fall 2005 | early developments 

Interventions

FPG

Child

Development

Institute

The University of North Carolina

at Chapel Hill

earlydevelopments Fall 2005 | Vol. 9, No. 2
 early developments | fall 2005 

news

Clifford Testifies 

on Capitol Hill

This past spring Dr. Dick 

Clifford, senior scientist 

at FPG, appeared before 

the U. S. House of Representatives 

at a hearing on Early Childhood 

Education: Improvement Through 

Integration. The hearing addressed 

the challenges of integrating Head 

Start with other programs that 

prepare disadvantaged children for 

the future.

FPG ... Advancing Knowledge, Enhancing Lives

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FPG Staffer 

Elected to 

National Board

Betsy Ayankoya, a technical assistance 

specialist at FPG’s National Early Childhood 

Technical Assistance Center (NECTAC), recently 

was elected to a four-year term as governor on the 

executive board of the Division for Early Childhood 

(DEC). The board governs the organization’s policies 

and procedures. DEC is a subdivision of the Council for 

Exceptional Children. 

Award Goes to Early Developments

Early Developments (Vol. 8, No. 3), which focused on Program 

Evaluation, recently received an Award of Excellence at the 45th Annual 

Best in Print competition sponsored by the Printing Industries of Virginia. 

The award recognizes graphic arts and print quality. 

On the 

Cover...

Dr. Terry 

McCandies, 

FPG investigator, 

and a friend 

work on a 

LiteracyGames 

activity, one of 

the resources 

developed for 

the Partners for 

Literacy Project. 

See the article 

on page 14.
fall 2005 | early developments 

Building Bridges shows teachers, children and families how literacy resolves conflict and other social-emotional issues

ISSN 1536-4739

Editors

Pam Winton, Virginia Buysse, 

Catherine Hamrick

Writer

John Manual

Designer

Gina Harrison

Photographers

Don Trull

John Cotter

Assistant Editor

Jay Hargrove

www.fpg.unc.edu

Early Developments is published three 

times a year by the FPG Child Development Institute at The University of 

North Carolina at Chapel Hill. FPG is 

one of the nation’s oldest multidisciplinary centers devoted to the study 

of children and families. Our mission is 

to cultivate and share knowledge that 

enhances child development and family well being.

To subscribe or

to change your address

contact Jay Hargrove

CB #8185, UNC-CH

Chapel Hill, NC 27599-8185

919.966.0888

hargrove@mail.fpg.unc.edu

To order additional copies

contact FPG Publications Office

919.966.4221

FPGPublications@unc.edu

Periodicals postage paid at 

Chapel Hill, NC

Total design, production, and printing costs 

of this issue of Early Developments

were $12,376; 9,000 copies of this 

document were printed at a cost of 

$9289.74 or 46¢ each.

About This Issue

Dick Clifford, UNC senior scientist, notes the 

history of intervention programs and their 

present-day reality.

4

Back to School at 

High Speed

Distance learning for teachers—plus sessions 

with consultants in their own classrooms—is an 

approach being developed by Project IMPACT.

6

Cool Off Preschool 

Aggression

Building Bridges shows teachers, children, and 

families how literacy resolves conflict and other 

social-emotional issues.

11

Partners for Literacy

Teachers and parents play games for a serious 

reason—children’s language and literacy.

14

contents

Nuestros Niños Early 

Language and Literacy 

Project

FPG develops and tests an intervention to 

improve teaching of Latino children.

17

Collaborative 

Consultation as a Key to 

Child Care Quality

A national study exports the PFI consultation 

model, taking its approach to a national level.

18

New FPG Products

The most recent additions to over 350 products 

in the catalog

21

Recent Publications

Journal articles, book chapters, and books by 

FPG investigators and scientists

22

|ed|

early developments

Fall 2005 | Vol. 9, No. 2 
 early developments | fall 2005 

About This Issue

Intervention Studies 

Then and Now

by Dick Clifford

Dick Clifford is a 

senior scientist 

at FPG.

 early developments | fall 2005 

... each 

FPG study 

involves a 

comparison

of two or more 

practices.... 

E

arly childhood intervention programs, schools, 

mental health agencies, and other human service 

programs are finding themselves under the microscope 

these days. Lots of different names have been used to justify 

this scrutiny—accountability, performance-based planning, 

results orientation, evidence-based practices—but the 

bottom line is the same. Policy makers are insisting on 

evidence showing whether public investment in programs 

for children has achieved its desired results. No longer 

will it be sufficient to show that programs are meeting 

established standards for practice or that families are 

satisfied with services. Data are needed to show that 

services are effective.

fpg has a long history of research on the efficacy 

of intervention programs. Almost everyone in early 

childhood education knows about the Abecedarian 

Study (1972–present). In the early 1970s, children 

from low-income families in the Chapel Hill, North 

Carolina, area participated in a comprehensive centerbased intervention program, beginning at birth and 

continuing until school entry. fpg investigators are 

now completing the age 30 follow-up of these former 

participants. The data are not fully analyzed yet, but 

it is likely that the results will be consistent with 

those from earlier assessments showing that 

the intervention has had a significant and 

long-lasting impact on the children who 

participated.

Some years after the Abecedarian project, fpg

investigators played a major role in another important intervention 

study—the Infant Health and Development Program (ihdp). Funded by the Robert 

Wood Johnson Foundation, this study (1985–1994) established the efficacy of 

early intervention for low birthweight and premature children.
fall 2005 | early developments 

and the 

important 

question is 

whether one 

approach is 

more effective 

than another.

These and other studies laid an important foundation for early 

childhood programs, showing that doing something was better than 

doing nothing. Now, we have a new challenge—showing that doing a is 

better than doing b. Michael Guralnick at the University of Washington 

refers to this kind of question as “second-generation research.”

This issue of Early Developments describes several important 

studies at fpg, each sharing a key set of characteristics. First, 

they examine practices that address key issues in early childhood 

education today: aggression in preschool classrooms; family 

literacy programs; inservice education and professional 

development for teachers; and consultation to early childhood 

programs. Each of these represents a large set of challenges 

faced by teachers and administrators that must be addressed 

in some way.

Second, each fpg study involves a comparison of two or 

more practices. Unlike the early studies, which essentially 

were “treatment-no treatment studies,” these projects all 

assume that some form of treatment will be provided, and 

the important question is whether one approach is more 

effective than another.

