ROCKETS

An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science,

Mathematics, and Technology

Educational Product

Educators Grades K–12

EG-2003-01-108-HQ

National Aeronautics and

Space Administration
ROCKETS

An Educator’s Guide with Activities In Science,

Mathematics, and Technology

EG-2003-01-108-HQ

This publication is in the Public Domain and is not protected by copyright.

Permission is not required for duplication.

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Office of Human Resources and Education

Office of Education

Washington, DC

Teaching From Space Program

NASA Johnson Space Center

Houston, TX

This publication was developed for the

National Aeronautics and Space

Administration with the assistance of

hundreds of teachers in the Texas Region IV

area and educators of the Aerospace

Education Services Program, Oklahoma

State University.

Writers:

Deborah A. Shearer

Gregory L. Vogt, Ed.D.

Teaching From Space Program

NASA Johnson Space Center

Houston, TX

Editor:

Carla B. Rosenberg

Teaching From Space Program

NASA Headquarters

Washington, DC

Special Thanks to:

Timothy J. Wickenheiser

Chief, Advanced Mission Analysis Branch

NASA Lewis Research Center

Gordon W. Eskridge

Aerospace Education Specialist

Oklahoma State University

Dale M. Olive

Teacher, Hawaii

Acknowledgments

i
ii
iii

Table of Contents How To Use This Guide ............................... 1

Activity Format ............................................. 3

Brief History of Rockets................................ 5

Rocket Principles ....................................... 13

Practical Rocketry ...................................... 18

Launch Vehicle Family Album .................... 25

Activities ..................................................... 35

 Activity Matrix ....................................... 36

 Pop Can Hero Engine .......................... 39

 Rocket Racer ....................................... 45

 3-2-1 Pop! ............................................ 53

 Antacid Tablet Race ............................. 57

 Paper Rockets...................................... 61

 Newton Car .......................................... 67

 Balloon Staging .................................... 73

 Rocket Transportation .......................... 76

 Altitude Tracking .................................. 79

 Bottle Rocket Launcher ........................ 87

 Bottle Rocket ........................................ 91

 Project X-35 ......................................... 95

 Additional Extensions ......................... 114

Glossary ................................................... 115

NASA Educational Materials .................... 116

Suggested Reading.................................. 116

Electronic Resources ............................... 117

NASA Resources for Educators ............... 118

NASA Educator Resource

 Center Network ................................. 118

Evaluation Reply Card .......................... Insert
iv
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

Rockets are the oldest form of self-contained How To Use This Guide vehicles in existence. Early rockets were in

use more than two thousand years ago. Over a

long and exciting history, rockets have evolved

from simple tubes filled with black powder into

mighty vehicles capable of launching a spacecraft

out into the galaxy. Few experiences can

compare with the excitement and thrill of

watching a rocket-powered vehicle, such as the

Space Shuttle, thunder into space. Dreams of

rocket flight to distant worlds fire the imagination

of both children and adults.

With some simple and inexpensive materials,

you can mount an exciting and productive unit

about rockets for children that incorporates

science, mathematics, and technology education.

The many activities contained in this teaching

guide emphasize hands-on involvement,

prediction, data collection and interpretation,

teamwork, and problem solving. Furthermore,

the guide contains background information about

the history of rockets and basic rocket science to

make you and your students “rocket scientists.”

The guide begins with background information

on the history of rocketry, scientific principles, and

practical rocketry. The sections on scientific

principles and practical rocketry focus on Sir

Isaac Newton’s Three Laws of Motion. These

laws explain why rockets work and how to make

them more efficient.

Following the background sections are a series

of activities that demonstrate the basic science of

rocketry while offering challenging tasks in

design. Each activity employs basic and

inexpensive materials. In each activity you will

find construction diagrams, material and tools

lists, and instructions. A brief background section

within the activities elaborates on the concepts

covered in the activities and points back to the

introductory material in the guide. Also included is

information about where the activity applies to

science and mathematics standards, assessment

ideas, and extensions. Look on page 3 for more

details on how the activity pages are constructed.

 Because many of the activities and

demonstrations apply to more than one subject

area, a matrix chart identifies opportunities for

extended learning experiences. The chart

indicates these subject areas by activity title. In

addition, many of the student activities encourage
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

student problem-solving and cooperative

learning. For example, students can use

problem-solving to come up with ways to improve

the performance of rocket cars. Cooperative

learning is a necessity in the Altitude Tracking

and Balloon Staging activities.

The length of time involved for each

activity varies according to its degree of difficulty

and the development level of the students. With

the exception of the Project X-35 activity at the

guide's end, students can complete most

activities in one or two class periods.

Finally, the guide concludes with a glossary of

terms, suggested reading list, NASA educational

resources including electronic resources, and an

evaluation questionnaire. We would appreciate

your assistance in improving this guide in future editions

by completing the questionnaire and making

suggestions for changes and additions.

A Note on Measurement

In developing this guide, metric units of

measurement were employed. In a few

exceptions, notably within the "Materials and

Tools" lists, English units have been listed. In the

United States, metric-sized parts such as screws

and wood stock are not as accessible as their

English equivalents. Therefore, English units

have been used to facilitate obtaining required

materials.
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

Student Data Pages

Student Instruction Pages

Activity Format

Standards

Assessment Ideas

Extensions

Background

Information

What You Need

Management Tips

Objectives of

the Activity

Description of What

the Activity Does

Discussion Ideas

Materials and Tools
4

Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
5

Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

Brief History of

Rockets science and technology of the past. They are

natural outgrowths of literally thousands of years of

experimentation and research on rockets and rocket

propulsion.

One of the first devices to successfully

employ the principles essential to rocket flight was a

wooden bird. The writings of Aulus Gellius, a

Roman, tell a story of a Greek named Archytas who

lived in the city of Tarentum, now a part of southern

Italy. Somewhere around the year 400 B.C.,

Archytas mystified and amused the citizens of

Tarentum by flying a pigeon made of wood.

Escaping steam propelled the bird suspended on

wires. The pigeon used the action-reaction

principle, which was not to be stated as a scientific

law until the 17th century.

About three hundred years after the pigeon,

another Greek, Hero of Alexandria, invented a

similar rocket-like device called an aeolipile. It,

too, used steam as a propulsive gas. Hero

mounted a sphere on top of a water kettle.

A fire below the kettle turned the water into

steam, and the gas traveled through pipes

to the sphere. Two L-shaped tubes on

opposite sides of the sphere allowed the gas

to escape, and in doing so gave a thrust to the

sphere that caused it to rotate.

Just when the first true rockets appeared is

unclear. Stories of early rocket-like devices appear

sporadically through the historical records of various

cultures. Perhaps the first true rockets were

accidents. In the first century A.D., the

Chinese reportedly had a simple form of

gunpowder made from saltpeter, sulfur, and

charcoal dust. They used the gunpowder

mostly for fireworks in religious and other

festive celebrations. To create explosions

during religious festivals, they filled bamboo tubes

with the mixture and tossed them into fires.

Perhaps some of those tubes failed to explode and

instead skittered out of the fires, propelled by the

gases and sparks produced from the burning

gunpowder.

The Chinese began experimenting with the

gunpowder-filled tubes. At some point, they

attached bamboo tubes to arrows and launched

them with bows. Soon they discovered that

these gunpowder tubes could launch

themselves just by the power produced

from the escaping gas. The true rocket was

born.

Hero Engine

oday’s rockets are remarkable collections of Thuman ingenuity that have their roots in the
6

Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

The date reporting the first use of true

rockets was in 1232. At this time, the Chinese and

the Mongols were at war with each other. During

the battle of Kai-Keng, the Chinese repelled the

Mongol invaders by a barrage of “arrows of flying

fire.” These fire-arrows were a simple form of a

solid-propellant rocket. A tube, capped at one end,

contained gunpowder. The other end was left open

and the tube was attached to a long stick. When

the powder ignited, the rapid burning of the powder

produced fire, smoke, and gas that escaped out the

open end and produced a thrust. The stick acted as

By the 16th century rockets fell into a time of

disuse as weapons of war, though they were still

used for fireworks displays, and a German fireworks

maker, Johann Schmidlap, invented the “step

rocket,” a multi-staged vehicle for lifting fireworks to

higher altitudes. A large sky rocket (first stage)

carried a smaller sky rocket (second stage). When

the large rocket burned out, the smaller one

continued to a higher altitude before showering the

sky with glowing cinders. Schmidlap’s idea is basic

to all rockets today that go into outer space.

Nearly all uses of rockets up to this time

were for warfare or fireworks, but an interesting old

Chinese legend reports the use of rockets as a

means of transportation. With the help of many

a simple guidance system that kept the rocket

headed in one general direction as it flew through

the air. How effective these arrows of flying fire

were as weapons of destruction is not clear, but

their psychological effects on the Mongols must

have been formidable.

Following the battle of Kai-Keng, the

Mongols produced rockets of their own and may

have been responsible for the spread of rockets to

Europe. Many records describe rocket experiments

through out the 13th to the 15th centuries. In

England, a monk named Roger Bacon worked on

improved forms of gunpowder that greatly increased

the range of rockets. In France, Jean Froissart

achieved more accurate flights by launching rockets

through tubes. Froissart’s idea was the forerunner

of the modern bazooka. Joanes de Fontana of Italy

designed a surface-running rocket-powered torpedo

for setting enemy ships on fire.

assistants, a lesser-known Chinese official named

Wan-Hu assembled a rocket-powered flying chair.

He had two large kites attached to the chair, and

fixed to the kites were forty-seven fire-arrow

rockets.

On the day of the flight, Wan-Hu sat himself

on the chair and gave the command to light the

rockets. Forty-seven rocket assistants, each armed

with torches, rushed forward to light the fuses. A

tremendous roar filled the air, accompanied by

billowing clouds of smoke. When the smoke

cleared, Wan-Hu and his flying chair were gone. No

one knows for sure what happened to Wan-Hu, but

if the event really did take place, Wan-Hu and his

chair probably did not survive the explosion. Firearrows were as apt to explode as to fly.

Rocketry Becomes a Science

During the latter part of the 17th century, the

great English scientist Sir Isaac Newton (1642-

1727) laid the scientific foundations for modern

rocketry. Newton organized his understanding of

physical motion into three scientific laws. The laws

explain how rockets work and why they are able to

work in the vacuum of outer space. (See Rocket

Principles for more information on Newton’s Three

Laws of Motion beginning on page 13.)

Surface-Running Torpedo

Chinese soldier launches a fire-arrow.

Chinese Fire-Arrows
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

Tsiolkovsky Rocket Designs

Austrian rocket brigades met their match against

newly designed artillery pieces. Breech-loading

cannon with rifled barrels and exploding warheads

were far more effective weapons of war than the

best rockets. Once again, the military relegated

rocketry to peacetime uses.

Modern Rocketry Begins

In 1898, a Russian schoolteacher,

Konstantin Tsiolkovsky (1857-1935), proposed the

idea of space exploration by rocket. In a report he

published in 1903, Tsiolkovsky suggested the use of

liquid propellants for rockets in order to achieve

greater range. Tsiolkovsky stated that only the

exhaust velocity of escaping gases limited the

speed and range of a rocket. For his ideas, careful

research, and great vision, Tsiolkovsky has been

called the father of modern astronautics.

Early in the 20th century, an American,

Robert H. Goddard (1882-1945), conducted

practical experiments in rocketry. He had become

interested in a way of achieving higher altitudes

than were possible for lighter-than-air balloons. He

published a pamphlet in 1919 entitled A Method of

Reaching Extreme Altitudes. Today we call this

mathematical analysis the meteorological sounding

rocket.

In his pamphlet, Goddard reached several

conclusions important to rocketry. From his tests,

he stated that a rocket operates with greater

Newton’s laws soon began to have a

practical impact on the design of rockets. About

1720, a Dutch professor, Willem Gravesande, built

model cars propelled by jets of steam. Rocket

experimenters in Germany and Russia began

working with rockets with a mass of more than 45

kilograms. Some of these rockets were so powerful

that their escaping exhaust flames bored deep

holes in the ground even before liftoff.

During the end of the 18th century and early

into the 19th, rockets experienced a brief revival as

a weapon of war. The success of Indian rocket

barrages against the British in 1792 and again in

1799 caught the interest of an artillery expert,

Colonel William Congreve. Congreve set out to

design rockets for use by the British military.

The Congreve rockets were highly

successful in battle. Used by British ships to pound

Fort McHenry in the War of 1812, they inspired

Francis Scott Key to write “the rockets’ red glare,” in

his poem that later became The Star-Spangled

Banner.

Even with Congreve’s work, the accuracy of

rockets still had not improved much from the early

days. The devastating nature of war rockets was

not their accuracy or power, but their numbers.

During a typical siege, thousands of them might be

fired at the enemy. All over the world, rocket

researchers experimented with ways to improve

accuracy. An Englishman, William Hale, developed

a technique called spin stabilization. In this method,

the escaping exhaust gases struck small vanes at

the bottom of the rocket, causing it to spin much as

a bullet does in flight. Many rockets still use

variations of this principle today.

Rocket use continued to be successful in

battles all over the European continent.

However, in a war with Prussia, the

Legendary Chinese official Wan Hu braces

himself for "liftoff."
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

efficiency in a vacuum than in air. At the

time, most people mistakenly believed that

the presence of air was necessary for a

rocket to push against. A New York Times

newspaper editorial of the day mocked

Goddard’s lack of the “basic physics ladled

out daily in our high schools.” Goddard

also stated that multistage or step rockets

were the answer to achieving high altitudes

and that the velocity needed to escape

Earth’s gravity could be achieved in this

way.

Goddard’s earliest experiments

were with solid-propellant rockets. In 1915,

he began to try various types of solid fuels

and to measure the exhaust velocities of

the burning gases.

While working on solid-propellant

rockets, Goddard became convinced that a

rocket could be propelled better by liquid

fuel. No one had ever built a successful

liquid-propellant rocket before. It was a

much more difficult task than building solidpropellant rockets. Fuel and oxygen tanks,

turbines, and combustion chambers would

be needed. In spite of the difficulties, Goddard

achieved the first successful flight with a liquidpropellant rocket on March 16, 1926. Fueled by

liquid oxygen and gasoline, the rocket flew for only

two and a half seconds, climbed 12.5 meters, and

landed 56 meters away in a cabbage patch. By

today’s standards, the flight was unimpressive, but

like the first powered airplane flight by the Wright

brothers in 1903, Goddard’s gasoline rocket

became the forerunner of a whole new era in rocket

flight.

Goddard’s experiments in liquid-propellant

rockets continued for many years. His rockets grew

bigger and flew higher. He developed a gyroscope

system for flight control and a payload compartment

for scientific instruments. Parachute recovery

systems returned the rockets and instruments safely

to the ground. We call Goddard the father of

modern rocketry for his achievements.

A third great space pioneer, Hermann

Oberth (1894-1989) of Germany, published a book

in 1923 about rocket travel into outer space. His

writings were important. Because of them,

many small rocket societies sprang up

Dr. Goddard's 1926 Rocket

Dr. Robert H. Goddard makes adjustments on the

upper end of a rocket combustion chamber in this 1940

picture taken in Roswell, New Mexico.
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

around the world. In Germany, the formation of one

such society, the Verein fur Raumschiffahrt (Society

for Space Travel), led to the development of the V-2

rocket, which the Germans used against London

during World War II. In 1937, German engineers

and scientists, including Oberth, assembled in

Peenemunde on the shores of the Baltic Sea.

There, under the directorship of Wernher von

Braun, engineers and scientists built and flew the

most advanced rocket of its time.

The V-2 rocket (in Germany called the A-4)

was small by comparison to today’s rockets. It

achieved its great thrust by burning a mixture of

liquid oxygen and alcohol at a rate of about one ton

every seven seconds. Once launched, the V-2 was

a formidable weapon that could devastate whole

city blocks.

Fortunately for London and the Allied forces,

the V-2 came too late in the war to change its

outcome. Nevertheless, by war’s end, German

rocket scientists and engineers had already laid

plans for advanced missiles capable of spanning

the Atlantic Ocean and landing in the United States.

These missiles would have had winged upper

stages but very small payload capacities.

With the fall of Germany, the Allies captured

many unused V-2 rockets and components. Many

German rocket scientists came to the United States.

Others went to the Soviet Union. The German

scientists, including Wernher von Braun, were

amazed at the progress Goddard had made.

Both the United States and the Soviet Union

recognized the potential of rocketry as a military

weapon and began a variety of experimental

programs. At first, the United States began a

program with high-altitude atmospheric sounding

rockets, one of Goddard’s early ideas. Later, they

developed a variety of medium- and long-range

intercontinental ballistic missiles. These became

the starting point of the U.S. space program.

Missiles such as the Redstone, Atlas, and Titan

would eventually launch astronauts into space.

On October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union

stunned the world by launching an Earth-orbiting

artificial satellite. Called Sputnik I, the satellite was

the first successful entry in a race for space

between the two superpower nations. Less than a

month later, the Soviets followed with the launch of

a satellite carrying a dog named Laika on board.

Laika survived in space for seven days before being

put to sleep before the oxygen supply ran out.

A few months after the first Sputnik, the

United States followed the Soviet Union with a

satellite of its own. The U.S. Army

German V-2 (A-4) Missile

Container for

liquid oxygen

Propellant

turbopump

Air vane

Warhead

(Explosive charge)

Alcohol

main

valve

Oxygen main

valve

Jet vane

Rocket motor

Vaporizer for turbine

propellant (propellant

turbopump drive)

Container for

 turbine propellant

(hydrogen peroxide)

Steam

exhaust

from turbine

Automatic gyro

control

Guidebeam and radio

command receivers

Container for

alcohol-water

mixture
10

Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

launched Explorer I on January 31, 1958. In

October of that year, the United States formally

organized its space program by creating the

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

(NASA). NASA became a civilian agency with the

goal of peaceful exploration of space for the benefit

of all humankind.

Soon, rockets launched many people and

machines into space. Astronauts orbited Earth and

landed on the Moon. Robot spacecraft traveled to

the planets. Space suddenly opened up to exploration and commercial exploitation. Satellites

enabled scientists to investigate our world, forecast

the weather, and communicate instantaneously

around the globe. The demand for more and larger

payloads created the need to develop a wide array

of powerful and versatile rockets.

Scientific exploration of space using robotic

spacecraft proceeded at a fast pace. Both Russia

and the United States began programs to investigate the Moon. Developing the technology to

physically get a probe to the Moon became the

initial challenge. Within nine months of Explorer 1

the United States launched the first unmanned lunar

probe, but the launch vehicle, an Atlas with an Able

upper stage, failed 45 seconds after liftoff when the

payload fairing tore away from the vehicle. The

Russians were more successful with Luna 1, which

flew past the Moon in January of 1959. Later that

year the Luna program impacted a probe on the

Moon, taking the first pictures of its far side. Between 1958 and 1960 the United States sent a

series of missions, the Pioneer Lunar Probes, to

photograph and obtain scientific data about the

Moon. These probes were generally unsuccessful,

primarily due to launch vehicle failures. Only one of

eight probes accomplished its intended mission to

the Moon, though several, which were stranded in

orbits between Earth and the Moon, did provide

important scientific information on the number and

extent of the radiation belts around Earth. The

United States appeared to lag behind the Soviet

Union in space.

With each launch, manned spaceflight came

a step closer to becoming reality. In April of 1961, a

Russian named Yuri Gagarin became the first man

to orbit Earth. Less than a month later the United

States launched the first American, Alan Shepard,

into space. The flight was a sub-orbital lofting into

space, which immediately returned to Earth. The

Redstone rocket was not powerful enough to place

the Mercury capsule into orbit. The flight lasted only

a little over 15 minutes and reached an altitude of

187 kilometers. Alan Shepard experienced about

five minutes of microgravity then returned to Earth,

during which he encountered forces twelve times

greater than the force of gravity. Twenty days later,

though still technically behind the Soviet Union,

President John Kennedy announced the objective to

put a man on the Moon by the end of the decade.

In February of 1962, John Glenn became

the first American to orbit Earth in a small capsule

so filled with equipment that he only had room to sit.

Launched by the more powerful Atlas vehicle, John

Glenn remained in orbit for four hours and fifty-five

minutes before splashing down in the Atlantic

Ocean. The Mercury program had a total of six

launches: two suborbital and four orbital. These

launches demonstrated the United States’ ability to

send men into orbit, allowed the crew to function in

space, operate the spacecraft, and make scientific

observations.

The United States then began an extensive

unmanned program aimed at supporting the

manned lunar landing program. Three separate

projects gathered information on landing sites and

other data about the lunar surface and the surrounding environment. The first was the Ranger

series, which was the United States first attempt to

Close-up picture of the Moon taken by the Ranger

9 spacecraft just before impact. The small circle

to the left is the impact site.
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

take close-up photographs of the Moon. The

spacecraft took thousands of black and white

photographs of the Moon as it descended and

crashed into the lunar surface. Though the Ranger

series supplied very detailed data, mission planners

for the coming Apollo mission wanted more extensive data.

