increase their management, leadership, 

interpersonal, and basic communication skills. This training program will 

begin in FY 95 with a module entitled "The Role of the Supervisor." The 

final report of the WAC Statistics Task Force, which analyzed career development data on women scientists and technicians in the USCS, is 

expected in FY 95. In 1994, WAC sent representatives to the National 

Training Program of the Federally Employed Women (FEW) in Washington, 

D.C. WAC has participated in pre-FEW conferences, which have gathered 

together USGS women from across the country.

All of the regional centers have been very active during FY 94 in promoting the career development of women by means of newsletters, training, seminars, lectures, field trips, and technology enhancement.

engineering implications of the eruption of 

Mount St. Helens in 1980.

Barbara J. Shaw was presented the 

Secretary of the Interior's Equal Opportunity 

Award, in the Selective Placement Program 

Achievement category, for career-long leadership in the recruitment, retention, and 

advancement of disabled individuals in the 

USGS.

Charles W. Spencer was selected as 

the Outstanding Scientist of the Year by the 

Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists 

for his extensive studies of energy resources 

in the Rocky Mountain region.

The Office of Procurement and Contracts received the "Employer of the Year" 

Award for supporting the National Industries 

for the Severely Handicapped in recognition 

of contracts that the USGS has awarded to 

Hope Rehabilitation Services for landscaping, 

janitorial, and mail services.

The Russian Academy of Sciences, Institute of Physics of the Earth, awarded the Academician O. Yu. Shmidt Medal to John 

Filson, Robert Wesson, Robert Wallace 

(emeritus), Gary Fuis, James Byerlee, 

David Lockner, and Fred Fischer for their 

outstanding contributions to research on

.through Human Resources 109
seismological problems during 20 years of 

cooperative research. The medal, one of the 

Institute's highest honors, is presented in 

recognition of significant contributions to the 

science of geophysics.

Public Service Recognition

S

pecial awards were presented to nine 

employees for their outstanding contributions as public servants. Those receiving Public Service Recognition Awards in 1994 were:

 Patricia A. Bushrod, for outstanding contributions in advancing the financial management practices of the USGS.

 Daphne L. Chinn, for her contributions 

in die field of computer technology, enthusiastic support of educational outreach 

activities in the computer technology profession, and her support of Langston University and Hampton University, 

participants in the bureau's Historical 

Black Colleges and Universities program.

 Kelvin DeVeaux, for designing, installing, 

and maintaining computer system networks for the bureau's Central Region and 

for establishing and maintaining bureau 

connections to the Department of the Interior's wide-area network (DOINET) in the 

Denver, Colo., area.

 Jennie M. Grant, for her exceptional ability to prepare program planning and budget documents and for her efforts in the 

Womens Executive Leadership Program 

and the Volunteer for Science program.

 Nancy S. Hawkins, for career-long outstanding Federal service in a variety of 

capacities, in particular for preparing the 

human resources initiatives accomplishments report for FY 92.

 Peggy S. Hughes, for her dedication in 

providing earth science data to the user 

community as leader of the user services 

unit of the USGS Earth Science Information Center in Rolla, Mo.

 Carl £. Mortensen, for his leadership in 

integrating the USGS Earthquake Hazard 

Reduction Program into Federal, State, 

and local emergency response plans.

 Ingrid M. Verstraeten, for her work in 

support of the Ground Water Guardian 

Program in Seward County, Nebr. The 

Ground Water Guardian program is a 

national program that supports and recognizes communities that are taking steps to 

protect their ground-water supply.

 Diane R. Welch, for designing exhibits 

that effectively communicate the USGS

message and for coordinating exhibits for 

the USGS.

Exemplary Act Award

! Exemplary Act Award was presented 

JL to Ivan C.James II for saving the life 

of a cc-worker by applying the Heimlich 

maneuver.

John Wesley Powell Award

E

ach year, the USGS presents the John 

Wesley Powell Award to persons or 

groups outside the Federal Government for 

voluntary actions that result in significant 

gains or improvements in the efforts of the 

USGS to provide "Earth Science in the Public 

Service."

The award is named in honor of John 

Wesley Powell, the second director of the 

USGS (1881-84), who was a geologist, a Civil 

War hero, a Native American ethnographer, 

and a pioneer explorer of the Colorado River. 

Kenneth N. Weaver received the Powell Award for his years of service (from 1963 

to 1992) as the Maryland State Geologist and 

as a key State official who supported cooperative programs with the USGS. He was a 

staunch advocate of "COGEOMAP," the 

Chesapeake Bay program, and the National 

Water-Quality Assessment Program, among 

others, for many years. His career-long efforts 

have left an indelible stamp on the direction 

and scope of much of the earth science 

research and scientific investigations undertaken by the USGS in the State of Maryland.

Conservation Service 

Award of the Department 

of the Interior

J

ean Auer was awarded the Conservation 

Service Award for making outstanding contributions to the Department of the Interior's 

San Joaquin Valley Drainage Program and 

other water-resources and public involvement efforts of the Department and the 

USGS. She has been an innovative leader in 

many water-management areas and has made 

outstanding contributions to the Department's water-resources and reclamation programs for more than two decades.

Walter R. Lynn, Professor of Civil and 

Environmental Engineering at Cornell

110 Touching the Lives of Every Citizen Every Day.
University, has made outstanding contributions to the field of water-resources management and to the water-resources programs of 

the Department of the Interior and the 

USGS. His efforts have enhanced the ability 

of the Department and of the USGS to serve 

the Nation by providing water information 

for the wise management of water resources.

Public Service Award of the 

Department of the Interior

Maynard M. Hufschmidt, an 

internationally known educator and 

scientist, is currently a Senior Fellow at the 

East-West Center in Honolulu, Hawaii. He 

was presented the Public Service Award of 

the Department of the Interior for developing 

innovative interdisciplinary approaches to 

environmental management and problem 

solving for trie Department and the USGS. A 

pioneer in the field of environmental planning, he has developed techniques that have 

greatly advanced the understanding of interactions between hydrologic, social, and economic factors impacting on environmental 

concerns.

Equal Opportunity Award 

for Long-Term Achievement 

from the Secretary of the 

Interior

T

he USGS was presented the Equal 

Opportunity Award for Long-Term 

Achievement in recognition of bureauwide 

efforts to increase the number of women and 

minorities in earth science careers. Since the 

program began more than 20 years ago, it has 

provided more than 1,500 students with an 

opportunity to pursue careers in the earth 

sciences.

activities have identified and addressed some 

of the barriers that have inhibited diversification in the past. However, approaches without personal accountability will not create a 

more culturally diverse workforce that is representative of the overall working population. 

Thus, the bureau's Human Resources Management Committee (HRMC) responded to 

the dual challenges of workforce diversity and 

budget and full-time equivalent reductions in 

developing the USGS Diversity Plan.

Focusing on six goals, the USGS Diversity Plan provides executives, managers, and 

supervisors with meaningful and measurable 

actions to demonstrate diversity accomplishments.

Goal I

Ensure commitment and accountability at all 

levels for achieving and maintaining diversity-At 

locations throughout the country, top managers received training on the business rationale 

for workforce diversity. This training enabled 

USGS leaders to examine and strengthen 

their personal commitment to incorporating 

the principles and practices of diversity into 

the organizational culture and human 

resource processes of the bureau.

Educating all USGS personnel on 

diversity concepts and issues is not viewed 

as a one-time training requirement. A training 

program that incorporates the USGS vision 

and philosophy on workforce diversity 

will be presented in-house to all USGS 

employees. Managers will select individuals 

for specific training in how to effectively conduct these training sessions.

All USGS leaders are now accountable 

for accomplishing the objectives defined by 

diversity-related elements in their performance workplans and are also responsible for 

ensuring that employees attend sexual harassment awareness and prevention training and 

diversity training.

U.S. Geological Survey 

Diversity Plan

T

he leadership and executive staff of the 

U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) realize 

the importance of diversity in maintaining the 

viability of the Nation's premier earth science 

research and information agency into the 

year 2000 and beyond. Affirmative action

Goal 2

Increase the number of women, minorities, 

and persons with disabilities hired from outside the 

permanent workforce for available vacancies.- 

In FY 94, women and minorities participated 

in the Human Resources Initiatives program 

and the Federal Equal Opportunity Recruitment Program, with about 275 students 

enrolled in student employment programs. 

These efforts are being complemented by a

.through Human Resources 111
The third and final 

section of the USGS 

Career Planning 

Manual "Career 

Profiles" was developed and printed in FY 

94. This section showcases USGS employees 

who have achieved their 

personal career goals. 

These individuals not 

only agreed to tell their 

success stories and 

share advice, but they 

have also volunteered to 

serve as mentors to 

employees who are 

attempting to advance 

their own careers.

new strategic recruitment plan piloted by the 

USGS water resources regional office in 

Atlanta, Ga.

This 2-year pilot project involves intensive training of a recruitment team, analysis 

and projection of staffing needs that cross 

division lines, conducting planning sessions, 

building relationships with seven universities 

whose enrollments include significant numbers of women and minorities in programs 

that are related to the USGS mission, providing employment opportunities for students 

from these institutions, and evaluating programs throughout the process.

Finally, USGS selecting officials are 

alerted to positions in which women and 

minorities are underrepresented.

GoalS

Increase the representation of women, minorities, and persons with disabilities in executive, 

managerial, supervisory, and leadership positions.- 

Continuous improvement requires a change 

from the traditional, hierarchical management style of control and direction. Increasingly, the USGS mission is carried out by 

empowered, self-directed work teams. This 

change in philosophy-a commitment to the 

value of diversity in thought, approach, and 

viewpoint-immediately casts women, minorities, and persons with disabilities into decisionmaking roles. These teams set the 

standard for efficient Government operations 

and the redirection of natural resource policy.

Goal 4

Increase opportunities for the career development of women, minorities, and persons with disabilities currently in the workforce.-^ water 

resources regional office in Reston, Va., 

hosted the first USGS Federally Employed 

Women (FEW) preconference in July 1994 as 

a precursor to the FEW national training program in Washington, D.C. Human Resources 

Initiatives funding helped to maximize participation in career development activities such 

as computer courses, the FEW, and the 

Blacks in Government conference. The Western Regional Office in Menlo Park, Calif., 

sponsored "Disabilities World in TransitionThe Technological Revolution," a workshop 

on how technology enhances the ability of

people with disabilities to enter mainstream 

occupations.

Goal 5

Improve the visibility of the earth sciences 

among students at all educational levels to expand 

the future pool ofunderrepresented candidates for 

earth science careers.-A major thrust of the 

USGS Diversity Plan is to enhance awareness 

of earth science careers among students. To 

that end, many USGS education projects and 

recruitment initiatives are aimed at Historically Black Colleges and Universities 

(HBCU), the Hispanic Association of Colleges and Universities, Hispanic Serving Institutions, and Native American institutions. 

One example is the 2-week HBCU Summer 

Faculty Geographic Information Systems 

Symposium at North Carolina Central University, hosted by the USGS. In addition, the 

USGS sponsors numerous exhibits at career 

fairs and college campuses throughout the 

country to promote student employment programs that serve as a feeder system for future 

employees.

Educational projects aimed at students 

in grades K through 12 include a groundwater poster series in both English and Spanish, Geomedia training discs, and earth science 

teacher packets. Examples of these products 

were exhibited at the second annual Coalition 

for Earth Science Education national meeting 

hosted by the USGS in March 1994. In 

addition, the Volunteer for Science Program 

provides outstanding opportunities for internships, national service, and career exploration. Students on hundreds of university 

campuses can connect to the USGS Internet 

server for more information (see box, p. 115). 

Over 1,250 new volunteer agreements were 

signed in 1994.

Goal 6

Ensure the continuing involvement of the 

entire war/force in facilitating organizational 

change and instilling diversity values through performance management and employee recognition 

systems.-The USGS had a leadership role in 

developing a new performance management 

system for the Department of the Interior. 

This new system, which will be implemented 

after it has been approved by the Office 

of Personnel Management, focuses on

112 Touching the Lives of Every Citizen Every Day.
continuing communication between supervisors and employees and on the accomplishment of individual, team, and organizational 

objectives, including diversity goals. The new 

system also provides awards for recognizing 

exemplary performance in achieving organizational and diversity goals. In addition to 

performance recognition, USGS managers 

are encouraged to become actively involved 

in helping the bureau achieve its diversity 

goals and to recognize the diversity achievements of supervisors and employees through 

special act and (or) honor awards.

