Advancing the Campaign

Against Child Labor

U.S. Department of Labor

Bureau of International Labor Affairs

2004

Volume III:

The Resource Allocations of National Governments and

International Financial Institutions

Advancing the Campaign Against Child Labor
Advancing the Campaign

Against Child Labor

U.S. Department of Labor

Bureau of International Labor Affairs

Elaine L. Chao, Secretary of Labor

2004

Volume III:

The Resource Allocations of National Governments and

International Financial Institutions
DEDICATION

This report is dedicated to the late Thomas B. Moorhead, Deputy Under Secretary for International

Labor Affairs. Mr. Moorhead passed away on April 27, 2003 at George Washington University

Hospital at the age of 69. As Deputy Under Secretary, he played a key role in helping to lead the

global fight against the worst forms of child labor, and was a strong advocate for the shared benefits

of free trade for workers and their families. He will be greatly missed.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This report was prepared under the direction of the late Thomas B. Moorhead, Deputy Under

Secretary for International Labor Affairs, Michael Magan, Associate Deputy Under Secretary for

International Labor Affairs, Martha Newton, Chief of Staff for International Labor Affairs, Jorge

Perez-Lopez, Director of the Office of Economic and International Affairs, and Marcia Eugenio,

Acting Director of the International Child Labor Program. The coordination, writing, editing, and

research of the report was done by Christine Camillo, Coordinator of Policy and Research of the

International Child Labor Program, and Gregory K. Schoepfle, Director of Foreign Economic

Research, and Charita L. Castro, Amy LeMar, James Shea, and Karen Travis.

Other staff of the Bureau of International Labor Affairs, the Office of the Assistant Secretary for

Policy, and the Office of the Solicitor who made major contributions include: Craig Davis, Tina

Faulkner, James A. Greene, Sarah Gormly, Alexa Gunter, Sharon Heller, Maureen Jaffe, Matthew

Levin, Eileen Muirragui, Eileen Pennington, Stephanie Swirsky, and Kevin Willcutts.

The Bureau of International Labor Affairs would also like to thank the following individuals at

UNESCO, the international financial institutions, the U.S. Agency for International Development,

and the U.S. Department of the Treasury for assistance, consultation, and the provision of data that

were essential to the preparation of this report. At the UNESCO Institute for Statistics, we would

like to thank Jens Johansen. At the U.S. Department of the Treasury, we would like to thank Sara

Paulson, Director, Office of Multilateral Development Banks; Brian Crowe, Director, Office of

Development Finance; Patricia Gallagher, John Hurley, Nancy Katz, Elizabeth Morris, Malachy

Nugent, C. Alexander Severens, and Luyen Tran. At the U.S. Agency for International Development we would like to thank Jonathan Olsson. At the World Bank, we thank Gordon Betcherman,

Peter Buckland, Amit Dar, Robert Holzmann, Ruth Kagia, Bona Kim, Laszlo Lovei, Amy Luinstra,

Nandita Tannan, and Zafiris Tzannatos. At the African Development Bank, we would like to thank

Abdirahman Beileh and Chanel Boucher, and at the Inter-American Development Bank, John

Ferriter. At the International Monetary Fund, we would like to thank Michelle Shannon.

This report was published by the U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of International Labor Affairs

(ILAB). Copies of this and other reports in ILAB’s child labor series may be obtained by contacting the International Child Labor Program, Bureau of International Labor Affairs, U.S. Department

of Labor, Room S-5307, 200 Constitution Avenue, NW, Washington, DC 20210. Telephone: (202)

693-4843; Fax: (202) 693-4830; Email: GlobalKids@dol.gov. The reports are available on the

Internet at: http://www.dol.gov/ILAB/.
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1

A. Congressional Mandate ................................................................................................................. 1

B. Scope and Structure of the Report ................................................................................................. 1

C. Sources of Information .................................................................................................................. 2

Glossary of Terms ........................................................................................................................... 4

Acronyms........................................................................................................................................ 10

Part One: Government Expenditures on Education and Military ................................... 13

A. Data on Education and Military Expenditures by National Governments .................................. 13

1. Africa........................................................................................................................................ 19

2. Asia and the Middle East ......................................................................................................... 21

3. Europe ...................................................................................................................................... 22

4. Latin America and the Caribbean............................................................................................. 23

B. Sources and Limitations of Data .................................................................................................. 24

1. Sources of Information............................................................................................................ 24

2. Limitations of Data ................................................................................................................. 24

Part Two: Multilateral Development Bank Policies, Strategies, and

Lending Activities Related to Basic Education and Child Labor Related Projects ....... 27

A. The World Bank. .......................................................................................................................... 28

1. Education Sector Initiatives ..................................................................................................... 28

a. Policies and Strategies ......................................................................................................... 28

b. Lending for Basic Education ............................................................................................... 32

2. Initiatives Related to the Elimination of Child Labor .............................................................. 47

a. Policies and Strategies .......................................................................................................... 47

 b. Lending for Projects Related to the Elimination of Child Labor ......................................... 49

3. Share of Total World Bank Lending for Basic Education and Child Labor or Child

 Welfare-Related Projects .......................................................................................................... 61

B. The African Development Bank................................................................................................... 64

1. Education Sector Initiatives ..................................................................................................... 64

a. Policies and Strategies ......................................................................................................... 64

b. Lending for Basic Education ............................................................................................... 66
2. Initiatives Related to the Elimination of Child Labor. ............................................................. 68

a. Policies and Strategies .......................................................................................................... 68

b. Lending for Projects Related to the Elimination of Child Labor ......................................... 71

3. Share of Total African Development Bank Lending for Basic Education and

 Child Labor or Child Welfare-Related Projects ....................................................................... 71

C. The Asian Development Bank ..................................................................................................... 73

1. Education Sector Initiatives ..................................................................................................... 73

a. Policies and Strategies .......................................................................................................... 73

b. Lending for Basic Education ................................................................................................ 75

2. Initiatives Related to the Elimination of Child Labor .............................................................. 78

a. Policies and Strategies .......................................................................................................... 78

b. Lending for Projects Related to the Elimination of Child Labor ......................................... 82

3. Share of Total Asian Development Bank Lending for Basic Education and

 Child Labor or Child Welfare-Related Projects ....................................................................... 84

D. The Inter-American Development Bank ...................................................................................... 86

1. Education Sector Initiatives ..................................................................................................... 86

a. Policies and Strategies .......................................................................................................... 87

b. Lending for Basic Education ................................................................................................ 89

2. Initiatives Related to the Elimination of Child Labor .............................................................. 93

a. Policies and Strategies .......................................................................................................... 93

b. Lending for Projects Related to the Elimination of Child Labor ......................................... 95

3. Share of Total Inter-American Development Bank Lending for Basic Education

 and Child Labor or Child Welfare-Related Projects ................................................................ 97

Conclusion.................................................................................................................................... 101

Appendices

Appendix A: Detailed Statistical Tables for Education and Military Expenditures ....................... 107

Appendix B: An Introduction to the Development and Role of International Financia

Institutions .............................................................................................................................. 135

Appendix C: Supporting Detailed Statistical Tables for Text Figures ............................................ 149

Appendix D: Country Examples of International Cooperation and FI Support for Basic Education

and Child Labor Programs ..................................................................................................... 189

Appendix E: Bureau of International Labor Affairs (ILAB) Publications on Child Labor ............ 194
1

1 See Appendix E for a complete listing of ILAB’s previous reports on child labor.

2 This report has been prepared in accordance with the Departments of Labor, Health and Human Services, and

Education and Related Agencies Appropriation Bill of 2002, Senate Report No. 107-84, 107th Congress,

October 11, 2001, 4.

Introduction

A. Congressional Mandate

Since 1993, the U.S. Department of Labor’s Bureau of International Labor Affairs (ILAB) has

been reporting regularly on international child labor issues at the request of Congressional committees. This report is the ninth report that ILAB has prepared on international child labor issues.1

The subject matter for this report, which was mandated by Congress in fiscal year 2002, was

defined by the United States Senate Committee on Appropriations:

[T]he Committee requests that ILAB undertake and complete a study by October 1, 2002 to

firmly establish, if feasible, amounts spent on military expenditures each year from 1990-

2001 compared to expenditures on basic education in each of the foreign countries with

serious child labor problems as identified in the prior seven ILAB studies on child labor.

This study should also determine the underlying trends and specific amounts that the World

Bank and other international financial institutions have committed to specifically combat

abusive child labor and to improve access to basic education in these problem countries

every year since 1989.2

B. Scope and Structure of the Report

In response to the request from the Senate Appropriations Committee, this report provides information on the 73 developing countries mentioned in the first eight ILAB reports on international child

labor (see Box 1). Because no accepted definition of, or criteria for determining, a “serious child

labor problem” exists, the inclusion of a particular country in the report does not necessarily demonstrate such a problem. Therefore, all of the countries mentioned in Volumes 1-7 were included in

this report with the exception of developed countries and countries that were referenced only in

citations of previous reports. The countries mentioned include a collection of nations at different

levels of economic development and at various stages in their efforts to address the complex

problems of child labor.

The report is divided into two parts. Part One compares available data on education and military

expenditures by national governments for the period between 1990 and 2001. Part Two presents the

financial contributions of the major international financial institutions (IFIs) since 1989 to basic

education and child labor programs.
2

3 Among the previous reports, the ones most closely related to this report are: Advancing the Campaign Against Child

Labor (Volume II): Addressing the Worst Forms of Child Labor (Washington, DC: USDOL/ILAB, 2002) for a

discussion on the international consensus to eliminate the worst forms of child labor; Advancing the Campaign Against

Child Labor (Volume I): Efforts at the Country Level (Washington, DC: USDOL/ILAB, 2002) for a wide-ranging

consideration of national strategies aimed at eliminating child labor; and By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume

VI): An Economic Consideration of Child Labor (Washington, DC: USDOL/ILAB, 2000) for material related to

assessing the costs and benefits of child labor.

In an effort to advance the campaign against child labor, this report concludes with a discussion on

the issue of providing basic education to children engaged in or at-risk of participating in the worst

forms of child labor. The discussion of withdrawing children from exploitative work conditions

through quality and relevant education builds on and extends the discussions contained in earlier

U.S. Department of Labor reports.3

Appendices to the report provide more detailed statistical information on military and education

expenditures for the period between 1990 and 2001, a historical overview of the IFIs mentioned in

this report, and a comprehensive set of tables on the lending and grants of the multilateral

development banks by programs related to basic education and the elimination of child labor.

C. Sources of Information

In preparing for this report, the U.S. Department of Labor relied on a variety of information. The

IFIs referenced in this report provided information on the amounts spent on basic education and

child labor programs, and UNESCO supplied preliminary data on selected government expenditures on education. Other material used in this report came from academic journals, as well as

publications from a number of international organizations and nongovernmental organizations

(NGOs).
3

Africa (34)

Angola

Benin

Botswana

Burkina Faso

Burundi

Cameroon

Comoros

Congo, Dem. Rep.

Congo, Rep. of

Côte d’Ivoire

Egypt

Equatorial Guinea

Ethiopia

Gabon

Ghana

Kenya

Lesotho

Madagascar

Mali

Mauritania

Morocco

Mozambique

Nigeria

Rwanda

Senegal

Sierra Leone

Somalia

South Africa

Sudan

Tanzania

Togo

Uganda

Zambia

Zimbabwe

Asia and the Middle East (18)

Afghanistan

Bangladesh

Burma

Cambodia

China

India

Indonesia

Laos

Malaysia

Mongolia

Nepal

Pakistan

Philippines

Sri Lanka

Syria

Thailand

United Arab Emirates

Vietnam

Europe and Central Asia (4)

Albania

Bulgaria

Romania

Turkey

Latin America and the Caribbean (17)

Argentina

Bolivia

Brazil

Colombia

Costa Rica

Cuba

Dominican Republic

Ecuador

El Salvador

Guatemala

Haiti

Honduras

Mexico

Nicaragua

Panama

Paraguay

Peru

NOTES: For the discussion of lending by the World Bank to referenced countries for

projects related to education and child labor, the standard regional groupings used by the

World Bank have been modified as follows:

• Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC): No change; the referenced country Cuba is

located in the region, but is not a member of the World Bank or the Inter-American

Development Bank. All other referenced countries in Latin America and the

Caribbean are borrowing members of both the World Bank and the Inter-American

Development Bank.

• Europe and Central Asia (ECA): No change. All 4 referenced countries located in

Europe are borrowing members of both the World Bank and the European Bank for

Reconstruction and Development. The non-referenced countries located in Central

Asia (Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz Republic, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and

Uzbekistan) are borrowing members of the World Bank, the European Bank for

Reconstruction and Development, and the Asian Development Bank.

• Middle East and North Africa (MENA): Countries in the Middle East (World Bank

borrowing member countries: Iran, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, West Bank and

Gaza, and Yemen; and high-income non-borrowing World Bank member countries:

Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates) were

placed under Asia and the Middle East and countries in North Africa (World Bank

borrowing member countries: Algeria, Djibouti, Egypt, Morocco, and Tunisia; and

high-income non-borrowing World Bank member countries: Libya and Malta) were

placed under Africa.

• (Sub-Saharan) Africa: Countries in North Africa were combined with those in (SubSaharan) Africa under Africa. All referenced countries in Africa are borrowing

members of both the World Bank and the African Development Bank.

• East Asia and the Pacific (EAP), South Asia (SA), and Middle East (ME): Countries

were grouped together under Asia and the Middle East. All 16 referenced countries

located in Asia are borrowing members of both the World Bank and the Asian

Development Bank. The 2 referenced countries in the Middle East are Syria (a

borrowing member of the World Bank, but not a member of a major regional

development bank) and the United Arab Emirates (a high-income non-borrowing

member of the World Bank, but not a member of a major regional development

bank).

Box 1: Referenced Countries by World Area
4

4 By the Sweat and Toil of Children, Vol. I: The Use of Child Labor in U.S. Manufactured and Mined Imports

(Washington, D.C: USDOL, 1994): I. See also, General Survey of the Reports relating to Convention 138 and

Recommendation No. 146 concerning Minimum Age, Report III (Part 4B)(Geneva: International Labor Organization,

1981): 73.

5 International Labor Organization, “C182 Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention, 1999,” [cited February 12, 2003];

available from http://ilolex.ilo.ch:1567/cgilex/convde.pl?query=C182&query0=182&submit=Display.

Glossary Of Terms

A. Child Labor

1. Child Labor and its Worst Forms

For the purposes of this report the Department used the international definition of child labor

derived from ILO Convention 138, which states that child labor is any economic activity performed

by a person under the age of 15. Exceptions are made for developing countries, which may adopt a

temporary minimum age of 14 for light work. There is no explicit definition of “light work” in

Convention 138, other than it not be likely to harm the health or development of young persons, and

that it not prejudice their attendance at school, their participation in vocational orientation or training programs approved by the competent authority, or their capacity to benefit from the instruction

received.4

A definition of the “worst forms” of child labor can be found in ILO Convention 182. Under this

Convention, which applies to children under the age of 18, the worst forms are defined as follows:

(A) all forms of slavery or practices similar to slavery, such as the

sale or trafficking of children, debt bondage and serfdom, or forced or

compulsory labor, including forced or compulsory recruitment of children

for use in armed conflict;

(B) the use, procuring or offering of a child for prostitution, for the

production of pornography or for pornographic purposes;

(C) the use, procuring, or offering of a child for illicit activities in particular

for the production and trafficking of drugs; and

(D) work, which, by its vature or the circumstances in which it is carried out,

is likely to harm the health, safety or morals of children.5
5

6 The International Standard Classification of Education was designed by UNESCO to serve as an instrument suitable

for assembling, compiling, and presenting statistics of education both within individual countries and internationally.

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, International Standard Classification of Education,

ISCED 1997, (UNESCO, 1997): 16-22; available from http://portal.unesco.org/uis/TEMPLATE/pdf/isced/

ISCED_A.pdf.

7 UNESCO, Education for All: Year 2000 Assessment [CD-ROM], (Paris, 2001).

8 Ibid.

9 Compulsory education refers to the number of years or the age-span during which children and youth are legally

obliged to attend school. UNESCO, Education for All 2000 Assessment: Statistical Document, (Nimes: UNESCO

Publishing, 2000), Appendix.

B. Levels and Types of Education

1. Pre-Primary Education (ISCED Level 06)

Pre-primary education refers to the introduction of very young children, approximately the age of 3,

to a school-like setting. The aim of such programs is to provide socialization, encourage

independence, and build upon motor and cognitive skills. The characteristics that define the

difference between childcare and pre-primary education are “the educational character of the

program; whether it is based at a school or specially equipped center; staff qualifications; and the

age-range of the children catered for.”7

Programs for children aged 2 years and below do not qualify as pre-primary education, and the

upper age limit is determined by the entry age of primary education.8

2. Primary Education (ISCED Level 1)

According to UNESCO, primary education, sometimes called elementary education, refers to

educational programs that are normally designed on a unit or project basis to give children a sound

basic education in reading, writing and mathematics along with an elementary understanding of

other subjects such as history, geography, natural science, social science, art and music. Sometimes

religious instruction is also provided in primary education programs. These subjects help develop a

child’s ability to obtain and use information needed about their homes, community, country, etc.

The entry age for primary education usually varies between five and seven years. In countries with

compulsory education laws, primary education generally constitutes the first cycle of compulsory

education.9

3. Secondary Stage of Basic Education (ISCED Level 2)

This stage, which is more commonly called Lower Secondary Education, is designed to complete

the development of basic skills and knowledge. In many countries the secondary stage of basic
6

10 Ibid.

11 International Standard Classification of Education, 16-22.

12 Ibid.

13 Ibid. There is no standard definition of “basic education” for the collection of data. According to UNESCO, basic

learning needs comprise both essential learning tools (such as literacy) and basic learning content (such as the

knowledge, skills, values and attitudes) required by human beings to develop their full capacities, to live and work in

dignity, to participate fully in development, to improve the quality of their lives, to make informed decisions and to

continue learning.

14 Ibid.

education lays the foundation for lifelong learning and individual development. The programs at

this level are usually organized by subject, requiring specialized teachers for each subject area. The

end of this level often coincides with the end of compulsory education.10

4. Upper Level Secondary Education (ISCED Level 3)

Upper level secondary education typically begins at the end of the full-time compulsory education

for those countries that have a system of compulsory education. This level often is characterized by

more specialization than ISCED level 2 and often teachers need to be more qualified or specialized

than for ISCED level 2. The entry age for this level is typically age 15 or 16.11

5. Tertiary Education

Tertiary education provides a curriculum with more advanced content than that found at the secondary level, and requires at least three years of study before a degree is awarded.12 Those who wish to

participate in tertiary programs face the requirement of the successful completion of

secondary school.

6. Basic Education

According to UNESCO, basic education refers to a range of educational activities that take place in

different settings and that aim to meet the basic learning needs as defined in 1990 in the World

Declaration on Education for All. Basic education comprises both formal schooling (primary and

sometimes lower secondary) as well as a wide variety of non-formal and informal public and

private educational activities offered to meet the defined basic learning needs of groups of people of

all ages.13

7. Formal Education

Formal education is education provided in a system of schools, colleges, universities or other

educational institutions that normally constitutes a continuous “ladder” of full-time education for

children and young people, usually beginning at age five, six, or seven and continuing up to 20 or

25 years of age.14
7

15 Ibid.

16 Education for All 2000 Assessment.

17 World Development Indicators 2002 (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 2002): 307.

18 SIPRI, Sources and Methods for the SIPRI Military Expenditure Data [cited September 11, 2002]; available from

http://projects.sipri.org/milex/mex_sources.html.

8. Non-Formal Education

Non-formal education refers to any organized and sustained educational activities that do not

correspond to the definition of formal education. Non-formal education may take place inside or

outside educational institutions and may cater to persons of all ages. It may cover educational

programs to impart adult literacy, basic education for out-of-school children, life-skills, work skills

and general culture. Non-formal education programs do not necessarily follow the ladder system,

may not have varying durations and may or may not confer certification of the learning achieved.15

C. Expenditures and Financial Terms

1. Public Expenditure on Education

This figure includes current and capital expenditures on education by local, regional and national

governments, including municipalities. Current expenditures are for goods and services consumed

within the current year, such as the salaries and fringe benefits of teachers, contracted and purchased goods, including school books and teaching materials, school transportation, medical service, telecommunications, rent for school buildings and other similar costs. Capital expenditures

are for assets that last longer than one year, such as outlays for the construction, renovation, major

repair of school buildings and expenditures for new or used heavy equipment and vehicles.

Household contributions are normally excluded from public expenditures.16

2. Military Expenditures

The definition of military expenditure is generally based on the NATO definition that covers current

and capital defense spending, including recruiting, training, construction, and the purchase of

military supplies and equipment.17 The Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI)

has provided a more detailed definition of military expenditure:

All current and capital expenditure on: (a) the armed forces, including peacekeeping forces;

(b) defense ministries and other government agencies engaged in defense projects; (c)

paramilitary forces, when judged to be trained and equipped for military operations; and (d)

military space activities. Such expenditures should include: (a) military and civil personnel,

including retirement pensions of military personnel and social services for personnel; (b)

operations and maintenance; (c) procurement; (d) military research and development; and

(e) military aid (in the military expenditure of the donor country).18
8

19 The World Bank, Data and Statistics: Methodology [online], 2002, [cited September 9, 2002]; available from

http://www.worldbank.org/data/aboutdata/working-meth.html [hard copy on file].

20 Ibid.

Civilian-type expenditures for activities such as veterans’ benefits, demobilization, and conversion

and weapon deconstruction are not included.

3. Gross National Income

Gross national income is the sum of gross value-added by all resident producers plus any product

taxes (less subsidies) that are not included in the valuation of output plus net receipts of income

from abroad.19

4. Gross Domestic Product

Gross domestic product is the sum of gross value-added by all resident producers in the economy

plus any product taxes and minus any subsidies not included in the value of the products. It is

calculated without making deductions for depreciation of fabricated assets or for depletion and

degradation of natural resources.20

5. Concessional Financing

Concessional financing is financing provided on terms that are below market interest rates (or at

zero interest rates).

6. Investment Loans

These types of loans by the World Bank are granted for projects that help build or reinforce

infrastructure that aids in poverty eradication. Sectoral loans in education are one example of

investment loans.

7. Adjustment Loans

Adjustment loans by the World Bank are more rapid disbursement instruments intended to support

more immediate policy and institutional reforms.

8. The International Financial Institutions

The term “International Financial Institutions (IFIs),” as used in this report, refers to a group of

donor government-supported multilateral financial institutions and includes the World Bank, the

International Monetary Fund (IMF), and four regional development banks-the Inter-American

Development Bank (IDB), the Asian Development Bank (AsDB), the African Development Bank

(AfDB), and the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD). The World Bank

and the four large regional development banks are sometimes referred to as the Multilateral

Development Banks (MDBs).
9

The MDBs all share a number of characteristics, including principal objectives on economic development and poverty reduction. All provide loans, equity investment, and technical assistance and

advice to member countries. Although there are no formal consultative mechanisms among or

between the MDBs, informal consultations take place, and most policy decisions follow the lead of

the World Bank on major issues of global significance.

The World Bank is the largest of all the MDBs. It operates on a global level and attempts to accommodate longer-term global concerns and issues in its programs and policies. In contrast, the four

regional development banks-the IDB, AsDB, AfDB, and EBRD-focus their operations on the

conditions and circumstances in the geographical areas of their operation. The EBRD, the newest

of the regional banks, differs from the others in its almost exclusive focus on private sector

development.

The IMF differs significantly from all of the other IFIs. The IMF focuses on international financial

and national macroeconomic issues and provides assistance through a variety of instruments.

Where necessary, the IMF requires policy or structural changes in return for its assistance. The

IMF does not provide loans for development or for particular projects or sectors. The IMF provides

short- to medium-term balance of payments support for countries that are experiencing financial

difficulty in meeting their international current account obligations. In recent years, the IMF has

begun to incorporate poverty reduction and social safety net considerations into its

recommendations to recipient countries.

Through their management of substantial financial resources, the IFIs are in a position to significantly affect a broad set of development issues, including those associated with education and child

labor.
10

Acronyms

AfDB African Development Bank

AfDF African Development Fund

AsDB Asian Development Bank

AsDF Asian Development Fund

CDF Comprehensive Development Framework

CEDC Children in Especially Difficult Circumstances

CSPs Country Strategy Papers

DAC Development Assistance Committee

EBRD European Bank for Reconstruction and Development

ECCD Early Childhood Care and Development

EFA Education for All

ESAF Extended Structural Adjustment Facility

ESPP Education Sector Policy Paper

FSO Fund for Special Operations

GNI Gross National Income

HIPC Heavily Indebted Poor Country

HNSDP Health and Nutrition Sector Development Program

IBRD International Bank for Reconstruction and Development

ICLP International Child Labor Program

ICSID International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes

IDA International Development Association

IDB Inter-American Development Bank

IFC International Finance Corporation

IFI International Financial Institution

IIC Inter-American Investment Corporation

ILAB Bureau of International Labor Affairs

ILO Convention 182 International Labor Organization, Convention No. 182:

Worst Forms of Child Labor

ILO-IPEC International Labor Organization, International Program on the Elimination

of Child Labor

IMF International Monetary Fund

ISCED International Standard Classification of Education

IYF International Youth Foundation

JSF Japan Special Fund
11

MDB Multilateral Development Bank

MIF Multilateral Investment Fund

MIGA Multilateral Investment Guaranty Agency

MOU Memorandum of Understanding

NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization

NGO Nongovernmental Organization

NTF Nigeria Trust Fund

RETA Regional Technical Assistance Project

OCR Ordinary Capital Resources

OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development

PETI Brazil’s Child Labor Eradication Program

PRGF Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility

RMCs Regional Member Countries

SAARC South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation

SIPRI Stockholm International Peace Research Institute

SPSDP Social Protection Sector Development Program

SPTF Social Progress Trust Fund

TASF Technical Assistance Special Fund

UN United Nations

UNDP United Nations Development Program

UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund

USAID United States Agency for International Development

USDOL United States Department of Labor

WHO World Health Organization
13

21 Michael P. Todaro and Stephen C. Smith, Economic Development, 8th ed., (New York: Addison Wesley, 2003).

22 While the Congressional language called for 2001 data to be included, that data is currently unavailable.

23 Not all indicators have data for all years during the specified period. Please see specific tables in Appendix A for the

years of available data.

24 Informal activities of any kind, including those related to education, are very difficult to capture statistically due to

definitional issues, such as determining which informal activities can be considered educational. Further challenges are

issues of measurement, such as how data can be collected once a definition is agreed upon universally. Data using a

“basic education” indicator is thus not available.

Part One:

Government Expenditures on Education and Military

Protecting a nation’s citizens, increasing the distribution of basic “life-sustaining” goods, raising

the quality of life through higher incomes, providing education and access to labor markets, and

expanding the availability of social and economic choices of individuals are all important to caring

for the health and development of a nation.21 The need for human and social capital has become

increasingly evident as a key to national development. However, despite decades of experience no

universal guaranteed path to foster national development has been established. While there are

some common factors that affect the likelihood of success of development schemes, such as investing in education, the diversity among developing countries calls for a unique approach in each

situation. This section presents data on government expenditures for national defense and education over the period from 1990 to 200022 for the 73 countries referenced in this report based on

available data.23

A. Data on Education and Military Expenditures by National

Governments

The figures in this section present data on the amounts spent by national governments on both

education and defense as a percentage of the country’s gross national product or income (GNP or

GNI) and central government expenditures. The purpose of this data is not to derive a correlation

between education expenditure, defense spending, and child labor, but instead to show how resources are allocated in countries mentioned in ILAB’s previous child labor reports. The data does

not necessarily suggest the priorities of central governments, but they can be used to illustrate the

spending decisions made in approximately the past decade.

Data on basic education, as requested in the Congressional mandate, is not available. The term

basic education, by definition, comprises both formal schooling and informal educational activities,

and the informal activities in particular are difficult to capture statistically (see Box 2 and Glossary

of Terms).24
14

Box 2: What is Basic Education?

[Basic education] is not a fixed or clearcut concept and countries [are] advised...to determine

their own definition. Most but by no means all have chosen to restrict ‘basic’ to primary

schooling, meaning the first stage of formal schooling-which so many have yet to attain.

‘Basic’, in an increasing number of countries, however, now connotes not only early childhood

care and education and primary schooling. In some it now encompasses junior secondary

schooling and in others it extends to a full secondary education. China, for example, is shifting the focus for much of the country from primary school to the nine year compulsory school,

preceded by a variety of early childhood care and education programmes. The National

Education Guidelines and Framework Law in Brazil in 1996 defined the whole system from

day care provision to the end of secondary schooling as ‘basic’. In Nigeria, ‘basic’ education

refers to early childhood care and pre-primary education, primary schooling and the first three

years of secondary. Throughout Europe, North America and Australasia, Japan and parts of

South Asia, ‘basic’ includes both primary and secondary levels. In a small but growing number of countries, some kind of post secondary or tertiary education is almost becoming ‘basic’

in that it is seen as a foundation for working life or further studies for all youth. There are

moves to incorporate all levels and forms of education within a framework of ‘lifelong learning for all’. These require a reconsideration of just what is best taught and learned in

 childhood and youth, as a foundation for continuing learning...

‘Basic’ in this Report refers to competencies, knowledge, attitudes, values and

motivations that are deemed necessary in order for people to become fully literate and to have

developed the educational foundations for a lifelong learning journey. Basic education

commences at birth and may be achieved through either formal or non-formal means and

agencies. Competencies, skills and substantive learnings defined as basic, when provided for

in schools and similar institutions, are usually cast in the form of a core curriculum which

while it includes and builds on literacy includes numeracy, social and scientific knowledge,

physical and health education and the arts and crafts. Dimensions like visual and aural literacy and oracy-in a world where multi-media are pervasive-are no less ‘basic’ than verbal and

numerical skills. In short, the four ‘Delors pillars’-learning to know; learning to do; learning

to live together; learning to be-are all basic. (J. Delors et al. 1996. Learning: the Treasure

Within. Report to UNESCO of the International Commission on Education for the

Twenty-first Century. Paris, UNESCO Publishing, 1996)

The length and nature of schooling that have been defined as ‘basic’ by countries vary: from a

bare minimum of 3-4 years of primary school to a nine year school, or completion of full

secondary schooling. Programmes and campaigns of adult literacy are an example of

non-formal basic education, as are community health campaigns, parental education in child

care and educational campaigns conducted through the mass media. ‘Basic’ with reference to

these minimum levels, should be treated as the very early stages of a process that needs to

continue and grow.

SOURCE: Education for All 2000 Assessment: Global Synthesis (Paris: UNESCO, 2000): 16-17.
15

25 UNESCO, EFA Global Monitoring Report 2002: Is the World on Track?) Paris: UNESCO Publishing, 2002.

26 U.S. State Department, Angola, Country Report on Human Rights Practices - 2001, March 4, 2002 [cited October

17, 2002]; available from http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2001/af/8217.htm; U.S. State Department, Burma,

Country Report on Human Rights Practices - 2001, March 4, 2001 [cited October 17, 2002]; available from http://

www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2001/eap/8260.htm; U.S. State Department, Ethiopia, Country Report on Human Rights

Practices - 2001, March 4, 2002 [cited October 17, 2002]; available from http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2001/af/

8372.htm.

Because many of the referenced countries in this report lack data on primary and secondary education, most of the analysis focuses on total education expenditures. Even though the proportion of

central government budgets devoted to primary education is a better marker for a country’s commitment to universal primary education,25 total education spending also gives a sense of the priority

placed on education. Appendix A provides more detailed data on education expenditures by level

of education. In addition, while data on military and education spending as a percentage of GNI

are more available compared to expenditures as a percentage of central government budgets, this

discussion concentrates more on the latter. Public expenditures as a percentage of central

government budgets provide a better indicator of the priority placed on different services.

Figures 1.1 and 1.2 illustrate the general groupings of how countries allocate resources to either

military or education. A 45 degree line is drawn on both graphs to depict the respective allocations

of the countries referenced in this report where the data are available. Countries who fall above the

45 degree line generally devote more resources to the military compared to education, and countries

who fall below the 45 degree line generally devote more resources to education compared to the

military.

Figure 1.1 demonstrates that military spending as a percentage of GNI is not particularly higher

than education spending in most countries. It also shows that most countries spend roughly similar

amounts on total education and military spending, with the exception of Angola, Ethiopia, and

Burma, three countries that have vastly greater military spending versus total education spending.

Each of these countries is currently experiencing instability with either external or internal threats

to the federal government,26 which may explain why these countries are outliers when compared to

the others shown in the figure.
16

Figure 1.1. Total Education Spending and Military Expenditures as a Percentage of

GNI for Selected Referenced Countries

Figure 1.2. Total Education Spending and Military Expenditures as a Percentage of

Central Government Expenditure for Selected Referenced Countries

NOTES: The line on the graph is drawn to represent a 45 degree angle and is not a regression line.

Refer to regional tables in Appendix A for the most recent year of data collected for each country.

Countries with the available data are featured in this figure.

NOTES: The line on the graph is drawn to represent a 45 degree angle and is not a regression line.

Refer to regional tables in Appendix A for the most recent year of data collected for each country.

Countries with the available data are featured in this figure.
17

Comparisons of expenditures as a percentage of central government budgets shows more variation

between the amounts devoted to military versus education (see Figure 1.2). Table 1.1 also shows

the differences in resource allocations on education and the military across countries and among

regions. For the most part, total education receives a greater share of central government budgets

than the military. Many of the countries referenced in this report devote less than 10 percent of

their national budget to military, while a majority of the countries spend between 10 and 20 percent

of their budget on education.

For countries that spend more than 20 percent of their central government budgets on education, it

is important to note that primary education usually receives a smaller share of the total education

budget. It is also important to note that patterns of education spending in many developing countries often favor personnel costs compared to funds devoted for school improvement and operating

expenses. The remainder of the analysis looks at the amounts spent on education and the military

as a percentage of central government budgets by region.
18

Table 1.1. Total Education and Military Expenditures as a Percentage of Central

Government Budgets for Referenced Countries

Share of Central Government Budgets Allocated to Total Education

Education receives less than

10% of central

government budget

Africa

Education receives between

10% and 20% of central

government budget

Education receives more than

20% of central

government budget

Cameroon, Equatorial

Guinea, Sudan

Angola, Benin, Burkina Faso,

Burundi, Congo (Brazzaville),

Egypt, Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya,

Lesotho, Madagascar, Mauritania,

Mozambique, Nigeria, Tanzania,

Zambia

Botswana, Cote d’Ivoire,

Morocco, South Africa, Senegal,

Togo, Uganda

Asia and the Middle East

Bangladesh, Cambodia, Indonesia,

Laos, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Vietnam

Burma, China, India, Mongolia,

Nepal, Syria, United Arab Emirates

Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand

Europe and Central Asia

Bulgaria Romania, Turkey

Latin America and the Caribbean

Nicaragua, Paraguay Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil,

Colombia, Dominican Republic,

Ecuador, El Salvador, Haiti,

Honduras, Panama, Guatemala

Costa Rica, Mexico, Peru,

Share of Central Government Budgets Allocated to Military

Military receives less than

10% of central

government budget

Military receives between

10% and 20% of central

government budget

Military receives more than

20% of central

government budget

Africa

Benin, Botswana, Burkina Faso,

Congo (Brazzaville), Cote d’Ivoire,

Egypt, Ghana, Kenya, Lesotho,

Madagascar, Mozambique, Nigeria,

South Africa, Senegal, Togo,

Zambia

Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea,

Mauritania, Morocco, Tanzania,

Uganda

Angola, Burundi, Ethiopia, Sudan

Asia and the Middle East

Indonesia, Malaysia, Mongolia,

Nepal, Philippines, Thailand

Bangladesh, India, Laos,

Sri Lanka, Vietnam

Burma, Cambodia, China, Pakistan,

Syria, United Arab Emirates

Europe and Central Asia

Albania, Bulgaria, Romania Turkey

Latin America and the Caribbean

Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Costa Haiti

Rica, Dominican Republic, El

Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras,

Mexico, Mongolia, Nicaragua,

Panama, Paraguay

Colombia, Ecuador, Peru

NOTES: Refer to regional tables in Appendix A for most recent year of data collected for each country.

Countries with the available data are featured in this table.
19

27 Angola, Country Report; Burma, Country Report; Ethiopia, Country Report.

SOURCE: Table A.1 in Appendix A in this volume.

NOTES: See Table A.1 for the most recent year of data collected for each country.

1. Africa

Most of the countries in Africa spend between 10 and 20 percent of their central government budget

on education, with more of the countries spending less than 10 percent on the military. Angola,

Burundi, Ethiopia, and Sudan spend more than 20 percent on the military, and have much higher

allocations to the military compared to education. For example, Angola spends 40.1 percent of the

central government budget on military compared to 10.7 percent of total education. Instability due

to either external or internal issues is the likeliest reason why some countries are outliers.27

Figure 1.3. Education and Military Expenditures as a Percentage of Central

Government Expenditure, Referenced Countries in Africa
20

Data on military expenditures are missing for Comoros and Somalia, and data on education expenditures are missing for the Democratic Republic of Congo (Brazzaville), Gabon, Mali, Rwanda,

Somalia, and Zimbabwe.
21

SOURCE: Table A.2 in Appendix A in this volume.

NOTES: Refer to Table A.2 for the most recent year of data collected for each country.

Figure 1.4. Education and Military Expenditures as a Percentage of Central

Government Expenditure, Referenced Countries in Asia and the Middle East

28 Burma has an authoritarian military regime, which accounts for its high levels of military spending. See, Burma,

Country Report.

2. Asia and the Middle East

Education spending as a percentage of the central government budget of the countries in Asia and

the Middle East range between 7.4 percent in Vietnam to 25.2 percent in Malaysia. While the

countries in Asia are fairly evenly distributed among military spending, more of the countries in this

region spend more than 20 percent of the central government budget on the military. Burma is a

major outlier spending 93.6 percent of its central government budget on the military.28 Data on

military and education expenditures are missing for Afghanistan.
22

3. Europe

Education spending in the three countries of Bulgaria, Romania, and Turkey ranges between 4.7

percent and 13.9 percent. Military spending is not considerably higher, and ranges from 4.5 percent

in Albania to 13.9 percent in Turkey. Data on total education expenditures are missing for Albania.

Figure 1.5. Education and Military Expenditures as a Percentage of Central

Government Expenditure, Referenced Countries in Europe

SOURCE: Table A.3 in Appendix A in this volume.

NOTES: Refer to Table A.3 for the most recent years of data collected for each country.
23

4. Latin America and the Caribbean

Most of the countries in Latin America and the Caribbean allocate between 10 and 20 percent of

their central government budget to total education, with a majority of the countries spending less

than 10 percent on the military. Military spending for countries such as Colombia, Ecuador, Peru

and Haiti range between 12.3 percent and 20.1 percent. Data on military and education

expenditures are missing for Cuba.

SOURCE: Table A.4 in Appendix A in this volume.

NOTES: Refer to Table A.4 for the most recent year of data collected for each country.

Figure 1.6. Education and Military Expenditures as a Percentage of Central

Government Expenditure, Referenced Countries in Latin America and the Caribbean
24

29 World Bank, World Development Indicators 2002, (Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group, 2002).

30 UNESCO Institute for Statistics, “UIS Mission” [cited September 11, 2002]; available from http://www.unesco.org.

B. Sources and Limitation of Data

1. Sources of Information

Data presented in Appendix A on education spending and military expenditures were obtained from

the World Bank’s World Development Indicators 2002 (WDI 2002) or the UNESCO Institute for

Statistics (UIS).

The WDI 2002 is an annual compilation by the World Bank on development data gathered from

several international and government agencies and private and nongovernmental organizations

around the world. The WDI 2002 includes over 800 indicators on topics in the following six areas:

world view, people, environment, economy, states and markets, and global links. There are 85

tables covering the six categories with basic indicators on 224 countries.29

The UIS was created in 1999 to provide member states statistics on education, science and technology, culture, and communication. The Institute collects statistics from across the world to inform

policy development on education and analyze program efficiency.30

a. Education Expenditures

Data on education finance indicators are taken from both the WDI 2002 and UIS. Statistics on

education expenditure for primary, secondary, and total education are reported as a percentage of a

country’s GNI and central government spending for the period between 1990 and 1999. The proxy

indicators for basic education in this report are primary and total secondary education, and

Appendix A provides data on education expenditures.

b. Military Expenditures

Data on military expenditures come from U.S. Department of State’s Bureau of Verification and

Compliance that are extracted from the WDI 2002. Statistics on military expenditure are reported

as a percentage of a country’s GNI and central government spending for the period between 1990

and 1999.

2. Limitations of Data

While the data presented in this section and Appendix A represent the most current and verifiable

available, they must be considered concurrently with several limitations. For both education and

military expenditures, issues of data consistency, comparability, and quality cannot be easily resolved. The collection of both types of data relies heavily on information supplied by individual

countries’ federal governments, and is thus not always available. While many countries devote

considerable resources to the collection of data, others do not have the infrastructure or technical
25

31 Education for All 2000 Assessment, 4-5.

32 Ibid.

33 SIPRI, “Sources and methods for the SIPRI military expenditure data,” [cited October 10, 2002]; available from

http://projects.sipri.se/milex/mex_sources.html.

34 The Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI) has provided a more detailed definition of military

expenditure. Military expenditure data include all current and capital expenditure on: (a) the armed forces, including

peacekeeping forces; (b) defense ministry and other government agencies engaged in defense projects; (c) paramilitary

forces, when judged to be trained and equipped for military operations; and (d) military space activities. Such

expenditures should include: (a) military and civil personnel, including retirement pensions of military personnel and

social services for personnel; (b) operations and maintenance; (c) procurement; (d) military research and development;

and (e) military aid (in the military expenses of the donor country). Excluded are civil defense and current

expenditures on previous military activities, such as for veterans’ benefits, demobilization, conversion and weapon

destruction. This definition can be found in “Sources and methods.”

35 “Sources and methods”; World Development Indicators 2002.

36 “Sources and methods.”

37 Ibid.

capacity necessary to undertake such an endeavor, and can sometimes contribute only a limited

amount of information.31 Since this particular study encompasses 73 countries, including many that

are in the early stages of development, lack of data is a recurring issue for both types of statistics

presented.

Another challenge in data comparison relies on how countries define their indicators. Countries

may define education level and expenditure indicators differently, which creates comparability

problems between countries. This problem has been somewhat circumvented due to advances

made in the last decade, since UNESCO now takes an active role in consistent data collection in

numerous countries based on pre-determined definitions.32

Comparability continues to be an issue in terms of military expenditure. The Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), a clearinghouse for international military data, notes that

there is no universally applicable definition for military spending.33 Thus, while the World Bank

and SIPRI have both adopted a definition based on NATO’s defense expenditure definition,34 this

definition cannot be applied to all countries.35 The data is therefore not comparable between

countries that use their own definitions of defense expenditure and those that follow NATO’s

definition. SIPRI notes that military definitions continue to be inconsistent, requiring that datasets

be constantly, and often extensively, revised.36 SIPRI also notes “military expenditure data are not

suitable for close comparison between individual countries and are more appropriately used for

comparisons over time.”37

While the data presented in this section does demonstrate the difference between military and

education spending that is required for this report, any statistical interpretation and conclusions that

are drawn from these data must be made with caution and awareness of possible

inconsistencies.
27

38 A detailed description of the IFI’s creation and policies can be found in Appendix B of this volume.

39 The referenced countries are the 73 countries mentioned in the first seven ILAB reports on international child labor

issues; see Box 1 in the introductory chapter.