The final two lunar programs were designed

to work in conjunction with one another. Lunar

Orbiter provided an extensive map of the lunar

surface. Surveyor provided detailed color photographs of the lunar surface as well as data on the

elements of the lunar sediment and an assessment

of the ability of the sediment to support the weight of

the manned landing vehicles. By examining both

sets of data, planners were able to identify sites for

the manned landings. However, a significant

problem existed, the Surveyor spacecraft was too

large to be launched by existing Atlas/Agena

rockets, so a new high energy upper stage called

the Centaur was developed to replace the Agena

specifically for this mission. The Centaur upper

stage used efficient hydrogen and oxygen propellants to dramatically improve its performance, but

the super cold temperatures and highly explosive

nature presented significant technical challenges.

In addition, they built the tanks of the Centaur with

thin stainless steel to save precious weight. Moderate pressure had to be maintained in the tank to

prevent it from collapsing upon itself. Rocket

building was refining the United State's capability to

explore the Moon.

The Gemini was the second manned

capsule developed by the United States. It was

designed to carry two crew members and was

launched on the largest launch vehicle available—

the Titan II. President Kennedy’s mandate significantly altered the Gemini mission from the general

goal of expanding experience in space to prepare

for a manned lunar landing on the Moon. It paved

the way for the Apollo program by demonstrating

rendezvous and docking required for the lunar

lander to return to the lunar orbiting spacecraft, the

extravehicular activity (EVA) required for the lunar

surface exploration and any emergency repairs, and

finally the ability of humans to function during the

eight day manned lunar mission duration. The

Gemini program launched ten manned missions in

1965 and 1966, eight flights rendezvous and

docked with unmanned stages in Earth orbit and

seven performed EVA.

Launching men to the moon required launch

vehicles much larger than those available. To

achieve this goal the United States

A fish-eye camera view of a Saturn 5 rocket just after

engine ignition.

developed the Saturn launch vehicle. The Apollo

capsule, or command module, held a crew of three.

The capsule took the astronauts into orbit about the

Moon, where two astronauts transferred into a lunar

module and descended to the lunar surface. After

completing the lunar mission, the upper section of

the lunar module returned to orbit to rendezvous

with the Apollo capsule. The Moonwalkers transferred back to the command module and a service

module, with an engine, propelled them back to

Earth. After four manned test flights, Apollo 11

astronaut Neil Armstrong became the first man on

the moon. The United States returned to the lunar

surface five more times before the manned lunar

program was completed. After the lunar program

the Apollo program and the Saturn booster

launched Skylab, the United State's first space

station. A smaller version of the Saturn vehicle

ransported the United States' crew for the first

rendezvous in space between the United States and

Russia on the Apollo-Soyuz mission.
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

During this manned lunar program, unmanned launch vehicles sent many satellites to

investigate our planet, forecast the weather, and

communicate instantaneously around the world. In

addition, scientists began to explore other planets.

Mariner 2 successfully flew by Venus in 1962,

becoming the first probe to fly past another planet.

The United State’s interplanetary space program

then took off with an amazing string of successful

launches. The program has visited every planet

except Pluto.

After the Apollo program the United States

began concentrating on the development of a

reusable launch system, the Space Shuttle. Solid

rocket boosters and three main engines on the

orbiter launch the Space Shuttle. The reusable

boosters jettison little more than 2 minutes into the

flight, their fuel expended. Parachutes deploy to

decelerate the solid rocket boosters for a safe

splashdown in the Atlantic ocean, where two ships

recover them. The orbiter and external tank

continue to ascend. When the main engines shut

down, the external tank jettisons from the orbiter,

eventually disintegrating in the atmosphere. A brief

firing of the spacecraft’s two orbital maneuvering

system thrusters changes the trajectory to achieve

orbit at a range of 185-402 kilometers above Earth’s

surface. The Space Shuttle orbiter can carry

approximately 25,000 kilograms of payload into orbit

so crew members can conduct experiments in a

microgravity environment. The orbital

maneuvering system thrusters fire to slow

the spacecraft for reentry into Earth’s

atmosphere, heating up the orbiter’s

thermal protection shield up to 816°

Celsius. On the Shuttle’s final descent, it

returns to Earth gliding like an airplane.

Since the earliest days of discovery and experimentation, rockets have

evolved from simple gunpowder devices

into giant vehicles capable of traveling

into outer space, taking astronauts to the

Moon, launching satellites to explore our

universe, and enabling us to conduct

scientific experiments aboard the Space

Shuttle. Without a doubt rockets have

opened the universe to direct exploration

by humankind. What role will rockets

play in our future?

The goal of the United States

space program is to expand our horizons

in space, and then to open the space

frontier to international human expansion

and the commercial development. For

this to happen, rockets must become more cost

effective and more reliable as a means of getting to

space. Expensive hardware cannot be thrown away

each time we go to space. It is necessary to continue the drive for more reusability started during the

Space Shuttle program. Eventually NASA may

develop aerospace planes that will take off from

runways, fly into orbit, and land on those same

runways, with operations similar to airplanes.

To achieve this goal two programs are

currently under development. The X33 and X34

programs will develop reusable vehicles, which

significantly decrease the cost to orbit. The X33 will

be a manned vehicle lifting about the same payload

capacity as the Space Shuttle. The X34 will be a

small, reusable unmanned launch vehicle capable

of launching 905 kilograms to space and reduce the

launch cost relative to current vehicles by two

thirds.

The first step towards building fully reusable

vehicles has already occurred. A project called the

Delta Clipper is currently being tested. The Delta

Clipper is a vertical takeoff and soft landing vehicle.

It has demonstrated the ability to hover and maneuver over Earth using the same hardware over and

over again. The program uses much existing

technology and minimizes the operating cost.

Reliable, inexpensive rockets are the key to enabling humans to truly expand into space.

Three reusable future space vehicles concepts under

consideration by NASA.
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enclosing a gas under pressure. A small opening at

one end of the chamber allows the gas to escape,

and in doing so provides a thrust that propels the

rocket in the opposite direction. A good example of

this is a balloon. Air inside a balloon is compressed

by the balloon’s rubber walls. The air pushes back

so that the inward and outward pressing forces

balance. When the nozzle is released, air escapes

through it and the balloon is propelled in the

opposite direction.

When we think of rockets, we rarely think of

balloons. Instead, our attention is drawn to the

giant vehicles that carry satellites into orbit and

spacecraft to the Moon and planets. Nevertheless,

there is a strong similarity between the two.

The only significant difference is the way the

pressurized gas is produced. With space

rockets, the gas is produced by burning

propellants that can be solid or liquid

in form or a combination of the two.

One of the interesting facts

about the historical development of

rockets is that while rockets and

rocket-powered devices have been

in use for more than two thousand

years, it has been only in the last

three hundred years that rocket

experimenters have had a scientific

basis for understanding how they

work.

The science of rocketry

began with the publishing of a book in

1687 by the great English scientist Sir

Isaac Newton. His book, entitled

Philosophiae Naturalis Principia

Mathematica, described physical principles in

nature. Today, Newton’s work is usually just called

the Principia.

In the Principia, Newton stated three

important scientific principles that govern the motion

of all objects, whether on Earth or in space.

Knowing these principles, now called Newton’s

Laws of Motion, rocketeers have been able to

construct the modern giant rockets of the 20th

century such as the Saturn 5 and the Space Shuttle.

Here now, in simple form, are Newton’s Laws of

Motion.

1. Objects at rest will stay at rest and objects in

motion will stay in motion in a straight line unless

acted upon by an unbalanced force.

Air Moves Balloon Moves

Inside Air Pressure

Outside Air Pressure

Rocket Principles Arocket in its simplest form is a chamber
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become unbalanced. The ball then changes from a

state of rest to a state of motion.

In rocket flight, forces become balanced and

unbalanced all the time. A rocket on the launch pad

is balanced. The surface of the pad pushes the

rocket up while gravity tries to pull it down. As the

engines are ignited, the thrust from the rocket

unbalances the forces, and the rocket travels

upward. Later, when the rocket runs out of fuel, it

slows down, stops at the highest point of its flight,

and then falls back to Earth.

Objects in space also react to forces. A

spacecraft moving through the solar system is in

constant motion. The spacecraft will travel

Ball at Rest

Lift

Gravity

2. Force is equal to mass times acceleration.

3. For every action there is always an opposite and

equal reaction.

As will be explained shortly, all three laws are really

simple statements of how things move. But with

them, precise determinations of rocket performance

can be made.

Newton’s First Law

This law of motion is just an obvious

statement of fact, but to know what it means,

it is necessary to understand the terms rest,

motion, and unbalanced force.

Rest and motion can be thought of as

being opposite to each other. Rest is the state of

an object when it is not changing position in

relation to its surroundings. If you are sitting still in

a chair, you can be said to be at rest. This term,

however, is relative. Your chair may actually be one

of many seats on a speeding airplane. The

important thing to remember here is that you are not

moving in relation to your immediate surroundings.

If rest were defined as a total absence of motion, it

would not exist in nature. Even if you were sitting in

your chair at home, you would still be moving,

because your chair is actually sitting on the surface

of a spinning planet that is orbiting a star. The star

is moving through a rotating galaxy that is, itself,

moving through the universe. While sitting “still,”

you are, in fact, traveling at a speed of hundreds of

kilometers per second.

Motion is also a relative term. All matter in

the universe is moving all the time, but in the first

law, motion here means changing position in

relation to surroundings. A ball is at rest if it is

sitting on the ground. The ball is in motion if it is

rolling. A rolling ball changes its position in relation

to its surroundings. When you are sitting on a chair

in an airplane, you are at rest, but if you get up and

walk down the aisle, you are in motion. A rocket

blasting off the launch pad changes from a state of

rest to a state of motion.

The third term important to understanding

this law is unbalanced force. If you hold a ball in

your hand and keep it still, the ball is at rest. All the

time the ball is held there though, it is being acted

upon by forces. The force of gravity is trying to pull

the ball downward, while at the same time your

hand is pushing against the ball to hold it up. The

forces acting on the ball are balanced. Let the ball

go, or move your hand upward, and the forces
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in a straight line if the forces on it are in balance.

This happens only when the spacecraft is very far

from any large gravity source such as Earth or the

other planets and their moons. If the spacecraft

comes near a large body in space, the gravity of

that body will unbalance the forces and curve the

path of the spacecraft. This happens, in particular,

when a satellite is sent by a rocket on a path that is

tangent to the planned orbit about a planet. The

unbalanced gravitational force causes the satellite's

path to change to an arc. The arc is a combination

of the satellite's fall inward toward the planet's

center and its forward motion. When these two

motions are just right, the shape of the satellite's

path matches the shape of the body it is traveling

around. Consequently, an orbit is produced. Since

the gravitational force changes with height above a

planet, each altitude has its own unique velocity that

results in a circular orbit. Obviously, controlling

velocity is extremely important for maintaining the

circular orbit of the spacecraft. Unless another

unbalanced force, such as friction with gas

Action

Reaction

Satellite's Forward Motion

Pull of

Planet's

Gravity Resultant Path

(Orbit)

The combination of a satellite's forward motion and the pull

of gravity of the planet, bend the satellite's path into an

orbit.

molecules in orbit or the firing of a rocket engine in

the opposite direction , slows down the spacecraft, it

will orbit the planet forever.

Now that the three major terms of this first

law have been explained, it is possible to restate

this law. If an object, such as a rocket, is at rest, it

takes an unbalanced force to make it move. If the

object is already moving, it takes an unbalanced

force, to stop it, change its direction from a straight

line path, or alter its speed.

Newton’s Third Law

For the time being, we will skip the Second Law and

go directly to the Third. This law states that every

action has an equal and opposite reaction. If you

have ever stepped off a small boat that has not

been properly tied to a pier, you will know exactly

what this law means.

A rocket can liftoff from a launch pad only

when it expels gas out of its engine. The rocket

pushes on the gas, and the gas in turn pushes on

the rocket. The whole process is very similar to

riding a skateboard. Imagine that a skateboard and

rider are in a state of rest (not moving). The rider

jumps off the skateboard. In the Third Law, the

jumping is called an action. The skateboard

responds to that action by traveling some distance

in the opposite direction. The skateboard’s opposite

motion is called a reaction. When the distance

traveled by the rider and the skateboard are

compared, it would appear that the skateboard has

had a much greater reaction than the action of the

rider. This is not the case. The reason the
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

skateboard has traveled farther is that it has less

mass than the rider. This concept will be better

explained in a discussion of the Second Law.

With rockets, the action is the expelling of

gas out of the engine. The reaction is the

movement of the rocket in the opposite direction.

To enable a rocket to lift off from the launch pad, the

action, or thrust, from the engine must be greater

than the weight of the rocket. While on the pad the

weight of the rocket is balanced by the force of the

ground pushing against it. Small amounts of thrust

result in less force required by the ground to keep

the rocket balanced. Only when the thrust is

greater than the weight of the rocket does the force

become unbalanced and the rocket lifts off. In

space where unbalanced force is used to maintain

the orbit, even tiny thrusts will cause a change in

the unbalanced force and result in the rocket

changing speed or direction.

One of the most commonly asked questions

about rockets is how they can work in space where

there is no air for them to push against. The answer

to this question comes from the Third Law. Imagine

the skateboard again. On the ground, the only part

air plays in the motions of the rider and the

skateboard is to slow them down. Moving through

the air causes friction, or as scientists call it, drag.

The surrounding air impedes the action-reaction.

As a result rockets actually work better in

space than they do in air. As the exhaust gas

leaves the rocket engine it must push away the

surrounding air; this uses up some of the energy of

the rocket. In space, the exhaust gases can escape

freely.

Newton’s Second Law

This law of motion is essentially a statement of a

mathematical equation. The three parts of the

equation are mass (m), acceleration (a), and force

(f). Using letters to symbolize each part, the

equation can be written as follows:

 f = ma

The equation reads: force equals mass times

acceleration. To explain this law, we will use an old

style cannon as an example.

When the cannon is fired, an explosion propels a

cannon ball out the open end of the barrel. It flies a

kilometer or two to its target. At the same time the

cannon itself is pushed backward a meter or two.

This is action and reaction at work (Third Law). The

force acting on the cannon and the ball is the same.

What happens to the cannon and the ball is

determined by the Second Law. Look at the two

equations below.

f = m(cannon)a(cannon)

f = m(ball )a(ball )

The first equation refers to the cannon and the

second to the cannon ball. In the first equation, the

mass is the cannon itself and the acceleration is the

movement of the cannon. In the second equation

the mass is the cannon ball and the acceleration is

its movement. Because the force (exploding gun

powder) is the same for the two equations, the

equations can be combined and rewritten below.

m(cannon)a(cannon) = m(ball )a(ball )

In order to keep the two sides of the equations

equal, the accelerations vary with mass. In other

words, the cannon has a large mass and a small

acceleration. The cannon ball has a small mass

and a large acceleration.

Apply this principle to a rocket. Replace the

mass of the cannon ball with the mass of the gases

being ejected out of the rocket engine. Replace the

mass of the cannon with the mass of the rocket

moving in the other direction. Force is the pressure

created by the controlled explosion taking place

inside the rocket's engines. That pressure

accelerates the gas one way and the rocket the

other.

Some interesting things happen with rockets

that do not happen with the cannon and ball in this

example. With the cannon and cannon ball, the

thrust lasts for just a moment. The thrust for the

rocket continues as long as its engines are

A

M

A F M
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

firing. Furthermore, the mass of the rocket changes

during flight. Its mass is the sum of all its parts.

Rocket parts include: engines, propellant tanks,

payload, control system, and propellants. By far,

the largest part of the rocket's mass is its

propellants. But that amount constantly changes as

the engines fire. That means that the rocket's mass

gets smaller during flight. In order for the left side of

our equation to remain in balance with the right

side, acceleration of the rocket has to increase as

its mass decreases. That is why a rocket starts off

moving slowly and goes faster and faster as it

climbs into space.

Newton's Second Law of Motion is

especially useful when designing efficient rockets.

To enable a rocket to climb into low Earth orbit, it is

necessary to achieve a speed, in excess of 28,000

km per hour. A speed of over 40,250 km per hour,

called escape velocity, enables a rocket to leave

Earth and travel out into deep space. Attaining

space flight speeds requires the rocket engine to

achieve the greatest action force possible in the

shortest time. In other words, the engine must burn

a large mass of fuel and push the resulting gas out

of the engine as rapidly as possible. Ways of doing

this will be described in the next chapter.

Newton’s Second Law of Motion can be

restated in the following way: the greater the mass

of rocket fuel burned, and the faster the gas

produced can escape the engine, the greater the

thrust of the rocket.

Putting Newton’s Laws of Motion

Together

An unbalanced force must be exerted for a

rocket to lift off from a launch pad or for a craft in

space to change speed or direction (First Law).

The amount of thrust (force) produced by a rocket

engine will be determined by the rate at which the

mass of the rocket fuel burns and the speed of the

gas escaping the rocket (Second Law). The

reaction, or motion, of the rocket is equal to and in

the opposite direction of the action, or thrust, from

the engine (Third Law).
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

exploded on launching. Others flew on erratic

courses and landed in the wrong place. Being a

rocketeer in the days of the fire-arrows must have

been an exciting, but also a highly dangerous

activity.

Today, rockets are much more reliable.

They fly on precise courses and are capable of

going fast enough to escape the gravitational pull of

Earth. Modern rockets are also more efficient today

because we have an understanding of the scientific

principles behind rocketry. Our understanding has

led us to develop a wide variety of advanced rocket

hardware and devise new propellants that can be

used for longer trips and more powerful takeoffs.

Rocket Engines and Their Propellants

Most rockets today operate with either solid

or liquid propellants. The word propellant does not

mean simply fuel, as you might think; it means both

fuel and oxidizer. The fuel is the chemical the

rocket burns but, for burning to take place, an

oxidizer (oxygen) must be present. Jet engines

draw oxygen into their engines from the surrounding

air. Rockets do not have the luxury that jet planes

have; they must carry oxygen with them into space,

where there is no air.

Solid rocket propellants, which are dry to the

touch, contain both the fuel and oxidizer combined

together in the chemical itself. Usually the fuel is a

mixture of hydrogen compounds and carbon and

the oxidizer is made up of oxygen compounds.

Liquid propellants, which are often gases that have

been chilled until they turn into liquids, are kept in

separate containers, one for the fuel and the other

for the oxidizer. Just before firing, the fuel and

oxidizer are mixed together in the engine.

A solid-propellant rocket has the simplest

form of engine. It has a nozzle, a case, insulation,

propellant, and an igniter. The case of the engine is

usually a relatively thin metal that is lined with

insulation to keep the propellant from burning

through. The propellant itself is packed inside the

insulation layer.

Many solid-propellant rocket engines feature

a hollow core that runs through the propellant.

Rockets that do not have the hollow core must be

ignited at the lower end of the propellants and

burning proceeds gradually from one end of the

rocket to the other. In all cases, only the surface of

the propellant burns. However, to get higher thrust,

the hollow core is used. This increases the

Practical Rocketry he first rockets ever built, the fire-arrows of the T Chinese, were not very reliable. Many just
19

Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

surface of the propellants available for burning. The

propellants burn from the inside out at a much

higher rate, sending mass out the nozzle at a higher

rate and speed. This results in greater thrust. Some

propellant cores are star shaped to increase the

burning surface even more.

 To ignite solid propellants, many kinds of

igniters can be used. Fire-arrows were ignited by

fuses, but sometimes these ignited too quickly and

burned the rocketeer. A far safer and more reliable

form of ignition used today is one that employs

electricity. An electric current, coming through wires

from some distance away, heats up a special wire

inside the rocket. The wire raises the temperature

of the propellant it is in contact with to the

combustion point.

Other igniters are more advanced than the

hot wire device. Some are encased in a chemical

that ignites first, which then ignites the propellants.

Still other igniters, especially those for large rockets,

are rocket engines themselves. The small engine

inside the hollow core blasts a stream of flames and

hot gas down from the top of the core and ignites

the entire surface area of the propellants in a

fraction of a second.

The nozzle in a solid-propellant engine is an

opening at the back of the rocket that permits the

hot expanding gases to escape. The narrow part of

the nozzle is the throat. Just beyond the throat is

the exit cone.

The purpose of the nozzle is to increase the

acceleration of the gases as they leave the rocket

and thereby maximize the thrust. It does this by

cutting down the opening through which the gases

can escape. To see how this works, you can

experiment with a garden hose that has a spray

nozzle attachment. This kind of nozzle does not

have an exit cone, but that does not matter in the

experiment. The important point about the nozzle is

that the size of the opening can be varied.

Start with the opening at its widest point.

Watch how far the water squirts and feel the thrust

produced by the departing water. Now reduce the

diameter of the opening, and again note the

distance the water squirts and feel the thrust.

Rocket nozzles work the same way.

As with the inside of the rocket case,

insulation is needed to protect the nozzle from the

hot gases. The usual insulation is one that

gradually erodes as the gas passes through. Small

pieces of the insulation get very hot and break away

from the nozzle. As they are blown away, heat is

carried away with them.