Finally, each study is rigorous, randomly assigning 

participants to different conditions, carefully 

controlling the treatments provided each group, and 

using the best and most comprehensive measures 

available to provide objective determination of the 

effectiveness of different practices.

Some folks are not happy with the increased 

focus on accountability, worrying that programs 

might lose funding or be changed in some 

fundamental way. Although some concern 

may be warranted, in reality, I think we all 

share the same goal—providing services for 

children and families that are both acceptable 

and effective. At fpg we believe we have a 

responsibility to conduct research to help ensure 

that this goal becomes a reality. |ed|
 early developments | fall 2005 

Back to 

School

at High 

Speed

Early childhood teachers discover the human touch in distance learning

L

earning never seemed so close yet 

so far away to 59 early childhood 

teachers in 16 North Carolina 

communities. They are participating in 

Project impact (Improving & Maximizing 

Professional Development Access & 

Consultation for Teachers). This two-part 

model integrates distance-learning courses 

available through the community colleges 

with weekly on-site consultations.

Developed by fpg in partnership 

with the North Carolina Division of 

Child Development, the North Carolina 

Community College System, and Prevent 

Child Abuse North Carolina, impact

is funded under a grant from the u.s.

Department of Education, Institute for 

Education Sciences.
fall 2005 | early developments 

IMPACT Meets a Critical Need

At least 70% of early childhood 

teachers in North Carolina do not have 

any kind of college degree. Receiving 

further education, whether from a 

community college or four-year college 

or university, is logistically difficult 

because they work most of the day and 

often care for their own children in the 

evening. Teachers in rural areas may 

face the disadvantage of being miles 

from college campuses. As a result, 

many young children in North Carolina 

are being educated by teachers who 

have only a high school degree. 

Experts nationwide have reached a 

consensus that higher education for 

early childhood teachers benefits them 

and the children they serve. North 

Carolina recognizes this through a number of initiatives 

and programs. For example, More at Four (Governor Mike 

Easley’s early childhood program for at-risk 4-year-olds) 

requires teachers with ba degrees. The state also rewards 

those who continue learning. Under the Division of Child 

Care Services’ star rating system, child care centers receive 

a higher rating and a higher state subsidy if their teachers 

have more education.

Teacher Education and Compensation Helps (t.e.a.c.h.) 

Early Childhood Project, a state-sponsored program 

promoting professional development for teachers, links 

pursuit of education with job 

retention. It provides financial support 

for teachers to return to school 

and the incentive of a small salary 

increase. Participants must commit 

to staying in their job for a year to 

qualify for this incentive. The program 

has reduced turnover among teachers 

and increased the number holding 

degrees. 

Despite these efforts, a growing 

student population—many located in 

rural communities—is unable to take 

traditional courses. As a distancelearning alternative, impact allows 

students to take courses at home and 

on their own time.

Why IMPACT Delivers Quality 

North Carolina’s community colleges are eager to improve 

their existing courses in early childhood and, in particular, 

to increase their ability to meet the enormous demand for 

early childhood education. 

“impact has been a lifesaver for us,” says Kristi Snuggs, 

education consultant for the North Carolina Community 

College System. “We had 15,000 students enrolled in early 

childhood courses this year, and there is a potential for 

15,000 more. Distance learning is the only way we can 

hope to meet this demand.

 “We already have a virtual learning community [a 

central resource for online courses], but what impact

brings us is the quality component of online teaching,” 

Snuggs adds. “impact states what quality learning should 

look like and establishes best practices for engaging 

students through distance learning.”

In developing the impact curriculum, fpg, community 

college and university faculty, and state-level partners 

tapped into many sources. This includes the latest research 

on effective classroom practices in early literacy as well as 

social-emotional development and early childhood teacher 

competencies and standards. (North Carolina recently 

published Foundations, a set of early learning expectations 

for preschool children that helped guide the course 

content). 

Sixteen weekly course modules for two 3-hour creditbearing community college courses—Early Literacy and 

Child Guidance—are available online. Each module 

lists the course competencies that lead to specific 

childhood outcomes along with discussion questions 

At least 

70% of early 

childhood 

teachers in 

North Carolina 

do not have 

any kind of 

college degree.
 early developments | fall 2005 

and assignments. Students proceed 

at their own pace (“learning in 

your bunny slippers”) and engage 

in a discussion board with fellow 

students and teachers. The community 

college faculty working with impact

instruct the course virtually, facilitate 

student learning, and provide grade 

assignments and feedback.

Consultants Make a 

Real-Life Difference

fpg’s evaluation of the model, 

coordinated by Dr. Virginia Buysse, 

focuses on comparing the effectiveness 

of receiving distance education courses 

with the stronger intervention of 

receiving distance courses plus on-site 

consultation. Approximately half of 31 teachers recruited 

for an evaluation sample in 2004 were randomly assigned 

to receive distance courses plus on-site consultation. fpg

hired and trained nine consultants to conduct weekly visits 

with this first group of teachers. “We actually go into the 

classroom to measure the effect of this training,” says 

Buysse. The comparison group received 

only the distance courses. 

fpg researchers assess children being 

taught by both groups of teachers at 

the beginning and end of the school 

year to measure growth in language 

and social skills. In addition, they 

observe the teachers’ classrooms before 

and after the professional development 

intervention to assess differences in 

classroom practices between the two 

groups.

“The consultants have been trained in 

a process model of consultation versus 

an expert model, meaning that they are 

open to the interests and needs of the 

teachers,” says Pam Winton, fpg codirector of impact with Debra Torrence. 

“Since the teachers have assignments 

each week that focus on applying what they are learning in 

their course to the children they teach and their classrooms, 

the teachers and consultants focus much of their time 

together on modeling and problem-solving around the 

“When you 

think about 

your college 

teaching leading 

to concrete 

outcomes for 

children, it takes 

things to a 

different level.”

Debra Dawson, an IMPACT consultant, 

meets with a teacher weekly 

to discuss how college assignments 

are applied practically in the classroom.
fall 2005 | early developments 

practical applications of course content. The consultants 

have been involved in developing the course curriculum, so 

the link between the consultation and the course content 

is very strong. This is a unique way to integrate preservice 

and inservice professional development, which too often 

are not connected.”

fpg employs treatment fidelity measures with faculty and 

consultants, monitoring intensity and focus to determine 

any variability of service.

