FILED

U.S. COURT OF APPEALS

ELEVENTH CIRCUIT

AUGUST 11, 2009

THOMAS K. KAHN

CLERK

 [PUBLISH]

IN THE UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS

FOR THE ELEVENTH CIRCUIT

________________________

No. 06-15851

________________________

D. C. Docket No. 01-03208-CV-JEM

SINALTRAINAL, 

ISIDRO SEGUNDO GIL, The Estate Of,

LUIS EDUARDO GARCIA, 

ALVARO GONZALEZ LOPEZ, 

JOSE DOMINGO FLORES, 

JORGE HUMBERTO LEAL, 

JUAN CARLOS GALVIS, 

ALVARO GONZALEZ,

JOHN DOE,

as representative of the Estate of Isidro Segundo Gil,

LUIS ADOLFO CARDONA,

JOHN DOE II,

 Plaintiffs-Appellants,

versus

COCA-COLA COMPANY, THE,

COCA-COLA DE COLOMBIA, S.A., 

PANAMERICAN BEVERAGES COMPANY, LLC, 

PANAMCO, LLC, 

PANAMCO INDUSTRAIL DE GASEOSAS, S.A., 

a.k.a. Panamco Columbia, S.A.,

RICHARD I. KIRBY, et al.,

 Defendants-Appellees.
________________________

Appeal from the United States District Court

for the Southern District of Florida

_________________________

(August 11, 2009)

Before TJOFLAT, BLACK and COX, Circuit Judges.

BLACK, Circuit Judge:

The main question presented by this appeal is whether Plaintiffs-Appellants

(Plaintiffs) have sufficiently pled factual allegations in their complaints to survive

a motion to dismiss. In four consolidated cases, Plaintiffs, who were trade union

leaders, brought suit under, inter alia, the Alien Tort Statute (ATS), 28 U.S.C.

§ 1350, and the Torture Victims Protection Act (TVPA), 28 U.S.C. § 1350 note, 1

alleging their employers–two bottling companies in Colombia –collaborated with

2

Colombian paramilitary forces to murder and torture Plaintiffs. Plaintiffs’ 3

 The statute is also known as the Alien Tort Claims Act (ATCA), see, e.g., Cabello v. 1

Fernandez-Larios, 402 F.3d 1148, 1151 (11th Cir. 2005), and the Alien Tort Act (ATA), see,

e.g., Aldana v. Del Monte Fresh Produce, N.A., Inc., 416 F.3d 1242, 1246 (11th Cir. 2005). 

 The two bottler-employers are Bebidas y Alimentos de Urabá, S.A., and Panamco 2

Colombia, S.A. Also named as defendants along with the bottler-employers are their respective

parent companies and owners. Richard Kirby (Bebidas y Alimentos de Urabá’s owner) and

Panamerican Beverages Company, LLC and Panamco, LLC (Panamco Colombia’s owners) were

also named as defendants. 

 In one of the four cases, the Garcia case, the alleged conspiracy was with local police 3

officials, rather than paramilitary members.

2
complaints named a number of defendants, including The Coca-Cola Company

(Coca-Cola USA) and its subsidiary, Coca-Cola de Colombia, S.A., (Coca-Cola

Colombia). Coca-Cola USA and Coca-Cola Colombia (the Coca-Cola

Defendants) were allegedly connected to the Colombian bottlers, and their

respective employees, through a series of alter ego and agency relationships. 

In two separate opinions the district court found it lacked subject matter

jurisdiction over Plaintiffs’ ATS and TVPA claims. See Sinaltrainal v. Coca-Cola

Co., 256 F. Supp. 2d 1345 (S.D. Fla. 2003) (Sinaltrainal I); In re Sinaltrainal

Litig., 474 F. Supp. 2d 1273 (S.D. Fla. 2006) (Sinaltrainal II). The ATS is

discussed in greater detail below, but briefly, it provides district courts with

original jurisdiction over “any civil action by an alien for a tort only, committed in

violation of the law of nations or a treaty of the United States.” 28 U.S.C. § 1350. 

The TVPA establishes a cause of action for victims of torture and extrajudicial

killing “under actual or apparent authority, or color of law, of any foreign nation.” 

28 U.S.C. § 1350 note § 2(a). We address whether the four complaints sufficiently

allege a violation of the law of nations under the ATS, and torture and

extrajudicial killing under color of law under the TVPA, to survive a motion to

dismiss. For the reasons stated below, we affirm the district court.

3
I. BACKGROUND

Plaintiffs initially filed a single complaint against the Coca-Cola

Defendants, Bebidas y Alimentos de Urabá, S.A., Richard Kirby, Panamco

Colombia, S.A., Panamerican Beverages Company, LLC, and Panamco, LLC

(collectively, Defendants). The complaint alleged the systematic intimidation,

kidnapping, detention, torture, and murder of Colombian trade unionists at the

hands of paramilitary forces, who allegedly worked as agents of the Defendants. 

Defendants jointly moved to dismiss the complaint under Rule 12(b)(1) for lack of

subject matter jurisdiction. Plaintiffs then amended their complaint by filing four

separate complaints, which became the Gil case, the Galvis case, the Leal case,

and the Garcia case. Bottler Bebidas y Alimentos de Urabá and its owner, 4

Richard Kirby (the Bebidas Defendants), were named in the Gil complaint,

whereas bottler Panamco Colombia and its owners, Panamerican Beverages

Company, LLC and Panamco, LLC (the Panamco Defendants), were named in the

three other complaints: Galvis, Leal, and Garcia. None of the Defendants are

alleged to be directly liable for the murder and torture alleged in the complaints;

 The original case number was 01-CIV-3208. The Gil case was assigned this number, 4

while the other complaints were assigned the following case numbers: 02-CIV-20258, 02-CIV20259, and 02-CIV-20260. Because these cases were factually related, they were consolidated

for pretrial purposes and the Gil case was designated as the lead case. See Sinaltrainal II, 474 F.

Supp. 2d at 1276 & n.8.

