This r'.r • i preo^red

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^

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS REPORT

3962

FIHE RESEARCH WORK IN BRITAIN AND FRANCE

by

Ao F. Robertson

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

NATIONAL DUREAU OF STANDARDS
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

Sinclair Weeks, Secretary NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

A. V. Astin, Director

cover of this report.

Electricity. Resistance and Reactance Measurements, Electrical Instruments. Magnetic

Measurements. Electrochemistry.

Optics and Metrology. Photometry and Colorimetry. Optical Instruments. Photographic

Technology. Length. Engineering Metrology.

Heat and Power. Temperature Measurements. Thermodynamics. Cryogenic Physics. Engines

and Lubrication. Engine Fuels. Cryogenic Engineering.

Atomic and Radiation Physics. Spectroscopy. Radiometry. Mass Spectrometry. Solid State Physics. Electron Physics. Atomic Physics. Neutron Measurements. Infrared Spectros- copy. Nuclear Physics. Radioactivity. X-Ray. Betatron. Nucleonic Instrumentation. Radiological Equipment. Atomic Energy Commission Radiation Instruments Branch.

Chemistry. Organic Coatings. Surface Chemistry. Organic Chemistry. Analytical Chemistry.

Inorganic Chemistry. Electrodeposition. Gas Chemistry. Physical Chemistry. Thermochemistry.

Spectrochemistry. Pure Substances.

Mechanics. Sound. Mechanical Instruments. Fluid Mechanics. Engineering Mechanics. Mass

and Scale. Capacity, Density, and Fluid Meters. Combustion Control.

Organic and Fibrous Materials. Rubber. Textiles. Paper. Leather. Testing and Specifications. Polymer Structure. Organic Plastics. Dental Research.

Metallurgy. Thermal Metallurgy. Chemical Metallurgy. Mechanical Metallurgy. Corrosion.

Mineral Products. Porcelain and Pottery. Class. Refractories. Enameled Metals. Concreting

Materials. Constitution and Microstructure.

Building Technology. Structural Engineering. Fire Protection. Heating and Air Conditioning. Floor, Roof, and Wall Coverings. Codes and Specifications.

Applied Mathematics. Numerical Analysis. Computation. Statistical Engineering.

Electronics. Engineering Electronics. Electron Tubes. Electronic Computers. Electronic

Instrumentation. Process Technology.

Radio Propagation. Upper Atmosphere Research. Ionospheric Research. Regular Propagation

Services. Frequency Utilization Research. Tropospheric Propagation Research. High Frequency

Standards. Microwave Standards.

^Office of Basic Instrumentation ^Office of Weights and Measures.
NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS REPORT

NBS PROJECT NBS REPORT

1002-10-1029 ]yferch 1 , 1955 3962

FIRE RESEARCH WORK IN BRITAIN AND FRANCE

by

A. Fo Robertson

Fire Protection Section

Building Technology Division

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

The publication, re;

unless permission Is

25i D, C. Such pen

cally prepared If tl

Approved for public release by the

Director of the National Institute of

Standards and Technology (NIST)

on October 9, 201 5.

In part, is prohibited

indards, Washington

port has been speclfiport for Its own use.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ABSTRACT 1

INTRODUCTION 1

I. FIRE RESEARCH STATION 2

1.1 Smouldering of Materials 2

1.2 Burn Out Test at Birmingham 4

1.3 Electronic Analogue and Instrumentation 5

1.4 Concrete Strength at Elevated Temperatures 7

1.5 Ignition of Materials by Radiant Energy 8

1.6 Fabric Flammability and Roofing Test Methods 9

1.7 Flame Spread and Model Techniques 10

108 Fire Resistance Experimental Equipment 12

109 Self Heating and Ignition l4

1.10 Water Sprays on Flammable Liquid Fires l6

1.11 Vaporizing Liquid Extinguishing Agents 19

1.12 Fire Damage Statistics 21

1.13 Extinguishing Equipment 22

1.14 Library 23

2o SAFETY IN MINES RESEARCH ESTABLISHMENT 24

3o BUILDING RESEARCH STATION 26

4, FIRE OFFICES COMMITTEE AND FIRE PROTECTION

ASSOCIATION 28

5o IMPERIAL COLLEGE 29

6. PYRENE CO., LTD, 31

7o CENTRE -SCIENTIFIQUE ET TECHNIQUE DU BATIMENT

(CSTB), Paris, France 32

8. INSTITUTE DE RECHERCHES DE LA CONSTRUCTION

NAVALE , Paris, France 35

SUMMARY 36

FIRE RESEARCH WORK IN BRITAIN AND FRANCE

by

A. F, Robertson

ABSTRACT

A report is presented of a trip made by the

writer to Britain and France. Brief descriptions

are included of visits to various laboratories where

work is under way on different aspects of the fire

research problem. Some new unpublished experimental

data are presented here. Numerous references are

included, many of which are to unpublished reports

made available to the National Bureau of Standards

by the British Fire Research Station.

INTRODUCTION

A visit was made to Britain and France between the dates

of 19 September and 21 October 195*+ for tbe purpose of becoming

better acquainted with fire protection research work under way

in those countries. This rather voluminous report has been

prepared as a practical means for passing on much of the information gained during the visit. It was originally planned

that the report would be completed during the voyage back

to the States. A portion was prepared at that time but

poor weather and pressure of other work after return to

Washington have prevented its completion prior to this date.

The report has been organized first by the organization

visited and secondly by the phase of fire protection work

considered. It is expected that this will permit more ready

reference to the particular subject of interest. An attempt

has been made to include a rather complete list of references

to material under discussion. Since many of these as well

as technical Information in this report have not been published, care must be exercised to avoid their misuse with

resulting displeasure of those who so kindly made them available

to us
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lo THE FIRE RESEARCH STATION

The Fire Research Station is located at Boreham Wood about

20 miles northwest of Londono It is jointly supported by the

Fire Offices' Committee, (an organization somewhat similar to

the National Board of Fire Underwriters) and the Department of

Scientific c§: Industrial Researcho They have a staff of about

80 people and occupy 9 buildings o Some of these are over

20 years old but many are of more recent construction<> Plans

are in process for a considerable enlargement of their space*

I first visited this station on Monday 20 September* I

met Mr. Clarke the Director and Mr. Lawson, his assistant.

They were cordial and asked me to make myself at home and use

the laboratories as my headquarters. They made suggestions as

to laboratories other than theirs which I would find

profitable to visit and offered to help in making plans for

such visits

,

Later I met Mr. Fry and Dr. Kingman who together with Mr.

Lawson are the three Technical Division Chiefs reporting to

Mr. Clarke. I spent Monday and a portion of Tuesday in

learning my way around and becoming acquainted with the

organization of the laboratory. An organization chart which

is believed to be correct is presented as a diagram A*. Most

of the technical work of the station is performed at Boreham

Wood. However, funds and technical advice are made available

to the Safety in Mines Research Establishment and some work is

performed at Imperial College where their facilities are

considered better suited for certain problems.

I will discuss the various phases of the work conducted

at the station in turn.

