Regional and Popular forces were the backbone for.resisting and eliminating

these Viet Cong guerrilla units. ARVN (Army of Vietnam) was designed and

developed to take over the fight from RF and PF forces when significant numbers of guerrilla forces were concentrated against District and Province

capitals.

These early years in the life of VNAF are reflected in the activation of one

squadron of F -8 fighters, two squadrons of C-47 s and two squadrons of L-19s.

As can be seen, the emphasis was not on the delivery of firepower, but on visual

observation with L-19s and limited movement of small bodies of troops, primarily platoons, by C-47s. At this point there was no formalized structure for

coordination of ARVN and VNAF activities nor was there a central system for

directing the force. With such a small force, there was no need for a central

system that was to make its appearance at a later date.

The old and not-so-old VNAF T- 28's and replacement A1- E's flying formation,

August 1964

2


















Marine air was utilized almost exclusively in support of the Marine 1 st and

3rd divisions. Under emergency conditions, however, these units could be employed by the 7th Air Force Commander as the Deputy Commander for Air

MACV (Military Assistance Command Vietnam). For the most part, Marine

air was utilized in I Corps during this time period. A short time later, at Khe

Sanh, this policy was changed and Marine air came under the control of the

7th Air Force Commander, to be employed where it was most needed, but to be

used for support of the 1 st and 3rd Marine Divisions as a matter of priority, if

the situation permitted.

Navy fighter and attack aircraft entering South Vietnam came under the

control of the 7th Air Force Commander and were employed to support ARVN

or U.S. troops according to the circumstances. Most of)he Navy aircraft were

used in I Corps since this was closest to Task Force 77 and ~as the area where

there was a greater demand for additional sorties.

B-52s were flying about 1200 sorties a month and were used wherever there

was a target demanding a heavy weight of effort. Since the targets were developed by MACV, this force was usually applied on pre-planned targets. However, whenever a major engagement developed the entire force could be concentrated against that situation. Due to the range and bomb load carried by the

B-52s, they were employed to compensate for the lack of troops to cover suspected areas of enemy concentrations. The B-52s came to be a major morale

factor for U.S. and ARVN, particularly ARVN, since the tremendous firepower delivered by these aircraft to a soldier on the ground is devastating as

compared to artillery and organic weapons.

On the eve of the Tet offensive, the Air Component Commander had available a total of 1,090 combat aircraft from the USAF, Navy, Marines and

VNAF .The operational ready rate of this force averaged over seventy percent

and had a surge potential of 1.5 to 1.6 sorties a day per aircraft in commission

u.s. Marine Corps RF-4B

21
for the fighters. There were more than sixteen airfields that could handle jet

aircraft, plus three aircraft carriers off the coast of North Vietnam. Backing up

this force were tankers which insured complete operational flexibility to concentrate on any significant target or situation from (jhina on the North, Thailand on the West, and the tip of South Vietnam on the South.

E. Tactical Airlift

Guerrilla and sapper forces continually interdicted key lines of communication in all Corps areas. During critical times of enemy assaults against outposts, it was difficult to supply apd reinforce these locations by surface transportation. Thus, tactical airlift plus in-place Army helicopters became the

backbone of support for all of the various outposts and for units engaged and

cut off from surface logistical support.

From a strategic viewpoint, the tactical airlift force provided a flexibility in

employment of ground units that was not feasible if the movement of these reserves was dependent upon surface means. COMU.SMACV, by virtue of this

strategic mobility, could rapidly reinforce engaged units at will. Decisions

could be deferred almost to the last critical minute in order to determine enemy

intentions. Once a decision had been made, movement of forces and logistical

support were rapid and dependable. J\t any given time the tactical airlift force

numbered about 280 aircraft consisting of 95 (;-130s, 86 (;-7s, 85 C-123s

and 14 C-47s. In case of an extreme emergency this force could be augmented

22
23
by C-141 s for the less demanding task of moving troops between major j et airfields for further staging.