4
rather, according to the Gil, Galvis, and Leal plaintiffs, the tortious conduct

allegedly committed by paramilitary members is imputed to Defendants through

conspiracy, agency, and aiding and abetting theories. The Garcia plaintiffs allege 5

Defendants are vicariously liable for tortious conduct allegedly committed by the

local police. 

Brought by the estate of Isidro Segundo Gil, among others, the Gil

complaint alleges the Bebidas Defendants and the Coca-Cola Defendants hired,

contracted with, or otherwise directed paramilitary security forces that murdered,

tortured, or silenced leaders of the trade union representing workers at the Bebidas

bottling facility. Isidro Segundo Gil, a local union leader, was allegedly murdered

by paramilitaries inside the Bebidas bottling plant. Plaintiff Luis Adolfo Cardona,

another union leader, allegedly witnessed Gil’s murder and was later detained and

tortured by the paramilitaries. Events in the Gil complaint took place at the

Bebidas bottling facility, while the events in the three other complaints took place

in three separate bottling facilities operated by Panamco Colombia. 

 A claim for state-sponsored torture under either the ATS or the TVPA may be 5

predicated on indirect liability or direct liability. Aldana, 416 F.3d at 1247-48. The ATS permits

conspiracy and accomplice liability, and the TVPA permits aiding and abetting liability. Id.; see

also Romero v. Drummond Co., Inc., 552 F.3d 1303, 1315 (11th Cir. 2008) (“[T]he law of this

Circuit permits a plaintiff to plead a theory of aiding and abetting liability under the Alien Tort

Statute and the Torture Act.”). 

5
The three other complaints name the Panamco Defendants and the CocaCola Defendants. In Galvis, the plaintiffs allege local management of the

Panamco Colombia facility in Barancabermeja where Juan Carlos Galvis worked

conspired with leaders of the local paramilitary to rid the facility of the union. 

Galvis alleges he received a number of death threats from the paramilitaries for his

union activities and while driving in his car, on one occasion, was shot at by a

gunman. In Leal, plaintiffs allege local management of the Panamco Colombia

facility in Cucuta where Jorge Humberto Leal worked conspired with leaders of

the local paramilitaries to rid the bottling facility of the union. Leal alleges he was

kidnapped, tortured, and threatened by the local paramilitaries for his union

activities. In Garcia, unlike Gil, Galvis, and Leal, the plaintiffs allege a

conspiracy between the local police, rather than paramilitary officers, and the

bottling facilities’ management. The Garcia plaintiffs allege the chief of security

for the Bucaramanga facility where plaintiffs worked conspired with local police

officers to unlawfully arrest, detain, and imprison plaintiffs.

Plaintiffs attempt to connect the Coca-Cola Defendants to the local

facilities’ management through a series of agency and alter ego relationships. For

example, in the Gil case, the plaintiffs’ layered theory of agency and alter ego

liability is as follows: the bottling facility, Bebidas, is responsible for the acts of

6
its employees, including conspiring with local paramilitaries to rid the facility of

unions. Bebidas, in turn, is an alter ego or agent of Richard Kirby, Bebidas’

owner and manager, such that Kirby is liable for any wrongful conduct by Bebidas

employees that resulted in the murder of Gil. Bebidas and Kirby, in turn, are the

alter egos or agents of Coca-Cola Colombia because Coca-Cola Colombia is

responsible for manufacturing and distributing Coca-Cola products to Bebidas and

all other bottlers in Colombia. Coca-Cola Colombia, a wholly-owned subsidiary

of Coca-Cola USA, in turn, is an alter ego or agent of Coca-Cola USA because

Coca-Cola Colombia is under the management, control, and direction of CocaCola USA to the extent that its separateness is illusory. 

In Sinaltrainal I, the district court held it did not have subject matter

jurisdiction over the ATS and TVPA claims against the Coca-Cola Defendants. 

See Sinaltrainal I, 256 F. Supp. 2d at 1355, 1357. The court determined a

bottler’s agreement, which gave Coca-Cola USA the right to enforce standards

necessary to protect Coca-Cola’s product in the marketplace, including the use of

the trademark, packaging, and quality control, did not give Coca-Cola USA the

total control over day-to-day activities that Plaintiffs alleged. It concluded the

Coca-Cola Defendants therefore did not have the requisite control to be liable for

7
the actions of Bebidas or its employees. The district court then dismissed the 6

Coca-Cola Defendants for lack of subject matter jurisdiction because the Plaintiffs

failed to sufficiently allege the Coca-Cola Defendants violated the law of nations

by conspiring with the local paramilitary forces to murder Gil and torture Cardona.

Sinaltrainal I, 256 F. Supp. 2d at 1354-55. The district court did not dismiss the

ATS and TVPA claims against the Bebidas Defendants at that time. Id. at 1356, 7

1360. Subsequently, in Sinaltrainal II, the district court examined in detail the

allegations in each of the four complaints and determined each fell short of

pleading the factual allegations necessary to invoke the court’s subject matter

jurisdiction under the ATS and the TVPA. The district court found the allegations

in all four complaints insufficiently pled a conspiracy between the local facilities’

management and the paramilitary officers. Sinaltrainal II, 474 F. Supp. 2d at

1293-1301. 

 The district court discussed the motion to dismiss for lack of subject matter jurisdiction 6

only as it applied to the Gil case, but because the other three cases filed identical motions, it

stated the holdings in the order would apply to all four cases. Sinaltrainal I, 256 F. Supp. 2d at

1347 n.1.

 Because the district court discussed the motion to dismiss only as it related to the Gil 7

case (in which the Panamco Defendants were not named), the Panamco Defendants sought a

clarification of the Sinaltrainal I order as it related to the remaining cases. The district court

granted the Panamco Defendants’ motion for clarification and dismissed the Galvis complaint

without prejudice.

