DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 343 583 IR 015 609

TITLE Readiness: Children and Their Schools. Getting Ready

for Readiness: A Case Study. The ERIC Review.

INSTITUTION ACCESS ERIC, Rockville, MD.

SPONS AGENCY Office of Educational Research and Improvement (ED),

Washington, DC.

REPORT NO ERIC-92-5023

PUB DATE 92

NOTE 33p.; "The ERIC Review" is published three times a

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E.ducation-re1ated topic. For previous issue see ED

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JOURNAL CIT The ERIC Review; v2 nl 1992

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DESCRIPTORS Case Studies; *Classroom Environment; Disabilities;

Disadvantaged; Federal Programs; High Risk Students;

*Parent Role; Preschool Education; Primary Education;

Program Descriptions; *School Readiness; Social

Experience; *Teacher Role; Young Children

IDENTIFIERS ERIC; *National Education Goals 1990; *Project Head

Start

ABSTRACT

"The ERIC Review," announces research results,

publications, and new programs relevant to each issue's theme topic.

This issue exammines children's readiness to enter school, via two

principal articles: "Readiness: Children and Their Schools," by

Lilian G. Katz; and "Getting Ready for Readiness: A Case Study," by

Laura J. Colker. In addition, the following features related to

school readiness are provided: (1) an announcement of a packet,

"Striving for Excellence: The National Education Goals" prepared by

the ERIC System; (2) highlights of 11 recent federal school readiness

initiatives; (3) a list of 14 resource organizations, 9 federal

agencies, and 2 ERIC clearinghouses; (4) a 30-item annotated general

reading list; (5) a brief article, "Early School Entry Is Essential

for Many Gifted Children," by Craig Howley; (6) an ERIC digest,

"Preparing Children with Disabilities for School," by Dianna

Pinkerton; and (7) an annotated list of 34 new publications produced

by the ERIC clearinghouses and the Office of Educational Research and

Improvement. (BBM)

***********************************************************************

Reproductions supplied by EDW., are the best that can be made

from the original document. ***********************************************************************
Vol. 2 Issue 1, 1992

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION

Office of F.ducational Research and Improvement

EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION

CENTER (MCI

o This document has been reproduced as

received from the person or organization

onginating it

0 Minor changes have been made to improve

reproduction quslity

Points of vie* or opinions stated in this duct,

ment do not necessarily represent official

OERI position or policy

IC

Educational Resources

Information Center

U. S. Department of Education

Office of Educational Research and Improvement

For people concerned about

education

diness:

ildren and Their

Schools .e Getting Ready

for Readiness:

A Case Study

BEST COPY AVAILIBLE
n Important Message to Our Readers

This issue of The ERIC' Review examines children's readiness to enter school. School readiness is addressed

in the fi-st of six national education goals formulated by the President and the nation's governors to dramatically improve educational opportunity and achievement in this country by the year 2000. These six national

education goals are as follows:

1. By the year 2000, all children in America will start school ready to learn.

2. By the year 20(X), the high school graduation rate will increase to at least 90 percent.

3. By the year 20(X), American students will leave grades four, eight, and twelve having demonstrated

competency in challenging subject matter including English, mathematics, scionce, history, and

geography; and every school in America will ensure that all students learn to u. their minds well, so

they may be prepared for responsible citizenship, further learning, and producti% e employment in our

modern economy.

4. By the year 20(X), U.S. students will be first in the world in science and mathematics achievement.

5. By the year 20(X), every adult American will be literate and will possess the knowledge and skills

necessary to compete in a global economy and exercise the rights and responsibilities of citizenship.

6. By the year 20(X), every school in America will be free of drugs and violence and will offer a

disciplined environment conducive to learning.

Achieving the national education goals will require the efforts and cooperation of all citizens. Parents,

schools, and communities all have roles to play in preparing young children to enter and succeed in school.

As Lilian Katz notes in this issue's lead article, children need to be ready to enter schools, and schools need

to be ready to educate the children who enter. A case study of a pilot program to adapt early childhood

education practiccs to elementary schools and articles on school readiness as it relates to gifted children and

children with disabilities are also included in this issue. A list of resource organizations, federal school

readiness initiativ:s, and additional readings will help you pursue the topic.

To make comments about The ERIC Review or to find out what the system can do for you and your institution, write to ACCESS ERIC or call the toll-free number, 1-8()OUSEERIC (873-3742). The materials

contained in this journal are in the public domain and may be reproduced and disseminated freely.

U.S. Department of Education

Lamar Alexander

Secretaly

Isirrimm

Office of Educational Research and

improvement

Diane Ravitch

Assistant Secretary

Office of Research

Milton Goldberg

Director
Educational Resources

Information Center

Contents

Readiness: Children and Their Schools 2

ERIC System Responds to the National Education Goals 6

Getting Ready for Readiness: A Case Study 7

Recent Federal School Readiness Initiatives 10

Readiness Resource List 12

Organizations and Associations 12

Federal Agencies 13

Clearinghouses 13

General Reading List 14

For Your Information 18

Adjunct Clearinghouse on Consumer Education Opens 18

ERIC Facility Relocates 18

New Publication Highlights 350 Education-Related

Information Centers 18

Early School Entry Is Essential for Many Gifted Children 19

Research in Action 21

Majority of Elementary Students Attended Preschool 23

New Titles in Education 24

The ERIC Review, published three times

a year by ACCESS ERIC with support

from the U.S. Department of

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also contains information on programs.

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the Educational Resources Inforniation

Center (ERIC). its subject-specific

clearinghouses, and support

components. It announces major

additions to the ERIC collection of

education-related documents and articles.

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publication do not necessarily reflect the

p(isitions or policies of the Department of

Education or OERL

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READINESS: CHILDREN

AND THEIR SCHOOLS

rr

he readiness of America's

children to benefit from

scliooling was one of the

major issues discussed by the President

and the nation's governors at the 1989

education summit. The first of six national education goals announced by the

President in 1990 was: "By the year

2000, all children in America will start

school ready to learn." The following

specific objectives were further defined

under the goal:

III All disadvantaged and disabled

children will have access to high quality

and developmentally appropriate preschool programs that help prepare children for school.

Every parent in America will be a

child's first teacher and devote time

each day to helping his or her preschool

child learn: parents will have access to

the training and support they need.

Children will receive the nutrition

and health care needed to arrive at

school with healthy minds and bodies,

and the number of low birthweight babies will be significantly reduced through

enhanced prenatal health sytems.

This article will explore major issues

related to readiness that those who are

striving to achieve the goal will need to

address.

The Concept of Readiness

After considering the readiness goal

and its more specific objectives, policymakers, educators, and parents are likely

2

by Dr. Lilian G. Katz

to have questions about the concept of

readiness. This concept has been debated

for more than a century (Kagan, 1990).

The main issue debated is the extent to

which development and learning are

detennined by biological maturational

processes versus experience. Maturationists emphasize internal developmental processes that render children

more or less able to benefit from formal

instruction. Interactionists take the position that inherent maturational processes

and experience interact to contribute to

children's learning and that virtually all

human beings are born with a powerful,

built-in disposition to learn. Indeed, the

quantity and rate of learning during the

first few years of life are nothing short of

spectacular. The fact that by 3 or 4 years

of age most children can understand and

use the language of those around them

is just one example of learning that takes

place long before children begin school.

In other woids, children are born ready

to learn!

However, what children learn during

their first few years, how they learn, and

how much they learn depends on many

factors. Among the most important

factors are the children's physical wellbeing and their emotional and cognitive

relationships with those who care for

them. The school readiness goal reflects

two broad concerns about these factors.

The first concern is related to characteristics of the children themselves, such as

,he fact that increasing numbers of young

children live in poverty and/or in singleparent households, have limited proficiency in English, are affected by the

drug abuse of their parents, have poor

nutrition, and receive inadequate health

care. These conditions are frequently a

source of stress on families and affect

how much and how well children's natural disposition to learn is encouraged and

strengthened.

The second area of concern involves

such matters as the high incidence of

retention in kindergarten and the primary

grades, delayed school entry practices in

some school districts, segregated transition classes in others, increasing use of

standardized tests to determine

children's readiness to enter school, and

the employment of such tests to deny

some children entrance to school and to

place them in special classes. These

trends are due largely to a historic downward movement of the academic curriculum: the college curriculum of a previous

generation moves down into the high

school curriculum, the replaced high

school curriculum moves down into the

elementary school, which pushes the

elementary curriculum further down to

the first years of formal education. This

trend means that children are receiving

more formal, whole-group academic

instruction at increasingly younger ages,

which may now be so incompatible with

the children's neumlogical and mental

capacities as to produce excessive stress

and failure among young children during

the first year of school.

These two areas of concern suggest that

reaching the school readiness goal will

IX Lilian G. Kat/ is Director of the ERIC

Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early

Childhood Education at the University of Illinois.
require a twofold strategy: one part

focused on supporting families in

their efforts to help their children get

ready for school and the second on

helping the schools to prepare for the

children by being responsive to the

wide range of backgrounds. experiences. languages, and needs children

bring with them to school.

In sum, one of the main issues embedded in the national school readiness goal is that when many children

approach their first school experience, they are not ready to learn what

most schools want them to learn. The

arguments among specialists, educators, and the public at large on these

issues are not about whether young

children should obtain good grounding in the basic skills; the mint point

of contention is when it should be

accomplished.

Some of the causes of the presumed

unreadiness of children for school

result from the conditions in which

they are growing up. and some reside

within the school itself. Thus, one of

the important problems for communities, parents, and educators to address

is how communities and their agencies

can help families get their children

off to a good start. Another issue to be

addressed is how the schools can better

respond to the children on their doorsteps. In other words, how can schools

respond effectivdy to tk wide range of

individual differences in background,

development, and prior experience with

stories, books, pencils, group settings,

and so forth that diNrentially equip

children to adapt to their first school

setting'?

Getting Children

Ready for School

The term "readiness" is commonly

used to mean readiness to learn to read.

However, children's ability to adapt to

the school situation and its demands involves more aspects of their development than the knowledge and skills

involved in reading. Children's general

social development and intellectual

backgrounds should also be taken into

account when considering ways of

helping children to prepare for experiences they are likely to encounter in

school.

Social Readiness

When children enter school they have

to he ready to function in an environment different from that of the family,

an environment in which individual

needs are not well known, in which

group norms and expectations prevail.

in which there can be a large number of

different relationships, and in which

one's place is neither clear nor given.

Children are more

likely to cope successfully with their first

school experience if

they come to it with a

backlog of positive

experiences of being

in a group away from

home . . .y

Yoimg children are also more likely to

adjust easily to school life if they have

experienced satisfying relationships

with a few peers. The evidence is now

compelling that children who fail to

achieve minimal competence in social

relationships with thdr peers during the

early years are at risk of developing

a variety of social maladaptations,

including academic failure, dropping

out of school, and later mental health

difficulties (Katz and McClellan,

1991).

Children are more likely to cope successfully with their first school experience if they come to it with a backlog

of positive experiences of being in a

group away from home with very fitmiliar adults. Children for whom a

prekindergarten or kindergarten class is

the first group experience outside of the

home will require plenty of time and

support to adjust to group life and the

classroom routines and to be able to

function independently in the class. It is

rarely helpful to push or cajole a child

who is new to the "big school" into

conformity. Indeed, it is developmentally appropriate for a young child to be

somewhat wary and cautious in an

environment full of people who are

largely strangers! Young children are

also more hkely to approach new relationships with adults with confidence if

they have already had some previous

positive experience with nonfamily

authority figures. Participation in a

good preschool program affords such

experience. However, some children

may be wary of the school setting because their previous group experiences

have been unpleasant. In either case,

the newcomer's hesitation should be

treated with respect and patience.

Parents and preschool teachers can

help pave the way for a child's adjustment to school by providing

ample opportunities for interaction

with peers in which the child can

learn such social skills as taking

turns, making compromises, and

approaching unfamiliar children. A

young child who is not yet able to

approach peers with confidence will

benefit from much support, guidance,

and patience from the teacher.

One of the most important influences

on children's social development is

experience within the family. It

should be noted that the whole range of

social difficulties identified during early

chiidhood can be observed among children of all social classes and ethnic

backgrounds (Katz and McClellan.

1991). However, because not all the

children within a particular family

achieve the same success in developing

social competence, the family does not

provide a single environment, and the

processes by which individual children

within it acquire social competence are

not easy to dkcern. Thus a parent may

have a few worries about the social

development of one child, whereas for

other children in the family, entry into

new peer groups went smoothly.

Some young children are unable to

meet the expectations of the class because they are having social difficulties, such as feeling rejected by peers.

Some children create social difficulties.

for example, by starting fights with

peers, because they cannot meet the

expectations of the class. However, it'

children are having social difficulties

such as being unable to approach unfitmiliar peers because their mastery of

their peers language is limited, or

because the activities available and

topics addressed are unrebted to their
own cultural background, their social

difficulties may be exacerbated (Katz

and McCkllan, 1991).

The available evidence indicates that

helping families with their children's

social development should be put high

on the list of strategies to address the

readiness goal. Local community agencies, working with groups, individual

parents and teachers, and other

school personnel (e.g., social workers

and psychologists) can help by providing resources for parents that

specifically address strategies for

fostering their young children's

social development.

