FI FTH DI VI SI ON

RI CKM A N, C. J.

, M CFA DDEN, P. J.

, and SENI OR A PPELLA TE JUDGE PHI PPS

N O T IC E : M otions for r e c ons i de r a tion m us t be

ph y sic a l ly r e ce iv ed i n our c le r k ’s offic e w ithin te n

da y s of the da te of de c is ion to be de e m ed tim e ly file d.

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. ga a ppe a ls .us /r ule s

M ar ch 2, 2022



# I n th e Co u r t o f

A p p eals o f

G eo r g ia

A2 1 A1 65 5 . W RIGHT v . THE STATE.

P H I P P S , Sen i o r Ap p el l at e J u d g e.

A ju ry fo u n d J am i e Co u rt n ey W ri g h t gu i lt y o f t wo co n tro l l ed su b s t an ce

o ffen s es an d t wo fi rearm offen s es

. W ri g ht ap p eal s fro m t h e d en i al of h i s m ot i o n fo r

a n ew t ri al

, arg u i n g t hat : (i ) t h e t r i a l co u rt erred w h en i t ad m i t ted (a) s t at em en t s h e

m ad e wh i l e d et a i n e d b y l aw en fo rcem en t o ffi cers w i th o u t t h e b en efi t o f Mi r a n d a 1

warn i n gs an d (b ) ev i d en ce co n cern i n g pri o r co n vi ct i o n s en t ered aft er h e p led g ui l t y

t o co n t r o l l e d s u bs t an ce an d fi rearm o ffen s es ; an d (i i ) t h e ev id en ce was in su ffi ci en t

t o s u p po rt h i s co n vi ct i o n s

. Fo r t h e reas o n s t h at fo l lo w, wh il e we r e j e ct W ri g h t ’ s

ch al l en g es t o t he ad m i s s i o n o f s t at em en t s h e m ad e t o o ffi cers an d t o t h e s u ffi ci en cy

1 Mi r a n d a v. Ar iz o n a , 3 8 4 U. S. 4 3 6 (8 6 SCt 1 6 0 2 , 1 6 LE2 d 6 94 ) (1 9 6 6 ).o f t h e ev i d en ce, we ag ree t h at t he t ri al co urt i m p ro p erl y ad m i t t ed t h e fact s un d erl y i n g

W ri g h t ’ s p ri o r g u il t y

p leas , an d we rev ers e h i s p res en t co n v i ct i on s o n t h at b as i s

.

On ap p eal fro m a cri m i n al co n v i ct i o n

, w e v i ew t h e ev i d en ce i n t he l i g h t m o s t

fav o rab l e to th e v erd i ct

, an d t h e d efen d an t n o l o n g er en jo y s a p res u m

p t i o n o f

i n n o cen ce. Kr a u s s v. S t a t e

, 2 6 3 Ga. Ap p

. 4 88

, 4 8 8 (1 ) (5 8 8 SE2 d 2 3 9 ) (2 0 0 3 ). So

v i ewed

, t h e ev i d en ce s h o ws t h at

, i n No v em b er 2 0 15

, a n arc o t i c s i n v es t ig at o r an d

o t h er l aw en fo rcem en t o ffi cers arri v ed at a h o m e i n Ri c h m o n d C o u n ty i n s earch o f

a f u g i t i v e

. Th e h o m eo wn er l et t h e o ffi cers i n an d g av e co n s en t t o s earch th e h o m e.

In ad d i t i o n t o t h e h o m eo w n er, W ri gh t an d an o th er p ers on were i n th e h o m e at t h e

t i m e. Aft er W ri g h t em erg ed fro m a b ed ro o m

, t h e i n v es t ig at o r as k ed h i m t o wai t wi th

t h e o t h er o ccu p an ts o n a s creen ed -i n p o rch

. An ot h er offi cer st o o d i n t h e y ard

, “ a few

feet fro m t h e s t ep s l ead i n g o n t o t h e p o rch ” at t h at t im e.

Up o n en t eri n g t he ro o m W ri g ht h ad v acat ed

, wh ich was no w u no ccu p i ed

, t h e

i n v es t i g at o r fo u n d a b l ack b o o k b ag b eh i nd t h e do o r. On t o p o f t he o p en b o o k b ag ’ s

o t h er co n t en t s lay a o n e-g al lo n p l as ti c b ag w i t h m o re t h an 47 g ram s o f a g reen

, l eafy

s u b s t an ce th at t h e i n v es t i g at o r i n it i al l y b el i ev ed was m ari j u a n a b u t l at er l earn ed

c o nt ai n ed a s y n t h et i c can n ab i n o i d k n own as “ s p i ce.” Th e i n v es t i g at o r t h en w a l k e d

o u t t o t h e p o rch

, wh ere al l t hree o ccu p an t s were w ai t in g

, an d as k ed “ wh o di d t h e b ag

2b el o n g t o .” At t h at t i m e, t he i n v es t i g at or d id n ot d es cri be t he b ag he w a s a s k i n g

ab o ut

. W ri g ht

, t h e o n l y o n e t o res p o n d

, s ai d t h at t h e b ag w as h i s. To co n fi rm wh i ch

b a g h e was as k in g ab ou t

, t h e in v es t i g at o r ret ri ev ed t h e bl ack b oo k b ag an d as k e d

W ri g h t i f i t was hi s

. Th e reco rd co n t ai n s n o i n di cat i on t h at an y o f t h e bag ’ s co n t en t s

were vi s i b l e t o W ri g h t or t h e o t h e r s o n t h e p orch at t h at t i m e. W ri g h t res p o n d ed

,

“ Yeah

, t h at ’ s m

y b ag an d ev ery t h i n g i n i t ,” an d h e ad d ed th at th e o t h ers o n t h e p o rch

“ d i dn ’ t h av e an y t h i n g t o d o wi t h i t .”

Aft er o b t ai n i ng W ri gh t’ s co n s en t t o search th e b ag

, t h e i n v es t i g at o r fo u n d a

h an dg u n

, a d i g i t al s cal e, a ro l l ed -u p d o l l ar b i l l wi t h o x y co d o n e p owd er o n i t

, an d 3 8

s m al l er bag s o f “ s p ice.” Du ri ng a s earch in ci d en t t o W ri gh t ’ s en s u i n g arres t, o ffi cers

al s o fo u nd $6 0 5 in s m al l den o m i n at i o n s

. No p ers o n al -u s e dru g parap h ern al i a

— s u ch

as ro l l in g p ap ers o r s m ok i n g d ev i ces

— was fo u n d i n t h e b l ack b o o k b a g o r o n

W ri g h t ’ s p ers on

. Th e i n v es t ig at o r t es t i fi ed at t ri al as an ex p ert i n n arco ti cs

i n v es t i g at i o n th at ev ery t hi ng h e fo u n d w a s co n si st en t w i t h d i s t ri bu t io n an d n ot

p ers o n al u s e.

W ri g h t t es t i fi ed t h at h e h ad b een d ro p p ed o ff at t h e h o m e w h ere h e was

arres t ed ap pro x i m at el y o n e ho u r b efo re l aw en fo rcem en t arri v ed

. He cl ai m ed t h at t h e

o n l y b ag h e h ad wi th h i m at th at t i m e w a s a s m al l red an d b l ack b ag t hat co n t ai n ed

3d i ap ers an d o t h er i t em s fo r hi s ch i l d

, an d th at n ei t h er t h e b l ack b o o k b ag at i s s u e h ere

— wh i ch h e k new n o t h i n g ab ou t

— n o r i t s co n t en t s w ere h i s

. W ri gh t fu rt h er t es t i fi ed

t h at h e h ad g o ne i nt o t he ro o m wh ere t h e b lack b o o k b ag was fo u n d t o l o o k o u t o f a

wi n do w wh en t h e o ffi cers arri v ed

. Acco rd i n g t o W ri g h t

, he n ev er t o l d o ffi cers t h at

h e own ed t h e b l ack b o o k b a g b u t i ns t ead s i m pl y cl ai m ed o wn ers hi p o f t h e red an d

b l ack b ag h e b ro u g h t wi t h h i m

.

At t h e co ncl u s i o n o f th e fi rs t p art o f W ri g h t ’ s b i fu rc a t e d t ri al

, t h e ju ry fo u n d

h i m g u i l t y o f p o s ses s i o n wi t h i n t en t t o d is t ri bu t e a Sch ed u l e I co n t ro l l ed s u b s t an ce

(“ s p i c e ” )

, p o s s es si o n o f a Sch ed u l e II co n t ro l l ed su b st an ce (o x y co d o n e), an d

p o s s es s i o n o f a fi rearm d u ri n g t h e co m m i s s i o n of a cri m e. Du ri n g t h e s eco n d p art o f

t h e b i fu rcat ed tri al

, t h e t ri al co u rt ad m i t t ed W ri g h t ’ s 20 1 1 co n v i ct i o ns an d s en t en ces

fo r p o s ses s i o n wi th i nt en t t o d i st ri b u t e m ari ju an a an d p o s s es s i o n o f a fi rearm d u ri n g

t h e co m m i s s io n o f a cri m e, fo l lo wi n g wh i ch t h e ju ry fo u n d h i m g ui l ty o f p o s s es s i o n

o f a fi rearm

b y a co n vi ct ed fel o n

. 2

2 A s d i s c u s s ed i n m o re d et ai l b el ow i n Di v i s i o n 2

, t h e t ri al co u rt ad m i t t ed

ev i d e n c e o f th e fact s u n derl y i n g t h e p ri o r co n v i ct i on s d uri n g t h e fi rs t p art o f t h e

b i fu rcat ed tri al

. Th e co n vi ct i o n s an d s en ten ces t h em s el ves

, h o wev er, were ad m i t t ed

o n l y d u ri n g t h e s eco n d p art o f t h e b i fu rcat ed t ri al

.

41

. On ap p eal

, W ri g ht ch al l en g es t h e den i al o f hi s p re-t ri al m o t i o n t o s u p p res s

t h e i n v es t i g at o r’ s t es t i m o n y th at W ri g ht m ad e t wo s t at em en t s cl ai m i n g o wn ers h i p o f

t h e b l ack b o o k bag an d i t s co n t en t s. He c o n t e n d s t h at h i s s t at em en t s were

i n ad m is s i b le as th e pro du ct s o f a cu s t o d i al i nt erro g at i o n t h at o ccu rred b efo re o ffi cers

ad v is ed h i m

o f h i s Mi r a nd

a ri g h t s . W e d i s ag ree. 3

In rev i ewi n g a t ri al co u rt ’ s d eci s i on o n a m o t i on t o s up p res s, we accep t t h e t ri al

co u rt ’ s ru l i n g s o n d is p u t ed fact s u n l es s cl earl y erro neo u s, bu t rev iew t he ap p l i cat i o n

o f t he l aw t o t h e fact s d e n ov o

. St a t e v. Ha mmo n d

, 3 1 3 Ga. Ap p

. 88 2

, 8 8 4 (7 2 3 SE2 d

8 9 ) (2 0 1 2 ). W e co n s tru e t h e ev i d en ce i n t h e l i g ht m o s t fav orab l e t o t h e t ri al co urt ’ s

d eci s i o n

. S t a t e v

. Ho l l er

, 2 2 4 Ga. A p p

. 66

, 7 1 (2 ) (b ) (4 7 9 SE2 d 7 8 0 ) (1 9 9 6 ). “ [I] n

co n du ct in g o u r rev i ew, w e m ay co ns i der t ri al t es t i m o n y i n ad d i ti o n t o t he t es t i m o ny

s u b m i t t ed d u ri n g t h e m o t i o n to s u p p res s h eari n g .” Th o mp s o n v. S ta t e

, 3 1 3 Ga. Ap p.

8 4 4 , 8 4 6 (1 ) (7 2 3 SE2 d 8 5) (2 01 2 ) (ci t at i o n an d p u n ct u at i o n o m i t t ed ).

Th e Fi ft h Am en d m en t b ars t h e ad m is s i o n of an accu s ed ’ s s tat em e n t s m ad e

d u ri n g a cu s to d i al i nt erro gat i o n

, u n l es s h e fi rs t is ad v is ed o f an d v o l u nt ari l y wai v es

3 A l th o u g h w e rev ers e W ri g h t ’ s co n v i ct i on s i n Di v i s i o n 2

, we n ev ert h el es s

ad d res s t h i s cl ai m b ecau s e i t in v o l v es i s s u es li k el y t o recu r on ret ri al

. See A l l a b en v.

S t a t e

, 2 99 Ga. 2 5 3, 2 57 (3 ) (7 8 7 SE2 d 7 11 ) (2 01 6 ); Hi n es v. S t a t e

, 3 5 3 Ga. A p p

. 7 1 0,

7 1 4 (3 ) (8 3 9 SE2 d 2 08 ) (2 0 2 0 ); s ee al s o Di v i s i o ns 2 an d 3 , b el o w.

5h i s Mi r a n d

a ri gh t s

. Ga r d

ner v. S t a t e

, 2 6 1 Ga. A p p

. 1 0

, 1 1 (5 8 2 SE2 d 7 ) (2 0 0 3 ); s ee

Mi r an d a v. Ar i z o n a

, 3 84 U. S. 4 3 6

, 4 44 -4 4 5

, 4 7 8 -4 7 9 (III) (8 6 SCt 1 6 0 2

, 1 6 LE2 d

6 9 4 ) (1 9 6 6 ). “ Th e i s s u e o f wh et h er a p ers o n i s i n cu s t o d y fo r Mi r a n d a p u rp o s es i s a

m i x ed q u es t i o n of l aw an d fact

, an d t he t ri al co u rt ’ s det erm in a t i o n wi l l n o t b e

d i s t u rb ed u n l es s i t i s cl earl y erro n eo us .” P u g h v. S t a t e

, 3 2 3 Ga. Ap p

. 3 1

, 3 6 (2 ) (7 4 7

SE2 d 1 0 1) (2 0 1 3) (ci t at i o n an d p u n ct uat i o n o m i t t ed ).

Th e t es t to d et erm in e wh et h er a d et ai n ee i s i n cu s t o d y fo r Mi r a n d a

p u rp o s es i s wh et h er a reas o n ab l e pers o n i n th e d et ai n ee’ s p osi ti o n w o u l d

h av e t h o ug h t t h e d et en t i o n wo u ld n o t b e t em p orary

. Th e s afeg u ard s

p res cri b ed b y Mi r a n d

a b eco m e ap p l i cab l e o n l y aft er a d et a i n ee’ s

freed o m of act io n i s cu rt ai l ed t o a d eg ree as s o ci at ed wi t h fo rm al arres t

.

Owen s v. S t a t e

, 3 0 8 Ga. Ap p

. 3 7 4

, 3 7 8 (2 ) (7 0 7 SE2 d 5 84 ) (2 01 1 ) (ci t at i o n an d

p u n ct u at i o n om i tt ed ); see Mi ra n d a

, 3 8 4 U. S. at 4 77 (III) (ex p l ai n i n g th at p ro t ect i on s

o f t h at d eci s i o n ap p l y

“ wh en t h e i n d i v i d u al i s fi rs t s ub ject ed to p o l i ce i n t erro g at i o n

wh i le i n cu s t o d y at th e s t at i on or o t h erwi se dep ri v ed o f h i s freed o m o f act i o n i n an y

s i gn i fi can t way ”).

W h en m ak i n g t h i s d et erm i n at i o n

,

a co u rt m

u st ex am i n e al l o f t h e ci rcu m s t an ces s ur r o u n d i n g th e

i n t erro g at io n

. . . . W h et h er a s u s p ect i s i n cu s t o d y d o es n o t d ep en d u p o n

t h e s u b ject iv e v i ews harb o red b y ei th er t h e i n t erro g at i n g o ffi cers o r th e

6p ers on bei n g q u es t i o n ed

. In s t ead

, t h e o n l y rel ev an t in q u i ry i s ho w a

reas o n ab l e p ers on i n t h e s u s p ect ’ s p o s it i o n wo u l d hav e u nd ers t o o d th e

s i tu at i o n

. A reas o n ab l e p ers o n i s on e n ei t h er g u i l t y o f cri m i n al co n d uct

an d th u s o v erl y ap p reh en s i v e n o r i ns en s it i ve t o t h e s eri o us n es s o f t h e

ci rcu m s t an ces

.

Ch a vez -Or t eg a v. S t a t e

, 3 31 Ga. Ap p

. 5 0 0, 5 0 2 -5 0 3 (1 ) ( 7 7 1 S E 2 d 1 7 9 ) (2 0 1 5 )

(ci t at i o n s an d p u n ct u at i o n o m i t t ed ); acco rd Pu g h

, 3 2 3 Ga. Ap p. at 36 (2 ) (“ Un l es s a

reas on ab l e p ers o n in t he s u sp ect ’ s s i t u at i o n wo ul d p ercei v e t hat he was i n cu s t o d y

,

Mi r an d a warn i n gs are n ot n eces s ary .”) (ci t at i o n an d p u n ct uat i o n om i t t ed ). Th u s

, “ a

cu s t o d i al s it u at i on d oes n o t ari s e ev en i f an o ffi cer b el iev es h e h as p ro b ab le cau se to

arres t a d efen d an t

, wh ere t h e o ffi cer tak es n o o v ert s t ep t o co m m u n icat e t h at b el i ef.”

Pu g h

, 3 2 3 G a

. Ap p

. at 3 7 (2 ) (ci t at i o n an d pu n ct uat i on o m it t ed ); s ee Ar ce v. S t a t e

,

2 4 5 G a. Ap p

. 4 66

, 4 6 6 -4 6 7 (5 3 8 SE2 d 1 2 8 ) (2 0 0 0 ) (p ro b ab le cau s e fo r an a r r e s t

,

s t an d i n g al o ne, do e s n o t co n v ert a t em p o rary d et en t i o n i nt o a fo rm al arres t ),

d i s ap p ro v ed i n p art o n o t h er g ro u n d s b y S t a t e v. Tu r n q u es t

, 3 0 5 Ga. 7 5 8

, 7 7 5 & n

. 1 5

(8 2 7 SE2 d 8 6 5 ) (2 0 1 9 ).