40 Appendix F, which is available upon request, contains detailed source loan and grant information obtained from the

World Bank, AfDB, AsDB, and the IDB that form the basis for the summary tables in Appendix C and figures

presented in this chapter.

41 The Education for All (EFA) initiative was launched at the 1990 World Conference on Education for All, which was

held in Jomtien, Thailand, and sponsored by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization

(UNESCO), the United Nations International Children’s Fund (UNICEF), the United Nations Development Program

(UNDP), and the World Bank. For more information on EFA, see UNESCO, World Declaration on Education for All

[cited March 18, 2003]; available from http://www.unesco.org/education/efa/ed_for_all/background/

jomtien_declaration.shtml; UNESCO, Framework for Action: Meeting Basic Learning Needs [cited March 18, 2003];

available from http://www.unesco.org/education/efa/ed_for_all/background/07Bpubl.shtml; see also, UNESCO’s home

page for Education for All [cited March 18, 2003]; available from http://www.unesco.org/education/efa/index.shtml.

The Conclusion of this report also provides a brief discussion of EFA and its relation to child labor.

42 Under an international (formal) education classification system established by UNESCO: pre-primary education

constitutes Level 0; primary education, the first stage of basic education, constitutes Level 1; and lower secondary

education, the second stage of basic education, constitutes Level 2. For complete definitions, refer to the glossary of

this volume. International Standard Classification of Education, ISCED 1997.

Part Two:

Multilateral Development Bank Policies, Strategies, and

Lending Activities Related to Basic Education and

Child Labor Related Projects

This chapter presents available information on the policies, strategies, and lending activities of the

leading Multilateral Development Bank’s (MDBs) related to improving children’s access to quality

basic education and the elimination of child labor.38 Based on information provided to ILAB by the

World Bank, the AfDB, the AsDB, and the IDB, the chapter focuses on the amount and trends of

these MDBs lending since 1989 to the 73 referenced countries.39 The discussion in this chapter

concentrates on overall levels of funding, rather than analysis or evaluation of specific programs

that have been funded by the MDBs. Appendix C of this report contains supporting detailed statistical tables that underlie the summary figures that appear in this chapter.40 Depending upon availability, the data included in this chapter generally cover the period 1989 to 2002 and are based on

either fiscal year (World Bank) or calendar years (AfDB, AsDB, and IDB).

The MDBs are aware of and are taking steps to address the international goals of universal primary

education and the elimination of gender inequity in primary and secondary schooling that were set

under the Education for All initiative in Jomtien, Thailand in 1990.41 They have generally adopted a

broad definition of “basic education,” which includes not only primary and lower secondary education, but also preschool and non-formal education (i.e., literacy, numeracy, and basic life skills

training for adults and out-of-school youth).42 However, the precise definition of “basic education”
28

43 Iqbal Kaur and Zafiris Tzannatos, “The World Bank and Children: A Review of Activities,” Social Protection

Discussion Paper Series, No. 0220, Human Development Network, Social Protection Unit, Washington, D.C., July

2002 [cited February 10, 2003]; available from http://www1.worldbank.org/sp/.

44 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, Development Assistance Committee, Shaping the 21st

Century: The Contribution of Development Cooperation, Paris, May 1996 [cited February 11, 2003] 2, 10; available

from http://www.oecd.org/pdf/M00003000/M00003334.pdf.

for a particular country usually depends on the country’s culture, level of technology and

development, and size and skill endowment of its labor force, among other factors. In many cases,

the focus of the MDBs is on programs to facilitate the successful completion of primary (elementary) school.

Most MDB-sponsored child labor related projects (e.g., social protection, children at risk, health,

poverty alleviation, and social awareness) are more indirect than the more targeted and direct

interventions or rescues supported by other UN agencies concerned specifically about child labor

issues such as the ILO and UNICEF. In recent years, some MDBs have developed more direct

intervention programs related to street children, or income or other types of support programs for

parents sending their children to school rather than work. MDBs’ strategies, programs, and funding

of child-related health, nutrition, and population projects are not covered in this report.

A. The World Bank

The World Bank addresses children’s development and protection through its broad focus on

poverty reduction, and many other specific operations in the areas of education, health, social

protection, and water. Although the World Bank’s operational lending for education and social

protection may be essential in providing an enabling environment for children’s welfare (e.g.,

increased opportunities or the reduction of child labor), the World Bank is also engaged in additional activities which indirectly benefit children, including analytical work, economic and sector

work, technical assistance, and capacity enhancement that are not covered in this report. Given the

broad mandate of the World Bank and the nature of its assistance instruments, it is often difficult to

quantify the exact amount of lending or other assistance instruments that specifically relate to

children. The most comprehensive review to date of the World Bank’s activities related to children

throughout the 1990s suggests that the World Bank has conducted more than 350 studies on

children’s issues and provided to developing countries approximately $4 billion in social protection

loans and credits, about $7 billion in education loans and credits, and another $10 billion in health

loans and credits.43 The information presented here refines, extends, and expands on this review.

1. Education Sector Initiatives

a. Policies and Strategies

The World Bank was one of the founding partners of the EFA initiative. It is committed to the

international targets of universal primary education, adult literacy, and gender parity in education,

as called for in EFA and set forth by the Development Assistance Committee (DAC) of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD).44 The World Bank’s Education Sector
29

45 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, The World Bank: Education Sector Strategy, Washington,

D.C., 1999 [cited February 10, 2003]; available from http://www1.worldbank.org/education/strategy.asp. The

Comprehensive Development Framework (CDF) is a planning process developed by the World Bank that emphasizes a

holistic approach to development, recognizing that sustainable development requires many social and structural

elements in addition to strong economic performance. World Bank Group, “Comprehensive Development Framework”

[cited February 10, 2003]; available from http://www.worldbank.org/cdf/.

46 Education Sector Strategy, 29.

47 Ibid, 29-36.

48 World Bank, A Chance to Learn: Knowledge and Finance for Education in Sub-Saharan Africa, (Washington, D.C.,

World Bank Group, February 2001).

49 World Bank, Education and Training in the East Asia and Pacific Region, (Washington, D.C., World Bank Group,

June 11, 1998).

50 World Bank, Hidden Challenges to Education Systems in Transition Economies, (Washington, D.C., World Bank

Group, September 2000).

51 World Bank, Educational Change in Latin America and the Caribbean, (Washington, D.C., World Bank Group,

December 3, 1999); World Bank, A Caribbean Education Strategy, (Washington, D.C., World Bank Group, 2000).

52 World Bank, Education in the Middle East and North Africa: A Strategy Towards Learning for Development,

(Washington, D.C., World Bank Group, 1998).

Strategy builds on these initiatives. This strategy paper is a comprehensive document that assesses

the state of education in the world, describes how the World Bank’s role in the sector has evolved,

sets out a strategy intended to guide activities and set priorities, describes these priorities, and

defines processes and principles that will assist the World Bank in more effectively engaging

educational issues. According to this strategy, the World Bank considers that the education sector is

central to its development agenda and that education plays a crucial role in its Comprehensive

Development Framework (CDF).45

The World Bank’s long-term strategic objective in the education sector as spelled out in its strategy

paper is to ensure universal access to adequate basic education that provides basic skills, including

literacy, numeracy, reasoning, and social skills. Such skills serve as the basis and foundation for

more advanced learning and work later in life. To achieve this objective, the strategy identifies four

priorities: (1) basic education; (2) early intervention; (3) innovative delivery; and (4) selected areas

of system reform.46

It helps client governments identify and implement strategies to improve access to education, with a

particular focus on reaching out to the poor and marginalized. The World Bank’s education sector

lending to client countries depends on the circumstances within each country and the types of

strategies developed in consultation between the national authorities and the World Bank. To

advance its education agenda more quickly, the World Bank has launched a two-prong global effort

in selected countries: basic education programs for girls, which target 15 countries with especially

wide gaps between boys’ and girls’ primary school enrollment rates, and basic education programs

for the poorest, which aim to accelerate primary enrollment rates in 16 sub-Saharan African countries.47

The World Bank’s Education Sector Strategy draws on regional strategies that were developed by

its regional education teams. These strategies, reflecting regional differences and circumstances,

were developed for sub-Saharan Africa,48 East Asia and the Pacific,49 Europe and Central Asia,50

Latin America and the Caribbean,51 and the Middle East and North Africa.52
30

Education sector initiatives of the World Bank’s were reviewed by the Development Committee, an

advisory body to the governors of the World Bank and the IMF, during the organizations’ annual

meetings held in September 2001. The review focused on two international development goals: (1)

the achievement of universal primary education; and (2) the elimination of gender inequalities in

education.

In a paper prepared for the Development Committee, the World Bank’s education unit emphasized

that the EFA initiative was necessary for achieving the millennium goals of dynamic and democratic countries. However, the paper acknowledged that the goal would be achievable only if it was

accompanied by increased action at the national and international levels over the next 10 years, in

conjunction with more effective coordination of the various EFA efforts. While additional resources would need to be committed, they also needed to be linked to the development of a sound

policy framework in the education sector. The paper concluded that EFA was unlikely to be

achieved by 2015 without a significant acceleration of country efforts accompanied by increased

international support.53

In response, the Development Committee directed the World Bank to develop an action plan to

accelerate progress in the education sector. This action plan was discussed and endorsed by the

Development Committee during the April 2002 meetings of the World Bank and the IMF. According to the World Bank’s analysis, the problems associated with achieving EFA by 2015 are greater

than originally anticipated and there is an urgent need to address four areas in order to accelerate

progress. These areas are: data collection; policy development; institutional capacity building; and

financing. Overall, the World Bank estimates that achieving EFA by 2015 would require that the 47

countries with the lowest primary school completion rates would need to increase annual education

spending from $7.4 billion to $16.4 billion. While a number of these countries would be able to

raise some of the necessary funds from domestic sources, the World Bank estimates a gap would

remain of between $2.5 billion and $5 billion per year that would require external financing.54

The World Bank’s action plan initially proposed that about 10 countries be selected for a “fasttrack” program of increased and immediate support to help generate an early demonstration effect

53 World Bank, Education for Dynamic Economies: Accelerating Progress Towards Education For All (EFA),

(Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group, Fall 2001). The Joint Ministerial Committee of the Boards of Governors of the

Bank and Fund on the Transfer of Real Resources to Developing Countries, better known as the Development

Committee, consists of 24 members, usually ministers of finance or development, and is the main policy making body

of the World Bank and the IMF on development issues.

54 World Bank, Education for Dynamic Economies: Action Plan to Accelerate Progress Towards Education for All,

(Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group, April 2002): 10, 13, 18.
31

for possible replication on a broader basis.55 The Development Committee urged the World Bank to

continue to work together with UNESCO and called on all countries to give priority to achieving

the goal of universal primary education completion by 2015, as well as making progress toward the

elimination of gender disparities in primary and secondary school enrollment by 2005. The Development Committee further committed to work on this issue and provides additional resources

necessary for achieving these objectives.56

Subsequently, the World Bank increased the number of countries for its fast track program, and, on

June 12, 2002, invited 23 countries to join the EFA Fast Track.57 According to the World Bank, the

countries invited to join the program account for 67 million of the school-age children who have

never been in a classroom.58

On November 27, 2002, the World Bank, UNESCO, and other international donors announced that

they had agreed to work initially under the EFA Fast Track Initiative with 7 countries (Burkina

Faso, Guinea, Guyana, Honduras, Mauritania, Nicaragua, and Niger) and fund a program costing an

estimated $400 million between 2003 and 2005. The program will help children unable to attend

school or who would otherwise leave school early as well as provide training for new teachers, pay

teachers’ salaries, build new schools, help education systems respond to HIV/AIDS, and put in

place other steps to ensure a quality primary education for all children.59

In the 1998 Replenishment Agreement for the International Development Association (IDA), donor

country members reaffirmed the international development community’s commitment to achieving

universal primary education by 2015.60 In this agreement, World Bank donors called on the IDA to

focus its efforts on four key areas: (1) investing in people; (2) promoting broad-based growth; (3)

supporting good governance; and (4) protecting the environment. Under the portion of the agreement on investing in people, donors included completion of primary education so “...that children

55 Ibid, 22.

56 World Bank, “Communiqué of the Development Committee,” Washington, D.C., April 21, 2002.

57 Eighteen countries (Albania, Bolivia, Burkina Faso, Ethiopia, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guyana, Honduras,

Mauritania, Mozambique, Nicaragua, Niger, Tanzania, Uganda, Vietnam, Yemen, and Zambia) are eligible to receive

additional financing to support their primary education programs if they prioritize primary education and adopt policies

to improve the quality and efficiency of their primary schooling systems. For the other 5 countries (Bangladesh, the

Democratic Republic of the Congo, India, Nigeria, and Pakistan)-those with the largest number of children not in

school-the World Bank and donor community plan to work with these countries to address the data, policy, and capacity

gaps that need to be resolved for EFA grant financing support. Eighteen of the 23 countries invited for the Fast Track

EFA initiative are referenced counties covered in this report.

58 World Bank, “World Bank Announces first Group of Countries for Education for All “Fast Track,” News Release No.

2002/345/S, Washington, DC., June 12, 2002.

59 World Bank, “Education for All the World’s Children: Donors Have Agreed to Help First Group of Countries on

Education Fast-Track,” Press Release No. 2003/155/HD, Washington, D.C., November 27, 2002.

60 International Development Association, Additions to IDA Resources: Twelfth Replenishment: A Strategy for Poverty

Reduction, (Washington, D.C.: International Development Association, December 23, 1998): iv.
32

61 Ibid, iv, 5.

62 Ibid, 5.

63 International Development Association, Additions to IDA Resources: Thirteenth Replenishment: Supporting Poverty

Reduction Strategies (Draft), (Washington, D.C.: International Development Association, November 20, 2001): 11.

64 International Finance Corporation, Investing in Private Education: IFCs Strategic Direction, (Washington, D.C.:

International Finance Corporation, June 2001).

65 Ibid, 12-13.

66 World Bank, Human Development Network, Education Sector Strategy, (Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group,

1999): 23-24. The World Bank reports lending data on a fiscal year basis. Their fiscal year begins on July 1 of the

preceding year and ends on June 30 of the current year (e.g., fiscal year 2000 began on July 1, 1999 and ended on June

30, 2000).

who must work do not sacrifice opportunities to learn.”61 The document emphasized the importance of education for girls and stated that this has a catalytic impact on other sectors of

development. The report also called on the IDA to include an education action plan in its Country

Assistance Strategies (CASs) and recommended that education action plans for all IDA borrowers

be prepared and updated.62

In the current draft of the Thirteenth Replenishment Agreement of IDA, donor members emphasize

the importance of education in achieving poverty reduction, and reiterate the importance of achieving universal primary education by 2015. The donor countries request that a strategy be prepared

aimed at accelerating progress and that IDA work closely with borrowing countries toward ac

hieving this goal. Again, the importance of closing the gender gap in education was emphasized.63

The International Finance Corporation (IFC), a member of the World Bank Group that provides

loans to private sector projects, also developed and released an education sector strategy in June

2001.64 This document identifies a range of potential investments in education suitable for private

sector development that would contribute to the World Bank’s overall education objectives. The

strategy separates projects into those with a higher investment probability, where the rationale for

private sector involvement is strongest, and those with lower investment probability, where further

development of the market is necessary before IFC participation becomes available. Under the first

category, the IFC includes tertiary education, technical and vocational training, technology-based

education and distance education, ancillary services, and student financing. Under the lower

investment probability part, the IFC includes early childhood schooling and primary and secondary

education.65

b. Lending for Basic Education

The World Bank claims to be the “world’s largest external funder of education,” accounting for

about 30 percent of total external financing for education to developing countries since FY1990.66

The World Bank has provided over $30 billion in education sector loans and credits for over 670

projects in developing countries since it began funding education programs in FY1963; currently, it
33

is financing 153 education projects in 79 developing countries.67 In FY2000, the World Bank made

new education sector loan or credit commitments to 20 developing countries in the amount of $1.2

billion (or about six percent of total World Bank new lending in FY2000). Since FY1963, lending

for primary education has increased both in dollar terms and as a proportion of overall education

lending. Since FY1989, lending for “basic education” projects (defined below) has grown from

about 40 percent of all education sector loans to 74 percent in FY2002 (See Figure 2.1). The World

Bank has noted that a relatively small number of countries account for a large share of its loans and

credits for education projects due to the fact that they are larger developing countries that have

well-established programs with the World Bank.68

Figure 2.1. World Bank Education Sector Lending, Total and For Basic Education,

Fiscal Years 1963-2002

SOURCE: Table C.1 in Appendix C of this volume.

67 World Bank, “10 Things You Never Knew About the World Bank” [cited February 10, 2003]; available from http://

www.worldbank.org/tenthings/one.htm. The number and amount of loans or credits currently financed is much larger

than the number and amount of new loan or credit commitments each fiscal year since the loans and credits normally

extend over a number of years.

68 Education Sector Strategy, 23-24.

In pursuing its education agenda, the World Bank considers that funding for the education sector

should be treated as an integrated whole. While the World Bank is increasing its focus on basic

education (which it defines as primary and lower-level secondary), it continues to support projects

in other education sub-sectors, such as upper-level secondary and tertiary education, training and

research support for teachers and school administrators, and system-wide education delivery and
34

69 World Bank, “Education: More for Primary Education . . . within a holistic approach” [cited February 11, 2003];

available from http://www1.worldbank.org/education/primary.asp. See also Education Sector Strategy, 23-24.

70 The World Bank sector definitions used in this report are based on the “old” sector definitions (based on the kinds of

issues, topics, or activities falling under a sector) used by the World Bank to classify lending projects until the

introduction of “new” sector definitions (based on the part of the economy supported by the World Bank intervention)

that were introduced on July 5, 2002. Under the new system, a project may now be classified into up to five sectors

with each sector being assigned a percentage. See, World Bank, The World Bank Annual Report 2002 (Vol. 1),

Washington D.C., [cited February 13, 2003] 26; available from http://www.worldbank.org/annualreport/2002/pdf/

WBAR2002Vol1.pdf; World Bank, OPCS Advisory Service, Measuring Thematic and Sector Alignment, (Washington,

D.C.: World Bank Group, August 23, 2002).

71 Thus, the projects included in this report are not inclusive of all education activities if the projects do not fall under

the Education Sector. For example, projects focusing on rural development that have an education component would

not be included in the amounts presented in this report.

72 P. Tzannatos, Adviser to Managing Director at the World Bank, E-mail communication, October 11 2002 [on file].

administrative improvements. It believes that improvements in these areas will have a direct and

positive impact on the quality of education at all levels.69

The World Bank provided data for this report on all education sector lending (IBRD loans and IDA

credits) for project commitments made from FY1989 through FY2002.70 Total commitments for

each project were distributed among the following sub-sector categories: Pre-Primary; Primary;

Secondary-Vocational; Secondary-General; University; Science and Technology; Polytechnic;

Technical Institute; Teacher Training; Labor Market/Social Security and Employment; Institutional

Development; and Other. In addition, the World Bank provided an estimate of the amount of each

loan or credit going to “basic education.”

While the customary definition of “basic education” used by the World Bank is primary plus lower

secondary, an expanded definition was used by the World Bank at the request of ILAB in a special

tabulation provided for this report. In this tabulation, the definition of “basic education” was

expanded to correspond more closely to the non-formal and lifelong learning aspects mentioned in

UNESCO’s International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED 1997) definition of basic

education. According to the ISCED 1997, basic education roughly includes primary education and

pre-primary education as well as literacy and numeracy programs for adults, and non-formal education within or outside the school system. The adult and non-formal education programs which fall

under this definition of “basic education” are similar in content to programs in primary education

for those considered too old to enter elementary schools and that require no previous formal education. In addition, the ISCED 1997 definition includes lower secondary education and teacher

training as well as special needs education programs and all adult education that is similar in

content to the education given at this level, e.g., the education that provides adults the basic skills

necessary for further learning. The data presented in the World Bank’s tabulation prepared for

ILAB include lending operations (investment and adjustment) assigned to the Education Sector

board and exclude those projects that do not fall directly under the Education Sector.71 Thus,

adjustment loans not mapped to the Education Sector that may have conditionality pertaining to

Education Sector are not reported in the tabulation.72
35

Practically speaking in implementing this definition, the World Bank staff included in most cases

under “basic education” the sum of the following loan components: Pre-Primary; Primary;

Secondary-Vocational; part (half) of Secondary-General; and Teacher Training. For loans or credits

explicitly designated for basic education in the project description, the entire amount was placed

under “basic education.” In general, no part of any education sector adjustment loan or credit was

allocated to “basic education.”

Since World Bank education sector loans and credits are for substantial amounts for longer-term

major projects or programs and are for a variety of projects based on the needs of borrowing countries, commitments are not generally made every year to a country for these purposes. Thus, the

focus of this review will be on cumulative lending over the period FY1989 to FY2002.

World Bank education sector loans and credits for all types of education projects totaled $21.9

billion for 327 projects over the period FY1989 through FY2002. Twenty percent of the value of

all lending went to countries in Africa, 42 percent to countries in Asia, 6 percent to countries in

Europe, and 32 percent to countries in Latin America and the Caribbean (See Figure 2.2). Seventy

percent of all education sector lending over this period ($15.4 billion) went to 242 projects that

contained some aspects related to improving access to basic education, most of which ($11.7

billion) went towards specific basic education programs.

Figure 2.2. Share of World Bank Total Education Sector Lending to All Countries by

World Region, Total, FY1989-FY2002

The referenced countries together generally accounted for over 80 percent of the value of all World

Bank education sector loans and credits over the period FY1989 to FY2002. Total World Bank

education sector loans and credits to the referenced countries amounted to $18.2 billion over this

SOURCE: Table C.2 in Appendix C of this volume.
36

period, with 18 percent going to 24 referenced countries in Africa, 46 percent to 14 referenced

countries in Asia, 3 percent to four referenced countries in Europe, and 33 percent to the 16 referenced countries in Latin America and the Caribbean (See Figure 2.3). Seventy-two percent of all

education sector loans or credits to the referenced countries over this period ($13.0 billion) went to

projects that contained some aspects related to improving access to basic education, most of which

($10.1 billion) went towards specific basic education programs in the referenced countries.

Figure 2.3. Share of World Bank Total Education Sector Lending to Referenced

Countries by World Region, Total, FY1989-FY2002

Overall, World Bank education sector lending to the referenced countries for projects with basic

education components was fairly evenly divided between IBRD loans (52 percent) and IDA credits

(48 percent) over the period. However, on a regional basis, referenced countries in Africa and Asia

received primarily IDA credits (88 percent and 67 percent, respectively) while referenced countries

in Europe and Latin America received mostly IBRD loans (96 percent and 92 percent, respectively),

reflecting the regional differences in eligibility of referenced countries for IBRD and IDA forms of

lending (See Figure 2.4).

 SOURCE: Table C.2 in Appendix C of this volume.
37

Figure 2.4. World Bank Education Sector Lending with Basic Education Components

to Referenced Countries by Region and Type of Lending (IBRD or IDA), Total

FY1989-FY2002

Of the $10.1 billion in World Bank lending that went for specific basic education programs in the

referenced countries over the period FY1989 to FY2002, most (71 percent) was for primary education programs, followed by general secondary education programs (14 percent) and teacher training

programs (8 percent); by region, these allocations for the referenced countries follow closely the

overall sub-sector allocation (See Figure 2.5).

SOURCE: Table B.2 in Appendix B of this volume.
38

SOURCE: Table C.3 in Appendix C in this volume.

Figure 2.5. World Bank Education Sector Lending for Basic Education to the

Referenced Countries by Basic Education Sub-Sector and Region, FY1989-FY2002
39

73 Annual data supporting the information in these figures can be found in Appendix C, Tables C.4a through C.4e.

Figures 2.6a through 2.6e provide information for the referenced countries by world region on

cumulative World Bank education sector lending for all education and basic education projects over

the period FY1989 to FY2002; Figure 2.6a presents a summary for the four regions and Figures

2.6b through 2.6e provide detailed information on the referenced countries in each region.73

A summary by region follows:

Figure 2.5. World Bank Education Sector Lending for Basic Education to the Referenced

Countries by Basic Education Sub-Sector and Region, FY1989-FY2002 (continued)

SOURCE: Table C.3 in Appendix C in this volume.
40

Figure 2.6a. World Bank Education Sector Lending to All Countries and the Referenced Countries by Region, Total Education Lending and Basic Education Lending,

Total FY1989-FY2002

SOURCE: Table C.4a in Appendix C of this volume.

Africa: Twenty-four referenced countries in the region accounted for $3.3 billion, or 75 percent, of

total World Bank education sector lending to the region. These countries accounted for $1.7 billion,

or 76 percent, of all lending to the region for basic education projects. (See Figure 2.6b)

Referenced countries in the region with over $100 million in cumulative total education section

lending over the period include: Côte d’Ivoire ($402 million); Egypt ($261 million); Ethiopia ($105

million); Ghana ($274 million); Kenya ($277 million); Madagascar ($104 million); Mali ($125

million); Morocco ($282 million); Mozambique ($233 million); Nigeria ($303 million); Senegal

($131 million); Tanzania ($209 million); and Uganda ($160 million). These 13 referenced countries

accounted for about 64 percent of total World Bank education sector lending to all countries in the

region, and about 86 percent of total World Bank education sector lending to all of the referenced

countries in the region.
41

Referenced countries in the region with over $50 million in cumulative education sector lending for

basic education over the period include: Egypt ($112 million); Ethiopia ($74 million); Ghana ($172

million); Madagascar ($66 million); Morocco ($206 million); Mozambique ($111 million); Nigeria

($178 million); Senegal ($61 million); Tanzania ($163 million); Uganda ($128 million); and Zambia ($64 million). These 11 referenced countries accounted for about 60 percent of total World

Bank basic education lending to all countries in the region, and about 80 percent of total World

Bank basic education lending to all of the referenced countries in the region.

Over the period, 10 referenced countries in the region (Botswana, Burundi, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Republic of the Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Sierra Leone, South Africa,

Sudan, and Zimbabwe) did not receive any World Bank education sector lending.
42

Figure 2.6b. World Bank Education Sector Loans to Referenced Countries in Africa,

Total, FY1989-FY2002

 SOURCE: Table C.4b in Appendix C in this volume.

Asia and the Middle East: Fourteen referenced countries in the region accounted for $8.2 billion,

or 88 percent, of total World Bank education sector lending to the region. These 14 countries in

turn accounted for $4.5 billion, or 94 percent, of all lending to the region for basic education

projects (See Figure 2.6c).

Referenced countries in the region with over $500 million in cumulative total education sector

lending over the period include: Bangladesh ($562 million); China ($1.1 billion); India ($2.3

billion); Indonesia ($1.6 billion); Malaysia ($551 million); and Pakistan ($956 million). These six

referenced countries accounted for about 76 percent of total World Bank education sector lending to

all countries in the region, and about 85 percent of total World Bank education sector lending to all

of the referenced countries in the region.
43

Referenced countries with over $250 million in cumulative education sector lending for basic

education over the period include: Bangladesh ($445 million); China ($435 million); India ($1.3

billion); Indonesia ($708 million); Pakistan ($747 million); and the Philippines ($316 million).

These six referenced countries accounted for about 82 percent of total World Bank basic education

lending to all countries in the region, and about 88 percent of total World Bank basic education

lending to all of the referenced countries in the region.

Over the period, four referenced countries in the region (Burma, Mongolia, Syria, and the United

Arab Emirates-a high-income member of the World Bank not eligible for World Band lending) did

not receive any World Bank education sector lending.
44

Figure 2.6c. World Bank Education Sector Loans to Referenced Countries in Asia,

Total, FY1989-FY2002

SOURCE: Table C.4c in Appendix C of this volume.

Europe and Central Asia: Four referenced countries in the region accounted for $596 million or 47

percent of total World Bank education sector lending to the region, and $403 million or 69 percent

of all lending to the region for basic education projects (See Figure 2.6d).

Referenced countries in the region with over $100 million in cumulative total education sector

lending over the period include: Romania ($170 million) and Turkey ($390 million)-these two

referenced countries accounted for about 44 percent of total World Bank education sector lending to

all countries in the region, and about 94 percent of total World Bank education sector lending to the

referenced countries in the region.
45

Referenced countries in the region with over $50 million in cumulative education sector lending for

basic education over the period include Romania ($98 million) and Turkey ($283 million). These

two referenced countries accounted for about 66 percent of total World Bank basic education

lending to all countries in the region, and about 94 percent of total World Bank basic education

lending to all of the referenced countries in the region.

Over the period, all four referenced countries in Europe received some World Bank education

sector lending.

Figure 2.6d. World Bank Education Sector Loans to Referenced Countries in Europe,

Total, FY1989-FY2002

 SOURCE: Table C.4d in Appendix C of this volume.

Latin America and the Caribbean: Sixteen referenced countries in the region accounted for $6.0

billion, or 87 percent, of total World Bank education sector lending to the region. These countries

account for $3.5 billion or 87 percent of all lending to the region for basic education projects (See

Figure 2.6e).

Referenced countries in the region with over $500 million in cumulative total education sector

lending over the period include Argentina ($675 million); Brazil ($1,799 million); and Mexico

($2,228 million). These three referenced countries accounted for about 68 percent of total World

Bank education sector lending to all countries in the region, and about 78 percent of total World
46

Bank education sector lending to all of the referenced countries in the region.

Referenced countries in the region with over $200 million in cumulative education sector lending

for basic education over the period include Argentina ($215 million); Brazil ($1,367 million); and

Mexico ($882 million). These three referenced countries accounted for about 60 percent of total

World Bank basic education lending to all countries in the region, and about 70 percent of total

World Bank basic education lending to the referenced countries in the region.

Over the period, one referenced country in the region (Cuba), not a World Bank member and

therefore ineligible for World Bank lending, did not receive any World Bank education sector

lending.

Figure 2.6e. World Bank Education Sector Loans to Referenced Countries in Latin

America and the Caribbean, Total, FY1989-FY2002

SOURCE: Table C.4e in Appendix C of this volume.
47

2. Initiatives Related to the Elimination of Child Labor

a. Policies and Strategies

The World Bank began to give greater consideration to labor issues in its development agenda with

the release of the World Development Report 1995: Workers in an Integrating World.74 This document discussed a broad range of labor topics, including child labor, as they relate to and are affected

by an increasingly integrated world economy. In 1998, the World Bank published a seminal paper,

Child Labor: Issues and Directions for the World Bank, which examined the problem of child labor,

the economic consequences of the use of child labor, and what steps the World Bank could take to

address the negative impacts of child labor.75

In May 1998, the World Bank established its Global Child Labor Program, as the focal point for

Bank-wide child labor and child protection activities, policies, and projects. The Child Labor

Program is housed in the World Bank’s Social Protection Unit,76 part of the Human Development

Network. One of the program’s main objectives is to integrate child labor issues into its activities

and to increase the impact of its work on children’s issues in its ongoing poverty reduction efforts.

The program supports various child labor and child protection projects and initiatives, including

research and analysis, studies, evaluations of child labor programs, and awareness building through

training, seminars, and information disseminated on the Bank’s web site. Policy implications

derived from these activities are fed into the World Bank’s dialogue with clients and donors. The

program draws upon the experience of international labor experts, NGOs, and bilateral and

multilateral organizations, including the ILO.77

In the Twelfth Replenishment Agreement for the International Development Association (IDA) in

1998,78 donor countries requested that the World Bank conduct a review and analysis of core labor

74 World Bank Group, World Development Report 1995: Workers in an Integrating World, (New York: Oxford University

Press, 1995).

75 Peter Fallon and Zafiris Tzannatos, Child Labor: Issues and Directions for the World Bank, (Washington D.C., World

Bank, Human Development Network, Social Protection, February 1998).

76 The World Bank’s Social Protection Unit oversees a broad collection of programs to assist individuals, households,

and communities better manage income risks that leave people vulnerable through a variety of programs and measures

to improve or protect human capital. Social protection interventions address such topics as provision of basic social

services (education, health, and sanitation), children in difficult circumstances, family and community support, capacity

and institution building, labor market reform, pension reform, unemployment insurance, and active and passive labor

market programs, among others. For more information, see World Bank, “Social Protection Overview,” [cited

September 17, 2002]; available from http://www1.worldbank.org/sp/.

77 World Bank, Child Labor and Protection: About the World Bank Global Child Labor Program, [cited September 17,

2002]; available from http://www1.worldbank.org/sp/childlabor/cpi_gclp.asp.

78 The International Development Association (IDA) is the World Bank’s concessional lending window, providing

long-term loans at zero interest rates to the world’s poorest countries.
48

standards (CLS), including child labor issues, in Country Assistance Strategies (CASs).79 The CAS

is the basic planning document used by the World Bank, from which lending programs are drawn.

In the draft Thirteenth Replenishment Agreement for the International Development Association

(IDA), donor countries reiterate their recommendation that a review of core labor standards be

included in CASs, emphasize the importance of the elimination of harmful child labor to poverty

reduction, and call on the IDA to strengthen its consultations and collaborations with international

organizations such as the ILO.80

In 1998, the International Finance Corporation (IFC)-the World Bank Group’s lending vehicle to

the private sector in member countries-adopted a policy that prohibits the use of harmful child labor

and forced labor in its projects.81 The policy also requires adherence to all domestic laws that

enforce core labor standards, including those that relate to child labor. In 2002, the IFC completed

and distributed guidelines for borrowers in the implementation of the policy. This Good Practice

Note: Addressing Child Labor in the Workplace and Supply Chain provides private-sector companies with a range of good practices that other companies have successfully used in addressing child

labor problems.82 The Multilateral Investment Guaranty Agency (MIGA), a World Bank institution

that provides political risk insurance to investors and lenders for projects in developing countries,

adopted a policy in 1998 excluding from coverage those business activities involving slave labor or

child labor that are inconsistent with internationally recognized norms.83

In 2000, the World Bank’s Executive Board approved a Social Protection Strategy Paper that

provides guidance to Bank staff on broad issues of social protection, including core labor standards.

The strategy paper discusses the negative impact of child labor, makes the case for a pro-active

engagement by the World Bank in this area, and urges continued cooperation with UNESCO and

the ILO in this effort.84

79 International Development Association, Additions to IDA Resources: Twelfth Replenishment, A Partnership for

Poverty Reduction, (Washington, D.C., November 1998): x, 18.

80 International Development Association, Additions to IDA Resources: Thirteenth Replenishment, Supporting Poverty

Reduction Strategies, Washington, D.C., November 2001[cited December 19, 2002] 10-11, 12-13, 19; available from

http://www.worldbank.org/ ida/IDA13Report.pdf.

81 International Finance Corporation, IFC Policy on Harmful Child and Forced Labor, Washington, D.C., March 1998

[cited February 10, 2003]; available from http://www.ifc.org/enviro/enviro/childlabor/childsafeguard.htm. The IFC

provides loans and equity financing for private sector projects in developing countries.

82 International Finance Corporation, Good Practice Note: Addressing Child Labor in the Workplace and Supply Chain,

(Washington, D.C.: International Finance Corporation, June 2002).

83 Multilateral Investment Guaranty Agency, MIGA Operational Regulations, Washington, D.C. [cited February 12,

2003] para. 3.08; available from http://www.miga.org/screens/about/regulations/Operations-Regulations-030115.pdf.

84 World Bank, Social Protection Strategy: From Safety Net to Springboard, (Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group,

2000): 31, 41, 43, 45, 46.
49

Partnerships with other international organizations, private foundations, nongovernmental organizations, and other international donors provide another avenue in which the World Bank addresses

children’s issues. A key partnership among the World Bank, ILO, and UNICEF-Understanding

Children’s Work Project (UCW)-builds on the complementarities of the three international

organizations in the areas of research, data collection and analysis, and evaluations of child labor

interventions.85 In another partnership with UNICEF, the World Bank supports the Changing

Minds, Policies and Lives project to promote community services for children deprived of parental

care and support systemic reform in child welfare systems in Central and Eastern Europe.86 In

collaboration with the George Soros Foundation and the King Baudouin Foundation, the World

Bank supports the Program for Children and Youth at Risk on the Streets initiative to alleviate the

problems suffered by street children in Eastern Europe.87

b. Lending for Projects Related to the Elimination of Child Labor

The World Bank’s Social Protection Unit manages a very dynamic portfolio of projects. This was

especially the case during the 1990s when world economic developments such as the restructuring

of Eastern Europe and the East Asian financial crisis brought to light the need for appropriate social

safety nets, labor market programs, and retirement schemes. From FY1992 to FY1998, World

Bank lending in the area of social protection grew six-fold and represented over

13 percent of total World Bank lending in FY1998.88 Cumulative World Bank lending for social

protection projects over the last decade (1990 to 2000) has been estimated to be nearly $11

 billion.89

There are a number of difficulties associated with separating out the exact portion of the total for

each World Bank social protection project that may be directly related to child-related activities.

For example, the World Bank has placed a greater emphasis in recent years on multi- and crosssectoral lending. Such projects are designed to address broader developmental objectives, and

frequently involve a number of components, including education and/or social protection.

85 For more information, see the project’s web site: Understanding Children’s Work, [cited February 10, 2003];

available from http://www.ucw-project.org.

86 For more information, see the project’s web site: Changing Minds, Policies, and Lives [cited February 10, 2003];

available from http://www.eurochild.gla.ac.uk/changing/.

87 For more information, see the related web sites: World Bank, Children and Youth [cited February 10, 2003];

available from http://www.worldbank.org/childrenandyouth; World Bank, Street Children [cited February 10, 2003];

available from http://www.worldbank.org/wbi/education/streetchildren/.

88 World Bank, “Social Protection Overview,” [cited September 17, 2002];

available from http://www1.worldbank.org/sp/.

89 See Iqbal Kaur and Zafiris Tzannatos, “The World Bank and Children: A Review of Activities,” Social Protection

Discussion Paper Series, No. 0220, Washington, D.C., The World Bank, Human Development Network, Social

Protection Unit, July 2002 [cited February 14, 2003] 14; available from http://wbln0018.worldbank.org/HDNet/

hddocs.nsf/c840b59b6982d2498525670c004def60/50179cfd46a5d04b85256c0c007333d8/$FILE/0220.pdf.
50

The problem of identifying child-related activities arises not only in determining what components

of social protection loans have a direct or indirect bearing on children, but also, at times, in

identifying the precise dollar amounts of the component activities related to child labor or child

protection. As a result, this study reports the total amount of the loan commitment or grant for each

project, of which the amount directed toward child labor-related activities may only be an identifiable fraction of the total project amount. For projects where it was not at all possible to identify the

part related to child labor or child protection, the loans were not included in this report. Thus, the

amounts of World Bank lending reported here for projects related to the elimination of child labor

may be understated by some undefined amount.

For this report, the following sub-categories of World Bank social protection lending for children

(i.e., lending related to the elimination of child labor) were used:90

(1) Provision of basic social services: Basic social services includes those services provided in addition to a government’s traditional health and education programs. These are

typically intended to provide protection for vulnerable groups against adverse social effects

that may arise out of economic and/or political deterioration. Such services included in this

report are: maintaining pre-school and basic education by supporting construction and the

rehabilitation of education facilities; providing support for refurbishing and equipping

existing facilities; supporting new construction for kindergartens for poor children; training

teachers; and generating employment projects that include a component for school

construction and/or rehabilitation.

(2) Provision of services for children in difficult circumstances: Services for children in

difficult circumstances encompasses those projects that finance programs targeted toward

at-risk children, which are intended to address issues associated with the institutionalization

of children and problems caused by economic and social dislocation. These services

 include rehabilitation services for at-risk youth; technical assistance in designing multisectoral programs for low-income youth, often in collaboration with NGOs and research

organizations; and improving the quality of care for at-risk youth through community-based

services.

(3) Provision of family and community-based support: Family and community-based

support includes resources to support the delivery of services for safety net programs to

assist orphans and street children, providing day care for children at risk, setting up small

group homes to provide alternative care for at-risk youth, and foster care training services.

(4) Support for capacity and institution building to implement these interventions:

Capacity and institutional building includes the strengthening of local institutions, and

providing technical assistance to local governments and community-based organizations.

90 These four sub-categories of social protection sector lending correspond to the sub-categories used in Kaur and

Tzannatos in their review of World Bank lending for child related projects. Like the Kaur and Tzannatos study, the

period of analysis for World Bank social protection lending in this study begins with FY1990 (i.e., starting July 1,

1989) instead of FY1989 due to limitations in data availability. See “The World Bank and Children: A Review of

Activities.”
51

The project amounts reported in this study are only the amounts that have been provided by the

World Bank. The World Bank’s social protection projects are often co-financed by national governments or other donors, such as NGOs, as are those in the education sector. In such cases, it is

difficult to accurately assess the share of funding actually committed to, and expended by, national

governments or NGOs. For this reason, they are not included in this study. To the extent that these

amounts are significant, the World Bank loan commitments reported here may be understated.

Cumulative World Bank social protection loans and credits for projects with child labor related

components totaled $5.1 billion for 74 projects over the period FY1990 through FY2002.91 Seventeen percent went to countries in Africa, 31 percent to countries in Asia, 16 percent to countries

in Europe, and 36 percent to countries in Latin America and the Caribbean (See Figure 2.7).

Eighty-nine percent ($4.5 billion) of this lending went towards specific child labor related

programs.

SOURCE: Table C.5 in Appendix C of this volume.

The referenced countries together accounted for over 90 percent of all World Bank social protection

loans and credits with child labor related components during the period FY1990 to FY2002.

Cumulative World Bank social protection lending with child labor related components to the referenced countries amounted to $4.6 billion for 57 projects over this period. Fifteen percent went to

12 referenced countries in Africa, 37 percent to nine referenced countries in Asia, 12 percent to

three referenced countries in Europe, and 37 percent to 10 referenced countries in Latin America

and the Caribbean (See Figure 2.8). Nearly all ($4.1 billion) of these loan and credits was

dedicated to specific child labor related projects.

91 Appendix F, available upon request, provides a listing and description of selected projects provided by the World

Bank.

Figure 2.7. Share of World Bank Social Protection Lending to All Countries with Child

Labor Related Components by World Region, Total, FY1990-FY2002
52

SOURCE: Table C.5 in Appendix C in this volume.

Overall, World Bank social protection lending to the referenced countries for projects with child

labor related components was fairly evenly divided between IBRD loans (45 percent) and IDA

credits (55 percent) over the period. However, on a regional basis referenced countries in Africa

and Asia received primarily IDA credits (97 percent and 60 percent, respectively) while referenced countries in Europe received only IBRD loans and the referenced countries in Latin

America received a fairly even mix of IBRD loans (49 percent) and IDA credits (51 percent).

Again, this reflects regional differences in the eligibility of referenced countries for IBRD and

IDA forms of lending (See Figure 2.9).

Figure 2.8. Share of World Bank Social Protection Lending to Referenced Countries

with Child Labor Related Components by World Region, Total, FY1990-FY2002
53

SOURCE: Table C.5 in Appendix C in this volume.

Of the $4.1 billion in cumulative World Bank social protection lending that went to specific child

labor related projects in the referenced countries over the period FY1990 to FY2002, most (59

percent) was for the provision of basic social services, followed by family and community-based

support (23 percent), supporting policy change and capacity building (12 percent), and services for

children in difficult circumstances (6 percent); by region, the sub-sector distribution varies

somewhat (See Figure 2.10).

Figure 2.9. World Bank Social Protection Lending with Child Labor Related Components to Referenced Countries by Region and Type of Lending (IBRD or IDA), Total,

FY1990-FY2002
54

 SOURCE: Table C.6 in Appendix C in this volume.

