United States Office of Research and EPA/600/R-98/123

Environmental Protection Development September 1998

Agency Washington, DC 20460 www.epa.gov

Pollution Prevention

Research Strategy
On the cover: Two dimensional graphic of sustainable development emerging from the

pollution prevention (P2) egg. The graphic demonstrates the critical role that P2 plays in

advancing the concept of sustainable development. It builds upon the important message

delivered in Choosing a Sustainable Future: The Report of the National Commission on the

Environment (NCE, 1993) that “[t]echnology for sustainable development must focus on

pollution prevention.” The NCE message goes on to emphasize a total systems approach that

stresses prevention and minimization using materials and processes which are non-polluting,

and ultimately results in products that are recyclable. The graphic was conceived of by Ivars

Licis and refined by Teresa Harten and Jonathan Herrmann, all of the National Risk

Management Research Laboratory (NRMRL). It was drafted for the cover of the Pollution

Prevention Research Strategy by John McCready, also of NRMRL.
i

EPA/600/R-98/123

September 1998

Pollution Prevention

Research Strategy

National Risk Management Research Laboratory

Office of Research and Development

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

Cincinnati, OH 45268
ii

Notice

This document has been reviewed in accordance with U.S. Environmental

Protection Agency policy and approved for publication. Mention of trade names or

commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for

use.
iii

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency is charged by Congress with

protecting the Nation’s land, air, and water resources. Under a mandate of national

environmental laws, the Agency strives to formulate and implement actions

leading to a compatible balance between human activities and the ability of natural

systems to support and nurture life. To meet this mandate, EPA’s Office of

Research and Development is providing data and technical support for solving

environmental problems today and building a science knowledge base necessary

to manage our ecological resources wisely, understand how pollutants affect our

health, and prevent or reduce environmental risks in the future.

The 1996 Strategic Plan for the Office of Research and Development (ORD)

sets forth ORD’s vision, mission, and long-term research goals. As part of this

strategic process, ORD used the risk paradigm to identify EPA’s top research

priorities for the next several years. The ORD Strategic Plan thus serves as the

foundation for the research strategies and research plans that ORD has developed, or is in the process of developing, to identify and describe individual highpriority research topics. One of these high priority research topics is pollution

prevention and new technologies for environmental protection.

This publication describes ORD’s strategy for conducting a research and

development program in pollution prevention. The research strategy describes the

goals and strategic objectives that will be addressed over the coming five years.

The strategy is an important accountability tool because it makes clear the

rationale for, and the intended products of, EPA’s pollution prevention research.

This research strategy is also an important budget tool, enabling EPA to clearly

track progress toward achieving its pollution prevention research goals, as required by the 1993 Government Performance and Results Act.

Lawrence W. Reiter, Ph.D.

Acting Deputy Assistant Administrator

 for Science, ORD

Foreword
iv

Peer Review

Peer review is an important component of research strategy development. The peer review history for this research

strategy is as follows:

Initial Internal Agency Review: January, 1997

ORD Science Council: Final clearance, February, 1997

Lead Reviewers:

Judy Graham, NERL

Hal Zenick, NHEERL

Submitted for Comments

to the Committee on

Environment and Natural

Resources – Agency

Principals and Subcommittee

Chairs June, 1997

External Peer Review: June 30 – July 3, 1997: Cincinnati, OH

Reviewers:

Calvin Chien, Chair DUPONT Company

Edgar Berkey Concurrent Technologies Corporation

Lois Epstein Environmental Defense Fund

Terry Foecke Waste Reduction Institute

Nina Bergan French SKY+

James Johnson, Jr. Howard University

Wayne Kachel MELE Associates

Richard Kimerle Independent Consultant

Michael McFarland Utah State University

Robert Pojasek Cambridge Environmental, Inc.

Rita Schenck Eco Sense

Coordinated by:

Kathleen Conway EPA’s Science Advisory Board,

Designated Federal Official

Final Acceptance by ORD: September, 1998

ORD Executive Lead: E. Timothy Oppelt, NRMRL
v

Table of Contents

Foreword ....................................................................................................................................... iii

Peer Review .................................................................................................................................. iv

List of Figures/List of Tables ...................................................................................................... vi

Acknowledgments ...................................................................................................................... vii

Acronyms.................................................................................................................................... viii

Executive Summary ..................................................................................................................... xi

Chapter 1. Introduction ...............................................................................................................1

Chapter 2. Strategic Rationale for the ORD Pollution Prevention

Research and Development Program ..................................................................................5

Chapter 3. ORD’s Pollution Prevention Research and

Development Program .........................................................................................................17

Chapter 4. Moving Forward to Implementation ......................................................................25

References ...................................................................................................................................29

Appendix I

EPA’s Definition of Pollution Prevention (Habicht, 1992) .......................................................31

Appendix II

Pertinent Data on TRI Chemicals Extracted from the

Toxics Release Inventory (EPA, 1996b) ................................................................................32

Appendix III

Potential Adverse Human Health and

Environmental Effects of the Top 25 TRI

Chemicals with the Largest Air/Water/Land

Releases, 1994 (EPA, 1996b) ................................................................................................33
vi

List of Figures

Figure 1. High Priority Human Health and Environmental Risks Identified

by the SAB (EPA, 1990a) ...............................................................................................................6

List of Tables

Table 1. The Economic Sectors that Contribute to the SAB’s High-Priority

Human Health and Environmental Risks ........................................................................................8

Table 2. Summary of Pollution Prevention Research by Sector and Opportunities

for ORD .........................................................................................................................................10

Table 3. Pollution Prevention Resource Trends for the Next Five Years

(FY 1998 - 2002) ...........................................................................................................................26
vii

Acknowledgments

This research strategy was prepared with the help and assistance of a number

of ORD staff. Major contributors included:

James Bridges Heriberto Cabezas

Mary Ann Curran Cynthia Gage

Emma Lou George Teresa Harten

Penelope Hansen Deborah Hanlon

Jonathan Herrmann Michael Kosusko

Kelly Leovic Rose Lew

Steve Lingle Ivars Licis

Charles Mann Douglas McKinney

Carlos Nunez Gregory Ondich

Glenn Shaul Subhas Sikdar

Kenneth Stone Roger Wilmoth

Valuable insights were garnered in conversations with Robert Pojasek of

Cambridge Environmental, Inc., Charles Ris of ORD’s National Center for Environmental Assessment, Kenneth Gigliello of EPA’s Office of Enforcement and Compliance Assurance, and Barbara Bush of the American Institute of Pollution

Prevention. Robert Lipnick of EPA’s Office of Prevention, Pesticides, and Toxic

Substances provided numerous perspectives and thoughtful suggestions throughout the course of research strategy preparation. Finally, many thanks are extended

to all those individuals in the Program Offices and Regions who graciously

provided input to guide the authors in preparation of the several generations of this

document.
viii

Acronyms

ACS American Chemical Society

AMD Acid Mine Drainage

APPD Atmospheric Pollution Prevention Division

BIA Bureau of Indian Affairs

BMPs Best Management Practices

CEA Council of Economic Advisors

CENR Committee on Environment and Natural Resources

CFCs chlorofluorocarbons

CMAQ Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement Program

CPSC Consumer Product Safety Commission

CRDA Cooperative Research and Development Agreement

CSI Common Sense Initiative

DfE Design for the Environment

DOA Department of Agriculture

DOC-NIST Department of Commerce - National Institute of Science and Technology

DOD Department of Defense

DOE Department of Energy

DOI Department of the Interior

DOT Department of Transportation

EPA Environmental Protection Agency

EPRI Electric Power Research Institute

ETV Environmental Technology Verification

FDA Food and Drug Administration

GHGs greenhouse gases

GPRA Government Performance and Results Act

GWP Global Warming Potential

HAPs hazardous air pollutants

HFCs hydrofluorocarbons

HFEs hydrofluoroethers

HUD Department of Housing and Urban Development

HVAC heating, ventilation, and air conditioning

IC integrated controls

ISTEA Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act

LCA life cycle assessment

MACT Maximum Achievable Control Technology
ix

MEPs Manufacturing Extension Partnerships

NAS National Academy of Sciences

NCE National Commission on the Environment

NEXTEA National Economic Crossroads Transportation Efficiency Act

NIST National Institute of Standards and Technology

NRC National Research Council

NREL National Renewable Energy Laboratory

NRMRL National Risk Management Research Laboratory

NSTC National Science and Technology Council

OAR Office of Air and Radiation

OECA Office of Enforcement and Compliance Assurance

OPPTS Office of Prevention, Pesticides, and Toxic Substances

ORD Office of Research and Development

OSM Office of Surface Mining

OSTP Office of Science and Technology Policy

OSWER Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response

OW Office of Water

P2 pollution prevention

PBTs persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic chemicals

PCSD President’s Council on Sustainable Development

PERC perchloroethylene

PESP Pesticide Environmental Stewardship Program

PPNT Pollution Prevention and New Technology

PPOAs Pollution Prevention Opportunity Assessments

SAB Science Advisory Board

SAN Sustainable Agriculture Network

SARE Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education

SBIR Small Business Innovative Research

SRRP Source Reduction Review Project

TEWI Total Equivalent Warming Impact

TRI Toxics Release Inventory

USDA United States Department of Agriculture

USGS United States Geological Survey

USPS United States Postal Service

UV ultraviolet light

UV/TiO2 ultraviolet light/titanium dioxide

VOCs volatile organic compounds

WCED World Commission on Environment and Development

WRITE Waste Reduction Innovative Technology Evaluation

XL Environmental Excellence and Leadership
xi

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA’s)

Office of Research and Development (ORD) prepared a

strategic plan which includes two priority long-term goals

addressing prevention: to provide common sense and

cost-effective approaches for preventing and managing

risks, and to provide leadership and encourage others to

participate in identifying emerging environmental issues,

characterizing the risks associated with these issues,

and developing ways of preventing or reducing these

risks.

Based on these goals, ORD developed a Pollution Prevention Research Strategy that elaborates on the directions in the strategic plan and provides a framework to

guide investments in pollution prevention research and

development over the next five years. The strategy

contains four chapters: Chapter 1 sets the context;

Chapter 2 outlines a strategic pollution prevention rationale; Chapter 3 describes four long-term goals and

accompanying strategic objectives to be addressed and

includes activities to be pursued as part of the research

strategy; and Chapter 4 describes the implementation

approach for the goals and objectives presented in

Chapter 3. This executive summary is a capsule of the

full document.

Context

Historically and currently, ORD has used EPA’s definition of pollution prevention as “source reduction.” In a

broader sense, the National Commission on the Environment (NCE) offers a description of environmental

sustainability that includes pollution prevention. The EPA

definition and the NCE description were both central to

the development of this research strategy. They provided the context from which ORD developed its strategic rationale for the research and development program

that is outlined below.

ORD’s pollution prevention activities in the early years

focused on developing and evaluating technologies primarily through extramural funding of contracts, Cooperative Agreements, and Interagency Agreements. Once

pollution prevention was established as an ORD program in 1988, this extramural focus began slowly shifting toward an in-house program devoted to research on

tools, methodologies, and technologies. This shift has

accelerated in the 1990s with ORD’s strategic move to

an expanded in-house research program to transform

the labs into research institutions. The push to in-house

research has enabled ORD to focus on a smaller set of

high priority activities where ORD scientists and engineers can make a significant contribution based on their

unique knowledge, expertise, and capabilities. This has

been complemented with a competitive extramural grant

program to address cutting edge process and synthesis

research as well as research on socio-economic issues.

As pollution prevention implementation has advanced in

the past ten years, many of the problems most easily

addressed by using a preventative approach have been

solved. The practice of pollution prevention is now at a

crossroads. Although progress in pollution prevention

over the next ten years may not proceed as rapidly as in

the past ten, the results can be even more significant,

both in terms of research and development, and implementation.

Since these next advances will represent more fundamental changes in individual lifestyle, industrial process

design, consumer products, and land use, future research and development must focus on quantum leaps

instead of incremental improvements. These advances

will not be achieved without a commitment by the public

and private sectors to support long-term research that

can, if carefully planned, produce the needed technologies and tools that take pollution prevention to the next

level.

Strategic Rationale

ORD’s pollution prevention research strategy has been

guided by a number of influential “voices” — among

them, the National Academy of Sciences, the Committee on Environment and Natural Resources, the National Research Council, the President’s Council on

Sustainable Development, and the American Chemical

Society. ORD also used the Science Advisory Board’s

past contributions to the pollution prevention dialogue

with the Agency to further focus its research strategy.

After considering guidance from the above organizations and narrowing the scope of the potential program

to a subset of environmental problems and types of

research and development where the Agency can play a

meaningful role, ORD investigated which issues were

considered a high priority by EPA’s Program Offices and

Regions. The following themes emerged:

• Life cycle assessment and costing research to provide the scientific basis for comparing alternative

risk management approaches

• Techniques to measure pollution prevention effectiveness and verify the performance of pollution

prevention technologies

• Pollution prevention approaches for the agricultural

sector

• Pollution prevention approaches to reduce greenhouse gases, including alternative energy (renewable) sources

• Pollution prevention approaches for targeted industries (In most cases, these were aligned with specific regulatory programs or Agency initiatives.)

Executive Summary
xii

Many of these themes are reflected in the final research

strategy. In addition to the outcome of consultations with

EPA Programs, ORD determined that five priority setting

criteria will drive choices in research emphasis. Research priorities need to: 1) address high risk human

health or environmental problems; 2) respond to the

needs of stakeholders; 3) fill important research and

development gaps not being addressed by others; 4)

leverage resources with other organizations; and 5)

provide potentially effective research. The cumulative

process led to the choice of the four goals and the

associated strategic directions and priorities.

Goals and Program Emphases

Goal I: Deliver tools and methodologies that can be

applied across all economic sectors: agriculture, manufacturing, transportation, energy, consumer products,

mining, construction, and municipal.

ORD will develop, test, and provide tools and methodologies which improve individual and organizational decision making, to reduce or eliminate emissions, effluents, and wastes from products, processes, and activities.

Objective: Develop and test user-friendly tools and

methodologies for improved decision making.

Research and Development Activities

New Activity — Integrate risk assessment and risk management tools and methodologies:

• Linking risk assessment and pollution prevention

tools

Increased Emphasis — Improve and develop generic

tools and methodologies:

• Improving environmental engineering economics and

cost tools

• Improving the utility of life cycle assessments (LCAs),

including development of P2 measurement methods

• Developing process simulation tools

• Developing impact assessment tools

Continued Emphasis — Improve and develop targeted

tools and methodologies:

• Providing decision support tools for municipal solid

waste

• Developing improved selection tools for surface treatment

Goal II: Develop and transfer technologies and approaches that can be applied across economic sectors,

but are primarily focused on the manufacturing and

consumer products sectors.

ORD will develop, test and transfer pollution prevention

technologies and approaches that are applicable across

economic sectors, and evaluate products, technologies

and approaches that are targeted at preventing highpriority human health and environmental problems in

support of the Agency’s regulatory and compliance programs.

Objective A: Research, design, and assess novel and

advanced environmentally benign approaches for industrial processing and manufacturing.

Research and Development Activities

Continued emphasis — Investigate chemistry for pollution prevention:

• Supporting fundamental engineering research in

addressing green chemistry

• Developing and testing improved synthesis pathways

Continued emphasis — Investigate engineering for pollution prevention:

• Supporting pre-competitive engineering research

• Developing separations for metals recycling/recovery

• Developing membranes for organic recycling/recovery

Continued emphasis — Develop process feedback techniques for pollution prevention:

• Developing intelligent controls for process operations

Objective B: Develop and test technologies and approaches targeted at specific environmental problems.

