Simulation of Net Infiltration and 

Potential Recharge Using a DistributedParameter Watershed Model of the

Death Valley Region, Nevada and California

By Joseph A. Hevesi, Alan L. Flint, and Lorraine E. Flint

Sacramento, California

2003

Water-Resources Investigations Report 03-4090

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

Prepared in cooperation with the

Office of Environmental Management

U.S. Department of Energy

National Nuclear Security Administration

Nevada Operation Office, under

Interagency Agreement DE-AI08 01NV13944 8035-82
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

GALE A. NORTON, Secretary

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

Charles G. Groat, Director

The authors wish to thank the many individuals who contributed to the development of this report. 

Claudia Faunt and Thomas Haltom (USGS), and Frank D’Agnese and Grady O’Brien (formerly with 

USGS), provided support and expertise in the application of the geographic information systems (GIS) used 

to develop the model inputs and to help analyze the model results. Helpful suggestions were provided by 

Daniel Bright (USGS), Robert Meyer (USGS), Devin Galloway (USGS), Richard Waddell (GeoTrans Inc.), 

Tony Buono (retired USGS), Doug Bedinger (formerly with USGS), and James Harrill (formerly with 

USGS). Glenn Schwegmann (formerly with USGS) and Myrna DeBortoli (USGS) provided editorial 

reviews of the manuscript and also contributed to the development of the manuscript. David Uyematsu 

(USGS) contributed to the development of illustrations. James Baker (USGS) prepared the final version of 

the manuscript for the web-based publication.

Any use of trade, product, or firm names in this publication is for descriptive purposes only and does 

not imply endorsement by the U.S. Government.

For additional information write to:

U.S. Geological Survey

Water Resources

Placer Hall, Suite 2012

6000 J Street

Sacramento, California 95819-6129

http://ca.water.usgs.gov

Copies of this report can be purchased from:

U.S. Geological Survey

Information Services

Building 810

Box 25286, Federal Center

Denver, CO 80225-0286
Contents iii

CONTENTS

Abstract ................................................................................................................................................................ 1

Introduction .......................................................................................................................................................... 3

Description of Study Area........................................................................................................................... 4

Geographic Setting and Physiography............................................................................................... 4

Climate............................................................................................................................................... 7

Surface Water..................................................................................................................................... 16

Ground Water..................................................................................................................................... 16

Vegetation .......................................................................................................................................... 16

Soils.................................................................................................................................................... 17

Hydrogeology..................................................................................................................................... 22

Net Infiltration and Recharge............................................................................................................. 22

Previous Studies.......................................................................................................................................... 24

Model Development............................................................................................................................................. 26

Conceptual Model of Net Infiltration.......................................................................................................... 26

INFILv3 Model ........................................................................................................................................... 28

Model Parameters .............................................................................................................................. 29

Model Geometry and Discretization .................................................................................................. 31

INFILv3 Model Algorithm ................................................................................................................ 32

Subroutines......................................................................................................................................... 34

DAYDIST: Spatial Distribution of Daily Climate Parameters................................................. 34

POTEVAP: Potential Evapotranspiration................................................................................. 36

SNOW: Snowfall, Snowmelt, and Sublimation........................................................................ 37

ETINFIL: Infiltration, Drainage, Evaporation, and Runoff...................................................... 38

Infiltration and Drainage.................................................................................................. 38

Evapotranspiration........................................................................................................... 42

Runoff Generation ........................................................................................................... 43

SWINFIL: Surface-Water Flow Routing.................................................................................. 44

Simulation of Net Infiltration............................................................................................................. 47

Drainage Basin Parameters ......................................................................................................................... 47

Topographic Parameters .................................................................................................................... 47

Hydrogeologic Parameters................................................................................................................. 48

Soil Parameters .................................................................................................................................. 48

Vegetation and Root-Zone Parameters .............................................................................................. 49

Climate Parameters ..................................................................................................................................... 54

Daily Precipitation and Air Temperature........................................................................................... 54

Monthly Regression Models for Climate........................................................................................... 54

Monthly Atmospheric Conditions...................................................................................................... 58

Assumptions and Model Limitations .......................................................................................................... 58

Model Calibration and Evaluation ....................................................................................................................... 59

Model Fitting............................................................................................................................................... 63

Comparison of Simulated and Measured Streamflow ................................................................................ 63

Streamflow Frequency ....................................................................................................................... 66

Total Discharge.................................................................................................................................. 66

Maximum and Average Daily Discharge........................................................................................... 67

Annual Discharge............................................................................................................................... 68

Monthly Discharge............................................................................................................................. 68
iv Contents

Flow Discharge .................................................................................................................................. 70

Simulation of Net Infiltration, 1950–99...................................................................................................... 73

Watershed Model Domains for the Death Valley Region ................................................................. 73

Simulation Results for Watershed Modeling Domains...................................................................... 75

Results for Watershed Model Domains ............................................................................................. 76

Results for the Death Valley Regional Flow System......................................................................... 78

INFILv3 Model 1 Simulated 50-Year Average Precipitation................................................... 81

INFILv3 Model 1 Simulated 50-Year Average Snowfall......................................................... 81

INFILv3 Model 1 Simulated 50-Year Average Runoff............................................................ 81

Simulated 50-Year Average Surface-Water Run-On ............................................................... 85

INFILv3 Model 1 Simulated 50-Year Average Infiltrated Run-On ......................................... 85

Simulated 50-Year Average Evapotranspiration ...................................................................... 85

Simulated 50-Year Average Net Infiltration............................................................................. 85

Model Evaluation Using Hydrographic Areas............................................................................................ 90

Comparison of Simulated Precipitation Estimates with PRISM Estimates....................................... 90

Simulated Water Balance for Hydrographic Areas............................................................................ 90

Net-Infiltration Results for Hydrographic Areas ............................................................................... 91

Comparison of Simulated Net Infiltration with Previous Estimates of Recharge ............................. 96

Model Uncertainty ...................................................................................................................................... 100

Summary .............................................................................................................................................................. 100

References Cited .................................................................................................................................................. 102
Figures v

FIGURES

Figure 1. Map showing geographic setting of the Death Valley region, Nevada and California ..................... 5

Figure 2. Map showing Death Valley regional flow system boundary and physiographic features of the Death 

Valley region, Nevada and California ............................................................................................... 6

Figure 3. Map showing hydrographic features of the Death Valley region, Nevada and California................ 8

Figure 4. Map showing area of the INFILv3 model and the 42 hydrographic areas and subareas within or 

adjacent to the Death Valley regional flow system, Nevada and California ..................................... 9

Figure 5. Map showing estimated recharge for the hydrographic areas and subareas in the Death Valley 

region, Nevada and California ........................................................................................................... 13

Figure 6. Map showing average annual precipitation estimated using the parameter-elevation regressions on 

independent slopes model (PRISM) Daly and others, 1994 for the Death Valley region, Nevada and 

California ........................................................................................................................................... 15

Figure 7. Map showing vegetation types and land-surface characteristics in the Death Valley region, 

Nevada and California ....................................................................................................................... 18

Figure 8. Map showing spatial distribution of STATSGO MUID soil types in the Death Valley region, 

Nevada and California ....................................................................................................................... 19

Figure 9. Map showing number of STATSGO soil components for the MUIDs in the Death Valley region, 

Nevada and California ....................................................................................................................... 20

Figure 10. Map showing percentage of clay in soil fraction finer than 2 millimeters in the Death Valley region, 

Nevada and California ....................................................................................................................... 21

Figure 11. Map showing hydrogeologic units in the Death Valley region, Nevada and California ................... 23

Figure 12. Diagram showing conceptual model of net inflation illustrating the layered root-zone water-balance 

model of the Death Valley region, Nevada and California................................................................ 26

Figure 13. Flow chart showing inputs and outputs in the program structure of the INFILv3 model of the Death 

Valley region, Nevada and California ............................................................................................... 30

Figure 14. Flow chart showing main subroutines of the INFILv3 model of the Death Valley region, Nevada 

and California .................................................................................................................................... 33

Figure 15. Flow chart showing subroutine DAYDIST in the INFILv3 model of the Death Valley region, Nevada 

and California .................................................................................................................................... 35

Figure 16. Flow chart showing subroutine POTEVAP in the INFILv3 model of the Death Valley region, 

Nevada and California ....................................................................................................................... 36

Figure 17. Flow chart showing subroutine ETINFIL in the INFILv3 model of the Death Valley region, 

Nevada and California ....................................................................................................................... 39

Figure 18. Flow chart showing subroutine SWINFIL in the INFILv3 model of the Death Valley region, 

Nevada and California ....................................................................................................................... 45

Figure 19. Map showing soil porosity in the Death Valley region, Nevada and California ............................... 50

Figure 20. Map showing soil thickness in the Death Valley region, Nevada and California ............................. 51

Figure 21. Map showing estimated vegetation associations in the Death Valley region, Nevada and California 52

Figure 22. Map showing estimated vegetation cover in the Death Valley region, Nevada and California ........ 53

Figure 23. Map showing location of daily climate stations in parts of Arizona, California, Nevada, and Utah 55

Figure 24. Graphs showing fitted regression models defining precipitation and daily air temperature for April 

as functions of elevation in the Death Valley region, Nevada and California................................... 56

Figure 25. Graphs showing fitted regression models defining monthly precipitation and daily air temperature 

as functions of elevation in the Death Valley region, Nevada and California................................... 57

Figure 26. Graph showing INFILv3 and PRISM estimates of average annual precipitation with measured 

precipitation for the Death Valley region, Nevada and California .................................................... 58

Figure 27. Map showing location of stream gaging sites and drainage basin areas used in the calibration of the 

INFILv3 model of the Death Valley region, Nevada and California ................................................ 60
vi Figures

Figure 28. Map showing location of stream gaging sites and drainage basin areas in the upper Amargosa 

River drainage basin and the area of the Nevada Test Site, Death Valley region, Nevada and 

California ........................................................................................................................................... 61

Figure 29. Graph showing measured and simulated daily discharge at the Salt Creek near Stovepipe Wells 

stream gage, Death Valley, California............................................................................................... 65

Figure 30. Graph showing measured and simulated total discharge at 31 stream gages using INFILv3 

models 1–4 of the Death Valley region, Nevada and California ....................................................... 67

Figure 31. Graph showing measured and simulated average daily storm discharge in relation to drainage basin 

area for the Death Valley region, Nevada and California.................................................................. 69

Figure 32. Graph showing measured and simulated annual discharge for INFILv3 models 1 and 2 for the Death 

Valley region, Nevada and California ............................................................................................... 70

Figure 33. Graphs showing measured and simulated annual discharge at selected stream gages in Death Valley, 

California ........................................................................................................................................... 71

Figure 34. Graph showing monthly discharge simulated using INFILv3 model 1 and measured monthly 

discharge for the Death Valley region, Nevada and California......................................................... 72

Figure 35. Map showing watershed model domains used for 50-year simulations of the INFIILv3 model of the 

Death Valley region, Nevada and Californi....................................................................................... 74

Figure 36. Graph showing annual precipitation and mean annual precipitation for selected watershed model 

domains and the Pacific Decadal Oscillation, Death Valley region, Nevada and California............ 77

Figure 37. Map showing average annual precipitation simulated by INFILv3 model 1, Death Valley region, Nevada 

and California, 1950–9 ...................................................................................................................... 82

Figure 38. Map showing average annual snowfall simulated by INFILv3 model 1, Death Valley region, 

Nevada and California, 1950–99 ....................................................................................................... 83

Figure 39. Map showing average annual runoff simulated by INFILv3 model 1, Death Valley region, Nevada 

and California, 1950–99 .................................................................................................................... 84

Figure 40. Map showing average annual surface-water run-on simulated by INFILv3 model 1, Death Valley 

region, Nevada and California, 1950–99 ........................................................................................... 86

Figure 41. Map showing simulated average annual infiltrated surface-water run-on for the Death Valley region, 

Nevada and California, 1950–99 ....................................................................................................... 87

Figure 42. Map showing simulated evapotranspiration for the Death Valley region, Nevada and California, 

1950–99 ............................................................................................................................................. 88

Figure 43. Map showing simulated average annual net infiltration in the Death Valley region, Nevada and 

California, 1950–99 ........................................................................................................................... 89

Figure 44. Map showing average net infiltration simulated by INFILv3 model 1 for the 42hydrographic areas 

within and adjacent to the Death Valley region, Nevada and California, 1950–99........................... 92

Figure 45. Map showing average net infiltration simulated by INFILv3 model 2 for the 42 hydrographic areas 

within and adjacent to the Death Valley region, Nevada and California, 1950–99........................... 93

Figure 46. Map showing average net infiltration simulated by INFILv3 model 3 for the 42 hydrographic areas 

within and adjacent to the Death Valley region, Nevada and California, 1950–99........................... 94

Figure 47. Map showing average net infiltration simulated by INFILv3 model 4 for the 42 hydrographic areas 

within and adjacent to the Death Valley region, Nevada and California, 1950–99........................... 95

Figure 48. Graph showing net infiltration simulated using INFILv3 models 1, 2, 3, and 4 and previous 

estimates of basinwide recharge rates for hydrographic areas and subareas in the Death Valley 

region, Nevada and California ........................................................................................................... 97

Figure 49. Graph showing net infiltration simulated using INFILv3 models 1, 2, 3, and 4 and previous 

estimates of basinwide recharge volumes for hydrographic areas and subareas in the Death Valley

region, Nevada and California ........................................................................................................... 98

Figure 50. Graph showing recharge estimates and net-infiltration rates simulated using the INFILv3 models 

1, 2, 3, and 4 for hydrographic areas and subareas in the Death Valley region, Nevada and 

California ........................................................................................................................................... 99
Tables 1

TABLES

Table 1. Estimated recharge, methods for estimating recharge, and source of recharge estimates for the 

hydrographic areas and subareas in the Death Valley region and for the Death Valley regional 

flow system model area, Nevada and California ............................................................................... 10

Table 2. Soil texture attributes and developed inputs to the INFILv3 model of the Death Valley region, 

Nevada and California ....................................................................................................................... 106

Table 3. Summary of input parameters used in the INFILv3 model of the Death Valley region, Nevada and 

California ........................................................................................................................................... 114

Table 4. Estimated root-zone water storage capacities and effective hydraulic conductivities for deep soils 

and bedrock underlying the root zone of the Death Valley region, Nevada and California.............. 118

Table 5. Estimated vegetation type or land-surface characteristics and estimated root densities used to 

define the root-zone parameters for root-zone model A of the INFILv3 model of the Death Valley 

region, Nevada and California ........................................................................................................... 119

Table 6. Estimated vegetation type or land-surface characteristic and estimated root density used to define 

the root-zone parameters for root-zone model B of the INFILv3 model of the Death Valley region, 

Nevada and California ....................................................................................................................... 121

Table 7. Summary of daily climate records used as input to the INFILv3 model of the Death Valley region,

Nevada and California ....................................................................................................................... 123

Table 8. Monthly regression coefficients used to spatially distribute daily precipitation and air temperature 

using elevation in the INFILv3 model of the Death Valley region, Nevada and California ............. 130

Table 9. Monthly values for atmospheric parameters used to simulate potential evapotranspiration in the 

INFILv3 model of the Death Valley region, Nevada and California ................................................ 132

Table 10. Stream gages and streamflow records used for calibrating the INFILv3 model of the Death Valley 

region, Nevada and California ........................................................................................................... 133

Table 11. Model coefficients used to simulate streamflow and net infiltration in INFILv3 models 1–4 of the 

Death Valley region, Nevada and California..................................................................................... 135

Table 12. Measured and simulated streamflow frequency (number of days with streamflow) using INFILv3 

models 1–4 of the Death Valley region, Nevada and California ....................................................... 136

Table 13. Measured and simulated total discharge at 31 stream gages using INFILv3 models 1–4 of the 

Death Valley region, Nevada and California..................................................................................... 138

Table 14. Measured and simulated maximum daily discharge using INFILv3 models 1–4 of the Death 

Valley region, Nevada and California ............................................................................................... 140

Table 15. Measured and simulated monthly streamflow using INFILv3 models 1–4 of the Death Valley 

region, Nevada and California ........................................................................................................... 142

Table 16. Measured and simulated total discharge and flow-period statistics using INFILv3 models 1–4 

of the Death Valley region, Nevada and California........................................................................... 143

Table 17. Selected basin characteristics of the INFILv3 watershed model domains in the Death Valley 

region, Nevada and California ........................................................................................................... 144

Table 18. Simulation results of INFILv3 model 1 for watershed model domains in the the Death Valley 

region, Nevada and California, 1950–99 ........................................................................................... 147

Table 19. Summary of INFILv3 model results for the Death Valley regional flow system, Nevada and 

California ........................................................................................................................................... 150

Table 20. Average annual precipitation simulated using the INFILv3 model and estimated using PRISM 

for hydrographic areas and subareas in the Death Valley region, Nevada and California ................ 154

Table 21. Simulation results using INFILv3 model 1 for hydrographic areas and subareas in the Death 

Valley region, Nevada and California, 1950–99 ............................................................................... 156
2 Tables

Table 22. Previous estimates of recharge rates and simulated net-infiltration rates using INFILv3 models 1–4 

for hydrographic areas and subareas in the Death Valley region, Nevada and California, 

1950–99 ............................................................................................................................................. 158

Table 23. Previously estimated recharge volumes and simulated net infiltration volumes using INFILv3

models 1–4 for hydrographic areas and subareas in the Death Valley region, Nevada 

and California, 1950–99 .................................................................................................................... 160
Conversion Factors and Vertical Datum 4

CONVERSION FACTORS, DATUM, AND ABBREVIATIONS

CONVERSION FACTORS

Temperature in degrees Celsius (oC) may be converted to degrees Fahrenheit (oF) as follows:

oF=1.8 oC+32.

VERTICAL DATUM

Sea level: In this report, “sea level” refers to the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 (NGVD 

of 1929)—a geodetic datum derived from a general adjustment of the first-order level nets of both the 

United States and Canada, formerly called Sea Level Datum of 1929. 

VERTICAL DATUM

All map units and projections in this report are in the Universal Transverse Mercator system, North 

American Datum of 1927 (NA27D), zone 11, in meters.

Multiply By To obtain

Length

meter (m) 3.281 foot

millimeter (mm) 0.03937 inch

Area

square kilometer (km2) 247.1054 acre

square meter (m2) 0.0002471 acre

Volume

cubic meter (m3) 0.0002642 gallons

cubic meter (m3) 0.000810713 acre-feet

Flow rate

cubic meter per day (m3/d) 0.296113 acre-feet per year

cubic meter per day (m3/d) 0.000408731 cubic-feet per second

millimeter per day (mm/d) 0.03937 inch per day

millimeter per year (mm/yr) 0.03937 inch per year
5 Conversion Factors and Vertical Datum

ABBREVIATIONS

ADRS Amargosa Desert Research Site

BR Biological Resources

CMB chloride mass balance

DEM digital elevation model

DVRFS Death Valley regional flow system

ENSO El Niño Southern Oscillation

GAP Gap Analysis Program

GIS geographic information system

INFIL Net infiltration model

INFILv3 Net infiltration model version 3

NOAA/NCDC National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration/National Climatic Data Center

NTS Nevada Test Site

NWS National Weather Service

PDO Pacific Decadal Oscillation

STATSGO MUID State Soil Geographic map unit identifier

USGS U.S. Geological Survey

UTM Universal transverse Mercator

WESTVEG western region vegetation
Abstract 1

Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge 

Using a Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model of the 

Death Valley Region, Nevada and California

By Joseph A. Hevesi, Alan L. Flint, and Lorraine E. Flint

ABSTRACT

This report presents the development and application of the distributed-parameter watershed model, 

INFILv3, for estimating the temporal and spatial distribution of net infiltration and potential recharge in 

the Death Valley region, Nevada and California. The estimates of net infiltration quantify the downward 

drainage of water across the lower boundary of the root zone and are used to indicate potential recharge 

under variable climate conditions and drainage basin characteristics. Spatial variability in recharge in the 

Death Valley region likely is high owing to large differences in precipitation, potential evapotranspiration, 

bedrock permeability, soil thickness, vegetation characteristics, and contributions to recharge along active 

stream channels. The quantity and spatial distribution of recharge representing the effects of variable 

climatic conditions and drainage basin characteristics on recharge are needed to reduce uncertainty in 

modeling ground-water flow. The U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the Department of Energy, 

developed a regional saturated-zone ground-water flow model of the Death Valley regional ground-water 

flow system to help evaluate the current hydrogeologic system and the potential effects of natural or 

human-induced changes. Although previous estimates of recharge have been made for most areas of the 

Death Valley region, including the area defined by the boundary of the Death Valley regional groundwater flow system, the uncertainty of these estimates is high, and the spatial and temporal variability of 

the recharge in these basins has not been quantified.