Diversity Training

I

n support of its Six-Month Diversity Goals, 

which were developed by the HRMC to 

achieve and maintain workforce diversity, the 

USGS made plans in FY 94 to support diversity efforts in two ways: (1) training for executives, managers, and supervisors in 

"managing diversity" and (2) training for all 

employees in "hands-on" workforce diversity.

To successfully manage diversity, the 

USGS must establish an environment in 

which every employee feels empowered and 

is encouraged to tap his or her full potential. 

The focus must be on cultural, professional, 

cognitive, gender, and other differences 

throughout the USGS workforce. The dignity 

of each person must be recognized, and the 

contributions of all employees must be valued. Management's willingness to take 

responsibility for implementing this process 

and to be held accountable for its success or 

failure is indicative of the USGS commitment 

to workforce diversity.

Dr. Roosevelt Thomas, Jr., president of 

the American Institute for Managing Diversity, and members of his staff trained USGS 

executives, managers, and supervisors in 

managing diversity in the Reston, Va., office 

and at some field offices between January and 

March 1994. Thomas, an author and speaker 

who has gained national recognition for his 

groundbreaking work on managing diversity, 

helped clarify the USGS "corporate" diversity vision, a critical first step toward developing new methods of attracting, recruiting, 

developing, and retaining employees.

A video-based training program has 

been acquired to provide diversity education 

to all employees. The program addresses 

both the concept of workforce diversity and 

the process through which it is achieved,

enabling management and employees to 

understand and appreciate the individual 

differences found in a diverse workforce, to 

express commitment by becoming "diversity 

change agents," and to encourage all employees to support workforce diversity.

Earth Science Corps: 

Volunteers Mapping 

the Nation

I

n May 1994, the Earth Science Corps 

(ESC) began operating as a new element of 

the Volunteer for Science Program of the U.S. 

Geological Survey (USGS). Through this program, volunteers are recruited nationwide to 

work in their local areas to provide map 

information for the USGS. These volunteers 

are available to respond to requests within 

their assigned work area or may travel at 

Government expense to other locations when 

authorized.

A map-annotation project was selected 

as the first major component of the ESC.

For more information on the USCS 

Diversity Plan, contact Lynn Smith at:

Telephone: (703) 648-7111 

Internet: jlysmith@usgs.gov

For rrtore information on USGS volunteer 

programs, contact Susan Wells at:

Telephone: (703) 648-5752 

Internet swells@usgs.gov

Minority Involvement

I n 1994, the Ethnic Minority Advisory Committee (EMAC) worked to 

Idefine the needs of minorities at the regional and field centers of the Geologic Division. Committee members and others from the EMAC community 

volunteered their time and efforts to assist on projects including the Affirmative Employment Plan, the USGS Diversity Plan, Presidential Executive 

Order 12898 on-environmental justice, and a grass-roots effort with the 

National Park Service to address native Hawaiian reclassification. In addition, EMAC members have formed an ad-hoc committee with representatives from other U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Divisions to formally 

establish a bureauwide Ethnic Minority Advisory Croup.

EMAC has a profound commitment to educational outreach projects. 

Four active proposals are now in their second year of funding: (1) development of classroom modules demonstrating current USGS work and related 

scientific concepts; (2) participation in a 1-week summer workshop on 

image processing for teaching hosted by the University of Arizona; 

(3) participation in community and other agency programs (including the 

Minority Outreach Education/Employment program, the Inter-Tribal Youth 

Practicum, and the Stay-in-School program); and (4) development of a 

poster and stickers promoting "Diversity of People, Diversity of Earth 

Science Careers."

.through Human Resources 113
Quadrangles assigned to USCS 

Earth Science Corps volunteers 

for mapping as of January 1, 

1995.

VoiuBleerc Quadrangles

Alaska 0 0

Hawaii 3 i

Conterminous States 308 633

Total 311 638

For more information on the Earth Science 

Corps, contact:

Telephone: (800) 254-8040 

Internet: escorps@usgs.gov

\blunteers accept responsibility for specific 

geographic areas, which usually include their 

homes, workplaces, or recreational sites. The 

volunteers are given copies of USGS 

topographic maps, which they then review 

for changes that may have occurred since 

publication. They gradually visit all of their 

assigned area and annotate the maps, identifying any differences between published 

information and current ground conditions. 

Annotations are made according to instructions provided in a Vblunteer Guide and 

are mailed upon completion to the responsible mapping center. When a survey has been 

completed, annual updates are submitted.

During the first 4 months of operation 

alone, 200 individuals joined the ESC. The 

overwhelming majority of the volunteers 

have some degree of experience in science or 

engineering, and nearly all are experienced 

map users. Occasionally, friends or family 

members have signed on together. Some 

employee groups and recreational associations are participating as units. Students and 

youth organizations are participating under 

adult leadership.

The ESC benefits both the Government 

and the individual volunteer. The program 

provides the Government with local contacts 

that can be used to obtain a variety of information without having to dispatch field 

crews. It also enhances public awareness of 

the work of the USGS and provides a source 

of public opinion data, \blunteers gain experience that can be used to acquire employment qualification and (or) academic credit 

through internship programs. The program 

also provides an opportunity to combine recreational pursuits with public service.

ESC activities are coordinated by a 

small number of paid USGS employees who 

contribute only a portion of their time. Correspondence and other clerical responsibilities 

are handled by a staff of volunteers from the 

Reston, Va., area. Additional volunteers will 

be recruited at field offices to manage data 

accumulated by ESC members.

Another major function of the ESC will 

be to promote public awareness. Volunteers 

will help to publicize USGS programs and 

products within their own community by providing information at conventions and public 

exhibitions, visiting classrooms to explain 

their map-annotation activities, or assisting 

their neighbors in obtaining information from 

the USGS and other agencies.

As the ESC matures, many of its volunteers may be linked by a computer network, 

expanding their involvement beyond the 

mapping program to include geologic and 

hydrologic data gathering. A program that 

has drawn more than 300 participants since 

its inception less than a year ago, the ESC has 

the long-term potential to become an information source for other bureaus of the 

Federal Government.

MelvinY.Ellis

is a program developer.

114 Touching the Lives of Every Citizen Every Day..
Volunteer for Science 

Program

T

he Volunteer for Science Program 

continued to grow in FY 94, using the 

services of 2,350 individuals, including 1,250 

new volunteers. Volunteers donated 280,000 

hours (134 staff years) through a wide range 

of projects from Alaska to Puerto Rico.

Volunteer recruitment activity in FY 94 

targeted professional scientific organizations 

such as the Geological Society of America, 

high schools, colleges, universities, educational conferences, retiree and senior citizens 

groups, and the National Community Service 

Conference.

The Volunteer/'Intern/Teacher Opportunities 

Handbook for 1994 was distributed to over 

1,000 colleges and universities, including Historically Black Colleges and Universities and 

member schools of the Hispanic Association 

of Colleges and Universities nationwide and 

to hundreds of public school teachers across 

the Nation.

More than 250 USGS retirees donated 

their considerable talents and expertise to 

research projects through emeritus programs. 

Numerous high-school students provided 

assistance to administrative and scientific personnel. The Volunteer for Science Program 

also merged onto the Information Superhighway this year.

Highlights of USGS 

Volunteer Activities

V

slunteers provided valuable assistance to 

the USGS across the Nation on projects 

too numerous to describe fully here. Some of 

their contributions in FY 94 included:

 A high-school student volunteer "telecommuted" from home, working on a prototype development project for the National 

Water-Quality Assessment Program using 

Hypertext Mark-Up Language to format 

documents for loading onto the World 

Wide Web for Internet access.

 A retired mechanical engineer assisted in 

the design, fabrication, and field testing of 

borehole instruments in Menlo Park, Calif.

 Two students from the College of Charleston in South Carolina assisted USGS 

employees on Sullivan's Island with the 

Charleston Harbor project and the aquifer

storage and recovery project for the 

Charleston Commission of Public Works. 

As part of a job-training apprenticeship 

program for students with learning disabilities, a Northern Virginia Community College student volunteer assisted with data 

entry and map filing in the Reference Collection and Historical Map Archives of the 

USGS in Reston, Va. 

Students from the University of Puerto 

Rico entered data into geographic information system files, collected and analyzed 

sediment samples, and ran sediment transport models.

A Japanese exchange student working 

toward a master's degree at San Jose State 

University worked on studies of the 1989 

Loma Prieta earthquake in San Francisco, 

Calif.

A volunteer was instrumental in placing 

USGS information on the Internet. Her 

vast knowledge of the Internet allowed her 

to assist with Information Superhighway 

presentations to the Vice President and 

members of the White House staff. She 

also assisted with Internet training programs at the USGS National Center in 

Reston, Va., for employees from the White 

House, the Department of the Interior, and 

other Federal agencies. 

A high-school student worked on a waterquality project, assisting in the analysis of 

water samples for pesticide concentration 

levels and collecting data in the field on 

Florida fish communities. 

Teachers from Massachusetts, Colorado, 

Missouri, Connecticut, Washington, Virginia, and Alaska served as curriculum 

specialists in the development of a waterresources education initiative in Denver, 

Colo.

More information on the USCS Volunteer 

for Science program can be obtained by 

accessing the Internet at:

volnteer@usgs.gov

A retired USCS employee 

serving as a decent in the 

Volunteer for Science Program 

shows school children around 

the USCS National Center in 

Reston, Va.

.through Human Resources 115
Electronic Job 

Hunting

Mosaic, CERN, or LYNX, applicants can 

browse and print vacancy announcements 

and related how-to-apply documents.

T

he Automated Vacancy Announcement 

Distribution System (AVADS) is an example of the creative use of technology to meet 

customers' needs at the least cost to the Government. The Department of the Interior 

(DOI) has made all of its job-opening information available electronically to the public 

via a toll-free call to an electronic bulletin 

board or over the Internet. AVADS also 

allows for both the creation and nationwide 

electronic distribution of vacancy announcements to all DOI employees. Public access to 

AVADS is also available via walk-up kiosks at 

personnel offices throughout the USGS and 

at the Main Interior Building in Washington, 

D.C.

AVADS, originally designed and used 

by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), 

replaces a labor-intensive paper-based process in which copies of individual vacancy 

announcements were mailed to offices across 

the country. Electronic distribution through 

AVADS means that job-opening information 

is available much faster and updated more 

often and that the Government is saving 

the cost of mailing large quantities of 

paper. AVADS runs on the USGS mainframe computer and personal computers 

(MicroAVADS). The PC version is updated 

weekly and is available in both stand-alone 

and multiuser local-area network formats.

Now that AVADS is in place throughout 

the DOI, the length of time required to prepare a vacancy announcement in many cases 

has dropped from weeks to minutes. The flexibility of the system allows for the format of

Reengineering the 

Time and Attendance 

Process

E

very 2 weeks, Department of the Interior 

(DOI) employees, timekeepers, and 

supervisors are required to record, verify, correct, and submit time and attendance (T&A) 

information to the departmental payroll system. The process is frequently time consuming, paper intensive, and, when performed 

manually, prone to many errors.

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) 

piloted an automated system that electronically processed T&A data for more than 800 

employees and resulted in more accurate 

payroll information, a reduced workload for 

timekeepers, easier use for supervisors, and 

reduced cost as paper and errors are eliminated. On the basis of this success, the USGS 

is now engaged in a bureauwide effort to 

develop a paperless electronic T&A system. 

Departmentwide attention has also focused 

on this new system, because it could easily 

serve as a standard approach to T&A processing across all bureaus.

Benefits are expected to exceed costs by 

three to one in 1996 and by eight to one in 

1997. A phased implementation for the entire 

bureau will begin in 1995, automating the 

T&A process for over 9,500 employees.

The Automated Vacancy Announcement 

Distribution System can be accessed via:

Telephone: 1-800-368-3321

Internet: Open the Uniform Resource 

Locator and enter: 

http://info.er.usgs.gov/doi/ 

avads/i ndex.html

Vacancy announcements

are... accessible over the

Internet World Wide Web.

the announcements to be standardized yet 

permits the document to be customized for 

each bureau's needs. Vacancy announcements are also accessible over the Internet 

World Wide Web. Using a browser like

Coalition for Earth 

Science Education

T

he Coalition for Earth Science Education 

(CESE) is composed of member organizations representing State and Federal agencies, academia, and scientific societies and 

organizations, all fixed on a common vision 

to promote an awareness of earth science as 

fundamental knowledge necessary for 

addressing societal, environmental, and 

economic issues. CESE's primary goal is to 

facilitate communication, cooperation, and

116 Touching the Lives of Every Citizen Every Day.
coordination among geologic, hydrologic, 

astronomic, atmospheric, and oceanographic 

organizations in order to promote earth science education, to provide a united voice on 

national and regional education issues, and to 

establish the role of earth science in reforming interdisciplinary, hands-on science 

teaching.