Research and Development Activities

Continued Emphasis — Address problems associated

with global warming to reduce Total Equivalent Warming

Impact (TEWI):

• Investigating TEWI alternatives

Continued Emphasis — Address problems associated

with VOCs and hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) by

improving coating and cleaning operations:

• Developing new and innovative coating and cleaning chemistries and equipment

• Adapting environmentally friendly coating and cleaning chemistries and equipment
xiii

Increased Emphasis — Address problems associated

with products used indoors:

• Developing test methodologies and models

• Supporting research on low-emitting materials and

technologies

Objective C: Demonstrate and evaluate pollution prevention in support of Agency and Program Office priorities.

Research and Development Activities

Continued Emphasis — Address problems associated

with medium- and small-sized industries that pose high

risks:

• Working in the metal finishing sector

• Working in the printing sector

• Working in the computer and electronics sector

• Working in the auto refinishing sector

• Working in the dry-cleaning sector

Continued Emphasis — Support Agency rule makings

and initiatives that encourage pollution prevention:

• Partnering with Program Offices

Goal III: Verify the performance of selected cleaner

products, technologies, and approaches, focusing initially on the manufacturing, consumer products and

municipal sectors.

As part of its Environmental Technology Verification

(ETV) Program, ORD will serve as a catalyzing organization to propel into the marketplace the most promising

commercial-ready pollution prevention products and technologies from both the public and private sectors.

Objective: Build a high-quality and efficient program to

verify the performance characteristics of pollution prevention products and technologies.

Research and Development Activities

Continued Emphasis — Verify commercial-ready products and technologies which substantially reduce or

eliminate air, water, and waste streams:

• Hazardous Waste Pollution Prevention and Treatment ETV Pilot

• Industrial Coatings ETV Pilot

• Metal Finishing ETV Pilot

• Indoor Air ETV Pilot

• Climate Change ETV Pilot

• Air Pollution Prevention and Control ETV Pilot

• Source Water Protection ETV Pilot

Goal IV: Conduct research which addresses the economic, social, and behavioral aspects of pollution prevention.

Through its extramural grants program, ORD will continue to sponsor economic, social, and behavioral research to improve decision making and foster the adoption of pollution prevention by the public and private

sectors at all levels.

Objective: Develop and integrate social science and

socioeconomic information and research products into

environmental decision making.

Research and Development Activities

Increased Emphasis — Develop economic, social, and

behavioral tools to improve environmental policies and

programs:

• Understanding organizational decisions related to

human health and environmental protection

• Understanding the economic benefits of pollution

prevention policies and programs

• Understanding the economic costs of pollution prevention policies and programs

• Developing relationships between economic growth

and environmental quality

Implementation

This research strategy provides the framework for implementing a program for systematic research and development activities to carry pollution prevention into the

21st Century and toward the realization of sustainable

development. The success of the program will be dependent on a number of variables, not the least of which

is engagement and partnership with key stakeholders. It

is essential that ORD work more closely with those who

are directly involved in the implementation of pollution

prevention approaches or influential in advancing the

concept and routine consideration and use of preventive

risk management. This includes EPA’s Program Offices

and the following stakeholders:

• The industrial community. ORD will provide tools

and technologies for employing pollution prevention

in various economic sectors as an option for costeffectively improving compliance and going “beyond

compliance” where it makes sense economically

and environmentally.
xiv

• States, communities, and tribes. ORD will better

understand those situations at the community level

where pollution prevention might best be employed;

thereby raising the profile of pollution prevention as

a routine part of the Agency’s approach to community-based environmental decision making.

• Federal organizations. ORD will identify what research and development is needed to enhance the

use of pollution prevention at federal facilities. ORD

will also stress testing pollution prevention tools,

methodologies, technologies, and approaches at

government sites where they can be evaluated in

real-world settings.

• The international community. ORD will exchange

information with the international community on pollution prevention research and development and its

implementation, and will also provide perspectives

on what other countries are doing to advance pollution prevention in the broader context of sustainable

development.

ORD will use electronic technology (e.g., Internet home

pages, distance learning) to the maximum extent possible as a means of engagement with stakeholders. The

research products developed by ORD will be designed

to be available electronically, and ORD intends to be a

major provider of pollution prevention research and development products via the Internet.
1

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA’s)

Office of Research and Development (ORD) has prepared a strategic plan which includes prevention as an

important theme (1996a; 1997a). Two of the strategic

plan’s long-term goals specifically mention prevention

as a priority:

• To provide common sense and cost-effective approaches for preventing and managing risks.

• To provide leadership and encourage others to participate in identifying emerging environmental issues, characterizing the risks associated with these

issues, and developing ways of preventing or reducing these risks.

Based on the prominence of prevention in these two

goals, it will be an integral part of ORD’s future research

program. The purpose of this document is to elaborate

on the pollution prevention strategic directions outlined

in the ORD strategic plan and to provide a framework

within which to guide investments in pollution prevention

research and development over the next five years.

What is Pollution Prevention?

The first step taken in developing this research strategy

was to determine the types of activities which should be

included in it. Generally, pollution prevention requires

changes in raw materials and processes which result in

reduced pollution (EPA, 1991). In this strategic plan,

ORD has made judgements on the scope of activities to

include based on its interpretation of EPA’s working

definition of pollution prevention (Habicht, 1992) (See

Appendix I for the full definition):

Pollution prevention means “source reduction”

as defined under the Pollution Prevention Act,

and other practices that reduce or eliminate the

creation of pollutants through: (1) increased efficiency in the use of raw materials, energy, water

or other resources, or (2) protection of natural

resources by conservation.

The Pollution Prevention Act defines “source

reduction” as any practice which: (1) reduces

the amount of any hazardous substance, pollutant, or contaminant entering any waste stream

or otherwise released into the environment (including fugitive emissions) prior to recycling,

treatment, or disposal; and (2) reduces the hazards to public health and the environment with

the release of such substances, pollutants, or

contaminants.

Pollution prevention is national policy, embodied as

“source reduction,” in the Pollution Prevention Act of

1990 (West Publishing Co., 1992), and EPA’s Administrator has declared pollution prevention to be the “guiding principle” of all EPA programs (EPA, 1993).

In a broader context, the National Commission on the

Environment (NCE) (1993) described the role of pollution prevention in sustainable development (i.e., meeting the needs of the present without compromising the

ability of future generations to meet their own needs

[WCED, 1987]):

Technology for sustainable development must

focus on pollution prevention. This requires a

total systems approach that prevents pollutants

from being created in the first place or minimizes

undesirable wastes and obviates the need for

many controls. A preventive approach involves

using fewer or non-polluting materials, designing

processes that minimize pollutants or that direct

them to other useful purposes, and creating

recyclable products. The preventive/systems

approach requires examining the full life-cycle

of products and practices.

The NCE description integrates pollution prevention with

environmental sustainability and offers the greatest opportunity for pollution prevention research and development in the future. A systems approach, where pollution

prevention plays a critical role, is especially helpful in

solving many of the remaining human health and environmental problems resulting from dispersed sources

and individual activities. Both the EPA definition and the

NCE description are central to the development of this

research strategy.

The Evolution of ORD’s Pollution

Prevention Program

ORD has conducted a variety of research and development projects and programs over the last ten years that

are consistent with the EPA definition of pollution prevention and the broader concept of sustainable development described above. The following are examples of

research that have been conducted or are currently

sponsored that further the goals embodied in the EPA

definition and the NCE description:

CFC Alternatives: Following the Montreal

Protocol, under which the US agreed to reduce

chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) use, ORD undertook

a research program to identify and evaluate

substitute chemicals. New chemicals were

Chapter 1. Introduction
2

synthesized (e.g., hydrofluorocarbons [HFCs],

hydrofluoroethers [HFEs]) and measurements

were taken to establish thermodynamic and

thermophysical properties and to determine

flammability, toxicity, and material compatibility.

Performance in refrigeration and air conditioning

applications and as foam blowing and fire

extinguishing agents were also evaluated.

Similar activities were performed by industry for

other chemicals. This collaborative effort resulted

in a number of EPA and industry HFCs being

successfully used in new equipment.

Waste Reduction Innovative Technology

Evaluation (WRITE) Program: Over seven

years in the late 80s and early 90s, ORD, in

collaboration with six states and a county in

New York, evaluated a number of waste

minimization technologies to measure their

pollution prevention effectiveness and costs. The

targets were technologies for use by mediumand small-sized companies (electronics, printing,

metal plating and finishing) and the evaluations

addressed a number of processes (e.g., coating,

painting, surface cleaning). Many of the

technologies reduced or eliminated waste

streams and resulted in cost savings. It was

also found that technology benefits (waste

minimization and cost) were largely applicationspecific and that broad generalizations about

technology application could not be made.

LCA Advancement: Life cycle assessment

(LCA) principles provide an important conceptual

framework within which to evaluate pollution

prevention alternatives. ORD has been working

to improve LCA tools and methodologies over

the past five years and has undertaken a number

of specific assessments to advance the

understanding and application of life cycle

thinking. As just one example, ORD worked

with the lithographic printing industry to evaluate

solvent substitutes to reduce volatile emissions.

The findings of that effort revealed that a switch

to low-VOC solvents can increase energy use

and increase loading to air and water. The

switch, in effect, resulted in shifting environmental

burdens from the printers to elsewhere within

the production system. ORD has developed

LCA-oriented tools (e.g., P2 Factors

Methodology, P2 Progress Methodology) as a

means of advancing the cause of pollution

prevention more broadly within an LCA

framework.

Pollution Prevention Opportunity

Assessments (PPOAs): ORD pioneered the

development and application of PPOAs. PPOAs

are a comprehensive examination of the

operations at a facility with the goal of minimizing

all types of waste products. Options are identified

for the use of materials, processes, or practices

that reduce or eliminate the creation of pollution

or wastes at the source. Once a prevention

option is identified, it is evaluated for technical,

economic, and environmental feasibility. This

analysis is not directly related to compliance

standards, but by eliminating or reducing the

sources of pollutants, the standards are

automatically met or at least the compliance

burden is reduced. Numerous PPOAs have

been developed over the past ten years (e.g.,

Fort Riley, Kansas; photo finishing facility; truck

assembly plant) and these assessments have

been widely adopted by the federal sector (e.g.,

DOE, DOD, USPS) for use at government

facilities.

Source Reduction Review Project (SRRP)

Support: Over the past five years, ORD has

supported the Agency’s efforts at multimedia

rule making under SRRP. SRRP is an effort to

review Agency regulations during their earliest

stages of development so that source reduction

measures and multimedia issues are considered.

SRRP encourages source reduction over addon control technologies as the preferred

approach to achieving environmental

compliance. ORD has worked with the Office of

Water (OW) to evaluate alternatives to chlorine

bleaching in the pulp and paper industry and

with the Office of Air and Radiation (OAR) to

evaluate alternatives in reinforced plastics

composite manufacturing, printing and publishing

and wood furniture manufacturing.

Reducing Solvent and Propellant Emissions

from Consumer Products: In some cases, an

appropriate risk management strategy for

reducing exposure to indoor air pollutants may

be to develop a generic technology that will

facilitate private sector development of lowemitting materials. A successful example of this

is the development and evaluation of a new

spray dispenser at Purdue University that was

supported under an EPA Cooperative

Agreement. The new design allows

manufacturers to reformulate certain aerosol

consumer products — using air and water in
3

place of solvents and hydrocarbon propellants

while still maintaining acceptable product

characteristics. Dispenser design guidelines

will be available for use by small and large

manufacturers worldwide.

In the early years, many of ORD’s research and development activities focused on creating guidance documents and tools that other government agencies and the

private sector could use to identify pollution prevention

opportunities (e.g., PPOAs, LCA Advancement), and on

conducting evaluations of pollution prevention technologies through agreements with outside contractors or

cooperators (e.g., WRITE Program, SRRP). A small

percentage of the pollution prevention research program

in the 1980s was focused on in-house research (e.g.,

CFC Alternatives). During this time, funding for pollution

prevention research and development was provided

from many dispersed sources and had to compete against

all other important ORD research within a specific program area. Pollution prevention was formally established as a program within ORD in 1988 and received

increased attention across the Agency (EPA, 1990b,

EPA, 1992b). In the early to middle 1990s, ORD’s

pollution prevention research and development program

primarily supported numerous EPA initiatives (e.g., 33/

50 Program, SRRP, Common Sense Initiative) established to promote pollution prevention as the preferred

approach for human health and environmental protection.

For the past several years, the ORD pollution prevention

program has undergone a transition from an extramural

program that promoted pollution prevention using broadbased technical assistance and information transfer to a

more targeted in-house program complemented by a

closely related extramural program. The new program

is devoted to scientific and technical research on pollution prevention tools, methodologies, technologies, and

approaches. While this reorientation has not been seamless, it is well underway and will continue into the

foreseeable future.

Concomitant with a shift to an in-house research and

development program, resource allocations have been

strategically targeted to support post-doctoral researchers, master’s-degree assistants, technicians, and analytical services to build the in-house capabilities of ORD

scientists and engineers. ORD has used this shift as an

opportunity to reevaluate its pollution prevention research and development priorities and to focus on a

smaller set of high-priority activities where it can make a

significant contribution based on its unique expertise

and capabilities. At the same time, ORD has initiated a

competitive extramural grants program that looks to

expertise outside of ORD’s laboratories, particularly in

academia, for capabilities not resident within ORD. ORD

also provides funding to support development of pollution prevention technologies through the Congressionally-mandated Small Business Innovative Research

(SBIR) Program.

Where is ORD’s Pollution Prevention

Research and Development Program

Going?

Pollution prevention continues to offer great opportunity

for gains in human health and environmental quality,

both in terms of research and development and in its

application throughout all economic sectors. ORD believes that pollution prevention progress in the next ten

years must proceed more rapidly than in the past ten

and that this progress must be even more powerful in

moving the global economy towards sustainability. The

next wave of pollution prevention can provide economic

and environmental benefits in a host of situations. Since

these advances will represent nothing less than fundamental changes in individual lifestyle, industrial process

design (e.g., clean technologies), consumer products

(e.g., benign chemicals), and land use, future research

and development must focus on quantum leaps instead

of incremental improvements. ORD will only be able to

contribute meaningfully to this future direction if it concentrates on longer-term research which will produce a

new generation of tools and technologies to move pollution prevention beyond the “low hanging fruit.” These

advances will not be achieved without a commitment by

both the public and private sectors to support long-term

research programs which can, if carefully planned, produce the technologies and tools that are needed.

Structure of this Research Strategy

This research strategy, while oriented toward the classic

Agency definition of pollution prevention, recognizes

that over the longer term, pollution prevention should be

viewed in the context of sustainable development, and

must move in the direction of addressing the highest

priority human health and environmental problems. It is

divided into four chapters with Chapter 1 (this chapter)

setting the scene and arguing for a broad view of

pollution prevention research and development. Chapter 2 presents an analysis of the pollution prevention

research and development situation and provides summary results of an ORD review of what pollution prevention research activities are being carried out by various

organizations, primarily those activities that are government supported. Criteria for judging which programs to

undertake are also provided. Chapter 3 describes four

goals and accompanying objectives that will be addressed by ORD; this chapter includes the research and

development activities and project areas that will be

pursued as part of this research strategy. Finally, Chapter 4 describes, in general terms, the allocation of resources and emphases over the coming five years for

the four goals and associated objectives presented in

Chapter 3.
5

Chapter 2. Strategic Rationale for the ORD Pollution

Prevention Research and Development Program

One of the great strengths of pollution prevention is that

it has a place in addressing most all pollution problems.