1,1 Smouldering of Materials

I spent some time with Palmer on Tuesday 21 September

discussing his work on smouldering. Much of his work has

been reported in laboratory reports. He is now at the point

where he considers his work nearly complete and is preparing

a manuscript for publication.

Recent work completed has been on smouldering spread

of combustion throughout cubical containers of sawdust within

and on the bottom of which ignition was started. He finds that

the time for fire to break through the surface of such a pile

is proportional to the square of the lateral dimension. Such

stacks of sawdust do not collapse during the period that com“

bustion is under way. Burning times of about 12 days have

been observed for cubical stacks about 3 ft on a side.

*At back of Report.
I
-3

Palmer mentioned that jute sacking had been observed to

break into flame after ignition by a smouldering material

(cigarette for example) in an air velocity of about 1 mpho

He also stated that the smouldering rate of combustible

powder trains was relatively independent of their depth but

depended chiefly on the air velocity over them»

a. References

"The Smouldering of Dusts" ,F,E oToKingman & Ko Ho Palmer,

Chemistry and Industry, pp» 739, 1952

"Smouldering in Dusts and Fibrous Materials", Part IX

Cocoa and Grass Dusts Under Airflow Conditions, K» Ho

Palmer & Mo Do Perry, FR Hote Ho o 89/53-

"Smouldering in Dusts and Fibrous Materials" Part VII

Fiber Insulating Boards under Airflow Conditions,

FR Hote Hoo 73/53

"Smouldering in Dusts and Fibrous Materials", Part VI

Deal Sawdust Under Airflow Conditions, K, Ho Palmer

& Mo Do Perry, FR Hote Ho » 50/53

"Smouldering in Dusts and Fibrous Materials", Part V

Beech Sawdust with an Incident Air Draft, Ho H, Palmer

& Mo Do Perry, FR Hote Ho, ^8/52,

1.2 Burn Out Test at Birmingham

On Wednesday 22 September we went by train to Birmingham

where we were met by Mrs,. Hinton and station v/agon driver

who took us to a small house which the city building officials

had constructed to simulate a type of prefabricated construction which was quite frequently used after the war.

This type had been involved in several fires in which people

had been killed. The materials used in construction of the

house in Birmingham were the same as those used for this type

of house. The house was however rather hurriedly assembled

and joints were not as tight as v/ould be expected in the

prototype o The house was fitted v/ith a fire alarm system

and the test was being conducted to determine the speed with

which it would respond, the rate of build up of toxic

atmosphere in a bedroom, and the rapidity of destruction of

the house. Samples of room gases were obtained from a

position just above a bed in a room the door of which

remained open.

Fire was set to some wood chips between an overstaffed

chair and an interior wall of the living room. It developed

rather quickly and cotton curtains in the v/indows of the

kitchen were completely charred by 3 nin. At the same time

gas samples showed lethal mixtures in bedroom Ho. 1. Flashover occurred in the living room about 7 minutes after

ignition. All wall finish material was completely burned

off and studs were falling 20 minutes after ignition. While

the fire alarm system did operate as desired the striking

thing about the test was the rapid rate of spread of the

fire and destruction of the house, A series of color

slides are available showing the progress of this fire.

It appears likely that the test results will prompt

orders for replacement of all of this type of housingo

Tests of this type have been used for the purpose of

comparing flame development tests in models with that observed

in a full scale structure.

-5-

1.3 Electronic Analogue and Instrumentation

On Thursday 23 September I visited with Mr = McGuire

who is doing most of the electronic instrumentation work,

a considerable amount of work on the theory of heat transfer,

as well as most of the work on the electrical analogue.

He was interested in our work on use of SEAC for development of scaling factors for fire research tests. He pointed

out that our work on T beams was applicable to columns when

depth of beam is great compared to width. Thus our work can

be applied not only to beams and slabs but to columns as

well o He considers that the most profitable application of an

analogue to fire test work is in the prediction of time

scaling factors. He is now in process of developing a variable

shape signal generator for simulation of other than standard

time-temperature curves. This will be used to study the

effect of variation of fire exposure on endurance of various

types of specimens.

The analogue they have built although it has been used

for two dimensional problems has most frequently been used

for problems involving one dimensional heat flow. In

preparation of models he has usually maintained components

to two percent of the intended value. All measurements of

temperatures at given times are made by means of the time

base scale which can be raised and lowered on the oscilloscope

screen to intersect the performance curve which can be picked

off any part of the model.

The construction of an analogue somewhat similar to

theirs would not be too difficult but its value is questioned

as compared with other needs we now have.

a. References

"The Solution of Transient Heat Flow Problems by

Analogous Electrical Networks". D. Lawson and J. H.

McGuire, Inst Mech Eng Proc (A) Vl67, pp 275-290 1953=

"Nomograms for Solving One Dimensional Steady State

Conduction Problems Involving Cooling to the Atmosphere",

Jo H. McGuire, J. Inst Heating ec Vent Engr , November '53 =

"Heat Transfer by Radiation", J. H. McGuire, Fire Research

Special Report No. 3? Her Majesty's Stationary Office (HMSO)

1954 .

"The Scaling of Dimensions in Heat Conduction Problems",

J. H. McGuire, FR Note No. 94/54.
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- 6 -

"The Scaling of Dimensions in BS 476 Fire Resistance

Tests”, J, H. McGuire, FR Note Noo 95/54,

"The Scaling of Heat Conduction Problems” , J, H,

McGuire, FR Note No, 98/54,

"Spread of Fire by Thermal Conduction” J, Fo Richardson,

Fuel V28 No. 12, pp 265-2/2, 1949,

- 7

-

1.^ Concrete Strength at Elevated Temperatures

On Thursday afternoon 23 September I visited with Mr»

Malhotra. He is in process of studying the effect of

temperature on the strength of concrete cylinders 2 in. dia

X h ino in length. Work now under way is on river gravel

flint aggregate concrete prepared with Portland cement.

Three types of tests have been performed. In one the specimens

are heated to various temperatures up to 550°‘C and tested

after cooling and aging 2h hrs or two weeks. Another method

involves breaking the specimen while in the hot state. Still

another involves application of load during the heating

period and determining the temperature at which failure

occurs

,

Heating is accomplished in a special muffle at a rate

of about 250°C/hr. It has been found that this permits

the temperature of the center of the specimen following the

surface temperature within about 100°C , A soaking period,

after reaching the test temperature, is used to insure that

temperature equilibrium within the specimen is within 20°C

before the load is applied.

The results are shown at

righto Preliminary data seem

to indicate that water cement

ratio has little effect on the

shape of the curves. !-

At temperatures below <

most of the weakening seems to t

take place in the mortar matrix

while at higher temperatures

the aggregate starts to fail.

Plans are under way to

continue work as follows:

lo River aggregate and

High Alumina Cement,

2, Crushed limestone and

Portland cement,

3. Crushed fire brick or

other refractory mix.

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1.5 Ignition of Materials by Radiant Energy

On Friday 2h Septenber visited with Simms who is doing

work on the effect of thermal radiation on materials. They

are having difficulty correlating results from radiant

panel with those from the arc source. They did however mention

some interesting results on ignition with gas pilot of 2 x 2

wood specim.ens when exposed to radiation from gas heated panel.