To estimate the magnitude and distribution of potential recharge in response to variable climate and 

spatially varying drainage basin characteristics, the INFILv3 model uses a daily water-balance model of 

the root zone with a primarily deterministic representation of the processes controlling net infiltration and 

potential recharge. The daily water balance includes precipitation (as either rain or snow), snow 

accumulation, sublimation, snowmelt, infiltration into the root zone, evapotranspiration, drainage, water 

content change throughout the root-zone profile (represented as a 6-layered system), runoff (defined as 

excess rainfall and snowmelt) and surface water run-on (defined as runoff that is routed downstream), and 

net infiltration (simulated as drainage from the bottom root-zone layer). Potential evapotranspiration is 

simulated using an hourly solar radiation model to simulate daily net radiation, and daily 

evapotranspiration is simulated as an empirical function of root zone water content and potential 

evapotranspiration. The model uses daily climate records of precipitation and air temperature from a 

regionally distributed network of 132 climate stations and a spatially distributed representation of 

drainage basin characteristics defined by topography, geology, soils, and vegetation to simulate daily net 
2 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using a Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA

infiltration at all locations, including stream channels with intermittent streamflow in response to runoff 

from rain and snowmelt. The temporal distribution of daily, monthly, and annual net infiltration can be 

used to evaluate the potential effect of future climatic conditions on potential recharge.

The INFILv3 model inputs representing drainage basin characteristics were developed using a 

geographic information system (GIS) to define a set of spatially distributed input parameters uniquely 

assigned to each grid cell of the INFILv3 model grid. The model grid, which was defined by a digital 

elevation model (DEM) of the Death Valley region, consists of 1,252,418 model grid cells with a uniform 

grid cell dimension of 278.5 meters in the north–south and east–west directions. The elevation values 

from the DEM were used with monthly regression models developed from the daily climate data to 

estimate the spatial distribution of daily precipitation and air temperature. The elevation values were also 

used to simulate atmospheric effects on potential evapotranspiration, to develop topographic parameters 

to simulate the effects of shading on potential evapotranspiration, and to develop parameters to simulate 

surface-water flow. Surface-water flow was modeled as a downstream redistribution of runoff generated 

by rain or snowmelt and was routed across all the model grid cells as a daily surface-water run-on 

component of the water balance (for days when runoff was generated) using an eight-directional (D-8), 

convergent-flow routing algorithm. A six-layer root-zone system— five soil layers and one bedrock 

layer—was used to simulated the daily root-zone water balance, including evapotranspiration, infiltration, 

drainage, and redistribution of moisture in the root zone. Evapotranspiration from each root-zone layer 

was modeled as a function of potential evapotranspiration, the estimated root density for each layer, and 

the simulated water content for each layer. Downward drainage through each layer was modeled as a 

function of soil saturated hydraulic conductivity, soil texture, and the simulated water content. Snowfall, 

sublimation, and snowmelt were modeled as functions of the spatially distributed daily climate input and 

the simulated solar radiation component of the potential evapotranspiration model.

The model was calibrated using comparisons of (1) simulated streamflow with historical 

streamflow data from 31 gaging stations in the Death Valley region, and (2) simulated 50-year (1950–99) 

basinwide average net infiltration with previous estimates of basinwide average recharge for 42 basin 

areas (defined in previous studies as hydrographic areas and subareas) in the Death Valley region. 

Parameters adjusted during model calibration included bedrock saturated hydraulic conductivity, root 

density, average storm duration (for summer and winter storms), and soil saturated hydraulic conductivity 

and wetted area used to represent stream-channel characteristics. Model calibration using the streamflow 

records was difficult because the spatial coverage of the daily climate records for many locations in the 

Death Valley region is not sufficient for simulating local-scale, high-intensity summer storms. In addition, 

calibration results based on streamflow were sensitive to the parameters representing stream-channel 

characteristics, and these characteristics were assumed (and thus highly uncertain). Comparison of 

simulated basinwide net infiltration with previous basinwide estimates of recharge provided better 

calibration results than comparisons using simulated and measured streamflow. Overall calibration of the 

INFILv3 model incorporated the results from both methods of calibration because of the uncertainty of 

the previous estimates of recharge and because of the need to develop independent estimates of potential 

recharge, 

The 50-year INFILv3 simulation results for four different models (where model differences were 

defined by differences in input parameters were evaluated using a comparison of net-infiltration estimates 

with the streamflow records and the previous basinwide recharge estimates for the 42 hydrographic areas 

and subareas. For the model providing the best overall calibration, a total net-infiltration estimate of 

413,000 m3/d was simulated for the total area covered by the 42 hydrographic areas and subareas; this 

estimate is in good agreement with the total estimated basinwide recharge of 431,000 m3/d for the same 

area. The net-infiltration results generally are consistent with the recharge estimates, although net 
Introduction 3

infiltration had less variability on a basinwide scale. Basinwide net-infiltration volumes are lower than 

recharge volumes for most of the hydrographic areas and subareas that have high recharge estimates and 

higher than recharge for most hydrographic areas and subareas that have low recharge estimates. The 

model comparisons indicate that simulated daily streamflow is sensitive to uncertainty in estimates of 

storm duration, stream-channel characteristics, and bedrock hydraulic conductivity. Net infiltration is 

sensitive to uncertainty in bedrock hydraulic conductivity and parameters controlling evapotranspiration 

(such as root density). Both streamflow and net infiltration are sensitive to uncertainty in spatially 

distributed precipitation and estimated soil thickness.

For the model providing the best overall calibration, model application results for the Death Valley 

regional ground-water flow system (based on the 1950–99 simulation) include an average net infiltration 

rate of 2.8 millimeters per year (mm/yr), or a total potential recharge volume of 342,000 cubic meters per 

day (m3/d). The simulated potential recharge is 1.6 percent of the 1950–99 simulated average annual 

precipitation rate of 171.3 mm/yr. Net-infiltration results for individual model cells were highly variable 

across the Death Valley regional ground-water flow system, with a maximum net-infiltration rate of 1,262 

mm/yr for an active stream-channel location. Simulation results also include an average runoff-generation 

rate of 2.2 mm/yr and an average run-on infiltration rate of 2.0 mm/yr, indicating that most of the runoff 

infiltrates back into the root zone during downstream routing (as run-on) rather than discharging to playas. 

Infiltration from surface-water run-on accounts for about 14 percent of the total net-infiltration volume for 

the Death Valley regional ground-water flow system. However, in some areas of the regional flow system, 

surface-water flow may contribute as much as 40 percent to the total net-infiltration volume. The 

simulated average surface-water inflow into playa lakebeds is 0.20 mm/yr and is assumed to evaporate 

from the playas.

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this report is to document the development and application of the distributed-parameter, 

deterministic watershed model, INFILv3 (henceforth referred to as the INFILv3 model), for estimating the 

magnitude and the spatial and temporal distribution of net infiltration in the Death Valley region of Nevada and 

California. Net infiltration, defined as the downward drainage of water across the lower boundary of the root zone, 

was used to estimate potential recharge. Estimates of the magnitude and the spatial and temporal distribution of 

potential recharge were needed to reduce the uncertainties in calibrating and applying ground-water flow models 

for the Death Valley regional ground-water flow system (following D’Agnese and others [1997, 2002], the Death 

Valley regional ground-water flow system is referred to as the Death Valley regional flow system, or DVRFS). 

Ground-water flow models of the saturated zone of the DVRFS were developed by the U.S. Geological Survey 

(USGS), in cooperation with the Department of Energy, to help evaluate current hydrogeologic conditions and to 

assess the potential effects of changes in the hydrogeologic systems, either natural or human induced (D’Agnese 

and others, 1997, 2002). Ground-water flow models of the DVRFS require input data on the quantity and spatial 

distribution of recharge and on the variability of recharge in response to potential future climatic conditions 

(D’Agnese and others, 1999). Although previous estimates of recharge for the DVRFS were used to develop the 

upper boundary conditions for ground-water flow models, the spatial and temporal distributions of the recharge 

were not well defined, and the methods used to develop the previous estimates could not be used directly to evaluate 

changes in the hydrogeologic system, such as changes in climate, vegetation, or land use. Identifying localized 

zones with high potential recharge rates is necessary for predicting ground-water flow paths and travel times. A 

spatially detailed map of current climate recharge would help reduce uncertainties in calibrating ground-water flow 

models of the Death Valley region. In addition, a characterization of the temporal distribution of recharge, in 
4 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using a Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA

response to climate variability, is needed to develop transient ground-water flow models. The transient flow models 

can be used to predict the hydrologic response of the Death Valley region to potential future climate conditions 

(D’Agnese and others, 1999).

Conceptual and numerical models of net infiltration were first developed for Yucca Mountain, Nevada 

(located in the central part of the Death Valley region) in 1996. The net infiltration models were used to help define 

the upper boundary conditions for unsaturated zone flow and transport models (Flint and others, 2000, 2001a, b; 

Hevesi, 2001). A version of the net-infiltration model for Yucca Mountain (INFIL) was extended to include the area 

of the Death Valley region to develop preliminary estimates of net infiltration and potential recharge for a regional 

ground-water flow model (D’Agnese and others, 2002; Hevesi and others, 2002). A comparison of previous 

estimates of recharge (Hevesi and others, 2002) indicated that the preliminary estimates of net infiltration likely 

were overestimates of potential recharge for current climate conditions. This conclusion is supported by the 

calibration results of the ground-water flow model by D’Agnese and others (2002), which included updated 

estimates of ground-water discharge from the regional flow system. For the study reported here, an enhanced 

version of the net-infiltration model, INFILv3, was developed with the objective of addressing the limitations 

identified during the initial application of the INFIL model to the Death Valley region. The INFILv3 model 

provides a detailed representation of spatially distributed basin characteristics and hydrologic processes that control 

net infiltration and potential recharge in the Death Valley region. The INFILv3 model provides a detailed 

representation of spatially distributed basin characteristics and hydrologic processes that control net infiltration and 

potential recharge in the Death Valley region. The INFILv3 model provides a toll for evaluating the effects of 

climate variability and potential changes in drainage basin characteristics (such as changes in vegetation) on the 

temporal and spatial distribution of net infiltration and potential recharge.

Description of Study Area

Geographic Setting and Physiography

The study area for developing, calibrating, and applying the INFILv3 model is located between lat 35°N., 

long 115°W., and lat 38.25°N., long 118°W., and is referred to as the Death Valley region (fig. 1) (D’Agnese and 

others, 2002). The primary area of interest for estimating net infiltration is defined by the boundary of the Death 

Valley regional flow system (DVRFS) ground-water model by D’Agnese and others (2002). The DVRFS model 

boundary is similar, but not identical, to earlier boundaries (D’Agnese and others, 1997) used to define the Death 

Valley regional flow system (fig. 2). The DVRFS boundary generally approximates the area defined by Bedinger 

and others (1989) as the Death Valley ground-water region. The northern part of the DVRFS is in the southern 

section of the Great Basin of the Basin and Range physiographic province (Grayson, 1993) and extends into the 

Great Basin Desert (fig. 1). The Basin and Range is characterized by linear mountains and broad valleys with a 

distinct north-to-northwest trend. This physiography is primarily the result of normal faulting in response to east–

west extensional tectonics. The southern and central parts of the DVRFS are in the northern Mojave Desert. The 

physiography of the southern part of the DVRFS is primarily the result of a combination of strike-slip faulting and 

downdrop block faults. Elevations range from 86 m below sea level at Death Valley to 3,600 m above sea level in 

the Spring Mountains. The relief between valleys and adjoining mountains exceeds 1,500 m at many locations 

(Bedinger and others, 1989). About 25 percent of the landscape in the study area is rugged mountainous terrain; the 

remainder is broad intermountain basins filled with alluvium and some interbedded volcanic deposits (Peterson, 

1981).
Introduction 5

Figure 1. Geographic setting of the Death Valley region, Nevada and California.
6 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using a Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA

Figure 2. Death Valley regional flow system boundary and physiographic features of the Death Valley region, Nevada and California.
Introduction 7

The Death Valley region includes many topographically closed basins and surface-water drainage basins. The 

Amargosa River (fig. 3), an intermittent stream in the Amargosa Desert, is the main stream in the largest surfacewater drainage basin in the Death Valley region, with a area of approximately 15,000 km2. The Amargosa River 

discharges into the southern part of the Death Valley saltpan, the largest playa lake in the Death Valley region (Hunt 

and others, 1966). The north Salt Creek drainage basin discharges into the northern part of the Death Valley saltpan. 

The south Salt Creek drainage basin is the main tributary basin to the Amargosa River in the lower Amargosa River 

drainage basin (Grasso, 1996). The Fortymile Wash drainage basin, a tributary drainage basin to the upper 

Amargosa River drainage basin, covers a large part of the Nevada Test Site (NTS), including much of the Yucca 

Mountain area (fig. 2).

The floors of the basins and the valleys tend to be broad and have nearly flat surfaces. Playas, common to arid 

environments, generally are at the lowest elevations of the closed basins in the DVRFS (fig. 3). The playas act as 

catchments for surface-water runoff (Grose and Smith, 1989). The playa lakebeds generally are dry but become 

shallow temporary lakes during wetter-than-average years (Grasso, 1996). Playas in Sarcobatus Flat, the Amargosa 

Desert, Pahrump Valley, and Death Valley are coincident with areas of ground-water discharge in the DVRFS, 

referred to in this report as ground-water discharge zones, (fig. 2) (D’Agnese and others, 2002). Other ground-water 

discharge zones include springs in the Oasis Valley (northwest of Yucca Mountain, near Beatty, Nev.), in the 

Amargosa Desert (Ash Meadows), and along the lower section of the Amargosa River.

The area within and adjacent to the DVRFS includes 42 hydrographic areas and subareas (fig. 4; table 1) that 

are a subset of the hydrographic areas delineating the topographically defined basins and subbasins in the Great 

Basin (Harrill and Prudic, 1998). Most of the hydrographic areas and subareas, herein referred to as 

hydrographic areas, were used in previous water-balance studies of the Death Valley regional hydrologic system 

(Avon and Durbin, 1994; D’Agnese and others, 1997; Harrill and Prudic, 1998; Hevesi and others, 2002). Estimates 

of average annual recharge have been made for each of the 42 areas; for some areas, estimates of recharge were 

made using several approaches (fig. 5; table 1).

Although most of the hydrographic areas, such as Sarcobatus Flat (area 146) and Pahrump Valley (area 162), 

represent topographically closed basins, the topographic divides are not well defined in some areas of the Death 

Valley region, such as those along the southern boundary of the lower Amargosa River drainage basin (Grasso, 

1996). In some cases, the hydrographic areas represent tributary drainage basins of the larger drainage basins. 

Examples of hydrographic areas representing tributary drainage basins include Fortymile Canyon (area 227) and 

Oasis Valley (area 228). Most of the 42 hydrographic areas are part of the Death Valley hydrologic region, which is 

generally a closed system in terms of surface-water flow. Several of the hydrographic areas along the eastern edge 

of the Death Valley region are part of the Colorado River hydrologic region. Two areas adjacent to the northwestern 

boundary of the Death Valley region, Alkali Spring Valley (area 142) and Clayton Valley (area 143), are part of the 

South–Central Marshes hydrologic region.

Climate

The climate in the Death Valley region is arid to semiarid. The northern part of the region, which is in the 

Great Basin Desert, is characterized by warm, dry summers, and cold, dry winters. The southern part of the region, 

which is in the Mojave Desert, is characterized by hot, dry summers and warm, dry winters. The central part of the 

region includes the area around Yucca Mountain and the NTS (fig. 2). This area has been called the Transition 

Desert (Beatley, 1976) and represents a gradational zone between the Great Basin and Mojave Desert climates. For 

most locations throughout the region, the average annual potential evapotranspiration greatly exceeds the average 

annual precipitation. The mean annual open-water surface evaporation for the region ranges from 1,250 mm/yr in 

the mountains to greater than 2,500 mm/yr in the playas (Bedinger and others, 1989).
8 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using a Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA

Figure 3. Hydrographic features of the Death Valley region, Nevada and California.
Introduction 9

Figure 4. Area of the INFILv3 model and the 42 hydrographic areas and subareas within or adjacent to the Death Valley regional flow system, Nevada and 

California.
10 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using a Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA Table 1. Estimated recharge, methods for estimating recharge, and source of recharge estimates for the hydrographic areas and subareas in the Death Valley region a

flow system model area, Nevada and California—Continued Hydrographic areas and subareas Hydrologic region Area (km2

)

Previous estimates of 

recharge Source of recharge estimate 

Name Identifier (mm/yr) (m3/d)

Alkali Spring Valley 142 24 830 0.15 338 Scott and others, 1971 Amargosa Desert 230 28 3,445 .54 5,066 Walker and Eakin, 1963 Cactus Flat 148 28 1,023 .72 2,026 Rush, 1971 California Valley 241 28 347 .85 814 Harrill and others, 1988 California and Chicago Valleys 240 and 241 28 629 .58 1,000 D'Agnese and others, 1997 Chicago Valley 240 28 281 .22 169 Harrill and others, 1988 Clayton Valley 143 24 1,438 1.29 5,066 Rush, 1968 Coal Valley 171 34 1,181 2.09 6,754 Eakin, 1963 Crater Flat 229 28 473 .57 743 Rush, 1971 Death Valley 243 28 9,518 1.04 27,017 Miller, 1977 Emigrant Valley1 158 28 1,993 8.04 43,900 D'Agnese and others, 1997 Emigrant Valley (Groom Lake) 158A 28 1,711 2.31 10,807 Rush, 1971 Emigrant Valley (Papoose Lake) 158B 28 283 .02 14 Rush, 1971 Fortymile Canyon2 227 28 1,331 .63 2,300 D'Agnese and others, 1997 Fortymile Canyon (Buckboard Mesa) 227B 28 598 2.89 4,728 Rush, 1971 Fortymile Canyon (Jackass Flats) 227A 28 733 1.51 3,039 Rush, 1971 Frenchman Flat 160 28 1,184 .10 338 Rush, 1971 Garden Valley 172 34 1,182 9.97 33,771 Eakin, 1963 Garden and Coal Valleys 172 and 171 34 2,362 5.61 37,148 Kirk and Campana, 1990 Gold Flat 147 28 1,764 2.66 12,833 Rush, 1971 

Table 1. Estimated recharge, methods for estimating recharge, and source of recharge estimates for the hydrographic areas and subareas in the Death Valley region a

flow system model area, Nevada and California

[Location of hydrologic areas and subareas shown in figure 4. Hydrologic region number: 34, Colorado System; 28, Death Valley System; 31, Penoyer Valley; 24, South-Valley. km2, square kilometer; mm/yr, millimeter per year; m3/d, cubic meter per day; na, not applicable]

See footnote at end of table.
Introduction 11

Hidden Valley (south) 166 34 86 0.14 34 Scott and others, 1971 Indian Springs Valley 161 28 1,730 7.13 33,771 Rush, 1971 Ivanpah Valley (north) 164A 34 633 2.92 5,066 Scott and others, 1971 Ivanpah Valley (south) 164B 34 1,317 .47 1,689 Harrill and others, 1988 Jean Lake Valley 165 34 255 .48 338 Glancy, 1968b Kawich Valley 157 28 930 4.64 11,820 Rush, 1971 Las Vegas Valley 212 34 3,855 9.18 101,313 Avon and Durbin, 19943 

212 34 3,855 8.57 94,559 Dettinger, 1989 212 34 3,855 9.18 101,313 Harrill, 1976 

Lida Valley 144 28 1,390 .42 1,600 D'Agnese and others, 1997 Lower Amargosa Valley 242 28 1,199 .09 300 D'Agnese and others, 1997 Mercury Valley 225 28 287 1.07 844 Rush, 1971 Mercury and Rock Valleys 225 and 226 28 505 .94 1,300 D'Agnese and others, 1997 Mesquite Valley 163 36 1,135 1.63 5,066 Glancy, 1968 