Intellectual Readiness

Children are more likely to feel competent in school if they can understand and use the language of the

peers and adults they meet within it.

In many communities, the number

and variety of languages spoken is so

large that it is not possible for all of

the children in a class to have a

teacher who speaks their language

and materials available to them in

their own language. However, communities and school districts must

make every possible effort to identify

adults who can help children of all

language backgrounds in the school.

In a similar way, young children are

more likely to have confidence in their

ability to cope with school if they can

relate to the ideas and topics introduced

by the teacher and discussed by other

children in class activities. Parents and

preschool teachers can help by familiarizing children with a wide range of

stories, songs, and linguistic expressions likely to be encountered in the

school setting.

"At-risk" children are often assumed to

be deficient in experience and to suffer

from lack of stimulation and therefore

to be intellectually unprepared for

school. However, very few children

actually lack experience or stimulation.

Although the content and nature of the

experiences available to children in

different settings are likely to vary

widely, they are nevertheless experiences that can stimulate children's

intellectual development.

For example, children growing up in

the inner cities of Americ have plenty

of experience and stimulation. But

experience and stimulation are not, in

and of themselves, conducive to optimal intellectual development. What

young children require is adult heir) in

making sense of their exr orience and

giving meaning and order to the stimulation that surrounds them. A young

The community, working with local

preschools, adult education programs,

children's librarians, and other similar

agency and resource people, can help by

providing experiences for preschoolers

which help them make sense of their

everyday worlds. Preschool teachers

and others could help familiarize children with songs and stories and provide

opportunities for conversation using

important words and phrases in English. Adults should also encourage

and help children translate songs,

stories, and important words and

phrases into other languages that

may be spoken by children in the

neighborhood school. The school

district or individual school may

have to take leadership for bringing

the relevant agencies, specialists, and

resource groups together to enable

optimal use of the available resources in the community.

child in a crowded environment in

which many people come and go, often

in unpredictable ways, may find it

stimulatingespecially at first; but

without someone's help in explaining

and understanding why people come

and go, where they go, what they do,

what they are planning, and the like.

the stimulation can be incoherent and

overwhelming. After a few years of

incomprehensible stimulation, children

give up being able to make sense of

their experience, and eventually natural

curiosity about their world and the

disposition to learn about it are likely

to weaken and even disappear.

Althuugh all children are born with the

predisposition to learn, in a few cases

that predisposition may be weakened

by the time a child enters school because of insufficient adult response to

the child's explorations and questions.

As Rogoff (1990) points out, all significant learning, especially in the early

years, occurs in social contexts and is

embedded in social relationships.

Parents and preschool teachers can

strengthen intellectual preparedness

by providing children ample opportunity for conversation, discussion, and

cooperative work and play with peers

with whom they are likely to start

school. Parents of children not enrolled in a preschonl program can

help by talking tr . staff at the

children's future .00l about the

kinds of stories, songs, and special

activities and field trips usually offered

at the school and by introducing related

topics to their children.

Getting the School

Ready for the Children

The most important strategy for addressing the school readiness goal is to

prepare the school to be responsive to

the wide range of experiences, backgrounds, and needs of the children expected to Lome to the school. Aspects of

school practices to be considered in this

effort include the curriculum, staffing

patterns, and age considerations.

Appropriate Curriculum

A position statement on school readiness issued by the National Association

for the Education of Young Children

(1990) points out that, given the nature

of children's development, "the curricuhim in the early grades must provide

meaningful contexts for children's

learning rather than focusing primarily
on isolated skills acquisitions" (p. 22).

In other words, the school readiness

goal should be addressed by adopting

curriculum and teaching practices that

are developmentally appropriate.

The nature of development is such

that curriculum and teaching practices

in the early years are appropriate if

they take into account the following

developmental principles;

Informality. The younger the child,

the larger proportion of timo should

be allocated to informal ver.ius formal learning experiences. As children grow older, their capacity to

benefit from formal, whole-group

instruction increases. However, in

the case of young children, when a

single formal method of instruction is

used for a group of children diverse

in background, experience, language,

aptitudes, interests, and developmental rates, a significant proportion of

the group is condemned to fail.

There are at least three kinds of informal activities to be provided for

young children; (1) spontaneous

dramatic play, (2) arts and craft activities, and (3) cooperative work on

extended group investigations and

exploratory and constructive projects in

which the teacher role is consultative

rather than didactic. Although young

children benefit from having all three

kinds of informal activities on a regular

basis, it is the last kind that provides a

context for challenging all aspects of

children's intellectual and social

growth (Katz and Chard, 1989).

An important part of this developmental principle is that the more informal

the learning environment is, the more

access the teacher has to information

about where the learners are in their

development, what is easy for them,

what confuses them, and what kinds of

help they really need. Formal instruction tends to reduce teachers' access to

information about the learners they are

trying to help. Thus the curriculum

during the first years of school must

emphasize small-group work, As the

children work together on various investigations, teachers are in an ideal

position to make observations of individual children's progress and needs.

On the basis of these observations,

teachers can plan systematic instruction

in the basic skills and other learning to

be given to small groups of children ar

individuals as needed.

Horizontal relevance. The younger

the children, the more important it is

that what they learn is meaningful in

the present. Horizontal relevance contrasts with vertical relevance, which is

characteristic of learning designed to

prepare children for the next lesson or

the next grade or another future experience and lacks meaningfulness in the

vision viewing or listening to stories.

However, the disposition to go on learning, which is a major goal for all of

education, is strengthened primarily by

engagement in active exploration and

investigation as well as interaction with

real environments and objects.

Application of skills. Skills can be

acquired and strengthened through a

variety of processes--observations,

imitation, trial and error, coaching, and

instruction. They can be improved

with optimum drill and practice. In

young children, skills are best

developed and strengthened when

they are applied in meaningful contexts and free from performance

criteria (Katz, 1991).

, the moie

informal the learnifng

environment is, the

more access the teacher has to information

about where the learners are in their

deveiopmert . tyy

present. As children grow older, their

capacity to benefit from learning that

has vertical, or future. relevance increases. The developmental emphasis

must be that what the children learn

during the early years is designed to

help them make sense of their own

experiences and environments. Young

children might study buildings in their

own neighborhoods or animals encountered in their own environments rather

than ancient castles or exotic creatures

of the past such as dinosaurs. As children grow older, it is the responsibility

of schools to help them understand the

experiences and environments of othersthose who are far away in both

time and place. But during the early

years, the nature of intellectual development is such that content and skills

emphasized should have horizontal

relevance.

II Interactive learning processes. The

younger the children, the more they

learn through interactive processes

versus passive, receptive processes.

That is not to say young children cannot learn from passive, receptive processes; indeed, young children learn a

great deal from experiences in which

their role is a passive one, such as teleAF?ropriate Staffing

Teachers are more likely to be able

to accommodate the diversity of

experiences, backgrounds, languages, and interests of their pupils if

their classes are small and if they

have the .services of a qualified fulltime aide. To address both the social

and the intellectual development of

children who are potentially at risk for

academic difficulties requires the skillful deployment of at least 2 adults for

every 18 to 20 children in the kindergarten. Furthermore, having two adults in

each class makes it easier to staff

classes with adults who speak more

than one language. Small child/staff

ratios provide teachers with the opportunity to spend unhurried time with

every child, to address each child's

unique needs, and to develop good

relationships with parents.

Age Considerations

The National Association for the Education of Young Children's Position Statement on School Readiness (1990) points

out that, contrary to what is commonly

assumed, there are no tests by which to

determine reliably whether a child is

"ready" to begin school. "Therefore, the

only legally and ethically defensible

criterion for determining school entry

is whether the child has reached the

legal chronological age of school

entry" (p. 22). (For a counterpoint to

this statement, see "Early School Entry

Is Essential for Many Gifted Children"

on p. 19.1
Some school districts are experimenting with mixed-age grouping in the

early grades as a way of reducing grade

retention rates and encouraging children to help each other in all areas of

learning (Katz, Evangelou, and

Hartman, 1990).

Realizing the goal of having all our

children ready for school and all our

schools ready for the children by the

year 20(() will require the hest efforts

of all involved: parents, teachers,

administrators, and everyone in the

community who has a stake in the

well-heing of its children. And that's

just about everybody!

References

Kagan, Sharon L. (December 1990).

"Readiness 2000: Rethinking Rhetoric and

Responsibility." Phi Delta Kappan, 72 (4):

272-279. EJ 418 153.

Katz, Lilian C. (1991). "Pedagogical Issues

in Early Childhood Education." In The

Care awl Education of Anwrica's Young

Children: Obstacles and Opportunities,

edited by S. L. Kagan. Ninetieth Yearbook

of the National Society for the study of

Education. Chicago: University of Chicago

Press.

Katz, Lilian C. and Sylvia C. Chard (1989).

Engaging ClUldren's Minds: Du' Project

Approach. Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing

Corporation.

Katz, Lilian (1, Demetra Evangelou, and

Jeanette Allison Hartman (1990). Tlw

Case for Mixed-Age Grouping in Early

Childhood. Washington. DC: National

Association for the Education of Young

Children.

Katz, Lilian G. and Diano Mc(

(1991). Tile Teacher's Rot:, in L.1, nit

Development of Young Children. Urbana,

IL: ERIC Clearinghouse on Elementary and

Early Childhood Education. ED :131

National Association for the Education

of Young Children (November 1990).

"NAEYC Position Statement on School

Readiness." Young Children, 46 (1): 21-23,

EJ 421 837,

Rogotf, B. (1990), Apprenticohip in

Thinking: Cognitive kvelopment in Social

Context. New York: 05:ford University

Press,

ERIC System Responds to the National Education Goals

The ERIC System has prepared a packet, Striving for Excellence: The National Education

Goals, to help teachers, parents, and community members learn more about the goals and

explore promising programs and practices for achieving them. Consisting of 30 separate ERIC

Digests grouped around the goal areas, the packet synthesizes and summarizes research and

program findings related to school readiness; high school completion; student achievement and

citizenship; science and mathematics; adult literacy and lifelong learning; and safe, disciplined,

and drug-free schools. Each of the 16 subject-specific ERIC Clearinghouses contributed to the

packet, which may be freely reproduced, in whole or in part, by organizations or individuals.

Striving for Excellence: The National Education Goals costs $5* and is available from

ACCESS ERIC, 1600 Research Boulevard, Rockville, MD 20850-3172.

*Add $2 handling for each publication shipped to Canada and $4 handling

for each publication shipped to other foreign countries.

6

1-800-USE-ERIC (873-3742)
MP_

GETTING READY FOR

READINESS: A CASE STUDY

by Laura J. Colker

Atypical school day in

this Washint;ton . D.C.,

clementmy school

finds 8-year-old Jamul sitting

quietly in the Ihu.k of his first-grade

da.V.WOOM !'a ring blankly al a

workslteet most of the other children

in the class have long since completed. lie appears rotally disengaged from Iris work aml the others

ill the classroom until he hears the

shouts of second-graders playing

kicklnill omside. lie turns his head

toward the winthns's and listens

intentiv. The sound of his teacher' s

voice asking him what he is doing

clearly startles hint. lie turns toward his teacher and responds with

a loud, "Huh!"

Children like Jamal are the focus of the

national education goal for readiness.

which calls for a commitment to

restructuring traditional approaches to

education. As Dr, Lilian Katz's compelling article notes. there are two

factors at work in effecting appropriate

change: (1) supporting families in their

efforts to get children ready for school,

and (2) supporting schools in their

efforts to help children learn.

Although we. as a nation. have a long

way to go toward supporting families

in their efforts to ensure that their

children are ready for school, we do

have accepted models of approaches

that work. Head Start. for exampk, can

be considered one of the true educational and federal success stories of all

time (Stewart and Robinson. 1990).

Head Start is administered locally by

more than 1.200 community-based

organizations and school systems with

funding from the LS. Department of

Health and Iluman Services MIN. Its

programs include health, education.

parent involvement, and social service

components designed to meet the

comprehensive needs of low-income

young .11i1jren within the context of

the family.

Those who look to Head Start for

guidance in implementing the readiness

goal cite the research on related earlychildhood development efforts that

"denumstrate convincingly that the

educational attainments and life opportunities of low income and minority

children can be dramatically improved

by interventions paraliel to those

carried out in day-to-day Head Start

programs" (Collins and Kinney. 1989).

Exciting new approaches that build on

the strengths of programs like Head

Start in elementary schools are now

being initiated in several districts

across the nation. This article describes

a program in the District of Columbia

public schools that addresses the needs

of children who, like Jamal, arc not

being reached by traditional schooling.

Building a Case for

Readiness

In 19R7. the District of Columbia

Public Schools' Office of Educational

Accountability and Planning launched a

3-year longitudinal study to gain a

4

better understanding of why learning

deficits were occurring in the primary

grades. To illustrate, a class of children

whose average social development

level was 96,61 on the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scale at the end of

prekindergarten had an average score

of only 91.54 at the end of kindergarten

the following year (District of Columbia Public Schools, 1989). Even more

disturbing was the fact that 14 percent

of first-gratle students in thc school

system were retained at grade level

annually. A full one-third of first-grade

boys were failing each year (Marcon.