F, Command and Control

A highly developed command and control system, T ACS, was in place and

capable of handling the flow of aircraft from the time of departure, into the

target and return to base. The T ACS assured positive radar control in all areas

where significant combat operations were indicated. Without this system, it

would not have been possible to direct the force and shift it between areas as

the combat situation demanded. A strike aircraft scheduled for a mission in

I Corps could be diverted with a minimum of disruption into II Corps and

turned over to a F AC for support of a troops in contact situation. Flexibility of

air operations during this period was the greatest asset possessed by allied

24




v. Tet Offensive-1968

Early in January the enemy began a build-up of forces around Khe Sanh. By

mid- January, there were two regular Divisions identified with a probabJe third

Division in the area. From all indications the enemy was preparing a major

assault on Khe Sanh seeking a military victory comparable to Dien Bien Phu

in 1954. COMUSMACV responded with a build-up of a regimental size

force of Marine and ARVN units, but relying on airpower as the major means

of defending the base.

While the assault on Khe Sanh increased in intensity, the enemy simultaneously began to apply pressure at Con Thien with the objective of severing

Route 9 and opening the way for an assault on Quang Tri. It appeared from

these actions the enemy objective in I Corps was the assault and capture of Khe

Sanh; the capture of Quang Tri; and finally, the occupation of Hue.

In the early hours of the morning of the 30th ofJanuary, the enemy launched

a country-wide offensive against all the major cities and provincial capitals of

South Vietnam. Except for the assaults in I Corps and II Corps and in the Saigon area, VC troops were the primary assault forces. These assault troops were

accompanied by political cadres to set up control in the captured cities. By the

quality of the assaults, it is apparent the enemy was looking for a political vicAerial composite of Khe Sanh and surrounding geography

29

c. Saigon-Bien Hoa

Concerted attacks were launched against these key cities with their airfields,

logistical complex, and command headquarters. Attacks against both cities

were repulsed. Close air support was a major factor in blunting the enemy

attacks, along with the magnificent stand by USAF and VNAF personnel in

defense of Tan Son Nhut and Bien Boa. These air force troops held off the

enemy attack until augmented by U.S. Army and ARVN troops. The combined

action was a display of the finest coordination between air and ground forces in

the entire war. These key facilities were defended by Air Police, soldiers, helicopter gunships, F-I00s, A-ls and AC-47s.

31




VI. Eve of the 1972 Easter Offensive

President Johnson ordered a halt to the bombing of North Vietnam above

the 2Oth parallel on the 1 st of April and a cessation of all bombing on October

30th, 1968. This provided the North Vietnamese with secure LOCs all the way

from the Chinese border to the DMZ. They were not long in exploiting this

decision to the utmost. The roads along the coast were improved to sustain

36
heavy traffic. Small ports at Quang Khe, Dong Hoi and others close to the

DMZ were enlarged and developed. All of the logistical facilities were soon

choked with all forms of the latest equipment. The area above the DMZ, Bat

Lake, became the largest logistical depot in southern North Vietnam. Into this

depot was to now 122 and 130 mm artillery, tanks, SA-2s, SA-7s and large

stocks of munitions. The North Vietnamese were able to shorten their LOC

base by some three hundred miles and, as a consequence, were in a sound logistical position to launch a major offensive into MR I.

The United States responded to the build-up with spasmodic protective reaction strikes. These strikes, however, were of such limited duration they had

little real impact on the overall logistical posture of the enemy. To have had a

significant effect on logistical stocks would have required a sustained aroundthe-clock offensive for at least thirty or more days, due to the dispersal and

cover of the supplies and equipment. The U.S. was not prepared at this time to

confront the North Vietnamese with a renewal of sustained operations above

the DMZ. Furthermore, if there was to be a resumption of the bombing in

37
view of the obvious intent of the North Vietnamese to wage a massive offensive

against South Vietnam, such bombing should not be restrained to these logistical concentrations, but should be against the total structure of North Vietnam

and its will and capacity to continue the war. Protective reaction strikes from a

military point of view had no real effect on the preparation of the North Vietnamese to launch an invasion of South Vietnam. From a political aspect, such

strikes likewise had little effect. The magnitude was insufficient to drive across

the view to the North Vietnamese that they had better cease preparation for

an enlarged war if they didn't want their country subjected to a full-scale air

offensive.

The rate of infiltration on the lines of communication in Laos were the highest to date. Even though about one-third the input of logistics was coming out

the other end, the North Vietnamese increased the total amount of goods to

such an extent that stocks were accumulating in MR II, III and IV sufficient

for a limited offensive. The interdiction campaign was destroying trucks at an

unprecedented rate. The North Vietnamese were forced to request immediate

replacement for some 5,000 vehicles. The fair weather road network in Laos

grew from some 820 KM in 1966 to 2,710 in 1972.