163 36 1,135 1.74 5,403 Dettinger, 1989 

Oasis Valley 228 28 1,218 1.01 3,377 Rush, 1971 Pahranagat Valley 209 34 1,986 1.11 6,079 Eakin, 1963 

209 34 1,986 .92 5,066 Kirk and Campana, 1990 

Pahrump Valley 162 28 2,562 12.52 87,804 Avon and Durbin, 19943 

162 28 2,562 17.81 124,952 Harrill, 1986 

Penoyer Valley 170 31 1,791 2.96 14,521 Avon and Durbin, 19943 

170 31 1,791 2.20 10,807 Dettinger, 1989 170 31 1,791 2.62 12,833 Van Denburgh and Rush, 1974 

Railroad Valley (south) 173A 28 1,536 4.42 18,574 Avon and Durbin, 19943 

Table 1. Estimated recharge, methods for estimating recharge, and source of recharge estimates for the hydrographic areas and subareas in the Death Valley region aflow system model area, Nevada and California—Continued

Hydrographic areas and subareas Hydrologic 

region

Area 

(km2)

Previous estimates of 

recharge Source of recharge estimate 

Name Identifier (mm/yr) (m3/d)

See footnote at end of table.
12 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using a Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA 173A 28 1,536 3.94 16,548 Dettinger, 1989 

Rock Valley 226 28 218 0.17 101 Rush, 1971 Sarcobatus Flat 146 28 2,122 .70 4,053 Malmberg and Eakin, 1962 Shadow Valley 245 28 1,013 1.46 4,053 Harrill and others, 1988 Stonewall Flat 145 28 979 .13 338 Rush, 1968 Three Lakes Valley (north) 168 28 780 3.16 6,754 Rush, 1971 Three Lakes Valley (south) 211 28 782 9.48 20,263 Rush, 1971 Tikapoo Valley (north) 169A 28 1,596 2.01 8,780 Scott and others, 1971 Tikapoo Valley (south) 169B 28 958 4.37 11,482 Scott and others, 1971 Valjean Valley 244 28 1,082 .46 1,351 Harrill and others, 1988 Yucca Flat 159 28 776 1.11 2,364 Rush, 1971 Death Valley regional flow system model area na na 45,288 2.15 266,800 D'Agnese and others, 2002 

Table 1. Estimated recharge, methods for estimating recharge, and source of recharge estimates for the hydrographic areas and subareas in the Death Valley region aflow system model area, Nevada and California—Continued Hydrographic areas and subareas Hydrologic region Area (km2) Previous estimates of recharge Source of recharge estimate 

Name Identifier (mm/yr) (m3/d)

1Emigrant Valley (158), not shown in figure 4, is the combined area of Groom Lake (158A) and Papoose Lake (158B).2Fortymile Canyon (227) not shown in figure 4, is the combined area of Jackass Flats (227A) and Buckboard Mesa (227B). 3Reference provides a summary of results from previous studies, but is not the original reference for the indicated recharge estimate.
Introduction 13

Figure 5. Estimated recharge for the hydrographic areas and subareas in the Death Valley region, Nevada and California.

Estimates of basinwide recharge are from previous studies and are listed in table 1.
14 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using a Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA

Weather patterns in the Death Valley region vary seasonally, having a bimodal annual distribution in 

precipitation that is characterized by widespread precipitation from cyclonic fronts that occur during October 

through June, and by isolated convective storm cells or storm-cell clusters from the southwestern summer monsoon 

that occurs during July through August (Grasso, 1996). For most years, precipitation during the winter contributes 

the greater part of the total annual precipitation in the Death Valley region (French, 1983; Hevesi and Flint, 1998). 

In the southern Great Basin and Mojave Deserts, winter precipitation generally is from low-intensity, long-duration 

(several hours to several days) storms produced by synoptic-scale weather patterns. Winter precipitation usually 

comes from the west and results in a regional rain shadow east of the Sierra Nevada; precipitation often is in the 

form of snow, especially at the higher elevations (more than 2,000 m). Precipitation tends to be more consistent in 

the winter, resulting in greater total seasonal accumulation relative to summer precipitation.

Summer precipitation is produced primarily by mesoscale weather patterns during the southwestern summer 

monsoon (Houghton, 1969; Pyke, 1972). Storms from the southwestern summer monsoon move into the Death 

Valley region from the south and southeast (French, 1983; Grasso, 1996). In contrast to winter precipitation, 

summer precipitation tends to come from isolated high-intensity, short-duration (1 to 2 hours) convective storms 

that affect small areas. The convective storms often include lightening and hail. Precipitation that occurs from 

August through September also can be caused by tropical storms moving north and northeast from the Gulf of 

California and the Pacific Ocean (Grasso, 1996), but the occurrence of tropical storms is not as consistent as the 

occurrence of convective storms from southwest summer monsoon.

Average annual precipitation in the central part of the Death Valley region has been estimated to be about is 

180 mm/yr (Hevesi and others, 1991). Spatial variability in precipitation, caused primarily by the orographic effects 

of mountains and higher elevation terrain, is substantial. Orographic influences on summer and winter precipitation 

result in an increase in the frequency and amount of precipitation associated with increased elevation (Quiring, 

1965; French, 1983; Hevesi and others, 1991; Hevesi and Flint, 1998). For a given elevation, precipitation tends to 

increase eastward across the Death Valley region owing to a corresponding increase in summer moisture from the 

southwestern summer monsoon combined with increasing distance from the Sierra Nevada rain shadow (Quiring, 

1965; French, 1983).

The spatially distributed average annual precipitation for the Death Valley region (fig. 6) was estimated using 

a parameter-elevation regressions on independent slopes model (PRISM) that accounts for orographic effects on 

precipitation (Daly and others, 1994). The PRISM estimates indicate that the maximum precipitation in the region 

is about 500 to 600 mm/yr in the higher mountain ranges (such as the Spring Mountains), and the minimum 

precipitation is less than 50 mm/yr on the floor of Death Valley. Precipitation averages 100 to 150 mm/yr or less on 

the valley floors of the Amargosa Desert and at the lower elevations in the southern part of the region. Average 

annual precipitation at higher elevations in the mountains generally is greater than 250 mm/yr.

For most locations, the PRISM estimates of average annual precipitation are consistent with the estimates 

from elevation-correlation models used to estimate precipitation in the Death Valley region (French, 1983; Hevesi 

and others, 1991). However, there is a high degree of uncertainty in these estimates because the data used for spatial 

interpolation is sparse for much of the region. Uncertainty in the precipitation estimates generally is greatest for the 

more remote higher elevations of the mountain ranges owing to a decrease in the number and length of precipitation 

records for those elevations and to an increase in measurement error owing to an increase in the percentage of 

precipitation as snow. A multivariate geostatistical model developed for estimating precipitation in the Death Valley 

region (Hevesi and others, 1991) provides a higher estimate of average annual precipitation for the summit area of 

the Spring Mountains (approximately 700 mm/yr) than does the PRISM model (approximately 600 mm/yr). For 

Rainier Mesa on the NTS, the PRISM estimates are about 400 mm/yr, which is about 100 mm/yr higher than the 

estimates from the geostatistical model, which incorporates additional precipitation data from stations located 

within and adjacent to the NTS. For lower elevations, average annual precipitation estimates generally are more 

consistent between PRISM and other estimation methods.
Introduction 15

Figure 6. Average annual precipitation estimated using the parameter-elevation regressions on independent slopes model (PRISM) Daly and others, 1994 

for the Death Valley region, Nevada and California.
16 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using a Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA

Surface Water

Perennial surface water is sparse in the Death Valley region. Several perennial streams, however, originate as 

springs from shallow perched systems in the high elevations of the Spring Mountains. These mountain streams have 

highly variable flows during wet years and almost imperceptible flows during dry years. Streams fed from springs 

along the middle section of the Amargosa River in the Amargosa Desert (figs. 2 and 3) have the most consistent 

perennial flow. Most of the stream channels in the Death Valley region experience only intermittent flow in 

response to high-intensity storms (Grasso, 1996). Infrequent severe summer storms and regional winter storms 

occurring during wetter-than-average antecedent conditions can sometimes result in high volume surface-water 

flow of relatively short duration (flash flooding) in normally dry stream channels. Potential hazards from localized 

flash flooding in Death Valley were studied by Crippen (1981) for an intermittent stream in the Panamint Range 

and by Bowers (1990) for a drainage basin in the Grapevine Mountains. Potential hazards from flash flooding at 

Yucca Mountain (from a small tributary of the Fortymile Wash drainage basin) was studied by Glancy (1994). 

Temporary playa lakes form in some basins in response to storm runoff and spring discharge during wetter-thanaverage years but are depleted by evaporation during average and drier-than-average years. Periodic flooding along 

the Amargosa River, in response to above-average precipitation during the El Niño–Southern Oscillation, was the 

primary source of water that formed the ephemeral playa lakes on the floor of Death Valley during 1969 and 1993 

(Grasso, 1996).

Ground Water

The predominant direction of ground-water flow in the DVRFS is from north to south, the direction of 

average elevation loss in the southern Basin and Range physiographic province. In contrast to surface-water flow 

patterns, regional ground-water flow patterns do not always coincide with topographic basins (Winograd and 

Thordarson, 1975). The regional ground-water flow system is compartmentalized into subregional flow systems 

because of the integrated effect of the regional carbonate rock aquifer, the complex geologic structure, and the 

shallow local flow systems controlled by recharge and discharge (D’Agnese and others, 2002). Most of the groundwater recharge in the region occurs at higher elevations and by direct infiltration of precipitation or snowmelt or by 

infiltration of surface water originating as runoff from precipitation or snowmelt (Winograd and others, 1998). 

Precipitation and runoff at the lower elevations generally do not recharge the system because of lower amounts of 

precipitation, higher potential evapotranspiration, and a decrease in runoff frequency. Discharge from the groundwater system, as flow from springs or as evapotranspiration from shallow water tables, occurs in several areas of the 

subregional flow systems in response to topographic, stratigraphic, and structural controls. Examples of groundwater discharge from the subregional flow systems include the springs at Oasis Valley north of Beatty, Nev., and the 

springs at Ash Meadows in the central part of the Amargosa Desert. Ground water that is not discharged from the 

subregional flow systems ultimately is discharged in Death Valley.

Vegetation

A detailed analysis of the spatial distribution of vegetation types and associations in the western United 

States is being developed as part of the USGS’s Biological Resources (BR) National Gap Analysis Program (GAP). 

A digital vegetation map was developed using satellite imagery and other records based on the National Vegetation 

Classification System (http://www.gap.uidaho.edu/RegionalGAP/regional.htm). A western region vegetation map 

(WESTVEG), compiled using state-based GAP source data, indicates the general spatial distribution of vegetation 

types and land-surface characteristics in the Death Valley region (fig. 7). The WESTVEG plant associations in this 

region include Creosote–Bursage, Salt Desert shrubs, and sagebrush associations. The Creosote–Bursage 

association is prevalent in the southern part of the region, and the Salt Desert shrub and sagebrush associations are 

prevalent in the northern part of the region. The Creosote–Bursage association occupies the largest area relative to 

other vegetation associations in the region. In general, natural vegetation cover is sparse throughout most of the 

region, especially at the lower elevations except for zones of riparian vegetation in a few isolated locations that have 

spring discharge and areas of coniferous forests and Pinyon–Juniper woodlands at higher elevations where 
Introduction 17

precipitation is greater and air temperature is lower. The Pinyon–Juniper vegetation type generally occurs at 

elevations of approximately 2,000 m and higher, and denser forests of Ponderosa Pine and White Fir occur at higher 

elevations (2,500–3,500 m), such as the Spring Mountains.

Soils

Soils in the Death Valley region can be grouped into four types: (1) upland soils on the mountains and in areas 

characterized by rugged topography, (2) valley-fill soils on alluvial fans and terraces, (3) playa soils on the valley 

floors and playa basins, and (4) channel soils in active stream channels (Hevesi and others, 2002). Upland soils are 

usually less than 1-m thick, have a coarse texture with little moisture-holding capacity, and have high permeability. 

The valley-fill and playa soils are much thicker than the upland soils and tend to be medium- to coarse-textured; 

they also tend to be highly permeable. Playa soils are fine-grained, are characterized by a high percentage of clays 

or evaporites including silicified hardpans (Beatley, 1976), and have much lower permeability than valley-fill and 

upland soils. Soils in active channels tend to be coarse textured and more permeable than the soils of the 

surrounding terraces and interchannel areas of alluvial fans.

A regional-scale map of soil types in the Death Valley region was obtained from the State Soil Geographic 

database (STATSGO), a state-compiled geospatial database of soil properties that generally are consistent across 

state boundaries (U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1994). Mapped soil types are identified in the STATSGO 

database using a unique map unit identifier (MUID). A single MUID represents a group of similar soil types. 

Although the location of a given soil component within a mapped MUID area is not known, the percentage of 

MUID area covered by each component is defined, and the maximum and minimum thickness of all layers in each 

component is provided. The spatial distribution of the STATSGO MUIDs for the Death Valley region is shown in 

figure 8 using soil type map codes (assigned for the purpose of this report to link MUID locations with the soil 

properties input used in the INFILv3 model). The MUID map code locations in figure 8 are shown in groups of 10; 

the 149 STATSGO MUIDs mapped for the Death Valley region (and the corresponding map codes used for this 

study) are given in table 2, at back of report. The number of soil components for MUIDs in the Death Valley region 

range from 2 to 21 (fig. 9; table 2, at back of report). Soil attributes associated with each MUID, averaged using the 

combined weight of layer thickness and area for the soil components in each MUID, include the percentage of clay 

in the soil grain-size fraction less than 2 mm (sand and finer). For the Death Valley region, most locations consist of 

soils that have less than 10 to 15 percent clay in the fraction of soil material with grain sizes of 2 mm and finer 

(fig. 10). Many locations in this region consist of relatively coarse surficial material, exceeding 50 percent grain 

sizes larger than 2 mm (coarse sand, gravel, cobbles, and boulders) (table 2, at back of report), and the percentage of 

clay is fairly small. Exceptions to the areas with low clay content are the playa lakebeds where the percentage of 

clay can be as high as 50 percent. Higher clay contents also occur at the higher elevations in the Spring Mountains 

and the Sheep Range.
18 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using a Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA

Figure 7. Vegetation types and land-surface characteristics in the Death Valley region, Nevada and California.

Vegetation types defined using western region vegetation (WESTVEG) Gap Analysis Program (GAP) data (Murray, 1997, accessed August 16, 2000)
Introduction 19

Figure 8. Spatial distribution of STATSGO MUID soil types in the Death Valley region, Nevada and California.

STATSGO, State Soil Geographic Database; MUID, map unit identifier (for STATSGO map units). (See table 2 for soil texture attributes.)
20 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using a Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA

Figure 9. Number of STATSGO soil components for the MUIDs in the Death Valley region, Nevada and California.

STATSGO, State Soil Geographic Database; MUID, map unit identifier (for STATSGO map units).
Introduction 21

Figure 10. Percentage of clay in soil fraction finer than 2 millimeters in the Death Valley region, Nevada and California.
22 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using a Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA

Hydrogeology

A detailed description of the hydrogeology of the Death Valley region is presented in Bedinger and others 

(1989), D’Agnese and others (1997), Faunt (1997), and Faunt and others (1997). The complex geology of the 

region was generalized by Turner and others (1996), D’Agnese and others (1997), and Faunt and others (1997) into 

hydrogeologic units that have considerable lateral extent and reasonably distinct hydrologic properties, particularly 

with respect to average differences in saturated hydraulic conductivities. The primary hydrogeologic units that have 

been identified in the Death Valley region (modified from Faunt and others [1997]) include (1) Quaternary and 

Tertiary valley fill, (2) Quaternary and Tertiary lava flows, (3) Tertiary volcanic rocks, (4) Tertiary volcaniclastic 

rocks, (5) Tertiary and Jurassic granitic rocks, (6) Mesozoic sedimentary and metavolcanic rocks, (7) Paleozoic 

carbonates rocks, (8) Paleozoic and Precambrian clastic rocks, (9) Precambrian igneous and metamorphic rocks, 

(10) Quaternary playa deposits, and (11) Paleozoic clastic rocks. The location of these units is given in figure 11. 

The relatively broad generalization of the hydrogeologic system has provided a useful starting point for the 

development of flow models and for modeling net infiltration (Flint and others, 2000; Hevesi and others, 2002). 

Estimates of saturated hydraulic conductivity used in the preliminary net-infiltration model for the Death Valley 

region ranged from 0.4 mm/yr (0.001 mm/d) for granitic rocks to 700,000 mm/yr (2,000 mm/d) for valley-fill 

deposits (Hevesi and others, 2002). Consolidated hydrogeologic units that have a high saturated hydraulic 

conductivity include the Paleozoic carbonate rocks and the Mesozoic sedimentary and metavolcanic rocks; units 

that have a low saturated hydraulic conductivity include the Precambrian igneous and metamorphic rocks. Units 

that have an intermediate saturated hydraulic conductivity include the Tertiary volcanic rocks.

Net Infiltration and Recharge

Net infiltration is the drainage of rain, snowmelt, and infiltrated surface water across the lower boundary of 

the root zone (Flint and others, 2001c; Hevesi and others, 2002). Ground-water recharge to a basin or saturatedzone ground-water system includes the percolation flux across the water table (flow from the unsaturated zone to 

the saturated zone) and lateral inflow through the saturated zone (interbasin transfer) across the basin or the 

regional saturated-zone boundary. Net infiltration is not necessarily equivalent to recharge because of interbasin 

transfer and processes affecting deep percolation through thick unsaturated zones.

Net infiltration can be an indicator of potential recharge due to downward percolation through the 

unsaturated zone to the saturated zone in response to the infiltration of rain, snowmelt, and overland flow. However, 

in many locations in the Death Valley region, the unsaturated zone has a thickness of more than 500 m, and net 

infiltration may be considerably different than recharge at the water table. The potential for differences between net 

infiltration and recharge increases with increased unsaturated zone thickness, ground-water travel time through the 

unsaturated zone, climate variability, and geologic heterogeneity in the unsaturated zone.

Field studies indicate that net infiltration in the Death Valley region usually is episodic and infrequent at most 

locations, typically occurring during and after periods of high-volume winter precipitation when evapotranspiration 

is low (Flint and others, 2001c). An indication of episodic infiltration into fractured bedrock in response to winter 

precipitation has been shown with field studies using water-potential measurements for Yucca Mountain. For lower 

elevations (less than 1,500 m) in the Death Valley region, net infiltration occurs only during wetter-than-average 

winters or in response to surface-water runoff during infrequent, large (high intensity) storms.
Introduction 23

Figure 11. Hydrogeologic units in the Death Valley region, Nevada and California. 

Modified from Faunt and others (1997) and D’Agnese and others (2002).
24 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using a Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA

Studies of streamflow and of water-table elevations (Savard, 1995, 1998) provide evidence of deep (more 

than 10 m) percolation through the unsaturated zone beneath the active channel of the Fortymile Wash, east and 

northeast of Yucca Mountain, in response to streamflows in 1993 and 1995. Savard (1995, 1998) showed that deep 

percolation coincided with a rising water table beneath the channel. Using a combination of temperature and water 

potential measurements at various depths along a vertical borehole located at Yucca Mountain in the stream channel 

of a small tributary to Fortymile Wash, LeCain and others (2002) showed evidence of deep percolation in response 

to a brief (1-day) occurrence of streamflow during the wetter-than-average winter of 1998. For higher elevation 

locations (more than 2,000 m), net infiltration resulting from snowmelt is likely a more consistent, seasonal process 

(Winograd and others, 1998). For the Death Valley region as a whole, net infiltration in direct response to 

infiltrating rain and snowmelt is considered the primary component of total recharge (D’Agnese and others, 2002). 

Net infiltration along stream channels in response to streamflow is considered a secondary component owing to the 

much smaller area affected (Hevesi and others, 2002).