1990).

To help determine why such failures

were happening. researchers attempted

to link educational practices with

educational outcomes. They concluded

that academically oriented. teacherdirected classrooms produced children

who did not fare well in the school

system. Conversely, children in more

active, child-initiated settings that. like

Head Start. focused on the development

of social competence, fared better in all

domains, including the academic. In

this regard. Marcon (1990) wrote.

"Choosing to foster cognitive development over social, affective, and motor

development can only lead to later

(p. vii). The results of the

I,aura J. Colker is the Education Specialist

for the ERIC Document Reproduction

SiNwice. She also serves as the Documentarian for the District of Columbia Public

Schools' readiness project described in this

article.
3-year study were summarized as

follows:

A clear and consistent theme

emerges. The extension of formal

education experiences downward

does little to promote academic

preparation in our children and can

actually hinder children's later

school achievement and overall

development . .. Results clearly

support implementation of more

active, child-initiated learning

experiences at both the pre-primary

and primary level .. To do otherwise virtually guarantees continuation of high first-grade retention

rates and further impairment of our

children ... tMarcon, 1990,

pp.

Breaking the Cycle of

Failure

Confronted with a situation in which

an unacceptable number of children

were, in Dr. Katz's terms, "unready

to learn what .... schools want them

to learn," the Office of Early Education in the District of Columbia

Public Schools joined forces with

The National Day Care Association,

a Head Start grantee, and Teaching

Strategies, Inc., a private materials

development and training firm, to try

to break this cycle of failure and

promote readiness. Funded by HHS

under the 1990 Discretionary Grants

Program, this 3-year effort has the

following objectives:

'To work with Head Start parents to

enlist their support t'or their chikiren's

learning and to continue to support

them as their children move into the

public school system.

To identify and implement etThctive

strategies to ease the transition from

Head Start to the public schools.

II To develop and implement a developmentally appropriate curriculum tor

kindergarten and first and second

grades.

To ease the requirements to assess

and test children during the early

school years.

To document and disseminate

effective strategies for implementing

8

developmentally appropriate practices

in the public school curriculum for

kindergarten through second grade.

Five of the District's 123 elementary

schools were selected as potential

experimental sites for this effort. The

two criteria for participation were the

existence of a District of Colunthia

Public Schools Head Start program

operating on-site and the stewardship

of a strong principal. Project staff met

with the faculty at each potential site

and, based on the perceived enthusiasm

of Cie staff for the proposed project,

selected two schools as experimental

sites. Due to a limited evaluation

budget, no control schools were

identified.

II Provided monthly technical assistance to the participating Head Start and

prekindergarten classrooms.

Provided training for parents on

how children learn and on the value of

a developmental approach.

As the project enters its second year,

the focus is on the development and

gradual implementation of a curriculum

and assessment strategy for grades K-2.

The basis for bringing about change is

The Creative Curriculum for Early

Childhood, an established preschool

and kindergarten curriculum developed

by Teaching Strategies staff that is

already being used by the participating

Head Start centers and prekindergarten

programs. The Curriculum is an

environn.entally based approach to

instruction. Teachers are given

guidance about how to set up and use

interest areas such as the blocks area,

the house corner, the library area, the

sand and water area, and the outdoors

to extend and enrich children's

learning. The curriculum provides a

framework for planning but does not

define specific content for teachers

to follow. Rather, it supports teachers

in building content around the interests and experiences of their children

so that learning takes place in a

meaningful context.

11MMININIMIMMEM

M11111111111111111111111111111111."

In the first year of operation, which

focused on planning and strategizing,

staff:

Established a steering group representing all ort.anizations in the collaborative etThrt. This group met monthly

to discuss problems and identify approaches that would sapport project

goals more effectively.

Conducted seminars for element.dy

school principals to introduce them to

current issues in early childhood education and to enlist their support in

bringing about chatw.e.

Conducted monthly workshops

for participating Head Start and

prekindergarten teachers.

4 I

In adapting this curriculum for use in

the primary grades, the focus will be

on supporting children's growth in

language and literacy, math and

logic, science, social studies, and

creative art, music, and dramatic play

while retaining an environment that

promotes active leaning and parental

involvement. The plan is to marry the

learning goals for children in grades

K-2 with successful Head Start prac-

,:.: Education. in this context, is an

upward pull from early childhood

education rather than the downward

push described in Dr. Katz's article.

Adapting to Real-World

Challenges

Despite the fact that all participants in

this project believe that extending Head

Start's approach to child-initiated

programming upward into the primary

grades will help children flourish,

accomplishing this goal in a real-world
setting is not a straightforward process.

Major barriers that exist within the

school system and the community drive

home the point that change does not

come easily.

Beyond the anticipated problems

inherent in a limited budget and a staff

whose responsibilities already extend

beyond reasonable boundaries, other

unanticipated problffns have developed. For example, central zo making

the project work is the need for teambuilding. But in trying to put this

concept into practice, it soon became

apparent that most members of the

project team did not have a firm

understanding of what team-building

actually meant or what it required of

them individually or as a group.

Further, school principals were

expected to be team-builders at their

schools (indeed, schools were elmsen because their principals had a

reputation for strong, effective

leadership), yet they were faced with

conflicting demands on their time.

Early childhood education is but one

of an elementary school principal's

priorities, and only rarely do principals have the luxury of placing it at

the top of the list.

classrooms, outside of this domain

many teachers seem to feel they have

very little say in how things are done.

Unlike some other reform efforts, this

project has demanded team-building

and peer interaction. Teachers are

encouraged to share thoughts and

engage one another in a professional

dialogue about teaching practices.

Extending the art of teaching beyond

individual classroom walls has been

both uncomfortable and difficult for

some participants.

Having learned these lessons, sometimes in painful ways, project staff

rethought many of their assumptions

and approaches used during the first

year to see if' problems that surfaced

could be addressed more effectively.

As a result. the following changes

were instituted:

Training is now being offered as an

afterschool course rathcr than as a

release-time activity. As noted, one of

the most frustrating aspects of the first

year's program was trying to arrange

time for teachers to receive needed

training. For one thing, there simply

was not enough nmney to hire

substitutes: nor was there a sufficient

pool of available substitute teachers

to facilitate the training effort. A

number of other excitinghut

competing---offerings were ako

available to teachers it the sanw time

training for this project was scheduled. Teachers often had to choose

between receiving training for this

project and other activities that were

of interest to them, such Vis emerging

literacy. To accommodate this

problem, project training is now

offered as a course that does not

conflict with other offerings or

require the use of substitute teachers.

In addition. teachers are extended the

opportunity to receive graduate or

recertification credit for their participation in the course. As a result of this

change in approach. all 22 teachers in

the participating schools have enrolled

in the training course. In fact, thk

course has become so popular that

teachers from nonparticipating schools

in the Dktrict of Columbia have inquired about enrolling in it.

In this same vein, although aH participants have been committed to this

project, defining commitment operationally so that all participants have a

shared vision has been a slow. evolutionary process. In hindsight, it is

apparent that school staff did not have

an adequate understanding of what

would be required of theni to make the

project succeed. Many teachers tended

to underestimate the time burden that

would be placed on them for training

and technical assistance. Neither they

nor the school system were adequately

prepared to find substitute teachers who

could cover for classroom teachers

during needed training sessions. In

addition, the presence of substitutes

and "pull-out" resource teachers for art

or music or library time introduced others into the equation--some of whom

did not share the project teachers' commitment to developmental appropriateness in general and to this project in

particular.

Another problem has centered on the

issue of control. While teachers report a

strong feeling of control over their own

i While teachers

report a strong feeling

of control over their

own classrooms, outside of this domain

many teachers seem to

feel they have very little

say in how things are

done.55

Individual sensitivities to philosophical

issues have also posed problems. For

example. how does one best approach

experienced teachers who have been

practicing what they have always

believed to be good teaching methods

with the news that their ways need to

be changed? And, what do you do

when people publicly support the

concept of developmental appropriateness but do not realize this means

making changes in practice as well as

rhetoric? And how do you convince

parents who are test-oriented that a

program that supports social competence will actually help their children

do better academically?

Each of these problems may be minor

individually, but together they pose a

major challenge. Change does not come

about because educators review research and prescribe an appropriate

plan of action. Change comes about

because fears are addressed. egos are

massaged. and people are convinced of

the value of making the change. And

once convinced, they need to be

supported in their efforts.

Technical assistance is now scheduled at the teacher's request, rather than

according to a predetermined project

schedule. This accommodation gives

teachers more control and removes the

feeling that they are being checked up

on. Now when staff observe a classroom. the teacher feels these Owen a-

!ion.; are truly team-building rather than

judgmental in nature.

Teachers are asked to keep jouniak

of their experiences. Journals enahle

them to keep notes to discuss w ith

trainer, at a later time. to vent their

feelings. and to thwunwnt the successes

and frustrations they experience on a
day-to-day basis. Journals are collected

monthly and receive a personal response

from one of the trainers. It is anticipated

that these journals will become a living

history of the project.

During the summer between the first

and second project years, teachers from

the participating schools were hired as

paid consultants to review the revised

version of the Creative Curriculum pr

Early Childhood in terms of how well it

fit the realities of their classrooms.

Everyone benefited from this strategy.

Project staff were able to see

firsthand what the teachers' concerns were

aiid take them into account as they

began writing the version of the curriculum for grades one and two. Even more

important. teachers serving in a consultative role tended to feel that their

opin.ons were valued by project staff; as

a result, they became invested in the

project to an extent not envisioned

during the first year.

This evolutionary process of teambuilding has led to positive preliminary

results one-third of the way through the

project. Many teachers feel the program

validates what they have known instinctively to be appropriate for young

children. Teachers in Head Start and

prekindergarten say tnat as a result of

last year's efforils, they are seeing

child-initiated/learning taking place at

the beginning of the yearsomething

they hardly would have believed

possible a year ago. Teachers report

that the Creative Curriculum .for Early

Childhood and their training have

helped them to address parental concerns. Support from school principals

has grown, too. as they see

enthusiasm emanating

from their teachRecent Federal School Readiness Initiatives

The U.S. Department of Education and other federal

agencies such as the U.S. Department of Health and Human

Services (HHS) sponsor a number of programs and projects

to support the first national education goal, which calls for

all children in America to start school ready to learn by the

year 2000. These federal initiatives include basic research

as well as direct health and education services to young

children and their families. There is a grow ing trend toward

interagency collaboration in providing services to families

with young children.

Within the U.S. Department of Education's Office of

Elementary and Secondary Education, Even Start provide .

assistance to instructional programs that combine literacy

instruction for adults with training to enable them to

support the educational growth of their children in and (Ail

of school. The Office (if Bilingual Education and Minority

Languages Affairs sponsors grants for preschool programs

serving children with limited English proficiency. including

disabled, gifted, and talented children.

The Office of Policy and Planning has sponsored a number

of early chiklhood studies to help meet the need for up-todate information on early education and care. Recent

projects have examined trends in child care centers and

family day care homes, the practices of 17 programs that

help disadvantaged families stipport their children's educational development, and public school policies and practices

related to the transition between preschotil and kindergarten. In conjunction with the Office of Elementary and

`iecondary Education, the Office of I olicy and Planning

also has repared a handbook on implementing the first

national goal. (This handbook, Preparing Young Children

fin. Success: Guidepo.sts fin. Achieving Our First National

Goal, is included in the reading list on p. 171.

The Office of Research within the U.S. Department of

Education's Office of Educational Research and Improvement (GERI) supports 25 National Research and Development Centers across the country. One of them. The Center

on Families, Communities. Schools, and Children's Learninga consortium headed by Boston Universityis

conducting several projects in the area of school readiness,

including studies on what children need to know to succeed

in school and on training quality staff for early education

scuings. Other projects supported by the Center include

preschools for children of teenage mothers and the integration of school and community services for young children.

In its second year of operation, the Center will consider

aspects of integrated community services for families of

children from birth to age 3.

Also within OERI. Programs for the Improvement of

Practice (PIP) established the Ready to Learn project in

1990 to disseminate information to parents of preschoolers

(mainly disadvantaged) about how they can prepare their

children fin. school. An advisory task force of experts is

determining effective strategies for reaching this target

audience.

10
ers. Perhaps most telling of all is this

comment made by one of the participating prekindergarten teachers: "I'm no

longer tired at the end of the day."

Establishing a developmentally appropriate program takes time. Implementing the readiness goal in the District of

Columbia's public schookand in

schools across the countrycalls for

participants to band together with a

shared vision to support parents, teachers, and administrators if children are

ultimately to benefit.

=1

References

Collins, R. C. and P. F. Kinney (November

1989). Head Start Research and Evaluation: Background and Overview. Technical

paper preparA for the Head Start Bureau,

Administration for Children, Youth and

Families, U.S. Department of Health and

Human Services, ED 315 158.

District ot' Columbia Public Schools

(September 1989). Early Learni; and

Identification Study. 1987-1988. Washington, DC: District of Columbia Public

Schools.

Dodge, D. T. and L. J. Colker (January

1992). The Creative Curriculum fin. Early

Childhood, 3rd ed. Washington, DC:

Teaching Strategies, Inc.