8
II. STANDARD OF REVIEW

A district court’s decision to grant a motion to dismiss for lack of subject

matter jurisdiction pursuant to Rule 12(b)(1) is a question of law we review de

novo. McElmurray v. Consol. Gov’t of Augusta-Richmond County, 501 F.3d

1244, 1250 (11th Cir. 2007). A motion to dismiss under Rule 12(b)(1) may assert

either a factual attack or a facial attack to jurisdiction. See id. at 1251; Lawrence

v. Dunbar, 919 F.2d 1525, 1528-29 (11th Cir. 1990). A factual attack challenges

“the existence of subject matter jurisdiction in fact, irrespective of the pleadings,

and matters outside the pleadings, such as testimony and affidavits, are

considered.” Lawrence, 919 F.2d at 1529. In a facial attack, on the other hand, the

court examines whether the complaint has sufficiently alleged subject matter

jurisdiction. As it does when considering a Rule 12(b)(6) motion to dismiss for

failure to state a claim, the court construes the complaint in the light most

favorable to the plaintiff and accepts all well-pled facts alleged by in the complaint

as true. McElmurray, 501 F.3d at 1251 (noting in a Rule 12(b)(1) facial challenge

a plaintiff has “safeguards similar to those retained when a Rule 12(b)(6) motion

to dismiss for failure to state a claim is raised”). 

Although it must accept well-pled facts as true, the court is not required to

accept a plaintiff’s legal conclusions. Ashcroft v. Iqbal, 556 U.S. ---,129 S. Ct.

9
1937, 1949 (2009) (noting “the tenet that a court must accept as true all of the

allegations contained in a complaint is inapplicable to legal conclusions”). In

evaluating the sufficiency of a plaintiff’s pleadings, we make reasonable

inferences in Plaintiff’s favor, “but we are not required to draw plaintiff’s

inference.” Aldana v. Del Monte Fresh Produce, N.A., Inc., 416 F.3d 1242, 1248

(11th Cir. 2005). Similarly, “unwarranted deductions of fact” in a complaint are

not admitted as true for the purpose of testing the sufficiency of plaintiff’s

allegations. Id.; see also Iqbal, 129 S. Ct. at 1951 (stating conclusory allegations

are “not entitled to be assumed true”).

A complaint may be dismissed if the facts as pled do not state a claim for

relief that is plausible on its face. See Iqbal, 129 S. Ct. at 1950 (explaining “only a

complaint that states a plausible claim for relief survives a motion to dismiss”);

Bell Atl. Corp. v. Twombly, 550 U.S. 544, 561-62, 570, 127 S. Ct. 1955, 1968-69,

1974 (2007) (retiring the prior “unless it appears beyond doubt that the plaintiff

can prove no set of facts” standard). In Twombly, the Supreme Court emphasized

a complaint “requires more than labels and conclusions, and a formulaic recitation

of the elements of a cause of action will not do.” Twombly, 550 U.S. at 555, 127 S.

Ct. at 1965. Factual allegations in a complaint need not be detailed but “must be

enough to raise a right to relief above the speculative level on the assumption that

10
all the allegations in the complaint are true (even if doubtful in fact).” Id. at 555,

127 S. Ct. at 1964-65 (internal citations and emphasis omitted). 

More recently, in Iqbal, the Supreme Court reiterated that although Rule 8

of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure does not require detailed factual

allegations, it does demand “more than an unadorned,

the-defendant-unlawfully-harmed-me accusation.” Iqbal, 129 S. Ct. at 1949. A

complaint must state a plausible claim for relief, and “[a] claim has facial

plausibility when the plaintiff pleads factual content that allows the court to draw

the reasonable inference that the defendant is liable for the misconduct alleged.”

Id. The mere possibility the defendant acted unlawfully is insufficient to survive a

motion to dismiss. Id. The well-pled allegations must nudge the claim “across the

line from conceivable to plausible.” Twombly, 550 U.S. at 570, 127 S. Ct. at 1974. 

III. DISCUSSION

A. Applicable Statutes

1. Alien Tort Statute

The First Congress enacted the ATS as part of the Judiciary Act of 1789. It

has received minor amendments since that time and now provides: “The district

8

 As it appeared in 1789, the ATS provided federal district courts “shall also have 8

cognizance, concurrent with the courts of the several States, or the circuit courts, as the case may

be, of all causes where an alien sues for a tort only in violation of the law of nations or a treaty of

11
courts shall have original jurisdiction of any civil action by an alien for a tort only,

committed in violation of the law of nations or a treaty of the United States.” 28

U.S.C. § 1350. Federal subject matter jurisdiction exists for an ATS claim when

the following three elements are satisfied: (1) an alien (2) sues for a tort

(3) committed in violation of the law of nations. See, e.g., Aldana, 416 F.3d at

1246. 

A violation of the law of nations is broadly understood as a violation of the

norms of customary international law. In discussing the norms of customary

international law, the Supreme Court has noted the limited category of claims that

federal courts could entertain at the time the ATS was enacted were “defined by

the law of nations and recognized at common law.” Sosa v. Alvarez-Machain, 542

U.S. 692, 712, 124 S. Ct. 2739, 2754 (2004). Offenses against the law of nations

principally involved the rights or interests of whole states or nations, and did not

necessarily involve the private interests of individuals seeking relief in court. Id.

at 720, 124 S. Ct. at 2759. As this Court has previously noted, the law of nations

are “[t]he standards by which nations regulate their dealings with one another.”

the United States.” Act of Sept. 24, 1789, ch. 20, § 9, 1 Stat. 77; see also Sosa v.

Alvarez-Machain, 542 U.S. 692, 712-13, 124 S. Ct. 2739, 2755 (2004).

12
Cohen v. Hartman, 634 F.2d 318, 319 (5th Cir. Unit B Jan. 1981) (“[T]he general 9

consensus is that the law [of nations] deals primarily with the relationship among

nations rather than among individuals.” (internal quotation marks omitted));

accord In re Estate of Ferdinand E. Marcos Human Rights Litig., 978 F.2d 493,

501-02 (9th Cir. 1992) (“Only individuals who have acted under official authority

or under color of such authority may violate international law . . . .”). 

At the time of the founding of our nation, the violations of the law of

nations that were recognized at common law were understood to include

(1) violation of safe conducts, (2) offenses against ambassadors, and (3) piracy.

Sosa, 542 U.S. at 720, 124 S. Ct. at 2759; see also 4 W. Blackstone,

Commentaries on the Laws of England 68 (1769). The ATS–which provides

10

“[t]he district courts shall have original jurisdiction”–is unquestionably a

jurisdictional statute, yet it also has the “practical effect” of entertaining common

law causes of action for the “modest number” of violations of the law of nations. 

