U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

Scientific Investigations Report 2006-5287

Gulf of Mexico Program

Seagrass Status and Trends in the Northern 

Gulf of Mexico: 1940–2002

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 855-R-04-003
Cover:  Background, seagrass through surface of water (Tommy Michot, U.S. Geological

Survey). Left, seagrass sampling (Tommy Michot, U.S. Geological Survey). Center, oblique

aerial photograph of seagrass (Tommy Michot, U.S. Geological Survey). Right, manatees in

seagrass habitat (Sirenia Project, U.S. Geological Survey).
Seagrass Status and Trends in the Northern 

Gulf of Mexico: 1940–2002

Edited by L. Handley, D. Altsman, and R. DeMay

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 855-R-04-003

Scientific Investigations Report 2006–5287

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
U.S. Department of the Interior

DIRK KEMPTHORNE, Secretary

U.S. Geological Survey

Mark D. Myers, Director 

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2007

For product and ordering information:

World Wide Web: http://www.usgs.gov/pubprod

Telephone: 1-888-ASK-USGS

For more information on the USGS--the Federal source for science about the Earth, its natural and living resources, 

natural hazards, and the environment:

World Wide Web: http://www.usgs.gov

Telephone: 1-888-ASK-USGS

Any use of trade, product, or firm names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the 

U.S. Government.

Although this report is in the public domain, permission must be secured from the individual copyright owners to 

reproduce any copyrighted materials contained within this report.

Suggested citation:

Handley, L., Altsman, D., and DeMay, R., eds., 2007, Seagrass Status and Trends in the Northern Gulf of Mexico: 

1940-2002: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2006-5287 and U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency 855-R-04-003, 267 p.
iii

Preface

The Gulf of Mexico Program (GMP) is a network of citizens dedicated to promoting the economic 

health of the region by managing and protecting the gulf’s resources. Although administered by 

the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the GMP engages many organizations across 

the Gulf of Mexico coastal region to implement and lead restoration and conservation projects 

that are environmentally and economically sound. The GMP includes representatives from State 

and Federal agencies, nonprofit organizations, the scientific community, business and industry, 

and an organized citizens group. These members are appointed by the five State governors along 

the gulf coast. The GMP focuses on three ecological issues: (1) public health, (2) excess nutrient 

enrichment, and (3) habitat degradation and loss, including the introduction of nonindigenous 

species.

The GMP has long recognized that seagrasses, estuaries, and coastal wetlands are vital in 

providing food and shelter for plants and animals, improving water quality, sediment filtration, 

and flood and erosion control. In 1999, the GMP’s Habitat Focus Team set a goal to restore, 

enhance, or protect 20,000 acres of important coastal habitats of the gulf by 2009. The Habitat 

Team, recognizing that seagrass beds are some of the most productive habitats in nearshore 

waters, set a goal to produce this summary report on gulfwide seagrass status and trends. 

The purpose of the summary report is to provide current baseline information on the status of 

seagrasses in the Gulf of Mexico.

To produce this report, the GMP’s Habitat Team formed a subcommittee, consisting of over 30 

gulf coast seagrass scientists and environmental managers. Committee members provided 

data on seagrass maps, seagrass status and trends, causes of change in seagrass acreage, 

monitoring activities, and restoration efforts important to seagrass areas along the gulf coast. 

The U.S. Geological Survey’s (USGS) National Wetlands Research Center provided extensive 

support in the production of data, maps, writing, and editing for this summary. 

Lastly, Seagrass Habitat in the Northern Gulf of Mexico: Degradation, Conservation, and 

Restoration of a Valuable Resource, written in lay terms and developed for the general public, 

legislators, and Gulf of Mexico stakeholders, is meant to be a companion to this summary 

report. For example, nomenclature of seagrasses in the summary report follows this outreach 

document. Additional information will be available on the USGS National Wetlands Research 

Center’s Web site at http://www.nwrc.usgs.gov and the GMP Web site at 

http://www.epa.gov/gmpo/.
iv

Acknowledgments

The U.S. Geological Survey, National Wetlands Research Center, and the U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency, Gulf of Mexico Program partnership would like to thank the following scientists and environmental managers for reviewing the Gulf of Mexico seagrass status and trends. 

Your dedication, time, and expertise are greatly appreciated.

Ron Boustany, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service

Dr. Ken Dunton, University of Texas

Dr. Steve Jordan, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

Dr. Michael Lewis, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

Randy Roach, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

Frank Sargent, Florida Department of Environmental Protection, Southwest Florida

Water Management District

Dr. Judy Stout, University of South Alabama

Dr. Sandy Wyllie-Echeverria, University of Washington

Dr. Judy Stout, University of South Alabama

Captain David Yeager, Mobile Bay National Estuary Program

Personnel from the USGS National Wetlands Research Center who played a key role in the 

production of this document included

Pete Bourgeois, cartography

Helena Schaefer, peer review coordination

Blaire Hutchison, data compilation
v

Contents

Preface ..........................................................................................................................................................iii

Acknowledgments .......................................................................................................................................iv

Abstract ..........................................................................................................................................................1

Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................1

References Cited ...........................................................................................................................................6

Statewide Summary for Texas

Background ....................................................................................................................................................7

Statewide Status and Trends Data .............................................................................................................9

Galveston Bay System .........................................................................................................................9

Texas Coastal Bend Region ................................................................................................................9

Laguna Madre System ......................................................................................................................11

Causes of Change .......................................................................................................................................11

Natural Process Changes .................................................................................................................11

Human-induced Changes .................................................................................................................11

Gaps in Data Coverage ..............................................................................................................................12

Bay Systems Lacking Inventories ............................................................................................................12

Data Limitations and Future Needs .................................................................................................12

Overview of Seagrass Restoration Efforts ..............................................................................................13

Seagrass Conservation Plan and Resource Management Needs ............................................13

Overview of Monitoring, Restoration, and Enhancement Opportunities ...........................................13

Monitoring for Seagrass Ecosystem Health ..................................................................................13

References Cited .........................................................................................................................................14

Galveston Bay System

Background ..................................................................................................................................................17

Scope of Area ..............................................................................................................................................17

Methodology Employed To Determine and Document Current Status ..............................................17

Methodology Employed To Analyze Historical Trends ..........................................................................19

Status and Trends ........................................................................................................................................19

Upper Galveston Bay and Trinity Bay..............................................................................................19

West Galveston Bay ...........................................................................................................................21

Christmas Bay .....................................................................................................................................21

Causes of Change........................................................................................................................................21

Upper Galveston-Trinity Bays ...........................................................................................................21

West Galveston Bay ...........................................................................................................................23

Christmas Bay System .......................................................................................................................24

Species Information ....................................................................................................................................24

Monitoring for Seagrass Health ...............................................................................................................24
vi

Mapping and Monitoring Needs ..............................................................................................................25

Restoration and Enhancement Opportunities ........................................................................................25

References Cited .........................................................................................................................................26

Laguna Madre

Background ..................................................................................................................................................29

Scope of Area ..............................................................................................................................................29

Methodology Employed To Determine and Document Current Status ..............................................29

Methodology Employed To Analyze Historical Trends ..........................................................................31

Status and Trends ........................................................................................................................................31

Lower Laguna Madre ........................................................................................................................31

Upper Laguna Madre ........................................................................................................................33

Laguna Madre as a Whole ...............................................................................................................36

Causes of Change........................................................................................................................................36

Lower Laguna Madre ........................................................................................................................36

Upper Laguna Madre ........................................................................................................................37

Monitoring for Seagrass Health................................................................................................................38

