Rare Earth Elements—End Use and Recyclability

Scientific Investigations Report 2011–5094

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
Front Cover. Photograph of the Molycorp, Inc’s Mountain Pass, Calif., mine. The Mountain Pass 

mine is one of the two largest rare earth mines in the world outside of China. Photograph by 

Dan Cordier, U.S. Geological Survey.
Rare Earth Elements—End Use and 

Recyclability

By Thomas G. Goonan

Scientific Investigations Report 2011–5094

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
U.S. Department of the Interior

KEN SALAZAR, Secretary

U.S. Geological Survey

Marcia K. McNutt, Director

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2011

For more information on the USGS—the Federal source for science about the Earth, its natural and living 

resources, natural hazards, and the environment, visit http://www.usgs.gov or call 1–888–ASK–USGS.

For an overview of USGS information products, including maps, imagery, and publications, 

visit http://www.usgs.gov/pubprod

To order this and other USGS information products, visit http://store.usgs.gov

Any use of trade, product, or firm names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the 

U.S. Government.

Although this report is in the public domain, permission must be secured from the individual copyright owners to 

reproduce any copyrighted materials contained within this report.

Suggested citation:

Goonan, T.G., 2011, Rare earth elements—End use and recyclability: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations 

Report 2011–5094, 15 p. available only at http://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2011/5094/.
iii

Contents

Abstract...........................................................................................................................................................1

Introduction.....................................................................................................................................................1

End Uses For Rare Earth Elements .............................................................................................................1

Mature Market Sectors .......................................................................................................................2

Catalysts........................................................................................................................................2

Glass...............................................................................................................................................6

Metallurgy (Excluding Battery Alloy)........................................................................................7

Phosphors .....................................................................................................................................8

Developing Market Sectors ................................................................................................................8

Ceramics........................................................................................................................................8

Neodymium-Iron-Boron Magnets.............................................................................................9

Battery Alloys .............................................................................................................................10

Other (Unspecified) ...................................................................................................................12

Summary........................................................................................................................................................12

References Cited..........................................................................................................................................13

Figures

1. Chart showing world mine production of rare earth oxides from 1990 

through 2008 ..................................................................................................................................2

2. Diagram showing the distribution of rare earth oxide consumption by market 

sector in 2008.................................................................................................................................5

3. Pie chart showing the distribution of rare earth oxide consumption within the 

catalysts market sector in 2008..................................................................................................6

4. Pie chart showing the distribution of rare earth oxide consumption within the 

glass industry market sector in 2008 .........................................................................................7

5. Pie chart showing the distribution of rare earth oxide consumption within the 

metallurgy industry market sector, excluding battery alloys, in 2008 ..................................7

6. Pie chart showing the distribution of rare earth oxide consumption within the 

phosphor market sector in 2008 .................................................................................................8

7. Pie chart showing the distribution of rare earth oxide consumption within the 

ceramics market sector in 2008 .................................................................................................9

8. Pie chart showing the distribution of rare earth oxide consumption within the 

neodymium-iron-boron permanent magnet market sector in 2008......................................9

9. Pie chart showing the distribution of rare earth oxide consumption within the 

battery alloy market sector in 2008..........................................................................................10

10. Chart showing demand for rare earth oxides associated with U.S. hybrid 

automobile sales from 2000 through 2009...............................................................................11

11. Pie chart showing the distribution of rare earth oxide consumption within 

unspecified market sectors in 2008 .........................................................................................12
iv

Tables

1. Estimated worldwide end uses for rare earth elements in 2008, by amount of 

rare earth oxide in end use. ........................................................................................................3

2. Distribution of rare earth oxide consumption by market sector in 2008..............................5

Conversion Factors

Multiply By To obtain

Mass

kilogram (kg) 2.205 pound avoirdupois (lb)

kilogram (kg) 32.1507 ounce, troy

megagram (Mg); metric ton (t) 1.102 ton, short (2,000 lb)

Temperature in degrees Celsius (°C) may be converted to degrees Fahrenheit (°F) as follows:

°F=(1.8×°C)+32

Temperature in degrees Fahrenheit (°F) may be converted to degrees Celsius (°C) as follows:

°C=(°F-32)/1.8
Rare Earth Elements—End Use and Recyclability

By Thomas G. Goonan

Abstract

Rare earth elements are used in mature markets (such 

as catalysts, glassmaking, lighting, and metallurgy), which 

account for 59 percent of the total worldwide consumption of 

rare earth elements, and in newer, high-growth markets (such 

as battery alloys, ceramics, and permanent magnets), which 

account for 41 percent of the total worldwide consumption of 

rare earth elements. In mature market segments, lanthanum 

and cerium constitute about 80 percent of rare earth elements 

used, and in new market segments, dysprosium, neodymium, 

and praseodymium account for about 85 percent of rare earth 

elements used. Regardless of the end use, rare earth elements 

are not recycled in large quantities, but could be if recycling 

became mandated or very high prices of rare earth elements 

made recycling feasible.

Introduction

Rare earth elements (REEs) are not particularly rare in 

terms of abundance, but for many years remained rarely separated from each other owing to their similar chemical characteristics (Hurst, 2010). Although REEs (which are also known 

as the lanthanide series in the periodic table of elements) are 

widely distributed geographically, they are chiefly mined, concentrated, and separated in China. Semifabrication also takes 

place in China, so China is important to world production on 

several levels. The manufacture of assemblies that contain 

REEs is more broadly distributed.

World mine production of rare earth oxides (REOs) grew 

rapidly (about 7 percent per year) from 1990 through 2006 

before decreasing in 2007 owing to worldwide economic 

conditions, with growth increasing but at a slower pace after 

2007 (fig. 1). The growth in REO production directly correlates to the growth in REO consumption, which, in turn, has 

been tied to the general economic growth for the historic uses 

of REOs (catalysts for fluid cracking and catalytic converters 

for automobiles, glass and metallurgical industries, and phosphors) and the increase of high-technology uses tied mainly to 

alternative energy systems (such as batteries for hybrid cars) 

and permanent magnet applications for electric motors, stereo 

speakers, and wind turbine generators.

