18 U.S.C. §§ 2721-2725 (2006). 1

 Summary judgment is appropriate if there is no genuine 2

issue of material fact and the moving party is entitled to

judgment as a matter of law. Fed. R. Civ. P. 56(c). In ruling

on a motion for summary judgment, the Court must view the

evidence, and make all reasonable inferences from the evidence,

in the light most favorable to the nonmoving party. Anderson v.

Liberty Lobby, Inc., 477 U.S. 242, 252 (1986). The moving party

bears the initial burden of proving that there is no genuine

issue of material fact in dispute. Matsushita Elec. Indus. Co.

Ltd. v. Zenith Radio Corp., 475 U.S. 574, 585 n.10 (1986). Once

the moving party carries this burden, the nonmoving party must

"come forward with 'specific facts showing there is a genuine

issue for trial.'" Id. at 587 (quoting Fed. R. Civ. P. 56(e)). 

The task for the Court is to inquire "whether the evidence

presents a sufficient disagreement to require submission to the

jury or whether it is so one-sided that one party must prevail as

a matter of law." Liberty Lobby, 477 U.S. at 251-52; Tabas v.

Tabas, 47 F.3d 1280, 1287 (3d Cir. 1995) (en banc).

IN THE UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT 

FOR THE EASTERN DISTRICT OF PENNSYLVANIA

ELIZABETH PICHLER, et al. : CIVIL ACTION

:

 v. :

:

UNITE (UNION OF NEEDLETRADES, :

INDUSTRIAL & TEXTILE EMPLOYEES :

AFL-CIO), et al. : NO. 04-2841

MEMORANDUM

Dalzell, J. August 30, 2006

In 2003 and 2004, two labor unions obtained many

license plate numbers from cars in the parking lots of a firm

whose employees they were attempting to organize. The unions

used those license plate numbers to get employees' names and

addresses. Claiming that the unions' actions violated the

Driver's Privacy Protection Act of 1994 ("DPPA" or the "Act"),1

the named plaintiffs brought this class action. Before us now

are the parties' cross-motions for summary judgment and their 2

Case 2:04-cv-02841-SD Document 182 Filed 08/30/2006 Page 1 of 41

PICHLER et al v. UNITE (UNION OF NEEDLESTRADES, INDUSTRIAL & TEXTILE EMPLOYEES AFL-CIO) et al Doc. 182

Dockets.Justia.com
 The parties have stipulated to certain facts, see Jt. 3

Stipulation of Facts for Parties' Cross-Motions for Summ. J.

("Stip.") ¶¶ 1-61; Supplement to Jt. Stipulation ("Stip. Supp.")

¶¶ 65-67, as well as to the authenticity of some documents, see

Stip. ¶ 62 (a)-(bb); Stip. Supp. ¶ 68, and the filing of other

documents, see Stip. ¶ 63 (cc)-(dd), ¶ 64 (ee).

We note that plaintiffs object to the introduction of

several of UNITE's exhibits, see Letter to the Court, June 14,

2006, but, as evidenced below, plaintiffs are not materially

prejudiced by these exhibits, so we shall allow them.

 According to the Cintas employee handbook, "Cintas 4

partners work best without outside interferences that disrupt our

spirit of teamwork. Labor unions usually approach relationships

with employers with antagonism which often results in a 'we-they'

attitude in the work place." Stip. ¶ 16. In "The Spirit Is the

Difference" -- a Cintas publication explaining its corporate

philosophy -- Cintas states that "[w]e simply don't think we can

properly manage our business with unions standing between the

company and employees." Id. ¶ 17.

 UNITE is a labor union that was formed in 1995 by the 5

merger of two predecessor unions, the International Ladies

Garment Workers Union ("ILGWU") and the Amalgamated Clothing &

Textile Workers Union ("ACTWU"). Stip. ¶ 9. In the summer of

2

stipulations of fact.3

I. Factual Background

Cintas Corporation ("Cintas") is the largest employer

in the industrial laundry industry in the United States. Jt.

Stipulation of Facts for Parties' Cross-Motions for Summ. J.

("Stip.") ¶ 13. It employs about 28,000 people at 350 locations

in the United States and Canada, and many employees working in

Cintas facilities are either female, black, or Hispanic. Id. ¶¶

13, 15. Cintas is philosophically opposed to unions and union

organizing. Id. ¶ 16. 

4

In the fall of 2002, the Union of Needletrades,

Industrial & Textile Employees AFL-CIO ("UNITE") "decided to 5

Case 2:04-cv-02841-SD Document 182 Filed 08/30/2006 Page 2 of 41
2004, UNITE merged with the Hotel Employees & Restaurant

Employees Union ("HERE"), to form UNITE HERE. Id. For the sake

of simplicity, we shall refer to the entity that is a defendant

in this case as "UNITE."

 From 1999 until he became President in 2001, Raynor was 6

Secretary-Treasurer of UNITE. Stip. ¶ 10. Raynor has been

employed by UNITE or its predecessor unions in various capacities

since 1973. Id.

3

launch a campaign concerning Cintas." Id. ¶ 14. Bruce Raynor,

who has been the President of UNITE since July of 2001, id. ¶ 6

10, described the Cintas campaign in a November 30, 2001 letter

to John Sweeney, the President of the AFL-CIO:

Our biggest challenge will be launching our

organizing drive against several laundries

owned by Cintas, the nation's largest, and

very anti-union, uniform services company. 

Cintas will prove to be the toughest

adversary for UNITE for several years, but

this is a campaign that we must wage due to

Cintas' 23% market share in the uniform

services sector.

Id. Ex. A. 

The record, which we now canvass, confirms what these

Cintas and UNITE policy statements suggest. Each party sees its

opponent as the white whale.

A. Preparing for the Cintas Campaign

The Cintas campaign consisted of a preparation, or

planning, phase and a public phase. Stip. ¶ 25. UNITE's

preparation phase took place in the fall and early winter of 2002

through 2003. Id. It involved finding out as much as possible

about Cintas and any issues its workers might have, preparing

written materials and organizing strategy, and compiling lists of

Case 2:04-cv-02841-SD Document 182 Filed 08/30/2006 Page 3 of 41
 Brent Garren is Senior Associate General Counsel for 7

UNITE. Stip. Ex. DD Garren Decl. ¶ 1.

 Even before the preparation phase, Jennifer Roitman, 8

UNITE's national lead organizer, summarized her understanding of

the Cintas campaign in the summer of 2001 in a document entitled

"Set-up - August - October." See UNITE's Mem. of Law in Support

of Mot. for Summ. J. ("UNITE's Mem.") 5; see also Stip. Ex. B

"Set-up-August-October". For instance, under the heading

"Membership," the "GOAL" in each city was to "ID ex CINTAS

workers -- possible plaintiffs, develop contacts with current

[C]intas workers, build membership activity and participation to

make campaign successful." Stip. Ex. B at Bates No. 013926. 

Under the "Legal" heading, the "GOAL" was "1 legal case (ideally

W&H or discrimination) in each city" for which they would

"Investigate -- and if we find violations, prepare lawsuits with

4

names and addresses of workers to contact during the public

phase. Id. From the beginning, "a component of the campaign to

organize and unionize Cintas workers" was "finding potential

legal claims against Cintas, in part through home visits." Id. ¶

21; see also id. Ex. DD Garren Decl. ¶ 2, Dec. 2, 2005. 

7

During the course of its research, UNITE learned that

Cintas had paid a ten million dollar settlement in Vaca v.

Cintas, BC 250459 (Sup. Ct. Cal. Sept. 4, 2002), an action

alleging that UNITE had violated California overtime laws. Stip.

¶ 18. UNITE also learned that Cintas had been a defendant in

actions alleging unlawful employment discrimination, and was a

respondent in OSHA and NLRB proceedings. Id. ¶ 19. Moreover,

UNITE's research uncovered alleged unfair labor practice charges

that unions had filed against Cintas and its subsidiaries from

1998 through 2001. Id. ¶ 20.

UNITE prepared documents concerning strategy and

training for the campaign. By the fall of 2002, UNITE had 8

Case 2:04-cv-02841-SD Document 182 Filed 08/30/2006 Page 4 of 41
ex-Cintas workers as plaintiffs -- ready to file on launch day." 

Id. at Bates No. 013927.

 Ahmer Qadeer is UNITE's Deputy Director of the Strategic 9

Affairs Department, and he has held that position or similar ones

with the organization since February of 2000. UNITE's Mem.

Qadeer Decl. ¶ 1. His responsibilities included coordinating

aspects of the Cintas campaign, including overseeing all research

and campaign activities concerning the company. Id.

 Megan Chambers was the Cintas campaign director for the 10

New York metropolitan area. UNITE's Mem. Chambers Decl. ¶ 1.