 SOURCE: Table C.6 in Appendix C of this volume.

Figure 2.10. World Bank Social Protection Lending to Referenced Countries with

Child Labor Related Components by Component Share of Total, by Region,

FY1990-FY2002
55

Figure 2.11 plots the level of World Bank social protection lending for child labor related programs

over the period FY1990 to FY2002. This graph shows a distinct upward trend over this period.

 SOURCE: Table C.6 in Appendix C of this volume.

 SOURCE: Table C.6 in Appendix C of this volume.

Figure 2.10. World Bank Social Protection Lending to Referenced Countries with

Child Labor Related Components by Component Share of Total, by Region,

FY1990-FY2002 (continued)
56

Figures 2.12a through 2.12e present information for the referenced countries by world region on

cumulative amount of child labor related components of all World Bank social protection lending

with child labor related components over the period FY1990 to FY2002; Figure 2.12a presents a

summary for the four regions and Figures 2.12b through 2.12e provide detailed information on the

referenced countries in each region.92 A summary by region follows:

Figure 2.11. Child Labor Related Components of World Bank Social Protection Loans

to All Countries, FY1990-FY2002

SOURCE: Table C.7a in Appendix C of this volume.

92 Annual data supporting the information in these Figures can be found in Appendix C, Tables C.7a through C.7e.
57

Africa: Twelve referenced countries in the region accounted for $640 million, or 85 percent, of

total World Bank social protection lending to the region for child labor related projects over the

period (See Figure 2.12b).

Referenced countries in the region with $60 million or more in such cumulative social protection

lending over the period include: Egypt ($141 million); Madagascar ($124 million); Nigeria ($60

Figure 2.12a. World Bank Social Protection Sector Lending to All Countries and the

Referenced Countries by Region, Total Lending with Child Labor Related Components and Total of Child Labor Related Components, Total, FY1990-FY2002

SOURCE: Table C.7a in Appendix C in this volume.
58

million); Tanzania ($60 million); and Zambia ($110 million). These five referenced countries

accounted for about 66 percent of such World Bank social protection lending to all countries in the

region, and about 77 percent of such World Bank social protection lending to referenced countries

in the region over the period.

Twenty-two referenced countries in the region-Botswana, Burkina Faso, Comoros, the Democratic

Republic of the Congo, The Republic of the Congo, Côte d’Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Ethiopia,

Gabon, Ghana, Kenya, Lesotho, Mali, Mauritania, Morocco, Mozambique, Senegal, Sierra Leone,

Somalia, South Africa, Sudan, and Zimbabwe-did not receive any World Bank social protection

lending for child labor related projects over the period.

Figure 2.12b. World Bank Social Protection Lending Child Labor Related Components

to Referenced Countries in Africa, Total, FY1990-FY2002

SOURCE: Table C.7b in Appendix C of this volume.
59

Asia and the Middle East: Nine referenced countries in the region accounted for $1.3 billion, or

about 92 percent, of total World Bank social protection lending to the region for child labor related

projects over the period (See Figure 2.12c).

Referenced countries in the region with $100 million or more in such cumulative social protection

lending over the period include: China ($122 million); India ($107 million); Indonesia ($316

million); Pakistan ($450 million); and Thailand ($193 million). These five referenced countries

accounted for about 84 percent of such World Bank social protection lending to all countries in the

region and about 93 percent of such World Bank lending to referenced countries in the region.

Nine referenced countries in the region-Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Burma, Laos, Nepal, Sri Lanka,

Syria, the United Arab Emirates, and Vietnam-did not receive any World Bank social protection

lending for child labor related projects over the period.

Figure 2.12c. World Bank Social Protection Lending with Child Labor Related

Components to Referenced Countries in Asia and the Middle East, total, FY1990-

FY2002

SOURCE: Table C.7c in Appendix C of this volume.

Europe: Three referenced countries in the region accounted for $534 million or 75 percent of

total World Bank social protection lending to the region for child labor related projects over the

period (See Figure 2.12d).

One referenced country, Turkey, received $495 million in such cumulative loans from the World

Bank. This accounted for about 69 percent of total World Bank social protection lending for child

labor related projects to all countries in the region, and about 93 percent of such World Bank

lending to referenced countries in the region over the period.
60

Figure 2.12d. World Bank Social Protection Lending with Child Labor Related

Components to Referenced Countries in Europe and Central Asia, Total, FY1990-

FY2002

 SOURCE: Table C.7d in Appendix C in this volume.

One referenced country in the region-Albania-did not receive any World Bank social protection

lending for child labor related projects over the period.

Latin America and the Caribbean: Ten referenced countries in the region accounted for $1.6

billion, or 98 percent, of total World Bank social protection lending to the region for child labor

related projects over the period (See Figure 2.12e).

Referenced countries in the region with $150 million or more in such cumulative social protection

lending over the period include: Argentina ($293 million), Colombia ($227 million), Honduras

($153 million), and Mexico ($499 million). These four referenced countries accounted for about 70

percent of such World Bank social protection lending to all countries in the region and about 72

percent of such World Bank lending to referenced countries in the region.

Seven referenced countries in the region-Brazil, Costa Rica, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Haiti,

Panama, and Paraguay-did not receive any World Bank social protection lending for child labor

related projects over the period.
61

3. Share of Total World Bank Lending for Basic Education and Social

Protection Projects with Child Labor Related Components

Of the $282.3 billion the World Bank lent to member countries over the period FY1990 to FY2002,

about four percent ($11.2 billion) funded basic education projects and about 1.6 percent ($4.5

billion) funded child labor related aspects of social protection projects. Over this period, the referenced countries received cumulative funding for basic education projects amounting to $9.8 billion

(about 3.5 percent of all World Bank lending). They also received cumulative funding for child

labor related social protection projects amounting to $4.1 billion (about 1.5 percent of all World

Bank lending). Thus, approximately $6 out of every $100 in World Bank lending over the period

FY1990 to FY2002 went for either basic education or social protection projects with child labor

related components, and the referenced countries accounted for about 85 percent of such lending

(See Figure 2.13).

Figure 2.12e. World Bank Social Protection Lending with Child Labor Related

Components to Referenced Countries in Latin America and the Caribbean, Total,

FY1990-FY2002

 SOURCE: Table C.7e in Appendix C of this volume.
62

Figure 2.14 plots the annual share of all World Bank lending to all countries and the referenced

countries for basic education and social protection child labor related projects over the period

FY1990 to FY2002. The figure shows that the share of all World Bank lending for these two

country groupings has generally increased over time. The “all-countries” share for basic education

projects has risen from slightly over 2 percent in 1990 to a high in 1994 of slightly over 6 percent,

after which it falls but peaks again in 1998 at slightly under six percent. The “referenced countries”

share tracks very closely to the all-countries share. The all-countries share for education and child

labor related social protection rises from less than one percent in 1990 to about three percent in

1995, and then falls before peaking again in 2001 at nearly 5 percent. Again, the referenced

countries share tracks closely the all-countries share.

Figure 2.13. Share of Total World Bank Lending for Basic Education and Social

Protection Programs with Education or Child Labor Related Components, All

Countries and Referenced Countries, Total FY1990-FY2002

SOURCE: Table C.8 in Appendix C of this volume.
63

The figures presented here represent rather conservative estimates of World Bank lending for basic

education and child labor-related social protection projects and should, therefore, be interpreted

with caution. Some project lending was not included if the amounts of the components related to

these two areas were not readily identifiable or available. In general, structural adjustment loans or

loans where specific child labor related amounts could not be identified were not included. No

attempt was made to quantify the dollar amount of World Bank research on education and child

labor issues that underpins may of the projects that it funds in these areas.

SOURCE: Table C.8 in Appendix C of this volume.

Figure 2.14. Share of Total World Bank Lending for Basic Education and Social

Protection Projects with Child Labor Related Components, All Countries and

Referenced Countries, FY1990-FY2002
64

The focus of this review of World Bank funding was on projects related to improving access to

basic education and identifiable projects that help to eliminate or alleviate child labor. In particular,

the scope was narrower than the broader approach taken in an earlier review by staff at the World

Bank who considered child-related projects that included broader issues affecting children such as

health, early childhood development, HIV/AIDs, among others.93

B. The African Development Bank

1. Education Sector Initiatives

a. Policies and Strategies

The African Development Bank (AfDB) outlined its long-term education goals in 1999 in a vision

statement: A Re-Invigorated Bank: An Agenda for Moving Forward.94 This statement commits the

AfDB to focus its operations on three sectoral themes (rural development, human resource development, and private sector development) and two cross-cutting issues (gender and the environment).

Under the human resource development theme, the AfDB seeks to direct its resources toward

primary and vocational training, institutional development, selective interventions in tertiary education in the area of critical skill shortages, and research. Under its cross-cutting gender focus, the

elimination of gender disparities in both primary and secondary education is a priority.95

The AfDB’s 1999 Education Sector Policy Paper (ESPP) specified education as a holistic and

integrated system, and identified the following priority areas for attention: (1) quality basic education for all; (2) provision of mid- and high-level skills; and (3) organization and management of the

education sector.96 The AfDB views basic education “in its broad meaning as referring to the

educational arrangement that aims at providing the learner (child or adult) with the basic knowledge

(general or technical) required for his/her smooth functioning as an active member of society.”97

Under the rubric of basic education, the AfDB includes formal primary education and the first cycle

of secondary education (nine to ten years, depending on the country), non-formal training in areas

such as literacy and other programs for adolescents and adults, and early childhood education.98

93 “The World Bank and Children: A Review of Activities.”

94 African Development Bank/African Development Fund, A Reinvigorated Bank: An Agenda for Moving Forward ,

[cited February 10, 2003]; available from http://www.afdb.org/knowledge/documents/ The_Banks_Vision.htm.

95 Ibid.

96 The African Development Bank/African Development Fund, Education Sector Policy Paper (ESPP), (Abidjan:

African Development Bank, December, 1999): 19-23.

97 Ibid, Executive Summary, third revision: iv. This document was revised and approved by the AfDB Board on March

1, 2000.

98 Ibid, 21.
65

The AfDB recognizes that the relevance and applicability of education are an important measure of

quality, and therefore focuses on curriculum reform as the main instrument toward increasing the

relevance of basic education.

 In its ESPP, the AfDB states that it will focus its efforts on five strategic actions: (1) improving

access to educational opportunity, including achieving universal primary education by 2015; (2)

improving equity in education, particularly in the participation of girls and disadvantaged groups,

such as the poor, street children, refugees, the disabled, orphans, and youth residing in remote

districts; (3) improving the quality of instruction and output; (4) improving management and

planning capabilities; and (5) improving educational financing mechanisms.99

To improve access to educational opportunities, the AfDB has expressed interest in funding programs that expand formal and non-formal educational opportunities with the objective of improving

basic reading, writing, and arithmetic. This includes support for private education programs (e.g.,

by entities in the private sector such as NGOs, religious organizations, and local community organizations). The AfDB also seeks to support non-formal education programs for adults as well as

children who have not had the chance to enroll in the formal education system. Finally, the AfDB

provides support to the rehabilitation and reconstruction of education systems in countries that

suffer from natural and/or man-made disasters.100

Under the equity rubric, the AfDB supports programs that encourage organizing learning environments, multi-grade teaching, mobile schools, multiple shifts, and periodic learning sessions, with

teaching adjusted to local agricultural conditions and nomadic cultures. To improve the quality of

instruction and output, the AfDB seeks to support the improvement of physical and human

resources at all levels.101

Activities undertaken under the Improving Management and Planning Capacities and Improving

Educational Financing Mechanisms initiative seek to indirectly affect the delivery of basic education among member countries. The AfDB supports member-country efforts in such areas as the

effective use of data, management and planning techniques, professional education networks as

well as the more efficient allocation of country resources.102

Basic education is also highlighted in the AfDB’s Gender Policy, adopted in 2001. That operational

policy states: “Basic literacy is essential in improving women’s living standards, as educated

women tend to invest more time and resources in child heath and nutrition.”103 The ESPP as well as

99 Ibid, 23-28.

100 Ibid, 23-24.

101 Ibid, 24-27.

102 Ibid, 27-28.

103 African Development Bank/African Development Fund, The Gender Policy, ADB/BD/WP/2001/61, June 14, 2001,

22-23.
66

the Gender Policy state that the AfDB seeks to increase female access to education in those countries where enrolment rates for girls are lower than 50 percent. In addition, the AfDB seeks to

establish child-care and pre-school facilities, develop gender-sensitive curricula, and support the

training of female teachers.104

b. Lending for Basic Education

An official at the AfDB has noted, with regard to the composition of AfDB lending for education,

“that, on average, investment made in the four sub-categories of education are around 26 percent

for Primary Education, 44 percent for Secondary Education, 19 percent [for] Higher Education and

11 percent for Non-formal Education. In addition, [t]he trend over the last few years shows an

increase of investment in primary education with a proportional decrease in higher education.”105

The AfDB provided data for this report on its education sector lending for basic education projects

that include commitments made from calendar year 1989 through calendar year 2001. AfDB

education sector lending data were not available for 1994, 1995, or 2002.

AfDB lending for basic education projects, which totaled over $1.4 billion over the period 1989 to

2001, peaked in 1992 at $263 million and since then has shown a generally downward trend; AfDB

lending in general has also shown a downward trend over this same period (See Figure 2.15).

104 Ibid, 23

105 Beileh D. Abdirahman, Manager, Operations Policies and Procedures, Operations Policies and Review Department,

African Development Bank, e-mail communication, September 12, 2002, conveying data for this report to Ambassador

Cynthia S. Perry, U.S. Executive Director, African Development Bank, Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire.
67

Of the total $1.4 billion in basic education lending by the AfDB over the period 1989 to 2001,

slightly over 60 percent came from the African Development Fund (AfDF) concessional lending

window, about 37 percent from the AfDB market-rate lending window, and slightly over two

percent from the Technical Assistance Fund (TAF) or the Nigeria Trust Fund (NTF).

Figure 2.16 summarizes cumulative AfDB lending to the referenced countries in the region for

basic education projects over the period 1989 to 2001. Twenty-five referenced countries in the

region accounted for $1.2 billion, or 84 percent of all AfDB lending for basic education projects

over the period 1989-2001. Eight referenced countries, each with total lending for basic education

projects over $50 million, accounted for about 65 percent of all AfDB lending to referenced countries in the region for basic education projects over this period and included: Botswana ($55.1

million); the Democratic Republic of the Congo ($55.1 million); Côte d’Ivoire ($153.9 million);

Egypt ($86.8 million); Ethiopia ($64.8 million); Gabon ($75.6 million); Morocco ($223.6 million);

and Mozambique ($61.8 million).

Figure 2.15. African Development Bank Lending to All Member Countries for Basic

Education Projects, 1989-2001

SOURCE: Table C.9 in Appendix C of this volume.
68

Nine referenced countries in the region-Burundi; Comoros; the Republic of the Congo; Equatorial

Guinea; Nigeria; Somalia; South Africa; Sudan; and Zimbabwe-did not receive any AfDB lending

for basic education projects over the period.

2. Initiatives Related to the Elimination of Child Labor

a. Policies and Strategies

The management of the AfDB designated a Task Force in 1998 to conduct a study on the

incorporation of core labor standards into AfDB policies and programs. In its report, the Task

Figure 2.16. Africa Development Bank Lending to All Member Countries for Basic

Education Projects, 1989-2001

 SOURCE: Table C.9 in Appendix C in this volume.
69

Force estimated that one-third of the approximately 250 million children who work worldwide live

in Africa and that such children “are denied the opportunity of acquiring an education, often work

in dangerous and hazardous conditions, are paid poorly, and have little or no capacity to organise

and defend themselves against exploitative conditions.”106 The Task Force issued its report in

October 1998, recommending that the AfDB pursue an active agenda on labor standards and that

labor standards be incorporated into its sectoral and non-sectoral policy guidelines.

In response to the Task Force report, AfDB management agreed to pursue a three-part strategy

consisting of (1) sensitizing AfDB staff to core labor standards in cooperation with the ILO; (2)

playing an active role in the debate and activities on labor issues; and (3) incorporating core labor

standards, including the abolition of child labor, into its planning documents, including Country

Strategy Papers (CSPs).107 CSPs are basic country level planning documents of the AfDB that

provide the underpinning for lending and non-lending projects and programs. The AfDB notes that

as of 1999 to 2000, all new CSPs contain a section on ratification and implementation of international labor conventions, collective bargaining rights, gender and discrimination issues at work, and

the existence of child labor.108 The AfDB’s Annual Report, 2000 notes that child labor practices and

policies are emphasized within the framework of CSP dialogue.109 In addition, a number of projects

financed under the eighth replenishment of the AfDF had either a child labor component or focused

on training and literacy programs for disadvantaged groups-mainly women and youth.110

A number of the AfDB’s Operational Policies and Guidelines now incorporate references to core

labor standards, including child labor. The AfDB’s Agriculture Policy111 states that AfDB lending is

guided by the ILO’s Declaration on Labor Standards [sic].112 The AfDB recognizes that child labor

is used extensively as part of household labor in small-scale agriculture, but considers that its

potential for abuse is minimal. However, the policy acknowledges that there is a potential for the

106 Cyril Enweze, Vice President, African Development Bank/African Development Fund, Core Labor Standards and

Their Implications for Bank Group Operations: Report of the Task Force memorandum, December 3, 1998, to Alice

Dear, U.S. Executive Director, African Development Bank/African Development Fund, 5 [on file].

107 Ibid.

108 African Development Bank/African Development Fund, Annual Report, 2000, ADB-ADF/BG/AR/2000, 2000, 83.

109 Ibid.

110 Ibid. Annual Report, 2000, cites the Egypt Technical Industrial Schools Phase II project as one that focused on child

labor. Three other projects which focused on training and literacy programs for mainly women and youth were: the

Lesotho Highlands Eco-tourism project, the Cape Verde Project for the Socio-Economic Promotion of Disadvantaged

Groups, and the Gambia Skills Improvement project.

111 African Development Bank/African Development Fund, Agriculture and Rural Development Sector: Bank Group

Policy, Abidjan, January 2000 [cited February 10, 2003]; available from http://www.afdb.org/projects/polices/pdf/

agri_policy_apr2000.pdf?n1=10&n2=1&n3=0.

112 The ILO’s Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work was adopted on June 18, 1998. The

Declaration commits member countries to support the four labor principles: (1) freedom of association and the right to

collective bargaining; (2) the elimination of forced or compulsory labor; (3) the elimination of child labor; and (4) the

elimination of discrimination in employment.
70

use of abusive child labor in large-scale commercial agriculture and calls for particular attention to

be paid to this issue when appraising projects.113 The AfDB’s Policy for Integrated Water

Resources Management also acknowledges core labor standards as articulated by the ILO’s

Declaration, and notes the potential problem of the use of abusive child labor in water resource

construction projects.114

The AfDB’s revised Policy on Population and Strategies for Implementation recognizes that rapid

population growth not only affects the capacity to create jobs and absorb the supply of labor, but

also can lead to tighter competition for limited employment opportunities, and result in the

violation of core labor standards—such as the minimum age for employment and child labor.115

The AfDB’s Policy on Good Governance discusses the issue of core labor standards in promoting

public-private partnerships,116 and the related operational guidelines include questions about child

labor and core labor standards that AfDB staff should ask when considering legal and judicial

reforms in a country.117

On June 12, 2002, the AfDB’s Board of Directors approved a Cooperation Agreement with the ILO

in which the two organizations agree to cooperate in areas of mutual concern.118 The agreement

addresses labor standards and commits the parties to cooperate on a wide range of activities, from

country operational work to research studies and human resources development and training. The

agreement also includes cooperation in the development of policies and procedures related to

fundamental principles and rights at work.119

113 Agriculture and Rural Development Sector, 29.

114 African Development Bank/African Development Fund, Policy for Integrated Water Resources Management,

(Abidjan: African Development Bank, April 2000): 19.

115 African Development Bank/African Development Fund, Policy on Population and Strategies for Implementation

(revised version), (Abidjan: African Development Bank, February 2001): 4.

116 Communication from U.S. Executive Director’s Office, AfDB, August 6, 2002.

117 Ibid. See also African Development Bank/African Development Fund, Operational Guidelines on Good

Governance, (Abidjan: African Development Bank, 2001): 13.

118 As of January 1, 2003, the agreement was awaiting approval by the AfDB’s Board of Governors; once approved by

the Board of Governors, the President of the AfDB will sign it with the Director General of the ILO.

119 The ILO’s Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work, ratified in 1998, commits all ILO member

states to promote and realize the following fundamental labor rights: (1) freedom of association and the effective

recognition of the right to collective bargaining; (2) the elimination of all forms of forced or compulsory labor; (3) the

effective abolition of child labor; and (4) the elimination of discrimination in respect of employment and occupation.
71

b. Lending for Projects Related to the Elimination of Child Labor

The AfDB has not approved projects specifically targeting child labor.120 However, as discussed

above, all relevant AfDB policies and guidelines developed or reviewed since 1999 have taken into

account issues related to core labor standards. The AfDB notes that the “Education Policy and the

Gender Policy, in particular, are examples of the shift toward a more holistic approach to education,

and they support the Bank involvement in poverty reduction projects and activities, aimed at

creating the most favorable conditions for keeping children out of child labor.”121 Through its

participation in international fora, the AfDB has strengthened its commitment to the U.N. Millennium Development Goals and the Education for All targets. This commitment has underscored the

importance of keeping all children, especially girls, in school. In this regard, the AfDB cites

examples of projects such as one in Egypt in 1989 that upgraded secondary technical schools and

attempted to raise the employability of secondary school leavers so that parents would be encouraged to allow their children to spend more time in formal education.122 The AfDB also cites its

investments in the education sector as key to its vision of poverty reduction, by ensuring that each

individual receives the necessary basic skills (reading, writing, numeracy) for making appropriate

decisions about their future.123

3. Share of Total African Development Bank Lending for Basic Education

and Child Labor or Child Welfare-Related Projects

Of the $29.4 billion the African Development Bank lent to regional member countries over the

period 1989-2001, 4.8 percent, or $1.4 billion, funded basic education projects in regional member

countries. During this period the referenced countries received $986 million in loans for basic

education, equal to 3.4 percent of total AfDB lending. Thus, just under $5 of every $100 in AfDB

loans went towards basic education for regional countries, with the referenced countries accounting

for about 70 percent of that total. (See Figure 2.17)

120 Communication to U.S. Department of Labor from the U.S. Executive Director’s Office, AfDB, June 20, 2002.

121 Ibid.

122 Ibid.

123 Ibid.
72

Figure 2.18 plots the annual share of AfDB lending for basic education for regional and referenced

countries. Allowing for the absence of data in 1994 and 1995, lending for regional and referenced

countries track each other closely, and presents a mixed trend. The share of loans ranges from a

low of 1.4 percent for regional countries in 2001 (0.7 percent for referenced countries), to a high of

10.7 percent in 1998 (8.7 percent for referenced countries).

Figure 2.17. Share of African Development Bank Lending for Basic Education,

Regional and Referenced Countries, 1989-2001

NOTE: Total lending includes approvals for the AfDB, the Concessional

African Development Fund (ADF), and the Nigerian Trust Fund (NTF).

All amounts are in millions of U.S. dollars. Approvals include loans

and grants, private and public equity investments, emergency operations, HIPC debt relief, loan reallocations and guarantees.

SOURCE: African Development Bank, Annual Reports 2000 and 2001.
73

C. The Asian Development Bank

1. Education Sector Initiatives

a. Policies and Strategies

Asian Development Bank (AsDB) programs and policies are intended to address the priorities that

it has identified for the region: economic growth; human development; gender equality and development; good governance; environmental protection; private sector development; and regional

cooperation.124 Under the human development priority, the AsDB includes loans and technical

assistance for education, health and nutrition, water supply and sanitation, and urban sectors.125

Figure 2.18. Share of Total African Development Bank Lending for Basic Education,

Regional Members and Referenced Countries, 1989-2001

SOURCE: African Development Bank, Annual Reports 2000 and 2001.

124 Asian Development Bank, “ADB Operations,” [cited February 10, 2003]; available from http://www.adb.org/About/

bankoper.asp.
74

Under its gender equality priority, the AsDB includes providing economic opportunities for poor

women to improve their incomes, including through greater access to education.126

In its first education policy paper issued in 1988, the AsDB officially recognized basic education as

a human right.127 Education is now recognized as a prerequisite for development, and basic education-especially for girls and women-is acknowledged as being closely linked to the achievement of

other human development indicators such as lower infant mortality rates, and reduced fertility

rates.128 The AsDB also notes that the incidence of child labor declines with higher education

enrollment.129

In August 2002, the AsDB approved a New Education Policy that underscored its support for the

U.N.’s Millennium Development Goals. These goals include enrolling all children in primary

school by the year 2015, promoting gender equality, and empowering women.130 This new policy

focus on educational development is an effort to alleviate what the AsDB describes as “the drastic

situation in the Asia-Pacific region,” where:

• About 75 percent of the world’s illiterates live, two-thirds of them women;

• Millions drop out of primary school due to poverty, and half of all children never reach

secondary school; and

• Nearly 40 percent of children under age five are malnourished.131

The AsDB’s priorities for the education sector are: reducing poverty; enhancing the status of

125 Asian Development Bank, “Supporting Human Development,” [cited February 10, 2003]; available from

http://www.adb.org/About/objhrd.asp.

126 Asian Development Bank, “Improving the Status of Women,” [cited February 10, 2003]; available from

www.adb.org/About/objwid.asp.

127 Asian Development Bank, Policy on Education, August 2002, [cited February 14, 2003] 1; available from

 http://www.adb.org/Documents/Policies/Education/R146-02.pdf.

128 Ibid.

129 Ibid.

130 Asian Development Bank, “New Education Policy Aims for Universal Primary Education, Gender Equality,” News

Release, August 30, 2002 [cited February 10, 2003]; available from http://www.adb.org/Documents/News/2002/

nr2002143.asp.

131 Ibid.
75

women; and providing the knowledge, attitudes, and skills essential for pro-poor, sustainable

economic growth.132 In support of this, the New Education Policy gives particular attention to

increasing equity and access, improving quality, strengthening management and partnerships, and

applying innovative technologies, especially in information and communications.133 These goals

will be applied to each education sub-sector, though the balance of investments across sub-sectors

will be determined according to a particular country’s situation.134

The New Education Policy lays out specific goals in sub-sectors related to basic education. The

policy defines “basic education” as education provided for children between the ages of 6 and 14.135

Priority is given to investment in basic education in countries where universal access has not been

achieved (especially for girls), where poverty and equity constraints combine to deny access to the

completion of basic education by the poor, and in countries where the quality of basic education is

inadequate. The AsDB notes that it plans to “actively engage in policy dialogue with governments

to identify strategies to assist poor children and girls, including targeted subsidies, scholarships, and

special incentives.”136 The AsDB also supports the development of a nine-year course of basic

education in countries that are expanding their period of compulsory basic education.

In literacy and non-formal education, the AsDB is expanding support for innovative programs,

especially in collaboration with NGOs. Recognizing the importance of good health, nutrition, and

mental stimulation, it plans to expand support for early childhood development, with emphasis on

low-cost, community-based provision.137 With regard to secondary education, the AsDB seeks to

increase its emphasis on cost-sharing, private sector provision, and special programs to increase

access by the poor and women.

b. Lending for Basic Education

The AsDB’s average annual investment in education has remained fairly steady at nearly six percent

of its total annual lending since 1991.138 Since 1970, it has invested $5.3 billion in education sector

development, two-thirds of this since 1991.139 The AsDB plans to invest over one billion U.S.

132 Policy on Education, ii.

133 “New Education Policy Aims for Universal Primary Education.”

134 Ibid.

135 Ibid, 1.

136 Ibid, 23.

137 Ibid.

138 Policy on Education, iii.
76

dollars in loans for education projects in the period 2002 to 2004.

Since 1990, the AsDB has been a major regional supporter of the EFA initiative. The education

sector loan portfolio is now focused more on basic education, with increasing attention to teacher

training, curriculum, and education planning. During the two decades from 1970 to 1990, 48

percent of AsDB’s education investment was in technical and vocational education and 11 percent

in basic education. These proportions have nearly reversed in the last decade (1991 to 2001), with

investment in technical and vocational education declining to 14 percent, while basic education has

risen to 41 percent of AsDB’s education loan portfolio.140 The nature of technical assistance grants

for education has changed as well, with an increasing amount being given to support broader

policy, research, and capacity-building activities rather than project preparation.141

The AsDB provided data for this report on its education sector lending and technical assistance for

basic education projects covering commitments made over the period calendar year 1989 through

calendar year 2001.

The bulk of AsDB support for basic education projects has come through lending (slightly over

$2 billion over the 1989 to 2001 period) from either AsDB ordinary capital resources, which accounted for about one-third, or the AsDF concessionary lending window, which accounted for

about two-thirds. In comparison, the level of technical assistance has been very small ($41 million

over the period 1989 to 2001). AsDB lending for basic education projects has shown a generally

increasing trend over the period 1989 to 1998. There was an exceptional downturn during the 1999

to 2000 Asian financial crisis, but a strong rebound in 2001 (See Figure 2.20).

139 Ibid.

140 Ibid.

141 Ibid.
77

Figure 2.21 summarizes cumulative AsDB lending and technical assistance to the referenced

countries in the region over the period 1989 to 2001. Twelve referenced countries in the region

accounted for $1.9 billion, or 91 percent of all AsDB lending for basic education projects over the

period 1989 to 2001. Four referenced countries in the region, each with total lending over $100

million, accounted for slightly less than $1.6 billion, or 77 percent of all AsDB lending for basic

education over the period 1989 to 2001. These countries were: Bangladesh ($275 million), Indonesia ($689 million), Pakistan ($411 million), and Thailand ($200 million). Eight referenced countries in the region received technical assistance grants for basic education projects over the period,

with most of these grants going to Bangladesh ($8.4 million), Indonesia ($8.0 million), Cambodia

($5.1 million), and Laos ($4.6 million).

Figure 2.20. Asian Development Bank Lending and Technical Assistance to All

Countries in the Region for Basic Education Projects, 1989-2002

 SOURCE: Tables C.10 and C.11 in Appendix C in this Volume.
78

Four referenced countries in the region that are members of the AsDB-Afghanistan,

Burma, India, and Malaysia-did not receive any AsDB lending or technical assistance for basic

education projects over the period.

2. Initiatives Related to the Elimination of Child Labor

a. Policies and Strategies

Over the last several years, the AsDB has increasingly underscored the importance of respect for

core international labor standards, including combating child labor, in its loan operations. In the

replenishment of the Asian Development Fund (AsDF) in November 2000, the donors called for the

promotion of core labor standards, including the abolition of child labor, through mainstreaming

core labor standards into AsDB planning documents, such as Country Strategy Papers (CSPs).142 It

Figure 2.21. Asian Development Bank Cumulative Lending and Technical Assistance

to Referenced Countries in the Region for Basic Education Projects, 1989-2001

SOURCE: Tables C.10 and C.11 in Appendix C of this volume.
79

also called for direct support for projects that assist member countries in addressing issues associated with core labor standards.143 In a regional technical workshop on labor standards held at AsDB

headquarters in September 2002, the AsDB committed to “comply with internationally recognized

core labor standards” in the design and formulation of its loans.144 It also committed to “take all

necessary and appropriate steps to ensure that for all AsDB financed procurement of goods and

services, contractors, subcontractors, and consultants will comply with the country’s labor

legislation...as well as with the Core Labor Standards.”145 The AsDB’s “Social Protection Strategy

Action Plan” calls for these safeguards to be institutionalized as “good social protection practices,”

beginning in 2002.146

To implement this commitment, the AsDB has developed a Labor Market Assessment as part of its

Handbook on Poverty and Social Analysis: A Working Document.

147 The handbook is intended to

guide AsDB staff, consultants, and borrowing countries in the preparation of country strategies and

projects to combat poverty. The Labor Market Assessment addresses, inter alia, the structure of

labor markets, labor market legislation, the interests of social stakeholders, and child labor issues.

The assessment states:

The primary goals of looking at the labor legislation are the identification of (i) legislation that acts

to restrict the operations of the labor market, and (ii) possible noncompliance with the international

Core Labor Standards. All A[s]DB interventions must be designed in accordance with national and

international legislation-such as the Core Labor Standards.148

Further, the Executive Board of the AsDB approved a Social Protection Strategy in September 2001

that addresses a range of social issues, including child labor. The strategy has five basic components: labor market policies and programs; social insurance; social assistance and welfare service

programs; micro- and area-based approaches to protect communities in the informal sector; and

child protection to ensure the healthy and productive development of children.149 The strategy

142 Asian Development Bank, ADF VII Donor’s Report: Fighting Poverty in Asia, (Manila: Asian Development Bank,

2000): paras. 77-79.

143 Ibid.

144 Asian Development Bank, “Labor Issues in ADB Operations,” presentation at the Regional Technical Workshop on

Labor Standards, Manila, Philippines, September 18-19, 2002 [cited February 10, 2003]; available from http://

www.adb.org/Documents/Events/2002/Core_Labor_Standards/ortiz.pdf.

145 Ibid.

146 Asian Development Bank, “ADB Social Protection Strategy Action Plan,” [cited February 10, 2003]; available from

http://www.adb.org/SocialProtection/actionplan.pdf.

147 Asian Development Bank, Handbook on Poverty and Social Analysis: A Working Document, (Manila, Asian

Development Bank, 2001): Appendix 9.

148 Ibid, 3-4.
80

reiterates the obligation of AsDB member countries to respect and promote the core labor standards, including the elimination of child labor.150 It also invokes the U.N. Convention on the Rights

of the Child which defines “good governance” as including the provision of measures to ensure that

the “child is protected from all forms of abuse and exploitation, such as child labor, child prostitution, or the adversities faced by the girl child, street-children, children with disabilities, and

children under armed conflict.”151

Children and youth constitute 40 percent of the population in the Asian and Pacific region.152 In its

discussion of “child protection,” the Social Protection Strategy acknowledges that the Asia and

Pacific region holds three-quarters of the world’s stunted and underweight children, and that “investing in child protection is of profound significance to the development of the region.”153 The

strategy is supportive of initiatives to provide social protection for the young, such as: (1) early

childhood development; (2) school feeding programs, scholarships, or school fee waivers; (3)

waiving of fees for mothers and children for health services; (4) street children initiatives; (5) child

rights advocacy/awareness programs against child abuse and child labor; (6) youth programs to

avoid marginalization of teenagers, criminal behavior, sexually-transmitted diseases, early pregnancies, and drug addiction; and (7) family allowances, such as means-tested cash transfers or coupons/

stamps for basic goods and services to assist families with young children.154

The strategy was adopted from the work of an AsDB Working Group on Social Protection, which

developed a manual on Social Protection in Asia and the Pacific.

155 This manual, intended for use

by professionals in the field, is comprehensive and presents a range of social protection interventions and suggestions on prioritizing them. Three chapters of the manual address child protection

and recommend various alternative approaches toward resolving problems in this area. The emphasis is on an integrated approach. The manual recognizes that hazardous child labor remains a major

problem in Asia and places special focus on problems of girls, youth, street children, children with

disabilities, children affected by armed conflict, child prostitution, and children from ethnic

minorities.156

149 Asian Development Bank, Social Protection Strategy, [cited February 10, 2003]; available from http://www.adb.org/

Documents/Policies/Social_Protection/social_protection.pdf.

150 Social Protection Strategy.

151 Ibid, 12.

152 Ibid, 12.

153 Ibid.

154 Ibid, paras. 18-19.

155 Asian Development Bank, Social Protection in Asia and the Pacific [cited December 11, 2002]; available from http:/

/www.adb.org/ Documents/Books/Social_Protection/social_protection.pdf.

156 Ibid, 546-578.
81

In May 2002, the AsDB signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) with the ILO to

strengthen cooperation to “maximize the use of scarce resources and their development impact.”157

The institutions agreed to collaborate in a number of areas, including exchange of research and best

practices; consultation on AsDB country strategies and assistance plans; participation of ILO

technical staff in some missions to prepare country poverty analysis or country strategy papers; and

participation with government and civil society organizations in countries where the AsDB plans a

social protection intervention. At a regional technical workshop on labor standards held at AsDB

headquarters in September 2002, participants (which included, governments, civil society organizations, aid agencies, and AsDB and ILO staff) outlined recommendations for future regional actions

to address moving children from work to school, and for eliminating the worst forms of child

labor.158 At that workshop, AsDB staff discussed designing pro-active interventions on labor in

AsDB projects, subject to agreement by member governments and introduction in AsDB’s country

strategy pipeline.159 These could include programs to fight child labor, either as stand-alone

projects, or as components of loans with broader objectives (such as in the education sector).160

The AsDB notes that close monitoring of core labor standards, facilitated by the ILO-AsDB MOU,

will strive to curb the demand for child labor and trafficked commercial sex workers.161 The AsDB

estimates that 150,000 persons from South Asia, and 225,000 from Southeast Asia, are trafficked

annually, most of these are poor women and children.162 In response, the AsDB started a “Regional

Technical Assistance Project (RETA) in South Asia” in July 2001 to better understand the underlying causes of trafficking in women and children, and to identify how AsDB can contribute to antitrafficking initiatives through country programs and policy dialogue.163 The RETA included a series

of national consultation workshops in Bangladesh, India, and Nepal; an “exposure visit” of the

South Asia delegation to Thailand; and a regional workshop at AsDB headquarters in May 2002.

The regional workshop explored specific links between AsDB-supported poverty reduction and

regional cooperation programs, and anti-trafficking initiatives carried out by public- and private157 Asian Development Bank, “ADB, ILO Strengthen Partnership for Workers’ Welfare in Asia,” May 9, 2002 [cited

February 10, 2003]; available from http://www.adb.org/Documents/News/2002/nr2002079.asp; Asian Development

Bank, “ILO, ADB join forces to improve labour standards, promote development,” October 11, 2002 [cited February

10, 2003]; available from http://www.ilo.org/public/english/bureau/inf/pr/2002/47.htm.

158 Asian Development Bank, “Regional Technical Workshop on Labor Standards,” September 2002 [cited February 10,

2003]; available from http://www.adb.org/Documents/Events/2002/Core_Labor_Standards/default.asp.

159 “Labor Issues in ADB Operations.”

160 Ibid.

161 Asian Development Bank, “Fighting Trafficking: Ending the Agony,” [cited February 10, 2003], available from

http://www.adb.org/Documents/Periodicals/ADB_Review/2002/vol34_5/ending_agony.asp.

162 Ibid.

163 Asian Development Bank, “Combating Trafficking of Woman and Children in South Asia,” [cited February 10,

2003]; available from http://www.adb.org/Gender/reta5948.asp.
82

sector partners in the region.164 It also provided a venue for participants to discuss follow-up

actions to the recently signed South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) Convention on Preventing and Combating Trafficking in Women and Children for Prostitution.165

The AsDB’s main approaches to combating child labor include: (1) reducing poverty; (2) educating

children; (3) providing services to working children; (4) raising awareness; (5 legislating and

regulating child labor; and (6) elimination of abusive child labor through international measures.166

Investments in primary and basic education (primary and lower secondary) currently are the major

approaches in the education sector to reduce the incidence of child labor.167 Interventions include

support to governments for compulsory primary education, flexible school calendars (so as not to

conflict with peak agricultural seasons), and reducing the cost to households of school attendance

through scholarships, free textbooks, and supplies.168 For example, two Indonesia loans, the Junior

Secondary Education Project in 1992, and the Second Junior Secondary Education Project in 1997,

both have targeted education programs for children who are in informal employment, live long

distances away from school, and cannot attend school during regular hours.169 The AsDB notes that

these loans have successfully kept children in school and delayed their entrance into the

workforce.170

b. Lending for Projects Related to the Elimination of Child Labor

In 1985 social protection projects constituted only about one percent of total AsDB lending. Since

then, they have grown to about 13 percent of total lending during the period 1998 to 2000.171 The

largest part of AsDB social protection lending goes to labor markets projects (about 40 percent) and

to child protection interventions (about 20 percent).172

164 Asian Development Bank, “Regional Workshop for RETA 5948: Combating Trafficking of Women and Children in

South Asia,” May 2002 [cited February 10, 2003]; available from http://www.adb.org/documents/events/2002/reta5948/

default.asp.

165 Ibid.

166 Chantale Yok-Min Wong, Alternate U.S. Executive Director for AsDB, e-mail communication, June 21 2002.

167 Ibid.

168 Ibid.

169 Ibid.

170 Ibid.

171 The AsDB notes that the significant increase was due to increased social safety net interventions in the wake of the

Asian financial crisis. It adds: “the trend, however, reflects an important increase in lending in the sector.” Asian

Development Bank, Social Protection Strategy, August 2001 [cited February 10, 2003] 17; available from

http://www.adb.org/Documents/Policies/Social_Protection/social_protection.pdf.

172 Social Protection Strategy, p. 17.
83

The AsDB provide information for this report on its lending, technical assistance, and grants for

child welfare oriented and child labor related projects for which commitments were made over the

period 1989 to 2001. AsDB support for these projects amounted to $739 million in lending and

$11.6 million in technical assistance or grants over the period 1989 to 2001.

Figure 2.22 summarizes cumulative AsDB lending and support to the referenced countries in the

region for child labor or child welfare-oriented projects over the period 1989 to 2001. Only two

referenced countries-Indonesia and the Philippines-out of the 16 referenced countries in the region

that are members of the AsDB received such support. These two referenced countries accounted

for all of the AsDB lending and about 37 percent of all AsDB technical assistance or grants for

child labor or child welfare-oriented projects over the period.

Figure 2.22. Asian Development Bank Loans, Technical Assistance, and Grants to

Referenced Countries for Child Labor or Child Welfare Oriented Projects, Total,

1989-2001

SOURCE: Table C.12 in Appendix C of this volume.

The projects supported in these two referenced countries were outside of the basic or formal education sub-sectors and were aimed at improving child welfare or assisting at-risk children. A number

of these projects are in the technical/vocational education sub-sector, and cater to children who tend

to be less academically oriented, and are from a pool of children with higher potential of becoming

working children.173 Though these projects were not designed specifically to address the problem

of child labor, the AsDB notes that they have helped delay the entrance of children into the

workforce, and helped to prepare them with skills-training for improved job prospects.174

Other projects included are those aimed at reducing the prevalence of street children. For example,

two projects in Indonesia, the “Social Protection Sector Development Program” (SPSDP) and the

173 Ibid.

174 Ibid.
84

“Health and Nutrition Sector Development Program” (HNSDP), had specific components related to

street children.175 The SPSDP provided scholarships, technical/vocational training, and supplementary feeding to street children through an existing program of the Ministry of Social Affairs (with

assistance of the United Nations Development Program in Jakarta) in eight cities. The HNSDP

expanded the SPSDP program to 12 cities and added health programs for street children. The

Government of Indonesia also added income-generation activities for the parents of street children.176 A grant from the Japan Fund for Poverty Reduction to assist girl street children at risk of

sexual abuse was also processed in conjunction with these two loans.177

3. Share of Total Asian Development Bank Lending for Basic Education and

Child Labor or Child Welfare-Related Projects

Of the $71.5 billion the Asian Development Bank lent to regional member countries over the period

1989 through 2001, roughly 3 percent ($2.1 billion) funded basic education projects, and about 1

percent ($751 million) funded projects related to the elimination of child labor. The referenced

countries received cumulative loans for basic education totaling $1.9 billion, or 2.6 percent of total

AsDB lending over the period. They also received $744 million for projects related to the elimination of child labor, equaling about 1 percent of total AsDB loans over the period. Thus, approximately $4 out of every $100 over the period 1989 through 2001 went for basic education projects

and projects related to the elimination of child labor, with the referenced countries accounting for

about 93 percent of this total (see Fig. 2.23).