Previous Studies

Net infiltration and recharge previously were estimated for locations and basins within the Death Valley 

region using various methods including empirical equations that were based on variables such as precipitation, 

geochemistry methods, water-balance methods (for example, basinwide estimates of discharge or numerical models 

accounting for all significant components of the water balance), and soil-physics techniques. Using the waterbalance method, Winograd and Thordarson (1975) estimated that 3 percent of precipitation becomes recharge; their 

estimate was based on discharge measurements from springs south of Yucca Mountain near the Nevada–California 

border. The Maxey–Eakin method (Maxey and Eakin, 1950) was used in several previous water-balance studies of 

basins in the Death Valley region to estimate recharge to ground-water basins in Nevada (Watson and others, 1976; 

Dettinger, 1989; Avon and Durbin, 1994; Harrill and Prudic, 1998; Donovan and Katzer, 2000). Depending on the 

range in average annual precipitation for a given basin, the Maxey–Eakin method classifies areas of a basin into five 

recharge zones: (1) 0 percent is recharged when precipitation is less than 203 mm/yr, (2) 3 percent is recharged 

when precipitation is 203 to 304 mm/yr precipitation, (3) 7 percent is recharged when precipitation is 305 to 

380 mm/yr precipitation, (4) 15 percent is recharged when precipitation is 381 to 507 mm/yr precipitation, and (5) 

25 percent of precipitation is recharge for 508 mm/yr or greater precipitation (Maxey and Eakin, 1950). By 

comparing the Maxey–Eakin estimates with 40 estimates of recharge obtained using a basinwide water-budget 

analysis and 27 estimates of recharge obtained using geochemical and numerical modeling approaches, Avon and 

Durbin (1994) concluded that the Maxey–Eakin method provides a reasonable method of estimating recharge for 

basins in Nevada. Harrill and Prudic (1998) reached a similar conclusion regarding the applicability of the Maxey–

Eakin method for estimating recharge to ground-water basins in Nevada.

Several studies have presented modified and updated versions of the Maxey–Eakin method; these versions 

use more recent precipitation, geochemical, and basinwide water-balance data. Avon and Durbin (1994) developed 

a new set of scaling factors (recharge as a percentage of average annual precipitation) for the five recharge zones by 

fitting the recharge-precipitation model to more recent estimates of ground-water discharge data. D’Agnese and 

others (1997) developed a modified version of the recharge-precipitation relation using additional scaling factors, 

or ranking criteria, qualitatively related to geology, vegetation, and slope and aspect. Donovan and Katzer (2000) 

developed a refined form of the Maxey–Eakin relation to estimate recharge volumes for the Las Vegas Valley (area 

212) using precipitation data from a localized network of high-elevation monitoring sites in the Spring Mountains 

and the Sheep Range. Hevesi and Flint (1998) substituted a continuous curve, fitted to the Maxey–Eakin step 

function, to estimate recharge using a spatially detailed precipitation map based on a geostatistical model.
Introduction 25

Although the Maxey–Eakin transfer method has been used extensively to estimate recharge in Nevada, 

limitations have been identified in the application of this method. The original Maxey–Eakin model was calibrated 

to basinwide water-balance estimates; therefore, application of the model using more recent precipitation data but 

without recalibrating the model using more recent discharge data likely would decrease the accuracy of results 

(Charles Russell, Desert Research Institute, written commun., 2000). In addition to average annual precipitation, 

other factors also can affect recharge (D’Agnese and others, 1997). Crippen (1965) combined an evaporationtransfer function with a precipitation-transfer function to develop an empirical method of estimating recharge, or 

recoverable water, for mountain basins of southern California; his method also accounts for regional differences in 

climate by using curves fitted to specific climate zones.

Geochemical methods used to obtain estimates of net infiltration and recharge for basins in Nevada include 

the chloride mass-balance (CMB) method and a deuterium-calibrated, mixing-cell flow model (Avon and Durbin, 

1994). Kirk and Campana (1990) applied the deuterium model to obtain 11 estimates of recharge for the White 

River ground-water flow system in southeastern Nevada, which include three of the hydrographic areas analyzed in 

this current study (Pahranagat Valley [area 209], Coal Valley [area 171], and Garden Valley [area 172]). Dettinger 

(1989) applied the CMB method to 16 basins in Nevada; his estimates of chloride-balance were similar to those 

obtained using the Maxey–Eakin method and the water-balance calculations. The CMB method equates chloride in 

recharge water and runoff to chloride deposited in source areas by precipitation and dry fallout. Dettinger (1989) 

concluded that the CMB method is applicable for estimating approximate average rates of recharge for many desert 

basins of the western United States, but it may not be applicable for fractured rock under shallow soils because the 

method assumes piston flow in porous media.

Lichty and McKinley (1995) analyzed recharge, using both the CMB and the water-balance modeling 

approaches, for two analogue basins in central Nevada where field measurements were collected for a 6-year study. 

Results of their study indicate recharge rates of 10 to 30 mm/yr for a drainage basin that has an average annual 

precipitation of 270 mm and 300 to 320 mm/yr for a drainage basin that has an average annual precipitation of 640 

mm. They determined that the CMB method is the more robust method of estimating basinwide recharge for the 

two study basins. The higher degree of uncertainty associated with the estimates obtained using the water-balance 

model primarily is associated with the uncertainty in the spatially varying model inputs, such as the spatial 

distribution of precipitation and snow depth.

Soil-physics techniques have been applied for estimating net-infiltration rates in the Death Valley region at 

locations with thick soil cover. These methods require a knowledge of the soil properties and ambient soil moisture 

conditions in this region and an assumption of steady-state conditions. Winograd (1981) estimated that the netinfiltration rate at Yucca Flat in the northeastern part of the NTS (fig. 2) is about 2 mm/yr. Nichols (1987) used 

water-potential measurements and a numerical model to estimate net-infiltration rates at the Amargosa Desert 

Research Site (ADRS) near Beatty, Nev., about 30 km west of Yucca Mountain. Nichols (1987) estimated a rate of 

net infiltration of 0.04 mm/yr at the ADRS; measured precipitation rates are substantially lower at this site than the 

rates measured at the northeastern part of the NTS.

For the study reported here, previous estimates of basinwide recharge for the 42 hydrographic areas in the 

Death Valley region (figs. 4 and 5; table 1) were used to evaluate estimates of net infiltration. A summary of the 

results of the previous studies is provided by Avon and Durbin (1994), D’Agnese and others (1997), and Harrill and 

Prudic (1998). Most of the basinwide recharge estimates were obtained using the Maxey–Eakin method. For some 

of the hydrographic areas, recharge estimates were based on estimates from the chloride mass-balance model, a 

deuterium mixing-cell model, or calibration results for ground-water flow models. In addition to the recharge 

estimates from these methods, table 1 includes a recharge estimate of 266,800 m3/d obtained by D’Agnese and 

others (2002) for the area of the DVRFS model; this estimate is based on the calibration results of a steady-state 

ground-water flow model.
26 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using a Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA

MODEL DEVELOPMENT

Conceptual Model of Net Infiltration

A conceptual model of net infiltration, developed from field studies at Yucca Mountain during 1980 through 

1995, was used to develop numerical models of net infiltration for Yucca Mountain and the surrounding Death 

Valley region. The numerical models of net infiltration (INFIL and INFILv2) were used to define the upper 

boundary condition of a three-dimensional unsaturated-zone ground-water flow model for Yucca Mountain and to 

develop net-infiltration estimates for a range of different climate scenarios. Detailed descriptions of the conceptual 

and numerical models of net infiltration for Yucca Mountain are given in reports by Flint and others (2001a,b,c) and 

Hevesi (2001). Extension of the conceptual and numerical models of net infiltration to the surrounding Death 

Valley region is described in Flint and others (2000) and Hevesi and others (2002).

The conceptual model of net infiltration in the Death Valley region is represented by the major components of 

the water balance for arid to semiarid environments; these components include precipitation; infiltration of rain, 

snowmelt, and surface water into soil or bedrock; runoff; surface-water run-on (overland flow and streamflow); 

bare-soil evaporation; transpiration from the root zone; redistribution or changes in water content in the root zone; 

and net infiltration across the lower boundary of the root zone. The conceptual model defines net infiltration as 

downward drainage, or flux, across the lower boundary of the root zone, or the depth at which the seasonal effects 

of evapotranspiration become insignificant. The conceptual model provides a framework for applying the waterbalance modeling approach to develop a numerical model of net infiltration using a horizontal grid of model nodes, 

or cells, with a vertical discretization representing the root zone as a series of layers (fig. 12).

6 meters

Lower

soil layer

Net infiltration

Soil

Bedrock Middle

soil layer

Rock layer

Top soil layer

Run-on

Runoff

Snowmelt

Infiltrated

run-on

Rain

Evapotranspiration

Root zone

Figure 12. Conceptual model of net inflation illustrating the layered root-zone water-balance model of the Death Valley region, Nevada and California.
Model Development 27

The conceptual model defines rain, snowmelt, and surface-water run-on as inputs to a layered root-zone 

water-balance model with 1 to 5 soil layers and a lower bedrock or deep alluvium layer. For each model cell, the 

number and thickness of layers is dependent on soil thickness, with the thickness of the lower bedrock layer 

increasing with decreasing soil thickness. The layers define storage components for the root zone where root 

density decreases from the top to the bottom layer, and the processes of evapotranspiration and downward drainage 

are dependent on the amount of water stored in each layer. Evapotranspiration, the main output component of the 

conceptual root-zone water-balance model, is dependent on both the water content of the root zone and potential 

evapotranspiration. Downward drainage is constrained by the hydraulic conductivity of the layers and the available 

storage capacity of the underlying layer. When the input of water to the root zone exceeds either the available 

storage capacity or the hydraulic conductivity of the surface layer, runoff is generated as an output component of the 

root-zone water balance and is routed to downstream grid cells as surface-water run-on. During the surface-water 

routing process, run-on is allowed to infiltrate back into the root zone and thus becomes an input component to the 

root-zone water balance. In the conceptual model, all runoff originates as excess rain or snowmelt, and all run-on to 

downstream grid cells originates as overland flow. Streamflow occurs as overland flow that is routed downstream 

from the sideslopes and inter-channel areas and concentrated into the channels defined by the topography. 

Streamflow originating as discharge from springs or as streambank seepage along gaining streams is limited to a 

few locations in the Death Valley region and is not included in the conceptual model of net infiltration used in this 

study. For the higher elevations in the Death Valley region, the processes of snowfall, snow accumulation, 

sublimation, and snowmelt are important components of the water-balance processes affecting net infiltration and 

are included in the conceptual model. Downward drainage through the root-zone layers can eventually result in 

drainage through the bottom layer (either bedrock or soil); drainage through the bottom layer is the net infiltration 

output component from the root-zone water balance.

For the Death Valley region, precipitation and evapotranspiration are the primary components of the waterbalance processes controlling net infiltration. Rain, snowmelt, or surface-water runoff infiltrates the soil or bedrock 

across the air-soil or air-bedrock interface and then drains downward through the root zone (Flint and others 2001c; 

Hevesi and others, 2002). Redistribution of water in the root zone occurs owing to the combined effects of 

downward drainage through soil or rock and evapotranspiration after water has stopped infiltrating at the ground 

surface. In the conceptual model, redistribution owing to lateral flow in the root zone is assumed to be negligible. 

Net infiltration is the drainage flux, or flow rate, at the shallowest depth beneath the ground surface where 

evapotranspiration no longer affects the downward drainage of infiltrated water (Flint and others 2001c; Hevesi and 

others, 2002). The approximate depth of net infiltration is variable in both space and time. For the thick unsaturated 

zone that exists at most locations in the Death Valley region, net infiltration becomes deep percolation and is 

represented in the conceptual model as potential recharge. Most of the deep percolation originating as net 

infiltration eventually becomes actual recharge at the water table. For some locations in the unsaturated zone, 

however, part of the deep percolation may be captured and diverted laterally above relatively impervious rock units. 

The diverted water may then return to the root zone as spring discharge that eventually contributes more to 

evapotranspiration then to recharge.
28 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using a Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA

INFILv3 Model

The conceptual model of root-zone water-balance processes and net infiltration in the Death Valley region 

was based on components of a mass-balance (also referred to as water balance) equation and is represented by the 

INFILv3 model. The governing equations in the INFILv3 model are used to perform a daily water-balance 

simulation of the root zone. The primary governing equation used for the daily root-zone water-balance simulation 

is

, (1)

where

The total change in root-zone water storage for all six root-zone layers is , and the total root-zone 

evapotranspiration is .

Secondary governing equations are used to represent other components of the daily water balance that are not 

directly defined by equation 1. For example, snowmelt is equal to snowfall minus sublimation 

; is equal to total precipitation minus snowfall ; and surface-water runoff 

is equal to plus discharge . For each daily time step, , , and are simulated as input 

terms; , , and are simulated as storage terms; and , , , and are simulated as 

output terms. Also included in the daily water balance are deterministic and empirical equations for the simulation 

of (1) evapotranspiration as a function of potential evapotranspiration and root-zone water content, (2) snowmelt as 

a function of air temperature and snow pack depth, and (3) sublimation and potential evapotranspiration as a 

functions of simulated net radiation and air temperature. Net radiation is simulated using an hourly solar radiation 

model (Flint and Childs, 1987).

The simulation is run as a continuous time series of daily water-balance calculations, where daily snowfall, 

SFd, is added to the snowpack storage component, and the root-zone water contents are updated and used as the 

initial conditions for the following day. The daily water-balance calculation uses a two-step algorithm to include 

surface-water runoff and run-on, where runoff, ROd, is generated during the first part of the daily time step and the 

runoff volume is then routed downstream as surface-water run-on during the second part of the daily step. During 

the routing process, run-on can infiltrate back into the root zone and contribute to the total daily net-infiltration 

amount. Increases in the root-zone water contents are used the following day as the new initial conditions for the 

root-zone water balance.

is total net infiltration from the bottom of the root zone for day [d], grid location i,

is snowmelt,

is precipitation occurring as rain,

is water that infiltrated the root zone from surface-water run-on,

is surface-water discharge (outflow),

is the change in the root-zone water storage for layer j, and

is evapotranspiration from layer j.

NId

i SMdi RAINdi RIdi = + +

Dd

i ∆Wdi

⎝ ⎠ ⎛ ⎞

j

ETd

i

⎝ ⎠ ⎛ ⎞

j

j = 1

6

– ∑

j = 1

6

– – ∑

NId

i

SMd

i

RAINd

i

RId

i

Dd

i

∆Wd

i ( )j

ETd

i ( )j

∆Wd

i ( ) ∑ j ETd

i ( ) ∑ j

SMd

i ( ) SFdi ( )

SUBd

i ( ) RAINdi PPTdi ( ) SFdi ( ) ROdi ( )

RId

i Ddi ( ) SMdi RAINdi RIdi

SFd

i ROdi ∆Wdi SUBdi NIdi ETdj Ddi
Model Development 29

Calculations in the INFILv3 model are done using a grid-based representation of the drainage basin being 

simulated, where all grid cells have equal areas. Although the mass-balance calculations are based on water 

volumes (temperature effects on water density are assumed to be negligible in the volume balance form of the 

continuity equation, which is based on the conservation of mass), the actual calculations are performed using waterequivalent depths. To perform simulations, the INFILv3 model requires an estimate of initial root-zone water 

contents; a daily time-series input consisting of total daily precipitation and maximum and minimum air 

temperature; and a set of model input parameters defining drainage basin characteristics, model coefficients for 

simulating evapotranspiration, drainage, and the spatial distribution of daily precipitation and air temperature, 

average monthly atmospheric conditions, and user-defined run-time options. For a multiyear simulation period, the 

simulated components of the daily water balance are summed through time to calculate total annual amounts and 

average annual rates.

Model Parameters

Inputs to the INFILv3 model consists of four main input groups: (1) climate and meteorological data, (2) 

digital map files from GIS and preprocessing routines, (3) attribute tables, and (4) model control options (fig. 13). 

Climate and meteorological data consist of daily climate records, climate station locations and elevations, model 

coefficients from monthly climate models and monthly atmospheric properties. Digital map files include a DEM 

and digitized maps of the spatial distribution of bedrock geology, soil types, and vegetation types. The digital map 

files are preprocessed and combined into a single watershed-input file containing all spatially distributed drainage 

basin characteristics. The watershed-input file includes a set of topographic parameters that were developed from 

the DEM using several different preprocessing routines. The attribute tables define bedrock and deep alluvium 

properties, soil properties, and vegetation properties representing the hydrologic characteristics of the root zone. For 

the study reported here, bedrock refers to the hydrogeologic units underlying the root zone and includes both 

consolidated and unconsolidated geologic rock types. Model outputs include (1) time-series results including the 

annual, monthly, and daily time series for simulated components of the water balance, expressed as the mean 

simulation result for all grid cells and also as the simulation result for specified grid locations, (2) spatially 

distributed simulation results for all components of the water balance indicating the daily, annual, and average 

annual results at all grid cells, and (3) summary statistics for model inputs and outputs, including the mean, 

maximum, and minimum values for all grid cells in the model domain. 

Table 3 (at back of report) lists the input parameters required by the INFILv3 model, including source data, 

preprocessing routines used to developed input parameters from the source data, input files, parameter names, 

parameter descriptions, parameter use, parameter units, and a qualitative measure of parameter accuracy. Seven 

primary sources of data were used either directly as input or to develop parameters using preprocessing routines: (1) 

the DEM and topographic parameters developed using the DEM, (2) soil properties associated with the STATSGO 

database, (3) bedrock and deep alluvium properties associated with the digital map of hydrogeologic units, (4) 

vegetation and root-zone properties associated with the GAP database, (5) daily climate inputs developed from 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration/National Climatic Data Center (NOAA/NCDC) climate records, 

(6) monthly atmospheric parameters, and (7) user-defined model coefficients and simulation options included in the 

model control file, including snowmelt and sublimation parameters, simulation time parameters, storm duration 

parameters, evapotranspiration parameters, and stream-channel parameters.
30 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using a Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA

Daily climate

records

Bedrock and

properties

Soil

properties

Vegetation

properties

Monthly

atmospheric

properties

Monthly climate

model

Digital

elevation

model

Soil

type

map

Bedrock

geology

map

Vegetation

type

map

GIS and preprocessing routines (digital map files)

Climate and

meteorological data

preprocessing

routines

Attribute tables

Drainage Basin

characteristics

INFILv3

model

inputs

Simulation period

Time step (hours)

Initial conditions

Storm duration

Stream-channel characteristics

Snowmelt parameters

Sublimation parameters

Input/output filenames

Model-control

options

INFILv3 INFILv3

model

outputs

Postprocessing

Time-series outputs Spatially distributed results

Daily results

Monthly results

Water-year results

Daily water-balance maps

Annual water-balance maps

Average annual water-balance maps

Summary

statistics

Climate station

location

parameters

deep alluvium

Figure 13. Inputs and outputs in the program structure of the INFILv3 model of the Death Valley region, Nevada and California.
Model Development 31

Model inputs defining the physical characteristics of the drainage basins were developed from available data 

sources using a combination of GIS applications and FORTRAN routines. These model inputs include topographic 

parameters, soil properties (SOILTYPE and the associated soil properties SOILTHCK, SPOR, SWP, SOILB, and 

SKS in table 3, at back of report), properties of the bedrock underlying the soil (ROCKTYPE and the associated 

bedrock properties RKPOR, RKLO, and RKHI [see table 4 at back of report]), and vegetation properties (VEGTYPE 

and the associated vegetation properties VEGCOV, RZDEN, and RZTHCK, (see tables 5 and 6, at back of report). 

The topographic parameters were calculated using the DEM; these include slope (SLP), aspect (ASP), blocking 

ridge angles (RIDGE), skyview factor (SKYVIEW), and surface-water flow-routing parameters (LOCID, IROUT, 

and UPCELLS). Daily climate inputs include total daily precipitation (PPT) and maximum and minimum daily air 

temperature (TMAX and TMIN). Additional model inputs include parameters defining monthly climate models, 

model coefficients used to estimate snowmelt and sublimation, monthly atmospheric characteristics used for 

simulating incoming solar radiation, initial root-zone water contents, and various run-time options.