As part of its continuing educational outreach program efforts, the U.S. Geological 

Survey (USGS) hosted representatives from 

57 organizations at the second annual CESE 

national meeting, March 4-6, 1994, in 

Reston, Va. The theme of the meeting was 

"Supporting Systemic Reform in Science Education." Attendees were brought up to date 

on Project 2061 of the American Association 

for the Advancement of Science, the Scope 

Sequence and Coordination project of the 

National Science Teachers Association, the 

State Systemic Initiatives of the National 

Science Foundation, and the new National 

Science Standards from the National Academy of Sciences and the National Research 

Council. Meeting participants heard talks 

on Federal Government initiatives like 

the National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration's Project Weather Scope and 

two projects of the USGS's innovative CDROM program-one on the hazards of volcanic ash clouds to aviation entitled "Tracking 

Stone Winds" and the other a multimedia 

educational system on global environmental 

change for middle-school students entitled 

GeoMedia 2. Presentations on exemplary initiatives from the academic community 

included the Joint Education Initiative of the 

University of Maryland, the Denver Earth 

Science Project of the Colorado School of 

Mines, the Iowa Demonstration Classroom 

Project of Luther College, and the Program 

for Leadership in Earth Systems Education of 

Ohio State University. Presentations on 

teacher enhancement and material development programs from earth science societies 

were given by such prestigious organizations 

as the Geological Society of America, the 

American Astronomical Society, the American Meteorological Society, the American 

Geophysical Union, and the American Geological Institute.

The highlight of the meeting was a panel 

discussion on "The View from the Classroom." A panel consisting of teachers from 

elementary school through undergraduate 

school and a museum educator discussed 

current and future needs of earth science 

teachers and educators. Panelists confirmed 

the need for local and regional support for 

the classroom teacher. Teacher-scientist 

partnerships-two professionals merging their 

skills for the betterment of science-were 

hailed as the most effective way to enact true 

reforms in teaching science. The discussion 

also emphasized the need for teacher 

enhancement programs that bring teachers 

up to date on current relevant science and 

thus paved the way for additional discussions 

on the role of CESE and its member organizations in forging programs for the future.

For more information about the Coalition 

for Earth Science Education, contact Laure 

Wallace at:

Telephone (703)648-6515 

Internet: lwallace@usgs.gov

.through Human Resources 117
Budget Information

T

he U.S. Geological Survey receives funding through direct appropriations and reimbursable work. The following table 

reflects a FY 94 budget authority of $596.985 million to program element level. (Percentage of total funds by activity: 

Facilities, 3; General Administration, 3; Geologic and Mineral Resource Surveys and Mapping, 29; National Mapping, 

Geography, and Surveys, 19; Water Resources Investigations, 45. Computer Services are 1 percent.)

Activity/subactivity/program element FY94 

enacted Activity/subactivity/program element FY94 

enacted

National Mapping, Geography, and Surveys............ $136,725

National Map and Digital Data Production.................. 61,279

Cartographic Data, and Map Revision....................... 46,321

Thematic and Special Data......................................... 12,766

National Map and Digital Data Cooperative

Program.................................................................... 2,192

Information and Data Systems....................................... 24,024

National Data Base Management............................... 12,154

Information Dissemination Services.......................... 4,433

Global Change Data Systems..................................... 7,437

Research and Technology................................................ 18,769

Cartographic and Geographic Research ................... 8,515

National Cartographic Requirements,

Coordination, and Standards................................. 5,073

Geographic and Spatial Information Analysis.......... 5,181

Advanced Cartographic Systems.................................... 32,653

Geologic and Mineral Resources Surveys and

Mapping.......................................................................... 223,531

Geologic Hazards Surveys.............................................. 77,008

Earthquake Hazards Reductions................................ 54,361

Volcano and Geothermal Investigations.................... 20,315

Landslide Hazards....................................................... 2,332

Geologic Framework and Processes............................... 27,588

National Geologic Mapping........................................ 23,012

Deep Continental Studies............................................ 2,772

Magnetic Field Monitoring and Charting................. 1,804

Global Change and Climate History............................. 10,788

Global Change and Climate History......................... 10,788

Marine and Coastal Geologic Surveys........................... 35,635

Marine and Coastal Geologic Surveys....................... 35,635

Mineral Resource Surveys.............................................. 46,902

Mineral Resource Surveys.......................................... 46,902

Energy Resource Surveys................................................ 25,610

Energy Resource Surveys............................................ 25,610

Water Resources Investigations.....................................

National Water Resources Research and Information

System-Federal Program........................................

Data Collection and Analysis.....................................

National Water Information Clearinghouse..............

Coordination of National Water Data Activities.......

Regional Aquifer System Analysis .............................

Core Program Hydrologic Research..........................

Improved Instrumentation..........................................

Water Resources Assessment......................................

Toxic Substances Hydrology ......................................

Acid Rain ......................................................................

Scientific and Technical Publications .........................

National Water-Quality Assessment Program...........

Global Change Hydrology .........................................

Truckee-Carson Program............................................

National Water Resources Research and Information

System-Federal-State Cooperative Program........

Data Collection and Analysis, Areal Appraisals,

and Special Studies..................................................

Water Use......................................................................

National Water Resources Research and Information

System-State Research Institutes and Research

Grants Program .......................................................

State Water Resources Research Institutes ................

Program Administration..............................................

General Administration......................................

Executive Direction ............................................

Administrative Operations.................................

Reimbursements to the Department of Labor. 

Payments to Others for Services........................

Washington Administrative Service Center......

Facilities ..................................................................

National Center-Rental Payments to GSA......

National Center-Facilities Management..........

$187,561

118,303

19,843

962

1,488

5,064

10,008

1,147

1,565

14,178

1,873

2,305

51,822

6,649

1,399

63,488

59,438

4,050

5,770

5,529

241

26,018

7,935

8,719

2,462

273

6,629

23,150

20,045

3,105

Total, SIR............................................................ $596,985

Total includes $4.5 M supplemental for the Northridge earthquake and $7.8 M supplemental for flooding in the Midwest.

118 Touching the Lives of Every Citizen Every Day.
The following table reflects actual obligations from all sources of funds. In FY 94, the U.S. Geological Survey had actual obligations of $886.1 million, distributed as follows: $586.5 million from 

direct appropriations, $5.5 million from estimated receipts from map sales, and $294.1 million 

from reimbursements. 

[Dollars in thousands]

Budget activity

Total

Direct program

Reimbursable program

States, counties, municipalities

Miscellaneous non-Federal sources

Other Federal agencies

National Mapping

Direct program

Reimbursable program

States, counties, and municipalities

Miscellaneous non-Federal sources

Other Federal agencies

Geologic

Direct program

Reimbursable program

States, counties, municipalities

Miscellaneous non-Federal sources

Other Federal agencies

Water Resources

Direct program

Reimbursable program

States, counties, municipalities

Miscellaneous non-Federal sources

Other Federal agencies

General Administration

Direct program

Reimbursable program

Miscellaneous non-Federal sources

Other Federal agencies

Facilities

Direct program

Reimbursable program

Computer and Administrative Services

Reimbursable program

Miscellaneous non-Federal sources

Other Federal agencies

Operation and Maintenance of Quarters

Direct program

Working Capital Fund

Reimbursable program

1991

$802,538

575,044

227,494

87,415

13,499

126,580

162,421

132,395

30,026

2,366

9,722

17,938

261,513

225,112

36,401

2,661

1,260

32,480

32,480

177,969

155,269

82,388

2,503

70,378

21,528

21,206

322

1

321

18,314

18,314

0

5,476

54,76

13

5,463

48

48

1992

$851,979

586,699

265,280

89,950

14,609

160,721

164,981

132,612

32,369

3,028

10,633

18,708

267,642

225,383

42,259

3,077

536

38,646

363,287

184,489

178,798

83,845

3,424

91,529

25,028

23,883

1,145

1

1,144

20,304

20,304

0

10,709

10,709

15

10,694

28

28

1993

$862,335

582,891

279,444

91,299

14,842

173,303

156,898

126,092

30,806

3,219

10,562

17,025

261,089

222,565

38,524

1,609

834

36,081

384,467

186,933

197,534

86,471

3,440

107,623

25,886

24,506

1,380

1

1,379

23,111

22,750

361

10,839

10,839

5

10,834

45

45

1994

$886,093

1 586,5Q5

299,588

93,270

13,572

206,526

165,507

129,406

36,101

2,771

9,174

24,156

259,485

219,220

40,265

1,607

687

37,971

400,122

188,631

211,491

88,892

3,706

118,893

28,765

25,951

2,814

2

2,812

23,368

23,282

86

8,831

8,831

3

8,828

15

15

13,780

13,780

1 Includes actual obligations of $584,484 for current year, $1,887 for no-year and multi-year funds, $119 

for contributed funds, and $15 for Operation and Maintenance of Quarters.

.with Budget and Finances 119
The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) was reimbursed for work performed for other Federal, State, 

and local agencies, whose need for earth science expertise complements USGS program objectives. 

Cooperative agreements with more than 1,000 Federal, State, and local agencies and the academic 

community support a large share of USGS research and investigations. Work for State, county, and 

municipal agencies is most often conducted on a cost-sharing basis. The following table provides 

detailed information on the particular agencies for which the USGS performs work. 

[Dollars in thousands]

Source of funds

Department of Agriculture................................................

Department of Commerce ................................................

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ..

Department of Defense .....................................................

Department of Energy.. .....................................................

Bonneville Power Administration ................................

Department of the Interior

Bureau of Indian Affairs................................................

Bureau of Land Management.......................................

Bureau of Mines. ............................................................

Bureau of Reclamation ..................................................

Minerals Management Service .....................................

National Park Service ....................................................

Office of the Secretary ...................................................

Office of Surface Mining...............................................

Fish and Wildlife Service...............................................

Department of State...... .....................................................

Department of Transportation ..........................................

Environmental Protection Agency ...................................

Federal Emergency Management Agency ......................

National Aeronautics and Space Administration............

National Science Foundation ............................................

Nuclear Regulatory Commission .....................................

Tennessee Valley Authority...............................................

Miscellaneous Federal agencies........................................

Total ....................................................................

1991

. $3,464

323

2,258

. 42,002

. 28,521

159

1,834

1,256

0

6,259

76

1,036

1,549

67

456

8,279

299

. 4,302

6,270

625

1,441

200

15,904

$126,580

1992

$3,714

9

5,146

56,461

30,679

217

1,347

1,508

0

5,990

207

1,107

1,551

8

733

10,524

661

6,414

9,589

1,838

539

275

22,204

$160,721

1993

$2,697

103

1,630

64,518

33,651

445

881

1,797

0

6,495

107

1,111

1,298

22

379

13,333

605

7,671

10,108

2,096

1,087

417

22,852

$173,303

1994

$5,620

196

1,414

71,281

38,309

481

1,462

1,535

64

7,133

50

2,158

1,159

0

586

10,030

770

10,422

1,927

11,068

1,252

870

437

38,302

$206,526

120 Touching the Lives of Every Citizen Every Day.
Guide to Information and Publications

Earth Science Information 

Centers

To obtain information on cartographic data and 

on earth-science programs, publications, and services, or to obtain copies of reports and maps, write 

or visit U.S. Geological Survey Earth Science Information Centers at the following addresses:

Alaska:

Room 101

4230 University Dr.

Anchorage, AK 99508-4664

California:

Bldg. 3, Room 3128

345 Middlefield Rd., Mail Stop 532

Menlo Park, CA 94025-3591

Colorado:

Bldg. 25, Room 1813

Box 25046

Denver Federal Center, Mail Stop 504

Denver, CO 80225-0046

District of Columbia:

Main Interior Bldg., Room 2650 

1849 C St., NW 

Washington, DC 20240 

(Use E St. entrance.)