The U.S. Geological Survey is not a “principal statistical agency” and does not have a mandate to routinely collect 

end-use data from primary sources. End-use data are collected 

and (or) developed from and attributed to private communications with experts, published and Web site materials, and other 

third party sources. In this report, the tables and figures for 

REO end use by selected sectors are based on data in Bade 

(2010). REE statistics are usually reported as REO equivalents. The REE-to-REO ratio for each of the REEs is about 

1:0.85. This makes the relative fractions of REOs in the enduse table closely approximate the relative REE end use (table 

1). Regardless of the shortcomings of single-source data, the 

data in this report present a reasonable first approximation of 

the distribution of worldwide REO consumption by end use. 

Quantity data as detailed in this report are rounded to no more 

than three significant digits, and percentages are rounded to no 

more than two significant digits.

End Uses For Rare Earth Elements

In 2008, 129,000 metric tons (t) of REOs was consumed 

worldwide (Cordier and Hedrick, 2010). Mature applications 

(catalysts and the glass, lighting, and metallurgical industries, 

sectors that grow at the rate of growth for the general economy) consumed about 60 percent of the total, and the remaining 40 percent was consumed in developing, high-growth 

technologies (battery alloys, ceramics, magnets, and other 

sectors that grow at 4 to 10 percent per year) (Bade, 2010).

The distribution of REO consumption by type is not 

homogeneous among market sectors (table 1). However, 

REO consumption is split rather evenly among the following 

applications: glass industry (polishing, 68 percent; additives, 

42 percent), 28,400 t; catalysts (fluid cracking, 72 percent; 

catalytic converters, 28 percent), 27,400 t; neodymium-ironboron magnets, 26,300 t; metallurgy and alloys, 23,600 t; 

and other uses, 23,500 t (fig. 2; table 2). Figure 2 shows the 

distribution of REOs from end uses to the consumer product 

reservoir to various modes of disposition. Estimates are based 

on assumptions about previous production and consumer product life. There are no estimates for manufacturer-generated 

scrap. The estimates in figure 2 should not be taken as definitive because they are based on incomplete and anecdotal 
2 Rare Earth Elements—End Use and Recyclability

150

140

130

120

110

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008

World mine production, in thousand metric tons

Year

Trend line

Figure 1. Chart showing world mine production of rare earth oxides from 1990 through 2008. Data are from Hedrick (1996–2009) and 

Cordier and Hedrick (2010).

information. What is important about disposition is that there 

is currently very little recycling of REOs. This suggests that 

the value of REOs that could potentially be recovered from 

recycling is insufficient to cover the cost to do so based on 

current technology, and possible future shortages that could 

cause sustained higher prices for these materials can likely be 

mitigated by this recycling potential. Indeed, Hitachi Ltd. of 

Japan is exploring recycling of REEs in response to Chinese 

REO export limitations (Clenfield and others, 2010). Kosaka 

Smelting and Refining (a subsidiary of Dowa Holdings) is 

in the process of developing the means to reclaim rare earths 

from electronic scrap (Tabuchi, 2010; Fast Company, 2011).

Mature Market Sectors

The mature REO end-use markets (catalysts, glass 

industry, metallurgy excluding battery alloy, and phosphors) 

consume mainly cerium (45 percent), lanthanum (39 percent), 

and yttrium (8.0 percent) oxides. Dysprosium, gadolinium, 

neodymium, and praseodymium oxides and other REOs contribute the remaining 7.0 percent of total REOs consumed in 

these sectors.

Catalysts

Fluid cracking is one process in petroleum refining that 

converts a heavy hydrocarbon input into lighter hydrocarbon 

fractions. Fluid cracking depends on the control of temperature and pressure conditions and the presence of a suitable 

catalyst, which provides active physical reaction sites on 

which the desired reactions can take place. The catalyst is 

based on zeolite, a molecular sieve that has a great amount of 

reactive area within its own mineral structure. The zeolite is 

dealuminized, which increases the silicon-to-aluminum ratio 

but weakens the structure of the mineral. The former aluminum sites in the zeolite are repopulated with REOs through an 

ion exchange process. REO concentration in catalysts varies 

between 1.5 and 5.0 percent by weight and averages about 
End Uses For Rare Earth Elements 

3

Table 1. Estimated worldwide end uses for rare earth elements in 2008, by amount of rare earth oxide in end use.[Values are in metric tons of rare earth oxides and are rounded to three significant digits. Percentages are rounded to the nearest decimal. Values may not add to totals shown owing to independent rounding. CeO2, cerium oxide; Dy O2 3, dysprosium oxide; Eu O2 3, europium oxide; Gd O2 3, gadolinium oxide; La O2 3, lanthanum oxide; Nd O2 3, neodymium oxide; Pr O6 11, praseodymium oxide; SmO, samarium oxide; Tb O6 7, terbium oxide; Y O2 3, yttrium oxide; REO, rare earth oxide; —, no consumption]

End uses CeO2 La O2 3 Nd O2 3 Y O2 3 Pr O6 11 Dy O2 3 Gd O2 3 SmO Tb O6 7 Eu O2 3 Other

Quantity used, in metric tons

Automobile catalytic converters 6,840 380 228 — 152 — — — — — —Ceramics 840 1,190 840 3,710 420 — — — — — —Fluid catalytic cracking 1,980 17,800 — — — — — — — — —Glass additives 7,920 2,880 360 240 120 — — — — — 480Metallurgy, except batteries 5,980 2,990 1,900 — 633 — — — — — —Neodymium magnets — — 18,200 — 6,140 1,310 525 — 53 — —Battery alloys 4,040 6,050 1,210 — 399 — — 399 — — —Phosphors 990 765 — 6,230 — — 162 — 414 441 —Glass polishing 10,700 5,170 — — 574 — — — — — —Other 2,930 1,430 1,130 1,430 300 — 75 150 — — 75

Total 42,200 38,700 23,900 11,600 8,740 1,310 762 549 467 441 555

Percentage of total REOs used

Automobile catalytic converters 90.0 5.0 3.0 — 2.0 — — — — — —Ceramics 12.0 17.0 12.0 53.0 6.0 — — — — — —Fluid catalytic cracking 10.0 90.0 — — — — — — — — —Glass additives 66.0 24.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 — — — — — 4.0Metallurgy, except batteries 52.0 26.0 16.5 — 5.5 — — — — — —Neodymium magnets — — 69.4 — 23.4 5.0 2.0 — 0.2 — —Battery alloys 33.4 50.0 10.0 — 3.3 — — 3.3 — — —Phosphors 11.0 8.5 — 69.2 — — 1.8 — 4.6 4.9 —Glass polishing 65.1 31.4 — — 3.5 — — — — — —Other 39.0 19.0 15.0 19.0 4.0 — 1.0 2.0 — — 1.0