With very few exceptions, notably remediation actions,

environmental problems have a pollution prevention solution, even if it is as simple as stopping the activity that

creates the waste. This wide-ranging quality is what

makes the prevention ethic and its implementation so

important, creating an imperative for ORD prevention

research. Ironically though, this strength becomes problematic when a research strategy must be developed.

The breadth of pollution prevention and the possibilities

for the research and development needed pose a significant challenge. The question is: Which problems should

ORD focus on? ORD, as is true with any research

organization, can conduct only a limited number of

research and development activities; financial and resource limitations require this. Chapter 2 of the research

strategy explains the rationale used by ORD to select

priority areas for the next five years.

Why is Pollution Prevention An Important

Future Research Priority?

While significant advances have been made, many gaps

in knowledge still impede the widespread adoption of

preventive risk management. Pollution prevention research and development is a relatively new field of

endeavor when compared to other areas such as research and development of end-of-the-pipe control technologies. Pollution prevention research and development has largely focused on the industrial sector of the

economy. Numerous authors (Freeman, et. al., 1992;

Freeman, 1995; INFORM, 1995; Pelley, 1997) stress

the important role that pollution prevention plays in

reducing toxic releases and exposure to chemicals in

wastes. According to the 1995 Toxics Release Inventory

(TRI) (EPA, 1996b) billions of pounds of chemicals were

released, transferred, or disposed of in wastes from

industrial facilities that year (Appendix II). Because TRI

reporting requirements are expanding, reported releases

will grow in the coming years (Federal Register, 1996).

The TRI has been effective in the past in alerting companies and communities about toxic chemical releases

and has also provided a strong impetus for companies

to reduce releases. With the expansion of TRI reporting

there is an increased opportunity for pollution prevention

to play a role in reducing newly reported releases.

Protecting human health and the environment into the

21st century must stress the prevention of pollution

before it occurs, and should realistically look beyond the

TRI-listed chemicals for ways to contribute to reducing

human health and environmental risks. Ehrenfeld and

Howard (1996) make the point that a number of American industries have already recognized the need to

address environmental protection in a more holistic and

systematic manner by emphasizing design for the environment (DfE) and industrial ecology. Hart (1997) identifies pollution prevention as the first step (Stage One)

that most companies take when moving away from

pollution control. Stage Two is product stewardship (e.g.,

DfE, life cycle assessment). Stage Three is clean technology — where fundamental shifts in both products and

processes are designed and implemented — a stage

that may require several decades before being broadly

accepted and practiced. In addition, EPA has promoted

the use of approaches which go “beyond compliance”

and end-of-pipe treatment to achieve environmental improvement. These approaches include implementation

of creative voluntary initiatives such as the Common

Sense Initiative and Project XL (Environmental Excellence in Leadership). The Agency has recognized that

the command and control approach will most likely be

inadequate to achieve necessary environmental gains

and improvements in risk management. Pollution prevention approaches will be critical to achieving sustainable development.

Guidance on Pollution Prevention

Research Priorities from External

Organizations

An important consideration in designing this research

strategy was the determination of where ORD could

make the most significant contributions to the field. The

first factor considered was the role of federal research

and development in addressing issues of national concern. The National Academy of Sciences (NAS, et.al.

1995) provided its perspective on this issue when it

stressed that resources invested by the federal government in science and technology help build the base of

scientific and technical knowledge and expertise used

by both government and industry. This knowledge and

expertise is then used to address important national

goals (e.g., national defense, space exploration, economic growth, and protection of public health and the

environment). The National Science and Technology

Council (1994) supported a similar perspective when it

identified the important role the federal government

plays in funding basic and applied research and development keyed to future generations of environmental

technologies. This latter report also stressed the role

that the federal government can play in facilitating private sector investment by reducing the uncertainties

caused by regulatory, verification, and permitting processes.

Based on these broad national level perspectives, ORD

has concluded that there is a need for federal research

to facilitate the development and acceptance of new

products, processes, or management practices which

pose less of a hazard to human health and the environ-
6

ment. The ultimate goal is to ensure that adequate

research and development has been conducted which

will provide the information and data required to design

new products and processes that are inherently less

polluting. ORD is in a unique position to focus federal

pollution prevention investments because: (1) it is the

only federal research organization with the broad mission to ensure that the pollution prevention adopted

provides maximum human health and environmental

protection, and (2) it has direct links to the regulatory

and compliance offices of EPA to ensure that pollution

prevention research and development activities are focused on the nation’s highest priority human health and

environmental problems.

Pollution Prevention in Strategic Plans and

National Strategies

In the past three years, a number of committees, councils, academies, and EPA have offered their opinions on

strategic directions for environmental protection (EPA,

1994; CENR, 1995; PCSD, 1996; ACS, 1996; NRC,

1996). There is a mix of pollution prevention priorities in

these directions. Clearly, EPA’s five-year strategic plan

views pollution prevention as an overarching means of

accomplishing a number of environmental goals, from

improving air quality to promoting worker safety. Strategies of the Committee on Environment and Natural

Resources (CENR), the American Chemical Society

(ACS), and the National Research Council (NRC) stress

technological solutions via cleaner chemicals, clean technology, environmentally preferable products, prevention

technologies and practices, industrial ecology, chemical-specific separations, and catalytic systems. The

President’s Council on Sustainable Development (PCSD)

and the NRC strategies also support the development of

improved analytical tools including cost/benefit analysis

associated with risk assessment. Both of these strategies address the need for economic, social, and behavioral research that advances the concept of sustainable

development.

Pollution Prevention and the Science Advisory

Board

Over the years, the EPA’s Science Advisory Board

(SAB) has provided guidance on the relative risks of

environmental problems. ORD has reviewed its most

recent report on this topic (EPA, 1990a) to further focus

its proposed strategy on the most important environmental problems. Figure 1 lists these high-priority problem areas. In addition to studies which rank the relative

importance of environmental problems, the SAB has

also provided commentaries on past Agency pollution

prevention reports and strategies and on a draft version

of the present strategy. These commentaries provided

insights on what the SAB considered to be important

pollution prevention research and development activities, and identified the highest priority environmental

problems that EPA should emphasize. The first commentary (EPA, 1989) was prepared as part of the SAB’s

review of a draft of the Pollution Prevention Research

Plan: Report to Congress (EPA, 1990b). The second

commentary (EPA, 1992a) was prepared as part of the

SAB’s review of a draft of the Pollution Prevention

Research Program (EPA, 1992b). The SAB stressed the

need for social science research (non-technological ) in

both of its commentaries, as well as the need for a

means of measuring the progress of pollution prevention. The need to address non-industrial pollution prevention was raised with respect to mining and agricultural practices, with a particular concern regarding pesticides. There was also a call for increased coordination

with other organizations to advance pollution prevention

and to facilitate communication and technology transfer.

Finally, there were calls for product research, environmental professional training, anticipatory research on

future environmental problems, and consistency in prioritizing research activities. These commentaries and

the relative ranking of environmental problems influenced the priorities detailed later in this document.

A third report from the SAB commented on a May,1997

draft of this pollution prevention research strategy. The

SAB’s report of June 24, 1998 (EPA, 1998a) on the draft

strategy recommended making the process of developing the strategy more transparent. The SAB also recommended more involvement of external organizations in

the process. Generally, the SAB did not take issue with

the proposed topical areas of research and the goals

identified in the original draft of this strategy. In this final

version of the strategy, ORD has attempted to revise the

document in accordance with the SAB’s recommendations.

The draft version was also circulated to the interagency

Committee on Environment and Natural Resources

(CENR) and the White House Office of Science and

Technology Policy (OSTP) for review and comment.

Reviewers were asked to comment on the significance

of the environmental problems discussed, the merit of

the approach, the complementarity to research programs and priorities in other agencies, and opportunities

High-Priority Human Health Risks

Ambient Air Pollutants

Worker Exposure to Chemicals in Industry

and Agriculture

Indoor Air Pollution

Pollutants in Drinking Water

High-Priority Risks to Natural Ecology and

Human Welfare

Habitat Alteration and Destruction

Species Extinction and Overall Loss of

Biological Diversity

Stratospheric Ozone Depletion

Global Climate Change

Figure 1. High Priority Human Health and Environmental

Risks Identified by the SAB (EPA, 1990a).
7

for collaboration with other agencies. Comments received were similar to the SAB’s in that technical areas

identified as priorities by ORD were generally supported.

Several agencies, particularly the United States Geological Survey, were helpful in identifying collaborative

projects. Comments resulting from the review process

have been addressed in this final strategy document.

Guidance on Pollution Prevention

Research Priorities from Internal

Organizations

After carefully considering the guidance from outside

organizations, the scope of the potential pollution prevention program which ORD plans to conduct was narrowed to a subset of environmental problems and types

of research and development where the federal government can play the most effective and significant role (i.e.

broadly applicable tools and methodologies, generic

and enabling technologies and approaches). The next

step was to investigate which of these problem areas or

types of research were considered a high priority by

other organizations within EPA. ORD conducted a survey of selected staff in the Office of Prevention, Pesticides and Toxic Substances (OPPTS), Office of Air and

Radiation (OAR), Office of Enforcement and Compliance Assurance (OECA), Office of Policy, Planning and

Evaluation (OPPE), Office of Water (OW), Office of

Solid Waste and Emergency Response (OSWER) and

the Regions. By engaging Program Offices and Regions, ORD was able to sharpen its focus. The following

themes emerged from the survey:

• ORD research should emphasize life cycle assessment and costing research in order to provide the

scientific basis for comparing alternative risk management approaches.

• Techniques to measure pollution prevention effectiveness and verify the performance of pollution

prevention technologies are needed to assess the

environmental reductions which are being achieved.

• Pollution prevention approaches are needed for the

agricultural sector to reduce releases into several

media.

• Pollution prevention approaches to reduce greenhouse gases, including alternative energy (renewable) sources are needed.

• Pollution prevention approaches are needed for targeted industries in the industrial sector. (In most

cases these were aligned with specific regulatory

programs or Agency initiatives.)

The Program Offices were very consistent in identifying

needs in several areas. First, there was a need to

develop and test tools and methods to measure the

performance of various pollution prevention approaches

and to verify pollution prevention technology performance. Second, there was a clear desire for ORD to

work closely with the Program Offices in advancing

pollution prevention either voluntarily, or as part of a rule

making or compliance activity. In addition to targeting

industries, there was a call to address greenhouse gas

emissions and agriculture via pollution prevention research, and to conduct research in partnership with

industry and other stakeholders.

Sector-Based Approach to Identifying

Environmental Problems

As a next step, a sector-based approach was used to

organize and evaluate recent research and development activities already occurring for pollution prevention. An economic sector can be defined as a grouping

of enterprises that produce similar goods and services.

Table 1 presents the EPA Science Advisory Board’s

(EPA, 1990a) view of which economic sectors contribute

to each of the high-priority human health and environmental risks. The sectors identified by the SAB were:

industrial, agricultural, consumer, energy, and transportation.

Criteria for Setting Pollution Prevention

Research and Development Priorities

Given that the SAB’s assessment of high priority human

health and environmental risks still presents too large a

universe for an effective and feasible ORD pollution

prevention research program, ORD convened a group

of pollution prevention practitioners from within ORD

and selected EPA offices. This group represented two

divisions of ORD’s National Risk Management Research

Laboratory.

One of the key outputs of this group was a list of criteria

by which ORD should judge potential areas of pollution

prevention research. After many iterations, and input

from others, including ORD management, the Office of

Enforcement and Compliance Assurance (OECA), the

Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics (OPPTS) and

input provided by the SAB during review of the May,

1997 draft strategy, the following list of five criteria was

developed to select topical areas for the pollution prevention research program. Each area chosen would

have to meet the three essential criteria in order to

become a priority. Meeting the remaining two criteria is

seen as added incentive.

Criteria for Choosing Topical Areas

Essential Criteria

1. Addresses High-Risk Human Health or Environmental Problems - To develop research programs and

conduct projects targeted at high-risk human health and

environmental problems. This does not exclude a problem based solely on the lack of available data indicating

high risk.
8

The SAB’s High

Priority Human Health

and Environmental

Risks (EPA, 1990a)

Contributing Economic Sectors

Industrial Agricultural Consumer Energy Transportation Pollution

Sector Sector Sector Sector Sector Prevention

Human Health Risks

Ambient Air √ √ √√ √ Yes

Pollutants

Worker Exposure to √ √ √ Yes

Chemicals in

Industry and

Agriculture

Pollution Indoors √ √ √ Yes

Pollutants in √ √ √√ √ Yes

Drinking Water

Environmental Risks

Habitat Alteration and √ √ √√ √ Yes

Destruction

Species Extinction and √ √ √√ √ Yes

Overall Loss of

Biological Diversity

Stratospheric Ozone √ √√ √ Yes

Depletion

Global Climate Change √ √ √ Yes

Table 1. The Economic Sectors that Contribute to the SAB’s High-Priority Human Health and Environmental Risks.

2. Responds to the Needs of Stakeholders - To

conduct research and development activities that are

relevant to those with a stake in the pollution prevention

arena. For stakeholders within EPA, there are often very

specific research needs and short-term deadlines associated with laws, regulations, policies and initiatives. In

addition, non-EPA stakeholders will increasingly help

set the pollution prevention agenda as the Agency moves

to a community-based approach for environmental protection.

3. Fills Important Research and Development Gaps

not being Addressed by Others - To avoid duplication

of pollution prevention research and development activities being conducted by others. This recognizes that

either for regulatory reasons, or because there are no

other champions, ORD will be the organization that

conducts a variety of pollution prevention research and

development activities.

Desirable Criteria

4. Leverages Resources with Other Organizations -

To extend resources and capabilities with others. This

recognizes that not all pollution prevention research and

development activities can, or will, be supported by the

various stakeholders.

5. Provides Potentially Effective Research - To reduce pollution and protect human health and the environment. In many cases, effectiveness will be enhanced

by development of precompetitive technologies which
9

have wide applicability that others can build upon or

tailor to meet specific technological problems.

Survey of Pollution Prevention Research

by Economic Sector and Opportunities for

ORD Contributions

While pollution prevention solutions are needed for all

problems identified by the SAB, ORD must understand

what pollution prevention research is already ongoing to

identify where ORD can play a value-added role researching solutions. In response to Science Advisory

Board comments on the draft of this strategy (EPA,

1998a) ORD surveyed recent and current programs in

pollution prevention research for the major economic

sectors identified by the SAB as contributing to high-risk

human health and environmental problems. The purpose of the survey was to identify recent and current

work for each sector and determine where ORD could

contribute. Research opportunities are identified in this

strategy based on survey results and the above criteria

for developing programmatic priorities: high-risk problem, stakeholder needs, research gaps, leveraging resources, and providing potentially effective research.

The sectors surveyed paralleled the sectors identified by

the SAB as presenting high environmental risk. They

were: 1) industrial, the manufacturing and mining

subsectors, 2) agricultural, 3) consumer, 4) energy and

5) transportation. Although not discussed here, other

sectors were surveyed for their potential relevance to

EPA’s pollution prevention strategy. These included the

municipal and construction sectors. The municipal sector is not discussed in detail below because the high-risk

problems from this sector will be ameliorated by implementing pollution prevention in the other sectors. For

example, source water protection for public drinking

water supplies requires pollution prevention action for

pollution emanating from the manufacturing, agricultural

and transportation sectors. The construction sector was

also addressed in the full survey, but is not discussed

below. The primary problem from that sector is indoor air

and this topic is covered under the consumer products

sector.