Mapping and Monitoring Needs ...............................................................................................................38

Restoration and Enhancement Opportunities.........................................................................................39

Acknowledgments.......................................................................................................................................39

References Cited .........................................................................................................................................40

Texas Coastal Bend

Background ..................................................................................................................................................41

Scope of Area ..............................................................................................................................................41

Redfish Bay..........................................................................................................................................41

Harbor Island.......................................................................................................................................43

Mustang Island ...................................................................................................................................43

Nueces Bay .........................................................................................................................................43

Methodology Employed To Determine and Document Current Status ..............................................43

Classification Scheme .......................................................................................................................43

Methodology Employed To Analyze Historical Trends ..........................................................................45

Status and Trends ........................................................................................................................................46

System Summary ................................................................................................................................46

Status Summary..................................................................................................................................46

Trends Summary .................................................................................................................................46

Causes of Change .......................................................................................................................................52

Redfish Bay .........................................................................................................................................52

Harbor Island ......................................................................................................................................54

Mustang Island ...................................................................................................................................54

Nueces Bay .........................................................................................................................................54

Species Information ....................................................................................................................................55

Monitoring for Seagrass Health ...............................................................................................................55

Mapping and Monitoring Needs ...............................................................................................................56

Restoration and Enhancement Opportunities ........................................................................................56
vii

Propeller Scar Restoration ...............................................................................................................56

Designation of State Scientific Areas .............................................................................................56

Signage and Boater Education Activities.......................................................................................57

Seagrass Restoration Through Beneficial Use Projects ............................................................57

Coastal Bend Bays and Estuaries Program Outreach Strategies ..............................................57

References Cited .........................................................................................................................................58

Statewide Summary for Louisiana

Background ..................................................................................................................................................60

Statewide Status and Trends ....................................................................................................................60

Reference Cited ...........................................................................................................................................60

Chandeleur Islands

Background ..................................................................................................................................................62

Scope of Area ..............................................................................................................................................62

Methodology Employed To Determine and Document Current Status ...............................................62

Methodology Employed To Analyze Historical Trends ..........................................................................64

Status and Trends ........................................................................................................................................64

Causes of Change........................................................................................................................................64

Species Information ....................................................................................................................................66

Monitoring for Seagrass Health................................................................................................................66

Mapping and Monitoring Needs ...............................................................................................................66

Restoration and Enhancement Opportunities.........................................................................................71

References Cited .........................................................................................................................................71

Statewide Summary for Mississippi

Background ..................................................................................................................................................72

Statewide Status and Trends ....................................................................................................................72

Causes of Change Statewide ....................................................................................................................72

Gaps in Data Coverage ...............................................................................................................................74

Overview of Seagrass Restoration Efforts ..............................................................................................74

Overview of Monitoring, Restoration, and Enhancement Opportunities ...........................................74

References Cited .........................................................................................................................................74

Mississippi Sound and the Gulf Islands

Background ..................................................................................................................................................76

Scope of Area ..............................................................................................................................................78

Methodology Employed To Determine and Document Current Status ...............................................78

Methodology Employed To Analyze Historical Trends ..........................................................................80

Status and Trends ........................................................................................................................................80

Causes of Change........................................................................................................................................80

Seagrass Health...........................................................................................................................................83

Species Information ....................................................................................................................................84

Monitoring, Restoration, and Enhancement Opportunities ..................................................................84

References Cited .........................................................................................................................................84
viii

Statewide Summary for Alabama

Background ..................................................................................................................................................86

Natural Environment ..........................................................................................................................86

Context of Human Influences ...........................................................................................................88

Scope of Area...............................................................................................................................................90

Historical Documentation ..........................................................................................................................90

Statewide Status and Trends.....................................................................................................................90

Historical Surveys ..............................................................................................................................90

Methodology Employed To Determine and Document Current Status .....................................91

Current Status and Changes ............................................................................................................91

Causes of Change........................................................................................................................................93

Seagrass Health ..........................................................................................................................................93

Species Information ....................................................................................................................................93

Monitoring, Restoration, and Enhancement Opportunities ..................................................................94

References Cited .........................................................................................................................................94

Statewide Summary for Florida

Background ..................................................................................................................................................98

Species Information ....................................................................................................................................98

Scope of Area ............................................................................................................................................100

Methods Used To Determine Current Status of Seagrasses in the State of Florida ......................100

Status and Trends .....................................................................................................................................100

Causes of Change .....................................................................................................................................105

Mapping and Monitoring Problems and Information Needs .............................................................107

Data Problems ..................................................................................................................................107

Monitoring Needs.............................................................................................................................109

Assessment, Protection, Recovery, and Restoration Opportunities ................................................109

Acknowledgments ....................................................................................................................................111

References .................................................................................................................................................111

Perdido Bay

Background ................................................................................................................................................114

Scope of Area ............................................................................................................................................116

Upper Perdido Bay ...........................................................................................................................116

Middle Perdido Bay..........................................................................................................................116

Lower Perdido Bay ...........................................................................................................................116

Methodology Employed To Document Current Status ........................................................................116

Methodology Employed To Analyze Historical Trends ........................................................................118

Status and Trends ......................................................................................................................................118

Upper Perdido Bay ...........................................................................................................................118

Middle Perdido Bay .........................................................................................................................118

Lower Perdido Bay ...........................................................................................................................118

Entire Study Area..............................................................................................................................118

Causes of Change......................................................................................................................................124

Upper/Middle Perdido Bay .............................................................................................................124
ix

Lower Perdido Bay ...........................................................................................................................124

Species Information ..................................................................................................................................124

Monitoring for Seagrass Health .............................................................................................................125

Mapping and Monitoring Needs .............................................................................................................125

Restoration and Enhancement Opportunities ......................................................................................125

References .................................................................................................................................................126

Oral and Written Communication ...........................................................................................................126

Pensacola Bay

Background ................................................................................................................................................128

Scope of Area ............................................................................................................................................128

Escambia Bay....................................................................................................................................130

East Bay..............................................................................................................................................130

Pensacola Bay ..................................................................................................................................130

Big Lagoon ........................................................................................................................................130

Santa Rosa Sound ............................................................................................................................130

Methodology Employed To Determine and Document Current Status .............................................130

Methodology for Historical Trend Mapping ..........................................................................................132

Status and Trends ......................................................................................................................................132

Escambia Bay....................................................................................................................................132

East Bay..............................................................................................................................................134

Pensacola Bay ..................................................................................................................................134

Big Lagoon and Santa Rosa Sound ...............................................................................................134

Causes of Change......................................................................................................................................134

Species Information ..................................................................................................................................136

Monitoring for Seagrass Health .............................................................................................................136

Epiphytic Coverage ..........................................................................................................................138

Water-quality Monitoring ................................................................................................................138

Light-attenuation Monitoring..........................................................................................................138

Mapping and Monitoring Needs .............................................................................................................138

Restoration and Enhancement Opportunities ......................................................................................140

References Cited .......................................................................................................................................140

Choctawhatchee Bay

Background ................................................................................................................................................142

Scope of Area ............................................................................................................................................144

Western Choctawhatchee Bay ......................................................................................................144

Middle Choctawhatchee Bay .........................................................................................................146

Eastern Choctawhatchee Bay........................................................................................................146

Methodology Employed To Determine and Document Current Status .............................................146

Methodology Employed To Analyze Historical Trends ........................................................................146

Status and Trends ......................................................................................................................................147

Western Choctawhatchee Bay ......................................................................................................147

Middle Choctawhatchee Bay .........................................................................................................148

Eastern Choctawhatchee Bay........................................................................................................148
x