Total 32.7 29.9 18.5 9.0 6.8 1.0 0.6 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.4
4 Rare Earth Elements—End Use and Recyclability

Total consumption

129,000 t

Y

Other

555 t

O2 3

11,600 t

Tb O6 7

Pr

SmO

549 t467 t

O6 7

Nd

8,740 t

O2 3

23,900 t

La O2 3

38,700 t

Gd O2 3

Eu

762 t

O2 3

Dy

441 t

O2 3

CeO

1,310 t

2

42,200 t

Other

7,500 t

Battery alloy

12,100 t

NdFeB magnets

26,300 t

Ceramics

7,000 t

Phosphor

9,000 t

Metallurgy1

11,500 t

Glass industry

28,400 t

Catalysts

27,400 t

Net change to consumer product reservoir

38,800

Other

6,800 t

Battery alloy

4,000 t

NdFeB magnets

6,290 t

Ceramics

5,800 t

Phosphor

8,150 t

Metallurgy1

7,700 t

Glass industry

27,000 t

Catalysts

24,700 t

Total consumer scrap

90,400 t

Disposition

Recycled

0 t

Stockpiled

2,320 t

Downgraded use

8,310 t

Construction aggregate

21,000 t

Landfill

58,700 t

Total disposition

90,400 t

76 480

1,430 3,710 6,230 240

53 414

150 399300 399 6,140 420 633 694 152

1,130 1,210 18,200 840 1,900 360 228

1,430 6,050 1,190 765 2,990 8,050 18,200

75 525

441162

1,310

2,930 4,040 840 990 5,980 18,600 8,820
End Uses For Rare Earth Elements 5

Table 2. Distribution of rare earth oxide consumption by market sector in 2008.

[Data are derived from Bade (2010). Values may not add to totals shown owing to independent rounding. —, no consumption]

Rare earth oxide Catalysts Ceramics Glass 

industry

Metallurgy, except 

batteries

Neodymium 

magnets

Battery 

alloys Phosphors Other Total

Cerium oxide

Dysprosium oxide

Europium oxide

Gadolinium oxide

Lanthanum oxide

Neodymium oxide

Praseodymium oxide

Samarium oxide

Terbium oxide

Yttrium oxide

Other oxides

Total

8,820

—

—

—

18,180

228

152

—

—

—

—

840

—

—

—

1,190

840

420

—

—

3,710

—

18,620

—

—

—

8,050

360

694

—

—

240

480

5,980

—

—

—

2,990

1,900

633

—

—

—

—

—

1,310

—

525

—

18,200

6,140

—

53

—

—

4,040

—

—

—

6,050

1,210

399

399

—

—

—

990

—

441

162

765

—

—

—

414

6,230

—

2,930

—

—

75

1,430

1,130

300

150

—

1,430

75

42,200

1,310

441

762

38,700

23,900

8,740

549

467

11,600

555

27,400 7,000 28,400 11,500 26,300 12,100 9,000 7,500 129,000

Figure 2 (facing page). Diagram showing the distribution of 

rare earth oxide consumption by market sector in 2008. Data are 

derived from Bade (2010). Values may not add to totals shown 

owing to independent rounding. CeO2

, cerium oxide; Dy2O3, 

dysprosium oxide; Eu2

O3, europium oxide; Gd2O3, gadolinium 

oxide; La2

O3, lanthanum oxide; Nd2O3, neodymium oxide; Pr6O7, 

praseodymium oxide; SmO, samarium oxide; Tb6

O7, terbium oxide; 

Y2

O3, yttrium oxide. The metallurgy end use does not include 

batteries, which are shown as a separate end use.
6 Rare Earth Elements—End Use and Recyclability

3.5 percent (Du and others, 2009). As fluid cracking proceeds, 

catalyst contaminated with carbon is continually created and 

separated from the stream of light hydrocarbon products. The 

contaminated catalyst is regenerated and blended with a new 

catalyst at a 1:1 ratio and returned to the cracking area (Bulatov and Jirnov, 2009).

In 2008, 27,400 t of REOs was used as catalysts for fluid 

cracking (72 percent) and automobile catalytic converters 

(28 percent), of which lanthamum oxide contributed 66 percent; cerium oxide, 32 percent; neodymium oxide, 0.8 percent; 

and praseodymium oxide, 0.6 percent (fig. 3).

In 2008, catalysts accounted for 47 percent of the consumption of lanthanum oxide (18,200 t, of which 98 percent 

went to fluid cracking and 2.0 percent went to automobile 

catalysts), 21 percent of the consumption of cerium oxide 

(8,820 t, of which 78 percent went to automobile catalysts and 

22 percent went to fluid cracking), 1.7 percent of the consumption of praseodymium oxide (152 t, 100 percent of which went 

to automobile catalysts), and 1.0 percent of the consumption 

of neodymium oxide (228 t, 100 percent of which went to 

automobile catalysts).

Spent catalysts are generally considered to be hazardous wastes and as such incur higher disposal costs. Nevertheless, REOs are not recovered, but rather, depending on 

circumstances, are disposed in lined landfills, combined with 

other materials to make construction aggregates, or processed 

through cement kilns where they substitute for material and 

fuel inputs that would otherwise have to be extracted from the 

Earth.

With regard to automobile catalytic converters, REOs 

are not the major catalyst, but rather function as a protective coating for the major catalytic elements (palladium and 

platinum), which are generally more valuable and are used in 

much larger quantities for this end use. Very small amounts, 

if any, of the REOs used in catalysts are recycled within the 

processes that recover the major elements. The REOs separate 

to slag in these processes and are most likely a dissipative loss 

to construction aggregate or to landfills.

Growth in the demand for REOs that is generated by 

a catalyst’s category of usage will likely be tied directly to 

worldwide growth in automobile production and fluid cracking. Growth is expected to depend upon general economic 

conditions and can vary by region.

Pr6O11

152 t (0.6%)

CeO2

8,820 t (32%)

La2O3

18,200 t (66%)

Nd2

O3

228 t (0.8%)

Figure 3. Pie chart showing the distribution of rare earth oxide 

consumption within the catalysts market sector in 2008. Data are 

derived from Bade (2010). CeO2

, cerium oxide; La2O3, lanthanum 

oxide; Nd2

O3, neodymium oxide; Pr6O11, praseodymium oxide.