It was found that with data plotted as shown here the intercept

with the ordinate corresponds to time for self ignition and

when I ^I crit no intercept is found.

a. References

"The Radial Temperature Gradient Across the Walls of

Cylindrical Pipes Containing Heated Fluids", P. Nash

and M. J. Gregsten, J. of the Inst Heating & Vent

Engrs, March 195^»

"Ignition of Wood by Radiation", D, I, Lawson & D. L.

Simms, British Journal of Applied Physics, V3, pp. 288-292,

September 1952 also V3, pp. 39^-396, December 1952.

"Radiation from Building Fires", Ro C. Benon & C, T,

Webster, National Building Studies, Tech Paper No. 5j

HMSO, 1950.

"A Copper Block Absolute Radiometer", D, I. Lawson,

D. L.Simms^M. Law & R. W. Pickard, FR Note No. llo/5^.
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1.6 Fabric Flammability and Roofing Test Methods

I visited Mr, Webster on ^Friday 24 September. He is

doing work on fabric flammabilityo They have not, however,

done any work with light weight silks or brushed rayon

fabrics. The test criteria mentioned in their report on the

semi-circular apparatus (drawings of which were obtained)

will not be used for fabrics but may be used in modified

fashion for finish materials.

They have made arrangements to be furnished with

samples of fabrics which have caused injury through fire.

Several light cottons were shown as representative of such

materials now on hando

Mr, Webster is also doing some work on the development

of a test method for roofing materials. They have four

12 X 12 in, radiant panels mounted above a roof panel about

4 X 4 ft sq. During the test they run a gas burner along

the various shingle courses and consider failure to occur

when flame breaks thru to the other side. They find tile

roof to last two hours, slate about one hour, and asphalt

only 30 to 40 minutes.

a. References

"The Spread of Flame Along Vertically Hanging Fabrics",

D, I, Lawson, FR Note Noo 129/5^®
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1.7 Flame Spread and Model Techniques

On Wednesday 29 September I spent the best part of a day with Mr. Hird who is concerned with spread of flame

studies and methods for use of models in the study of

propagation and growth of fires.

We first discussed the methods they have used in construction and use of models for burn out studies. It was

pointed out that during the war a large number of experiments

had been conducted on the growth of fires in traditional

rooms. Since then a number of experiments have been conducted

on houses in which different interior finish materials were

applied. These experiments were used as the prototypes for

development of the small scale burn out experiments. The

models discussed were those of a living room scaled down to

1/5 or 1/10 of full size. The technique used is described

in the references and so will not be described in detail.

It did however involve the use of small "rooms” formed of

asbestos cement boards to the interior of which the finish

material being studied was fastened. In a series of studies

of different wall finish materials similar furniture and wood

flooring was incorporated as "kindling". Measurements were

made of the elapsed time between ignition and flashover or

involvement of the whole interior of the room in the fire.

Reference 1, page 6, reports the results of studies on 15

different finish materials. This shows that materials

which qualified for the highest classification on the

British Standard 4/6 spread of flame test showed delay

periods to flashover of 9 to 1/ minutes. However the most

hazardous material tested, untreated fiberboard which

qualified for a class 4 or most hazardous classification on

the BS 4/6 test method showed a delay to flashover of only

5 minutes.

Because of this behavior the value of the spread of

flame test described in BS 4/6 is being questioned. It

appears to the writer that while this test may not be severe

enough, the reason for difference in performance of the

finish materials when subjected to the two different test

methods is largely the result of measurement of different

properties. The spread of flame test involves measurement of

the behavior of the finish material alone while the model

test method involves study of the behavior of the finish

material together with the other combustible contents of the

"room"

Other work being studied includes development of a new

method of evaluating the spread of flame properties of

materials and use of models for study of effect of combustible

content on growth of fire in a building.
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a. References

"Fire Hazard of Internal Linings", D. Hird cS; C. F,

Fischl, National Building studies Special Report

No. 22, HMSO, 1954.

"The Flammability and Flash Point of Cellulose Acetate

Film Containing Various Amounts of Cellulose Nitrate",

R. Wo Pickard & D. Hird, British Kinematography

,

V22, Noo 6, June 1953.

"Fire Retardant Treatments", D, Hird & D, L. Simms,

Wood, March pp 92-95) 1953

April pp ISit-lB?, 1953

May pp 176-177, 1953

"A Small Scale Test for Measuring the Spread of Flames

Over the Surfaces of V/all and Ceiling Linings", So

Birtwistle, Timber Tech & Machine Woodworking, October

7 November, 1953

"A Test to Measure the Flammability of Kinematograph

Safety Film", R. W Pickard & D, Hird, British

Kinematography, V21, No. 3) 1952.

"Fires in Model Rooms’’", Do Hird & C. F. Fischl, FR

Note No. 12/52.

"Fires in Model Houses", D. Hird & C. F. Fischl, FPE

Note No. 72/51.

"The Resistance to Spread of Flame of Certain Propriet^.r ^ Building Materials", FR Note No. 24/49.

- 12 -

1.8 Fire Resistance Experimental Equipment

On Thursday 30 October, I spent the best part of the day

visiting with rfr . Ashton who is in charge of the fire

resistance laboratory. We discussed relative merits of

different types of furnaces. They are at present concerned

with furnace design as they are in process of receiving bids

on construction of an enlarged floor furnace. This is to

accept specimens of 10 x 20 ft size. They burn producer gas

but use a system similar to ours whereby the air is fed under

pressure and gas is aspirated in at a pressure close to

atmospheric. The refractory parts of their furnaces are

formed of concrete bricks made from alumina cement and fire

brick aggregate. I was surprised to learn that the furnaces

were about 20 years old and observe the good condition of the

bricks forming the furnace lining. The furnace air supply

lines are fitted with motorized valves which are operated by

electrical circuits from the office where temperatures are

recorded. Thermocouples are connected through selector

switches to a galvanometer type temperature indicator rather

than one of the potentiometric type.

We discussed further tests on the prestressed concrete

beams. I was shown a number of these including some full size

specimens (20 ft span). Some of these specimens were fitted

with a series of stirrups of about ^/l6 in, dia spaced 4 to 6 ins.

It was stated these were being used for the purpose of

reinforcing the concrete cover as a metal fabric of large mesh

size was considered impractical. At the time of the discussion

it was anticipated that an additional six months to a year

would be required prior to completion of these tests.

I questioned Ashton on methods used for determination of

time of load failure of structures during fire test. He

stated that in the case of floor or beam structures where

collapse does not occur suddenly they use a deflection of

one-twentieth of the span as an indication of point of load

failure

I witnessed tests of two corrugated plastic roof light

materials. These were assembled over an opening in a metal

roof construction. The assembly was then placed on a frame

which supported it at an angle of about 45° to their large

radiant panel to the radiation of which the complete assembly

was exposed. They consider the specimen to have passed the

test if no fire breaks through the specimen during or after

the exposure period.