Sosa, 542 U.S. at 724, 124 S. Ct. at 2761. 

 In Bonner v. City of Prichard, 661 F.2d 1206, 1209 (11th Cir. 1981) (en banc), this 9

Court adopted as binding precedent all decisions of the former Fifth Circuit handed down prior to

close of business on September 30, 1981. 

 Some commentators have suggested the ATS was enacted “to assure aliens access to 10

federal courts to vindicate any incident which, if mishandled by a state court, might blossom into

an international crisis.” Tel-Oren v. Libyan Arab Republic, 726 F.2d 774, 782 (D.C. Cir. 1984)

(Edwards, J., concurring). 

13
The ATS was rarely employed before the 1980s. Indeed, the “modern line

of [ATS] cases” began with Filártiga v. Peña-Irala, 630 F.2d 876 (2d Cir. 1980). 

Sosa, 542 U.S. at 725, 124 S. Ct. at 2761; see also Abebe-Jira v. Negewo, 72 F.3d

844, 846 (11th Cir. 1996) (describing Filártiga as “[t]he leading case interpreting

the Alien Tort Claims Act”). In Filártiga, Dr. Joel Filártiga and his daughter, two

Paraguayan citizens, brought an action for wrongful death against a Paraguayan

police official who allegedly tortured and killed Dr. Filártiga’s seventeen-year old

son. Filártiga, 630 F.2d at 878. The Second Circuit reversed the district court’s

dismissal for lack of subject matter jurisdiction and held the ATS provided federal

jurisdiction for claims involving universally accepted norms of international law. 

Id. The court concluded such universally accepted norms included the right to be

free from torture committed by a state official. Id. at 880. The court, thus,

expanded the ATS beyond the three categories recognized at the founding of the

nation. 

In Sosa, the Supreme Court confirmed the ATS is not only a jurisdictional

statute ; the ATS also empowers federal courts to entertain “a very limited 11

 Federal jurisdiction under the ATS exists only when a defendant’s alleged conduct

11

violates “well-established, universally recognized norms of international law,” Filártiga, 630

F.2d at 888. Allegations of a violation of the law of nations, i.e., an offense of universal concern

or conduct under color of law that may be imputed to defendants, is a jurisdictional requirement

for the ATS. See Bigio v. Coca-Cola Co., 239 F.3d 440, 447 (2d Cir. 2000) (“[I]f the complaint

did not plead a violation of the law of nations by [defendant], the district court was without

14
category” of claims. Sosa, 542 U.S. at 712, 124 S. Ct. at 2754; see also Aldana,

416 F.3d at 1246. Plaintiff Humberto Alvarez-Machain, a Mexican national,

brought an action under the ATS against the United States, alleging his abduction

from Mexico to stand trial in the United States for a Drug Enforcement

Administration agent’s torture and murder violated his civil rights. Sosa, 542 U.S.

at 698-99, 124 S. Ct. at 2746-47. In rejecting his ATS claim, the Supreme Court

held “a single illegal detention of less than a day, followed by the transfer of

custody to lawful authorities and a prompt arraignment, violates no norm of

customary international law so well defined as to support the creation of a federal

remedy.” Id. at 738, 124 S. Ct. at 2769. While not recognizing

Alvarez-Machain’s claim for a violation of the law of nations, the Court did note

the limited category of claims federal court could entertain within the law of

nations sphere had expanded beyond the original understanding of the First

Congress. Indeed, federal courts have not been precluded from recognizing new

claims under the law of nations as an element of the common law, even though the

law of nations was originally limited to violation of safe conducts, offenses against

subject matter jurisdiction under the Alien Tort Claims Act . . . .”); Kadic v. Karadzic, 70 F.3d

232, 238 (2d Cir. 1995) (“[T]he Alien Tort Act requires that plaintiffs plead a ‘violation of the

law of nations’ at the jurisdictional threshold . . . .” (quoting 28 U.S.C. § 1350)); Filártiga, 630

F.2d at 887 (noting the ATS requires alleging a violation of the law of nations at the

jurisdictional threshold). 

15
ambassadors, and piracy. Id. at 724-25, 124 S. Ct. at 2761. The Supreme Court

cautioned, however, the judicial power to recognize new law of nations violations

“should be exercised on the understanding that the door is still ajar subject to

vigilant doorkeeping.” Id. at 729, 124 S. Ct. at 2764 (emphasis added). 

The modern line of ATS cases initially involved state actors violating the

law of nations, but subsequent cases have expanded the scope of the ATS to

impose liability on private individuals and corporations. In 1995, the Second

Circuit held Radovan Karadzic, self-proclaimed leader of an unrecognized

Bosnian-Serb entity, could be liable for a violation of the law of nations for

ordering a campaign of murder, rape, forced impregnation, and other forms of

torture designed to destroy religious and ethnic groups of Bosnian Muslims and

Bosnian Croats. Kadic v. Karadzic, 70 F.3d 232, 242 (2d Cir. 1995). Karadzic

argued he was not a state actor because he was not an official of any recognized

government. The Second Circuit rejected Karadzic’s contention and held acts

such as genocide and war crimes “violate the law of nations whether undertaken

by those acting under the auspices of a state or only as private individuals.” Id. at

239; see also id. at 244. Indeed, torture and summary execution perpetrated in the

course of genocide or war crimes have been found actionable absent state action. 

See id. at 243 (“[T]orture and summary execution–when not perpetrated in the

16
course of genocide or war crimes–are proscribed by international law only when

committed by state officials or under color of law.”).