Forsyth Technical Community College in Winston-Salem, 

North Carolina, is one of three participating community 

college sites. Fourteen students, most from rural parts 

of southern and eastern North Carolina, completed the 

Early Literacy course online. Students were given written 

assignments about their teaching experiences, used new 

ideas and instructional strategies in their classrooms and 

with their students, and engaged in a discussion board.

“We worked closely on the development of this course 

with staff from fpg and professors from unc-Greensboro 

and Meredith College, and I think it came out well,” 

says Ann Watts, program coordinator of Early Childhood 

Education at Forsyth Tech. “We probably need to add more 

video clips that provide examples of things we’re seeking 

our teachers to emulate—for example, how to read to a 

group of children.”

The supervisors of a teacher participating in impact

have high praise for the project and believe the on-site 

consultation component is particularly valuable. 

“We want you to know of the miraculous change we 

have witnessed in Cathy since her participation in Project 

impact,” says one supervisor. “She now comes to work 

smiling, appears happy in the classroom, is more positive in 

her interactions with not only the children but also families 

and staff. She is more relaxed and confident and is eager to 

go above and beyond her job requirements. 

“We feel that the one-on-one consultations are the piece that 

made all the difference,” she adds. “In the past, [Cathy] has 

registered for classes but not completed them. In this instance, 

One-on-one consultations boost teacher 

confidence and motivation, providing learning 

techniques that complement classes.
10 early developments | fall 2005 

she actually looked forward to learning 

new techniques and having the ongoing 

support to ensure that she was correctly 

applying them in the classroom.”

Into the Second Year

Despite positive teacher interest, 

impact experienced challenges 

enrolling teachers. fpg planned to 

enroll 100 teachers by August 2004, 

with 50 being recruited for the 

evaluation component. However, 

enrollment and recruitment of teachers 

proved more difficult than anticipated. 

Some teachers struggled with the 

college enrollment process; others had 

difficulty accessing t.e.a.c.h. scholarship money. Some 

supervisors were not supportive of data collectors and 

consultants coming into the classroom.

The pluses of impact outweigh the challenges. “One of 

the exciting aspects of the project has been the chance to 

focus professional development on classroom applications 

and child outcomes,” says Winton. “Traditionally we have 

evaluated professional development on the basis of student 

satisfaction and changes in student knowledge and skills as 

self-reported by students or practicum supervisors. Rarely 

have we looked beyond these outcomes.

“With impact community college faculty are starting to 

think more about practical application,” Winton adds. “When 

you think about your college teaching leading to concrete 

outcomes for children, it takes things to a different level.” 

Project impact is now in its second year. fpg has collected 

preintervention data for both groups of students and 

currently is collecting postintervention data. “Our long-term 

hope is that these courses, and developed resources for 

early childhood students, such as the ibm donation of lap 

top computers, will become part of the learning for early 

childhood teachers across the state,” Torrence says. “This 

model could then be used to enhance other community 

college courses and build an early childhood distance 

learning infrastructure across the state.” |ed|

To Learn More

Early childhood teacher preparation in special education at 

2- and 4-year institutions of higher education

Chang, F., Early, D., & Winton, P. (2005). Journal of Early 

Intervention, 27(3), 110-124.

Preparing the workforce: Early childhood teacher 

preparation at 2- and 4-year institutes of higher education

Early, D. M., & Winton, P. (2001). Early Childhood 

Research Quarterly, 16(3), 285-306.

Project IMPACT

www.fpg.unc.edu/~impact/

Being in the classroom 

affords the consultant 

opportunites to model for 

the teacher. Here Debra 

Dawson reads a story about 

counting and shows how to 

engage children.
fall 2005 | early developments 11

A

ggression among children is traditionally associated 

with late elementary school or middle school. But now 

 it’s observed increasingly in children as young as 3 or 4 

years old. fpg is researching an intervention strategy—Building 

Bridges—designed to reduce aggressive behavior in preschool 

classrooms, thanks to a grant from the National Institute of Child 

Health Development. Building Bridges focuses on developing 

a social and emotional curriculum that is combined with a 

preacademic curriculum to help students and teachers develop the 

necessary skills to understand and ward off aggressive behavior. 

The project builds on earlier fpg work targeting children enrolled in 

Head Start.

preschool aggression

building bridges keeps conflict from heating up

cool off

fall 2005 | early developments 11
12 early developments | fall 2005 

Aggression Hurts 

the Whole Classroom

fpg senior scientist Dr. Donna Bryant 

and Dr. Janis Kupersmidt, principal 

investigator of the Building Bridges 

study, have studied the frequency of 

antisocial behaviors in 

448 children in Head 

Start and community 

child care programs. 

These behaviors 

include hitting, 

pushing, pinching, 

threatening, playing 

mean tricks, and lying. 

Although most of the 

children exhibited such 

acts only occasionally, 

10% displayed 

aggression an average 

of once a day or more. 

“Preschool 

teachers say reducing 

aggression and helping children learn 

social skills are one of the biggest 

challenges they face,” Bryant says. 

“They say the presence of only one or 

two aggressive children can negatively 

impact the nature of the program for 

the whole class.”

The proportions of aggressive 

children were almost the same for 

children from low-income families and 

those from families who were better 

off. In other word, all teachers of 

preschoolers need knowledge 

and skills to address the needs of 

such children. 

Training and Tools 

for Teachers and Parents

The developers of Building Bridges 

are researching two intervention 

conditions—one involving teacher 

training workshops and the other 

involving workshops plus a consultant 

visiting the classroom weekly. 

Teachers receive a year of training 

focused on children’s social and 

emotional development, behavior 

management skills, and strategies for 

teaching literacy and numeracy skills. 

“We not only need to intervene 

with the child but also with the 

teacher to help 

children develop 

communication 

skills,” says 

Kupersmidt. 

“Communication 

difficulties often 

lead to frustration, 

which can lead to 

aggression. Literacy 

provides a means 

of dealing with 

aggression.”

fpg has adopted or 

developed a number 

of instructional 

materials for use 

in and out of the classroom. Teachers

affiliated with Building Bridges use 

the Second Step curriculum, which 

includes 25 lessons introducing a 

social, emotional, or problem-solving 

skill. They then carry those lessons a 

step further. 

“For example, we may deal with 

a situation where a child has been 

hurt,” Kupersmidt says. “We talk about 

how to assess the intent of someone’s 

hurtful action. We find a preschool 

book that amplifies this theme. 