I was introduced to Mr, Bigmore who reports to Ashton and

is making a study of the effects of fire exposure on the bond

strength between concrete and its reinforcement. This is a problem of considerable importance to them because of the almost
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universal use of undeforrned reinforcing bars- Most of his

work to date has involved development of test methods v/hich

can be shown to produce reproducible datao He is using highly

polished rods with thermocouples attached and plans to use

equipment quite similar to that of Malhotra for test of

specimens both during the heating process and after subsequent

conditioning periods,

a. References

"Comparative Tests on Prestressed and Reinforced Concrete

Floors During and After Fires", L, A, Ashton, Civil

Engineering & Public Works Review, November 1953

"The Fire Resistance of Reinforced Concrete Columns",

Fo Go Thomas & C, T, Webster, National Bldg Studies

Research Paper l8, 1953»

"Investigations on Building Fires, Part V Fire Tests

of Structural Elements", N, Davey & L, A, Ashton,

National Building Studies Research Paper No, 12,

HMSO, 1953.

"Fire Endurance of Timber Beams and Floors", D, I, Lawson,

Co T, Webster, & L, A, Ashton, The Structural Engineer,

September 1952,

"The Fire Resistance of Prestressed Concrete Floors",

Lo Ao Ashton, Civil Eng & Public Works Review, November

and December 1951

"Fire Endurance of Timber Beams and Floors", Do lo Lawson,

Co To Webster & Lo A, Ashton, National Building Studies

Bulletin 13, HPBO, 1951.

"Fire Resistance of Timber Doors", Co J, Webster & L, A,

Ashton, National Building Studies Technical Paper Noo 6

HMSO 1951.

"Investigations on Building Fires, L Estimation of

Maximum Temperatures, IT. Color Changes in Concrete",

To W. Parker & Ro W» Nurse, Go E» Bessey, National

Building Studies Technical Paper Noo 4, HIVBO, 1950.

"The Fire Resistance of No Fines Concrete Walls, Part 1

Non Load-Bearing Walls of Heavy Aggregate". FR Note

No o 44/53

"Fire Resistance of Concrete Beams", L» A, Ashton Sc Ho

L, Malhotra, FR Note Noo 65/53»

"Results of Tests Made at the Uo So National Bureau of

Standards on the Fire Resistance of Prestressed Concrete

Beams", Lo A. Ashton, FR Note Noo 106/54o

"Some Thermoelectric Properties of High Tensile Steel Wire"

,

Ro Wo Pickard, FR Note Noo 69/51.
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- 14 -

1.9 Self Heating and Ignition

I visited Mr. Bowes on 4 October. Our chief topic of

discussion was self heating and ignition phenomena. He

has however done a considerable amount of work on fire

extinguishment with the aid of wetting agents in water.

Spontaneous heating studies were started during the war

when palm seed oil beans were stored in large piles in the

open. Fires would be found within the stacks but closer

inspection showed that these were not always in thermally

isolated position and usually occurred near the interface of

two bagSo It was found that the jute bags, if an ignition

source were brought near them, would develop a flash surface

fire. This usually just involved the projecting fiber ends

and not the fabric as a whole. It is now believed that these

surface flash fires went into the spaces betv/een bags and

were the cause of ignition within the pile.

He showed me his ignition temperature apparatus which

involves a rising temperature method. The material tested

is pulverized and air for combustion is blown through it.

Their experience indicates that spontaneous ignition

has been overemphasized as a cause of fires. An investigation

of fires in cotton bales failed to indicate this as a likely

hazard.

He has done work on wetting agents and finds little

advantage in their use on low density packed materials

(straw bales tested) but on high density packages there is

considerable economy (50^) in use of water with a wetting

agent incorporated.

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the measurements was good

and as shown at lefto When

using a wetting agent it

was found that large

quantities must be used

if serious differential

absorption is to be

avoided. I discussed the

Mackey test with him and

he says the test was

originally intended for

study of woolen oils for

hazard and oils which

showed temperature of less

than 200° C after 2 hours

of test were considered safe.

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intended use. However, it will pass materials with antioxydents which would fail a longer test.

a. References

"Factors Limiting General Application of the Mackey Test

for Spontaneous Heating and Ignition", P, C. Bowes,

Jo App. Chemo h, pp. 1^0-1*+^, 195^«

"Spontaneous Heating and Smouldering", F. E, T. Kingman,

Inst of Fire Engineers "Annual", 1953

"Spontaneous Heating and Ignition in Stored Palm Kernels,

lo A Survey of Occurrences of Heating and Fire",

Po C. Bowes, J. Ho Burgoyne, T. Po Hilditch, & Ao

Thomas, J. The Science of Food & Agriculture N 12

,

ppo 360-366, 195O0

"Some Physico-Chemical Aspects of the Use of Wetting

Agents in Firefighting, 1. The Loss of Wetting Agent

by Absorption on Solids", P. C. Bowes & G. Sheet,

FR Note No. 10V5^.

"Methods for Assessing Spontaneous Heating and Ignition

Hazards, II. The Heating of Oiled Fiber in a Modification

of the Mackey Tester", P. C, Bowes, FR Note No. 53/53*

"Note on Spontaneous Heating and Ignition of Iron Pyrites",

Po C, Bowes, FR Note 39/ 52 .

"The Determination of the Ignition Temperature of Solids

by a Rising Temperature Method", P. Co Bowes, FR Note

Noo 10/52.

"An Examination of Research Reports on Certain Incidents

of Fires Attributed to Spontaneous Ignition", P. C.

Bowes, FC Note No. 50/1951*
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1.10 Water Sprays on Flammable Liquid Fires

I spent a portion of Monday and Thursday, ^ and 7 October,

with Dr. Rasbash. We discussed his work on use of water sprays

for extinction of flammable liquid fires. He showed me their

facilities for both small scale (laboratory) and full size

studies of flammable liquid fires. These latter involved the

use of a concrete slab on which a 4- ft dia tub was placed

within which oil was floated and burned on water. The test

area was sheltered from gusts of wind by an aluminum sheet

screen about 20 ft high and 30 ft on a side. Tests in the

laboratory are confined to use of fires of one foot or less

diameter

In their experimental work they are more or less

standardizing on the use of the following six flammable

liquids: alcohol (industrial methylated spirits) benzole,

petrol, kerosene, gas oil (diesel oil) and transformer oil.

They have been concentrating on study of the mechanism

of extinguishment of flammable liquid fires. Their present

thinking suggests that sprays may be effective in two

different ways. They may be active in attack on the flame

itself or as they affect the vaporizing liquid. These may

be outlined as follows:

1, Attack on flame

(a) Blowing out by air

(b) Cooling of flame

(c) Smothering by steam formation in flame

2, Effect on liquid

(a) Cooling to fire point

(b) Formation of steam at hot liquid surface

and smothering of flame

(c) Emulsion formation of oil in water

(d) Froth formation smothers and prevents

reignition (water vapor on oil)

(e) Dilution of flammable liquid

Reference 1 reports a series of experiments in which the

duration of spray application was studied as affected by,

spray drop size, preburn time, and type flammable liquid

involved. The following results were observed:

(1) In general the time of extinction decreased as

volatility decreased,

(2) For alcohol, benzole, petrol, and kerosene, the

extinction time increased as the drop size increased,

(3) For gas oil (diesel oil) and transformer oil the

mean extinction time was smallest with the coarsest

spray,

(4) In a few of the groups of tests the range of

extinction times for a given liquid varied widely,

other conditions being the same.
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It was concluded that at least four different mechanisms

of extinguishment were responsible for the behavior noted.