175 Data were provided by the Asian Development Bank, Regional and Sustainable Development Department,

Agriculture and Social Sectors Division, “List of Child Labor-Oriented Projects by Year of Approval, 1989-2001;”

Asian Development Bank, “Social Protection Sector Program (SPSDP),” [cited February 10, 2003]; available from

http://www.adb.org/Documents/Profiles/LOAN/32255013.ASP; Asian Development Bank, “Health and Nutrition

Sector Development Program (HNSDP),” [cited November 19, 2002]; available from http://www.adb.org/Documents/

Profiles/LOAN/32516013.ASP.

176 Ibid. The street children component was developed in response to the U.S. Director’s request (during the financial

crisis of 1997/98) to examine how the AsDB could assist in alleviating the problem of child labor in Indonesia.

177 Asian Development Bank, “Loan JFPR 9000, Assisting Girl Street Children at Risk of Sexual Abuse,” 2001 [cited

February 10, 2003]; available from http://www.adb.org/Documents/RRPs/INO/jfpr9000.asp.
85

Figure 2.24 plots the annual share of AsDB lending for basic education and for projects related to

the elimination of child labor, for both member regional countries and the referenced countries over

the period 1989 to 2001. Between 1989 and 1997, the share of lending for basic education for both

regional and referenced countries varied between just under 1 percent to over 5 percent. During that

same period, the share of loans related to the elimination of child labor varied from 0 percent to 2.6

percent for both the regional members and referenced countries. During the peak of the Asian

financial crisis in 1998, the share of lending for both basic education and child labor-related

projects spiked at over 12 percent for both the regional and referenced countries. After falling off in

1999, the share of lending for basic education has increased again in 2000 and 2001, and stood at

4.6 percent for member regional countries in 2001 (4.5 percent for referenced countries). Loans for

child labor or welfare-related projects for both regional and referenced countries rose slightly in

2000, but fell off again in 2001.

Figure 2.23. Share of Total Asian Development Bank Lending for Basic Education and

Child Labor-Related Projects, Regional Members and Referenced Countries, Total,

1989-2002

NOTES: Total lending includes loans made out of ordinary capital and concessionary finance from the

Asian Development Fund (ADF). This includes government and government-guaranteed loans, as

well as some private sector loans. Technical assistance comprises grants funded by AsDB and other

sources.

SOURCE: Asian Development Bank, Annual Reports, 1989 to 2001.
86

D. The Inter-American Development Bank

1. Education Sector Initiatives

The Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) considers that:

after more than a decade of market-oriented economic reforms, the low level of educational

achievement of most of the workforce of Latin America and the Caribbean, and the large disparities

in social and economic opportunities among its citizens, continue to undermine the region’s development potential. Despite substantial gains in reducing illiteracy, improving gender equality and

providing access to primary education, much remains to be done.178

Figure 2.24. Share of Total Asian Development Bank Lending for Basic Education and

Child Labor, Regional Members and Referenced Countries, 1989-2001

SOURCE: Asian Development Bank, Annual Reports, 1989 to 2001.

178 Inter-American Development Bank, “Education,” [cited February 12, 2003]; available from http://www.iadb.org/

excr/topics/education.htm.
87

The IDB notes that education in the region is marked by problems such as high repeat and drop-out

rates, lack of access for certain groups at every level within the system, inefficient use of resources,

and budgetary cutbacks.179 Most of the children who do not attend school are from low-income

urban homes and rural areas.180 IDB loans have historically helped to expand physical infrastructure in the education system. Recently, the emphasis has shifted to improving the quality, equity,

and efficiency of education by focusing on complementary components in addition to upgrading

physical infrastructure. These include: planning and management of the education system, curriculum development, the production and distribution of textbooks and guides for teachers, and

equipment and training.181

a. Policies and Strategies

In May 2000, the IDB issued a strategy paper, Reforming Primary and Secondary Education in

Latin America and the Caribbean.182 It’s executive summary contains the following statement:

Inadequate education is a critical impediment to long-term economic growth in the region. In

spite of substantial gains, the percentage of children who fail to complete primary schooling is

almost twice that which would be expected on the basis of the region’s income level. Children

across the region consistently score lower on international tests than do children in developing

countries with similar per capita incomes. Large differences in educational achievement between the poorest and richest segments of society exacerbate the income inequality endemic to

the region.183

According to the strategy paper, the IDB’s main objectives for primary and secondary education are

to improve quality and equity. In contrast with other world regions, the IDB finds that gender

inequity in education is not a significant problem.184 The paper examines five critical areas of

education reform where action is needed: (1) making teachers partners in reform through training

and rewards; (2) providing more and better textbooks and teaching materials; (3) selectively supporting the use of technology in education; (4) decentralizing educational management and

increasing accountability of key stakeholders; and (5) strengthening early childhood education and

development.

179 Inter-American Development Bank, “Sectoral Overview: Education,” [cited February 10, 2003]; available from

http://www.iadb.org/EXR/pipeline/edu.htm.

180 Ibid.

181 Ibid.

182 Inter-American Development Bank, Reforming Primary and Secondary Education in Latin America and the

Caribbean: An IDB Strategy, (Washington, D.C., Inter-American Development Bank, May 2000).

183 Ibid, 1.

184 Ibid, 11.
88

To address these reform areas, the IDB plans to commit support for a number of measures. These

include: (1) an increase in financial support for pre- and in-service training for teachers; (2) the use

of technology to expand coverage and improve quality; (3) continuing commitment to equity in its

primary and secondary education projects; (4) promotion of better research, statistics, experimentation and innovation, including pilot projects; and (5) support for improved primary and secondary

education in its broadest context. This includes securing widespread support for education reform

from stakeholders, including students, parents, teachers, the education authorities, NGOs, business,

and the media. Finally, the IDB states that it views its commitment to primary education as

long-term.185

The IDB’s Sustainable Development Department houses the Education, Training, Science and

Technology Unit, which develops the education strategies discussed above and approves education

sector loans. The Education Unit also undertakes studies in conjunction with other offices in the

IDB and commissions experts to conduct studies to determine best practices and promising new

approaches. For example, the IDB has recently undertaken expanded initiatives in teacher training,

compiling innovations in six case study countries; survey research and data collection in another six

countries to better understand institutional incentives affecting teacher behavior; and experimentations and controlled observation in various Latin American school systems to determine how best to

foster civic education.186

 Operational Policy 743: Education (OP-743) guides IDB staff in their efforts to assist borrowing

member countries.187 This operational directive differs from the strategy paper in that it is a more

narrowly focused document intended to inform and guide IDB staff in determining their evaluation

criteria for loans rather than spelling out a broad strategy with overall priorities for lenders and

borrowers.

OP-743 lays out three education and training objectives for the IDB: (1) human resource training in

technical and scientific skills necessary for economic and social development; (2) equality of

education opportunities; and (3) efficiency in education investments to stimulate and support

country efforts for planning and reforms in education content, teaching methods, administration,

institutions, and systems.

In support of these objectives, OP-743 states that the IDB prefers to finance education projects in

the following areas:

• Higher education at the professional, postgraduate and scientific and technological levels, and

the training of specialized technicians in short-duration courses.

185 Ibid, 40-42.

186 Inter-American Development Bank, “Primary and Secondary Education: Ongoing Activities,” September 26, 2000

[cited February 10, 2003]; available from http://www.iadb.org/sds/sci/site_253_e.htm.

187 Inter-American Development Bank, “OP 743 - Education” [cited February 10, 2003]; available from

http://www.iadb.org/cont/poli/OP-743E.htm. According to the introductory note to OP-743, the operational policies of

the Inter-American Development Bank are intended to provide operational guidance to staff in assisting the Bank’s

borrowing member countries. Many of the operational policies have been superseded by specific mandates, and the

policies are under a process of continual review.
89

• Technical education and professional training programs to produce skilled workers and midlevel technicians in occupations needed in the economy.

• Education programs to provide minimum social and work skills to young people and adults

who did not have access to formal education.

• Programs to introduce reforms in curriculum, teaching methods, structure, organization, and

functioning of basic, formal and non-formal, education at the primary and secondary level.

These programs include research, teacher training, non-traditional education, and the design,

production, and evaluation of materials, equipment, and communication systems.

• Programs for improving efficiency and fairness in financing education and promoting the

establishment of additional sources of funding by providing student loans and other such

instruments.188

In the OP-743, the IDB recognizes that there are considerable differences in the education needs of

member countries and, therefore, programs must be responsive to the particular circumstances of its

client member-states. The IDB acknowledges that, in most of the less developed countries and even

in some of the more advanced countries, there are serious shortcomings in primary level education

that result in high levels of adult illiteracy and low average productivity in the workforce. In response, the IDB plans to bring greater focus to this area and engage member countries to address

underlying problems. The IDB also plans to stimulate the development of non-formal education

programs where their feasibility has been established.189

OP-743 includes equality in education opportunities as one of several specific criteria for the

evaluation of the effectiveness of projects. The criterion states that the project should include

“measures to facilitate access to education for young people and adults forming part of the lowincome sectors to facilitate their successful incorporation into the labor force or to improve their

productive capacity. Appropriate solutions should be provided to offset the cultural and financial

disadvantages of the poorest students so that they can receive the benefits of the education

 process.”190

b. Lending for Basic Education

The IDB supplied information for this report on loans and technical cooperation grants for basic

education projects covering commitments made from 1989 to 2001. The bulk of IDB support for

basic education projects-slightly over $3 billion over the 1989 to 2001 period-has come through

loans from either ordinary capital resources or the Fund for Special Operations (FSO), its

188 OP-743, 1-2.

189 Ibid, 2.

190 Ibid, 3.
90

SOURCE: Table C.13A in Appendix C in this volume.

Figure 2.25a. Inter-American Development Bank Loans for Basic Education, 1989-2001
91

Figure 2.25b. Inter-American Development Bank Technical Cooperation Grants for

Basic Education, 1989-2001

SOURCE: Table C.13B in Appendix C in this volume.

concessional lending window. In comparison, the level of IDB technical assistance has been very

small: $14 million over the period 1989 to 2001. IDB lending for basic education projects has

shown a generally increasing trend over the period 1989 to 2001 (See Figure 2.25a and Figure

2.25b).

Figure 2.26 summarizes cumulative IDB lending and technical cooperation grants to the referenced

countries in the region over the period 1989 to 2001. All 16 referenced countries in the region that

are members of the IDA received either loans or a combination of loans and technical cooperation

grants and accounted for $2.6 billion (about 84 percent) of all IDB lending for basic education

projects over the period 1989 to 2001. Six referenced countries in the region, each with total

lending over $100 million, accounted for slightly over $2 billion, or about 67 percent of all IDB

millio); Brazil ($350 million); the Dominican Republic ($116 mi.llion); El Salvador ($181

million); Mexico ($393 million); and Peru ($104 million).
92

Figure 2.26. Inter-American Development Bank Loans and Technical Cooperation

Grants to Referenced Countries for Basic Education Projects, Total, 1989-2001

 SOURCE: Tables C.13a and C.13b in Appendix C of this volume.

One referenced country in the region (Cuba) that is not a member of the IDB and is not eligible for

IDB lending did not receive any IDB lending or technical assistance for basic education projects

over the period.
93

191 Inter-American Development Bank, “IDB Approves Financing to Support Innovative Programs to Reduce Child

Labor in Latin America, Caribbean,” Press Release, July 18, 2002.

192 Inter-American Development Bank, “Don’t Call Me Street Kid Campaign: Our History,” [cited February 10, 2003];

available from http://www.iadb.org/exr/spe/kidscampaign/SK02_atcSub01.htm.

193 Inter-American Development Bank, “Children and Youth: Mission Statement,” June 26, 2001 [cited February 10,

2003]; available from http://www.iadb.org/sds/soc/site_10_e.htm.

194 “Don’t Call Me Street Kid Campaign.”

195 Among the materials developed by the Bank for ECCD programs are “An ECCD Guide: A Toolkit for Early

Childhood Care and Development,” and a video, “Breaking the Poverty Cycle: Investing in Early Childhood.”

Inter-American Development Bank, “ECCD Materials from the IDB,” [cited February 10, 2003]; available from

http://www.iadb.org/sds/SOC/publication_53_e.htm.

2. Initiatives Related to the Elimination of Child Labor

The IDB notes: “the reduction of child labor is an important instrument to curb the transmission of

poverty from one generation to another. ... Although child labor has been gradually diminishing in

Latin America, rates remain high in some countries, especially in rural areas.”191

a. Policies and Strategies

Since the early 1990s, the IDB notes that it has approved over sixty operations totaling over $3.5

billion to support basic services (e.g., health, sanitation, nutrition, early child care and development,

pre-school and education) with a broad focus on disadvantaged children and adolescents in Latin

America and the Caribbean.192 The IDB’s Children and Youth Unit, located in the Social

Development Division of the Sustainable Development Department, has a mission statement that

recognizes:

Children born into poverty tend to remain poor for many reasons, but one is preeminent: they

are much less likely to succeed in school. A critical cause of school failure among children in

poverty is that they are not “ready to learn” when they enter school, and they seldom catch up.

Early childhood intervention programs can help break this cycle of poverty; they can help level

the playing field for disadvantaged children and help them reach their full potential. The InterAmerican Development Bank (IDB) is committed to breaking the cycle of poverty and sees

early childhood care and development (ECCD) as a cost-effective approach that can enhance

investments in other areas, such as education, health care, and violence prevention programs. 193

In 1998, the IDB began to develop an integrated strategy on Early Child Care and Development

(ECCD) that set out a combination of preventive approaches to children’s needs, particularly those

at high risk.194 In addition to lending for early childhood intervention programs, the IDB has

developed educational materials to help people working in this area design, execute, and

evaluate ECCD programs.195
94

Since the early 1990s, the IDB has financed a number of programs targeted at children in at-risk

situations, including children on the street, and children and youth in particularly difficult circumstances. The IDB’s “Children in Especially Difficult Circumstances” (CEDC) was, in part, a

response to the surge of children at risk in the wake of the economic crisis of the 1980s.196 The

CEDC program began funding projects in 1991. The general purpose of the CEDC program is to

foster the protection and integration into society of minors in extremely difficult circumstances,

through, inter alia, mobilizing help from the public and private sectors, providing direct assistance

to children at risk, and providing opportunities for these children to develop their physical,

economic, social and psychological potential.197

In January 2002, the IDB formally launched the “Don’t Call Me Street Kid” campaign in cooperation with UNICEF and other civil-society and government organizations. The campaign, which

will be carried out simultaneously in ten countries198 in Latin America and the Caribbean, aims to

“promote a public debate on innovative programs to reduce the number of children who spend most

of their time on the street.”199 The campaign will utilize various communications media, including a

video documentary showcasing innovative projects, to raise awareness of the problems confronting

street children and to promote public discussion of ways to address these issues.

In 1999, the IDB’s private sector lending subsidiary, the Inter-American Investment Corporation

(IIC), adopted a policy prohibiting the use of harmful child labor or forced labor in its sponsored

projects as well as requiring adherence to all domestic laws enforcing core labor standards, including those addressing child labor.200 Also in 1999, the IDB’s Private Sector Department (PRI), which

finances private investment in the development of infrastructure and capital markets in excess of

$30 million, adopted a policy requiring adherence to core labor standards, including protections

against child labor, in the Common Agreements for its projects. Agreements must include: (1)

language on workers rights, including child labor, which is consistent with the ILO’s Declaration on

Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work; (2) compliance with all applicable labor laws, regulations, and standards; and (3) compliance with all ILO conventions and treaties, which have been

196 Ricardo Moran and Claudio de Moura Castro, Street Children and the Inter-American Development Bank: Lessons

from Brazil, Inter-American Development Bank Sustainable Development Department, March 1997 [cited February 14,

2003]; available from http://www.iadb.org/sds/doc/1329eng.pdf.

197 Tables on CEDC projects, reimbursable and non-reimbursable, provided to U.S. Department of Labor by IDB,

October 2002.

198 The ten countries are: Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Jamaica, Mexico, Nicaragua,

and Peru.

199 Inter-American Development Bank, “IDB Launches ‘Don’t Call Me Street Kid” Campaign in Mexico to Promote

Public Discussion on High-Risk Children,” Press Release, January 11, 2002.

200 Inter-American Investment Corporation, Procedure for Environmental and Labor Review of IIC Projects, Revised

Version, Washington, D.C., April 8, 1999 [on file].
95

ratified by the host government.201 To implement this policy, the PRI has developed guidelines for

conducting its appraisal of labor issues in its review of projects. The review covers a broad range of

labor issues, including the minimum age for employment in a project.202

b. Lending for Projects Related to the Elimination of Child Labor

Since its inception in 1991, the CEDC has financed-through loans and grants-64 projects totaling

$534 million.203 Thirty-eight projects were identified in the area of targeting child labor, with total

financing of $446.4 million between 1991 and 2001. These projects include early childhood development programs that improve school entrance and performance outcomes; projects that strengthen

assistance and service programs for children on the streets; and projects that provide job skills

training for urban youth. There were 31 projects that were financed under the auspices of the

CEDC program. The seven non-CEDC projects are youth training or job assistance projects administered by the MIF.204 IDB lending for child labor-related projects has shown a generally upward

trend over the period, peaking in 1998 (See Figure 2.27).

201 Inter-American Development Bank, Loan or Common Agreement: Environmental and Social Aspects, (Washington,

D.C.: Inter-American Development Bank, 1999) (on file). All IDB member countries have ratified ILO conventions on

child labor and have laws on the books that prohibit or restrict the use of child labor.

202 Environmental and Social Aspects.

203 Tables on CEDC projects, reimbursable and non-reimbursable, provided to U.S. Department of Labor by IDB,

October 2002.

204 Financing sources include: loans (ordinary capital), a concessional, low-interest loans through the IDB’s

concessional lending window, funds from the Fund for Special Operations (FSO), or technical cooperation grants

administered by a trust fund or the Multilateral Investment Fund (MIF).
96

Figure 2.28 summarizes cumulative IDB lending to the referenced countries in the region over the

period 1991 to 2001. Twelve referenced countries in the region accounted for $390 million, or

about 87 percent of all IDB lending for child labor-related projects over the period. Six referenced

countries, each with total lending over $20 million, accounted for slightly over $354 million, or

about 79 percent of all IDB lending for child labor related projects over the period; these countries

were: Argentina ($50 million); Bolivia ($23 million); Brazil ($110 million); Colombia ($98

million); Honduras ($43 million); and Nicaragua ($31 million).

SOURCE: Table C.14 in Appendix C of this volume.

Figure 2.27. Inter-American Development Bank Loans for Child Labor Related

Projects, 1991-2001
97

Four referenced countries in the region that are members of the IDB-Costa Rica, the Dominican

Republic, Haiti, and Panama-did not receive any IDB lending for child labor-related projects over

the period. Cuba, the only referenced country in the region that is not a member of the IDB and is

not eligible for IDB lending, also did not receive any IDB funds.

In July 2002, the IDB announced approval of a grant for ¤450,000 (about $447,000) to identify and

finance innovative programs to reduce child labor in Latin America and the Caribbean.205 The

European Fund for Technical Assistance, administered by the IDB, will finance the design and

implementation of selected projects, with priority given to those projects with high levels of child

labor.

3. Share of Total Inter-American Bank Lending for Basic Education and

Projects Related to the Elimination of Child Labor

Of the $76.9 billion in loans made by the Inter-American Development Bank to all regional member countries over the period 1991 to 2001, about four percent ($3 billion) funded basic education

projects, and six-tenths of 1 percent ($446 million) funded projects related to the elimination of

Figure 2.28. Inter-American Development Bank Loans for Child Labor Related Projects

to Referenced Countries in Latin America and the Caribbean, Total, 1991-2001

 SOURCE: Table C.14 in Appendix C of this volume.

205 Inter-American Development Bank, IDB Approves Financing to Support Innovative Programs to Reduce Child

Labor in Latin America and the Caribbean, [online] July 18, 2002, [cited October 30, 2002]; available from

http://www.iadb.org/exr/PRENSA/2002/cp15502e.htm.
98

child labor. The referenced countries received cumulative loans for basic education totaling $2.5

billion, equal to 3.3 percent of total IDB loans over the period, and comprising 85 percent of all

basic education loans made to IDB member countries. The referenced countries also received loans

of $390 million for projects related to the elimination of child labor, equal to one-half of 1 percent

of total IDB lending, and comprising 87 percent of total lending for child labor-related projects to

all IDB member countries. Thus, during the period 1991-2001, slightly under $4.50 out of every

$100 in loans by the IDB went towards basic education and child labor-related projects for member

countries. The referenced countries accounted for 85 percent of this total, or just under $4.00 of

every $100 (3.8 percent of total IDB lending). (See Figure 2.29)

Source: Inter-American Development Bank, Annual Reports 1998 to 2001.

Figure 2.29. Share of Total Inter-American Development Bank Lending for Basic

Education and Child Labor-Related Projects, All Member and Referenced Countries,

1991-2001

Figure 2.30 plots the annual share of IDB lending for basic education and for projects related to the

elimination of child labor, for both member regional countries and the referenced countries over the

period 1991 to 2001. Between 1991 and 2001, the share of lending for basic education showed an

upward trend for both member and referenced countries, with a marked increase in loans for basic

education during 1994. Loans for basic education ranged between just over one-half of 1 percent

of total IDB lending in 1992, to almost 9 percent in 2001, and spiked during the Mexican financial

crisis of 1994 to almost 15 percent of total lending. During this same period, the share of project
99

loans related to the elimination of child labor showed a slight upward trend for both member and

referenced countries through 1998. Lending then declined somewhat in 1999 and 2001, though

rose again slightly in 2000. For member countries, the share of total IDB lending for child laborrelated projects ranged from one-tenth of 1 percent in 1991, to a peak of 1.5 percent in 1998.

Referenced countries’ share of loans tracked member countries’ share fairly closely, although were

slightly lower in several years (1991, 1992, 1994 and 2000).

Source: Inter-American Development Bank, Annual Reports 1998 to 2001.

Figure 2.30. Share of Total Inter-American Development Bank Lending for Basic

Education and Child Labor, Member and Referenced Countries, 1991-2001
101

Conclusion:

 Education as a Cornerstone for the Prevention and

Elimination of Child Labor

From the data presented in Part One on the expenditures by national governments on basic education and military for the period from 1990 to 2001, there are no definitive or universal conclusions

to be drawn from the spending allocations by the countries referenced in this report. The trends and

specific amounts committed by the IFIs detailed in Part Two suggest that amounts devoted to child

labor and education since 1989 do not represent a substantial investment compared to other programs funded by the World Bank and other regional banks, but that there have been and continue to

be resources allocated for child labor and education in the referenced countries. While the financial

commitments by the national governments and resource allocations by the multilateral development

banks to child labor and education programs for the referenced countries in this report provide an

indication of the level of spending to directly or indirectly address the elimination of child labor,

they do not inform the effectiveness of these programs or consider the impacts of these monetary

investments.

In an effort to advance the campaign against child labor, this report concludes by (1) highlighting

the importance of investing in education; (2) describing briefly the challenges to meeting the

education needs of working children; and (3) emphasizing the need for international cooperation to

strengthen the links between increasing educational access and eliminating the worst forms of child

labor.

A. Education: An Investment in Human Capital and National

Development

Many studies have demonstrated how investment in education contributes to economic growth and

national development.206 Education is a major factor in development. It enhances the skills and

productivity of citizens and creates new opportunities for innovation and technological advancement.207 Regardless of any nation’s current stage of development, education plays a crucial role in

increasing the general opportunities that people have available to them, and in providing avenues

away from impoverished futures.

Investing in children’s education yields great benefits for both the individual child and society as a

whole. At the individual level, children who are educated have better opportunities for higher

incomes in adult life, decreased poverty, reduced criminal activity, greater political participation,

better health, and increased life expectancy. 208 Moreover, at the national level, when children are

educated their human capital renders development benefits such as lower fertility rates, a greater

pool of skilled workers, increased economic growth, and lower dependence on social support

programs later in life. The benefits that a country derives from a more educated population also

206 Meir and Rauch, Leading Issues in Economic Development, 7th Ed.

207 Ibid.

208 By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume VI): 6.
102

include increased wealth and stability.209 Education can thus be seen as a social and governmental

concern and responsibility.

In spite of stated commitments to education, governments of developing nations often lack resources to fully fund their public education systems. As a result, these systems cannot adequately

or effectively serve their communities. The “Global Campaign for Education” indicates the state of

public school systems in the majority of developing countries are deteriorating, and that they are in

need of “fundamental improvements in ... quality, accountability and efficiency...”210

The lack of governmental expenditures on education will likely serve to exacerbate social problems

within a country, creating further obstacles to its economic development as a whole. Without a

major investment in public schooling, children are more likely to drop out of school and enter the

labor force. Many children work because schools are not accessible, quality of education is low, the

curriculum is not relevant to their needs, or parents simply cannot afford the extra school fees

required of them to subsidize the costs of public schooling. Early entry into the workforce may

reduce future earnings and perpetuate a cycle of poverty in future generations. Therefore, strengthening the education system is not only an essential strategy for eliminating child labor, but a central

component to national development.

B. Challenges for Providing Education to Working Children

In 2000, the ILO estimated that 211 million children aged 5 to 14 were working. 211 Of these

children, approximately 111 million children were working full-time and did not attend school. 212

The other 100 million children of the same age group combined work and school. 213 In order to

effectively remove these children from work and provide them with meaningful learning experiences, the barriers that prevent them from either entering or fully participating in school must be

addressed.

Poverty is commonly the primary determinant of a child’s participation in work and reason for

dropping out of school.214 While education is free in many developing countries, families who are

209 Todaro and Smith, Economic Development; Meier and Rauch, Leading Issues in Economic Development, 7th

Edition.

210 The Global Campaign for Education Briefing Paper for the Johannesburg World Summit, August 2002, [cited March

10, 2003]; available from http://www.campaignforeducation.org/_html/2002-docs/08-brief-joburg/content.shtml.

211 International Labour Organization, Every Child Counts: New Global Estimates on Child Labour, International

Labour Office, Geneva, April 2002.

212 Ibid.

213 Ibid.

214 IChristian Grootaert and Harry Anthony Patrinos, Policy Analysis of Child Labor: A Comparative Study

(Washington, D.C.; The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, 1999).
103

poor cannot afford the extra costs associated with schooling such as uniforms, school supplies, and

transportation. The HIV/AIDS pandemic has also contributed to the growing number of children

who have dropped out of school and entered the labor force. The prolonged illness or death of

parents or guardians from the disease has left many children as either heads of households or

orphans with no financial support other than their own labor. For children living in rural areas, the

likelihood of working and dropping out of school is also great. An estimated 70 percent of the

world’s working children are engaged in agricultural production.215 Many families in rural areas in

developing countries rely on farming as a source of livelihood, and children in rural areas are more

likely to drop out of school during the harvesting seasons to work with their parents to supplement

household income. This is in part compounded by the long distances required to travel to schools

and lack of qualified teachers assigned to rural areas.

There are other reasons that keep working children out of school or discourage their integration into

the formal school system. Sociocultural factors such as gender discrimination often hinder the

effective participation of girls in school. Many girls in developing countries are required to stay at

home and assist with household chores, and a majority of child domestic workers in other households are girls.216 Age can also be a barrier for former child laborers trying to be integrated into the

formal school system. Frequently, children who are withdrawn from work and enrolled in school

are several years older than their counterparts of normal primary school age. This age disparity

may invoke feelings of insecurity and discourage older children from attending classes.

To not consider the special situation of working children or those children at-risk of working may

prevent their enrollment in schools, hinder their regular attendance, and preclude their retention in

the school system. Thus, the issue of child labor must be considered in the development of education policies and programs. However, the special needs of working children or those children atrisk of working are often not taken into account when formulating education plans. The areas that

are often overlooked include expanding educational access and quality; ensuring gender equity;

reducing rural and urban disparities in education; expanding literacy and non-formal education

programs for those dropping out or never enrolled in the formal system; and forging links between

non-formal, formal and vocational education. For example, ensuring gender equity in education

may not be achieved without addressing the needs of the thousands of child domestic workers

around the world who commonly are girls; and decreasing rural and urban disparities in education

cannot be accomplished without addressing the needs of children working in agriculture. The

education system must therefore adapt to address these types of problems if working children are to

be educated. In addition, governments often do not provide the necessary extra support to education systems during shocks including climatic change, health related pandemics such as HIV/AIDS,

215 Kebebew Ashsgrie, Statistics on Working Children and Hazardous Child Labor in Brief, International Labour

Office, Geneva, April 1998; available from http://www.ilo.org/public/english/standards/ipec/simpoc/statspr.htm.

216 UNICEF, “Child Domestic Work,” Innocent Digest 5 (May 1999).
104

and other types of economic, political and social crises which may increase the risk of children

dropping out of school and entering the workforce.

C. Concluding Remarks: “Education For All” Supports the Elimination

of the Worst Forms of Child Labor

The previous report on Advancing the Campaign Against Child Labor (Volume II): Addressing the

Worst Forms of Child Labor highlighted the development of an international consensus towards the

elimination of the worst forms of child labor.217 Through the unanimous adoption and rapid ratification by member states of ILO Convention 182 on the Worst Forms of Child Labor, and through the

creation of other international instruments such as the United Nation’s Optional Protocols to the

Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child

Pornography and the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflicts, the issue of child labor has

gained increased attention throughout the international community.218

As mentioned earlier, providing access to quality and relevant basic education is an integral part of

the strategy to eliminate child labor, including its most exploitative forms. Quality and relevant

education can serve the dual function of building the human capital of children withdrawn from

exploitative work while preventing at-risk children from entering hazardous work situations. Moreover, initiatives that promote universal access to quality and relevant education for child workers

and at-risk children coincide with the goals outlined in the Education For All (EFA) initiative

adopted at a world forum in Jomtien, Thailand, in 1990, and reaffirmed in the World Education

Forum in Dakar, Senegal in April 2000 (see Box 3):

...by 2015 all children, particularly girls, children in difficult

circumstances and those belonging to ethnic minorities,

have access to and complete free and compulsory primary

education of good quality...219

The United Nations Millennium Development Goals adopted by the General Assembly in September 2000 share the same vision by stating “that, by the year 2015, children everywhere, boys and

girls alike, will be able to complete a full course of primary schooling and that girls and boys will

217 See Advancing the Campaign Against Child Labor (Volume II): Addressing the Worst Forms of Child Labor, 4-6

(Washington, D.C.: USDOL/ILAB, 2002), for a discussion on the international consensus to eliminate the worst forms

of child labor.

218 United Nations Office of t5he High Commissionerfor Human Rights, Optional Protocol to the Convention on the

Rights of the Child on the sale of children, child prositution and child pornography, General assembly resolution A/

RES/54/263, Geneva, May 25, 2000; available from http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu2/dopchild.htm. and United

Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the

Child on the involvement of children in armed conflict, General Assembly resolution A/RES/54/263. Geneva, May25

2000; available from http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu2/6/protocolchild.htm.

 219 UNESCO, EFA Global Monitoring Report 2002: Is the World on Track?
105

have equal access to all levels of education.”220 A crucial step towards achieving both the Millennium Development Goals and EFA goals by 2015 involves initiatives designed to simultaneously

withdraw children from exploitative forms of labor and increase access to quality and relevant basic

education.

 Box 3: What is “Education for All” and How Does it Relate to Child Labor?

Education for All (EFA) is an expanded vision of basic education that was adopted in

1990 by the international community at a world conference on education in Jomtien,

Thailand. This vision called for:

...a learning environment in which everyone would have the chance to

acquire the basic elements that serve as a foundation for further learning

and enable full participation in society. This vision implied both access

to education for everybody and meeting the diverse learning needs of children,

youth and adults.

In order to make EFA a reality, the diverse learning needs of children engaged in

the worst forms of child labor and those children at-risk of entering exploitative work

must be considered in any framework of action that addresses access to education for

children in difficult circumstances.

As countries express their commitments to eliminating the worst forms of child labor by ratifying

ILO Convention 182,221 they should also move towards making parallel efforts to increase financial

resources to the provision of quality and relevant basic education in order to remove working

children from hazardous labor and to prevent at-risk children from entering the workforce. In the

short term, increased resource allocations to basic education may place economic strains on many

developing countries. In this regard, an international consensus to eliminate child labor necessitates

international cooperation by donor governments, bilateral technical agencies, multilateral development banks, and recipient countries to fund basic education and child labor elimination programs

(see Appendix E).222

Achieving the goals of EFA by 2015 will prove to be a challenge without the financial assistance of

bilateral agencies, donor countries, and international financial institutions.223 Building alliances and

Source: UNESCO, Education for All:An International Strategy to Put the Dakar Framework for Action

on Education for All into Operation. Paris: UNESCO, 2002.

220 United Nations, 55/2. United Nations Millenium Declaration, New York, 2000.

221 As of March 18, 2003, 134 countries have ratified ILO Convention 182.

222 Appendix D provides country examples of international cooperation on basic education and child labor programs.

223 Isaac Shapiro and Nancy Birdsall, “How Does the Proposed Level of Foreign Economic Aid Under the Bush Budget

Compare with Historical Levels”,Center on Budget and policy Priorities (March 20, 2002, UNESCO, EFA Global

Monitoring Report 2002: Is the World on Track, World Bank, Assessing Aid: What Works, What Doesn’t, and Why

)Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998).
106

institutional capacity at the local, national, and global level to coordinate policies and programs on

education and child labor are important tenets in the elimination of the worst forms of child labor.

Aside from providing financial resources, collaboration between international institutions such as

the ILO, UNESCO, and UNICEF; and cooperation among government ministries of labor, education, and social welfare, in developing countries are key to integrating important policy issues on

education and child labor and mobilizing resources for sustainable programs.224

As international efforts to provide basic education and address the worst forms of child labor gain

greater momentum, the underlying goal of creating options for individuals to lead healthy and

productive lives should not be lost. In this regard, achieving universal primary education is only the

beginning of EFA. Children in the worst forms of child labor such as armed conflict, forced and

bonded labor, and commercial sexual exploitation will need special rehabilitation and psychosocial

services for reintegration into formal and non-formal school systems. Strengthening all levels and

areas of education to provide all children, youth, and adults with the appropriate life skills necessary to succeed must also be seen as strategic elements necessary for the growth and development

of countries across the world.

224 Gene B. Sperling, “Toward Universal Primary Education: Making a Promise, and Keeping It,” Foreign Affairs 80

5 (2001).
107

Appendix A:

Detailed Statistical Tables for Education

and Military Expenditures

Table A.1: Education and Military Expenditures as a Percentage of Gross National Income

and Central Government in Africa by Referenced Country and Year

Table A.2: Education and Military Expenditures as a Percentage of Gross National Income

and Central Government in Asia by Referenced Country and Year

Table A.3: Education and Military Expenditures as a Percentage of Gross National Income

and Central Government in Europe by Referenced Country and Year

Table A.4: Education and Military Expenditures as a Percentage of Gross National Income

and Central Government in Latin America and the Caribbean by Referenced

Country and Year
108

Table A.1: Education and Military Expenditures as a Percentage of Gross National

Income and Central Government in Africa by Referenced Country and Year

Country/Year

Military6 Military6

Primary3 Secondary4 Total

5 Primary3 Secondary4 Total5

Angola

1990 – – 4.9 17.1 – – 10.7 39.8

1991 – – – 12.7 – – – –

1992 – – – 16.6 – – – –

1993 – – – 13.0 – – – 24.6

1994 – – – 21.0 – – – 33.8

1995 – – – 17.6 – – – 31.4

1996 – – – 19.4 – – – 33.1

1997 – – – 20.3 – – – 36.3

1998 – – 5.2 11.4 – – – 27.4

1999 – – 5.2 21.2 – – – 41.1

2000 – – – – – – – –

2001 – – – – – – – –

Benin

1990 – – – 2.0 – – – –

1991 – – – – – – – –

1992 – – – 1.3 – – – 6.3

1993 – – – 1.6 – – – 8.6

1994 1.3 – – 2.3 – – – 11.6

1995 1.3 – 3.2 1.2 – – 15.2 5.4

1996 1.2 – – 1.3 – – – 6.4

1997 1.2 – – 1.3 – – – 6.8

1998 – 0.5 2.6 1.4 – – – 8.3

1999 – 0.5 2.6 – – – – 8.3

2000 – – – – – – –

2001 – – – – – – – –

Botswana

1990 – – 6.9 4.6 – – 17.0 10.8

1991 – – 7.3 4.5 – – 18.7 11.0

1992 – – 7.1 4.2 – – 17.5 10.3

1993 – – 7.8 4.9 – – 17.6 12.1

1994 – – 8.2 4.8 – – 19.3 12.7

1995 – – 8.6 4.0 – – 15.8 10.7

1996 – – 10.3 3.8 – – 20.2 10.3

1997 – – 8.6 4.3 – – – 10.2

1998 – – – 5.0 – – – 10.7

1999 – – 9.3 4.7 – – – 9.8

2000 – – – – – – – –

2001 – – – – – – – –

Expenditures as a

Percentage of GNI1

Expenditures as a Percentage of

Total Central Government Expenditures2

Education Education
109

Table A.1: Africa (continued)

Country/Year

Military6 Military6

Primary3 Secondary4 Total5 Primary3 Secondary4 Total5

Burkina Faso

1990 1.2 – 2.7 3.1 – – – 17.5

1991 1.3 – 2.9 2.5 – – – 11.9

1992 1.5 – 3.0 2.4 – – – 11.5

1993 1.4 – 1.5 2.2 – – – 9.6

1994 1.6 – 3.6 1.6 – – 11.1 7.5

1995 1.4 – 1.4 1.6 – – – 7.5

1996 1.6 – 1.5 1.5 – – – 8.3

1997 1.7 – – 1.6 – – – 7.1

1998 1.6 – – 1.5 – – – 6.6

1999 – – – 1.6 – –– 5.9

2000 – – –– – – ––

2001 – – –– – – ––

Burundi

1990 1.4 – 3.4 3.5 – – 16.7 12.7

1991 1.3 – 3.5 3.7 – – 17.7 12.3

1992 1.3 – 3.8 3.6 – – 12.2 10.5

1993 1.2 – – 3.9 – – – 11.9

1994 1.7 – 4.6 4.6 – – – 16.3

1995 1.8 – 5.1 4.5 – – – 14.5

1996 1.3 – 4.0 5.7 – – 18.3 20.6

1997 1.6 – – 6.3 – – – 27.0

1998 2.7 – 4.0 6.8 – – – 26.7

1999 – – 3.9 7.0 – – – 26.7

2000 – – –– – – ––

2001 – – –– – – ––

Cameroon

1990 0.7 – 3.4 1.8 – – 19.6 8.1

1991 0.7 – 2.9 1.8 – – 16.9 7.8

1992 0.7 – – 1.8 – – – 9.2

1993 0.6 – – 1.6 – – – 9.3

1994 0.3 – – 1.5 – – – 9.6

1995 0.3 – – 1.7 – – – 12.2

1996 0.3 – – 1.4 – – – 8.3

1997 – – – 1.2 – –– 7.2

1998 1.3 0.9 2.7 1.8 5.3 3.4 10.9 11.7

1999 – – 2.5 1.8 – – 9.9 10.6

2000 – – –– – – ––

2001 – – –– – – ––

Expenditures as a

Percentage of GNI1

Expenditures as a Percentage of

Total Central Government Expenditures2

Education Education
110

Table A.1: Africa (continued)

Country/Year

Military6 Military6

Primary3 Secondary4 Total5 Primary3 Secondary4 Total5

Comoros

1990 1.6 – – – – – ––

1991 1.7 – – – – – ––

1992 1.8 – – – – – ––

1993 1.8 – – – – – ––

1994 2.0 – – – – – ––

1995 1.8 – – – – – ––

1996 1.3 – – – – – ––

1997 1.7 – – – – – ––

1998 1.2 1.6 3.8 – – – – –

1999 0.5 1.4 3.5 – 9.8 9.7 23.5 –

2000 – – –– – – ––

2001 – – –– – – ––

Congo, Dem. Rep.