The other main kind of rocket engine is one

that uses liquid propellants, which may be either

pumped or fed into the engine by pressure. This is

a much more complicated engine, as is evidenced

by the fact that solid rocket engines were used for at

least seven hundred years before the first

successful liquid engine was tested. Liquid

propellants have separate storage tanks—one for

the fuel and one for the oxidizer. They also have a

combustion chamber, and a nozzle.

Nozzle Throat

Fins

Combustion 

Chamber

Propellant 

(grain)

Casing

(body tube)

Igniter

Payload

Core

Solid Propellant Rocket
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The fuel of a liquid-propellant rocket is

usually kerosene or liquid hydrogen; the oxidizer is

usually liquid oxygen. They are combined inside a

cavity called the combustion chamber. Here the

propellants burn and build up high temperatures

and pressures, and the expanding gas escapes

through the nozzle at the lower end. To get the

most power from the propellants, they must be

mixed as completely as possible. Small injectors

(nozzles) on the roof of the chamber spray and mix

the propellants at the same time. Because the

chamber operates under high pressures, the

propellants need to be forced inside. Modern liquid

rockets use powerful, lightweight turbine pumps to

take care of this job.

With any rocket, and especially with liquidpropellant rockets, weight is an important factor. In

general, the heavier the rocket, the more the thrust

needed to get it off the ground. Because of the

pumps and fuel lines, liquid engines are much

heavier than solid engines.

One especially good method of reducing the

weight of liquid engines is to make the exit cone of

the nozzle out of very lightweight metals. However,

the extremely hot, fast-moving gases that pass

through the cone would quickly melt thin metal.

Therefore, a cooling system is needed. A highly

effective though complex cooling system that is

used with some liquid engines takes advantage of

the low temperature of liquid hydrogen. Hydrogen

becomes a liquid when it is chilled to -253o C.

Before injecting the hydrogen into the combustion

chamber, it is first circulated through small tubes

that lace the walls of the exit cone. In a cutaway

view, the exit cone wall looks like the edge of

corrugated cardboard. The hydrogen in the tubes

absorbs the excess heat entering the cone walls

and prevents it from melting the walls away. It also

makes the hydrogen more energetic because of the

heat it picks up. We call this kind of cooling system

regenerative cooling.

Engine Thrust Control

Controlling the thrust of an engine is very

important to launching payloads (cargoes) into orbit.

Thrusting for too short or too long of a period of time

will cause a satellite to be placed in the wrong orbit.

This could cause it to go too far into space to be

useful or make the satellite fall back to Earth.

Thrusting in the wrong direction or at the wrong time

will also result in a similar situation.

A computer in the rocket’s guidance system

determines when that thrust is needed and turns the

engine on or off appropriately. Liquid engines do

this by simply starting or stopping the flow of propellants into the combustion chamber. On more

complicated flights, such as going to the Moon, the

engines must be started and stopped several times.

Some liquid-propellant engines control the

amount of engine thrust by varying the amount of

propellant that enters the combustion chamber.

Typically the engine thrust varies for controlling the

acceleration experienced by astronauts or to limit

the aerodynamic forces on a vehicle.

Payload

Oxidizer

Fuel

Pumps

Injectors

Combustion 

Chamber

Fins

Nozzle

Liquid Propellant Rocket
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Solid-propellant rockets are not as easy to

control as liquid rockets. Once started, the

propellants burn until they are gone. They are very

difficult to stop or slow down part way into the burn.

Sometimes fire extinguishers are built into the

engine to stop the rocket in flight. But using them is

a tricky procedure and does not always work.

Some solid-fuel engines have hatches on their sides

that can be cut loose by remote control to release

the chamber pressure and terminate thrust.

The burn rate of solid propellants is carefully

planned in advance. The hollow core running the

length of the propellants can be made into a star

shape. At first, there is a very large surface

available for burning, but as the points of the star

burn away, the surface area is reduced. For a time,

less of the propellant burns, and this reduces thrust.

The Space Shuttle uses this technique to reduce

vibrations early in its flight into orbit.

NOTE: Although most rockets used by

governments and research organizations are very

reliable, there is still great danger associated with

the building and firing of rocket engines. Individuals

interested in rocketry should never attempt to build

their own engines. Even the simplest-looking rocket

engines are very complex. Case-wall bursting

strength, propellant packing density, nozzle design,

and propellant chemistry are all design problems

beyond the scope of most amateurs. Many homebuilt rocket engines have exploded in the faces of

their builders with tragic consequences.

Stability and Control Systems

Building an efficient rocket engine is only

part of the problem in producing a successful

rocket. The rocket must also be stable in flight. A

stable rocket is one that flies in a smooth, uniform

direction. An unstable rocket flies along an erratic

path, sometimes tumbling or changing direction.

Unstable rockets are dangerous because it is not

possible to predict where they will go. They may

even turn upside down and suddenly head back

directly to the launch pad.

Making a rocket stable requires some form

of control system. Controls can be either active or

passive. The difference between these and how

they work will be explained later. It is first important

to understand what makes a rocket stable or

unstable.

All matter, regardless of size, mass, or

shape, has a point inside called the center of mass

(CM). The center of mass is the exact

spot where all of the mass of that object is perfectly

balanced. You can easily find the center of mass of

an object such as a ruler by balancing the object on

your finger. If the

material used to make

the ruler is of uniform

thickness and density,

the center of mass

should be at the halfway

point between one end

of the stick and the

other. If the ruler were

made of wood, and a

heavy nail were driven

into one of its ends, the

center of mass would no

longer be in the middle.

The balance point would

then be nearer the end

with the nail.

The center of

mass is important in

rocket flight because it is

around this point that an unstable rocket tumbles.

As a matter of fact, any object in flight tends to

tumble. Throw a stick, and it tumbles end over end.

Throw a ball, and it spins in flight. The act of

spinning or tumbling is a way of becoming stabilized

in flight. A Frisbee will go where you want it to only

if you throw it with a deliberate spin. Try throwing a

Frisbee without spinning it. If you succeed, you will

see that the Frisbee flies in an erratic path and falls

far short of its mark.

In flight, spinning or tumbling takes place

around one or more of three axes. They are called

roll, pitch, and yaw. The point where all three of

these axes intersect is the center of mass. For

rocket flight, the pitch and yaw axes are the most

important because any movement in either of these

two directions can cause the rocket to go off course.

The roll axis is the least important because

movement along this axis will not affect the flight

path. In fact, a rolling motion will help stabilize the

ROLL

PITCH

YAW

Center

of

Pressure

Center

of

Mass
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rocket in the same way a properly passed football is

stabilized by rolling (spiraling) it in flight. Although a

poorly passed football may still fly to its mark even if

it tumbles rather than rolls, a rocket will not. The

action-reaction energy of a football pass will be

completely expended by the thrower the moment

the ball leaves the hand. With rockets, thrust from

the engine is still being produced while the rocket is

in flight. Unstable motions about the pitch and yaw

axes will cause the rocket to leave the planned

course. To prevent this, a control system is needed

to prevent or at least minimize unstable motions.

In addition to center of mass, there is

another important center inside the rocket that

affects its flight. This is the center of pressure (CP).

The center of pressure exists only when air is

flowing past the moving rocket. This flowing air,

rubbing and pushing against the outer surface of the

rocket, can cause it to begin moving around one of

its three axes. Think for a moment of a weather

vane. A weather vane is an arrow-like stick that is

mounted on a rooftop and used for telling wind

direction. The arrow is attached to a vertical rod

that acts as a pivot point. The arrow is balanced so

that the center of mass is right at the pivot point.

When the wind blows, the arrow turns, and the head

of the arrow points into the oncoming wind. The tail

of the arrow points in the downwind direction.

The reason that the weather vane arrow

points into the wind is that the tail of the arrow has a

much larger surface area than the arrowhead. The

flowing air imparts a greater force to the tail than the

head, and therefore the tail is pushed away. There

is a point on the arrow where the surface area is the

same on one side as the other. This spot is called

the center of pressure. The center of pressure is

not in the same place as the center of mass. If it

were, then neither end of the arrow would be

favored by the wind and the arrow would not point.

The center of pressure is between the center of

mass and the tail end of the arrow. This means that

the tail end has more surface area than the head

end.

It is extremely important that the center of

pressure in a rocket be located toward the tail and

the center of mass be located toward the nose. If

they are in the same place or very near each other,

then the rocket will be unstable in flight. The rocket

will then try to rotate about the center of mass in the

pitch and yaw axes, producing a dangerous

situation. With the center of pressure located in the

right place, the rocket will remain stable.

Control systems for rockets are intended to

keep a rocket stable in flight and to steer it. Small

rockets usually require only a stabilizing control

system. Large rockets, such as the ones that

launch satellites into orbit, require a system that not

only stabilizes the rocket, but also enable it to

change course while in flight.

Controls on rockets can either be active or

passive. Passive controls are fixed devices that

keep rockets stabilized by their very presence on

the rocket’s exterior. Active controls can be moved

while the rocket is in flight to stabilize and steer the

craft.

The simplest of all passive controls is a

stick. The Chinese fire-arrows were simple rockets

mounted on the ends of sticks. The stick kept the

center of pressure behind the center of mass. In

spite of this, fire-arrows were notoriously inaccurate.

Before the center of pressure could take effect, air

had to be flowing past the rocket. While still on the

ground and immobile, the arrow might lurch and fire

the wrong way.

Years later, the accuracy of fire-arrows was

improved considerably by mounting them in a

trough aimed in the proper direction. The trough

Moveable 

Fins

Air Stream

Air Stream

Rocket 

Changes

Direction

Rocket 

Changes

Direction
23

Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

guided the arrow in the right direction until it was

moving fast enough to be stable on its own.

As will be explained in the next section, the

weight of the rocket is a critical factor in

performance and range. The fire-arrow stick added

too much dead weight to the rocket, and therefore

limited its range considerably.

An important improvement in rocketry came

with the replacement of sticks by clusters of

lightweight fins mounted around the lower end near

the nozzle. Fins could be made out of lightweight

materials and be streamlined in shape. They gave

rockets a dart-like appearance. The large surface

area of the fins easily kept the center of pressure

behind the center of mass. Some experimenters

even bent the lower tips of the fins in a pinwheel

fashion to promote rapid spinning in flight. With

these “spin fins,” rockets become much more stable

in flight. But this design also produces more drag

and limits the rocket’s range.

With the start of modern rocketry in the 20th

century, new ways were sought to improve rocket

stability and at the same time reduce overall rocket

weight. The answer to this was the development of

active controls. Active control systems included

vanes, movable fins, canards, gimbaled nozzles,

vernier rockets, fuel injection, and attitude-control

rockets. Tilting fins and canards are quite similar to

each other in appearance. The only real difference

between them is their location on the rockets.

Canards are mounted on the front end of the rocket

while the tilting fins are at the rear. In flight, the fins

and canards tilt like rudders to deflect the air flow

and cause the rocket to change course. Motion

sensors on the rocket detect unplanned directional

changes, and corrections can be made by slight

tilting of the fins and canards. The advantage of

these two devices is size and weight. They are

smaller and lighter and produce less drag than the

large fins.

Other active control systems can eliminate

fins and canards altogether. By tilting the angle at

which the exhaust gas leaves the rocket engine,

course changes can be made in flight. Several

techniques can be used for changing exhaust

direction.

Vanes are small finlike devices that are

placed inside the exhaust of the rocket engine.

Tilting the vanes deflects the exhaust, and by

action-reaction the rocket responds by pointing the

opposite way.

Another method for changing the exhaust

direction is to gimbal the nozzle. A gimbaled nozzle

is one that is able to sway while exhaust gases are

passing through it. By tilting the engine nozzle in

the proper direction, the rocket responds by

changing course.

Vernier rockets can also be used to change

direction. These are small rockets mounted on the

outside of the large engine. When needed they fire,

producing the desired course change.

In space, only by spinning the rocket along

the roll axis or by using active controls involving the

engine exhaust can the rocket be stabilized or have

its direction changed. Without air, fins and canards

have nothing to work upon. (Science fiction movies

showing rockets in space with wings and fins are

long on fiction and short on science.) While

coasting in space, the most common kinds of active

control used are attitude-control rockets. Small

clusters of engines are mounted all around the

vehicle. By firing the right combination of these

small rockets, the vehicle can be turned in any

direction. As soon as they are aimed properly, the

main engines fire, sending the rocket off in the new

direction.

Gimbaled 

Nozzle

Rocket 

Changes

Direction

Rocket 

Changes

Direction
24

Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

Mass

Mass is another important factor affecting

the performance of a rocket. The mass of a rocket

can make the difference between a successful flight

and just wallowing around on the launch pad. As a

basic principle of rocket flight, it can be said that for

a rocket to leave the ground, the engine must produce

a thrust that is greater than the total mass of the

vehicle. It is obvious that a rocket with a lot of

unnecessary mass will not be as efficient as one that

is trimmed to just the bare essentials.

For an ideal rocket, the total mass of the

vehicle should be distributed following this general

formula:

Of the total mass, 91 percent should be

propellants; 3 percent should be tanks,

engines, fins, etc.; and 6 percent can be the

payload.

Payloads may be satellites, astronauts, or spacecraft

that will travel to other planets or moons.

In determining the effectiveness of a rocket

 design, rocketeers speak in terms of mass fraction

(MF). The mass of the propellants of the rocket

divided by the total mass of the rocket gives mass

fraction:

MF = mass

total

of

mass

propellants

The mass fraction of the ideal rocket given

above is 0.91. From the mass fraction formula one

might think that an MF of 1.0 is perfect, but then the

entire rocket would be nothing more than a lump of

propellants that would simply ignite into a fireball. The

larger the MF number, the less payload the rocket can

carry; the smaller the MF number, the less its range

becomes. An MF number of 0.91 is a good balance

between payload-carrying capability and range. The

Space Shuttle has an MF of approximately 0.82. The

MF varies between the different orbiters in the Space

Shuttle fleet and with the different payload weights of

each mission.

Large rockets, able to carry a

spacecraft into space, have serious weight

problems. To reach space and proper

orbital velocities, a great deal of propellant

is needed; therefore, the tanks, engines,

and associated hardware become larger.

Up to a point, bigger rockets can carry

more payload than smaller rockets, but

when they become too large their structures weigh them down too much, and the

mass fraction is reduced to an impossible

number. Saturn 5 rocket being transported to the launch pad.

A solution to the problem of giant rockets

weighing too much can be credited to the 16th-century

fireworks maker Johann Schmidlap. Schmidlap

attached small rockets to the top of big ones. When

the large rocket was exhausted, the rocket casing was

dropped behind and the remaining rocket fired. Much

higher altitudes were achieved by this method. (The

Space Shuttle follows the step rocket principle by

dropping off its solid rocket boosters and external tank

when they are exhausted of propellants.)

The rockets used by Schmidlap were called

step rockets. Today this technique of building a rocket

is called staging. Thanks to staging, it has become

possible not only to reach outer space but the Moon

and other planets too.
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

Launch Vehicle

Family Album

T he pictures on the next several pages serve as a

partial "family album" of NASA launch vehicles.

NASA did not develop all of the vehicles shown, but

has employed each in its goal of "exploring the

atmosphere and space for peaceful purposes for

the benefit of all." The album contains historic

rockets, those in use today, and concept designs

that might be used in the future. They are arranged

in three groups: rockets for launching satellites and

space probes, rockets for launching humans into

space, and concepts for future vehicles.

The album tells the story of nearly 40 years

of NASA space transportation. Rockets have

probed the upper reaches of Earth's atmosphere,

carried spacecraft into Earth orbit, and sent

spacecraft out into the solar system and beyond.

Initial rockets employed by NASA, such as the

Redstone and the Atlas, began life as

intercontinental ballistic missiles. NASA scientists

and engineers found them ideal for carrying

machine and human payloads into space. As the

need for greater payload capacity increased, NASA

began altering designs for its own rockets and

building upper stages to use with existing rockets.

Sending astronauts to the Moon required a bigger

rocket than the rocket needed for carrying a small

satellite to Earth orbit.

Today, NASA's only vehicle for lifting

astronauts into space is the Space Shuttle.

Designed to be reusable, its solid rocket boosters

have parachute recovery systems. The orbiter is a

winged spacecraft that glides back to Earth. The

external tank is the only part of the vehicle which

has to be replaced for each mission.

Launch vehicles for the future will continue

to build on the experiences of the past. Vehicles

will become more versatile and less expensive to

operate as new technologies become available.
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

Most significant rocket developments have taken place in the twentieth century. After 1958, all

entries in this timeline relate to NASA space missions. Provided here are the years in which

new rocket systems were first flown. Additional information about these events can be found in

this guide on the pages indicated by parentheses.

Invention of

GunPowder

1st Century (5)

Rocket Timeline

Chinese

Fire Arrows

13th Century (6)

Step Rocket

16th Century (6)

Liquid Propellant Rocket - 1926 (8)

V2 Rocket - 1944 (9)

Jupiter C launch of Explorer 1 - 1958 (9, 10, 27)

Mercury Redstone - 1961 (10, 29)

Delta, Scout - 1960 (27)

Atlas - 1963 (10, 29)

Titan III - 1974 (28)

Gemini Titan - 1965 (11, 28, 30)

Apollo Saturn V - 1968 (11, 31)

Apollo Saturn 1B - 1968 (11,30)

Skylab Saturn V - 1973 (11, 31)

Apollo-Sopyuz Saturn 1B - 1975 (11, 30)

Apollo Saturn 1B - 1968 (11, 30)

Space Shuttle - 1981 (12, 32)

Pegasus - 1990 (28)

Delta Clipper - 1995 (33)

X Rockets - 20?? (34)

1900

2000

2000+

Centuries

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

Congreve Rockets

19th Century (7)
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

Rockets for Launching

Satellites and Space Probes

NASA's Scout rocket is a four-stage solid

rocket booster that can launch small satellites

into Earth orbit. The Scout can carry about a

140 kilogram payload to a 185 kilometer high

orbit. NASA used the Scout for more than 30

years. This 1965 launch carried the Explorer

27 scientific satellite.

One of NASA's most successful rockets is the

Delta. The Delta can be configured in a

variety of ways to change its performance to

meet needs of the mission. It is capable of

carrying over 5,000 kilograms to a 185

kilometer high orbit or 1,180 kilograms to a

geosynchronous orbit with an attached

booster stage. This Delta lifted the Galaxy-C

communication satellite to space on

September 21, 1984.

The Jupiter-C rocket that carried Explorer I

sits on the launch pad venting before

launch, January 31, 1958.
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

The Pegasus air-launched space

booster roars toward orbit following its

release from a NASA B-52 aircraft. The

booster, built by Orbital Sciences

Corporation and Hercules Aerospace

Company, is a low-cost way of carrying

small satellites to Earth orbit. This

launch took place on April 5, 1990.

A Titan III Centaur rocket carried Voyager 1,

the first interplanetary spacecraft to fly by

both Jupiter and Saturn, into space on

September 5, 1975. The Titan, a U.S. Air

Force missile, combined with NASA's

Centaur upper stage and two additional

side-mounted boosters, provided the

needed thrust to launchVoyager.
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

Allan Shepard became the first American

astronaut to ride to space on May 5, 1961.

Shepard rode inside a Mercury space

capsule on top of a Redstone rocket.

An Atlas launch vehicle, with a Mercury

space capsule at the top, underwent a static

firing test to verify engine systems before its

actual launch. The Mercury/Atlas

combination launched four Mercury orbital

missions including the historic first American

orbital flight of John Glenn.

Rockets for Sending Astronauts

Into Space
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

Virgil I. Grissom and John W. Young rode to

orbit inside a Gemini spacecraft mounted at

the top of this Titan rocket. The spacecraft

reached an orbit ranging from 161 to 225

kilometers on March 23, 1965.

Used to lift Apollo spacecraft to Earth orbit,

the nearly 70-meter-tall Saturn 1B rocket

carries the Apollo 7 crew on October 11,

1968. Saturn 1B rockets also transported

crews for Skylab (1973-74) and Apollo/

Soyuz missions (1975).
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

The 111-meter-high Saturn 5 rocket

carried the Apollo 11 crew to the

Moon.

Using a modified Saturn 5

rocket, NASA sent the 90,600

kilogram Skylab Space Station

to orbit on May 14, 1973. The

space station replaced the

Saturn 5's third stage.
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

Today, NASA Astronauts launch into space onboard the Space Shuttle. The Shuttle consists

of a winged orbiter that climbs into space as a rocket, orbits Earth as a satellite, and lands on a

runway as an airplane. Two recoverable solid rocket boosters provide additional thrust and an

expendable external tank carries the propellants for the orbiter's main engines. This was the

launch of STS-53 on December 2, 1992.
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

Concepts for Future Vehicles

The launch vehicles on this and the next page are

ideas for future reusable launch vehicles. Most are

variations of the winged Space Shuttle orbiter.

The Delta Clipper Experimental (DC-X) vehicle, originally developed for

the Department of Defense, lifts off at the White Sands Missile Range in

New Mexico. NASA has assumed the role of managing the vehicle's

further development. The DC-X lifts off and lands vertically. NASA

hopes this vehicle could lead to a low-cost payload launching system.