The full reporting of the survey results of pollution prevention research activities for all sectors is contained in

an internal ORD report “Pollution Prevention Research

Survey and Opportunity Assessment” (EPA-NRMRL,

1998). The findings of the full survey report are summarized below and opportunities for ORD are presented in

Table 2. The survey results are heavily weighted to

research supported by the Federal government because

outputs from this research are usually in the public

domain and available on pollution prevention databases.

In contrast, private sector research is often kept confidential and is not published. Clearly, companies, especially larger ones, are researching ways to improve

process and product efficiency and effectiveness that

have corollary reductions in waste generation. However,

the research is not necessarily being done in the name

of pollution prevention; rather it’s just doing things better.

The survey showed that pollution prevention research is

being supported by several Federal agencies and departments, including Department of Energy (DOE), Department of Defense (DOD), Department of CommerceNational Institute of Standards and Technology (DOCNIST), Department of Transportation (DOT) and Department of Agriculture (DOA). Generally, EPA’s unique

mission compared to other agencies is that environmental protection, both human health and ecological, is the

primary motivator. For other agencies, other motivators

have primacy, leaving environmental protection as important, but secondary. An example is the DOE Industries of the Future Program in which industries are

selected because of their high energy use. The focus of

the research initiated under this program is energy

efficiency and since energy efficiency and material use

efficiency often go hand in hand, waste reduction and

pollution prevention research are included as goals for

the overall research programs developed for the targeted industries. The following discussion summarizes

the important points made in the survey for each sector.

Industry Sector

Manufacturing Subsector

Survey Results. The major federal funders of pollution

prevention research for the manufacturing sector are

DOE, DOD, DOC-NIST, the National Science Foundation (NSF), the EPA, and DOA. To summarize:

DOE’s Office of Industrial Technology under the Industries of the Future program conducts pollution prevention research related to the following industries: forest

products, steel, metalcasting, glass, chemicals, petroleum refining, aluminum, and agriculture. DOE’s analysis had shown that these industries are the most energy

intensive and the most polluting. Many of the research

objectives identified within industry-generated vision

statements and “roadmaps” can be classified as pollution prevention objectives. Databases for pollution prevention projects also indicate that DOE has been active

in funding projects in other industries as well; these

include food, textiles, lumber and wood products, furniture and fixtures, paper and allied products, printing,

rubber and plastics, primary metals, fabricated metals

and electrical and electronic equipment. Projects in crosscutting or “generic” technologies have also been funded:

separations, coatings, cleaning, recycle/recovery, process engineering software tools and life cycle analysis

tools.

DOD’s Strategic Environmental Research and Development Program (SERDP) has supported the bulk of DOD’s

pollution prevention research, and it has been dedicated

to avoiding environmental problems resulting from manufacture, deployment, and decommissioning of weapons

and military transportation equipment. The industry sectors receiving attention and support from SERDP in-
10

Industrial- Current Research: The major entities supporting P2 research in the manufacturing sector are DOE,

Manufacturing DOD, DOC-NIST and NSF. DOE has selected industries of interest in its Industries of the Future

Subsector Program. DOC-NIST budget amounts to some $135 million for Advanced Technology partnerships

which support work in developing advanced (usually incorporating P2 concepts) technologies of

immediate commercial interest. Much of DOD’s P2 research is conducted through SERDP to support

P2 for weapon systems manufacturing and maintenance.

Potential ORD Role: EPA’s P2 research should address high-risk problems, the solutions for which

have wide applicability. EPA’s role is to partner with other established funded programs, both

governmental and non-governmental, and conduct P2 research for risk management and generic

tools and technologies that support manufacturing decision makers.

Industrial- Current Research: The major entity supporting P2 research in the mining sector is the Dept. of

Mining Interior (DOI). Best Management Practices (BMP) for the industry stress more P2 activities.

Subsector

Potential ORD Role: Possible role for ORD in research to support development of new effluent

guidelines if they are developed by Office of Water. Pollution Prevention Act requires that P2 be

considered in development of regulations.

Agriculture Current Research: The most prominent entities supporting P2 research in the agriculture sector are

within the federal government with USDA taking the lead. Primary areas of interest covered by

USDA and other agencies are: reduction in pesticide and fertilizer use; conservation and soil

management; nutrient and non-point source P2; and others.

Potential ORD Role: ORD’s role is to partner with USDA for technology transfer, developing and

demonstrating P2 decision-making tools and methods for determining environmental impacts, costs

and risks. In addition, the EPA’s regulatory role in establishing upcoming nutrient loading (i.e.

nitrogen and phosphorus) numeric criteria for waterbody types suggests ORD involvement in

research for nutrient management and reduction; this research would be accomplished most

effectively in partnership with USDA.

Consumer Current Research: The consumer sector is extensive and includes the entire distribution system of

goods and services. Government and industry are involved in P2 research which support decision

making at all levels for the design, production, consumption and disposition of goods and services.

Potential ORD Role: ORD’s contribution for this sector should be to support the producers and

consumers of goods and services by developing and demonstrating test methods to evaluate

products for indoor air pollution potential. In addition, ORD can develop and test LCA tools and

methods, including streamlined tools and methods, in the design and manufacture of products.

Energy Current Research: The DOE is the preeminent organization for research in the energy sector, and

some of its research activities are directed at P2. A variety of energy efficiency and conservation

research, as well as alternative energy research, is being performed at the National Laboratories.

Potential ORD Role: ORD activities are supporting overall DOE activities where ORD has the

environmental expertise, facilities and experience. Some examples of these areas include intelligent

controls for improving efficiency of motors, biomass conversion to fuel, and photovoltaics. ORD’s

role should be to continue this support and offer P2 tools and technologies to systematically

approach energy issues which often overlap P2 issues.

Transportation Current Research: Transportation P2 research is part of established programs with DOT, DOE, and

DOD.

Potential ORD Role: EPA’s role in transportation P2 is the development and application of P2

decision-making tools and methods. ORD tools and methods could also be used to guide the P2

research direction of the lead agencies and departments.

Table 2. Summary of Pollution Prevention (P2) Research by Sector and Opportunities for ORD.
11

clude primary metals, fabricated metals, machinery, electrical and electronic equipment, and transportation. Generic areas supported by DOD have been separations,

coatings, stripping, cleaning, and life cycle analysis.

DOC-NIST has offered the Advanced Technology Program as its major avenue of pollution prevention-type

research. The stated purpose of this program is to invest

in technologies which show strong commercial potential

and which would enhance the nation’s economic growth

through products for the world market. Projects are

chosen based on their potential economic impact and

the likelihood of commercialization. While pollution prevention and clean technology is not a stated objective,

many of the technologies under development, being

more efficient than existing technologies, have collateral

environmental benefits that can be classified as pollution prevention. Focus areas are typically crosscutting

and apply to a number of industry sectors, with an

emphasis on high technology, information-intensive areas of interest. Focus program areas with implications

for manufacturing are: catalysis and biocatalysis, component based software, digital data storage, manufacturing composite structures, materials processing for

heavy manufacturing, motor vehicle manufacturing, vapor compression refrigeration technology, and selective

membrane platforms. In addition, new programs are

being established in the following areas: intelligent controls, microelectronics, and photonics. NIST is also involved in funding projects for the following industries:

chemical, primary metals, fabricated metals, electric and

electronic, and transportation equipment. Generic or

crosscutting areas of interest to NIST are separations,

process monitoring and control, and new materials.

NIST also has an increasing role in pollution prevention

technology transfer activities through its network of Manufacturing Extension Partnerships (MEP) centers.

USEPA’s program in pollution prevention research for

the manufacturing sector has been broad and has included projects for all the manufacturing industries. The

strongest emphasis by industry has been on fabricated

metals, chemical, electrical and electronics, and furniture. In addition there has been a focus on generic

technologies for pollution prevention and recycling such

as cleaning, stripping, coatings, separations, and tools

for process simulation, pollution prevention measurement, and LCA.

The USDA through the Forest Service’s, Forest Products Laboratory has conducted a large amount of research related to the pulp and paper industry. State

pollution prevention programs have typically centered

on providing technical assistance to small- and mediumsize businesses in implementing pollution prevention.

Compliance and reduction of wastes to improve bottom

line profitability have been of primary importance in

these programs. A few states have established pollution

prevention research centers, usually associated with a

state university. In these cases, industrial categories of

interest are those that are of most significant economic

import to the state.

Private sector efforts in pollution prevention research for

the manufacturing sector are not captured in available

data bases as yet. In mid-1997, the American Institute of

Pollution Prevention (AIPP) began an effort to establish

a database of work supported by trade associations and

this will be available to incorporate into future research

strategies. Clearly, much work is being done by the

private sector to make environmentally-relevant improvements to products and processes. However, since it is

not often described as pollution prevention research by

the companies, it is not captured in databases of pollution prevention projects.

ORD Opportunities. According to the manufacturing

facilities required to report for the 1996 TRI report (EPA,

1998b) 2.43 billion pounds of toxic chemicals were

released to the environment in that year. This figure

underestimates the actual amount of toxics released to

the environment because only those manufacturers using above-threshold amounts of these chemicals are

required to report, and all toxics are not on the list to be

reported. While more needs to be done to quantify and

prioritize risk resulting from these releases, ORD believes that these releases do represent a high risk to

human health and the environment. The Agency and its

Program Offices, as ORD’s stakeholders, have shown

interest in reducing these releases through pollution

prevention approaches. Examples of several programs

are the Common Sense Initiative, the 33/50 program

and the Source Reduction Review Project. These offices and programs also identify specific industry sectors

to ORD which then carries out pollution prevention

research on them.

Although many other federal agencies and departments

are devoting resources to pollution prevention research

for the manufacturing sector, interest in environmental

benefits is a secondary consideration with other factors

such as agricultural productivity (DOA), business competitiveness (DOC-NIST), energy efficiency (DOE), having primary importance in supported research. ORD

holds a unique role in researching pollution prevention

for the manufacturing sector because ORD’s work elevates environment as the most important consideration. In addition, research in the private sector is usually focused for the benefit of the sponsoring company.

Results are kept confidential and only the sponsoring

company benefits immediately. However, results of government research usually are in the public domain unless prior agreement under the Cooperative Research

and Development Act (CRADA) prevents the public

release of results.

Because of the wide range of high risk problems in the

manufacturing sector amenable to pollution prevention

research, ORD will use the above criterion “provide

potentially effective research” to narrow its program to

generic tools and technologies. These, by definition, will

be widely applicable and therefore likely to be effective

technological solutions to many environmental problems

having their origins in the manufacturing sector. Examples of these tools and technologies are life cycle
12

inventorying and impact assessment, separations for

recycle/recovery technologies, and green chemistry and

engineering.

Mining Subsector

Survey Results. The principal federal department involved in mining activities is the Department of the

Interior (DOI) with a variety of suboffices including the

Office of Surface Mining (OSM) and the Bureau of

Indian Affairs (BIA). In pollution prevention research

efforts for the industry, the EPA and OSM tend to place

emphasis on best management practices (BMPs) and

only recently have stressed more rigorous pollution prevention technologies. BMPs applicable to mine discharges can be divided into two general areas: construction/reclamation and management/housekeeping.

The two areas of principal concern to all levels of

government and industry are acid mine drainage (AMD)

with its intrinsic load of toxic metals, and nonpoint source

pollution prevention and control. Prevention of AMD

requires control of oxygen, water, bacteria, and sulfide

minerals. Within a mine, oxygen levels cannot be controlled, so AMD prevention measures focus on control of

the other three parameters, particularly on water flows.

One promising technique for controlling AMD is the use

of constructed wetlands. There are currently approximately 400 such systems in operation, mostly as a result

of Bureau of Mines (BOM) research programs. Constructed wetlands systems have been particularly effective at removing iron from acid mine water. For the

problem of nonpoint source runoff (abandoned mines),

the new remedies include water diversion, dewatering,

capping, grouting, or other techniques to reduce inflow,

and remining or reprocessing to recover metal values.

ORD Opportunities. EPA’s Office of Water may elect to

develop new effluent guidelines, practices and standards for either or both hard rock and soft rock mining. If

this does occur, the Pollution Prevention Act mandates

that pollution prevention alternatives be developed alongside more traditional treatment solutions. ORD could

play an active role in the research needs for these

promulgations. A Congressionally-directed program exists, is funded at $6 million/year, and is technically

directed by ORD. Since this program addresses abandoned mines, there is little opportunity to apply pollution

prevention approaches. Pollution prevention opportunities exist largely in modifying current mining practices

and processing to use less-polluting chemicals (e.g.

substituting alternative chemicals for sodium cyanide to

leach mountain size piles of low-grade gold ore).

Agriculture Sector

Survey Results. The most prominent entities supporting pollution prevention research in agriculture are within

the federal government with the DOA taking the lead

and to a lesser extent the FDA, USGS and EPA. The

DOA’s “Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education (SARE)” program and the Forest Products Laboratory program include a number of research areas: source

reduction of pesticides, fertilizers and other agricultural

chemicals; pesticide alternatives; biological alternatives

for insect and disease control; conservation and soil

management; non-point source pollution prevention;

ecological management for crops and dairy production;

cultivation technology and photo-control of weeds; nutrient management; integrated crop management; water

management; livestock grazing; and timber management. In addition to the federal program, the University

of California supports the Sustainable Agriculture Network (SAN), a computer-based technology transfer activity. Other universities are notable contributors to this

network.

EPA-ORD, EPA-OPPTS, and EPA-Region VII are involved in some of the research areas above. ORDNRMRL supported agriculture pollution prevention research in varied capacities such as conducting joint

DOA/EPA pollution prevention opportunity assessments,

conducting national workshops on pesticides management, producing pollution prevention guidance documents on pesticides formulation, and conducting research to reduce wastes in agriculture production and

processing. OPPTS represents the Agency in partnership with DOA and FDA for the Pesticide Environmental

Stewardship Program (PESP) to reduce pesticide use

and risk in agriculture and non-agriculture settings. The

Ag Center at Region VII is an EPA compliance-oriented

site that provides environmental and pollution prevention information on agriculture.

ORD Opportunities. It is clear that environmental risk

from the agricultural sector is great. Control of nutrient

runoff from agricultural feed operations and from agricultural lands generally, has been elevated to high priority

in EPA’s Clean Water Action Plan (EPA, 1998c). Nutrient loadings to watersheds have posed special risk to

environmental aquatic habitats. A potentially unique area

for ORD involvement with DOA and others such as DOE

or DOD is in developing and demonstrating pollution

prevention tools and methods, especially in life cycle

inventorying and impact assessment to determine relative environmental impacts, costs and risks posed by

employing varying alternatives. An example is pest and

fertilizer management for farming operations that generate pollutants. This activity would meet the criteria described above by targeting a research gap for high risk,

stakeholder driven problems; in addition, opportunity to

leverage resources through efforts of other agencies

would be assured.

Consumer Sector

Survey results. Because of the magnitude of this sector, an in-depth, comprehensive survey of all pollution

prevention research activities was not conducted. Rather,

examples of the types of pollution prevention activities

supported by the federal government, often in partnership with states and industry, are provided. The U.S.

Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) is the

federal organization whose mission includes oversight
13

of consumer products. Over 15,000 consumer products

fall under CPSC’s jurisdiction. As an example, this organization was instrumental in removing lead from paint.