It was further observed that quite coarse sprays were effective

and reliable in extinction of fires in high boiling temperature

liquids o Such sprays would not however be effective against

fires in volatile liquids.

As a result of work to date they are inclined to question

the need or even the desirability of high pressure sprays

for fighting flammable liquid fires. They believe that the

conclusions drawn from the studies made in this country are

not justified.

a. References

"The Extinction of Liquid Fires with Water Sprays",

Do Jo Rasbash & Z. W. Ragowskl, Chemistry and Industry,

PP 393-5, 195^.

"Absorption and Scattering of Radiation by Water Sprays

of Large Drops", P, H. Thomas, British J, App Phys V3,

PP 385-393, December 1952.

"The Use of Water Sprays as Protection Against Radiant

Heat", P. Mo T. Smart, FPE Note No. 66/51.

They have made a series

of studies of the temperature

distribution beneath the

surface of flammable liquids.

A sketch of the type of

data resulting is provided

at the left. Measurements were

made in a 30 cm dia pan

having a 2 cm freeboard.

'io /4.0

"Absorption and Scattering of Radiation by Water-Sprays

of Large Drops", P, H. Thomas, FPF Note No. ^8/51<>
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"The Effects of Water Spray on Burning Kerosene", D, J,

Rasbash & G, Skeet, FC Note No. ^1/§1.

"The Production of Fire Fighting Sprays by Impinging -Jets "

,

J, F. Fry and P. M, T. Smart, FPE Note No, b2/50.

19-

1.11 Vaporizing Liquid Extinguishing Agents

On Thursday 7 October I discussed with Mr, Coleman the

work being done on vaporizing liquid extinguishing agents.

Much of the work done in the past has consisted of study of

explosive limits of vapors and the effects on them of varying

amounts of the volatile inhibitor. Recently however a number

of experiments have been performed in an effort to study the

relative value of the different materials when applied to fires.

For spill fires they use a metal pan k ft dia by 1/2 in, deep

set on the ground. They find the best means for applying

the vaporizing liquids to be a flat spray. They have used

the spray formed by impingement of a stream of liquid l/l6 to

3/32 in dia at an angle of to a small plot 1x2 in. in

size

,

Results of recent studies of chlorobromomethane leads them

to suggest that as applied to a given fire it shows an

advantage of b to 15 times over carbon tetrachloride v/hen

comparing the volumetric quantities of fluid required for

extinguishment

They have done some work on study of relative effectiveness of CB and dry chemical extinguishers as applied to

aircraft fires.

a. References

"Report of Committee on Vaporizing Liquid Extinguishing

Agents", Committee DSIR, Fire Research Tech Paper No, 2,

HMSO, 195^.

"Limits of Inflammability and Spontaneous Ignition of

Some Organic Combustibles in Air", J, H. Burgoyne &

R, F, Neale, Fuel V32 , N 1, pp 17 -2/5 1953»

"Some New Measurements of Inflammability Ranges in Air",

J. H. Burgoyne & R, F, Neale, Fuel V32 , N 1 , pp 5“l6 , 1953

"The Products of Combustion in Burning Buildings",

F. E, T, Kingman, E. H« Coleman, & D. J. Rasbash,

J Applied Chemistry 35 PP ^63-60, 1953 » "Effects of Fluorinated Hydrocarbons on Inflammability

of LimLts...of Combustible Vapors", E, H, Coleman, Fuel,

V3l, N^,“PP ^45-446, 1952,

"The Inflammability of Oil Mists", J. H. Burgoyne &. J. F. Richardson, Fuel V28, N 1, pp 1

~

5 ^ 1949»

" Inflammability of Liquids", J, H, Burgoyne & G.

Williams Leir, Fuel 28, N 75 PP l46~l50, 1949»
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"Limits of Inflammability of Gases in the Presence of

Diluents, A Critical Review of Data", J, H. Burgo3me &

G, Williams -Leir , Fuel V27, N h, pp 1-8, 19^8,

"The Influence of Incombustible Vapors on the Limits of

Inflammability of Gases and Vapors in Air", J. H,

Burgoyne & G. Williams -Leir , Proc Roy 3oc A Vol 193?

PP 525 - 539 ? 19^8 .

"The Decomposition Products of ¥aporizing Liquid

Extinguishing Agents", E, H, Coleman & C. Thomas,

Fire Research Board Paper VL/3»

"The Fire Hazard of Acetone and Methylene Chloride",

Eo H, Coleman & P. S, » Tonkin, FR Note No<. 88/53

"The Effects of Certain Halogenated Hydrocarbons on the

Inflammability Limits of nHexane and Air", Eo Ho

Coleman & P. S Tonkin, FR Note No « 1 / 52 .

"The Effect of Me thane /Halo gen Compounds on the

Inflammability Limits of nHexane in Air", E, H. Coleman,

FC Note No. 5l/51»
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1.12 Fire Damage Statistics

On Friday morning 8 October 1 visited Mr. Fry who is

in charge of the Intelligence Division of the Fire Research

Station. His office is in London on Lower Regent Street.

I was shown the procedures they use for recording data from

reports of fires. These reports come to them automatically as

part of the reports prepared by each fire brigade on each fire

attended. The reports are in the form of a check off list with

spaces for entry of information not otherwise provided for.

Fry's group use these reports to prepare "Hallorith Cards"

(a form of punched card data recording system). The cards

are then sent to the National. Physical . Laboratory where

machines are available for sorting them. These cards form the

basis on which the annual statistical report is prepared on

fire loss. The data obtained in this way appears to be by

far the most comprehensive compilation of this type available

in any country. In spite of this it has been found that there

are always requests for more information than can be furnished

from the data tabulated. Recently they have supplied special

questionnaires to provide more detailed information on the

conditions under which fires have caused injury or deaths in

which clothing appears to be an item of importance.

a. References

"Coding of Reports from the Fire Brigades in the United

Kingdom for 195^ and Subsequent Years", FRS , Statistics

Unit Code List No. lA, December 1953=

"Statistical Analysis of Reports of Fires Attended by Fire

Brigades in the United Kingdom During 1953"? G. G, Auber,

J. E, L. Hinton & D. W. Millar, FR Note No. 120/5^.

"Fires in Post-War Dwellings XXXVIII on Analysis of Reports

of Fires Attended by Fire Brigades in Great Britain During

1953", E. L. Hinton, FR Note No. 112/5U.