This Court has also acknowledged private individuals may be liable for a

violation of the law of nations. See Romero v. Drummond Co., Inc., 552 F.3d

1303, 1316 (11th Cir. 2008) (“Under the Alien Tort Statute, state actors are the

main objects of the law of nations, but individuals may be liable, under the law of

nations, for some conduct, such as war crimes, regardless of whether they acted

under color of law of a foreign nation.”). In addition to private individual liability,

we have also recognized corporate defendants are subject to liability under the

ATS and may be liable for violations of the law of nations. See id. at 1315 (“[T]he

law of this Circuit is that [ATS] grants jurisdiction from complaints of torture

against corporate defendants.”); Aldana, 416 F.3d at 1242. In Romero, the

Colombian subsidiary of an Alabama coal mining company was alleged to have

paid paramilitary operatives to torture and assassinate leaders of a Colombian

trade union representing workers at the Colombian mine. Romero, 552 F.3d at

1309. We rejected defendants’ argument that corporate defendants were excluded

from either the ATS or the TVPA. Id. at 1315.

17
2. Torture Victim Protection Act

Enacted in 1992, the TVPA provides a cause of action for official torture

and extrajudicial killing. The TVPA is broader than the ATS in that the TVPA 12

allows citizens, as well as aliens, to seek remedy in federal court for official

torture. S. Rep. No. 102-249, at 5 (1991) (“[W]hile the [ATS] provides a remedy

to aliens only, the TVPA . . . extend[s] a civil remedy also to U.S. citizens who

may have been tortured abroad.”); see also Flores v. S. Peru Copper Corp., 414

F.3d 233, 246-47 (2d Cir. 2003). By its terms, the TVPA attaches liability to those

individuals who have committed torture or extrajudicial killing “under actual or

13

 In pertinent part, the TVPA provides: 12

An individual who, under actual or apparent authority, or color of law, of any

foreign nation- 

(1) subjects an individual to torture shall, in a civil action, be liable for

damages to that individual; or 

(2) subjects an individual to extrajudicial killing shall, in a civil action,

be liable for damages to the individual’s legal representative, or to any

person who may be a claimant in an action for wrongful death.

Torture Victim Protection Act of 1991 § 2(a), Pub. L. No. 102-256, 106 Stat. 73 (enacted

March 12, 1992) (codified at 28 U.S.C. § 1350 (Historical and Statutory Notes)). The TVPA

defines torture as any act (1) “directed against an individual in the offender’s custody or

physical control[;]” (2) that inflicts “severe pain or suffering[,] . . . whether physical or

mental[;]” (3) for the purpose of obtaining information, intimidation, punishment or

discrimination. 28 U.S.C. § 1350 note § 3(b)(1). Extrajudicial killing is defined as “a

deliberated killing not authorized by a previous judgment pronounced by a regularly

constituted court affording all the judicial guarantees which are recognized as indispensable

by civilized peoples.” 28 U.S.C. § 1350 note § 3(a). 

 This Court has determined “an individual” to whom liability may attach under the 13

TVPA also includes a corporate defendant. See Romero, 552 F.3d at 1315 (“Under the law of

this Circuit, the Torture Act allows suits against corporate defendants.”). 

18
apparent authority, or color of law, of any foreign nation.” To evaluate “actual or

apparent authority” and “color of law,” this Court has relied on general principles

of agency law and 42 U.S.C. § 1983 jurisprudence. Aldana, 416 F.3d at 1247;

accord Kadic, 70 F.3d at 245. To pursue a claim for official torture or

extrajudicial killing under the TVPA, the requisite subject matter jurisdiction may

be conferred either by the ATS or 28 U.S.C. § 1331. See Romero, 552 F.3d at

1315 (“Federal courts are empowered to entertain complaints under the Torture

Act when either the Alien Tort Statute or the federal question statute, 28 U.S.C.

§ 1331, provides jurisdiction.”). 

This Court, in Aldana and Romero, squarely considered the state action

requirement of the TVPA. In Aldana, the plaintiffs alleged Fresh Del Monte

Produce, Inc., and its Guatemalan subsidiary hired or established an agency

relationship with a private, paramilitary security force to eradicate the local union. 

Aldana, 416 F.3d at 1245. We concluded the state action requirement was

satisfied because one public official, a district mayor, was identified by name in

the complaint and was alleged to have actively participated in the paramilitary

force’s armed aggression. Id. at 1249 (concluding the complaint could

“reasonably be read as depicting the Mayor as an ‘armed aggressor,’ not a mere

observer”). On the other hand, in Romero, we determined the state action

19
requirement was not satisfied because the plaintiffs failed to allege the

paramilitaries enjoyed a “symbiotic relationship” with the state military for the

purpose of the alleged assassinations that formed the basis of the complaint. 

Romero, 552 F.3d at 1303. We concluded “there must be proof of a symbiotic

relationship between a private actor and the government that involves the torture

or killing alleged in the complaint to satisfy the requirement of state action.” Id. at

1317; accord Rayburn ex rel. Rayburn v. Hogue, 241 F.3d 1341, 1348 (11th Cir.

2001) (“[T]he symbiotic relationship must involve the specific conduct of which

the plaintiff complains.” (internal quotation marks omitted)). 

B. Plaintiffs’ Allegations of Murder and Torture

Plaintiffs contend Colombia has experienced pervasive civil unrest

stemming from a longstanding civil war involving armed leftist groups on one side

and the Colombian military, as well as right-wing paramilitaries, on the other.

Since 1986, when the largest trade union confederation in Colombia was formed,

over 4,000 trade unionists have been murdered. Plaintiffs describe the violent

persecution of trade unionists in Colombia as reaching “epidemic proportions” for

many years. Plaintiffs also contend they do not have access to an independent or

functioning legal system in Colombia, because they suggest the country is not

governed by the rule of law. It is against this backdrop that Plaintiffs’ claims

20
arise. Plaintiffs do not allege any defendant caused or precipitated the violence;

rather, Defendants are accused of capitalizing on the hostile environment and

conspiring with paramilitaries, or the local police in the case of Garcia, to rid their

respective bottling facilities of unions. 