Other agencies of the federal government, especially

EPA, play an active role in pollution prevention in the

consumer sector. For example, the EPA’s Office of Air

and Radiation’s (OAR) Atmospheric Pollution Prevention Division (APPD) has a number of voluntary programs designed to prevent air pollution caused by consumer products. Two relevant APPD programs are 1)

the Energy Star Residential Heating and Cooling Program in which manufacturers agree to manufacture and

market high-efficiency heating, cooling, and control products; and 2) the Green Lights Program which is aimed at

promoting energy efficiency through investment in

energysaving lighting. APPD has also teamed up with

the DOE in an effort to label various groups of energy

efficient products under the Energy Star program. In

related work, EPA’s Office of Pollution Prevention and

Toxic Substances (OPPTS) is working with the General

Services Administration on identifying “environmentally

preferable products.” OPPTS and OAR are also working on an Indoor Air Source Ranking Database which

uses available data to conduct a screening level risk

assessment to identify potentially high-risk sources. Latex and alkyd paints as well as carpeting have been

consumer products of note in OPPTS efforts.

There have been numerous industry efforts to study

products they produce and attempt to reduce or eliminate adverse environmental and health impacts. Reduction in air emissions from products has been a particular

focus of manufacturers whose products have received a

lot of media attention for their potential to pollute indoor

air. These include products such as photocopiers, carpet, and engineered wood. Formaldehyde levels in floor

underlayment have been reduced in compliance with a

new US Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) emission standard for floor underlayment.

In another example, Canon, a major manufacturer of

printers and copiers, redesigned one of its printer engines to substantially reduce ozone emissions.

In an effort toward energy efficiency, the Electric Power

Research Institute (EPRI) has developed and evaluated

technologies to improve lighting and refrigeration systems. EPRI has evaluated alternatives to CFCs developed by the chemical industry. These alternatives can

also be ozone-depleting and methods are needed to

evaluate impact.

ORD Opportunities. The consumer products area offers opportunities to ORD for pollution prevention research which is stakeholder driven and would fill gaps in

methods and research on cleaner consumer products.

ORD can continue developing essential test methods for

evaluating various consumer products of interest to

EPA’s program offices. In addition, the work being done

in ORD in life cycle inventorying and impact assessment

and in pollution prevention measurement can be applied

to consumer products to evaluate relative environmental

impacts of products. These methods can also be used in

clean product design by identifying ways of making

improvements to products so that they have less impact.

An example is in the testing and evaluation of low total

equivalent warming impact (TEWI) technologies.

Energy Sector

Survey Results. The DOE is the preeminent organization for research in pollution prevention for the energy

sector. Much of the work is performed in association

with states and industry and is directed at alternative

energy sources: nuclear, geothermal, wind, solar, biomass and clean coal. Under all of these areas, there are a

variety of activities being performed at various labs

including the Federal Energy Technology Center,

Argonne National Laboratory, the National Renewable

Energy Laboratory (NREL), and others.

In nuclear energy, emphasis has been on development

of fusion energy. In geothermal, work has been to

reduce costs and improve efficiencies of these technologies to make them more competitive with fossil fuels. In

wind research, DOE’s efforts have been focused on the

design and testing of new wind turbines. In solar energy,

DOE works in both the photovoltaic and solar thermal

arenas. In photovoltaics, which directly generate electricity, DOE is active in crystal growth research, materials research to improve efficiency, and performance

evaluations of cells. In solar thermal, DOE is also advancing technology for solar power towers, parabolic

collectors, and other advanced processes.

In biomass, DOE has been evaluating and developing

technologies for gasification (to produce biogas) with

some lesser efforts for pyrolysis (to produce liquid fuels).

DOE is also working to develop formulations for biomass conversion to ethanol for use in fuel cells. Argonne

National Labs provides a site for evaluating the performance of alternative fuel vehicles (methanol, ethanol,

electric, and hybrid electric) that are built by industry. In

direct combustion of biomass, DOE works to increase

efficiency and reduce emissions from these systems

and works on advanced turbine systems for high efficiency gas-powered turbines. With the DOA, DOE is

working to develop energy crops to provide renewable

fuel for power generation. NREL is also a major actor in

renewable energy research.

In clean coal, DOE develops and evaluates technologies such as gasification and liquifaction. They also

work on low-emission coal boiler systems, high-efficiency gas turbines, and the sequestering and recycling

of greenhouse gases from coal combustion. Some of

these clean coal efforts are in cooperation with private

sector companies such as Eastman Chemical and

Westinghouse.

ORD Opportunities. Clearly, DOE is active in pursuing

pollution prevention options for the energy sector via its

alternative fuels program. There are still a few research
14

gaps for high risk problems which can be addressed by

ORD. The primary pollutants of concern from the energy

sector are greenhouse gases and ozone depleters. An

opportunity for ORD research is investigating alternative, acceptable fluids for heat pumps used in waste

heat collection. ORD has expertise and facilities which

can be used for this work.

Another opportunity is in the application of intelligent

controls for increasing motor efficiencies in a variety of

applications, including wind turbines, combustion operations and industrial motors. ORD has some of the first

patents in the area of intelligent controls and could use

the existing expertise and facilities to pursue this work.

In solar energy, work is required in improving the efficiencies of solar cells to make them cost- competitive

with existing power generating technologies. ORD has

expertise in photovoltaic system demonstration and

evaluation for the purpose of quantifying pollution prevention capabilities of these systems. In biomass, several opportunities exist in waste biomass utilization, in

development of biomass-derived methanol, and in smallscale demonstrations (<5 megawatts). ORD has inhouse expertise and facilities which can be used to meet

both of these needs.

ORD also has the opportunity to use its expertise in

developing and testing pollution prevention measurement tools, as well as life cycle analysis and impact

assessment tools, to weigh and compare the various

energy alternatives. Cost, technical performance and

efficiency, and environmental consequences can be

compared using these methods.

Transportation Sector

Survey Results. Reduction of emissions from the transportation sector is being researched by many organizations, both within and outside the federal government.

Mention should first be made of the large research

programs being conducted by private industry, mostly

automotive companies. Research efforts have been undertaken to meet regulatory air quality goals that include

pollution prevention approaches. Examples of automotive industry research are development of the catalytic

converter, low-emission vehicles, zero-emission vehicles,

hybrid gasoline/electric vehicles, and fuel cell power

systems.

Within the federal government, many programs supported by the Departments of Transportation, Energy,

and Defense promote the achievement of pollution prevention objectives. Some EPA mobile source emission

regulations implemented by EPA, state and local agencies involve pollution prevention approaches. A limited

discussion of federal agency and other programs is

given below to provide examples of the largest programs.

The U.S. Department of Transportation is involved in

many transportation, energy, and environmental activities through the Federal Highway Administration, the

Federal Transit Administration, and the Federal Aviation

Administration. The Intermodal Surface Transportation

Efficiency Act of 1990 (ISTEA) started many programs

related to reducing pollution from automobiles, improving community involvement in transportation planning,

implementing effective travel demand management measures, and encouraging public transit. The newer sixyear, $175 billion National Economic Crossroads Transportation Efficiency Act (NEXTEA) program is funded to

continue building and operating a safe, efficient and

environmentally-sound surface transportation system into

the next century. To help protect the environment,

NEXTEA increases funding for the Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality (CMAQ) Improvement Program to

$1.3 billion annually, increases transportation enhancements funding by more than 25 percent and continues

funding for bicycle transportation and pedestrian walkways. In contrast to these large programs, DOT is also

involved in smaller projects; in one project the DOE

helped the US Postal Service prepare employee trip

reduction plans for 110 postal facilities in metropolitan

New York.

The DOE Office of Transportation Technologies works

with the transportation industry, energy supply industry,

and other research and development organizations to

develop and promote advanced transportation vehicles

and alternative fuel technologies that will reduce oil

import requirements, and minimize criteria pollutant emissions and greenhouse gases. The Office of Advanced

Automotive Technologies conducts research programs

aimed at the personal transportation systems of the

future—hybrid vehicles using multiple energy/power

sources, alternative fuel vehicles operating on non-petroleum fuels, and electric vehicles powered by advanced batteries or fuel cells. The Office of Heavy

Vehicle Technologies focuses its research activities on

improving the energy efficiency and reducing the emissions from advanced diesel engines and on developing

non-petroleum fueled diesel engines. The Office of Alternative Fuels Development sponsors research, development, and demonstration activities focused on cultivating agricultural and forestry feedstocks and on conversion systems for producing ethanol as a biofuel or

fuel additive.

DOD’s Air Force bases have studied pollution prevention opportunities for shops performing all types of vehicles maintenance and has researched ways of reducing reliance of Air Force weapon systems on ozone

depleting chemicals and hazardous materials. Within

EPA, OPPTS and ORD have supported research efforts

relevant to the transportation sector. OPPTS’s Design

for the Environment (DfE) Program is stimulating private

sector efforts to design products and services that reduce potential risk from chemicals; one industry sector

of importance to the DfE program is the aerospace

industry. ORD has past research efforts in conducting

waste reduction technology evaluations that are applicable to vehicle manufacture in private and defense

industries and has a current life cycle design project with

the Saturn Corporation.
15

Local government efforts for the sector are significant

and growing at a fast pace due to concerns about Clean

Air Act requirements and traffic congestion generally. To

meet the requirements of Clean Air Act Amendments,

and potentially tougher diesel regulations in the future,

metropolitan transit authorities have begun to consider

the use of alternate fuels for their mass transit vehicles.

More than 30 transit authorities have participated in a

program to evaluate biodiesel as an alternative fuel.

Biodiesel (methyl esters) is a cleaner burning fuel made

from natural, renewable resources such as vegetable

oils. Air transportation systems have also received attention. At the new Denver International Airport, the

solution to airport waste generation was for a collaboration of EPA’s Region VIII, the City of Denver, and airport

designers to develop pollution prevention and waste

management techniques before the airport opened.

An example of an academic program performing pollution prevention research for the sector is the University

of Wisconsin Engine Research Center. The goal of this

center is to better understand engine combustion phenomena in order to improve power density and fuel

economy while meeting emission standards.

ORD Opportunities. Given the resources devoted to

researching pollution prevention opportunities for this

sector within other federal agencies, especially the Department of Transportation and the DOE, there are few

gaps in the overall research being conducted for the

sector. Since most of the work is federally funded, the

research results are in the public domain and can be

used by all. One opportunity for ORD, in which we have

unique capability to meet a gap in existing research, is to

support the development of design tools to allow for

better environmental assessment of transportation

choices and improved design of transportation products.

The example offered above for life cycle design of

automobiles for the Saturn Corporation provides a prototype for this kind of effort.

Development of Research Goals

The above summary helps ORD focus on particular

research problems it should be addressing. To carry out

a pollution prevention research program and to plan for

new problems that may arise, the following four research goals, representing competency to do work in all

the above areas and the flexibility to meet new research

needs, are proposed as a way of structuring the pollution prevention research program. Specific sector research is identified with each goal.

Goal I — Deliver tools and methods. For all sectors the

program will develop tools and methods which can be

used to promote pollution prevention across the problems listed above. ORD will invest in this area because it

has substantial experience developing such tools and

methods, and in several areas (e.g., life cycle analysis,

process simulation) ORD staff are recognized for their

expertise and capabilities. The unique Agency mission

to advance the use of prevention and ensure that the

tools and methods effectively consider multiple environmental impacts makes this an inherently EPA research

and development responsibility.

Goal II — Develop and transfer technologies and approaches. For the manufacturing and consumer sectors

the program will develop, evaluate, and transfer pollution prevention technologies and approaches. Within the

manufacturing sector, there is a particular need for

research to support medium- and small-sized businesses

that are geographically dispersed (e.g., dry cleaners,

metal finishing, printing). This is also true for larger

companies that have difficulty in meeting compliance

requirements. ORD has resident expertise which can be

applied to the environmental problems associated with

the manufacturing and consumer sectors and intends to

maintain that expertise in the coming years. In many of

these areas, ORD has internationally recognized scientific and technical staff who can make contributions in

the science and technical arenas leading to resolution of

regulatory and compliance issues.

Increasing emphasis will be on generic technologies

and approaches which have the potential to cut across a

number of sectors, and ORD is the logical champion for

such developmental work. Industry and other government agencies are focused more on developing pollution prevention options for specific processes which are

of the greatest concern to them. ORD can be very

influential in catalyzing the development of technologies

and approaches through leveraging resources and

partnering with stakeholder organizations.

Goal III — Verify selected pollution prevention technology. For the manufacturing, consumer products and

municipal sectors, the program will verify the performance of pollution prevention alternatives in order to

fully demonstrate their efficacy, particularly as noted by

the Program Offices. This is a critical research need

because one of the most significant factors limiting the

use of pollution prevention approaches is the lack of

confidence by both industry and regulators that they can

achieve required reductions through pollution prevention. Over the past five years, ORD has developed a

capability to verify commercial-ready technologies and

products. ORD will maintain this capability over the

coming five years, and if needed, grow in areas where

verification can make a contribution to human health

and environmental protection. Under the Environmental

Technology Verification (ETV) Program, pilot verification

entities have been funded to support technology verification targeted at high-priority human health and environmental risks.

Goal IV — Conduct economic, social and behavioral

research. For all sectors the program will investigate the

economic, social, and behavioral (i.e., non-technical)

aspects of pollution prevention to better understand, and

then ameliorate, the barriers to the adoption of pollution

prevention technologies and approaches in the future.

Such has been called for by several of the national
16

strategies and the SAB. There is very limited capability

within ORD to address these issues (e.g., economics),

but because there is such a strong need for this research the extramural grants program, at least initially,

will be used to address this important area. ORD resident capabilities will be expanded in economics, while

other social science capabilities will be garnered through

the competitive grants program. ORD expects to continue its partnership with the NSF to leverage resources

in the social science arena.

Each of these major areas is developed in greater detail

in Chapter 3 in the context of a research goal with

associated objectives. Each objective includes a set of

research and development activities that will be undertaken along with brief descriptions of project areas that

will be pursued.
17

Vision

This research strategy is designed around the following

vision of where ORD’s Pollution Prevention Research

and Development Program should be going in the future:

Scientifically based pollution prevention research

and development products will be used routinely

by communities, industries, governments, and

other stakeholders for improved environmental

decision making on high-risk human health and

environmental problems, and as part of a move

toward sustainable development in the 21st

Century.

Mission

In moving toward this vision, ORD’s Pollution Prevention

Research and Development Program mission is:

To advance scientific research and develop costeffective tools, methods, technologies, and approaches which expand the availability and use of

pollution prevention by both the public and private

sectors.

Goals

In support of our vision and mission, and in concert with

the strategic approach identified in Chapter 2, the following will be pursued in this research strategy:

I. ORD will deliver broadly applicable tools and

methodologies for pollution prevention and

sustainability.

II. ORD will develop and transfer pollution prevention technologies and approaches.

III. ORD will verify selected pollution prevention

technologies.

IV. ORD will conduct research to address economic, social, and behavioral research for pollution

prevention.

Additional details on each of the four goals are provided

in this section including specific objectives that ORD will

pursue over the next five years. For each objective,

details are provided on: (1) why the research is important (Rationale), (2) what the current situation is with

respect to the goal and objective (Current Situation),

and (3) what research and development activities are

planned. Each goal description concludes with a discussion on projected resource allocations (Resource Allocation and Emphasis).

Goal I: Deliver Tools and Methodologies

ORD will develop, test, and deliver tools and methodologies which improve individual and organizational decision making to reduce or eliminate emissions, effluents,

and wastes from products, processes, and activities.

These tools will be applied across all economic sectors

generating pollution: manufacturing, mining, consumer

products, energy and transportation.

Objective: Develop and test user friendly tools and

methodologies for improved decision making.