5

prepared a "Campaign Plan" that described its "Goal" as a

"National Contract covering workers in 6-7 key cities covering

3000 workers." Id. Ex. I; see also Pls.' Mem. of Law in Supp. of

Mot. for Summ. J. ("Pls.' Mem.) Ex. 11 Qadeer Dep. 146:8-149:23.9

The Plan's "Campaign Strategy" included a "Legal" component: 

"Identify any areas where the company is violating the rights of

the workers (FLSA, OSHA, NLRB, EEOC et.) file lawsuits to ensure

that the company follows the law." Stip. Ex. I. In each of the

seven metropolitan areas that UNITE targeted, it hired a law firm

to assist legal coordinators and provide representation to Cintas

employees identified as potential plaintiffs. UNITE's Mem.

Quadeer Decl. ¶ 8.

UNITE also prepared a 132-page "Legal Training Laundry

Campaign" document which UNITE attorneys, along with outside

counsel, used on September 11 and 12, 2002 to train twelve UNITE

members who were the lead organizers and legal coordinators for

the regions where UNITE would kick off its campaign. Id. Ex. L;

see also id. Ex. DD Garren Decl. ¶ 4; UNITE's Mem. Qadeer Decl. ¶

6, Chambers Decl. ¶ 14, May 11, 2006. According to the "Agenda 10

Case 2:04-cv-02841-SD Document 182 Filed 08/30/2006 Page 5 of 41
 The training materials included sample survey questions 11

regarding discrimination, sexual harassment, and the FLSA, see

Stip. Ex. L at Bates Nos. 055582-055587; discrimination

hypotheticals, id. at Bates Nos. 055588-055591; state

discrimination law summaries, id. at Bates Nos. 055592-055594;

EEOC materials on job discrimination, id. at Bates Nos. 055595-

055605, 055607-055608; a Charge of Discrimination form, id. at

Bates No. 055609; outlines for EEOC, FLSA, and ADA claims, id. at

Bates Nos. 055610-055619; summaries of state wage and hour laws,

id. at Bates Nos. 055621-055622; a comparative chart of federal

discrimination law, id. at Bates No. 055623; FLSA problems to

analyze, id. at Bates Nos. 055624-055625; U.S. Department of

Labor materials on the FLSA, id. at Bates Nos. 055629-055654;

workers' compensation materials, id. at Bates Nos. 055656-055667,

055684-055699; and OSHA regulations and forms, id. at Bates Nos.

055675-055677, 055709-055711.

 At an unspecified time, UNITE also developed a Cintas 12

Shop Towel Survey form and surveys concerning Cintas's alleged

wage and hour violations. Id. ¶¶ 45-46.

6

for Legal Training," the two-day training covered such topics as

the Fair Labor Standards Act ("FLSA"), the Family Medical Leave

Act ("FMLA"), various types of discrimination, unfair labor

practices, and workers' compensation. Stip. Ex. L at Bates No.

055580. In November of 2002, UNITE conducted another training 11

session that about sixty field staff attended. Chambers Decl. ¶

15. This included a half-day training session on identifying

employee legal violations and the role of legal coordinators. 

Id. A month later, at its Organizing Summit on December 6 and 7,

2002, UNITE used a Power Point presentation that included a slide

stating, "What it will take to beat CINTAS . . . Sustained ground

campaign to win support of workers and develop legal and moral

attack on company." Stip. Ex. D at Bates No. 026753. 12

Case 2:04-cv-02841-SD Document 182 Filed 08/30/2006 Page 6 of 41
 Michael Scimone was UNITE's lead organizer in Southeast 13

Pennsylvania, which includes Emmaus. Pl.'s Mem. 9 n.12.

7

B. Obtaining Cintas Workers' Contact Information

"In order to contact workers as part of UNITE's

organizing campaign," UNITE compiled lists of names and addresses

of presumed Cintas workers using a variety of sources, including 

other workers, telephone and city directories, cross-directories,

other public records, Internet databases, raffles, and discarded

company lists. Stip. ¶ 29. Some organizers also followed

workers home to get addresses. Pls.' Mem. Ex. 16 Scimone Dep.

108:19-109:21, Aug. 23, 2005. UNITE planned to visit thousands 13

of Cintas employees in their homes. Stip. ¶ 22. It deemed such

house calls essential because it believed that workers would be

reluctant to talk to UNITE representatives at work for fear that

Cintas management would retaliate. Id. ¶ 41. 

Most significantly for purposes of this case, UNITE

accessed motor vehicle records "to help create lists of names of

presumed Cintas workers to contact at home as part of UNITE's

Cintas campaign." Id. UNITE has used this method -- sometimes

referred to as "tagging" -- in organizing campaigns since at

least the 1970s. Id. ¶ 31. The site coordinators at the various

facilities that UNITE was seeking to organize had discretion to

use motor vehicle information to build their lists. Id. ¶ 38. 

UNITE representatives testified that they were unaware of the

union issuing any guidelines, directives, or restrictions

regarding when and how organizers could access motor vehicle

Case 2:04-cv-02841-SD Document 182 Filed 08/30/2006 Page 7 of 41
 Ernest Bennett is UNITE's International Vice-President 14

and Director of Organizing. See Pls.' Mem. 8 n.8. Elizabeth

Gres was a UNITE Organizing Director in Michigan and became the

Director of the Cintas campaign in the fall of 2003. See id. at

8-9 n.9. Keith Mestrich was UNITE's Rule 30(b)(6) witness and,

at all relevant times, Director of UNITE's Strategic Affairs

Department. See id. at 6 n.5. Peter DeMay is UNITE's Organizing

Director for the Chicago and mid-states region. See id.

8

records. See Pls.' Mem. Ex. 7 Raynor Dep. 53:9-21, Feb. 16,

2005; Ex. 1 Bennett Dep. 140:19-141:5, Jan. 12, 2006; Ex. 12

Chambers Dep. 53:9-21, Sep. 28, 2005; Ex. 14 Gres Dep. 59:21-

60:8, July 29, 2005; Ex. 9 Mestrich Dep. 46:6-47:17, Feb. 3,

2005; Ex. 8 DeMay Dep. 55:21-24, 64:10-15, Feb. 8, 2005; Ex. 16

Scimone Dep. 136:10-15. 

14

UNITE used license plate numbers on cars found in

Cintas parking lots to access information relating to those

license plate numbers contained in state motor vehicle records. 

Stip. ¶ 30. UNITE organizers would typically watch, or walk or

drive through, a Cintas parking lot and either write down or

dictate into a tape recorder (to be transcribed later) the

license plate numbers, and sometimes the makes and models, of

cars parked in the lot, or entering or leaving it. Id. ¶ 33. 

Ideally, the organizers looked to see if the same license plate

showed up at least twice to minimize the risk that the car

belonged to a random visitor rather than a Cintas employee. Id. 

UNITE organizers would use their lists of license plate numbers

to access motor vehicle records in one of two ways: through

Westlaw -- a computer-assisted research database that has motor

vehicle record databases for about thirty states -- or through

Case 2:04-cv-02841-SD Document 182 Filed 08/30/2006 Page 8 of 41
 In the databases of UNITE searches that Westlaw produced 15

in response to a subpoena, the permitted use the inquiring party

designated is set forth as a number code. Stip. ¶ 36. Not all

permitted uses were available in all states, but the same number

always referred to the same permitted use, regardless of the

state: 1 - Use by Gov't Agency; 3 - Skip Tracing/Info

Verification; 4 - Court Proceedings; 6 - Insurance Claims

Investigation; and 8 - private investigator for DPPA purpose. 

Id.

9

private investigators or "information brokers." Id. ¶ 34. 

UNITE maintained two Westlaw accounts that allowed

access to databases called WestLaw Public Records Pro. Id. ¶ 35. 

Jason Coulter, UNITE's Assistant National Organizing Director as

of September 1, 2001, see Supp. Stip. Ex. GG, maintained one

account, and Peter DeMay, UNITE's Organizing Director for the

Chicago and mid-states region, maintained the other. Stip. ¶ 35. 

Westlaw account 1003099727, started on September 10, 2002, was

originally in the name of Daniel Kotzin, who was a friend of

Coulter and not an employee of UNITE. Id. Beginning in December

of 2002, that account was in the name of "Jason Coulter

Consulting - UNITE." Id. The other Westlaw account, 1003853823,

was in the name of UNITE since its inception on March 27, 2002

and throughout its existence. Id. 

Before an organizer could access the information on

Westlaw, a screen would appear that asked the inquiring party to

check a box designating which of certain specified "permitted

uses" applied that entitled the user to access pursuant to the

Drivers' Privacy Protection Act and applicable state laws. Id. ¶

36. Coulter, who gave his password to others and instructed 15

Case 2:04-cv-02841-SD Document 182 Filed 08/30/2006 Page 9 of 41
 For example, in Pennsylvania, Rea gave the license plate 16

numbers to Infotrack, who forwarded them in turn to American

Investigation Resource, who submitted separate "service requests"

to Pennsylvania Auto License Brokers, who ultimately got the

information from the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation. 

Stip. ¶ 37. In New York, Rea dealt with a private investigator

named Robert Carroll. In Michigan, Rea dealt with an

investigator named Harold Sneath. Id. 

10

them on how to retrieve information using license plates, does

not recall telling them which permitted use to select, nor does

he recall which he selected. See Pls.' Mem. Ex. 13 Coulter Dep.