Plaintiffs each brought claims under the ATS and TVPA. Again, federal 14

subject matter jurisdiction exists for an ATS claim when the following three

elements are satisfied: (1) an alien (2) sues for a tort (3) committed in violation of

the law of nations. Aldana, 416 F.3d at 1246. In this case, as in most ATS cases,

the only issue is whether Plaintiffs have satisfactorily pled a violation of the law of

nations. See Kadic, 70 F.3d at 238 (“There is no federal subject-matter

jurisdiction under the Alien Tort Act unless the complaint adequately pleads a

violation of the law of nations (or treaty of the United States).”). A TVPA claim

requires the following three elements: (1) an individual (2) committed torture or

extrajudicial killing (3) under actual or apparent authority, or color of law, of any

foreign nation. 28 U.S.C. § 1350 note § 2(a). Failure to plead any of the elements

of a TVPA claim results in a failure to state a claim upon which relief can be

granted, Romero, 552 F.3d at 1315 (“[D]efects in pleading claims under the

 We need not, and specifically do not, decide whether a heightened pleading standard 14

may be used in evaluating the elements of an ATS or TVPA claim. 

21
Torture Act are not jurisdictional defects[, rather t]hese pleading issues involve

stating claims on which relief can be granted and should be raised in motions filed

under Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 12(b)(6).”), not a lack of subject matter

jurisdiction. 

ATS claims generally require allegations of state action because the law of

nations are the rules of conduct that govern the affairs of a nation, acting in its

national capacity, in relations with another nation, Cohen, 634 F.2d at 319,

whereas TVPA claims, by statutory definition, always require allegations of

“actual or apparent authority, or color of law.” Compare ATS, 28 U.S.C. § 1350,

with TVPA, 28 U.S.C. § 1350 note § 2(a); see also Aldana, 416 F.3d at 1247

(“State-sponsored torture, unlike torture by private actors, likely violates

international law and is therefore actionable under the Alien Tort Act.”). 

15

1. Plaintiffs’ claims brought under the ATS

For subject matter jurisdiction to entertain Plaintiffs’ ATS claims, the

complaints must sufficiently plead (1) the paramilitaries were state actors or were

sufficiently connected to the Colombian government so they were acting under

 The ATS and TPVA provide independent actions and neither provides the exclusive 15

remedy for claims of torture, as “a plaintiff may bring distinct claims for torture under each

statute.” Aldana, 416 F.3d at 1250; see also Romero, 552 F.3d at 1316 (“The same is true for

extrajudicial killing, which is actionable under the Alien Tort Statute if it is ‘committed in

violation of the law of nations,’ 28 U.S.C. § 1350, and under the Torture Act as that Act

expressly defines it, [28 U.S.C. § 1350] note § 3(a).”).

22
color of law (or that the war crimes exception to the state action requirement

applies) and (2) the Defendants, or their agents, conspired with the state actors, 16

or those acting under color of law, in carrying out the tortious acts. A failure to

allege either of these two relationships is fatal to Plaintiffs’ ATS claims.

a. Allegations of state action

In Gil, Galvis, and Leal, paramilitary officers are alleged to have perpetrated

murder and torture, which form the basis of their ATS claims. These plaintiffs

allege the paramilitary are “permitted to exist” and are “assisted” by the

Colombian government. Additionally, the plaintiffs allege “[i]t is universally

acknowledged that the regular military and the civil government authorities in

Colombia tolerate the paramilitaries, allow them to operate, and often cooperate,

protect and/or work in concert with them.” These plaintiffs also contend the

paramilitaries are state actors who had a symbiotic relationship with the

Colombian military and thus operated under color of law. 

The plaintiffs’ conclusory allegation that the paramilitary security forces

acted under color of law is not entitled to be assumed true and is insufficient to

allege state-sponsored action. See Iqbal, 129 S. Ct. at 1951. Colombia’s mere

 In Garcia, which we discuss below, the alleged perpetrators of the torture were the 16

local police. The parties do not dispute that the local police were state actors. 

23
“registration and toleration of private security forces does not transform those

forces’ acts into state acts.” Aldana, 416 F.3d at 1248. Allegations the Colombian

government tolerated and permitted the paramilitary forces to exist are insufficient

to plead the paramilitary forces were state actors. The plaintiffs make the naked

allegation the paramilitaries were in a symbiotic relationship with the Colombian

government and thus were state actors. Nevertheless, in testing the sufficiency of

the plaintiff’s allegations, we do not credit such conclusory allegations as true.

See Iqbal, 129 S. Ct. at 1951. We demand allegations of a symbiotic relationship

that “involves the torture or killing alleged in the complaint to satisfy the

requirement of state action.” Romero, 552 F.3d at 1317. There is no suggestion

the Colombian government was involved in, much less aware of, the murder and

torture alleged in the complaints. The plaintiffs’ “formulaic recitation,” Twombly,

550 U.S. at 555, 127 S. Ct. at 1965, that the paramilitary forces were in a

symbiotic relationship and were assisted by the Colombian government, absent

any factual allegations to support this legal conclusion, is insufficient to state an

allegation of state action that is plausible on its face. See Iqbal, 129 S. Ct. at

1950.

17

 The Leal complaint notes Carlos Castano, the founder and leader of the AUC, 17

Colombia’s largest paramilitary group, “lives in hiding and he goes to great pains to keep his

whereabouts secret, even from the government.” It is unclear the extent to which the AUC act

24
Our inquiry does not stop here, however, because, under the ATS, the

plaintiffs need not plead state action for claims of torture and murder perpetrated

in the course of war crimes. See Kadic, 70 F.3d at 242-43 (holding war crimes

“committed in the course of hostilities” violated fundamental international law and

thus were actionable under the ATS). Some acts, such as torture and murder

18

committed in the course of war crimes, violate the law of nations regardless of

whether the perpetrator acted under color of law of a foreign nation or only as a

private individual. Romero, 552 F.3d at 1316; Kadic, 70 F.3d at 239, 243

(“[T]orture and summary execution–when not perpetrated in the course of

genocide or war crimes–are proscribed by international law only when committed

by state officials or under color of law.”). The war crimes exception dispenses

with the state action requirement for claims under the ATS. 

Having failed to connect the paramilitaries with the Colombian government,

the plaintiffs advance a second theory and argue the alleged murder and torture

occurred during the course of an armed civil conflict, thereby constituting war

crimes that negate the need for state action. The plaintiffs suggest the war crimes

under color of law when its founder and leader “goes to great pains” to keep his location

concealed from the Colombian government. 