Mississippi:

Bldg. 3101

Stennis Space Center, MS 39529

Missouri:

1400 Independence Rd., Mail Stop 231 

Rolla, MO 65401-2602

South Dakota:

EROS Data Center 

Sioux Falls, SD 57198-0001

Utah:

2222 West 2300 South 

Salt Lake City, UT 84119

Virginia:

Room 1C402 

507 National Center 

12201 Sunrise Valley Dr. 

Reston, VA 22092

Washington:

U.S. Post Office Bldg., Room 135 

904 West Riverside Ave. 

Spokane, WA 99201-1088

Earth Science and Environmental 

Information on the Internet

Selected USGS information and 

products are available on the Internet at 

the following Uniform Resource Locator:

http://www.usgs.gov

Additional information on Mosaic may be 

obtained by e-mailing questions to:

webmaster@www.usgs.gov

USGS Library System

The USGS Library system is one of the largest 

earth-science collections in the world and contains 

more than one million monographs, serial publications, maps, and microforms. The collection covers 

all aspects of the geological sciences and related subjects. An online catalog provides public access. The 

library honors the standard interlibrary loan request 

forms as well as requests received online from the 

Interlibrary Loan System of the On-Line Computer 

Library Center. Information and reference services 

are available from the following library locations:

USGS Ubrary 

950 National Center 

Reston, VA 22092-0001

USGS Library

Mail Stop 955 (Bldg. 5, Room 507)

345 Middlefield Rd.

Menlo Park, CA 94025-3591

USGS Library 

2255 N. Gemini Dr. 

Flagstaff, AZ 86001-1698

USGS Library 

Box 25046, Mail Stop 914 

Denver Federal Center 

Denver, CO 80225-0046

Water Information 

Sources of Water Data

To obtain assistance in locating sources of water 

data, identifying sites at which data have been collected, and obtaining specific information, write:

National Water Data Exchange 

U.S. Geological Survey 

421 National Center 

Reston, VA 22092

Water-Data Acquisition Activities

To obtain information on ongoing and planned 

water-data acquisition activities of all Federal agencies and many non-Federal organizations, write:

Office of Water Data Coordination 

U.S. Geological Survey 

417 National Center 

Reston, VA 22092

Water Resources of Specific Areas

To obtain information on water resources in 

general and about the water resources of specified 

areas of the United States, write:

National Water Information Clearinghouse 

U.S. Geological Survey 

423 National Center 

Reston, VA 22092

Geologic Information 

General Geology

To obtain information on geologic topics such as 

earthquakes and volcanoes, energy and mineral 

resources, the geology of specific areas, and geologic 

maps and mapping, write:

Geologic Inquiries Group 

U.S. Geological Survey 

907 National Center 

Reston, VA 22092

Mineral Resources

To obtain information on mineral resources, 

write or visit:

Minerals Information Office* 

Main Interior Bldg., Room 2647 

1849 C St. NW. 

Washington, DC 20240

"Joint venture of die USGS and the 

U.S.Bureau of Mines.

Minerals Information Office, USGS 

Corbett Bldg. 

340 N. 6th Ave. 

Tucson, AZ 85705-8325

Minerals Information Office, USGS 

Box 25046, Mail Stop 936 

Bldg. 20, Room B1324 

Denver Federal Center 

Denver, CO 80225-0046

Minerals Information Office, USGS 

C/O Mackay School of Mines 

University of Nevada, Reno 

Reno, NV 89557-0047

Minerals Information Office, USGS 

U.S. Post Office Bldg., Room 133 

904 West Riverside Ave. 

Spokane, WA <>'9201-1088

Maps and Books

To buy topographic and thematic maps of all

areas of the United States, to request USGS catalogs, pamphlets, leaflets, and circulars (limited quantities free), and to buy USGS book publications, 

write or visit:

USGS Map Distribution 

Box 25286, Bldg. 810 

Denver Federal Center 

Denver, CO 80225

Open-File Reports

To buy USGS open-file reports or to obtain 

information on the availability of microfiche or 

paper-duplicate copies of open-file reports, write:

USGS Open-File Report Sales 

Box 25286, Bldg. 810 

Denver Federal Center, Mail Stop 517 

Denver, CO 80225

Periodicals

New Publications

To get on the mailing list for the monthly list of 

New Publications of the U.S. Geological Survey (free), 

write:

USGS New Publications 

582 National Center 

Reston, VA 22092

Earthquakes & Volcanoes

To subscribe to Earthquakes & Volcanoes, a 

bimonthly, nontechnical digest that provides information on earthquakes, volcanoes, and related natural hazards around the world, write:

Superintendent of Documents 

Government Printing Office 

Washington, DC 20402

.through Information and Publications 121
Memoranda of Understanding: FY 1994

Domestic Agreements

Counterpart Organization(s) Description

194-01 Santa Fe Pacific Mining, Inc. 

Reno, Nev.

194-02 National Park Service

194-03 Center for Hydrate Research 

Colorado School of Mines 

Golden, Colo.

194-04 ETAK, Inc.

Menlo Park, Calif.

194-05 Department of Defense

194-06 National Biological Service

194-07 Geological Research Affiliates 

Dallas, Tex.

194-08 Minerals Management Service

194-09 U.S. Bureau of Mines

194-10 Washington State University 

Vancouver, Wash.

194-11 Electrical Power Research Institute, 

Palo Alto, Calif., and the 

U.S. Department of Agriculture

194-12 Unisys Corporation Government 

Systems Group 

Reston, Va.

194-13 Agricultural Stabilization and

Conservation Service, the Natural 

Resources Conservation Service, 

and the U.S. Forest Service

Cooperative research and development agreement (CRADA) to study the regional 

tectonics of north-central Nevada to reflect improved techniques for mineral 

resource assessments.

Coordination in the National Water-Quality Assessment Program.

Cooperative research and development agreement on the nucleation and growth of 

gas hydrate compounds.

Cooperative research and development agreement (CRADA) for the technology 

needed to collect, update, manage, and use digital geographic databases.

Provides Department of Interior with access to the DOD Navstar Global Positioning 

System for accurate real-time on-the-ground geographic locations.

Joint collaboration to ensure that scientific initiatives and administrative functions 

are conducted to maximize the efficient and effective management of mission 

responsibilities.

Cooperative research and development agreement (CRADA) to perform extensive 

oil exploration in Kazakhstan (formerly part of the USSR). (See p. 85.)

Sharing of resources and facilities in the Herndon/Reston commuting area in support of training and employee development functions and activities.

Joint coordination of mineral-related environmental assessment, technology development, and remedial investigations.

Establishment and operation of shared research and support facilities on the Washington State University campus at Vancouver.

Cooperative research and development agreement (CRADA) to develop a computer model that can be used to predict water availability within a river basin for 

managers of hydroelectric power installations.

Cooperative research and development agreement (CRADA) to develop software 

for feature extraction and classification from image sources. Software will be used 

in digitizing map information concerning land cover and land use.

Agreement to cooperatively produce digital quadrangle maps for the conterminous 

United States.

122 Touching the Lives of Every Citizen Every Day.
Cooperators and Other 

Financial Contributors

Cooperators listed are those with whom the USGS had a written agreement cosigned by USGS officials and officials of the cooperating agency 

for financial cooperation in fiscal year 1994. Parent agencies are listed 

separately from their subdivisions whenever there are separate cooperative agreements for different projects with a parent agency and with a subdivision of it. Agencies are listed in alphabetical order under the State or 

territory where they have cooperative agreements with the USGS. 

Agencies with whom the USGS has research contracts and to whom it 

supplied research funds are not listed.

Cooperating office of the U.S. Geological Survey

g Geologic Division

n National Mapping Division

w Water Resources Division

Alabama Department of 

 Economic and Community Affairs (w) 

'ALABAMA^ Emergency Management (w)

 Environmental Management (w) 

 Highways, Department Nos. 1, 2, and 6 (w) 

Anniston, City of (w) 

Auburn University (w) 

Baldwin County Commission (w) 

Birmingham, City of (w) 

Blountsville, Town of (w) 

Coffee County Commission (w) 

Geological Survey of Alabama (w) 

Greenville, City of (w) 

Huntsville, City of (w) 

Jefferson County Commission (w) 

Mobile, City of (w) 

Montgomery, City of (w) 

Parrish, Town of (w) 

Prattville, City of (w) 

Sumter, County of (w) 

Tuscaloosa, City of (w)

/\ Arizona 1 

/ ^\ «Envi

/ARIZONA\ *Gai

Arizona Department of 

 Environmental Quality (w)

 Game and Fish (w)

 Water Resources (w) 

Arizona State University (g) 

Central Arizona Water Conservation District (w) 

Cochise County Flood Control District (w) 

Gila Valley Irrigation District (w) 

Gila Water Commissioner, Office of (w) 

Havasupai Tribe (w) 

Hualapai Indian Tribe (w)

Hopi Tribe Department of Natural Resources (w) 

Maricopa County Flood Control District (w) 

Metropolitan Water District of Southern California (w) 

Navajo Nation (w)

Petrified Forest Museum Association (g) 

Pima County Board of Supervisors (w) 

Safford, City of, Water, Gas, and Sewer Department (w) 

Salt River Project (w) 

Show Low Irrigation Company (w)

Tohono O'Dham Nation, Water Resources Department (w) 

Tucson, City of (g, w) 

University of Arizona (g)

 Research Lab for Riparian Studies (w) 

Yavapi Tribe (w)

Arkansas Department of 

 Parks and Tourism (w) 

^ARKANSASS Pollution Control (w)

Arkansas Game and Fish Commission (w) 

Arkansas Geological Commission (n,w) 

Arkansas Soil and Water Conservation Commission (w) 

Arkansas State Highway Commission (w) 

Arkansas-Oklahoma: Arkansas River Compact Commission (w) 

Drew, County of (w) 

Fort Smith, City of (w) 

Independence, County of (w) 

Little Rock 

 Municipal Water Works (w)

 Public Works Department (w) 

University of Arkansas 

 at Fayetteville (w)

 at Little Rock (w)

Alaska Department of 

 Community and Regional Affairs, Division of Energy (w) 

ALASKA ^ Environmental Conservation (w)

 Fish and Game (g, w) 

 Military and Veterans Affairs (g) 

 Natural Resources (w) 

Division of Mining and Water Management (w) 

 Transportation (w) 

Alaska Energy Authority (w)

AK Industrial Development and Export Authority (w) 

Anchorage, Municipality of (w) 

Cordova, City of (w) 

DCRA, Division of Energy (w) 

Juneau, City and Borough of (w) 

Kenai Peninsula Borough (w) 

Sitka, City and Borough of (w) 

University of Alaska, Fairbanks (w)

/AMERICANS Environmental Protection Agency of American Samoa (w) 

>k SAMOA^T Pc3ower Authority (w)

Alameda County 

 Flood Control and Water Consei-vation District (Hayward) (w) 

'Water District (w)

Antelope Valley-East Kern Water Agency (w) 

Atherton, City of (w) 

Calaveras County Water District (w) 

California Department of 

 Conservation (g, w)

 Fish and Game (w)

 Parks and Recreation (g, w)

 Water Resources (w)

California Water Resources Control Board (w) 

California County Water District (w) 

Carpinteria County Water District (w) 

Casitas Municipal Water District (w) 

Coachella Valley Water District (w)

Contra Costa County Flood Control and WaterConservation District (w) 

Contra Costa Water District (w) 

Desert Water Agency (w) 

East Bay Municipal Utility District (w) 

Eastern Municipal Water District (w) 

Georgetown Divide Public Utility District (w) 

Goleta County Water District (w) 

Hetch Hetchy Water and Power (w) 

Hoopa Valley Tribe (w)

. . . through Cooperators and Other Financial Contributors 123
Hopland Band of Pomo Indians (w)

Humboldt Bay Municipal Water District (w)

Imperial County Department of Public Works (w)

Imperial Irrigation District (w) 

Lompoc, City of (w) 

Los Angeles, County of (w) 

Madera Irrigation District (w) 

Marin Municipal Water District (w) 

Mendocino County Water Agency (w) 

Menlo Park, City of (w) 

Merced, City of (w) 

Merced Irrigation District (w) 

Mojave Water Agency (g, w) 

Mono, County of (w) 

Montecito Water District (w) 

Monterey County Water Resources Agency (w) 

Monterey Peninsula Water Management District (w) 

Morongo Band of Mission Indians (w) 

Orange County Water District (w) 

Palmdale, City of (w) 

Pechanga Indian Reservation (w)

Riverside County Flood Control and Water Conservation District (w) 

Sacramento Regional County Sanitation (w) 

San Benito County Water Control and Flood Control District (w) 

San Bernardino Environmental Public Works Flood Control District (w) 

San Bernardino Valley Municipal Water District (w) 

San Diego County Department of Public Works(w) 

San Francisco Water Department (w) 

San Gorgonio Pass Water Agency (w) 

San Luis Obispo County Engineering Department (w) 

San Mateo County Department of Public Works (w) 

Santa Barbara, City of, Department of Public Works (w) 

Santa Barbara County 

 Flood Control and Water Conservation District (w)

 Water Agency (w) 

Santa Clara Valley Water District (w) 

Santa Crux, City of (w)

Santa Cruz County Flood Control and Water Conservation District (w) 

Santa Maria Valley Water Conservation District (w) 

Santa Ynez River Water Conservation District (w) 

Scotts Valley Water District (w) 