The Delta Clipper was recently renamed the "Clipper Graham" in honor

of the late space pioneer Lt. General Daniel O. Graham.
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

The X-34 is a reusable booster concept

that could lead to larger vehicles in the

future. This rocket would launch from a

carrier aircraft to deliver a payload to orbit.

NASA has choosen this concept to

replace the Space Shuttle fleet in

the 21st centry. The X-33 will be

a single-stage-to-orbit vehicle in

which the entire vehicle lifts off into

space and returns to Earth intact.

Looking like a Space Shuttle

orbiter, this new launcher concept

is also a single-stage-to-orbit

vehicle.
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

Activities Activity Matrix .......................................... 36

Pop Can Hero Engine ............................. 39

Rocket Car .............................................. 45

3-2-1 Pop! ............................................... 53

Antacid Tablet Race ................................ 57

Paper Rockets......................................... 61

Newton Car ............................................. 67

Balloon Staging ....................................... 73

Rocket Transportation ............................. 76

Altitude Tracking ..................................... 79

Bottle Rocket Launcher ........................... 87

Bottle Rocket ........................................... 91

Project X-35 ............................................ 95
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

Activity Matrix

Standards and Skills

Science Standards Science Process Skills

Observing

Communicating

Measuring

Collecting Data

Inferring

Predicting

Making Models

Making Graphs

Hypothesizing

Interpreting Data

Controlling Variables

Defining Operationally

Investigating

Pop Can Hero Engine

Rocket Racer

3-2-1 Pop!

Antacid Tablet Race

Paper Rockets

Newton Car

Balloon Staging

Rocket Transportation

Altitude Tracking

Bottle Rocket Launcher

Bottle Rocket

Project X-35

Science as Inquiry

Physical Science

- Position & Motion of Objects

- Properties of Objects and Materials

Unifying Concepts and Processes

- Change, Constancy, & Measurement

- Evidence, Models, & Explanation

Science and Technology

- Abilities of Technological Design

- Understanding about Science & Technology

Science in Personal & Social Perspectives

- Science and Technology in Local Challenges

Pop Can Hero Engine

Rocket Racer

3-2-1 Pop!

Antacid Tablet Race

Paper Rockets

Newton Car

Balloon Staging

Rocket Transportation

Altitude Tracking

Bottle Rocket Launcher

Bottle Rocket

Project X-35
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

Mathematics Standards

Problem Solving

Communication

Reasoning

Connections

Number & Number Relationships

Computation & Estimation

Patterns & Functions

Statistics

Probability

Measurement

Trigonometry

Geometry

Functions

Pop Can Hero Engine

Rocket Racer

3-2-1 Pop!

Antacid Tablet Race

Paper Rockets

Newton Car

Balloon Staging

Rocket Transportation

Altitude Tracking

Bottle Rocket Launcher

Bottle Rocket

Project X-35
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

Educator Information

Pop Can Hero

Engine

the learners construct the engine and test it.

Part two focuses on variables that affect the

action of the engine. The experiment

stresses prediction, data collection, and

analysis of results. Be sure to recycle the

soda pop cans at the end of the activity.

Background Information:

Hero of Alexandria invented the Hero engine

in the first century B.C. His engine operated

because of the propulsive force generated by

escaping steam. A boiler produced steam

that escaped to the outside through L-shaped

tubes bent pinwheel fashion. The steam's

escape produced an action-reaction force

that caused the sphere to spin in the opposite

direction. Hero's engine is an excellent

demonstration of Newton's Third Law of

Part One

Materials and Tools:

• Empty soda pop can with the opener lever still

 attached - one per group of students

• Common nail - one per group of students

• Nylon fishing line (light weight)

• Bucket or tub of water - several for entire class

• Paper towels for cleanup

• Meter stick

• Scissors to cut fishing line

Objectives:

• To demonstrate Newton's Third Law of Motion by using the

force of falling water to cause a soda pop can to spin.

• To experiment with different ways of increasing the spin of

the can.

Description:

A soft drink can suspended by a string spins by the force

created when water streams out of slanted holes near the

Science Standards: can's bottom.

Science as Inquiry

Physical Science - Position and motion of objects

Unifying Concepts and Processes - Change,

constancy, and measurement

Science and Technology - Understanding about

science and technology

Science Process Skills:

Observing

Communicating

Measuring

Collecting Data

Inferring

Predicting

Making Models

Interpreting Data

Making Graphs

Hypothesizing

Controlling Variables

Defining Operationally

Investigating

Mathematics Standards:

Computation and Estimation

Whole Number Computation

Measurement

Statistics

Probability

Management:

This activity works well with small groups of

two or three students. Allow approximately

40 to 45 minutes to complete. The activity is

divided into two parts. In part one
40

Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

many times it rotates. Ask students to

predict what they think might happen to

the rotation of the Hero engine if they

punched larger or smaller holes in the

cans. Discuss possible hypotheses for

the experiment.

2

With nail still inserted,

push upper end of nail

to the side to bend the

hole.

Part Two:

Experimenting with Soda Pop Can Hero

Engines

1. Tell the students they are going to do an

experiment to find out if there is any

relationship between the size of the holes

punched in the Hero Engine and how

Part Two

Materials and Tools:

• Student Work Sheets

• Hero Engines from part one

• Empty soda pop can with the opener lever still

 attached (three per group of students)

• Common nails - Two different diameter shafts

 (one each per group)

• Nylon fishing line (light weight)

• Bucket or tub of water - Several for entire class

• Paper towels for cleanup

• Meter stick

• Large round colored gum labels or marker pens

• Scissors to cut fishing line

How To Bend The Holes

1 Punch hole with nail.

Motion (See page 5 for more information

about Hero's Engine and pages 15-16 for

details about Newton's Third Law of Motion.).

This activity substitutes the action force

produced by falling water for the steam in

Hero's Engine.

Part One:

Making a Soda Pop Can Hero Engine:

1. Distribute student pages and one soda

pop can and one medium-size common

nail to each group. Tell the students that

you will demonstrate the procedure for

making the Hero engine.

2. Lay the can on its side and use the nail to

punch a single hole near its bottom.

Before removing the nail, push the nail to

one side to bend the metal, making the

hole slant in that direction.

3. Remove the nail and rotate the can

approximately 90 degrees. Make a

second hole like the first one. Repeat this

procedure two more times to produce four

equally spaced holes around the bottom

of the can. All four holes should slant in

the same direction going around the can.

4. Bend the can’s opener lever straight up

and tie a 40-50 centimeter length of

fishing line to it. The soda pop can Hero

engine is complete.

Running the Engine:

1. Dip the can in the water tub until it fills

with water. Ask the students to predict

what will happen when you pull the can

out by the fishing line.

2. Have each group try out their Hero

engine.

Discussion:

1. Why did the cans begin spinning when

water poured out of the holes?

2. What was the action? What was the

reaction?

3. Did all cans spin equally well? Why or

why not?
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

2. Provide each group with the materials

listed for Part Two. The nails should have

different diameter shafts from the one

used to make the first engine. Identify

these nails as small (S) and large (L).

Older students can measure the

diameters of the holes in millimeters.

Since there will be individual variations,

record the average hole diameter. Have

the groups make two additional engines

exactly like the first, except that the holes

will be different sizes.

3. Discuss how to count the times the

engines rotate. To aid in counting the

number of rotations, stick a brightlycolored round gum label or some other

marker on the can. Tell them to practice

counting the rotations of the cans several

times to become consistent in their

measurements before running the actual

experiment.

4. Have the students write their answers for

each of three tests they will conduct on

the can diagrams on the Student Pages.

(Test One employs the can created in

Part One.) Students should not predict

results for the second and third cans until

they have finished the previous tests.

5. Discuss the results of each group's

experiment. Did the results confirm the

experiment hypothesis?

6. Ask the students to propose other ways of

changing the can's rotation (Make holes

at different distances above the bottom of

the can, slant holes in different directions

or not slanted at all, etc.) Be sure they

compare the fourth Hero Engine they

make with the engine previously made

that has the same size holes.

Discussion:

1. Compare the way rockets in space

change the directions they are facing in

space with the way Hero Engines work.

2. How can you get a Hero Engine to turn in

the opposite direction?

3. Can you think of any way to put Hero

Engines to practical use?

1. File the middle of the brass tube to

produce a notch. Do not file the tube in

half. File notch

in middle

of tube.

(Step 1.)

Teacher Model

Materials and Tools:

• Copper toilet tank float (available from some

 hardware or plumbing supply stores)

• Thumb screw, 1/4 inch

•Brass tube, 3/16 I.D., 12 in. (from hobby

 shops)

• Solder

• Fishing line

• Ice pick or drill

• Metal file

• Propane torch

4. In what ways are Hero Engines similar to

rockets? In what ways are they different?

Assessment:

Conduct a class discussion where students

share their findings about Newton's Laws of

Motion. Collect and review completed

Student Pages.

Extensions:

• Compare a rotary lawn sprinkler to Hero's

Engine.

• Research Hero and his engine. Was the

engine put to any use?

• Build a steam-powered Hero engine - See

instructions below.

Steam-Powered Hero Engine

A steam powered Hero engine can be

manufactured from a copper toilet tank float

and some copper tubing. Because this

version of the Hero engine involves steam, it

is best to use it as a demonstration only.
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

2. Using the ice pick or drill, bore two small

holes on opposite sides of the float at its

middle. The holes should be just large

enough to pass the tube straight through

the float.

3. With the tube positioned so that equal

lengths protrude through the float, heat

the contact points of the float and tube

with the propane torch. Touch the end of

the solder to the heated area so that it

melts and seals both joints.

4. Drill a water access hole through the

threaded connector at the top of the float.

5. Using the torch again, heat the protruding

tubes about three centimeters from each

end. With pliers, carefully bend the tube

tips in opposite directions. Bend the

tubes slowly so they do not crimp.

6. Drill a small hole through the flat part of

the thumb screw for attaching the fish line

and swivel. Twist the thumb screw into

the threaded connector of the float in step

4 and attach the line and swivel.

Finished Steam-Powered Hero Engine

Procedure:

Using the Steam-Powered Hero Engine

1. Place a small amount of water (about 10

to 20 ml) into the float. The precise

amount is not important. The float can be

filled through the top if you drilled an

access hole or through the tubes by

partially immersing the engine in a bowl of

water with one tube submerged and the

other out of the water.

2. Suspend the engine and heat its bottom

with the torch. In a minute or two, the

engine should begin spinning. Be

careful not to operate the engine too long

because it may not be balanced well and

could wobble violently. If it begins to

wobble, remove the heat.

Caution: Wear eye protection when

demonstrating the engine. Be sure to confirm

that the tubes are not obstructed in any way

before heating. Test them by blowing

through one like a straw. If air flows out the

other tube, the engine is safe to use.
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

Pop Can Hero Engine

Test Number 3

Design an experiment that will test the effect that the size of the holes has on

the number of spins the can makes. What is your experiment hypothesis?

Test Number 2

Based on your results, was your

hypothesis correct?

Why?

Mark each can to help you count the spins.

Test each Hero Engine and record your data on the cans

below.

Hero Engine

Number of Holes:

of Spins:

Size of Holes:

Actual Number

of Spins:

Difference (+ or -):

Predicted Number

Hero Engine

Number of Holes:

of Spins:

Size of Holes:

Actual Number

of Spins:

Difference (+ or -):

Predicted Number

Hero Engine

Number of Holes:

of Spins:

Size of Holes:

Actual Number

of Spins:

Difference (+ or -):

Predicted Number

Names of Team Members:

Test Number 1

43
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Design a new Hero Engine experiment. Remember, change

only one variable in your experiment.

What is your experiment hypothesis?

Compare this engine with the engine from your first experiment

that has the same size holes.

Based on your results, was

your hypothesis correct?

Why?

Hero Engine

Number of Holes:

of Spins:

Size of Holes:

Actual Number

of Spins:

Difference (+ or -):

Predicted Number

Describe what you learned about Newton's Laws of Motion by

building and testing your Hero Engines.

Share your findings with other members of your class.

44
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Educator Information

Rocket Racer

Objectives:

• To construct a rocket propelled vehicle.

• To experiment with ways of increasing the distance the

rocket racer travels.

Description:

Students construct a balloon-powered rocket racer from a

styrofoam tray, pins, tape, and a flexible straw, and test it

along a measured track on the floor.

Materials and Tools:

•4 Pins

• Styrofoam meat tray

•Masking tape

•Flexible straw

•Scissors

•Drawing compass

•Marker pen

• Small round party balloon

• Ruler

•Student Sheets (one set per group)

•10 Meter tape measure or other measuring

 markers for track (one for the whole class)

Science Standards:

Science as Inquiry

Physical Science - Position and motion of objects

Science and Technology - Abilities of technological

design

Unifying Concepts and Processes - Change,

constancy, and measurement

Science Process Skills:

Observing

Communicating

Measuring

Collecting Data

Inferring

Making Models

Interpreting Data

Making Graphs

Controlling Variables

Defining Operationally

Investigating

Mathematics Standards:

Mathematics as Problem Solving

Mathematics as Communication

Mathematics as Reasoning

Mathematical Connections

Measurement

Statistics and Probability

Patterns and Relationships

Management:

This activity can be done individually or with

students working in pairs. Allow 40 to 45

minutes to complete the first part of the

activity. The activity stresses

technology education and provides students

with the opportunity to modify their racer

designs to increase performance. The

optional second part of the activity directs

students to design, construct, and test a new

rocket racer based on the results of the first

racer. Refer to the materials list and provide

what is needed for making one rocket racer

for each group of two students. Styrofoam

food trays are available from butchers in

supermarkets. They are usually sold for a

few cents each or you may be able to get

them donated. Students can also save trays

at home and bring them to class.
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

If compasses are not available, students can

trace circular objects to make the wheels or

use the wheel and hubcap patterns printed on

page 48. Putting hubcaps on both sides of

the wheels may improve performance.

If using the second part of the activity, provide

each group with an extra set of materials.

Save scraps from the first styrofoam tray to

build the second racer. You may wish to hold

drag or distance races with the racers. The

racers will work very well on tile floors and

carpeted floors with a short nap. Several

tables stretched end to end will also work, but

racers may roll off the edges.

Although this activity provides one rocket

racer design, students can try any racer

shape and any number, size, and placement

of wheels they wish. Long racers often work

differently than short racers.

Background Information:

The Rocket Racer is a simple way to observe

Newton's Third Law of Motion. (Please refer

to pages 15-16 of the rocket principles section

of this guide for a complete description.)

While it is possible to demonstrate Newton's

Law with just a balloon, constructing a rocket

racer provides students with the opportunity

to put the action/reaction force to practical

use. In this case, the payload of the balloon

rocket is the racer. Wheels reduce friction

with the floor to help racers move. Because

of individual variations in the student racers,

they will travel different distances and often in

unplanned directions. Through modifications,

the students can correct for undesirable

results and improve their racers' efficiency.

Making a Rocket Racer:

1. Distribute the materials and construction

tools to each student group. If you are

going to have them construct a second

racer, tell them to save styrofoam tray

scraps for later. Hold back the additional

materials for the second racer until students

need them.

2. Students should plan the arrangement of

parts on the tray before cutting them out. If

you do not wish to use scissors, students

can trace the pattern pieces with the sharp

point of a pencil or a pen. The pieces will

snap out of the styrofoam if the lines are

pressed deeply.

3. Lay out a track on the floor approximately

10 meters long. Several metric tape

measures joined together can be placed on

the floor for determining how far the racers

travel. The students should measure in 10

centimeter intervals.

4. Test racers as they are completed.

Students should fill in the data sheets and

create a report cover with a drawing of the

racer they constructed.

5. If a second racer will be constructed,

distribute design pages so that the students

can design their racers before starting

construction.

Extensions:

• Hold Rocket Racer races.

• Tie a loop of string around the

inflated balloon before releasing

the racer. Inflate the balloon

inside the string loop each time

you test the racers. This will

increase the accuracy of the

tests by insuring the balloon

inflates the same amount each time.

• Make a balloon-powered pinwheel

by taping another balloon to a

flexible straw. Push a pin through the straw

and into the eraser of a pencil. Inflate the

balloon and watch it go.

Assessment:

Students will create "Rocket Racer Test

Reports" to describe test runs and

modifications that improved their racer's

efficiency. Use these reports for assessment

along with the design sheet and new racer,

should you choose to use the second part of

this activity.
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

1. Lay out your pattern

on a styrofoam tray.

You need 1 car body,

4 wheels, and 4

hubcaps. Use a

compass to draw the

wheels.

3.

4.

Car Body

Wheels

Hubcaps

2.

Blow up the balloon

through the straw.

Squeeze the end of the

straw. Place the racer on

floor and let it go!

Push pins through the

hubcaps into the wheels

and then into the edges of

the rectangle.

Blow up the balloon and let the air

out. Tape the balloon to the short

end of a flexible straw and then

tape the straw to the rectangle.

How To Build A Rocket Racer

47
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

Wheel Patterns

(Crosses mark the centers.)

Hubcap Patterns (Crosses mark the centers.)

48
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Rocket Racer

Test Report

Draw a picture of your rocket racer.

BY

 DATE:

49
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

Rocket Racer Test Report

Place your rocket racer on the test track and measure how far it travels.

1. Describe how your rocket racer ran during the first trial run.

(Did it run on a straight or curved path?)

How far did it go? centimeters

Color in one block on the graph for each 10 centimeters your racer traveled.

2. Find a way to change and improve your rocket racer and test it again.

What did you do to improve the rocket racer for the second trial run?

How far did it go? centimeters

Color in one block on the graph for each 10 centimeters your racer traveled.

3. Find a way to change and improve your rocket racer and test it again.

What did you do to improve the rocket racer for the third trial run?

How far did it go? centimeters

Color in one block on the graph for each 10 centimeters your racer traveled.

4. In which test did your racer go the farthest?

Why?

50
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Rocket Racer Data Shee

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 

Centimeters

Rocket Racer Trial #1

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 

Centimeters

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 

Centimeters

Rocket Racer Trial #2

Rocket Racer Trial #3

51
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

DESIGN SHEET

Design and build a new

rocket racer based on

your earlier experiments.

Front View

T

Side View

op View

52
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

3-2-1 POP!

Objective:

To demonstrate how rocket liftoff is an application of

Newton's Laws of Motion.

Description:

Students construct a rocket powered by the pressure

generated from an effervescing antacid tablet reacting with

water.

Science Standards:

Physical Science - Position and motion of objects

Science and Technology - Abilities of technological

design - Understanding about science and

technology

Process Skills:

Observing

Communicating

Making Models

Inferring

Management:

For best results, students should work in

pairs. It will take approximately 40 to 45

minutes to complete the activity. Make

samples of rockets in various stages of

completion available for students to study.

This will help some students visualize the

construction steps.

A single sheet of paper is sufficient to make a

rocket. Be sure to tell the students to plan

how they are going to use the paper. Let the

students decide whether to cut the paper the

short or long direction to make the body tube

of the rocket. This will lead to rockets of

different lengths for flight comparison.

The most common mistakes in constructing

the rocket are: forgetting to tape the film

canister to the rocket body, failing to mount

the canister with the lid end down, and not

extending the canister far enough from the

paper tube to make snapping the lid easy.

Some students may have difficulty in forming

the cone. To make a cone, cut out a pie

shape from a circle and curl it into a cone.

See the pattern on the next page. Cones can

be any size.

Educator Information

Materials and Tools:

• Heavy paper (60-110 index stock or

 construction paper)

•Plastic 35 mm film canister*

• Student sheets

• Cellophane tape

• Scissors

• Effervescing antacid tablet

• Paper towels

• Water

• Eye protection

* The film canister must have an internal-sealing

lid. See management section for more details.
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

Film canisters are available from camera

shops and stores where photographic

processing takes place. These businesses

recycle the canisters and are often willing to

donate them for educational use. Be sure to

obtain canisters with the internal sealing lid.

These are usually translucent canisters.

Canisters with the external lid (lid that wraps

around the canister rim) will not work. These

are usually opaque canisters.

Background Information:

This activity is a simple but exciting

demonstration of Newton's Laws of Motion.

The rocket lifts off because it is acted upon

by an unbalanced force (First Law). This is

the force produced when the lid blows off by

the gas formed in the canister. The rocket

travels upward with a force that is equal and

opposite to the downward force propelling the

water, gas, and lid (Third Law). The amount

of force is directly proportional to the mass of

water and gas expelled from the canister and

how fast it accelerates (Second Law). For a

more complete discussion of Newton's Laws

of Motion, see pages 13-17 in this guide.

Procedure:

Refer to the Student Sheet.

Discussion:

• How does the amount of water placed in the

cylinder affect how high the rocket will fly?

• How does the temperature of the water

affect how high the rocket will fly?

• How does the amount of the tablet used

affect how high the rocket will fly?

• How does the length or empty weight of the

rocket affect how high the rocket will fly?

•How would it be possible to create a twostage rocket?