“ [A] s a gen eral ru l e, o n e wh o i s th e s ub ject o f a g en eral o n -t he-s cen e

i n v es t i g at i o n i s n o t i n cu s t o d y t h o u g h h e m ay n o t be free t o l eav e d uri n g t h e

i n v e s t i g at i o n .” S t a t e v. Lu ca s

, 2 6 5 Ga. Ap p

. 2 4 2

, 2 4 4 (2 ) (5 9 3 SE2 d 7 07 ) (2 0 0 4 )

7(ci t at i o n a n d pu n ct u at io n om i tt ed ); s ee M i r a nd a

, 38 4 U. S. at 47 7 -4 7 8 (III) (t h e

req u i rem en t s o f Mi r a n d

a d o no t ap p l y t o “ [g ] en eral o n -t he-s cen e q ues t i o ni n g as to

fact s s u rro u n d i n g a cri m e o r ot h er g en eral q ues t i o ni ng o f ci t izen s i n t h e fact -fi n d i n g

p ro ces s ” b ecau s e “ [i ] n s u ch s i t u at i o n s t h e co m p el l i n g at m o s p h ere i nh eren t i n t h e

p ro ces s of i n -cu s t o d y i n t erro g at i o n i s n o t n eces s ari l y pres en t ”). In t hat s i t u at i o n,

o ffi cers m ay m ak e i n q u i ri es “ s o l el y t o det erm in e wh et her t h e r e c u r ren t l y i s an y

d an ger t o t h em o r o t h er p ers o ns ” an d “ m ay ev en t em p o rari l y d et ai n an y o n e wh o t ri es

t o leav e b efo re t h e p rel im i n ary i n v es t i g at i o n i s co m p l et ed .” S ta t e v. W

i n t ker

, 2 2 3 Ga.

Ap p

. 6 5

, 67 (4 76 SE2 d 8 3 5) (1 9 9 6 ). A d et en t i o n acco m p an i ed b y s u ch i n q u i ri es d o es

n o t t ri g g er Mi r a n d

a ’ s req u i rem en t s “ u n l es s t h e q ues t i o n i ng i s ai m ed at ob t ai n i n g

i n fo rm at i o n to es t ab l i s h a s u s p ect ’ s g u i lt .” 4 Id

. ( ci t at i o n s an d p u n ct u at i o n o m i t t ed );

acco rd Th o mp s o n

, 31 3 Ga. Ap p

. at 84 7 -8 48 (1 ); Lu ca s

, 2 6 5 Ga. Ap p

. at 2 4 4 (2 ); s ee

Fu t ch v. S t a t e

, 1 4 5 Ga. Ap p

. 4 8 5

, 4 8 6

, 4 8 8 -4 89 (3 ) (2 4 3 SE2 d 6 2 1 ) (1 9 7 8 ) (a

q u es ti o n reg ard i n g wh o o w n ed a cl o sed t ru n k s u sp ect ed o f co n t ai ni n g m ari ju an a,

m ad e d uri n g an i n i t i al o n -t h e-s cen e i n v es t i g at i o n i n v ol v i n g t wo s us p ect s at a m o t el

b efo re an y arres t, d i d n o t req ui re Mi r a n d a w arn i n g s ). Th u s

, M

i r a n d a warn i n g s are

n o t req u i red wh ere a d efen d an t wh o i s n o t i n cu s t o d y “ res p o n d s to an o ffi cer’ s i n i t i al

4 W e ad d res s t hi s p ro p o s i t i o n m o re fu l ly i n Di v is i on 1 (c), b el o w.

8i n q u i ry at an o n -t h e-s cen e i n v es t i g at i o n t h at h ad n o t b eco m e accu sat o ry .” Ta yl or v.

S t a t e

, 23 5 Ga. Ap p

. 3 2 3

, 3 2 6 (2 ) (5 0 9 SE2 d 3 8 8 ) ( 1 9 9 8 ) (ci t at i o n an d pu n ct u at i o n

o m it t ed ); s ee i d

. at 3 2 4

- 3 2 7 ( 1 )-(2 ) (co n cl u di n g t h at Mi r a n d a warn i ng s were n ot

req u i red wh en a d et ect i v e i n fo rm ed t h e defen d an t

, wh i l e s t an d i ng o u ts i de o f a s t o re

wh ere h er p u rs e h ad b e e n fo u n d b y a s t o re cl erk

, “ th at h e was i n v es t i gat i n g t h e

m ari ju an a fo u n d i n her p u rs e,” b ecau s e t h e d et ect i v e’ s s t at em en ts d i d n o t co n s t i t u t e

i n t erro g at i o n “ ai m ed at es t ab l i s h i n g h er g u i l t ,” b ut rat h er were fo cu s ed o n as s es s i n g

t h e g en eral n at u re o f t h e s i t uat i o n ).

Here, t he ci rcu m s tan ces un d er wh i ch W ri g h t ad m i t ted o wn ers h i p o f t h e b l ack

b o o k b ag a n d i t s co n t en t s d o n o t ri s e t o t h e l ev el o f a cu s t o d i al i n t erro g at i o n fo r

p u rp os es o f t he Mi r a n d

a req u i rem en t s

. Th ree p ri m ary fact o rs i n fo rm o u r ru l in g i n t h i s

reg ard

.

(a) Fi rs t, W ri g h t h as i den t i fi ed no ev i d en ce t h at offi cers t o l d an y o f t h e

o ccu pan t s o f th e h o m e t h at th ey were u n d er arres t o r ex p l i ci tl y fo rb ad e t h em t o l eav e

t h e p rem is es

. 5 Of co u rs e, a reas o n a b l e p e rs o n in t h e o ccu p an t s ’ s h o es l i k el y wo u ld

5 Befo re t ri al

, t h e t ri al co u rt h el d a heari n g pu rs u an t t o Ja cks on v. Den n o

, 3 7 8

U. S. 3 6 8 (8 4 SCt 1 77 4

, 1 2 LE2 d 9 0 8 ) (1 9 6 4), t o d et erm i n e t h e v ol u n t ari n es s o f

W ri g h t ’ s al l eg ed ly cu s t o d i al i ncri m in at i n g st at em e n t s

. See Cl a rk v. S t a t e

, 3 0 9 Ga.

Ap p

. 7 4 9

, 7 5 1 (3 ) ( 7 1 1 S E 2 d 3 3 9 ) (2 0 1 1 ). Du ri n g t h at h eari n g

, th e in v es t i g at o r

9u n d ers t an d t h e i nv es t ig at o r’ s req u es t t o wai t o n t h e p o rch as i n di cat i ng th at th ey were

ex p ect ed t o rem ai n th ere wh i l e o ffi cers s earch ed t h e h o m e fo r t h e f u g i t i v e t h ey

s o u g ht

. No reas o n ab l e pers o n

, ho wev er, w o u l d percei v e s u ch a d et en t i on as an y t h i n g

o t h er th an t em

p o rary

. See Owen s

, 3 0 8 Ga. Ap p

. at 3 7 8 -3 7 9 (2 ) (d efen d an t was n o t in

cu s t o d y fo r Mi r a n d

a p u rp o s es wh en h e was d et ai n ed fo r 2 0 m i n u t e s

, d u ri n g wh i ch

t i m e h e was n ei t her h an d cu ffed n o r o t h erwi s e res t rai n ed ); Ar ce

, 2 4 5 Ga. Ap p

. at 4 6 6

-

4 6 7 (d efen d an t was n o t i n cu s t o d y wh i l e s u b m i t t i n g t o fi el d so b r i e t y t es t s

, as t h ere

wa s n o ev i d en ce th at t h e o ffi cer co m m u n i cat ed an y t h i n g o t h er t han t h e fact t h at h e

was co n d u ct in g a b ri ef i n v es t i g at o ry s t o p

, no t wi t h s t an d i n g th e ex i s t en ce of p ro b ab l e

cau s e t o arres t t h e d efen d a n t ) ; s ee al s o g en eral l y Ch a vez -Or t eg a

, 3 3 1 Ga. Ap p

. at

5 0 2

- 5 0 3 (1 ). An d ev en accep t in g at face val u e W ri g ht ’ s rep eat ed as s ert i o n s t h at h e

an d t h e o t h ers o n t h e po rch were “ g u ard ed ” b y o n e o r m o re o ffi cers “ s tan d i n g wat ch ”

o v er t hem

, t h e t ri al co u rt was en t i t l ed t o fi n d t h at t h e o ffi cers ’ act i o n s i n t hat reg ard

were i n ci d ent to t

he oc c u p an t s ’ t em

p o rary d et en t i o n wh i le o ffi cers as s es s ed t h e s cen e.

See Lu ca s , 2 6 5 Ga. Ap p . at 2 4 4 (2 ); W i n tker , 2 23 Ga. Ap p. at 6 7.

t es t i fi ed t h at W ri g h t was free t o m o v e aro u n d t h e p o rch b efo re h i s arres t an d t h at t h e

i n v es t i g at o r d i d n o t co erce W ri g h t i nt o m ak in g a st at em en t wi th an y k i n d o f t h reat o r

act i on

.

10(b ) Seco n d

, v i ewi n g t h e ev i d en ce i n t h e l i g h t m os t fav o rab l e t o t h e tri al co urt ’ s

ru l i n g, t h e i n v es t i g at or’ s i ni t i al q u es t i o n reg ard i n g o wn ers h ip o f “ t h e b ag ”

— wh i ch

t h e i n ves t i g at o r d id n o t o t h erwi s e i d en t i fy at t hat t im e

— wa s d i rect ed t o al l t h ree

o ccu pan t s t h en o n t he p o rch

, rat h er t h an t o W ri g h t i n d i v i d u al l y

. S u c h a g en eral

req u es t fo r i n fo rm at i on t o al l p ers o ns pres en t i n a res id en ce (o r i t s cu rt i lag e) d o es n ot

b ear th e h al l m ark s o f a “ cu s t o d i al i n t erro g at i o n ” o r qu es t io n i n g ai m ed at es t ab l i s h i n g

a p art i cu l ar s u s p ect ’ s g u il t

, b ut rat h er m o re cl o s el y res em b l es a “ g en eral o n -t he-s cen e

i n v es t i g a t i o n

. ” S e e Lu ca s

, 26 5 Ga. Ap p

. at 24 4 (2 ); W i n t ker

, 2 23 Ga. Ap p

. at 6 7;

Fu t ch , 1 4 5 Ga. Ap p . at 4 86

, 4 8 8 -4 8 9 (3 ).

(c) Fi n al l y , t he i n ves ti g at o r’ s s eco n d q u es t i on

, i n wh i ch h e s h owed t h e b l ack

b o o k b ag t o W ri g h t an d as k ed h i m t o co n f i r m t h at i t was h i s

— wh il e al l t h ree

o ccu pan t s rem ai n ed fre e t o m o v e ab o ut t h e p o rch

— d id n o t ch an g e t h e n at u re o f

W ri g h t ’ s d et en t io n

. N ev ert h el es s

, Wr i g h t co n t en d s t h at Mi ra n da warn i n g s were

req u i red b ecau s e t h e i n v e s t i g at o r’ s s eco nd q u es t i o n co n fro n ted W ri gh t wi t h t h e

ev i d en ce ag ai n s t h im an d t h u s was ai m ed at es t ab l i s h i n g h i s g u i l t o f a d ru g o ffen s e.

Ho wev er, W ri g h t h as n o t ci ted

, an d res earch h as n o t rev eal ed

, an y b i nd i n g p reced en t

ex p res s l y ho ld i n g t h at t h e s u b ject i vel y accu s at o ry o r i n cri m i n at i n g n at u re o f an

11o ffi cer’ s q u es t io n (fro m t he o ffi cer’ s p o i n t o f vi ew) 6 d u ri n g an in i t i al

, o n -t he-s cen e

i n v es t i g at i o n

— s t an di ng al o n e

— i s s u ffi ci en t t o t ran s fo rm a n on -cu s to d i al si t u at i o n

i n t o a “ cu s t o d i al i nt erro gat i o n ” fo r p urp o s es o f t h e Mi r a n d a req u i rem en t s

. W e

ad d res s i n t u rn each o f t he d eci s i o n s ci t ed b y W ri g h t o n t hi s i s s u e.

In Lu ca s

, 2 6 5 Ga. Ap p

. at 2 4 3 (2 ), t h e d efen dan t (Lu cas ) gav e d ep u t y s h eri ffs

— wh o s o u g h t t o s erv e a warran t o n a t hi rd p art y

— co n s en t t o s earch h i s h o m e fo r

t h e t h i rd p art y w h i l e Lu cas an d an o t h er m an rem ai n ed s eat ed i n t he l i v i n g area,

wat ch ed ov er b y o n e dep u t y

. Du ri n g t h e s earch

, an o t h er d ep u t y fo u n d m ari ju an a an d

ro l l i n g p ap ers o n a co o ki e t ray i n a b ed ro o m

. Id

. Th at dep u ty co n fro n t ed t h e t wo m en

wi t h t h e t ray an d as k ed t o wh o m i t b el on g ed ; Lu c a s s ai d t h at it was h is an d was

arres t ed

. Id

. T h e t ri al co u rt g ran t ed Lu cas ’ s m o t i o n t o s up p res s h i s s tat em en t o n t h e

g ro u nd t h at i t was t h e res u lt o f a cu s t o d ial in t erro gat i o n co n d u ct ed wi t h o u t t h e b en efi t

o f Mi ra n d

a warn in gs . Id . at 2 4 2

.

Th e St at e ap p eal ed

, co n t en d i ng t h at Lu cas was n o t i n cu s t o dy f o r M i r a n d a

p u rp os es wh en h e cl ai m ed o wn ers h i p o f t h e t ray

. Lu ca s

, 2 6 5 Ga. Ap p

. at 2 4 2

, 2 4 3 (2 ).

Th i s Co u rt affi rm ed

, h i g h l i g h ti n g t h at “ an o b ject i ve s t an d ard i s u s ed to d et erm i n e

6 As fu rt h er ex p l ai n ed b el o w, o n t h e fact s o f t h is cas e, t h e in ves t i g at o r’ s s eco n d

q u es ti o n was no t o b

j ect ivel y accu s at o ry

, i n s o far as th e i n c r i m in at i n g n at ure o f t h e

q u es ti o n req ui red k n owl ed g e t h at s u s p ect ed co n t rab an d was fo u n d i n o r o n t h e b ag

.

12cu s t o d y ,” u n d er wh i ch “ th e p ro p er in q u i ry is wh et h er a reas o n ab l e p ers o n i n Lu cas ’ s

p l ace wo u l d h av e b el i ev ed th at h i s freed om was cu rt ai l ed i n a s i g n i fi can t way wh en

t h e d ep ut y as k ed wh o o wn ed t h e m ari ju an a,” an d co n cl u d i n g t h at t h e t ri al co u rt was

en t i t l ed t o fi n d t h at s t an d ard had b een s at i s fi ed

. Id

. at 2 4 4 (2 ). W h en read as a wh o l e,

we co n st ru e Lu ca s as s t an di n g fo r th e p ro p o s i ti o n t h at a cu s t o di al i n t erro g at i o n m ay

b eg in wh en o ffi cers co n fro n t a t em po rari l y d et ai n ed p ers o n w i t h ev i d en ce t hat

, o n i t s

face, wo u l d l ead a reas o nab l e p ers o n t o b el i ev e t h at h i s d et en ti o n n o l o n g er wo u l d b e

t em p o rary

. Acco rd Owen s

, 3 0 8 Ga. A p p

. at 3 7 8 (2 ); s ee al s o Rh o d e Is l a nd v. In ni s

,

4 4 6 U. S. 2 9 1

, 3 00 -3 01 (II) (A) (1 0 0 SCt 1 6 8 2

, 6 4 LE2 d 2 97 ) (1 9 8 0) (t h e i n q u i ry as

t o wh et h er i n -cu s t o d y q u es t i o n i n g i s “ reas o n ab l y l i k el y t o e l i c i t an i n cri m i n at i n g

res p o n s e” “ fo cu s es p ri m ari l y u p o n th e p ercep t i on s o f t h e s u s p e c t

, rat h er t h an t h e

i n t en t of th e p o l i ce”). Here, b y w ay o f co n t ras t

, t he reco rd co n t ai n s n o i n d i cat i o n t h at

W ri g h t was ex p res s l y co n fro n t ed wi t h co n t rab an d o r an y o t h er o b ject i v el y o b v i ou s

wro n g d o i n g wh en m erel y as k ed t o co n fi rm h i s o wn ers hi p o f t h e b lack b o o k b ag

.

Th u s, u n li k e t h e s i t u at i o n i n Lu ca s

, a reas o n ab l e p e rs o n i n W ri g h t ’ s p lace “ n ei t h er

g u i l t y o f cri m i n al co n d u ct ” n or “ i n s en s i t i v e to t h e s eri ou s n es s o f t h e ci rcu m st an ces ,”

Ch a vez -Or t eg a

, 3 3 1 G a. Ap p

. at 5 0 3 (1 ), w o u ld h av e n o reas o n t o b el i ev e t h a t h i s

freed o m was cu rt ai l ed an y

m o re t han i t h ad b een wh en t he fi rs t q u es t i on ab o u t “ t h e

13b ag ” was as k ed

. See Owen s

, 30 8 Ga. A p p

. 3 7 8 (2 ); s ee al s o In n i s

, 44 6 U. S. at 3 0 0

-

3 0 1 (II) (A) ; Ch a vez -Or t eg a

, 3 3 1 Ga. Ap p

. at 5 03 (1 ) (“ W h et h er a s u s p ect i s in

c u s t o d y d o es n o t d ep en d u p o n t h e s u bject i v e vi ews h arb o red b y ei t h er t h e

i n t erro g at i n g o ffi cers o r t h e p ers o n b ei n g q u es ti o n ed

. ” ) (ci t at i o n an d pu n ct u at i o n

o m it t ed ).

In Th o mp s o n

, 3 1 3 Ga. Ap p

. at 8 4 5-8 4 6, 84 7 -8 4 8 (1 ), we h el d t h at an o ffi cer’ s

q u es ti o n as t o “ wh er e [ T h o m p so n

, t h e d efen d an t] p ut th e v acu u m s ”

— m ad e wh i l e

Th o m p s o n w a s b ei n g d et ai ned an d aft er h e h ad been i d en t ifi ed as a s u s p ect i n t h e

t h eft of v acu u m cl ean ers

— “ was cl earl y ai m ed at es t ab l i sh i n g h i s gu i l t” an d t hu s

s h o u ld h av e b een preced ed b y Mi r a n d a warn i n g s

. No t ab l y

, h owev er, b efo re h e was

q u es ti o n ed

, Th o m

p s o n h ad b een fo un d t o b e i n p o s s es s i o n o f a crack p i p e an d p us h

ro d s (wh i ch h ad t h en b een p l aced o n t o p o f a p at ro l car), an d h e h ad ad m it t ed t o an

o ffi cer th at h e recen t l y b o u gh t an d u s ed crack co cai ne. Id

. at 8 47 (1 ). W e co n cl u d ed

t h at

, “ [u ] n d er t h es e ci rcu m s t an ces

, aft er p ro d u ci n g dru g p arap h ern al i a, ad m i t t i n g to

o wn i n g s am e, an d ad m i t ti n g t o recen t l y b u y i n g an d u s i n g d ru gs

, a reas o n ab l e p ers o n

wo u l d cert ai nl y p ercei v e h i m s el f t o b e i n p o l i ce cu st od y .” Id

. No s u ch ci rcu m s t an ces

are p res en t h ere.