We teach teachers a strategy called 

Dialogic Reading where 

they engage children 

in a dialogue around 

the book. We ask 

children if this 

kind of hurtful 

action ever 

happened to 

them and what 

they did about it.” 

The Building 

Bridges team 

provides teachers with 

a book each week to accompany 

prescribed activities. Clearly outlined 

with a preacademic and socialemotional goal, every activity is simple 

and fun. Teachers can conduct the 

activities throughout the day, even 

during transition periods (going from 

one room to the next) when aggression 

often occurs. During weekly visits 

to the classroom, the consultant will 

ask how the intervention has been 

going, answer questions, and suggest 

additional strategies. 

fpg has also developed materials to 

help parents talk with their children 

about the lessons they are learning. 

For example, a child may come home 

wearing a sticker that reads “Angry 

feelings are normal. Ask me how I 

calm down when I am angry.” Parents 

also receive a newsletter that explains 

the social-emotional learning task and 

recommends activities they can do at 

home to support the learning.

The Power of Intervention

Preliminary reports suggest that the 

intervention can be highly effective. 

“This program has been wonderful,” 

says Amanda Moore, director of Child 

Time Children’s Center in Guilford 

County, who received Building Bridges 

training as a teacher and now trains 

her staff. “We had a lot of aggressive 

behavior to start. Now the kids know it 

is OK to be angry or sad, but 

they have the tools to 

deal with it.

“I love the 

fact that the 

instructional 

materials use 

real photos 

of children 

acting out 

certain emotions 

as opposed to 

cartoons,” Moore 

adds. “Kids really enjoy 

“Preschool teachers 

say reducing 

aggression and 

helping children 

learn social skills are 

one of the biggest 

challenges they face.”

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12 early developments | fall 2005 
fall 2005 | early developments 13

using the puppets to express how someone is feeling. 

There’s even a song kids can sing to cool down someone 

who is angry. I would recommend Building Bridges to any 

child care center.”

Head Start and community child care centers in Guilford 

County, North Carolina, participated in Building Bridges 

in its first year. One-third of the centers were randomly 

assigned to the group attending the workshops only, 

one-third to the workshops plus consultation group, and 

one-third to a control group that continued their typical 

services. The initial first-year goal was to recruit 60 

teachers, though the actual number is just under that. New 

programs will be recruited for two more years.

Evaluation of the program is ongoing. Students and 

teachers are assessed in the fall and 

spring. Researchers randomly sampled 

360 children (180 in Head Start and 180 

in community child care) whose teachers 

participated in the Building Bridges 

Project. They assessed kindergarten 

readiness, taking into account knowledge 

of emotion, preliteracy skills, writing 

skills, attention skills, speaking skills, 

knowledge of numbers and math, and 

general attitude toward school. 

“We will follow these children to kindergarten and 

ask the teachers how well the children fared,” 

Kupersmidt says.

Long after they have left Building 

Bridges, these children will have 

the promise of practicing positive 

communication for a lifetime—a skill 

that will serve them well in school, 

work, relationships, and one day their 

own families. |ed|

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To Learn More

A review of interventions for preschoolers with aggressive and disruptive behavior.

Bryant, D., Vizzard, L. H., Willoughby, M., & Kupersmidt, J. (1999). Early Education and Development, 10(1), 47–68.

Prevalence of aggressive behaviors among preschoolers in Head Start and community child care programs.

Kupersmidt, J.B., Bryant, D., & Willoughby, M. (2000). Behavioral Disorders, 26(1), 42–52.

Overt and covert dimensions of antisocial behavior in early childhood.

Willoughby, M., Kupersmidt, J., & Bryant, D. (2001). Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 29, 177–187.

Head Start Quality Research Center on SocioEmotional Interventions

www.fpg.unc.edu/projects/project_detail.cfm?projectID=261

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Building Bridges trains 

teachers to help children 

develop communication skills 

that address aggression 

and hurt. The lessons also 

extend to home, where 

parents receive a newsletter 

recommending activities that 

support social-emotional 

learning. Also, children may 

come home with a sticker 

highlightling new skills to 

prompt discussion with 

parents.

fall 2005 | early developments 13
14 early developments | fall 2005 

Partners

for Literacy

Parents work with teachers to 

 foster family learning

14 early developments | fall 2005 
fall 2005 | early developments 15

D

oes high quality, intensive early childhood

education make a difference? Does a strong 

parenting education component add significantly to 

child outcomes? Is there a connection between program 

fidelity and child outcomes? 

The U. S. Department of Education is looking for 

answers to these questions through an Even Start Family 

Literacy Program called Classroom Literacy Interventions 

and Outcomes Study (clio). And fpg is participating. 

It has developed one of the two curricula—Partners for 

Literacy—for the study. It also trains Even Start staff in the 

curriculum and examines the extent to which programs can 

implement the curriculum as designed.

Authorized in 1988, Even Start endeavors to improve the 

academic achievement of young children and parents with 

low literacy skills and 

low incomes. Programs 

offer four components: 

early childhood 

education, parenting 

education, parent and child interactive literacy activities, 

and adult education (including literacy skills, job training, 

and English language training). Family literacy programs 

afford parents an opportunity to learn and practice new 

parenting skills in a supportive setting.

“When the Department of Education issued an rfp to 

compare high quality curricula for Even Start, we saw an 

opportunity to expand our work by making it appropriate 

for family literacy programs,” says Dr. Barbara Wasik, 

principal investigator of Partners for Literacy.

Partners for Literacy 

continues a long fpg

history of researching early 

interventions for young 

children and their families, 

including the Abecedarian 

Study (1972–present), 

Project care (1978–present), 

and the Infant Health and 

Development Program 

(1985–1994). 

Cultivating Parent and 

Teacher Participation

Partners for Literacy 

employs distinct yet related 

games for both parents and 

teachers. LearningGames, 

fpg’s original curriculum 

developed for the 

Abecedarian Study, is designed for use by teachers or 

parents with children ages 0–60 months. It is one of the 

most studied early intervention projects in the world, with 

results published in more than 100 academic journal articles 

and book chapters. Updated and redesigned for use with 

3- and 4-year-old children, LearningGames is also available 

in Spanish. Partners for Literacy uses these games as part of 

the parenting education component.

LiteracyGames, a classroom version of LearningGames, 

has been specifically created for early childhood classes. It 

provides teachers with considerable information on how 

to engage children in these gamelike learning activities. 