Assessment:

Ask students to explain how Newton's Laws

of Motion apply to this rocket. Compare the

rockets for skill in construction. Rockets that

use excessive paper and tape are likely to be

less efficient fliers because they carry

additional weight.

Extensions:

• Hold an altitude contest to see which rockets fly the highest. Launch the rockets

near a wall in a room with a high ceiling.

Tape a tape measure to the wall. Stand

back and observe how high the rockets

travel upward along the wall. Let all students take turns measuring rocket altitudes

• What geometric shapes are present in a

rocket?

• Use the discussion questions to design

experiments with the rockets. Graph your

results.
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

Lid

2

3

4

Overlap this edge to form cone

Cone Pattern

Tape

Cones can be

any size!

Tape fins to

your rocket.

Roll a cone of paper and

tape it to the rocket's

upper end.

3-2-1 POP!

Wrap and tape

a tube of

paper around

the film

canister. The

lid end of the

canister goes

down!

Ready for

flight

5 1

55
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ROCKETEER NAMES

COUNTDOWN:

1. Put on your eye protection.

2. Turn the rocket upside down

and fill the canister one-third

full of water.

Work quickly on the next steps!

3. Drop in 1/2 tablet.

4. Snap lid on tight.

5. Stand rocket on launch

platform.

6. Stand back.

LIFTOFF!

What three ways can you improve

your rocket?

1.

2.

3.

56
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

Antacid Tablet

Race

500 ml

400

300

200

100

500 ml

400

300

200

100

55 60 5

10

15

20

25 30 35

40

45

50

1

Science Standards:

Science as Inquiry

Physical Science - Properties of objects and

materials

Science and Technology - Abilities of technological

design

Science Process Skills:

Observing

Communicating

Measuring

Collecting Data

Inferring

Predicting

Interpreting Data

Making Graphs

Hypothesizing

Controlling Variables

Investigating

Mathematics Standards:

Mathematics as Communication

Mathematical Connections

Estimation

Measurement

Statistics and Probability

Management:

This activity should be done in groups of two

or three students. The specific brand of

effervescent antacid tablets used for the

experiment is not important, but different

brands should not be mixed during

the experiments. Give student groups only

two tablets at a time. Make sure they know

how to fill in the stopwatch graphs on the

student pages. Although there is little eye

hazard involved with the experiment, it is

valuable for students to get in the habit of

wearing eye protection for experiments

involving chemicals.

Background Information:

This activity enables students to discover

methods of increasing the rate that rocket

propellants release energy. When rocket

propellants burn faster, the mass of exhaust

gases expelled increases as well as how fast

those gases accelerate out of the rocket

nozzle. Newton's Second Law of Motion

Educator Information

Materials and Tools:

• Effervescent Antacid tablets (four per

 group)

•Two beakers (or glass or plastic jars)

•Tweezers or forceps

• Scrap paper

•Watch or clock with second hand

• Thermometer

•Eye protection

• Water (warm and cold)

Objective:

To investigate methods of increasing the

power of rocket fuels by manipulating

surface area and temperature.

Description:

Students compare the reaction rates of

effervescent antacid tablets under different

conditions.
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

states that the force or action of a rocket

engine is directly proportional to the mass

expelled times its acceleration.

Consequently, increasing the efficiency of

rocket fuels increases the performance of the

rocket.

Students will discover two methods for

increasing the efficiency of rocket fuels by

using antacid tablets. The first experiment

measures the relationship between the

surface area of a tablet and its reaction rate

in water. Students will learn that increasing

the surface area of a tablet by crushing it into

a powder, increases its reaction rate with the

water. This is a similar situation to the way a

rocket's thrust becomes greater by increasing

the burning surface of its propellants.

Expanding the burning surface increases its

burning rate. In solid rockets, a hollow core

extending the length of the propellant permits

more propellant to burn at a time. This

increases the amount of gas (mass) and

acceleration of the gas as it leaves the rocket

engine. Liquid propellants spray into the

combustion chamber of a liquid propellant

rocket to maximize their surface area.

Smaller droplets react more quickly than do

large ones, increasing the acceleration of the

escaping gases. (See page 20 for more

information.)

The second experiment measures the

reaction rate of tablets in different water

temperatures. Tablets in warm water react

much more quickly than tablets in cold water.

In liquid propellant rocket engines, super cold

fuel, such as liquid hydrogen, is preheated

before being combined with liquid oxygen.

This increases the reaction rate and thereby

increases the rocket's thrust. More

information about this process appears on

page 20.

Assessment:

Conduct a class discussion where students

explain how this experiment relates to the

way rocket fuel burns. Collect and review

completed student pages.

Extensions:

• Try a similar activity relating to the surface

area of rocket fuels using small pieces of

hard candy. Take two pieces of candy and

crush one. Then, give the whole candy

piece to one student and the crushed candy

to another student to dissolve in their

mouths. Which candy will dissolve first?
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Jar 1 Results

Your Prediction: ____________ seconds

Team Antacid Members:

Tablet Race

Experiment 1

1. Fill both jars half full with water that

is at the same temperature.

2. Put on your eye protection.

3. Predict how long it will take for the

tablet to dissolve in the water. Drop

a tablet in the first jar. Shade in the

stopwatch face for the actual number

of minutes and seconds it took to

complete the reaction. The

stopwatch can measure six minutes.

4. Wrap another tablet in paper and

place it on a table top. Crush the

tablet with the wood block.

5. Predict how long it will take for the

crushed tablet to dissolve. Drop the

powder in the other jar. Shade in the

clock face for the number of minutes

and seconds it took to complete the

reaction.

Jar 2 Results

Your Prediction: ____________ seconds

0

1

2

3

4

5

15 30

45

15

30

45

Describe what happened in the experiment and why. 0

1

2

3

4

5

15 30

45

15

30

45

59
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Experiment 2

1. Empty the jars from the first

experiment. Put warm water in one

jar and cold in the other.

2. Measure the temperature of the first

jar. Predict how long it will take for a

tablet to dissolve. Drop a tablet in

the jar. Shade in the clock face for

the actual number of minutes and

seconds it took to complete the

reaction.

3. Measure the temperature of the

second jar. Predict how long it will

take for a tablet to dissolve in the

water. Drop a tablet in the jar.

Shade in the clock face for the actual

number of minutes and seconds it

took to complete the reaction.

Describe what happened in the

experiment and why.

How can you apply the results from

these experiments to improve rocket

performance?

Jar 1 Results

Temperature: ____________0C

Your Prediction:____________ Seconds

0

1

2

3

4

5

15 30

45

15

30

45

Jar 2 Results

Temperature: ____________0C

Your Prediction:____________ Seconds

0

1

2

3

4

5

15 30

45

15

30

45

60
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Educator Information

Paper Rockets

When students complete the rockets,

distribute straws. Select a location for flying

the rockets. A room with open floor space or

a hallway is preferable. Prepare the floor by

marking a 10-meter test range with tape

measures or meter sticks laid end to end.

As an alternative, lay out the planetary target

range as shown on the next page. Have

students launch from planet Earth, and tell

them to determine the farthest planet they are

able to reach with their rocket. Use the

planetary arrangement shown on the next

page for laying out the launch range.

Pictures for the planets are found on page

63. Enlarge these pictures as desired.

Record data from each launch on the Paper

Rocket Launch Record Report form. The

form includes spaces for data from three

different rockets. After the first launches,

Materials and Tools:

• Scrap bond paper

•Cellophane tape

•Scissors

•Sharpened fat pencil

•Milkshake straw (slightly thinner than pencil)

•Eye protection

•Metric ruler

•Masking tape or Altitude trackers

•Pictures of the Sun and planets

Objective:

To design, construct, and fly paper rockets that will travel

the greatest distance possible across a floor model of the

solar system.

Description:

In this activity, students construct small flying rockets out of

paper and propel them by blowing air through a straw.

Science Standards:

Science as Inquiry

Physical Science - Position and motion of objects

Science and Technology - Abilities of technological

design

Unifying Concepts and Processes - Evidence,

models, and explanation

Science Process Skills:

Observing

Communicating

Measuring

Collecting Data

Inferring

Predicting

Making Models

Interpreting Data

Controlling Variables

Defining Operationally

Investigating

Mathematics Standards:

Mathematics as Problem Solving

Mathematics as Reasoning

Mathematical Connections

Geometry and Spatial Sense

Statistics and Probability

Management:

After demonstrating a completed paper

rocket to the students, have them construct

their own paper rockets and decorate them.

Students may work individually or in pairs.

 Because the rockets are projectiles, make

sure students wear eye protection.
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students should construct new and

"improved" paper rockets and attempt a

longer journey through the solar system.

Encourage the students to try different sized

rockets and different shapes and number of

fins. For younger students, create a chart

listing how far each planet target is from

Earth. Older students can measure these

distances for themselves.

Background Information:

Although the activity uses a solar system

target range, the Paper Rockets activity

demonstrates how rockets fly through the

atmosphere. A rocket with no fins is much

more difficult to control than a rocket with

fins. The placement and size of the fins is

critical to achieve adequate stability while not

adding too much weight. More information

on rocket fins can be found on pages 22-23

of this guide.

Pluto

Uranus

Neptune

Saturn

Mars

Jupiter

Venus

Earth

Mercury

Sun

Suggested Target Range Layout

Arrange pictures of the Sun and the

planets on a clear floor space as shown

below. The distance between Earth and

Pluto should be about 8 meters. Refer to

an encyclopedia or other reference for a

chart on the actual distances to each

planet.

Making and Launching Paper Rockets:

1. Distribute the materials and construction

tools to each student.

2. Students should each construct a rocket

as shown in the instructions on the

student sheet.

3. Tell students to predict how far their

rocket will fly and record their estimates in

the test report sheet. After test flying the

rocket and measuring the distance it

reached, students should record the

actual distance and the difference

between predicted and actual distances

on the Paper Rockets Test Report.

4. Following the flight of the first rocket,

students should construct and test two

additional rockets of different sizes and fin

designs.
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Planet Targets

 (Not Drawn To Scale)

Pluto

0.9X Neptune

3.9X

Uranus

4X

Saturn

9.4X

Jupiter

11.2X

Venus

0.95X

Mars

0.53X

Earth

1X

Mercury

0.38X

Enlarge these pictures on a copy machine or sketch copies

of the pictures on separate paper. Place these pictures on

the floor according to the arrangement on the previous

page. If you wish to make the planets to scale, refer to the

numbers beside the names indicating the relative sizes of

each body. Earth's diameter is given as one and all the

other bodies are given as multiples of one.

Sun

108X
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

Assessment:

Students will complete test reports that will

describe the rockets they constructed and

how those rockets performed. Ask the

students to create bar graphs on a blank

sheet of paper that show how far each of the

three rockets they constructed flew. Have

students write a summarizing paragraph in

which they pick which rocket performed the

best and explain their ideas for why it

performed as it did.

Discussion:

1. What makes one rocket perform better

than another? (Do not forget to examine

the weight of each rocket. Rockets made

with extra tape and larger fins weigh

more.)

2. How small can the fins be and still

stabilize the rocket?

3. How many fins does a rocket need to

stabilize it?

4. What would happen if you placed the

rocket fins near the rocket's nose?

5. What will happen to the rocket if you bend

the lower tips of the fins pinwheel

fashion?

6. Are rocket fins necessary in outer space?

Extensions:

Try to determine how high the rockets fly. To

do so, place masking tape markers on a wall

at measured distances from the floor to the

ceiling. While one student launches the

rocket along the wall, another student

compares the height the rocket reached with

the tape markers. Be sure to have the

students subtract the height from where the

rocket was launched from the altitude

reached. For example, if students held the

rocket 1.5 meters from the floor to launch it,

and it reached 4 meters above the floor, the

actual altitude change was 2.5 meters. Refer

to the Altitude Tracker activity starting on

page 79 for details on a second method for

measuring the height the paper rockets

reach.
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Roll paper strip around

pencil.

Tape tube in 3 places.

Cut off ends.

Cut out fins in any

shape you like.

Fold out tabs and

tape fins to tube.

Fold over upper end

and tape shut. Insert straw.

Blow through

straw to launch.

PAPER ROCKETS

L

A

U

N

C

H

Follow the arrows to build your rocket.

4 by 28 centimeter

 strip of paper

65
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Paper Rocket Test Report

Rocket 1

How far did it fly

in centimeters?

Average distance

in centimeters?

Make notes about the flights here.

1.

2.

3.

1.

2.

3.

Make notes about the flights here.

Make notes about the flights here.

1.

2.

3.

Predict how many centimeters

your rocket will fly.

How far did it fly

in centimeters?

Average distance?

Difference between your

prediction and the average

distance?

Rocket 2

Predict how many centimeters

your rocket will fly.

How far did it fly

in centimeters?

Average distance?

Difference between your

prediction and the average

distance?

Rocket 3

1. Launch your rocket three times. How far did it fly each time. What is the average

distance your rocket flew? Write your answer in the spaces below.

2. Build and fly a rocket of a new design. Before flying it, predict how far it will go.

Fly the rocket three times and average the distances. What is the difference

between your prediction and the actual average distance?

3. Build a third rocket and repeat step 2.

4. On the back of this paper, write a short paragraph describing each rocket you built

and how it flew. Draw pictures of the rockets you constructed.

Names:

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Educator Information

Newton Car

Science Standards:

Science as Inquiry

Physical Science - Properties of objects and

materials

Unifying Concepts and Processes - Evidence,

models, and explanation

Unifying Concepts and Processes - Change,

constancy, and measurement

Science Process Skills:

Observing

Communicating

Measuring

Collecting Data

Inferring

Predicting

Interpreting Data

Making Graphs

Controlling Variables

Defining Operationally

Investigating

Mathematics Standards:

Mathematics as Problem Solving

Mathematics as Communication

Mathematical Connections

Measurement

Statistics and Probability

Patterns and Relationships

Management:

Conduct this activity in groups of three

students. Use a smooth testing surface such

as a long, level table top or uncarpeted floor.

The experiment has many variables that

students must control including: the

Objective:

To investigate how increasing the mass of an

object thrown from a Newton Car affects the

car's acceleration over a rolling track

(Newton's Second Law of Motion).

Description:

In this activity, students test a slingshot-like

device that throws a mass causing the car to

move in the opposite direction.

size of the string loop they tie, the placement

of the mass on the car, and the placement of

the dowels. Discuss the importance of

controlling the variables in the experiment

with your students.

Making the Newton Car involves cutting

blocks of wood and driving three screws into

each block. Refer to the diagram on this

page for the placement of the screws as well

as how the Newton Car is set up for the

experiment. Place the dowels in a row like

railroad ties and extend them to one side as

shown in the picture. If you have access to a

Materials and Tools:

• 1 Wooden block about 10 x 20 x 2.5 cm

•3 3-inch No. 10 wood screws (round head)

•12 Round pencils or short lengths of similar

 dowel

•Plastic film canister

•Assorted materials for filling canister

(e.g. washers, nuts, etc.)

•3 Rubber bands

•Cotton string

•Safety lighter

•Eye protection for each student

•Metric beam balance (Primer Balance)

•Vice

•Screwdriver

•Meter stick
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

drill press, you can substitute short dowels for

the screws. It is important to drill the holes

for the dowels perpendicular into the block

with the drill press. Add a drop of glue to

each hole.

The activity requires students to load their

"slingshot" by stretching the rubber bands

back to the third screw and holding it in place

with the string. The simplest way of doing

this is to tie the loop first and slide the rubber

bands through the loop before placing the

rubber bands over the two screws. Loop the

string over the third screw after stretching the

rubber bands back.

Use a match or lighter to burn the string. The

small ends of string left over from the knot

acts as a fuse that permits the students to

remove the match before the string burns

through. Teachers may want to give student

groups only a few matches at a time. To

completely conduct this experiment, student

groups will need six matches. It may be

necessary for a practice run before starting

the experiment. As an alternative to the

matches, students can use blunt nose

scissors to cut the string. This requires some

fast movement on the part of the student

doing the cutting. The student needs to

move the scissors quickly out of the way after

cutting the string.

Tell the students to tie all the string loops

they need before beginning the experiment.

The loops should be as close to the same

size as possible. Refer to the diagram on the

student pages for the actual size of the loops.

Loops of different sizes will introduce a

significant variable into the experiment,

causing the rubber bands to be stretched

different amounts. This will lead to different

accelerations with the mass each time the

experiment is conducted.

Use plastic 35 millimeter film canisters for the

mass in the experiments. Direct students to

completely fill the canister with various

materials, such as seeds, small nails, metal

washers, sand, etc. This will enable them to

vary the mass twice during the experiment.

Have students weigh the canister after it is

filled and record the mass on the student

sheet. After using the canister three times,

first with one rubber band and then two and

three rubber bands, students should refill the

canister with new material for the next three

tests.

Refer to the sample graph for recording data.

The bottom of the graph is the distance the

car travels in each test. Students should plot

a dot on the graph for the distance the car

traveled. The dot should fall on the y-axis

line representing the number of rubber bands

used and on the x-axis for the distance the

car traveled. After plotting three tests with a

particular mass, connect the dots with lines.

The students should use a solid line for Mass

1 and a line with large dashes for Mass 2. If

the students have carefully controlled their

variables, they should observe that the car

traveled the greatest distance using the

greatest mass and three rubber bands. This

conclusion will help them conceptualize

Newton's Second Law of Motion.

Background Information:

The Newton car provides an excellent tool for

investigating Isaac Newton’s Second Law of

Motion. The law states that force equals

mass times acceleration. In rockets, the

force is the action produced by gas expelled

from the engines. According to the law, the

greater the gas that is expelled and the faster

it accelerates out of the engine, the greater

the force or thrust. More details on this law

can be found on page 16 of this guide.

The Newton Car is a kind of a slingshot. A

wooden block with three screws driven into it

forms the slingshot frame. Rubber bands
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

stretch from two of the screws and hold to the

third by a string loop. A mass sits between

the rubber bands. When the string is cut, the

rubber bands throw the block to produce an

action force. The reaction force propels the

block in the opposite direction over some

dowels that act as rollers (Newton's Third

Law of Motion).

This experiment directs students to launch

the car while varying the number of rubber

bands and the quantity of mass thrown off.

They will measure how far the car travels in

the opposite direction and plot the data on a

graph. Repeated runs of the experiment

should show that the distance the car travels

depends on the number of rubber bands

used and the quantity of the mass being

expelled. Comparing the graph lines will lead

students to Newton's Second Law of Motion.

Discussion:

1. How is the Newton Car similar to rockets?

2. How do rocket engines increase their

thrust?

3. Why is it important to control variables in

an experiment?

Assessment:

Conduct a class discussion where students

share their findings about Newton's Laws of

Motion. Ask them to compare their results

with those from previous activities such as

Pop Can Hero Engine. Collect and review

completed student pages.

Extensions:

Obtain a toy water rocket from a toy store.

Try launching the rocket with only air and

then with water and air and observe how far

the rocket travels.
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

1. Tie 6 string loops this size.

2. Fill up your film canister and

weigh it in grams. Record the

mass in the Newton Car

Report chart.

3. Set up your Newton Car as

shown in the picture. Slip the

rubber band through the

string loop. Stretch the

rubber band over the two

screws and pull the string

back over the third

screw. Place the

rods 6

centimeters

apart. Use only one

rubber band the first time.

Newton Car

4. Put on your eye protection!

5. Light the string and stand back. Record the distance the car traveled

on the chart.

6. Reset the car and rods. Make sure the rods are 6 centimeters apart!

Use two rubber bands. Record the distance the car travels.

7. Reset the car with three rubber bands. Record the distance it travels.

8. Refill the canister and record its new mass.

9. Test the car with the new canister and with 1, 2, and 3 rubber bands.

Record the distances the car moves each time.

10. Plot your results on the graph. Use one line for the first set of

measurements and a different line for the second set.

Place more rods

in this direction

0 cm

6 cm

12 cm

18cm

70
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

Newton Car Report

Describe what happened when you tested the car with 1, 2, and 3 rubber

bands.

Team

Members:

MASS 1

MASS 2

grams

grams

grams

grams

Describe what happened when you tested the car with 1, 2, and 3 rubber

bands.

Write a short statement explaining the relationship between the amount

of mass in the canister, the number of rubber bands, and the distance

the car traveled.

Rubber Bands Distance Traveled

centimeters

centimeters

centimeters

Rubber Bands Distance Traveled

centimeters

centimeters

centimeters

71
72

Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ Mass 1 = gms Mass 2 = gms

0 50 100 150 200

Centimeters

3

2

1

Rubber bands

Newton CarTest Results

Mass 1 = gms

Mass 2 = gms

50 100 150 200 0

Centimeters

1

2

3

Rubber bands

Sample Graph

72
72

Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ Mass 1 = gms Mass 2 = gms

0 50 100 150 200

Centimeters

3

2

1

Rubber bands

Newton CarTest Results

Mass 1 = gms

Mass 2 = gms

50 100 150 200 0

Centimeters

1

2

3

Rubber bands

Sample Graph

72
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

Science Standards:

Physical Science - Position and motion of objects

Science and Technology - Abilities of technological

design

Science and Technology - Understanding about

science and technology

Science Process Skills:

Observing

Making Models

Defining Operationally

Management:

The activity described below can be done by

students or used as a demonstration.

