merican Indians and the indigenous peoples of Alaska,Hawaii,and the

Pacific and Caribbean islands comprise almost 1% of the US population.

The federal government recognizes the unique status of more than 565 tribal

and Alaska Native governments as "domestic dependent nations." The relationships between these tribes and the federal government are determined by

treaties, executive orders,tribal legislation,acts of Congress,and decisions of

the federal courts. These agreements cover a range of issues that will be important in facing the prospects of climate change,from responsibilities and governance,to use and maintenance of land and water resources.

Of the approximately 1.9 million people formally enrolled in federally recognized

tribes, over half live on hundreds of reservations throughout the countr y. Within

the 48 conterminous states,tribal lands total about 56 million acres,an area about

the size of the state of Minnesota. Those who do not live on tribal lands,but instead

live in cities,suburbs,and small rural communities across the US,will face the same

set of challenges identified in the preceding regional sections. This section focuses

on the special set of challenges facing those living on and associated economically,

culturally, and spiritually, with reservations and Native homelands. Although the

diversity of land areas and tribal perspectives and situations makes generalizations

difficult,a number of key issues illustrating how climate variability and change will

affect Native peoples and their communities have been identified.

Observed Climate Trends

eservations are present in every region of the US,and Native peoples have

been experiencing the vagaries of climate on this continent for many thousands of years. Native peoples have developed unique cultures based on the prevailing regional climate,from ice-covered areas of Alaska to the tropical Pacific and

Caribbean islands. In each region,however, the climate is starting to change,and

Native peoples are aware of these changes. For example,Natives of Alaska are

already experiencing significant warming,with the melting of permafrost and sea

ice altering subsistence lifestyles (see box on page 74),and changes in the timing of

bird and waterfowl migrations as a result of changes in season length are being

noticed in many regions.

The Reality of Living with

Ecosystem Shifts

For centuries, the Anishinaabeg (Ojibway or

Chippewa) who live around Lake Superior

and along the upper Mississippi River have

depended upon the natural resources of the

forests, lakes, and rivers of the region.

Many of the reservation locations were

selected to ensure access to culturally significant resources, such as maple sugar

bushes and wild rice beds, whose locations

were thought to be fixed. As drier summer

conditions cause the western prairies to

shift eastward toward the western Great

Lakes, the extents of maple, birch, and wild

rice habitats in the US are likely to be significantly reduced. Because Ojibway communities cannot, as a whole, move as

ecosystems shift, climate change is likely to

reduce the resources needed to sustain

their traditional culture and impact their economic productivity and the value of established treaty rights.

For example, the wild rice that grows abundantly in shallow lake and marshy habitats

of northern Wisconsin and Minnesota is

likely to be adversely affected. Wild rice

plays a critical role in the economic and

R

NATIVE PEOPLES AND HOMELANDS

KEY ISSUES

• Tourism and Community

Development

• Human Health and

Extreme Events

• Rights to Water and

Other Natural Resources

• Subsistence Economies

and Cultural Resources

• Cultural Sites, Wildlife,

and Natural Resources

A

84
For many tribes,

particularly those in

the Southwest, longterm changes in water

resources are likely to

have significant

consequences for

resource-based

sectors that depend

on stable water

supplies.

ceremonial life of many tribes. The handharvested and processed seed is highly

prized as a gourmet food and adds significant commercial value to the rural reservation economy. Federal treaties guarantee

the right of the Anishinaabeg to gather wild

rice in their aboriginal territories, which

cover much of the states of Wisconsin and

Minnesota. As the climate changes, deep

or flooding waters in early spring could

delay germination of the seed on lake or

river bottoms, leading to crop failure. Lower

water levels later in the summer could

Scenarios of Future Climate

ost of the large Indian reservations are located in the central and western US. The Canadian and Hadley model scenarios project warming of as

much as 5 to 10°F over the 21st centur y, with more warming during winters

than during summers in many areas. These models also project that,particularly in the Southwest, warmer winters will bring increasing wintertime precipitation,a rising snowline,and earlier springtime runoff,thereby affecting the timing and volume of river flows. Warmer conditions are also projected to lead to

increased evaporation,especially in summer, that will dry summer soils and vegetation,more than offsetting the increase in precipitation in some regions. For

example, warmer summer conditions are likely to lead to lower river and lake

levels in the northern Great Plains and Great Lakes.