1990 – – –– – – ––

1991 – – –– – – ––

1992 – – – 3.0 – – – 16.1

1993 – – – 5.0 – – – 25.5

1994 – – –– – – ––

1995 – – –– – – ––

1996 – – –– – – ––

1997 – – –– – – ––

1998 – – – 11.8 – – – –

1999 – – – 14.4 – – – –

2000 – – –– – – ––

2001 – – –– – – ––

Congo, Rep. Of

1990 2.5 – 6.0 4.5 – – 14.4 11.1

1991 4.4 – 8.9 7.0 – – – –

1992 4.2 – 9.6 5.7 – – – 13.5

1993 3.7 – 9.1 4.8 – – – 11.2

1994 3.0 – 7.5 2.5 – – 15.5 5.8

1995 2.6 – 6.1 3.1 – – 14.7 6.9

1996 1.9 – – 4.0 – – – 7.2

1997 – – – 5.7 – – – 8.9

1998 – – – 5.8 – – – 9.0

1999 – – – 3.5 – – – 8.4

2000 – – –– – – ––

2001 – – –– – – ––

Expenditures as a

Percentage of GNI1

Expenditures as a Percentage of

Total Central Government Expenditures2

Education Education
111

Table A.1: Africa (continued)

Country/Year

Military6 Military6

Primary3 Secondary4 Total5 Primary3 Secondary4 Total5

Cote d'Ivoire

1990 3.2 – – 1.6 – – – –

1991 3.2 – – 1.4 – – – 3.9

1992 3.3 – 7.7 1.5 – – 35.6 4.3

1993 3.3 – 7.9 1.6 – – 34.8 4.8

1994 2.5 – 5.8 1.2 – – 30.7 4.0

1995 2.2 – 5.3 1.1 – – 28.8 3.8

1996 4.5 – 5.0 1.0 – – 24.0 3.6

1997 4.9 – 5.0 1.0 – – 24.9 4.4

1998 4.5 1.5 4.5 0.9 – – – 3.5

1999 4.9 2.4 6.4 0.8 15.8 15.2 40.8 3.4

2000 – – –– – – ––

2001 – – –– – – ––

Egypt

1990 – – 3.8 3.3 – – – 10.1

1991 – – 4.7 3.6 – – 9.7 10.0

1992 – – 4.4 3.5 – – 11.0 8.5

1993 – – 4.7 3.6 – – 13.9 9.3

1994 – – 4.7 3.4 – – 13.8 8.4

1995 – – 4.8 3.1 – – 14.9 8.7

1996 – – – 3.0 – –– 9.2

1997 – – – 2.8 – –– 9.3

1998 – – 4.4 2.7 – – – –

1999 – – 4.1 2.7 – – – –

2000 – – –– – – ––

2001 – – –– – – ––

Equatorial Guinea

1990 – – –– – – ––

1991 3.2 – – – – – ––

1992 2.5 – – – – – ––

1993 3.4 – 1.7 – – – 5.6 –

1994 2.0 – – 2.2 – – – 7.3

1995 4.6 – – 2.3 – – – 8.5

1996 3.1 – – 1.9 – – – 6.1

1997 2.8 – – – – – ––

1998 2.4 – 2.0 – – – – –

1999 – – 2.0 3.2 – – – 16.5

2000 – – –– – – ––

2001 – – –– – – ––

Expenditures as a

Percentage of GNI1

Expenditures as a Percentage of

Total Central Government Expenditures2

Education Education
112

Table A.1: Africa (continued)

Country/Year

Military6 Military6

Primary3 Secondary4 Total5 Primary3 Secondary4 Total5

Ethiopia

1990 – – 3.4 11.1 – – 9.4 39.8

1991 – – 3.1 9.1 – – 13.1 39.6

1992 – – 3.4 3.7 – – 11.9 20.0

1993 – – 4.2 2.9 – – 13.1 15.1

1994 – – 4.6 2.4 – – 13.0 9.7

1995 – – 4.0 2.2 – – 13.9 9.1

1996 – – 4.0 2.0 – – 13.7 7.9

1997 – –– 2.0 – – – 8.4

1998 – – 4.3 4.9 – – – 19.5

1999 – – – 8.8 – – – 29.1

2000 – – –– – – ––

2001 – – –– – – ––

Gabon

1990 0.9 – – 3.1 – – – 13.7

1991 1.4 – – – – – ––

1992 4.0 – 3.2 3.1 – – – 10.1

1993 5.0 – – 3.2 – – – 9.6

1994 2.6 – 2.8 2.1 – – – 7.3

1995 4.3 – 2.9 2.5 – – – 7.9

1996 2.2 – – 2.1 – – – 7.6

1997 2.8 – – 1.9 – – – 5.4

1998 1.7 1.1 3.8 2.5 – – – 4.8

1999 1.4 1.1 – 2.4 – – – 7.3

2000 – – –– – – ––

2001 – – –– – – ––

Ghana

1990 – – 3.3 0.5 – – 24.3 3.4

1991 – –– 0.6 – – – 4.3

1992 – – 4.5 0.8 – – 25.0 4.6

1993 – – 4.3 1.0 – – 21.7 4.8

1994 2.9 – 4.3 0.7 – – 19.2 3.1

1995 2.1 – 4.8 0.8 – – 21.4 3.4

1996 2.6 – 4.2 0.6 – – 19.9 2.8

1997 2.6 – – 0.7 – – – 3.3

1998 2.6 – – 0.8 – – – 2.9

1999 – – 4.2 0.8 – – – 3.1

2000 – – –– – – ––

2001 – – –– – – ––

Expenditures as a

Percentage of GNI1

Expenditures as a Percentage of

Total Central Government Expenditures2

Education Education
113

Table A.1: Africa (continued)

Country/Year

Military6 Military6

Primary3 Secondary4 Total5 Primary3 Secondary4 Total5

Kenya

1990 3.1 – 7.1 2.9 – – 17.0 9.8

1991 3.3 – 6.7 2.8 – – 15.7 9.0

1992 3.1 – 6.7 3.0 – – 13.4 11.5

1993 3.6 – 6.5 3.0 – – 11.3 9.0

1994 3.6 – 7.1 2.0 – – 16.4 5.9

1995 3.4 – 6.7 2.0 – – 16.9 6.7

1996 3.4 – 6.5 2.0 – – 16.7 6.7

1997 3.9 – – 2.0 – – – 7.2

1998 3.6 – 6.7 1.7 – – – 5.9

1999 – – 6.8 1.9 – 58.5 – 7.1

2000 – – –– – – ––

2001 – – –– – – ––

Lesotho

1990 – – 3.7 5.3 – – 12.2 17.1

1991 – – 6.2 – – – 17.6 –

1992 – – 6.6 3.1 – – – 10.5

1993 – – 5.4 2.6 – –– 8.2

1994 – – 6.7 2.1 – –– 6.5

1995 – – 8.4 2.1 – –– 5.9

1996 – – – 2.2 – –– 6.1

1997 – – – 2.2 – –– 6.1

1998 – 2.1 9.9 2.5 12.7 5.5 25.6 6.5

1999 – 2.2 7.9 2.6 9.0 5.1 18.5 6.5

2000 – – –– – – ––

2001 – – –– – – ––

Madagascar

1990 – – 2.2 1.2 – –– 6.9

1991 0.7 – 2.7 1.2 – – – 7.0

1992 0.6 – 2.3 1.1 – – – 5.4

1993 0.6 – 2.2 1.3 – – 16.1 6.1

1994 0.8 – – 1.0 – – – 5.1

1995 0.6 – – 0.9 – – – 5.0

1996 0.5 – – 1.3 – – – 7.0

1997 0.5 – 1.9 1.5 – – – 8.5

1998 0.8 0.6 1.9 1.4 4.1 3.3 10.2 7.2

1999 – 0.9 5.9 1.2 – – – 7.4

2000 – – –– – – ––

2001 – – –– – – ––

Expenditures as a

Percentage of GNI1

Expenditures as a Percentage of

Total Central Government Expenditures2

Education Education
114

Table A.1: Africa (continued)

Country/Year

Military6 Military6

Primary3 Secondary4 Total5 Primary3 Secondary4 Total5

Mali

1990 – – –– – – ––

1991 – – –– – – ––

1992 – – – 2.3 – – – 9.4

1993 1.4 – – 2.2 – – – 9.2

1994 2.2 – – 2.0 – – – 7.2

1995 1.8 – 2.2 1.8 – – – 7.4

1996 2.1 – 2.2 1.9 – – – 8.1

1997 1.9 – – 2.2 – – – 9.1

1998 – – 3.0 2.1 – – – 8.4

1999 – 1.2 3.0 2.3 – – – 8.7

2000 – – –– – – ––

2001 – – –– – – ––

Mauritania

1990 – – – 3.7 – – 12.3

1991 1.4 – 4.9 3.7 – – 13.9 12.1

1992 1.5 – 4.9 3.5 – – 13.4 13.3

1993 1.5 – 5.1 3.4 – – 14.5 8.7

1994 1.5 – 5.2 3.0 – – 16.2 10.3

1995 1.5 – 5.1 3.2 – – 16.2 12.3

1996 1.5 – – 2.9 – – – 11.4

1997 1.4 – – 3.9 – – – 19.1

1998 – – 4.5 – – – 18.9 –

1999 1.7 1.0 – 4.0 – – – 18.9

2000 – – –– – – ––

2001 – – –– – – ––

Morocco

1990 2.0 – 5.5 5.4 – – 26.1 17.9

1991 1.9 – 5.2 4.3 – – 26.3 14.8

1992 2.2 – 5.8 4.5 – – 26.7 14.3

1993 2.2 – 6.1 4.7 – – 25.6 13.0

1994 2.1 – 5.6 4.2 – – 22.6 12.5

1995 1.8 – 5.8 4.3 – – 24.7 12.4

1996 2.0 – 5.3 4.0 – – 24.9 13.0

1997 2.2 – 5.0 4.3 – – 20.9 12.9

1998 2.4 2.7 6.2 4.0 10.6 11.3 26.1 12.9

1999 2.3 2.7 5.2 4.3 – – – 13.5

2000 – – –– – – ––

2001 – – –– – – ––

Expenditures as a

Percentage of GNI1

Expenditures as a Percentage of

Total Central Government Expenditures2

Education Education
115

Table A.1: Africa (continued)

Country/Year

Military6 Military6

Primary3 Secondary4 Total5 Primary3 Secondary4 Total5

Mozambique

1990 – – 4.1 6.2 – – 12.0 17.9

1991 – – – 5.3 – – – 14.8

1992 – – – 6.0 – – – 17.0

1993 – – – 5.8 – – – 18.1

1994 – – – 6.2 – – – 18.6

1995 – – – 2.7 – – – 10.1

1996 – – – 2.3 – – – 10.4

1997 – – – 2.2 – –– 8.8

1998 – – 3.1 2.4 – – – 10.2

1999 – – – 2.5 – –– 9.1

2000 – – –– – – ––

2001 – – –– – – ––

Nigeria

1990 – – 1.0 2.0 – –– 7.6

1991 – – 0.5 2.5 – – – 11.4

1992 – – 0.5 1.1 – –– 6.5

1993 – – 0.9 1.1 – –– 4.9

1994 – – 0.9 0.8 – – 14.8 5.2

1995 – – 0.7 0.7 – – 11.5 5.0

1996 – – – 0.9 – –– 7.9

1997 – – – 1.1 – –– 8.4

1998 – – – 1.5 – –– 9.3

1999 – – 0.7 1.6 – –– 8.1

2000 – – –– – – ––

2001 – – –– – – ––

Rwanda

1990 – – – 3.7 – – – 19.8

1991 – – – 5.5 – – – 27.9

1992 – – – 4.4 – – – 21.7

1993 – – – 4.6 – – – 18.9

1994 – – – 3.5 – – – 25.7

1995 – – – 4.3 – – – 34.9

1996 – – – 5.3 – – – 23.7

1997 – – – 4.4 – – – 22.2

1998 – – 2.5 4.4 – – – 23.6

1999 – – – 4.5 – – – 22.7

2000 – – –– – – ––

2001 – – –– – – ––

Expenditures as a

Percentage of GNI1

Expenditures as a Percentage of

Total Central Government Expenditures2

Education Education
116

Table A.1: Africa (continued)

Country/Year

Military6 Military6

Primary3 Secondary4 Total5 Primary3 Secondary4 Total5

Senegal

1990 1.7 – 4.1 2.0 – – 26.9 –

1991 – – – 2.0 – – – 10.3

1992 – – 4.3 2.8 – – 33.0 13.5

1993 – – 4.4 2.6 – – 26.8 11.9

1994 – – 4.0 1.9 – – 31.4 8.6

1995 – – 4.0 1.7 – – 33.1 8.2

1996 1.3 – 3.7 1.7 – – – 8.0

1997 – – – 1.6 – – – 8.3

1998 0.9 3.5 1.8 – – – 8.7

1999 – 3.5 1.7 – – – 8.2

2000 – – –– – – ––

2001 – – –– – – ––

Sierra Leone

1990 – – – 1.5 – – – 20.8

1991 – – – 2.3 – – – 15.5

1992 – – – 3.5 – – – 17.7

1993 – – – 3.4 – – – 16.9

1994 – – – 4.1 – – – 18.7

1995 – – – 4.2 – – – 24.7

1996 – – – 5.0 – – – 32.8

1997 – – – 5.6 – – – 31.7

1998 0.2 1.0 3.9 – – – 18.9

1999 – – – 3.0 – – – 13.5

2000 – – –– – – ––

2001 – – –– – – ––

Somalia

1990 – – – 0.9 – – – –

1991 – – –– – – ––

1992 – – –– – – ––

1993 – – –– – – ––

1994 – – –– – – ––

1995 – – –– – – ––

1996 – – –– – – ––

1997 – – –– – – ––

1998 – – –– – – ––

1999 – – –– – – ––

2000 – – –– – – ––

2001 – – –– – – ––

Expenditures as a

Percentage of GNI1

Expenditures as a Percentage of

Total Central Government Expenditures2

Education Education
117

Table A.1: Africa (continued)

Country/Year

Military6 Military6

Primary3 Secondary4 Total5 Primary3 Secondary4 Total5

South Africa

1990 – – 6.5 4.0 – – – 12.6

1991 – – – 3.3 – – – 10.6

1992 – – 7.0 3.0 – – 22.1 8.9

1993 – – 7.1 2.6 – – 22.9 7.4

1994 – – 7.3 2.7 – – 21.6 8.9

1995 3.3 – 6.8 2.4 – – 20.5 7.7

1996 – – 8.0 2.0 – – 23.9 6.2

1997 – – – 1.6 – –– 5.3

1998 – 2.1 6.2 1.6 – – – 5.2

1999 – 1.8 5.9 1.5 – – – 5.0

2000 – – –– – – ––

2001 – – –– – – ––

Sudan

1990 0.0 – 0.9 3.5 – – 2.8 –

1991 0.0 – 0.6 6.6 – – 1.7 64.5

1992 – – – 9.8 – – – 64.0

1993 – – – 7.8 – – – 60.0

1994 – – – 8.8 – – – 54.7

1995 – – – 5.3 – – – 38.9

1996 – – – 6.5 – – – 52.0

1997 – – – 4.6 – – – 54.5

1998 1.8 – – 3.9 – – – 43.9

1999 – – – 4.8 – – – 46.8

2000 – – –– – – ––

2001 – – –– – – ––

Tanzania

1990 – – 3.4 1.5 – – 11.4 8.7

1991 – – – 1.5 – –– 7.8

1992 – – – 2.0 – – – 10.0

1993 1.1 – – 1.5 – – – 8.3

1994 1.8 – – – – – ––

1995 1.5 – – 1.2 – – – 7.4

1996 1.5 – – 1.4 – – – 8.7

1997 1.5 – – 1.2 – – – 8.4

1998 – – 2.1 1.2 – –– 9.0

1999 – – – 1.4 – – – 10.1

2000 – – –– – – ––

2001 – – –– – – ––

Expenditures as a

Percentage of GNI1

Expenditures as a Percentage of

Total Central Government Expenditures2

Education Education
118

Table A.1: Africa (continued)

Country/Year

Military6 Military6

Primary3 Secondary4 Total5 Primary3 Secondary4 Total5

Togo

1990 1.7 – 5.6 3.2 – – 26.4 14.0

1991 – – – 3.0 – – – 11.7

1992 1.9 – 6.1 2.9 – – 21.6 13.2

1993 1.6 – – 4.2 – – – 15.3

1994 – – – 2.7 – – – 10.3

1995 1.4 – – 2.4 – – – 10.4

1996 1.2 – 4.5 1.9 – – 24.7 9.3

1997 1.1 – – 2.0 – – – 10.7

1998 1.2 1.3 4.5 – 10.9 7.0 24.4 –

1999 1.0 1.6 4.8 1.8 9.9 8.7 26.2 9.4

2000 – – –– – – ––

2001 – – –– – – ––

Uganda

1990 – – 1.5 3.4 – – 11.5 25.9

1991 – – 1.9 3.2 – – 15.0 21.3

1992 – – – 2.4 – – – 11.7

1993 – – – 1.9 – – – 10.0

1994 0.9 – 2.2 1.9 – – – 9.5

1995 1.5 – 2.6 1.7 – – 21.4 9.6

1996 1.8 – – 2.3 – – – 13.1

1997 2.0 – – 2.4 – – – 13.2

1998 2.0 – – 2.3 – – – 14.7

1999 – – 2.3 2.3 – – – 13.9

2000 – – –– – – ––

2001 – – –– – – ––

Zambia

1990 0.8 – 2.6 4.1 – – 8.7 12.6

1991 1.5 – 3.1 2.9 – – 7.1 3.9

1992 0.9 – 2.3 3.3 – – 7.7 9.3

1993 1.3 – 2.1 1.7 – – 9.2 5.5

1994 1.1 – 2.1 2.0 – – 6.5 7.9

1995 1.4 – 2.2 2.4 – – 7.1 8.9

1996 1.2 – – 1.5 – – – 6.6

1997 1.4 – – 1.9 – – – 6.3

1998 1.4 – 2.5 2.0 – – 17.6 6.1

1999 – – – 1.0 – – – 3.5

2000 – – –– – – ––

2001 – – –– – – ––

Expenditures as a

Percentage of GNI1

Expenditures as a Percentage of

Total Central Government Expenditures2

Education Education
119

Table A.1: Africa (continued)

Country/Year

Military6 Military6

Primary3 Secondary4 Total5 Primary3 Secondary4 Total5

Zimbabwe

1990 – – 8.0 4.6 – – – 14.8

1991 – – 6.7 3.9 – – – 12.6

1992 – – 7.4 3.8 – – – 10.1

1993 – – 7.1 3.5 – – – 10.0

1994 – – – 3.4 – – – 11.6

1995 – – – 3.8 – –– 9.0

1996 – – – 3.3 – –– 9.5

1997 – – – 3.5 – –– 9.5

1998 – – 11.6 4.1 – – – 11.5

1999 – 3.2 11.1 5.0 – – – 12.1

2000 – – –– – – ––

2001 – – –– – – ––

Expenditures as a

Percentage of GNI1

Expenditures as a Percentage of

Total Central Government Expenditures2

Education Education

– = not available

SOURCE: World Bank, World Development Indicators 2002 [CD-ROM], Washington D.C., 2002.

SOURCE: World Bank, World Development Indicators 2002 [CD-ROM], Washington D.C., 2002.

6 Military expenditures for NATO countries are based on the NATO definition, which covers military-related expenditures of the defense 

ministry (including recruiting, training, construction, and the purchase of military supplies and equipment) and other ministries. Civiliantype expenditures of the defense ministry are excluded. Military assistance is included in the expenditures of the donor country, and 

purchases of military equipment on credit are included at the time the debt is incurred, not at the time of payment. Data for other 

countries generally cover expenditures of the ministry of defense (excluded are expenditures on public order and safety, which are 

classified separately).

1 Gross National Income is the sum of gross value added by all resident producers in the economy plus any product taxes (less subsidies) 

that are not included in the valuation of output plus net receipts of income from abroad.

SOURCES: UNESCO, Institute for Statistics, Education for All: Year 2000 Assessment - A Decade of Education [CD-ROM], Paris, 2000 

[For primary-level statistics]; UNESCO, Institute for Statistics, 2002 [for secondary-level statistics]; UNESCO, 2001, 

www.uis.unesco.org, consulted August 6 2002 [education (total) category]; World Bank, World Development Indicators 2002[CD-ROM], 

2 Public expenditure on education represents current and capital expenditures on education by local, regional and national governments, 

including municipalities. Household contributions are normally excluded.

SOURCES: World Bank, World Development Indicators 2002 [CD-ROM], Washington D.C., 2002 [for military data]; UNESCO, 2001, 

www.uis.unesco.org, consulted August 6 2002 [education (total) category]; UNESCO, Institute for Statistics, 2002 [for primary- and 

secondary-level statistics].

5 Public expenditure on education consists of public spending on public education plus subsidies to private education at the primary, 

secondary, and tertiary levels.

3 Primary education (ISCED Level 1) is sometimes called elementary education, refers to educational programs that are normally 

designed on a unit or project basis to give pupils a sound basic education in reading, writing and mathematics along with an elementary 

understanding of other subjects such as history, geography, natural science, social science, art and music. In some cases religious 

instruction is also featured. These subjects serve to develop pupils’ ability to obtain and use information the children need about their 

home, community, country, etc. The entry age for primary education usually varies between 5 and 7 years.

SOURCE: UNESCO, Institute for Statistics, Education for All: Year 2000 Assessment - A Decade of Education [CD-ROM], Paris, 2000.

4 Second Stage of Basic Education, more commonly called Lower Secondary Education (ISCED Level 2) is typically designed to complete 

the development of basic skills and knowledge. In many countries, the educational aim is to lay the foundation for lifelong learning and 

individual development. The programmes at this level are usually on a subject-oriented pattern, requiring specialized teachers for each 

subject area. The end of this level often coincides with the end of compulsory education. 

SOURCE: UNESCO, Institute for Statistics, Education for All: Year 2000 Assessment - A Decade of Education [CD-ROM], Paris, 2000.
120

Table A.2: Asia

Country/Year

Military6 Military6

Primary3 Secondary4 Total5 Primary3 Secondary4 Total5

Afghanistan

1990 – – –– – – ––

1991 – – –– – – ––

1992 – – –– – – ––

1993 – – –– – – ––

1994 – – –– – – ––

1995 – – –– – – ––

1996 – – –– – – ––

1997 – – –– – – ––

1998 – – –– – – ––

1999 – – –– – – ––

2000 – – –– – – ––

2001 – – –– – – ––

Bangladesh

1990 0.8 – 1.5 1.2 – – 10.3 –

1991 0.9 – 1.6 1.2 – – 11.3 10.3

1992 1.1 – 1.7 1.3 – – 8.7 11.2

1993 1.2 – – 1.3 – – – 10.4

1994 1.4 – – 1.3 – – – 9.7

1995 1.5 – – 1.2 – – – 8.6

1996 1.3 – 2.2 1.3 – – – 9.8

1997 1.3 – – 1.3 – – – 10.1

1998 1.2 – 2.4 1.3 – – – 10.3

1999 1.2 – 2.4 1.3 – – – 10.1

2000 – – –– – – ––

2001 – – –– – – ––

Burma

1990 1.1 – – – – – –

1991 1.1 – – 7.1 – – – 49.4

1992 0.9 – – 8.3 – – – 74.3

1993 0.8 – – 8.8 – – – 88.6

1994 0.6 – 1.2 7.6 – – 14.4 74.5

1995 0.4 – – 9.1 – – – 84.0

1996 0.4 – – 7.6 – – – 75.5

1997 – – – 7.8 – – – 93.6

1998 – 0.1 0.6 7.8 – – – –

1999 – 0.1 0.5 7.8 – – – –

2000 – – –– – – ––

2001 – – –– – – ––

Expenditures as a

Percentage of GNI1

Education Education

Expenditures as a Percentage of

Total Central Government Expenditures2
121

Table A.2: Asia (continued)

Year/Country

Military6 Military6

Primary3 Secondary4 Total5 Primary3 Secondary4 Total5

Cambodia

1990 – – –– – – ––

1991 1.1 – – 3.5 – – – –

1992 1.2 – – 4.9 – – – –

1993 1.1 – – 3.4 – – – –

1994 1.0 – – 4.9 – – – 30.6

1995 0.8 – – 4.2 – – – 25.5

1996 0.8 – 2.9 5.1 – – – 28.8

1997 0.9 – – 4.6 – – – 32.9

1998 1.0 – – 4.3 – – 8.0 29.1

1999 0.9 – 1.1 4.0 4.3 – 8.7 26.0

2000 – – –– – – ––

2001 – – –– – – ––

China

1990 0.6 – 2.3 3.5 – – 12.8 32.3

1991 0.6 – 2.2 3.0 – – 12.7 31.1

1992 0.6 – 2.0 2.8 – – 12.2 32.7

1993 0.6 – 1.9 2.5 – – 12.2 36.6

1994 0.6 – 2.4 2.2 – – – 23.6

1995 0.6 – 2.3 2.2 – – – 25.5

1996 0.5 – 2.3 2.2 – – – 26.6

1997 0.6 – – 2.2 – – – 27.0

1998 – 0.7 2.0 2.4 – – – 25.1

1999 – – 2.1 2.3 – – – 22.2

2000 – – –– – – ––

2001 – – –– – – ––

India

1990 1.3 – 3.9 2.7 – – 12.2 13.2

1991 1.2 – 3.7 2.5 – – 11.6 12.9

1992 1.1 – 3.6 2.4 – – 11.4 12.4

1993 1.0 – 3.6 2.6 – – 11.8 13.3

1994 1.0 – 3.5 2.3 – – 11.8 12.3

1995 1.1 – 3.3 2.3 – – 11.6 12.7

1996 1.1 – – 2.6 – – – 14.8

1997 1.1 – – 2.6 – – – 15.1

1998 – 1.2 3.0 2.7 – – – 15.9

1999 – 0.7 2.9 2.5 7.0 2.8 12.6 14.6

2000 – – –– – – ––

2001 – – –– – – ––

Expenditures as a

Percentage of GNI1

Expenditures as a Percentage of

Total Central Government Expenditures2

Education Education
122

Table A.2: Asia (continued)

Year/Country

Military6 Military6

Primary3 Secondary4 Total5 Primary3 Secondary4 Total5

Indonesia

1990 – – 1.0 1.5 – – – 7.8

1991 – – 1.1 1.5 – – 5.2 8.4

1992 1.5 – 1.3 1.4 – – 6.3 7.2

1993 1.5 – 1.8 1.3 – – 9.1 7.8

1994 2.0 – 1.4 1.3 – – 7.5 7.6

1995 2.2 – 1.4 1.3 – – 7.8 8.4

1996 2.2 – 1.4 1.4 – – 7.9 8.4

1997 2.6 – – 1.5 – – – 7.9

1998 – 0.7 1.5 1.0 – – – 4.8

1999 – 0.6 1.3 1.1 – – – 5.3

2000 – – –– – – ––

2001 – – –– – – ––

Laos

1990 0.3 – – – – – ––

1991 0.6 – – – – – ––

1992 0.6 – 2.5 9.0 – – – –

1993 0.6 – 1.9 7.9 – – – –

1994 0.6 – 2.8 5.0 – – – 21.6

1995 1.1 – 2.3 5.0 – – – 24.5

1996 0.8 – 2.5 4.1 – – 10.3 19.7

1997 0.8 – 2.1 3.5 – – 8.7 17.1

1998 0.5 0.7 2.5 5.7 – – – 26.0

1999 – – – 2.0 – – – 11.1

2000 – – –– – – ––

2001 – – –– – – ––

Malaysia

1990 1.9 – 5.5 2.7 – – 18.3 9.0

1991 1.9 – 5.6 3.4 – – 18.0 11.2

1992 2.0 – 5.5 3.2 – – 16.9 10.3

1993 1.9 – 5.1 3.0 – – 15.7 11.3

1994 1.8 – 5.2 3.0 – – 15.5 12.1

1995 1.6 – 4.7 2.9 – – – 12.4

1996 1.8 – 5.2 2.5 – – 15.4 10.6

1997 1.5 – 4.9 2.3 – – – 10.9

1998 1.5 1.7 5.0 1.7 – – – 7.4

1999 1.5 – 6.0 2.3 – – 25.2 9.3

2000 – – –– – – ––

2001 – – –– – – ––

Education

Expenditures as a

Percentage of GNI1

Expenditures as a Percentage of

Total Central Government Expenditures2

Education
123

Table A.2: Asia (continued)

Year/Country

Military6 Military6

Primary3 Secondary4 Total5 Primary3 Secondary4 Total5

Mongolia

1990 1.8 – 12.9 8.6 – – 17.6 11.7

1991 1.6 – 11.3 5.0 – – 22.7 9.9

1992 1.1 – 7.1 2.6 – – 26.2 9.3

1993 1.2 – 6.3 3.1 – – 15.7 6.3

1994 1.2 – 6.0 2.6 – – 16.2 7.9

1995 1.3 – 6.0 2.3 – – 17.0 6.8

1996 1.7 – 6.4 2.1 – – 15.9 6.9

1997 1.4 – 5.7 2.1 – – 15.1 6.4

1998 1.7 – – 2.1 – – – 6.2

1999 – – – 2.1 – –– 5.9

2000 – – –– – – ––

2001 – – –– – – ––

Nepal

1990 – – 2.0 1.0 – – 8.5 6.1

1991 0.8 – 2.7 0.9 – – 12.3 5.1

1992 0.7 – 2.9 1.0 – – 13.2 6.0

1993 1.2 – 3.3 1.0 – – 13.3 6.1

1994 1.4 – 2.8 0.9 – – 14.0 6.5

1995 1.7 – 3.3 0.9 – – 14.0 5.7

1996 1.5 – 3.1 0.8 – – 13.5 5.0

1997 1.4 – 3.2 0.8 – – – 5.1

1998 – 0.7 2.8 0.9 6.0 2.9 12.5 5.2

1999 – 0.6 2.9 0.8 7.3 2.8 13.2 5.7

2000 – – –– – – ––

2001 – – –– – – ––

Pakistan

1990 0.8 – 2.7 7.1 – – 7.4 29.1

1991 1.0 – 2.6 6.7 – – 6.1 27.5

1992 1.0 – 2.4 7.0 – – 6.5 27.9

1993 1.0 – 2.6 6.8 – – 7.9 25.9

1994 1.1 – 2.8 6.7 – – 7.4 27.5

1995 1.2 – 2.8 6.0 – – 7.1 25.5

1996 1.4 – 3.0 6.0 – – 8.1 23.7

1997 1.0 – 2.7 5.6 – – 7.1 24.2

1998 1.3 – 2.7 6.6 4.5 – 7.8 29.7

1999 – – – 5.9 – – – 27.9

2000 – – –– – – ––

2001 – – –– – – ––

Expenditures as a

Percentage of GNI1

Expenditures as a Percentage of

Total Central Government Expenditures2

Education Education
124

Table A.2: Asia (continued)

Year/Country

Military6 Military6

Primary3 Secondary4 Total5 Primary3 Secondary4 Total5

Philippines

1990 1.2 – 2.9 2.2 – – 10.1 10.7

1991 1.1 – 3.0 2.1 – – 10.5 10.5

1992 1.4 – 2.3 1.9 – – – 10.2

1993 1.3 – 2.4 2.2 – – – 11.5

1994 1.4 – – 1.9 – – – 10.5

1995 1.5 – 3.0 1.6 – – 15.6 8.7

1996 1.5 – 3.2 1.4 – – 17.6 8.0

1997 1.6 – 3.4 1.5 – – 15.7 7.9

1998 1.9 – 4.0 1.5 – – 20.6 7.9

1999 – – – 1.4 – – – 7.3

2000 – – –– – – ––

2001 – – –– – – ––

Sri Lanka

1990 – – 2.7 – – – 8.1 –

1991 0.5 – 3.3 3.3 – – 8.4 10.0

1992 0.5 – 3.3 3.7 – – 8.8 13.2

1993 0.4 – 3.1 4.1 – – 9.0 14.8

1994 0.4 – 3.2 3.6 – – 9.4 12.2

1995 0.6 – 3.0 5.3 – – 8.1 17.6

1996 0.6 – 3.4 5.0 – – 8.9 17.8

1997 0.5 – – 5.0 – – – 20.7

1998 – – 3.1 4.5 – – – 17.1

1999 – – – 4.7 – – – 18.4

2000 – – –– – – ––

2001 – – –– – – ––

Syria

1990 2.0 – 4.3 – – – 17.3 –

1991 1.9 – 4.1 11.1 – – 14.2 42.3

1992 1.8 – 3.2 9.2 – – 11.7 39.0

1993 2.2 – – 7.4 – – – 31.4

1994 2.0 – 3.8 7.2 – – 12.5 28.2

1995 1.8 – 3.3 7.0 – – 11.2 28.5

1996 1.7 – 4.2 6.2 – – 13.6 26.2

1997 1.6 – 3.1 6.1 – – – 23.6

1998 – – 3.8 6.3 – – 12.2 24.8

1999 – – 3.5 7.0 – – – 25.1

2000 – – –– – – ––

2001 – – –– – – ––

Expenditures as a

Percentage of GNI1

Expenditures as a Percentage of

Total Central Government Expenditures2

Education Education
125

Table A.2: Asia (continued)

Year/Country

Military6 Military6

Primary3 Secondary4 Total5 Primary3 Secondary4 Total5

Thailand

1990 1.4 – 3.6 2.5 – – 20.0 17.1

1991 1.5 – 3.6 2.5 – – 19.1 17.0

1992 1.4 – 4.0 2.6 – – 19.6 17.0

1993 1.6 – 4.1 2.9 – – 20.6 17.5

1994 1.5 – 3.8 2.7 – – 18.9 15.7

1995 1.4 – 4.1 2.4 – – 20.1 15.1

1996 1.6 – 4.8 2.4 – – – 14.1

1997 1.7 – – 2.3 – – – 10.9

1998 – 1.3 4.9 1.9 – – – 7.8

1999 – – 5.2 1.7 – – – 6.1

2000 – – –– – – ––

2001 – – –– – – ––

United Arab Emirates

1990 1.2 – 1.7 5.8 – – 14.6 54.0

1991 – – 1.9 5.8 – – 15.0 51.2

1992 – – 2.0 5.6 – – 15.2 50.1

1993 – – 2.0 5.5 – – 15.1 50.0

1994 – – 1.8 5.3 – – 17.3 49.4

1995 – – 1.8 4.8 – – 16.3 44.8

1996 – – – 4.3 – – – 47.8

1997 – – – 4.4 – – – 46.7

1998 0.9 – – 4.7 – – – 44.2

1999 – – – 4.1 – – – 39.6

2000 – – –– – – ––

2001 – – –– – – ––

Vietnam

1990 – – 2.1 7.9 – – 7.5 –

1991 – – 1.8 5.6 – – 9.7 –

1992 – – 2.0 3.4 – – 7.3 14.5

1993 – – 2.7 2.3 – – 7.4 8.1

1994 – – 2.6 2.8 – – – 10.6

1995 0.9 – 3.0 2.8 – – – 11.3

1996 0.9 – 2.9 – – – – –

1997 1.0 – 3.0 2.5 – – – 11.6

1998 – – –– – – ––

1999 – – –– – – ––

2000 – – –– – – ––

2001 – – –– – – ––

Education Education

Expenditures as a

Percentage of GNI1

Expenditures as a Percentage of

Total Central Government Expenditures2

– = not available

SOURCES: World Bank, World Development Indicators 2001 [CD-ROM], Washington D.C., 2001.

1 Gross National Income is the sum of gross value added by all resident producers in the economy plus any product taxes (less subsidies) 

that are not included in the valuation of output plus net receipts of income from abroad.

SOURCE: UNESCO, Institute for Statistics, Education for All: Year 2000 Assessment - A Decade of Education [CD-ROM], Paris, 2000 [For 

primary-level statistics]; UNESCO, Institute for Statistics, 2002 [for secondary-level statistics]; UNESCO, 2001, www.uis.unesco.org, 

consulted August 6 2002 [education (total) category]; World Bank, World Development Indicators 2001[CD-ROM], Washington D.C., 2001 [ 

for military data].

2 Public expenditure on education represents current and capital expenditures on education by local, regional and national governments, 

including municipalities. Household contributions are normally excluded.

SOURCES: World Bank, World Development Indicators 2001 [CD-ROM], Washington D.C., 2001 [for military data]; UNESCO, 2001, 

www.uis.unesco.org, consulted August 6 2002 [education (total) category]; UNESCO, Institute for Statistics, 2002 [for primary- and 

secondary-level statistics].

3 A complete explanation of the primary level of education can be found in the introduction.

4 A complete explanation of the secondary level of education can be found in the introduction.

5 Public expenditure on education consists of public spending on public education plus subsidies to private education at the 

primary, secondary, and tertiary levels. 

6 The definition for military can be found in the introduction.
126

Table A.3: Europe

Country/Year

Military6 Military6

Primary3 Secondary4 Total5 Primary3 Secondary4 Total5

Albania

1990 – – 5.8 – – – – –

1991 – – – 5.6 – – – –

1992 – – – 4.9 – – – 10.0

1993 – – – 3.1 – – – 7.6

1994 – – 3.1 2.5 – – – 6.7

1995 – – – 2.1 – – – 7.1

1996 – – – 1.7 – – – 5.8

1997 – – – 1.3 – – – 4.6

1998 – – – 1.2 – – – 4.0

1999 – – – 1.3 – – – 4.5

2000 – – – – – – – –

2001 – – – – – – – –

Bulgaria

1990 0.6 – 5.6 – – – – –

1991 0.6 – 6.0 3.7 – – – 8.0

1992 0.8 – 5.9 3.3 – – – 7.9

1993 0.7 – 5.6 2.9 – – – 6.2

1994 0.5 – 4.7 2.8 – – – 6.1

1995 0.5 – 3.9 2.7 – – – 6.3

1996 0.4 – 3.2 2.5 – – 7.0 4.9

1997 0.4 – – 3.0 – – – 9.2

1998 0.5 1.5 3.4 2.7 – – – 8.4

1999 0.4 – – 3.0 – – – 8.7

2000 – – – – – – – –

2001 – – – – – – – –

Romania

1990 – – 2.8 3.5 – – 7.3 10.3

1991 – – 3.5 3.6 – – – 10.3

1992 – – 3.6 3.3 – – 14.2 7.9

1993 – – 3.2 2.1 – – 9.1 6.5

1994 – – 3.0 2.5 – – 13.6 7.7

1995 – – – 2.5 – – – 7.5

1996 – – 3.6 1.9 – – 10.5 6.0

1997 0.9 – – 2.4 – – – 7.5

1998 0.9 – 3.6 2.3 – – – 7.0

1999 – – 3.6 1.6 – – – 4.7

2000 – – – – – – – –

2001 – – – – – – – –

Expenditures as a

Percentage of GNI1

Education Education

Expenditures as a Percentage of

Total Central Government Expenditures2
127

Table A.3: Europe (continued)

Country/Year

Military6 Military6

Primary3 Secondary4 Total5 Primary3 Secondary4 Total5

Turkey

1990 1.7 – 2.1 3.5 – – – 20.3

1991 1.9 – 2.4 3.7 – – – 17.9

1992 2.1 – 2.8 3.8 – – – 18.8

1993 2 – 3.3 3.9 – – – 15.8

1994 1.5 – 3.4 4 – – 14.7 17.4

1995 1.3 – 2.2 3.9 – – – 17.5

1996 1.3 – – 4.1 – – – 15.4

1997 1.4 – – 4 – – – 13.5

1998 – – 2.88 4.3 – – – 13.4

1999 – – – 5.3 – – – 13.9

2000 – – ––– – ––

2001 – – ––– – ––

Education Education

Expenditures as a

Percentage of GNI1

Expenditures as a Percentage of

Total Central Government Expenditures2

– = not available

1 Gross National Income (GNI) is the sum of gross value added by all resident producers in the economy plus any product taxes 

(less subsidies) that are not included in the valuation of output plus net receipts of income from abroad. 

SOURCE: UNESCO, Institute for Statistics, Education for All: Year 2000 Assessment - A Decade of Education [CD-ROM], Paris, 

2000 [For primary-level statistics]; UNESCO, Institute for Statistics, 2002 [for secondary-level statistics]; UNESCO, 2001, 

www.uis.unesco.org, consulted August 6 2002 [education (total) category]; World Bank, World Development Indicators 2001 [CDROM], Washington D.C., 2001 [for military data].

2 Public expenditure on education represents current and capital expenditures on education by local, regional and national 

governments, including municipalities. Household contributions are normally excluded.

SOURCES: World Bank, World Development Indicators 2001 [CD-ROM], Washington D.C., 2001 [for military data]; UNESCO, 

2001, www.uis.unesco.org, consulted August 6 2002 [education (total) category]; UNESCO, Institute for Statistics, 2002 [for 

primary- and secondary-level statistics]. 

6 The definition for military can be found in the introduction.

3 A complete explanation of the primary level of education can be found in the introduction.

4 A complete explanation of the secondary level of education can be found in the introduction

5 Public expenditure on education consists of public spending on public education plus subsidies to private education at the 

primary, secondary, and tertiary levels. 