Glass

REOs are added to glass to perform such functions 

as absorbing ultraviolet light, altering the refractive index, 

and colorizing or decolorizing (AZoNano.com, 2009; Herbert, 2010; Rare-Earth-Technology, 2010). Yttrium is used 

with garnet to form yttrium-aluminum-garnet (YAG) lasers. 

Neodymium and other REEs are used as dopants to alter the 

properties of the YAG lasers (Anscombe, 2002; VLOC, 2002).

Polishing powder is sprayed on spinning glass where 

chemical dissolving and mechanical abrading agents work 

together to provide superior polished glass surfaces. Rare earth 

glass polishing powders at end-of-life contain 66 to 95 percent 

REOs in the following percentages: cerium oxide, 50 to 99 

percent; lanthanum oxide, 0 to 35 percent; neodymium oxide, 

0 to 15 percent; and praseodymium oxide, 0 to 5 percent. In 

2008, 28,400 t of REOs was used in the glass industry, of 

which cerium oxide accounted for 65 percent; lanthanum 

oxide, 28 percent; praseodymium oxide, 2.4 percent; other 

oxides, 1.7 percent; neodymium oxide, 1.3 percent; and 

yttrium oxide, 0.9 percent (fig. 4).

In 2008, the glass industry accounted for 86 percent of 

the consumption of other REOs (480 t, of which 100 percent 

went to glass additives), 44 percent of the consumption of 

cerium oxide (18,600 t, of which 57 percent went to glass 

polishing and 43 percent went to glass additives), 21 percent 

of the consumption of lanthanum oxide (8,050 t, of which 

64 percent went to glass polishing and 36 percent went to 

glass additives), 8 percent of the consumption of praseodymium oxide (694 t, of which 83 percent went to glass polishing and 17 percent went to glass additives), and 2 percent 

of the consumption of neodymium oxide (360 t, of which 
End Uses For Rare Earth Elements 7

Other 

480 t (1.7%)

CeO2

18,600 t (65%)

Y2

O3

240 t (0.9%)

Pr6O11

694 t (2.4%)

Nd2

O3

360 t (1.3%)

La2

O3

8,050 t (28%)

Figure 4. Pie chart showing the distribution of rare earth oxide 

consumption within the glass industry market sector in 2008. 

Data are derived from Bade (2010). CeO2

, cerium oxide; La2O3, 

lanthanum oxide; Nd2

O3, neodymium oxide; Pr6O11, praseodymium 

oxide; Y2

O3, yttrium oxide.

100 percent went to glass additives) and yttrium oxide (240 t, 

of which 100 percent went to glass additives).

Clear glass, which is unlikely to contain REEs, is recycled easily into containers, and clear glass cullet (crushed glass 

scrap) is highly prized in new clear glass production. Colored 

glass, some of which can contain REEs, is hand or machine 

sorted before becoming cullet. It can be recycled into colored glass under high quality control conditions, but is more 

likely to be used to manufacture color tile and glass fibers, as 

construction aggregate, or to be disposed of in a landfill (Container Recycling Institute, 2008; Earth911.com, 2010a,b).

Neodymium is used for the production of YAG lasers. 

No REE-bearing scrap material is recycled for use in this 

crystal-growing process. During production, 80 percent of the 

neodymium input is lost to a scrap material that contains as 

much as 5 percent neodymium oxide. This material, for lack 

of buyers, is sent to landfills (Michael Brennan, manager, YAG 

Crystal Growth, VLOC, written commun., January 25, 2001). 

Polishing powders can be regenerated with costly chemical 

processing (Xu and Peng, 2009).

Metallurgy (Excluding Battery Alloy)

REEs are added to aluminum, iron, steel, and other 

host metals in small quantities to improve selected physical 

properties of the resulting alloys. The rare earths are added as 

ferroalloys, master alloys, mischmetal (a mix of mostly cerium 

and lanthanum oxides), or metals.

In 2008, 11,500 t of REOs was used in this category, 

of which cerium oxide accounted for 52 percent; lanthanum 

oxide, 26 percent; neodymium oxide, 17 percent; and praseodymium oxide, 5.5 percent (fig. 5).

In 2008, the metallurgy sector (excluding battery alloy) 

accounted for 14 percent of the consumption of cerium 

oxide (5,980 t), 8.0 percent for neodymium oxide (1,990 t), 

7.7 percent of the consumption of lanthanum oxide (2,990 t), 

and 7.2 percent of the consumption of praseodymium oxide 

(633 t).

The use of REEs in metallurgical alloys is generally dissipative because the rare earths congregate in low concentrations in the slag generated by melting scrap types that contain 

the rare earths. Slag is used as construction aggregate and (or) 

is disposed in landfills.

CeO2

5,980 t (52%)

Pr6O11

633 t (5.5%)

Nd2

O3

1,900 t (16%)

La2

O3

2,990 t (26%)

Figure 5. Pie chart showing the distribution of rare earth oxide 

consumption within the metallurgy industry market sector, 

excluding battery alloys, in 2008. Data are derived from Bade 

(2010). CeO2

, cerium oxide; La2O3, lanthanum oxide; Nd2O3, 

neodymium oxide; Pr6

O11, praseodymium oxide.
8 Rare Earth Elements—End Use and Recyclability

Phosphors

Phosphors are used in cathode ray tube displays, fluorescent lamps, and other applications that require color in the 

light exhibited. Not all phosphors contain REEs, but many do. 

Phosphors convert incident radiation into light of designed 

color based on the properties of the elements included in the 

phosphor (Heyes, 1998).

In 2008, 9,000 t of REOs was used in this category, of 

which yttrium oxide contributed 69 percent; cerium oxide, 

11 percent; lanthanum oxide, 8.5 percent; europium oxide, 

4.9 percent; terbium oxide, 4.6 percent; and gadolinium oxide, 

1.8 percent (fig. 6).

In 2008, phosphors accounted for 100 percent of the 

consumption of europium oxide (441 t), 89 percent of the consumption of terbium oxide (414 t), 54 percent of the consumption of yttrium oxide (6,230 t), 21 percent of the consumption 

of gadolinium oxide (162 t), 2.4 percent of the consumption 

of cerium oxide (990 t), and 2.0 percent of the consumption of 

lanthanum oxide (765 t).