"Fires in Post-War Dwellings XXXVII Review of Statistical

Work on Reports of Fires Attended by NFS and Fire Brigades

I9L6-52", D. W. Millar & J. F, Fry, FR Note No, 70/153»

"Distribution of Financial Loss in Large Fires According

to the Hazard Involved II", D, W. Millar, FS Note No. 133/51»

"Fires Connected with the Process of Drying Grass Which Were

Attended by Fire Brigades in Great Britain During *19^9-50"

,

D. W. Millar, FS Note No. 129/51-

"Fires Caused by Television and Wireless Sets IV, Rates of

Incidence of Fires 19^7~50" , S. W, Millar & J. Wallace,

FS Note No. 128/51.

"Fires Caused by Sparks from Locomotive II. Incidence of

Fire and Weather Conditions", J. Wallace & E. M. Maycock,

FS Note No. 122/51,
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1.13 Extinguishing Equipment

On Tuesday 12 October I visited Dr. Thomas who is in

charge of a group studying problems related to hose, foam,

water sprays and hand portable extinguishers.

A study has been recently completed on the application

of water fog as compared with solid streams to fight fires

in full size rooms. These experiments were performed with

the use of regular fire brigade staff. The results indicate

that when water for application was stopped shortly after

appearance of steam vapors, the fire would be controlled

and the quantity of water used would correspond to a steam

volume three times that of the roomo This is believed to

be considerably more than would be required to control the

fire but much less than would be applied by solid stream

nozzles or application of the water fog by uninstructed

fire fighters. Results to date tend to indicate that

application of water in the form of fog sprays is more

effective on fires in small rather than large enclosures.

The results observed during these full scale fire tests

appear to be in general agreement with those resulting from

studies by use of small models,

a. References

"The Use of Water to Protect Building from Radiated Heat",

P. H. Thomas, FR Note No. ll5/5^°

"The Distribution of Water by Impinging Jet Sprays",

P, H. Thomas, FR Note Noo 91/5^»

"The Surface Application of Foam to Petrol Fires in a

7 ft Square Tray", Ro Jo French & P. L. Hinkley,

FR Note No. 4l/52o

"The Surface Application of Foam to Petrol Fires",

R. J. French, Po Lo Hinkley & J. F. Fry, FR Note No, 21/52.

"A Brief Survey of Information on Water Sprays for Fire

Extinction", J, E. Fry, FPE Note No, b-3/50«

"A Laboratory Method of Comparing the Efficiencies of

Fire Fighting Air Foams", J. F. Fry & R, J. French,

FPE Note No. 29/50.
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lol*+ Librar^^

The library facilities of the Fire Research Station appear

to be very good. Miss Shakeshaft is in charge and has three

or four assistants. My own estimate is that they have more

than five thousand volumes as well as many reprints and

pamphlets on all aspects of the fire problem. A microfilm

copy was obtained of their filing system. Their classification

index runs to over ^00 pages. Besides the usual library

activities of cataloging acquisitions and assisting visitors

in use of their facilities-, they compile very complete

bibliographies on scientific references related to fire

research. These are released annually and have been made

available to us.

a. References

"References to Literature on Wood and its Relation to

Fire Including Fire Retardant Treatments", Shakeshaft

et al, FRS Library Bibliography llo . 2, August 1953 = "References to Scientific

Shakeshaft et al,

Part I 19^^-^7, Library

Part II 19^8, Library

Part III 19^9, Library

Part IV 1950, Library

Part V 1951 5 Library

Part VI 1952, Library

Literature on Fire", Holyroc^

Bibliography Wo,

Bibliography No.

Bibliography No.

Bibliography No.

Bibliography No,

Bibliography No.

5/19^8

5/Part II, 1950

5/Part III., 1950

5/Part IV

' 5/Part V

5/Part VI

-24-

2. SAFETY IN MINES RESEARCH ESTABLISHMENT

On Tuesday 28 September I visited the Safety in Mines

Research Establishment at Buxton. This organization is somewhat similar to the Bureau of Mines here. It reports to

the Ministry of Fuel & Power whereas the Fire Research Station

reports to DSIR. However this organization is doing some work

on dust explosions on a transferred fund basis for the Fire

Research Station. Mr. K. C. Brown is apparently in charge

of this phase of the work, A report of a large number of

materials studied is available , The materials are tested both

in the as received condition and later after drying and

sieving through a 240 mesh sieve,

A description of some of the test methods is available

as reference In general these consist of arrangements for

blowing a cloud of dust particles over a hot platinum igniter

wire, or through a heated tube. If combustion takes place then

the material has failed the test. The small platinum wire

igniter fails to cause ignition in all but most hazardous

materials

They are working on a modified test method in which the

quantity of energy passing through a spark gap ignition source

can be varied for quantitative measurements of sensitivity

of various dusts,

Mto Brown demonstrated work they were doing on ventingof shafts and galleries to reduce the explosion hazard. Some

other work on rate of flame propagation in dispersed dusts

is also being performed at the Station. Many of these

measurements are being made within vertical glass tubes, Cork

dust appears to be their standard combustible.

Very interesting work being done on the frictional

spark ignition of gases was demonstrated by Mr, W, Thompson.

One method of study involved the use of a small gun using

metal balls as shbto The target was enclosed in a small box

with a cellophane window and could thus be supplied with

combustible gas mixtures. A small velocity screen was

used for checking projectile velocity. This equipment permits

performance of a large number of tests so that statistical

methods may be used in analyzing the data.

Results to date with this equipment indicate ignition

of methane-air mixtures with steel on steel impact or with

steel on lead when the projectile fractures. They find that

rusty iron the surface of which has been scored with a piece

of aluminum is very subject to sparking when struck with a

steel object. They find that any metals hard enough for

tools can produce sparks when struck on minerals or stones.
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This projectile test has indicated that metal on metal

impact is most likely to cause ignition when normal incidence

occurs but glancing incidence is most likely to cause

ignition by impact of metal on stone

They demonstrated a much larger drop test apparatus

in which a metal slug was allowed to hit a metal plate,

all within an enclosed space containing an explosive gas

mixture. This provides a striking demonstration of the fact

that magnesium or aluminum tools dropped on rusty iron

can ignite combustible gas mixtures.

ao References

"Inflammability of Dusts", SMRE, Factory Department

Form 830, 1953 o

"The Ignition of Inflammable Gases by Sparks from

Aluminum Paint and Rusty Steel", F, E. T, Kingman,

E, H, Coleman & Zo W, Ragcwski, J, Applied Chemistry 2

pp hk9-^6, 1952 o "Dust Fires I to VI", D, J, Rasbash, Industrial

Heating Engr , July-December 1951

"The Inf lammability in Suspension of Mixtures of

Combustible and Incombustible Dusts", P, C. Bowes,

J, H. Burgoyne & D, J. Rasbash, J, SoCo Chemical

Industry, V67, pp 125-30? 19^8.

"Review of Methods of Testing Industrial Dusts for

Inflammability" , K, C. Brown, SMRE Research Report

Wo. 21, April 1951 , HPBO.
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3. BUILDING RESEARCH STATION

On Friday 1 October I visited the Building Research

Station at Garston. Here I met the Director, Dr. Lea, and

Dr. Davey, Chief of the Engineering Division. I was given

a quick tour through the laboratories which are very extensive

a staff of over 500 being employed, Mr, Bevan of the

Building Practice Division was very cordial and interested

in the work we were doing. ¥ith the single exception of fire

protection work, the activities of this station cover those

of our Building Technology Division and in addition many

other phases such as studies of the functional efficiency of

buildings which includes physiological and psychological

problems. Another phase studied involves methods of construction related to costs. This may be considered as the

operational research aspect of their activities.