Causes of Change......................................................................................................................................148

Western Choctawhatchee Bay ......................................................................................................148

Middle Choctawhatchee Bay .........................................................................................................150

Eastern Choctawhatchee Bay........................................................................................................150

Species Information ..................................................................................................................................150

Western Choctawhatchee Bay ......................................................................................................150

Middle and Eastern Choctawhatchee Bay ..................................................................................150

Monitoring for Seagrass Health .............................................................................................................151

Mapping and Monitoring Needs ............................................................................................................151

Restoration and Enhancement Opportunities ......................................................................................151

References Cited .......................................................................................................................................152

St. Andrew Bay

Background ................................................................................................................................................154

Scope of Area ............................................................................................................................................154

St. Andrew Bay Segment ...............................................................................................................156

West Bay Segment ..........................................................................................................................156

North Bay Segment .........................................................................................................................156

East Bay Segment ............................................................................................................................156

St. Andrew Sound Segment ...........................................................................................................156

Methodology Employed To Determine and Document Current Status ............................................156

Methodology Employed To Analyze Historical Trends ........................................................................158

Status and Trends ......................................................................................................................................158

Entire Study Area .............................................................................................................................158

St. Andrew Bay Segment ...............................................................................................................158

East Bay Segment ............................................................................................................................159

North Bay Segment .........................................................................................................................159

West Bay Segment ..........................................................................................................................159

St. Andrew Sound Segment ...........................................................................................................159

Causes of Change .....................................................................................................................................160

Entire Study Area .............................................................................................................................160

St. Andrew Bay Segment ...............................................................................................................160

East Bay Segment ............................................................................................................................160

North Bay Segment .........................................................................................................................165

West Bay Segment ..........................................................................................................................165

St. Andrew Sound Segment ...........................................................................................................166

Species Information ..................................................................................................................................166

Monitoring for Seagrass Health .............................................................................................................166

Mapping and Monitoring Needs ............................................................................................................166

Restoration and Enhancement Opportunities ......................................................................................167

References Cited .......................................................................................................................................167

Florida Big Bend

Background ................................................................................................................................................170

Scope of Area ............................................................................................................................................172
xi

Methodology Employed To Determine and Document Current Status ............................................172

Methodology Employed To Analyze Historical Trends ........................................................................174

Status and Trends .....................................................................................................................................174

Regionwide Mapping Studies ........................................................................................................175

Other Subregional Mapping Studies ............................................................................................176

Causes of Change .....................................................................................................................................179

Hydrologic Alteration of Watersheds ...........................................................................................179

Nutrient Enrichment of Estuaries and Nearshore Coastal Waters .........................................179

Species Information ..................................................................................................................................180

Monitoring for Seagrass Health .............................................................................................................182

Mapping and Monitoring Needs .............................................................................................................182

Restoration and Enhancement Opportunities ......................................................................................185

References Cited .......................................................................................................................................185

Tampa Bay and Saint Joseph Sound

Background.................................................................................................................................................188

Scope of Area.............................................................................................................................................188

Methodology Employed To Determine and Document Current Status .............................................188

Methodology Employed To Analyze Historical Trends ........................................................................190

Status and Trends .....................................................................................................................................190

Tampa Bay .........................................................................................................................................190

Clearwater Harbor and Saint Joseph Sound ..............................................................................192

Causes of Change .....................................................................................................................................192

Monitoring for Seagrass Health .............................................................................................................193

Species Information ..................................................................................................................................194

Restoration and Enhancement Opportunities ......................................................................................194

The Tampa Bay Nitrogen Management Strategy .......................................................................194

Reduction of Seagrass Scarring ...................................................................................................202

References .................................................................................................................................................202

Sarasota Bay

Background ................................................................................................................................................206

Scope of Area ............................................................................................................................................206

Methodology Employed To Determine and Document Current Status ............................................206

Status and Trends .....................................................................................................................................208

Upper Sarasota Bay in Manatee County ......................................................................................208

Upper Sarasota Bay in Sarasota County ......................................................................................208

Roberts Bay .......................................................................................................................................208

Little Sarasota Bay ...........................................................................................................................210

Blackburn Bay...................................................................................................................................210

Causes of Change......................................................................................................................................210

Monitoring for Seagrass Health .............................................................................................................216

Species Information ..................................................................................................................................216

Restoration and Enhancement Opportunities ......................................................................................216

References .................................................................................................................................................217
xii

Charlotte Harbor

Background ................................................................................................................................................218

Scope of Area ............................................................................................................................................218

Methodology Employed To Determine and Document Current Status ............................................221

Southwest Florida Water Management District .........................................................................223

South Florida Water Management District ..................................................................................223

Methodology Employed To Analyze Historical Trends .......................................................................224

Status and Trends .....................................................................................................................................233

Causes of Change .....................................................................................................................................233

Monitoring for Seagrass Health .............................................................................................................236

Species Information .................................................................................................................................237

Mapping and Monitoring Needs ............................................................................................................237

Restoration and Enhancement Opportunities ......................................................................................238

References .................................................................................................................................................239

Oral and Written Communication ...........................................................................................................240

Florida Bay

Background ................................................................................................................................................242

Scope of Area ............................................................................................................................................244

Methodology Employed To Analyze Historical Trends .......................................................................244

Aerial Photography and Interpretation ........................................................................................244

Field Investigations ..........................................................................................................................246

Current Seagrass Change—Florida Bay Fisheries Habitat Assessment Program ........................246

Methods .............................................................................................................................................246

Status and Trends .....................................................................................................................................249

Restoration Opportunities ........................................................................................................................249

References Cited .......................................................................................................................................252

Conclusions 

Importance of Gulf of Mexico Seagrasses ...........................................................................................254

Seagrass Losses .......................................................................................................................................254

Seagrass Decline Leads to Economic and Aesthetic Losses ...........................................................257

Resource Management and Monitoring ...............................................................................................258

Field of Dreams or Empty Meadows: If You Build It, Will They Come? ............................................259

Conservation Is a Necessary and Proactive Management Tool ......................................................259

Towards Restoration and Conservation Success ...............................................................................259

References Cited .......................................................................................................................................260

Appendix 

Appendix 1. .................................................................................................................................................265

References Cited .......................................................................................................................................266
Choctawhatchee Bay

By Barbara Ruth1 and Lawrence R. Handley 2

1

 Florida Department of Environmental Protection, Northwest District.

2

 U.S. Geological Survey.

Background

The Choctawhatchee River and Bay system historically 

has supported a rich and diverse ecology that provides 

substantial economic and quality-of-life benefits to residents 

of northwest Florida (Northwest Florida Water Management 

District, 1996). The Choctawhatchee Bay area has become 

a highly desired area for relocation for many people: the 

perceived overdevelopment in southern Florida has led many 

to look for less highly developed areas. Although the area has 

no major industry, urban and suburban development, along 

with businesses that support Eglin Air Force Base (AFB) 

activities and an extensive retirement community, is creating 

impacts on the ecosystem through additional stormwater 

runoff, resource utilization, and similar pressures that are 

caused by development. In addition, as population along the 

bay’s shoreline has increased, the number of seawalls and 

docks has also increased, reducing the intertidal areas that 

protect the bay’s seagrass resources.

The Choctawhatchee Bay watershed encompasses nearly 

13,856 km2

 (5,350 mi2) and spans portions of northwest 

Florida and southern Alabama (fig. 1). Much of the watershed 

is composed of agricultural, silvicultural, and rural land, with a 

large portion of the Florida part of the watershed also making 

up the lands of Eglin AFB.