The lack of authority to bomb all of Vietnam made it infeasible for the air

campaign in Laos to have the desired effect on the enemy's movement of logistics. The enemy supply lines were more vulnerable in the north than in Laos

North Vietnamese ..truck park" along Ho Chi Minh Trail-Iocated by reconnaissance

ti ights and destroyed by USAF fighters.

38



Build-up of VNAF had continued at an accelerated rate. Whereas VNAF

had 17 squadrons and 16,200 personnel at the time of Tet in 1968, it now had

44 squadrons and 42,000 personnel. This force, although stretched by the expansion, was considered to be capable of providing close air support in an

effective manner. It was not considered, however, that VN AF would be able to

provide the highly sophisticated support that the USAF repeatedly did when , there was a major engagement. The relatively low performance of VNAF aircraft-F-5s, A-37s and A-1s-required careful use where there were heavy

concentrations of ZSU-23s, 37 and 57 mm anti-aircraft weapons. If the main

thrust did develop in MR I the USAF would probably have to carry a major

portion of the effort where these defenses would be strong. Further, liberal use

of B-52s would be needed to help break up the concentrations of 122 and

130 mm guns, particularly since no effective counterbattery capability existed

for these high velocity, low trajectory weapons. VNAF could be expected to

handle most of the close air support in MR IV, but would need major assistance in Northern MR I, Western MR II and Western MR III.

E. Enemy Air Force

During the period the North Vietnamese Air Force made repeated forays

into Laos and penetrated as far south as the Mu Gia pass. Although these

penetrations were at night and usually consisted of single aircraft, it represented a demonstration of increased confidence in bringing air operations closer

to the ground battlefield. Coupled with these penetrations was the extension of

Ground Control Intercept coverage from Vinh which indicated a capability to

control fighters as far south as Dong Ha. Supporting these activities was the

development of new jet airfields that would permit small penetrations into

South Vietnam by staging through Vinh. It could be concluded that the North

42






problems with saturation, because of the large numbers of aircraft involved,

the management of strikes was carried out in a highly effective manner. Whenever the enemy ventured into the open, a F AC was overhead with fighters

immediately available. An Loc was an excellent case of the complexity of controlling a large number of fighters in a small area. It was reminiscent of the

problem at Khe Sanh but on a smaller scale. On a typical day, 185 strikes were

scheduled into the area, with diversions authorized if additional targets developed. There was an average of 11 B-52 sorties each day. The VNAF flew

approximately 41 sorties per day.

The SA- 7 s forced changes in strike and aircraft tactics. Most of the low performing aircraft were forced out of the area and close air support was conducted

by the high performance fighters. VNAF airlift could not handle the task.

Since An Loc was completely encircled, it had to be totally supported by airlift. SA- 7 s and AAA forced helicopters and C-123s out of the battle area. Initial

attempts to operate C-130s with container delivery drops were costly. Three

C-130s were lost and new high altitude drop techniques were initiated that

made it possible to support An Loc until the siege was broken. Some 448 mis49
sions were flown with 3,693 tons of supplies air-dropped. Drop zones at one

time were as small as 200 by 200 feet. Tactical airlift under these very difficult

combat conditions again demonstrated the ability to support troops under fire

as they did at Khe Sanh.

The siege at An Loc was broken in June and the major offensive in MR III

came to a close. ARVN proved it could fight when led by good commanders.

Again, airpower was a decisive influence in the battle. Close air support was

flown around the clock. Flexibility was again demonstrated in the command

and control structure and the revision of tactics to cope with the new level of

defenses. On the final day the enemy was stopped half way across the airfield

when fighters cut the attack to pieces and forced a suspension of the assault and

a subsequent withdrawal.

D. u.s. Response

With the invasion, President Nixon loosened the restrictions on the bombing

of North Vietnam above the DMZ and throughout the lower route packages.

In the meantime, forces in the U.S. were alerted for redeployment. TAC was

directed to move F-4 squadrons, A-7s, F-llls and C-130s. The Navy was

directed to increase the on-station carriers from two to five and begin the movement of two more carriers. By early May, the total U.S. airpower, including 80

more B-52s, increased from 350 to over 1 ,000 aircraft.