 On the other hand, torture and murder perpetrated by private actors is actionable under 18

the TVPA only if committed under actual or apparent authority, or color of law. 28 U.S.C. §

1350 note § 2(a). We discuss the TVPA claims in the following section. 

25
exception should apply to plaintiffs’ murder and torture because, as noncombatants in a civil war, they were targeted for violence to further Defendants’

business interests in becoming union-free, and the use of open violence to

accomplish this end occurred as a result of a raging civil war.

We conclude the war crimes exception to the state action requirement is not

applicable to the plaintiffs because the alleged murder and torture was not

committed in the course of a civil war. We reject the plaintiffs’ argument that it is

sufficient for the purposes of ATS jurisdiction that the violation perpetrated by a

non-state actor merely occur during an armed civil conflict. If the war crimes

exception to the state action requirement permitted all non-state torture claims

occurring during a period of civil disorder, federal courts would be open to

lawsuits occurring during any period of civil unrest in a foreign country. The

Supreme Court’s reminder to exercise “vigilant doorkeeping” persuades us the war

crimes exception applies only to claims of non-state torture that were perpetrated

in the course of hostilities. See Sosa, 542 U.S. at 729, 124 S. Ct. at 2764; Kadic,

70 F.3d at 242-43. In this case there is no suggestion the plaintiffs’ murder and

torture was perpetrated because of the ongoing civil war or in the course of civil

war clashes. The civil war provided the background for the unfortunate events

26
that unfolded, but the civil war did not precipitate the violence that befell the

plaintiffs. 

In sum, the war crimes exception is not applicable to the plaintiffs; thus they

must sufficiently allege state action. And as discussed above, the plaintiffs have

not sufficiently pled state action. Accordingly, we conclude the district court did

not err in dismissing the ATS claims in the Gil, Galvis, and Leal complaints for

lack of federal subject matter jurisdiction. 

b. Allegations of conspiracy

In Garcia, the complaint alleges a conspiracy between the local police,

rather than paramilitary officers, and the bottling facility’s management. Plaintiffs

Luis Eduardo Garcia, Alvaro Gonzalez, and José Domingo Flores are three

members of the local union executive board. In 1995, plaintiffs participated in a

120-hour strike against the Panamco Colombia bottling facility in Bucaramanga,

after Panamco reneged on its obligations under a labor agreement with the union. 

Shortly after the strike, the plaintiffs allege the chief of security for the

Bucaramanga facility, José Alejo Aponte, falsely told the local police he found a

bomb in the facility, and he accused five members of the local union executive

board, including Garcia, Gonzalez, and Flores, of planting the bomb. On March 6,

1996, the police arrested the three men. While in transit to the jail, Flores was

27
repeatedly and brutally beaten by police and was threatened at gun point. As a

result of the false charges filed by Aponte, the plaintiffs were incarcerated in a

filthy and dangerous Colombian prison for six months. They were released after a

regional prosecutor found the charges “to be completely without basis.” The

plaintiffs allege “Aponte’s plan necessarily required the cooperation and

complicity of the arresting police officers, since the officers had to be willing to

arrest and imprison the union leaders without any evidence of the non-existent

bomb.” Therefore, “[b]ased on information and belief,” the plaintiffs allege

Aponte conspired with the arresting police officers to unlawfully arrest, detain,

and imprison the plaintiffs. 

We reiterate that to state a plausible claim for relief, the plaintiffs must

plead “factual content that allows the court to draw the reasonable inference that

the defendant is liable for the misconduct alleged.” Iqbal, 129 S. Ct. at 1949. 

Rule 8(a)(2) requires “a short and plain statement of the claim showing that the

pleader is entitled to relief,” in order to “give the defendant fair notice of what the

. . . claim is and the grounds upon which it rests.” Twombly, 550 U.S. at 555, 127

S. Ct. at 1964. At the same time, however, the complaint must plead “more than

an unadorned, the-defendant-unlawfully-harmed-me.” Iqbal, 129 S. Ct. at 1949. 

Furthermore, unwarranted deductions of fact in a complaint are not admitted as

28
true for the purpose of testing the sufficiency of the allegations. Aldana, 416 F.3d

at 1248, and the facts as pled must state a claim for relief that is plausible on its

face, see Iqbal, 129 S. Ct. at 1950. 

Here, the Garcia plaintiffs’ attenuated chain of conspiracy fails to nudge

their claims across the line from conceivable to plausible. Twombly, 550 U.S. at

570, 127 S. Ct. at 1974. First, while the plaintiffs allege “Aponte’s plan

necessarily required the cooperation and complicity of the arresting police

officers,” we are not required to admit as true this unwarranted deduction of fact. 

Second, the plaintiffs’ allegations of conspiracy are “based on information and

belief,” and fail to provide any factual content that allows us “to draw the

reasonable inference that the defendant is liable for the misconduct alleged.”

Iqbal, 129 S. Ct. at 1949. Specifically, these plaintiffs allege “[t]he basis for the

conspiracy was either that Aponte arranged to provide payment to the officers for

their participation, or that the officers had a shared purpose with Aponte to

unlawfully arrest and detain Plaintiffs because they were union officials and had

been branded by Panamco officials as leftist guerillas.” The premise for the

conspiracy is alleged to be either payment of money or a shared ideology. The

vague and conclusory nature of these allegations is insufficient to state a claim for

relief, and “will not do.” Twombly, 550 U.S. at 555, 127 S. Ct. at 1965. 

29
Furthermore, the complaint fails to allege when or with whom Aponte

entered into a conspiracy to arrest, detain, and harm the plaintiffs. The scope of

the conspiracy and its participants are undefined. There are no allegations the

treatment the plaintiffs received at the hands of the local police and in prison was

within the scope of the conspiracy. Additionally, assuming Aponte even

conspired with the local police to arrest the plaintiffs, this action alone is

insufficient to form the basis of an ATS claim, see Sosa, 542 U.S. at 738, 124 S.