208:5-210:18, Oct. 27, 2005. Megan Chambers recalls Coulter

telling her to select a "legal investigation" option. See

UNITE's Mem. Chambers Decl. ¶ 8. Peter DeMay randomly selected

either "skip tracing" or "litigation or legal research." 

See Pls.' Mem. Ex. 8 DeMay Dep. 102:19-104:9. Elizabeth Gres

generally selected "skip tracing." See id. Ex. 14 Gres Dep.

78:4-10. Michael Scimone did not remember which use he selected. 

See id. Scimone Dep. 57:6-24.

In Pennsylvania, New York, Michigan and Illinois, UNITE

obtained names and addresses through a private investigator named

John Rea. Stip. ¶ 37. Rea gave license plate numbers to another

investigator or "information broker" in the state in question. 

Id. They, in turn, either themselves or through yet other

intermediaries obtained the information by directly applying to

the states' motor vehicle bureaus. Id. According to Rea, no 16

one from UNITE ever told him that UNITE needed the license plate

information for any particular reason, including in connection

with any lawsuit. Pls.' Mem. Ex. 20 Rea Dep. 20:7-24:6, 35:18-

Case 2:04-cv-02841-SD Document 182 Filed 08/30/2006 Page 10 of 41
11

36:14, Feb. 7, 2005. Two of Rea's UNITE contacts confirm that

they did not tell him why they needed the information. See id.

Ex. 8 DeMay Dep. 64:16-65:5; Ex. 12 Chambers Dep. 56:5-25.

UNITE accessed motor vehicle records in connection with

its Cintas campaign in Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio,

Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, Nevada, and California

(Sacramento). Stip. ¶ 40. UNITE did most of the motor vehicle

searches during the fall and early winter of 2002 through 2003,

and during the preparation period for the public kick-off of

UNITE's Cintas campaign, but it also conducted some Cintasconnected motor vehicle searches until the filing of this lawsuit

in mid-2004. Id. ¶ 39. UNITE representatives "did not maintain

any records identifying which employee names and addresses they

obtained through motor vehicle searches as opposed to other

means." Pls.' Mem. Ex. 24 Defs.' Supp. Objs. & Resps. to Pls.'

First & Second Set of Interr. & Req. for Docs. at 7.

While preparing to conduct home visits of workers at

Cintas's Emmaus, Pennsylvania facility, UNITE accessed all of the

named plaintiffs' motor vehicle records in late 2003 and early

2004. Stip. ¶ 8. Vehicle record abstracts from the Pennsylvania

Department of Transportation show that on December 9, 2003 UNITE

accessed Russell Christian's records, and on January 23, 2004 it

accessed the records of Elizabeth Pichler, Seth Nye, Holly

Marston, Kevin Quinn, Jose Sabastro, Russell Daubert, Thomas

Riley, and Amy Riley. See UNITE's Mem. of Law in Opp'n to Pls.'

Mot. for Summ. J. ("UNITE's Opp'n), Kennedy Decl., June 19, 2006,

Case 2:04-cv-02841-SD Document 182 Filed 08/30/2006 Page 11 of 41
 Despite UNITE's stipulations that it accessed the named 17

plaintiffs' motor vehicle records, see Stip. ¶¶ 8, 32, it now

claims in a footnote that the records show it did not access

Thomas Riley's or Amy Riley's information and that their claims

should therefore be dismissed, see UNITE's Opp'n 3 n.1. At this

very late date, we are not inclined to allow the parties to

renege on their stipulated facts. Moreover, the record shows

that the Pennsylvania Auto License Brokers, who worked indirectly

on behalf of UNITE, see supra n. 16, did in fact access the

Rileys' motor vehicle record on January 23, 2004. See Pl.'s SurReply Ex. 42, Pa. Dept. of Transportation Vehicle Record Abstract

for Thomas & Amy Riley. In light of defendants' stipulations and

the record evidence, we shall not dismiss the claims of Thomas

Riley and Amy Riley. It would appear that, for DPPA purposes,

they as married owners of the car constitute a single victim.

 Elizabeth Pichler is a non-supervisory Cintas employee. 18

Stip. ¶ 6. Unaccountably, in every entry on the docket, Ms.

Pichler's surname is misspelled. In the accompanying Order, we

at last set the record straight.

 In January of 2003, Seth Nye was a management trainee at 19

Cintas who was promoted to the supervisory position of Service

Manager at the Emmaus facility. Stip. ¶ 3. He has the authority

to discipline the employees he supervises. Id.

 Kevin Quinn is a Service Manager and a supervisor. Stip. 20

¶ 4. 

 Jose Sabastro, Thomas Riley, and Russell Daubert are 21

Service Training coordinators ("STCs"). Stip. ¶ 5. STCs are

assistants to the Service Managers responsible for training

employees. Id. Thomas Riley testified in his deposition that he

was in a supervisory position. Russell Daubert testified he was

also an STC, like Riley. Id. Plaintiff Jose Sabastro is also a

salaried STC who assists a Service Manager in the Emmaus facility

in training Cintas drivers. Id.

12

Ex. B; Pls.' Sur-Reply Ex. 42. Cintas employed named 17

plaintiffs Elizabeth Pichler, Seth Nye, Kevin Quinn, Jose L. 18 19 20

Sabastro, Thomas Riley, and Russell Daubert at its Emmaus 21

facility at times relevant to this case. Stip. ¶ 1. Named

Case 2:04-cv-02841-SD Document 182 Filed 08/30/2006 Page 12 of 41
 Russell Christian is the live-in boyfriend of a Cintas 22

employee. Stip. ¶ 7. 

 Holly Marston is Seth Nye's mother. Stip. ¶¶ 3, 51. Her 23

surname, too, has been misspelled, but no longer.

 Amy Riley is Thomas Riley's wife. Stip. ¶ 5. 24

 The parties agree that their varying numbers -- arising 25

from a dispute over which items should be excluded from the

calculations and possible minor discrepancies in eliminating

duplications -- should not be material to their motions. Stip. ¶

67 n.1. 

For searches done prior to around May of 2003, West's

designated deposition witness testified that West is unable to

retrieve the permissible use codes associated with those

searches. See Pls.' Mem. Ex. 21 Appold Dep. 80:8-17, Nov. 3,

2005.

13

plaintiffs Russell Christian, Holly Marston, and Amy Riley 22 23 24

are not Cintas employees and were not Cintas employees at times

relevant to this case. Id. ¶ 2. Plaintiffs and Cintas estimate

that UNITE accessed the motor vehicle records of the named

plaintiffs and a plaintiff class consisting of between about

1,758 and 2,005 Cintas employees, or their relatives or friends. 

Id. ¶ 32. 

According to Westlaw's records, UNITE conducted about

13,700 motor vehicle searches on Westlaw from August of 2002 to

October 13, 2004. Stip. Supp. ¶ 65. Some of these were

duplicate searches of the same license plate number, and some did

not result in the retrieval of any information. Id. About 1,576

of UNITE's searches on Westlaw related to Cintas. Id. ¶ 66. For

the Cintas-related searches, plaintiffs calculate that 223 had

permitted use indications, and defendants calculate that 148 did. 

Id. ¶ 67.25

Case 2:04-cv-02841-SD Document 182 Filed 08/30/2006 Page 13 of 41
 Tom Riley's wife, Amy Riley, answered the door to two men 26

who said, "hello, how are you" and identified themselves as being

from Cintas. Stip. ¶¶ 53, 54. She thought they were Tom's

friends from work, so she went to get him down in the basement,

where he was working, id. He went to the door, and she went to

the kitchen where she was unable to hear the conversation. Id. ¶

54. Tom Riley asked the two men dressed in black if he could help

them, and they explained that they were from UNITE/Teamsters. 

Id. ¶ 53. He replied, "There is no need for me to talk with you,

there is nothing that you can say to me, and would you please

leave." Id. They did so. Id. Tom Riley came back to his wife

and told her never to answer the door to them again. Id. ¶ 54.

She claims that the same two men returned "a week later on a

weekday" when she was alone. Id.

On February 7, 2004 two women, one black and one white, rang

Kevin Quinn's doorbell. Id. ¶ 56. When he opened the door they

14

C. Launching the Cintas Campaign

The public phase started with a kick-off of intense

activity on the weekend of January 11, 2003 "when UNITE publicly

announced its organizing campaign and began actively organizing." 

Stip. ¶ 26. This "blitz" involved, among other things, "house

calling," and, after the weekend, leafleting and talking to

workers at Cintas facilities. Id. ¶ 26. On May 6, 2003, after

the public phase was underway, UNITE and the International

Brotherhood of Teamsters ("Teamsters") entered into what they

called the Cintas Organizing Campaign Cooperation Agreement to

"bring their combined resources to bear in a coordinated fashion

to win union representation and good collective bargaining

agreements for Cintas employees." Id. ¶ 61, Ex. E.

From January of 2003 through June of 2004, UNITE

representatives conducted at least 3,000 home visits to Cintas

employees. Id. ¶ 28. UNITE or the Teamsters visited the homes

of all the named plaintiffs except Seth Nye. Id. ¶¶ 50-58.26

Case 2:04-cv-02841-SD Document 182 Filed 08/30/2006 Page 14 of 41
asked for him by name, and he said, "That's me." Id. The women

told him that "they were organizing a union campaign against

Cintas." Id. He told them he was not interested and shut the

door. Id. The women got in their car and left. Id.