Model Geometry and Discretization 

The INFILv3 model area and grid were defined using a composite DEM originally developed by Turner and 

others (1996) for the Death Valley region; the area was extended 0.25 degrees northward to cover the modified 

boundary of the DVRFS (Claudia Faunt, U.S. Geological Survey, written commun., 2000; D’Agnese and others, 

2002). The DEM encompasses an area of 97,136 km2; this area, referred to in this study as the Death Valley region, 

includes the entire area of the DVRFS (fig. 2). The DEM grid consists of 1,300 rows (from north to south) and 983 

columns (from east to west), with an equivalent grid spacing of 278.5 m in the north–south and east–west 

directions. The DEM grid includes a total of 1,252,418 elevations. The grid locations are defined by the projection 

Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM), zone 11, and all horizontal coordinate information is referenced to the 

North American Datum of 1927.

The INFILv3 model grid cell input was developed by compiling a set of separate input grids for all spatially 

distributed drainage basin characteristics, including soil type, soil depth, hydrogeologic unit, vegetation type, 

elevation, slope, aspect, flow routing parameters, skyview parameter, geographic coordinates, and 36 blocking ridge 

parameters. The base grids were developed using the DEM as the template grid. GIS applications were used to 

transfer, or rasterize, the vector-based data sources (including the STATSGO MUID map and the hydrogeologic 

units map) and also the raster-based data source (the WESTVEG map used to identify vegetation types is rasterbased GAP data) to the template grid.

Vertical discretization of each grid cell was defined using six root-zone layers with variable thicknesses, 

where layer thickness is a function of soil thickness. The upper five layers of the model were used to define rootzone characteristics in soil, and the bottom layer (layer 6) was used to define root-zone characteristics in 

consolidated bedrock where roots were assumed to extend into fractures. The thickness of the lowermost soil layer 

was decreased and the thickness of the bedrock layer was increased as a linear function of the total soil thickness, 

which was estimated for all model nodes. If the thickness of the lowermost soil layer was reduced to 0 (as a function 

of decreased total soil thickness), the thickness of the overlying soil layer was reduced with a continued decrease in 

soil thickness. For locations with thin soils (a total soil thickness of less than 1 m), the thickness of the bedrock 

layer (layer 6) generally exceeded the total thickness of the soil layers, depending on the vegetation type and the 

corresponding RZTHCK parameter. Locations with thicker soils (a soil thickness of greater than 1 m) generally 

consisted of all five soil layers; the bottom bedrock layer (layer 6) had a thickness of 0, indicating that consolidate 

rock was estimated to be deeper than the assumed root-zone depth. For these locations, the root zone was simulated 

as being underlain by deep alluvium rather than by consolidated bedrock.
32 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using a Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA

INFILv3 Model Algorithm

The general algorithm for the INFILv3 model consists of a set of preprocessing steps for developing model 

inputs, model initialization, a daily water-balance loop, and postprocessing of the daily results for developing 

monthly, annual, and average annual values for all water-balance terms (fig. 14). The daily water-balance loop 

includes several different subroutines that provide estimates of the various components of the water balance, such 

as potential evapotranspiration, snowmelt, and sublimation. The primary subroutines are (1) DAYDIST, a spatial 

interpolation algorithm for estimating daily precipitation and air temperature at each grid cell; (2) POTEVAP, a 

potential evapotranspiration model based on simulated incoming solar radiation; (3) SNOW, a snowfall, snowmelt, 

and sublimation model; (4) ETINFIL, a root-zone infiltration and evapotranspiration routine; and (5) SWINFIL, a 

surface-water flow routing algorithm. Infiltration and drainage through the root zone is simulated during the routing 

algorithm, but evapotranspiration is not calculated. Net infiltration is based on a root-zone drainage function and is 

calculated during both the ETINFIL and SWINFIL routines. Total daily net infiltration is the sum of net infiltration 

calculated during the ETINFIL and SWINFIL routines. Using spatially distributed estimates of daily precipitation 

and air temperature as input, the daily water balance is simulated as a continuous time series for multiyear periods, 

and an average net-infiltration rate is calculated using the daily results.

For each daily time step, the application of the SWINFIL routine is dependent on whether runoff is generated 

at any model grid location following an initial water-balance calculation for the root zone by the ETINFIL routine. 

For the initial calculation, infiltration into the root zone, evapotranspiration, changes in the root-zone water content, 

and net infiltration in direct response to rainfall and snowmelt are calculated by ETINFIL to determine runoff 

generation. If runoff is not generated, the simulation is continued the next day. If runoff is generated (as excess 

rainfall or snowmelt), the surface-water routing algorithm is activated. During the routing process, surface-water 

run-on infiltrates into the root zone depending on the soil and bedrock hydraulic conductivity and the available 

storage capacity of the root zone. The new value for root-zone water content is then used as the initial condition for 

the next day’s water-balance calculation. Surface-water flow that does not infiltrate into the root zone becomes 

surface-water discharge from the drainage basin (watershed) being modeled. In closed basins, surface water 

discharges to playas and is assumed to evaporate.

Within each daily time step, the potential evapotranspiration routine, POTEVAP, uses an hourly time step to 

simulate net radiation based on calculated solar position and simulated incoming solar radiation. The hourly time 

step is used to calculate solar position, as a function of geographic position and the day of year and to account for 

shading effects from surrounding terrain as a function of solar position. The remaining components of the water 

balance, including snowmelt, sublimation, evapotranspiration, infiltration, drainage, runoff generation, and 

surface-water flow routing, are based on a daily time step.
Model Development 33

INFILv3

Initialize root -zone

water contents

SWINFIL

Surface-water

flow routing and

net infiltration

Daily

time-step

loop

Watershed

loop

ETINFIL

Direct infiltration

Root-zone water content

Evapotranspiration

Drainage

Net infiltration

Runoff

POTEVAP:

Potential

evapotranspiration

Postprocessing

DAYDIST:

Spatial

interpolation

for climate

Surfacewater

routing

loop

SNOW

Snowfall

Sublimation

Snowmelt

Check

for

runoff

Runoff

Surface-water discharge

Run-on infiltration

Root-zone water content

Drainage

Net infiltration

No

runoff

Step

to

next

day

INFILv3

Update and

process

waterbalance

terms

Output

Input

Figure 14. Main subroutines of the INFILv3 model of the Death Valley region, Nevada and California.
34 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using a Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA

Subroutines 

DAYDIST: Spatial Distribution of Daily Climate Parameters

Daily precipitation and air temperature are spatially distributed across the model domain by the DAYDIST 

routine using monthly precipitation-elevation and air temperature-elevation regression models combined with an 

inverse-distance squared interpolation algorithm (fig. 15). The regression models were developed using monthly 

data compiled from the daily climate records. Monthly regression models for precipitation define total monthly 

precipitation as a function of elevation, and monthly regression models for maximum and minimum air temperature 

define average monthly maximum and minimum air temperature as functions of elevation. The regression 

equations for precipitation and air temperature are applied in the spatial interpolation algorithm if the r-squared 

regression statistic (also referred to as the coefficient of determination) is greater than 0.25. The regression model 

types include the linear model (regression model type 1)

, (2)

and the quadratic model (regression model type 3)

, (3)

where

In the first step of the spatial interpolation routine, daily precipitation data (PPT) or air temperature data 

(TMAX, or TMIN) are scaled using the ratio of the estimated average monthly precipitation (or air temperature) at 

each active precipitation station and the estimated monthly precipitation (or air temperature) at the grid location 

being interpolated. The monthly estimate for the grid location is obtained using the developed monthly regression 

models for each climate parameter and the estimated elevation of the location being interpolated, as specified by the 

DEM. In the second part of the routine, the interpolated daily value is calculated for the grid location using a 

modified inverse-distance-squared interpolation:

(4)

where

The summation in equation 4 is applied to all 132 climate stations (k=1, 132). Equation 4 is used for all grid 

locations i and for all three climate parameters (PPT, TMAX, and TMIN). Average daily air temperature is 

calculated as the average of the estimated TMAX and TMIN values (Flint and Childs, 1987).

is the estimated monthly climate parameter (daily precipitation [PPT], maximum daily air temperature 

[TMAX], or minimum daily air temperature [TMIN]) for grid location i and month m,

Am, Bm, and Cm are the regression model coefficients for each month m, and

ELEVi is the elevation for grid location i.

is the estimated daily value of PPT, TMAX, or TMIN for day [d] at model grid location i,

is the distance between grid location i and climate station k,

is the monthly estimate for grid location i,

is the monthly estimate for climate station k, and

is the daily climate parameter value of PPT, TMAX, or TMIN at climate station k for day [d].

Em

i Am ELEVi ( ) Cm = +

Em

i Am ELEVi ( )

2

Bm ELEVi = + + ( ) Cm

Em

i

Ed

i 1 DISTk ( )

2

⁄ ⎝ ⎠ ⎛ ⎞ 1 DISTk ( ) ⁄

2

k = 1

132

∑⎝ ⎠ ⎜ ⎟

⎛ ⎞

⁄

E

m

i ( )

E

m

k ( )

-------------- Xd

k ( )

⎩ ⎭ ⎪ ⎪ ⎨ ⎬ ⎪ ⎪ ⎧ ⎫

k = 1

132

= ∑

Ed

i

DISTk

Em

i

Em

k

Xd

k
Model Development 35

DAYDIST

INPUTS

Daily precipitation

Maximum daily air temperature

Minimum daily air temperature

Elevation

Monthly model coefficients

Day number

Grid location

Station location, elevation Loop

through

climate station

network

Modified

inverse-distance

squared

interpolation

Calculate

average

air temperature

OUTPUTS

Precipitation

Maximum air temperature

Minimum air temperature

Average air temperature

Output

Calculate monthly

estimates for grid location

and ratio of monthly

estimate divided by monthly

value for climate station

Figure 15. Subroutine DAYDIST in the INFILv3 model of the Death Valley region, Nevada and California.

DAYDIST, spatial distribution of daily climate parameters
36 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using a Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA

POTEVAP: Potential Evapotranspiration

Potential evapotranspiration is simulated using the subroutine POTEVAP (fig. 16). Input parameters for the 

subroutine include (1) average air temperature, (2) elevation (ELEV), (3) atmospheric parameters ozone [OZONE], 

precipitable water [WP], atmospheric turbidity [BETA], circumsolar-diffuse radiation [CSR], surface reflectivity 

[PG]), (4) blocking ridge angles (RIDGE), (5) skyview reduction factor (SKYVIEW), (6) day number, (7) grid 

location (LAT, LON), (8) slope (SLP), and (9) aspect (ASP). The subroutine contains an hourly time-step loop to 

simulate incoming solar radiation.

POTEVAP

INPUTS

Air temperature

Elevation

Atmospheric parameters

Blocking ridges

Skyview factor

Day number

Grid location

Slope

Aspect Loop

through

daylight

hours

Simulate

incoming

solar

radiation

Estimate

net

radiation

Calculate

Priestley –Taylor

potential

evapotranspitation

Potential

evapotranspiration

Calculate

time of

sunrise

and sunset

Output

Figure 16. Subroutine POTEVAP in the INFILv3 model of the Death Valley region, Nevada and California.

POTEVAP, potential evapotranspiration
Model Development 37

In the INFILv3 model, daily evapotranspiration from each root-zone layer is simulated as an empirical 

function of potential evapotranspiration and water content on the basis of a modified form of the Priestley–Taylor 

equation (Flint and Childs, 1991). In the POTEVAP subroutine, the Priestley–Taylor equation (Priestley and Taylor, 

1972) is used to calculate potential evapotranspiration:

, (5)

where is the latent heat flux, with λ the latent heat of vaporization, and is the rate of potential 

evaporation at grid location i for day d; and α, an empirical coefficient, is determined to be 1.26 for freely 

evaporating surfaces (Priestley and Taylor, 1972; Stewart and Rouse, 1977; Eichinger and others, 1996). The 

available energy is , where is net radiation, and is the soil-heat flux. The slope of the 

vapor density deficit curve, , is derived from the temperature used to convert available energy into 

potential evapotranspiration (Campbell, 1977, table A.3).

To apply the Priestley–Taylor equation (eq. 5), net radiation (Rn) and soil-heat flux (G) were estimated on the 

basis of calculations of solar radiation and soil temperature at Yucca Mountain (Flint and others, 2001a) made using 

a modified form of the solar radiation (SOLRAD) model of Flint and Childs (1987). Potential evapotranspiration 

was calculated on an hourly basis and summed over the period of 1 day to obtain an estimate of total daily potential 

evapotranspiration, which was then used as input for calculating actual evapotranspiration in the root zone.

The SOLRAD model uses detailed site geometry and monthly regional atmospheric properties from the 

National Weather Service (NWS) to calculate daily solar radiation. The atmospheric properties are monthly 

averages for ozone, precipitable water, atmospheric turbidity, circumsolar-diffuse radiation, and surface reflectivity 

(table 3 at back of report). The site geometry includes latitude (LAT), longitude (LON), slope (SLP), aspect (ASP), 

elevation (ELEV), and a set of 36 angles above horizontal used to account for shading effects from surrounding 

ridges that block the sky (blocking ridge angles, RIDGE, and skyview reduction, SKYVIEW) from direct-beam and 

diffuse sky radiation. To model solar radiation, the position of the sun is calculated every hour, starting at sunrise 

each day, using the site location inputs (LAT and LON) and the simulation day number (Flint and Childs, 1987). 

Direct-beam and diffuse sky radiation are calculated using the atmospheric properties and applied to the surface on 

the basis of slope, aspect, and the amount of sky and sun that would be blocked by the surrounding topography. 

Ground-reflected radiation is added to the solar radiation term and is simulated on the basis of the area of the 

surrounding topography, the surface reflectivity, and the direct-beam and diffuse sky radiation that reflects from the 

surrounding topography.

SNOW: Snowfall, Snowmelt, and Sublimation

The occurrence of precipitation as snow is simulated as a simple step-function using average daily air 

temperature, where all precipitation is assumed to be snow when the average daily air temperature is equal to or less 

than 0°C. Daily snowfall is added to the snowpack storage term in the daily water balance. The snowpack storage 

accounts for the amount of water stored in the snowpack and is based on snowfall accumulation and losses from 

sublimation and snowmelt. Snowpack storage is carried over as an antecedent condition for the following day’s 

water-balance calculation. When the average daily air temperature is less than or equal to freezing, the snow cover 

term is reduced by a fraction defined using an assumed sublimation model that calculates sublimation as a 

percentage of potential evapotranspiration and the available water in the snowpack. When the daily maximum air 

temperature is greater than freezing, an empirical temperature-index model is applied using parameters calibrated 

for the Sierra Nevada (Maidment, 1993) to calculate the daily snowmelt, and the snowpack is reduced by this 

amount. Snowmelt for November through April was estimated using

λ PETd

i ( )α S

S + γ ----------- ⎝ ⎠ ⎛ ⎞

d

i

Rn ( )d

i Gd

i = ( ) –

λ PETd

i ( ) PETdi ( )

Rn ( )d

i Gd

i – Rn ( )d

i Gd

i

S S( ) + γ d ⁄ i
38 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using a Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA

, (6)

where is the maximum daily air temperature for day d and M is the daily snowmelt amount. Snowmelt for 

May through October was estimated using

. (7)

ETINFIL: Infiltration, Drainage, Evaporation, and Runoff

The root-zone water-balance calculation incorporates a two-step process to couple surface-water flow with 

the processes of infiltration, drainage, and evapotranspiration. The first step of the root-zone water-balance 

simulation is performed by the ETINFIL subroutine (fig. 17), which consists of (in order of application) the 

following: (1) Initial runoff (runoff and infiltration into the root zone from snowmelt and rainfall [runoff-1]); (2) 

downward drainage and an initial change in storage in all the root-zone layers; (3) evapotranspiration from 

root-zone layers; and (4) net infiltration, total runoff (runoff-2), and final change in storage for all root-zone layers. 

Depending on soil depth, either soil or bedrock saturated hydraulic conductivity is used to calculate an initial 

runoff amount in response to total water inflow from rain and snowmelt. The initial runoff amount represents the 

fraction of water inflow exceeding the soil or bedrock infiltration capacity. An estimate of storm duration is used to 

determine rainfall intensity, with separate estimates used for winter and summer storms (STORMWIN and 

STORMSUM, respectively) (table 3 at back of report). An assumed daily snowmelt duration is used to determine 

snowmelt intensity. The total water inflow rate is compared with the soil or bedrock saturated hydraulic 

conductivity, adjusted for storm duration, to determine the occurrence and magnitude of the initial runoff amount.

Infiltration and Drainage

The governing water balance for the root zone is solved by updating the initial water content of each rootzone layer j using the final water content of the previous day, plus infiltrated run-on, , and then calculating a 

new water content for each root-zone layer based on infiltration across the top of each layer, evapotranspiration 

losses from each layer, downward drainage and drainage out from the bottom of each layer, and contributions to 

runoff from each layer using

, (8)

Md

i 0.96 TMAX i

d = ( ), TMAXd

i

> 0

Md

i = 0, TMAXdi

≤ 0

TMAXd

i

Md

i 1.14 TMAXi = ( ), d TMAXdi

> 0

Md

i = 0, TMAXdi

≤ 0

RIj

i

∆Wj

i RIji Iji DRji – ETji – ROji = + –
Model Development 39

ETINFIL

INPUTS

PET

Rain

Snowmelt

Water content

Surface

infiltration

Loop

through

RZ layers

Loop

through

RZ layers

Calculate

Root-zone

Water

balance

Drainage

Function

Water

Content

change

Calculate

ET-weighting

Factors

ETfunction

Runoff-1

Outputs

Output

Net Infiltration 1

Evapo-transpiration

Runoff-2

Final change in water storage

Figure 17. Subroutine ETINFIL in the INFILv3 model of the Death Valley region, Nevada an California.
40 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using a Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA

where

is simulated after drainage through all layers has been simulated, and is updated. The final is 

calculated by checking the temporary storage terms for each layer used to redistribute excess water upward to the 

overlying layers. The upward redistribution of the temporary storage terms results in the generation of surfacewater runoff when the available storage capacity of overlying layers in the root zone is not sufficient.

Equation 8 is applied successively downward through all the root-zone layers, with net infiltration, NIi, equal 

to drainage for the bottom layer (layer 6), , in equation 8. Downward drainage, , is calculated using a 

modified form of an empirical drainage model presented in Jury and others (1991) for approximating water 

contents in a draining soil profile. In the ETINFIL subroutine, the modified drainage model is applied successively 

to each layer, starting with the top layer and moving down through all soil layers, using the following set of 

equations:

, (9)

where is the initial volumetric water content calculated using

(10)

and is the final volumetric water content calculated using

, (11)

where

(12)

(13)

(14)

(15)

(16)

(17)

is the change in the layer water content for layer j, grid location i;

is infiltrated surface-water run-on from the previous day,

is infiltration into layer j from the layer above,

is drainage through layer j into layer j + 1, 

is evapotranspiration from the layer j based on water content, root-zone parameters and a weighting 

function applied to potential evapotranspiration, and

is the contribution to runoff from layer j.

∆Wj

i

RIj

i

Ij

i

DRj

i

ETj

i

ROj

i

ETj

i ∆Wji ∆Wji

ROj

i

DR6

i DRji

DRj

i VWCAji VWCBji ( ) – THCKji = × × 1 000 ,

VWCAj

i

VWCAj

i GA2ji GTji GC2ji ( ) +

GBi ( ) – = ×

VWCBj

i

VWCBj

i GA2ji GTji ( ) + 1 GC2ji [ ] +

GBi ( ) – = ×

GA2 i

j SPORj

i GN i ( ) + 1

× THCKj

i ( ) × 1, 000 GN i

× SKSj

i [ ] ⁄ ( )

⎩ ⎭ ⎨ ⎬ ⎧ ⎫ 1 GBi ( ) ⁄

=

GTj

i VWCCji GA2ji ( ) ⁄ ( )

1 –GBi ( ) ⁄

GC2j = –

VWCCj SOILMMj

i THCKji = ⁄ ⁄ 1 000 ,

GC2j

i THCKji

× 1 000 , × SPORj

i ( ) GN i SKSji = ⁄ ( ) ×

GBi 1 GN i = ⁄

GN i 2.0 SOILBi = × + 3
Model Development 41

In equations 9 through 17, SOILB i is an input parameter calculated using STATSGO soil texture (tables 2 and 

3 at back of report) for the soil type at grid location i; is layer j thickness at grid location i; is the 

soil saturated hydraulic conductivity for the soil type at grid location i, layer j, (also calculated using STATSGO soil 

texture); is soil porosity for location i (calculated using bulk density data provided by STATSGO and an 

assumed particle density); and is the simulated soil layer water content, expressed as an equivalent 

water depth (in millimeters) for grid location i and layer j. The input parameters and are calculated 

based on the average percentage of sand and clay for each STATSGO MUID and empirical equations from 

Campbell (1985).