Rationale

As many of the human health and environmental problems most amenable to pollution prevention are addressed, the need for scientifically sound, user friendly

tools and methodologies to assist in making decisions

on complex risk management problems becomes increasingly important. These tools and methodologies

can be of invaluable assistance for identifying and evaluating technologies and approaches that are less polluting when compared to each other, or to more traditional

end-of-the-pipe treatment. For pollution prevention to

play a key role both now and in the future, tools and

methodologies must be developed that are more quantitative in nature. Developing and testing pollution prevention tools and methodologies that are easy to use and

meaningful to stakeholders allows for improved decision

making at all levels. These tools and methodologies can

often be applied across economic sectors and, therefore, have wide applicability to many environmental

problems resulting from agricultural, industrial, mining,

transportation, and energy related activities.

Current Situation

All too often, environmental impacts are not considered

beyond a very narrow realm, and risk management

options are not thoroughly characterized using such

tools as life cycle assessment, process simulation, and

cost/benefit analysis. What on the surface appears to be

the best option, may not consider either the complete life

cycle of a product or process, or the risks of trading one

pollution problem for another.

Research and Development Activities

1. New Activity — Integrate risk assessment and risk

management tools and methodologies

Chapter 3. ORD’S Pollution Prevention

Research and Development Program
18

Increasingly, EPA is being asked by Congress, the

Administration, and the public to consider risk when

promulgating regulations and developing rules. Past

research and development efforts have improved the

ability of the Agency to use quantitative risk assessment

in making decisions on highrisk human health and environmental problems. The ability to link risk assessment

and risk management tools that permit the analysis of

possible options, both environmentally and economically, is now being called for by the National Research

Council (1996). Such an approach is a logical next step

in using scientific and technical information to make

more informed decisions on risks and risk management.

ORD’s National Center for Environmental Assessment

and National Risk Management Research Laboratory

will develop and pursue a joint program to link, and if

appropriate, integrate risk assessment methodologies

and pollution prevention tools (e.g., LCA, cost/benefit

analysis) to improve decision making on important human health and environmental problems.

2. Increased Emphasis — Improve and develop generic

tools and methodologies

Technologies and approaches for preventing or reducing human health and environmental risks should be

reliable, cost-effective, technically sound, and acceptable. ORD must assist public officials and the private

sector in making decisions on which new technologies

and approaches will be the most effective, both economically and environmentally. The research and development conducted will (1) improve engineering economy

and cost tools, (2) refine and advance the utility of life

cycle analysis, (3) develop process simulation tools, (4)

develop pollution prevention progress measurement

methodologies, and (5) develop and improve impact

assessment tools.

3. Continued Emphasis — Improve and develop targeted tools and methodologies

ORD has a continuing commitment to support various

Program Offices in the development and evaluation of

tools and methodologies that advance pollution prevention in specific areas or for specific problems. The

research and development to be conducted will be in

support of (1) the Office of Solid Waste and Emergency

Response (OSWER) on municipal solid waste, and (2)

the Office or Air and Radiation (OAR) on volatile organic

chemical substitutes. ORD will support other Program

Offices that would benefit from the tools and methodologies under development and testing by ORD scientists

and engineers as the need arises.

Resource Allocation and Emphasis

Goal I will receive increased emphasis under this research strategy. Providing user friendly tools and methodologies for improved decision making on pollution

prevention risk management alternatives is extremely

important. This is particularly true as the Agency moves

to environmental decision making at the community

level. ORD is well positioned to conduct research in this

area in terms of staff knowledge, expertise and experience, and supporting financial resources. Increased staffing and financial resources will be directed into the tools

and methodologies area and, if necessary, additional

resources will be solicited as part of the Agency’s planning and budgeting process to ensure progress in meeting this long-term goal.

Goal II: Develop and Transfer Technologies

and Approaches

ORD will develop, test, and transfer pollution prevention

technologies and approaches that are applicable across

economic sectors, and evaluate products, technologies

and approaches targeted at preventing high-priority human health and environmental problems in support of

the Agency’s regulatory and compliance programs. The

focus of this work will be the manufacturing and consumer products sectors.

Objective A: Research, design, and assess novel and

advanced environmentally benign approaches for industrial processing and manufacturing.

Rationale

Sustainable development has been defined as development that meets the need of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their

own needs (WCED, 1987). Technology can have a

profound effect on the environment both positively and

negatively. The challenge is to use technology in such a

way that it does not lead simply to short-term advances

in productivity at the expense of long-term resource

viability. A new generation of cleaner industrial manufacturing and processing technologies is needed to support pollution prevention, efficient resource use, and

industrial ecology. Such a strategy can help the U.S.

economy become more competitive by lowering resource and energy needs, reducing waste and emissions control costs, and fostering sustainable development.

Current Situation

According to the U.S. Council of Economic Advisers

(1995), an investment in research and development has

a private rate of return of 20 to 30 percent (i.e., benefit

that accrues to the inventor) and a social rate of return

approaching 50 percent (i.e., benefit that accrues to

others). Research and development is the source of

new products that improve the quality of life and new

processes that enable firms to reduce costs and become more efficient and competitive. Yet, most new

chemical science and engineering technologies are focused on improving operations, increasing efficiency in

the use of raw materials, and continuing to balance

environmental and economic considerations. Until recently, few research and development resources have
19

been devoted to the design of alternative synthetic

pathways for green chemistry, or the development of

improved reactor, catalyst, or process designs in order

to increase product yield, improve selectivity, or reduce

unwanted reaction byproducts.

Research and Development Activities

1. Continued emphasis — Chemistry for pollution prevention

The goal of this research effort is to improve existing

chemical design practices by developing more environmentally benign chemical synthesis (i.e., green chemistry) and safer commercial substances. Green chemistry

research was established to promote fundamental and

innovative chemical methodologies that accomplish pollution prevention and have broad application in the

industrial sector. It is the use of chemistry for source

reduction, the highest tier of the risk management hierarchy. Green chemistry encompasses all aspects and

types of chemical processes (e.g., synthesis, catalysis,

analysis, monitoring, separations, and reaction conditions) that reduce negative impacts on human health

and the environment relative to the current state of the

art. Emphasis will be on (1) an extramurally-focused

program on green chemistry, and (2) an in-house program on improved oxidation pathways.

2. Continued emphasis — Engineering for pollution prevention

Novel engineering approaches are being pursued to

prevent and/or reduce pollution from industrial manufacturing activities — both continuous and discrete processes. The scope of this research includes: equipment

and technology modifications, reformulation or redesign

of products, substitution of alternative materials, and inprocess changes. Although these methods are often

thought of in relation to the chemical, biochemical, and

materials processing industries, they can also be utilized

in many other industries such as semiconductor manufacturing, metals processing and other fabrication industries. ORD will continue to support pre-competitive engineering research in a variety of industries. Potential

areas include improved reactor, catalyst, or process

designs in order to reduce unwanted byproducts.

In addition, to be sustainable, engineering processes

will increasingly rely on technologies which allow them

to achieve at or near “zero releases” of wastes. Inprocess recycling is an important part of the Agency’s

definition of pollution prevention and may be the best

way to approach “zero releases” via direct recycling of a

process stream back into the process from which it was

generated. It enables recovery of valuable products, and

can prevent or minimize releases of both toxic metals

and organics. In-process recycling is best accomplished

using separations technologies such as adsorption, membranes, filtration, distillation, or a combination of these.

In ORD’s research program, emphasis will be on developing separations technologies for recycle and recovery

of toxic metals and organics. Results are expected to be

widely applicable across industrial, and possibly, economic sectors.

3. Continued emphasis — Feedback techniques for

pollution prevention

ORD will design approaches for predicting the performance of intelligent controls (IC) in pollution prevention

applications. IC computational approaches based on

fuzzy logic, neural networks, and generic algorithms are

broadly applicable technology which can be used in

many processes and sectors to reduce pollution from all

media. IC-based approaches have the potential to make

a major impact by preventing releases and increasing

energy efficiency at affordable costs. As part of this

effort, ORD will develop and demonstrate intelligent

controllers in the laboratory and at pilot-scale facilities

with various industrial, commercial, and consumer product partners (e.g., states, universities, environmental

agencies, manufacturing and commercial industries, utilities, trade associations, and federal organizations).

Objective B: Develop and test technologies and approaches targeted at specific environmental problems.

Rationale

Problems persist that pose high risks to both human

health and the environment. The challenge is to develop

economically attractive technologies and approaches

that result in significant reductions in pollution over the

longer term (e.g., the next 10 to 20 years), while providing the maximum amount of human health and environmental protection. The federal government plays a critical role in advancing technologies and approaches to

the point of joint, pilot- and full-scale evaluation and

demonstration. Government-supported research and

development of cutting edge preventive technologies

and approaches helps companies of all sizes, but is

particularly beneficial to medium- and small-sized companies which have neither the capability nor the resources to conduct their own programs.

Current Situation

While specific companies may address many important

knowledge gaps related to pollution prevention, the private sector does not generally sponsor research to

address human health and environmental problems that

cut across economic sectors, nor do they transfer proprietary technologies and approaches that give them an

advantage over their competitors. Problems associated

with persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic chemicals

(e.g., chlorinated compounds, metals) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) exist in a number of industries

and result from a variety of processes. Technologies

and approaches that have the potential to yield marked

improvements in preventing these pollutants can languish for years because the problem is owned by everyone and no one. Merely requiring industries to meet a
20

regulatory limit or compliance standard does not guarantee their ability to do so. Medium- and small-sized

companies, in particular, can suffer from a lack of capital

with which to conduct research and development, and a

lack of expertise with which to interpret and then employ

technologies and approaches that are preventive in

nature.

Research and Development Activities

1. Continued Emphasis — Address problems associated with global warming to reduce Total Equivalent

Warming Impact (TEWI)

The application and demand for hydrofluorocarbons

(HFCs) are increasing every year as these chemicals

have become the simplest choice for replacing the ozonedepleting chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) used in refrigeration and air conditioning applications. The decision to

use HFCs has been driven by the need to stop ozone

depletion, with less consideration given to their other

potential environmental impacts. Although HFCs presently account for only 1 percent of the greenhouse gas

(GHG) emissions, these are the fastest growing GHG

emissions component and are expected to reach 6

percent by the year 2010. Many of these chemicals have

long atmospheric lifetimes (between 20 to 100 years)

and have global warming potentials (GWP) several thousand times greater than CO2

. ORD will research and

develop approaches to measure and minimize the TEWI

performance of technologies using HFCs and HFC alternatives.

2. Continued Emphasis — Address problems associated with VOCs and hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) by

improving coating and cleaning operations

Surface coatings (e.g., paints, adhesives, inks, gel coats,

lacquers, mold release agents) are an aspect of almost

all manufactured items. Many of these surface coatings

(and stripping or cleaning materials) were and still are

manufactured with chemical solvents which improve

ease of application. Because almost all of these chemical solvents are VOCs and HAPs, their release to air,

water, and in wastes creates environmental problems

that have become the focus of many domestic and

international regulations and initiatives. The pressure of

current and pending environmental regulations has

spurred the development of many new, low-VOC/HAP

surface coating systems. While these new coatings are

making major inroads into markets that were at one time

dominated by low-solids solvent-borne coatings, product development issues continue to limit the commercial

availability and use of these systems in many applications. In ORD’s research program, innovative, costeffective, and low-pollution coating and cleaning materials and application technologies will be developed and

evaluated. ORD will also test and evaluate the applicability of environmentally friendly coating and cleaning

technologies to other industries, substrates and applications.

3. Increased Emphasis — Address problems associated

with products used indoors.

Consumer products and building materials (e.g., architectural coatings; dry cleaning spotting preparations;

specialty cleaners and sanitation products; adhesives,

caulks, and sealants; shoe polish and leather care products) can emit high levels of indoor contaminants known

to pose a significant risk to human health. A study by

EPA (Wallace, 1987) identified indoor air pollution as

one of the most important environmental risks to the

nation’s health because (1) indoor pollution levels are 2

to 5 times higher than outdoors, (2) after some activities,

indoor pollution levels can be up to 1000 times higher

than outdoors, and (3) in new, nonresidential buildings,

levels of VOCs are as much as 100 times higher than

outdoors. Test methods and models can be used to

better understand the emissions from these products

and stimulate development and commercialization of

lower-emitting products. ORD’s program will identify

products that emit high levels of indoor contaminants

known to pose a significant risk to human health, develop appropriate test methods and models that can be

used to better understand emissions from these products, and stimulate development and commercialization

of lower-emitting products.

Objective C: Demonstrate and evaluate pollution prevention in support of Agency and Program Office initiatives and priorities

Rationale

Supporting the Agency’s regulatory and compliance programs with objective, scientifically sound pollution prevention technologies and approaches is an extremely

important role that ORD plays. Both large and small

companies can have significant compliance problems,

but complying with environmental regulations can be

particularly difficult for small, geographically dispersed

businesses. They do not have the capital or the technical capability to investigate, evaluate, or demonstrate

pollution prevention technologies. In many cases, collaborative research between industry and government is

necessary to ensure that less-polluting technologies are

accepted and applied.

Current Situation

Billions of pounds of chemicals are released annually

resulting in exposures that are both carcinogenic and

mutagenic to human and animal life. Reductions in

these releases to air, water, and in waste have resulted

from concerted efforts by EPA and industry (e.g., 33/50,

Design for the Environment). The chemical industry, in

particular, has taken major steps to reduce the production of toxic chemicals and the impact of these chemicals and chemical byproducts on human health and the

environment, but many industrial sectors still have difficulty in meeting Agency requirements. Efforts to solve

medium-specific problems using a multimedia approach

(e.g., Source Reduction Review Project) have had mixed
21

success. The Common Sense Initiative (CSI) promises

to foster pollution prevention as an important part of its

mission across the six CSI-targeted industries. The Administrator has directed the Agency to look for additional

opportunities to adopt a sector approach to environmental protection.

Research and Development Activities

1. Continued Emphasis — Address problems associated with medium- and small-sized companies that pose

high risk problems

ORD will continue to focus on medium- and small-sized

companies with particular emphasis on those that are

part of CSI. Because these companies are often poorly

capitalized, run as small businesses, and geographically

dispersed, they have difficulty in meeting regulatory and

compliance requirements. They often do not have the

expertise or the resources to devote to the research and

development of advanced technologies and approaches

that are less polluting, although they may be affiliated

with a trade association that represents their collective

interests. ORD has been successful in the past, and will

continue to work in the future with those medium- and

small-sized businesses and their trade associations which

look to the Agency for assistance in reducing these

risks. Emphasis will be on (1) metal finishing, (2) printing, (3) computers and electronics, (4) auto refinishing,

and (5) dry cleaning.

2. Continued Emphasis — Support Agency rule makings

and initiatives that encourage pollution prevention

ORD will continue to participate with the Office of Water,

the Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response,

and the Office of Air and Radiation to investigate pollution prevention alternatives for those industrial categories involved in rule making or Agency Initiatives (e.g.,

Source Reduction Review Project, Common Sense Initiative). The projects will be nominated by the Program

Offices and selected by ORD on the basis of their ability

to achieve a meaningful and useful result with a broad

applicability.

Resource Allocation and Emphasis

Goal II is an area of continuing emphasis under this

research strategy. This area is one that has enjoyed

support within the Agency and it is anticipated that it will

continue into the foreseeable future. Research and development activities under Objective A will receive increasing emphasis as ORD enhances its in-house research and development program. Objective B, covering the development of generic technologies and approaches that prevent pollution, has the potential to be

widely applied; ORD can play a unique role not likely to

be filled by other public or private entities. Resources for

this area are expected to remain steady. Most of the

research and development activities under Objective C

will continue to support high-priority EPA regulatory and

regulatory re-invention efforts and will likely remain constant with some annual shifts in emphasis among industry sectors.