SOURCES: World Bank, World Development Indicators 2001[CD-ROM], Washington D.C., 2001.
128

Table A.4: Latin America

Country/Year

Military6 Military6

Primary3 Secondary4 Total5 Primary3 Secondary4 Total5

Argentina

1990 – – – 1.9 – – 10.9 16.7

1991 1.0 – – 1.3 – – – 11.6

1992 1.3 – – 1.9 – – 15.7 16.1

1993 1.5 – – 1.8 – – 12.4 12.4

1994 1.6 – – 1.9 – – 14.0 12.2

1995 1.6 – – 1.8 – – 11.6 12.0

1996 1.5 – – 1.7 – – 12.6 10.9

1997 1.6 – – 1.3 – – – 8.4

1998 – – 4.1 1.3 – – – 8.0

1999 – – 4.7 1.6 – – 13.3 9.1

2000 – – – – – – – –

2001 – – – – – – – –

Bolivia

1990 1.6 – 2.5 3.2 – – – 18.8

1991 1.7 – 2.6 2.4 – – – 14.0

1992 1.9 – – 2.2 – – – 10.6

1993 2.3 – – 2.3 – – – 9.4

1994 2.2 – 4.9 2.2 – – 11.2 9.5

1995 2.2 – 5.9 2.0 – – – 9.3

1996 2.4 – 4.9 1.9 – – 11.1 8.3

1997 2.3 – – 1.9 – – – 8.8

1998 2.2 – 5.7 2.2 – – – 9.8

1999 2.3 0.6 5.8 1.8 – – – 8.0

2000 – – – – – – – –

2001 – – – – – – – –

Brazil

1990 – – – 1.8 – – – 4.6

1991 – – – 1.3 – – – 4.9

1992 – – – 1.1 – – – 3.5

1993 – – – 1.4 – – – 3.4

1994 – – – 1.2 – – – 3.2

1995 1.5 – – 1.6 – – – 3.9

1996 – – – 1.8 – – – –

1997 – – – 1.8 – – – 5.5

1998 – – – 2.0 – – – –

1999 – 1.9 5.2 1.9 4.0 4.6 12.3 –

2000 – – – – – – – –

2001 – – – – – – – –

Expenditures as a

Percentage of GNI1

Education Education

Expenditures as a Percentage of

Total Central Government Expenditures2
129

Table A.4: Latin America (continued)

Country/Year

Military6 Military6

Primary3 Secondary4 Total5 Primary3 Secondary4 Total5

Colombia

1990 0.8 – 2.6 2.2 – – 16.0 17.6

1991 0.8 – 2.6 2.1 – – 15.0 17.3

1992 1.0 – 3.7 2.4 – – 16.4 14.7

1993 1.0 – 3.1 3.0 – – 17.4 18.8

1994 1.1 – 3.6 2.3 – – 16.7 17.4

1995 1.1 – 4.0 2.5 – – 18.6 17.9

1996 1.3 – 4.4 3.1 – – 19.0 19.2

1997 1.1 – – 3.3 – – – 19.9

1998 1.1 – – 3.2 – – – 18.8

1999 1.2 – – 3.2 – – – 15.9

2000 – – – – – – – –

2001 – – – – – – – –

Costa Rica

1990 3.1 – 4.6 1.0 – – 20.8 4.5

1991 2.9 – 4.5 0.8 – – 21.8 3.9

1992 3.1 – 4.4 1.1 – – 21.4 5.5

1993 3.0 – 4.6 1.0 – – 20.2 4.9

1994 2.7 – 4.6 0.9 – – 19.2 3.6

1995 2.7 – 4.6 0.5 – – 19.8 2.0

1996 3.1 – 5.4 0.4 – – 22.8 1.8

1997 3.0 – – 0.5 – – – 2.0

1998 3.3 1.8 – 0.5 – – – 2.3

1999 3.7 1.6 5.5 0.5 – – – 2.0

2000 – – – – – – – –

2001 – – – – – – – –

Cuba

1990 1.6 – 6.6 4.1 – – 12.3 –

1991 1.7 – 9.7 4.3 – – 10.8 –

1992 1.9 – – – – – –

1993 2.4 – 9.5 2.4 – – 9.8 –

1994 2.5 – 7.5 2.3 – – 10.2 –

1995 2.5 – 6.8 2.2 – – 10.9 –

1996 2.5 – 6.7 2.4 – – 12.6 –

1997 2.5 – – 2.3 – – – –

1998 2.5 – 6.8 2.2 – – – –

1999 – 2.5 7.7 1.9 – – – –

2000 – – – – – – – –

2001 – – – – – – – –

Expenditures as a

Percentage of GNI1

Expenditures as a Percentage of

Total Central Government Expenditures2

Education Education
130

Table A.4: Latin America (continued)

Country/Year

Military6 Military6

Primary3 Secondary4 Total5 Primary3 Secondary4 Total5

Dominican Republic

1990 – – – 1.0 – – – 8.5

1991 – – – 0.7 – – – 6.3

1992 – – 1.4 0.9 – – 8.9 6.3

1993 – – 1.7 1.2 – – 9.8 6.5

1994 – – 2.0 1.2 – – 12.2 6.4

1995 – – 1.9 1.4 – – 13.2 8.4

1996 – – 2.0 1.3 – – 13.4 7.7

1997 – – 2.3 1.2 – – 13.8 6.7

1998 – – 2.6 1.1 – – – 6.1

1999 – – – 0.7 – – – 4.4

2000 – – – – – – – –

2001 – – – – – – – –

Ecuador

1990 0.9 – 3.1 3.2 – – 17.2 20.4

1991 1.1 – 2.6 3.5 – – 17.5 23.2

1992 1.0 – 2.7 3.5 – – 19.2 20.6

1993 1.0 – 2.7 3.0 – – 18.1 19.0

1994 1.1 – 3.4 3.6 – – 19.2 21.1

1995 1.0 – 3.4 3.6 – – 15.2 18.5

1996 1.1 – 3.5 3.0 – – 13.0 15.6

1997 1.0 – – 4.0 – – – 23.2

1998 1.2 0.8 3.3 4.4 – – – 29.6

1999 – 1.0 2.5 3.7 – – – 16.2

2000 – – – – – – – –

2001 – – – – – – – –

El Salvador

1990 – – 2.0 3.7 – – 16.6 31.0

1991 – – 1.8 3.3 – – 15.2 23.8

1992 – – 1.9 2.1 – – 13.8 16.8

1993 – – 1.8 1.5 – – 14.5 12.4

1994 – – 2.0 1.2 – – 14.7 9.1

1995 1.3 – 2.2 1.1 – – 15.3 8.3

1996 – – 2.3 1.0 – – 14.1 7.9

1997 – – 2.5 0.9 – – 16.0 7.5

1998 – – 2.4 0.9 – – – 9.5

1999 – – 2.4 0.9 – – – 8.8

2000 – – – – – – – –

2001 – – – – – – – –

Education Education

Expenditures as a

Percentage of GNI1

Expenditures as a Percentage of

Total Central Government Expenditures2
131

Table A.4: Latin America (continued)

Country/Year

Military6 Military6

Primary3 Secondary4 Total5 Primary3 Secondary4 Total5

Guatemala

1990 0.4 – 1.4 1.5 – – 11.8 14.6

1991 0.4 – 1.3 1.4 – – 13.0 15.5

1992 0.4 – 1.4 1.5 – – 11.5 14.0

1993 0.8 – 1.6 1.4 – – 12.8 14.0

1994 0.7 – 1.5 1.4 – – 14.7 15.2

1995 0.9 – 1.7 0.9 – – 16.0 10.2

1996 0.9 – 1.7 1.2 – – 15.8 12.6

1997 0.7 – – 0.8 – – – 7.7

1998 0.8 – – 0.8 – – – 6.9

1999 – – 1.6 0.7 – – – 5.0

2000 – – – – – – – –

2001 – – – – – – – –

Haiti

1990 0.7 – 1.5 1.7 – – 20.0 13.8

1991 0.8 – – 1.4 – – – 15.3

1992 0.8 – – 1.4 – – – 14.7

1993 0.6 – – 1.6 – – – 20.1

1994 0.4 – – – – – – –

1995 0.4 – – – – – – –

1996 0.6 – – – – – – –

1997 0.6 – – – – – – –

1998 0.7 – – – – – – –

1999 – – – – – – – –

2000 – – – – – – – –

2001 – – – – – – – –

Honduras

1990 2.3 – – 2.1 – – – 9.9

1991 2.0 – 4.1 1.6 – – – 9.1

1992 2.1 – – 1.4 – – – 5.5

1993 2.0 – – 1.5 – – – 5.5

1994 1.9 – 3.5 1.4 – – 16.0 5.9

1995 1.9 – 3.6 1.4 – – 16.5 5.6

1996 1.7 – – – – – – –

1997 1.5 – – – – – – –

1998 1.7 – 4.2 – – – – –

1999 1.8 – – 0.7 – – – 2.6

2000 – – – – – – – –

2001 – – – – – – – –

Expenditures as a Percentage of

Total Central Government Expenditures2

Education Education

Expenditures as a

Percentage of GNI1
132

Table A.4: Latin America (continued)

Country/Year

Military6 Military6

Primary3 Secondary4 Total5 Primary3 Secondary4 Total5

Mexico

1990 0.8 – 3.7 0.5 – – 12.8 2.6

1991 – – 3.9 0.5 – – 15.3 4.3

1992 – – 4.4 0.5 – – 18.1 4.6

1993 – – 5.1 0.6 – – 22.3 4.0

1994 – – 4.7 0.7 – – 26.0 4.7

1995 – – 4.9 0.7 – – 23.0 3.9

1996 1.5 – – 0.6 – – – 3.6

1997 – – – 0.6 – – – 3.6

1998 1.7 – 4.4 0.6 – – – 3.8

1999 – – 4.6 0.6 – – 22.6 –

2000 – – – – – – – –

2001 – – – – – – – –

Nicaragua

1990 – – 3.4 21.0 – – 9.7 28.6

1991 3.4 – 4.3 3.6 – – 12.1 10.0

1992 – – 4.1 3.1 – – 10.6 7.6

1993 – – 3.5 2.6 – – 9.8 6.7

1994 – – 3.9 2.7 – – 9.0 5.7

1995 – – 3.7 2.3 – – 9.9 5.3

1996 – – 3.6 1.7 – – 10.2 4.7

1997 2.2 – 3.9 1.5 – – 8.8 4.5

1998 – – 4.8 1.6 – – – 4.5

1999 – – 4.0 1.2 – – – 2.9

2000 – – – – – – – –

2001 – – – – – – – –

Panama

1990 – – 4.9 1.5 – – 20.9 6.1

1991 – – 5.0 1.4 – – 18.9 5.6

1992 – – 5.3 1.3 – – 18.9 5.7

1993 – – 5.0 1.4 – – 22.9 5.6

1994 – – 5.0 1.3 – – 22.2 5.4

1995 – – 5.2 1.3 – – 22.1 5.2

1996 – – 5.3 1.3 – – 20.9 4.6

1997 – – 5.1 1.4 – – 16.3 5.1

1998 – – – 1.4 – – – 4.9

1999 – 2.0 6.3 1.4 – – – 5.1

2000 – – – – – – – –

Education Education

Expenditures as a

Percentage of GNI1

Expenditures as a Percentage of

Total Central Government Expenditures2
133

Table A.4: Latin America (continued)

Country/Year

Military6 Military6

Primary3 Secondary4 Total5 Primary3 Secondary4 Total5

Paraguay

1990 0.5 – 1.1 1.3 – – 9.1 13.9

1991 0.8 – 1.9 1.7 – – 10.3 14.3

1992 1.2 – 2.6 1.8 – – 12.4 13.2

1993 1.4 – 2.9 1.4 – – 16.9 10.7

1994 1.4 – 2.9 1.2 – – 18.6 9.0

1995 1.6 – 3.4 1.3 – – 18.0 5.9

1996 1.9 – 3.9 1.3 – – 18.6 6.6

1997 2.0 – 4.0 1.3 – – 19.8 5.6

1998 2.1 – 4.5 1.4 – – – 6.0

1999 2.2 1.4 4.8 1.1 – 2.6 8.8 3.9

2000 – – – – – – – –

2001 – – – – – – – –

Peru

1990 0.8 – 2.3 2.3 – – – 10.7

1991 0.7 – 2.4 1.7 – – – 9.9

1992 0.9 – 2.4 2.2 – – – 11.1

1993 0.9 – 2.6 2.1 – – – 11.0

1994 1.0 – 3.9 1.9 – – – 12.5

1995 1.1 – – 1.9 – – – 10.2

1996 1.0 – 2.9 1.8 – – 19.2 11.7

1997 1.2 – – 2.3 – – – 12.9

1998 1.2 – 3.3 2.3 – – – 12.6

1999 1.4 – 3.5 2.4 – – 21.1 12.3

2000 – – – – – – – –

2001 – – – – – – – –

Education Education

Expenditures as a

Percentage of GNI1

Expenditures as a Percentage of

Total Central Government Expenditures2

– = not available

SOURCES: World Bank, World Development Indicators 2001 [CD-ROM], Washington D.C., 2001.

3 A complete explanation of the primary level of education can be found in the introduction.

4 A complete explanation of the secondary level of education can be found in the introduction

5 Public expenditure on education consists of public spending on public education plus subsidies to private education at the primary, 

secondary, and tertiary levels. 

6 The definition for military can be found in the introduction.

1 Gross National Income is the sum of gross value added by all resident producers in the economy plus any product taxes (less subsidies) 

that are not included in the valuation of output plus net receipts of income from abroad.

SOURCE: UNESCO, Institute for Statistics, Education for All: Year 2000 Assessment - A Decade of Education [CD-ROM], Paris, 2000

[For primary-level statistics]; UNESCO, Institute for Statistics, 2002 [for secondary-level statistics]; UNESCO, 2001, 

www.uis.unesco.org, consulted August 6 [education (total) category]; World Bank, World Development Indicators 2001 [CD-ROM], 

Washington D.C., 2001 [for military data].

2 Public expenditure on education represents current and capital expenditures on education by local, regional and national governments, 

including municipalities. Household contributions are normally excluded.

SOURCES: World Bank, World Development Indicators 2001[CD-ROM], Washington D.C., 2001 [for military data]; UNESCO, 2001, 

www.uis.unesco.org, consulted August 6 [education (total) category]; UNESCO, Institute for Statistics, 2002 [for primary- and 

secondary-level statistics].
135

Appendix B:

An Introduction to the Development and Role of

International Financial Institutions

This appendix presents some descriptive information on the IFIs. The IFIs are a group of donorgovernment supported multilateral financial institutions that includes the World Bank, the IMF, and

four regional development banks-the AfDB, AsDB, EBRD, IDB.225 The World Bank and the four

regional development banks are sometimes referred to as the Multilateral Development Banks

(MDBs).

The MDBs all share a number of characteristics, including principal objectives for economic

development and poverty reduction. All provide loans, equity investment, technical assistance, and

advice to their member countries. Although there are no formal consultative mechanisms among or

between the MDBs, informal consultations take place, and most policy decisions follow the lead of

the World Bank on major issues of global significance.

The World Bank is the largest of all the MDBs. It operates on a global level and attempts to accommodate longer-term global concerns and issues in its programs and policies. In contrast, the four

regional development banks-the AfDB, AsDB, EBRD, and IDB-focus their operations on the

conditions and circumstances in the geographical areas of their operation. The EBRD, the newest of

the regional banks, differs from the others with its almost exclusive focus on private sector development.

The IMF differs significantly from all of the other IFIs. The IMF focuses on international financial

and national macroeconomic issues and provides assistance through a variety of instruments.

Where necessary, the IMF requires policy or structural changes in return for its assistance. The

IMF does not provide loans for development or for particular projects or sectors, but provides

instead short- to medium-term balance of payments support for countries that are experiencing

financial difficulty in meeting their international current account obligations. In recent years, the

IMF has begun to incorporate poverty reduction and social safety net considerations into its

recommendations to recipient countries.

Through their management of substantial financial resources, the IFIs are in a position to significantly affect a broad set of development issues, including those associated with better access to

education and the elimination of child labor.

A. The World Bank

The World Bank was established as a result of an international meeting held in Bretton Woods, New

Hampshire, in 1944. Originally named the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development

(IBRD), the World Bank’s initial mission was to assist in the reconstruction of Europe following

225 Since the African Development Bank and the Asian Development Bank both use, and are known by, the acronym

“ADB,” the acronyms “AfDB” and “AsDB”, respectively, are used to distinguish between the two multilateral

development banks in this report.
136

World War II. The institution has grown and is now composed of five institutions that specialize in

different aspects of development, known together as the World Bank Group. The five institutions

are:

(1) The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), the original World

Bank institution established in 1945, currently has 184 member-countries. It provides loans

and development assistance to middle-income countries and credit-worthy poorer countries.

Its cumulative lending now stands at $371 billion226, including lending commitments of

$11.5 billion for 96 operations in 40 countries made in fiscal year 2002.227

(2) The International Development Association (IDA), founded in 1960, currently has 163

member-countries and provides between $7 billion to $8 billion per year in interest-free

loans to the world’s 80 poorest countries. It provides this concessional financing228 from a

fund supplemented by periodic replenishments from donor countries. The IDA’s cumulative

lending now stands at $135 billion, including commitments of $8.1 billion for 133

operations in 62 countries in fiscal year 2002.

(3) The International Finance Corporation (IFC), founded in 1956, currently has 175

member-countries and provides loans and equity financing at commercial rates to private

sector projects in the underdeveloped and developing world that have difficulty obtaining

private financing. It has a committed portfolio of $21.6 billion, including $6.5 billion in

syndicated loans. In fiscal year 2002, it made commitments of $3.6 billion to 204 projects in

75 countries.

(4) The Multilateral Investment Guaranty Agency (MIGA), founded in 1988, currently has

158 member-countries and provides political risk insurance to investors and lenders in

developing countries. Its cumulative guarantees issued total $10.3 billion, including $1.4

billion in guarantees issued in fiscal year 2002.

(5) The International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID), founded in

1966, currently has 134 member-countries. The ICSID facilitates the conciliation and

arbitration of disputes between member countries and investors who are nationals of other

member countries. The total number of cases registered stands at 103, including 16 cases

registered in fiscal year 2002.

226 Unless otherwise noted, all dollar amounts ($) are expressed in U.S. currency.

227 The World Bank’s fiscal year runs from July 1 through June 30. All subsequent references to the World Bank Group

refer to this fiscal year.

228 “Concessional” financing is financing provided on terms that are below market interest rates (or at zero interest

rates).
137

In the rest of this report, the term “World Bank” refers to two of the five institutions, the IBRD and

the IDA, which are the principal development lending arms of the World Bank Group.229

The mission of the World Bank has evolved since its inception, from promoting post-war reconstruction to the current mission of combating poverty. The World Bank, whose ownership is vested

in its 184 member countries (including 72 of the 73 referenced countries in this report), provides

financial assistance for reconstruction following natural disasters, humanitarian emergencies, and

post-conflict situations, but the largest share of its assistance now goes to financing economic

development and combating poverty in underdeveloped and developing countries.

The World Bank has sought during the last decade to improve its effectiveness in poverty reduction.

Initially, large-scale infrastructure projects dominated the World Bank’s portfolio, but the emphasis

is now on an integrated sectoral approach that focuses on poverty reduction. For example, rather

than lending money for the construction of schools, the World Bank lends money for the purpose of

improving the primary education system in a borrowing country; school construction may or may

not be part of the project. Such projects or sectoral loans are called investment lending by the

World Bank. The World Bank also provides adjustment loans, which are more rapid disbursing

instruments intended to support more immediate policy and institutional reforms. Disbursements of

such loans are often conditioned upon meeting certain targets and benchmarks and are frequently

implemented together with IMF and financial reform programs (see below).230 Basic education and

primary health care are among the major components of the poverty reduction strategies approved

by the World Bank and other regional MDBs.

The IBRD and IDA are the World Bank’s major lending institutions that primarily make loans or

grants to developing countries. The IDA, which accounts for about a quarter of all loans made by

the World Bank, provides interest-free loans (credits) to the world’s poorest countries from money

subscribed by wealthier governments to finance essential reforms in countries that cannot afford to

borrow on commercial terms. At present, 80 countries are eligible to borrow from IDA. The terms

for an IDA loan are typically a 40-year repayment period, no interest, and no payment required for

the first 10 years. IDA finances specific projects and provides assistance for balance of payments

support and other assistance countries may require for restructuring their economies and building

competitive markets. The IBRD provides the balance of World Bank loans at market rates with

money from medium- and long-term bond offerings on world capital markets.

229 For further information, see World Bank, “The World Bank Group: About Us” [online] [cited February 10, 2003];

available from http://www.worldbank.org/about/; World Bank Group, The World Bank Annual Report 2002, vol. 1,

(Washington, D.C., World Bank Group, 2002).

230 World Bank Group, “World Bank Lending Instruments,” [cited February 10, 2003]; available from

 http://lnweb18.worldbank.org/ext/language.nsf/Open+Pages/

15EBE82911D2922C85256AE300729172?OpenDocument.
138

The IBRD lends only to creditworthy borrowers and only for projects that promise high real rates of

economic return to the country.231 In contrast, the fundamental tests for a country’s eligibility for

IDA funds are its relative poverty232and lack of creditworthiness for market-based borrowing from

either commercial sources or the IBRD.233 The operational cutoff for IDA eligibility in fiscal year

2002 was a per capita income of $885 in the year 2000; for fiscal year 2003, the cutoff has been set

at a 2001 per capita income of $875. As IDA-eligible countries become richer and improve their

creditworthiness, they may “graduate” and become eligible for a blend of IBRD and IDA funds,

and eventually only IBRD funds.234

For the purpose of exposition, the 73 referenced-countries have been grouped into four world

regions: Africa (with 34 referenced countries); Asia (with 16) the Middle East (with two); Europe

and Central Asia (with four); and Latin America and the Caribbean (with 17). These regional

groups differ slightly from the world region groupings used by the World Bank (see Box 1 in

Introduction).

Table B.1 presents the referenced country eligibility for borrowing from the World Bank as of July

1, 2002 (the beginning of fiscal year 2003). Of the 72 referenced countries that are members of the

World Bank, 26 (mostly from Latin America and the Caribbean, and Europe) are eligible only for

IBRD funds. Six countries, mainly from Africa and Asia, are eligible for a blend of IBRD and IDA

funds; 39 (primarily from Africa and Asia) are eligible only for IDA funds; and one-the United

Arab Emirates-is a relatively high-income member not eligible for borrowing.

231 “Quality and Quantity of World Bank Lending Rise in Fiscal 1999,” World Bank Group News Release No. 2000/

015/S, July 27, 1999.

232 For the purpose of IDA eligibility, poverty is as measured by gross national income or product per capita, using the

World Bank Atlas methodology. This measurement is adjusted each year for international inflation.

233 International Development Association, “IDA Eligibility, Terms, and Graduation Policies,” Washington, D.C.,

January, 2001 [cited February 10, 2003]; available from www.worldbank.org/ida/IDAELIGIBILITY.pdf.

234 Some countries, such as India and Indonesia, are eligible for IDA funds due to their low per capita incomes, but are

also creditworthy for some IBRD borrowing; these countries are known as “blend” borrowers. Over the years, 22

countries (including China, Costa Rica, Chile, Egypt, Morocco, Thailand, and Turkey) have seen their economies

develop and grow beyond the IDA-eligibility threshold and have been graduated to IBRD borrowing. See Issue Briefs,

DevNews Media Center, “International Development Association (IDA)” [cited March 19, 2003]; available from http://

web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/NEWS/

0,,contentMDK:20040630~menuPK:34480~pagePK:36694~piPK:116742~theSitePK:4607,00.html; Issue Briefs,

DevNews Media Center, “Adjustment Lending” [cited March 19, 2003]; available from http://web.worldbank.org/

WBSITE/EXTERNAL/NEWS/

0,,contentMDK:20036115~menuPK:34480~pagePK:36694~piPK:116742~theSitePK:4607,00.html.
139

Botswana ($3,630) Zimbabwe** ($480) Congo, Rep. ($700) Uganda ($280) Gabon

($3,160) Nigeria ($290) Cote d’Ivoire ($630) Tanzania ($280) South

Africa ($2,900) Cameroon ($570) Togo** ($270) Egypt

($1,530) Lesotho ($550) Madagascar ($260)

Morocco ($1,180) Angola ($500) Rwanda ($220)

Equatorial Guinea ($700) Senegal ($480) Burkina Faso ($210)

Comoros ($380) Mali ($210)

Benin ($360) Mozambique ($210)

Mauritania ($350) Sierra Leone ($140)

Kenya ($340) Burundi ($100)

Ethiopia ($100) Zambia ($320)

Sudan** ($330) Ghana ($290)

Congo, DR** (n.a.) Somalia** (n.a.)

Malaysia ($3,640) Indonesia ($680) Sri Lanka ($830) Cambodia ($270)

Thailand ($1,970) India ($460) Vietnam ($410) Nepal ($240)

Philippines ($1,050) Pakistan ($420) Mongolia ($400) Afghanistan** (n.a.)

Syria*** ($1,000) Bangladesh ($370) Burma** (n.a.)

China ($890) Laos ($310)

Turkey ($2,530) Albania ($1,230)

Romania ($1,710)

Bulgaria ($1,560)

Argentina ($6,960) Bolivia ($940) Honduras ($890)

Mexico ($5,540) Haiti** ($480)

Nicaragua (n.a.) Costa Rica ($3,390)

($3,290) `

Brazil ($3,070)

Dominican Republic

($2,230)

El Salvador ($2,050)

Peru ($2,000)

Colombia ($1,910)

Guatemala ($1,670)

Paraguay ($1,300)

Ecuador ($1,240)

Table B.1. Referenced Country* Eligibility for Borrowing from the World Bank as of

July 1, 2002 (2001 Gross National Income per capita in U.S. dollars)

IBRD Funds Only

Blend of IBRD

and IDA Funds IDA Funds Only

Africa

Asia and the Middle East

Europe and Central Asia

Latin America and the Caribbean

Notes: * The 73 developing countries referenced in the first seven ILAB reports on international child labor.

** denotes those countries with World Bank loans and credits in non-accrual status as of July 1, 2002.

*** denotes those countries with World Bank loans and credits in non-accrual status as of June 30, 2002.

The United Arab Emirates, a relatively high-income member country of the World Bank, is not an eligible borrower of the World

Bank, but is a user of the World Bank’s non-lending services, much of which is reimbursed. Cuba is not a member of the World

Bank and is therefore not eligible to borrow from the World Bank.

SOURCE: World Bank Annual Report 2002, Vol. 1 (Washington, D.C.: World Bank 2002), pp. 131-132.
140

In addition to the provision of loans the World Bank engages in a number of non-lending activities

related to education and child labor issues. These include providing client countries with analytical

and advisory services that may buttress lending operations, and conducting studies to expand

knowledge and understanding of issues related to children.

B. The Regional Development Banks

1. The African Development Bank Group

The African Development Bank Group comprises the African Development Bank (AfDB), the

African Development Fund (AfDF), and the Nigeria Trust Fund (NTF). The Bank Group finances

its operations in regional member countries (RMCs) in line with its strategic and priority areas for

intervention. Country support strategies focus on poverty reduction, examine governance issues,

and give priority to Bank Group interventions in agriculture and rural development, human resource

development, gender mainstreaming, promoting the private sector, and regional cooperation and

integration.235 The Bank Group engages in project lending, policy-based lending (sectoral and

structural adjustment loans), technical assistance grants, special emergency relief, debt and debt

service reduction,236 and equity participation. Project loans and debt service reduction constituted

the major share of Bank Group approvals in 2000 (45.3 percent and 34.8 percent respectively).237 In

2000, the three institutions that constitute the AfDB Group approved approximately $2 billion in

loans and disbursed $682 million.238

The African Development Bank was established in 1964 with the objective of promoting regional

economic and social development through both public and private sector loans, equity investments,

and technical assistance. The AfDB is headquartered in Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire, and its current

authorized capital is $23.9 billion.239 The AfDB’s financial resources include ordinary capital

resources of subscribed capital, reserves, funds raised through borrowing, and accumulated net

income.240 The Bank provides loans to its clients on non-concessional terms. The AfDB has 53

member countries in Africa- including all 34 referenced countries in Africa-and 24 non-regional

non-borrowing member countries from Europe, the Americas, and Asia. Six referenced countries in

235 African Development Bank and African Development Fund, Annual Report: 2000, (Abidjan, 2000); African

Development Bank and African Development Fund, Annual Report: 2001, (Abidjan, 2001).

236 Annual Report: 2000. Debt and debt service reduction was comprised primarily of relief under the Heavily

Indebted Poor Countries’ (HIPC) Initiative, and secondarily under the Supplementary Financing Mechanism Debt

Alleviation.

237 Annual Report: 2000, 34.

238 African Development Bank, “The ADB Group: Compendium of Statistics on Bank Group Operations 2000:

Highlights of Bank Operations,” Abidjan [cited January 8, 2003]; available from www.afdb.org/knowledge/statistics/

statistics_bank_compedium2001/development_bank_group-/pdf/high.pdf.

239 African Development Bank/African Development Fund, “The ADB Group: The African Development Bank,”

Abidjan [cited February 10, 2003]; available from www.afdb.org/knowledge/about/about_adbgroup_ADB.htm.

240 Annual Report: 2001.
141

Africa (Botswana, Egypt, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Morocco, Mozambique, and South Africa),

which had higher per capita incomes and were more creditworthy than other countries in the region,

were eligible only for AfDB market-rate financing in 2000.241

The AfDF, another institution of the AfDB Group, was created in 1973 to provide loans at

concessional interest rates to the poorest member countries. Total resources of the AfDF currently

stand at about $12.5 billion. AfDF resources are usually replenished every three years by donor

countries.242 Thirty-eight RMCs were eligible for concessional AfDF financing in 2000; of these,

28 were referenced countries in Africa.243 Two other referenced countries, Nigeria and Zimbabwe,

were eligible for a blend of AfDB and AfDF concessional financing.

The AfDB also has a Technical Assistance Fund (TAF), which assists RMCs to design, develop, and

implement development projects and programs, particularly in such areas as feasibility studies,

environmental impact assessments, sector and multi-sector studies, and engineering studies.244 In

2001, the Bank’s Board approved 36 TAF operations, of which eight were for project cycle

activities and 28 were grants for institutional capacity building.245

Another institution in the AfDB Group is the Nigeria Trust Fund (NTF), which was established by

the Government of Nigeria in 1976 to finance projects at below-market terms in the poorer African

member countries. At year-end 2001, total NTF resources amounted to $535 million.246 The NTF

lends at interest rates ranging from 2-4 percent247 with a repayment period of up to 25 years,

including a grace period of up to five years. 248

In 2001, the Bank Group continued to provide debt relief under the HIPC initiative, in close collaboration with the World Bank and the IMF. The Bank Group’s share of the total multilateral

creditors’ cost for the 32 countries eligible under the enhanced HIPC framework was estimated at

$2.78 billion in 1999/2000 net present value terms.249

241 Ibid, 281.

242 African Development Bank/African Development Fund, “The ADB Group: The African Development Fund (ADF),”

Abidjan, [cited February 13, 2003]; available from http://www.afdb.org/knowledge/about/about_adbgroup_ADF.htm.

243 Annual Report: 2000, 281. Nigeria and Zimbabwe were eligible for a blend of AfDB and AfDF financing.

244 Annual Report: 2001, 2, 33.

245 Ibid.

246 Annual Report: 2001, ix.

247 Ibid. Effective March 2002.

248 Ibid.

249 Annual Report: 2001, 4.
142

2. The Asian Development Bank

The Asian Development Bank (AsDB), established in 1966, has 61 member countries, of which,

44 are regional members and 17 are non-regional members from Europe and North America. Of the

44 regional members, 41 are developing countries that are eligible to borrow from the Bank, including all 16 referenced countries in Asia. Three of the 44 regional members are non-borrowing

developed countries. The AsDB assists in regional economic development and poverty reduction

by providing loans, equity financing, and technical assistance; promoting and facilitating public and

private capital investments; and assisting in the coordination of development plans and programs.

The AsDB is headquartered in Manila, the Philippines. During 2001, the AsDB provided

approximately $5.4 billion in loans, mostly to the public sector of member-countries.250

Since adopting its poverty reduction strategy in 1999, the AsDB began focusing its work on

eliminating poverty in the region.251 Its projects or programs, whether poverty interventions or

otherwise, emphasize one or more of these priorities: economic growth, human development,

gender and development, good governance, environmental protection, private sector development

and regional cooperation.252 The AsDB develops operational strategies for individual membercountries, including economic and policy analyses, and undertakes country performance reviews

that provide a basis for policy dialogue with governments of the developing member countries. The

AsDB also formulates country assistance plans that include identification of individual technical

assistance and loan projects and programs. The AsDB establishes and maintains relationships with

the developing member country governments for overall country economic reporting and for loan

negotiations.253

The financial resources of the AsDB consist of ordinary capital resources (OCR) and Special

Funds.254 OCR consist of subscribed capital, reserves and surplus, and funds raised through borrowings.255 Loans from the OCR are generally made to developing member countries that have

attained a relatively higher level of economic development. In addition to OCR, the AsDB was

250 Asian Development Bank, “ADB: Funding and Lending,” [cited February 10, 2003]; available from http://

www.adb.org/About/FAQ/funding.asp#amount; Asian Development Bank, “ADB Profile: Functions,” [cited February

10, 2003]; available from www.adb.org/About/bankprof.asp.

251 Asian Development Bank, “Asian Development Bank: Overview,” [cited February 10, 2003]; available from

http://www.adb.org/Help/Index/A.asp.

252 Ibid.

253 Asian Development Bank, “Regions and Countries-ADB.org,” [cited February 10, 2003]; available from

http://www.adb.org/Countries/default.asp.

254 Asian Development Bank, “ADB: Financial Resources,” [cited February 10, 2003]; available from

http://www.adb.org/Finance/default.asp.

255 Asian Development Bank, “Ordinary Capital Resources,” [cited February 10, 2003]; available from

 http://www.adb.org/Help/Index/A.asp.
143

authorized by its Charter to establish and administer Special Funds. These consist of the Asian

Development Fund (AsDF), the Technical Assistance Special Fund (TASF), the Japan Special Fund

(JSF), and the AsDB Institute Special Fund.256

The AsDB established the Asian Development Fund (AsDF) in 1973 to provide loans at

concessional terms to the poorest members that have a limited ability to repay. It is the oldest and

largest of the Bank’s Special Funds. As the AsDF consumes resources, it requires periodic replenishment by donor countries. AsDF resources currently exceed $20 billion and loans from the AsDF

account for 28 percent of total AsDB lending.257 There were 28 AsDF borrowers as of 1997-98, of

which, the largest borrowers were all referenced countries (with the exception of the Kyrgyz Republic).258 The same strict standards for loan approval and administration that apply to OCR loans

are applied to AsDF loans.259

The AsDB also finances several technical assistance instruments in conjunction with some of its

grants and loans.260 These include:

• Project preparatory technical assistance (for feasibility and detailed engineering studies);

• Project implementation technical assistance, including for initial project operation, including

the training of project personnel;

• Advisory technical assistance, including support for institutional strengthening and sector and

policy studies; and

• Regional technical assistance.

The Technical Assistance Special Fund is an important source of grant financing for AsDB’s technical assistance operations. It is funded mainly by regularized replenishment contributions, voluntary

contributions of member countries, and allocations from OCR net income.261

The Japan Special Fund (JSF) is another important source of financing for AsDB’s technical assistance operations. It was established in 1988 and provides grants to the AsDB’s developing member

256 Asian Development Bank, “Special Funds,” [cited February 10. 2003]; available from http://www.adb.org/Help/

Index/S.asp.

257 Asian Development Bank, “Asian Development Fund: Frequently Asked Questions,” [cited February 10, 2003];

available from http://www.adb.org/Finance/ADF/faq.asp.

258 The largest AsDF borrowers were: Bangladesh, the Kyrgyz Republic, Laos, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, and

Vietnam.

259 Asian Development Bank, “Asian Development Fund,” [cited February 10, 2003]; available from

http://www.adb.org/Help/Index/A.asp.

260 Asian Development Bank, “Technical Assistance,” [cited February 10, 2003]; available from

http://www.adb.org/TA/default.asp.

261 Asian Development Bank, “Special Funds: TASF,” [cited February 10, 2003]; available from

http://www.adb.org/Help/Index/S.asp.
144

countries to help prepare projects and undertake technical or policy studies.262 The main objective

of the JSF is to help AsDB’s borrowing members broaden the scope of opportunities for new

investment. The Fund is used to finance or co-finance technical assistance on a grant basis, and to

further develop the private sector through equity investments.263

In addition to OCR and the Special Funds, several member countries have established donor-funded

Poverty-Reduction Grant Facilities. Among these, the Japan Fund for Poverty Reduction (JFPR)

was established in May 2000. The JFPR aims to support well-targeted poverty reduction and social

development activities that have a direct impact on the poor, that stimulate stakeholder participation

at the community level, and that stimulate the self-help capacities of the poor.264 The JFPR has

$295 million available for grant approval between May 2000 and December 2004;265 these funds are

available to any of the Bank’s developing member countries.

3. The European Bank for Reconstruction and

Development

The European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) was established in 1991 with the

objective of assisting former communist countries in Europe to make the transition to market-based

economies through the development of the private sector within a democratic environment. The

EBRD is owned by its 60 member countries and two intergovernmental institutions and is headquartered in London. It currently provides assistance to 27 countries from Central Europe-including all four referenced countries in Europe.266 During 2000, the EBRD committed ¤2.7 billion

($2.5 billion) to 95 projects. Since its inception, the EBRD has supported more than 700 projects,

totaling ¤16.6 billion ($15.4 billion).267

The EBRD provides financial support for investments in new as well as existing companies across a

wide spectrum of private sector business activities, and also assists the public sector in privatization

and restructuring efforts as well as projects to improve municipal services. In its operations, the

262 Asian Development Bank, “Annual Report of the Japan Special Fund for 2001,” [cited February 10, 2003]; available

from http://www.adb.org/Documents/Reports/Japan_Special_Fund/2001/default.asp.

263 Asian Development Bank, “Japan Special Fund,” [cited February 10, 2003]; available from

 http://www.adb.org/Help/Index/S.asp.

264 Asian Development Bank, “Japan Fund for Poverty Reduction,” [cited February 10, 2003]; available from

 http://www.adb.org/Help/Index/J.asp.

265 Asian Development Bank, “Poverty Reduction Grant Facilities,” [cited February 10, 2003]; available from

 http://www.adb.org/poverty/grant_facilities.asp.

266 European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, “EBRD: About the EBRD,” [cited February 10, 2003];

available from http://www.ebrd.com/about/index.htm.

267 European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, EBRD: Annual Report 2000, London, 2000; European Bank

for Reconstruction and Development, “Review of Banking Operations,” [cited February 10, 2003]; available from

http://www.ebrd.com/pubs/ar/index.htm.
145

EBRD is permitted to work only with countries committed to democratic principles. All projects

must assist the host-country to move toward a private-sector based economy, support private

investors and not compete against them, and apply sound banking principles.268

Since the EBRD does not provide lending for basic education, social protection, or poverty

alleviation programs, its lending programs are not included in this report.

4. The Inter-American Development Bank

The Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), founded in 1959, was the first regional development

bank to be established. It has 46 member countries, of which 26, including 16 of the 17 referenced

countries in Latin America and the Caribbean, are regional member borrowing countries.269

Twenty are non-borrowing member countries in North American, Europe, and Asia.270 The IDB is

headquartered in Washington, D.C. and has an annual lending capacity of about $8.5 billion. It

provided a total of $7.9 billion in loans during 2001.271

In addition to the IDB, the Inter-American Development Bank Group includes the Inter-American

Investment Corporation (IIC) and the Multilateral Investment Fund (MIF). The IIC was established

in 1986 and provides loans and equity financing to small and medium-sized businesses in the

private sector.272 The MIF was established in 1993 with the objective of promoting private sector

development in the region through small-scale loans and grants that support and facilitate reforms

such as financial and trade liberalization, tax reform, privatization, and deregulation. The MIF is

funded at about $1.3 billion and has supported over 400 projects since its inception.273 The MIF is

now the major source of technical assistance grants for private sector development, specifically

micro and small business development, in Latin America and the Caribbean.274 Technical assistance

268 “EBRD: About the EBRD.”

269 Cuba, a referenced country, is the only country in the Latin America and the Caribbean region that is not a member

of the IDB.

270 Inter-American Development Bank, “Basic Facts about the IDB: Basic Membership and Structure,” [cited February

10, 2003]; available from http://www.iadb.org/info/bfingles/bank1.htm. Non-borrowing member countries include the

United States, Canada, Japan, Israel, and sixteen European countries.

271 Inter-American Development Bank, “Basic Facts about the IDB: Operations,” [cited February 10, 2003]; available

from http://www.iadb.org/info/bfingles/operations2.htm; Inter-American Development Bank, Inter-American

Development Bank Annual Report 2001, (Washington, D.C., February 4, 2000): 9.

272 Inter-American Development Bank, Agreement Establishing the Inter-American Investment Corporation,

Washington, D.C., January 1996 [cited February 12, 2003]; available from http://www.iadb.org/iic/english/charter/

charter.htm.

273 Inter-American Development Bank, “MIF: About Us,” [cited February 10, 2003]; available from

 http://www.iadb.org/mif/website/static/en/about.asp?C=36.

274 Ibid.
146

projects average $1.0-1.5 million in size. Over 75 percent of MIF’s projects are with partners new

to the IDB, including NGOs, business groups, and government entities.

As of 2001, human resource development comprised 25 percent of MIF’s approved portfolio of

projects.275 Projects in this area have focused on workforce training, skills standards, certification

methodologies, and credentialing systems. Included in the workforce training project portfolio are

a number of projects targeted toward unemployed and at-risk youth. In the year 2001, MIF

partnered with the International Youth Foundation (IYF) to provide its largest grant to date for a

group of 40 sub-projects addressing youth unemployment and the need to increase information

technology skills.276

For its poorest member countries, the IDB has established a Fund for Special Operations (FSO)

with $10 billion in capital to provide concessional loans.277 The FSO includes contributions from

all IDB member countries and provides financing exclusively to the region’s poorest countriesBolivia, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras and Nicaragua (all referenced countries except for Guyana).

It also funds technical assistance, both related and unrelated to project loans.

The IDB engages in a variety of technical cooperation activities. Non-reimbursable technical

assistance grants to the less developed countries are often made through trust funds that the IDB

administers.278 The IDB notes that “technical cooperation projects transfer knowledge to borrowing

member countries, particularly those that are less developed, and strengthen managerial and institutional capacity. Technical cooperation also supports diagnostic, pre-investment and sector studies

critical to effective project design and preparation.” As of 2001, the IDB had committed $1.67

billion in grants for technical cooperation projects. Grants are awarded primarily to the relatively

less developed member countries.279

The Program for the Development of Technical Cooperation among member countries of the IDB

(TC/Funds Program) was established in 1991 to finance short- and medium-term consultancies and

training activities such as seminars and workshops.280 The Technical Cooperation Coordination

275 Inter-American Development Bank, Multilateral Investment Fund: An Overview, [cited February 13, 2003] 4;

available from http://www.iadb.org/mif/website/static/en/overview.doc.

276 Ibid, 7.

277 Concessional loans are loans below the market rate. Inter-American Development Bank, “Basic Facts about the

IDB: Resources and Borrowing,” [cited February 10, 2003]; available from http://www.iadb.org/info/bfingles/

resources1.htm.

278 Ibid, 2

279 Inter-American Development Bank, “Operations: Technical Cooperation,” [cited February 10, 2003]; available from

http://www.iadb.org/info/bfingles/operations3.htm.

280 Inter-American Development Bank, Annual Report 2001, Washington D.C., January 2002 [cited February 13, 2003]

69; available from http://www.iadb.org/EXR/ar99/pdf/eng/IA2001_Eng.pdf.
147

Unit of the IDB is responsible for the administration and mobilization of trust funds resources and

coordination of TC/Funds activities. As of 2001, 34 trust funds281 had been established under this

program, with total contributions of $157 million, along with five agreements for the provision of

in-kind services.282 In 2001, the resources from the TC/Funds Program constituted the largest

source of financing of the IDB’s non-reimbursable technical cooperation program.283

Among the funds administered by the IDB which contribute to financing projects for children and

youth as well as for basic education are:

• The Japan Special Fund (JSF). The JSF is one of the oldest trust funds administered by the

IDB, and funds many projects in social development areas— such as social protection,

nutrition, health and education.284

• The Social Progress Trust Fund (SPTF) was established by the United States in 1961 with the

purpose of funding projects in the agriculture, sanitation, education, and social sectors. The

SPTF had $525 million in cumulative contributions from the time of its inception through

2001.285

In addition to the trust funds it administers, the IDB maintains relationships with a number of

agencies, private foundations, and other entities for the purposes of co-financing projects.286 While

most co-financing goes for project loans, some may take the form of grants.

C. The International Monetary Fund

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) was established in 1945 as an outcome of the 1944 Bretton

Woods Conference. Its objectives are to promote international monetary cooperation, support the

expansion of international trade, promote exchange rate stability, assist in an international system of

current accounts payments, and provide financial support for countries that experience a balance of

payments problem.287 The IMF, whose ownership is vested in its 184 member countries, provides

281 Trust Funds are “Resources that an institution or government has given in administration to the IDB for financing

projects under special conditions.” Inter-American Development Bank, “Glossary,” [cited February 10, 2003];

available from http://www.iadb.org/regions/GeneralInfo/GLOSSARY.HTM.

282 Annual Report 2001, 69.

283 Ibid, 71.

284 Ibid.

285 Ibid, 72.

286 For example, it has cofinancing relationships with the EU, the OECD, the Rockefeller Foundation, USAID, and the

World Bank. Inter-American Development Bank, ‘Mapping with Co-Financiers,’ [cited February 10, 2003]; available

from http://www.iadb.org/regions/aspdocs/idbcof/cofpage/mappage.htm.

287 International Monetary Fund, “Articles of Agreement of the International Monetary Fund,” [cited February 10,

2003]; available from http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/aa/aa01.htm, Article 1
148

short- to medium-term support to countries experiencing balance of payments problems caused

either by external factors (e.g., a sudden increase in the price of oil) or internal factors (e.g., capital

flight due to banking failure). The IMF does not provide sectoral or project loans-these are provided by the World Bank and the regional development banks. Before a country joins the World

Bank, it must become a member of the IMF; all members of the IMF are members of the World

Bank.288

Where appropriate, the IMF requires that a borrowing country undertake policy measures or structural adjustments to address the underlying economic problems that made assistance necessary.

Different types of assistance programs are available, and the IMF has developed a variety of instruments to reflect the needs and circumstances of its diverse membership and the different types of

economic problems that may occur.289

In 1999, the IMF established the Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF) to replace the

Extended Structural Adjustment Facility (ESAF) for use by the world’s poorest countries. Loans

from the PRGF are provided at concessional rates of interest. The basic objective of IMF assistance

under the PRGF remains to provide balance of payments support, but some PRGF programs may

integrate poverty reduction with other policy changes intended to restore financial stability and

enhance economic growth. PRGF loans also emphasize good governance as a policy issue. When

necessary, the IMF draws on the expertise of the World Bank on poverty-reduction issues.290

The IMF and the World Bank work together to provide debt relief to poor countries under the

Heavily Indebted Poor Country (HIPC) initiative. Each institution focuses on its area of comparative advantage in this effort: the IMF on balance of payments and macroeconomic issues and the

World Bank on poverty reduction and development.

Since the IMF does not provide sectoral or project loans (e.g., for education, social protection, or

poverty reduction), its lending programs are not included in this report.

288 Of the 73 countries referenced in this report, only one-Cuba-is not a member of the IMF or World Bank. For further

information on country membership in the IMF, see International Monetary Fund, “About the International Monetary

Fund, IMF, Introductory Information,” [cited February 10, 2003]; available from http://www.imf.org/external/

about.htm.

289 International Monetary Fund, “IMF: How Does the IMF Lend: A Factsheet,” [cited February 10, 2003]; available

from http://www.imf.org/external/np/exr/facts/howlend.htm.