14In Ga r d n er

, 26 1 G a. Ap p

. at 1 1

, i t wa s u n d i sp u ted t h at t h e d efen d an t was in

cu s t o d y

, an d t he o n l y q u e s t i o n o n ap p eal t h us was w h et her t h e s tat em en t s o u g ht to

b e s u p p res s ed “ w as m ad e i n di rect res p o n s e t o p o l i ce i nt erro g at i o n or i t s fu n ct i o n al

eq u iv al en t .” G a rd

n er t h u s h as n o ap p l i cat i o n i n t h i s cas e.

Fi n al l y

, i n Un i ted S t a t es v. Lu n a -En ci n a s

, 6 0 3 F3 d 8 7 6

, 8 7 7 -8 7 8

, 8 7 9 (I), 8 8 2

-

8 8 3 (II) (1 1 t h Ci r. 2 01 0), w h ich i n v o lv ed a p ro secu t i o n fo r po s ses s i o n of a f i r e a r m

b y an al i en u n l awfu l l y

i n th e Un i t ed St at es

, t h e fed eral ap p el lat e co u rt affi rm ed t h e

d en ial o f t h e d efen d an t ’ s m o t io n t o s u p p res s h i s an swer t o an o ffi cer’ s q u es t i o n ab o ut

wh ere a g u n was l o cat ed i n h i s ap art m en t

. Th e co u rt (a) h i g h l i g h ted t h at t h e d efen d an t

at t h at t i m e h a d been “ det ai n ed fo r a rel at i v el y b ri ef p eri o d in a n eu t ral

, o u t d o o r

l o cat io n ” wh i l e o ffi cers search ed t he area fo r a t h i rd p art y an d (b ) co n cl u d ed t h at “ a

reas on a b l e p e r s o n i n h i s p o s it i o n wo u l d n o t h av e u nd ers t o o d h i s freed om o f act i o n

t o h av e b een cu rt ai l ed t o a d eg ree as s o ci at ed w i t h fo rm al arres t ” fo r p u rp o s es o f t h e

Mi r an d a req u i rem en t s

. Id

. at 8 8 2 (II) ( c i t at i o n an d pu n ct uat i o n o m i t t ed ). Lu n a

En ci n a s t h erefo re al s o d o es n o t ai d W ri g ht ’ s arg u m en t , b u t rat her s u p p ort s t h e t ri al

co u rt ’ s ru l i n g h ere. 7

7 A few deci s i o n s n o t ci ted b y W ri g h t , wh i ch i n i t i al l y

m ay b e read t o s u p p o rt

h i s cl ai m o n t h i s i s s u e, d o n o t reach s o far o n c l o s e r i n s p e c t i o n

. Fo r ex am p l e, in

Al d r i d g e v. St at e

, 2 4 7 G a

. 1 4 2

, 1 4 4 -1 45 (2 ) (2 7 4 SE2 d 5 2 5 ) (1 9 8 0), th e Su p rem e

15Al l i n al l, t h e i n v es t i g at o r’ s q u es t i o n s ab o u t t h e b l ack b o o k b ag i n t h i s cas e d id

n o t bear t h e hal lm ark s o f a “ cu s t o d i al i n t erro g at i o n ,” p ri m ari l y b ecau s e (a) W ri g h t ’ s

Co u rt of G eo rg i a s t at ed t h at

, “ [s ] o l o ng as t h e i n t erro gat i o n i s n o t ai m ed at o b t ai n i n g

i n fo rm at i o n t o es tab l i s h a s u s pect ’ s g ui l t b ut i s i ns t ead ai m ed at d et erm i n i n g t h e

n at u re o f t h e s i t u at i o n u p o n th e a r r iv al o f t h e p o l i cem an o n t h e s cen e, s om e i n i t i al

i n q u i ry m ay

, u n der t he ci rcu m s t an ces

, b e p erm i s si b l e b e f o r e M i ran da warn i n g s are

g i v en .” Th at o b s erv at i o n

, ho wev er, rel i ed o n t h e Co u rt ’ s p ri or d eci s i on i n S h y v.

S t a t e

, 2 34 G a. 8 1 6

, 8 1 9-8 2 3 (I) (2 1 8 SE2 d 5 9 9 ) (1 9 75 ), wh i ch

, i n t u rn

, h ad em p l o y ed

a b al an ci n g t es t th at n o l o n ger is u s ed i n d et erm i n in g cu s t od y fo r M i r a n d a pu rp o s es

. See S t a t e v. Fo l

s o m

, 28 5 Ga. 1 1

, 1 3 (1 ) (6 7 3 S E2 d 2 1 0 ) ( 2 0 0 9 ). Reg ard l es s

, t h e

Al d r i d g e Co u rt fo u nd t h at t h e q u es t i o n i ng at i ss u e

— i n wh i ch a n o ffi cer m erel y

a s k ed t he d efen dan t “ wh at h ap p en ed ” aft er fi n d i n g t h e d efen dan t an d h i s s ev e r e l y

i n ju red wi fe i n a ro o m i n t h ei r h o m e i n w h i ch a ri fl e al s o was pres en t

— was n ot

accu s at o ry

. 2 4 7 Ga. at 1 4 5 (2 ). As a res u l t

, t he Co u rt h ad n o o ccas i o n t o ho l d

— an d

t h erefo re d i d no t h o l d

— t h at t h e an swer t o a q u es t i o n s u b j e c t i v e l y ai m ed at

es t ab l i s h in g a s u s pect ’ s gu i l t m ad e d u ri n g an i n i t i al

, o n-t h e-s cen e i n v es t i g at i o n

, b ut

b efo re t h e s u s p ect ’ s freed o m o f act i o n h as b een cu rt ai l ed to a d eg ree as s o ci at ed wi th

fo rm al arres t

, m

u s t b e s u p p res s ed i n an en su i n g p r o s e c u t i o n i f n o t p reced ed by

Mi r an d a warn in g s

. See i d

. at 1 4 4 -1 4 5 (2 ). Si m i l arl y

, i n Lo l l ey v. S t at e

, 25 9 Ga. 6 0 5,

6 0 6 -6 0 7 (2 ) ( b ) ( 3 8 5 S E 2 d 2 8 5 ) (1 98 9 ), t he Co u rt q u o ted th e ab o v e p as s ag e fro m

Al d r i d g e

. No t ab l y

, h o wev er, t h e L o l l ey Co u rt fo u nd no M i r a n d a v i o l at i o n

, d es p i t e

as s u m in g t h at t h e s u s pect was “ i n cu s to d y ” wh en h e m ad e t h e ch al l en g ed s t at em en t s

. Id

. at 6 0 6 (2 ) (a). An d as i n Al d r i d g e

, t h e Lo l ley Co u rt d i d n o t h ol d ei th er (a) t h at a

q u es ti o n ai m ed at es t ab l i s h i n g a s u s p ect ’ s g u i l t

— wi t h o u t m o re

— m ay tran s fo rm a

n o n-cu s t o d i al i n t erro g at i o n i nt o a cu s t o d i al i n t erro g at i o n o r (b ) t hat t h e an s wer to

s u ch a q u es t io n m ad e d u ri ng a n o n -cu st o d i al i n t erro g at i o n m u s t b e s u pp res s ed i f n ot

p reced ed b y Mi r a n da warn in g s

. See i d . at 6 0 6 -6 0 7 (2 ) (a)-(b ). Li k ewi se, i n Ta yl o r

, 2 3 5 Ga. A p p

. at 32 6 ( 2 ), an d W i n t ker

, 2 2 3 Ga. Ap p

. at 6 7

, each o f w h i ch co n t ai n

l an g u ag e s i m i l ar t o t h e ab o v e p as s ag e fro m Al d r i d g e , t h i s Co u rt di d n o t h o l d ei t h er

(a) th at an accu s at o ry q u es t io n by it s el f m ay tran s fo rm n o n -cu s t o d i al q u es t i on i n g i n to

cu s t o d i al q u es t i o n i ng o r (b ) th at res p o n ses to s u c h q u es ti o n i n g m ad e du ri n g a n o n

cu s t o d i al i n t erro g at i o n m us t b e s u p p res s ed i f n o t p reced ed b y Mi r a n d a warn i n g s

.

16freed o m of act i o n h ad n o t b een “ cu rt ai l ed t o a d eg ree as so ci at ed wi t h fo rm al arres t ,”

Owen s

, 3 0 8 G a

. Ap p

. a t 3 7 8 (2 ) (ci t at io n an d p u n ct uat i on o m it ted ), an d (b ) t h e

q u es ti o n s d i d n ot ex p res s l y refer t o co n t rab an d o r o t h erwi s e i m p li cat e a cri m e o r o t h er

wro ng d o i n g an d t h u s l ack ed an “ accu sat o ry n at u re,” see Th o mp s o n

, 3 1 3 Ga. Ap p

. at

8 4 8 (1 ). See al s o g en eral ly Lu ca s

, 2 6 5 G a. Ap p. at 2 43 -2 4 4 (2 ); W i n t k e r

, 2 2 3 G a.

Ap p

. at 6 8 -6 9 (co n cl u di ng t h at Mi r a n d a was t ri g g ered wh en t h e t een ag e d efen d an t

was l o ck ed i n t h e b ack s eat o f a p at ro l car

— wi t h a h an d cu ffed fri en d wh o h ad b een

arres t ed

— a n d as k ed wh et h er s h e o wn ed a s u it cas e co n t ai n in g d ru gs t h at o ffi cers

fo u n d i n a car i n wh i ch sh e h ad b een a p as sen g er an d o n wh i ch a dru g d o g h ad

al ert ed

, b ecau s e, un d er t h e t o t al i t y o f th e ci rcu m s t an ces

, t h e r e was a s i g n i fi can t

“ co m p u l si v e as p ect ” t o t h e “ i s ol at ed an d p o l i ce-d o m in at ed ” i n t erro g at i o n) (ci t at i o n

an d p u n ct u at i o n o m i t t ed ).

Nat u ral ly

, it i s a p p aren t t hat t h e i n v es t i gat o r i n t h i s cas e, h av i ng fo u n d

s u s p ect ed d ru g s o n to p o f t h e b l ack b o o k b ag ’ s o t h er co n t en t s

, s ub ject i v el y m ay h av e

p ercei v ed h i s s eco n d q u es t i o n as b ei n g ai m ed at es t ab l i s h in g W ri g h t ’ s g u il t an d t h at

W ri g h t

— as s u m i n g t h a t h e k n ew o f t h e b o ok b ag ’ s co nt en t s

— s u b j ect i vel y m ay

h av e p ercei v ed t h at q u es t i o n i n t h e s am e way . Th o s e co n s id erat i o n s

, h o wev er, p l ay

n o p art i n o u r an al y s i s

, wh i ch as k s o nl y wh at a reas o nab l e pers o n n ei t h er g u i l t y o f

17cri m i n al co n d uct n o r i n s en s it i v e t o t h e s eri o u s n es s o f t h e ci rcu m s t an ces wo u ld

p ercei v e. See Ch a vez -Or t eg a

, 3 3 1 Ga. Ap p

. at 5 0 2 -5 0 3 (1 ); s ee al s o In n i s

, 44 6 U. S.

at 3 0 0-3 01 (II) (A). An d u n d er t h at t es t

, t here was n o o b j ect i v el y accu s at o ry

,

“ co m p u l si v e,” or “ i s o l at ed an d p o l ice-d o m in at e d ” as pect t o th e i nv es t i g at o r’ s

q u es ti o n s

. See W

i n t ker

, 2 2 3 G a. Ap p

. at 6 8 -6 9 ; s ee al s o Ch a vez -Or t eg a

, 3 3 1 Ga. Ap p.

at 5 0 3 (1 ); Ta

yl o r

, 2 3 5 Ga

. Ap p

. at 3 26 (2 ). W e th erefo re affi rm t h e d en i al o f

W ri g h t ’ s m o t i on t o s u pp res s

.

2

. W ri g h t fu rt h er co n t en d s t h at t h e t ri al co u rt erred w h en

, d u ri n g t h e fi rs t p art

o f h is b i fu rcat ed t ri al

, i t ad m i t t ed ev i d en ce o f t h e fact s u n d e r l y in g hi s 2 0 1 1

co n vi ct i o n s fo r po s s es s io n wi t h i n t en t t o d is t ri b u t e m ari j u a n a a n d p o s s es s i o n o f a

fi rearm d u ri n g t h e co m

m is s io n o f a cri m e. T he t ri al co urt ad m i t t ed t h is ev i d en ce fo r

t h e l i m i t ed p u rp o s es o f es t ab l i s h i n g W ri g h t ’ s k n o wl ed g e, i n t en t

, an d l ack o f m i s t ak e

an d g av e t h e ju ry l i m i t i n g i ns t ru ct i on s t o t h at effect

. W e ag ree w i t h W ri g h t t h at t h i s

ev i d en ce was i m

p ro p erl y ad m i t t ed

.

W e rev i ew a t ri al co u rt ’ s d eci s i o n t o ad m i t o t h er act s ev i d en ce fo r ab u s e o f

d i s cret i o n

. See S t a t e v. Jo n es , 2 9 7 Ga. 1 5 6, 1 5 9 (1 ) (7 7 3 SE2 d 17 0 ) (2 0 15 ); acco rd

P ar ks v. S t a t e

, 3 0 0 Ga. 3 0 3

, 3 0 5 -3 06 (2 ) (7 9 4 SE2 d 6 2 3 ) (2 0 16 ). Th e s t a t u t e

18p ri m ari l y ap p l icab l e t o s u ch ev i d en ce

— OCGA § 2 4 -4 -4 0 4 (b ) (“ Ru l e 4 0 4 (b )”)

—

p ro v id es , i n rel ev an t p art :

Ev i d en ce o f ot h er cri m es

, wro n g s, o r act s s h al l n o t b e a d m is s i b l e t o

p ro v e t h e ch ar a c t e r o f a p ers o n i n o rd er t o s h o w act i o n in co n fo rm i t y

t h erewi th

. It m ay

, h o wev er, b e ad m i s s ib l e fo r o t h er p urp o s es

, i n cl ud i n g

,

b u t n o t l im i t ed t o

, p ro o f o f m otiv e, o p p o rt u n i t y

, i nt en t

, p rep arat i o n

, p l an

,

k n o wl ed g e, i d en t i t y , o r ab s en ce o f m i st ak e o r acci den t

. . . .

Ru l e 4 0 4 (b ) “ is

, o n i t s face, an ev i d en t i ary ru l e o f in cl u s i o n.” Jo nes

, 2 9 7 Ga. at 1 5 9

(2 ). Nev ert hel es s, rel ev an t ev i d en ce o ffered fo r a p ro per pu rp o s e u n der Ru l e 4 0 4 (b )

m ay b e ex cl u d ed “ i f it s p ro b at i v e v al u e i s s u bs t an t i al l y o u twei g h ed b y t h e dan g er o f

u n fai r p reju d i ce, co nfu si o n o f th e i s s u es

, o r m i s l ead i n g t h e j u ry or b y co ns i d erat i on s

o f u n d u e d el ay

, was t e o f t i m e, o r n eed l es s p res en t at i o n of cu m u l at iv e ev i d en ce.”

OCGA § 2 4 -4 -4 0 3 (“ Ru l e 4 0 3 ”); Jo n es , 2 9 7 Ga. at 1 58 (1 ).

Th u s , fo r ev i den ce t o b e ad m is s i b l e u n der t h es e p ro v i s i o n s

,

t h e St at e m

u s t m ak e a s h o wi n g t h at : (1 ) ev i d en ce of ex t ri n s ic, o r ot h er,

act s i s r e l e v a n t t o an i s su e o t her t h an a d efen d an t ’ s ch aract er; (2 ) th e

p ro b a t i v e v al ue o f th e o t h er act s ev i d en ce i s n o t su b s t an t i al l y

o u t wei g h ed b y i t s u n fai r p reju d i ce, i .e., t h e ev i d en ce m u s t sat i sfy th e

req u irem en ts o f Ru le 40 3 ; an d (3 ) t h ere i s s u ffi ci e n t p ro o f s o t hat th e

ju ry co u l d fi n d t h at t h e d efen d an t co m m i t t ed t h e act i n q u es t i o n.

19Jo n es

, 2 9 7 Ga. at 1 5 8 -1 5 9 (1 ) (ci t at i o n o m i t t ed ). To ad d res s t h e fi rs t p art o f t h i s t es t

,

we l o ok t o OCGA § 2 4- 4- 401

, wh i ch d efi n es “ rel ev an t ev id en ce” as “ ev id en ce h av i n g

an y t en d en cy t o m ak e t h e ex i s t e n c e o f an y fact t hat i s o f co n s eq u en ce t o t h e

d et erm i n at i o n of th e act io n m o re p ro b ab l e o r l es s p ro b ab l e t han it w o u l d b e wi t h o ut

t h e ev i d en ce.” See Hea r d v. S t a t e

, 3 09 Ga. 7 6

, 8 4 -8 5 (3 ) (b ) (8 4 4 SE2 d 79 1 ) (2 0 2 0 ).

“ Th i s i s a b i n ary q u es t i o n

— ev i d en ce i s ei t h er rel ev an t o r i t i s n o t .” Id

. at 8 5 (3 ) (b ).

Th e s eco n d p ro n g o f t h e Jo n es t es t

— ap pl i c a t i o n o f Ru l e 4 03

— req u i res a

t ri al co u rt t o “ un d ert ak e i n each cas e a co n si dered e v a l u a t i o n o f th e p ro ffered

ju s t ifi cat i o n fo r t h e ad m i s s i on o f s uch ev i d en ce an d m ak e a n i n d e p en d en t

d et erm i n at i o n o f wh et h er t h e p ro b at i v e v al u e o f t h e ev i d en ce i s s u b s t an t i a l l y

o u t wei gh ed b y ” an y o f t he Ru l e 4 0 3 fact o rs

. Jo n es

, 2 9 7 Ga. at 1 6 3 (3 ). “ In wei g h i n g

t h e p ro bat i ve v al u e o f o t her act s ev i d en ce, a co u rt m ay co n s i d er a n u m ber o f fact o rs

,

i n cl u d i n g (1 ) p ro s ecu t o ri al n eed , (2 ) o v eral l s i m il ari t y o f t h e o t h er act s an d t h e act s

ch arg ed

, an d (3 ) t he t em

p oral rem o t en es s o f th e o t her act s.” Th o m p s o n v. S t a t e

, 3 0 8

Ga. 8 5 4 , 8 5 9 (2 ) (8 4 3 SE2 d 7 9 4 ) (2 0 2 0 ).