Younger students may have difficulty in

coordinating the assembly steps to achieve a

successful launch. If you will use the activity

in several successive classes, consider

attaching the fishing line along one wall

where there is not much traffic, so students

will not walk into the line.

Background Information:

Traveling into outer space takes enormous

amounts of energy. This activity is a simple

demonstration of rocket staging that Johann

Schmidlap first proposed in the 16th century.

When a lower stage has exhausted its load of

propellants, the entire stage drops away,

making the upper stages more efficient in

reaching higher altitudes. In the

Materials and Tools:

• 2 Long party balloons

• Nylon monofilament fishing line (any weight)

• 2 Plastic straws (milkshake size)

• Styrofoam coffee cup

• Masking tape

• Scissors

• 2 Spring clothespins

Balloon

Staging

Educator Information

Objective:

To demonstrate how rockets can achieve greater

altitudes by using the technology of staging.

Description:

This demonstration simulates a multistage rocket

launch by using two inflated balloons that slide along

a fishing line by the thrust produced from escaping

air.

typical rocket, the stages are mounted one on

top of the other. The lowest stage is the

largest and heaviest. In the Space Shuttle,

the stages attach side by side. The solid

rocket boosters attach to the side of the

external tank. Also attached to the external

tank is the Shuttle orbiter. When exhausted

the solid rocket boosters jettison. Later, the

orbiter discards the external tank as well.

Procedure:

1. Thread the fishing line through the two

straws. Stretch the fishing line snugly

across a room and secure its ends. Make

sure the line is just high enough for people

to pass safely underneath.

2. Cut the coffee cup in half so that the lip of

the cup forms a continuous ring.

3. Stretch the balloons by pre-inflating them.
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

Inflate the first balloon about three-fourths

full of air and squeeze its nozzle tight. Pull

the nozzle through the ring. Twist the

nozzle and hold it shut with a spring

clothespin. Inflate the second balloon.

While doing so, make sure the front end of

the second balloon extends through the

ring a short distance. As the second

balloon inflates, it will press against the

nozzle of the first balloon and take over the

clip's job of holding it shut. It may take a

bit of practice to achieve this. Clip the

nozzle of the second balloon shut also.

4. Take the balloons to one end of the fishing

line and tape each balloon to a straw with

masking tape. The balloons should point

parallel to the fishing line.

5. Remove the clip from the first balloon and

untwist the nozzle. Remove the nozzle

from the second balloon as well, but

continue holding it shut with your fingers.

6. If you wish, do a rocket countdown as you

release the balloon you are holding. The

escaping gas will propel both balloons

along the fishing line. When the first

balloon released runs out of air, it will

release the other balloon to continue the

trip.

7. Distribute design sheets and ask students

to design and describe their own

multistage rocket.

Assessment:

Collect and display student designs for

multistage rockets. Ask each student to

explain their rocket to the class.

Extensions:

• Encourage the students to try other

launch arrangements such as side-by-side

balloons and three stages.

• Can students fly a two stage balloon

without the fishing line as a guide? How

might the balloons be modified to make this

possible?
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

Design a rocket that has at

least two stages. In the

space below, describe what

each stage will do. Do not

forget to include a place for

payload and crew.

Design Sheet

Description

Your Name:

Rocket Name:

Side View

Top View

75
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

Background Information:

The mass of a rocket can make the

difference between a successful flight and a

rocket that just sits on the launch pad. As a

basic principle of rocket flight, a rocket will

leave the ground when the engine produces

a thrust that is greater than the total mass of

the vehicle.

Large rockets, able to carry a spacecraft into

space, have serious weight problems. To

reach space and proper orbital velocities, a

great deal of propellant is needed; therefore,

the tanks, engines, and associated hardware

become larger. Up to a point, bigger rockets

fly farther than smaller rockets, but when they

become too large their structures weigh them

down too much.

Rocket

Transportation

Objective:

To problem solve ways to lift a load using a balloon rocket.

Description:

Students construct a rocket out of a balloon and use it to

carry a paper clip payload.

Science Standards:

Science as Inquiry

Physical Science - Position and motion of objects

Science and Technology - Abilities of technological

design

Science Process Skills:

Observing

Communicating

Measuring

Collecting Data

Inferring

Predicting

Making Models

Controlling Variables

Defining Operationally

Investigating

Mathematics Standards:

Problem Solving

Communication

Reasoning

Connections

Estimation

Measurement

Management:

This activity works best with students working

in teams of three or four. It will take

approximately one hour to complete. The

activity focuses on the scientific processes of

experimentation.

Educator Information

Materials and Tools:

• Large long balloons (Several per group)

• Fishing line

• Straws

• Small paper cups

• Paper clips

• Tape

• Clothes pins

• Scales
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

A solution to the problem of giant rockets

weighing too much can be credited to the

16th-century fireworks maker John

Schmidlap. Schmidlap attached small

rockets to the top of big ones. When the

large rockets exhausted their fuel supply the

rocket casing dropped behind and the

remaining rocket fired. Much higher altitudes

can be achieved this way.

This technique of building a rocket is called

staging. Thanks to staging, we can not only

reach outer space in the Space Shuttle, but

also the Moon and other planets using

various spacecraft.

Procedure:

1. Attach a fishing line to the ceiling or as

high on the wall as possible. Try attaching

a paper clip to a fishing line and hooking it

on to the light or ceiling tile braces. Make

one drop with the fishing line to the floor or

table top per group. Note: The line may

be marked off in metric units with a marker

to aid students in determining the height

traveled.

2. Blow up the balloon and hold it shut with a

clothes pin. You will remove the clip

before launch.

3. Use the paper cup as a payload bay to

carry the weights. Attach the cup to the

balloon using tape. Encourage students to

think of creative locations to attach the cup

to the balloon.

4. Attach the straw to the side of your rocket

using the tape. Be sure the straw runs

lengthwise along the balloon. This will be

your guide and attachment to your fishing

line.

5. Thread the fishing line through the straws.

Launch is now possible simply by

removing the clothes pin. NOTE: The

fishing line should be taut for the rocket to

travel successfully up the line, and the

clipped balloon nozzle must be untwisted

before release.

6. After trying their rocket have students

predict how much weight they can lift to

the ceiling. Allow students to change their

design in any way that might increase the

rockets lifting ability between each try (e.g.

adding additional balloons, changing

locations of the payload bay, replacing the

initial balloon as it loses some of its

elasticity enabling it to maintain the same

thrust, etc.)

Discussion:

1. Compare what you have learned about

balloons and rockets.

2. Why is the balloon forced along the string?

Assessment:

Compare results from student launches.

Have students discuss design elements that

made their launch successful and ideas they

think could be used to create an even more

successful heavy-lift launcher.

Extensions:

• Can you eliminate the paper cup from the

rocket and have it still carry paper clips?

• If each balloon costs one million dollars and

you need to lift 100 paper clips, how much

money would you need to spend? Can you

think of a way to cut this cost?

• Without attaching the paper cup as a payload carrier, have the students measure the

distance the balloon travels along the string

in a horizontal, vertical, and 45 degree

angle using metric units. Discuss the

differences.
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

Rocket Team

• What other ways could increase the lifting capacity of your rocket?

• Predict how much weight your rocket can lift to the ceiling

Based on your most successful launch:

•What was the maximum amount of weight you could lift to the ceiling?

Explain how you designed your rocket to lift the

maximum amount of weight.

Rocket

Transportation

Sketch Your Rocket

Test Weight Lifted Results of Test

1

2

3

4

(2 small paperclips = approximately 1 gram)

78
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

90

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

80

70

5

15

25

35

45

55

65

75

85

Look at the number in the

window for the distance of the

tracking station location

from the launch site. The

number will tell you the altitude

of the rocket in meters.

5 15 30 m

ALTITUDE CALCULATOR

Rotate the nose of the rocket

to the angle you measured.

BASELINE

1.3 4 8

Science Standards:

Physical Science - Position and motion of objects

Science and Technology - Abilities of technological

design

Science and Technology - Understanding about

science and technology

Science Process Skills:

Observing

Measuring

Collecting Data

Interpreting Data

Mathematics Standards:

Mathematics as Communication

Mathematics as Reasoning

Mathematical Connections

Estimation

Number Sense and Numeration

Geometry and Spatial Sense

Measurement

Trigonometry

Management:

Determining the altitude a rocket reaches in flight

is a team activity. While one group of students

prepares and launches a rocket, a second group

measures the altitude the rocket reaches by

estimating the angle of the rocket at its highest

point from the tracking station. The angle is

Educator Information

Altitude

Tracking

Objective:

To estimate the altitude a rocket achieves during

flight.

Description:

In this activity, students construct simple altitude

tracking devices for determining the altitude a

rocket reaches in its flight.

Materials and Tools:

• Altitude tracker pattern

• Altitude calculator pattern

• Thread or lightweight string

• Small washer

• Brass paper fastener

• Scissors

• Razor blade knife and cutting surface

• Stapler

• Meter stick

• Rocket and launcher

then input into the altitude tracker calculator and

the altitude is read. Roles are reversed so that

everyone gets to launch and to track. Depending

upon the number of launches held and whether or

not every student makes their own Altitude

Trackers and Altitude Calculators, the activity

should take about an hour or two. While waiting

to launch rockets or track them, students can

work on other projects.

Altitude tracking, as used in this activity, can be

used with the Paper Rockets (page 61), 3-2-1

Pop! (page 53), and Bottle Rockets (page 91)

activities and with commercial model rockets.

The Altitude Calculator is calibrated for 5, 15, and

This Altitude Tracker belongs to

Staple

Staple

A A A A A A A A A A A A

Staple

Staple

0 10 20 30

50 40

60 70 80 90

Rocket Altitude Tracker
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

30 meter baselines. Use the 5-meter baseline for

Paper Rockets and 3-2-1 Pop! rockets. Use the

15-meter baseline for Project X-35, and use the

30-meter baseline for launching commercial

model rockets.

For practical reasons, the Altitude Calculator is

designed for angles in increments of 5 degrees.

Younger children, may have difficulty in obtaining

precise angle measurements with the Altitude

Tracker. For simplicity's sake, round

measurements off to the nearest 5 degree

increment and read the altitude reached directly

from the Altitude Calculator. If desired, you can

determine altitudes for angles in between the

increments by adding the altitudes above and

below the angle and dividing by 2. A more

precise method for determining altitudes appears

later in the procedures.

A teacher aid or older student should cut out the

three windows in in the Altitude Calculator. A

sharp knife or razor and a cutting surface works

best for cutting out windows. The altitude tracker

is simple enough for everyone to make their own,

but they can also be shared. Students should

practice taking angle measurements and using

the calculator on objects of known height such as

a building or a flagpole before calculating rocket

altitude.

Background Information:

This activity makes use of simple trigonometry to

determine the altitude a rocket reaches in flight.

The basic assumption of the activity is that the

rocket travels straight up from the launch site. If

the rocket flies away at an angle other than 90

degrees, the accuracy of the procedure

diminishes. For example, if the rocket climbs

over a tracking station, where the angle is

measured, the altitude calculation will yield an

answer higher than the actual altitude reached.

On the other hand, if the rocket flies away from

the station, the altitude measurement will be

lower than the actual value. Tracking accuracy

can be increased, by using more than one

tracking station to measure the rocket's altitude.

Position a second or third station in different

directions from the first station. Averaging the

altitude measurements will reduce individual

error.

Procedure:

Constructing the Altitude Tracker Scope

1. Copy the pattern for the altitude tracker on

heavy weight paper.

2. Cut out the pattern on the dark outside lines.

3. Curl (do not fold) the B edge of the pattern to

the back until it lines up with the A edge.

4. Staple the edges together where marked. If

done correctly, the As and Bs will be on the

outside of the tracker.

5. Punch a small hole through the apex of the

protractor quadrant on the pattern.

6. Slip a thread or lightweight string through the

hole. Knot the thread or string on the back

side.

6. Complete the tracker by hanging a small

washer from the other end of the thread as

shown in the diagram above.

This Altitude Tracker belongs to

Staple

Staple

A A A A A A A A A A A A

Staple

Staple

0 10

20 30

50 40

60 70

80

90

Rocket Altitude Tracker

Completed Altitude Tracker Scope
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

Procedure:

Using the Altitude Tracker

1. Set up a tracking station location a short

distance away from the rocket launch site.

Depending upon the expected altitude of the

rocket, the tracking station should be 5,

15, or 30 meters away. (Generally, a 5-

meter distance is sufficient for paper

rockets and antacid-power rockets. A

15-meter distance is sufficient for bottle

rockets, and a 30-meter distance is

sufficient for model rockets.

2. As a rocket launches, the person doing

the tracking will follow the flight with the

sighting tube on the tracker. The tracker

should be held like a pistol and kept at

the same level as the rocket when it is

launched. Continue to aim the tracker at

the highest point the rocket reached in

the sky. Have a second student read

the angle the thread or string makes

with the quadrant protractor. Record

the angle.

Procedure:

Constructing the Altitude Calculator

1. Copy the two patterns for the altitude calculator

onto heavy weight paper or glue the patterns

on to light weight posterboard. Cut out the

patterns.

2. Place the top pattern on a cutting surface and

cut out the three windows.

3. Join the two patterns together where the center

marks are located. Use a brass paper fastener

to hold the pieces together. The pieces should

rotate smoothly.

Procedure:

Determining the Altitude

1. Use the Altitude Calculator to determine the

height the rocket reached. To do so, rotate the

inner wheel of the calculator so that the nose

of the rocket pointer is aimed at the angle

measured in step 2 of the previous procedure.

2. Read the altitude of the rocket by looking in the

window. If you use a 5-meter baseline, the

altitude the rocket reached will be in the

window beneath the 5. To achieve a more

accurate measure, add the height of the

person holding the tracker to calculate altitude.

If the angle falls between two degree marks,

average the altitude numbers above and below

the marks.

90

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

80

70

5

15

25

35

45

55

65

75

85

Look at the number in the

window for the distance of the

tracking station location

from the launch site. The

number will tell you the altitude

of the rocket in meters.

5 15 30 m

ALTITUDE CALCULATOR

Rotate the nose of the rocket

to the angle you measured.

BASELINE

1.3

4

8

?

15 meters

Baseline

This Altitude Tracker belongs to

Staple

Staple

A A A A A A A A A A A A

Staple

Staple

0 10 20 30

50 40 60 70 80 90

Rocket Altitude Tracker
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

Advanced Altitude Tracking:

1. A more advanced altitude tracking scope can

be constructed by replacing the rolled sighting

tube with a fat milkshake straw. Use white

glue to attach the straw along the 90 degree

line of the protractor.

2. Once you determine the angle of the rocket,

use the following equation to calculate altitude

of the rocket:

 Altitude = tan x baseline

 Use a calculator with trigonometry functions to

solve the problem or refer to the tangent table

on page 86. For example, if the measured

angle is 28 degrees and the baseline is

15 meters, the altitude is 7.97 meters.

 Altitude = tan 28o X 15 m

 Altitude = 0.5317 x 15 m = 7.97 m

3. An additional improvement in accuracy can be

obtained by using two tracking stations.

Averaging the calculated altitude from the two

stations will achieve greater accuracy. See the

figure below.

Assessment:

Have students demonstrate their proficiency with

altitude tracking by sighting on a fixed object of

known height and comparing their results. If

employing two tracking stations, compare

measurements from both stations.

Extensions:

• Why should the height of the person holding

the tracker be added to the measurement of

the rocket's altitude?

• Curriculum guides for model rocketry

(available from model rocket supply

companies) provide instructions for more

sophisticated rocket trcking measurements.

These activities involve two-station tracking

with altitude and compass direction

measurement and trigonometric functions.

30 meters

Baseline

30 meters

Baseline

Estimated Altitude 36 m

Estimated Altitude 30 m

Two Station Tracking Use average of the two stations

This Altitude Tracker belongs to

Staple

Staple

A A A A A A A A A A A A

Staple

Staple

0 10 20 30

60 50 40

70 80 90

Rocket Altitude Tracker

51o

45o
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

This Altitude Tracker belongs to

Rocket Sighting Instructions:

1. Follow rocket by sighting through tube.

2. Read angle of string for highest altitude

 of rocket.

0 10 20

30

40

50

60

70

80 90

Rocket Altitude Tracker

Staple

Staple

B B B B B B B B B B B B

A A A A A A A A A A A A StapleStaple

83
84

Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ Look at the number in the window for the distance of the tracking station location from the launch site. The number will tell you the altitude of the rocket in meters.

5 15 30 m

ALTITUDE

C

A

LCULATOR

Rotate the nose of the rocketto the angle you measured.

BASELINE

84
85

Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

0.4

1.3

2.6

0.9

5.3

2.6

1.8

4

8

5.5

11

1.3

2.3

7

14

2.9

8.7

17.3

3.5 10.5

21

4.2 12.6 25.2

5 15 30

6 17.9 35.8

7.1 21.4 42.9

8.7

26

52

10.8

32.2

64.3

13.7

41.2

82.4

18.6

55.9

112

28.4

57.2

85.1

343

171

170

ALT TI

UDE

CALC

U

L

AT

O

R

-

BACK WHEEL

80

0

0

0 90

85

75

70

65

60

55

50

45

40

30

35

20

25

0

5

10

15

85
86

Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

0 0.0000

1 0.0174

2 0.0349

3 0.0524

4 0.0699

5 0.0874

6 0.1051

7 0.1227

8 0.1405

9 0.1583

10 0.1763

11 0.1943

12 0.2125

13 0.2308

14 0.2493

15 0.2679

16 0.2867

17 0.3057

18 0.3249

19 0.3443

20 0.3639

21 0.3838

22 0.4040

23 0.4244

24 0.4452

25 0.4663

26 0.4877

27 0.5095

28 0.5317

29 0.5543

30 0.5773

61 1.8040

62 1.8807

63 1.9626

64 2.0603

65 2.1445

66 2.2460

67 2.3558

68 2.4750

69 2.6050

70 2.7474

71 2.9042

72 3.0776

73 3.2708

74 3.4874

75 3.7320

76 4.0107

77 4.3314

78 4.7046

79 5.1445

80 5.6712

81 6.3137

82 7.1153

83 8.1443

84 9.5143

85 11.4300

86 14.3006

87 19.0811

88 28.6362

89 57.2899

90 ------------

31 0.6008

32 0.6248

33 0.6494

34 0.6745

35 0.7002

36 0.7265

37 0.7535

38 0.7812

39 0.8097

40 0.8390

41 0.8692

42 0.9004

43 0.9325

44 0.9656

45 1.0000

46 1.0355

47 1.0723

48 1.1106

49 1.1503

50 1.1917

51 1.2348

52 1.2799

53 1.3270

54 1.3763

55 1.4281

56 1.4825

57 1.5398

58 1.6003

59 1.6642

60 1.7320

Degree Tan Degree Tan Degree Tan

Tangent Table
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

Educator Information

Bottle Rocket

Launcher

Objective:

To construct a bottle rocket launcher for use with the Bottle

Rocket and Project X-35 activities.

Description:

Students construct a bottle launcher from "off-the-shelf"

hardware and wood using simple tools.

Science Standards:

Physical Science - Position and motion of objects

Science and Technology - Abilities of technological

design

Science Process Skills:

Measuring

Mathematics Standards:

Mathematical Connections

Measurement

Management:

Consult the materials and tools list to

determine what you will need to construct a

single bottle rocket launcher. The launcher is

simple and inexpensive to construct. Air

pressure is provided by means of a handoperated bicycle pump. The pump should

have a pressure gauge for accurate

comparisons between launches. Most

needed parts are available from hardware

stores. In addition you will need a tire valve

from an auto parts store and a rubber bottle

stopper from a school science experiment.

The most difficult task is to drill a 3/8 inch

hole in the mending plate called for in the

materials list. Electric drills are a common

household tool. If you do not have access to

one, or do not wish to drill the holes in the

metal mending plate, find someone who can

do the job for you. Ask a teacher or student

in your school's industrial arts shop,

Materials and Tools:

* 4 5-inch corner irons with 12 3/4 inch wood

screws to fit

* 1 5-inch mounting plate

* 2 6-inch spikes

* 2 10-inch spikes or metal tent stakes

* 2 5-inch by 1/4 inch carriage bolts with six 1/4

inch nuts

* 1 3-inch eyebolt with two nuts and washers

* 4 3/4-inch diameter washers to fit bolts

* 1 Number 3 rubber stopper with a single hole

* 1 Snap-in Tubeless Tire Valve (small 0.453

 inch hole, 2 inch long)

* Wood board 12 by 18 by 3/4 inches

* 1 2-liter plastic bottle

* Electric drill and bits including a 3/8 inch bit

* Screw driver

* Pliers or open-end wrench to fit nuts

* Vice

* 12 feet of 1/4 inch cord

* Pencil

• Bicycle pump with pressure gauge

a fellow teacher, or the parent of one of your

students to help.