Marcon. R. A. (December 1990). Early

Learning and Identification: Fimq Report

of the Three-Year Longitudawl Study.

Washington, DC: District of Columbia

Public Schools.

Stewart A. C. and D. H. Robinson (February 15, 1990). The Head Start Program:

Background Information and Issues.

Washington, DC: Report for Congress.

Recent Federal School Readiness Initiatives

(continued)

PIP also oversees 10 Regional hlucational Laboratories

across the country. The Regional Laboratory for Educational

Improvement of the Northeast and Islands has embarked on

a 3-year effort to improve linkages between early childhood

education and early elementary school. The Laboratory's

Early Childhood Education Project will help parents, educators. and social service agencies in New England, New York,

Puerto R:co, and the Virgin Islands ease young children's

transitions from one learning env inmment to another.

The Far West Regional Laborat ry's Center for Chikl and

Family Studies has created a number of programs to improve

the quality of care for children, influence policy, and educate

the public about the changing conditions of families. It

serves Arizona, California, Nevada, and Utah.

Another OERI program, the Fund for the Improvement and

Reform of Schools and Teaching (FIRST). has sponsored

demonstration grants as part of its FamilySchool Partnership Program since 1988. Some of the 33 active grants

support programs that serve the preschool population; all are

designed to increase parents' involvement in their children's

learning. Through the Secretary's Fund for Innovation in

Education, FIRST also supports programs that show promise

in kfentifying and disyminating innovative approaches to

improving preschool, as well as elementary ar I secondary

education.

The U.S. Department of Education has been working with

I1HS to promote better coordination of Wad Start and

Chapter 1 in an attempt to ease participating children's

transition from preschool to elementary school. Administration t'or Children, Youth and Families (ACYF) within

HHS is working to expand the Head Start program, Funding

for the program has increased by more than S700 million

between fiscal years 1989 and 1991. ACYF has ako funded

32 projects to demonstrate the effectiveness of coordinated,

comprehensive serykes to children beginning in Head Start

and continuing through third grade. In 1989, ACYF funded

24 comprehensive child development projects to test the

concept of providing "one-stop shopping" to deliver health,

education, and economic services to low-income households

with newborns or pregnant family members. Families will be

served and tracked by the projects for 5 years.

The Family Support Administration and the Office of the

Assistant Secretary fOr Planning and Evaluation, also within

are funding a large-scale evaluation of pregnant

mothers of 3- to 5-year-olds as part of the Job Opportunities

and Basic Skills Training Program.

Finally, the Surgeon General is launching an initiative called

"flealthy Chiklren, Ready to Learn." which f cuses on

health issues related to school readine!.s for children from

birth to age 7. As part of thk initiative, representatives from

the U.S. Department of Education. HHS, and the U.S.

Department of Agriculture held a natitmal conference for

parents, educators, health providers, and policymakers in

ebruary 1992.

Phone numbers for the federal school readiness initiatives

described hcre arc included in the list of resource organizations starting on page 12.
4 Readiness Resource List

Organizations and

Associations

American Montessori Society

This organization promotes the

education principles of Dr. Maria

Montessori, focusing on individual

growth and peer stimulation among

young children, with the teacher as

observer. It oversees the development

of materials and programs and offers

information and placement services.

150 Fifth Avenue, Suite 203,

New York, NY 10011; (212) 924-3209.

Program Contact: Elizabeth Coe.

ASPIRA Association

This national Hispanic education leadership development organization operates

demonstration projects in Hispanic

communities in nine cities and produces

booklets to help Hispanic parents with

their children's education. 1112 16th

Street NW. Suite 340. Washington. DC

20036; (202) 835-3600.

Association for Childhood

Education International

This association encourages quality

educational practices for infant to early

adolescent children as well as professional growth for their teachers. It

emphasizes the well-being of children in

the home, school, and community

through various publications. meetings.

and outreach activities. 11501 Georgia

Avenue, Suite 315, Wheaton, MD

20902; 1-8M-423-3563. Program

Contact: Gerald Od land, Executive

Director.

Child Trends, Inc.

This research organization is conducting

three projects related to school rLadiness:

a synthesis of research on parental

behaviors that reinforce the healthy

physical development of infants and

young children, a 5-year longitudinal

study of families receiving public assistance to determine whether providing

basic skills training to mothers affects the

health and development of their children,

and a feasibility study on the develop12

ment and implementation of early

childhood assessments in several nations.

2100 M Street NW, Washington, DC

20037; (202) 223-6288. Program Contact: Nicholas Zill.

Children's Defense Fund (CDF)

This advocacy organization conducts

research and monitors federal and state

legislation and performance on issues

affecting the health and well-being of

children and teenagers in the United

States. CDF places special emphasis on

the needs of children living in poverty.

122 C Street NW, Washington, DC

20001; (202) 628-8787.

Children's Television

Resource and Education Center

This group's principal concern k the

effect of television programming on

children's social development, creativity, and aiademic success. It produces

newsletters, research studies, and other

publications, and ofkrs curriculum and

technical assistance to parents, teachers. and researchers working to ensure

that television is a positive rather than

negative influence on children's development. 330 Townsend Street, San

Francisco, CA 94107; (415) 243-9943.

Program Contact: Parker Page.

President.

National Association for the

Education of Young Children

(NAEVC)

NAEYC is dedicated to improving the

quality of care and education of children from birth to age 8. It offers

publications and videos for parents, day

care providers, and elementary school

personnel, as well as policy-related

information and legislative analyses. It

administers the National Academy of

Early Childhood Programs, a voluntary

national accreditation system fm highquality early childhood programs. 1834

Connecticut Avenue NW, Washington.

DC 20009; 1-800-424-2460.

Program Contacts: Pat Spahr and

barbara Willer.

National Black Child

Development Institute

To improve the quality of life for black

children and youth, this group provides

direct services and conducts advocacy

campaigns aimed at national and local

public policies. It provides newsletters,

a quarterly journal, legislative updates,

topical research packages, conferences,

and speakers on issues of health, child

welfare, education, and child care.

1463 Rhode Island Avenue NW,

Washington, DC 20005:

(202) 387-1281. Program Contact:

Sherry Deane,

National Center for

Children in Poverty

This group encourages interdisciplinary

thinking about the needs and opportunities for early intervention with young

children (ages birth to 5) in poverty at

the national, state, and local levels. It

offers library services. publications,

and referrals. Columbia University, 154

Haven Avenue, New York, NY 10032;

(212) 927-8793, Program Contact:

Carole Oshinsky.

National Early Childhood

Technical Assistance System

Sponsored by the U.S. Department of

Education. Office of Special Education

and Rehabilitative Services, this organization was established to assist state

agencies in developing comprehensive

services for young children with special

needs and their families in accordance

with Public Law 99-457. CB #8040,

500 NCNB Plaza. Chapel Hill, NC

27599-8040; (919) 962-2001.

Program Contact: Joan Danaher.

Natkmal Head Start Association

This national organization seeks to

upgrade the quality and quantity of

Head Start program services. It conducts training sessions and seminars.

maintains a speakers' bureau, and

prepares organizational policies, positions. and statements. 1220 King Street,

Suite 200, Alexandria, VA 22314;

(703) 739-0875. Program Contact:

Jim Matlack, Executive Director.
National Health/Education

Consortium

Convened by the National Commission

to Prevent Infant Mortality and the

Institute for Educational Leadership,

this group involves leaders of major

health and education associations in an

effort to integrate health and education

services for children. The Consortium

promotes collaborative approaches,

disseminates information about the

relationship between health and learning, and supports integrated public

policy strategies. Institute for Educational Leadership, 1001 Connecticut

Aveuue NW, Suite 310, Washington,

DC 20036; (202) 822-MO5. National

Commission To Prevent Infant Mortality, Switzer Building, Room 2014,330

C Street SW, Washington, DC 20201:

(202) 472-1364. Program Contact: Rae

Grad, Executive Director.

National Information Center for

Children and Youth With Disabilities

(NICHCY)

This organization provides free infor-

!tuition to assist parents, educators,

caregivers, advocates, and others in

helping children and youth with disabilities. NICIICY provides information on national, state, and local

disability groups for parents and prokssionals and maintains databases with

current information on disability topics.

Publications include News Digest and

Parent Guides. P.O. Box 1492,

Washington, DC 20013;

1400-999-5599,

Parents as Teachers (PAT)

National Center

PAT encourages parents of children

from birth to age 3 to think of themselves as theii children's first and most

influential teachers. It provides information and training to parents, supports

public policy initiatives, and offers

parent educator certification. University

of Missouri-St. Louis, Marillac Hall,

8001 Natural Bridge Road, St, Louis,

MO 63121-4499; (314) 553- .5738.

Program Contact: Claire Eldredge.

Federal Agencies

(see Recent Federal School Readiness

Initiatives on p. 10 )

U.S. Department of Education

400 Maryland Avenue SW

Washington. DC 20202-7240

Office of Bilingual Education and

Minor'ty Languages Affairs

(202) 732-1M0

Office of Educational Research and

Improvement, Education Intbrmation

Branch

1-800-424-1616 or (202 ) 219-1513

Fund for the Improvement and

Reform of Schools and Teaching

(202) 219-14%

Secretary's Fund for

Innovation in Education

(202) 219-1496

Office of Vesearch

(202) 219-2079

Center on Families,

Comnmnities, Schools, and

Children's Learning

(617) 353-3309

Programs tbr the Improvement of

Practice

(202) 219-2164

Far West Laboratory for

Educational Research and

Development

(415) 565-3(10()

Regional Laboratory for

Educatioual Improvement of

the Northeast and Islands

1-800-347-4200

Office of Elementary and Secondary

Education Compensatory Education

Programs (Even Start)

(202) 401-1692

;

U.S. Department of Health and

Human Services

Administration for Children, Youth

and Families

(202) 245-0347

Surgeon General's "Healthy

Children, Ready to Learn"

(202) 245-7163

Clearinghouses

ERIC Clearinghouse on Elementary

and Early Childhood Education

University of Illinois

College of Education

805 West Pennsylvania Avenue

Urbana. IL 61801-4897

(217) 333-1386

ERIC Clearinghouse on

Handicapped and Gifted Children

Council for Exceptional Children

1920 Association Drive

Reston, VA 22091-1589

(703) 264-9474
GENERAL READILG LIST

Achievement Testing in the Early Grades:

The Games Grown-Ups Play

Constance Katti. ed., 1990

This I90-page publication (#340) presents the case

against achievement and readiness testing in kindergarten

and first and second grades and calls fOr a rethinking of

current educational goals and teaching methods. Addresses the concerns of a variety of audiences, including

parents. teachers, administrators, school board members.

policymakers, and the general public. Recommends

alternatives to testing and provides strategies to eliminate

inappropriate practices. ($8.) National Association for the

Education of Young Children. 1834 Connecticut Avenue

NW, Washington, DC 20009-5786: 1-800-424-2460.

Beyond Rhetoric: A New American

Agenda for Children and Families

National Commission on Children. 1991

This report presents a comprehensive national policy that

outlines the steps necessary to ensure that all American

children grow up healthy and productive. Emphasizes

strengthening families and securing the coentry's future.

(First copy free.) National Commission on Children. 1111

18th Street NW, Suite 810, Washington, DC 20036:

(202) 254-3800.

Caring Communities: Supporting

Young Children and Families

National School Readiness Task Force, 1991

This report outlines ways in which communities should

mobilize public. private, and voluntary efforts to assist

young children and families. Recommendations include

providing integrated and comprehensive services, adopting developmentally appropriate teaching and assessment

practices, encouraging parent involvement and support

networks, and improving staff training and compensation.

($10.) National Association of State Boards of Education,

1012 Cameron Street. Alexandria, VA 22314:

(703) 684-4()00.

14

The following titles cover a range of issues regarding

school readiness. Some of them are free; others

are available at a low cost. To order, contact the

agencies listed below.

The Demand and Supply of Child Care in 1990

B. Willer, S. L. Hoffert, E. E. Kisker, P. D. Hawkins,

E. Farquhar. and F. Glantz, 1991

This book (#I36) summarizes highlights from two major

reports: The Nwiandl Child Care Surrey /990, sponsored

by the National Association for the Education of Young

Children and the Administration for Children. Youth and

Families. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services: and A Pr(file of Child Cure Settings, sponsored hy

the Office of Policy and Planning, U.S. Department of

Education. Covers parents' child care needs, the supply

and use of child care centers and family day care homes,

staffing patterns and turnover, program goals and activities, program structure, and fees. ($5.) National Association for the Education of Young Children, 1834

Connecticut Avenue NW, Washington. 'DC 20009-5786:

I -800-424-2460.

Developmentally Appropriate Practices in

Early Childhood Programs Serving Children

From Birth Through Age 8

Sue Bredekamp, ed., 1987

This work (#224) define,s the early childhood profession's

consensus about appropriate and inappropriate teaching

practices for children from infancy to 8 years old. ($5

National Association for the Education of Young Chi,

dren, 1834 Connecticut Avenue NW, Washington, DC"

20009-5786: 1-800-424-2460.

Does Early Intervention Help?