“ [T] h ere i s n o m ech an i cal s o l u t i o n fo r t h i s b al an ci n g t es t .” Jo n es

, 2 9 7 Ga. at

1 6 3 (3 ). Rat h er, “ [a] Ru l e 40 3 an al y s i s m us t b e d o ne o n a cas e-b y -cas e b as i s an d

req u i res a co m

m on s en s e as ses s m en t o f al l t h e c i r c u m s t an ces s u rro u n d i n g t h e

20ex t ri ns i c act an d t h e ch arg ed offen se.” Gr een v. S ta t e

, 3 5 2 Ga. Ap p

. 2 84

, 29 0 (2 ) (e)

(8 3 4 SE2 d 3 7 8 ) (2 0 19 ) (ci t at i o n an d p u n ct u at i o n om i t t ed ). Gen eral l y sp eak i n g,

h o wev er,

t h e g reat er t h e t e n d en cy t o m ak e t h e ex is t en ce o f a fact m o re o r l es s

p ro b ab l e, t h e g r eat er t h e p ro b at iv e v al u e.

. . . Pro b at i v e v al u e al s o

d ep en d s o n t h e m arg i n al wo rt h o f t h e ev i d en ce

— h o w m u ch i t ad d s

, i n

o t h er wo rd s

, t o t h e o th er p ro o f av ai l ab l e t o es tab l i s h t he fact fo r wh ich

i t i s o ffered

. . . . An d p ro b at i v e v al ue d ep en d s as wel l u p o n t he n eed fo r

t h e ev i d en ce. W hen t h e fact fo r wh i ch th e ev i d en ce i s o ffered i s

u n d i s p ut ed o r n o t reas o n ab l y s u s cep t i b l e o f d i sp u t e, t h e l es s th e

p ro b at iv e v al u e o f t h e ev i d en ce.

Ol d s v. S ta t e , 2 9 9 Ga. 6 5, 7 5-7 6 (2 ) (7 8 6 SE2 d 6 3 3 ) (2 0 16 ) (ci tat i o n s o m i tt ed ).

“ Th e m ajo r fu n ct i o n o f [Ru l e 4 0 3] i s t o ex cl u de m at t er o f s can t or cu m u l at i v e

p ro b at i v e fo rce, d rag g ed i n b y t h e h eel s fo r t h e s ak e o f i ts p reju d i ci al effect .” S l o a n

v. S t a t e

, 3 5 1 Ga. Ap p

. 1 9 9

, 2 1 0 (2 ) (e) (i i ) (8 3 0 SE2 d 5 7 1 ) ( 2 0 1 9 ) (ci t at i o n an d

p u n ct u at i o n o m i t ted ). Th u s

, “ t h e e x c lu s i o n o f ev i d en ce u n d er Ru l e 4 0 3 i s an

ex t rao rd i n ary rem ed y wh i ch s h o u l d b e u s ed o n ly s pari n g l y .” Ol d s

, 2 99 Ga. at 7 0 (2 ).

In t h at reg ard

, an ap p el l at e co u rt rev i ewi n g i s s u es un d er Ru l e 4 0 3 m u s t “ l o o k at t h e

ev i d en ce i n a li g h t m o s t fav o rab l e t o i t s ad m i s s i on

, m ax i m i z i n g i t s p ro b at i v e v al u e

21an d m i n i m i z i n g i t s un du e p reju d i ci al im p act .” S l o an

, 3 5 1 Ga. A p p

. at 2 0 8 (2 ) (e)

(ci t at i o n an d p u nct u at io n o m i t ted ).

W ri g h t d o es n o t d i s p u t e t h at t h e St at e s at i s fi ed t h e t h ird pro n g o f t h e Jo n es t es t ;

h i s ap p el l at e ch al l en g es th us i m p l i cat e o n l y t h e fi rs t t w o p ro n g s. Du ri n g W ri g h t ’ s

t ri al

, an i nv es t i gat o r t es t ifi ed t h at

, i n J u n e 2 0 1 1

, h e st o p ped a car i n wh i ch W ri g h t was

a pas sen g er (b ecau s e W ri g ht was n o t weari n g a s eat b el t ) aft er wat ch in g wh at

ap p eared t o b e a d ru g t ran sact i o n

. Offi cers s earch ed W ri g h t an d fo u nd t h ree b ag s o f

m ari ju an a wi t h a co m

b i n ed wei g h t o f 2 5

. 9 g ram s

, a p i s t o l

, an d $7 3 0 i n cas h i n h i s

p an ts p o ck et s

, as wel l as a d i g i t al s cal e o n t h e car s eat wh ere h e h ad b een s i t t i n g

. Th e

i n v es t i g a t o r d i d n o t fi n d an y p ers o n al -u s e p arap h ern al i a o n W ri g h t at t hat t i m e. As

a res u l t o f th at en co u nt er, W ri g h t p l ed g u i l t y t o p o s s e s s io n wi t h i n t en t t o d i s t ri b u t e

m ari ju an a an d p o s s es s i o n o f a fi rearm d u ri n g t h e co m

m i ss i o n o f a cri m e. 8

Im m ed i at el y b efo re t es t im o n y ab ou t t h e 2 0 1 1 i n ci d en t

, t h e t ri al co u rt g av e a

l i m i ti n g i n s t r u ct i o n

, t el l i n g t h e ju ry t h at i t co u ld co n s i d er ev i den ce o f o t h er cri m es

al l eg ed l y co m

m i tt ed b y W ri g h t o n l y “ i ns o far a s [ s u c h ev i d en ce] rel at es t o ”

8 W h i l e W ri g h t ad m i t ted d u ri n g cro ss -ex am i n at i o n (i n t h e fi rs t p art o f h i s

b i fu rcat ed t ri al ) t h at

, as a res u l t o f t h e J u ne 2 01 1 en co un t er, h e p l ed g ui l t y t o o n e o r

m o re o ffen s es i n v o l v i ng an “ i n t en [t ] t o d i s t ri b u t e,” t h e en s ui n g c o n v i ct i o n s an d

s en t en ces res u l t i n g fro m th os e g u i l t y p l eas were no t ad m it t ed i n t o ev i den ce u n t i l t h e

s eco n d p art o f t h e b i fu rcat ed t ri al

.

22k n o wl ed g e, i n t en t

, an d lack of m i s tak e i n t h e cu rren t c a s e

, “ an d n o t fo r an y o t h er

p u rp os e.” Th e co u rt rep eat ed t hi s i ns t ru ct i o n d uri n g t h e ju ry ch arg e. Fo r t h e reas on s

t h at fo ll o w, t h e ev i d en ce was i m p ro perl y ad m i t t ed o n al l t hree b as es

.

(a) Kn o wl ed

g e. Fo r p u rp o s es o f R u l e 4 0 4 ( b ), “ k n o wl ed g e” refers ei t h er t o a

s p eci al s k i l l

, s uch as s afe-crack i n g

, b o m b -m ak i n g, o r d o cu m en t fo rg ery

, o r t o s p eci fi c

k n o wl ed g e b as ed o n p as t ex p eri en ce s u ch as a t res pas s co nv i ct i o n u sed t o es t ab l i s h

a defen d an t ’ s k n o wl ed g e t hat h e was n o t wel co m e o n t h e p rem i s e s

. See Pau l S.

M i l ich

, Ga. Ru l es o f E v i d en ce § 1 1 : 1 7, p

. 34 8 & n

. 1 (2 0 1 9 -2 0 2 0 ed .), ci t ed in

Ro u za n v. S t a t e

, 3 0 8 G a. 8 9 4

, 8 9 9 (2 ) (8 4 3 SE2 d 8 1 4 ) (2 0 2 0 ) (co ncl u d i n g t h at p ri o r

g u i l t y p l eas t o v o lu n t ary m an s l au g h ter an d bu rg l ary were n ot rel ev an t t o t h e

d efen d an t ’ s “ k n o wl ed g e” i n a pro s ecu ti o n fo r m u rd er an d a g u n -p os s es s i o n o ffen s e);

Un i ted S t a t es v. W

a l t er s

, 35 1 F3 d 1 5 9 , 1 6 1 , 1 64 -1 6 7 (I)-(II) (A) (5 t h Ci r. 2 0 0 3 ) (i n

a p ro s ecu t i o n fo r m ak i n g an d s en d i n g a b o m b

, ev id en ce t hat t h e d efen d an t p o s s es s ed

a b o o k en t it l ed “ Th e A n arch i s t’ s Co o k b o ok ” was p ro p erl y ad m i tt ed u n d er Ru l e 4 0 4

(b ) t o s h o w t h at th e d efen d an t “ had t h e k n o w l ed g e t o co n s tru ct t h e d es tru ct i v e d ev i ce

u s ed t o co m

m i t t h e cri m es al l eg ed i n th e i n di ct m en t ”) (p un ct u at i o n o m i t t ed ); Un i t ed

S t a t e s v. Ga r ci a

, 8 80 F2 d 1 2 7 7

, 1 2 7 8-1 2 7 9 (1 1 t h Ci r. 1 98 9 ) (i n a p ro secu t i o n f o r

m ak i n g a fal s e st at em en t o n a lo an ap p l i cat i o n, ev i den ce t h at t h e d efen d an t pr e v i o u s l y

23s i gn ed a t h i rd p art y ’ s n am e on a d o cu m en t p u rp o rt i ng t o s el l t h e th i rd p art y ’ s

ap art m en t t o t h e d efen d an t was p ro p erl y ad m i t t ed u n d er Ru l e 4 0 4 (b ), as i t s h o wed

t h at t he d efen d an t “ h ad t he ab i l it y t o p rep are d o cu m en t s p u rp o rt i n g t o b ear s i g n at u res

wh i ch were fak ed ”). 9

M o reo v er, “ a d efen d an t ’ s k n o wl ed g e m ay b e at is su e wh ere i t i s an el em en t o f

t h e ch arg ed cri m e; t h at i s

, wh en k n o wl ed g e it s el f is p art o f t h e s t at u t ory d efi n i t i o n o f

t h e cri m e, an d th u s m

u st b e p ro v en b y t h e p ro s ecu t i o n .” Gr een

, 3 5 2 G a. Ap p

. at 2 8 9

(2 ) (c) (ci t at i o n an d p u nct u at io n o m it t ed ). Fo r ex am p l e, in a p ro s ecu t i on fo r reck l es s

co n du ct

, t h e d efen d an t ’ s k n o w l ed g e o f h i s an d hi s s ex u al p art ners ’ HIV s t at u s “ was

h i g h l y p ro b at i v e an d rel ev an t as t o wh et her h e

. . . k n ew t h at h e was [HIV-] p o s i t i v e

at th e t i m e h e en g ag ed i n s ex u al rel at i o ns h ip s wi t h t he v i ct i m s.” Da vi s v. S ta t e

, 3 4 2

Ga. Ap p

. 8 89

, 89 4 (1 ) (8 0 6 SE2 d 3 ) (2 0 1 7 ) (ci t at i o n an d p u n ct u at io n o m i t t ed ). An d

i n a p ro s ecu t i o n fo r m i s dem ean o r ob s t ru ct i on o f an o ffi cer, p r i o r in s t an ces o f

o b s t ru ct i on m ay b e rel ev an t t o sh o w t h at t h e ch arg ed act o f o b s t ru ct i o n was k n o wi n g

9 “ [B] ecau se o u r n ew Ev i d e n c e C o d e i s co m p arab l e t o t h e Fed eral Ru l es o f

Ev i d en ce, t h is Co urt wi l l g i v e co n s i d erat i o n an d g reat w ei g h t t o co n s t ru ct i o n s p l aced

o n t h e Fed eral Ru l es b y t h e fed eral co u rt s.” Cu r r y v. S t a te

, 3 3 0 Ga. Ap p

. 6 1 0, 6 1 3 (1 )

(7 6 8 SE2 d 7 9 1 ) (2 0 1 5 ) (ci tat io n an d p u n ct u at io n o m i tt ed ).

24an d w i l fu l

, as req u i red b y t h e rel ev an t s t at u t e. See Gr een v. S t a t e

, 3 39 Ga. A p p

. 2 6 3,

2 6 5 -2 6 7 (1 ) (a) (7 9 3 SE2 d 1 56 ) (2 01 6 ).

Kn o w l ed g e i s al s o p ro p e rl y i n i s s u e wh en t he d efen d an t cl ai m s

t h at he o r s he was u n aware t h at a cri m in al act was b ei ng p erp et rat ed

. In

s u ch cas es

, t h e h y

p o t hes i s ju s t i fy in g t h e ad m is s i o n o f o t h er-act s

e v i d e n c e i s s im i lar t o t h at i n v o ked wi t h i n t en t: t he l i k el i h o o d t hat

rep eat ed i n s t an ces o f b e h a vi o r, ev en i f o ri g i n al l y i n n o cen t

, wi l l h av e

res u lt ed i n [t h e] d efen d an t ’ s h av i n g th e req u i s i t e st at e o f k no wl ed g e b y

t h e t i m e o f t h e ch arg ed cri m e.

Gr een

, 3 5 2 Ga. Ap p

. at 2 8 9 ( 2 ) ( c ) (ci t at i o n an d p u n ct u at io n o m i t t ed ). W h ere n o

s p eci al k n o wl ed g e o r t al en t i s req u i red t o co m m i t t h e ch arg ed cri m e, h o wev er, o t h er

act s s h ou l d n ot b e ad m i t t ed s i m p l y t o s h o w t h at t h e d efen d an t i s “ cap ab l e” o f

co m m i t t i n g t he ch arg ed o ffen s e. Id

. at 2 8 9 -2 9 0 (2 ) (c) (ci t i n g P a u l S. M i li ch

, Ga.

Ru l es o f Ev i d en ce § 1 1 : 1 7 , p p . 3 4 0 -3 41 (2 0 1 8 -2 0 1 9 ed

. )). 1 0

1 0 As ex pl ai n ed b y

Pro fes s o r M i l i ch

,

Th e pro b at i v e v al u e o f p ro v i n g k no wl ed g e l i es i n an s weri n g a co ncern

a ju ro r m i gh t o th erwi se h av e: “ d i d t h e defen d an t kn o w h o w t o d o t h at ? ”

If t h e cri m e, s u ch as ro b b i n g a p ers o n wi t h a pi s t o l

, req u ires no s p eci al

s k i l l

, t h en t h at j u ro r co n cern n ev er ari s es an d t h ere i s n o pro b at iv e v al ue

t o t h e ev i d en ce ot her t h an t h e i l leg i t i m at e i nferen ce

— “ h e d i d i t b efo re

s o h e p ro b ab ly

d i d i t ag ai n .”

Pau l S. M i l i ch , Ga. Ru l es o f Ev i d en ce § 1 1 : 1 7 , p . 3 4 8, n . 2 (2 0 2 0-2 0 2 1 ed

. ).

25Th ere i s n o al l eg at i o n th at an y sp eci al kn o wl ed g e o r s k i ll w as req u i red fo r an y

o f t h e offen s es at is s u e h ere. See Ro u z a n

, 3 0 8 G a. at 8 9 9 (2 ); Da vi s

, 3 4 2 Ga. Ap p

. at

8 9 4 (1 ). M o reo v er, W ri g h t d i d n o t cl ai m t h at h e was u n aware t h at i t em s i n h i s

p o s s es s i o n co n t ai n ed d ru g s an d a g u n

— h e m erel y d is cl ai m ed o wn ers h i p of t h e b l ack

b o o k b ag o u t ri g h t. See Gr een

, 35 2 Ga. A p p

. at 2 8 9 ( 2 ) ( c ). Un d er t h es e

ci rcu m s t an ces

, W ri gh t ’ s k n o w led g e was n o t at i s s u e i n t h i s cas e, an d t h e t ri al co u rt

t h erefo re erred i n ad m i t t i n g th e o t h er act s ev i d en ce o n t h i s bas i s

. See R o uz a n

, 3 0 8 Ga.

at 8 9 9 (2 ); Gr een , 3 5 2 Ga. Ap p . at 2 8 9 (2 ) (c); Da vi s , 3 4 2 Ga. Ap p

. at 8 9 4 (1 ).

(b ) In t en t

. T h e fi rs t pro ng o f t h e Ru l e 4 0 4 (b ) t es t i s m et wh ere i nt en t i s a

m at eri al i s s u e o n wh i ch t he St at e b ears t h e b u rd en o f p ro o f a n d “ t h e s am e s t at e o f

m i n d was req u i red fo r co m m i t ti n g t h e p ri o r act an d t h e ch arg ed cri m es .” Jo n es

, 2 9 7

Ga. at 1 6 0 -1 61 (2 ). In t h at reg ard

, “ a d efen d an t p ut s h i s i n t en t i n i s s u e w h en h e p l ead s

n o t g u i l t y un l es s h e tak es affi rm at i v e st ep s t o wi t h d raw i n t en t as an el em en t t o b e

p ro v ed b y t h e St at e.” Id

. at 16 1 (2 ), n

. 4 ; acco rd Ki r b y v. S ta t e

, 3 0 4 Ga. 4 7 2

, 4 8 0 (4 )

(a) (8 19 SE2 d 4 68 ) (2 0 1 8 ); S l o a n , 3 5 1 Ga. Ap p . at 2 0 8 (2 ) (d ).

(i ) Rel eva n ce. W ri g h t ’ s p ri o r co n vi ct io n s are rel ev an t t o s h o w h i s i n ten t h ere

b ecau s e th e s am e i n ten t was req u i red i n b o t h cas es

, an d h e d i d n o t affi rm at i v el y s eek

t o w i t hd raw i n ten t as an el em en t t o b e p ro v ed b y t h e St at e as t o each o ffen s e i n t h i s

26cas e. See Ki rb y

, 3 0 4 Ga. at 4 8 0 (4 ) (a); Jo n es

, 2 9 7 G a. at 1 60 -1 6 1 (2 ) & n

. 4 ; S l o a n

,

3 5 1 Ga. Ap p

. at 20 8 (2 ) (d ). W e t h erefo re m u s t ad d res s w h et h er t h e d an g er o f u n fai r

p reju d i ce s u b s t an ti al l y o ut wei g h ed t h e p ro b at i v e val u e of t h e ot h er act s ev id en ce. See

OCGA § 2 4 -4 -4 0 3 ; Jo n es , 2 9 7 Ga. at 1 5 9 (1 ).