For each soil layer j having a thickness greater than 0, equations 9 through 17 define as a potential 

drainage term. Actual drainage is calculated by comparing to the saturated hydraulic conductivity of the 

underlying layer. If is greater than the saturated hydraulic conductivity of the underlying layer, is set 

equal to the saturated hydraulic conductivity of the underlying layer, and the “excess water” is added back to the 

layer j water content. For infiltration and drainage during saturated conditions, the excess water that cannot drain is 

added to a temporary storage term that is used to calculate runoff and the final distribution of water in the root zone 

(following the simulation of evapotranspiration).

For locations that have deep soils (the root zone is underlain by an unconsolidated hydrogeologic unit), the 

thickness of the bedrock layer (root-zone layer 6) is set to 0, and potential drainage through soil layer 5 ( , 

calculated by applying equations 9 through 17) is compared with the saturated hydraulic conductivity of the 

underlying unconsolidated hydrogeologic unit (Quaternary and Tertiary valley fill, Quaternary playa deposits) 

(fig. 11). If the potential drainage for layer 5, , exceeds the saturated hydraulic conductivity of the underlying 

layer, then the actual drainage, net infiltration, is set equal to the saturated hydraulic conductivity, and the excess 

drainage amount is added back to the temporary storage component for layer 5.

For locations that have thin soils, the bottom of the root zone is extended down into the underlying 

consolidated bedrock layer, assuming that roots extend into rock fractures. The thickness of layer 6, the bedrock 

layer for the root zone, is calculated as a function of the overlying soil thickness using

, (18)

where

Net infiltration is drainage through layer 6 and is calculated using

, (19)

where

is the thickness of layer 6, in meters, for location i,

is the maximum thickness for the bedrock layer,

is the estimated soil thickness, (in meters, and 

THCKC is a model coefficient (usually set to 1 or 2).

RKi

LO is the effective bedrock hydraulic conductivity used to represent unsaturated conditions, 

is the water content for the bedrock layer at location j,

is the layer thickness,

RPORi is the effective root-zone porosity for the bedrock layer, and

RKi

HI is the effective bedrock hydraulic conductivity used to represent saturated conditions.

THCKj

i SKSji

SPORj

i

SOILMMj

i

SOILBi SKSj

i

DRj

i

DRj

i

DRj

i DRji

DR5

i

DR5

i

THCK6

i RZDPTH i SOILTHCK i = – ( ) ⁄ THCKC

THCK6

i

RZDPTHi

SOILTHCKi

DR6

i RKi = LO, WC6i THCK6 ×

i

( ) × 1 000 , RPORi THCK6

i

< ( ) × × 1 000 ,

DR6

i RKi = HI, WC6i THCKji ( ) × × 1 000 , RPOR i THCK6i ( ) × × 1 000 , RKi ≥ + HI

WC6

i

THCK6

i
42 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using a Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA

Evapotranspiration

Evapotranspiration from each layer is simulated using a modified form of the Priestley–Taylor equation and 

the updated water contents for each layer calculated by the downward drainage function. The modified Priestley–

Taylor equation relates the empirical coefficient in equation 5, α, to seasonal changes in soil-water content (Davies 

and Allen, 1973; Flint and Childs, 1991). This modified version has been successfully used in arid and semiarid 

environments (de Bruin, 1988; Stannard, 1993). When expressed as a function of soil-water content, α is replaced 

with α′

, (20)

where α, usually set to 1.26, was allowed to vary between 1 and 1.5; β was set to –10.0; and Θ is relative saturation 

defined as

, (21)

where

 is the approximate potential at which desert plants no longer transpire (also referred to as the wilting point, 

SWP).

In the ETINFIL subroutine, the modified form of the Priestley–Taylor equation is used to simulate both baresoil evaporation and plant transpiration. Bare-soil evaporation is simulated from the top two layers of the root zone 

having a non-zero thickness (usually layers 1 and 2) using

, (22)

where is the daily bare-soil evaporation, in millimeters; BSEA (α in eq. 20) was set to 1.04 on the basis of the 

standard value used for bare-soil surfaces; and BSEB (β in eq. 20) was set to –10.0 (Flint and Childs, 1987); 

VEGCOV i

 is the estimated vegetation cover for location i; is relative saturation calculated using equation 21; 

and is the potential evapotranspiration rate (in mm/day) simulated for location i, layer j. Equation 22 is 

applied to the top layer first, and is set equal to (from eq. 5). For the second layer, is 

calculated by subtracting from . Total bare-soil evaporation cannot exceed 

.

Bare-soil evaporation is simulated before transpiration, and thus the total energy available for transpiration, 

, is calculated using 

. (23)

The simulation of transpiration takes into account the root-density weighting factors for each layer, as well as 

the distribution of available water in all the root-zone layers. Starting with the top layer and stepping down through 

the root zone, transpiration from each layer, , is simulated using

, (24)

is soil-water content,

is residual soil-water content SWP for plant transpiration (soil-water content at –60 bars water potential), and

is porosity (SPOR for layers 1 through 5, RPOR for layer 6). 

α′ α 1 e

βΘ = ( ) –

Θ

θ θr ( ) –

θs θr ( ) – = --------------------

θ

θr

θs

θr

BSEj

i BSEA 1 e

BSEB Θj

i ( ) ×

× –

⎩ ⎭ ⎨ ⎬ ⎧ ⎫ 1 VEGCOVi ( ) – PETEj

i = × ×

BSEj

i

Θj

i

PETEj

i

PETE1

i PETdi PETE2i

BSE1

i PETdi BSE1i BSE2i ( ) +

1 VEGCOVi ( ) – PETi×

PETT0

i

PETT0

i VEGCOVi PETi ( ) × BSE1i BSE2i = – ( ) +

ETj

i

ETj

i WGTji {ETA 1 e ETB Θji [ ]} – ( ) × PETTji = × × ×
Model Development 43

where ETA is set to 1.5, ETB is set to –10.0, and the weights are calculated using

(25)

with being the estimated root density terms for the six root-zone layers. In equation 25, the root-density 

terms and the simulated relative saturations are both used to dynamically condition the weighting factors. The rootdensity terms also are used to limit the magnitude of each weighting factor. For the top root-zone layer, is 

set equal to . As equation 25 is applied sequentially down through each layer, the term is adjusted 

using

. (26)

In applying equation 26 to the simulation of transpiration, the transpiration demand is satisfied by first using the top 

root-zone layers. Thus, for a fully saturated root-zone profile, transpiration losses are higher for the top layers. As 

the top layers start drying faster relative to the lower layers, the transpiration rates increase for the lower root-zone 

layers. When the top layers reach the water content defined as the wilting-point (SWP [table 3 at back of report]), 

the total available energy for transpiration is shifted to the lower part of the root zone.

Runoff Generation

During the first step of the ETINFIL algorithm, an initial runoff amount is generated at grid location i

if the snowmelt or rain intensity exceeds a threshold infiltration capacity. The threshold infiltration capacity for soil 

and bedrock is defined using

(27)

where STORM is the assumed duration of precipitation or snowmelt, in hours. If the rain and (or) snowmelt 

intensity exceeds the infiltration capacity or , infiltration into the root zone is set equal to or 

 (depending on soil thickness), and the excess rain and (or) snowmelt is added to the initial runoff amount 

.

The final runoff amount, , is calculated using a redistribution algorithm that steps sequentially through 

all root-zone layers, starting at the bottom and moving up to the top layer. To simulate and the final water 

content of each layer (SOILMMj and ROCKMM i), the storage capacity of each layer is checked against the amount 

of water held in a temporary storage variable for each layer. If the temporary storage variable exceeds the storage 

capacity of the layer, the excess water is added to the overlying layer. The algorithm moves sequentially up 

through the root-zone layers until all excess water held in temporary storage has been redistributed to overlying 

layers that have available storage capacity. If excess water remains after the upward redistribution has reached the 

top soil layer, the excess water is added to the runoff term. The runoff generated by the upward redistribution 

process represents the fraction of in-flowing water that exceeds the storage capacity of the root zone. Total runoff 

 is the sum of the excess root-zone water and the initial runoff calculated as excess rainfall and 

(or) snowmelt.

WGTj

i

WGTj

i Θji RZDENji ( )Θ × ji RZDENji ( ), ×

j = 1

6

= ⁄ ∑ WGTj

i RZDENji ≤

WGTj

i RZDENji WGTji RZDENji = , >

RZDENj

i

PETTj

i

PETT0

i PETTji

PETTj

i PETT i

j – 1 ETj – 1

i = –

RO1

i

ASKSi SKS i = ⁄ ( ) 24 ⁄ STORM

ARKi

HI RKi = ( ) HI ⁄ ( ) 24 ⁄ STORM

ASKSi ARKHI

i ASKSi

ARKHI

i

RO1

i

RO2j

i

RO2j

i

RO2j

i

ROj

i RO2ji RO1ji
44 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using a Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA

SWINFIL: Surface-Water Flow Routing

Using the surface-water routing routine, SWINFIL, the INFILv3 model incorporates the downstream routing 

of runoff and the simulation of surface-water discharge (as total daily discharge) for all days when runoff is 

generated by the ETINFIL routine. During the routing process, surface water is allowed to infiltrate back into the 

root zone (in both soil and bedrock). Surface-water flow is thus coupled to the root-zone water balance by the 

infiltrated run-on component. At each grid cell in the INFILv3 model domain, the surface-water discharge depth is 

equal to the runoff generated at that grid cell, plus run-on routed from upstream grid cells, minus infiltrated run-on. 

The simulated surface-water discharge volume, which can be compared with streamflow records for model 

calibration, is calculated using the discharge depth and the grid cell area of 77,559 m2.

If runoff is generated at any location in the drainage basin grid, SWINFIL is activated; otherwise, the 

simulation steps forward to the next day. The surface-water routing algorithm loops through the drainage basin 

grid, starting with the highest elevation and moving down through the drainage basin grid until the lowest elevation 

in the drainage basin is reached. Using a standard eight-directional (D-8) routine algorithm, runoff from the grid 

cell identified by LOCID is routed as run-on to the grid cell identified by IROUT, with LOCID and IROUT acting 

as pointers to connect upstream and downstream cells. The D-8 routing algorithm represents convergent flow only; 

each grid cell can have only one downstream cell but may have multiple upstream cells. Infiltration losses into the 

root zone are subtracted from the runoff being routed as run-on to the downstream grid cell.

The SWINFIL subroutine (fig. 18) uses a simplified form of the downward drainage algorithm, where 

drainage into the root zone and the underlying layers occurs only when the overlying layer has become fully 

saturated. Drainage from unsaturated layers, which is simulated in ETINFIL, is not simulated in SWINFIL. The 

drainage amount is limited by the saturated hydraulic conductivity of the underlying layer. Evapotranspiration is 

not calculated during surface-water routing, but the change in the water content of each layer j is stored and added 

to the next day’s water-balance calculation as the infiltrated run-on component ( in equation 8 of the ETINFIL 

subroutine). Net infiltration in direct response to the infiltration of surface-water run-on is defined as run-on net 

infiltration and is added to the total daily net-infiltration term. Total infiltration during surface-water routing is 

equal to the sum of infiltrated run-on and run-on net infiltration.

Input parameters used in the surface-water flow-routing algorithm include the upstream and downstream cell 

location identifier, the number of upstream cells, four coefficients used to model the fraction of each grid cell area 

wetted by surface-water run-on, and two coefficients used to scale the soil saturated hydraulic conductivity for grid 

cells in larger stream channels. The fraction of each grid cell area wetted by surface-water run-on is defined by 

(28)

,

RIj

i

FLAREAi CHAN1 UPCELLSi FLOWINi ( ) ×

1 SL2 i ( ) ( ) – ⁄ 2 = + ⁄ CHAN2

CHAN3 UPCELLSi+ – ⁄ 4, FLAREA

i

≤ CHAN4

FLAREAi CHAN4, FLAREAi = > CHAN4
Model Development 45

SWINFIL

INPUTS

Runoff

Routing parameters

Net-infiltration-1

Water content

Loop

through

watershed

Loop

through

watershed

Update

root -zone

water

balance

Initialize

run-on

terms

for all

grid cells

Calculate

inflow,

root-zone

infiltration, and

outflow

Netinfiltration-2

Surface-water

outflow

Infiltrated

run-on

Update

water

contents

Loop

through

watershed

Loop

through

root zone

Calculate

drainage

through

layers

Check

Run-on = 0

Calculate

total discharge

Surface-water

runon

Outputs

Output

Figure 18. Subroutine SWINFIL in the INFILv3 model of the Death Valley region, Nevada and California.

SWINFIL, surface-water flow routing.
46 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using a Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA

where

Using this model, CHAN1 defines the minimum effective flow area, CHAN3 defines the maximum headwater flow 

area, and CHAN4 defines the maximum stream-channel flow area. The headwater flow area is used to represent 

upland areas where overland flow processes are more significant compared with channel flow. For low-flow 

conditions, steep channels, and small upstream areas, the effective flow area is defined by the CHAN1 coefficient. 

The effective flow area increases as a continuous function and approaches or equals the CHAN4 coefficient as the 

surface-water run-on depth increases, the channel gradient decreases, and the number of upstream cells (and thus 

upstream area) increases. To help account for dispersive flow across alluvial fans in the lower sections of the 

drainage basins, the CHAN4 coefficient can be set to a value greater than 1, allowing the effective flow area to be 

greater then the grid cell area.

 The soil saturated hydraulic conductivity for grid location i, SKSi is scaled for stream-channel locations using

(29)

where KSCHN i is the scaled soil saturated hydraulic conductivity. The maximum value for KSCHN i is defined by 

KSCHN3.

The final adjustment to the saturated hydraulic conductivity for soil and bedrock is used to account for the 

simulated wetted area and the estimated flow duration

, (30)

where

The parameter STORM, which is the flow duration in hours, is set equal to the duration of the precipitation 

(STORMSUM for summer precipitation and STORMWIN for winter precipitation). Using equations 28 through 

30, flow duration, wetted area, and channel characteristics are represented in the INFILv3 model by scaling the 

saturated hydraulic conductivity that controls the total amount of infiltration into the root zone. For example, as the 

wetted area increases, the potential channel losses for streamflow increases because the KSCHN i term increases. 

As storm duration decreases, the potential channel losses for streamflow decreases because the effective streamflow 

intensity increases relative to the infiltration capacity of the channel. The RKSi

 term is used to control infiltration 

capacity into the root zone only when soil thickness is less than or equal to 0.1 m, otherwise the infiltration capacity 

into the root zone is controlled by (from eq. 30).

FLAREAi is the effective flow area for grid location i,

CHAN1 is a model coefficient,

CHAN2 is a model coefficient,

CHAN3 is a model coefficient,

CHAN4 is a model coefficient,

UPCELLSi is the number of upstream cells for grid location i,

FLOWINi is the simulated surface-water run-on for grid location i, and

SL2i is the ground-surface slope for grid location i.

KSCHNF i is the final adjusted saturated hydraulic conductivity of the soil, and

RKSi is the final adjusted saturated hydraulic conductivity of bedrock.

KSCHNi SKSi UPCELLSi× , [ ] ( ) – KSCHN1 ⁄ KSCHN2 1 + KSCHNi SKSi = ⁄ ≤ KSCHN3

KSCHNi SKSi× KSCHN3 KSCHNi SKSi = , ⁄ > KSCHN3

KSCHNF i KSCHN i FLAREA i = ( ) × ⁄ ( ) 24 STORM ⁄

RKi

HI FLAREAi = ( ) × ⁄ ( ) 24 STORM ⁄

IKSCHNFi
Model Development 47

Simulation of Net Infiltration

Application of the INFILv3 model consists of running the daily simulation through a continuous multiyear 

period to develop relatively stable estimates of time-averaged net infiltration and potential recharge. Total net 

infiltration is the sum of the direct net infiltration simulated in the ETINFIL subroutine and the surface-water runon net infiltration simulated in the SWINFIL subroutine. The average infiltrated surface-water run-on rate, which is 

the component of runoff that infiltrated back into the root zone during the surface-water flow routing, is also 

calculated from the daily results. The average annual runoff rate minus the average annual infiltrated run-on rate 

equals the average annual outflow rate. The average annual change in the root-zone water content indicates the 

difference between the water content at the beginning of the simulation period (after a specified start-up period) and 

the water content simulated for the last day of the simulation period. The mass-balance check for the simulated 

average-annual water balance terms is given by

, (31)

where

The mass-balance result should be 0.

Drainage Basin Parameters

Topographic Parameters

Parameters developed from the DEM, referred to as topographic parameters (table 3 at back of report), are 

used in the potential evapotranspiration and the surface-water flow-routing subroutines. Topographic parameters 

include slope, aspect, streamflow routing parameters, the skyview parameter, and the 36 blocking ridge parameters. 

Slope and aspect, along with geographic location attributes for the UTM base grid, are calculated using standard 

GIS operations. FORTRAN routines are used to develop routing parameters (Hevesi, 2001), define the streamchannel network, and develop the skyview and blocking ridge parameters (Flint and Childs, 1987). The routing 

parameters consist of upstream and downstream cell identifiers. The upstream cell identifier (LOCID) is defined 

using a sorting routine GRDSORT01, where the DEM is sorted in descending order according to elevation. The 

downstream cell identifier (IROUT) is defined using a modified D-8 flow-routing algorithm, ROUTER03, where 

flow directions are based on the elevations of the eight grid cells adjacent to the grid cell the flow is being routed 

from. The modified D-8 routing algorithm was developed to route flow through depressions in the DEM by 

expanding the D-8 method to laterally scan 20 grid cell layers (rows and columns) beyond the cell being routed 

from when a depression is encountered. Most DEM depressions in the Death Valley region are unwanted artifacts of 

the 278.5 m grid spacing and the DEM resolution, which fails to represent all linear channel features. In addition to 

the flow routing parameters LOCID and IROUT, the input parameter UPCELLS, which indicates the total number 

of upstream cells for all model grid cells (used in equation 28), is also calculated by ROUTER03.

MB i is the mass-balance result at grid location i,

RAIN i is rainfall at grid location i,

MELT i is snowmelt,

IR i is infiltrated run-on,

ET i is evapotranspiration,

∆WCi is the change in water content,

ROi is runoff, and

NI i is net infiltration.

MBi RAINi MELTi IRi ETi – ∆WCi – ROi NIi = = + + – – 0
48 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using a Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA

The 36 blocking ridge angles (RIDGE) are calculated using the SKYVIEW pre-processing routine, where 

SKYVIEW is a modified version of the original algorithm provided in Flint and Childs (1987). The blocking ridge 

angles define the inclination above horizontal for the higher topography surrounding a given grid cell, and are used 

to simulate the effects of shading caused by rugged topography, which can have a significant effect on potential 

evapotranspiration. The blocking ridge angles are calculated for thirty-six 10-degree horizontal arcs (starting with 

north as the 0-degrees azimuth direction), and the cumulative effect of all 36 blocking ridge angles is the reductionin-skyview parameter (SKYVIEW). The SKYVIEW parameter is used to define the total incoming solar radiation 

component in the net-radiation simulation. Calculations in the SKYVIEW preprocessing routine are made using the 

DEM as input and a technique for approximating the 10-degree horizontal angles based on northing and easting 

grid cell distances.

Hydrogeologic Parameters

A generalized hydrogeologic map was used to define the spatial distribution of different rock types (fig. 11) 

over the model grid. The hydrogeologic map is a modified version (Claudia Faunt, U.S. Geological Survey, written 

commun., 2001) of the original hydrogeologic map of the Death Valley region compiled by Faunt and others 

(1997). The spatial distribution of the hydrogeologic units determines the values for saturated hydraulic 

conductivity and root-zone storage capacities assigned to the bottom root-zone layer (layer 6) for all model nodes. 