Barbara J. Smith and Philip S. Strain, 1988

This ERIC Digest (#E45.5) defines early intervention and

summarizes research that suggests that early intervention

boosts academic achievement and socialization and is cost

effective over the long term because it saves money in

special services. ($ 1 .) ERIC Clearinghouse on Handicapped and (lifted Children, Council for Exceptional

Children, 1920 Association Drive, Reston, VA

22091-1589: (703) 264-9474.
Early Childhood at Risk: Actions

and Advocacy for Young Children

Victoria Jean Dimidjian. 1989

This 67-page publication (#1481-2) examines the problems of young children who lack the socialization and

academic preparation needed to meet the demands of

learning and to benefit fully from educational programs.

Discusses poverty and young children, detachment from

empowering adults, and pressures to leave childhood

prematurely. Outlines four cornerstones of growth that

must be in place before formal schooling begins. Includes

three case studies of at-risk children. ($7.95.) National

Education Association Professional Library, P.O. Box

509, West Haven, CT 06516.

Early Childhood Education and Child Care:

Challenges and Opportunities for America's

Public Schools

A. Bridgman. 1989

This book (#021-00251) addresses a new role for public

schoolsthat of early childhood educator and child care

provider. It reviews research, identifies exemplary programs, and provides guidance to schools on how to

establish and maintain a successful association. ($16.95.)

American Association of School Administrators, 1801

North Moore Street, Arlington, VA 22209-9988;

(703) 875-0730.

Early Childhood Ed;wation and

the Elementary School Principal

National Association of Elementary School Principals

(NAESP), 1990

This report offers elementary school principals, educators,

and parents guidelines for establishing developmentally

appropriate preschool programs. It provides checklists for

reviewing standards in curriculum, personnel, accountability. parent. and community issues. ($11.95 for NAESP

members; $14.95 for nonmembers.) National Association

of Elementary School Principals. 1615 Duke Street,

Alexandria, VA 22314; (703) 684-3345.

Early Childhood Special Education:

Birth to Three

June B. Jordan, James J. Gallagher, Patricia L. Huntinger,

and Merle B Karnes, eds., 1990

This 257-page book (#P325) is for teachers and program

administrators who are preparing to teach infants and

toddlers with handicaps. It addresses the roles of parents.

paraprofessionals. and professionals as well as state and

local leaders, Among the topics discussed are identifying

clients, implementing Public Law 99-457, and evaluating

programs. ($28.50.) ERIC Clearinghouse on Handicapped

and Gifted Children, Council for Exceptional Children,

1920 Association Drive. Reston. VA 22091-1589:

(703) 264-9471.

Early Intervention for Infants and Toddlers:

A Team Effort

ERIC Clearinghouse on Handicapped and Gilled

Children, 1989

This ERIC Digest (#E461) discusses the implications of

Public Law 99-457, The Education of the Handicapped

Act Amendments of 1986, for the provision of services to

handicapped and at-risk children from birth through 6

years of age and their families. Advocates early intervention team apptoaches. ($1.) ERIC Clearinghouse on

Handicapped and Gifted Children, Council for Exceptional Children. 1920 Association Drive, Reston, VA

22091-1589; (703) 264-9474.

Easing the Transition from

Preschool to Kindergarten

Head Start Bureau, 1987

This booklet is intended as a guide for early childhood

teachers and administrators who Nish to help children

make a smooth transition from pres,:hool to kindergarten.

Stresses communication between the Iwo teachers and

between teachers and parents; identifies possible transition activities. (Multiple copies available free.) Head Start

Bureau, Office of Human Development Services. U.S.

Department of Health and Human Services, P.O. Box

1182, Washington, DC 20013.

Encouraging Young Children's Writing

Jane Machr, 1991

This ERIC Digest (#EDO-PS-9 ) presents a developmental approach to literacy. Young children are

encouraged to write to communicate and express themselves before they have received formal instruction

in the mechanics of reading and writing. High/Scope

early childhood programs are referenced. (Free.) ERIC

Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early Chiklhood

Education, University of Illinois, 805 West Pennsylvania

Avenue, Urbana, IL 61801: (217) 333-1386.

Escalating Kindergarten Curriculum

Lorrie A. Shepard and Mary Lee Smith, 1989

This ERIC Digest (#EDO-RS-89-2) summarizes research

on kindergarten retention and examines the social stigma

the children who arc left behind face. Blames retention on

(continued)
GENERAL READING LIST (continued)

the increasing academic demands of kindergarten: outlines alternatives to retention. (Free.) ERIC Clearinghouse

on Elementary and Early Childhood Education, Univers:ty of Illinois, 805 West Pennsylvania Avenue, Urbana,

IL 61801: (217) 333-1386.

Every Child a Learner:

Reducing Risks of Learning Impairment

During Pregnancy and Infancy

Education Commission of the States, 1990

This report compiles data from multiple sources to ident4 and sulgest ways to alleviate major preventable

conditions associated with the development of learning

problems. (S5 plus S1.90 postage and handling.) Education Commission of the States, 707 17th Street. Suite

2700, Denver, CO 80202-3427: (303) 299-3692.

Excellence in Early Childhood Education:

Defining Characteristics and

Next-Decade Strategies

Sharon L. Kagan, 1990

Part of the Policy Perspectives Series, this 29-page publication analy/es the changing field of early childhood

education an': proposes a definition of excellence that

includes quality, equality. and integrity. Recommends that

the field shift from piecemeal programs to comprehensive, integrated systems. ($1.75.) Superintendent Of

Documents. U.S. (mernment Printing Office,

Washington. IX' 20402-9325: (202) 783-3238.

Families and Early Childhood Programs.

Douglas R. Powell. 1989

This publication (#142) reviev s information on relations

between families and early childhood programs and on

the operation and effectiveness of parent education and

support programs. Includes research and theoretical

perspectives as well as promising program practices. ($6.)

National Association for the Education of Young Children, I 834 Connecticut Avenue NW, Washington, DC

20009-5786: 1-800-424-2460,

Family Living: Suggestions

for Effective Parenting

Lilian 0. Kat/ and others, 1990

This folder (#205) includes 33 articles on parenting and

young children's kelings, behavior, and learning as well

as ERIC Digests. resource lists, and a computer search

reprint on parenting and family lik. Printed on looseleaf

sheets for convenient reproduction and sharing with

parents in formal or informal settings. ($11.75 plus SI.50

postage and handling.) ERIC Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early Childhood Education, 805 West Pennsylvania Avenue, Urbana. IL 61801: (217) 333-1386.

Four-Year-Olds and Public Schooling

Sally Lubeck, 1990

This ERIC ni,l!est (#EDOPS-9-90) explores the demographic and social changes that are prompting the development of public programs for preschoolers and

introduces various types of programs under consideration. including child care in public schools. (Free.)

ERIC Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early Childhood

Education, t iniversity of Illinois, 805 West Pennsylvania

Avenue, Urbana. IL 61801; (217) 333-1386,

Good Teaching Practices

for 4- and 5-Y ear-Olds

National A ociation for the Education of Young

Children, 1990

This brochure (#522) is a position statement that defines

appropriate ways of teaching 4- and 5-year-olds. It is

targeted at parents. teachers, and school administrators,

(5.50 each: $10 for 100 copies.) National Association for

the Educatiog of Young Children. 1834 Connecticut

Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20009-5786:

1-800-424-2460.

Ilmv To Choose a Good

Early Childhood Program

National Association for the Education of Young

'n, 1990

This brochure (#525) k ritten for parents who are

seeking quality care and education for their young
children. A Spanish edition, Como Escoger un Buen

Programa de EducaciOn Pre-Escolar (#510), is also

available at the same price. ($.50 each; $10 for 100

copies.) National Association for the Education of Young

Children, :834 Connecticut Avenue NW, Washington,

DC 20009-5786: 1-800-424-2460.

Kindergarten Policies:

What Is Best for Children?

J. Peck, G. McCaig, and M.E. Sapp

This monograph (#141) discusses research on issues such

as what age children should enter school, the usefulness

of entrance tests, what makes an appropriate kindergarten

curriculum, and full-day versus half-day kindergarten.

($6.) National Association for the Education of Young

Children. 1834 Connecticut Avenue NW, Washington,

DC 20009-5786: 1-800-424-2460.

Parental Involvement in Education

U.S. Department of Education, 1991

Part of the Policy Perspectives Series, this report by

James S. Coleman discusses "social capital"social

relations within the family or community that are important for children's development. The author examines

transformations in American households and asserts that

schools have a new role to play in rebuilding social

capital in communities and families. ($1.50.) Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office,

Washington, DC 20402-9325; (202) 783-3238.

A Parent's Guide to That First Day at School

National School Public Relations Association, 1990

This booklet (#411-13378) presents guidelines regarding

basic skills children should master before entering school

and discusses school registration and the importance of

familiarizing children with their schools and school

grounds before the first day. Includes information about

what parents should expect from schools. ($.69 each,

minimum order of 25 copies.) National School Public

Relations Association, 1501 Lee Highway, Suite 201,

Arlington, VA 22209.

Preparing Young Children

for Success: .r;uideposts for

Achieving Our First National Goal

U.S. Department of Education. 1991

This booklet (#0-299-330) identifies and (Iiscusses key

terms and concepts of the national school readiness goal,

including disadvantaged and disabled children, highquality programs, parental roles, public- and privatesector support for families, linking health and education

issues, and improving service delivery. It identifies

strategies for parents, educators, public and private

sectors, community members, and policymakers and

emphasizes the importance of collaborative efforts.

(Free.) U.S. Department of Education, Office of Elementary and Secondary Education, 400 Maryland Avenue

SW, Room 2183, Washington, DC 20202-6100;

(202) 401-0990.

Protecting Children From

Inappropriate Practices

Sue Bredekamp and Lorrie Shepard, 1990

Adapted from an article in Young Children, this ERIC

Di,qest (#EDO-PS-90-9) addresses making decisions

about school entrance and placement, evaluating programs, planning and individualizing curriculum and

instruction, and promoting appropriate policies. (Free.)

ERIC Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early Childhood

Education, University of Illinois, 805 West Pennsylvania

Avenue, Urbana, IL 61801; (217) 333-1386.

Readiness: Children and Schools

Lilian Katz, 1991

This ERIC Digem (#EDO-PS-91-4) discusses the

concept of readiness in terms of a two-way interaction

between children and schools. Children are more likely

to experience success in their first school experience if

they have a certain degree of social and intellectual

readiness; at the same time, schools must he ready for the

children who enter by having appropriate curriculum and

staffing. (Free.) ERIC Clearinghouse on Elementary and

Early Childhood Education, University of Illinois, 805

West Pennsylvania Avenue, Urbana, IL 61801;

(217) 333-1386.

A Resource Guide to Public

School Early Childhood Programs

('ynthia Warger. ed., 1988

This 198-page hook (#61 I-88036A) guides public

administrators through the planning and implementation

of early childhood programs. Addresses demographic

and economic trends and outlines differences between

academic and developmentally appropriate curricula and

between teacher-directed and child-initiated instruction.

($11.95.) Association for Supervision and Curriculum

Developnwnt, 1250 North Pitt Street, Alexandria, VA

22314: (703 ) 549-9110.

(continued)
GENERAL READING LIST (continued)

Right From the Start

National Association of State Boards of Education, 1988

This professional statement of the National Association of

State Boaeds of Education (#753) discusses strategies for

implementing developmentally appropriate practices with

children 4 to 8 years old. ($8.50.) National Association

for the Education of Young Children, 1834 Connecticut

Avenue NW. Washington. DC 20009-5786.

What Is a Quality Preschool Program?

Educational Resources Information Center, 1991

This pamphlet addresses commonly asked questions

about preschool programs and discusses the importance

of holistic, child-initiated activities. (Free in quantities up

to 10; may be reproduce(l for larger groups.) ACCESS

ERIC. 1600 Research Boulevard, Rockville. MD

20850-.3172; 1-800USEERIC (873-3742).

For Your Information

"For Your Information" is a column to help you stay abreast of important ERIC System developments.

It provides information about new programs. products. and services from ERIC Clearinghouses and

Support Components.

Adjunct Clearinghouse on

Consumer Education Opens

The ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult. Caret:r. and Vocational Education (ERIC/ACVE). in conjunction with

the National Institute for Consumer Education at

Eastern Michigan University, has developed the Adjunct ERIC Clearinghouse on Consumer Education.

Adjunct staff will identify and select materials related

to consumer education, including decisionmaking,

resource management, and citizen participation, tOr

entry into the ERIC database. They will also work with

ERIC/ACVE in publication development and dissennnation activities. Rose lla Bannister is director and

Patricia Bonur is associate director of the Adjunct

ERIC Clearinghouse on Consumer Education at the

following address:

National Institute for Consumer Education

Eastern Michigan University

207 Rackham Building

Ypsilanti, MI 48197

(313) 487-2292

ERIC Facility Relocates

The ERIC Processing and Reference Facility has

moved to 1301 Piccard Drive, Suite 300, Rockville.

MD 20850-4305. Those who wish to submit docu18

mins t'or possible inclusion in the database and are not

sure which Clearinghouse is most closely related to their

subject matter should use this address when mailing

copies. The ERIC Facility's phone number remains

(301) 258-550().