Historically, northwest Florida has been primarily an 

agricultural area, as is the case with the Choctawhatchee Bay 

watershed. Prior to the acquisition of lands for Eglin AFB in 

the early 1900s, the area was heavily timbered, causing major 

system alterations including extensive dirt road building, 

overharvest of longleaf pine (Pinus palustris), and conversion 

of lands to other uses. Northwest Florida still contains more 

than 50% of the remaining old-growth stands of longleaf pine, 

however, and is widely recognized as a nationally significant 

reservoir of rare biota (Feller and others, 1997).

The bay is supplied with fresh water from the 

Choctawhatchee River and several creeks and springs and with 

ground water from the Floridan aquifer system (Northwest 

Florida Water Management District, 1996). The only direct 

opening to the Gulf of Mexico is through the relatively 

shallow East Pass (immediately west of Destin), an artificial 

channel opened in 1929 to provide a permanent pass through 

a previously intermittent opening. The bay also opens to 

the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway (GIWW) in the east and to 

Santa Rosa Sound and the GIWW in the west. (The GIWW is 

regularly maintained by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.) 

Pensacola Pass is separated from the west side of the bay by 

an 84-km (52-mi) portion of the GIWW that was dredged 

initially in the 1940s (Northwest Florida Water Management 

District, 1996). Choctawhatchee Bay is a stratified system 

with low tidal energy, limited flushing (Blaylock, 1983; 

Livingston, 1986), and a halocline (noticeable changes in 

salt concentrations between the surface waters and lower 

waters) (Blaylock, 1983; Livingston, 1986). The bay’s main 

freshwater influence is the Choctawhatchee River, which 

has a rate of 243 m3

/s (8,580 ft3/s) (Northwest Florida Water 

Management District, 1996) annual average discharge. With 

the freshwater influence accompanied by the influx of salt 

water from the Gulf of Mexico, the bay’s salinity level is 

constantly fluctuating.

The seagrass beds in Choctawhatchee Bay are considered 

extremely important because they support diverse populations 

of fish and invertebrates, including many recreational and 

commercial species (Northwest Florida Water Management 

District, 1996). Commercial and sport fisheries are important 

in the area, as is oyster harvesting. Significant portions of 

Choctawhatchee Bay are designated as Class II waters of the 

State (designated for shellfish propagation or harvesting). 

Commercially and recreationally important fish and shellfish 

include shrimp (Penaeus spp.), eastern oysters (Crassostrea 

virginica), spotted seatrout (Cynoscion nebulosus), gulf 

menhaden (Brevoortia patronus), red drum or redfish 

(Sciaenops ocellatus), blue crab (Callinectes sapidus), gulf 

flounder (Paralichthys albigutta), striped mullet (Mugil 

cephalus), and white mullet (Mugil curema). In addition, the 

bay system includes endangered species including the gulf 

sturgeon (Acipenser oxyrinchus), which migrates through 

the bay into the Choctawhatchee River to spawn. The 

easternmost part of the bay and the river delta, as well as the 

Rocky Bayou State Park Aquatic Preserve, are designated 

by the Environmental Regulation Commission of the Florida 

Department of Environmental Protection as Outstanding 

Florida Waters (chapter 62-302.700, Florida Administrative 

Code), worthy of special protection because of their 

natural attributes.
10 

65 

C h o cta w h atchee

R vi er

Fort Walton Beach 

Niceville 

Panama City 

De Funiak Springs 

Chipley 

Enterprise 

Dothan 

Eglin Air Force Base 

Gulf of Mexico

0 km 10 20 30 40 

15 10 5 0 mi 20 25 

N

Choctawhatchee Bay 

Watershed boundary 

City 

Interstate highway 

River 

Gulf Intracoastal 

Waterway 

County line 

Choctawhatchee Bay

Figure 1. Watershed for Choctawhatchee Bay.

144 Seagrass Status and Trends in the Northern Gulf of Mexico: 1940–2002
As in much of northwest Florida in the 1990s, the 

Choctawhatchee Bay watershed is experiencing rapid 

development, particularly along the eastern and southern 

shores. Numerous hotels and condominiums are being 

constructed along the perimeter of the bay. The human 

population of the watershed is growing rapidly, with that 

of the Florida counties increasing 41% from 1980 to 1995 

(Northwest Florida Water Management District, 1996). 

Changes in population recorded between the 1990 and 2000 

censuses show an increase of approximately 28% for the 

Choctawhatchee Bay area compared to 23% for Florida 

overall and 13% for the United States as a whole. Increased 

development threatens the water quality of the bay through 

increases in impervious surfaces that reduce water filtration as 

well as nutrient and other pollutant additions. Development in 

the northern portion of the bay is less intensive because Eglin 

AFB occupies much of the northern drainage area.

Baseline studies conducted in 1980 identified important 

resources and productive areas along with potential problem 

areas. Potential human impacts in problem areas included 

urban development, stormwater runoff, causeway construction, 

marina development, overfishing, riverborne agricultural 

pesticides and fertilizers, and military activities (Livingston, 

1986). Natural events impacting the bay system included 

major storms, such as hurricanes and tropical storms, as well 

as drought periods, such as the 3-yr drought that northwest 

Florida experienced from 1999 through 2001.

There were 13 major floods in the Choctawhatchee 

River in the 20th century, including 2 in the 1990s (Northwest 

Florida Water Management District, 1996). The flood of 1929 

reportedly created the inlet at East Pass. Local residents dug a 

trench where an intermittent stream connected with the Gulf 

of Mexico to help relieve the swelled bay. The U.S. Army 

Corps of Engineers has maintained the pass since Congress 

approved maintenance of it in 1930. Tropical Storm Alberto 

(1994) caused extreme flooding in the Choctawhatchee Bay 

watershed, providing inputs of large amounts of fresh water, 

sediments, and nutrients to Choctawhatchee Bay. Hurricane 

Opal (1995), a category 3 hurricane, came ashore just east 

of Fort Walton Beach on the western edge of the bay and 

caused significant damage to the area, including washing large 

amounts of sand into the southern portion of the bay. In 1999 

the area began experiencing a drought that resulted in rainfall 

amounts 25–38 cm (10–15 inches) below annual averages. 

Drought conditions continued through summer 2002. The 

lack of rainfall reduced stormwater runoff, providing less 

nutrient and sediment loading to the system. Salinity levels 

increased because less fresh water entered the bay through the 

Choctawhatchee River and local creeks.

Scope of Area

Choctawhatchee Bay is more than 43 km (27 mi) long 

and follows an east-west orientation along the upper gulf coast 

of Florida in Okaloosa and Walton Counties. It varies from 

2 to 10 km (1 to 6 mi) in width, with depths ranging from 3 

to 13 m (10 to 43 ft). The bay has four basic natural habitats: 

shallow slope areas (vegetated, unvegetated, and oyster beds), 

deep central basin regions (unvegetated), bayous, and a river 

delta area, with East Pass connecting the bay to the Gulf of 

Mexico. Tidal exchange in the bay is minimal (a range of 

about 0.15 m, or 0.5 ft), and flushing is limited to the narrow, 

shallow opening to the Gulf of Mexico at East Pass.

The bay receives most of its freshwater inflow from 

Choctawhatchee River, which receives flow from several 

tributaries including Pea River, Wrights Creek, Sandy Creek, 

Pine Log Creek, Seven Runs, Holmes Creek, and Bruce 

Creek. Several creeks feed the various bayous surrounding 

the bay, including Turkey Creek, Rocky Creek, Swift 

Creek, and Alaqua Creek. Freshwater sources also include 

groundwater contributions from springs and the Floridan 

aquifer. The Choctawhatchee Bay watershed has the highest 

elevations in Florida. Soft, sandy soil, intense rainfall, and 

steep topographical relief make this area highly susceptible to 

erosion, particularly after removal of vegetative cover, during 

road construction, and with agricultural activities. Human 

impacts, in concert with natural forces, can affect the health 

and distribution of seagrass beds.