In the INFILv3 model, the hydraulic conductivities for the consolidated hydrogeologic units are defined using a set 

of high and low values, whereas the hydraulic conductivities for the unconsolidated hydrogeologic units are defined 

using a single value (the high and low values are equivalent). A low value is used to represent matrix permeability, 

and a high value is used to represent the saturated bulk permeability of the fractures and the matrix combined. For 

the INFILv3 models used in this study, the lower conductivities were assumed to be 2 orders of magnitude lower 

than the high conductivity values for model version A, and 3 orders of magnitude lower than the high conductivity 

values for model version B (table 4, at back of report). The higher conductivities were assigned initial values that 

generally were consistent with the values of saturated hydraulic conductivity provided in Bedinger and others 

(1989), D’Agnese and others (1997), and Faunt and others (1997).

Soil Parameters

A major limitation in the preliminary application of INFIL to the Death Valley region was the uncertainty in 

estimates of the soil input parameters required by the model (Hevesi and others, 2002). A primary objective in the 

application of INFILv3 to the Death Valley region was to use existing soil data provided by STATSGO to develop 

an improved set of soil input parameters. STATSGO, a state soils geographic database developed by the Soil 

Conservation Service (U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1994), provides a set of attributes for each MUID mapped 

for each state. In the STATSGO database, each MUID consists of one or more soil components, and each soil 

component consists of one or more soil layers. The database defines the percentage of an area covered by each soil 

component that constitutes a given MUID and the thickness of each layer associated with a given soil component. 

The layer-attribute data available in STATSGO includes layer depth, permeability, bulk density, and soil textural 

data for each of several layers associated with each soil component.

STATSGO GIS files for Nevada and California were compiled into a single continuous GIS coverage for the 

area of the Death Valley DEM. The combined STATSGO coverage provided 149 separate MUIDs for the area of 

the DEM (table 2, at back of report). Soil input parameters required by INFILv3 include soil thickness 

(SOILTHCK), soil porosity (SPOR), wilting-point water content (SWP), saturated hydraulic conductivity (SKS), 

and a drainage curve coefficient (SOILB) representing the relation between water content and unsaturated 

hydraulic conductivity. The soil parameters were estimated for each STATSGO MUID using a weighted averaging 

procedure applied to the layer-attribute data from STATSGO. The calculation uses an area-weighting method for 

averaging the data provided for soil components into a single average value for each MUID. The area-weighting 

calculation was combined with a layer-thickness averaging calculation to process the soil-texture data provided for 

each soil component layer. The calculation allowed for the development of average soil properties for each MUID.
Model Development 49

The developed soil parameters obtained for each MUID using the STATSGO data processing procedure are 

given in table 2 (at back of report). The table includes the average soil texture attributes calculated for each MUID. 

The soil texture illustrates the relatively high percentage of coarse material (gravel, cobbles, and, in some cases, 

rock) along with a very low percentage of clays, which is characteristic of most of the soils in the Death Valley 

region. The soil texture data were used with equations from Campbell (1985) to estimate the drainage curve 

coefficient (SOILB), the wilting-point water content (SWP) for transpiration, and the saturated hydraulic 

conductivity (SKS). Soil porosity (SPOR) was estimated using bulk density data from STATSGO and an estimated 

value of 2.5 for particle density (fig. 19).

Soil thickness (SOILTHCK) was estimated using a combination of data from STATSGO and the 

hydrogeologic map from D’Agnese and others (1997). Average soil depth for the 149 STATSGO MUIDs was 

calculated using the area-weighting averaging of the average soil thickness for each soil component (fig. 20), which 

was calculated by summing the average layer thickness of each layer in the soil component. Soil thickness estimates 

are given in table 2 (at back of report). The location of thick soils (greater than 6 m) was defined by identifying all 

grid cells assigned to the valley fill or playa rock types from the hydrogeology map. The maximum depth of the root 

zone was set equal to 6 m for all locations with thick soils, and the root zone was assumed to be underlain by deep 

alluvium (unconsolidated rock types). 

Vegetation and Root-Zone Parameters

The WESTVEG GAP regional map of vegetation types was used to develop estimates of vegetation cover 

and root density. Vegetation types were grouped into estimated vegetation associations that have similar root-zone 

depths and densities (fig. 21). For example, vegetation types such as subalpine pine, Ponderosa pine, White Fir, 

Juniper, and Pinyon pine were grouped into the coniferous forest association and with a maximum root-zone depth 

of 6 m in soils and 2.5 to 3 m in fractured bedrock (tables 5 and 6, at back of report). Vegetation cover estimated 

using the GAP vegetation type, varied from 0 to 90 percent (fig. 22). For example, Ponderosa pine was estimated to 

have an average vegetation cover of 60 percent whereas Juniper was estimated to have an average vegetation cover 

of 40 percent. The vegetation cover estimate, combined with the maximum root-zone depth estimate, was used to 

estimate root density as a function of depth (tables 5 and 6, at back of report). Vegetation associations with shallow 

root-zone depths, such as grasslands and desert shrubs, were assumed to include some plant types with deeper root 

depths (the mapped vegetation types represent the dominant vegetation types). Root densities of 5 to 10 percent 

were estimated for the deepest soil layer (3 to 6 m deep) and the consolidated rock layer (maximum depth of 0 to 

3.0 m). The root densities for the deepest soil layer and the consolidated rock layer were used to account for the 

contributions of vapor flow and upward gradients to evapotranspiration, and are assumed to be higher than actual 

root densities.
50 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using a Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA

Figure 19. Soil porosity in the Death Valley region, Nevada and California.

Estimated using bulk density data from STATSGO (State Soil Geographic database).
Model Development 51

Figure 20. Soil thickness in the Death Valley region, Nevada and California.

Soil thickness estimated using a combination of data from STATSGO (State Soil Geographic database) and a hydrogeologic map from D’Agnese and others 

(1997).
52 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using a Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA

Figure 21. Estimated vegetation associations in the Death Valley region, Nevada and California.

Estimated from a western region vegetation map developed by the U.S. Geological Survey Gap Analysis Program (WESTVEG GAP).
Model Development 53

Figure 22. Estimated vegetation cover in the Death Valley region, Nevada and California.

Estimated from a western region vegetation map developed by the U.S. Geological Survey Gap Analysis Program (WESTVEG GAP).
54 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using a Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA

Climate Parameters

Daily Precipitation and Air Temperature

Daily precipitation and air-temperature records for 1900 through 1999 were obtained from NOAA/NCDC 

and NOAA Air Resources Laboratory (NTS stations) for a regional network of 132 stations in the southern Nevada, 

Arizona, Utah and southeastern California (fig. 23). All stations used had 9 or more years of record for 

precipitation. Air temperature records were not available for all stations. Station locations and a summary of the 

climate records are given in table 7 (at back of report). The wettest record is for station 75 (Mount San Jacinto WS) 

at an elevation of 2,568 m above sea level, which has an average annual precipitation of 632 mm for 47 years of 

record. The driest record is for station 48 (Greenland Ranch in Death Valley) at an elevation of –51 m above sea 

level (the lowest elevation station), which has an average annual precipitation of 37 mm for 12 years of record. 

Station 101 (South Lake), located at 2,920 m above sea level along the eastern slope of the Sierra Nevada, has the 

highest elevation providing a total elevation range of 2,979 m for the network. The longest record in the network, 

97 years, is for station 87 (Parker). A total of 30 stations have records of at least 50 years, including station 102 (St. 

George) with 70 years, station 86 (Palm Springs) with 70 years, and station 21 (Boulder City) with 66 years.

Monthly Regression Models for Climate

Average monthly precipitation and monthly average maximum and minimum daily air temperature were 

calculated from the daily climate records for each station. Using equations 2 and 3 and the calculated monthly 

averages (for precipitation and maximum and minimum daily air temperature) and station elevations, regression 

models were developed for the three monthly climate parameters: average monthly precipitation, monthly average 

maximum daily air temperature, and monthly- average minimum daily air temperature (table 8, at back of report). 

An example of the data and the regression results for April is given (fig. 24). The monthly air temperature data 

show the expected negative correlations with elevation, whereas the monthly precipitation data show fair to 

marginal positive correlations with elevation. Average monthly precipitation for August did not indicate a 

significant correlation with elevation; a regression model for August was not used in the spatial interpolation of 

daily precipitation data (August precipitation was estimated using the standard inverse-distance-squared 

algorithm). The 11 regression models for monthly precipitation and the 12 models for maximum daily air 

temperature used in the spatial interpolation of the daily climate data are given in figure 25.

Precipitation estimates obtained using the INFILv3 spatial interpolation subroutine and estimates from 

PRISM were evaluated by comparing the estimates with measured precipitation (fig. 26). The INFILv3 estimates 

provided an improved fit to the measured precipitation values, particularly for the higher elevation locations. The 

improved performance of the INFILv3 model probably is the result of the additional precipitation records used for 

INFILv3 (for example, the PRISM model does not incorporate the NTS stations). Although it was determined that 

the INFILv3 spatial interpolation model may provide better estimation accuracy relative to PRISM in terms of 

monthly and annual precipitation amounts in the Death Valley region, the accuracy of the daily precipitation 

estimates was not analyzed. The monthly regression models using the INFILv3 spatial interpolation are not 

necessarily optimized for estimation accuracy because possible outliers were not eliminated, single sample 

populations were assumed, and multiple regressions and data transformations were not explored in developing the 

monthly models.
Model Development 55

Figure 23. Location of daily climate stations in parts of Arizona, California, Nevada, and Utah.

NOAA NWS, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Nation Weather Service 
56 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using a Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA

y = 1E-06x2 + 0.0059x + 2.9628

R2 = 0.6162

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

- 250 250 750 1,250 1,750 2,250 2,750 3,250

Elevation, in meters

Monthly precipitation, in millimeters

y = -0.0083x + 31.207

R2 = 0.96

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

-250 250 750 1,250 1,750 2,250 2,750 3,250

Elevation, in meters

Monthly-average maximum daily air

temperature, in degrees Celsius

A

B

Figure 24. Fitted regression models defining precipitation and daily air temperature for April as functions of elevation in the Death Valley region, Nevada 

and California.

A. Average monthly precipitation. B. Monthly average maximum daily air temperature.
Model Development 57

-10

-5

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

-100 250 650 1,050 1,450 1,850 2,250 2,650 3,050 3,450

Elevation, in m eters

Monthly-average maximum daily air

temperature, in degress Celsius

January

February

March

April

May

June

July

August

September

October

November

December

-10

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

110

120

Monthly precipitation, in millimeters

A

B

Figure 25. Fitted regression models defining monthly precipitation and daily air temperature as functions of elevation in the Death Valley region, Nevada 

and California.

A. Average monthly precipitation. B. Monthly average maximum daily air temperature.
58 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using a Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA

Monthly Atmospheric Conditions

Parameters defining average monthly atmospheric conditions are required inputs for the simulation of net 

radiation in the SOLRAD routine. The required inputs are estimated monthly values of (1) OZONE, ozone layer 

thickness; (2) WP, precipitable atmospheric water; (3) BETA, mean atmospheric turbidity; (4) CSR, circumsolar 

radiation; and (5) PG, surface reflectivity. The model inputs used for this study are given in table 9 (at back of 

report). These parameter values are the same values used in previous applications of INFIL for Yucca Mountain and 

the Death Valley region (Flint and others, 2001a,b; Hevesi, 2002).

Assumptions and Model Limitations

A general assumption applied in this study was that the use of a distributed-parameter watershed model is 

appropriate for estimating net infiltration and potential recharge for the Death Valley region. Although the waterbalance method used in the model required many simplifying assumptions concerning the physics of unsaturated 

0

100

200

300

400

500

0 100 200 300 400

Measured precipitation, in millimeters per year

Simulated precipitation, in millimeters per year

PRISM

1:1 corelation

INFILV3

Figure 26. INFILv3 and PRISM estimates of average annual precipitation with measured precipitation for the Death Valley region, Nevada and California.

INFILv3, net-infiltration watershed model; PRISM, parameter-elevation regressions on independent slopes model. (Modified from Daly and others, 1994)
Model Calibration and Evaluation 59

ground-water flow, this approach allowed for the use of a relatively dense model grid (1,300 rows and 983 

columns). For the scale of the Death Valley region, the grid spacing of 278.5 m provided a detailed representation of 

the spatial distribution of the parameters controlling net infiltration, such as topography, soils, vegetation, and 

bedrock geology. Examples of previous applications of distributed-parameter water-balance models requiring 

similar assumptions for unsaturated flow are documented in Hatton (1998).

Additional assumptions applied to the water-balance calculations were that the process of vapor flow and the 

effects of temperature on water density are negligible relative to other processes and conditions affecting net 

infiltration. Water density was assumed constant so that the governing equations in the water-balance model used to 

calculate net infiltration could be applied as a volume balance rather than as a mass balance. In each grid cell of the 

model domain, water was assumed to drain vertically downward in soil and bedrock; lateral inflow or outflow 

between grid cells was assumed to be 0. Net infiltration was assumed to occur as gravity drainage under a unit 

gradient. The effect of capillary forces on unsaturated flow in the root zone was not included in the model.

The INFILv3 model simulates streamflow originating as runoff and as subsequent overland flow, but it does 

not simulate streamflow originating as baseflow from deep ground-water discharge or as through-flow from 

perched saturated zones that may exist at some locations, such as the alluvium-bedrock contact in washes. Thus, a 

major assumption applied in this method of calibration is that overland flow, generated in response to rainfall or 

snowmelt, is the primary component of streamflow measured in the Death Valley region. Simulation of daily 

streamflow in the INFILv3 model is based on a daily routing algorithm that assumes episodic streamflows with 

durations less than 24 hours. Simulated streamflow either discharges from the drainage basin or infiltrates into the 

root zone in the daily time step. Temporary perched ground-water systems, which may be an important component 

of streamflow and spring discharge in high mountain drainage basins, is not represented by the INFILv3 model. In 

addition, dispersive streamflow, which can be an important characteristic of streamflow and overland flow across 

alluvial fans and basins, is not directly represented in the surface-water flow-routing algorithm. All surface-water 

flow is simulated as convergent streamflow.

Sources of model uncertainty include input parameters such as the hydraulic conductivity of bedrock, soil 

thickness, soil hydrologic properties, parameters used to define stream-channel characteristics, and root density as a 

function of depth. Another source of model uncertainty is the limitations of the model in representing the spatial 

and temporal distribution of precipitation and air temperature using available climate records and in the 

assumptions of storm duration, snowmelt duration, and flow duration.

MODEL CALIBRATION AND EVALUATION

Model calibration was done using an iterative trial-and-error process of fitting simulated streamflow to 

measured streamflow obtained from available records in the Death Valley region. Model evaluation consisted of 

comparing basinwide net-infiltration estimates with previous estimates of basinwide recharge. Overall model 

calibration consisted of an integrated process of fitting simulated streamflow to measured streamflow, evaluating 

the selected model on the basis of basinwide recharge estimates, and then repeating the process of fitting simulated 

streamflow to measured streamflow using the constraints imposed by the model evaluation results. For model 

calibration, historical streamflow records were compiled for 31 stream-gaging sites in the Death Valley region (figs. 

27 and 28; table 10 at back of report). Most of the gaging sites are within the boundary of the DVRFS. Several sites 

located well outside of the DVRFS, such as the Darwin Creek near Darwin (map code DC, gage 10250800) and the 

Caruthers Creek near Ivanpah, Calif. (map code CC, gage 10252550) sites, were also included in the model 

calibration to increase the number of records used and the range of soil, bedrock, and vegetation types represented 

in the calibration. For the model evaluation, estimates of basinwide net infiltration were developed and compared 

with previous estimates of basinwide recharge for 42 selected hydrographic areas and subareas in the Death Valley 

region (fig. 4; table 1), and with a previous estimate of total recharge for the DVRFS obtained by calibrating a 

ground-water flow model to measured water levels and estimated discharge (D’Agnese and others, 2002).
60 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using a Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA

Figure 27. Location of stream gaging sites and drainage basin areas used in the calibration of the INFILv3 model of the Death Valley region, Nevada and 

California.

Only partial listing of gages is provided in legend.
Model Calibration and Evaluation 61

Figure 28. Location of stream gaging sites and drainage basin areas in the upper Amargosa River drainage basin and the area of the Nevada Test Site, 

Death Valley region, Nevada and California.
62 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using a Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA

Both the calibration and the evaluation procedures consisted of calculating goodness-of-fit values for the 

average estimation error, the standardized mean square error, and the Pearson correlation coefficient, and then 

qualitatively comparing results for different sets of model input parameters. The criteria used for evaluating the 

results using the goodness-of-fit statistics were subjective and based on minimizing the values for the average 

estimation error and the standardized mean square error, while maximizing the value of the correlation coefficient. 

Quantitative statistical tests were not applied to accept or reject models. The average estimation error (AEE) was 

calculated using

, (32)

where

The average estimation error was used to indicate bias in estimated values, with higher absolute values indicating 

greater bias.

The standardized mean square error (SMSE) was calculated using

, (33)

(34)

where the parameters Zl* and Zl are the same as for the average estimation error, and ZVAR is the sample variance 

for the measured parameter. The standardized mean square error provides an indication of the goodness-of-fit 

between the estimated and the measured values, with smaller values indicating better results. Values of less than 1 

indicate that the estimates provide an improved fit to measured values relative to the sample mean.

The Pearson correlation coefficient (CC) is a measure of linear association (Maidment, 1993). The Pearson 

correlation coefficient was calculated using

, (35)

where

Positive values for CC indicate a positive correlation between estimated and measured pairs. Absolute values for 

CC range from 0.0 to 1.0, with a value of 0.0 indicating no correlation and a value of 1.0 indicating perfect 

correlation. For sample sizes greater than 30, a CC value of 0.50 or higher indicates a fair to strong positive 

correlation. The closer the value of CC to 1.0, the better the correlation between the simulated and measured 

parameter.

Zl

* is the estimated parameter,

Zl is the measured parameter,

l is the index for 1 to n pairs of estimated and measured values, and 

n is the number of measured values.

is the sample mean for the simulated parameter (total discharge, maximum discharge, or number of days with streamflow), and

is the sample mean for the measured parameter.

AEE

l = 1

n

∑ Zl ( )∗ Zl = ( ) – ⁄ n

SMSE

l = 1

n

∑ Zl

∗ Zl ( ) –

2

ZVAR = ⁄

CC

l = 1

n

∑ Zl

∗ Z

ˆ∗ ( ) – Zl Z

ˆ ( ) – Zl

∗ Z

ˆ∗ ( ) – 2

Zl Z

ˆ ( ) – 2

[ ]

0.5

= ⁄

Z

ˆ∗

Z

ˆ
Model Calibration and Evaluation 63

Model Fitting

Model parameters adjusted in the process of fitting models to streamflow measurements and estimates of 

basinwide recharge included bedrock hydraulic conductivity, root densities, winter and summer storm duration, 

wetted area for stream channels, and the hydraulic conductivity of soils for stream channels. Adjustments to these 

parameters were done manually using a trial-and-error process of model fitting. Additional parameters that were 

adjusted during model calibration and evaluation included coefficients affecting sublimation and snowmelt rates 

and factors affecting potential evapotranspiration, such as the time step in the solar radiation model (either a 1- or 2-

hour time step was used). Simulation results were less sensitive to these parameters.

Differences in the input parameters used for four models selected to help illustrate results for model 

calibration and evaluation are given in table 11 at back of report. With the exception of the model differences, all 

other model inputs were identical for the four selected models. Calibration and evaluation results for these models 

illustrate model sensitivity to stream-channel characteristics, bedrock hydraulic conductivity, storm duration, and 

root densities. Model 2 is identical to model 1, except that streamflow was decoupled from the root-zone 

component, and all runoff was discharged to playas or to downstream drainage basins. The purpose of decoupling 

the streamflow component was to evaluate the effect of streamflow on basinwide net infiltration and to determine 

the maximum streamflow that could be simulated for a given set of model inputs.

Differences between model 1 and model 3 include a slight reduction in the sublimation rate parameter 1 

SUBPAR1 (0.4 and 0.35, respectively), a decrease in storm duration (from 2 hours to 1 hour for summer storms and 

from 12 hours to 8 hours for winter storms, respectively), a decrease in bedrock saturated hydraulic conductivity 

(refer to table 4 for differences in bedrock properties rock parameters input file B, used in model 3, relative to 

bedrock properties input file A, used in model 1), a decrease in the stream-channel wetted area, and a decrease in 

stream-channel hydraulic conductivity for soils. The decrease in storm duration has the effect of increasing 

precipitation intensity because the total daily precipitation input is not changed. In general, the changes in 

parameters for model 3 results in an increased tendency to generate runoff, a decreased tendency for infiltration of 

surface water, and a decreased tendency for net infiltration.