New Publication Highlights 350

Education-Related Information Centers

The 1992 ERIC Directory of Education-Related Inf Orinaflan Centers, a resource on organizations offering reference and referral services to the general public. is now

available from ACCESS ERIC for $15.* The EducationRelated InfOrmation Centers directory describes 350

resource centers and other agencies providing information

services such as publications, databases, and toll-free

reference and referral phone lines related to some facet of

education. Each entry includes contact information, a

description of the organization and its target audience,

and types of publications and services provided. Subjects

covered range from AIDS to youth programs; subject

and geographic indexes are included. To order. contact

ACCESS ERIC, 1600 Research Boulevard, Rockville,

MD 20850-3172; 1-800USEERIC (873-3742).

*Add 52 handling for each publication shipped to Canada

and $4 handling for each publication shipped to other

foreign countries.
EARLY SCHOOL ENTRY Is

ESSENTIAL FOR

MANY GIFTED CHILDREN

At least since the appearance of the classic study

of school readiness by

Morphet and Washburne (1931), and

doubtless long before, educators have

debated the issue of when children

should start school. Nevertheless,

"readiness." as Dr. Lilian Katz notes.

remains an elusive construct. Parents

and teachers have known from the

beginning of this debate, however.

that some children do benefit from

schooling sooner than others.

The success of early school entry stems

from two characteristics: first, the

intellectual orientation of the home

(Bloom, 1985) and second (to the

extent that it is distinguishable from the

first), the developmental characteristics

of the child (Roedell. Jackson, and

Robinson, 1980). In the case of gifted

children, standardized tests capture data

related to these characteristics.

Gifted children learn rapidly, and for

them in particular, the instruction most

schools provide moves too slowly

(Rogers, 1986). Fortunately, most

states now make provisions for the

identification of gifted children, and

most rely on IQ tests flit- this purpose

(Howley, 1986). Whatever the dubious

uses of IQ tests (Gould, 1981), they do

reliably identify very able children who

can move rapidly through schools as

they exist--rather than schools in some

idealized, and perhaps unattainable,

future state. Courts have consistently

upheld the use of IQ tests for this

purpose (Zirkel and Stevens, 1986).

by Craig Howley

For many of these young children,

early entry into kindergarten and first

grade is essential (Pendarvis, Howley.

and Howley, 1990; Rogers, 1986). It is

not only legally defensible. but also

able to be challenged by parents exercising due process rights when denied

(Howley, 1986; Zirkel and Stevens,

1987),

Acceleration takes many forms, including early entry to school, and is one of

the most evident success stories in

American education (Braga, 1971:

Daurio, 1979; Kulik and Kulik, 1984;

Rogers, 1986). If' we insist that all

.nildren enter school at the same time.

what is to prevent us from applying that

principle to acceleration at all ages?

Indeed, many schools seem to take

exactly that position in practice Isce

Howley (1987) for a description of the

normative view that would apply such a

rigid position to all childrenl. As a

result, full-year accelerations are still

remarkably difficult to arrange for very

able children at any age (Howley,

1987; Stanley, 1986).

How can educators tell when early

entry is beneficial for apparently able

children'? First, educators need to

approach the entire question flexibly.

Administrators, in particular. need to

exert leadership. They need to credit

acceleration as an effective and widely

applicable option for gifted children,

and cultivate its use on that basis. For

all childrenbut especially gifted

childrenthe position that the only

legally and ethically defensible critc

rion for school entry is whatever date is

set by district policy or state regulation

is simply not viable.

Second, educators need to involve

parents in planning and carrying out

early entry placements. This effort will

inevitably require some training for

both parents and staff. If parents.

teachers, and the bright young children

who concern them communicate about

the issues and endorse the effort, early

entry arrangements proceed more

smoothly.

Third, on a more mundane level.

orderly procedures for considering

options and developing plans need to

be designed and followed. In many

cases. the placement procedures used in

special education will be technically

adequate, but educators need to voice

and act upon knowledge that acceleration is appropriate and neces . for

many very able studentsthat is, for

most of the gifted and for quite a few

other able students as well.

Finally. typical readiness indicators

(such as print awareness, familiarity

with books. and early reading and math

skills), especially in combination with

identified giftedness, can help parents

and educators decide between early

entry to kindergarten and early entry to

first grade.

Craig Howley is Co-Director of the ERIC

Clearinghouse on Rural Education and

Small Scheols.

19
None of the preceding points is meant

to suggest that social. emotional, and

physical characteristics are irrelevant.

Christopherson (1981), in advocating

developmental placement, provides

some guidelines for considering the

issue. His rule of thumb is that the

young gifted child should "exceed the

33rd percentile of older children for

social and emotional development and

the 10th percentile for physical development" in comparison to students in

the new placement (p. 41).

Social, emotional, and physical considerations are usually not impediments

to the successful acceleration of able

youngsters. A more common experience is that able students who languish

in the lockstep of age-grade placement become bored, frustrated, and

cynical at early ages. In such straits.

some children amuse themselves by

instigating trouble among classmates.

Of course, when parents and educators

accelerate students, they should expect

minor adjustment problems. Such

problems are normal, and informed and

caring adults will take responsibility

for solving the difficulties that arise.

The fact that some adults have difficulty accepting such responsibility

should not he a barrier to early entry

and other forms of acceleration.

Obviously. some accelerated placements will not work out. With respect

to social and emotional development.

in particular. children in these circumstances must be protected from the

tendency of adults to regard them as

failures. The failure to accelerate able

students, though much less visible than

the risk of unsuccessful placement.

does much greater damage to more

students.

References

Bloom, 13. (1985). Developing 'Went in

Young People. New York: Ballantine

Books,

Braga, J. (1971). "Early Admission:

Opinion Versus Evidence." The Elenwntary

School Journal. 72: 35-46,

Christopherson. S. (1981). "Developmental

Placement in the Regular School Program."

GICIT. (19 ): 40-41.

Daurio. S. (1979). "Educational Enrichment

versus Acceleration: A Review of the

Literature." In W, George. S. Cohn. and

J. Stanley (Eds.). Educating the Gifted:

Acceleration and Enriciniww. 13-63,

Baltimore. MD: Johns Hopkins University

Press.

iould. S. (1981). The Misnwaswe of Alan.

New York: Norton,

Howley. C. ( 1986 ). lntelleimally Gifted

Students: Issue% and Polu'V

( harleston. WV: Appalachia Educational

Laboratory. El) 296 569,

I hiwley. C. (1987). "It's ( 'ontroversial. but

'Acceleration' Could Bring Gifted Kids Up to

1:ull Speed ." menican Sclund Board .hnirnal.

174 (6): 32-33, 40.

Kulik. J. and C. Kulik (1984). "Effects

of Accelerated Instruction on Students."

/?eview °II:Wheat/ono! ReSeareh, 54 (3):

409-425.

Morphet, M. and C. Washburne (1931).

"When Should Children Begin to Read'?"

Elementary School Journal, 3I:

496-503.

Pendarvis, E., A. Howley. and C. Howley

(1990). The Abilities f Gifted Children.

Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Roedell. W., N. Jackson. and H. Robinson

(1980). Gifted Young Children. New York:

Teachers College Press.

Rogers. K. (1986). Review of Research on

the Education of Intelledually and Academically Gifted Students. St. Paul, MN:

Minnesota State Department of Education.

ED 268 761,

Stanley J. (April 1986). "The Urgent Need

for an Academic Focus." Paper presented at

the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association. San Francisco,

CA. El) 277 205,

Zirke!. P. and P. Stevens (1986). "Commentary: The Law Concerning Public Education

of Gifted Students." West's Education Law

Reporter, 34: 353-367.

tr A,-

t .4 It

\Y 16. '444

"Building Academically Strong Gifted Programs in Rural Schools"

"Buikiing Academically Strong Gifted Programs in Rural Schools"(ER/C Digest EDORC-89) is a

free two-page research synthesis available from the ERIC Clearinghouse on Rural Education and

Small Schools.

In! Call

1-800-624-9120

and usk for ERICICRESS User Services.
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PREPARING CHILDREN

WITH DISABILITIES

FOR SCHOOL

by Dianna Pinkerton

ERIC Clearinghouse on lIandicapped and Gifted Children

ERIC Digest Series No. EDO-EC-9 1-8

"All disadvantaged awl

disabled children will have

access to high quality and

developmentally appropriate

lyres(' Iwo )rograms that help

prepare children Pr school.''

-- Objective under Goal 1 Of the

National Education Goals

How Does the Federal

Government Support

Readiness for Children

With Disabilities?

Public Law 99-457, the 1986 Amendments to the Education of the Ilandicapped Act (ElIA I. addresses the needs

of young children with disabilities

through two programs: the Handicapped Infants and Toddlers Program

for children from birth through age 2

and the Preschool Grants Program for

3- to 5-year-old?. Together these

Firograms represent an important effort

to expand the scope of services available to the nation's youngest children

ith disabilities and their families. The

Ilandicapped Infants and Toddlers

Program. Part 11 of the ElIA. supports

the planning. developmenL and implementation of an interagency system of

early intervention services for infants

and tAdlers who have disabilities. The

Preschool Grants Program. Section 619

of Part 13 of the ElIA. is designed to

ensure the availability of a free, appropriate public education for all children

ages 3 to 5 with disabilities. Both

programs provide federal support for

meeting Goal 1 of the National Education Goals: "13y the year 2000, ali

children in America will start school

ready to learn.- During the 1989-90

school year. approximately 642.000

children were served through these

programs (Thirteenth Annual Report to

(ollgresA, 1991).

What Special Problems

Do Children With

Disabilities Face as They

Make the Transition From

Preschool to the General

School Setting?

The transition from preschool to school

can he difficult for a child with disabilities. The preschool environment, characteriied by small groups and individual

attention, i replaced by classrooms with

21
more children, fewer adults per child.

and a greater demand for adapting to

general classroom procedures and

working independently (Carta, Atwater,

Schwartz, and Miller. I 990), Parents

and teachers from both receiving and

sending programs need to be involved in

placement as well as in scheduling and

facilitating the move (Fowler, Schwartz,

and Atwater. 1991). Public Law 99-457

recognizes the importance of preparing

children and their families by requiring

that specific steps be addressed in each

child's Individualized Family Service

Plan for children from birth through 2

years, or Individualized Education

Program (IEP) for preschool children.

What Role Do

Families Play?

Family members play a key role in

providing information about the child's

abilities, strengths and weaknesses, and

interests. Parental insights complement

information obtained from preschool

sources and provide a broader picture

of the child's capabilities and needs.

Identifying specific ways for parents to

be involved in the process is essential

to a good transition (Bemheimer,

Gallimore, and Weisner. 1990).

Parents may act as teachers, partners,

decisionmakers. or advocates (Shearer

and Shearer. 1977). They are teachers

when they reinforce the skills acquired

in preschool, partners when they communicate needs with school personnel.

and decisionmakers when they participate in the IEP process. Parents can

help prepare the child for the transition

to public school by maintaining and

generalizing skills necessary for the

transition. They also serve as u bridge

between the two programs, visiting the

new program with their child, helping

the child to become familiar with the

new setting, and discussing concerns

and fears connected with the upcoming

change. They can also help bridge the

gap by arranging visits with former

preschool friends and teachers as well

as with new classmates. Parents can

help their child deveiop skills in following directions, playing independently.

attending to task, and caring for themselves. These skills will help prerne

the child for the new setting (Hains,

l'owler, and Chandler, 1988).

What Role Do

Teachers Play?

Both sending and receiving teachers

play important roles in the transition

process. Teacher attitudes, instructional

priorities, and communication with

parents and other members of the

transition team will determine the

quality of the child's transition (Hains,

Fowler, and Chandler. 1988), Sending

Lnd receiving teachers may have

different goals and priorities, but they

play complementary roles in preparing

the child for the move from preschool

to the general school setting.

The sending teacher should find out

what skills the child will need to function adequately in the new setting and

implement a program for preparing the

child to develop those skills. Familiarity with the receiving program is

essential to design an appropriate

transition curriculum. The sending

teacher can gain a better understanding

of prerequisite skills by visiting the

receiving classroom.

Behavioral requirements for successful

functioning for children placed in an

integrated setting have been assessed

and are referred to as "survival skills."

These survival skills include functioning independently during group instruction, following classroom routines,

completing tasks within an allotted

time period, and working in the libsence of teacher direction. Teaching

survival skills as part of the preschool

curriculum helps prepare the child tor

the demands of the general school

setting (Carta. Atwater, and Schwartz,

1991). Skill-building activities should

be developmentally appropriate for

each child.

The success of the transition preparation is ultimately determined by the

child's adaptation to the new environment. The receiving teacher's attitude

toward and experience with children

with disabilities may be factors in the

success of the child's placement. Some

flexibility will probably be required on

the teacher's part to adjust expectations

and adapt to the child's special needs.

The sending and receiving teachers will

have the continuing role of acting as

liaisons between programs and with

parents. Good communication and

clearly defined goals will facilitate the

preparation for the child's move from

preschool to the general school setting,

What Are the Elements

of a Successful

Transition Process?