On 8 May President Nixon announced his decision to mine the ports and

bomb targets throughout North Vietnam. The effect of these actions was to

accelerate the attrition of supplies and equipment before reaching the battlefield. It is apparent that a resumption of the bombing had the effect of bringing

the offensive to an early halt and the consequent stalemate on the ground battlefield. Further, the suspension of plenary meetings on 4 May because of North

50














































97
In the predawn hours of the 14th, one of the patrol boats broke away from

Koh Tang Island. The on-station AC-130 gunship repeatedly fired warning

shots across the boat's bow, finally prompting it to run aground on a small

island south of Koh Tang. In the morning, tactical aircraft took over from the

gunships and continued to contain the patrol boats in the vicinity of Koh Tang.

A fishing boat, however, despite repeated warning shots and riot control gas

delivered by USAF tactical aircraft, succeeded in reaching the mainland. It

would be verified several days later, after interviews with the Mayaguez crew ,

that it was this fishing boat that carried them to the Cambodian mainland initially, and subsequently to Koah Rong Sam Loem, an island just ofT the mainland, where they were held until their release.

During the day of the 14th, tactical aircraft sunk, beached, or damaged a

number of gunboats, three of them in or near the cove at the northeastern tip of

98
Koh Tang (see photos). On the night of the 14th, AC-130 gunships returned

to the island and damaged or destrvyed several more patrol boats.

Then as the night waned, after all other attempts to prompt the release of the

crew had proven fruitless, US military forces were directed to seize the SS

Mayaguez and to recover any crewmembers being held at Koh Tang Island.

99
USAF .'Jolly Green" HH-53 rescue helicopters

The Initial Assault

In the predawn hours on 15 May 1975, six HH-53 "Jolly Green" and five

CH-53 "Knife" USAF helicopters* (see photo) onloaded US marine boarding

parties and landing forces totaling some 230 men. (The marines had been

rushed to their staging base by USAF C-141 s (see photo ). Three of the helicopters were to deliver their men to the USS Harold E Holt, a US Navy destroyer

escort, for boarding and securing the SS Mayaguez and recovering any crewmembers still onboard. The other eight choppers were to offioad their marines

on two beaches at the northern end of Koh Tang (see photo) to secure the island and search for any Mayaguez crewmembers who might be held there.

.The CH-53 and HH-53 are not ordinary helicopters. They have armor plating and are equipped

with 7.62mm, rapid-firing miniguns, and thus are far more survivable than most choppers. Both

aircraft have external fuel tanks which extend their range. Additionally, the HH-53 rescue helicopter is air refuelable.

100
USAFC-141

101
102

How many were being held, or even if any were held there, was unknownthere had, however, been nighttime shuttle runs by Cambodian patrol boats

between the Mayaguez and the large cove at the northern tip of the island, and

gunship crews observed personnel movement on the beach during the shuttling

activities. Although a group of personnel was spotted aboard a fishing boat

heading for the mainland on the 14th, the strong possibility that at least some

crewmembers were being held on the island could not be ignored. Thus the

helicopters and marines headed for Koh Tang uncertain as to the presence,

number, or whereabouts of Mayaguez crewmembers.

Also unknown was the degree of enemy resistance which would be encountered, but preflight briefings based on estimates of Khmer Communist strength

at the small island indicated that resistance should be low. Preparation of the

landing zones with air strikes was ruled out to preclude inadvertent injury to

Mayaguez crewmembers who conceivably could be in the landing zone areas.

Air cover would be available overhead, however, should enemy resistance be

greater than expected. Once the eight helicopters had inserted their marines

they, along with the choppers flying to the USS Holt, were to return to their

staging base for a second wave of marines, and again for a third wave should

the extra men be required. It was a difficult scenario, and one fraught with uncertainties. These were not the circumstances a military commander would

104
choose for such a rescue mission. There was no choice, however, but to press on

under the given circumstances or forfeit the chance to recover any crewmembers

who had been taken from the Mayaguez to Koh Tang Island.