Rhodia Group has estimated that, by 2015, recycled 

lamps will contain more than 250 t of REOs. Currently (2011), 

REOs as a constituent of the phosphor powder that can be 

recovered from recycled lamps is disposed in landfills. However, research efforts by Rhodia and others to economically 

recover this material continue (U.S. Department of Energy, 

2009, p. 34141).

Developing Market Sectors

In developing high-technology market sectors, neodymium oxide accounted for 41 percent of REOs used in these sectors; lanthanum oxide, 16 percent; cerium oxide, 15 percent; 

praseodymium oxide, 14 percent; yttrium oxide, 10 percent; 

dysprosium oxide, 2.5 percent; and gadolinium and samarium 

oxides, 1.0 percent each.

Ceramics

REEs are added to ceramic glazes for color control 

(Campbell and Keane, 2010). Barium titanate powder, which 

is used in electronic applications, is doped with lanthanides to 

modify the properties of the titanate. Yttrium is used to make 

ferrites for high frequencies and to stabilize zirconia in oxygen 

sensors (Yoldjian, 1985).

In 2008, 7,000 t of REOs was used in this category, of 

which yttrium oxide accounted for 53 percent; lanthanum 

oxide, 17 percent; cerium and neodymium oxides, 12 percent 

each; and praseodymium oxide, 6.0 percent (fig. 7).

In 2008, ceramics accounted for 32 percent of the 

consumption of yttrium oxide (3,710 t), 4.8 percent of the 

consumption of praseodymium oxide (420 t), 3.5 percent of 

the consumption of neodymium oxide (840 t), 3.1 percent of 

the consumption of lanthanum oxide (1,190 t), and 2.0 percent 

Eu2O3

441 t (4.9%)

CeO2

990 t (11%)

Y2

O3

6,230 t (69%)

Tb6

O7

414 t (4.6%)

Gd2

O3

162 t (1.8%)

La2

O3

765 t (8.5%)

Figure 6. Pie chart showing 

the distribution of rare earth 

oxide consumption within the 

phosphor market sector in 

2008. Data are derived from 

Bade (2010). CeO2

, cerium 

oxide; Eu2

O3, europium oxide; 

Gd2

O3, gadolinium oxide; 

La2

O3, lanthanum oxide; Tb6O7, 

terbium oxide; Y2

O3, yttrium 

oxide.
End Uses For Rare Earth Elements 9

CeO2

840 t (12%)

Y2

O3

3,710 t (53%)

Pr6

O11

420 t (6.0%)

Nd2O3

840 t (12%)

La2

O3

1,190 t (17%)

Figure 7. Pie chart showing the distribution of rare earth oxide 

consumption within the ceramics market sector in 2008. Data are 

derived from Bade (2010). CeO2

, cerium oxide; La2O3, lanthanum 

oxide; Nd2

O3, neodymium oxide; Pr6O11, praseodymium oxide; Y2O3, 

yttrium oxide.

of the consumption of cerium oxide (840 t). Technology is 

available to recycle these materials, but little actual recycling 

occurs because the cost to separate the REEs is higher than the 

potential value of the materials (Lucchesi, 2010).

Neodymium-Iron-Boron Magnets

Because of their superior magnetic flux density, 

neodymium-iron-boron magnets are in high demand for 

small and large motors and generators. Small (servo) motors 

power disc drives in computers, windows in automobiles, and 

multitudes of other everyday applications. Larger motors, 

such as those in electric cars, can use up to 200 grams (g) of 

neodymium and 30 g of dysprosium per motor (Keane, 2009). 

Wind turbine generators can contain 1 t of neodymium per 

megawatt of electric capacity generated (Barton, 2009).

In 2008, 26,300 t of REOs was used in this category, of 

which neodymium oxide accounted for 69 percent; praseodymium oxide, 23 percent; dysprosium oxide, 5.0 percent; 

gadolinium oxide, 2.0 percent; and terbium oxide, 0.2 percent 

(fig. 8).

In 2008, the neodymium-iron-boron magnet category 

created 100 percent of the consumption of dysprosium oxide 

(1,310 t), 76 percent of the consumption of neodymium oxide 

(18,200 t), 70 percent of the consumption of praseodymium 

oxide (6,140 t), 69 percent of the consumption of gadolinium 

oxide (525 t), and 11 percent of the consumption of terbium 

oxide (53 t).

Neodymium-iron-boron magnets have the potential to 

be recycled, remanufactured, and reused because the magnets 

can be selectively disengaged from the assemblies in which 

they are used. Until recently, there had been no evidence of 

ongoing recovery activity (Walter Benecki, Walter Benecki 

LLC, written commun., January 26, 2011), partly because 

neodymium-iron-boron magnets often corrode with use, 

which increases the cost to recover useful elements, and partly 

because magnets that use plating materials (nickel) are more 

complex to recycle (Goodier, 2005). However, Hitachi has 

developed technologies to recycle rare earth magnets from 

hard disk drives and has successfully extracted rare earths 

from rare earth magnets (Hitachi, Ltd., 2010).

Tb6O7

53 t (0.2%)

Pr6

O11

6,140 t (23%)

Nd2

O3

18,200 t (70%)

Gd2

O3

525 t (2.0%)

Dy2O3

1,310 t (5.0%)

Figure 8. Pie chart showing the distribution of rare earth oxide 

consumption within the neodymium-iron-boron permanent magnet 

market sector in 2008. Data are derived from Bade (2010). CeO2

, 

cerium oxide; Dy2

O3, dysprosium oxide; Nd2O3, neodymium oxide; 

Pr6

O11, praseodymium oxide; Tb6O7, terbium oxide.
10 Rare Earth Elements—End Use and Recyclability

Battery Alloys

The negative electrode of nickel-metal-hydride (NiMH) 

rechargeable batteries comprises a variety of materials whose 

principal function is to store hydrogen within the lattice of the 

electrode. Some of these materials have REO participation, 

particularly the class called RENi5 where the REO is mostly 

cerium or lanthanum oxide, with small amounts of other REOs 

included, depending on the nature of the mischmetal used in 

manufacture (Kopera, 2004).