Sonoma County 

 Planning Department (w)

 Water Agency (w)

Tulare County Flood Control District (w) 

Turlock Irrigation District (w) 

United Water Conservation District (w) 

University of California, Berkeley (g)

 Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (g)

 Los Alamos National Laboratory (g)

 Stanford University (g) 

University of California, Davis (g, w) 

Ventura, City of (w)

Ventura County Public Works Agency (w) 

Water Master Santa Margarita River Watershed (w) 

Water Replenishment District of Southern California (w) 

Woodbridge Irrigation District (w)

Yolo County Flood Control and Water Conservation District (w) 

Yuba County Water Agency (w)

Arapahoe County Water and Wastewater Authority (w) 

Arkansas River Compact Administration (w) 

Aurora, City of (w) 

Black Hawk, City of (w) 

Boulder, City of (w)

Boulder, County of, Department of Public Works (w) 

Breckenridge, Town of (w)

Centennial Water and Sanitation District (w) 

Center Soil Conservation District (w) 

Cherokee Metropolitan District (w) 

Clear Creek Board of County Commissioners (w) 

Colorado Department of 

 Agriculture (w)

 Health (w)

 Transportation (w)

Colorado Division of Parks and Outdoor Recreation (w) 

Colorado Division of Wildlife (w) 

Colorado Office of the State Engineer (w) 

Colorado River Water Conservation District (w) 

Colorado School of Mines (g) 

Colorado Springs, City of 

 Department of Public Utilities (w)

 Engineering Division (w) 

Crested Butte, Town of (w) 

Delta County Board of Commissioners (w) 

Denver Board of Water Commissioners (n, w) 

Eagle County Board of Commissioners (w) 

East Cherry Creek Valley Water and Sanitation District (w) 

East Grand, County of (w) 

Englewood, City of (w) 

Evergreen Metropolitan District (w) 

Fort Collins, City of (w) 

Fountain Valley Authority (w) 

Fremont Sanitation District (w) 

Garfield, County of (w) 

Glendale, City of (w) 

Glenwood Springs, City of (w) 

Greenwood Village, City of (w) 

Gunnison, County of (w) 

Lakewood, City of (w) 

Lamar, City of (w) 

Las Animas, City of (w) 

La Plata County (w)

Littleton-Englewood Bi-City Wastewater Treatment Plant (w) 

Longmont, City of (w) 

Loveland, City of (w)

Lower Fountain Water-Quality Management Association (w) 

Meeker, Town of (w)

Metropolitan Wastewater Reclamation District (w) 

Moffat, County of, Commissioners (w) 

Mt. Crested Butte Water/Sanitation District (w) 

Northern Colorado Water Conservation District (w) 

Pueblo Board of Water Works (w) 

Pueblo, City of, Department of Utilities (w) 

Pueblo, County of (w) 

Pueblo West Metropolitan District (w) 

Purgatoire River Water Conservancy District (w) 

Rio Blanco, County of (w) 

Rio Blanco Water Conservancy District (w) 

Rio Grande Water Conservation District (w) 

Rocky Ford, City of (w) 

Routt, County of (w) 

St. Charles Mesa Water District (w) 

Southeastern Colorado Water Conservancy District (w) 

Southwestern Colorado Water Conservation District (w) 

Steamboat Springs, City of (w) 

Teller-Park Soil Conservation District (w) 

Thornton, City of (w) 

Trinchera Water Conservation District (w) 

Uncompahgre Valley Water Users Association (w) 

University of Colorado (g) 

Upper Arkansas Council of Governments (w) 

Upper Arkansas River Water Conservation District (w) 

Upper Eagle Regional Water Authority (w) 

Upper Gunnison River (w) 

Upper Yampa Water Conservancy District (w)

124 Touching the Lives of Every Citizen, Every Day. . .
Urban Drainage and Flood Control District (w)

Vail Valley Consolidated Water Authority (w) 

'COLORADO'S Westminster, City of (w)

Yellow Jacket Water Conservancy District (w)

Commonwealth of Northern Mariana Islands ( 

Commonwealth Utilities Corp., Saipan (w) 

CNMI } "Division of Environmental Quality (w)

Municipality of Tinian (w) 

Office of the Governor, Saipan (w)

Connecticut Department of 

 Environmental Protection (g,n,w)

 Transportation, Bureau of Hydraulics and Drainage (w) 

Fairfield, Town of, Conservation Department (w) 

Lake Waramaug 

 Interlocal Commission (w)

New Britain, City of, Board of Water Commissioners (w) 

South Central Connecticut Regional Water Authority (w) 

Torrington, City of (w) 

University of New Haven (g) 

Woodbury, Town of (w)

Delaware River Basin Commission (w) 

fDELAWARE^ Geological Survey (n,w) 

University of Delaware (w)

Department of 

'DISTRICT\ Consumer and Regulatory Affairs, Environmental Control 

Division (w) 

 Public Works (w) 

University of the District of Columbia (w)

Bay County Utilities (w)

Boca Raton, City of (w) 

FLORIDA ^ Bradenton > CitY of (w)

Broward, County of (w) 

Cape Coral, City of (w) 

Century, City of (w) 

Cocoa, City of, Utilities and Public Works (w) 

Daytona Beach, City of (w) 

Deerfield Beach, City of (w) 

Dunedin, City of (w) 

Florida Department of 

 Environmental Regulation, Bureau of Drinking Water/Ground Water 

Resources (g,n,w)

 Natural Resources, Division of Survey and Mapping (n)

 Transportation (n,w) 

Florida Keys Aqueduct Authority (w) 

Fort Lauderdale, City of (w) 

Game and Freshwater Fish Commission (w) 

Hallandale, City of (w) 

Highland Beach, Town of (w) 

Hillsborough, County of (w) 

Hollywood, City of (w)

Jacksonville, City of, Department of Public Utilities (w) 

Jacksonville Electric Authority (w) 

Lake, County of, Water Authority (w) 

Lee, County of (w)

Manatee County (w) 

 Environmental Action Commission (w) 

Metropolitan Dade County (w) 

Miami-Dade Water and Sewer Department (w) 

North Port Water Control District (w) 

Northwest Florida Water Management District (w) 

Orange County of (w) 

Orlando, City of (w) 

Perry, City of (w) 

Pinellas, County of (w) 

Pompano Beach, City of (w) 

Reedy Creek Improvement District (w) 

Sarasota, City of (w) 

Sarasota, County of (w) 

Seminole, County of (w)

South Florida Water Management District (g, w) 

South Indian River Water Control (w) 

Southwest Florida Water Management District (n, w) 

St. Johns River Water Management District (g, w) 

St. Petersburg, City of (w) 

Stuart, City of (w)

Suwannee River Water Management District (w) 

Tallahassee, City of 

 Electric Department (w)

 Water Quality Laboratory (w) 

Tampa, City of (w)

Tampa Bay Regional Planning Council (w) 

University of Florida (g) 

Volusia, County of (w) 

Walton, County of (w) 

West Coast Regional Water Supply Authority (w)

FREELY \ Palau, Government of (w) 

ASSOCIATED^ pohnpei State Government (w)

STATES * v '

Albany, City of (w)

Albany Doughtery Planning Commission (w) 

GEORGIA^ Albany Water, Gas, and Light Commission (w)

Athens-Clarke County (w) 

Attapulgus, City of (w) 

Bibb, County of (w) 

Blairsville, Town of (w) 

Brunswick, City of (w) 

Chatham, County of (w)

Cherokee County Water and Sewage Authority (w) 

Clayton County Water Authority (w) 

Covington, City of (w)

De Kalb County Water and Sewer Department (w) 

Douglas, County of (w) 

Georgia Department of 

 Natural Resources 

Geologic Survey (w)

Water Quality Management Program (w) 

Water Resources Management Program (w)

 Transportation (w) 

at Atlanta (n, w) 

at Forest Park (n, w) 

Georgia Forestry Commission (w)

Gwinnett, County of, Department of Transportation (w) 

Helena, City of (w) 

Henry, County of (w) 

Macon Water and Sewage Authority (w) 

Monroe Water, Light, and Gas Commission (w) 

South Florida Water Municipal Department (w)

. . through Cooperators and Other Financial Contributors 125
Springfield, City of (w)

St. Johns River Water Municipal Department (w) 

'GEORGIAN Thomaston, City of (w) 

Thomasville, City of (w) 

Tift County Commission (w) 

Tifton.Cityof (w) 

Valdosta, City of (w)

Guam, Government of, Environmental Protection Agency (w)

Hawaii, County of, Department of Water Supply (w)

Hawaii Department of 

HAWAII > Agriculture (w)

 Land and Natural Resources (g) 

Commission on Water Resources Management (w) 

Division of Forestry and Wildlife (n,w)

 Transportation (w) 

Honolulu, City and County of 

 Board of Water Supply (w)

 Department of Public Works (w) 

Kauai, County of, Department of Water Supply (w) 

Maui, County of, Department of Water Supply (w) 

National Tropical Botanical Gardens (w) 

Office of State Planning (n) 

State of Hawaii (g) 

University of Hawaii (g)

Ada County Highway District (w)

Boise, City of, Public Works Department (w) 

IDAHO ^ Boise State University (g)

Idaho Department of 

 Health and Welfare, Division of Environmental Quality (w) 

 Transportation (n) 

 Water Resources (w) 

Nez Perce Indian Tribe (w) 

Salmon River Canal Co., Ltd. (w) 

Shoshone-Bannock Indian Tribes (w) 

Southwest Irrigation District (w) 

Teton County Board of Commissioners (w) 

Water District No. 01' (Idaho Falls) (w) 

Water District No. 31 (Dubois) (w) 

Water District No. 32D (Dubois) (w) 

Water District No. 65 (Payette) (w) 

Weiser River SCO (w)

Bloomington and Normal Sanitary District (w)

Champaign, City of (w) 

ILLINOIS N Cook County Forest Preserve District (w)

Danville Sanitary District (w) 

Decatur, City of (w)

DeKalb, City of, Public Works Department (w)

DuPage County Forest Preserve, Planning and Development Section (w) 

DuPage County Department of Environmental Concerns (w) 

Illinois Department of 

 Conservation (w)

 Energy and Natural Resources 

Geological Survey Division (n) 

State Water Survey (w)

 Transportation 

Division of Highways (n, w) 

Division of Water Resources (n,w)

Illinois Environmental Protection Agency (w)

Illinois State Geological Survey (g)

Kane, County of (w)

Kankakee Soil and Water Conservation District (w)

Lake County Stormwater Management Commission (w)

McHenry County Conservation District (w)

Monticello, City of (w)

Oak Brook, Village of (w)

Otter Creek Lake Utility District (w)

Springfield, City of (w)

University of Illinois (w)

Urbana, City of (w)

Winnebago County Department of Public Works (w)

Carmel, Town of, Utilities (w)

Elkhart, City of, Water Works (w) 

Indiana Department of 

 Environmental Management (w) 

 Natural Resources (n) 

Division of Water (w) 

 Transportation (w) 

Indiana Geological Survey (g)

Indianapolis, City of, Department of Public Works (w) 

Purdue University (w) 

St. Joseph County Drainage Board (w)

Ames, City of (w)

Cedar Rapids, City of, Engineering Department (w) 

I©WA N Clinton, City of (w)

Coralville, City of (w) 

Davenport, City of (w) 

Des Moines, City of (w) 

Fort Dodge, City of (w) 

Geological Survey Bureau (w) 

Institute of Hydraulic Research (w) 

Iowa City, City of (w)

Iowa Department of Transportation, Highway Division (w) 

Iowa State University (w) 

Muscatane Water and Light Board (w) 

Sioux City, City of (w) 

University of Iowa (w) 

 Hygienic Laboratory (w)

Arkansas River Compact Administration (w) 

Brazos River Authority (w)

Emporia, City of, Department of Public Works (w) 

Equus Beds Groundwater Management District No. 2 (w) 

Harvey County Conservation Distict (w)

Hays, City of (w) 

Iowa Tribe of Kansas and Nebraska (w) 

Johnson, County of, Department of Public Works (w) 

Kansas Geological Survey (g, n, w) 

Kansas Highway Commission (w)

Kansas State Board of Agriculture, Division of Plant Health (w) 

Kansas State Conservation Commission (w) 

Kansas State University Department of Agronomy (w) 

Kansas University Center for Research, Inc. (w) 

Kansas Water Office (n, w) 

Kickapoo Tribe of Kansas (w)

Lake Region Resources Conservation Council, Inc. (w) 

Prairie Bend Potawatomie Tribe (w) 

Riley, County of (w) 

Sac and Fox Tribe of Missouri (w) 