(i i) Ru l e 4 0 3. W h en ap p l y i n g t he Ru l e 4 0 3 b al an ci n g t es t t o o t h er act s ev i d en ce

o f i n t en t

, t h e in q u i ry as t o p ro s ecu t o ri al n eed fo cu s es o n wh et h er t h ere is an y “ d an g er

t h at a rat io n al ju ry co u l d fi n d t h at al t h o u g h t h e d efen d an t co m m i t t e d t h e o b ject i ve,

ch arg ed act s

, h e d id n o t i n t en d t o d o so .” S l o a n

, 3 5 1 Ga. Ap p

. at 2 0 9 (2 ) (e) (i )

(ci t at i o n an d p u nct u at i o n o m i t t ed ); acco rd Ch yn o wet h v. S t a te

, 3 3 1 Ga. Ap p

. 1 2 3

, 1 2 8

(3 ) (7 6 8 SE2 d 5 3 6) (2 0 1 5 ) ( c i t i n g Pau l S. M i l ich

, Ga. Ru l es o f Ev i d en ce, § 1 1 : 1 3,

p

. 32 1 (2 01 4 -2 01 5 ed

. )). Th u s, th e p ro s ecu t o ri al need fo r o t her act s ev i d en ce o f i n t en t

i s m i ni m al wh ere it i s “ un l i k el y

, b as ed u po n t h e p art i cu l ar fact s an d ci rcu m s t an ces o f

t h [e] cas e, t h at an y rat io nal ju ry co u l d fi n d t hat t he p erp e t r a t o r lack ed cri m i n al

i n t en t .” S l o a n

, 3 5 1 Ga. A p p. at 2 1 0 (2 ) (e) (i ); acco rd Ja cks o n v. S t a t e

, 3 0 6 Ga. 6 9,

7 8 -8 0 (2 ) (b ) (i i ) ( 8 2 9 SE2 d 1 4 2 ) (2 0 1 9 ) (i n a p ro secu t io n fo r m urd er i n vo l v i n g a

s h o o ti n g i n t o a ret reat i n g car, ev i d en ce t h at th e d efen d an t p rev i o u s l y s h o t an o t h er

m an wh o was ret reat in g i n h is t ru ck s h ou l d n o t h av e b een ad m i t t ed t o s h o w i n t en t

b ecau s e “ [n ] ei t h er part y ev er c o n t en d ed t h at t h e s h o o t i ng [u n d er p ro s ecu t i o n ] was

27u n i n t en t i on al ,” as a res ul t o f w h i ch t h e p ro s ecu t o ri al n eed fo r t he o t her act s ev i d en ce

was “ n eg l i g i b l e”); Gr een

, 3 5 2 Ga. Ap p

. at 29 1 (2 ) (e) (i ) (co n cl u d i n g t h at “ t h e

p ro s ecu to ri al n eed fo r [o t her act s ] ev i d en ce was n eg l i gi b l e wi t h reg ard t o i n ten t as n o

e vide nce was p res en t ed s h owi n g t h at t h e [ch arg ed cri m i n al act ] was u ni n t en t io n al a nd

[t he d efen d an t ] p res en t ed n o s u ch d efen s e”); s ee al s o g en eral l y Br o wn v. S ta t e

, 3 0 3

Ga. 15 8

, 1 62 (2 ) (8 1 0 S E 2 d 1 4 5 ) (2 0 1 8 ) (“ W h en t he fact fo r wh i ch t h e ev i d en ce i s

o ffered i s u n d i s p u t ed o r n ot reas o n ab l y s u s cep t ib l e o f d i s pu t e, t h e l es s t h e pro b at i v e

v al u e o f th e ev i d en ce.”) (ci t at i o n an d p u n ct u at i o n o m i t ted ); S mi t h v. S t a t e , 2 3 2 Ga.

Ap p

. 2 9 0

, 2 9 3 ( 1 ) (5 0 1 SE2 d 5 2 3 ) (1 9 98 ) (“ [W ] h ere i n t en t m ay b e eas i ly i n ferred

fro m th e co m

m i s si o n o f t h e a c t i t s el f, t h e p ro b at i v e v al u e o f s i m i l ar t ran s act i o n

ev i d e n c e p r o f

fered t o pro v e i nt en t wi l l g en eral l y b e o u twei g h ed b y i t s p reju d i ci al

effect .”).

Here, t h e ju ry was tas k ed wi th ch oo s in g b et ween t w o co m p et i n g v ers i o n s o f

ev en ts

. Un d er t h e St at e’ s v ers i o n

— b as ed en t irel y o n t h e i n v es ti gat o r’ s tes t im o n y

—

W ri g h t cl ai m ed s o l e o w n ers h i p o f t h e b l ack b o o k b ag “ an d ev ery th i n g i n i t.” Un d er

W ri g h t ’ s v ers io n — bas ed en t i rel y o n h i s tes t i m o n y — (i ) h e h ad o n l y o n e bag wi th

h i m : a sm al l red an d b l ack b ag ; (i i ) h e k n ew n o t h i n g ab o u t t h e b l ack bo o k bag o r i t s

co n ten t s ; an d (i i i ) h e n ev er cl ai m ed o w n ers h i p o f th e b l ack bo o k b ag or it s co n t en t s

28b u t i n st ead s im p l y cl ai m ed own ers h i p o f th e red an d b lack b ag h e b ro u g ht w i t h h i m

. 1 1

Th es e v ers i o n s are m

u tu al l y ex cl u s i v e: i f t h e ju ry b el i ev ed t h e i n v es t i g at o r, i t wo u ld

h av e t o d is b el i ev e W ri gh t ; i f t h e ju ry b el i ev ed W ri g h t

, i t wo ul d h av e t o d is b el i ev e t h e

i n v es t i g at o r.

Reg ard l es s o f w h ich v ers i o n o f ev en t s t h e ju ry b el i ev ed

, h o w ev er, i n n ei t h er

s cen ari o i s t h ere an y l ik el i h o o d t h at t h e j u ry wo u ld fi n d t h at W ri g h t p o s se s s e d t h e

i t em s i n t h e b l ack b oo k b ag b u t i n t en d ed n ei t h er t o po s ses s t h e d ru g s an d g u n n o r to

d i s t ri b u t e t h e d ru g s

, g i v en t h e v o l u m e o f d ru gs

, t h e p ack ag i n g

, t h e p res en ce o f a s cal e

an d a g u n i n t h e s am e bag

, an d t h e ab s en ce o f p ers o n al -u s e p arap h ern al i a. 1 2 Th e

1 1 W h i l e Wr i g h t t es t ifi ed t h at he “ d i d n ’ t g i v e a d i rect s t at em en t t ak i n g

o wn ers hi p o f an y t h i n g,” h e t h en ad d ed

, “ I to l d t h em wh at I h ad ,” wh i ch

, h e cl ai m ed

,

was t h e red an d b lack b ag h e b ro u g h t wi t h h im

.

1 2 Had t h ere b een s o m e ev i d en ce t h at W ri g h t p os s es s ed t h e b l ack b o o k b ag b ut

d i d n o t i nt en d t o po s s es s i t s co n t en t s

— fo r ex am pl e, i f h e cl ai m ed t h at t h e b l ack

b o o k bag was hi s b ut t h at h e k new n o t hi n g of i t s co n ten t s

— t h e p ro s ecu t o ri al n eed

fo r o th er act s ev i d en ce of in ten t wo u l d t h en be m u ch h i g h er. See S l o a n

, 3 5 1 Ga. Ap p.

at 2 1 0 (2 ) (e) (i ) (“ ‘ T h e cl as s i c s it u at i o n s cal l i n g fo r ad m i s s i b i l it y of i n d ep en d en t

cri m es o r act s t o p ro v e in t en t are wh en t h e defen d an t ad m i t s a cert ai n i n vo l v em en t

i n t h e cri m i n al i n ci d e n t b u t m ai n t ai ns h e was d u p ed or fo rced t o g o al o ng an d t hu s

l ack ed t h e n eces sary cri m i n al i nt en t o r t h e d efen d an t ad m it s t h e ch arg ed co n d u ct b ut

c l ai m s h e d i d n o t i n t en d t o act cri m i n al l y .’ ”) (q u o t in g Pau l S. M il i ch

, Ga. R u l e s o f

Ev i d en ce, § 1 1 : 1 5

, p

. 3 3 0 (2 0 1 8 -2 0 1 9 ed

. )); acco rd

, e.g

., W es t b r o o k v. S t at e

, 3 5 5 Ga.

Ap p

. 3 3 4

, 3 3 6 -3 3 8 (1 )-(2 ) (8 4 4 SE2 d 2 0 8 ) (2 0 20 ) (ev i d en ce o f a p ri or arm ed ro b b ery

co n vi ct i o n was “ h ig hl y p ro b at i v e o f [ t h e d e f e n d an t ’ s ] i nt en t ” wh en h e d ro v e an

acco m pl i ce t o an d fro m t he ch arg ed arm ed ro b b eri es b ut cl ai m ed t h at h e w as i g n o ran t

29p ro s ecu to r i a l n eed fo r th e o t h er act s ev id en ce t o s h o w i n t en t here t h erefo re was

m i n i m al

. See Ja cks o n

, 3 0 6 Ga. at 7 8 -8 0 (2 ) (b ) (i i ); S l o a n

, 3 5 1 Ga. A pp

. at 2 1 0 (2 )

(e) (i ); s ee al s o McKi n n ey v. S t a t e

, 3 0 7 Ga. 1 2 9

, 1 3 8 (3 ) (b ), n. 7 (8 3 4 SE2 d 7 4 1 )

(2 0 1 9) (ev i d en ce o f a p ri or as sau l t co m m i t t ed b y t h e d efen d an t h ad l i m i t ed pro b at i v e

v al u e “ becau s e t h e p ro s ecu t o ri al n eed fo r it was neg l i g i b l e,” g i v en t h at “ [t ] here was

n o real d i s p u t e t h at wh o ev er b eat an d s t ran g l ed [t h e v i ct i m i n t h e ch arg ed cri m es ] to

d eat h h ad t h e i n t en t req u i red fo r m al i ce m u rd er an d ag g r a v a t e d as s au l t wi t h an

o ffen s i v e weap o n ”); co m pare Ch yn o wet h

, 3 3 1 G a. Ap p

. at 1 2 8 (3 ) (i n a p ro s ecu t i o n

fo r at t ack i n g a co rrect i o n al offi cer, ev i d en ce o f t h e d efen d an t ’ s u n p ro v o k ed at t ack o n

a n o t h er i n m at e was pro perl y ad m i t t ed to reb ut s u g g es t i on s th at t h e d efen d an t m a y

h av e l ack ed t h e n eces s ary i n t en t d u e t o m en t al i ll n es s ).

at t hat t i m e o f t h e acco m

p l i ce’ s p l an to co m

m i t t h e ro b b eri es ); s ee al s o Un i t ed S t a t es

v. Ar b a n e

, 4 4 6 F3 d 1 2 2 3

, 1 2 2 6 (II) (B), n. 4 (1 1 t h Ci r. 2 00 6 ) (ap p ro v i n g of t h e t ri al

co u rt ’ s i n s t ru ct i on t o t h e ju ry th at i t w a s perm it t ed t o co n si d er o t h er act s ev i d en ce

o n l y fo r t h e p u rp o s e o f d et erm i n i n g t h e d e f e n d a n t ’ s i nt en t

, “ an d o nl y i f [i t ] fo u n d

b ey o n d a reas o n ab l e do u b t f r o m o t h er evi d

en ce i n t he ca se t h at [t h e d efen d an t ] d id

co m m i t t h e act s ch arg ed in t h e i n d i ct m en t ”) (em p h as i s s u p pl i ed ); Un i t ed S t a t es v.

Beech u m

, 5 8 2 F2 d 8 9 8

, 9 1 7 (III) (C), n

. 2 3 (5 t h Ci r. 1 9 78 ) (i m p l i ci t l y ap p ro v i n g o f

t h e t ri al co u rt ’ s i n s t ru ct i o n t o t h e ju ry t h at i t co u l d n o t co n s i d er o t h er act s ev i d en ce

o f i n t en t “ i n d et erm i n i ng wh et h er an accu s ed co m m i tt ed t h e act s o r p art i ci p at ed i n t h e

act i vi t y al l eg ed i n t h e i n d ict m en t ” an d t h at t h e o t h er act s ev i d en ce co u l d n o t b e

co n si d ered fo r an y p u rp o s e “ u n l es s t h e ju ry fi rs t [fo u n d] t hat th e o t h er evi d en ce i n t h e

ca s e, s t an d i ng a l o ne, es tab l i s he[d ] b ey o n d a reas o n ab l e d o u b t t h at t he accu s ed

p art i ci p at ed i n t he act i v i t y al l eg ed i n t h e i nd i ct m en t”) (em p h as is s u p pl ied ).

30M or e ov er, t h e t em p o ral p ro x i m i t y b et ween t he p ri o r J u n e 2 0 1 1 i n ci d en t a nd the

No v em b er 2 0 1 5 i n ci d en t ch arg ed h ere d oes n ot m at eri al l y ad d t o t h e p ro b at iv e v al u e

o f t h e o t her act s ev i d en ce. See, e.g

., S l o a n

, 3 5 1 Ga. Ap p

. at 21 0 (2 ) (e) (i ) (co n cl u d i n g

t h at s i x - an d el ev en -y ear gap s b et ween pri o r o ffen s es an d t he ch arg ed o ffen s es d id

n o t “ ap p reci ab l y ” ad d to t h e p ri o r o ffen s es ’ l o w p ro b at iv e v al u e). An d t h e s i m i l ari ti es

b et ween t h e p ri o r act s an d cu rren t offen s es l i k ewi s e d o n o t w e i g h i n fav o r o f

ad m i s s i b i l i t y fo r reas on s di scu ss ed i n m o re d et ai l i n Di v i s i on (2 ) (b ) (i i i) an d n o t e 1 3

b el o w.

Th e d a n g e r o f u n fai r p reju d i ce, o n t h e o t h er h an d

, w as s i g n i fi can t

. Th e o n l y

d i rect ev i d en ce of W ri g h t ’ s gu i l t i n t h i s cas e cam e fro m t h e t e s ti m o n y o f a s i n g l e

wi t n e s s

. An d g i ven W ri g ht ’ s t es t i m o n y t h at t wo b ag s were p res en t (b o t h o f wh i ch

were at leas t p art i al l y b l ack ) an d t h at h e n ev er cl ai m ed o wn ers h i p o f t h e b l ack b o o k

b ag

, as wel l as h is ex p l an at i o n fo r wh y he was i n t h e ro o m wi th t h e bl ack bo o k b ag

,

a reas on ab l e j u ro r co u l d h av e fo u n d t h at W ri g h t i n ten d ed to cl ai m o wn ers h i p o n l y o f

t h e s m al l red an d b lack bag

, an d n o t t h e b l ack b o o k b ag

. Vi ewed i n t h at co n t ex t

, t h e

d an ger of u nfai r preju d ice fro m t h e a d m i s s i o n o f t h e fact s u n d erl y i n g th e p ri o r

co n vi ct i o n s was h i g h, as i t en co u rag ed t h e j u ry to fi n d t h at

, becau s e W ri g h t h ad

p o s s es s ed d ru gs an d a g un to g et h er i n t h e p as t

, h e was m o re l i kel y t o h av e d o n e s o

31h ere, w h i ch p l ai n l y i s pro hi bi t ed b y Ru l es 4 03 an d 40 4 (b ). See Smi t h

, 2 3 2 G a. Ap p.

at 2 9 3 (1 ) (t h e p r e

j u d i ci al effect o f o t h er act s ev i d en ce g en eral ly wi l l o u t wei g h i t s

p r o b at i v e v al u e “ wh ere in t en t m ay be eas i ly i n ferred ”); s ee al s o g en eral l y Ja cks o n

,

3 0 6 Ga. at 7 8-8 0 (2 ) (b ) (i i ); Br o wn

, 30 3 Ga. at 1 6 2 (2 ) (“ [O]n e o f t he d an g ers

i n h eren t i n t he ad m i s s i o n o f ex t ri n s ic o ffen s e ev i d en ce i s t h at t h e ju ry m ay co n v i ct

t h e d efen d an t n o t fo r t he o ffen s e ch arg e d b u t f o r t he ex t ri n s i c o ffen s e, becau s e t h e

ju ry m ay feel t hat t h e d efen dan t s ho u l d b e p u n i s h ed fo r t h at act i v i t y ev en i f h e i s n ot

g u i l t y o f t h e o ffen s e ch arg ed .”) (ci t at i o n an d p u nct u at i o n o m i t t ed ).

W e are co g ni zan t t hat co u rt s m u s t vi ew o t h er act s ev i d e n c e “ in a l ig h t m o s t

fav o rab l e t o i t s ad m i s s i o n

, m ax i m i zi n g i t s p ro b at i v e v al u e an d m in i m i zi n g i t s u n d u e

p reju d i ci al i m

pact .” S lo a n

, 3 5 1 Ga. Ap p. at 2 0 8 (2 ) (e) ( c i t a t i o n an d pu n ct u at i o n

o m it t ed ). So v i ewed

, ev en as s u m i n g t h a t t h e tem p o ral p ro x i m i t y an d g en eral

s i m i l ari t i es b et ween t h e p ri o r act s an d ch arg ed o f f e n s es arg u ab ly co u l d wei g h

s o m ewh at i n fav o r o f ad m i s s ib i l i t y

, o n t h e fact s o f t h i s cas e, t he ab s e n c e o f a n y

m ean i n g fu l p ro s ecu t o ri al n eed s i g ni fi can t ly o ut wei g h s t h o s e fact o rs

. An d gi v en t h e

l i m i ted q u an t i t y o f ev i d en ce fro m wh i ch t h e ju ry was t as k ed wi t h ch o os i n g b et ween

t wo di am et ri cal l y o p p o sed v ers i o n s o f ev en t s (ag ai n, o n th e s p eci fi c fact s o f t h i s

cas e), th e d an ger t h at t h e ju ry w o u l d m i s u s e t h e ev id en ce fo r im pro p er pro p en s i t y

32p u rp os es

— t h e very es s en ce o f u n fai r p reju di ce — su b st an t i al l y o u t wei g h s an y

p o t en t i al p ro b at iv e val u e t h at m ay be at t ri b u t ed to t h e o th er act s ev id en ce. See OCGA

§ 2 4 -4 -4 0 3 ; Jo n es

, 2 9 7 Ga. at 15 8 (1 ); s ee al s o Ol d Ch i ef v. Un i t ed S t a t es

, 51 9 U. S.