The area covered in this report extends from the delta 

area in the east where the Choctawhatchee River enters the 

bay to the Brooks Bridge on U.S. Highway 98 in Fort Walton 

Beach in the west and includes the several bayous around 

the bay. For purposes of describing seagrass status in this 

report, Choctawhatchee Bay was divided into three segments: 

western, middle, and eastern (fig. 2).

Western Choctawhatchee Bay

Western Choctawhatchee Bay includes all areas west 

of the Hwy 293 Mid-Bay Bridge to Brooks Bridge (where 

Santa Rosa Sound begins), which is the more saline portion 

of the bay and includes deeper sections (maximum depth is 

13 m, or 43 ft), and historically has been the most developed 

area. The towns of Fort Walton Beach, Niceville, Valparaiso, 

and Destin as well as the main activities area of Eglin AFB 

(runways, support facilities, etc.) surround this area. The 

western segment includes Cinco Bayou, Garnier Creek, and 

Weekley Bayou in the Fort Walton Beach area. In the Niceville 

Scope of Area 145
1

2

3

Segment

Gulf Intracoastal Waterway

1 Western Choctawhatchee Bay

3 Eastern Choctawhatchee Bay

2 Middle Choctawhatchee Bay

Study area

N

Florida

Gulf of Mexico

 Choctawhatchee Bay

 Hogtown Bayou Horseshoe Bayou

Eglin Village

State Hig wh

ay 293

Mid-Bay Bridge

Dons Bayou

Toms Creek

Garnier Bayou

Juniper C er ek

Turkey Creek

Destin

ty nuo C aso lo ak O

alton County W

C

PointWashington

hoctawhatchee River

Rocky C er ek

Basin Creek

LaGrange Bayou

Basin Bayou

Black Creek

C ma

p C er ek

Ramsey Branch

Jolly Bay

State Road 

331 bridge

Trout Creek

Mullet Creek

Eagle Creek

Rocky Bayou

La G ar nge Point

F er eport

Fou mr ile C er ek

Fort

Walton

 Beach

Lafayette Creek

Alaqua Ba oy u

l A aqua r C kee

Cinco

Bayou

Santa

Rosa Island

Santa

Rosa Sound

BrooksBridge

km

mi 2

2 0

0 4 6

8 10 6 4

Figure 2. Scope of area for the Choctawhatchee Bay vignette.

146 Seagrass Status and Trends in the Northern Gulf of Mexico: 1940–2002
and Valparaiso area, Turkey and Juniper Creeks enter Boggy 

Bayou, Toms Creek flows to Toms Bayou, and Rocky Creek 

enters Rocky Bayou, much of which is surrounded by a State 

park, the Rocky Bayou State Park Aquatic Preserve. These 

waterways all drain portions of Eglin AFB property through 

urbanized areas. The western section includes East Pass (with 

its limited tidal exchange), the connection to Santa Rosa 

Sound, and the western continuation of the GIWW.

Middle Choctawhatchee Bay

Middle Choctawhatchee Bay includes all areas of the 

bay between the State Road (SR) 331 bridge and the Mid-Bay 

Bridge. Much of the northern shore consists of Eglin AFB 

property. Mullet Creek, Trout Creek, the portion of Basin 

Creek to Basin Bayou, and the portion of Alaqua Creek to 

Alaqua Bayou, plus several smaller creeks, drain much of 

the Eglin Wildlife Management Area. East Branch Fourmile 

Creek and Lafayette Creek drain the Freeport area through 

LaGrange Bayou to the eastern portion of the middle bay. The 

southern shore includes Horseshoe and Hogtown Bayous and 

the resort area of Sandestin. Most of this section of the bay is 

classified as Class II, Shellfish Propagation or Harvesting, and 

contains the majority of the oyster resources in the bay.

Eastern Choctawhatchee Bay

Eastern Choctawhatchee Bay includes all areas of the bay 

east of the SR 331 bridge, which includes the Choctawhatchee 

River Delta area, the primary source of fresh water to the bay. 

The Choctawhatchee River is considered the fourth largest 

river in the State of Florida (Fernald and Purdum, 1998). 

River discharge dominates the circulation pattern of the 

bay (Northwest Florida Water Management District, 1996). 

The river provides approximately 90% of the total supply 

of fresh water to the bay system, and its inflows exert the 

greatest influence on average bay salinity (Eglin Air Force 

Base, 1996). In addition to the Florida ERC’s designation of 

the Choctawhatchee River as an Outstanding Florida Water, 

the eastern bay waters are classified as Class II, Shellfish 

Propagation or Harvesting. Water depth averages 3 m (10 ft) in 

the eastern portion of the bay. The GIWW for this portion of 

the bay continues to the east out of Choctawhatchee Bay, just 

south of the delta near Point Washington.

Methodology Employed To Determine 

and Document Current Status

The most current mapping study of seagrass coverage for 

the Choctawhatchee Bay area was conducted more than 10 yr 

ago by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) National Wetlands 

Research Center (NWRC) by using natural-color aerial 

photography taken in 1992 at a 1:24,000 scale as part of the 

northeastern Gulf of Mexico seagrass mapping project. 

The mapping protocol consisted of stereoscopic 

photointerpretation, cartographic transfer, and digitization in 

accordance with strict mapping standards and conventions. 

Other important aspects of the protocol include the 

development of a classification system, groundtruthing, quality 

control, and peer review.

The information derived from the photography was 

subsequently transferred by using a zoom transfer scope 

onto a stable medium overlaying USGS 1:24,000-scale 

quadrangle base maps. The primary data source was 1:24,000-

scale natural color aerial photography flown by the National 

Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Stennis 

Space Center in fall 1992. In those cases where the data were 

inadequate or incomplete, contemporary supplemental data 

were acquired from other sources and used to complete the 

photographic coverage.

The seagrass classification system that was developed 

consisted of two classes of open water—RIV (riverine, fresh 

water) and EST (estuarine or marine open water)—and five 

classes of seagrass habitats. One seagrass habitat class is 

continuous seagrass, CSG, for which no density distinction 

was made; the other four classes of patchy seagrass are based 

on percent ground cover of the patches in 5% increments: 

PSG1 (0%–10%, very sparse), PSG2 (15%–40%, sparse), 

PSG3 (45%–70%, moderate), and PSG4 (75%–95%, dense).

The groundtruthing phase included the participation of 

field staff from the Gulf Islands National Seashore, U.S. Fish 

and Wildlife Service, Dauphin Island Sea Lab, Mississippi 

State University, Alabama Department of Conservation and 

Natural Resources, and Florida Department of Environmental 

Protection. Draft maps were sent out to these agencies 

for review and comments. All comments received were 

incorporated into the final maps.

Methodology Employed To Analyze 

Historical Trends

Studies conducted in Choctawhatchee Bay to determine 

the status and trends of seagrass resources since 1949 have 

been limited and mostly were either part of a larger, general 

study (McNulty and others, 1972) or site-specific projects 

(U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1973, 1976) with limited 

documentation of methodologies employed.