LiteracyGames contains a set of 50 games for 3- and 4-yearolds, and each has three cycles that employ progressively 

more difficult content.

The Partners for Literacy curriculum also has a very 

strong interactive book reading focus. “We have created 

a set of strategies that can be used by both parents and 

teachers to engage in instructional conversations with 

children when reading with them,” Wasik says.

Another key component of the curriculum involves 

“enriched caregiving.” In following this strategy, the 

adult, whether teacher or parent, uses everyday caregiving 

routines as opportunities to foster children’s language and 

literacy as well as social development.

“The importance for 

parent involvement, versus 

just a teacher, comes from 

the notion that when it 

comes to literacy, children 

need good interaction 

many hours of the day,” 

says Jospeh Sparling, 

an fpg fellow. “What’s 

unique about this program 

is that it works with both 

parents and teachers. This 

curriculum gets parents 

excited by giving them a 

role and gives teachers 

new respect for the parents 

by putting them on the 

same page. Parents and 

teachers become partners 

with the child for literacy.”

“... children need good interaction many hours of the day.”

fall 2005 | early developments 15

Partners for Literacy incorporates the curriculum 

LiteracyGames, which shows teachers how to involve 

children in gamelike learning.
16 early developments | fall 2005 

Evaluation

Westat Research Corporation received 

the contract to conduct the clio study, 

to recruit participants, to collect child 

and parent data, and to evaluate 

the results of the study. To evaluate 

Partners for Literacy, Westat recruited 

120 Even Start sites nationwide, which 

were randomly assigned to one of five 

treatment groups.

Partners for Literacy is implementing 

two treatments. One focuses on 

early childhood education, while 

the other integrates early childhood 

education, parenting education, and 

parent and child literacy interaction 

activities. More than 250 teachers, 

assistant teachers, site directors, parent 

educators, and home visitors are 

using the curriculum at 45 Partners 

for Literacy sites. Approximately 600 

children in Even Start are enrolled at 

these sites. (A second developer is 

responsible for two groups, and the 

fifth group is a control.)

Five full-time fpg consultants visit 

the sites to offer assistance and to 

gauge the fidelity of the programs. 

Participating staff use six instruments 

to report regularly to the developers 

on curriculum implementation. 

For example, each teacher fills out 

a monthly LiteracyGames form, 

indicating how many games he or 

she has played with each child and 

evaluating the child’s literacy skills.

The project has begun its second 

year of intervention. Staff from each 

site has received two curriculum 

training sessions. Advanced training 

took place in the summer of 2005. 

As with many new programs, 

ease of adoption by sites has been 

mixed. “Some programs are having 

a great year; our intervention is 

appropriate and well received,” 

Sparling says. “Other sites are having 

difficulty, especially those addressing 

language differences, difficulties in 

hiring qualified staff, and difficulties 

adhering to the Even Start Family 

Literacy program expectations.”

“We have many home languages 

represented by our families, including 

Hmong, Creole, Somali, Cantonese, 

and Russian. Over half our families are 

Spanish speaking” Wasik noted. “As 

a result, we have provided increased 

training to help staff implement the 

curriculum with English Language 

Learners and we have translated 

numerous materials into Spanish.”

The program evaluation will likely 

reflect the varying capabilities of sites. 

Sparling says it will be important to 

identify those sites where the program 

was properly carried out and include 

that information in its evaluation. 

“When you do an analysis, you 

need to look both at how the program 

did as a whole, and which programs 

were able to implement the program 

fully and which only partially,” 

Sparling says. fpg is obtaining 

fidelity information on how well the 

curriculum is being implemented so 

that this information can be included 

in the outcome studies. |ed|

To Learn More

Integrating services for family literacy

Harbin, G., Herrmann, S., Wasik, B., Dobbins, D., 

& Lam, W. (2004). In B. Wasik (Eds.), Handbook 

of family literacy (pp. 373-397). York, PA: Tech 

Books.

Family literacy: History, concepts, and services

Wasik, B. H., & Herrman, S. (2004). In B. H. 

Wasik (Eds.), Handbook of family literacy 

(pp. 3–22). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum 

Associates.

Learningames, The Abecedarian Curriculum 

(36–48 months)

Sparling, J., & Lewis, I. (2003). 

Chapel Hill, NC: MindNurture Press, Inc.

www.fpg.unc.edu/products/product_detail.

cfm?apubsID=521

Partners for Literacy

www.fpg.unc.edu/projects/project_detail.

cfm?projectID=349

Abecedarian Project

www.fpg.unc.edu/~abc/

Joe Sparling and 

Barbara Wasik lead 

week-long training 

sessions for teachers, 

parent educators, 

and administrators 

participating in Partners 

for Literacy. Training has 

included small groups 

in which participants 

exchanged knowledge 

and ideas from the 

Parents for Literacy 

curriculum in the first 

year and gained new 

skills for curriculum 

implementation in the 

second year.
fall 2005 | early developments 17

Nuestros Niños

 Early Language 

and 

Literacy Project

Changing 

teaching practices 

to improve 

prekindergarten learning

The prekindergarten period is a critical time for Latino children, many of whom face the difficult task of developing skills in a new 

language while experiencing the beginning-to-read process. Yet little is known about the effects of prekindergarten schooling on 

Latino children who are English language learners and on teachers who are largely unprepared to work with this population. The 

Nuestros Niños Early Language and Literacy Project, a three-year FPG study that began in 2004, is developing and testing an 

intervention to improve the quality of teaching practices related to language and literacy learning among Latino children enrolled in 

North Carolina’s More at Four Prekindergarten Program for at-risk children.

More at Four currently serves more than 12,000 low-income children, of whom approximately 20% are Latino children. A total of 60 

More at Four teachers and classrooms in which Latino children are enrolled will be recruited for this study and randomly assigned 

to either a treatment or comparison group. The sample will reflect the regional and urban/rural distribution of the entire population 

of Latino children enrolled in More at Four throughout the state. From these 60 classrooms, a minimum of 240 Latino 4-year-olds 

and their families will be recruited to participate in this study (120 from treatment and 120 from comparison classrooms). 

The professional development intervention consists of three components: 1) acquisition of content knowledge through a series 

of training institutes; 2) ongoing support from a consultant with expertise in early childhood bilingual education to help teachers 

implement new instructional strategies in the classroom; and 3) opportunities for reflection and shared inquiry with other teachers 

through regular community of practice meetings. 