1 7 2

, 1 8 0 (II) (B) (1 ) (1 1 7 SCt 6 4 4

, 1 3 6 LE2 d 5 7 4 ) (1 9 9 7 ) (ex p l ai n i n g t h at u n fai r

p reju d i ce i n t h i s co n tex t i n cl u d es t h e d an g er th at a j u r y wi l l “ gen eral i z[e] a

d efen d an t ’ s earl ier b ad act i n t o b ad ch aract er an d t ak [e] t h at as rai s i n g th e o d d s t h at

h e d i d th e l at er b ad act n o w ch arg ed ”); Tr o y v. S t a t e

, 3 1 2 Ga. 8 6 0

, 8 6 3

, n

. 5 (8 6 6

SE2 d 3 9 4 ) (2 0 2 1 ) (“ t h e u n fai r p reju d i ce an al y s i s ” u n der Ru le 4 03 fo cu s es o n

“ wh at ev er ex t en t t h e [o t h er act s] ev i d en ce was l i k el y to d raw an im p ro p er pro p en s i t y

i n feren ce”). Th e t ri al co u rt t h erefo re ab u s ed i t s di s cret io n i n ad m i t t i n g t he o t h er act s

ev i d en ce o n t h i s b as i s , as wel l

.

(i ii ) D i s s en t

. Th e di s sen t arg u es t h at : (i ) t he p ro b at i v e v al ue o f t h e o t h er act s

ev i d en ce i s h i g h b ecau s e t h e p ri o r act s are “ v ery si m i l ar” t o th e ch arg ed o ffen s es ; an d

(i i) t h e p ro s ecu t o ri al n eed fo r t he ev i den ce al s o i s h i g h b ecau s e i t i s n eed ed to an s wer

t h e q u es t i o n of wh et h er W ri gh t (rat h er t h an “ s o m e hy pothe ti cal p erp et rat o r”)

— “ wh o

m ai n t ai n ed h e was m erel y p res en t at t h e s c e n e o f a cri m e wi t h m an y o t her p eo p l e”

an d d i scl ai m ed o wn ers h ip o f t h e b l ack b o ok b ag

— “ in t en d ed t o p o s s es s t h e b ag o f

33d ru g s.” Th ere are th ree p ri m ary

, i n t errel at ed fl aws i n t h e d i s s en t ’ s an a l ys i s

. W e

ad d res s each i n t u rn

.

(A) Fi rs t

, t h e d i s s en t ’ s ap p ro ach s i d e-s t ep s t h e p ro p er b al an ci n g t es t fo r

as s es s i n g p ro s ecu t o ri al n eed (an d rel at i ve pro b at i v e v al u e) o f o t h er act s ev i d en ce o f

i n t en t u n d e r R u l e 4 03

, wh i ch as k s wh et h er a rat io n al ju ry co u ld fi n d t h at t h e

d efen d an t co m

m i t t ed t he o bject i v e, ch arg ed act s wi t h n o i n ten t to d o s o

, n ot wh et h er

t h e ev id en ce g en eral l y i s p ro b at i v e o f t h e d efen d an t ’ s i n t en t i n t h e ab st ract

. See

S l o a n

, 3 5 1 Ga. Ap p

. at 2 0 9 (2 ) (e) (i ); Ch yn o wet h

, 3 31 Ga. Ap p

. at 1 2 8 (3 ); s ee al s o

Ja cks o n

, 3 0 6 Ga. at 7 8 -8 0 (2 ) (b ) (i i ) (co ncl u d i n g t hat t h ere was n o p ro s ecu t o ri al n eed

fo r o t h er act s ev i d en ce i n a pro secu t i o n fo r m u rd er an d a fi rearm offen s e wh ere “ [a] l l

o f t h e ev id en ce at tri al i n di cat ed t hat th e pers o n wh o rep eat ed l y f i r e d a g u n t o ward

[t he v i ct i m ] h ad t h e req u i s i t e g en eral i n t en t t o co m m i t an as s au l t w i t h a d ead l y

weap o n ”); Gr een

, 3 5 2 G a. Ap p

. at 2 9 1 (2 ) (e) (i ). M o reo v er, wh e r e

, as h ere, n o

rat i o nal ju ry co u l d fi n d t h at W ri g h t p o s s es s ed t h e b l ack b o o k b ag ’ s co n t en t s wh i l e

i n t en d i n g n ei t h er t o p o ss es s t h e dru g s an d g un n or t o di s t ri b u te t h e d ru g s

, a n y

p o t en t i al s i m i l ari t i es b et w een t h e p ri o r act s an d ch arg ed o ffen ses fu rt h er i n creas e t h e

d an ger o f u n fai r p reju d i ce

— i

. e., t h at t h e ju ry wi l l i n fer g u il t b as ed o n an i m p ro p er

34p ro p en s it y b as i s

. 1 3 See Ol d Ch i ef

, 5 1 9 U

. S. at 1 8 5 (II) (B) (2 ) (wh ere pri o r b ad act s

i n v o l v e o ffen s es s i m il ar t o t h e ch arg ed o ffen s es , t h e ri s k o f u n fai r p reju d ice

— i

. e.,

t h at t h e n at ure o f t h e p ri o r b ad act s m ay “ l u re a ju ro r i n to a s eq u en ce o f bad ch aract er

reas on i n g ” —

i s “ s ub s tan t i al ” an d “ es p eci al l y o b v i o u s”).

1 3 Reg ard les s

— an d co n t rary t o t h e d i s s en t’ s co n cl u si o n t h at t he ex t ri n s i c act s

h ere are “ v ery s i m i l ar” t o th e ch arg ed o ffen s es

— t h ere are at l eas t as m an y

d i fferen ces b et ween th e pri or act s an d t h e ch arg ed o ffen s es as th ere are s i m i l ari t i es

. W h i l e i n b o t h ep i s o d es

, d ru g s

, a g u n

, a s cal e, an d a l arg e s um o f cas h were fo u n d in

s o m e p ro x i m i t y t o W ri g h t

, t h e d i fferen ces i n cl u d e t h e fo l l o wi n g : (i ) t he p ri o r ac t s

i n v o l v ed m ari

ju an a, wh ereas t h e c h arg ed o ffen s es i n v o l ve a s y n th et i c can n ab i n o id

(“ s p i ce”); (i i) t h e p ri o r act s i n v o l v ed a .2 2 cal i b er Jen n i n g s s e m i au t o m at i c p i s t o l

, wh ereas t h e ch arg ed offen s es i n v o l v e a .4 4 cal i b er M ag n u m rev o lv er (a “ l arg e cal i b er

h a n d g un ”); (i i i ) t h e p ri o r act s i n v o l v ed t h ree b ag s o f m ari ju an a w ei g h i n g a t o t al o f

2 5 .9 g ram s

, wh erea s t h e ch arg ed o ffen s es i n v o l ve n earl y 4 0 in d i v i d u al l y pack ag ed

b ag s o f “ s p i ce” wei g h i n g m ore th an 4 7 g ram s ; an d (i v) i n t h e p ri or act s

, t h e d ru g s an d

g u n were fo u n d o n W ri g h t ’ s p ers o n

, an d t h e s cal e was fo u n d i ns i d e a v eh i cl e i n wh i ch

Wr i g h t h ad been a p as s en g er, wh ereas i n t h e ch arg ed o ffen s es

, al l i tem s o t h e r t h a n

t h e cas h were fo u n d in a b l ack b o o k b a g b e h i n d a d oo r i n a b ed ro om i n an o t h er

p ers o n ’ s res i d en ce. Co n seq uen t l y

, t h e q uan tu m of s i m i l ari t ies an d d i fferen ces

b et ween t h e t wo i n ci den t s ad d s l i t t l e t o ei t h er s id e o f t h e eq u at io n as t o rel at i v e

p ro b at i v e v al u e. See Ja cks o n

, 30 6 Ga. at 7 8 (2 ) (b ) (i i ) (h i gh l i g h t i n g t h at “ [a] m o re

carefu l a n d g r a n u l ar co m p ari s o n o f” t h e p ri o r act s an d ch arg ed o ffen ses

— b o t h o f

wh i ch i n v o l v ed t h e defen d an t fi ri n g a g u n i n to a ret reat i ng v eh icl e

— “ rev eal [ed ]

s u b s t an t i al d i fferen ces b et ween t h em ”); Br o o ks v. S t a t e

, 2 9 8 Ga. 7 22

, 7 25 -7 2 6 (2 ) &

n

. 10 (7 8 3 SE2 d 8 9 5 ) (2 0 1 6) (ex p l ai n i n g t h at a “ m ajo r di fferen ce” b et ween G eo rg i a’ s

cu rren t Ev i d en ce Co d e an d o u r p ri o r “ s i m i l ar t ran s act i o n ” cas e l aw is t h e n eed u n d er

Ru l e 4 0 4 (b ) t o co n s i d er t he d i s s i m il ari t i es as wel l as th e s i m i l ar i t i es bet ween t h e

ex t ri ns i c an d ch arg ed act s ).

35(B) S e c on d

, u nd er th e d i s s en t ’ s ap p ro ach

, t h e ex cep t i o n wo u ld swal l o w t h e

ru l e, i n s ofar as a “ m ere p res en ce” d e f e n s e, wi t h o u t m ore, wo u l d ren d er t h e

p ro s ecu to ri al n eed fo r o th er act s ev i d en ce of i n t en t “ h i g h ” in an y p ro s ecu t i o n fo r a

co n tro l l ed s u b st an ce offen s e. W h i l e t h ere m ay b e cert ai n fact ual s cen ari o s in wh i ch

a “ m ere p res en ce” d efen se m ay i n creas e t h e pro s ecu t o ri al n eed fo r s u ch ev i d en ce (s ee

n o t e 12

, ab o v e), t h i s i s n o t o n e

. A s s t at ed ab o v e, i f th e ju ry were t o b el i ev e t h e

i n v es t i g at o r an d d i s bel i ev e W ri g h t

, t h e p ro s ecu t o ri al n eed fo r o t h er act s ev i d en ce o f

i n t en t es s en ti al l y wo ul d be ni l. If, h o wev er, t h e j u r y were t o b el i ev e W ri g h t an d

d i s b el i ev e th e i n ves t i g at o r, t h e o t h er act s ev i d en ce l o g i cal l y wo u l d s erv e o n e o f t wo

p ri m ary , i m

p ro p er p u rp o s es

.

O n t h e o n e han d

, t h e ju ry co ul d i n fer g ui l t b as ed o n p ro p en s i t y by deci d i n g

t h at : (i ) al t h o u g h i t w as o t h erwi s e in cl i ned t o b el i ev e W ri g h t

, becau s e he co m m i t t ed

t h e p ri o r act s, he l ik el y i n t en d ed t o co m m i t t h e ch arg ed o ffen s es ; an d (i i ) b ecau s e h e

l i kel y i n t en d ed t o co m

m i t th e ch arg ed o ffen s es

, h e l i k el y p o s s es s ed t h e d ru g s an d g u n

at i s su e h ere, i .e., “ act [ed ] i n co n fo rm i t y ” w i th t h e p ri o r act s

. OCGA § 2 4 -4 -4 0 4 (b ).

Un d er t h at p l ai n l y im

p ro p er l i n e o f reas o n in g

, th e ju ry wo u l d b e u s i n g ev i d en ce o f

i n t en t o n a p ri o r o ccas io n t o i m p erm i s s i bl y es t ab l i s h p o s s es s i o n i n t h e c h arg ed

o ffen s es

. See Ja cks o n

, 3 0 6 Ga. at 7 9 (2 ) (b ) (i i ), n

. 1 0 (t h e d efen dan t ’ s cl ai m t h at h e

36was no t th e p erp et rat or “ w as an i s su e o f i d en t i t y

, n o t i n t e n t

, an d ev i d en ce o f t h e

[ex t ri n s i c b ad act ] was n o t ad m i t t ed fo r t h at p u rp o s e”); s ee al s o Un it ed S t a t es v.

Ar b an e

, 4 4 6 F3 d 12 2 3

, 1 2 2 6 (II) (B), n

. 4 (1 1 t h Ci r. 2 00 6 ) (ju ry in s t ru ct ed t h at o t h er

ac t s e v i d en ce o f i nt en t co u l d b e co n s i d ered on l y i f th e ju ry f i r s t fo u n d t h at t h e

r ema i n i ng evi d

en ce es t ab l is h ed t h at t h e d efen d an t co m m i t t ed t h e ch arg ed act s );

Un i ted S t a t es v. Beech u m , 5 8 2 F2 d 8 9 8, 9 1 7 (III) (C), n. 2 3 (5 th Ci r. 1 97 8 ) (s am e);

Pau l S. M i l i ch

, G a

. R u l es o f E v i d en ce § 1 1 : 15

, p

. 3 3 6

, n

. 7 (2 02 0 -2 0 2 1 ed .) (an

accu s ed ’ s d en i al t h at h e co m m i t t ed t h e p red i cat e act h as “ n o t h i n g t o d o wi th p ro v i n g

i n t en t ”); s ee al s o g en eral l y O l d Ch ief

, 5 1 9 U. S. at 18 1 (II) (B) (1 ) (ex tri n s i c act s m ay

n o t b e u s ed t o s h o w p ro p en s i ty b ecau s e d o i n g s o “ i s sai d t o wei gh t o o m u ch wi t h t h e

ju ry an d t o s o ov erp ers u ad e t h em as t o p reju d g e o n e wi t h a b ad g en eral reco rd an d

d en y h i m a f

a i r o p p ort un i t y to d efen d ag ai n s t a p art i cu l ar ch arg e”) (ci t at i o n an d

p u n ct u at i o n o m it t ed ).

On t h e o t her han d

, th e ot h er act s ev i d en ce co u l d en t i ce t h e ju ry t o fi n d W ri g ht

g u i l t y i n t h is cas e as p u ni s hm en t fo r p o s s es s i n g d ru g s an d a g u n i n t h e pri o r cas e. See

Br o wn , 3 0 3 Ga. at 1 6 2 (2 ). Th at d an g er i s h ei g h t en ed wh ere, as h ere, o n l y t h e p ri o r

act s

— an d n o t t h e co n v i ct i o ns an d s en t en ces res u l t in g fro m t h os e a c t s

— were

37ad m i t t ed d u ri n g t h e fi rs t p h as e o f W ri g h t ’ s b i fu rcat ed tri al

, 1 4 an d t he co n v i ct i o n s an d

s en t en ces t h em s el v es were no t ad m i t t ed u n t i l t h e seco n d p h as e of t h e t ri al

, aft er t h e

ju ry al read y h ad fo u n d W ri g h t g u i l t y o f th e cu rren t l y ch arg ed o ffen s es

. Cf. W es t b r o o k

v. S t a t e

, 3 5 5 G a

. Ap p

. 3 3 4

, 3 38 (2 ) (8 4 4 SE2 d 2 0 8 ) (2 0 2 0 ) (co n cl u d i n g t h at t h e

p o t en t i al u n d u e p reju d i ci al effect o f o t h er act s ev i d en ce was m i t i g at ed wh ere t h e ju ry

l earn ed t hat t h e d efen d an t h ad “ b een co nv i ct ed an d s erv ed a p ri s o n s en t en ce fo r h i s

earl ier co n d uct

, m ak i n g i t les s l ik el y t h at t h e ju ry w o u l d w an t t o p u n i s h [t h e

d efen d an t ] fo r t h is p as t co nd uct rat h er t h an t h e ch a r g e d c r i m es ”) (ci t at i o n an d

p u n ct u at i o n o m i t t ed ). In ei t h er s i t u at i o n, t h e ot her act s ev i d en ce s erv es pri m ari l y (i f

n o t en ti rel y ) an i m

p ro p er p u rp o s e.

(C) Fi n al l y

, wh i l e t h e t h r ee d eci s i o n s on wh ich t he di s s en t p ri m ari l y rel i es

arg u ab ly m ay ap p ear t o s u p p ort t h e t ri al co u rt ’ s ru li n g h ere at fi rs t g l an ce, each cas e

d i ffers s ig n i fi can t l y fro m t h e p res en t s cen ari o o n cl o s er i n s pect i on

. See Ha rg r o ve v.

S t a t e

, 3 6 1 G a. Ap p. 1 0 6 (8 6 3 SE2 d 3 64 ) (2 0 2 1 ); Mo t o n v. S t a t e

, 3 5 1 Ga. Ap p

. 7 8 9

(8 3 3 SE2 d 1 7 1 ) (2 0 1 9 ); Gu n n v. S t a te

, 3 4 2 Ga. Ap p

. 6 1 5 ( 8 0 4 SE2 d 1 1 8 ) (2 0 1 7 ).

Im p o rt an t l y

, i n n o n e of t h es e d eci s i o n s d i d th i s Co u rt en g ag e i n t h e rel ev an t an al y s i s

1 4 Fo r t h i s reas o n

, t h e d i s s en t ’ s referen ces t o t h e ju ry ’ s co n s i d e r a t i o n o f

W ri g h t ’ s “ p ri o r d ru g co n v i ct io n” an d “ p ri o r co n v ict i o n ” are s om ewh at m i s p l aced in

t h i s co n t ex t

.

38wi t h res p ect t o p ro s ecu t o ri al n ee d o f o t h er act s ev i d en ce o f i n ten t u n d er Ru l e 4 0 3,

i .e., as k i n g wh et h er a rat i o n al ju ry co u l d f i n d t h a t t h e d efen d an t co m m i t t ed t h e

o b ject i ve, ch arg ed act s wi t h n o i n t en t to d o s o. Co m p are Ha rg r o ve

, 3 6 1 Ga. Ap p

. at

1 1 1 -1 1 7 (2 ), Mo t o n

, 3 51 Ga. Ap p . at 7 9 1-7 9 4 , an d Gu nn

, 34 2 Ga. Ap p

. at 6 1 8 -6 2 2

(1 ), w i t h Gr een

, 3 5 2 Ga. Ap p

. at 2 9 1 (2 ) (e) (i ), S l o a n

, 35 1 Ga. Ap p

. at 2 0 9 (2 ) (e) (i ),

an d Ch yn o wet h , 3 3 1 Ga. Ap p . at 1 2 8 (3 ).