If you have each student construct a bottle

rocket, having more than one launcher may

be advisable. Because the rockets are

projectiles, safely using more than one

launcher will require careful planning and

possibly additional supervision. Please refer

to the launch safety instructions.
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

Mending

Plate

Wood Base

Carrige

Bolt

Corner Iron

Hold Down

Bar

Bottle

Neck

Background Information:

Like a balloon, air pressurizes the bottle

rocket. When released from the launch

platform, air escapes the bottle, providing an

action force accompanied by an equal and

opposite reaction force (Newton's Third Law

of Motion). Increasing the pressure inside

the bottle rocket produces greater thrust

since a large quantity of air inside the bottle

escapes with a higher acceleration (Newton's

Second Law of Motion). Adding a small

amount of water to the bottle increases the

action force. The water expels from the

bottle before the air does, turning the bottle

rocket into a bigger version of a water rocket

toy available in toy stores.

Construction Instructions:

1. Prepare the rubber stopper by enlarging

the hole with a drill. Grip the stopper

lightly with a vice and gently enlarge the

hole with a 3/8 inch bit and electric drill.

The rubber will stretch during cutting,

making the finished hole somewhat less

than 3/8 inches.

2. Remove the stopper from the vice and

push the needle valve end of the tire stem

through the stopper from the narrow end

to the wide end.

3. Prepare the mounting plate by drilling a

|3/8 inch hole through the center of the

plate. Hold the plate with a vice during

drilling and put on eye protection.

Enlarge the holes at the opposite ends of

the plates, using a drill bit slightly larger

than the holes to do this. The holes must

be large enough to pass the carriage bolts

through them. (See Attachment of

Mending Plate and Stopper diagram

below.)

4. Lay the mending plate in the center of the

wood base and mark the centers of the

two outside holes that you enlarged. Drill

holes through the wood big enough to

pass the carriage bolts through.

5. Push and twist the tire stem into the hole

you drilled in the center of the mounting

plate. The fat end of the stopper should

rest on the plate.

6. Insert the carriage bolts through the wood

base from the bottom up. Place a hex nut

over each bolt and tighten the nut so that

the bolt head pulls into the wood.

7. Screw a second nut over each bolt and

spin it about half way down the bolt.

Place a washer over each nut and then

slip the mounting plate over the two bolts.

8. Press the neck of a 2-liter plastic bottle

over the stopper. You will be using the

bottle's wide neck lip for measuring in the

next step.

Attach Bicycle

Pump Here

Carrige Bolt

Nut

Nut

Washer

Tire Stem Rubber

Stopper

Wood Base

Mending

Plate

Attachment of Mending Plate and Stopper

Positioning Corner Irons
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

9. Set up two corner irons so they look like

book ends. Insert a spike through the top

hole of each iron. Slide the irons near the

bottle neck so that the spike rests

immediately above the wide neck lip. The

spike will hold the bottle in place while

you pump up the rocket. If the bottle is

too low, adjust the nuts beneath the

mounting plate on both sides to raise it.

10. Set up the other two corner irons as you

did in the previous step. Place them on

the opposite side of the bottle. When you

have the irons aligned so that the spikes

rest above and hold the bottle lip, mark

the centers of the holes on the wood

base. For more precise screwing, drill

small pilot holes for each screw and then

screw the corner irons tightly to the base.

11. Install an eyebolt to the edge of the

opposite holes for the hold down spikes.

Drill a hole and hold the bolt in place with

washers and nuts on top and bottom.

12. Attach the launch "pull cord" to the head

end of each spike. Run the cord through

the eyebolt.

13. Make final adjustments to the launcher by

attaching the pump to the tire stem and

pumping up the bottle. Refer to the

launching instructions for safety notes. If

the air seeps out around the stopper, the

stopper is too loose. Use a pair of pliers

or a wrench to raise each side of the

mounting plate in turn to press the

stopper with slightly more force to the

bottle neck. When satisfied with the

position, thread the remaining hex nuts

over the mounting plate and tighten them

to hold the plate in position.

14. Drill two holes through the wood base

along one side. The holes should be

large enough to pass large spikes of

metal tent stakes. When the launch pad

is set up on a grassy field, the stakes will

hold the launcher in place when you yank

the pull cord. The launcher is now

complete. (See page 90.)

Launch Safety Instructions:

1. Select a grassy field that measures

approximately 30 meters across. Place

the launcher in the center of the field and

anchor it in place with the spikes or tent

stakes. (If it is a windy day, place the

launcher closer to the side of the field

from which the wind is coming so that the

rocket will drift on to the field as it comes

down.)

2. Have each student or student group set

up their rocket on the launch pad. Other

students should stand back several

meters. It will be easier to keep observers

away by roping off the launch site.

3. After the rocket is attached to the

launcher, the student pumping the rocket

should put on eye protection. The rocket

should be pumped no higher than about

50 pounds of pressure per square inch.

4. When pressurization is complete, all

students should stand in back of the rope

for the countdown.

5. Before conducting the countdown, be sure

the place where the rocket is expected to

come down is clear of people. Launch the

rocket when the recovery range is clear.

6. Only permit the students launching the

rocket to retrieve it.

Extensions:

Look up the following references for

additional bottle rocket plans and other

teaching strategies:

Hawthorne, M. & Saunders, G. (1993), "Its

Launchtime!," Science and Children,

v30n5, pp.17-19, 39.

Rogis, J. (1991), "Soaring with Aviation

Activities," Science Scope, v15n2,

pp.14-17.

Winemiller, J., Pedersen, J., & Bonnstetter,

R. (1991), "The Rocket Project,"

Science Scope, v15n2, pp.18-22.
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To Pump

Launch Release

Cord

Hold Down

Spike

Completed Launcher Ready for Firing.
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Science Standards:

Physical Science - Position and motion of objects

Science and Technology - Abilities of technological

design

Science Process Skills:

Measuring

Making Models

Mathematics Standards:

Mathematical Connections

Measurement

Geometry and Spatial Sense

Management:

This activity can stand alone or be

incorporated in the activity Project X-35 that

follows. Having the learners work in teams

will reduce the amount of materials required.

Begin saving 2-liter bottles several weeks in

advance to have a sufficient supply for your

class. You will need to have at least one

bottle rocket launcher. Construct the

launcher described in the previous activity or

obtain one from a science or technology

education supply catalog.

The simplest way to construct the rockets is

to use low-temperature electric glue guns that

are available from craft stores. Hightemperature glue guns will melt the plastic

Bottle Rocket

Educator Information

Hot Glue

Materials and Tools:

• 2-liter plastic soft drink bottles

• Low-temperature glue guns

• Poster board

• Tape

• Modeling clay

• Scissors

•Safety Glasses

• Decals

•Stickers

•Marker pens

•Launch pad from the Bottle Rocket Launcher

Objective:

To construct and launch a simple bottle rocket.

Description:

Working in teams, learners will construct a simple

bottle rocket from 2-liter soft drink bottles and other

materials.

bottles. Provide glue guns for each table or

set up glue stations in various parts of the

room.

Collect a variety of decorative materials

before beginning this activity so students can

customize their rockets. When the rockets

are complete, test fly them. Refer to the

Altitude Tracker activity starting on page 79

for information on determining how high the

rockets fly. While one group of students

launches their rocket, have another group

track the rocket and determine its altitude.

When launching rockets, it is important for

the other students to stand back.
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Countdowns help everybody to know when

the rocket will lift off. In group discussion,

have your students create launch safety rules

that everybody must follow. Include how far

back observers should stand, how many

people should prepare the rocket for launch,

who should retrieve the rocket, etc.

Background Information:

Bottle rockets are excellent devices for

investigating Newton's Three Laws of Motion.

The rocket will remain on the launch pad until

an unbalanced force is exerted propelling the

rocket upward (First Law). The amount of

force depends upon how much air you

pumped inside the rocket (Second Law). You

can increase the force further by adding a

small amount of water to the rocket. This

increases the mass the rocket expels by the

air pressure. Finally, the action force of the

air (and water) as it rushes out the nozzle

creates an equal and opposite reaction force

propelling the rocket upward (Third Law).

The fourth instruction on the Student Page

asks the students to press modeling clay into

the nose cone of the rocket. Placing 50 to

100 grams of clay into the cone helps to

stabilize the rocket by moving the center of

mass farther from the center of pressure. For

a complete explanation of how this works,

see pages 21-22.

Procedures:

Refer to the Student Page for procedures and

optional directions for making paper

helicopters. See the extension section below

for details on how to use the helicopters.

Assessment:

Evaluate each bottle rocket on its quality of

construction. Observe how well fins align

and attach to the bottle. Also observe how

straight the nose cone is at the top of the

rocket. If you choose to measure how high

the rockets fly, compare the altitude the

rockets reach with their design and quality of

the construction.

Extensions:

• Challenge rocket teams to invent a way to

attach a parachute to the rocket that will

deploy on the rocket’s way back down.

• Parachutes for bottle rockets can be made

from a plastic bag and string. The nose

cone is merely placed over the rocket and

parachute for launch. The cone needs to fit

properly for launch or it will slip off. The

modeling clay in the cone will cause the

cone to fall off, deploying the parachute or

paper helicopters, after the rocket tilts over

at the top of its flight.

• Extend the poster board tube above the

rounded end of the bottle. This will make a

payload compartment for lofting various

items with the rocket. Payloads might

include streamers or paper helicopters that

will spill out when the rocket reaches the top

of its flight. Copy and distribute the page on

how to make paper helicopters. Ask the

students to identify other possible payloads

for the rocket. If students suggest

launching small animals with their rockets,

discuss the purpose of flying animals and

the possible dangers if they are actually

flown.

• Conduct flight experiments by varying the

amount of air pressure and water to the

rocket before launch. Have the students

develop experimental test procedures and

control for variables.

• Conduct spectacular nighttime launches of

bottle rockets. Make the rockets visible in

flight by taping a small-size chemical light

stick near the nose cone of each rocket.

Light sticks are available at toy and

camping stores and can be used for many

flights. This is an especially good activity

for summer "space camp" programs.
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

Hot Glue

Building A Bottle Rocket

1. Wrap and glue or tape

a tube of posterboard

around the bottle.

2. Cut out several fins of

any shape and glue

them to the tube.

3. Form a nosecone and

 hold it together with

 tape or glue.

4. Press a ball of

modeling clay into the

top of the nosecone.

5. Glue or tape nosecone

to upper end of bottle.

6. Decorate your rocket.

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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

1. Cut on solid black lines.

Fold on dashed lines.

2. Fold A and B

to middle.

4. Fold propeller blades

outward.

Paper Helicopter Plans

5. Test fly by dropping from

from over your head.

3. Fold C up.

C

A B

C

Paper Helicopter

Pattern

A B

C

94
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

Materials and Tools:

(All supplies need to be available per group)

• 2 liter soda bottles

• 1 liter soda bottles

• Film canisters

• Aluminium soda cans

• Scrap cardboard and poster board

• Large cardboard panels

• Duct Tape

• Electrical tape

• Glue sticks

• Low-temperature glue gun

• Water

• Clay

• Plastic garbage bags

•Crepe paper

•String

• Paint

•Safety glasses

• Bottle Rocket Launcher (See page 87.)

• Altitude Calculator (See page 79.)

Project X-35

Science Standards:

Science as Inquiry

Physical Science - Position and motion of objects

Science and Technology - Abilities of technological

design

Science in Personal and Social Perspectives -

Science and technology in local challenges

Science Process Skills:

Observing

Communicating

Measuring

Collecting Data

Inferring

Predicting

Making Models

Interpreting Data

Controlling Variables

Defining Operationally

Investigating

Mathematics Standards:

Mathematics as Problem Solving

Mathematics as Communication

Mathematical Connections

Estimation

Number Sense and Numeration

Whole Number Computation

Geometry and Spatial Sense

Measurement

Fractions and Decimals

Functions

Educator Information

Project X-35

Objective:

To demonstrate rocketry principles through a

cooperative, problem solving simulation.

Description:

Teams simulate the development of a commercial

proposal to design, build, and launch a rocket.

Management:

Prior to this project students should have the

opportunity to design, construct, and launch a

bottle rocket evaluating various water

volumes and air pressures and calculating

the altitude traveled by these rockets. See

Bottle Rocket page 91 and Altitude Tracking

page 79.

This project is designed to offer students an

opportunity to participate in an
96

Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

interdisciplinary approach to life skills.

Students work in teams of threes. Each

member has designated tasks for their

specific job title to help the team function

effectively. These include: Project Manager,

Budget Director, and Design and Launch

Director. The student section provides

badges and tasks.

The project takes approximately two weeks to

complete and includes a daily schedule of

tasks. Students may need additional time to

complete daily tasks.

Collect all building materials and copy all

reproducibles before beginning the activity.

Be sure to make several copies of the order

forms and checks for each group.

Allow enough time on the first day for the

students to read and discuss all sheets and

determine how they apply to the project

schedule. Focus on the student score sheet

to allow a clear understanding of the criteria

used for assessment of the project.

Project X-35

Background Information:

This project provides students with an

exciting activity to discover practical

demonstrations of force and motion in actual

experiments while dealing with budgetary

restraints and deadlines reflected in real life

situations.

The students should have a clear

understanding of rocket principles dealing

with Newton's Laws of Motion found on page

13 and Practical Rocketry found on page 18

before beginning this project.

Procedure:

Refer to the student sheets. The events for

day 3 and day 6 call for teacher

demonstrations on how to make nose cones

and how to determine the center of mass and

the center of pressure.

Assessment:

Assessment will be based on documentation

of three designated areas: each group's

project journal, silhouette, and launch results.

See Student Score Sheet for details.
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Project X-35

Request For

Proposals

The objectives of Project X-35 are:

a. Design and draw a bottle rocket plan to scale (1 square = 2 cm).

b. Develop a budget for the project and stay within the budget allowed.

c. Build a test rocket using the budget and plans developed by your team.

d. Identify rocket specifications and evaluate rocket stability by determining center of

mass and center of pressure and conducting a swing test.

e. Display fully illustrated rocket design in class. Include: dimensional information,

location of center of mass, center of pressure, and flight information such as time

aloft and altitude reached.

f. Successfully test launch rocket achieving maximum vertical distance and accuracy.

g. Successfully and accurately complete rocket journal.

h. Develop a cost analysis and demonstrate the most economically efficient launch.

Proposal Deadline:

Two (2) weeks

The United Space Aurhority (USA) is seeking competitive bids for a new advanced rocket

launch vehicle that will reduce the costs of launching payloads into Earth orbit. Interested

companies are invited to submit proposals to USA for designing and building a rocket that

will meet the following criteria.

97
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

Day 2

Project X-35 Schedule

• Develop materials and

budget list.

• Develop scale drawing.

Day 3

Project X-35 Schedule

• Demonstration: Find center

of mass and center of

pressure.

• Introduce rocket silhouette

construction and begin

rocket analysis.

Day 8

Project X-35 Schedule

• Launch Day!

Day 9

Project X-35 Schedule

• Complete post launch

results, silhouette

documentation.

• Prepare journal for

collection.

• Documentation and journal

due at beginning of class

tomorrow.

Day 7

Project X-35 Schedule

• Complete construction.

Day 1

Project X-35 Schedule

• Form rocket companies.

• Brainstorm ideas for design

and budget.

• Sketch preliminary rocket

design.

Day 6

Project X-35 Schedule

• Continue construction.

Day 5

Project X-35 Schedule

• Demonstration: nose cone

construction.

• Issue materials and begin

construction.

Project Schedule

Day 4

Project X-35 Schedule

• Finish silhouette

construction and complete

prelaunch analysis. Hang

silhouette.

• Perform swing test.

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Project X-35 Checklist

Project Grading:

50% Documentation: See Project Journal below. Must be complete, neat,

accurate, and on time.

25% Proper display and documentation of rocket silhouette.

25% Launch data: Measurements, accuracy, and completeness.

Project Awards:

USA will award exploration contracts to the companies with the top three rockets designs

based on the above criteria. The awards are valued at:

First - $10,000,000

Second - $5,000,000

Third - $3,000,000

Project Journal: Check off items as you complete them.

1. Creative cover with member's names, date, project number, and company

name.

2. Certificate of Assumed Name (Name of your business).

3. Scale drawing of rocket plans. Clearly indicate scale. Label: Top, Side, and

End View.

4. Budget Projection.

5. Balance Sheet.

6. Canceled checks, staple or tape checks in ascending numerical order, four to a

sheet of paper.

7. Pre-Launch Analysis.

8. Rocket Launch Day Log.

9. Score Sheet (Part 3).

99
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

Badge Front Badge Back Projec

Manage

X-35 7:00 7:30 8:00 8:30 9:00 930 10:00 10:30 11:00 1130 12:00 12:30 1:00 1:30 2:00 2:30 3:00 3:30 4:00 4:30 5:00 Oversees the project. K

others on task. Only perscan communicate with te• Arrange all canceled ch

ascending numerical oMake a neat copy of the Rocket Journal. • Use appropriate labels necessary. • Check over balance sheall materials used in roconstruction. • Complete silhouetteinformation and displaproperly in room.

• Assist other team mem

needed.

Design and

Launch

Director

X-35

Supervises design andconstruction of rocket. Directsothers during launch.• Make a neat copy of the

Launch Day Log.

• Use appropriate labels as

necessary.

• Arrange to have a creative

cover made.

• Assist other team members as

needed.

Budget

Director

X-35

$

Keeps accurate account of moneyand expenses and pays bills. Mustsign all checks.• Arrange all canceled checks in

order and staple four to a sheetof paper.

• Check over budget projection

sheet. Be sure to show totalproject cost estimates.

• Check over balance sheet. Be

sure columns are complete andindicate a positive or negativebalance.

• Complete part 3 of the score

sheet.

• Assist other team members as

needed.

100
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

State of

Certificate of

Assumed

Name

All Information on this form is public information.

Please type or print legibly in black ink.

1. State the exact assumed name under which the business is or will be conducted:

2. List the name and title of all persons conducting business under the above

assumed name:

Today's Date , 19 Class Hour

Filling Fee: a $25 fee must accompany this form.

Project Number

101
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

Project X-35 Budget

Each team will be given a budget of $1,000,000. Use money wisely and keep accurate

records of all expenditures. Once your money runs out, you will operate in the "red" and this

will count against your team score. If you are broke at the time of launch, you will be unable to

purchase rocket fuel. You will then be forced to launch only with compressed air. You may

only purchase as much rocket fuel as you can afford at the time of launch.

All materials not purchased from listed subcontractors will be assessed an import duty tax,

20% of the market value. Materials not on the subcontractors list will be assessed an

Originality Tax of $5,000.00 per item.

A project delay penalty fee will be assessed for not working, lacking materials, etc. This

penalty fee could be as high as $300,000 per day.

Approved Subcontractor List

SubContractor Market Price

Bottle Engine Corporation

2 L bottle $200,000

1 L bottle $150,000

Aluminum Cans Ltd.

Can $ 50,000

International Paper Corporation

Cardboard - 1 sheet $ 25,000

Tagboard - 1 sheet $ 30,000

Manila Paper - 1 sheet $ 40,000

Silhouette Panel - 1 sheet $100,000

International Tape and Glue Company

Duct Tape - 50 cm segments $ 50,000

Electrical Tape - 100 cm segments $ 50,000

Glue Stick $ 20,000

Aqua Rocket Fuel Service

1 ml $ 300

Strings, Inc.

1 m $ 5,000

Plastic Sheet Goods

1 bag $ 5,000

Common Earth Corporation

Modeling Clay - 100 g $ 5,000

NASA Launch Port Launch $100,000

NASA Consultation Question $1,000

102
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Company Name:

Budget Director's Signature

Project X-35 Order Form

Check No.

Date Supply Company Name

Item Ordered Quantity Unit Cost Total Cost

. .

Company Name:

Budget Director's Signature

Project X-35 Order Form

Check No.

Date Supply Company Name

Item Ordered Quantity Unit Cost Total Cost

. .

Company Name:

Budget Director's Signature

Project X-35 Order Form

Check No.

Date Supply Company Name

Item Ordered Quantity Unit Cost Total Cost

. .

Company Name:

Budget Director's Signature

Project X-35 Order Form

Check No.

Date Supply Company Name

Item Ordered Quantity Unit Cost Total Cost

. .

103
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Project X-35 Budget Projection

Company Name

Record below all expenses your company expects to incur in the design,

construction, and launch of your rocket.

Item Supplier Quantity Unit Cost Total Cost

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

Projected Total Cost .

104
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ

Date , 19 X-35

Company

Name: Check No.

Pay to the

order of $

Dollars

For Authorized Signature

Budget Director's

Signature

Detach on Dashed Lines

Keep This Stub For Your Records

Check No.

Date , 19

To

Amount

For

$

Date , 19 X-35

Company

Name: Check No.

Pay to the

order of $

Dollars

For Authorized Signature

Budget Director's

Signature

Detach on Dashed Lines

Keep This Stub For Your Records

Check No.

Date , 19

To

Amount

For

$

Date , 19 X-35

Company

Name: Check No.

Pay to the

order of $

Dollars

For Authorized Signature

Budget Director's

Signature

Detach on Dashed Lines

Keep This Stub For Your Records

Check No.