Burch (1983) reviewed the earlier studies and 

different types of aerial photography furnished by the 

Florida Department of Transportation. Burch noted that the 

photography, besides being at different scales, did not cover 

the entire bay at any given time. Color aerial photography 

at a 1:24,000 scale from 1980 was used to delineate areas 

in the western portion of the bay, while photography taken 

from the NASA ER-2 aircraft at a 1:65,000 scale from 1979 

was used for the remainder of the bay. Black and white aerial 

Methodology Employed To Analyze Historical Trends 147
photography (1:20,000 scale from 1949 and 1955 and 1:40,000 

scale from 1969) was used for historical comparisons. Field 

verification was conducted with transect sampling by using an 

Ekman dredge (Wildco®, Buffalo, N.Y.) and a “weed rake” 

similar to that used by the Florida Department of Natural 

Resources (now the Florida Department of Environmental 

Protection). North-south oriented transects 0.5 m (1.6 ft) 

apart were sampled from April to September 1982. Military 

restrictions limited field verifications in Rocky Bayou and 

from Boggy Bayou to White Point.

Status and Trends

Although the seagrass beds in Choctawhatchee Bay are 

considered extremely important, only limited studies have 

been conducted in Choctawhatchee Bay to determine the 

status and trends of those seagrass resources, and these studies 

have used different methods that make direct comparisons 

to current data difficult. Furthermore, these studies placed 

most of the seagrass beds in Choctawhatchee Bay in shallow 

nearshore areas, but seagrass has been found in water depths 

up to approximately 3 m (10 ft). 

Burch (1983) summarized earlier studies, including 

those of McNulty and others (1972) and the U.S. Army Corps 

of Engineers (USACE) (1973, 1976). McNulty and others 

(1972) reported 1,237 ha (3,057 acres) of submerged aquatic 

vegetation in Choctawhatchee Bay as part of a larger study 

that covered the entire Gulf of Mexico coast (fig. 3). Mapping 

was done with limited field verification, and species were 

not identified. The USACE studies were limited to specific 

projects in the eastern section of the bay.

Interpretation of aerial photographs by Burch (1983) 

indicated significant loss of seagrass beds for most areas in 

the bay between 1949 and 1985. Burch determined that the 

submerged aquatic vegetation was limited to two species, 

shoal grass (Halodule wrightii) and wigeon grass (Ruppia 

maritima). The author concluded that the bay has supported 

varying amounts of submerged aquatic vegetation, with 

declines evident in several locations since 1949, and noted 

that less decline was evident between 1972 and 1982, with 

vegetation areas at the time of the study similar in location and 

configuration to those mapped in 1972.

The USGS conducted an analysis from aerial 

photographs taken in 1992, differentiating between continuous 

or patchy seagrass areas (fig. 4). This analysis provided an 

estimate of 1,726 ha (4,265 acres) of seagrass present in the 

bay (table 1). These data show that seagrass communities 

within Choctawhatchee Bay occurred primarily in higher 

salinity waters of the western and middle bay (fig. 5).

Western Choctawhatchee Bay

Burch (1983) reported six major areas with significant 

populations of shoal grass in 1982, five of which were in the 

western bay area: Moreno Point to Joes Bayou, East Pass, 

Santa Rosa Sound entrance, Black Point, and White Point. The 

coverage of shoal grass ranged from 20% to 80%, but most 

areas had more than 40% coverage. Seagrass beds with less 

than 40% coverage were reported northwest of Destin, Smack 

Point, and Eglin Village.

Submerged aquatic vegetation 

Fort Walton 

Beach

East

Pass

Shalimar

Buccaroo

Point

Moreno Point

Fourmile

Point

Cobbs

Point Piney

Point

Liveoak

Point

Wheeler

Point

Stake

Point

White

Point

Grassy

Cove Rocky

 Bayou 

Boggy

 Bayou 

 Joes 

Bayou Indian

 Bayou 

Horseshoe

 Bayou 

Hogtown

 Bayou 

Jolly

 Bay 

LaGrange

 Bayou 

Alaqua

 Bayou 

Basin

 Bayou 

Garnier

 Creek 

Cinco

 Bayou 

Eagle Creek

Eglin AFB 

Valparaiso 

Niceville

Destin

Freeport

Santa Rosa Island 

Western

Middle

Eastern

Gulf of Mexico

Black

Point

N

Figure 3. Distribution of submerged aquatic vegetation in Choctawhatchee Bay, 1972.

148 Seagrass Status and Trends in the Northern Gulf of Mexico: 1940–2002
The USGS data show that most seagrass areas contained 

patchy beds (1,428 ha, or 3,529 acres) and were located 

primarily in the western bay, where 1,109 ha (2,740 acres) 

of patchy beds were delineated (table 1). Only 317 ha (783 

acres) of continuous seagrass beds were present (table 1). 

The continuous seagrass beds were mainly located north of 

Santa Rosa Island, west of East Pass, in the area bordered 

on the south by the national seashore (fig. 4). The USGS 

analysis showed seagrass beds in areas similar to the 1972 

data; however, the 1992 set showed patchy seagrass beds 

along the eastern shore of Fort Walton Beach, while the 1972 

delineation does not indicate any seagrass in this area.

An extensive shoal grass bed that ranged in depth 

from less than 1 m (3 ft) to at least 3 m (10 ft) and extended 

offshore for more than 274 m (900 ft) was observed in the 

White Point area in 1991 (Donald Ray, Florida Department of 

Environmental Protection, written commun., 1991).

Livingston (1986) estimated 307 ha (759 acres) in the 

western portion of the bay and reported a loss of nearly 20% 

between 1955 and 1985.

Middle Choctawhatchee Bay

Hogtown Bayou in the south-central part of the bay was 

one of the major areas with significant populations of shoal 

grass in 1982 (Burch, 1983). Livingston (1986) reported 

wigeon grass mixed with shoal grass in Hogtown Bayou. 

Seagrass beds with less than 40% coverage were reported 

near Fourmile Point, east of the Okaloosa-Walton County line 

(Burch, 1983). Seagrass beds appeared to be more extensive 

in Hogtown Bayou in 1972 than in the later analysis in 1992 

(figs. 3 and 4).

Eastern Choctawhatchee Bay

The USACE described wigeon grass occurring in the 

shallow, muddy areas of the bay at the LaGrange Bayou 

entrance in a 1973 environmental impacts study (U.S. Army 

Corps of Engineers, 1973). In a 1976 environmental impacts 

study, the USACE noted submerged grasses present near the 

mouth of the Choctawhatchee River in Bunker Cove and west 

of Point Washington but did not name which species were 

present (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1976). Burch’s (1983) 

analysis of the 1972 aerial photography indicated that seagrass 

beds appeared to be more extensive in the eastern section of 

the bay than the 1992 data show (figs. 3 and 4).

Causes of Change

Because the Choctawhatchee Bay system consists 

of three segments with diverse characteristics, only broad 

observations regarding change are possible. In addition, there 

is a lack of comparable historical information, as the available 

seagrass data were derived by different methods and for 

different areas within the bay. Because freshwater inflow and 

poor flushing heavily influence Choctawhatchee Bay, the bay 

exhibits extremes of fresh water, which are marine conditions 

that may contribute naturally to declines and expansions of 

seagrass beds. While it appears that the bay has supported 

varying amounts of seagrass in the last 50 yr, seagrass areas 

have declined in several locations since the 1950s.

The health of the bay and its seagrass beds is being 

threatened by increased development in the Choctawhatchee 

Bay watershed. Increasing numbers of people desire to be 

on or near the water, whether for living, recreation, or both. 