Sp eci fi cal l y

, i n Ha r

g r ove

, p ro s ecu t o ri al need was d eem ed “ s i g n i fi can t ” f o r

reas on s n o t p res en t h ere — i .e., b ecau s e t h e ev i d en ce t hat t h e defen d an t p o ss es s ed t h e

d ru g s an d p arap hern al i a i n t h at cas e “ was en t irel y ci rcu m s tan t i al ,” 3 6 1 Ga. Ap p

. at

1 1 6 (2 ) (c) (i i ), i ns o far as t h e co n t rab an d was fo u n d i n p lai n v i ew i n m u l t ip l e ro o m s

i n a res i d en ce i n wh i ch t wo o t her p ers o n s w ere p res en t

, aft er t he d efen d an t l eft t h e

res i den ce. See i d

. at 1 07 -1 0 8

. Here, h o wev er, th e St at e p res en t ed d i rect ev i den ce t h at

W ri g h t cl ai m ed o wn ers hi p o f th e bl ack b oo k bag (i ts el f h i d d en b eh i n d a d o o r i n a

s i ng l e ro o m l as t o ccu p i e d b y W ri g h t ) i n wh i ch t h e d ru g s

, gu n

, an d a s cal e were

fo u n d. 1 5 Ha r

g r o ve t h u s h as l im i t ed p reced en t i al v al u e h ere. 1 6

1 5 W h i l e W ri g h t al s o t es t i fi ed th at he nev er cl ai m ed own ers h ip o f t h e b l ack

b o o k bag

, h i s t es t i m o n y i n t hat reg ard n ei t h er (a) ren d ers ev i d en ce of p os s es si o n h ere

“ en t i rel y ci rcu m s t an ti al ” n o r (b ) h as an y beari n g o n t h e pro p er an al y s i s u n d er t h e

fact s o f t hi s cas e

— wh et h er a rat i o n al ju ry co u l d fi n d t h at h e p os s es sed t h e i t em s at

i s su e wi t h o u t t h e req u i s i t e i n t en t . See Ja cks o n , 3 0 6 G a. at 7 8 -8 0 (2 ) (b ) (i i ); Gr een

,

39In Mo t o n

, t hi s Co u rt en g ag ed i n no d i s cu s si o n o f pro s ecu t ori al n eed v i s -à-v i s

t h e d an g er o f u n fai r p reju d i ce u n d er Ru l e 4 0 3

, 1 7 b u t rat h er s um m ari ly co n cl u d ed t h at

3 5 2 Ga. Ap p

. at 2 9 1 (2 ) (e) (i ); Sl o a n

, 3 5 1 Ga. Ap p

. at 2 0 9 (2 ) (e) (i ); Ch yn o wet h

, 3 3 1

Ga. Ap p . at 1 2 8 (3 ); s ee g en eral l y Di v is i on (2 ) (b ) (i i ), ab o v e.

1 6 On a rel at ed n o t e, un l i k e t h e i n s t an t cas e, Ha r g r ove i n v o l v ed a p ro s ecu t i o n

b as ed s o l el y o n “ co n st ru ct i ve p o s s es s i o n ,” wh i ch req u i red t h e St at e to es t ab l i s h t h at

t h e d efen d an t h ad “ bo t h t h e p o wer an d th e in t en t i o n at a g i ven t i m e to ex erci s e

d o m i n i on o r co n tro l o v er” t he co n trab an d at i s s u e

, w hi ch was fo un d i n m u l t i p l e

ro o m s of a res i den ce occ u pi ed b y m u lt i p l e p eo p l e. 3 6 1 Ga. Ap p

. at 1 0 7, 1 0 9 (1 )

(ci t at i o n an d p u nct u at io n om i t t ed ); s ee al s o i d

. at 1 1 4 -1 1 5 (2 ) (c) (i ) (co n cl u d i n g t h at

t h e o t h er act s ev i d en ce was rel ev an t t o es t ab l i sh t h e “ in ten t ” el em en t o f co n s t ru ct i v e

p o s s es s i o n ). M o reo v er, wh i l e n o t ex p res s l y ad d res s ed i n t h is Co urt ’ s d eci s i o n

, t h e

d an ger o f u n fai r p reju d i ce i n Ha r g r o ve was su b st an t i al l y l o wer, i n s o far as t h e St at e

al s o p r e s en t ed ev id en ce t hat

, du ri n g t h e i n v es ti g at i o n i n to t he ch arg ed cri m es

, t h e

d efen d an t di rect ly en g ag ed i n m u l t i p l e d ru g t ran sact i o n s wi t h an i n fo rm an t an d al s o

en g ag ed i n m

u l ti p le ad d i t i o nal act s co n s i st en t wi t h d ru g tran s act i o n s

. See id

. at 1 0 7.

Here, h owev er, t h e o n l y d i r e c t ev i d en ce o f W ri g h t ’ s g u i l t cam e fro m t h e t es t i m o ny

o f a si n g le wi t n es s an d co n c e r n e d o n l y a s i n g l e s et o f ci rcu m s t an ces t h at occu rred

d u ri n g a s h o rt p eri o d o f t i m e at a s i n g l e l ocat i o n

, th ereb y ren d eri n g t h e d an g er o f

u n fai r p reju d i ce s i g n i fi can t

.

1 7 I n i t s d i scu ss i o n o f r el eva n ce un d er R u l e 4 0 4 (b )

, t h is Co urt in Mo t o n

o b s erv ed t h at : (i ) “ t o p ro ve t h at [t h e d efen d an t ] h ad t he req ui s i t e i n t en t to s el l

, t h e

St at e had t o p ro v e t h at [h e] al so h ad m et h am p h et am i n e u nd er h is co nt ro l

, as t h e St at e

al l eg ed wi t h h i s p ri o r d ru g p o s s es s i o n arres t ”; a n d ( i i ) “ [e] v i d en ce o f p ri o r d ru g

act i vi t y i s hi g h l y p ro b at i v e of i n t en t t o s el l a co nt ro l l ed s u b s t an ce.” 3 5 1 G a. Ap p

. at

7 9 2 -7 9 3

. Th e p ro p o s i t i o n t h a t ev i d en ce o f p ri o r dru g act i v i t y m ay b e “ h i g h l y

p ro b at i v e” o f a d efen d an t ’ s i n t en t t o s el l d ru g s fo r p ur p os es o f r el eva nce

— i n t h e

ab s t ract

— i s a s ep arat e q u es t i o n fro m wh et h er, o n t h e s p eci fi c fact s o f a g i v en cas e,

a rat i o nal ju ry co u l d fi n d t h at a d efen d an t p o ss es s ed d ru g s b u t i n ten d ed nei t her t o d o

s o no r t o d i s t ri b u t e t h e d ru g s

. See S l o a n

, 3 5 1 Ga. Ap p

. at 2 0 9 (2 ) (e) (i ); s ee al s o

Ol d s

, 2 9 9 Ga. at 7 5 (2 ) ( “ Rel ev an ce an d p ro b at i v e v al ue are rel at ed

, b u t d i s t i n ct

,

40t h e Ru l e 4 0 3 b al an ci n g t es t was s at i s fi ed b ecau se: (i ) “ [t h e d efen d an t ] ’ s p o s s es s i o n

o f d ru g s i n t h e p ri o r act an d t h e s al e in [a t r a n s a c t i on t h en u n der p ro s ecu t i o n ]

o ccu rred at t h e s am e l o cat i o n wi t h i n t wo y ears o f o n e an o t h er”; an d (i i ) “ t h e ri s k o f

u n fai r p reju di ce t o [t h e d efen d an t ] was red uced b y th e [t ri al ] c o u r t ’s l i m i t i n g

i n s t ru ct i o n

, wh i ch was g i v en b o t h p ri o r t o [an ] o ffi cer’ s t es t i m on y [ab o u t t h e p ri o r

act ] an d d u ri n g t he g en eral ju ry ch arg e.” 3 5 1 Ga. Ap p

. a t 7 9 3

- 7 9 4

. Ab s en t an y

s u b s t an t i ve an al y s i s o f p ro s ecu t o ri al n eed

, t h e d eci s i o n i n M o t o n al so has l it t l e-t o -n o

p reced en t i al v al u e wi t h res p ect t o t h e fact s i n t h i s cas e.

Fi n al l y

, i n Gu n n

, t h i s Co u rt ag ai n en g ag ed i n no di s cu ss i o n o f b al an ci n g

p ro s ecu to ri al n eed ag ai n s t th e d an g er o f u n fai r p reju d i ce u nd er Ru l e 4 0 3

, b u t rat h er

s u m m a r i l y d et erm i ned t h at

, “ u n d er t h e fact s o f [t h at ] cas e,” t h e 1 1 -y ear ti m e s p an

b et ween a p ri o r co n v i ct i o n an d t h e act s u n d erl y in g t h e p ro s e c u t io n at i s s u e d i d n ot

c o n c e p t s

. . . . W h en th e fact fo r wh i ch t h e ev i d en ce i s o ffered i s u nd i s p u t ed o r n ot

reas on ab l y s u s cep t i b l e o f d i s p u t e, t h e l es s t h e p ro bat i v e v al u e o f t he ev i d en ce.”);

acco rd O l d Ch ief

, 5 1 9 U. S

. a t 1 8 4 -1 85 (II) (B) (1 ) (d i s t i n gu i s h i n g b et ween

(a) rel ev an ce an d (b ) p ro b at i v e v al u e u n d er Ru le 4 0 3 ). On t h e fact ual s cen ari o

p res en t ed in t h i s cas e, t h ere i s s i m p l y n o l i k el i h o o d t h at a r a t i on al ju ry wo u l d fi n d

ei t h er t h at W ri g h t u n i nt en t i o n al l y p o s s es sed t h e d ru gs an d g u n (fo u n d t o get h er i n a

b ag wi t h a s cal e) o r th at

, i f h e p o s s es s ed t h em

, he d i d no t i n t en d t o d i s t r i b u t e t h e

i n d i v i d u al l y

p ack ag ed d ru g s

.

41ren d er t h e p ri o r co n vi ct i o n “ t o o rem o t e t o ero de” i ts p ro b at i v e v al u e. 1 8 3 4 2 G a. Ap p.

at 6 2 1 -6 2 2 (1 ). Ab s en t an y rel ev an t an al y s i s

, Gu n n ’ s p reced en t i al v al u e h ere al s o i s

l i m i ted

, at b es t

. 1 9

Fo r each of t h e ab ov e reas o n s

, t h e t ri al co u rt erred wh en i t ad m i t ted t h e o t h er

act s ev i d en ce fo r p u rp o s es o f es t ab l i s h i n g W ri g h t’ s in t en t i n t h e cu rren t p ro s ecu t i o n.

(c) La ck of mi s t a ke. W ri g h t n ev er cl ai m ed

, n o r was t h ere an y ev i d en ce to

s u g g es t

, t h at h e a c c i d en t al l y o r m i s t ak en l y p o ss es s ed th e d ru g s an d g u n at i s s u e in

1 8 Al t ho u g h t h e t ri al co u r t i n G u n n ad m i t t ed t h e ot h er act s ev id en ce fo r

p u rp os es o f es tab l i s hi n g m o t i v e, i n t en t

, an d k n owl ed g e, 3 4 2 Ga. Ap p. at 61 8 (1 ), t h i s

Co u rt ad d res s ed o n ly

i n ten t t o d i s t ri b u t e o n ap p eal , i d . at 6 2 0 -6 2 2 (1 ).

1 9 T wo o f t h e rem ai ni n g d eci s i o n s ci t ed b y t h e d i s s en t

— Br a d s h a w v. S t a t e

, 2 9 6 Ga. 6 5 0 (7 69 SE2 d 8 9 2 ) (2 0 1 5 ) (p ro s ecu ti o n fo r m al ice m u rd er an d o t h er cri m es

i n co nn ect i o n wi t h t he s h o o t i ng d eat h s o f t wo v ict i m s ); an d W i l l i a m s v. St a t e

, 3 2 8 Ga.

A p p

. 8 76 (7 6 3 SE2 d 26 1 ) (2 0 1 4 ) (p ro s ecu t i o n fo r b u rg lary ; ot h er act s ev i d e n c e

l i m i ted t o a w i t n es s ’s p ri o r co n v i ct i on )

— al s o co n t ai n n o s ub s tan t iv e an al y s i s

reg ard i n g t h e b al an ci n g o f pro secu t o ri al n eed ag ai ns t u n fai r p reju d i c e w h ere i n t en t

e as i l y m ay b e i n ferred b as ed o n al l o f th e ci rcu m st an ces

. An d t h e o t h er rem ai n i n g

d eci s i o n ci t ed b y t h e d i s s en t

— Ol d s

, 29 9 Ga. 6 5 (p ro s ecu t i o n fo r fal s e i m p ri s o n m en t

an d bat t ery ), in wh i ch t h e Su p rem e Co u rt v acat ed a deci s i o n of t h i s C o u r t an d

rem an ded th e cas e fo r t h is Co u rt t o en g ag e i n a p ro per Ru l e 4 03 an al y s i s

— s u p p o rt s

o u r ru l i ng o n t h i s i s s u e i n th i s cas e. See i d. at 7 5 -7 6 (2 ) (o b s erv i n g t h at : (i ) pro b at i v e

v al u e “ d ep en d s o n th e m arg i n al wo rt h of t h e ev i d en ce — h ow m u ch i t ad d s

, i n o t h er

wo rd s

, t o t h e o t h er p ro o f av ai l a b l e t o es t ab l i sh t h e fact fo r wh i ch i t i s o ffered ”;

(i i) “ [t ] h e s t r o n g e r t he o th er p ro of, t h e l es s th e m arg i n al v al u e o f t he ev i d en ce in

q u es ti o n ”; an d (i i i ) ap p l i cat i o n o f th e Ru l e 4 0 3 t es t “ cal l s fo r a carefu l

, cas e-b y -cas e

an al y s i s, n o t a cat eg o ri cal ap pro ach ”).

42t h i s cas e. Co n s eq u en t l y

, wh et h er t h e ch arg ed o ffen s e s r e s u l t ed fro m an acci d en t o r

m i s t ak e was irrel ev an t

. See, e.g

. , Br o wn

, 3 03 Ga. at 16 1 -1 6 2 (2 ) (h ol d i n g t h at t h e t ri al

co u rt erro n eo u s l y ad m i t t ed p ri o r ag grav at ed as s au l t co n v i ct i o n s t o sh o w ab s en ce o f

m i s t ak e o r acci d en t wh ere t h e d e f e n d a n t n ev er cl ai m ed

, an d t h ere was n o ev i d en ce

t o su g g es t

, t h at t he ch arg ed s h o o t i n g was an acci d en t o r m is t ak e); Th o mp s o n v. S t a t e

,

3 0 2 Ga. 5 3 3

, 5 4 1 (III) (A) (8 0 7 SE2 d 8 9 9 ) (2 0 1 7) (ev i d en ce o f a s u b s eq u en t arm ed

ro b b ery was i n ad m i s si b le t o s h o w m i st ak e wi t h res p ect t o t h e ch arg ed s h o o t i n g s an d

ro b b eri es b ecau s e t h ere was n o al l eg at i o n t h at t h e defen d an t “ acci d en t al l y o r

m i s t ak en l y s h o t t h e v ict i m s o r t h at h e acci d en t al l y o r m i s t ak en l y s t o l e t h ei r

p r o p ert y ”); Pa r

ks

, 30 0 G a. at 3 0 6 (2 ) (a p ri o r ag g rav at ed as s au l t co n v ict i o n w a s

i n ad m is s i b le t o sh o w k n o wl ed ge o r ab s en ce o f m i s t ak e i n a p ro s ecu t io n fo r m u rd er

an d ag g rav at ed as s au l t b ecau s e t h e d efen d an t ’ s k n o wl ed g e was n o t at i ss u e i n l i g ht

o f hi s ju s t i fi cat i o n defen se, “ an d h e m ad e n o cl ai m t h at h e a cci d en t a l l y o r mi s t a ken l

y

s h o t t h e v i ct i m ”); co m

pare Th o mp s o n , 3 0 8 Ga. at 8 5 9 (2 ) (i n a m u rd er p ro s ecu t i o n,

ev i d en ce o f t h e defen d an t ’ s p ri o r act s of v i ol en ce t o w a r d fam i ly m em b ers was

rel ev an t t o reb ut h is cl a i m th at h i s wi fe’ s d eat h res ul t ed fro m acci den t or m i s t ak e).

Th e t ri al co u rt t h erefo re s i m i l arl y erred i n ad m i t t i n g t h e o t h er act s ev i d en ce o n t h i s

b as i s

.

43(d ) Ha rm. H av i n g d et erm i n ed t h at t h e tri al co u rt erred wh en i t ad m i t t ed t h e

o t h er act s ev id en ce un d er Ru les 4 0 3 an d 4 0 4 (b ), we m u s t rev i ew t h e reco rd d e n o v o

t o det erm i n e wh et h er t he erro r was harm l es s

. Br o wn

, 3 0 3 Ga. at 1 6 4 (2 ). “ Th e t es t fo r

d et erm i n i n g n o n co n s t i t u t i o nal h arm l es s erro r i s wh et her i t i s h i gh l y p ro b ab l e t h at t h e

erro r d id n o t co nt r i b u t e t o t h e v erd i ct .” Id

. (ci t at i o n an d p u n ct u at i on o m i t t ed ). In

m ak i n g t h is as s e s s m en t

, “ we w ei g h th e ev i d en ce as we wo u l d ex p ect reas o n ab l e

ju ro rs t o h av e d o n e s o

, as op p o s ed t o as s u m i n g t h at t h e y t o o k t h e m o s t p ro -g u i l t

p o s s i b l e v i ew o f ev ery bi t o f ev i den ce i n t h e cas e.” Id

. (ci t at i o n an d pu n ct u at i o n

o m it t ed ).

As al l u d ed to ab o v e, ab s en t t h e o t h er act s ev id en ce, t h e rem ai n in g ev i d en ce o f

W ri g h t ’ s g u i l t was no t o v erwh el m i n g

, b u t rat h er res t ed p ri m ari l y o n t h e t es t i m o n y o f

a s i n g l e wi t n es s

. An d t he ju ry reas o n ab l y co u l d h av e fo u n d fro m W ri gh t ’ s t es t i m o ny

t h at h e i n t en ded t o cl ai m o wn ers h i p o n l y o f t h e s m al l red an d b l ack bag

, an d n o t t h e

b l ack b o ok b ag

. Fi n al l y

, t he ju ry was erro n eo u s l y ch arg ed t h at i t co u l d co n s i d er t h e

p ri o r act s ev i d en ce fo r m u l t i p l e i m p ro p er reas o n s

. As a res u l t

, t he ev i d en ce was n ot

s o o v erwh el m i n g

, an d th e i m pro p er o t h er act s ev i d en ce was n o t s o m arg i n al

, t o ren d er

i t h i g h l y p ro b ab l e t hat t h e erro r d i d n o t co n t ri b u t e t o t h e verd i ct

. See S l o a n

, 3 5 1 Ga.