Jose L. Sabastro was on his porch when two men entered his

yard. Id. ¶ 55. One man introduced himself and said he was

from the Teamsters. Id. Sabastro said he was not interested and

told them to get off his property, which the two men did. Id.

Russell Christian said that a man came to the door,

identified himself as being from the union and asked if he was

Russell Christian. Id. ¶ 57. He said, "Yes, I am." Id. Asked

whether he worked at Cintas, he said, "No," and motioned to

Kathleen Kelly saying, "She does." Id. Kelly told Christian,

"No, I don't want to talk to him. Shut the door." Id. 

Christian did so, and the man left. Id.

Holly Marston, Seth Nye's mother, answered the door at 1660

Ross Lane on "a cold, cloudy day." Id. ¶ 51. A short Latino man

in a UNITE hat told her that he was "canvassing the area to get

support for the union." Id. She said, "My son is a management

trainee," and the canvasser said, "Oh, he's one of those" and

left. Id. Both Nye and Marston later received a leaflet from

UNITE through the United States mail. Id. ¶ 52.

Upon answering her doorbell one day, Elizabeth Pichler saw

someone from UNITE. Id. ¶ 58. She said that she was not

interested and shut her door. Id. 

15

The home visits allowed UNITE to talk to workers in a private

setting, away from Cintas supervisors. Id. ¶ 28. According to

Brent Garren, UNITE's Senior Associate General Counsel, UNITE

staff members conducted these home visits "to discuss with

[Cintas workers] their experiences working at Cintas and their

desire for union representation." Id. Ex. DD Garren Decl. ¶ 5. 

UNITE representatives testified that before contacting someone

they did not know whether that person was aware of any possible

legal issues, see Pls.' Mem. Ex. 11 Qadeer Dep. 247:21-249:3; Ex.

12 Chambers Dep. 49:3-8; Ex. 16 Scimone Dep. 114:3-6; Ex. 10

Watson Dep. 32:8-22, nor were they sure that the person was a

UNITE employee, see id. Ex. 9 Mestrich Dep. 141:2-12; Ex. 16

Case 2:04-cv-02841-SD Document 182 Filed 08/30/2006 Page 15 of 41
 Julie Hodek has been a research analyst with UNITE since 27

June of 2003. Stip. Ex. CC Hodek Second Decl. ¶ 1.

16

Scimone Dep. 113:8-22.

Field staff used "house call sheets" to record the

results of home visits. Stip. ¶ 22. During or immediately after

house calls, the organizers filled out house call sheets, which

had boxes for recording information about (1) the workers' job,

shift, ethnicity, and other status; (2) the workers' interest in

the union on a numerical scale; and (3) and general comments. 

Id. Some of the house call sheets included a notation for "legal

follow-up," and some did not. Id. The purpose of such sheets

was not recording workers' complaints about discrimination, but

rather their interest in unionization. Id. Ex. CC Hodek Second

Decl. ¶ 7, Nov. 30, 2005. UNITE field staff had also developed 27

Law Violation Report Forms, which UNITE used in Michigan when

visiting employees in their homes. Id. ¶ 23. Moreover, in July

of 2003 UNITE developed a form called "Discrimination Inventory:

Information to be Gathered in Preparation for Litigation," which

asked whether a complaint had been made, the status of the

complaint, and whether there was "Potential". Id. ¶ 24; see also

id. Ex. Y Discrimination Inventory form. UNITE representatives

drafted this new form to prepare for and prosecute claims against

Cintas. Stip. Ex. CC, Hodek Second Decl. ¶¶ 1, 5-6; id. Ex. DD

Garren Decl. ¶¶ 8-9. 

As a result of its home visits, UNITE prepared at least

twenty-nine Legal Violations Reports. Stip. ¶ 27. Those reports

Case 2:04-cv-02841-SD Document 182 Filed 08/30/2006 Page 16 of 41
 Ida Mae Ray appears on both the Westlaw Exhibit 8 and 28

Exhibit 9 lists. Stip. ¶ 27. Ms. Ray was searched under two

separate Westlaw account numbers. Id.

 Maria Rubet appears twice on the Westlaw Exhibit 8 list. 29

Stip. ¶ 27.

 Maria Monsod is associated with Edwin Monsod, who appears 30

twice on the Westlaw Exhibit 8 list. Stip. ¶ 27.

 The six federal cases are: Ramirez v. Cintas Corp., No. 31

CV-04-281 (N.D. Cal.) (filed Jan. 20, 2004); Veliz v. Cintas, No.

C 03-1180 (SBA) (N.D. Cal.) (filed Mar. 19, 2003); Grindle (Ohio)

Plaintiffs; Harris, et al. v. Cintas Corp., No. 04 CV 6040 T(P)

(N.D.N.Y.) (filed Jan. 29, 2004); Houston and Cooper v. Cintas

Corp., No. C 05-03145 (N.D. Cal.) (filed Aug. 3, 2005); and

Holloman v. Cintas Corp., No. A-04-CA-1092 (W.D. Tx.) (filed Dec.

28, 2004). Stip. ¶ 49.A.1-6.

 The three state court cases are: Amaral and Hernandez, 32

et al. v. Cintas Corp. (Sup. Ct. Cal. Alameda Co.) (filed June

23, 2003); Ayon v. Cintas, No. BC310696 (Sup. Ct. Ca. L.A. Co.)

(filed Feb. 17, 2004); and a lawsuit by the Connecticut Attorney

General to enforce the Clean Water Act. Stip. ¶ 49.B.1-3.

 UNITE assisted eighteen Cintas employees who filed EEOC 33

charges against their employer from July 1, 2002 through October

13, 2004, as well as three employees who filed such charges from

December 17, 2004 through July 10, 2005. Stip. ¶ 49.C.2.

17

include people whose names and addresses UNITE got from Westlaw

or John Rea, based upon motor vehicle records. Id. ¶ 27. UNITE

filled out Legal Violation Reports as a result of visiting seven

putative class members: Betty Jean Higgs, Ida Mae Ray, Marakisa 28

Henderson, Maria L. Villalta, Maria M. Rubet, Maria Monsod, 29 30

Mercedes Vega. Id. ¶ 27.

From 2002 through October 13, 2004, UNITE brought or

assisted in bringing against Cintas six federal cases, three 31

state court cases, eighteen charges with the Equal Employment 32

Opportunity Commission ("EEOC"), and four charges with the 33

Case 2:04-cv-02841-SD Document 182 Filed 08/30/2006 Page 17 of 41
 The OSHA complaints against Cintas concerned its 34

Rochester, New York facility (filed June 4, 2004); Central Islip,

New York facility (filed May 6, 2004); Bedford Park, Illinois

facility; and Schaumburg, Illinois facility. Stip. ¶ 49.E.1-4. 

UNITE filed the Central Islip complaint on behalf of Cintas

employee Sergio Mateo. Id. ¶ 49.E.2. It also filed a complaint

on Mateo's behalf alleging that Cintas retaliated against him for

requesting health and safety records of employees. Id. ¶ 44. 

The parties' stipulation does not make clear whether these were

two distinct actions.

 We note that in a different paragraph the Stipulation 35

also refers to a November 17, 2003 joint EEOC charge. The

parties confirmed to Chambers staff that this difference in date

is immaterial because the paragraphs refer to the same joint

charge.

18

Occupational Safety and Health Administration ("OSHA"). UNITE 34

also filed unfair labor practice charges with various offices of

the National Labor Relations Board ("NLRB"), some of which were

settled without any admission of liability. Id. ¶ 42; see also

id. Ex. M UNITE-filed NLRB charges and case correspondence. It

also assisted two putative Pichler class members in Marin County,

California to file complaints concerning wages, and it wrote a

letter to the County urging enforcement of the wage ordinance. 

See UNITE's Mem. Qadeer Decl. Exs. P, Q.

In addition to the UNITE-assisted EEOC charges that

Cintas employees filed, on November 18, 2003 UNITE and the

International Brotherhood of Teamsters filed a charge with the

U.S. EEOC , the Ohio Civil Rights Commission, and the California 35

Department of Fair Employment and Housing. The charges alleged

that Cintas discriminated against employees on the basis of race,

color, sex, and national origin, specifying discriminatory acts

at nine Cintas facilities: Las Vegas, Nevada; San Diego,

Case 2:04-cv-02841-SD Document 182 Filed 08/30/2006 Page 18 of 41
19

California; Central Islip, New York; Springfield, Missouri;

Landover, Maryland; Rochester, New York; Irvington, New Jersey;

Westlake, Michigan; San Leandro, California. Id. ¶ 43. The

charges identified six Cintas employees who alleged that Cintas

discriminated against them: Roberto Ramirez and Maria Ubia from

Las Vegas, Nevada; Robert Harris from Rochester, New York; Stacey

Stern from Chicago, Illinois; Amy Severson from Springfield,

Missouri; and Luis Cardoza from San Leandro, California. Id. 