Goal III: Verify the Performance of Cleaner

Products, Technologies, and Approaches

As part of its Environmental Technology Verification

(ETV) Program, ORD will serve as a catalyzing organization to propel into the marketplace the most promising

commercial-ready pollution prevention products and technologies from both the public and private sectors.

Objective: Build a high-quality and efficient program to

verify the performance characteristics of pollution prevention products and technologies.

Rationale

Throughout its history, EPA has evaluated technologies

to determine their effectiveness in monitoring, preventing, controlling, and cleaning up pollution. Such data are

needed by technology buyers and permitters both at

home and abroad to make more informed decisions.

Since the early 1990s, numerous government and private groups have identified the lack of an organized and

ongoing program to produce independent, credible performance data as a major impediment to the development and use of innovative environmental technologies.

With respect to products and technologies that prevent

pollution, regulatory officials and private industry can

make more informed decisions when scientifically sound

data are available. Verifying the performance of products and technologies that prevent pollution can have an

important impact both nationally and internationally in

reducing pollutant loads in the coming decades. Pollution prevention innovations which have been systematically verified under the ETV Program will be more widely

accepted by both the public and private sectors and the

technical results of the verifications will quantify their

preventive nature.

Current Situation

ORD has developed a program to verify environmental

technologies across a wide variety of human health and

environmental problems (EPA, 1997b). Among the most

hopeful approaches to pollution prevention are the numerous products and technologies which not only protect the environment, but also save money. While many

opportunities for such products and technologies have

been identified over the last few years, few industry,

manufacturing, commercial and even community organizations are willing to change their normal way of doing

business and accept these new opportunities without

documented, credible data on their performance. For

this reason, pollution prevention products and technologies have significant difficulties in penetrating domestic

and international markets, and the potential for significant prevention of pollution goes unrealized.
22

Research and Development Activities

Continued Emphasis — Verify commercial-ready products and technologies that substantially reduce or eliminate the production of air, water, and waste products

Hazardous Waste Pollution Prevention and Treatment ETV Pilot. In October1995, ETV began one of its

first pilot projects with the State of California to verify the

performance of innovative technologies in hazardous

waste pollution prevention, recycling, treatment and

monitoring. This ETV pilot will continue operation with

emphasis on outreach to the pollution prevention community and targeted industry groups being emphasized

during 1997.

Industrial Coatings ETV Pilot. Based on the experience with the Hazardous Waste Pollution Prevention

and Treatment Pilot, the ETV program began a pollution

prevention pilot targeted at alternative products for one

specific industry (i.e., industrial coatings) in October

1996. In response to recent solicitations, 32 coatings

products and technologies have applied for verification;

testing will begin for most by the end of 1998.

Metal Finishing ETV Pilot. Another ETV pilot targeted

at a single industry (i.e., metal finishing) will be started in

1998. This industry is perceived to represent a substantial opportunity for pollution prevention technology alternatives and has the active backing of the Agency’s

Common Sense Initiative Committee. Verification of new

technologies that promise to assist this small business

sector will begin in 1999.

Indoor Air ETV Pilot. In this ETV pilot an extensive

process to formulate a series of protocols to test products that impact the indoor air environment has been

instituted. The initial focus is on office furniture, office

machines, and room air filtration systems. As stakeholder groups for each of these areas are formed, ORD

will support validation testing using the protocols over

the next few years. Stakeholders will follow protocol

development and select additional product categories

for verification in 1998.

Climate Change ETV Pilot. In December, 1998 ETV

will put in place a new pilot to assess commercial-ready

technologies that reduce the emission of greenhouse

gases. Initial efforts are likely to focus on methane gas

recovery systems, innovative cookstove technologies

(used by millions in third-world countries), and other

alternative technologies, such as fuel cells.

Air Pollution Prevention and Control ETV Pilot. In

October 1997, ETV selected a partner organization for

its Air Pollution Prevention and Control pilot. This effort

will have both pollution prevention and pollution control

technologies as foci. EPA began this effort with an inhouse evaluation of emulsified boiler and diesel fuels in

1997. Emulsified fuels are designed to significantly reduce the release of NOx

 into the air.

Source Water Protection ETV Pilot. ETV will address

the important area of prevention approaches to support

sustainable community development in its recently funded

Source Water Protection pilot. This pilot, which will

formally begin in 1998, will evaluate technologies that

prevent contamination of ground and surface waters by

technologies such as septic tanks, pipelines, agricultural

runoff control, and storage tanks.

Resource Allocation and Emphasis

Goal III is an area of significant emphasis and is particularly important since it is a Presidential Initiative. For the

past several years it has been supported as a line item

in the annual budget appropriation passed by Congress.

The ETV program has been maintained at a level of

approximately $10M since FY 1996, but the need for this

level of funding is expected to decrease over the coming

years as private sector developers of effective pollution

prevention technologies come to value, and pay for,

verification services. ETV sector-specific programs are

expected to become largely self-sustaining by 2005.

Technical staff currently dedicated to this effort will

remain involved throughout the life of the pilot program.

and continue appropriate quality assurance activities.

With a shift into the outreach and information dissemination phase of the program in the coming years, increased financial resources will be directed toward, and

staffed with, expertise in technical information to develop and deliver research products through a variety of

venues.

Goal IV: Conduct Research to Address the

Economic, Social, and Behavioral Aspects of

Pollution Prevention

Through its extramural grants program, ORD will sponsor economic, social, and behavioral research to improve decision making and foster the adoption of pollution prevention by the public and private sectors at all

levels. The results of the grant-sponsored work will be

integrated into the decision-making tools developed under Goal 1. ORD will also expand its in-house capabilities to better address economic considerations of implementing pollution prevention.

Objective: Develop and integrate social science and

socioeconomic information and research products into

environmental decision making.

Rationale

With the Agency moving from a command-and-control

approach of protecting the environment to one which is

more collaborative and community based, old mind sets

and ways of doing business must change. As a part of

this change, EPA requires an improved understanding

of why individuals and organizations make the decisions

they do regarding both human health and environmental

protection. As other organizations embrace a preventive
23

approach that goes beyond improved housekeeping

and easy fixes, the social, economic, and behavioral

barriers to, and incentives for, pollution prevention must

be understood. An improved understanding of the factors which are influential in moving individuals and organizations toward preventive risk management will be of

invaluable assistance in the evolving dialogue on environmental sustainability, both in the corporate boardroom and at the community level.

Current Situation

ORD initiated a research and development program in

the area of economic, social, and behavioral research in

1995 as part of its newly created extramural grants

program. This program of extramurally funded social

science research and development will continue for the

next several years. Such a program is particularly important to the Agency since many of its policies and programs must take into account both the benefits and the

costs associated with Agency policies, rules, and regulations. Non-technical (i.e., economic, social, behavioral) data and information are increasingly a part of

Agency decision making and this will continue to be the

case well into the future. Unfortunately, there is a paucity of reliable, scientifically-based socioeconomic tools

and methodologies available to assist Agency decision

makers in collecting, analyzing, and then understanding

such data and information. Much of the research to date

under this program has focused on economic research,

including techniques for valuation of ecosystems and of

human morbidity and mortality. Social science is needed

as well, but most of this has focused on broad environmental issues not specifically pollution prevention. In the

future a stronger emphasis is needed on issues related

to pollution prevention and sustainable development

particularly in the community context.

Research and Development Activities

Increased Emphasis — Develop economic, social, and

behavioral tools to improve environmental policies and

programs

There is a general lack of accepted tools for determining

the benefits and costs associated with environmental

problems and issues. The federal government and EPA

in particular are required to conduct cost/benefit analysis for all major regulations and legislative initiatives

including those pertaining to pollution prevention. Government agencies responsible for policy analysis, statutory rules, regulatory decision making, and priority setting for environmental actions, including pollution prevention, will benefit from a set of systematic and credible

tools for estimating the economic and social benefits

and costs of a given action or set of actions. ORD can

assist in providing this information through extramural

research and development in such areas as environmental economics, public policy, alternative approaches

to regulations, and the sociological (individual and organizational behavioral) dimensions of human health and

environmental protection. A research focus will be developed that emphasizes “sustainable communities,” linking economic, environmental, and social issues that

surround community level decision-making.

Resource Allocation and Emphasis

Goal IV will continue to receive significant emphasis

under this research strategy. Providing research and

development products on the economic, social, and

behavioral aspects of pollution prevention is important if

prevention is to be an effective risk management option

in the future. This type of research will become even

more important for the Agency as it moves to a

community-based approach for environmental protection in the coming years. Research related to socioeconomic sectors that influence decisions at the corporate, individual, and community levels will be given

increased emphasis. While all of this work will be conducted through the extramural grants program, ORD will

consider developing an in-house capability for social

science research. A decision on staffing and the nature

of the in-house research is reserved until the results of

the extramurally funded projects for the first several

years are available.
25

This research strategy provides guidance and direction

for ORD’s Pollution Prevention Research and Development Program over the next five years. It is designed to

be the first step in what will become a world-recognized,

ORD capability in providing the tools, methodologies,

technologies, and approaches for advancing pollution

prevention in the context of sustainable development

well into the 21st century. The next step is to develop

and conduct projects meeting the “essential” and “desirable” criteria described in Chapter 2.

General Resource Trends

The enactment of the Government Performance and

Results Act (GPRA) in 1994 and its implementation by

EPA in FY 1999, places increased emphasis on goals

and objectives which are measurable and achievable.

With a greater emphasis on meeting the goals, objectives, and subobjectives identified by the Agency in

response to GPRA, increased stability in resource allocation and budgeting is anticipated. Pollution prevention

is part of the Agency’s Sound Science Goal and is

described under that goal’s Pollution Prevention and

New Technology (PPNT) Objective. All of the research

and development activities described in this research

strategy fall under one of several of the PPNT

Subobjectives.

The actual allocation of resources for the various objectives and research and development activities described

in this research strategy is not specifically defined at this

time. However, it is reasonable to project trends based

on the information that has been presented in Chapter 3

(Table 3). Ultimately, the ability to sustain a research

and development program in pollution prevention under

GPRA will depend on the outputs and outcomes (e.g.,

products, accomplishments) described in the implementation plan and whether or not specific milestones have

been met in a timely manner. As with all types of

research and development programs, environmental research and development can offer no guarantees of

success. Therefore, the resource trends identified in

Table 3 are projections subject to a number of influences both internal and external.

Engagement and Partnership

While not a key scientific or technical issue, it is clear

that engagement and partnering with a variety of stakeholders will enhance the adoption of pollution prevention. Pollution prevention frequently works best when

efforts at preventing pollution are collaborative, involving

many individuals and organizations that have a stake in

seeing it succeed. The Agency is moving from a command-and-control approach in protecting both human

health and the environment to one that is based on

environmental protection at the community level. As this

happens, it becomes important for ORD to more fully

engage a number of organizations in both the public and

private sectors that are receptive to and supportive of

pollution prevention research and development.

For pollution prevention to be adopted as the preferred

approach for environmental protection, it is essential

that ORD work more closely with individuals and organizations that are directly involved in the implementation

of pollution prevention approaches. This is particularly

true for organizations that are influential in advancing

the concept and routine consideration and use of pollution prevention, in both the United States and around the

World. This includes EPA’s Program Offices and other

stakeholders:

• Various industrial sectors in order to provide tools

and technologies which employ pollution prevention

in a variety of economic sectors to improve compliance, and then going “beyond compliance” where it

makes environmental and economic sense.

• States, communities, and tribes, in order to better

understand those situations at the community level

where pollution prevention might best be employed.

Implementation of the strategy will also raise the

profile of pollution prevention as a routine part of the

Agency’s approach to community-based environmental decision making.

• Federal organizations, in order to identify what research and development is needed to enhance the

use of pollution prevention at federal facilities. Implementation of the strategy will also stress testing

pollution prevention tools, methodologies, technologies, and approaches at government sites where

they can be evaluated in real-world settings.

• The international community, in order to exchange

information on pollution prevention research and

development and its implementation. Implementation of the strategy will also provide perspectives on

what other countries are doing to advance pollution

prevention in the broader context of sustainable

development, including the International Organization for Standardization’s ISO 14000 standards for

environmental management.

Delivery of Research and Development

Results

ORD will strive to deliver its pollution prevention research and development results to the broadest posChapter 4. Moving Forward to Implementation
26

GOALS, OBJECTIVES, AND ACTIVITY STATUS RESOURCE

RESEARCH ACTIVITIES TRENDS

Tools and Methodologies

Tools and methodologies that are user friendly

1. Integrate risk assessment and risk management New Activity Increasing

2. Develop broadly applicable tools and methodologies Increased Emphasis Increasing

3. Develop targeted tools and methodologies Continued Emphasis Steady

Technologies and Approaches

Advanced, environmentally benign approaches

1. Advance Green chemistry for pollution prevention Continued Emphasis Steady

2. Advance Engineering for pollution prevention Continued Emphasis Steady

3. Improve Measurement, assessment, and feedback

techniques Continued Emphasis Steady

Technologies and approaches that target problems

1. Address problems associated with global warmers Continued Emphasis Steady

2. Address problems associated with VOCs and HAPs Continued Emphasis Steady

3. Address problems associated with products used indoors Increased Emphasis Increasing

Pollution prevention for Agency and Program Office priorities

1. Address small companies that pose high risks Continued Emphasis Steady

2. Support Agency pollution prevention activities Continued Emphasis Steady

Performance Verification

Performance verification of pollution prevention products and technologies

Verify commercial-ready products, technologies, process

changes Continued Emphasis Decreasing

Social Science

Research to address the economic, social, and behavioral aspects of pollution prevention

Develop economic, social, and behavioral tools Increased Emphasis Increasing

Table 3. Pollution Prevention Resource Trends for the Next Five Years (FY 1999 - 2003)

sible audience. The goal is to enhance the access to,

and use of, pollution prevention tools, methodologies,

technologies, and approaches. To this end, ORD will

use electronic technology (e.g., Internet home pages,

distance learning) to the maximum extent possible. Electronic delivery offers a cost-effective, widely available

means of delivering data, information, and results that

can be easily accessed by both the public and private

sectors. Pollution prevention research and development

results developed by ORD will be designed to be available electronically, and ORD intends to be a major

provider of pollution prevention research and development products via the Internet.

ORD will also utilize pollution prevention technical assistance organizations and industrial trade and professional organizations to transfer results. These organizations include the National Pollution Prevention Roundtable

(NPPR), NIST Manufacturing Extension Partnerships

(MEPs), the Business Roundtable (an organization of
27

chief executives of the largest U.S. corporations), the

Small Business Assistance Programs and Small Business Development Centers. Examples of trade and

professional organizations are the American Institute of

Chemical Engineers, the American Electroplaters and

Surface Finishers Society, the Air and Waste Management Association, and the Chemical Manufacturers Association.

A third and very important mechanism of results transfer

is the establishment of cooperative research and development agreements (CRADAs) with private sector partners. By having these agreements in place with ORD for

research products, companies can have exclusive rights

to newly developed pollution prevention technologies.

The profit motive provides strong incentives to companies with CRADA rights covering promising technologies and tools, to disseminate them through commercialization. Private sector companies are also likely to

have skills in advertising new technologies and the

necessary credibility with potential users.

Implementation of this Research Strategy

This research strategy stresses the importance that

pollution prevention can play in addressing high-priority

human health and environmental risks. It does so within

a framework that is both visionary and pragmatic. It is

visionary in terms of seeing pollution prevention’s role in

sustainable development, and it is pragmatic through its

orientation to meeting the more immediate needs of

ORD’s important stakeholders, the Program Offices and

Regions. Over the next five years, ORD will continue on

the path laid out in this research strategy for performing

research to identify pollution prevention solutions to

environmental problems. In addition, as new areas of

possible research present themselves within this

timeframe, ORD will use the “essential” and “desirable”

criteria expressed in this strategy to evaluate whether its

involvement is appropriate.
29

ACS (American Chemical Society). Technology Vision

2020. (Washington, DC: ACS, 1996).