As four pairs of Jollys and Knives approached Koh Tang in the darkness,

little did they realize that the Mayaguez crew had been moved to an island

near the Cambodian mainland. Instead of the American sailors, the enemy

would be waiting-and in unexpected strength. Fortified positions, hidden in

the jungle, ringed the two beaches where the choppers would land. Enemy

forces, well armed with automatic weapons, rocket launchers, and mortars,

put up a resistance much greater than anticipated.

105
At first light, simultaneous insertion of marines on both sides of the island

neck began (see photo). Knife 21 and Knife 22 swung down to make their

approach to the small beach on the western side of the island neck (see photo).

Knife 21, piloted by Lt Col J ohn Denham, led the flight toward the shoreline

and attained a hover over the landing zone on the western beach. No fire was

received on the run-in and there was no sign of activity or resistance in the

beach area. Then as the helicopter touched down on the beach and the marines

began streaming out the back ramp, the Cambodians opened up with small

arms, rockets, and mortars. To Capt Terry Ohlemeier, pilot of Knife 22, the

small arms and machine gun fire "looked like a string of Christmas tree lights"

against the dark outline of the western side of the island. Lt Col Denham, all

his marines offioaded, attempted to take off from the landing zone but enemy

fire had severely damaged his aircraft and disabled one of his two engines. With

his wingman laying down suppressive fire, Denham managed a single-engine

takeoff and headed out to sea. His crew jettisoned everything they could, but

the chopper skipped over the water, maintaining barely enough power to keep

from sinking. ..and taking on a little more water each time it hit. It struggled

106
nearly a mile from the landing zone before ditching in the ocean. As the crew

abandoned the aircraft, SSgt Elwood Rumbaugh, the night mechanic, pulled

the copilot out of the sinking helicopter. When the copilot surfaced he had

difficulty inflating his life jacket, and Denham went to assist him. J ust moments

later, with no call for help or indication of difficulty, SSgt Rumbaugh had disappeared; he was later officially declared killed in action.

Meanwhile a pair of fully-loaded helicopters approaching the island diverted to render assistance to Lt Col Denham and his crew, freeing CaptOhlemeier to fly Knife 22 back into the western beach to deliver his marines. This

time, however, fire was directed against the aircraft all the way into the beach,

107
inflicting severe damage and causing an acute fuel leak. Ohlemeier, unable to

insert the marines, headed back for the staging base. In the race against the

fuel gauge the helicopter just made it to the mainland coast, where it was forced

to make an emergency landing (see photo).

While Capt Ohlemeier had been engaged in the fruitless attempt to penetrate to the western beach, Knife 32, pi)oted by l/Lt Michael Lackey, hovered

near the crew of the ditched helicopter. (Jolly 41, having arrived on the scene

108
with Knife 32, provided cover during the recovery.) Loaded with a full complement of marines and too heavy to pick up the survivors, Knife 32 began to

dump fuel to lighten the aircraft. As fuel spewed from his aircraft Lackey could

see a column of smoke rising from the vicinity of the eastern beach and he knew

things were also going badly there (see photo). Minutes later Lt Col Denham

and his two surviving crewmembers had been recovered, but the search for

SSgt Rumbaugh had proven futile,

As Knife 32 then started away from the crash site and began to pick up

speed, the three rescued crewmembers settled down to rest and contemplate

their ordeal. Their rest was shortlived. Lt Lackey proceeded onward to the

western landing zone to deliver critically needed marines. Denham and his two

remaining crewmembers) just shot down and rescued, their hair and clothes

soaked with jettisoned fuel, found themselves heading back to the landing zone

for a second time. With heavy resistance being encountered at both beaches,

reinforcements were more important than ever .

As the helicopter reached the western beach area and hovered over the landing zone, the enemy cut ioose with automatic weapons, mortars, and rockets.

One of the flight mechanics, SSgt Nick Morales, was immediately dropped by

small arms fire as he manned one of the miniguns. Lt Lackey then touched

down on the beach and the marines began to offioad. Suddenly the chopper

shuddered as a rocket tore a gaping hole in its side and exploded inside the

passenger compartment. Incredibly, only one marine was wounded. Despite

the intense enemy fire and the explosion, the dazed marines were able to depia ne and Lackey managed to pull the helicopter out of the landing zone. With

75 holes in its fuselage, a leak in its hydraulic system, and extensive general

109