In 2008, 12,100 t of REOs was used in this category, of 

which lanthanum oxide accounted for 50 percent (6,050 t); 

cerium oxide, 33 percent (4,040 t); neodymium oxide, 10 

percent (1,210 t); and praseodymium and samarium oxides, 

3.3 percent each (399 t) (fig. 9).

In 2008, the battery alloy category created 73 percent 

of the consumption of samarium oxide (399 t), 16 percent of 

the consumption of lanthanum oxide (6,050), 10 percent of 

the consumption of cerium oxide (4,040 t), 5.1 percent of the 

consumption of neodymium oxide (1,210 t); and 4.6 percent of 

the consumption of praseodymium oxide (399 t).

The RENi5 chemistry is used almost exclusively in 

electric car batteries; the high growth rates expected for sales 

of electric cars have created concern about whether there is 

sufficient supply of REEs to cover the demand that electric car 

batteries would generate (fig. 10).

By yearend 2010, most of the hybrid and electric vehicles 

sold in the United States were powered by NiMH batteries. 

Lithium-ion batteries, which do not use REOs, are expected to 

replace the NiMH battery in electric vehicles sometime in the 

future (Anderson and Patiño-Echeverri, 2009). Future demand 

for the REEs used in the production of NiMH vehicle batteries 

is dependent upon acceptance by the public of electric vehicles 

as suitable substitutes for internal-combustion-powered 

vehicles, worldwide general economic growth, acceptance of 

lithium-ion batteries as a suitable substitute for NiMH batteries, and the technological response of NiMH battery manufacturers to the penetration of lithium-ion batteries into the 

electric vehicle battery market.

NiMH batteries can and are being recycled. A spent 

NiMH battery contains, by weight, 50 percent nickel, 

33 percent REEs, 10 percent cobalt, 6 percent manganese, 

and 2 percent aluminum (Xu and Peng, 2009). The battery is 

pyrometallurgically recycled for the nickel and cobalt content, 

and the remainder separates to slag, which is landfilled or sold 

as construction aggregate.

Nd2O3

1,210 t (10%)

La2

O3

6,050 t (50%)

CeO2

4,040 t (34%)

SmO

399 t (3.3%) Pr6

O11

399 t (3.3%)

Figure 9. Pie chart showing the distribution of rare earth oxide 

consumption within the battery alloy market sector in 2008. 

Data are derived from Bade (2010). CeO2, cerium oxide; La2O3, 

lanthanum oxide; Nd2O3, neodymium oxide; Pr6O11, praseodymium 

oxide; SmO, samarium oxide.
End Uses For Rare Earth Elements 11

10

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

0

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

Consumption, in thousand metric tons

Year

Figure 10. Chart showing demand for rare earth oxides associated with U.S. hybrid automobile sales from 2000 through 2009. Data are 

derived from Bade (2010).
12 Rare Earth Elements—End Use and Recyclability

Other (Unspecified)

The “other” category includes use of REEs in chemicals, 

military weapons and delivery systems, and satellite systems. 

In 2008, 7,500 t of REOs was used in this category, of which 

cerium oxide accounted for 39 percent (2,930 t); lanthanum 

and yttrium oxides, 19 percent (1,430 t) each; neodymium 

oxide, 15 percent (1,130 t); praseodymium oxide, 4.0 percent 

(300 t); samarium oxide, 2.0 percent (150 t); and gadolinium 

oxide and other REOs, 1.0 percent (75 t) each (fig. 11).

In 2008, the category of other, unspecified uses created 

27 percent of the consumption of samarium oxide (150 t), 

14 percent of the consumption of other REOs (75 t), 12 percent of the consumption of yttrium oxide (1,430 t), 9.8 percent 

of the consumption of gadolinium oxide (75 t), 6.9 percent of 

the consumption of cerium oxide (2,930 t), 4.7 percent of the 

consumption of neodymium oxide (1,130 t), 3.7 percent of the 

consumption of lanthanum oxide (1,430 t), and 3.4 percent of 

the consumption of praseodymium oxide (300 t).

Summary

In 2008, consumption of REOs was about 129,000 t, 

of which cerium oxide accounted for 33 percent; lanthanum 

oxide, 30 percent; neodymium oxide, 18 percent; yttrium 

oxide, 9.0 percent; praseodymium oxide, 6.8 percent; dysprosium oxide, 1.0 percent; gadolinium oxide, 0.6 percent; 

and samarium oxide and other REOs, 1.6 percent combined. 

Cerium, lanthanum, and yttrium are used in market sectors 

that are driven by the growth of the general economy. Dysprosium, neodymium, and praseodymium are used in lower 

growth sectors, but most of their use is in the high-growth 

(8–10 percent per year) permanent magnet sector, which can 

be expanded to include batteries for electric cars, motors and 

generators for automobiles, and wind turbine generators.

In the event of REE shortages, whether by contraction of 

supply or expansion of demand, prices would likely increase 

and REE recycling activity can likely be expected also to 

increase from its current level of near-zero to a higher level 

where shortages are partially or wholly mitigated. There are 

ongoing research activities into reclaiming REEs from the 

scrap generated in the various end-use sectors (Schüler and others, 2011). Permanent magnet recycling seems to be the most 

promising from a technical standpoint, which could potentially 

benefit this high growth-rate sector. Replacement of NiMH 

batteries with lithium-ion batteries for electric cars can also 

potentially reduce the demand pressure on cerium, lanthanum, 

and neodymium, which are three of the six elements whose 

demand far exceeds the current supply (Bade, 2010).

Other 

75 t (1.0%)

CeO2

2,930 t (39%)

SmO

150 t (2.0%)

Y2

O3

1,430 t (19%)

Pr6

O11

300 t (4.0%)

Nd2

O3

1,130 t (15%)

Gd2

O3

75 t (1.0%)

La2

O3

1,430 t (19%)

Figure 11. Pie chart showing 

the distribution of rare earth 

oxide consumption within 

unspecified market sectors in 

2008. Data are derived from 

U.S. Department of Energy 

(2008), Hybrid Cars (2009), and 

Tasman Metals Ltd. (2010). 