The content for the professional development activities will be based on LiteracyGames, a special version of LearningGames

recently updated and expanded to promote language and literacy skills in early childhood classrooms. LiteracyGames will be 

adapted for use with Latino children who are English language learners. 

A battery of measures will be administered in early fall and late spring to examine changes in teaching practices, the quality of the 

literacy environment, and children’s developmental growth in language proficiency and literacy. Measures of treatment fidelity will 

assess training facilitation, consultation content and process, and classroom teaching practices. 

The child assessment measures were selected on the basis of adequate psychometric properties, developmental appropriateness, 

availability in both English and Spanish, and comparability with other national samples of prekindergarten children. The study also 

will identify a variety of child, family, and program factors that moderate children’s language and literacy outcomes. |ed|

To Learn More

Addressing the needs of Latino children : A national survey of state administrators of early childhood programs

Buysse, V., Castro, D. C., West, T., & Skinner, M. L. (2005). Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 20, 146–163. 

Latino Language and Literacy Project

www.fpg.unc.edu/projects/project_detail.cfm?projectID=393

Addressing the Needs of Latino Children : A National Survey of State Administrators of Early Childhood Programs

www.fpg.unc.edu/~nuestros/pages/products.cfm?tab=prod

Dina C. Castro, PhD, dina_castro@unc.edu

Virginia Buysse, PhD, buysse@mail.fpg.unc.edu

fall 2005 | early developments 17
18 early developments | fall 2005 

A national study 

exports the 

Partnerships for Inclusion 

consultation model

 Collaborative 

Consultation 

as a Key to 

Child Care Quality
fall 2005 | early developments 19

I

n the early 1990s, most inservice 

training for child care providers 

entailed only workshops. Childcare 

providers would attend a workshop 

and take information back to their 

center. At fpg, Partnerships for 

Inclusion (pfi) staff sought to create a 

model aimed at improving the quality 

of child care programs by providing 

intensive on-site consultation. 

Consultants would develop in-depth 

relationships with child care providers 

and work with them in their own 

programs. Now a large-scale national 

study—Quality Interventions for Early 

Care and Education (quince)—is 

evaluating the effectiveness of this 12-

year-old model. 

 pfi is a technical assistance project 

in North Carolina that supports the 

inclusion of young children with 

disabilities, ages 0–5, in all facets 

of community life. By recruiting 

consultants and child care providers 

in California, Iowa, Nebraska, 

Minnesota, and North Carolina, 

quince takes pfi’s approach to 

consultation to a national level.

The PFI Model

“pfi acknowledges that child care providers know their 

children best, know the classroom, and are most familiar 

with the day-to-day operation of the program,” says Pat 

Wesley, director of pfi. “pfi consultants invite providers to 

be active partners with them in the quality enhancement 

process. In fact, the provider is in the driver’s seat as far as 

what to change, how, and when. This is very different from 

the commonly used expert model where the consultant 

stops by and imparts a few nuggets of wisdom. The latter 

can lead to short-term change but generally does not last.”

The pfi approach includes six key components: 

1) delivery of services on-site, 2) a focus on the global 

program, with particular attention to any special needs 

of children, 3) collaborative assessment of needs by the 

consultant and provider at the onset of consultation, 

4) joint development of a written action plan based on 

the collaborative assessment, 5) provision of supportive 

and empowering skills during implementation, and 

6) evaluation of the effectiveness of the consultation.

The model involves 10–14 visits by a consultant over a 

period of 6 to 10 months. In the early years of the program, 

consultants were university based. Subsequent studies 

involved community-based consultants—those trained 

at community colleges or working for local resource and 

referral agencies. 

Beginning in the initial visits, the consultant develops 

a trusting relationship with the child care provider. Then 

the consultant introduces fpg’s internationally recognized 

environment rating scales (fdcrs, ecers-r, and iters-r), 

which both consultant and provider administer as a 

springboard for discussing priorities for change. The 

consultant and provider then work together to implement 

agreed upon strategies to enhance total quality. The 

model is intensive and complex, but as Wesley says, “If 

enhancing child care quality were an easy undertaking, 

we wouldn’t have the problems that we see in centers and 

child care homes across the country.”

Assessing the Model

Children show better developmental outcomes when 

child care quality is high, so federal block grant money 

provided to the states includes a 4% set aside to be spent 

on quality enhancement of child care services. In 2003 

the federal government spent $881 million on quality 

enhancement. That money has been spent on a variety of 

projects, workshops, leadership programs, and consultation 

services. In an effort to understand what works and what 

does not, the Child Care Bureau of the Department of 

fall 2005 | early developments 19
20 early developments | fall 2005 

Health and Human Services issued 

an rfp in the summer of 2003. fpg

was chosen to conduct an evaluation 

of the pfi consultation model. The 

evaluation is funded at $1.5 million 

per year over four years and will 

include measures of child outcomes.

Each of five participating states 

recruits agencies to serve as partners. 

The agencies employ the consultants, 

who are randomly assigned to be 

trained in the on-site model through 

pfi or to serve as a control group 

and trained later in the pfi model. 

Consultants recruit the child care 

providers, and the providers help 

recruit parents and children. The 

study will ultimately involve over 

200 child care providers and 400 

children ages 20 months–5 years. 

Wesley and pfi coordinator Carla 

Fenson are training the consultants 

with help from others on the pfi

team. During 2004 fpg trained 36 

consultants. Approximately 40 are 

being trained in 2005. Consultants 

come to fpg for an initial week 

of training on environmental 

assessments and the pfi consultation 

process. They continue their 

training in their own communities 

by implementing pfi consultation 

in a practice site. They attend five 

seminars that explore in more 

detail the link between quality and 

child outcomes and that provide 

opportunities to discuss consultation 

challenges. Consultants also receive 

support from fpg in-state partners. 

Action Informs Theory

Anecdotal information from 

consultants suggests that the pfi

model is working. “I’m very thankful 

for what I’ve learned at training,” 

says Jessica LaChere, consultant 

with the Early Childhood Training 

Center in Omaha, Nebraska. “The 

relationships we have developed 

with the providers are very strong, 

and the providers are proud of the 

differences we’ve been making in 

their environments. I did informal 

consulting before, operating more 

or less by the seat of my pants. It’s 

been such an advantage to have a 

game plan.”