The EEOC charge was dismissed on March 8, 2005 because of Ramirez

v. Cintas Corp., No. CV-04-281 (N.D. Cal.), a lawsuit based on

the same allegations and issues. Stip. Facts ¶ 49.C.1.

UNITE also sent letters to Cintas employees. On or

about March 19, 2003, it sent a letter to about 1,000 of them. 

Id. ¶ 47, Ex. R. UNITE addressed the letter to Cintas drivers

and informed them about a national class action lawsuit that it

had helped Cintas drivers to file in order to collect unpaid

overtime. Id. The letter concluded by stating, "For more

information about the lawsuit or about how you can become

involved in UNITE, contact us . . . ." Id. On September 23,

2004, it sent another letter to thousands of current and former

Cintas employees. Id. ¶ 48, Ex. Q. UNITE and the Teamsters both

signed this letter, addressed to "all Current and Former Cintas

Drivers," which provided more information about the overtime

payment lawsuit, stated there was limited time left to join the

lawsuit, and directed those interested in claiming their unpaid

overtime wages to fill out an enclosed Consent to Sue form. Id.

Case 2:04-cv-02841-SD Document 182 Filed 08/30/2006 Page 19 of 41
 When plaintiffs' counsel asked Garren if he had discussed 36

with Raynor "what the Tarkington lawsuit was about," UNITE's

counsel did not permit Garren to respond, citing grounds of

attorney-client privilege. See Pls.' Mem. Ex. 3 Garren Dep.

20

Ex. Q.

D. Earlier Litigation Concerning the 

Driver's Privacy Protection Act of 1994

In 2000, plaintiffs in Tarkington v. Hanson and UNITE,

Docket No. 4-00-CV-00525 JMM (E.D. Ark. Aug. 25, 2000), sued

UNITE under the Driver's Privacy Protection Act of 1994 and

Arkansas state law, and filed an amended complaint seeking class

status. Stip. ¶ 59. Plaintiffs there alleged that UNITE

obtained motor vehicle license plate numbers from vehicles parked

in the Dillard's Distribution Center in Mabelvale, Arkansas, and

used those licenses plates to wrongfully get people's personal

information -- including names, addresses, and telephone numbers

-- from the state motor vehicle agency, and then solicit people

at their homes. Id. Ex. AA Tarkington v. UNITE, Am. Class Action

Compl. ¶ 8. 

Brent Garren, UNITE's Senior Associate General Counsel,

in consultation with Dave Prouty, counsel to UNITE's organizing

department, was responsible for directing the course of the

Tarkington litigation. See Pls.' Mem. Ex. 23 Garren Dep. 42:21-

25, 50:25-51:16, July 28, 2005. Garren testified in his

deposition that he discussed with Raynor the terms of the

settlement as it was being negotiated. Id. at 63:24-64:2, 71:6-

13, 84:5-9.36

Case 2:04-cv-02841-SD Document 182 Filed 08/30/2006 Page 20 of 41
84:10-15.

21

Bruce Raynor executed the two Release and Settlement

Agreements concerning Tarkington, Stip. ¶ 60, one between UNITE

and the plaintiffs, see id. Ex. O, and the other between UNITE

and Dillard's and its counsel, see id. Ex. P. In the agreement

with the plaintiffs, UNITE agreed to permanently expunge from its

records all of the plaintiffs' personal information that it

"obtained by the actions complained of in the lawsuit," i.e.,

tagging. See id. Ex. O at ¶ 3. UNITE fulfilled this obligation. 

See Pls.' Mem. Ex. 1 Bennett Dep. 225:7-14, 228:17-229:21; Ex. 23

Garren Dep. 60:9-18.

Jason Coulter, UNITE's Assistant National Organizing

Director, testified that he and Ernest Bennett, UNITE's

International Vice-President and Director of Organizing,

discussed the Dillard's case and "decided to continue to use tags

because it was still on occasion a valuable tool for the union to

use in organizing workers." Pls.' Mem. Ex. 13 Coulter Dep. 64:7-

18. According to Bennett, "[t]he context of the discussion was

that we needed to be discreet about using the license plate

retrieval although we should continue to, but we needed to be

discreet because of Dillard's use in a campaign that undermined

our effort." Id. Ex. 1 Bennett Dep. 132:23-133:4. 

By "discreet," Bennett meant "let's don't run it high

profile and blast it out and be careful using it, because we did

not want it to be used as a tactic as Dillard used it in the

Case 2:04-cv-02841-SD Document 182 Filed 08/30/2006 Page 21 of 41
22

organizing campaign." Id. at 133:11-16. Coulter also told

organizers to exercise discretion. In light of Tarkington,

during a 2001 non-Cintas campaign in Arkansas, Coulter testified

that he told organizers "to be discreet" because they did not

want the company to find out what they were doing. Id. Ex. 13,

Coulter Dep. 85:2-8. While some people at that campaign knew

about the Dillard's campaign, Coulter said they "didn't discuss

the Dillard's case, but we discussed that people needed to be

thoughtful and careful and discreet." Id. at 86:14-16. They

wanted to avoid having the company learn that they were preparing

an organizing campaign. Id. at 85:24-86:5.

E. This Litigation

Plaintiffs filed this lawsuit on June 28, 2004, and a

few weeks later filed a one-count amended class action complaint

alleging that UNITE, Raynor, and the Teamsters violated the

Driver's Privacy Protection Act of 1994 ("DPPA" or the "Act"). 

To remedy these alleged violations, plaintiffs each requested

that we award liquidated damages of $2,500, punitive damages,

attorneys' fees, costs, and injunctive relief. See Am. Compl. at

14. Defendants moved to dismiss the amended complaint, but we

denied their motion on October 13, 2004. See Pichler v. UNITE,

339 F. Supp. 2d 665 (E.D. Pa. 2004). 

On May 31, 2005, we granted plaintiffs' motion for

class certification with respect to UNITE, denied it with respect

Case 2:04-cv-02841-SD Document 182 Filed 08/30/2006 Page 22 of 41
 We certified a class pursuant to Fed. R. Civ. P. 37

23(b)(3), see Pichler v. UNITE, 228 F.R.D. 230, 260 (E.D. Pa.

2005), and later, upon agreement of the parties, amended the

class definition to extend the class period until October 13,

2004, see Order of Dec. 14, 2005. The parties then agreed that

the class should be certified pursuant to Fed. R. Civ. P.

23(b)(1)(A), rather than Fed. R. Civ. P. 23(b)(3). Pursuant to

their stipulation and Fed. R. Civ. P. 23(c)(1)(C), we recertified the class under Fed. R. Civ. P. 23(b)(1)(A). See Order

of Feb. 9, 2006.

 UNITE revisits the issue of the DPPA's state of mind 38

requirement, a matter upon which we have already ruled. See

Pichler v. UNITE, 228 F.R.D. 230, 241-42 (E.D. Pa. 2005). We

shall therefore not reconsider that issue.

23

to Raynor and the Teamsters, defined a class as against UNITE,37

and appointed class counsel. See Pichler v. UNITE, 228 F.R.D.

230, 260-61 (E.D. Pa. 2005). The class, certified under Fed.

R.Civ. P. 23(b)(1)(A), consists of:

All persons whose personal information from

motor vehicle records was knowingly obtained,

used, and/or disclosed, directly or

indirectly, by UNITE or UNITE HERE between

July 1, 2002 and October 13, 2004, as part of

an effort to contact Cintas Corporation

employees[.]

See Order of Feb. 9, 2006. On September 23, 2005, we approved a

Consent Order between plaintiffs and the Teamsters settling

claims between them and dismissing this action as against the

Teamsters only.

Following completion of discovery, the parties

submitted their cross-motions for summary judgment, as well as

their stipulations of fact. We now address those motions.38

III. Legal Analysis

After setting forth the relevant statutory provisions,

Case 2:04-cv-02841-SD Document 182 Filed 08/30/2006 Page 23 of 41
24

we will consider the motions with respect to UNITE, and then turn

to Bruce Raynor.

A. The DPPA

Unless one of its exceptions applies, the DPPA forbids

state officials from "knowingly disclos[ing] or otherwise

mak[ing] available to any person or entity . . . personal

information . . . about any individual obtained by the department

[of motor vehicles] in connection with a motor vehicle record." 

18 U.S.C. § 2721(a)(1) (2006). It also prohibits others from

knowingly "obtain[ing] or disclos[ing] personal information, from

a motor vehicle record" for an unlawful purpose and from

"mak[ing] false representation[s] to obtain any personal

information from an individual's motor vehicle record." 18

U.S.C. § 2722(a), (b). 

Section 2724 provides for a civil cause of action: "A

person who knowingly obtains, discloses or uses personal

information, from a motor vehicle record, for a purpose not

permitted under this chapter shall be liable to the individual to

whom the information pertains, who may bring a civil action in a

United States district court." 18 U.S.C. § 2724(a). 