CeO2, cerium oxide; Gd2O3, 

gadolinium oxide; La2O3, 

lanthanum oxide; Nd2O3, 

neodymium oxide; Pr6O11, 

praseodymium oxide; SmO, 

samarium oxide; Y2O3, yttrium 

oxide.
References Cited 13

References Cited

Anderson, D.L., and Patiño-Echeverri, Dalia, 2009, An 

evaluation of current and future costs for lithium-ion batteries for use in electrified vehicle powertrains: RaleighDurham, N.C., Nicholas School of the Environment, 

Duke University masters thesis, 44 p., accessed November 17, 2009, at http://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/dspace/

bitstream/10161/1007/1/Li-Ion_Battery_costs_-_MP_

Final.pdf.

Anscombe, Nadya, 2002, A new spin—Thin-disc 

Yb:YAG lasers: Photonics Spectra, November, accessed 

December 21, 2010, at http://www.photonics.com/

Article.aspx?AID=14119.

AZoNano.com, 2009, Rare-earth metal making phosphate 

glass block UV light: AZoNano.com, December 15, 

accessed January 21, 2011, at http://www.azonano.com/

news.aspx?newsID=15133.

Bade, Roger, 2010, Rare earths review—Is the hype justified?: 

Libertas Capital Corporate Finance Limited, 79 p., accessed 

November 4, 2010, at http://www.ucoreraremetals.com/

docs/69555705.pdf.

Barton, Charles, 2009, Wind and neodymium: The Nuclear 

Green Revolution, January 26, accessed December 3, 

2010, at http://nucleargreen.blogspot.com/2009/01/

jack-liftons-research-on-mineral.html.

Bulatov, R.M., and Jirnov, B.S., 2009, FCC process of heavy 

feed stock with improved yield of light olefins: Oil and 

Gas Business, no. 1, 10 p., accessed January 19, 2011, at 

http://www.ogbus.ru/eng/authors/Bulatov/Bulatov_1.pdf.

Campbell, Max, and Keane, Chris, 2010, Rare earth colorants: Ceramics Today, aAccessed January 26, 2011, at 

http://www.ceramicstoday.com/articles/lanthanides.htm.

Clenfield, Jason, Yasu, Mariko, and Biggs, Stuart, 2010, 

Hitachi recycles rare earth as China crimps supply (update 

2): Bloomberg Business Week, December 8, accessed 

December 14, 2010, at http://www.businessweek.com/

news/2010-12-08/hitachi-recycles-rare-earth-as-chinacrimps-supply.html.

Container Recycling Institute, 2008, Wasting and recycling 

trends—Conclusions from CRI’s 2008 beverage market 

data analysis: Container Recycling Institute, 16 p., accessed 

January 24, 2011, at http://www.container-recycling.org/

assets/pdfs/reports/2008-BMDA-conclusions.pdf.

Cordier, D.J., and Hedrick, J.B., 2010, Rare earths: U.S. Geological Survey Minerals Yearbook 2008, v. I, p. 60.1–60.15. 

(Also available at http://minerals.er.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/

commodity/rare_earths/myb1-2008-raree.pdf.)

Du, Jun, Li, Zheng, Da, Zhijian, and He, Mingyuan, 2009, 

Rare-earth Y-zeolite catalyst for cracking hydrocarbons and 

a method for preparing same: U.S. Patent 7,514,385 B2, 

assigned to China Petroleum and Chemical Corporation 

and Research Institute of Petroleum Processing, Sinopec 

(Beijing, CN), 14 p.

Earth911.com, 2010a, Facts about glass recycling: Earth 911.

com, accessed January 24, 2011, at http://earth911.com/

recycling/glass/facts-about-glass-recycling/.

Earth911.com, 2010b, How glass is recycled: Earth 911.com, 

accessed January 24, 2011, at http://earth911.com/recycling/

glass/how-is-glass-recycled/.

Fast Company, 2011, Kosaka Smelting and Refining—For turning old cell phones into gold mines: 

Mansueto Ventures LLC, accessed May 20, 2011, 

at http://www.fastcompany.com/most-innovativecompanies/2011/profile/kosaka-smelting-and-refining.php.

Goodier, Ewan, 2005, The recycling and future selection of 

permanent magnets and powder cores: Arnold Magnetic 

Technologies presentation, 32 p., accessed December 

16, 2010, at http://www.arnoldmagnetics.com/WorkArea/

DownloadAsset.aspx?ID=4474.

Herbert, A.J., 2010, Lanthanum glass: Austin, Tex., Austin Community College paper, [unpaginated], accessed 

January 12, 2011, at http://www.austincc.edu/photo/pdf/

lanthanum.pdf.

Hedrick, J.B., 1996, Rare earths: U.S. Geological Survey 

Minerals Yearbook 1994, v. I, p. 60.1–60.10. (Also available 

at http://minerals.er.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/

rare_earths/740494.pdf.)

Hedrick, J.B., 1997, Rare earths: U.S. Geological Survey 

Minerals Yearbook 1995, v. I, p. 60.1–60.10. (Also available 

at http://minerals.er.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/

rare_earths/740495.pdf.)

Hedrick, J.B., 1998, Rare earths: U.S. Geological Survey 

Minerals Yearbook 1996, v. I, p. 60.1–60.11. (Also available 

at http://minerals.er.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/

rare_earths/740496.pdf.)

Hedrick, J.B., 1999, Rare earths: U.S. Geological Survey Minerals Yearbook, 1997, v. I, p. 60.1–60.12. (Also available 

at http://minerals.er.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/

rare_earths/740497.pdf.)

Hedrick, J.B., 2000, Rare earths: U.S. Geological Survey Minerals Yearbook, 1998, v. I, p. 60.1–60.14. (Also available 

at http://minerals.er.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/

rare_earths/740498.pdf.)

Hedrick, J.B., 2001, Rare earths: U.S. Geological Survey Minerals Yearbook, 1999, v. I, p. 60.1–60.12. (Also available 
14 Rare Earth Elements—End Use and Recyclability

at http://minerals.er.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/

rare_earths/740499.pdf.)

Hedrick, J.B., 2002, Rare earths: U.S. Geological Survey Minerals Yearbook, 2000, v. I, p. 60.1–60.17. (Also available 

at http://minerals.er.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/

rare_earths/740400.pdf.)

Hedrick, J.B., 2003, Rare earths: U.S. Geological Survey Minerals Yearbook, 2001, v. I, p. 60.1–60.17. (Also available 

at http://minerals.er.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/

rare_earths/raremyb01.pdf.)