Eliana Elias, an Early Childhood 

Consultant with Every Child Counts 

in Alameda, California, concurs that 

the pfi model is very useful, though 

not without its challenges. “I have 

to confess it’s hard at times,” Elias 

says. “Our approach as consultants 

is that quality is defined by certain 

standards, such as ecers. However, 

some providers may have different 

opinions. For example, they may feel 

that rote memorization is the best 

way for children to learn, whereas we 

may emphasize play. The pfi model 

gives you the steps to deal with these 

situations. It shows you how dialogue 

can take place.” 

Program evaluation is ongoing. 

“The research teams have been 

making observational visits as soon 

as the provider is enrolled,” says 

Donna Bryant, principal investigator 

of quince. “We look at quality three 

times—right when the provider 

enrolls, at the end of the intervention, 

and six months after the intervention. 

We want to know if changes were 

made and if they last. We do this both 

for pfi and the control group.”

The control group varies in the 

services they provide across the 

agencies. Some professionals give 

limited help, while others provide 

quite extensive quality enhancement 

activities. “This study is letting fpg

test the efficacy of this variety of 

quality enhancement services as well 

as the effects of the pfi consultation 

model,” Bryant says. “This is the first 

time we have studied such a wide 

array of technical assistance services 

to child care providers and measured 

their success at both the program and 

child level.” |ed|

To Learn More

Consultation in early childhood settings

Buysse, V., & Wesley, P. W. (2005). Baltimore, MD: Brookes.

Improving quality in early childhood environments through on-site consultation

Palsha, S., & Wesley, P. (1998). Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 18(4), 243-253.

Partnerships for Inclusion

www.fpg.unc.edu/~pfi/

Quality Interventions for Early Care and Education

www.fpg.unc.edu/~QUINCE/

“The relationships we have developed 

with the providers are very strong, and the 

providers are proud of the differences we’ve 

been making in their environments.”

20 early developments | fall 2005 
fall 2005 | early developments 21

All Together Now! (Spring 2005, Vol. XI, No. 2) features articles about the Family Support 

Network (a resource for North Carolina families with children of all ages who have special needs 

and for their service providers), a parent creating an inclusive environment for 

her children, and the profile of a five-star child care home for Spanish-speaking, 

English-speaking, and bilingual children.

Children with Special Needs in North Carolina Child Care Programs Survey 

Report (2005) represents the first effort in the state to determine how many 

children with special needs are enrolled in licensed child care facilities.

Combined SWEEP and Multi-State Study of Pre-Kindergarten Findings (2005) 

is the first presentation of the combined data from these two studies. It provides 

a descriptive picture of pre-k children and classrooms only. This report is a “first 

glance” at what prekindergarten looks like. Future results will appear on the web site. 

FPG Highlights: 2004–2005 (2005) report features accomplishments, research 

findings, new grant awards, outreach efforts, and goals for the coming year at FPG.

Family and Child Outcomes for Early Intervention and Early Childhood Special 

Education (2005) represents the initial step in collecting data on child and family outcomes for the 

Part C early intervention and Part B preschool programs of IDEA (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act). 

Part C Updates. Seventh in a Series of Updates on Selected Aspects of the Early Intervention Program for Infants and Toddlers with 

Disabilities, (Part C) of IDEA (2005) contains information about Part C program administration, such as funding and contacts at the federal and 

state level. It also includes a list of sources of states’ Part C rules, regulations and policies; state eligibility definitions; survey of Part C coordinators 

and assistive technology; Part C data for child count, settings, exiting, services, and personnel; and the full text of Part C of IDEA of 2004.

Hot Topics (2005) highlights FPG projects and products related to issues in the national dialogue. Current themes include prekindergarten 

readiness, professional development, diversity, literacy, inclusion, and quality child care.

New 

FPG Products

Many products developed at FPG are available for free online. You may also 

purchase products from the FPG Publications Office; phone 919.966.4221, or 

email FPGpublications@unc.edu. The FPG online catalog currently includes 

information on more than 300 publications. Visit the FPG website at 

www.fpg.unc.edu to learn more. 

fall 2005 | early developments 21
22 early developments | fall 2005 

fpg

f

or more information 

about FPG publications, 

see the FPG website at

www.fpg.unc.edu

or contact the 

FPG Publications Office at 

919•966•4221 or 

FPGpublications@unc.edu

Bailey, D. B., Roberts, J. E., Hooper, S. R., Hatton, 

D. D., Mirrett, P. L., Roberts, J. E., & Schaaf, 

J. M. (2004). Research on fragile X syndrome 

and autism: Implications for the study of genes, 

environments, and developmental language 

disorders. In M. L. Rice & S. F. Warren (Eds.), 

Developmental language disorders: From 

phenotypes to etiologies (pp. 121–150). Mahwah, 

NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 

Bender, D., & Castro, D. (2004). Exploring the 

birth-weight paradox with a photo-narrative 

technique. In P. R. Ulin, E. T Robinson, E. E. 

Tolley, & E. T. McNeill (Eds.), Qualitative methods: 

A field guide for applied research in sexual and 

reproductive health (2nd. ed., pp. 103–105). 

Research Triangle Park, NC: Family Health 

International. 

Bryant, D., & Ponder, K. (2004). North Carolina’s 

Smart Start initiative: A decade of evaluation 

lessons. The Evaluation Exchange, 10(2),7–8. 

Buysse, V., Castro, D. C., West, T., & Skinner, 

M. L. (2005). Addressing the needs of Latino 

children: A national survey of state administrators 

of early childhood programs. Early Childhood 

Research Quarterly, 20, 146-163.

Buysse, V. & Wesley, P. W. (2005). Consultation 

in early childhood settings. Baltimore: Brookes.

Campbell, F. A., Goldman, B. D., Boccia, M. L., 

& Skinner, M. L. (2004). The effect of format 

modifications and reading comprehension on 

recall of informed consent information by lowincome parents: A comparison of print, video, and 

computer-based presentations. Patient Education 

and Counseling, 53, 205–216.

Catlett, C. (2004). Resources that can support 

inclusion. Pennsylvania Early Intervention, 15(3), 12. 

Catlett, C., & George, S. (2005). Including all of 

us: Diversity and disability in children’s books. 

Children and Families, 18(1), 34–38.

Catlett, C., & Winton, P. (2004). Resources to 

help teachers support high quality environments 

that reflect the cultures, languages, and abilities 

of all young children. Young Exceptional 

Children, 7(4), 30.