Section 2721 lists fourteen exceptions to the DPPA, two

of which are at issue here. The Act authorizes access: 

For use in connection with any civil,

criminal, administrative, or arbitral

proceeding in any Federal, State, or local

court or agency or before any self-regulatory

body, including the service of process,

investigation in anticipation of litigation,

Case 2:04-cv-02841-SD Document 182 Filed 08/30/2006 Page 24 of 41
25

and the execution or enforcement of judgments

and orders, or pursuant to an order of a

Federal, State, or local court.

18 U.S.C. § 2721(b)(4) (the "litigation exception"). It also

authorizes access "[f]or use by any government agency, including

any court or law enforcement agency, in carrying out its

functions, or any private person or entity acting on behalf of a

Federal, State, or local agency in carrying out its functions." 

18 U.S.C. § 2721(b)(1) (the "acting on behalf of a government

agency exception").

If a defendant is found liable, the court "may" award--

(1) actual damages, but not less than

liquidated damages in the amount of $2,500;

(2) punitive damages upon proof of willful or

reckless disregard of the law;

(3) reasonable attorneys' fees and other

litigation costs reasonably incurred; and

(4) such other preliminary and equitable

relief as the court determines to be

appropriate.

18 U.S.C. § 2724(b). 

In our decision on class certification, we held that:

to be eligible to recover under the DPPA, a

plaintiff must prove that (1) the defendant

knowingly obtained, disclosed, or used

personal information from her motor vehicle

records; and (2) the purpose of such

obtaining, disclosure, or use was not

permissible. The plaintiff need not show that

the defendant knew that the obtaining,

disclosure, or use was impermissible.

Pichler v. UNITE, 228 F.R.D. 230, 242 (E.D. Pa. 2005).

Case 2:04-cv-02841-SD Document 182 Filed 08/30/2006 Page 25 of 41
 We note that this reading is consistent with how at least 39

one Pennsylvania court has interpreted the DPPA. See Hartman v.

26

B. UNITE

Before we consider whether the DPPA provides an

exception for UNITE's actions, we must address an important issue

of statutory construction. One section in UNITE's brief contends

that plaintiffs cannot prove it violated the Act "if at least one

of the purposes for which UNITE acquired motor vehicle

information was lawful." UNITE's Mem. 29 C. (format altered). 

Plaintiffs dispute such a construction and contend that

"liability does not result from the absence of any permitted

purpose, as Defendants declare, but from the existence of 'a

purpose not permitted.'" Pls.' Mem. of Law in Opp'n to Defs.'

Mots. for Summ. J. ("Pls.' Opp'n") at 16. 

Section 2724 provides that "[a] person who knowingly

obtains, discloses or uses personal information, from a motor

vehicle record, for a purpose not permitted under this chapter

shall be liable . . . ." 18 U.S.C. § 2724(a) (emphasis added). 

Thus, one who obtains information is liable each time one gets

information "for a purpose not permitted." Accordingly, if UNITE

had three purposes for "obtain[ing], disclos[ing] or us[ing]

[plaintiffs'] personal information" and two of those were

"permissible uses" but the third was not, UNITE would still be

liable for the third purpose. The Act contains no language that

would excuse an impermissible use merely because it was executed

in conjunction with a permissible use.39

Case 2:04-cv-02841-SD Document 182 Filed 08/30/2006 Page 26 of 41
Dept. of Conservation & Natural Resources, 892 A.2d 897, 904-05

(Pa. Commw. Ct. 2006) (finding that DPPA did not permit

disclosure of personal information where main purpose of using

the information was not permitted, even though there was another

possibly permissible use effected at the same time).

27

We now consider the purposes for which UNITE is said to

have obtained plaintiffs' personal information. As will be seen,

on this record the question of partially permissible uses is not

pertinent because there was no permissible use.

1. Organizing Workers

Plaintiffs contend that UNITE is liable because the

DPPA does not recognize a unionizing campaign as a permissible

use. UNITE revisits its argument that the DPPA is inapplicable

to union organizing activity because of the NLRB's primary

jurisdiction. See UNITE's Mem. 44-51. Having already ruled on

this issue, see Pichler v. UNITE, 339 F. Supp. 2d 665, 668-70

(E.D. Pa. 2004), we shall not reconsider it now. 

The DPPA lists fourteen permissible purposes in Section

2721(b); union organizing is not one of them. As we have already

held, we will not engraft upon the DPPA a "labor exception" that

would permit unions to acquire and use employees' personal

information, obtained from motor vehicle records, to contact them

during organizing campaigns. Pichler v. UNITE, 339 F. Supp. 2d

665, 669-70 (E.D. Pa. 2004). Congress may amend Section 2721(b),

but we cannot. 

The parties have stipulated that UNITE was conducting a

campaign to organize and unionize Cintas workers, and that "to

Case 2:04-cv-02841-SD Document 182 Filed 08/30/2006 Page 27 of 41
28

contact workers as part of UNITE's organizing campaign," it

compiled lists of Cintas workers. See Stip. ¶ 29; see also ¶¶

14, 21. One method to build these lists was "access[ing]

information contained in state motor vehicle records relating to

those license plate numbers" that were "on cars found in Cintas

parking lots." Stip. ¶ 30. "With respect to the Cintas

campaign, UNITE accessed the motor vehicle records of the named

Plaintiffs and a plaintiff class estimated by Plaintiffs and

Cintas to consist of between approximately 1758 and 2005 Cintas

employees, or relatives or friends of Cintas employees." Id. ¶

32.

These stipulations leave no doubt that UNITE's tagging

was done to further its organizing campaign. Because Congress

did not designate union organizing as a permissible use under the

DPPA, we hold that UNITE is liable to plaintiffs under Section

2724(a).

As noted, without the imagined "labor exception" UNITE

still claims safe harbors in two statutory exceptions. But as we

now explain, UNITE's activities were not done "in anticipation of

litigation" or "on behalf of a [government] agency" within the

meaning of the DPPA. We now turn to the parties' arguments

concerning those two exceptions.

2. The Litigation Exception

According to UNITE, the record establishes that it

acquired and used personal information of the putative Pichler

Case 2:04-cv-02841-SD Document 182 Filed 08/30/2006 Page 28 of 41
29

class members in connection with an investigation in anticipation

of litigation within the meaning of Section 2721(b)(4) of the

DPPA. See UNITE's Mem. 30-36. Plaintiffs, in turn, characterize

UNITE's actions as a "mass solicitation of claims in pursuit of

[its] union organizing campaign." Pls.' Mem. 36.

For the litigation exception to apply, we have held

that there must be an actual investigation, litigation must

appear likely at the time of the investigation, and the protected

information acquired during the investigation must be of "use" in

the litigation, meaning that there was "a reasonable likelihood

that the decision maker would find the information useful in the

course of the proceeding." Pichler v. UNITE, 339 F. Supp. 2d

665, 668 (E.D. Pa. 2004). We understand that "litigation"

"encompass[es] all manner of proceedings identified in §

2721(b)(4), including Board proceedings." Id. As we explained,

"[t]his construction ensures that individuals' statutorily

recognized rights to the privacy of their motor vehicle records

are not sacrificed whenever a litigant raises the possibility of

a tenuous connection between the protected information and issues

tangentially related to a conceivable litigation strategy." Id.

UNITE asserts that it satisfies our litigation

exception criteria for three reasons. First, an undisputed

objective and goal of the Cintas campaign was to investigate and

initiate court cases. Second, litigation appeared likely because

Cintas's workforce was largely minority and female and because

UNITE's pre-campaign investigation revealed prior discrimination

Case 2:04-cv-02841-SD Document 182 Filed 08/30/2006 Page 29 of 41
30

complaints that Cintas employees had filed, namely forty cases

alleging unlawful discrimination, as well as forty-two unfair

labor practice charges against Cintas and its subsidiaries from

1998 through 2001. See UNITE's Mem. Qadeer Decl. ¶ 4 May 12,

2006. Third, it was reasonably likely that the EEOC, as well as

state and local agencies, would need to know which employees

suffered discrimination or other labor law violations or knew of

those who had. 

UNITE contends that, given its knowledge of Cintas's

labor law violations, it needed "to contact Cintas employees at

home to investigate whether they were the victims of unlawful

employment discrimination or overtime violations or had evidence

to support those that had already filed such charges." UNITE's

Mem. 33. UNITE highlights the Ramirez class action, a Title VII

case alleging race, ethnic, and gender discrimination. The lead

plaintiff, Robert Ramirez, is a putative class member here, as

are three other Ramirez plaintiffs. Id., Qadeer Decl. ¶ 16. 

UNITE claims that its home visits to all class members who are

women or minorities were part of the investigation it undertook

in anticipation of the Ramirez litigation. 

UNITE also cites to Veliz, the national FLSA overtime

class action for Cintas drivers. Named plaintiffs Thomas Riley,

Russell Daubert, and Jose Sabastro are or were Cintas drivers who

were eligible to participate in Veliz, and they all received mail

about that litigation. Daubert received UNITE's September 23,

2004 letter about Veliz, as well as "YES, WE CAN!," a ten-page

Case 2:04-cv-02841-SD Document 182 Filed 08/30/2006 Page 30 of 41
31

"newsletter about uniform justice at Cintas" published by UNITE

and the Teamsters in March of 2004. UNITE's Mem. Kennedy Decl.,

May 15, 2006, Ex. C Riley Dep. 12:3-16:1, Dec. 10, 2004; see

also Stip. Ex. Q "UNIFORM justice!" Sep. 23, 2004; Ex. Z "YES, WE

CAN!" Mar. 2004. Sabastro also received mail from the union

about Veliz and the "YES, WE CAN!" publication. UNITE's Mem.