The Capstone Transitioli Process

(Johnson, Cook, and Yongue, 1990) is

one model that provides clear guidelines for the transition process. The first

activity initiates long-range planning by

establishing a "Transition Timeline,"

This timeline serves as a guide for

accomplishing transition activities and

can be set up in chart form to track

activities. The Capstone Transition

Process addresses specific activities

beginning 12 months before the move

to a new program. The process includes

preparation, implementation. and

evaluation activities. The initial steps of

the process are designed to prepare the

participants for their role in the transition. Steps include notifying and

preparing parents and teachers from

both the sending and the receiving

programs; collecting and updating data

regarding the child's needs; and developing a profile of communication

procedures, available services, prerequisite skills, and teacher expectations.

The preparation phase of the process

culminates with the development by the

transition team of an IEP for use as the

basis of educational programming in

the new setting. Following the IEP

meeting, the timeline provides reminders for the transfer of information and

records to the receiving program. The

final step calls for an evaluation of the

effectiveness of the process.

Capstone Transition

Timeline

Develop transition timeline,

Notify appropriate administrators

of students approaching transition.

Inform parenns) or primary

caregiver(s) that the child will he

transitioning and collect information on

family transition needs,

Determine communication policy

of potential receiving program(s) and

obtain description of program(s),
Obtain information from teacher(s)

in potential receiving program(s).

including the program or classroom

overview and skills perceived as

important for transition into classroom.

Verify the receipt of transition

information or follow up request for

transition or other information,

Reevaluate; verify assessment and

Prepare parents for transition

planning meeting.

Hold transition planning meeting.

Hold IEP meeting. Obtain

permission from parents to release

information.

Provide information to all

transition team participants.

Link parent or primary caregiver of

child transitioning with a parent or

primary caregiver of a child already

attending the new program.

II Send receiving program all

pertinent records and verify their

receipt.

III Provide receiving program with

information about the child's current

program.

Evaluate the effectiveness 01 the

process after completion.

References

Bernheimer. I..P.. R. (iallimore. and T.S.

Weisner (1990). "Ecocuhural Theory as a

Context for the Individual Eand ly Service

Plan.".fimmal of Early Intervention. 14 (3):

219-.233.

Carta. J.J...1,13. Atwater. and I.S. Schwartz

(April 1991). The Effects of Classroom

:survival Skills Infer ventnni On Yolinm

Children with Disabilities: Results of a

Two..yeur follow.Vp. Presentation at the

Biennial Meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development. Seattle. WA.

Carta..13.. J.B. Atwater. I.S. Schwartz. and

P.A. Miller I I 990). "Applications of

Ecobehavioral Analysis to the Study of

Transitions Across Early Education Settings." Educanon and Treatment (y.

Chihlren. 13 (4): 298-315.

Executive Office of the President (1990).

National (1 oals for Education. Washington.

DC. ED 319 141

Fowler. S.A., I.S. Schwartz. andJ,B.

Atwater (19)1). "Perspectives on the

Tnnsitnin From Preschiml to Kindergarten

for Children with Disabilities and Tkir

Families." Exceptional ( 'hildren. 58 12)

136-145.

Ilains. A.11., S.A. Fow ler. and I..K.

Chandler (1988). "Planning School TransiMins: Family and Professional Collaboratkin.",/onrind the Division lot Earls.

Childlmod. 12 (2): 108-115. EJ 368 964.

Johnson. 1.3.. M. Cook. and C.P. Vongue

1990 ). Capstone Tran.sition PrOce.s.s.

Unputlished manuscript. University of

Alabama.

Shearer. M,S, and D.E. Shearer (1977).

"Parent Involvement." In J.B. Jordan. A.

Hayden. M.B. Karnes. and M.M. Wood

( Eds. I. Early (7a/hood Edraafam tor

Exception/it Children: A Handbook ol Ideas

and E.semplary Practices-. Reston, VA:

The Council for Exceptional ('hildren. El)

132 788.

Thirteenth Annual Report to Cont:ress oil

the Implementation (1f the hhication of the

Handicapped Act (1)91). Washington. DC:

U.S. Department of Education.

BEST COPY AV:ir,

Majority of Elementary

Students Attended

Preschool

Accordinv U, prelmnnary lindings

from the 1991 National Household

Education Sursev (MIES:91i, 71

percent or children in In st Or second

grade in 199 I attended a day eare

center or nursery schinil prcigrain

incluiling prekindergarten or Ilead

Start.-- on a regular basis before

starting first grade.

The survey. conducted by the I .5.

Department of Education's National

( Liner for Education Statistics,

invoked telephone interview. w ith the

parents or guardiaiis of 13,892 children between the ages of 3 and 8

t.

years.

Attendance at Center-based priigrams

was found to correlate w ith the

educational status of the children's

parents. w liii Vhildren of more highl%

educated parents more likely to has e

attended a preschivol program tit sonie

sort. Among the findings:

I About 53 percent of the chiklren

in familic!, ir which no parent had

completed high school did not attend a

center-based program prior to first

grade.

About 21 percent of the children

in families in which one or both

parents highest level of education

ss as a bachelor's degree did not !lase a

center-based program experience

before entering first grade.

Off- questions in the 1991 National

Housenold Education Sursey addrcssed kinderganen and primary

school entry. retention in early grade..

parent participation in their child's

education. and the education encironMent of the home.

The National Center lor hlucation

Statistics w ill release more Infiniti&

tion about this survey in the coining

months. Public use data files nia k.

purctia. ed from NCES starting in

early 1992. Eor more information on

NIIES:9 I or lo receise Climes of early

data releases. write to the U.S. Department of Education. Office of Educational Research and Improvement.

Education Intimation Branch. 555

New Jersey Asenue NW. Washington.

DC 20208.-5641.

Jerry West

National Center lor

Education Statistics
New Titles imEducatioti

I, L

This column features new publications produced by the ERIC Clearinghouses and the O .e of Educational Research and

Improvement, as well as selected resources recently abstracted from the ERIC databa . Title, author, availability, cost,

order number, and a brief description are provided to help you locate these resource easily through ERIC.

It' a publication is for sale, the price is listed; make your check or money ordr eayable to the organization receiving your

order. To expedite handling of your order, please refer to the order numbi.. (if provided) as well as the title. ERIC document (ED) numbers are prmided, when available, for readers who wish to order microfiche or paper copy from the ERIC

Document Reproduction Service (1-800-443ERIC).

For readers interested in other education titles, the Catalog Qf ERIC Clearinghouse Publications is a comprehensive listing

of free and low-cost education materials produced by the Clearinghouses and support components. To order the Catalog,

send a check or money order for $8 to ACCESS ERIC, 1600 Research Boulevard, Rockville, MD 20850-3172.

: : . Order these publications from Center Publications, Center

on Education and Training for Employment, 19(X) Kenny

Road, Columbus, OH 43210-1090; 1-800-848-4815.

Competency-Based Career Development Strategies and

National Career Development Guidelines, 1991

ED 327 739

Howard Splete and Amy Stewart

IN 345; $10.50

Provides an overview of the National Career Development Guidelines and analyzes the abstracts of 1,500 ERIC

documents coded by National Guidelines areas and

competencies and education level (e.g., elementary, high

school, community college). Includes sample career

development activities related to the National Guidelines

for each education level.

Family and Intergenerational Literacy Programs;

An Update of "The Noises of Literacy," 1991

ED 327 736

Ruth S. Nickse

IN 342; $8.75

Discusses trends and issues in family and intergenerational literacy progiams sponsored by schools, libraries,

community service organizations, and corporations.

Describes 12 programs that combine approaches from

adult basic skills improvement and children's literacy

development and assesses four generic program modek.

Aft

. Order these publications from the ERIC Clearinghouse on

Counseling and Personnel Services, University of Michigan, School of Education, Room 2108. 610 East University

Street, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-125; (313) 764-9492.

Counseling Futures, 1991

ED 329 862

Garry R. Walz and others

EC 109; $8.95

Presents a look at the evolution and future direction of

counseling and counselor education. Addresses the impact

of societal changes on counseling.

CounselorQuest: Concise Analyses

of Critical Counceling Topics, 1991

ED 330 984

Garry R. Walz, compiler

$19.95

Comprkes 167 ER/C Digests from 8 ERIC Clearinghouses on topics of interest to counselors who work with

clients from preschool age through adulthood. The Digests

are indexed by educational level and topic. They address a

wide range of issues, including at-risk students, career

development, school selection, and stress.

Order these publications from the ERIC Clearinghouse on

Educational Management, University of Oregon. 1787

Agate Street, Eugene, OR 97403-5207; (503) 346-5043.

Involving the Families of At-Risk Youth

in the Educational Process, 1991

ED 328 946

Lynn Balster Liontos

$6 prepaid; add $2.50 handling for billed orders

Provides suggestions for involving families who are poor,

nonwhite. or speak a language other than English in the

education of their children. Identifies barriers in reaching

at-risk families and proposes ways of overcoming these

barriers.
Principe Is: How To Train, Recruit, Select, Induct,

and Evaluate Leaders for America's Schools, 1991

Mark E. Anderson

$8.95 prepaid; add $2.50 handling for billed orders

Summarizes and draws implications from research and

exemplary practices related to the recruitment, training,

and retention of effective elementary and secondary

school principals.

Older this publication from the ERIC Clearinghouse on

Elementary and Early Childhood Education, University of

Illinois, 805 West Pennsylvania Avenue, Urbana, IL

61801; (217) 333-1386.

The Teacher's Role in the Social

Development of Young Children, 1991

ED 331 642

Lilian G. Katz and Diane E. McClellan

Cat. #207; $10 plus $1.50 for postage and handling

Describes social competence and how it develops in

children. Provides teaching strategies for strengthening

children's inte.active skills in areas such as turn-taking

and dealing with differences .

andicapped and Gifted Children

Order these publications from the ER1C/OSEP Special

Project, ERIC Clearinghouse on Handicapped and Gifted

Children, The Council for Exceptional Children (CEC),

1920 Association Drive, Reston, VA 22091;

(703) 620-3660.

Exceptional Children at RiskCEC Mini-Library,

1991

$88/set or $8.90/book; $62/set or $6.25/book for CEC

members

Provides a synthesis of literature in the different aress of

risk and offers suggestions for teachers, program developers. arid administrators in a series of 1 I booklets. Topics

covered include aggressive and violent students, abuse

and neglect of exceptional children, special health care

in the school, the homeless population. dropouts from

special education, substance-exposed children, depression

and suicide, language-minority students with disabilities,

alcohol use and disabilities, rural exceptional children and

youth, and pregnant and parenting youth in special

education.

Integrating Services for Children and Youth

With Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 1991

$25: $17.50 for CEC members

Outlines the need for and methods of delivering

interagency programs and services for young people with

emotional and behavioral disorders. Links the fields of

special education, social work, psychology, and medicine.

Igher Education

Order these publications from ASHE-ER1C Higher

rducation Reports, 1 Dupont Circle, Suite 630,

Vashington, DC 20036; (202) 296-2597.

.dive Learning: Creating

Excitement in the Classroom, 1991

Charles C. Bonwell and James A. Eison

ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report 91-1; $17

Defines and describes the benefits of active learning in

higher education; presents alternatives to traditional

lectures, including student reading, writing, discussion,

and problem solving; addresses barriers associated with

the use of active learning; and makes recommendations

for individuals and institutions.

Social Consciousness and Career Awareness:

Emerging Link in Higher Education, 1990

John S. Swift, Jr.

ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report 90-8; $17

Reviews current literature and data on volunteerism in

higher education, including the characteristics and desires

of today's college students; the economic, social, and

personal aspects of volunteerimr existent local and

national service programs; and future directions. 111 Order these publications from the ERIC Clearinghouse on

Information Resources, Syracuse University, 030 Huntington Hall, Syracuse, NY 13244-2340; (315) 443-3640.

A Practical Guide to Preservation

in School and Public Libraries, 1990

Maxine K. Sins

IR-90; $6.50 plus $2 shipping and handling

Offers suggestions for preserving library resources

through the education of staff and patrons and proper

shelving, maintenance, repair, and binding of materials.

Includes annotated references and two appendices on the

development of a nationwide preservation program and

the Commission on Preservation and Access.

25
New Titles in Education

vm

Survey of Instructional

Development Models, 2nd ed.. 1991

Kent L. Gustafson

1R-91: $7.50 plus $2 shipping and handling

Reviews some of the current instructional development

models, presents a taxonomy thr classifying them, and

describes trends in their content and focus. Includes an

annotated bibliography of selected instructional development models found in the ERIC database.

tunlor Colleges

Order these publications from Jossey-Bass Inc.. Publishers. 350 Sansome Street. San Rancisco, CA 94101.

Writing Across the Curriculum in Community

Colleges: New Directions for Community Colleges, 1991

ED 330 420

Linda C. Stanley and Joanna Ambron, editors

No. 73: $15.95

Includes 15 articles on various aspects of writing across

the curriculum (WAC). Topies covered include WAC

history, the use of journak and workshops to promote

writing in various disciplines, and WAC techniques for

linguistically diverse students.

Rekindling Minority Participation:

New Directions for Community Colleges, 1991

Dan Angel and Adriana Barrera, editors

No, 74: $15.95

Addresses a full range of ksues related to community

college access, including recruitment, retention, and

transfer of minority students. Also examines the roles of

faculty and administration in a racially diverse setting.