290 International Monetary Fund, “The IMF’s Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF): A Factsheet,” September

2002 [cited February 12, 2003]; available from http://www.imf.org/external/np/exr/facts/prgf.htm.
149

Appendix C:

Supporting Detailed Statistical Tables For Text Figures

Table C.1: World Bank Education Sector Lending, Total and For Basic Education, FY1963-

FY2002

Table C.2: World Bank Education Sector Lending with Basic Education Components to Referenced Countries and All Countries by Region and Type of Lending (IBRD or IDA),

Cumulative, FY1989-FY2002

Table C.3: Composition of Total World Bank Education Sector Lending for Basic Education to

the Referenced Countries by Basic Education Sub-Sector, Cumulative, FY1989-

FY2002

Table C.4a: World Bank Education Sector Loans to All Countries and the Referenced Countries

by World Region, Total Education Sector, Total Loans with Basic Education

Components, and Total of Basic Education Components, FY1989-FY2002

Table C.4b: World Bank Education Sector Loans to Countries in Africa, Total Sector, Total

Loans with Basic Education Components, and Total of Basic Education

Components, FY1989-FY2002

Table C.4c: World Bank Education Sector Loans to Countries in Asia and the Middle East, Total

Sector, Total Loans with Basic Education Components, and Total of Basic Education

Components, FY1989-FY2002

Table C.4d: World Bank Education Sector Loans to Countries in Europe and Central Asia, Total

Sector, Total Loans with Basic Education Components, and Total of Basic Education

Components, FY1989-FY2002

Table C.4e: World Bank Education Sector Loans to Countries in Latin America and the Caribbean, Total Sector, Total Loans with Basic Education Components, and Total of

Basic Education Components, FY1989-FY2002

Table C.5: World Bank Social Protection Lending with Child Labor Related Components to

Referenced Countries and All Countries by Region and Type of Lending (IBRD or

IDA), Cumulative, FY1990-FY2002

Table C.6: Composition of Total Child Labor Related Components of World Bank Social

Protection Lending to the Referenced Countries with Child Labor Related

Components by Region and Sub-Sector, Cumulative, FY1990-FY2002

Table C.7a: World Bank Social Protection Sector Loans with Child Labor Related Components

to All Countries and the Referenced Countries by World Region, Total Child Labor

Related Components, FY1990-FY2002
150

Table C.7b: World Bank Social Protection Sector Loans with Child Labor Related Components

to Countries in Africa, Total Child Labor Related Components, FY1990-FY2002

Table C.7c: World Bank Social Protection Sector Loans with Child Labor Related Components

to Countries in Asia and the Middle East, Total Child Labor Related Components, FY1990-FY2002

Table C.7d: World Bank Social Protection Sector Loans with Child Labor Related Components

to Countries in Europe and Central Asia, Total Child Labor Related Components, FY1990-FY2002

Table C.7e: World Bank Social Protection Sector Loans with Child Labor Related Components

to Countries in Latin America and the Caribbean, Total Child Labor Related

Components, FY1990-FY2002

Table C.8: World Bank Lending to All Countries and the Referenced Countries for Basic

Education and Child Labor-Related Projects, FY1990-FY2002

Table C.9: African Development Bank Education Sector Lending Approvals for Basic

Education Projects, 1989-2001

Table C.10: Asian Development Bank Education Sector Lending Approvals for Basic Education

Projects, 1989-2001

Table C.11: Asian Development Bank Education Sector Technical Assistance for Basic

Education Projects, 1989-2001

Table C.12: Asian Development Bank Lending and Technical Assistance or Grants for Child

Labor and Child Welfare Oriented Projects, 1989-2001

Table C.13a: Inter-American Development Bank Loans for Basic Education to Member Countries

in Latin America and the Caribbean, 1989-2001

Table C.13b: Inter-American Development Bank Technical Cooperation Grants for Basic

Education to Member Countries in Latin America and the Caribbean, 1989-2001

Table C.14: Inter-American Development Bank Loans for Child Labor Related Projects to

Member Countries in Latin America and the Caribbean, 1991-2001

Table C.15: African Development Bank Lending to Regional Member Countries and the

Referenced Countries for Basic Education Projects, 1989-2001

Table C.16: Asian Development Bank Lending to Regional Member Countries and Member

Referenced Countries for Basic Education and Child Labor-Related Projects,

1989-2001

Table C.17: Inter-American Bank Lending to All Member Countries and Member Referenced

Countries for Basic Education and Child Labor-Related Projects, 1991-2001
151

Table C.1: World Bank Education Sector Lending, Total and For Basic Education,

FY1963-FY2002 (millions of current U.S. dollars)

Fiscal Year Total Education Projects Basic Education Projects Basic Education as a Percent of 

Total

1963 5 - -

1964 18 - -

1965 30 - -

1966 34 - -

1967 52 - -

1968 24 - -

1969 82 - -

1970 80 - -

1971 108 - -

1972 180 - -

1973 273 - -

1974 153 - -

1975 224 - -

1976 321 - -

1977 289 - -

1978 352 - -

1979 496 - -

1980 440 - -

1981 747 - -

1982 526 - -

1983 572 - -

1984 702 - -

1985 937 - -

1986 840 - -

1987 440 - -

1988 864 - -

1989 992 430 43

1990 1,338 493 37

1991 2,026 805 40

1992 1,667 803 48

1993 1,871 1,086 58

1994 2,119 1,294 61

1995 2,027 1,046 52

1996 1,668 1,119 67

1997 994 459 46

1998 3,129 1,589 51

1999 1,334 699 52

2000 684 449 66

2001 794 491 62

2002 1,214 903 74

NOTE: "-" indicates no education sector loans for the fiscal year.

SOURCE: World Bank, Special Tabulation, October 2002.
152

Table C.2: World Bank Education Sector Lending with Basic Education Components

to Referenced Countries and All Countries by Region and Type of Lending (IBRD or

IDA), Cumulative, FY1989-FY2002

Region IBRD 

Loans IDA Credit Total Lending 

(IBRD+IDA)

Portion Dedicated to 

Basic Education

Africa

Referenced Countries 282 (12%) 1,984 

(88%) 2,266 1,676(74%)

All Countries 634 (21%) 2,394 

(79%) 3,028 2,215

(73%)

Asia and the Middle 

East

Referenced Countries 1,879 

(33%)

3,888 

(67%) 5,767 4,495

(78%)

All Countries 2,153 

(34%)

4,126 

(66%) 6,279 4,791

(76%)

Europe and Central Asia

Referenced Countries 525 (96%) 22

(4%) 546 403(74%)

All Countries 869 (88%) 119 (12%) 988 580

(59%)

Latin America and the 

Caribbean

Referenced Countries 4,103 

(92%)

350

(8%) 4,452 3,534

(79%)

All Countries 4,694 

(92%)

383

(8%) 5,077 4,081(80%)

Total, all regions

Referenced Countries 6,788 

(52%)

6,242 

(48%) 13,031 10,107(76%)

All Countries 8,350 

(54%)

7,022 

(46%) 15,372 11,667

(76%)

SOURCE: World Bank, based on data provided by the World Bank’s Education Sector Staff, October 11, 2002. Sums may not equal totals due to 

rounding.
153

Table C.3: Composition of Total World Bank Education Sector Lending for Basic

Education to the Referenced Countries by Basic Education Sub-Sector, Cumulative,

FY1989-FY2002

Africa Asia Europe

Latin America 

and

the Caribbean

All

Pre-Primary 63.7 (4%) 38.8 (1%) 6.9 (2%) 228.5 (6%) 337 (9%)

Primary 1,196.3 (72%) 3,191.0 (71%) 253.0 (63%) 2,572 (73%) 7,212.5 (71%)

Secondary, general 236.1 (14%) 717.9 (16%) 69.5 (17%) 372.3 (11%) 1,395.8 (14%)

Teacher Training 73.2 (4%) 377.5 (8%) 73.3 (18%) 313.0 (9%) 837.0 (8%)

Other, total 107.3 (6%) 169.4 (4%) 0.0 (0%) 47.9 (1%) 324.6 (3%)

Secondary, vocational - 0.5 - - 0.5

Vocational 11.8 16.8 - - 28.6

Science and Technology - - - 3.4 3.4

Institutional Development 10.5 24.5 - 35.0 70.0

Other 85.0 127.6 - 9.5 222.1

Total, Basic Education 1,676 (100%) 4,495 (100%) 403 (100%) 3,534 (100%) 10,107 (100%)

NOTE: "-" indicates no education sector loans for the fiscal year.

Region

Basic Education

Sub-Sector

SOURCE: World Bank, based on data provided by the World Bank's Education Sector Staff, October 11, 2002. Sums may not equal totals due to 

rounding.
154

Table C.4a: World Bank Education Sector Loans to All Countries and the Referenced Countries by World Region,

Total Education Sector, Total Loans with Basic Education Components, and Total of Basic Education Components,

FY1989-FY2002

All Countries

Region 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 Total, 1989-2002 

266.2 381.2 478.7 449.7 484.9 286.7 254.9 232.3 150.1 452.3 244.1 258.7 84.9 420.1 4,444.8

240.2 160.7 401.7 69.7 387.8 59.5 188.9 139.1 150.1 367.4 244.1 253.7 59.9 305.1 3,027.9

178.9 103.6 292.0 49.6 304.4 53.0 118.6 135.8 87.6 269.2 185.2 153.7 51.8 232.0 2,215.4

557.5 866.1 837.7 619.7 837.6 689.6 985.2 937.7 645.0 884.7 655.4 325.2 256.3 163.4 9,261.1

189.2 475.0 219.4 504.7 670.6 303.0 716.2 841.1 400.4 821.7 502.1 290.5 187.2 158.4 6,279.5

122.7 356.0 212.5 318.9 502.2 289.8 589.4 741.5 311.8 608.7 248.3 234.9 168.9 85.6 4,791.2

- 90.2 150.0 - - 59.6 40.0 5.0 137.8 592.4 41.1 22.6 90.3 35.4 1,264.4

90.2 150.0 59.6 0.0 5.0 87.8 406.0 41.1 22.6 90.3 35.4 988.0

33.3 34.7 46.2 0.0 5.0 26.7 338.2 31.8 10.0 35.1 19.4 580.4

168.0 - 595.3 597.1 548.7 1,083.3 747.1 493.1 61.5 1,199.9 393.6 77.5 362.7 594.8 6,922.6

130.0 272.6 539.1 374.7 1,083.3 482.1 328.1 33.0 564.7 243.2 72.5 358.7 594.8 5,076.8

128.4 266.3 434.2 279.8 905.4 337.6 236.9 33.0 373.2 234.0 50.4 235.7 566.4 4,081.3

991.7 1,337.5 2,061.7 1,666.5 1,871.2 2,119.3 2,027.2 1,668.1 994.4 3,129.3 1,334.2 684.0 794.2 1,213.7 21,892.9

559.4 725.9 1,043.7 113.5 1,433.1 1,505.4 1,387.2 1,313.3 671.3 2,159.8 1,030.5 639.3 696.1 1,093.7 15,372.2

430.0 492.9 805.5 802.7 1,086.4 1,294.4 1,045.6 1,119.2 459.1 1,589.3 699.3 449.0 491.5 903.4 11,668.3

Europe and

Central Asia

Latin America

and the 

Caribbean

NOTE: Loans include those from the IBRD and IDA. The first data lines represents the total education sector loan amount; the s

SOURCE: World Bank, based on data provided by the World Bank's Education Sector Staff, October 11, 2002.

econd data line represents the amount of loans with Basic 

Education components; the third data line represents the amount of the second line dedicated to projects in the area of basic education. "-" indicates no education sector loans for the fiscal 

Africa

Asia and the

Middle East

Total

year.
155

Table C.4b: World Bank Education Sector Loans to Countries in Africa, Total Sector, Total Loans with Basic

Education Components, and Total of Basic Education Components, FY1989-FY2002

Country 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 Total, 1989-2002 

-------- 14.3 ----- 14.3

14.3 14.3

14.3 14.3

- 36.9 ----- 22.5 - 48.2 ---- 107.6

36.9 22.5 48.2 107.6

25.4 22.5 22.8 70.7

---- 20.0 - 16.0 ------- 36.0

20.0 0.0 20.0

10.1 0.0 10.1

----- 41.4 -------- 41.4

41.4 41.4

41.4 41.4

95.0 - 12.0 75.0 - - 98.3 60.1 - 80.0 - 99.0 - - 519.4

95.0 0.0 0.0 98.3 0.0 0.0 99.0 292.3

59.9 0.0 0.0 49.6 0.0 0.0 51.8 161.3

- - 21.0 ----------- 21.0

21.0 21.0

15.2 15.2

117.0 77.3 98.0 75.0 79.3 41.4 168.3 89.2 14.3 128.2 30.1 99.0 10.0 70.0 1,097.1

117.0 57.3 21.0 0.0 79.3 41.4 152.3 22.5 14.3 48.2 30.1 99.0 10.0 70.0 762.4

78.8 38.7 15.2 0.0 69.4 41.4 97.6 22.5 14.3 22.8 23.8 51.8 10.0 52.5 538.8

All Countries in the Region

266.2 381.2 478.7 449.7 484.9 286.7 254.9 232.3 150.1 452.3 244.1 258.7 84.9 420.1 4,444.8

240.2 160.7 401.7 69.7 387.8 59.5 188.9 139.1 150.1 367.4 244.1 253.7 59.9 305.1 3,027.9

178.9 103.6 292.0 49.6 304.4 53.0 118.6 135.8 87.6 269.2 185.2 153.7 51.8 232.0 2,215.4

Guinea-Bissau

Zaire

Subtotal

NOTE: Loans include those from the IBRD and IDA. The first data line represents the total education sector loan amount; the se

SOURCE: World Bank, based on data provided by the World Bank's Education Sector Staff, October 11, 2002.

cond data line represents the amount of loans with Basic Education components; the 

third data line represents the amount of the second line dedicated to projects in the area of basic education. "-" indicates no education sector loans for the fiscal year.

Malawi

Mauritius

Niger

Tunisia

Grand Total
156

Table C.4b: (continued)

Country 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 Total, 1989-2002 

--- 25.2 ------ 21.0 46.2

25.2 21.0 46.2

19.6 13.7 33.3

- 39.0 ------- 65.0 104.0

39.0 65.0 104.0

11.2 55.0 66.2

26.0 ----- 50.0 - - - - 3.8 45.0 124.8

0.0 0.0 3.8 45.0 48.8

0.0 0.0 3.8 36.9 40.7

18.2 ------------ 52.5 70.7

18.2 52.5 70.7

6.8 28.9 35.7

83.0 - 145.0 ---- 54.0 - - - - - - 282.0

83.0 145.0 54.0 282.0

83.0 72.5 50.7 206.2

- - 53.7 - 48.6 ----- 71.0 - - 60.0 233.3

53.7 48.6 71.0 0.0 173.3

41.3 11.2 58.2 0.0 110.7

- 120.0 120.0 - 8.0 ------ 55.0 - - 303.0

0.0 120.0 8.0 55.0 183.0

0.0 120.0 3.0 55.0 178.0

- - 23.3 -------- 35.0 - - 58.3

23.3 35.0 58.3

17.9 17.9 35.8

---- 40.0 - - 39.1 - - - 52.1 - - 131.2

40.0 12.6 52.1 104.7

32.3 12.6 16.4 61.3

- 26.1 ------------ 26.1

26.1 26.1

24.3 24.3

- 38.3 ------- 20.9 - - - 150.0 209.2

38.3 20.9 150.0 209.2

29.4 9.0 125.0 163.4

Lesotho

Madagascar

Mali

Mauritania

Morocco

Mozambique

Nigeria

Rwanda

Senegal

Somalia

Tanzania
157

Table C.4b: (continued)

Country 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 Total, 1989-2002 

------ 36.6 ------- 36.6

36.6 36.6

21.0 21.0

22.0 - - - 52.6 ---- 80.0 - - - 5.0 159.6

22.0 52.6 80.0 0.0 154.6

10.3 37.5 80.0 0.0 127.8

---- 32.0 ----- 40.0 - 25.0 - 97.0

32.0 40.0 0.0 72.0

28.8 34.9 0.0 63.7

149.2 303.9 380.7 374.7 405.6 245.3 86.6 143.1 135.8 324.1 214.0 159.7 74.9 350.1 3,347.7

123.2 103.4 380.7 69.7 308.5 18.1 36.6 116.6 135.8 319.2 214.0 154.7 49.9 235.1 2,265.5

100.1 64.9 276.8 49.6 235.0 11.6 21.0 113.3 73.3 246.4 161.4 101.9 41.8 179.5 1,676.6

Other Countries in the Region

- - 65.0 - 40.0 --------- 105.0

0.0 40.0 40.0

0.0 40.0 40.0

------ 11.5 - - - 6.0 --- 17.5

11.5 6.0 17.5

11.5 6.0 17.5

22.0 - - - 19.3 --------- 41.3

22.0 19.3 41.3

18.9 19.3 38.2

- 5.8 ---------- 10.0 - 15.8

5.8 10.0 15.8

2.4 10.0 12.4

- 14.6 -------- 20.0 --- 34.6

14.6 20.0 34.6

10.9 13.7 24.6

- 20.0 ---- 42.5 6.6 - - 4.1 - - 70.0 143.2

0.0 42.5 0.0 4.1 70.0 116.6

0.0 36.5 0.0 4.1 52.5 93.1

Togo

Uganda

Zambia

Subtotal

Algeria

Cape Verde

Chad

Djibouti

Gambia

Guinea
158

Table C.4b: (continued)

Country 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 Total, 1989-2002 

-------- 14.3 ----- 14.3

14.3 14.3

14.3 14.3

- 36.9 ----- 22.5 - 48.2 ---- 107.6

36.9 22.5 48.2 107.6

25.4 22.5 22.8 70.7

---- 20.0 - 16.0 ------- 36.0

20.0 0.0 20.0

10.1 0.0 10.1

----- 41.4 -------- 41.4

41.4 41.4

41.4 41.4

95.0 - 12.0 75.0 - - 98.3 60.1 - 80.0 - 99.0 - - 519.4

95.0 0.0 0.0 98.3 0.0 0.0 99.0 292.3

59.9 0.0 0.0 49.6 0.0 0.0 51.8 161.3

- - 21.0 ----------- 21.0

21.0 21.0

15.2 15.2

117.0 77.3 98.0 75.0 79.3 41.4 168.3 89.2 14.3 128.2 30.1 99.0 10.0 70.0 1,097.1

117.0 57.3 21.0 0.0 79.3 41.4 152.3 22.5 14.3 48.2 30.1 99.0 10.0 70.0 762.4

78.8 38.7 15.2 0.0 69.4 41.4 97.6 22.5 14.3 22.8 23.8 51.8 10.0 52.5 538.8

All Countries in the Region

266.2 381.2 478.7 449.7 484.9 286.7 254.9 232.3 150.1 452.3 244.1 258.7 84.9 420.1 4,444.8

240.2 160.7 401.7 69.7 387.8 59.5 188.9 139.1 150.1 367.4 244.1 253.7 59.9 305.1 3,027.9

178.9 103.6 292.0 49.6 304.4 53.0 118.6 135.8 87.6 269.2 185.2 153.7 51.8 232.0 2,215.4

Guinea-Bissau

Zaire

Subtotal

NOTE: Loans include those from the IBRD and IDA. The first data line represents the total education sector loan amount; the se

SOURCE: World Bank, based on data provided by the World Bank's Education Sector Staff, October 11, 2002.

cond data line represents the amount of loans with Basic Education components; the 

third data line represents the amount of the second line dedicated to projects in the area of basic education. "-" indicates no education sector loans for the fiscal year.

Malawi

Mauritius

Niger

Tunisia

Grand Total
159

Table C.4c: World Bank Education Sector Loans to Countries in Asia and the Middle East, Total Sector,

Total Loans with Basic Education Components, and Total of Basic Education Components, FY1989-FY2002

Country 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 Total, 1989-2002 

Referenced Countries in the Region

------------- 15.0 15.0

15.0 15.0

7.6 7.6

- 159.3 - - 68.0 - - 10.5 - 150.0 - - 53.3 120.9 562.0

159.3 68.0 10.5 150.0 53.3 120.9 562.0

158.9 26.0 10.5 140.7 53.3 55.5 444.9

- - - - - - - - - - - 5.0 - - 5.0

5.0 5.0

3.9 3.9

57.0 50.0 131.2 130.0 100.0 - 300.0 100.0 115.0 - 70.0 - - - 1,053.2

0.0 0.0 0.0 130.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 85.0 0.0 515.0

0.0 0.0 0.0 97.7 51.9 100.0 100.0 85.0 0.0 434.6

280.0 260.0 307.1 - 165.0 - 260.3 425.2 - 211.4 85.7 182.4 139.3 - 2,316.4

0.0 0.0 0.0 165.0 260.3 425.2 211.4 85.7 182.4 74.4 1,404.4

0.0 0.0 0.0 165.0 207.8 419.0 195.7 71.0 182.4 56.6 1,297.5

18.4 190.3 150.0 143.1 - 86.6 201.5 224.4 273.2 103.5 159.9 - 4.2 2.7 1,557.8

18.4 154.2 0.0 143.1 0.0 132.5 159.4 202.0 103.5 159.9 0.0 2.7 1,075.7

0.1 67.3 0.0 138.6 0.0 92.8 103.1 113.4 66.2 123.5 0.0 2.7 707.7

3.5 - - - 19.0 --------- 22.5

0.0 19.0 19.0

0.0 15.0 15.0

58.8 - - - 248.0 ----- 244.0 - - - 550.8

58.8 141.0 244.0 443.8

43.2 106.0 43.8 193.0

34.2 - - 30.6 - 20.0 ---- 12.5 --- 97.3

22.8 30.6 0.0 12.5 65.9

19.1 30.6 0.0 10.0 59.7

- 112.5 - 115.0 106.0 200.0 150.0 - - 272.8 ---- 956.3

112.5 115.0 106.0 200.0 150.0 272.8 956.3

112.5 47.0 93.8 200.0 150.0 143.6 746.9

Afghanistan

Bangladesh

Cambodia

China

India

Indonesia

Laos

Malaysia

Nepal

Pakistan
160

Table C.4c: (continued)

Country 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 Total, 1989-2002 

- - 200.0 121.0 ---- 113.4 ----- 434.4

200.0 36.0 113.4 349.4

200.0 2.5 113.4 315.9

- 49.0 ----- 64.1 - 70.3 ---- 183.4

49.0 64.1 70.3 183.4

17.3 64.1 52.2 133.6

------- 113.5 143.4 ----- 256.9

81.9 0.0 81.9

44.8 0.0 44.8

----- 70.0 ---- 83.3 - - 19.8 173.1

70.0 0.0 19.8 89.8

70.0 0.0 19.8 89.8

451.9 821.1 788.3 539.7 706.0 376.6 911.8 937.7 645.0 808.0 655.4 187.4 196.8 158.4 8,184.1

100.0 475.0 200.0 454.7 599.0 270.0 642.8 841.1 400.4 808.0 502.1 187.4 127.7 158.4 5,766.6

62.4 356.0 200.0 316.4 457.7 270.0 550.6 741.5 311.8 598.4 248.3 186.3 109.9 85.6 4,494.9

Other Countries in the Region

--------- 13.7 ---- 13.7

13.7 13.7

10.3 10.3

16.4 45.0 30.0 80.0 60.0 280.0 -------- 511.4

0.0 0.0 0.0 50.0 0.0 0.0 50.0

0.0 0.0 0.0 2.5 0.0 0.0 2.5

8.2 ----- 13.4 ---- 17.6 - - 39.2

8.2 13.4 17.6 39.2

2.5 4.2 6.0 12.7

---- 35.0 --------- 35.0

35.0 35.0

17.2 17.2

---- 16.9 --------- 16.9

16.9 16.9

7.6 7.6

Philippines

Sri Lanka

Thailand

Vietnam

Subtotal

Bhutan

Korea

Maldives

Papua

New Guinea

Solomon

Islands
161

Table C.4c: (continued)

Country 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 Total, 1989-2002 

8.0 - - - - - - - - - - - 3.5 - 11.5

8.0 3.5 11.5

3.1 3.0 6.1

73.0 ----- 60.0 ---- 34.7 - - 167.7

73.0 60.0 0.0 133.0

54.7 34.6 0.0 89.3

--------- 63.0 - 56.6 - - 119.6

0.0 56.6 56.6

0.0 40.0 40.0

- - 19.4 - 19.7 33.0 ----- 28.9 56.0 5.0 162.0

19.4 19.7 33.0 28.9 56.0 0.0 157.0

12.5 19.7 19.8 2.6 56.0 0.0 110.6

105.6 45.0 49.4 80.0 131.6 313.0 73.4 - - 76.7 - 137.8 59.5 5.0 1,077.0

89.2 0.0 19.4 50.0 71.6 33.0 73.4 13.7 103.1 59.5 0.0 512.9

60.3 0.0 12.5 2.5 44.5 19.8 38.8 10.3 48.6 59.0 0.0 296.3

All Countries in the Region

557.5 866.1 837.7 619.7 837.6 689.6 985.2 937.7 645.0 884.7 655.4 325.2 256.3 163.4 9,261.1

189.2 475.0 219.4 504.7 670.6 303.0 716.2 841.1 400.4 821.7 502.1 290.5 187.2 158.4 6,279.5

122.7 356.0 212.5 318.9 502.2 289.8 589.4 741.5 311.8 608.7 248.3 234.9 168.9 85.6 4,791.2

Subtotal

Grand Total

NOTE: Loans include those from the IBRD and IDA. The first data line represents the total education sector loan amount; the se

SOURCE: World Bank, based on data provided by the World Bank's Education Sector Staff, October 11, 2002.

cond data line represents the amount of loans with Basic Education 

components; the third data line represents the amount of the second line dedicated to projects in the area of basic education. "-" indicates no education sector loans for the fiscal year.

Vanuatu

Jordan

Lebanon

Yemen
162

Table C.4d: World Bank Education Sector Loans to Countries in Europe and Central Asia, Total Sector, Total Loans

with Basic Education Components, and Total of Basic Education Components, FY1989-FY2002

Country 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 Total, 1989-2002 

Referenced Countries in the Region

- - - - - 9.6 - - - - - 12.0 - - 21.6

9.6 12.0 21.6

7.2 7.6 14.8

------------ 14.4 - 14.4

14.4 14.4

7.5 7.5

----- 50.0 - - 50.0 70.0 ---- 170.0

50.0 0.0 70.0 120.0

39.0 0.0 58.7 97.7

- 90.2 ------- 300.0 ---- 390.2

90.2 300.0 390.2

33.3 249.6 282.9

- 90.2 --- 59.6 - - 50.0 370.0 - 12.0 14.4 - 596.2

90.2 59.6 0.0 370.0 12.0 14.4 546.2

33.3 46.2 0.0 308.3 7.6 7.5 402.9

Other Countries in the Region

--------- 15.0 ---- 15.0

15.0 15.0

10.1 10.1

- - - - - - - - - - 5.0 - - - 5.0

5.0 5.0

4.2 4.2

- - - - - - - 5.0 - 11.0 - 10.6 - - 26.6

5.0 11.0 10.6 26.6

5.0 11.0 2.4 18.4

------------ 25.9 - 25.9

25.9 25.9

16.1 16.1

Albania

Bulgaria

Romania

Turkey

Subtotal

Armenia

Azerbaijan

Bosnia and

Hercegovina

Georgia
163

Table C.4d: (continued)

Country 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 Total, 1989-2002 

- - 150.0 ------ 186.4 ---- 336.4

150.0 0.0 150.0

34.7 0.0 34.7

---------- 31.1 - - - 31.1

31.1 31.1

22.6 22.6

- - - - - - - - - - - - - 25.4 25.4

25.4 25.4

14.8 14.8

- - - - - - - - - 5.0 - - - - 5.0

5.0 5.0

4.9 4.9

-------- 16.8 5.0 ---- 21.8

16.8 5.0 21.8

14.7 3.9 18.6

------ 40.0 - 71.0 - - - 50.0 - 161.0

0.0 71.0 50.0 121.0

0.0 12.0 11.5 23.5

- - - - - - - - - - 5.0 - - - 5.0

5.0 5.0

5.0 5.0

------------- 10.0 10.0

10.0 10.0

4.6 4.6

- - 150.0 --- 40.0 5.0 87.8 222.4 41.1 10.6 75.9 35.4 668.2

150.0 0.0 5.0 87.8 36.0 41.1 10.6 75.9 35.4 441.8

34.7 0.0 5.0 26.7 29.9 31.8 2.4 27.6 19.4 177.5

Hungary

Latvia

Lithuania

Macedonia

Moldova

Russia

Tajikistan

Yugoslavia

Subtotal
164

Table C.4d: (continued)

All Countries in the Region

- 90.2 150.0 - - 59.6 40.0 5.0 137.8 592.4 41.1 22.6 90.3 35.4 1,264.4

90.2 150.0 59.6 0.0 5.0 87.8 406.0 41.1 22.6 90.3 35.4 988.0

33.3 34.7 46.2 0.0 5.0 26.7 338.2 31.8 10.0 35.1 19.4 580.4

NOTE: Loans include those from the IBRD and IDA. The first data line represents the total education sector loan amount; the se

SOURCE: World Bank, based on data provided by the World Bank's Education Sector Staff, October 11, 2002.

cond data line represents the amount of loans with Basic Education 

components; the third data line represents the amount of the second line dedicated to projects in the area of basic education. "-" indicates no education sector loans for the fiscal year.

Grand Total
165

Table C.4e: World Bank Education Sector Loans to Countries in Latin America and the Caribbean, Total Sector,

Total Loans with Basic Education Components, and Total of Basic Education Components, FY1989-FY2002

Country 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 Total, 1989-2002 

Referenced Countries in the Region

28.0 ---- - 190.0 280.5 - 119.0 - - 57.0 - 674.5

0.0 190.0 115.5 119.0 57.0 481.5

0.0 77.8 57.8 50.9 28.5 215.0

---- 50.7 - 40.0 - - 75.0 ---- 165.7

50.7 40.0 75.0 165.7

46.5 24.9 60.9 132.3

- - 395.0 - 212.0 452.6 - - - 217.5 202.0 - 159.6 160.0 1,798.7

245.0 212.0 452.6 62.5 202.0 159.6 160.0 1,493.7

238.7 186.4 452.6 47.4 194.0 97.2 151.0 1,367.3

100.0 ---- 90.0 - - - 47.2 - 20.0 - - 257.2

100.0 90.0 47.2 20.0 257.2

98.4 40.6 31.3 12.1 182.4

--- 23.0 - - - - - - ---- 23.0

23.0 23.0

23.0 23.0

- - 15.0 - - - - 37.0 - - - - 3.4 - 55.4

15.0 37.0 3.4 55.4

15.0 37.0 3.4 55.4

--- 89.0 - - - - - - ---- 89.0

89.0 89.0

67.5 67.5

----- - - 34.0 - 146.0 ---- 180.0

34.0 146.0 180.0

34.0 95.3 129.3

30.0 --- --- - 33.0 - - - 62.2 - 125.2

30.0 33.0 62.2 125.2

30.0 33.0 48.5 111.5

- - 12.6 - - - - - - - ---- 12.6

12.6 12.6

12.6 12.6

----- - 30.0 - - - - - 45.5 - 75.5

30.0 41.5 71.5

30.0 31.5 61.5

Argentina

Bolivia

Brazil

Colombia

Costa Rica

Dominican

Republic

Ecuador

El Salvador

Guatemala

Haiti

Honduras
166

Table C.4e: (continued)

Country 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 Total, 1989-2002 

- - 152.0 250.0 254.0 412.0 265.0 - - 595.2 - - - 300.0 2,228.2

0.0 250.0 80.0 412.0 0.0 115.0 300.0 1,157.0

0.0 182.1 29.2 289.0 0.0 87.4 294.0 881.7

------ 34.0 - - - 13.2 52.5 - - 99.7

34.0 13.2 52.5 99.7

34.0 13.2 38.3 85.5

------- 35.0 - - - - 35.0 - 70.0

35.0 35.0 70.0

26.1 26.6 52.7

------- 24.5 - - ---- 24.5

24.5 24.5

10.0 10.0

------ 146.4 - - - ---- 146.4

146.4 146.4

146.4 146.4

158.0 - 574.6 362.0 516.7 954.6 705.4 411.0 33.0 1,199.9 215.2 72.5 362.7 460.0 6,025.6

130.0 272.6 362.0 342.7 954.6 440.4 246.0 33.0 564.7 215.2 72.5 358.7 460.0 4,452.4

128.0 266.3 272.6 262.1 782.2 313.1 164.9 33.0 373.2 207.2 50.4 235.7 445.0 3,534.1

Other Countries in the Region

10.0 -------- - ---- 10.0

0.0 0.0

0.0 0.0

- - - - - 7.8 - - - - - - - - 7.8

7.8 7.8

2.3 2.3

- - - 7.1 - - - - - - - - - - 7.1

7.1 7.1

7.1 7.1

--- 170.0 - - 35.0 - - - 150.4 - - 75.8 431.2

170.0 35.0 0.0 75.8 280.8

154.5 17.8 0.0 75.8 248.1

Mexico

Nicaragua

Panama

Paraguay

Peru

Subtotal

Bahamas

Barbados

Belize

Chile
167

Table C.4e: (continued)

Country 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 Total, 1989-2002 

- - - - - - - 6.1 - - - - - - 6.1

6.1 6.1

6.1 6.1

- - - - - - - 7.7 - - - - - - 7.7

7.7 7.7

7.7 7.7

------- 17.3 ------ 17.3

17.3 17.3

7.2 7.7

---- 32.0 - - - 28.5 ----- 60.5

32.0 0.0 32.0

17.7 0.0 17.7

- - - - - - - - - - - - - 5.0 5.0

5.0 5.0

2.2 2.2

- - - - - - 6.7 - - - - - - 12.0 18.7

6.7 12.0 18.7

6.7 5.8 12.5

- - 20.7 ---- 51.0 ------ 71.7

0.0 51.0 51.0

0.0 51.0 51.0

----- 31.5 ---- 28.0 - - 42.0 101.5

31.5 28.0 42.0 101.5

31.5 26.8 37.6 95.9

--- 58.0 - 89.4 - - - - - 5.0 - - 152.4

0.0 89.4 0.0 89.4

0.0 89.4 0.0 89.4

10.0 - 20.7 235.1 32.0 128.7 41.7 82.1 28.5 - 178.4 5.0 - 134.8 897.0

0.0 0.0 177.1 32.0 128.7 41.7 82.1 0.0 20.0 0.0 134.8 624.4

0.0 0.0 161.6 17.7 123.2 24.5 72.0 0.0 26.8 0.0 121.4 547.2

Dominica

Grenada

Guyana

Jamaica

St. Kitts

and Nevis

St. Lucia

Trinidad

and Tobago

Uruguay

Venezuela

Subtotal
168

Table C.4e: (continued)

Country 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 Total, 1989-2002 

All Countries in the Region

168.0 - 595.3 597.1 548.7 1,083.3 747.1 493.1 61.5 1,199.9 393.6 77.5 362.7 594.8 6,922.6

130.0 272.6 539.1 374.7 1,083.3 482.1 328.1 33.0 564.7 243.2 72.5 358.7 594.8 5,076.8

128.4 266.3 434.2 279.8 905.4 337.6 236.9 33.0 373.2 234.0 50.4 235.7 566.4 4,081.3

NOTE: Loans include those from the IBRD and IDA. The first data line represents the total education sector loan amount; the se

SOURCE: World Bank, based on data provided by the World Bank's Education Sector Staff, October 11, 2002.

cond data line represents the amount of loans with Basic Education components; 

the third data line represents the amount of the second line dedicated to projects in the area of basic education. "-" indicates no education sector loans for the fiscal year.

Grand Total
169

Table C.5: World Bank Social Protection Lending with Child Labor Related Components to Referenced Countries

and All Countries by Region and Type of Lending (IBRD or IDA), Cumulative, FY1990-FY2002

Region IBRD Loan IDA Credit Total Lending (IBRD + IDA) Portion Dedicated to Child Labor Related Components

Africa

Referenced Countries 23 (3%) 654 (97%) 677 640 (94%)

All Countries 23 (3%) 773 (97%) 796 750 (94%)

Asia and the Middle East

Referenced Countries 686 (40%) 1,017 (60%) 1,704 1,282 (75%)

All Countries 706 (39%) 1,116 (61%) 1,822 1,399 (77%)

Europe and Central Asia

Referenced Countries 543 (100%) 0 (0%) 543 534 (98%)

All Countries 708 (93%) 50 (7%) 758 716 (94%)

Latin America and

the Caribbean

Referenced Countries 827 (49%) 861 (51%) 1,688 1,633 (97%)

All Countries 867 (50%) 861 (50%) 1,728 1,673 (97%)

Total, all regions

Referenced Countries 2,079 (45%) 2,532 (55%) 4,611 4,089 (89%)

All Countries 2,304 (45%) 2,799 (55%) 5,103 4,537 (89%)

SOURCE: World Bank, based on data provided by the World Bank. Sums may not equal totals due to rounding.
170

Table C.6: Composition of Total Child Labor Related Components of World Bank Social Protection Lending to the

Referenced Countries with Child Labor Related Components by Region and Sub-Sector, Cumulative, FY1990-

FY2002

Africa Asia Europe Latin America and the Caribbean All

Basic Services 369 (57%) 953 (74%) 126 (24%) 973 (60%) 2,420 (59%)

Children in

Difficult Circumstances 42 (7%) 22 (2%) 106 (20%) 71 (4%) 241 (6%)

Capacity Building 121 (19%) 206 (16%) 34 (6%) 113 (7%) 475 (12%)

Family Support 107 (17%) 101 (8%) 268 (50%) 477 (29%) 953 (23%)

Total 640 (100%) 1,282 (100%) 534 (100%) 1,633 (100%) 4,089 (100%)

SOURCE: World Bank, based on data provided by the World Bank. Sums may not equal totals due to rounding.

Region

Sub-Sector
171

Table C.7a: World Bank Social Protection Sector Loans with Child Labor Related Components to All Countries and

the Referenced Countries by World Region, Total Child Labor Related Components, FY1990-FY2002

All Countries

Region 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 Total, 1990-2002

Africa 59.4 178.0 11.0 18.0 - 25.0 24.0 - 45.0 98.0 75.5 216.0 - 749.9

Asia and the

Middle East

---- 200.0 121.0 10.2 - 260.3 258.0 202.0 347.0 - 1,398.5

Europe and

Central Asia

--- 70.0 - 24.0 1.4 3.0 1.0 10.0 35.0 10.4 560.8 715.6

Latin America and 

the Caribbean 20.0 42.0 119.2 109.0 129.0 499.0 26.0 199.0 - 191.0 96.0 242.4 - 1,672.6

Total 79.4 220.0 91.0 197.0 329.0 669.0 61.6 202.0 306.3 557.0 388.5 835.8 600.0 4,536.6

NOTE: Loans include those from the IBRD and IDA. "-" indicates no social protection sector loans with education or child labor related components for the fiscal year.

Referenced Countries

Region 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 Total, 1990-2002

Africa 46.0 178.0 11.0 9.0 - 25.0 24.0 - 45.0 10.0 75.5 216.0 - 639.5

Asia and the

Middle East

---- 200.0 121.0 10.2 - 260.3 258.0 107.0 325.4 - 1,281.9

Europe and

Central Asia - - - - - - - - 1.0 10.0 - 7.9 515.0 533.9

Latin America and

the Caribbean 20.0 42.0 109.0 80.0 129.0 499.0 26.0 199.0 - 191.0 96.0 242.4 - 1,633.4

Total 66.0 220.0 118.0 91.0 329.0 645.0 60.2 199.0 306.3 469.0 278.5 791.7 515.0 4,088.7

NOTE: Loans include those from the IBRD and IDA. "-" indicates no social protection sector loans with education or child labor related components for the fiscal year.

SOURCE: World Bank, based on data provided by the World Bank.
172

Table C.7b: World Bank Social Protection Sector Loans with Child Labor Related Components to Countries in

Africa, Total Child Labor Related Components, FY1990-FY2002

Country 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 Total, 1990-2002

Referenced Countries in the Region

Angola ------ 24.0 ------ 24.0

Benin -------- 17.0 ---- 17.0

Burundi - - - 9.0 ------ 11.0 - - 20.0

Cameroon 22.0 22.0 ----------- 44.0

Egypt - 136.0 - - - - - - - 5.0 - - - 141.0

Madagascar -------- 28.0 - - 96.0 - 124.0

Nigeria ----------- 60.0 - 60.0

Rwanda - - 11.0 ---------- 11.0

Tanzania ----------- 60.0 - 60.0

Togo - - - - - - - - - 5.0 - - - 5.0

Uganda 24.0 - - - - - - - - - - - - 24.0

Zambia - 20.0 - - - 25.0 ---- 64.5 - - 109.5

Subtotal 46.0 178.0 11.0 9.0 0.0 25.0 24.0 0.0 45.0 10.0 75.5 216.0 0.0 639.5

Other Countries in the Region

Cape Verde --------- 16.0 - - - 16.0

Chad 13.4 ------------ 13.4

Djibouti --------- 11.0 - - - 11.0

Guinea-Bissau - - - 9.0 - - - - - - - - - 9.0

Malawi --------- 61.0 - - 61.0

Subtotal 13.4 0.0 0.0 9.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 88.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 110.4

All Countries in the Region

Grand total 59.4 178.0 11.0 18.0 0.0 25.0 24.0 0.0 45.0 98.0 75.5 216.0 0.0 749.9

NOTE: Loans include those from the IBRD and IDA. "-" indicates no social protection sector loans with education or child labor related components for the fiscal year.

SOURCE: World Bank, based on data provided by the World Bank.
173

Table C.7c: World Bank Social Protection Sector Loans with Child Labor Related Components to Countries in Asia

and the Middle East, Total Child Labor Related Components, FY1990-FY2002

Country 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 Total, 1990-2002

Referenced Countries in the Region

Cambodia ----- 25.0 - - - - - 9.2 - 34.2

China ----- 96.0 - - - 26.0 - - - 122.0

India ---------- 107.0 - - 107.0

Indonesia ----------- 316.2 - 316.2

Malaysia --------- 39.0 - - - 39.0

Mongolia ------ 10.2 ------ 10.2

Pakistan ---- 200.0 - - - 250.0 ---- 450.0

Philippines -------- 10.3 ---- 10.3

Thailand --------- 193.0 - - - 193.0

Subtotal 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 200.0 121.0 10.2 0.0 260.3 258.0 107.0 325.4 0.0 1,281.9

Other Countries in the Region

East Timor - - - - - - - - - - - 21.6 - 21.6

Lebanon ---------- 20.0 - - 20.0

Yemen ---------- 75.0 - - 75.0

Subtotal 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 95.0 21.6 0.0 116.6

All Countries in the Region

Grand total 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 200.0 121.0 10.2 0.0 260.3 258.0 202.0 347.0 0.0 1,398.5

NOTE: Loans include those from the IBRD and IDA. "-" indicates no social protection sector loans with education or child labor related components for the fiscal year.

SOURCE: World Bank, based on data provided by the World Bank.
174

Table C.7c: (continued)

Country 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 Total, 1990-2002

Referenced Countries in the Region

Cambodia ----- 25.0 - - - - - 9.2 - 34.2

China ----- 96.0 - - - 26.0 - - - 122.0

India ---------- 107.0 - - 107.0

Indonesia - - - - - - - - - - - 316.2 - 316.2

Malaysia - - - - - - - - - 39.0 - - - 39.0

Mongolia ------ 10.2 - - - - - - 10.2

Pakistan ---- 200.0 - - - 250.0 - - - - 450.0

Philippines -------- 10.3 ---- 10.3

Thailand - - - - - - - - - 193.0 - - - 193.0

Subtotal 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 200.0 121.0 10.2 0.0 260.3 258.0 107.0 325.4 0.0 1,281.9

Other Countries in the Region

East Timor ----------- 21.6 - 21.6

Lebanon ---------- 20.0 - - 20.0

Yemen ---------- 75.0 - - 75.0

Subtotal 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 95.0 21.6 0.0 116.6

All Countries in the Region

Grand total 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 200.0 121.0 10.2 0.0 260.3 258.0 202.0 347.0 0.0 1,398.5

NOTE: Loans include those from the IBRD and IDA. "-" indicates no social protection sector loans with education or child labor related components for the fiscal year.