Kennedy Decl. Ex. D Sabastro Dep. 13:5-14:25, 61:3-64:7, Dec. 9,

2004. Daubert received mail about the lawsuit, but did not read

the documents or know who sent them, nor did he recall receiving

a copy of UNITE's September 23, 2004 letter. Id. Ex. B Daubert

Dep. 31:6-32:3, Dec. 10, 2004. 

Furthermore, UNITE points out that as a result of home

visits to seven putative class members, UNITE filled out eight

Legal Violation Reports, see Stip. ¶ 27, it identified four

putative class members as victims of discrimination in the

Discrimination Inventory Reports, see Qadeer Decl. ¶ 14, and

sixteen putative class members executed Consents to Sue to enable

them to opt into the Veliz litigation, see id. ¶ 15. It also

worked with the EEOC in submitting discrimination charges and

investigated allegations of Cintas violations of OSHA and state

environmental regulations.

Plaintiffs submit that the litigation exception, as we

have explained it, "can only mean a discrete investigation into a

discrete claim or set of claims." Pls.' Mem. 33. In other

words, "[f]or ["in anticipation of" of litigation] to have any

meaning, it must mean investigating the merits of an actual

Case 2:04-cv-02841-SD Document 182 Filed 08/30/2006 Page 31 of 41
32

potential claim, not merely fishing in the speculative hope that

you will hook something." Pls.' Opp'n 18. As plaintiffs note,

defendants do not allege that they knew whether a person had a

claim, or information relevant to a claim, until they spoke with

that person. Indeed, defendants have stipulated that they were

"finding potential legal claims" throughout the Cintas campaign. 

Stip. ¶ 21 (emphasis added). Plaintiffs also take issue with

UNITE's contention that litigation was "likely" because UNITE was

aware of eighty-two legal proceedings against Cintas -- a number

that plaintiffs find unremarkable in a company employing 28,000

workers. 

We agree with plaintiffs that UNITE's activities do not

come within the DPPA's litigation exception. UNITE was "finding"

claims, not investigating them within the meaning of the statute. 

Litigation was not "likely" in any realistic way. Indeed, UNITE

accessed the personal information of 1,758 to 2,005 putative

class members, which, as stipulated, resulted in only thirty-one

of those people either becoming involved in litigation against

Cintas or taking steps toward such actions during the class

period. In other words, UNITE had, at best, less than a 1.8%

success rate in "finding" legal claims among the putative class

members. 

UNITE's reading also proves too much. As plaintiffs

point out, at any given time large companies such as DuPont or

Dow Chemical are sure to be involved in multiple legal

proceedings concerning discrimination, wage claims, or pollution. 

Case 2:04-cv-02841-SD Document 182 Filed 08/30/2006 Page 32 of 41
33

Under UNITE's reading, any union -- or for that matter any law

firm -- could research DuPont or Dow Chemical, learn of past

litigation and therefore claim that litigation was "likely." It

could then access the personal information of thousands of

employees, contact them at their homes, and surely find some

legal cases to prosecute. We do not believe that Congress

drafted the DPPA just so we could eviscerate it by importing such

claim trolling into its permissible uses.

Wemhoff v. District of Columbia, 887 A.2d 1004, 1006

(D.C. 2005), a case brought under the District of Columbia's

Freedom of Information Act, comes to the same conclusion. There,

the District's Department of Motor Vehicles ("DMV") denied a

lawyer's request to produce the names and address of motorists

who had received traffic violations at a certain intersection,

because, inter alia, it claimed the DPPA prevented such

disclosures. Id. at 1006. The lawyer wanted this information so

that he might solicit people to join a class action he had filed

concerning the District's enforcement of traffic laws, and he

therefore relied on Section 2721(b)(4)'s "in anticipation of

litigation" exception. Id. at 1007, 1010-12. The court examined

our decision here on the motion to dismiss, 339 F. Supp. 2d 665

(E.D. Pa. 2004), and held that "[b]ased on Pichler, and our own

reading of § 2721, acquiring personal information from the motor

vehicle records for the purpose of finding and soliciting clients

for a lawsuit is not a 'permissible use' within the meaning of §

2721(b)." Id. at 1012. 

Case 2:04-cv-02841-SD Document 182 Filed 08/30/2006 Page 33 of 41
34

The DPPA thus does not permit one to acquire and use

statutorily proscribed personal information to solicit or find

claims. That is all that UNITE's actions amounted to here, and

such claim trolling is far short of the concreteness Congress had

in mind to remove the DPPA's protection. UNITE therefore cannot

take refuge in the litigation exception.

3. The Acting On Behalf Of 

A Government Entity Exception

UNITE also argues that it is a private entity that

"act[ed] on behalf of a Federal, State, or local agency in

carrying out its functions," a permissible use described in

Section 2721(b)(1). UNITE points to its submission of charges of

discrimination against Cintas with the federal EEOC, meetings

with the EEOC regarding Cintas, information it gave to the EEOC

about Cintas, the EEOC's intervention as a plaintiff in Ramirez

(based on its determination that the case has national

significance), and the UNITE campaign plan's legal component. 

See UNITE's Mem. 37, Qadeer Decl. ¶ 18, Hodek Decl. ¶¶ 18-23, May

11, 2006; see also Stip. Ex. I Campaign Plan. UNITE states that

it was and is playing the role of a "private attorney general" to

eradicate discrimination at Cintas. See New York Gaslight Club,

Inc. v. Carey, 447 U.S. 54, 63 (1980) ("Congress has cast the

Title VII plaintiff in the role of 'a private attorney general,'

vindicating a policy 'of the highest priority'"). UNITE also

filed employment discrimination charges with six states' antidiscrimination agencies. UNITE's Mem. Qadeer Decl. ¶ 20. 

Case 2:04-cv-02841-SD Document 182 Filed 08/30/2006 Page 34 of 41
 UNITE also claims it assisted employees in filing OSHA 40

complaints at thirty-one Cintas locations. See UNITE's Mem. 20. 

For this proposition, it cites to paragraph four and Exhibit E of

the Declaration of Eric Frumin, UNITE's Director of Occupational

Health and Safety. UNITE's Mem. Frumin Decl. ¶¶ 1, 4, Ex. E. 

Frumin declares that he "investigated allegations of EPA

violation at Cintas facilities" and provides a log listing

thirty-two such facilities. Id. at ¶¶ 1, 4. He does not state

that he assisted Cintas employees in filing thirty-one OSHA

complaints, so we shall not credit this allegation.

35

As for environmental matters, UNITE brought or assisted

in bringing four OSHA complaints, Stip. ¶ 49 E ; investigated 40

alleged EPA and OSHA violations at twelve facilities at which

putative Pichler class members work, see UNITE's Mem. Frumin

Decl. ¶ 4, May 10, 2006, Ex. E; and intervened in a lawsuit by

the Connecticut Attorney General against Cintas to enforce the

Clean Water Act, Stip. ¶ 49 B.3, a case that resulted in a 2005

settlement with Cintas, UNITE, and Connecticut's Department of

Environmental Protection in which three of four UNITE positions

were adopted, see UNITE's Mem. Frumin Decl., Ex. N. UNITE also

notes that it assisted a Cintas employee -- one who left Cintas

in July of 2002, before the class period here -- to testify at a

March 9, 2004 Environmental Protection Agency regulatory hearing

addressing proposed shop towel rules, a hearing UNITE had

requested. UNITE's Mem. Frumin Decl. ¶ 3. 

As plaintiffs note, UNITE does not connect any of its

NLRB complaints to license plate searches. It does not cite any

information obtained from home visits to putative class members

with information it may have provided to any agency. Indeed, it

is unclear which, if any, putative class members were involved

Case 2:04-cv-02841-SD Document 182 Filed 08/30/2006 Page 35 of 41
36

with the legal proceedings UNITE identifies. The record simply

does not support an inference that UNITE's tagging activities

were undertaken on behalf of a government agency. Its selfappointment as agency champion therefore fails.

C. Bruce Raynor

The amended complaint charges Raynor with the same

alleged violation of the DPPA as UNITE, "knowingly obtaining,

disclosing and/or using Plaintiffs' . . . personal information

from motor vehicle records without Plaintiffs' . . . consent, for

purposes not permitted by the DPPA." See Am. Compl. ¶ 65. It

also alleges that he "caused UNITE and others . . . to engage in,

as well as personally directed, authorized or otherwise

supervised, the unlawful conduct alleged." Id. ¶ 19. Moreover,

it claims that Raynor "agreed and conspired" with UNITE to commit

acts in violation of the DPPA. Id. ¶ 66. Since we denied

plaintiffs' motion for class certification as against Raynor,

each of the plaintiffs must show that he committed the alleged

acts as against him or her.