CEA (Council of Economic Advisors). Supporting

Research and Development to Promote Economic

Growth: The Federal Government’s Role (Working

Paper). (http://www.whitehouse.gov/WH/EOP/CEA/

econ/html/econ-top.html). (Washington, DC: CEA,

1995).

CENR (Committee on Environmental and Natural

Resources). A National R& D Strategy for Toxic

Substances and Hazardous and Solid Waste.

(Washington, DC: EPA, 1995).

Ehrenfeld, John R. and Jennifer Howard. “Setting

Environmental Goals: The View from Industry,” in

National Forum on Science and Technology Goals:

Linking Science and Technology to Society’s

Environmental Goals. (Washington, DC: National

Academy Press, 1996).

EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency - Science

Advisory Board). “Report of the Pollution Prevention

Subcommittee — Review of the ORD Draft Pollution

Prevention Research Plan: Report to Congress”

(EPA-SAB-EEC-89-037). (Washington, DC: EPA,

1989).

EPA (a) (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency - Science

Advisory Board). Reducing Risk: Setting Priorities

and Strategies for Environmental Protection (SABEC-90-021). (Washington, DC: EPA, 1990).

EPA (b) (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency).

Pollution Prevention Research Plan: Report to

Congress (EPA/600/9-90-015). (Washington, DC:

EPA, 1990).

EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). Pollution

Prevention Strategy. Federal Register 56:7849-7864.

February 26, 1991.

EPA (a) (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency - Science

Advisory Board). “Letter Report on Review of ORD’s

Draft Pollution Prevention Research Strategic Plan.”

(EPA-SAB-EEC-LTR- 92007). (Washington, DC:

EPA, April 21, 1992).

EPA (b) (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency).

Pollution Prevention Research Program (EPA/600/

R-92/189). (Washington, DC: EPA, 1992).

EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). Pollution

Prevention Policy Statement. (June 13, 1993).

EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency), The New

Generation of Environmental Protection: EPA’s FiveYear Strategic Plan, (Washington, DC: EPA, 1994).

EPA (a) (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency).

Strategic Plan for the Office of Research and

Development (EPA/600/R-96/059). Washington, DC:

EPA, 1996).

EPA (b) (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 1994

Toxics Release Inventory: Public Data Release (EPA

745-S-96-002). (Washington, DC: EPA, 1996).

EPA (a) (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 1997

Update to ORD’s Strategic Plan (EPA/600/R-97/

015). (Washington, DC: EPA, 1997).

EPA (b) (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency).

Environmental Technology Verification Program:

Verification Strategy (EPA/600/K-96/003).

(Washington, DC: EPA, 1997).

EPA (a) (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency-Science

Advisory Board) An SAB Report: Review of ORD’s

Pollution Prevention Research Strategy: Review of

the Office of Research and Development’s Draft

Pollution Prevention Research Strategy by the

Environmental Engineering Committee (EPA-SABEEC-98-008). (Washington, DC: EPA,1998).

EPA (b) (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 1996

Toxics Release Inventory; Public Data Release -

Ten Years of Right-to-Know (EPA 745-R-98-005).

(Washington, DC: EPA, 1998).

EPA (c) (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). Clean

Water Action Plan: Restoring and Protecting

America’s Waters (EPA-840-R-98-001).

(Washington, DC: EPA, 1998).

EPA-NRMRL (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency).

Pollution Prevention Research Survey and

Opportunity Assessment: National Risk Management

Research Laboratory Internal Report. (1998).

Federal Register. Addition of Facilities in Certain Industry

Sectors; Toxic Chemical Release Reporting;

Community Right-to-Know.(61: 33588 - 33618, June

27, 1996).

Freeman, Harry, et. al. “Industrial Pollution Prevention:

A Critical Review,” Journal of the Air and Waste

Management Association, Vol. 42, No. 5, 1992, pp.

618-656.

References
30

Freeman, Harry. “Pollution Prevention: The U.S.

Experience,” Environmental Progress, Vol. 14, No.4,

1995, pp. 214-219.

Habicht, Henry F., II, Deputy Administrator, U.S.

Environmental Protection Agency, “U.S. EPA

Memorandum: EPA Definition of Pollution

Prevention.” May 28, 1992.

Hart, Stuart L. “Beyond Greening, Strategies for a

Sustainable World,” Harvard Business Review,

January — February 1997, pp. 66-76.

INFORM, Inc. Toxics Watch 1995. (New York, NY:

INFORM, Inc.) 1995.

NAS, et. al. (National Academy of Sciences), Allocating

Federal Funds for Science and Technology.

(Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1995).

NCE (National Commission on the Environment),

Choosing a Sustainable Future: The Report of the

National Commission on the Environment.

(Washington, DC: Island Press, 1993).

NRC (National Research Council), National Forum on

Science and Technology Goals: Linking Science

and Technology to Society’s Environmental Goals.

(Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1996).

NSTC (National Science and Technology Council),

Technology for a Sustainable Future: A Framework

for Action. (Washington, DC: NSTC, 1995).

PCSD (President’s Council on Sustainable Development).

Sustainable America: A New Consensus for

Prosperity, Opportunity, and a Healthy Environment

for the Future. (Washington, DC: PCSD, 1996.

Pelley, Janet. “Environmental R&D Shifts to Pollution

Prevention,” Environmental Science and Technology,

Vol. 31, No.3, 1997, pp.138-141.

Wallace, Lance A. The Total Exposure Assessment

Methodology (TEAM) Study: Summary and Analysis,

Vol. 1 (EPA/600/6-87/002a). (Washington, DC: EPA,

1987).

WCED (World Commission on Environment and

Development). Our Common Future, (New York:

Oxford University Press, 1987), pp. 40.

West Publishing Co. “Pollution Prevention Act of 1990

(PPA),” Section 13101(b). Published in Selected

Environmental Law Statutes 1991-92 Educational

Edition, St. Paul, MN: West Publishing Co., 1992),

pp. 1081-1085.
31

Appendix I

EPA’s Definition of Pollution Prevention (Habicht, 1992).

Under section 6602 (b) of the Pollution Prevention Act of 1990, Congress established a national policy that:

— pollution should be prevented or reduced at the source whenever feasible;

— pollution that cannot be prevented should be recycled in an environmentally safe manner whenever

feasible;

— pollution that cannot be prevented or recycled should be treated in an environmentally safe manner

whenever feasible; and

— disposal or other release into the environment should be employed only as a last resort and should be

conducted in an environmentally safe manner.

Pollution prevention means “source reduction,” as defined under the Pollution Prevention Act, and other

practices that reduce or eliminate the creation of pollutants through:

— increased efficiency in the use of raw materials, energy, water, or other resources, or

— protection of natural resources by conservation.

The Pollution Prevention Act defines “source reduction” to mean any practice which:

— reduces the amount of any hazardous substance, pollutant, or contaminant entering any waste stream

or otherwise released into the environment (including fugitive emissions) prior to recycling, treatment,

or disposal; and

— reduces the hazards to public health and the environment associated with the release of such

substances, pollutants, or contaminants.

The term includes: equipment or technology modifications, process or procedure modifications, reformulation

or redesign of products, substitution of raw materials, and improvements in housekeeping, maintenance,

training, or inventory control.

Under the Pollution Prevention Act, recycling, energy recover, treatment, and disposal are not included within

the definition of pollution prevention. Some practices commonly described as “in-process recycling” may

qualify as pollution prevention. Recycling that is conducted in an environmentally sound manner shares many

of the advantages of prevention—it can reduce the need for treatment or disposal, and conserve energy and

resources.

In the agricultural sector, pollution prevention approaches include:

— reducing the use of water and chemical inputs;

— adoption of less environmentally harmful pesticides or cultivation of crop strains with natural resistance

to pests; and

— protection of sensitive areas.

In the energy sector, pollution prevention can reduce environmental damages from extraction, processing,

transport, and combustion of fuels. Pollution prevention approaches include:

— increasing efficiency in energy use;

— substituting environmentally benign fuel sources; and

— design changes that reduce the demand for energy.
32

Appendix II

Pertinent Data on TRI Chemicals Extracted from the

Toxics Release Inventory (EPA, 1996b).

1. A total of 2.26 billion pounds of listed chemicals were released with approximately 1,556 million pounds released to the

air (68.8%), 349 million pounds released underground (15.4%), 289 million pounds released to the land (e.g., landfills,

surface impoundments) (12.8%), and 66 million pounds released to surface waters (e.g, rivers, lakes, streams) (2.9%).

2. A total of 3.8 billion pounds of listed chemicals were transferred to off-site locations with approximately 2,456 million

pounds being sent for recycling (64.7%), 464 million pounds being sent for energy recovery (12.2%), 319 million pounds

sent for treatment (8.4%), 298 million pounds sent for disposal (7.8%), and 255 million pounds sent to publicly-owned

treatment works (6.7%).

3. The chemical industry (851 million pounds) and the primary metals industry (313 million pounds) were first and second

in total releases in 1994, and their order reversed (primary metals - 1,142 million pounds and chemical industry (989

million pounds) for transfers.

4. Examples of chemicals released to the air — methanol, toluene, ammonia, and xylene, released underground —

hydrochloric acid, ammonium nitrate (solution), ammonia, and methanol, released to surface waters — phosphoric acid,

ammonia, methanol, ammonium nitrate (solution), and released to the land — zinc compounds, phosphoric acid, copper

compounds, and manganese compounds.

5. The top ten carcinogens with the largest air/water/land releases were in descending order of quantity: dichloromethane,

styrene, acetaldehyde, formaldehyde, chloroform, tetrachloroethylene, benzene, 1,3 butadiene, 1,2 dichloroethane, and

chromium for a total release of approximately 177 million pounds.

6. A total of 26.5 billion pounds of TRI chemicals in wastes were managed by facilities in the following ways: treated on-site

— 8,659 million pounds (32.6%), recycled on-site — 8,407 million pounds (31.7%), energy recovery on-site — 3,423

million pounds (12.9%), 2,515 million pounds released or disposed of — 2,515 million pounds (9.5%), recycled of-site —

2,517 million pounds — (9.5%), treated off-site — 557 million pounds (2.1%) and energy recovery off-site — 469 million

pounds — 1.8%).

7. Examples of chemicals involved in: recycling — sulfuric acid (acid aerosols), copper, toluene, and lead compounds,

treatment — hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid(acid aerosols) methanol, ammonia, energy recovery — ethylene, propylene,

methanol, mixtures and other trade names, and release/disposal — methanol, hydrochloric acid, ammonia, toluene.

8. Thirty-two percent of all TRI facilities reported at least one source reduction (pollution prevention) activity in 1994 with

reductions attributed to good operating practices, inventory control, spill and leak prevention, raw material modifications,

process modifications, cleaning and degreasing, surface preparation/finishing, and product modifications.

9. Since 1988, EPA’s baseline year for TRI comparisons, releases have declined by 44.1% with the chemical industry

reducing releases by 622 million pounds, multiple codes by 304 million pounds and primary metals industry by 202 million

pounds.

10. The total releases from federal facilities was approximately 9.8 million pounds with 83.7% released to air, 9.2%

released to land, 4.5% injected underground, and 2.5% released to surface waters. The Department of Defense released

72.7% of the total releases followed by the Department of Energy at 9.9%, the U.S. Enrichment Corporation at 7.6%, the

Department of Agriculture at 5.8% and Others at 4.0%.

11. A total of 10.4 million pounds of listed chemicals transferred to off-site locations with approximately 5.2 million pounds

being sent for recycling (50.1%), 0.6 million pounds being sent for energy recovery (5.7%), 1.6 million pounds sent for

treatment (15.7%), 2.7 million pounds sent for disposal (25.5%), and 0.3 million pounds sent to publicly-owned treatment

works (3.0%). Of this amount, 94.5% of the transfers were by the Department of Defense of which 71.0% of that amount

was by Army facilities.

12. A total of 30.0 million pounds of TRI chemicals in wastes were managed by federal facilities in the following ways:

treated on-site — 6.3 million pounds (21.0%), recycled on-site — 4.1 million pounds (13.7%), energy recovery on-site —

0.6 million pounds (2.1%), released or disposed of — 11.5 million pounds (38.5%), recycled of-site — 4.8 million pounds

— (16.0%), treated off-site — 2,1 million pounds (6.9%) and energy recovery off-site — 0.5 million pounds — 21.0%).

13. Federal facilities projected a decline in TRI chemicals in wastes to 24.4 million pounds by 1996. Forty-eight percent of

all federal facilities reported undertaking at least one source reduction activity in 1984.
33

Appendix III

Potential Adverse Human Health and Environmental Effects of the Top 25

TRI Chemicals with the Largest Air/Water/Land Releases, 1994 (EPA, 1996b).

Compound categories do not have CAS numbers (----).

Distinctions among cancer classifications are discussed

in the OSHA carcinogen section of this chapter.

Toxicity resulting from the metabolite or degradation

product of the parent compound.

Contributes to ozone formation in the lower atmosphere;

however, the extent of contribution to smog formation is

unknown.

Concentrated solutions are corrosive.

Source of Data 9

9

1

2

Aerosol forms.

Chromium VI is carcinogenic.

Inorganic compounds.

Sources: Integrated Risk Management System, Hazardous Substances Data Bank, PPT’s Background Documents for Chemical Fact Sheets, EPCRA Section 313

Responses to Petitions, Agency for Toxic Substances

and Disease Registry’s Toxicological Profiles, and

Environmental Health Perspective, Vol. 37, 1984.

3

4

5

6

7

8

 67-56-1 Methanol

7664-41-7 Ammonia

1330-20-7 Xylene (mixed isomers)

 75-15-0 Carbon disulfide

--------- Zinc compounds

 78-93-3 Methyl ethyl ketone

7664-38-2 Phosphoric acid

7647-01-0 Hydrochloric acid

 75-09-2 Dichloromethane

7782-50-5 Chlorine

--------- Glycol ethers

--------- Copper compounds

--------- Manganese compounds

 100-42-5 Styrene

 71-55-6 1,1,1-Trichloroethane

 74-85-1 Ethylene

 79-01-6 Trichloroethylene

 71-36-3 n-Butyl alcohol

 108-10-1 Methyl isobutyl ketone

7664-93-9 Sulfuric acid (acid aerosols)

--------- Chromium compounds

 115-07-1 Propylene

 463-58-1 Carbonyl sulfide

--------- Lead compounds

 108-88-3 Toluene

√

Health Effects

Acute

Cancer

2 3

√ 4

√ 4

Chronic

Developmental

Reproductive

Neurotoxicity

Other

Environmental Effects

Ecotoxicity

Smog Formation

Ozone Depletion

√

√ √

√

√√√ √

√

√

√ 5 √ 6

√ √ √

√√ √ √

√ √

√√√ √

√√ √

√√ √ √

√ √

√

√

√

√

√ √√

√ √

√√ √ √ √

√

√ √

√√ √ √ √ √

√ 7

√ 8

CAS

No. 1 Chemical

√
EPA/600/R-98/123

$300Penalty for Private UseOfficial BusinessCincinnati, OH 45268Center for Environmental Research InformationEnvironmental Protection AgencyUnited States

BULK RATE

POSTAGE & FEES

EPA

PAID

PERMIT NO. G-35