As environmentally attractive and sensitive lands are more 

heavily used, stress on the resources, including sensitive 

habitats such as seagrass beds, is increasing. This increased 

development also threatens the water quality of the bay 

through nutrient and other pollutant additions. The National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration has described the 

bay as exhibiting strong symptoms of eutrophication, with 

seagrass loss being one of the secondary symptoms indicative 

of eutrophication (Bricker and others, 1999). Seagrass scarring 

has also been indicated as a problem in the bay (Sargent and 

others, 1995).

Western Choctawhatchee Bay

Older developed areas (Fort Walton Beach, Valparaiso, 

Niceville, and Eglin AFB main base and the earlier Destin 

development) border western Choctawhatchee Bay. During the 

1970s, this area displayed eutrophication, extensive plankton 

“blooms,” seagrass bed die-off, and fish kills (Young and 

Butts, 1984). A study by Young and Butts (1984) attributed 

much of the earlier pollution to sewage treatment plants in 

the peripheral bayous and eastern Santa Rosa Sound but 

Segment Classification Hectares Acres

Western Continuous 317 783

Patchy 1,109 2,739

Middle Continuous 0.4 1

Patchy 297 733

Eastern Patchy 2 5

Total Continuous 314 784

Patchy 1,408 3,477

Table 1. Choctawhatchee Bay seagrass status, 1992.

[Data source: U.S. Geological Survey photointerpretation of 1:24,000-scale 

natural color aerial photography flown by Stennis Space Center (National 

Aeronautics and Space Administration) in fall 1992]

Causes of Change 149
Gulf of Mexico

0 2 4 6 8 km0 1 2 3 4 5 mi

N

LandSeagrass, continuous Seagrass, patchy Water

Figure 4. Distribution of seagrass in Choctawhatchee Bay, 1992.

150 Seagrass Status and Trends in the Northern Gulf of Mexico: 1940–2002
noted that discharges had been converted to upland disposal, 

which led to improved water quality, expanded shoal grass 

beds, and increased macroinvertebrate species richness in 

the western bay at that time. Livingston (1986) suggested 

that spatial and temporal patterns indicated that losses were 

probably caused by changes in optical characteristics of the 

water column. Livingston further suggested that nutrient 

enrichment, phytoplankton, and coliform values indicated 

cultural eutrophication of western Choctawhatchee Bay, which 

was impacting seagrass resources through loss of light. He 

suggested that other cultural perturbations that could impact 

seagrasses included dredging and related sediment suspension 

and deposition, operation of recreational and commercial 

watercraft, and sedimentation from construction and other 

land-based activities. Florida Marine Research Institute data 

(Sargent and others, 1995) indicated that propeller scarring, 

while it did not impact a large portion of the bay (0.2% 

scarring), was evident along the northern shore of Santa Rosa 

Island and north of Brooks Bridge.

Middle Choctawhatchee Bay

Although development in the northern portion of 

middle Choctawhatchee Bay is minimal because Eglin AFB 

occupies most of the northern drainage area, the southern 

shores are experiencing rapid development. Numerous 

hotels, condominiums, and residential developments, as 

well as expanding commercial areas, are being constructed 

along the perimeter of the bay, changing the land use from 

rural to urban or suburban in character (Northwest Florida 

Water Management District, 2002). The Florida Department 

of Environmental Protection (FDEP) Northwest District 

Submerged Lands and Environmental Resources Program has 

seen a 58% increase over the last 5 yr in regulatory permitting 

actions in Walton County, which includes approximately twothirds of Choctawhatchee Bay and much of the Florida portion 

of the watershed (fig. 2). These include permits for dredging 

and filling activities, as well as exemptions for private docks. 

While the population increased in Walton County by 46% 

over the last 10 yr, the higher rise in permitting actions over 

population increase indicates a greater pressure on wetland 

and water resources. As the population swells along the bay 

coastline, additional docks and seawalls are changing the 

hydrological patterns in the bay. These changes can lead to 

erosion in seagrass beds and to sedimentation, which causes 

increased turbidity, reducing light available to the plants and 

thus restricting their growth or smothering them. Increased 

population also leads to increased nutrients through additional 

use of fertilizer on lawns and a higher concentration of onsite 

sewage treatment systems (septic tanks), which can lead 

to algal blooms and epiphytic algae that also restrict light 

availability by attaching to plant blades. Hogtown Bayou is an 

area of concern; it is served by septic systems and has shown 

increasing nutrient trends, as has much of the Freeport area 

north of LaGrange Bayou (Ross Hamilton, Choctawhatchee 

Basin Alliance, oral commun., 2002).

Eastern Choctawhatchee Bay

Early studies indicated that seagrasses were once present 

in the eastern portion of the bay in the Choctawhatchee River 

Delta area (Burch, 1983) (fig. 3). The current dataset (1992) 

does not show any seagrass populations in that area (fig. 4). 

There has been only limited development along the eastern 

end of the bay, although that appears to be changing as 

population is increasing on both the north and south ends of 

the State Road 331 bridge, which delineates the western edge 

of this section of the bay. In addition, the delta area is subject 

to sedimentation and nutrient loads from the Choctawhatchee 

River. Anecdotal evidence from local residents indicates that 

sedimentation has become a problem at the mouth of the 

Choctawhatchee River.

Overall, the information available on seagrass status and 

trends for the Choctawhatchee Bay is limited. While earlier 

studies have indicated reductions in seagrass populations and 

extent, no analysis of comparable datasets has been done.

Species Information

The dominant species of seagrass is shoal grass, with 

some wigeon grass found occasionally.

0

200

(494)

(988)

(1,483)

(1,977)

(2,471)

(2,965)

400

600

800

1, 000

1,200

Western Middle Eastern

Continous

Patchy

Hectares (acres)

Figure 5. Choctawhatchee Bay seagrass coverage by 

area, 1992.

Species Information 151
Western Choctawhatchee Bay

Studies by Livingston (1986) identified the presence of 

shoal grass beds in the higher salinity, western portion of the 

bay in the vicinity of Moreno Point, Joes Bayou, East Pass, the 

Santa Rosa Sound entrance, and Black and White Points.

Middle and Eastern Choctawhatchee Bay

The USACE observed wigeon grass at the entrance to 

LaGrange Bayou in eastern/middle Choctawhatchee Bay 

(U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1973). Livingston (1986) also 

described wigeon grass but only at Hogtown Bayou, east of 

the Okaloosa-Walton County line, in the middle bay segment.

Monitoring for Seagrass Health

There is no current, ongoing seagrass monitoring in the 

Choctawhatchee Bay system.

Mapping and Monitoring Needs

The need to quantitatively and qualitatively assess the 

status of seagrass beds has been identified in several plans 

(Burch, 1983; Young and Butts, 1984; Eglin Air Force Base, 

1996; Northwest Florida Water Management District, 1996, 

2002; Choctawhatchee Basin Alliance and Florida Department 

of Environmental Protection, 1998). Additional mapping and 

monitoring should be undertaken in Choctawhatchee Bay 

to provide more information on current status and changes 

compared to the previous mapping efforts in 1992. These 

efforts should include evaluating and digitizing the earlier 

aerial photographs used for comparison by Burch (1983). 

Standardized mapping of seagrass beds at appropriate 

temporal and spatial scales is needed every 5 to 10 yr. 

Monitoring the health of seagrass beds and the groundtruthing 

of digitized mapping should also be undertaken.

The Choctawhatchee River and Bay System Surface 

Water Improvement and Management (SWIM) Plan 

(Northwest Florida Water Management District, 2002) 

proposed a seagrass assessment as a priority activity for 

fiscal years 2002–03 and 2003–04. According to the 

plan, components of the project should include evaluating 

conditions of submerged aquatic vegetation, comparing 

data with earlier studies to identify trends that could be 

potential causes of adverse effects, and relating to nonpoint 

source projects to develop and pursue recommendations for 

protecting and restoring seagrass communities in the bay.