Raynor contends that the record offers no support for

the allegations against him. As evidenced from the specific

facts brought to our attention, Raynor is correct, and he is

therefore entitled to summary judgment. Indeed, plaintiffs seem 

implicitly to acknowledge this because they now argue that

Raynor's liability rests on his turning a "blind eye" to the

tagging. They request that, to the extent that Raynor argues

Case 2:04-cv-02841-SD Document 182 Filed 08/30/2006 Page 36 of 41
37

this "theory" is different from the amended complaint's

allegations, we consider the pleadings amended to conform to the

evidence, pursuant to Fed. R. Civ. P. 15(b). Even if we did,

plaintiffs' new theory remains unhelpful on this record.

Plaintiffs cite to Raynor's awareness that UNITE had

used tagging in the 1970s, see Pls.' Mem. Ex. 7 Raynor Dep. 18:4-

22:11, his knowledge of the DPPA from the Tarkington case, and

his awareness that organizers had discretion to tag and his

failure to direct them to stop, see id. at 31:3-32:23. Based on

these facts, they contend that "Raynor's participation and

cooperation consisted of deliberately turning a blind eye to a

practice he knew about and which he knew to be of at best

questionable legality under the DPPA." Pls.' Mem. 43. 

Plaintiffs now rely on Pennsylvania's participation

theory of tort liability:

The general, if not universal, rule is that

an officer of a corporation who takes part in

the commission of a tort by the corporation

is personally liable therefor; but that an

officer of a corporation who takes no part in

the commission of the tort committed by the

corporation is not personally liable to third

persons for such a tort, nor for the acts of

other agents, officers or employees of the

corporation in committing it, unless he

specifically directed the particular act to

be done or participated, or cooperated

therein. 

Mill Run Associates v. Locke Property Co., Inc., 282 F. Supp. 2d

278, 287-88 (E.D. Pa. 2003) (quoting Wicks v. Milzoco Builders,

Inc., 470 A.2d 86, 90 (1983)).

Plaintiffs fail to point to anything in the record

Case 2:04-cv-02841-SD Document 182 Filed 08/30/2006 Page 37 of 41
38

showing that Raynor "specifically directed . . . or participated,

or cooperated" in tagging. Plaintiffs have provided no evidence

to rebut Raynor's testimony that, as President, he has not

discussed tagging with anyone and has been "uninvolved in what

methods were or were not used to obtain information about where

workers live." Raynor Mot., Rochman Decl., May 12, 2006, Ex. C

Raynor Dep. 63:14-17, see also id. at 92:21-93:16. 

The other cases upon which plaintiffs rely do not

support the proposition that corporate officers are liable for

their nonfeasance under this theory. Indeed, the Pennsylvania

Supreme Court has made clear that liability under the

participation theory "attaches only where the corporate officer

is an actor who participates in the wrongful acts . . . [and]

corporate officers may be held liable for misfeasance . . . .

[but] may not be held liable for mere nonfeasance." Wicks v.

Milzoco Builders, Inc., 470 A.2d 86, 90 (Pa. 1983). 

Even if Raynor was aware of UNITE's tagging in the

1970s and knew about the DPPA and UNITE's tagging at the time of

the Tarkington litigation, any failure to stop the tagging of the

named plaintiffs' vehicles would amount to nonfeasance, not

misfeasance. Thus, he cannot be liable under plaintiffs'

newfound theory.

IV. Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 54(b)

Under Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 54(b), "when

multiple parties are involved, the court may direct the entry of

Case 2:04-cv-02841-SD Document 182 Filed 08/30/2006 Page 38 of 41
 We note UNITE's argument that our acceptance of 41

plaintiffs' understanding of the DPPA's litigation exception

would render the named plaintiffs inadequate class

representatives and require us to revisit our certification

decision. UNITE contends that because it accessed the named

plaintiffs' personal information after litigation was underway --

namely Ramirez and Veliz -- there "is a factual difference that

creates a legally significant distinction between them and most

of the absent class members." UNITE's Opp'n 30. UNITE contends

that plaintiffs' focus on "a discreet investigation into a

discreet claim" reading of the permissible uses makes is

necessary to examine what litigation was in play when UNITE

acquired each plaintiff's personal information. 

Since the facts upon which UNITE bases its argument were

available at the time of class certification, UNITE should have

raised this argument then. Regardless, as plaintiffs point out,

UNITE has never argued that it had a different purpose when

accessing the named plaintiffs' personal information, or that it

treated the named plaintiffs differently than any other people

whose information they accessed. As with all the presumed Cintas

employees UNITE contacted, it did not know whether the named

plaintiffs had information about any legal claims until speaking

with them. Finally, "even relatively pronounced factual

differences will generally not preclude a finding of typicality

where there is a strong similarity of legal theories." Pichler

v. UNITE, 228 F.R.D. 230, 250 (E.D. Pa. 2005) (quoting Baby Neal

v. Casey, 43 F.3d 48, 58 (3d Cir. 1994)). Accordingly, we shall

not reconsider our class certification decision.

39

a final judgment as to one or more but fewer than all of the . .

. parties only upon an express determination that there is no

just reason for delay and upon an express direction for the entry

of judgment." We find that there is "no just reason" to delay

entry of judgment in favor of the named plaintiffs and against

UNITE but not Raynor. Indeed, there is every reason for 41

appellate clarity on the important issues at stake in this test

litigation. Although we take comfort in the Eleventh Circuit's

acceptance of our reading of the DPPA, Kehoe v. Fidelity Federal

Bank & Trust, 421 F.3d 1209, 1213 n.3, 1215, n.5 (11th Cir.

Case 2:04-cv-02841-SD Document 182 Filed 08/30/2006 Page 39 of 41
 At issue in Kehoe is the permissible use described in § 42

2721(b)(12): "For bulk distribution for surveys, marketing or

solicitations if the State has obtained the express consent of

the person to whom such personal information pertains." 18

U.S.C. § 2721. We note that, when recently denying the petition

for writ of certiorari in Kehoe, see Fidelity Federal Bank &

Trust v. Kehoe, 126 S.Ct. 1612 (2006), Justice Scalia wrote a

concurrence, in which Justice Alito joined. Justice Scalia noted

that the case presented an important, and as yet unanswered,

legal question: "whether petitioner can be held liable under the

Act if it did not know that the State had failed to comply with

the Act's 'express consent' requirement." Id.

Justice Scalia's concern does not touch upon our case

because the knowing nature of UNITE's acts is established. 

Indeed, if there were ever any doubt on this subject, UNITE's

participation in Tarkington and its resolution removes it. See

supra at 20-22. Moreover, UNITE invokes different permissible

uses to justify its actions -- the "acting on behalf of" and

"litigation" exception, see 18 U.S.C. § 2721(b)(1), (4) -- which

contain no requirement that any entity obtain a person's "express

consent" to access his or her personal information.

 UNITE presses several arguments regarding remedial 43

issues. First, it contends that we have discretion to limit

class damages to an amount below $2,500 and that we should do so

in this case. See UNITE's Mem. 51-55. Second, UNITE argues that

the class action must be dismissed because Fifth Amendment Due

Process is violated when statutory liquidated damages recoveries

are inflated by incorporation into a class action. See id. at

56. Finally, it insists that the Norris-LaGuardia Act, 29 U.S.C.

§ 104, deprives us of the jurisdiction to award the injunctive

relief that plaintiffs seek. See id. at 56-58.

We are also mindful of the relief problem associated with

the reality that many class members -- said to be in excess of

600, UNITE's Mem. Qadeer Decl. ¶ 13 -- not only had their motor

vehicle information accessed, but also had UNITE home visits as a

40

2005), these are questions of first impression in our Circuit42

that should be resolved before we turn to the cumbersome and

costly machinery of class-wide relief.

Pursuant to Rule 54(b), we shall enter judgment in the

amount of $2,500 for each of the named plaintiffs and against

UNITE only. We will defer our decisions on all other remedial

issues, including those UNITE raises now, as well as the matter 43

Case 2:04-cv-02841-SD Document 182 Filed 08/30/2006 Page 40 of 41
"use" of that information. Whether such class members suffered

one or two statutory violations is an issue we leave for another

day after final appellate action. 

 Although the named plaintiffs are entitled to their costs 44

and reasonable attorneys' fees, it may be difficult to parse

counsel's services only for the named plaintiffs as opposed to

the lawyers' services for the class. Plaintiffs' counsel shall

advise us of their views on this parsing question when they file

their bill of costs. We of course would prefer that counsel for

plaintiffs and UNITE could come to an agreement about the timing

of costs and fee submissions.

41

of class-wide claims procedures, until our Court of Appeals has

addressed all matters concerning liability.

IV. Conclusion

For the reasons discussed herein, we find that UNITE

violated the DPPA. We shall therefore grant plaintiffs' motion

for summary judgment as against UNITE and enter judgment in the

amount of $2,500 for each named plaintiff. We also find that 44

Bruce Raynor is entitled to judgment in his favor, as we are

granting his motion.

BY THE COURT:

/s/ Stewart Dalzell, J. 

Case 2:04-cv-02841-SD Document 182 Filed 08/30/2006 Page 41 of 41