Date , 19

To

Amount

For

$

Date , 19 X-35

Company

Name: Check No.

Pay to the

order of $

Dollars

For Authorized Signature

Budget Director's

Signature

Detach on Dashed Lines

Keep This Stub For Your Records

Check No.

Date , 19

To

Amount

For

$

105
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Project X-35 Balance Sheet

Company Name

Check No. Date To Amount Balance

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

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Rocket Measurements

For Scale Drawing

Project No. ________________

Date______________________

Company Name_____________________________________________________

Use metric measurements to measure and record the data in the blanks below.

Be sure to accurately measure all objects that are constant (such as the bottles) and those

you will control (like the size and design of fins). If additional data lines are needed, use the

back of this sheet.

Object Length Width Diameter Circumference

Using graph paper draw a side, top, and bottom view of your rocket, to scale

(1 square = 2 cm), based on the measurements recorded above. Attach your drawings to

this paper.

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Scale Drawing 1 square = 2 cm

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Rocket Stability Determination

A rocket that flies straight through the air is said to be a stable rocket. A rocket that veers off

course or tumbles wildly is said to be an unstable rocket. The difference between the flight of a

stable and unstable rocket depends upon its design. All rockets have two distinct "centers."

The first is the center of mass. This is a point about which the rocket balances. If you could

place a ruler edge under this point, the rocket would balance horizontally like a seesaw. What

this means is that half of the mass of the rocket is on one side of the ruler edge and half is on

the other. Center of mass is important to a rocket's design because if a rocket is unstable, the

rocket will tumble about this center.

The other center in a rocket is the center of pressure. This is a point where half of the surface

area of a rocket is on one side and half is on the other. The center of pressure differs from

center of mass in that its location is not affected by the placement of payloads in the rocket.

This is just a point based on the surface of the rocket, not what is inside. During flight, the

pressure of air rushing past the rocket will balance half on one side of this point and half on the

other. You can determine the center of pressure by cutting out an exact silhouette of the

rocket from cardboard and balancing it on a ruler edge.

The positioning of the center of mass and the center of pressure on a rocket is critical to its

stability. The center of mass should be towards the rocket's nose and the center of pressure

should be towards the rocket's tail for the rocket to fly straight. That is because the lower end

of the rocket (starting with the center of mass and going downward) has more surface area

than the upper end (starting with the center of mass and going upward). When the rocket flies,

more air pressure exists on the lower end of the rocket than on the upper end. Air pressure

will keep the lower end down and the upper end up. If the center of mass and the center of

pressure are in the same place, neither end of the rocket will point upward. The rocket will be

unstable and tumble.

4. Lay the cardboard silhouette you just cut

out on the ruler and balance it.

5. Draw a straight line

across the diagram of

your rocket where the

ruler is. Mark the

middle of this line with a

dot. This is the center

of pressure of the

rocket.

Stability Determination Instructions

1. Tie a string loop around the middle of your

rocket. Tie a second string to the first so

that you can pick it up. Slide the string

loop to a position where the rocket

balances. You may have to temporarily

tape the nose cone in place to keep it from

falling off.

2. Draw a straight line across the scale

diagram of the rocket you made earlier to

show where the ruler's position is. Mark

the middle of the line with a dot. This is

the rocket's center of mass.

3. Lay your rocket on a piece of cardboard.

Carefully trace the rocket on the cardboard

and cut it out.
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If your center of mass is in front of the center

of pressure, your rocket should be stable.

Proceed to the swing test. If the two centers

are next to or on top of each other, add more

clay to the nosecone of the rocket. This will

move the center of mass forward. Repeat

steps 2 and 3 and then proceed to the swing

test.

Swing Test:

1. Tape the string loop you tied around your

rocket in the previous set of instructions so

that it does not slip.

2. While standing in an open place, slowly

begin swinging your rocket in a circle. If

the rocket points in the direction you are

swinging it, the rocket is stable. If not, add

more clay to the rocket nose cone or

replace the rocket fins with larger ones.

Repeat the stability determination

instructions and then repeat the swing test.

Center of Mass

Center of Pressure

Scale Diagram
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Project X-35 Score Sheet

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rockets. Rocket kits and

engines can be

purchased from craft

and hobby stores and

directly from the manufacturer. Obtain additional

information about model

rocketry by contacting the National

Association of Rocketry, P.O. Box 177,

Altoona, WI 54720.

• Contact NASA Spacelink for information

about the history of rockets and NASA's

family of rockets under the heading, "Space

Exploration Before the Space Shuttle."

See the resource section at the end of this

 guide for details.

Additional Extensions

• Construct models of historical rockets. Refer to the reference list

for picture books on rockets to use as information on the appearance

of various rockets. Use scrap materials for the models such as:

• Mailing tubes • Cardboard • Tubes from paper rolls • Spools

• Coffee creamer packages (that look like rocket engine nozzles)

• Egg-shaped hosiery packages (for nose cones) • Tape

• Styrofoam cones • Spheres • Cylinders • Glue

• Use rockets as a theme for artwork. Teach

perspective and vanishing points by choosing

unusual angles, such as a birds-eye view

for picturing rocket launches.

• Research the reasons why so

many different rockets have been

used for space exploration.

• Design the next generation of

spaceships.

• Compare rockets in science

fiction with actual rockets.

• Follow up the rocket

activities in this guide with

construction and launch

of commercial model

DISCOVERY

USA
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Glossary

Action - A force (push or pull) acting on an

object. See Reaction.

Active Controls - Devices on a rocket that move

to control the rocket's direction in flight.

Attitude Control Rockets - Small rockets that

are used as active controls to change the

attitude (direction) a rocket or spacecraft is

facing in outer space.

Canards - Small movable fins located towards

the nose cone of a rocket.

Case - The body of a solid propellant rocket that

holds the propellant.

Center of Mass (CM) - The point in an object

about which the object's mass is centered.

Center of Pressure (CP) - The point in an object

about which the object's surface area is

centered.

Chamber - A cavity inside a rocket where propellants burn.

Combustion Chamber - See Chamber.

Drag - Friction forces in the atmosphere that

"drag" on a rocket to slow its flight.

Escape Velocity - The velocity an object must

reach to escape the pull of Earth's gravity.

Extravehicular Activity (EVA) - Spacewalking.

Fins - Arrow-like wings at the lower end of a

rocket that stabilize the rocket in flight.

Fuel - The chemical that combines with an

oxidizer to burn and produce thrust.

Gimbaled Nozzles - Tiltable rocket nozzles used

for active controls.

Igniter - A device that ignites a rocket's

engine(s).

Injectors - Showerhead-like devices that spray

fuel and oxidizer into the combustion

chamber of a liquid propellant rocket.

Insulation - A coating that protects the case and

nozzle of a rocket from intense heat.

Liquid Propellant - Rocket propellants in liquid

form.

Mass - The amount of matter contained within an

object.

Mass Fraction (MF) - The mass of propellants in

a rocket divided by the rocket's total mass.

Microgravity - An environment that imparts to an

object a net acceleration that is small

compared with that produced by Earth at

its surface.

Motion - Movement of an object in relation to

its surroundings.

Movable Fins - Rocket fins that can move to

stabilize a rocket's flight.

Nose Cone - The cone-shaped front end of a

rocket.

Nozzle - A bell-shaped opening at the lower

end of a rocket through which a stream

of hot gases is directed.

Oxidizer - A chemical containing oxygen

compounds that permits rocket fuel to

burn both in the atmosphere and in the

vacuum of space.

Passive Controls - Stationary devices, such

as fixed rocket fins, that stabilize a

rocket in flight.

Payload - The cargo (scientific instruments,

satellites, spacecraft, etc.) carried by a

rocket.

Propellant - A mixture of fuel and oxidizer that

burns to produce rocket thrust.

Pumps - Machinery that moves liquid fuel and

oxidizer to the combustion chamber of

a rocket.

Reaction - A movement in the opposite

direction from the imposition of an

action. See Action.

Rest - The absence of movement of an object

in relation to its surroundings.

Regenerative Cooling - Using the low temperature of a liquid fuel to cool a rocket

nozzle.

Solid Propellant - Rocket fuel and oxidizer in

solid form.

Stages - Two or more rockets stacked on top

of each other in order to reach higher

altitudes or have a greater payload

capacity.

Throat - The narrow opening of a rocket

nozzle.

Unbalanced Force - A force that is not countered by another force in the opposite

direction.

Vernier Rockets - Small rockets that use their

thrust to help direct a larger rocket in

flight.
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NASA Educational Materials

NASA publishes a variety of educational resources

suitable for classroom use. The following resources,

specifically relating to the topic of rocketry, are

available from the NASA Teacher Resource Center

Network. Refer to the next pages for details on how to

obtain these materials.

Liftoff to Learning Educational Video Series

That Relate to Rockets

Space Basics

Length: 20:55

Recommended Level: Middle School

Application: History, Physical Science

Space Basics explains space flight concepts such as

how we get into orbit and why we float when orbiting

Earth. Includes a video resource guide.

Newton in Space

Length: 12:37

Recommended Level: Middle School

Application: Physical Science

Newton in Space demonstrates the difference between

weight and mass and illustrates Isaac Newton's three

laws of motion in the microgravity environment of

Earth Orbit. Includes a video resource guide.

Other Videos

Videotapes are available about Mercury, Gemini,

Apollo, and Space Shuttle projects and missions.

Contact the Teacher Resource Center that serves your

region for a list of available titles, or contact CORE

(See page 109.).

Publications

McAleer, N. (1988), Space Shuttle - The Renewed

Promise, National Aeronautics and Space

Administration, PAM-521, Washington, DC.

NASA (1991), Countdown! NASA Launch Vehicles

and Facilities, Information Summaries, National

Aeronautics and Space Administration, PMS-018-B,

Kennedy Space Center, FL.

NASA (1991), A Decade On Board America's Space

Shuttle, National Aeronautics and Space

Administration, NP-150, Washington, DC.

NASA (1987), The Early Years: Mercury to ApolloSoyuz, Information Summaries, National

Aeronautics and Space Administration, PMS-001-A,

Kennedy Space Center, FL.

NASA (1991), Space Flight, The First 30 Years,

National Aeronautics and Space Administration,

NP-142, Washington, DC.

NASA (1992), Space Shuttle Mission

Summary, The First Decade: 1981-1990,

Information Summaries, National Aeronautics and

Space Administration, PMS-038, Kennedy Space

Center, FL.

Roland, A. (1985), A Spacefaring People:

Perspectives on Early Spaceflight, NASA Scientific

and Technical Information Branch, NASA SP-4405,

Washington, DC.

Lithographs

HqL-367 Space Shuttle Columbia Returns from

Space.

HqL-368 Space Shuttle Columbia Lifts Off Into Space.

Suggested Reading

These books can be used by children and adults to

learn more about rockets. Older books on the list

provide valuable historical information rockets and

information about rockets in science fiction. Newer

books provide up-to-date information about rockets

currently in use or being planned.

Asimov, I. (1988), Rockets, Probes, and Satellites,

Gareth Stevens, Milwaukee.

Barrett, N. (1990), The Picture World of Rockets and

Satellites, Franklin Watts Inc., New York.

Bolognese, D. (1982), Drawing Spaceships and Other

Spacecraft, Franklin Watts, Inc., New York.

Branley, F. (1987), Rockets and Satellites, Thomas Y.

Crowell, New York.

Butterfield, M. (1994), Look Inside Cross-Sections

Space, Dorling Kindersley, London.

Donnelly, J. (1989), Moonwalk, The First Trip to the

Moon, Random House, New York.

English, J. (1995), Transportation, Automobiles to

Zeppelins, A Scholastic Kid's Encyclopedia,

Scholastic Inc., New York.

Fischel, E. & Ganeri, A. (1988), How To Draw

Spacecraft, EDC Publishing, Tulsa, Oklahoma.

Furniss, T. (1988), Space Rocket, Gloucester,

 New York.

Gatland, K. (1976), Rockets and Space Travel, Silver

Burdett, Morristown, New Jersey.

Gatland, K. & Jeffris, D. (1977), Star Travel: Transport

and Technology Into The 21st Century, Usborn

Publishers, London.

Gurney, G. & Gurney, C. (1975), The Launch of

Sputnik, October 4, 1957: The Space Age Begins,

Franklin Watts, Inc., New York.

Malone, R. (1977), Rocketship: An Incredible Voyage

Through Science Fiction and Science Fact, Harper

& Row, New York.

Maurer, R. (1995), Rocket! How a Toy Launched the

Space Age, Crown Publishers, Inc., New York.

Mullane, R. M. (1995), Liftoff, An Astronaut's Dream,
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Silver Burdett Press, Parsippany, NJ.

Neal, V., Lewis, C., & Winter, F. (1995), Smithsonian

Guides, Spaceflight, Macmillan, New York. (Adult

level reference)

Parsons, A. (1992), What's Inside? Spacecraft,

Dorling Kindersley,m Inc., New York.

Ordway, F. & Leibermann, R. (1992), Blueprint For

Space, Science Fiction To Science Fact,

Smithsonian Instutition Press, Washington DC.

Quackenbush, R. (1978), The Boy Who Dreamed of

Rockets: How Robert Goddard Became The Father

of the Space Age, Parents Magazine Press,

 New York.

Ride, S. & Okie, S. (1986), To Space & Back, Lee &

Shepard Books, New York.

Shayler, D. (1994), Inside/Outside Space, Random

House, New York.

Shorto, R. (1992), How To Fly The Space Shuttle,

John Muir Publications, Santa Fe, NM.

Vogt, G. (1987), An Album of Modern Spaceships,

Franklin Watts, Inc., New York.

Vogt, G. (1989), Space Ships, Franklin Watts, Inc.,

New York.

Winter, F. (1990), Rockets into Space, Harvard

University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. (Adult

level reference)

Commercial Software

Physics of Model Rocketry

Flight: Aerodynamics of Model Rockets

In Search of Space - Introduction to Model Rocketry

The above programs are available for Apple II, Mac,

and IBM from Estes Industries, 1295 H. Street,

Penrose, Colorado 81240

Electronic Resources

The following listing of Internet addresses will provide

users with links to educational materials throughout the

World Wide Web (WWW) related to rocketry.

NASA Resources

NASA SpaceLink

http://spacelink.nasa.gov

NASA Home Page

http://www.nasa.gov/

Space Shuttle Information

http://spaceflight.nasa.gov
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NASA RESOURCES FOR EDUCATORS

The Central Operation of Resources for

Educators (CORE) was established for the

national and international distribution of

NASA-produced educational materials in

multimedia format. Educators can obtain a

catalog and an order form by one of the

following methods:

Mail:

CORE

Lorain County Joint Vocational School

15181 Route 58 South

Oberlin, OH 44074-9799

Phone: 440-775-1400

Fax: 440-775-1460

E-mail: nasaco@leeca.org

http://core.nasa.gov

Educator Resource Center Network (ERCN)

To make additional information available to

the education community, NASA has created

the NASA Educator Resource Center (ERC)

network. Educators may preview, copy, or

receive NASA materials at these sites.

Phone calls are welcome if you are unable to

visit the ERC that serves your geographic

area. A list of the centers and the regions

they serve includes the following:

AK, Northern CA, HI, ID, MT, NV, OR, UT,

WA, WY

NASA Educator Resource Center

NASA Ames Research Center

Mail Stop 253-2

Moffett Field, CA 94035-1000

Phone: 650-604-3574

http://amesnews.arc.nasa.gov/erc/

erchome.html

IL, IN, MI, MN, OH, WI

NASA Educator Resource Center

NASA Glenn Research Center

Mail Stop 8-1

21000 Brookpark Road

Cleveland, OH 44135

Phone: 216-433-2017

http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/PAO/html/

edteachr.htm

CT, DE, DC, ME, MD, MA, NH, NJ, NY, PA,

RI, VT

NASA Educator Resource Laboratory

NASA Goddard Space Flight Center

Mail Code 130.3

Greenbelt, MD 20771-0001

Phone: 301-286-8570

http://www.gsfc.nasa.gov/vc/erc.htm

CO, KS, NE, NM, ND, OK, SD, TX

Space Center Houston

NASA Educator Resource Center for

NASA Johnson Space Center

1601 NASA Road One

Houston, TX 77058

Phone: 281-244-2129

http://www.spacecenter.org/

educator_resource.html

FL, GA, PR, VI

NASA Educator Resource Center

NASA Kennedy Space Center

Mail Code ERC

Kennedy Space Center, FL 32899

Phone: 321-867-4090

http://www-pao.ksc.nasa.gov/kscpao/

educate/edu.htm

KY, NC, SC, VA, WV

Virginia Air & Space Center

NASA Educator Resource Center for

NASA Langley Research Center

600 Settlers Landing Road

Hampton, VA 23669-4033

Phone: 757-727-0900 x757

http://www.vasc.org/erc/
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AL, AR, IA, LA, MO, TN

U.S. Space and Rocket Center

NASA Educator Resource Center for

NASA Marshall Space Flight Center

One Tranquility Base

Huntsville, AL 35807

Phone: 256-544-5812

http://erc.msfc.nasa.gov

MS

NASA Educator Resource Center

NASA Stennis Space Center

Mail Stop 1200

Stennis Space Center, MS 39529-6000

Phone: 228-688-3338

http://education.ssc.nasa.gov/erc/erc.htm

CA

NASA Educator Resource Center for

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory

Village at Indian Hill

1460 East Holt Avenue, Suite 20

Pomona, CA 91767

Phone: 909-397-4420

http://learn.jpl.nasa.gov/resources/

resources_index.html

AZ and Southern CA

NASA Educator Resource Center

NASA Dryden Flight Research Center

P.O. Box 273 M/S 4839

Edwards, CA 93523-0273

Phone: 661-276-5009

http://www.dfrc.nasa.gov/trc/ERC/

Eastern Shores of VA and MD

NASA Educator Resource Center for

GSFC/Wallops Flight Facility

Visitor Center Building J-17

Wallops Island, VA 23337

Phone: 757-824-2298

http://www.wff.nasa.gov/~WVC/ERC.htm

Regional Educator Resource Centers offer

more educators access to NASA educational

materials. NASA has formed partnerships

with universities, museums, and other education institutions to serve as regional ERCs in

many states. A complete list of regional

ERCs is available through CORE, or electronically via NASA Spacelink at http://

spacelink.nasa.gov/ercn

NASA’s Education Home Page serves as

the education portal for information regarding

educational programs and services offered by

NASA for the American education community. This high-level directory of information

provides specific details and points of contact

for all of NASA’s educational efforts, Field

Center offices, and points of presence within

each state. Visit this resource at

http://education.nasa.gov

NASA Spacelink is one of NASA’s electronic

resources specifically developed for the

education community. Spacelink serves as

an electronic library for NASA’s educational

and scientific resources, with hundreds of

subject areas arranged in a manner familiar

to educators. Using Spacelink Search, educators and students can easily find information among NASA’s thousands of Internet

resources. Special events, missions, and

intriguing NASA Web sites are featured in

Spacelink’s “Hot Topics” and “Cool Picks”

areas. Spacelink may be accessed at

http://spacelink.nasa.gov

NASA Spacelink is the official home of electronic versions of NASA’s educational products. A complete listing of NASA educational

products can be found at

http://spacelink.nasa.gov/products

NASA Television (NTV) features Space

Station and Shuttle mission coverage, live
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special events, interactive educational live

shows, electronic field trips, aviation and

space news, and historical NASA footage.

Programming has a 3-hour block—Video

(News) File, NASA Gallery, and Education

File—beginning at noon Eastern and repeated four more times throughout the day.

Live feeds preempt regularly scheduled

programming.

Check the Internet for programs listings at

http://www.nasa.gov/ntv

For more information on NTV, contact

NASA TV

Code P-2

NASA Headquarters

Washington, DC 20546-0001

Phone: 202-358-3572

NTV Weekday Programming Schedules

(Eastern Times)

Video File NASA Gallery Education File

How to Access Information on NASA’s

Education Program, Materials, and Services (EP-2002-07-345-HQ) This brochure

serves as a guide to accessing a variety of

NASA materials and services for educators.

Copies are available through the ERC network or electronically via NASA Spacelink.

.

12–1 p.m.

3–4 p.m.

6–7 p.m.

9–10 p.m.

12–1 a.m.

1–2 p.m.

4–5 p.m.

7–8 p.m.

10–11 p.m.

1–2 a.m.

2–3 p.m.

5–6 p.m.

8–9 p.m.

11–12 p.m.

2–3 a.m.
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NOTES
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NOTES
ROCKETS

An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology

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❏ Background Information ❏ Critical Thinking Tasks❏ Demonstrate NASA Materials ❏ Demonstration❏ Group Discussions ❏ Hands-On Activities❏ Integration Into Existing Curricula ❏ Interdisciplinary Activity❏ Lecture ❏ Science and Mathematics ❏ Team Activities ❏ Standards Integration❏ Other: Please specify:

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T10. Additional comments:9. How can we make this educator’s guide more effective for you?8. What features of this educator’s guide did you find particularly helpful?

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