I was especially interested in one instrumentation

technique which was being used for measurement of strains in

structures both during laboratory experiments and also in

buildings during occupation. This involved a so-called

sonic strain gage. This device consists of a wire

supported in tension between two rods rigidly fixed to the

structure being studied. An electromagnetic coil is used

to force vibration of this wire the frequency of which

can readily be measured. When proper precautions are

observed during use of this gage any change in resonant

frequency may be related to change in gage length of the

supports and thus a strain in the structure to which they

are fixed.

I returned to this station on Monday 11 October to

secure more information from Dr. R, J, Schaeffer's group

involved with moisture measurement in stone. They have

being doing some work with a plaster moisture-gage. This

consists of a cylinder formed of plaster of paris

incorporating an axial wire electrode and another helical

electrode embedded in the cylindrical surface of the gage.

This unit is about 1/h in, in dia by 1 1/h in, long.

Gages such as these are mounted in a plaster grout within

masonry or stone materials. The AC resistance between

electrodes is taken as an indication of the relative

saturation of the material. It was stated that the value

of this type of gage is quite largely dependent on the

character of the material within which it is being used.

„27 -

As indicated by typical

calibration curves at the

left the shape of the curve

is related to the pore structure

of the material being studied

The gage is not of much use in

study of moisture conditions

within stones or materials

having very coarse pore structure

BRS is in process of preparing

a paper in which use of this

gage will be described.

a.0 References

"The Suction of Moisture Held in Soil and Other

Porous Materials", D, Croney, J. D. Coleman, &

P. Mo Bridge, Road Research Technical Paper Ho. 2h

HMSO, 1952 . "Movement of Water in Soil Due to a Temperature Gradiant",

Gurr Marshall & Hutton, Soil Science, H5? Hovember

1952.

"Fire Gradings of Buildings, Part 1 General Principles

and Structural Precautions", Post War Building

Studies No. 20, HMSO, 19^6,

-28 -

4. FIRE OFFICES' COMMITTEE AND FIRE PROTECTION ASSOCIATION

On Friday noon 8 October I went with Mr, Clarke to

lunch with the Fire Offices ' Committee in their building

at 65 Watling Roado There I met among others Mr. A. Hinshelwood, Chairman, Mr. Co Porteous, Deputy Chairman, and

Mr. J. Haworth, Secretary. This organization appears to

be quite similar in organization and operation to the

National Board of Fire Underwriters in this country. They

were very cordial^ provided an excellent meal^ and asked me

to return when another opportunity occurred.

Later I met Mr, No C. S trother-Smith who has succeeded

Mr. Tuckey as Director of the Fire Protection Association.

This organization has much the same objectives of NFPA here.

The organization is however much smaller and does not operate

on a scale comparable to that of its American counterpart.

The difference in calibre of the two organizations is probably

due to both differences in temperament and customs of the

two nationalities as well as an apparent more nationalized

feeling of responsibility as provided in the Ministries

of Labor and Home Security,

The Fire Protection Association does publish the FPA

Journal (quarterly) and both Fire Protection Notes and

Leaflets. These are of quite similar calibre to material

provided in NFPA Quarterly.
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5. IMPERIAL COLLEGE

On Tuesday 5 October I visited Drs. Burgoyne and Spalding

at Imperial College, London.

I spent the morning with Dr. Spalding who has just

recently accepted a position as Reader in the city and

Guilds College (Mechanical Engineering). He was formerly

at Cambridge where he was concerned with heat flow and

combustion problems. Probably his most significant contribution to the field is his work on mass transfer rates. In

the past the usual procedure of calculation of mass transfer

rates, as the produd't of a transfer coefficient and a

concentration gradient, has been fairly satisfactory in the

absence of chemical changes but has often lead to serious

errors when such processes were present or when the concentration difference is large. Dr. Spalding has developed

a method of calculation of such transfer rates which appears

much superior to the more common methods and can be shown to

provide close correlation with experiment. This has been

done by demonstration that the process can be described

in terms, (a) of an equation relating mass transfer rate

to the Reynolds number and other conditions, and (b) of

a driving force called the mass transfer number.

Dr. Spalding has developed a considerable interest

in the work of the Fire Research Station and apparently

plans to do what he can towards further study of combustion

behavior of solid fuels,

I spent the afternoon with Dr. Burgoyne who is a lecturer in the Department of Chemical Engineering and

Applied Chemistry at Imperial College. He and Dr. F. J.

Weinberg a recent graduate have a large group of graduate

students working for them on a wide variety of combustion

problems, I was especially Interested in the equipment

developed for production of aerosols of uniform drop size

and their studies of the burning velocities of such

aerosols. Dr. Burgoyne has spent a considerable amount of

time during and since the war on problems relating to fire

hazards r.

a. References

"The Calculation of Mass Transfer Rates in Absorption,

Vaporization Condensation and Combustion Processes",

D. B. Spalding, J. Institution of Mech Eng, 195*+»

"A Theory of the Extinction of Diffusion Flames",

Do B, Spalding, Fuel V33? W3, pp 255"273? July 195^»

30-

"Mass Transfer in Laminar Flow", D, Bo Spalding,

Proc Roy Soc A V221, pp 78-99, 1953-

"The Laminar Flame Speed of Propane/air Mixtures with

Heat Extraction from the Flame", Jo Po Batha & D» Bo

Spalding, Proc Roy Soc A, V225, pp 71-96, 195^»

"The Production of Monodisperse Aerosols of Large

Drop Size", Jo H, Burgoyme & L, Cohen, J» Coloid

Science, Vo, N3, pp 36^-366, June 1953

"The Effect of Drop Size on Flame Propagation in

Liquid Aerosols", Jo Ho Burgoyne & Lo Cohen,

Proc Roy Soc A, V225, pp 375“392, 195^»

"The Determination of Some Parameters Across the

Combustion Zone of a Flat Flame", Jo Ho Burgoyne

& Fo Jo Weinberg, Proc Roy Soc A, V224, pp 286-308,

195^0

31

6o PYKENE CO, LTD,

I asked suggestions of those at the Fire Research

Station as to which manufacturer of fire fighting equipment

it might be most profitable to visit. The answer was fairly

unanimous that the Pyrene Company was probably not only the

most convenient to reach but also one of the more progressive

manufacturers of this type of equipment, I visited them on

Monday l8 October and in the absence of Mr, H, £, Bedford

their technical director, I met Mr, Robins who is both an

engineer and a sales official, I was interested to learn of

the wide variety of their products ranging from a small

pump gun type of extinguisher to an air field crash fire

truck. It was stated that they have abandoned their

former foam pumping equipment in favor of a truck provided

with centrifugal pumps for air and water delivery and means

for aspirating foam fluid. They have done this because

of the simplification in pumping equipment and the increased

flexibility of the system which permits use of the truck

as a conventional pumper when the need arises.