Order these puNications from the ERIC Clearinghouse on

Languages and Linguistics, Center for Applied Linguktics. 1118 22nd Street NW. Washington, DC 20037-0037:

I 202) 429-955 I . Elementary School (K-8) Foreign Language

Teacher Education Curriculum, 1992

S8

Describes 14 elementary school foreign language teacher

competencies and identifies institutional experiences.

resources, and evaluation procedures fo fulfilling these

competencies. Includes a bibliography and appendices.

26

French in the Elementary School:

A Content-Rased Curriculum, 1989

April Anderson

$19.50

Includes sample unit plans, program goals, vocabulary

scope and sequence charts. 17 units with masters and

worksheets for photocopying, sample content-based

lessons. a bibliography, and resource lists. Packet is

unbound and prepunched for three-ring binders.

eading and Communication

Skills

Order these publications from the ERIC Clearinghouse on

Reading and Communication Skills, Indiana University,

Smith Research Center. Suite 150, 2805 East 10th Street.

Bloomington. IN 47408-2698: (812) 855-5847.

Alter, tive Assessment of Performance

in the Language Arts: Proceedings

Carl B. Smith. editor. 1991

$19.95

Captures the many debates that surfaced when 100 leading theorists, educators, policymakers. teachers. and

publishers gathered at a 1990 symposium, cohosted by

ER1C/RCS and Phi Delta Kappa, to discuss issues and

conflicts in high-stakes assessment in the language arts.

Topics iiwlude means of assessment and the relationship

between assessment, instruction, and learning.

Teacher Effectiveness and Reading Instruction

Richard D. Robinson, 1991

$12,95

Distills the results of research on teacher effeL tiveness

based on in-class observation of good teachers "caught in

the act- of teaching well. Offers suggestions to enable

reading teachers to tailor research results for their own

settings and students.

Order these publications from the ERIC Clearinghouse on

Rural Education and Small Schools, Appalachia Educational Laboratory, P.O. Box 1348, Charleston, WV

25325: 1-800-624-9120.

2'
The Distance Education Handbook: An AdminOrator's

Guide for Rural and Remote Schools. 1992

Bruce O. Barker

$10

Describes ways that telecommunications technologies are

being used to deliver instruction to distant audiences of

KI2 students in the United States, particularly in small,

rural, or remote schools. Includes intimation on technology. costs, available programs, and effectiveness.

A Parent's Guide to the ERIC Database, rev. ed., 1992

Craig B. Howley, Phyllis Stowers, and Pat Cahape

$10

Provides bask guidance to parents who are interested in

searching the ERIC education database for answers to

their questions about schooling. Includes brief descriptions of 55 articles, brochures, and guide ..loped for

parents as well as ordering information.

cience, Mathematics, and

Environmental Education

Order these publications from the ERIC Clearinghouse on

Science, Mathematics, and Environmental Education,

Ohio State University, 12(X) Chambers Road, Room 310,

Columbus, OH 43212-1792; (614) 292-6717.

Environmental Literacy: Its Roots, Evolution, and

Direction in the 1990s, 1992

Charles Roth

$9,50

Explores environmental literacy as a dimension of citizenship education: What do students need to know to

understand the environment-related choices available to

individuals and to society?

Integrated Science and Mathematics Teaching and

Learning, 1992

Art White and others

Price to be announced

Provides both a theoretical and a practical framework

for integrating science and mathematics in the school

cu&eulum.

Order this publication from the ERIC Clearinghouse for

Social Studies/Social Science Education, Indiana University, Social Studies Development Center, 2805 East 10th

Street, Suite 120, Bloomington, IN 47408-2698;

(812) 855-3838.

A High School Student's Bill of Rights, 1991

Stephen S. Gottlieb

$12.95

Offers 40 lesson outlines covering significant judicial

decisions related to the rights of adolescents, including

free speech in high school assemblies, freedom of the

press in school newspapers, and search and seizure of

drugs and weapons in students' lockers. Copublished with

the ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading and Communication

Skills as part of the TRIED series.

Order this publication from the Anti-Defamation League

of B'nai B'rith, 823 United Nations Plaza, New York, NY

10017; (212) 490-2525.

How to Teach the Bill of Rights, 1991

John J. Patrick with Robert S. Leming

$12.50 plus $2.50 for shipping and handling

Advises secondary school teachers about ways to incorporate U.S. Constitution and Bill of Rights issues into

American history. government, and civics classes through

reading, analysis, and discussions of primary documents

and legal case studies.

eache Education

Order these publications from the ERIC Clearinghouse on

Teacher Education, American Association of Colleges for

Teacher Education, One Dupont Circle NW, Suite 610,

Washington, DC 20036-2412; (202) 293-2450,

Motivation, Rewards, and Incentives, 1991

EI) 330 692

Mary E. Dilworth

Trends & Issues Paper #3; $12

Assesses teacher motivation and teachers' perceptions of

professional rewards and incentives across ethnic groups.

Includes implications for the recruitment and retention of

minority teachers.

Professional Development Schools: Toward a New

Relationship for Schools and Universities, 1991

ED 339 690

Raphael 0. Nystrand

Trends & Issues Paper #4; $12

Explores the creation of professional development schools

in which universities and school districts collaborate to

model exemplary practice, prepare teachers, and conduct

research with an emphasis on reflectiveness and shared

governance.

111
28

Order this publication from the National Assessment of

Educational Progress (NAEP), Educational Testing

Service, P.O. Box 6710, Princeton, NJ 08541-6710,

The NAEP Guide: A Description of the Content and

Methods o f the 1990 and 1992 Assessments, 1991

ED 325 504

Ina V. S. Mullis and others

Free

Documents current National Assessment of Educational

Progress (NAEP) methods for national arid state assessments. explains the philosophies and procedures of NAEP,

and discusses the assessments as an indicator of academic

achievement.

:than EdudatiOn

Order these nublications from the ERIC Clearinghouse on

Urban Education, Teachers College, Columbia University,

Box 40, New York, NY 10027-9998; (212) 678-3433.

Programs and Policies To Foster African

American Male Academic Achievement, 1990

Carol Ascher

Urban Diversity Series #103; $ 8

Surveys public school programs designed to meet the

special educational needs of this population.

Teaching Mathematics With Understanding

to Limited English Proficient Students, 1990

ED 322 284

Walter G. Secada and Deborah A. Carey

Urban Diversity Series #101; $8

Reviews literature and experience on effective teaching of

mathematics to limited English proficient students in

monolingual and bilingual classrooms. Describes two

instructional techniques in detail.

1P2?/1\

floe of Educational Research

and Improvement (OERI)/U.S.

Department of Education

Order this publication from the Consumer Information

Center, Box 452X, Pueblo. CO 81009.

You Can Help Your Young Child Learn Mathematics,

1991

Item 452X; 5.50

Offers tips for parents to help their children succeed in

mathematics and suggests math-related family activities

involving shopping, traveling, cooking, and playing.

Order these publications from the Superintendent of

Documents. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC' 20402-9325; (202) 783-3238.

Condition of Education 1991, Volume 1:

Elementary and Secondary Education

ED 330 121

#065-000-00454-2; $12

Assesses the status of U.S. elementary and secondary

education according to 30 indicators related to student

progress and outcomes; teacher. administrator, and school

characteristics; and fiscal resources. New indicators

address high school completion, post-schooling employment. mathematics and science course-taking, teacher

qualifications, and international comparisons of school

expenditures.

Condition of Education 1991, Volume 2:

Postsecondary Education

ED 330 122

#065-0(X)-00455-1; $12

Assesses the status of postsecondary education in the

United States according to 30 indicators related to student

progress and outcomes, institutional characteristics, and

financial and human resources. New indicators include

net cost of college attendance, fields of study by sex,

starting salaries of graduates, and faculty workload.

Digest of Education Statistics 1991

#065-000-00468-2; $25

Provides more than 4(X) pages of statistical data on most

aspects of U.S. education, both public and private, from

kindergarten through postsecondary levels. Includes data

on enrollment, achievement, and finances.

* U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1992 311-990/63101
ERIC Directory

Educational Resources Information Center

(ERIC)

U.S. Department of Education

Office of Educational Research and

Improvement (OERI)

555 New Jersey Avenue NW

Washington, DC 20208-5720

Telephone: (202) 219-2259

FAX: (202) 219-1817

Clearinghouses

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Telephone: (MO) 545-4515

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FAX: (614) 292-1260

Counseling and Personnel Services (CG)

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School of Education. Room 2105

610 East University Street

Ann Arbor, MI 48109-1259

Telephone: (313) 764-9492

FAX: (313) 747-2425

Educational Management (EA)

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Telephone: (503) 346-5043

FAX: (503) 346-5590

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University of Illinois

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505 West Pennsylvania Avenue

Urbana. IL 61801-4597

Telephone: (217) 333-1356

FAX: (217) 333-3767

Handicapped and Gifted Children (EC)

Council for Exceptional Children

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Telephone: (703) 264-9474

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Information Resources (IR)

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Languages and Linguistics (FL)

Center for Applied Linguistics

1118 22nd Street NW

Washington, DC' 20037-41037

Telephone: (202) 429-9551

FAX: (202) 659-564 I

Reading and Communication Skills (CS)

Indiana University

Smith Research Center, Suite 150

2805 East 10th Street

Bloomington. IN 47408-2698

Telephone: (812) 855-5847

FAX: (812) 855-7901

Rural Education and Small Schools (RC)

Appalachia Educational Laboratory

1031 Quarrier Street

P.O. Box 1348

Charleston, WV 25325-1348

Tekphone: (8(X)) 624-9120 (outside WV),

(8(0) 344-6646 (inside WV).

(304) 347-04(X) (Charleston area)

FAX: (3(14) 347-0487

Science, Mathematics, and Environmental

Education (SE)

Ohio State University

1200 Chambers Road. Room 310

Columbus, 011 43212--I 792

Telephone: (614) 292-6717

FAX: (614) 292-0263

Social Studies/Social Science Education

(SO)

Indiana University

Social Studies Development Center

2805 East 10th Street, Suite 120

Bloomington. IN 47408-2698

Telephone: (812) 855-3838

FAX: (812) 855-7901

Teacher Education (SP)

American Association of Colleges for Teacher

Education

One Dupont Circle NW. Suite 610

Washington. DC 20036-2412

Telephone: (202) 293-2450

FAX: (202) 457-8095

Tests, Measurement, and Evaluation (TM)

American Institutes for Research

Washington Research Center

3333 K Street NW

Washington, IX 20007

Telephone: (202) 342-5060

FAX: (202) 342-5033

Urban Education (LID)

Teachers College, Columbia University

Institute for Urban and Minority Education

Main Hall, Room 303, Box 40

525 West I20th Street

New York. NY 10027-9998

Telephone: (212) 678-3433

FAX: (212) 678-4048

Adjunct Clearinghouses

Adjunct ERIC Clearinghouse for Art

Education

Indiana University

Social Studies Development Center

2805 East 10th Street, Suite 120

Bloomington. IN 47408-2698

Telephone: (812) 855-3838

FAX: (812) 855-7901

Adjunct ERIC Clearinghouse on Chapter I

Chapter I Technical Assistance Center

260 I Fortune Circle East

One Park Fletcher Building, Suite 300-A

Indianapolis. IN 46241

Telephone: (NO) 456-238(1

(317)244-8160

FAX: (317) 244-7386

Adjunct ERIC Clearinghouse on Consumer

Education

National Institute for Consumer Education

207 Raekham Building, West Circle Drive

Eastern Michigan University

Ypsilanti, Ml 48197

Telephone: (313) 487-2292

X:(313)487-7153

Adjunct ERIC Clearinghouse on Literacy

Education for Limited-English-Proficient

Adults

Center for Applied Linguistics

1118 22nd Street NW

Washington, DC' 20037

Telephone: (202) 429-9292

(202)429-9551

FAX: (202) 429-9766, (202) 659-5641

National Clearinghouse for U.S.-Japan

Studies

Indiana University

Social Studies Development Center

2805 East 10th Street, Suite 120

Bloomington. IN 47408-2698

Telephone: (812) 855-3838

FAX: (812) 855, -901

Support Components

ACCESS ERIC

1600 Research Boulevard

Rockville. MD 20850

Telephone: (WO) USE-ERIC

FAX: (301)251-5212

ERIC Document Reproduction Service

(EDRS)

7420 Fullerton Road, Suite 110

Springfield. VA 22153-2852

Telephone: (800) 443-ER1C

FAX: (703) 440-1408

ERIC Processing and Reference Facility

1301 Piccard Drive. Suite 300

Rockville. MD 20850-4305

Telephone: (301) 258- 5590

FAX: (301) 948-3695

Oryx Press

4041 North Central Avenue, Suite 700

Phoenix, AZ 8:4112

Telephone: (8(X0 279-OR YX

(602) 265 2651

FAX: (6(12) 265-4)250

.11:R I 92-7
United States

Department of Education

Washington, DC 20208-5720

Official Business

Penalty for Private Use, $300

ERIC 92-5023

Postage and Fees Paid

U.S. Department of Education

Pernlit No. G-17

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