44Ap p

. at 2 1 1 -2 1 2 (2 ) (f); acco rd Br o wn

, 30 3 Ga. at 1 6 4 (2 ); Th o mp s o n

, 30 2 Ga. at 5 4 2

(III) (A). W e t h erefo re rev ers e W ri g h t’ s co n v ict i on s o n t h i s b as i s

.

3

. W ri g ht al so co nt en d s t h at t h e ev i d en ce w as i ns u ffi ci en t t o s u p p o rt h i s

co n vi ct i o n s . W e d i sag ree. 2 0

“ W h en a cri m i n a l d efen d an t ch al l en g es t he s u ffi ci en cy o f th e ev i d en ce

s u p p ort i n g h i s c o n v i ct io n, t h e rel ev an t q u es t i o n i s wh et h er, aft er v i ewi n g t h e

ev i d en ce i n t h e li g ht m o s t fav orab l e t o t h e p ro s ecu t i o n

, an y rat io n al t ri er o f fact co u ld

h av e fo u n d t h e es s en t i al el em en t s o f t h e cri m e b ey o n d a reas o n ab l e d o u b t .” Ga l va n

v. S t a t e

, 3 3 0 Ga. Ap p. 5 8 9

, 5 9 2 (1 ) (7 6 8 SE2 d 7 7 3) (2 0 15 ) (ci t at i o n s an d pu n ct u at i o n

o m it t ed ); s ee al s o Ja cks on v. Vi r g i n i a

, 4 43 U. S. 3 0 7, 3 1 9 (III) (B) (9 9 SCt 2 7 8 1

, 6 1

LE2 d 5 60 ) (1 9 7 9). “ [I] t i s t h e s o l e p ro v in ce o f t h e t ri er o f fact to res o l v e co n fl i ct s in

t h e tes t i m o n y,” an d th is Co u rt n ei th er wei g h s t h e ev i d en ce n o r d et erm i n es wi t n es s

cred i b i l i t y

. Eva n s v. S t a te

, 3 1 5 Ga. A p p

. 8 6 3

, 8 64 (7 2 9 SE2 d 3 1 ) (2 0 1 2). “ [A] s l o n g

as t h ere i s s o m e co m

p et en t ev i d en ce, ev en t h o u gh co n t rad ict ed

, t o su p po rt each fact

2 0 As d i s cu s s ed be low

, a lthough w e r e ve r s e W r ight’ s c o n v i ct i o n s o n ev i d en ti ary

g ro u nd s

, we ad d res s hi s ch al l en g e t o t h e s u ffi ci en cy o f th e ev i d en ce fo r p u rp o s es o f

d et erm i n i n g th at h e m ay be tri ed ag ai n

. See F i n n ey v. St a t e

, 31 1 Ga. 1

, 1 8 (3 ) (b ),

n

. 30 (8 5 5 SE2 d 5 7 8 ) (2 0 2 1 ); Co wa r t v. S ta te

, 2 9 4 Ga. 3 3 3

, 3 44 (6 ) (7 5 1 SE2 d 3 9 9 )

(2 0 1 3).

45n eces s ary t o m ak e ou t t h e St at e’ s cas e, t h e t ri er o f fact ’ s v erd i ct wi l l b e u p h el d .” Id

.

(ci t at i o n an d p u nct u at io n o m i t ted ).

W ri g h t ’ s ap p el lat e ch al l en g e h e r e i s l i m i t ed t o h i s cl ai m s th at in su ffi ci en t

ev i d en ce co n n ect ed h i m to t h e bl ack bo o k b ag (an d

, n eces s ari l y

, i t s co nt en t s ) an d t h at

wh at l i t t l e ev id en ce was p res en t ed o n t h at i s s u e was co n trad i ct o ry

. 2 1 It was t h e s o l e

p ro v in ce o f t h e ju ry

, h o w ev er, t o res o l v e t h e co n fl i ct s in t h e ev i d en ce, as s e s s t h e

i n v es t i g at o r’ s an d W ri g h t ’ s cred i b i l i t y

, an d d et erm i n e wh et h er W ri g h t po s s es s ed t h e

b l a c k b o o k b ag an d i t s co nt en t s

. 2 2 See Br own er v. S t a te

, 2 9 6 G a. 1 3 8

, 1 4 1 (1 ) (7 6 5

2 1 Ou r ru l i n g s i n Di v i s i o n 1 d i s p o s e o f W r i g h t ’ s as s ert i o n t h at we sh o u l d n ot

co n si d er h i s s t at em en t s cl ai m i n g o wn ers h i p o f t h e b l ack b o ok b ag an d i t s co n t en t s in

d et erm i n i n g t h e s u ffi ci en cy o f t h e ev id en ce.

2 2 Al t h o u g h W ri g h t m ak es n o arg u m en t i n t h i s reg ard

, fo r p u rp o s es o f d eci d i n g

t h at h e m ay b e t ri ed ag ai n

, w e co n cl u d e t h at t h e ev i d en ce was s u ffi ci en t fo r t h e ju ry

t o fi nd t h at h e i nt en d ed t o d i st ri b u t e t h e “ s p i c e

. ” See, e.g

., Ta yl o r v. St a t e

, 3 4 4 Ga.

Ap p

. 4 3 9

, 4 4 1 (1 ) (8 1 0 SE2 d 33 3 ) (2 0 1 8 ) (i n t en t t o d is t ri bu t e co u l d b e i n ferred fro m

, i n t er al i a, t h e am o un t o f d ru gs

, a l aw en fo rcem en t o ffi cer’ s t es ti m o n y t h at t he v o l u m e

o f d ru g s was co n s i s t en t wi t h d i s t ri b u t i o n rat h er t h an p ers o n al us e, an d t h e p res en ce

o f a s cal e); Th o ma s v. S ta te

, 3 21 Ga. Ap p

. 2 1 4

, 2 15 -2 16 (1 ) (7 4 1 SE2 d 2 9 8 ) (2 0 1 3 )

(i nt en t t o d is t ri b u t e co ul d be in ferred fro m

, i nt er al i a, t h e v o l u m e o f dru g s

, h o w t h ey

were co n ceal ed an d p ack ag ed

, an d t h e fact t h at t h e d efen d an t “ l a ck ed a d ev i ce fo r

u s i n g t h e d r u g s”), d i s ap p ro v ed i n p art o n o t h er g ro u n d s b y La n g l ey v. S t a t e

, No

. S2 1 G0 7 8 3

, 2 0 2 2 Ga. LEXIS 1 4

, at * 1 3 (2 ), n

. 7 (Feb

. 1

, 2 0 2 2 ); see al s o La t t a v.

S t a t e

, 34 1 G a. Ap p

. 6 9 6

, 6 9 8 -6 9 9 (1 ) (8 0 2 SE2 d 2 6 4) (2 0 1 7 ) (t h e in t en t w i t h wh i ch

an act i s d o n e i s “ p ecu l i arl y a q u es t i o n o f fact ” fo r d et erm i n at i on b y t h e ju ry an d m ay

b e i n ferred fro m ci rcu m s t an t i al ev i den ce); W o o d s v. S t a te

, 3 0 2 Ga. Ap p

. 8 9 1, 8 9 3 (1 )

46SE2 d 3 4 8 ) (2 0 1 4 ) (“ [r] es o lv i n g ev i d en ti ary co n fl i ct s an d i n co n si st en ci es an d

as s es s i n g wi t n es s cred i b i l i t y are t h e p r o v i n c e of th e fact fi n d er, n o t th e ap p el l at e

co u rt ,” an d t h e t ri er o f fact i s n o t req u i red t o accep t th e d e f e n s e p res en t ed b y t h e

d efen d an t ). W e fi n d n o erro r i n t h i s reg ard

, as a re s u l t o f wh i ch t h e St at e m ay ret ry

W ri g h t i f i t s o ch o o s e s

. S e e F i n n ey v. S ta t e

, 3 1 1 Ga. 1, 1 8 (3 ) (b ), n

. 3 0 (8 5 5 SE2 d

5 7 8 ) (2 0 2 1 ); Co wa r t

v. S t a te , 2 9 4 Ga. 3 3 3 , 3 4 4 (6 ) (7 5 1 SE2 d 3 9 9 ) (2 0 1 3 ).

Ju d g men t r ever sed . McFa d

d en , P. J., co n cu rs a n d Ri ckma n , C. J., d is s en t s

.

(6 9 1 SE2 d 9 13 ) (2 0 1 0 ) (a j u ry m ay i nfer i nt en t b as ed o n al l o f t h e ci rcu m s t an ces

“ co n n ect ed wi t h t h e act fo r wh i ch t h e accu s ed i s p r o s e c ut ed ”) (ci t at i o n an d

p u n ct u at i o n o m it t ed ).

47A2 1 A1 65 5 . W RIGHT v . THE STATE.

R I C K M A N , Ch i ef J u d ge, d i s s en t in g

.

Becau s e t h e p ro b at i v e v al u e o f th e o t h er act s ev i d en ce was n o t su b s t an t i al l y

o u t wei gh ed b y

i t s u n fai r p reju d i ce, I res p ect fu l l y d i s s en t

.

I ag ree wi t h t h e m ajo ri t y ’ s co n cl u s i o n th at th e ot h er act s ev id en ce was rel ev an t

t o s h o w W ri g h t ’ s i nt en t

. 1 Th e m ajo ri ty errs

, h o w ev er, i n i t s a p pl i cat i o n o f t h e Ru l e

4 0 3 b al an ci n g t es t

.

“ Pri o r t o t he e n a c t m en t o f t h e n ew ev i d en ce co d e, G eo rg i a h ad n o d i rect

s t at u to ry eq u i v al en t to Ru l e 4 0 3

, b u t cas e l aw o n t h e i s s u e g en eral l y req u i red t h at a

1 Bec a u s e t h e m ajo ri ty d et erm i n ed t h at t h e ev i d en ce was rel ev an t t o p ro v e

i n t en t

, i t was u n n eces s ary t o an al y ze wh e t h er t he ev i d en ce was rel ev an t t o p ro v e

k n o wl ed g e an d l ack o f m i s t ak e. See Br a d s h a w v. S t a t e

, 2 9 6 G a. 6 50

, 6 5 7 n

. 5 (3 )

(7 6 9 SE2 d 8 9 2 ) (2 0 1 5 ).t ri al co u rt m erel y b al an ce t h e p ro b at i v e v al u e of ev i d en ce wi th i t s p reju di ci al effect

wi t h o u t req u i ri n g th at t h e ob ject i n g p art y es t ab l i sh s u b s t an t i al p reju d i ce.” (Fo o t n o t e

o m it t ed .) W

i l l ia m s v. S t at e

, 3 2 8 Ga. Ap p

. 87 6

, 8 7 9 ( 1 ) ( 7 6 3 SE2 d 2 6 1 ) (2 0 1 4 ). “ In

s t ark co n t ras t

, th e p l ai n m ean in g o f OCGA § 24 -4 -4 0 3 ’ s t ex t m ak es cl ear t h at t h e t ri al

co u rt m ay on l y ex cl u d e rel ev an t ev i d en ce w h en i t s p ro b at i v e v al u e i s ‘ su b s t an t i al l y

o u t wei gh ed ’ b y o n e o f t h e d es i g n at ed co ncern s .” Id

.

“ [T] h e ex cl u si o n o f ev i d en ce u n d er Ru l e 4 0 3 i s an ex t rao rd i n ary rem ed y wh i ch

s h o u ld b e u s ed o n ly s p ari n g ly .” (Ci t at i o n an d p u n ct u at i o n o m i t t ed

. ) Ol d s v. S t a t e

, 2 9 9

Ga. 6 5, 7 0 (2 ) (7 8 6 SE2 d 6 3 3 ) (2 0 1 6 ). “ Ob v i o us l y

, t he reas o n fo r s uch cau t i o n i s t h at

rel ev an t ev i d en ce i n a cri m i n al t ri al i s ‘ in h eren t l y p reju d i ci al ,’ an d

, as a res u l t

, Ru l e

4 0 3 p erm i t s ex cl u s io n o n l y wh en u n fai r preju d ice s u b s tan t i al l y o ut wei g h s pro b at i v e

v al u e.” (Ci t at i o n an d p u n ct u at i o n o m i tt ed .) W i l l i a ms

, 3 2 8 Ga. Ap p

. at 8 7 9 (1 ). “ Th e

p ri m ary fu n ct i on o f Ru l e 4 0 3, t h en

, i s t o e x c l u d e ev i d en ce o f s can t o r cu m u l at i v e

p ro b at i v e fo rce, d rag g ed i n b y t h e h eel s fo r t h e s ak e of i t s preju d ic i a l e f f e c t .”

(Ci t at i o n an d p u nct u at io n o m i tt ed .) Id . at 8 79 -8 8 0 (1 ).

“ Th e Ru l e 4 0 3 an al y si s req u i res a co m m o n s en s e as s es s m en t of al l t h e

c i r c u m s t an ces s urro u n di n g t h e ex t ri n s i c act an d t h e ch arg ed offen s e i n cl u d i n g t h e

p ro s ecu to ri al n eed fo r t h e ex t r i n s i c ev i d en ce, t h e o v eral l s i m i l ari t y b et ween t h e

2ex t ri ns i c act an d t h e ch arg ed o ffen s e, an d th e t em p o ral rem o t en es s o f t h e ot h er act .”

(Ci t at i o n an d p u nct u at i o n om i t t ed .) Ha r gr o ve v. S t a t e

, 3 6 1 Ga. Ap p

. 10 6

, 1 1 6 (2 ) (c)

(i i) (8 6 3 SE2 d 3 64 ) (2 0 2 1 )

. “ I n r e v i ewi n g i s su es u n d er Ru l e 4 0 3, we l o o k at t h e

ev i d en ce i n a li g h t m o s t f a v o r a b l e t o i t s ad m is s i o n

, m ax i m i zi ng i t s p ro b at i v e v al u e

an d m i n i m izi n g i t s u n d u e p reju d i ci al i m p act .” Id

.

Here, t h e p ri o r d ru g co n v i ct io n is v ery s i m i l ar t o t h e ch arg ed o ffen s e an d t hu s

h i g h l y p ro b at i v e to s h ow W ri g h t ’ s i n t en t t o b o th p o ss es s an d d i s t ri b u te t h e ch arg ed

co n tro l l ed s u b st an ces

. See Ha r g r o ve

, 3 6 1 Ga. A p p

. at 1 1 6 (2 ) (c) (i i i ). Reg ard i n g

p ro s ecu to ri al n eed

, t h e St at e had t o o v erco m e W ri g h t ’ s d ef e n s e t h at h e d i d n ot

p o s s es s t he b ag co n tai n i n g t he d ru g s

. W ri g ht ’ s s o le co n t en t i o n at t ri al was th at h e was

m erel y p res en t at t h e s cen e, t h ere w e r e n o w i t n es s es wh o t es t i fi ed t h at t he b ag was

W ri g h t ’ s

, an d W ri g h t arg u ed t h at h e n ev er m ad e t h e s t at em en t s ad m i t t i n g own ers h i p.

Th e m ajo ri t y co n fu s es t h e p ro s ecu to ri al need an al y s is b y co n cl u d i n g t h at d u e

t o th e am o u n t o f d ru g s

, t he p ack ag i n g

, an d s cal es

, a ju ro r wo u l d n o t co n cl ud e t h at t h e

p erp et rat o r d i d n ot i n t en d ei t h er t o p o s s es s t h e d r u g s a n d gu n or to d i s t ri b u t e t h e

d ru g s. Th e q u es t i o n i s no t w h et h er s o m e h y p o th et ical p erp et rat o r i n t en d ed t o p o s s es s

t h e d ru g s

, b u t wh et h er W ri g h t

, wh o m ai n t ai n ed h e was m erel y p res en t at th e s cen e o f

a cri m e wi t h m an y o t h er p eo p le, i n t en d ed t o p os s es s t h e b ag o f d ru g s

. T o an swer t h at

3s p eci fi c q u es t i o n

, t h e p ro s ecu t o ri al n eed o f a p ri o r co n v i ct io n fo r a s i m i l ar cri m e was

h i g h

. “ Th u s

, t h e St at e's n eed fo r ev i d en ce t h at [W ri gh t ] h ad co m m i t ted s i m i l ar cri m es

was s i g n i fi can t

, wh i ch wei g h s i n fav o r o f ad m i s s i o n u nd er Ru l e 4 0 3 .” H a r g r o ve

, 3 6 1

Ga. Ap p

. at 11 6 -1 1 7 (2 ) (c) (i i i). Ad d i t i o n al l y

, th e cri m es on l y t oo k p lace fo u r y ears

ap art an d t hu s were n o t t em p oral l y rem o t e fro m

each o t h er.

Acco rd i ng l y

, k eep i n g i n m i nd t h at t h e ex cl u s i o n o f ev i d en ce u n d er Ru l e 4 0 3

i s an ex t rao rd in ary

rem ed y t o b e u sed o n l y

s p ari ng l y , I d i s ag ree wi th t h e m ajo ri t y ’ s

co n cl u s i o n t h at th e t ri al co u rt ab u sed i ts d i s cret i o n i n fi n d i n g t h at t h e p ro b at iv e v al u e

o f W ri gh t ’ s co n vi ct i o n s was s u b s t a n t i al l y o u t wei g h ed b y u n fai r p reju d i ce. See

Ha r gr o ve

, 3 61 G a. Ap p

. at 1 1 7 (2 ) (c) (i i i ) (h o l d i n g t h at t h e t ri al co u rt d i d no t ab u s e

i t s d i s cret i o n i n fi n d i ng t he p ro b at iv e v al u e o f t h e d efen d an t ’ s p ri o r dru g co n v i ct i on s

was no t su b st an t i al l y o u t wei g hed b y u n fai r preju d ice i n d ef e n d a n t ’ s t ri al fo r o t h er

d r u g rel at ed o ffen s es ); Mo t o n v. S t a t e

, 3 5 1 Ga. A p p

. 78 9 ,7 9 3-7 9 4 (8 3 3 SE2 d 1 7 1 )

(2 0 1 9) (s am e); Gu n n v. S t a t e

, 3 4 2 Ga. Ap p

. 6 1 5

, 62 0 -6 2 2 (1 ) (8 0 4 SE2 d 1 1 8 ) (2 0 1 7 )

(wh ere d efen d an t fai l ed t o es t ab l is h t h at t h e t ri al c o u rt ab u s ed i t s d i s cret i o n fo r

ad m i t t i ng a p ri o r d ru g co n v i ct i o n fo r t h e p u rp o se o f i nt en t ).

4