SOURCE: World Bank, based on data provided by the World Bank.
175

Table C.7d: World Bank Social Protection Sector Loans with Child Labor Related Components to Countries in

Europe and Central Asia, Total Child Labor Related Components, FY1990-FY2002

Country 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 Total, 1990-2002

Referenced Countries in the Region

Bulgaria - - - - - - - - - - - 7.9 - 7.9

Romania - - - - - - - - 1.0 10.0 - - 20.0 31.0

Turkey ------------ 495.0 495.0

Subtotal 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 10.0 0.0 7.9 515.0 533.9

Other Countries in the Region

Armenia - - - - - - 1.4 - - - 20.0 - - 21.4

Kazakhstan ----- 24.0 ------- 24.0

Lithuania - - - - - - - 3.0 - - - - - 3.0

Macedonia - - - - - - - - - - - 2.5 - 2.5

Moldova ---------- 15.0 - - 15.0

Russia - - - 70.0 --------- 70.0

Ukraine ------------ 45.9 45.9

Subtotal 0.0 0.0 0.0 70.0 0.0 24.0 1.4 3.0 0.0 0.0 35.0 2.5 45.9 181.8

All Countries in the Region

Grand total 0.0 0.0 0.0 70.0 0.0 24.0 1.4 3.0 1.0 10.0 35.0 10.4 560.9 715.7

NOTE: Loans include those from the IBRD and IDA. "-" indicates no social protection sector loans with education or child labor related components for the fiscal year.

SOURCE: World Bank, based on data provided by the World Bank.
176

Table C.7e: World Bank Social Protection Sector Loans with Child Labor Related Components to Countries in

Latin America and the Caribbean, Total Child Labor Related Components, FY1990-FY2002

Country 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 Total, 1990-2002

Referenced Countries in the Region

Argentina ------- 199.0 - 94.0 - - - 293.0

Bolivia 20.0 - - 84.0 - - - - - - - - - 104.0

Colombia - - - - - - - - - 5.0 96.0 126.4 - 227.4

Ecuador - - 70.0 - 28.0 - - - - - - - - 98.0

El Salvador - 23.0 ----------- 23.0

Guatemala --------- 50.0 - - - 50.0

Honduras - 19.0 10.0 - - - 26.0 - - 42.0 - 56.1 - 153.1

Mexico ----- 499.0 ------- 499.0

Nicaragua - - - 25.0 ------- 60.0 - 85.0

Peru ---- 101.0 -------- 101.0

Subtotal 20.0 42.0 80.0 109.0 129.0 499.0 26.0 199.0 0.0 191.0 96.0 242.4 0.0 1,633.4

Other Countries in the Region

Jamaica - - 39.2 - - - - - - - - - - 39.2

Subtotal 0.0 0.0 39.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 39.2

All Countries in the Region

Grand total 20.0 42.0 119.2 109.0 129.0 499.0 26.0 199.0 0.0 191.0 96.0 242.4 0.0 1,672.6

NOTE: Loans include those from the IBRD and IDA. "-" indicates no social protection sector loans with education or child labor related components for the fiscal year.

SOURCE: World Bank, based on data provided by the World Bank.
177

Table C.8: World Bank Lending to All Countries and the Referenced Countries for Basic Education and Child

Labor-Related Projects, FY1990-FY2002

Basic 

Education

Projects

Child Labor

Related 

Projects

Basic Ed. or 

Child Labor 

Related 

Projects

Basic 

Education

Projects

Child Labor

Related 

Projects

Basic Ed. or 

Child Labor 

Related 

Projects

1990 20.7 0.5 0.1 0.6 0.5 0.1 0.5

1991 22.7 0.8 0.2 1.0 0.7 0.2 1.0

1992 21.7 0.8 0.1 0.9 0.6 0.1 0.7

1993 23.7 1.1 0.2 1.3 1.0 0.1 1.1

1994 20.8 1.3 0.3 1.6 1.1 0.3 1.4

1995 22.5 1.0 0.7 1.7 0.9 0.6 1.5

1996 21.4 1.1 0.1 1.2 1.0 0.1 1.1

1997 19.1 0.5 0.2 0.7 0.4 0.2 0.6

1998 28.6 1.6 0.3 1.9 1.5 0.3 1.8

1999 29.0 0.7 0.6 1.3 0.6 0.5 1.1

2000 15.3 0.4 0.4 0.8 0.3 0.3 0.6

2001 17.3 0.5 0.8 1.3 0.4 0.8 1.2

2002 19.5 0.9 0.6 1.5 0.7 0.5 1.2

Total,

1990-

2002

282.3 11.2 4.5 15.8 9.8 4.1 13.9

1990 100.0 2.4 0.4 2.8 2.2 0.3 2.5

1991 100.0 3.5 1.0 4.5 3.3 1.0 4.2

1992 100.0 3.7 0.4 4.1 2.9 0.4 3.4

1993 100.0 4.6 0.8 5.4 4.0 0.5 4.5

1994 100.0 6.2 1.6 7.8 5.3 1.6 6.9

1995 100.0 4.6 3.0 7.6 3.9 2.9 6.8

1996 100.0 5.2 0.3 5.5 4.8 0.3 5.0

1997 100.0 2.4 1.1 3.5 2.2 1.0 3.2

1998 100.0 5.6 1.1 6.6 5.3 1.1 6.4

1999 100.0 2.4 1.9 4.3 2.1 1.6 3.7

2000 100.0 2.9 2.5 5.5 2.3 1.8 4.1

2001 100.0 2.8 4.8 7.7 2.3 4.6 6.9

2002 100.0 4.6 3.1 7.7 3.6 2.6 6.3

Total,

1990-

2002

100.0 4.0 1.6 5.6 3.5 1.4 4.9

SOURCE: Table B-4a; Table B-7a; and the World Bank Annual Report, various years.

Billions of Current U.S. Dollars

Percentage of Total World Bank Lending

World Bank Lending to

All Countries for:

World Bank Lending to

Referenced Countries for: Total World

Bank 

Lending

Fiscal

Year
178

Table C.9: African Development Bank Education Sector Lending Approvals for Basic Education Projects,

1989-2001

Country 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 Total, 1989-2001

Referenced Countries in the Region

Angola - - - 28.2 -------- 12.6 40.8

Benin -------- 10.9 ---- 10.9

Botswana 39.0 16.2 ------ ---- 55.1

Burkina Faso - - 13.2 ----- 22.5 ---- 35.6

Cameroon ---------- 10.3 - - 10.3

Congo,

Dem. Rep 55.1 ------------ 55.1

Cote d'Ivoire - - - 98.9 ----- 27.6 27.4 - - 153.9

Egypt 52.7 - - - 34.1 -------- 86.8

Ethiopia - - - 20.3 ----- 44.6 - - - 64.8

Gabon - - 34.3 41.3 --------- 75.6

Ghana -------- 16.3 ---- 16.3

Kenya - - 26.3 ---------- 26.3

Lesotho --------- 12.1 - - - 12.1

Madagascar - - - 8.5 ----- 22.8 - - - 31.2

Mali - - - - 8.9 - - - 13.6 ---- 22.5

Mauritania - - - - - - - - - 8.1 - - 8.1

Morocco 40.7 52.7 - 44.1 ------ 86.2 - 223.6

Mozambique 12.1 - - 24.1 ----- 17.0 - - 8.6 61.8

Rwanda ---- ---- 28.7 - - - 28.7

Senegal ---- -- 17.3 - - 17.8 - - 35.2

Sierra Leone - - 19.4 - -------- 19.4

Tanzania - - - - 0.9 - - - 27.2 - - 8.4 - 36.6

Togo - - 15.8 ---------- 15.8

Uganda -------- -- 28.7 - 28.7

Zambia --- 19.0 ------ 11.6 - - 30.6

Subtotal 199.6 68.8 109.1 240.1 88.0 0.0 0.0 17.3 90.6 152.8 75.2 123.3 21.3 1,186.0

Other Countries in the Region

Cape Verde - - - - - - - - 5.4 - - - - 5.4

Chad 12.1 - 6.6 ---------- 18.7
179

Table C.9: (continued)

Country 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 Total, 1989-2001

Djibouti - - - 15.9 --------- 15.9

Gambia - - - 6.8 - - - - - - - - - 6.8

Guinea -------- 15.7 ---- 15.7

Guinea-Bissau 13.9 ------------ 13.9

Malawi -------- 16.3 - - - 19.7 36.0

Mauritius - - 9.1 - - - - - - - - - - 9.1

Namibia ---- 12.6 -------- 12.6

Niger --------- 13.8 - - - 13.8

Tunisia --------- 20.7 - - - 20.7

Sao Tome and 

Principe

- 18.0 - - - - - - - - - - 0.3 18.3

Seychelles 8.5 18.4 ---------- 26.9

Swaziland - 4.2 - - - - - - - - 4.2

Subtotal 34.5 18.0 34.1 22.7 16.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 37.5 34.5 0.0 0.0 20.0 218.1

All Countries in the Region

Grand Total 234.1 86.8 143.2 262.9 104.8 0.0 0.0 17.3 128.0 187.3 75.2 123.3 41.2 1,404.1

NOTE: Loans include those from the African Development Bank's' ordinary capital resources and concessional loans from the African Development Fund, the Nigerian Trust Fund, and the Technical Assistance Fund. 

Loans are orginally reports in the African Developments Bank's units of account which have been converted to current U.S. dollars using end-of-year conversion rates provided by the African Development Bank. "-" 

indicates no basic education loands for the year. Parts may not sum to totals due to rounding.
180

Table C.10: Asian Development Bank Education Sector Lending Approvals for Basic Education Projects, 1989-2001

Country 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 Total, 1989-2001

Referenced Countries in the Region

Bangladesh - 68.3 - 15.0 - - 26.7 - 100.0 - - - 65.0 275.0

Cambodia ------- 20.0 ---- 38.0 58.0

Indonesia - - - 105.0 - - 49.0 85.0 175.0 174.9 - - 100.0 688.9

Laos - - 13.3 ----- 20.0 - 20.0 53.3

Mongolia - - - - - - - 9.0 - - - - - 9.0

Nepal - - 19.5 -------- 19.6 39.1

Pakistan 64.2 - - 62.1 78.0 44.5 - 162.4 - - - - 411.2

Philippines ---- 25.2 ---- 24.5 - - - 49.7

Thailand --------- 200.0 - - - 200.0

Vietnam -------- 50.0 - 25.0 - - 75.0

Subtotal 64.2 68.3 32.8 182.1 103.2 44.5 75.7 276.4 325.0 419.4 25.0 0.0 242.6 1,859.2

Other Countries in the Region

Bhutan - - - - - - - - - - - - 7.0 7.0

Cook Islands - - - - - 2.7 - - - - - - - 2.7

Kazakhstan ------- 20.0 45.0 ---- 65.0

Kyrgyz Republic -------- 32.7 3.6 - - - 36.3

Marshall Islands - - - - 8.0 - - - - - - - - 8.0

Samoa - - - - - - - - - - - 7.0 - 7.0

Tajikistan - - - - - - - - - - 7.7 - - 7.7

Uzbekistan -------- 40.0 ---- 40.0

Subtotal 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 8.0 2.7 0.0 20.0 117.7 3.6 7.7 7.0 7.0 173.7

All Countries in the Region

Grand Total 64.2 68.3 32.8 182.1 111.2 47.2 75.7 296.4 442.7 423.0 32.7 7.0 249.6 2,032.9

NOTE: Loans include those from the Asian Development Bank's ordinary capital resources and concessional loans from the Asian Development Fund. The table excludes technical assistance associated with seven 

projects which totaled USD 8.7 million over the period 1989-2001. "-" indicates no education sector loans for the fiscal year. Parts may not sum to totals due to rounding.
181

Table C.11: Asian Development Bank Education Sector Technical Assistance for Basic Education Projects,

1989-2001

Country 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 Total, 1989-2001

Referenced Countries in the Region

Bangladesh 100.0 1,176.0 - - 250.0 - 170.0 3,768.5 1,500.0 - - 600.0 800.0 8,364.5

Cambodia ---- 4,500.0 100.0 500.0 ------ 5,100.0

China ---- 600.0 -------- 600.0

Indonesia - 350.0 571.0 - - 600.0 - 538.0 - 1,800.0 1,000.0 2,150.0 990.0 7,999.0

Laos 380.0 300.0 2,500.0 74.0 - 400.0 - 380.0 - - 600.0 - - 4,634.0

Mongolia - - - 535.0 - 400.0 - 70.0 ----- 1,005.0

Nepal 99.8 - 400.0 ------- 600.0 - - 1,099.8

Pakistan - 360.0 - - - 305.4 - 600.0 ----- 1,265.0

Philippines 320.0 417.5 - - 1,600.0 - - - 670.0 ---- 3,007.5

Sri Lanka - 302.0 - - 400.0 -------- 702.0

Subtotal 899.8 2,905.5 3,471.0 609.0 7,350.0 1,805.4 670.0 5,356.5 2,170.0 1,800.0 2,200.0 2,750.0 1,790.0 33,776.8

Other Countries in the Region

Cook Islands - - 292.0 - - 355.0 ------ 647.0

Federated States

of Micronesia

---- 595.0 -------- 595.0

Kazakstan ----- 100.0 895.0 - 600.0 ---- 1,595.0

Kyrgyz

Republic

------ 900.0 930.0 ---- 1,830.0

Marshall Islands - - 326.0 - - 300.0 ------- 626.0

Samoa ---------- 150.0 - - 150.0

Uzbekistan ------- 100.0 - - 350.0 - - 450.0

Subtotal 0.0 0.0 618.0 0.0 595.0 755.0 1,795.0 100.0 1,530.0 0.0 500.0 0.0 0.0 5,893.0

Regional,

Subtotal 250.0 0.0 0.0 500.0 500.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 535.8 0.0 0.0 1,785.8

All Countries in the Region

Grand Total 1,149.8 2,905.5 4,089.0 1,109.0 8,445.0 2,560.4 2,465.0 5,456.5 3,700.0 1,800.0 3,235.8 2,750.0 1,790.0 41,455.6

NOTE: Amounts include project preparatory advisory technical assistance, and regional technical assistance. Some technical ass

SOURCE: Tabulated from data provided by the Asian Development Bank.

istance projects are part of multi-sector projects that include an education 

component. Regional denotes technical assistance provided on a regional basis without country specification. Technical assistance is supported by the Asian Development Bank and the Japan Special Fund and 

other sources. Parts may not sum to totals due to rounding. "-" denotes no technical assistance projects during the year.
182

Table C.12: Asian Development Bank Lending and Technical Assistance or Grants for Child Labor and Child Welfare Oriented Projects, 1989-2001

Country 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 Total, 1989-2001

Referenced Countries in the Region

Indonesia 100.0

-

85.0

-

100.0

-

- -

85.0

-

---

300.0

2.5

- -

0.0

1.0

670.0

3.5

Philippines --------- 24.5

-

-

44.9

0.8

-

69.4

0.8

Subtotal 100.0 0.0 85.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 85.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 324.5 2.5 0.0 0.0 44.9 0.8 0.0 1.0 739.4 4.3

Other Countries in the Region

Central Asian

Republics

------------

0.0

6.9

0.0

6.9

Regional ----------- 0.0 0.4 - 0.0 0.4

Subtotal 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.4 0.0 6.9 0.0 7.3

All Countries in the Region

Grand Total 100.0 0.0 85.0 0.0 100 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 85.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 324.5 2.5 0.0 0.0 44.9 1.2 0.0 7.9 739.4 11.6

NOTE: The first data line denotes the amount of loans and the second data lines denotes the amount of techincal assistance or g

SOURCE: Tabulated from data provided by the Asian Development Bank.

rant. Loans include those from the Asian Development Bank's ordinary capital 

resources and concessional loans from the Asian Development Fund. The technical assistance projects and grants were funded from the Japan Special Fund and the Japan Fund for Poverty Reduction. "-" indicates 

no child labor or child welfare oriented loans, technical assistance or grants for the fiscal year. Parts may not sum to totals due to rounding.
183

Table C.13a: Inter-American Development Bank Loans for Basic Education to Member Countries in Latin America

and the Caribbean, 1989-2001

Country 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 Total, 1989-2001

Referenced Countries in the Region

Argentina ----- 300.0 ------ 600.0 900.0

Bolivia ----- 80.0 ------- 80.0

Brazil ------------- 350.0

Colombia ------- 100.0 1.4 - 250.0 - - 37.4

Costa Rica - 27.7 ----- 28.0 - 36.0 - - 55.7

Dominican 

Republic

- - 29.3 - - - 52.0 ---- 35.0 - 116.3

Ecuador 43.6 -------- 45.0 - - - 88.6

El Salvador ------ 37.3 - - 144.1 - - - 181.4

Guatemala -------- 15.4 - - - 22.0 37.4

Haiti ------ 17.6 - - 19.4 - - - 37.0

Honduras - - - - - - - - 6.6 - - 23.0 - 29.6

Mexico ----- 393.0 ------- 393.0

Nicaragua - - - - - - - - - - 9.4 - - 9.4

Panama -------- 43.5 ---- 43.5

Paraguay ---- 49.1 ------ 40.5 - 89.6

Peru - - - - 0.0 - - 60.0 - - - 44.0 - 104.0

Subtotal 43.6 0.0 57.0 0.0 49.1 773.0 106.9 160.0 94.8 208.5 295.4 142.5 622.0 2,552.8

Other Countries in the Region

Bahamas ----- 21.0 ------- 21.0

Barbados - - - 9.5 ----- 85.0 - - - 94.4

Guyana 46.4 ------------ 46.4

Jamaica - - - 28.0 ------- 31.5 - 59.5

Trinidad

and Tobago

---------- 53.0 - - 53.0

Uruguay ------- 40.0 ---- 75.0 115.0

Venezuela ---- 108.3 -------- 108.3

Subtotal 46.4 0.0 0.0 37.5 108.3 21.0 0.0 40.0 0.0 85.0 53.0 31.5 75.0 497.6

All Countries in the Region

Grand Total 90.0 0.0 57.0 37.5 157.3 794.0 106.9 200.0 94.8 293.5 348.4 174.0 697.0 3,050.4

NOTE: IDB lending includes authorized loans out of ordinary capital resources (OCR), the concessional lending window of the Fun

SOURCE: Based on data provided by the Inter-American Development Bank.

d for Special Operations (FSO), and other funds. "-" indicates no education sector 

loans for the year.
184

Table C.13b: Inter-American Development Bank Technical Cooperation Grants for Basic Education to Member

Countries in Latin America and the Caribbean, 1989-2001

Country 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 Total, 1989-2001

Referenced Countries in the Region

Bolivia - - - - - 1.4 - - - - - - - 1.4

Brazil 2.0 - - 0.6 - - - - 0.8 - - - - 3.3

Colombia - - - - - - - - - - - 0.5 - 0.5

Costa Rica 1.4 - - - - - - - - - - - - 1.4

Guatemala - - - - - - - - - - 0.5 - - 0.5

Haiti - - - - - - - 0.3 - - - - - 0.3

Paraguay - - - - - 1.9 - - - - - 0.5 - 2.4

Peru - - - - - - - - - - - 0.5 - 0.5

Subtotal 3.4 0.0 0.0 0.6 0.0 3.3 0.0 0.3 0.8 0.0 0.5 1.5 0.0 10.3

Other Countries in the Region

Guyana 0.6 - - - - - - - - - - - 0.7 1.2

Jamaica - - - - - - - - - 0.8 - - - 0.8

Trinidad

and Tobago 0.8 - - - - - - - - - - - - 0.8

Uruguay - - - - - - - - - - - - 0.6 0.6

Subtotal 1.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.8 0.0 0.0 1.3 3.3

All Countries in the Region

Grand Total 4.7 0.0 0.0 0.6 0.0 3.3 0.0 0.3 0.8 0.8 0.5 1.5 1.3 13.6

NOTE: IDB non-reimbusable technical cooperation grants come from the concessional lending window of the Fund for Special Operat

SOURCE: Based on data provided by the Inter-American Development Bank.

ions (FSO) and other funds. "-" indicates no technical cooperation grants for the 

year.
185

Table C.14: Inter-American Development Bank Loans for Child Labor Related Projects to Member Countries in

Latin America and the Caribbean, 1991-2001

Country 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 Total, 1989-2001

Referenced Countries in the Region

Argentina ---- 19.7 - - 30.0 - - - 49.7

Bolivia - - - - - 2.7 20.0 ---- 22.7

Brazil - - 8.0 17.9 - 42.0 - 5.7 10.0 25.5 0.9 110.0

Colombia ------- 98.4 - - - 98.4

Costa Rica 1.3 - - - - - - - - - - 1.3

Ecuador ------ 15.7 ---- 15.7

Guatemala - - - - - - 0.6 - - - - 0.6

Honduras ---- 20.0 - - 22.6 - - - 42.6

Mexico - - - 0.8 - 3.4 - - - - - 4.1

Nicaragua - - - - - 3.5 - - - 9.0 18.3 30.8

Paraguay - - - - - 8.0 - - - - - 8.0

Peru - - 6.3 - - - - - - - - 6.3

Subtotal 1.3 0.0 14.3 18.7 39.7 59.5 36.2 156.7 10.0 34.5 19.1 390.1

Other Countries in the Region

Belize - - - - - - 0.8 - - - - 0.8

Tobago - - - 3.6 - - - - - - - 3.6

Uruguay - - - 2.5 - - - - - - - 2.5

Venezuela - - - - - - 0.5 - - 30.0 - 30.5

Subtotal 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.1 0.0 0.0 1.3 0.0 0.0 30.0 0.0 37.4

Regional ,

subtotal 3.1 4.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 11.9 19.0

All Countries in the Region

Grand Total 4.4 4.0 14.3 24.8 39.7 59.5 37.5 156.7 10.0 64.5 31.0 446.4

NOTE: IDB lending includes authorized loans out of ordinary capital resources (OCR), the concessional lending window of the Fun

SOURCE: Based on data provided by the Inter-American Development Bank.

d for Special Operations (FSO), and other funds. "-" 

indicates no child labor related loans for the year.
186

Table C.15: African Development Bank Lending to Regional Member Countries and

the Referenced Countries for Basic Education Projects, 1989-2001

Millions of 

Current U.S. 

Dollars

Percent of Total 

AfDB Lending

Millions of 

Current U.S. 

Dollars

Percent of Total 

AfDB Lending

1989 2,842.0 234.0 8.2 200.0 7.0

1990 3,281.0 87.0 2.7 69.0 2.1

1991 3,455.0 143.0 4.1 109.0 3.2

1992 2,996.0 263.0 8.8 240.0 8.0

1993 2,528.0 105.0 4.2 88.0 3.5

1994 1,655.0 ----

1995 802.0 ----

1996 823.0 17.0 2.1 17.0 2.1

1997 1,880.0 128.0 6.8 91.0 4.8

1998 1,751.0 187.0 10.7 153.0 8.7

1999 1,771.0 75.0 4.2 75.0 4.2

2000 2,585.0 123.0 4.8 123.0 4.8

2001 2,981.0 41.0 1.4 21.0 0.7

Total, 1989-

2001 29,350 1,403 4.8 986 3.4

SOURCE: African Development Bank Annual Report, various years.

NOTE: Total lending includes approved loans of the AfDB, including for technical assistance; loans made by the African Development Fund 

(ADF), and the loans made by the Nigerian Trust Fund (NTF). Approvals include loans and grants, private and public equity investments, 

emergency operations, HIPC debt relief, loan reallocations, and guarantees. "-" indicates that data is not available.

Total AfDC Lending in 

Millions of Current U.S. 

Dollars

AfDB Lending to Regional Member 

Countries for Basic Education 

Projects

AfDB Lending to Referenced 

Countries for Basic Education 

Projects

Year
187

Table C.16: Asian Development Bank Lending to Regional Member Countries and

Member Referenced Countries for Basic Education and Child Labor-Related Projects,

1989-2001

Basic 

Education 

Projects

Child Labor 

Related 

Projects

Basic Ed. and 

Child Labor 

Related 

Projects

Basic 

Education 

Projects

Child Labor 

Related 

Projects

Basic Ed. and 

Child Labor 

Related 

Projects

1989 3,864.0 65.0 100.0 165.0 65.0 100.0 165.0

1990 4,274.0 71.0 85.0 156.0 71.0 85.0 156.0

1991 5,151.0 37.0 100.0 137.0 36.0 100.0 136.0

1992 5,587.0 183.0 0.0 183.0 183.0 0.0 183.0

1993 5,332.0 119.0 0.0 119.0 110.0 0.0 110.0

1994 3,808.0 50.0 85.0 135.0 47.0 85.0 132.0

1995 5,630.0 78.0 0.0 78.0 77.0 0.0 77.0

1996 5,720.0 301.0 0.0 301.0 281.0 0.0 281.0

1997 9,577.0 447.0 0.0 447.0 327.0 0.0 327.0

1998 6,130.0 425.0 327.0 752.0 421.0 327.0 748.0

1999 5,151.0 36.0 0.0 36.0 27.0 0.0 27.0

2000 5,825.0 10.0 46.0 56.0 3.0 46.0 49.0

2001 5,485.0 252.0 8.0 260.0 245.0 1.0 246.0

Total, 1989-

2001 71,534.0 2,074.0 751.0 2,825.0 1,893.0 744.0 2,637.0

1989 100.0 1.7 2.6 4.3 1.7 2.6 4.3

1990 100.0 1.7 2.0 3.6 1.7 2.0 3.6

1991 100.0 0.7 1.9 2.7 0.7 1.9 2.6

1992 100.0 3.3 0.0 3.3 3.3 0.0 3.3

1993 100.0 2.2 0.0 2.2 2.1 0.0 2.1

1994 100.0 1.3 2.2 3.5 1.2 2.2 3.5

1995 100.0 1.4 0.0 1.4 1.4 0.0 1.4

1996 100.0 5.3 0.0 5.3 4.9 0.0 4.9

1997 100.0 4.7 0.0 4.7 3.4 0.0 3.4

1998 100.0 6.9 5.3 12.3 6.9 5.3 12.2

1999 100.0 0.7 0.0 0.7 0.5 0.0 0.5

2000 100.0 0.2 0.8 1.0 0.0 0.8 0.8

2001 100.0 4.6 0.1 4.7 4.5 0.0 4.5

Total, 1989-

2001 100.0 2.9 1.0 3.9 2.6 1.0 3.7

SOURCE: Table B-4a; Table B-7c; and the Asian Development Bank Annual Report, various years.

NOTE: AsDB lending includes authorized loans (based on original amounts in U.S. dollar equivalents) plus non-reimbursable 

technical assistance grants. Loans include lending out of ordinary capital resources and concessional financing from the 

Asian Development Fund. Loans include Government and Government-guaranteed loans, as well as some private sector 

loans. 

Percentage of Total AsDB Lending

Total AsDB 

Lending

AsDB Lending to Referenced

Countries for: 

Millions of current US dollars

Fiscal Year

AsDB Lending to Regional Member Countries 

for:
188

Table C.17: Inter-American Bank Lending to All Member Countries and Member

Referenced Countries for Basic Education and Child Labor-Related Projects,

1991-2001

Basic 

Education 

Projects

Child Labor 

Related 

Projects

Basic Ed. & 

Child Labor 

Related 

Projects

Basic 

Education 

Projects

Child Labor 

Related 

Projects

Basic Ed. & 

Child Labor 

Related 

Projects

1991 5,559.0 57.0 4.0 61.0 57.0 1.0 58.0

1992 6,074.0 38.0 4.0 42.0 1.0 0.0 1.0

1993 6,067.0 157.0 14.0 171.0 49.0 14.0 63.0

1994 5,366.0 797.0 25.0 822.0 776.0 19.0 795.0

1995 7,363.0 107.0 40.0 147.0 107.0 40.0 147.0

1996 6,879.0 200.0 60.0 260.0 160.0 60.0 220.0

1997 6,157.0 96.0 38.0 133.0 96.0 36.0 132.0

1998 10,180.0 295.0 157.0 452.0 209.0 157.0 366.0

1999 9,937.0 349.0 10.0 359.0 296.0 10.0 306.0

2000 5,336.0 176.0 65.0 240.0 145.0 35.0 179.0

2001 7,939.0 698.0 31.0 729.0 622.0 19.0 641.0

Total, 1991-

2001 76,857.0 2,969.0 446.0 3,416.0 2,517.0 390.0 2,907.0

1991 100.0 1.0 0.1 1.1 1.0 0.0 1.1

1992 100.0 0.6 0.1 0.7 0.0 0.0 0.0

1993 100.0 2.6 0.2 2.8 0.8 0.2 1.0

1994 100.0 14.9 0.5 15.3 14.5 0.3 14.8

1995 100.0 1.5 0.5 2.0 1.5 0.5 2.0

1996 100.0 2.9 0.9 3.8 2.3 0.9 3.2

1997 100.0 1.6 0.6 2.2 1.6 0.6 2.1

1998 100.0 2.9 1.5 4.4 2.1 1.5 3.6

1999 100.0 3.5 0.1 3.6 3.0 0.1 3.1

2000 100.0 3.3 1.2 4.5 2.7 0.6 3.4

2001 100.0 8.8 0.4 9.2 7.8 0.2 8.1

Total, 1991-

2001 100.0 3.9 0.6 4.4 3.3 0.5 3.8

NOTE: IDB lending includes authorized loans and guarantees (based on original amounts in US dollar equilvalents) plus non-reimbursable technical 

cooperation grants. Loans and guarantees include lending out of ordinary capital resources (OCR), the Fund for Special Operations (FSO), and other 

funds. Technical cooperation grants come from the FSO and other funds.

SOURCE: Table B-4e; Table B-7e; and The Inter-American Development Bank Annual Report, various years.

Percentage of Total IDB Lending

Millions of current US dollars

Year Total IDB 

Lending

IDB Lending to All Member-Countries for: IDB Lending to Member ReferencedCountries for:
189

Appendix D:

Country Examples of International Cooperation and

IFI Support For Basic Education and Child Labor Programs

Successfully achieving EFA requires effective strategies on many fronts such as international

cooperation among donor agencies and national collaboration among various stakeholders. The

international commitment to achieve universal primary education and eliminate the worst forms of

child labor should consider a global effort to assist developing countries finance sustainable

programs to provide for basic education and eliminate child labor. The following two country

examples describe ways in which international cooperation has taken place in the area of child

labor and education. The case of Brazil and Indonesia provide concrete models of how different

institutions such as multilateral and regional development banks, government ministries, and NGOs

have worked together to provide education for the prevention and elimination of child labor.

1. Brazil’s Child Labor Eradication Program (PETI)

In the 1990s, as part of an international strategy to reduce poverty in developing countries through

targeted lending, the World Bank and the IDB began to work with the Government of Brazil to

improve its public education system. The World Bank directed its education lending primarily

toward the strengthening of basic education to increase the participation, promotion and graduation

rates and achievement levels of children in poorer regions throughout the country.291 The IDB’s

education strategy in Brazil has been to contribute to the country’s larger economic and social

development by promoting the reform and expansion of secondary and post-secondary education

and the improvement of the quality, coverage and equity of the secondary school system.292

In December 2001, the World Bank, in collaboration with the IDB, UNICEF and the ILO, conducted a study of an education/cash transfer program implemented by Brazil’s Ministry of Social

Assistance beginning in 1996.293 PETI, funded primarily with resources from the National Social

Assistance Fund,294 was based on the idea that poor rural families are more vulnerable to income

291 World Bank, Projects, Policies and Strategies [cited September 23, 2002]; available from

http://www4.worldbank.org/sprojects/Results.asp?st=DetSrc&Coun=BR.

292 Inter American Development Bank, Approved Projects: Brazil [cited July 24, 2002]; available from http://

www.iadb.org/exr/doc98/apr/lcbraz.htm. As of April 30, 2002, 3.6 percent of all IDB loans to Brazil (USD $853

million) have been used to support education projects. Also, a small portion of the IDB’s loan portfolio in social

investment and micro enterprise projects in Brazil contains education components. Inter American Development Bank,

Brazil: Diversity in Access to Higher Education, Project Document, Operation No. 1406/C - BR, approved on June 7,

2002.

293 World Bank, Human Development Department, Brazil Country Management Unit, Latin America and Caribbean

Regional Office, Eradicating Child Labor in Brazil, Report No. 21858 - BR, December 6, 2001.

294 Ministério da Previdência e Assistência Social, Programa de Erradicação do Trabalho Infantil - PETI, Manual de

Orientações, 1st ed., May 2002, 5.
190

shocks and more likely to encourage child labor, sometimes as a substitute to education, in times of

economic crisis. Given that child labor reduces lifetime earnings and raises the probability of being

poor as an adult, PETI makes education accessible to children of low-income families as a means to

combat the intergenerational cycle of poverty.295

The World Bank study indicates that the monetary transfer encourages the retention of students

with a high probability of dropping out, such as working children, and the elimination of early

school exclusion. In addition, the transfer helps to level seasonal economic variations that often

prove damaging to underprivileged families.296

The study also confirms that the greatest incidence of child labor in Brazil is found in rural areas of

the northeast (the majority of it in sisal and sugarcane harvesting and production), and a large

majority of the working children combine work and school.297 PETI provides about USD $13.50

per child (between the ages of 7 and 14) per month to families earning up to half the minimum

wage. In return, the families must ensure that the children regularly attend the required four hours

of school per day as well as the program’s specially designed after-school program, Jornada

Ampliada (after school program).298 PETI is synchronized with the Brazilian Education Law,

which calls for the provision of a full day of schooling for all children by the year 2006.299

In addition to the school stipend, the PETI program transfers an equal sum to the municipality to

help finance the costs of the Jornada Ampliada. The municipal government is also required to

contribute a supplementary amount. Teachers monitor and report on student attendance on a

monthly basis.300

In 2000, the Brazilian government’s goal for the Phase II of PETI was to provide stipends to

866,000 children301 and to eliminate the worst forms of child labor in rural areas by the end of

295 Eradicating Child Labor in Brazil, 7.

296 Ibid, 6-7.

297 Ibid, 6.

298 Spectrum (World Bank Newsletter), They Call it a Revolution: Brazil’s Program to Eradicate Child Labor Attacks

Poverty at its Roots with Unexpected Results, Winter 2001 [cited March 10, 2003]; available from

 http://wbln0018.worldbank.org/HDNet/HDdocs.nsf/View+to+Link+WebPages/

874198952F63563A85256A1D005F6DCF?OpenDocument.

299 Eradicating Child Labor in Brazil, 15.

300 They Call it a Revolution: Brazil’s Program to Eradicate Child Labor Attacks Poverty at its Roots with Unexpected

Results.

301 Eradicating Child Labor in Brazil. By June 2002, 809,000 children received the PETI stipend in 27 states for a total

cost of R$ 222 million (USD $58.1 million) and R$ 145 million (USD $38 million) in Jornada Ampliada transfers to

municipal governments; Avança Brasil, Programa Erradicação do Trabalho Infantil [cited March 10]; available from

http://www.abrasil.gov.br/nivel3/index.asp?cod=NOTIC&id=59. Exchange rate used: USD $1 = R$ 3.82.
191

2002.302 The World Bank reports that PETI has been highly successful thus far in targeting children

as defined by certain selection criteria, reducing child labor rates, increasing school attendance

rates,303 and improving income and quality of life for its targeted beneficiaries. The study also

highlighted some of the gaps in PETI’s design and provided constructive recommendations on areas

where the program can improve both in terms of efficiency and effectiveness.304

In 1999, the government expanded PETI to address the worst forms of child labor in urban areas,

including activities such as prostitution, garbage picking and drug trafficking. Two of the obstacles

that the urban program has struggled with are identifying urban worst forms and adapting targeting

mechanisms to urban areas.305

The Brazilian government has proven responsive to the World Bank, the IDB and other organizations’ recommendations on how to improve the PETI program. One major development is the

creation of the umbrella program in 2000, Projeto Alvorada, which attempts to integrate the various

education, health, income generation and social development cash-grant projects financed by the

federal government for families living below the average Brazilian human development index.306

The guiding principle behind the Projeto Alvorada is that stipend programs like PETI are most

effective when implemented in conjunction with complementary programs in other relevant

areas.307

In December 2001, the IDB approved a USD $500 million, two-year loan308 to support the

government’s implementation of four of the Projeto Alvorada’s income-based transfer programs,

302 The period from 2003 - 2006 is for the consolidation and phasing out of the program. They Call it a Revolution:

Brazil’s Program to Eradicate Child Labor Attacks Poverty at its Roots with Unexpected Results.

303 According to Brazil’s 2000 census data, the percentage of children between the ages of 7 and 14 who are out of

school has decreased from 18.2 percent in 1992 to 5.1 percent in 2000. World Bank, World Bank Approves $1 Billion

for Brazil: Loans to support reform in education, energy and finance, News Release No. 2002/346/LAC [cited March

10, 2003]; available from http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/NEWS/

0,,contentMDK:20050114~menuPK:34463~pagePK:34370~piPK:34424,00.html.

304 Eradicating Child Labor in Brazil, 11-18.

305 Eradicating Child Labor in Brazil, 9-10.

306 Projeto Alvorada, [cited March 10, 2003]; available from http://alvorada.planejamento.gov.br/

frame_descricao.asp?Opcao=Descricao.

307 Eradicating Child Labor in Brazil, 17.

308 To be disbursed in 2 tranches of USD $250 million each over a two-year period. The first tranche was disbursed in

August 2002.
192

including PETI. The focus of this loan will be to build Brazil’s human capital through incomebased transfer programs by improving program targeting, evaluation, institutional framework and

management.309

2. The Indonesian Scholarships and Grants Program

The onset of the Asian Financial Crisis in the late 1990s stimulated serious concerns about the

effect of weakened economies on the populations of Southeast Asian nations. In Indonesia,

policymakers were concerned that the Crisis would lead to drastic declines in school enrollment, as

had been the case a decade earlier. International financial institutions such as the World Bank and

the ADB were able to respond to the Crisis with assistance to offset the potential catastrophic

impacts on the poor.310

The Scholarship and Grants Program, which began at the start of the 1998/99 school year, was

funded by the World Bank, ADB, UNICEF, and other donors in order to keep the children of

impoverished families, and children of families economically jeopardized by the Crisis, in school.

Donors made a maximum of $360 million available, beginning in the 1998, for block grants to

schools and for scholarships to children at the primary and secondary levels.311 Under the scholarship program, funds were made available to each needy student, in order to cover school fees.

Scholarships were distributed by a committee established at each target school, which was

composed of both school and community representatives. The committees identified potential

recipients based on the family’s economic situation, using pre-existing statistical data.312 The

program also aimed to provide half of its scholarships overall to girls.313 The block grants program

was created to assist schools that were adversely affected by the Crisis. A 2000 study found that

most schools that received block grants used the funds to purchase teaching aids, stationary, and

student subsidies. Many schools also utilized this support to refurbish school facilities.314

309 Inter American Development Bank, Sector Program to Build Human Capital, Project Document (BR - 0360),

approved December 2001 [cited March 10, 2003]; available from http://www.iadb.org/exr/doc98/apr/br1378e.pdf.

310 WARTA Central Independent Monitoring Unit (CIMU), “History and Overview of the Scholarships and Grants

Program,” World Bank Special Issue, September 2000 [cited September 17, 2002]; available from http://

www.cimu.or.id/full_text_reports/Cimu-SpIssue1-Engl.pdf.

311 “History and Overview of the Scholarships and Grants Program.”

312 Lisa A. Cameron. “Did Social Safety Net Scholarships Reduce Drop-Out Rates during the Indonesian Economic

Crisis?” Melbourne: University of Melbourne’s Department of Economics, March 2002 [cited March 10, 2002], 5;

available from http://econ.worldbank.org/files/13160_wps2800.pdf.

313 Ibid.

314 Deon Filmer, H. Dean Nielson, Nianik Suwaryani, and Bambang Indriyanto, “Indonesia’s Primary and Junior

Secondary Schools in a Post-Crisis Environment: Findings from a Follow-Up Survey of 600 Schools,” World Bank,

July 2001 [cited August 23, 2002] 8, 41; available at http://lnweb18.worldbank.org/eap/eap.nsf/Attachments/

600Schoolsurvey/$File/600SchoolSurveyReport+prepublication+version.pdf.
193

At the time of the program, the population of school-age children 5 to 14 years was approximately

44.2 million.315 Statistics compiled by the World Bank over the life of the program indicate that

almost four million scholarships were disbursed to children of poor households, of whom only two

percent have dropped out of school.316 In addition, 132,000 schools were provided with block

grants under the program in both the 1998 and 1999 school years.317 Between 1.2-1.6 million

scholarships were provided in the 1998-1999 school year.318 The 2000 survey revealed that the

scholarship program was largely successful in reaching its target of providing scholarships to 6

percent of primary school students and 17 percent of junior secondary students.319

315 The population of children 5 to 14 years in 1998 was 44,171,611 and in 1999 was 44,236,136. U.S. Bureau of

census, Indonesia Midyear Population, by Age and Sex, Total, 5-14, International Database, [online] [cited july 11,

2003]; available from http://www.census.gov/cgi-bin/ipc/idbagg.

316 World Bank, “In the Field: A Snapshot of the World Bank’s Lending in East Asia and Pacific,” [cited March 10,

2003]; available from http://www.worldbank.org/eap.

317 “History and Overview of the Scholarships and Grants Program,” 1.

318 Jones et al, as cited in Lisa A. Cameron, 2.

319 “Indonesia’s Primary and Junior Secondary Schools in a Post-Crisis Environment: Findings from a Follow-Up

Survey of 600 Schools,” 8, 41.
194

Appendix E:

Bureau of International Labor Affairs (ILAB)

Publications on Child Labor

1. By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume I): The Use of Child Labor in U.S. Manufactured

and Mined Imports (1994).

2. By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II): The Use of Child Labor in U.S. Agricultural

Imports & Forced and Bonded Child Labor (1995).

3. The Apparel Industry and Codes of Conduct: A Solution to the International Child Labor

Problem? (1996) [also referred to as By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume III)].

4. By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume IV): Consumer Labels and Child Labor (1997).

5. Forced Labor: The Prostitution of Children (1996) [Symposium Proceedings].

6. By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume V): Efforts to Eliminate Child Labor (1998).

7. By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume VI): An Economic Consideration of Child Labor

(2000).

8. Advancing the Campaign Against Child Labor: Progress Made & Future Actions (2002)

[Conference Proceedings].

9. Advancing the Campaign Against Child Labor (Volume I): Efforts at the Country Level (2002).

10. Advancing the Campaign Against Child Labor (Volume II): Addressing the Worst Forms of

Child Labor (2002).

11. The Department of Labor’s 2001 Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor (2002).

12. The Department of Labor’s 2002 Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor (2003).

Also available are proceedings from public hearings on child labor held to gather information for

several of the reports.

Copies of these reports may be obtained by contacting the International Child Labor Program,

Bureau of International Labor Affairs, U.S. Department of Labor, Room S-5307, 200 Constitution

Ave., NW, Washington, DC 20210. Telephone: (202) 693-4843; Fax: (202) 693-4830; Email:

GlobalKids@dol.gov. The reports are available on the Internet at: http://www.dol.gov/ILAB.
U.S. Department of Labor

Bureau of International Labor Affairs

International Child Labor Program

Room S5307 Washington, DC 20210

www.dol.gov/ilab/programs/iclp

Official Business

Penalty for Private Use, $300

FIRST CLASS MAIL

Postage and Fees Paid

U.S. Department of Labor

Permit No. G757