Topeka Public Works (w) 

Wichita, City of (w)

126 Touching the Lives of Every Citizen, Every Day. . .
Bullitt, County of (w)

Campbellsville Municipal Water (w) 

Carrol 1 ton, City of (w) 

Crab Orchard, City of (w) 

' Cumberland-Green River RC&D (w) 

Elizabeth town, City of (w) 

Georgetown, City of (w) 

Glasgow Water Company (w) 

Kentucky Department of 

 Health Services (w)

 Natural Resources and Environmental Protection Cabinet (w) 

Kentucky State University (w) 

Kentucky Water Office (n) 

Madison County Conservation District (w) 

Metropolitan Sewer District (w) 

Middleboro, City of (w)

University of Kentucky, Kentucky Geological Survey (n) 

University of Louisville (w)

Amite River Basin River Commission (w) 

Capital-Area Groundwater Commission (w)

EaStBat0n Rouge Parish (w)

Governor's Office of Coastal Activities (w) 

Louisiana Department of 

 Environmental Quality (w) 

 Natural Resources (w) 

 Transportation and Development 

Bridge Hydraulics (w) 

Office of Public Works (n, w) 

Louisiana Geological Survey (n) 

Louisiana Office of Emergency Preparedness (w) 

Sabine River Compact Administration (w) 

St. John the Baptist Parish (w) 

West Monroe, City of (w)

Aroostock County Water and Soil Management Board (w)

Greater Portland Council of Governments (w) 

MAINE ^ Jay- Town of (w)

Maine Department of 

 Environmental Protection (w) 

 Human Services (w) 

 Transportation (w) 

Maine Geological Survey (w)

North Kennebec Valley Regional Planning Commission (w) 

Northern Maine Regional Planning Commission (w) 

Paris Utility District (w) 

University of Maine (w)

Baltimore, City of, Water Quality Management (w)

Calvert County Soil Conservation (w) 

'MARYLANlk Delaware Geological Survey (w)

Hyndman, Borough of (w) 

Interstate Commerce Commission (w)

Maryland Department of the Environment, Water Management 

Administration (w) 

Maryland Geological Survey (n,w) 

Maryland State Highway Administration, Department of Environmental

Resources (w)

Prince Georges County Government (w) 

University of Maryland (g)

/\ Burli / V"

/MASSACHU-N

Burlington, Town of (w)

Dedham-Westwood Water District (w)

Executive Office of Environmental Affairs (n) 

SETTS J Massachusetts Department of 

 Environmental Management 

Division of Resource Conservation (w) 

Division of Water Supply (w)

 Environmental Protection (w) 

Division of Water Pollution Control (w)

Division of Water Supply (w) 

Massachusetts Highway Department (w) 

Massachusetts Water Resources Authority (w) 

Metropolitan District Commission 

 Parks, Engineering and Construction Division (w)

 Watershed Management Division (w) 

Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (g)

Adrian, City of (w)

Ann Arbor, City of (w) 

'MICHIGAN^ Antrim County Drain Commission (w)

Battle Creek, City of 

 Board of Public Utilities (w) 

Bay Mills Indian Community (w) 

Cadillac, City of, Wastewater Treatment Plant (w) 

Clare, City'of (w) 

Coldwater, City of (w) 

Cliffs Mining Services Co. (w) 

Consumers Power Company (w) 

Delta Charter Township (w) 

Elsie, Village of, Department of Public Works (w) 

Flint, City of 

 Division of Water and Waste Services (w)

 Water Plant (w)

Huron-Clinton Metropolitan Authority (w) 

Huron County Board of Commissioners (w) 

Imlay, City of (w)

Kalamazoo, City of, Department of Public Works (w) 

Lansing Board of Water and Light (w): 

Macomb, County of (w) 

Michigan Department of 

 Natural Resources, Land and Water Division (w)

 Transportation, Design Division (w)

Negaunee, City of, Water and Wastewater Treatment Plant (w) 

Norway, City of (w)

Oakland County Drainage Commission (w) 

Otsego County Road Commission (w) 

Portage, City of (w) 

Portland, City of (w)

Sault Ste, Marie Tribe of Chippewa Indians (w) 

Southeast Michigan Council of Governments (w) 

Sturgis, City of (w)

Tri-County Regional Planning Commission (w) 

Wayne, County of, Division of Environmental Health (w) 

Ypsilanti Community Utilities Authority (w)

Beltrami County SWCD (w)

Boris Forte Lake Superior Band (w) 

East Otter Tail Soil and Water (w) 

Elm Creek Conservation Management and Planning 

Commission (w)

Grand Portage-Chippewa Indians Natural Resources Department (w) 

Hubbard County Conservation District (w) 

Land Management Information Center (n) 

Lower Red River Watershed Management Board (w) 

Minnesota Department of 

 Natural Resources (g,w)

. . . through Cooperators and Other Financial Contributors 127
/% "Transportation (w)

/ \. Minnesota Pollution Control Agency (w) 

/MINNESOTA^ Moorehead Public Service (w)

(CONT.) f Northwest Minnesota Ground Water Steering Committee (w)

Pine County Soil and Water District (w) 

Prairie Island Indian Community (w) 

Rochester, City of (w)

Shakopee Mdowakanton Sioux Community (w) 

Snake River Watershed Planning Committee (w) 

Todd County Soil and Water Conservation (w) 

University of Minnesota, Department of Soil Science (w) 

Upper and Lower Sioux Indian Community (w) 

Upper Sioux Indian Community (w) 

Wadena Soil and Water Conservation (w) 

Wilkin County Soil and Water Conservation (w)

Harrison, County of (w)

Jackson, City of (w) 

:MISSISSIPPlS Jackson County 

 Board of Supervisors (w) 

 Port Authority (w) 

Mississippi Department of 

 Agriculture and Commerce (w)

 Environmental Quality

 Highways (w)

Office of Land and Water Resources (w) 

Office of Pollution Control (w) 

Pat Harrison Waterway District (w) 

Pearl River Basin Development District (w) 

Pearl River Valley Water Supply District (w) 

Yazoo Mississippi Delta Joint Water Management District (w)

Cass County Soil and Water Conservation District (w)

Clean Water Commission (w) 

'MISSOURI^ Columbia, City of, Department of Public Works (w)

Illinois Environmental Protection Agency (w) 

Independence Water Dependency (w) 

'Jefferson City Division of Health (w) 

Mid-America Regional Council (w) 

Missouri Department of 

 Conservation (n,w)

 Natural Resources, Division of Geology and Land Survey (n) 

Missouri Division of Parks, Recreation, and History (w) 

Missouri Highway and Transportation Commission (w) 

Springfield, City of, City Utilities, Emergency Department (w) 

St. Francois County Environmental Corporation (w)

Blue River Compact Administration (w)

Central Platte Natural Resources District (w) 

Lincoln, City of (w)

Lower Elkhorn Natural Resources District (w) 

Lower Platte North Natural Resources District (w) 

Lower Platte South Natural Resources District (w) 

Lower Republican Natural Resources District (w) 

Middle Republican Natural Resources District (w) 

Nebraska Department of 

 Environmental Quality (w)

 Water Resources (w)

Nebraska Natural Resources Commission (w) 

Nemaha Natural Resources District (w) 

North Platte Natural Resources District (w) 

Omaha, City of (w)

Papio-Missouri River Natural Resources District (w) 

South Platte Natural Resources District (w) 

Twin Platte Natural Resources District (w) 

University of Nebraska, Conservation and Survey Division (w) 

Upper Big Blue Natural Resources District (w) 

Upper Loup Natural Resources District (w) 

Upper Niobrara-White Natural Resources District (w)

Carson City Department of Public Works (w) 

Carson Water Subconservancy District (w) 

Churchill, County of (w)

Clark County Regional Flood Control District (w) 

Clark County Sanitation District (w) 

Douglas, County of (w) 

Duck Valley Reservation (w) 

Henderson, City of (w) 

Las Vegas Valley Water District (g,w) 

Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology (g,n,w) 

Nevada Department of 

 Conservation and Natural Resources 

Division of Environmental Protection (w) 

Division of Water Resources (w)

 Transportation (w)

 Wildlife (w)

Pyramid Lake Paiute Tribal Council (w) 

Southern Nevada Water Authority (w) 

Summit Lake Paiute Indian Tribe (w) 

Tahoe Regional Planning Agency (w) 

University of Nevada-Reno (w) 

Walker River Pauite Tribe (w) 

Washoe, County of (w) 

Washoe County Planning Department (n)

Blackfeet Nation (w)

Chippewa Creek Tribe of Rocky Boy's Reservation (g) 

'MONTANA^) ^OI *- ^eck Indian Reservation (w) 

Greenfield Irrigation District (w) 

Helena, City of (w) 

Helena Valley Irrigation Disrict (w) 

Lewis and Clark City-County Health Department (w) 

Montana Bureau of Mines and Geology (w) 

Montana Department of 

 Fish and Game (w)

 Health and Environmental Sciences (w)

 Natural Resources and Conservation (w)

 State Lands (w)

Montana Highway Commission (w) 

Northern Cheyenne Tribe (w) 

Ravalli County Commissioners (w) 

Salish and Kootenai Tribes (w) 

Two Leggings Water Users Association (w) 

Wyoming State Engineer (w)

Keene, City of (w)

New Hampshire Department of 

 Environmental Services (w) 

Transportation (n)

Atlantic Highlands, Borough of (w) 

Bergen, County of (w)

Brick Township Municipal Utility Authority (w) 

Gloucester County Planning Commission (w) 

Hackensack Meadowlands Development Commission (w) 

Medford, Township of (w) 

Mercer County Park Commission (w) 

Morris County Municipal Utility Authority (w) 

New Brunswick, City of (w) 

New Jersey Department of 

128 Touching the Lives of Every Citizen, Every Day. . .
'Environmental Protection (n,w) 

NEW\ Transportation (w) 

JERSEY 2 New Jersey Water Supply Authority (w) 

(CONT.)jr North Jersey District Water Supply Commission (w)

Passaic Valley Water Commission (w) 

Pinelands Commission (w)

Rutgers State University, Department of Radiation and Environment (w) 

Somerset County Board of Chosen Freeholders (w) 

Washington Township Municipal Utility Authority (w) 

West Windsor, Township of (w)

Albuquerque, City of 

 Public Works Department 

Hydrology Division (w) 

Water Utility Planning Division (w) 

Waste Water Utility (w)

Albuquerque Metropolitan Arroyo Flood Control Authority (w) 

Arizona Department of Environmental Quality (w) 

Canadian River Water Authority (w) 

Costilla Creek Compact Commission (w) 

Elephant Butte Irrigation District (w) 

El Paso, City of, County Water Quality (w) 

Jornada Research, Conservation and Development (w) 

La Cienega Acequia (w) 

Las Cruces, City of, Water Department (w) 

New Mexico Department of 

 Environment (w)

 Highways and Transportation (w)

New Mexico State University, Water Resources Research Institute (w) 

Office of the State Engineer (w) 

Pecos River Commission (w) 

Pueblo of Isleta (w) 

Pueblo of Zuni (w) 

Raton.Cityof (w)

Rio Grande Compact Commission (w) 

Rio San Jose Flood Control District (w) 

Ruidoso, Village of (w) 

Santa Rosa, City of (w) 

Texas Water Development Board (w) 

Tribal Council of the Pueblo of Nambe (g) 

University of New Mexico (n)

Amherst, Town of, Engineering Department (w) 

Auburn, City of (w)

Chautauqua County Department of Planning and 

Development (w) 

Cheektowaga, Town of (w) 

Clifton Park Water Authority (w) 

Columbia University (g) 

Cornell University (w) 

Cortland County Planning Department (w) 

Erie, County of (w)

Hudson-Black River Regulating District (w) 

Livingston County Departmenrt of Health (w) 

Monroe County Department of Health (w) 

Nassau County Department of Public Works (w) 

New York City Environmental Protection Administration, Bureau of

Water Supply and Wastewater (w) 

New York State Department of 

 Environmental Conservation, Planning, and Restoration, Bureau of 

Monitoring and Assessment (w)

 Transportation (w) 

New York State Power Authority (w) 

Nyack, Village of, Board of Water Commissioners (w) 

Onondaga, County of 

 Department of Drainage and Sanitation (w)

 Water Authority (w) 

Onondaga Lake Management Conference (w)

Orange County Water Authority (w)

Saratoga Springs, City of (w)

Seneca Nation of Indians (w)

State University of New York, Binghamton (w)

State University at Syracuse, Department of Environmental Sciences and

Forestry (w) 

Suffolk, County of 

 Department of Health Services (w)

 Water Authority (w) 