Restoration and Enhancement 

Opportunities

Eglin AFB has influenced the health of the 

Choctawhatchee Bay by preserving the environmentally 

important features of a federally owned land with nationally 

recognized research, preservation, and restoration projects 

(Eglin Air Force Base, 1996). Although the projects are 

not directly focused on seagrass communities, many of the 

projects address potential nonpoint source contributions to 

the bay that affect seagrass health. Projects include restoring 

shoreline vegetation and identifying and restoring stream 

segments impacted by erosion and sedimentation that 

ultimately enters the bay (Donald Ray, Florida Department of 

Environmental Protection, written commun., 1991).

The Choctawhatchee Basin Alliance, FDEP, and the 

Northwest Florida Water Management District (NWFWMD), 

along with local citizen volunteers, have undertaken several 

shoreline restoration activities. These activities include habitat 

restoration and enhancement on the Liveoak Point Peninsula 

and shoreline restoration in Valparaiso, on the southern 

shoreline of Choctawhatchee Bay just east of Fort Walton 

Beach along U.S. Highway 98 on Okaloosa Island, and near 

the 4-H Camp Timpoochee in Niceville (Choctawhatchee 

Basin Alliance, 2001; Northwest Florida Water Management 

District, 2002). The Valparaiso restoration included planting 

of wigeon grass at four transects in Toms Bayou, although 

survival was limited to only one transect because of foot traffic 

and boating activities (Florida Department of Environmental 

Protection, 2001). The report concluded that with proper 

protective measures, however, the potential to establish 

submerged aquatic vegetation in Toms Bayou does exist. 

As part of the restoration project, a shoreline protection and 

restoration brochure for waterfront owners was developed and 

distributed (Northwest Florida Water Management District, 

n.d.). These projects are restoring shoreline communities that 

were historically more prevalent in Choctawhatchee Bay, 

educating the local citizens about the importance of aquatic 

and emergent vegetation, and helping protect bay resources 

from pollutant runoff and erosion that can adversely affect 

seagrass resources.

The NWFWMD has recently acquired 130 ha (321 

acres) of wetlands bordering Hogtown Bayou that will 

provide restoration opportunities and should help protect the 

remaining seagrass beds from further decline (Northwest 

Florida Water Management District, 2002). Additional land 

acquisition and conservation easements would help protect 

against nonpoint source impacts on seagrass communities. 

The NWFWMD has identified the need to evaluate the status 

of seagrass communities and relate nonpoint source pollution 

and ecological restoration projects in order to develop and 

152 Seagrass Status and Trends in the Northern Gulf of Mexico: 1940–2002
pursue recommendations for protecting and restoring seagrass 

communities in the bay.

Many activities that have the potential to affect water 

quality and environmental resources, such as seagrass, 

require review and permitting through the FDEP. While 

review and permitting actions are designed to protect the 

State’s resources, the policy of the FDEP is to grant the 

highest protection to Outstanding Florida Waters. In the 

Choctawhatchee Bay system these Outstanding Florida Waters 

include the easternmost part of the bay and the river delta, as 

well as the Rocky Bayou State Park Aquatic Preserve portions 

of the Choctawhatchee Bay system. This additional protection 

should help protect existing seagrass resources in these areas; 

however, impacts from unregulated or nonpoint sources will 

not necessarily be controlled in these areas any more than in 

other areas. Therefore, educating local citizens remains an 

important deterrent to activities that might adversely affect 

seagrass resources.

References Cited 

Blaylock, D., 1983, Choctawhatchee Bay—analysis and 

interpretation of baseline environmental data: Pensacola, 

Florida Sea Grant College, technical paper #29, 237 p., 30 

appendixes. 

Bricker, S.B., Clement, C.G., Pirhalla, D.E., Orlando, S.P., and 

Farrow, D.R.G., 1999, National estuarine eutrophication 

assessment: effects of nutrient enrichment in the nation’s 

estuaries: Silver Spring, Md., National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration, National Ocean Service, 

Special Projects Office and the National Centers for Coastal 

Ocean Science, 71 p.

Burch, T.A., 1983, Inventory of submerged vegetation in 

Choctawhatchee Bay, Florida: Havana, Northwest Florida 

Water Management District, Water Resources Special 

Report 83-4, 25 p.

Choctawhatchee Basin Alliance, 2001, Okaloosa Island 

shoreline restoration project: Fort Walton Beach, Fla., The 

Alliance Quarterly Newsletter, v. 4.4, p. 5.

Choctawhatchee Basin Alliance and Florida Department of 

Environmental Protection, 1998, Breaking new ground, 

management of the Choctawhatchee River and Bay 

watershed: Pensacola, Florida Department of Environmental 

Protection, 228 p., 4 appendixes.

Eglin Air Force Base, 1996, The Choctawhatchee Bay 

resource evaluation report: Fort Walton, Fla., Air Force 

Development Test Center, 46th Test Wing, Range 

Environmental Planning Office, 46TW/XPE, 78 p.

Feller, S.L., Hardesty J.L., and Cohen, J., 1997, Research 

report, Eglin Air Force Base, 1997, a compilation of 

inventory, monitoring and research conducted in support 

of ecosystem management: Gainesville, Fla., The Nature 

Conservancy, 62 p.

Fernald, E.A., and Purdum, E.D., eds., 1998, Water resources 

atlas of Florida: Tallahassee, Florida State University, 

Institute of Science and Public Affairs, 312 p.

Florida Department of Environmental Protection, 2001, Toms 

Bayou shoreline restoration/erosion abatement project. Final 

report: Pensacola, Fla., 10 p.

Livingston, R.J., 1986, Choctawhatchee River and Bay system, 

final report: Tallahassee, Florida State University Center for 

Aquatic Research and Resource Management, v. 1–4.

McNulty, J.K., Lindall, W.N., Jr., and Anthony, E.A., 1972, 

Cooperative Gulf of Mexico estuarine inventory and study, 

Florida: phase 1 area description: Seattle, Wash., National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine 

Fisheries Service, technical report CIRC-368, 126 p.

Northwest Florida Water Management District, 1996, The 

Choctawhatchee River and Bay system surface water 

improvement and management plan: Havana, Fla., Program 

Development Series 96-4, 69 p., 8 appendixes.

Northwest Florida Water Management District, 2002, 

Choctawhatchee River and Bay system surface water 

improvement and management plan update: Havana, Fla., 

Program Development Series 2002-2, 37 p.

Northwest Florida Water Management District, n.d., Shoreline 

protection and restoration, a northwest Florida homeowner’s 

guide: Havana, Fla., Public Information Bulletin 01-2, 12 p.

Sargent, F.J., Leary, T.J., Crewz, D.W., and Kruer, C.R., 

1995, Scarring of Florida’s seagrasses—assessment 

and management options: Saint Petersburg, Florida 

Marine Research Institute technical report TR-1, 37 p., 2 

appendixes.

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1973, LaGrange Bayou 

maintenance dredging Walton County, Florida: Draft 

environmental impact study, 39 p.

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1976, Maintenance dredging 

of the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway from Pearl River, 

Louisiana, Mississippi to Apalachee Bay, Florida: Final 

environmental statement, 238 p.

Young, W.T., and Butts, G.L., 1984, A special monitoring 

project basin survey, western Choctawhatchee Bay: 

Pensacola, Florida Department of Environmental 

Regulation, Northwest District Office, 61 p.

References Cited 153