Catlett, C., & Winton, P. (2005). Resources for 

creating diversity-rich environments. Young 

Exceptional Children, 8(2), 30–31. 

Catlett, C., Winton, P., & Hemmeter, M. L. (2004). 

Resources for supporting young children with 

challenging behaviors and their families. Young 

Exceptional Children, 7(2), 30.

Chang, F., Early, D. M., & Winton, P. (2005). Early 

childhood teacher preparation in special education 

at 2- and 4-year institutions of higher education. 

Journal of Early Intervention, 27(3), 110–124.

Cryer, D., Wagner-Moore, L., Burchinal, M., 

Yazejian, N., Hurwitz, S., & Wolery, M. (2005). 

Effects of transitions to new child care classes 

on infant/toddler distress and behavior. Early 

Childhood Research Quarterly, 20, 37–56. 

Curran, P. J., Bauer, D. J., & Willoughby, M. 

T. (2004). Testing and probing main effects 

and interactions in latent curve analysis. 

Psychological Methods, 9(2), 220–237.

Davis, D. W., Chang, F., Burns, B. M., Robinson, 

J., & Dossett, D. (2004). Low lead exposure and 

attention regulation in children from Head Start. 

Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 

46, 825–831. 

DeRosier, M. E. (2004). Building relationships and 

combating bullying: Effectiveness of a schoolbased social skills group intervention. Journal of 

Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33(1), 

125–130. 

DeRosier, M. E. (2004). The social climate 

of schools in the aftermath of 9-11: Ethnic 

differences in children’s peer relations. Journal 

of School Violence, 3(1), 5–16.

DeRosier, M. E., & Marcus, S. R. (2005). Building 

friendships and combating bullying: Effectiveness 

of S. S. GRIN at one-year follow-up. Journal of 

Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 34(1), 

140–150. 

Escolar, M. L., Poe, M. D., Provenzale, J. M., 

Richards, K. C., Allison, J., Wood, S., et al. (2005). 

Transplantation of umbilical-cord blood in babies 

with infantile krabbe’s disease. New England 

Journal of Medicine, 352(20), 2069–2081. 

Gallagher, J., Clifford, R. M., & Maxwell, K. L. 

(2004). Getting from here to there: To an ideal early 

preschool system. Early Childhood Research and 

Practice, 6(1). Retrieved June 15, 2005, from 

http://ecrp.uiuc.edu/v6n1/clifford.html. 

Guerra, V. S., Asher, S. R., & DeRosier, M. E. 

(2004). Effect of children’s perceived rejection on 

physical aggression. Journal of Abnormal Child 

Psychology, 32(5), 551–563. 

22 early developments |fall 2005 
fall 2005 | early developments 23

recent 

publications

Harbin, G. L. (2005). Designing an integrated 

point of access in the early intervention system. 

In M. Guralnick (Ed.), A developmental systems 

model for early intervention. Baltimore: Brookes.

Harbin, G. L., Rous, B., & McLean, M. (2005). 

Issues in designing state accountability systems. 

Journal of Early Intervention, 27(3), 137–164.

Harbin, G. L., & Salisbury, C. (2004). Policies, 

administration, and systems change. Longmont, 

CO: Sopris West.

Hirsh-Pasek, K., Golinkoff, R. M., Hennon, E. A., & 

Maguire, M. (2004). Hybrid theories at the frontier 

of developmental psychology: The emergentist 

coalition model of word learning as a case in 

point. In G. Hall & S. Waxman (Eds.), Weaving a 

lexicon (pp. 173-204). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Kirk, S. A., Gallagher, J. J., Anastasiow, N. J., & 

Coleman, M. R. (2005). Educating exceptional 

children (11th ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Kupersmidt, J. B., & DeRosier, M. E. (2004). 

The role of peer relations in the development of 

negative outcomes: Explanatory processes. In 

K. A. Dodge & J. B. Kupersmidt (Eds.), Children’s 

peer relations: From development to intervention

(pp. 119–138). Washington, DC: American 

Psychological Association.

Light, K. C., Grewen, K. M., Amico, J. A., Boccia, 

M. L., Brownley, K. A,. & Johns, J. M. (2004). 

Deficits in plasma oxytocin responses and 

increased negative affect, stress, and blood 

pressure in mothers with cocaine exposure 

during pregnancy. Addictive Behaviors, 29(8), 

1544–1564.

Pelphrey, K. A., Reznick, J. S., Goldman, B. D., 

Sasson, J., Morrow, J., Donahoe, A., & Hodgson, 

K. (2004). Development of visualspatial shortterm memory in the second half of the first year. 

Developmental Psychology, 40(5), 836-851.

Poe, M. D., Burchinal, M. R., & Roberts, J. E. 

(2004). Early language and the development 

of children’s reading skills. Journal of School 

Psychology, 42(4), 315–332.

Roberts, J. E. (2004). Effects of otitis media 

on children’s language. In R. Kent (Ed.), MIT 

encyclopedia of communication disorders 

(pp. 358–3610). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. 

Roberts, J. E., Hennon, E., Anderson, K., Roush, 

J., Gravel, J., Skinner, M., Misenheimer, J., & 

Reitz, P. (2005). Auditory brainstem responses in 

young males with fragile X syndrome. Journal of 

Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 48,

494–500

Roberts, J. E., Jurgens, J., & Burchinal, M. 

(2005). The role of home literacy practices in 

preschool children’s language and emergent 

literacy skills. Journal of Speech, Language, and 

Hearing Research, 48, 345–359.

Roberts, J. E., Mirrett, P. L., & Schaaf, J. M 

(2004). Cognition and communication skills in 

young boys with fragile X syndrome. In M. Rice, 

& S. Warren (Eds.). Developmental language 

disorders: From phenotypes to etiologies

(pp. 121–150). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Earlbaum. 

Roberts, J. E., Schaaf, J. M., Wheeler, A., Barry, 

S., Mirrett, P. L., Hatton, D. D., & Bailey, D. B. 

(2005). Early academic skills of boys with 

fragile X syndrome. American Journal on Mental 

Retardation, 110(2), 107–120.

Rowland, C., Catlett, C., & Winton, P. (2004). 

Resources that help teachers and other adults to 

support young children with severe and multiple 

disabilities. Young Exceptional Children, 8(1), 

30–31. 

Skinner, D. (2005). Cultural perspectives on 

developmental disabilities and early intervention. 

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