Syracuse, City of (w)

Tompkins County Department of Planning (w) 

Ulster, County of (w) 

Victor, Village of (w)

Appalachian State University (g) 

Asheville, City of (w) 

Bethel, Town of (w) 

Brevard, City of (w) 

' Chapel Hill, Town of (w) 

Charlotte, City of (w) 

Danville, Virginia, City of (w) 

Durham, City of (w) 

Greensboro, City of (w) 

Jackson, County of (w) 

Lexington, City of (w) 

Lumber River Council of Governments (w) 

Mecklenburg, County of (w) 

Morganton, City of (w)

North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service, Dallas and Raleigh (w) 

North Carolina State Department of 

 Environment, Health, and Natural Resources (n,w)

 Transportation (w) 

Raleigh, City of (w) 

Rocky Mount, City of (w)

Triangle Area Water Supply Monitoring, Project Steering Committee (w) 

University of North Carolina, Wilmington, (g) 

Western Piedmont Council of Governments (w)

Devils Lake Sioux Tribe (w) 

Dickinson, City of (w)

Lower Heart Water Resources District (w) 

'Minot, City of (w)

Nelson City Water Resources District (w) 

North Dakota Department of 

 Game and Fish (w)

 Health, Water Supply, and Pollution Control (w)

 Parks and Recreation (w)

 Transportation (w) 

North Dakota Geological Survey (n) 

State Water Commission (w) 

Three Affiliated Tribes (w)

Akron.Cityof (w) 

Canton, City of (w) 

Columbus, City of (w) 

Cuyahoga River Commission (w) 

Eastgate Development Company (w) 

Franklin, County of (w) 

Fremont, City of (w) 

Geauga, County of (w) 

Lima, City of (w) 

Madison, County of (w) 

Miami Conservancy District (w)

Midwest University, Consortium for International Activities (g) 

N.E. Ohio Regional Sewer District (w) 

Ohio Department of 

 Natural Resources (w)

. . . through Cooperators and Other Financial Contributors 129
yX-Tra

/ \C / OHIO \

V (CONT.) > Ross, C

^^ ^^SumitCoi

^^ Washington,

Transportation (n,w)

Ohio State University, Department of Agronomy (w) 

Pickaway, County Commissioners (w)

County of (w)

Sumit County Engineers (w) 

Washington, County Commissioners (w)

Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes (w)

McGee Creek Authority (w) 

LOKLAHOMA^ Oklahoma City, City of (w) 

 Public Works Department (w) 

 Treatment Division (w) 

Oklahoma Conservation Commission (w) 

Oklahoma Department of Transportation (n) 

Oklahoma Geological Survey (w)

Oklahoma State University, Division of Agricultural Sciences and Natural 

Resources(w) N 

Oklahoma Water Resources Board (n, w) 

Ponca Tribe (w) 

Sac and Fox Nation (vv)

Albany, City of (w) 

Ashland, City of (w)

OREGON ^ Bend ' CitY of (w)

Coos, County of (w) 

Coos Bay-North Bend Water Board (w) 

Douglas, County of (w)

Eugene, City of, Water and Electric Board (w) 

Gresham, City of (vv) 

Jackson, County of (w) 

Jefferson County Commission (vv) 

Kalama, Port of (w) 

McMinnville, City of (w)

Oregon Association, Clean Water Agencies (w) 

Oregon Department of 

 Energy (w)

 Environmental Quality (w)

 Human Resources, State Health Division (w)

 Transportation, Highway Division (g, vv)

 Water Resources (vv) 

Oregon State University (g) 

Portland, City of 

 Bureau of 

Environmental Services (w)

Water Works (w) 

Unified Sewerage Agency (w) 

Warm Springs Tribal Council (w) 

Washington State Department of Ecology (w)

Allentown, City of, Engineering Department (w) 

Bethlehem, City of (w) 

Bucks, County of (w)

Chester County Water Resources Authority (w) 

Cumberland, MD, City of (w) 

Delaware County Solid Waste Authority (w) 

Delaware River Basin Commission (w) 

Doylestovvn Township Municipal Authority (w) 

Fairfax County Water Authority (w) 

Harrisburg, City of, Department of Public Works (w) 

Hazelton City Authority Water Department (w) 

JPC Lehigh-Northampton Counties (w) 

Letort Regional Authority (w) 

Media Borough Water Department (w) 

New York State Department of Environmental Conservation Planning

and Restoration (w) 

North Penn Water Authority (w) 

North Wales Water Authority (w)

Philadelphia, City of, Water Department (w) 

Pennsylvania Department of 

 Environmental Resources 

Bureau of 

Mining and Reclamation (w) 

Soil and Water Conservation (w) 

Topographic and Geologic Survey (n, w) 

Water Supply and Community Health (w)

 Transportation (w) 

Pennsylvania State University (w) 

Somerset Conservation District (w) 

Sunbury, City of, Municipal Authority (w) 

Susquehanna River Basin Commission (w) 

Tinicum, Township of (w) 

University Area Joint Authority (w) 

University of Delaware, Geological Survey (w) 

Warwick Township (w) 

West Bradford, Township of (w) 

Williamsport, City of (w)

./X Puerto Rico Aqueduct and Sewer Authority (w) 

/ \. Puerto Rico Department of 

/ PUERTO\ "Health (w)

Resources (w)

(w)

Quality Board (w) 

Puerto Rico Industrial Development Company (w) 

Puerto Rico Mineral Resources Development Corporation (g)

/ PUERTO \ "Health (w)

^k RICO ^ 'Natural and Environmental Resou

^^ SPuerto Rico Electric Power Authority

^r Puerto Rico Environmental Quality Boar

Narragansett Bay Water Quality Commission (w)

Providence, City of, Water Supply Board (w) 

RHODE \ Rhode Island State Department of Environmental Management-

 Division of 

Water Resources (w) 

Water Supply (w) 

State Water Resources Board (w)

SOUTH 

.CAROLINA.

^/\ Beaufort-Jasper County Water and Sewer Authority (w) 

/ ^\ Camden, City of (w) 

/ SOUTH \ Charleston Harbor Project (w)

Charleston Public Works (w)

Clarendon Sumter Soil and Water Conservation District (w) 

Clemson University, Department of Fertlizers and Pesticides (w) 

Greer Commission of Public Works (w) 

Land Resources Conservation Commission (n) 

Mt. Pleasant Waterworks and Sewer Department (w) 

Myrtle Beach, City of (w) 

Oconee County Sewer Commission (w) 

South Carolina State 

 Department of 

Health and Environmental Control (w) 

Highways and Public Transportation (w) 

Natural Resources, Water Resources Division (w)

 Public Service Authority (w)

 Wildlife and Freshwater Fisheries Division (w) 

Spartanburg Sanitary Sewer District (w) 

Spartanburg Water Works (w)

University of South Carolina Department of Environmental and 

Health Services (w)

Waccamaw Regional Planning and Development Council (w) 

Western Carolina Regional Sewer Authority (w)

Minnesota River Basin (w) 

Belle Fourche Irrigation District (w) 

Cheyenne River Sioux Tribe (w) 

Custer State Park Division (w) 

East Dakota Water Development District (w)

130 Touching the Lives of Every Citizen, Every Day. . .
Lake Kampeska Water Project District (w)

'SOUTH\ Lower Brule Sioux Tribe (w) 

DAKOTA \v Mellette, County of (w) 

(CONT.) S Oglala Sioux Tribe (w)

Pelican Lake Water Project District (w) 

Rapid City, City of (w) 

Roberts, County of (w) 

Rosebud Sioux Tribe (w) 

Sioux Falls, City of, Utility Department (w) 

Sisseton-Wahpeton Sioux Tribe (w) 

South Dakota Department of 

 Environment and Natural Resources 

Environmental Regulation Division (w) 

Geological Survey Division (w) 

Water Rights Division (vv)

 Game, Fish and Parks (w)

 Transportation (w)

South Dakota School of Mines and Technology (n, w)

South Dakota State University, Civil Engineering Department (w)

Spearfish, City of (w)

Stanley County Conservation District (w)

Watertown, City of (vv)

West Dakota Water Development District (w)

West River Water Development District (w)

Wyoming State Engineer (w)

Alcoa, City of (w)

Athens Utility Board (w)

Crossville, City of (w) 

Dickson, City of (w) 

Eastside Utility District (w) 

Franklin, City of (w) 

Germantown, City of (w) 

Grundy County Soil Conservation District (w) 

Hamilton County Office of Emergency Management (w) 

Harriman Utility Board (w) 

Harpeth Valley Utility District (w) 

Hixson Utility District (w)

Johnson City, City of, Public Works Department (w) 

Knoxville, City of (w)

Memphis, City of, Light, Gas, and Water Division (w) 

Memphis State University (w)

Metropolitan Governments, Nashville, City of, and Davidson, County of (w) 

Murfreesboro, City of, Water and Sewer Department (w) 

Oneida Water System (w) 

Red Boiling Springs, Town of (w) 

Rogersville, Town of (w) 

Sevierville, City of (w) 

Shelby, County of (w)

Shelby County Soil Conservation District (w) 

Tennessee Department of 

 Agriculture (w)

 Environment and Conservation, Office of Water Programs (w)

 Transportation, Division of Structures (w) 

Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency (w) 

Tullahoma Utilities Board (w) 

Upper Duck River Development Agency (w) 

Wartrace, City of (w)

Coastal Water Authority (w)

Colorado River Municipal Water District (w)

Corpus Christi, City of (w)

Dallas, City of (w)

Dallas, City of, Public Works Department (w)

Edwards Underground Water District (w)

Fort Bend Subsidence District (w)

Fort Worth, City of (w)

Gainesville, City of (w)

Galveston, County of (w)

Georgetown, City of (w)

Graham, City of (w)

Greenbelt Municipal and Industrial Water Authority (w)

Guadalupe-Blanco River Authority (w)

Harris, County of, Flood Control District (w)

Harris-Galveston Coastal Subsidence District (w)

Houston, City of (w)

Houston-Galveston Area Council (w)

Lavaca-Navidad River Authority (w)

Lower Colorado River Authority (w)

Lower Neches Valley Authority (w)

Lubbock, City of (w)

Nacogdoches, City of (w)

North Central Texas Council of Governments (w)

North Central Texas Municipal Water Authority (w)

North East Texas Municipal Water District (w)

North Texas Municipal Water District (w)

Nueces River Authority (w)

Orange, County of (w)

Pecos River Commission (w)

Sabine River Authority of Texas (w)

Sabine River Compact Administration (w)

San Angelo, City of (w)

San Antonio, City of 

 Public Service Board (w)

 Water Systems (w) 

San Antonio River Authority (w) 

San Antonio Water System (w) 

Sanjacinto River Authority (w) 

Somerville County Water District (w)

Tarrant, County of, Water Control and Improvement District No. 1 (w) 

Texas Soil and Water Conservation Board (w) 

Texas State Department of Highways and Transportation (w) 

Texas Water Commission (w) 

Texas Water Development Board (n,w) 

Titus, County of, Fresh Water Supply District No. 1 (w) 

Trinity River Authority (w) 

University of Texas, Austin (g, w) 

Upper Guadalupe River Authority (w) 

Upper Neches River Municipal Water Authority (w) 

West Central Texas Municipal Water District (w) 

Wichita, County of, Water Improvement District No. 2 (w) 

Wichita Falls, City of (w)

/ \. Virgin Islands Department of Planning and 

/U.S. VMGIN\ Resources (w) 

VlSLANDSX

Natural

Abilene, City of (w) 

Arlington, City of (w) 

Austin, City of (w)

Barton Springs/Edwards Aquifer Conservation District (w) 

Bexar-Medina-Atascosa Counties (w) 

Brazos River Authority (w) 

Canadian River Water Authority (w) 

Central Texas Council of Governments (w)

Arizona Department of Natural Resources (w) 

Bear River Commission (w) 

Central Utah Water Conservation District (w) 

Goshute Tribal Government (g) 

Kane County Water Conservancy (w) 

Nephi, City of (w) 

Nevada Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, Division of

. . . through Cooperators and Other Financial Contributors 131
Water Resources (vv)

Ogden River Water Users Association (w) 

Salt Lake, County of (w) 

St. George, City of (w) 

Tooele, City of (w) 

University of Utah (g) 

Utah Department of 

 Environmental Health, Division of Water Quality (w)

 Natural Resources (g) 

Geological and Mineral Survey (n, w)

Oil, Gas, and Mining Division (w) 

Water Resources Division (w) 

Water Rights Division (w) 

Weber Basin Water Conservancy District (w) 

Weber River Water Users Association (w)

Agency of 

Administration (n) 