Hedrick, J.B., 2004, Rare earths: U.S. Geological Survey Minerals Yearbook, 2002, v. I, p. 60.1–60.16. (Also available 

at http://minerals.er.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/

rare_earths/rareemyb02.pdf.)

Hedrick, J.B., 2005, Rare earths: U.S. Geological Survey Minerals Yearbook, 2003, v. I, p. 60.1–60.15. (Also available 

at http://minerals.er.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/

rare_earths/rareemyb03.pdf.)

Hedrick, J.B., 2006, Rare earths: U.S. Geological Survey Minerals Yearbook, 2004, v. I, p. 60.1–60.15. (Also available 

at http://minerals.er.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/

rare_earths/rareemyb04.pdf.)

Hedrick, J.B., 2007, Rare earths: U.S. Geological Survey Minerals Yearbook, 2005, v. I, p. 60.1–60.14. (Also available 

at http://minerals.er.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/

rare_earths/rareemyb05.pdf.)

Hedrick, J.B., 2008, Rare earths: U.S. Geological Survey Minerals Yearbook, 2006, v. I, p. 60.1–60.14. (Also available 

at http://minerals.er.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/

rare_earths/myb1-2006-raree.pdf.)

Hedrick, J.B., 2009, Rare earths: U.S. Geological Survey Minerals Yearbook, 2007, v. I, p. 60.1–60.19. (Also available 

at http://minerals.er.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/

rare_earths/myb1-2007-raree.pdf.)

Heyes, S.J., 1998, Electronic spectroscopy and optical properties of lanthanide compounds: Oxford University, accessed 

January 26, 2011, at http://www.chem.ox.ac.uk/icl/heyes/

lanthact/L9.html.

Hitachi, Ltd., 2010, Hitachi develops recycling technologies for rare-earth metals: Tokyo, Japan, Hitatchi, Ltd. 

news release, December 6, accessed January 24, 2011, at 

http://www.hitachi.com/New/cnews/101206.html.

Hurst, Cindy, 2010, China’s rare earth elements industry—

What can the west learn?: Washington, D.C., Institute for 

Analysis of Global Security, 42 p., accessed November 

1, 2010, at http://fmso.leavenworth.army.mil/documents/

rareearth.pdf.

Hybrid Cars, 2009, November 2009 hybrid car sales 

numbers: Hybrid Cars, accessed January 21, 2011, at 

http://www.hybridcars.com/print/26281.

Keane, Eamon, 2009, Neodymium magnets provide key to 

understanding rare earth trends: Seeking Alpha, June 23, 4 

p., accessed December 1, 2010, at http://seekingalpha.com/

instablog/345817-eamon-keane/9675-neodymium-magnetsprovide-key-to-understanding-rare-earth-trends.

Kopera, J.J.C., 2004, Inside the nickel metal hydride battery: Cobasys LLC, accessed November 3, 2010, at 

http://www.cobasys.com/pdf/tutorial/InsideNimhBattery/

inside_nimh_battery_technology.html.

Lucchesi, B.G., 2010, Mining the scrap pile: U.S. Department of Energy, The Ames Laboratory, accessed 

December 14, 2010, at https://www.ameslab.gov/news/

inquiry/2010-2-mining-scrap-pile.

Rare-Earth-Technology, 2010, Rare earth glass and monitors: Rare Earth Metals, accessed January 24, 2011, at 

http://www.rare-earth-tech.com/rare-earth-glass-andmonitors.

Schüler, Doris, Buchert, Matthias, Liu, Ran, Dittrich, Stefanie, and Merz, Cornelia, 2011, Study on rare earths and 

their recycling: Darmstadt, Germany, Öko-Institut e.V., 

January, 162 p. (Also available at http://www.oeko.de/

oekodoc/1112/2011-003-en.pdf.)

Tabuchi, Hiroko, 2010, Japan recycles minerals from used 

electronics: The New York Times, October 4, accessed 

March 16, 2011, at http://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/05/

business/global/05recycle.html.

Tasman Metals Ltd., 2010, Principal uses of rare earth elements: Tasman Metals Ltd., accessed November 5, 2010, at 

http://www.tasmanmetals.com/s/PrincipalUses.asp.

U.S. Department of Energy, 2008, Historical U.S. hybrid 

vehicle sales: U.S. Department of Energy Vehicle Technologies Program fact #514, April 14, accessed January 

21, 2011, at http://www1.eere.energy.gov/vehiclesandfuels/

facts/2008_fotw514.html.

U.S. Department of Energy, 2009, Energy Conservation Program—Energy conservation standards and 

test procedures for general service fluorescent lamps 

and incandescent reflector lamps: Federal Register, 

v. 74, no. 133, July 14, p. 34080–34179. (Also available online at http://www1.eere.energy.gov/buildings/

appliance_standards/pdfs/74fr34080.pdf.)

Veolia Environmental Services Inc., 2010, George Martin 

discusses researching new recycling technologies: Veolia Environmental Services Inc., accessed November 3, 

2010, at http://veoliaes-ts.com/George%20Martin%20
References Cited 15

Discusses%20Researching%20New%20Recycling%20

Technologies?id=2413&lid=1.

VLOC, 2002, Yttrium aluminum garnet laser materials: VLOC brochure, 5 p., accessed January 12, 2011, 

at http://www.optoiq.com/etc/medialib/platform-7/

laser-focus_world/site-images.Par.13920.File.dat/

vloc_yag_tech_brochure.pdf.

Xu, Tao, and Peng, Huiqing, 2009, Formation cause, composition analysis and comprehensive utilization of rare earth 

solid wastes: Journal of Rare Earths, v. 27, no. 6, December, 

p. 1096-1102. (Also available at http://www.re-journal.com/

en/download.asp?ID=981.)

Yoldjian, G., 1985, The use of rare earths in ceramics: Journal 

of the Less Common Metals, v. 111, no. 1–2, September, 

accessed January 25, 2011, at http://www.sciencedirect.com/

science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B759D-48GNF08-2N&_

user=696292&_coverDate=09%2F30%2F1985&_

rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=gateway&_

origin=gateway&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_

searchStrId=1739465215&_rerunOrigin=google&_

acct=C000038819&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=

696292&md5=173c6a8d4943c513163d0f5602e9d25b&sea

rchtype=a.
Goonan—Rare Earth Elements—End Use and Recyclability—Scientific Investigations Report 2011–5094

Printed on recycled paper