Ct. at 2769 (holding “a single illegal detention of less than a day, followed by the

transfer of custody to lawful authorities and a prompt arraignment, violates no

norm of customary international law so well defined as to support the creation of a

federal remedy”), and there is no allegation the subsequent six-month

imprisonment and mistreatment was part of the conspiracy. The Garcia plaintiffs,

thus, fail to state a plausible claim for relief against the Panamco Defendants for a

violation of the law of nations. See 28 U.S.C. § 1350. We conclude the district

court did not err in dismissing the ATS claims in the Garcia complaint for lack of

subject matter jurisdiction. 

2. Plaintiffs’ claims brought under the TVPA

Plaintiffs allege the same operative facts that gave rise to ATS violations

also gave rise to TVPA violations. It is not uncommon for plaintiffs to assert ATS

30
and TVPA claims together. See, e.g., Romero, 552 F.3d at 1309 (asserting ATS

and TVPA claims based on the same operative facts); Aldana, 416 F.3d 1246

(same); Khulumani v. Barclay Nat. Bank Ltd., 504 F.3d 254 (2d Cir. 2007) (same);

Beanal v. Freeport-McMoran, Inc., 197 F.3d 161 (5th Cir. 1999) (same). The

district court determined there was no subject matter jurisdiction for the ATS

claims, and because ATS jurisdiction was lacking, the court concluded the TVPA

claims also failed for want of subject matter jurisdiction. Sinaltrainal II, 474 F.

Supp. 2d at 1301 (“Claims for torture may be entertained [under the TVPA] only if

they fall within the jurisdiction conferred by the AT[S].”). We conclude the

district court erred in dismissing the TVPA claims for want of subject matter

jurisdiction because jurisdiction over the TVPA claims is conferred by 28 U.S.C.

§ 1331 in this case. See Romero, 552 F.3d at 1315. Therefore our inquiry is not

whether subject matter jurisdiction is lacking, but whether the TVPA claims state a

claim for relief. In other words, relief from a complaint that fails to sufficiently

19

 Defendants moved to dismiss Plaintiffs’ claims for lack of subject matter jurisdiction; 19

however, the TVPA claims are properly addressed under a motion to dismiss for failure to state a

claim for relief. The failure to state a claim for relief presents a purely legal question.

Chudasama v. Mazda Motor Corp., 123 F.3d 1353, 1367 (11th Cir. 1997) (“Facial challenges to

the legal sufficiency of a claim or defense, such as a motion to dismiss based on failure to state a

claim for relief, . . . always present[] a purely legal question; there are no issues of fact because

the allegations contained in the pleading are presumed to be true.” (footnote omitted)). We have

discretion to address pure questions of law on appeal, even if such questions are not resolved by

the district court. See Flint Elec. Membership Corp. v. Whitworth, 68 F.3d 1309, 1314 n.7 (11th

Cir. 1995) (“Although the effect of [a recent Eleventh Circuit case] was not resolved in the

31
plead the elements of a TVPA claim should be raised in a motion filed under Rule

12(b)(6), rather than 12(b)(1). See Steel Co. v. Citizens for a Better Env’t, 523

U.S. 83, 96, 118 S. Ct. 1003, 1013 (1998) (explaining “the nonexistence of a cause

of action was no proper basis for a jurisdictional dismissal”); see also Williamson

v. Tucker, 645 F.2d 404, 415 (5th Cir. May 20, 1981) (“Judicial economy is best

promoted when the existence of a federal right is directly reached and, where no

claim is found to exist, the case is dismissed on the merits.”). 

To survive a motion to dismiss for failure to state a claim upon which relief

can be granted on the TVPA claims, Plaintiffs must sufficiently allege (1) the

paramilitaries were state actors or were sufficiently connected to the Colombian

government so they were acting under color of law and (2) the Defendants, or their

agents, conspired with the state actors, or those acting under color of law, in

carrying out the state-sponsored torture. See 28 U.S.C. § 1350 note § 2(a).

district court, we have the authority to address this pure question of law on appeal.”); see also

Singleton v. Wulff, 428 U.S. 106, 121, 96 S. Ct. 2868, 2877 (1976) (“The matter of what

questions may be taken up and resolved for the first time on appeal is one left primarily to the

discretion of the courts of appeals, to be exercised on the facts of individual cases.”); Access

Now, Inc. v. Southwest Airlines Co., 385 F.3d 1324, 1332 (11th Cir. 2004) (outlining five general

circumstances under which issues may be raised for the first time on appeal). 

32
Plaintiffs failed to do so. As discussed above, the Gil, Galvis, and Leal plaintiffs

fail to sufficiently plead the paramilitary forces were acting under color of law. 

Mere toleration of the paramilitary forces does not transform such forces’ acts into

state acts, Aldana, 416 F.3d at 1248; moreover there are no allegations the

Colombian government was aware of, much less complicit in, the murder and

torture Plaintiffs allege in their complaints. Additionally, the Garcia plaintiffs fail

to sufficiently allege the Panamco Defendants, or their agents, conspired with the

local police in carrying out the alleged torture. The Garcia plaintiffs’ vague and

conclusory allegations of a conspiracy do not state a claim for relief that is

plausible on its face, see Iqbal, 129 S. Ct. at 1950, and they fail to detail any

factual allegations “to raise a right to relief above the speculative level,” Twombly,

550 U.S. at 555, 127 S. Ct. at 1965. We, therefore, vacate the district court’s

dismissal of the TVPA claims for want of jurisdiction and instruct the court to

dismiss the TVPA claims for failure to state a claim upon which relief can be

granted.

 IV. CONCLUSION

Plaintiffs’ complaints outline a litany of unfortunate events occurring in a

country that Plaintiffs describe as experiencing ongoing civil unrest and lacking a

robust legal system. Nevertheless, as explained above, the Gil, Galvis, and Leal

33
plaintiffs fail to sufficiently plead factual allegations to connect the paramilitary

forces, who perpetrated the wrongful acts, with the Colombian government. 

Furthermore, the Garcia plaintiffs fail to sufficiently plead factual allegations to

connect the Panamco Defendants to actionable torture. We affirm the dismissal of

the ATS claims for lack of subject matter jurisdiction. We vacate the dismissal of

the TVPA claims for want of jurisdiction and instruct the district court to enter a

dismissal for failure to state a claim upon which relief can be granted.

AFFIRMED IN PART, VACATED AND REMANDED IN PART.

34