'Natural Resources (g,n) 

Transportation (w) 

Department of Environmental Conservation (w)

Accomack-Northampton Planning District Commission (w) 

Alexandria, City of (w) 

Danville, City of (w) 

Delaware Geological Survey (w) 

Hampton Roads Planning District Commission (w) 

rjames City, County of (w) 

Maryland, Department of State Highway Administration (w) 

Newport News, City of (w)

Northern Virginia Planning District Commission (w) 

Prince William Public Works (w) 

Roanoke, City of (w)

Southeastern Public Service Authority of Virginia (w) 

University of Virginia, Department of Environmental Sciences (w) 

Virginia Department of 

 Conservation and Reclamation (w)

 Environmental Quality (w)

 Highways and Transportation (w)

 Mines, Minerals, and Energy, Division of Mineral Resources (n) 

West Piedmont Planning District Commission (w)

Aberdeen, City of (w) 

Bellevue, City of (w)

Chelan, County of, Public Utility District No. 1 (w) 

Clallam County Department of Community Development (w) 

Cowlitz, County of (w)

Douglas, County of, Public Utility District No. 1 (w) 

Hoh Indian Tribe (w) 

Jamestown Klallam Tribe (w) 

Kent, City of (w)

King County Department of Public Works (w) 

Lewis County Board of Commissioners (w) 

Makah Indian Tribe (w) 

Muckleshoot Indian Tribe (w) 

Nisqually Indian Tribe (w) 

Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife (w) 

Pacific County Commissioners (w) 

Pierce, County of, Public Works Department (w) 

Port Townsend, City of (w) 

Quileute Tribal Council (w) 

Quinault Indian Business Committee (w) 

Seattle, City of, Light Department (w) 

Skagit County Department of Public Works (w) 

Snohomish, County of 

 Board of Commissioners (w)

 Public Utilities (w) 

Spokane County Commissioners (n) 

Tacoma, City of, Department of 

 Public Utilities (w)

 Public Works (w)

Thurston County Department of Public Works (w) 

Umatilla Tribal Council (w) 

University of Washington (g) 

Washington Department of 

 Ecology (w)

 Fisheries and Wildlife (w)

 General Administration (w)

 Health (w)

 Highways (w)

 Information Services (g, n)

 Natural Resources (n, w)

Washington State Community Development (w) 

YakimaTribal Council (w)

Morgantown, City of, Utility Board (w) 

New Martinsville, City of (w)

West Virginia Department of Abandoned Mines and 

Reclamation (w) 

West Virginia Division of 

 Environmental Protection (w)

 Highways (w)

 Natural Resources, Office of Water Resources (w) 

West Virginia Geological and Economic Survey (g, w)

Alma/Moon Lake District (w) 

Auburn, Town of (w)

Balsam Lake Protection and Rehabilitation District (w) 

Barron, City of (w) 

Beaver Dam, City of (w) 

Big Muskego Lake District (w) 

Brookfield, City of (w) 

Cedar Lake, Town of (w) 

Dane, County of 

 Department of Public Works (w)

 Lakes and Watershed Management (w)

 Regional Planning Commission (w) 

Darboy Sanitary District #1 (w) 

Delavan, Town of (w)

Druid Lake Inland Protection and Rehabilitation District (w) 

Eagle Spring Lake Management (w) 

Elkhart Lake Improvement Association (w) 

Fond Du Lac, City of (w)

Fontana Walworth Water Pollution Control Commission (w) 

Fowler Lake Management District (w) 

Geological Survey (n, w)

Green Bay Metropolitan Sewerage District (w) 

Green Lake Sanitary District (w) 

Hillsboro, City of (w) 

Kansasville, Town of (w) 

Kaukauna Electric and Water Utilities (w) 

Kimberly Water Works Department (w) 

Lac Du Flambeau Indians (w) 

Lake Keesus Management District (w) 

Lake Nebagamon, Village of (w) 

Lauderdale Lakes Lake Management District (w) 

Little Arbor Vitae Protection and Rehabilitation District (w) 

Little Chute, Village of (w)

Little Green Lake Protection and Rehabilitation District (w) 

Little Muskego Lake District (w) 

Little St. Germain Lake District (w) 

Madison Engineering Department (w) 

Madison Metropolitan Sewerage District (w) 

Marinette County Soil and Water Conservation Department (w)

132 Touching the Lives of Every Citizen, Every Day. . .
V(CONT.) >/ XX No

>T Ocon

Mead, Township of (w)

Menasha, Town of, Sanitary District No. 4 (w) 

'WISCONSIN^ Menominee Indian Tribe of Wisconsin (w)

Muskego, City of (w) 

Norway, Town of (w) 

Oconomowoc Lake, Village of (w) 

Okauchee Lake Management District (w) 

Oneida Indian Tribe of Wisconsin (w) 

Park Lake Management District (w) 

Peshtigo, City of (w)

Potters Lake Rehabilitation and Protection District (w) 

Powers Lake Management District (w) 

Pretty Lake Management District (w) 

Rock, County of, Public Works Department (w) 

St. Germain, Town of (w)

Southeastern Wisconsin Regional Planning Commission (w) 

Sparta, City of (w) 

Stockbridge-Munsee Indians (w) 

Summit, Town of (w) 

Thorp, City of (w) 

Troy, Town of (w)

University of Wisconsin Extension, Geological and Natural History Survey (n) 

Upper Nemahbin Lake Management District (w) 

Waterford, Town of (w) 

Waupun, City of (w)

Whitewater-Rice Lake Management District (w) 

Wind Lake Management District (w) 

Wisconsin Department of 

 Justice (w)

 Natural Resources (n, w)

 Transportation (w)

Wisconsin Regional Planning Commission (w) 

Wittenberg, Village of (w) 

Wolf Lake Management District (w)

Alaska Department of Natural Resources (w)

Cheyenne Board of Public Utilities (w) 

I WYOMING"} Cheyenne, City of (w)

Colorado State University (w) 

Evanston, City of (w)

Freemont County Weed and Pest Division (w) 

Joint Business Council (w) 

Lincoln, County of (w) 

Midvale Irrigation District (w) 

Sheridan Water Supply Board (w) 

Star Valley Conservation District (w) 

Teton, County of (w)

Teton County Natural Resources District (w) 

Water Development Commission (w) 

Water Resources Center (w)

Wind River Environmental Quality Commission (w) 

Wyoming Department of 

 Agriculture (w)

 Environmental Quality (w)

 Game and Fish (w)

 Highways (w) 

Wyoming State Engineer (w)

FEDERAL COOPERATORS

Central Intelligence Agency (g)

Department of Agriculture 

Agricultural Research Service (w) 

Forest Service (g,n,w) 

National Finance Center (w)

Soil Conservation Service (n,w) 

Stabilization and Conservation Service (w)

Department of the Air Force (w)

Aeronautical Systems Command (w)

Air Combat Command (w)

Air Education and Training Command (w)

Air Mobility Command (w)

Headquarters, AFTAC/AC (g)

Patrick Air Force Base (g) 

Department of the Army (w)

Aberdeen Proving Ground (w)

Army Belvoir RDE Center (g)

Army Construction Engineering Research Lab (w)

Corps of Engineers (g, n, w)

Directorate of Public Works (w)

Engineer Topographic Laboratory (w)

National Training Center (g)

Picatinny Arsenal (w) ;

Rocky Mountain Arsenal (w)

White Sands Missle Range (w)

Yuma Proving Ground (w)

Department of Commerce 

Bureau of the Census (n)

National Institute of Standards and Technology (g) 

National Ocean Service (n)

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (g, n, w) 

National Weather Service (w)

Department of Defense Agencies 

Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (g, n) 

Defense Intelligence Agency (g) 

Defense Mapping Agency (n) 

Defense Nuclear Agency (g) 

National Guard Bureau (w)

Department of Energy (g, n, w) 

Alaska Power Administration (w) 

Bonneville Power Administration (w) 

Brookhaven National Laboratory (w) 

Hanford Project (w) 

Idaho Falls Operations Office (w) 

Los Alamos National Laboratories (w) 

Morgantown Energy Technology Center (g) 

National Geothermal Program (g) 

Nevada Operations Office (w) 

Oak Ridge Operations Office (g, w) 

Pittsburgh Energy Technology Center (g) 

Rocky Flats Operations Office (w) 

Sandia National Laboratories (g, w) 

Savannah River Operations Office (g, w) 

Schenectady Naval Reactors Office (w) 

Southwestern Power Administration (w) 

Yucca Mountain Project (g, w)

Department of Health and Human Services 

National Institutes of Health (w)

Department of the Interior 

Bureau of Indian Affairs (g, n, w) 

Bureau of Land Management (g, n, w) 

Bureau of Mines (n, w) 

Bureau of Reclamation (g ,n, w) 

National Biological Survey (w) 

National Park Service (g, n, w) 

Office of the Secretaiy (w) 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (n, w)

. . through Cooperators and Other Financial Contributors 133
Department of Justice (w)

Department of the Navy 

Naval Facilities Engineering Command (g, w) 

Naval Air Warfare Center (g) 

Naval Oceanographic Office (g) 

Naval Research Laboratory (g) - 

Naval Surface Warfare Center (w) 

Naval Weapons Center, China Lake (g) 

Naval Weapons Station (w) 

Navy Engineering and Logistics Office (g) 

Office of Naval Research (g, w) 

U.S. Marine Corps (w)

Department of State (g) 

Agency for International Development (g, n) 

Foreign and Nonforeign Governments (g) 

Government of Saudi Arabia (g)

International Boundary and Water Commission, U.S. and Mexico (w) 

International Joint Commission, U.S. and Canada (w)

Department of Transportation 

Federal Aviation Administration (w) 

Federal Highway Administration (w)

Environmental Protection Agency (g, n, w) 

Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory (w) 

Environment Research Laboratory (g) 

Hazardous Waste Management Division (g) 

Region IX, San Francisco (g) 

Robert S. Kerr Environmental Research Lab (w) 

Summitville Mining Site Terrace Reservoir (g)

Federal Emergency Management Agency (g,w)

Federal Power Commission (w)

Federal Energy Regulating Commission Licenses (w)

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (g,n,w)

National Science Foundation (g,n,w)

Nuclear Regulatory Commission (g, w)

Tennessee Valley Authority (n,w)

Veterans Administration (w)

OTHER COOPERATORS AND CONTRIBUTORS

American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing (n) 

Boy Scouts of America (n) 

United Arab Emirates (w)

United Nations (g,w) 

Inter-America Development Bank (g) 

United Nations Development Program (n) 

UNESCO (w)

World Bank (w)

134 Touching the Lives of Every Citizen, Every Day. . . *U.S. G.P.O.:1995-387-030:78

METRIC CONVERSION FACTORS

Multiply

millimeter (mm)

centimeter (cm)

meter (m)

kilometer (km)

square centimeter (cm2) 

square meter (m2) 

hectare (ha)

cubic centimeter (cm3)

liter (L)

kilogram (kg)

By

Length

0.0394

0.3937

3.281

0.6214

Area

0.1550 

1.196 

2.471

Volume

0.06102

1.057

Mass

2.205

To obtain

inch

inch

foot

mile

square inch 

square yard 

acre

cubic inch

quart

pound avoirdupois

1994 yearbook Staff

The staff of the USGS Yearbook appreciates comments from readers. If there are features that 

you particularly enjoy reading or information that you would like to have but that is not included, 

please let us know. Write to Managing Editor, USGS Yearbook, 119 National Center, Reston, VA 

22092.

Managing Editor

Associate Editor

Editor

Graphic Designer

Typographer

Gail Wendt 

Rebecca Phipps 

Kathie R. Fraser 

Maurajean Hogan 

Carolyn McQuaig

National Mapping Division Kristen Simpson

Water Resources Division Janet Somerville Sachs

Geologic Division Kathleen Gohn

Information Systems Division Marti Quigley

Administrative Division Eleanor Robinson

Cover and graphic designs on p. I, II, III, IV, 1, 2, 27, 28, 43, 44, 59, 60, 81, 82, 101, and 102 by Maurajean 

Hogan, 1995.
As the Nation's principal conservation agency, the 

Department of the Interior has responsibility for most of 

our nationally owned public lands and natural and cultural resources; ThisJncluded fostering wise use of our 

land and water resources, protecting our fish and 

wildlife, preserving the environmental and cultural values of our national parks and historical places, and providing for the enjoyment of life through outdoor recreation. The Department assesses our energy and mineral 

resources and works to assure that their development is 

in the best interests of all our people. The Department 

also has a major responsibility for American Indian reservation communities and for people who live in Island 

Territories under U.S administration.