On Mr. Bedford's return I visited with him a short

while and was introduced to Mr, W, J, Clifford who is in

charge of their New Products Division, He is evidently

closely connected with any work they may do that could be

considered as research. There was not sufficient time to

visit their laboratories so that available time v/as used

in discussing test methods they use. Most of these were for

the purpose of evaluating foams. One technique they use is

however of interest whether or not it is fully justified.

This involves the construction of experimental flammable

liquid fires on an elongated test area. The fire is

then attacked from one end and the length of the tray over

which flaming has been extinguished is taken as a quantitative

index of the relative value of the extinguisher. This may

be a good technique and seems quite worth study,

I found my visit to this organization interesting

though not too profitable on the technical side. The

company is a large one and has just recently "bought itself

out" from the American mother organization.

7o CENTRE SCIENTIFIQUE ET TECHNIQUE DU BATIMENT (CSTB)

Paris, France

This group appears to be roughly equivalent to the

Building Technology Division at NBS with the exception that

they are only concerned with buildings on land » M, Fackler

was visited as M, Marini the Director was ill. This

organization has four technical divisions under; M. Roger

(studies of new materials and building practices), M,

Ddmarre (technical advice codes and specifications and

architectural studies), M, Fournol (functional studies of

buildings, heating lighting, acoustics, and ventilation) and

Mo Fackler (international relations, safety problems, application of nuclear physics to building, work for the war and

interior departments o There are also, a library division under

Mademoiselle Flitz, a publications division under Mo Perrissoud

and a service division under Mo Crozet which includes personnel

budget and supply problems o The experimental station is

located on the other side of Paris (east) and is directed

by Mo Brayer who reports to M, Marini o*

Mo Fackler seems to be doing a bit of interesting and

original work on use of radiographic techniques on study of

imperfections in concrete » Studying effects of vibration

on uniformity of resulting concrete and glomeration of

aggregates o

He has used artificial aggregates loaded with axial

steel pins to study change of orientation of aggregate during

vibrationo He also has done work on study of concrete as

a shielding material for radiation from radioactive material.

He has made a concrete cylinder 3=6 meters diameter and about

as high with a series (20 to 30 ) of one cm holes parallel

to the axis and spiralling in to the center to permit measurements of transmission within and from the inside out of the

cylinder o He has constructed a portable 3 <>2 curie cobalt

source inside a 40 cm diameter lead sphere o This is arranged

on a carriage to roll into position for making measurements

in the field » They use both Geiger counter and photographic

detectors » Radioactive materials are used rather than

electrical sources (x-ray machines) because of higher

ener^

*M, Audige says that the experimental station is jointly

directed by CSTB and Ministere de 1* Interieur.
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I visited the Station Experimentale de Champs -sur -Marne

under M. Brayer in the afternoon. There I met M. Fretin and

Commandant Chauteud of the Ministere de 1' Inter ieur. The

station is a big one and will be larger. Much of it is new

in the last two years. One large building was set aside for

tests and demonstrations of various wall and floor finishes.

This building must have been at least 60 ft x 120 ft. The

main building has labs on first floor and offices above.

They showed me a new floor tile test device. We then walked

to their specimen preparation building. It must have been at

least 80 ft x 160 ft and contained one large central fabrication area with overhead crane which ran out of one end of

the building to carry specimens to various test devices.

On one side of this fabrication area there were shops for

wood and metal work. On the other side were several test

rooms, one of which involved a heat transfer box of the guarded

hot box type suitable for temperatures on the cold side between

“20 and 60°C. The specimen was mounted vertically and

humidity could be controlled as well as temperature. They

then took me to see their acoustic reverberation chambers.

These are about 12 ft square and about 10 ft high. There are

three different rooms, one for test of surface finish materials,

another for floor-ceiling assemblies and the last for walls.

All are built underground of reinforced concrete. They

showed me the panel furnace which accommodates specimens as large

as 3 X 3 meters which seems to be the standard size for all

specimens. The furnace is gas

fired and automatically controlled

to follow the time temperature

curve. It seems that only one or

two thermocouples are used in the

furnace, one of these used

proiscontrol purposes. It is

tected on the side near the

specimen to prevent the

type of specimen from

influencing the time

temperature curve. This

furnace was being modified

and another similar one was

being built. Thin asbestos

pads are used over the

unexposed surface thermocouple

for

Foe.Kl/>sc.e.

71/ \///7///^// ^ /////

They showed me a building setup for test of 2k chimneys

at one time. This was about l6 to 2k ft high but only one

chimney was set up in place.

Several other test areas were shown. The general

impression I got was that a lot of money had been put into

facilities but as yet only very limited use had been made

of these facilities. We saw M. Fackler's laboratory for

radioactive measurement techniques and his portable cobalt

source. He did not show us his analogue computer which ha

recently been completed.

I saw little evidence of technical staff but they

certainly are getting equipment with which to work.
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- 35 -

8. INSTITUTE DE RECHERCHES DE LA CONSTRUCTION NAVAIE

Paris, France

I visited M, Audige of the Institute de Recherches de

la Construction Navale at the headquarters of this organization

at 1 Boulevard Haussmann Paris 9®* This organization appears

to be a quasi governmental type and has no research laboratories of its own but probably has government money at its

disposal. He said he spends his time about equally between

this organization and an organization representative of the

ship building industry evidentally similar to our trade

associations. He attended the 19^8 London Conference on

safety of life at sea and apparently has taken an active

interest, since that time, in the fire hazard problem. He

mentioned four government laboratories which do work for them.

1. CSTB mentioned earlier, they are continuing

work on flame spread test methods,

2. Laboratoire du Feu de Bellevue, 1 Place

Aristride Briand Bellevue -Mevdon.

3. Bureau Veritasse. This organization has done

work on paints. It is somewhat similar to

"American Bureau of Ships".

ho Laboratoier des Arts et Metier at 292 Rue Saint

Martin Paris 3®- This laboratory is operated by

the Ministre de Education Nationale and was

originally established for evaluation of inventions.

They do work on

a. Fire extinguishers

b. Flammability of paints

c. Bulkhead tests

d. Deck covering tests

e. Fire detection systems

We spent considerable time discussing flame spread and

combustibility test methods. He indicated that there had

been a suggestion that all fire research work be centralized

at CSTB but so far it was just a happy hope. He did not

seem to know M. Fretin but had heard of Commandant Chauteaud.

- 36 -

summary

It is difficult to summarize the value of a visit such

as this in any but very general terms » The trip was without

question well worth while since it provided a much clearer

picture of how fire research work is being conducted in

Britain and France. Perhaps the chief value lies in the

personal contacts which were made and the ability to discuss

technical problems with those actually doing the work.

The British as was previously recognized are making a

much stronger effort than has been done here to analyze

the many technical aspects of the fire problem. The work

they are doing is paying dividends. The Fire Research

Station is held in enviable respect by both the fire fighting

organizations with whom they have had close contact and the

technical public.

37

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-Law

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i