Key Issue: Tourism and Community Development

he most urgent priority for tribal governments and communities over the

past thirty years has been economic development and job creation. The

1990 census indicated that 31.6% of all Indian people lived below the poverty

line,compared to 13.1% of the total population. The sustained growth of the

American economy over the past decade has, for the most part, bypassed Indian

households and reservations.

Many tribes are basing a significant share of their economic development on

recreation and tourism,taking advantage of culturally and historically significant

sites and ceremonies and the natural aesthetic beauty of many reservations.

These activities provide income while also encouraging the re-establishment of

customs and traditions. The economic viability of many of these activities,however, is based on the prevailing climate – water-based recreation on rivers and

lakes, forest campsites and trails,and diverse wildlife experiences based on

migrating fish and birds and seasonal flowering of plants. As climate changes,

these relationships are very likely to change:reduced summer runoff is likely to

reduce the flow in many streams,drier summers are likely to increase fire risk

and require closure of campgrounds,and the combined effects of climate and

ecosystem changes are likely to disrupt wildlife and plant communities.

cause the wild rice stalks to break under

the weight of the fruithead or make the rice

beds inaccessible to harvesters. Extended

drought conditions could encourage greater

natural competition from more shallow

water species. During the dry summer of

1988, conflicts over water pitted federal

river management policies against tribal

treaty rights and state demands for water.

M

T

“We are the ones that live

closest to the land, to Mother

Earth. We live with it, we

experience it, with our hearts

and souls, and we depend

upon it. When this Earth starts

to be destroyed, we feel it.”

Caleb Pungowiyi 

Yupik Native from Nome, Alaska

85
Human Health and 

Extreme Events

he rural living conditions of

many Native Peoples amplify

exposure to variations in the weather.

Housing on many reservations is old

and offers only limited protection

from the environment. Although

many traditional structures are

designed to take advantage of the natural warmth or coolness of the landscape (for example, by being located

below ground,having thick walls,or

being selectively exposed to or sheltered from the Sun),acclimation,both

physiologically and through use of

appropriate clothing,is critical,

because homes in many areas lack

effective heating and cooling systems.

While warming in colder regions will

relieve some stresses,some acclimation has already occurred. In the

presently hot regions,however, there

is likely to be a significant increase in

stress that will require new responses

as new extremes are reached. While

an increase in the presence of airconditioned facilities would help,it

would require changes in behavior

toward a more indoor lifestyle.

Changes in climate are also likely to

create new challenges for community

health systems. Drier summer conditions would likely lead to increased

lofting of dust and dust-borne organisms and an increase in forest fire

incidence. The poorer air quality

resulting from increases in smoke and

dust could possibly increase respiratory illnesses such as asthma.

Sequences of unusual weather events

can also be disruptive. Unusual

weather conditions in 1993 led to an

outbreak of hantavirus in the

Southwest,affecting both human

health and perceptions of risk. The

infection did not predominantly

affect Indian people,but the event

caused a significant drop in tourism

to southwestern reservations,reducing income for several communities.

Rights to Water and 

Other Natural Resources

reaty rights between tribes and

the US government provide for

allocation of significant amounts of

water for use on reservations. As

snowmelt and seasonal runoff patterns change,it is possible that water

allocations would have to be modified. This would be extremely problematic in the western US if water

resources were to become more limited. Because overall precipitation

and runoff are projected to rise in

some basins,however, it is also

possible that water supply

problems could be ameliorated

if the additional runoff is allocated to users who can accommodate the larger fluctuations in water flows that

are projected to occur.

For many tribes,particularly those in the

Southwest,long-term

changes in water

resources are likely to

have significant consequences for resourcebased sectors that

depend on stable

water supplies.

Subsistence Economies and

Cultural Resources

ative lands have provided a

wide variety of resources for

Native peoples for thousands of

years. Forests, grasslands,streams,

and coastal zones have provided,and

for many groups still provide,substantial amounts of food, fiber, fish,medicines,and culturally important materials. Native traditions are very closely

tied to natural events and resources.

Although subsistence economies

remain a significant basis for family

life only in the far north of Canada

and Alaska,many tribal communities

support themselves by a combination

of subsistence, welfare,and market

economies.

The subsistence component of Native

economies in the Arctic and subArctic is already being threatened by

changes in the global climate (see

box p.74). Changes in climate,coupled with other human influences,

are occurring across the US,and

there are projections of more rapid

change in the future. In the

Plains, warmer winter conditions

are already favoring certain types

NATIVE PEOPLES AND HOMELANDS

KEY ISSUES

T

T

N

AZ CA CO ID MT NM NV OR UT WA WY

0

200,000

400,000

600,000

800,000

1,000,000

1,200,000

Current Potential

6,516,208

Acreage of Indian lands that are currently being irrigated

(brighter blue at bottom of bars) and that could potentially be irrigated (blue at top of bars). Substantially

increasing the area of irrigated lands would significantly

increase water demand.

86
of grasses,thereby changing the mix

of vegetation types. Shifting away

from the subsistence components of

their economies is very likely to

cause both economic and cultural disruption for many Native peoples.

Cultural Sites, Wildlife, and

Natural Resources

he character of local landscapes

and weather shapes people’s

sense of place and how they relate to

what surrounds them. While Native

peoples have no monopoly on love of

land, water, and the sea,their interests

started from different premises that

have developed over thousands of

years of living,moving,and defending

their presence on this continent.

Although these special connections

are frequently explained in spiritual

terms,the differences also include

intellectual knowledge and historical

familiarities extending over thousands

of years that continue to be transmitted from generation to generation

through oral histories and ceremonies.Many Native peoples perceive humans to be an integral,not

dominating,part of the environment.

While there have been significant

changes in local environments over

past centuries, changes in climate,

coupled with other human influences,are likely to bring much larger

changes in land cover and wildlife

than have occurred in the past.

These changes will have practical

consequences,but also,at a deeper

level,the whole environmental experience that supports religious traditions and the connections to historically significant sites is likely to start

to diverge from what has been sustained through many generations. For

Native peoples, externally driven climate change will be disrupting the

long history of intimate association

with their environments.

Adaptation Strategies

esponding to substantial

changes in climate will require

technologies and resources,two

items desperately scarce in many tribal communities. Most tribal communities are limited in their ways of creating wealth and rely heavily on transfer payments from the federal government. In these communities,adjusting plans for economic and social

development to account for climate

change may require fresh thinking in

federal policies and budgets. In addition,three important steps could be

taken.

Enhance Education and Access to

Information and Technology

Indian people are significantly underrepresented in scientific and technological professions. They need to

develop the understanding and skills

to deal with a changing climate. It is

especially important to improve the

quality of science and technology

education in schools and tribal colleges that serve Native youth. It will

also be essential to enlist individuals

within each Native community to

assist in the integration of contemporary information and traditional

values.

Promote Local Land-use and Natural

Resource Planning

Tribes that have developed strong

natural resource management programs for their lands have more substantial bases from which to respond

to changes in climate than other

tribes. Cost-effective ways,using

existing networks and organizations,

need to be developed to inform decision-makers in tribal communities,

and provide shared access to adequate technical resources.

Participate in Regional and National

Discussions and Decision-making

The consequences of changes in climate are rarely contained within

reservation boundaries. Serious discussions about climate change must

include informed stakeholders from

every relevant jurisdiction. A model

of interaction and collaboration has

been developed between tribes in

the northern Great Plains and the

University of North Dakota. Their

success in broadening participation

and making knowledge available in

useful ways can provide helpful lessons for other states,tribes,and

regions.

T R

87