The parameters used in model 4 are similar to those used for model 3, except storm duration is set back to 2 

hours for summer storms and 12 hours for winter storms, the sublimation coefficient is set back to 0.4, and the solar 

radiation subroutine uses a 1-hour time step. An important difference in model 4 relative to all other models is the 

use of root-zone coefficients input file B (refer to tables 5 and 6 for differences between root-zone coefficients input 

files A and B), which uses higher root densities in the lower layers of the root zone.

Comparison of Simulated and Measured Streamflow

To simulate the daily streamflows used in model calibration, calibration watershed models were developed to 

represent the drainage basin upstream of each gaging site (figs. 27 and 28; table 10). The models were defined by 

the surface-water flow-routing parameters developed using the 278.5-meter DEM. The accuracy of these models in 

representing the true drainage basin upstream of a given gaging site was limited by the accuracy of the DEM in 

capturing the true stream-channel network. To assess that accuracy, the drainage basins of the calibration models 

were compared with the NWIS-documented drainage basins available for most of the gages (table 10). Except for 

the drainage basins of two gages, the basins in the model showed a good comparison with the NWIS-documented 

drainage basins. For example, the basin of the model upstream of the Amargosa River at Tecopa gaging site (map 

code ART, gage 10251300) is 8,185.9 km2, which is in satisfactory agreement with the NWIS-documented basin 

area of 8,000 km2. The two models with the greatest relative discrepancy between the drainage basin model area 

and the NWIS-documented drainage basin area were the Stockade Wash unnamed tributary site (map code SWUT, 

gage 10251248) and the Fortymile Wash above East Cat Canyon site (map code FMCC, gage 10251242). In 

general, the accuracy of the model in representing the drainage-basin characteristics upstream of a gaging site 

decreases with decreasing drainage-basin area.
64 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using a Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA

The simulation periods used to develop the simulated daily streamflows included a model start-up period of 

at least 3 years prior to the beginning date of the streamflow record being used for calibration. The start-up period 

was needed to reduce the uncertainty in the estimated initial root-zone water contents required by the model. In all 

cases, the initial soil-water content was set to 20 percent greater than the wilting-point water content for all soil 

layers, and the initial rock-layer water content was set to 0. 

Comparison of simulated and measured streamflow consisted of calculating a set of streamflow parameters 

from the simulated and recorded time series of daily streamflow, and then calculating the calibration statistics using 

the streamflow parameters. The parameters included (1) total discharge for the entire period of record, (2) the 

number of days having measured flow, (3) maximum daily discharge, (4) annual (water year) discharge, (5) 

monthly discharge, (6) streamflow discharge, and (7) daily discharge. Streamflow (or flow) discharge was defined 

in this study as any period of consecutive daily measured streamflow above an estimated baseflow. Flow discharge 

is the total measured or simulated discharge volume for the flow period. To calculate streamflow parameters 

considered representative of the overland flow component of the hydrograph, a uniform (constant) daily baseflow 

discharge volume was estimated for the daily discharge records having an identifiable baseflow component. To 

remove the baseflow component, daily discharge was set to 0 for all days in a given streamflow record having daily 

discharge volumes equal to or less than the estimated base flow. For all days having a discharge volume greater than 

the estimated base flow, the base flow volume was subtracted from the discharge volume. 

Estimates of a uniform baseflow rate (or daily discharge volume) were based on a subjective visual analysis 

of hydrographs of daily mean discharge to identify the baseflow component of the hydrograph. For example, the 

hydrograph for the Salt Creek near Stovepipe Wells gaging site (map code SC, gage 10251100) indicates a welldefined seasonal baseflow component, with a mean total daily discharge ranging from about 100 to 3,000 m3

(fig. 29). Superimposed on the baseflow component is an overland-flow component, with several larger flows 

having a total daily discharge in the range of 10,000 to 100,000 m3. To use this record for model calibration, an 

estimated daily baseflow rate of 3,000 m3/d was assumed. This baseflow component was subtracted from the 

streamflow record (negative results were set to 0), and only flows with a daily discharge greater than 3,000 m3/d 

were considered in the comparison of simulated and measured streamflow. 

The simulated daily streamflow for the Salt Creek gaging site obtained using model 1 is shown in figure 29. 

Although the general frequency of simulated streamflow seems reasonable compared with measured streamflow, 

the model overestimates daily streamflow by as much as 2 orders of magnitude for many of the streamflow 

estimates. For the Salt Creek drainage basin in the northern part of Death Valley, the spatial coverage of historical 

daily climate records is poor, and uncertainty in the estimated spatial distribution of daily climate inputs is high 

relative to that for other areas in the Death Valley region, such as the NTS. For this reason, application of a 

watershed model to predict daily streamflow at this gaging site was problematic. Although the Salt Creek 

streamflow record was more difficult to use owing to the baseflow component observed in the daily hydrograph, the 

primary model limitation for this drainage basin is the poor coverage of daily climate records. Other drainage 

basins for which calibration to daily streamflow records was difficult because of the sparsity in the coverage of 

climate stations include Darwin Creek near Darwin (map code DC, gage 10250800) and Wildrose Canyon near 

Wildrose station (map code WC, gage 10250600), both in Panamint Valley.
Model Calibration and Evaluation 65

Additional model limitations in simulating streamflow were taken into account when comparing simulated 

and measured streamflow. For the calibration basins representing the larger area drainage basins, such as the Salt 

Creek drainage basin upstream of the Salt Creek near Stovepipe Wells gaging site (map code SC, gage 10251100) 

in the northern part of Death Valley, and the Amargosa River drainage basin upstream from the Amargosa River at 

Tecopa gaging site (map code ART, gage 10251300), streamflow originating from storms in the headwater area of 

the drainage basins is likely to take longer than 24 hours to reach the gaging site. For smaller calibration basins 

representing the smaller area drainage basins, such as the drainage basins upstream of gages such as the Lee 

Canyon near Charleston Peak gage (map code LC, gage 09419610), the Wildrose Canyon near Wildrose Station 

gage (map code WC, gage 10250600), and Caruthers Creek near Ivanpah, Calif. gage (map code CC, gage 

10252550), periods of streamflow may be attenuated by shallow perched systems that distribute precipitation from 

relatively short storms (1 to 2 days) as sustained streamflow over a much longer duration (30 to 60 days). For these 

drainage basins, differences in the timing and duration of simulated streamflow compared with measured 

streamflow was expected. For example, a 1- or 2-day difference in the timing between simulated and measured 

streamflow at gaging sites such as ART and SC was considered reasonable. Comparison of total storm discharge, 

100

1,000

10,000

100,000

1,000,000

10,000,000

Jan. 1974 Jan. 1977 Jan. 1980 Jan. 1983 Jan. 1986 Jan. 1989

Date

Daily mean discharge, in cubic meters

Measured Estimated baseflow Simulated

EXPLANATION

Figure 29. Measured and simulated daily discharge at the Salt Creek near Stovepipe Wells stream gage, Death Valley, California.

Map code SC, gage 10251100.
66 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using a Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA

rather than daily discharge, was used to help account for model limitations in representing real-time streamflow as 

daily mean discharge for a diverse set of drainage systems. Although numerous streamflow records for peak flow 

are available for the Death Valley region, these data were not included in model calibration because of the 

limitations of the model in representing real-time peak streamflow using a simplified daily routing process.

Streamflow Frequency

Streamflow frequency was calculated as the number of days that had simulated or measured streamflow. 

Streamflow frequency was used to assess whether a given model overpredicted or underpredicted occurrences of 

streamflow. The results in table 12 (at back of report) indicate the total number of days that had measured 

streamflow for the 31 gages used in model calibration. Estimates of baseflow were subtracted from the records of 7 

of the 31 gages (Amargosa River at Tecopa [map code ART, gage 10251300], Amargosa River at Highway 127 near 

California–Nevada line [map code AR127, gage 10251259], Salt Creek near Stovepipe Wells [map code SC, gage 

10251100], Amargosa River at Beatty [map code ARAB, gage 10251217], Darwin Creek near Darwin [map code 

DC, gage 10250800], Lovell Wash near Blue Diamond [map code LW, gage 10251980], and Caruthers Creek near 

Ivanpah, Calif. [map code CC, gage 10252550]). For the adjusted records, Amargosa River at Tecopa [map code 

AR127, gage 10251259] and Caruthers Creek near Ivanpah, Calif. [map code CC, gage 10252550] have the highest 

frequency of daily streamflow.

Comparison of the calibration statistics for the four models indicates that models 1, 3, and 4 are similar in 

predicting streamflow and that model 3 provides slightly better results relative to models 1 and 4 based on lower 

AEE and SMSE values. All three models tend to underpredict streamflow frequency. This may indicate that, even 

though an attempt was made to remove the baseflow component from the streamflow records, baseflow may still be 

present in many of the records. In contrast, model 2, which does not allow runoff to infiltrate during routing, tends 

to overpredict streamflow frequency by an average of 107 days per gage.

Total Discharge

Simulated total discharge for 31 calibration drainage basins was compared with measured total discharge to 

assess whether a given model overpredicted or underpredicted the total discharge volume being routed downstream 

to playas (fig. 30; table 13, at back of report). Accuracy in predicting total discharge for multiyear periods was 

considered important for assessing the regional water balance and for increasing confidence in the estimates of 

long-term average basinwide net infiltration. A maximum total discharge of 71,543,027 m3/d was recorded for the 

Amargosa River at Tecopa gage (map code ART, gage 10251300), and a minimum total discharge of 0 was 

recorded for the Wheaton Wash near Mountain Pass gage (map code WW, gage 10252330). Calibration statistics 

for total discharge indicate that model 4 provides the best match to measured streamflow in terms of SMSE, 

whereas model 1 provides the best match in terms of AEE. Model 1 tends to underpredict streamflow, as indicated 

by an AEE value of –470,271 m3, and models 2, 3, and 4 tend to overpredict streamflow.
Model Calibration and Evaluation 67

Maximum and Average Daily Discharge

Comparison of simulated and measured maximum daily discharge provides a better indication of whether 

reasonable daily discharge magnitudes are being simulated, relative to comparisons made using total discharge. 

Maximum measured and simulated streamflow values are given in table 14 (at back of report). The maximum daily 

discharge values for measured streamflow range from 3,659,997 m3 for the Amargosa River at Tecopa gage (map 

code ART, gage 10251300) and 1,338,326 m3 for the Amargosa River at Highway 95 below Beatty gage (map code 

AR95, gage 10251218) to 196 m3 for the Yucca Lake 02 2415 gage (map code YL (YL02), gage 10247902) and 

6,361 m3 for Wren Wash at Yucca Mountain (map code WREN, gage 102512536). The simulated streamflow 

shows a better comparison to the intermediate and smaller drainage basins in terms of predicting maximum daily 

streamflow, and models 1 and 4 perform better than models 2 and 3. For the larger drainage basins such as the 

Amargosa River at Tecopa gage drainage basin, the INFILv3 models overpredicted maximum daily discharge by at 

least 1 order of magnitude; model 1 provided the closest match with a simulated daily discharge of 37,389,028 m3. 

The cause of this discrepancy partly can be attributed to limitations in simulating real-time streamflow (streamflows 

at the Amargosa River at Tecopa gage tend to have durations longer than 24 hours) because processes causing 

attenuation of flood waves moving downstream along the Amargosa River drainage basin are not represented by the 

Measured total discharge, in cubic meters

Simulated total discharge, in cubic meters

Model 1

Model 2

Model 3

Model 4

1:1 correlation

0.1

0.1

10

10

1,000

1,000

100,000

100,000

10,100,000

10,100,000

1,000,100,000

1,000,100,000

Figure 30. Measured and simulated total discharge at 31 stream gages using INFILv3 models 1–4 of the Death Valley region, Nevada and California.
68 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using a Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA

INFILv3 model. Overall, model 1 provides the lowest AEE and SMSE values relative to the other models. All 

models show a good positive correlation of 0.74 or 0.75 with measured maximum daily streamflow, following the 

expected trend of increasing discharge magnitudes with increasing drainage area.

Average daily storm discharge, calculated as total measured or total simulated discharge divided by the total 

number of days with measured or simulated discharge, also follows an expected trend of increasing average daily 

discharge with increasing drainage basin area, although the simulated discharge shows a stronger correlation to 

drainage basin area than measured discharge (fig. 31). All models show a somewhat better comparison to measured 

average daily storm discharge for the smaller drainage basins. The larger drainage basins seem to indicate a higher 

variability in average storm discharge. For example, the INFILv3 model representing the drainage basin for the 

Yucca Lake 02 2415 gage has a relatively large area, (approximately 788 km (table 10, at back of report), but the 

second lowest average storm discharge, 122 m3/d. Complicating this analysis is the effect of record length; the 

Yucca Lake gages have the shortest records and thus may not provide a representative sample of streamflow for 

these drainage basins. 

Annual Discharge

Comparison of simulated annual discharge for models 1 and 2 with measured annual discharge showed that 

both models predict streamflow when no streamflow was measured and fail to predict streamflow when streamflow 

was measured (fig. 32). Adjusting the model coefficients to decrease or increase the simulated streamflows did not 

necessarily improve model fit, as indicated by the comparison of simulated values for models 1 and 2 (model 1 

tends to underpredict streamflow, whereas model 2 strongly overpredicts streamflow). Analysis of the simulated 

and measured annual discharge for the Salt Creek near Stovepipe Wells and the Amargosa River at Tecopa gaging 

sites indicates better performance by model 1 in predicting annual streamflow and in providing a general match 

between simulated and measured values for the Salt Creek near Stovepipe Wells record (fig. 33). Although model 2 

overpredicted discharge for many of the water years at both stream gages, it predicted the occurrence of streamflow 

better than model 1 at the Amargosa River at Tecopa gage. A primary limitation of the INFILv3 models for 

simulating the streamflow record at both stream-gage sites is the uncertainty in channel characteristics. Additional 

limitations include a variable baseflow component in the daily hydrograph and limited coverage in daily climate 

data for the remote mountain ranges along the western side of the basin (the eastern side of Death Valley).

Monthly Discharge

The results of the calibration statistics indicate that model 1 provides the best fit between measured and 

simulated monthly streamflows on the basis of lower AEE and SMSE values relative to those for the other models 

(table 14 at back of report). The correlation between measured and simulated streamflow is stronger for models 2 

and 3 compared with that for models 1 and 4 (table 15, at back of report). Model 2 had the highest correlation 

coefficient of 0.71, whereas model 1 had a marginal correlation of 0.50. Model 3 had the best results in terms of 

predicting streamflow frequency; it simulated an average of 0.24 days per month of streamflow compared with the 

measured average of 0.61 days per month. The scatter plot of simulated monthly discharge using INFILv3 model 1 

in relation to measured monthly discharge indicates a fair correlation for those months during which streamflow 

was both measured and simulated (fig. 34). The comparison of monthly discharge with measured discharge showed 

that for many of the months, the model predicted streamflow when no streamflow was measured and failed to 

predict streamflow when streamflow was measured. Improving model performance to successfully predict the 

occurrence (or absence) of streamflow for all months at all gaging sites will likely require improvements in the 

accuracy of the daily climate inputs.
Model Calibration and Evaluation 69

0.1

1

10

100

1,000

10,000

100,000

1,000,000

10,000,000

100,000,000

0.1 1 10 100 1,000 10,000

Drainage area, in kilometers

Average daily storm discharge, in cubic meters

Model 1

Model 2

Model 3

Model 4

Measured

Figure 31. Measured and simulated average daily storm discharge in relation to drainage basin area for the Death Valley region, Nevada and California.
70 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using a Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA

Flow Discharge

Flow discharge was defined as the accumulated discharge volume for a continuous sequence of measured and 

simulated daily discharge. The objective of comparing total flow discharge with measured streamflow was to help 

mitigate some of the difficulties encountered in the direct comparison of daily discharge, such as model limitations 

in representing real-time streamflow for larger drainages and in the attenuation of flood waves.

Out of a total of 108,229 days of record, 2,102 days had measured streamflow, which is approximately three 

times greater than the number of days with simulated streamflow (ranging from 624 days for model 1 to 847 days 

for model 3) using INFILv3 models that allow infiltration of run-on into the root zone (table 16, at back of report). 

As indicated by results for model 2, when run-on is not allowed to infiltrate into the root zone, the number of days 

having simulated streamflow increases to 5,508. This shows fairly high model sensitivity to parameters controlling 

infiltration along stream channels, such as the adjusted hydraulic conductivity that represents soils in channels and 

the wetted area factor that represents the area of each grid cell covered by the run-on volume.

1.E -01

1.E+01

1.E+03

1.E+05

1.E+07

1.E+09

1.E - 01 1.E+01 1.E+03 1.E+05 1.E+07

Measured annual discharge, in cubic meters

Simulated annual discharge, in cubic meters

Measured

Model 1

Model 2

Figure 32. Measured and simulated annual discharge for INFILv3 models 1 and 2 for the Death Valley region, Nevada and California.
Model Calibration and Evaluation 71

1

10

100

1,000

10,000

100,000

1,000,000

10,000,000

100,000,000

1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988

Annual discharge, in cubic meters

measured model 1 model 2

Salt Creek near

Stovepipe Wells

Water year A

EXPLANATION

1,000

10,000

100,000

1,000,000

10,000,000

100,000,000

1,000,000,000

1962 1967 1972 1977 1982 1987 1992 1995

Annual discharge, in cubic meters

measured model 1 model 2

Water year

Amargosa River at Tecopa

B

EXPLANATION

Figure 33. Measured and simulated annual discharge at selected stream gages in Death Valley, California.

A, Salt Creek near Stovepipe Wells. B, Amargosa River at Tecopa.
72 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using a Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA

Calibration based on total flow discharge showed many of the same limitations encountered when comparing 

simulated and measured monthly and daily streamflow. Calibration results for many of the smaller drainage basins, 

such as Lee Canyon near Mount Charleston (map code LC, gage 09419610), Wildrose Canyon near Wildrose 

Station (map code WC, gage 10250600), and Lovell Wash near Blue Diamond (map code LW, gage 10251980), 

were strongly dependent on the accuracy of the daily climate data in representing storms. In addition, model 

calibrations were more difficult for the smaller drainage basins in the more remote mountainous terrain because of 

the prevalence of streamflow from localized high-intensity summer storms. For many of these smaller drainage 

basins, streamflow from summer thunderstorms was the dominant component of the hydrograph record; therefore, a 

successful calibration was dependent on assumptions concerning precipitation intensity, as well as the limitations in 

the coverage and density of the daily climate records. Higher resolution precipitation data (such as hourly or 15-

minute precipitation totals) are needed for a more successful calibration.

Measured monthly discharge, in cubic meters

Simulated monthly discharge, in cubic meters

Model 1 simulated discharge

1:1 correlation

0.1

0.1

10

10

1,000

1,000

100,000

100,000

10,000,000

10,000,000

1,000,000,000

Figure 34. Monthly discharge simulated using INFILv3 model 1 and measured monthly discharge for the Death Valley region, Nevada and California.
Model Calibration and Evaluation 73

Because of the numerous limitations affecting model calibration based on streamflow records, the selection 

of a set of model parameters defining a calibrated model was based on a combination of qualitative and quantitative 

considerations. A primary consideration in the selection of an appropriate set of model parameters for estimating 

winter and summer storm durations, stream-channel characteristics, root-zone depths and densities, and bedrock 

properties was that the selected model did not consistently overestimate or underestimate the total discharge 

volume. The greatest general difficulty encountered in developing a simultaneous calibration to all 31 streamflow 

records using a consistent set of model parameters was that streamflow often was simulated during periods when no 

streamflow was measure or that no streamflow was simulated during periods when streamflow was measured.

Calibration results indicated that INFILv3 model 1 provides the best overall fit to the measured streamflow in 

the Death Valley region, and model 2 provides the poorest overall fit. Model 4 also provided a satisfactory 

calibration result and, in some cases, indicates improved model performance relative to model 1. For example, 

model 4 provides a reasonable fit (within a factor of 3) to measured total discharge for several gaging sites in the 

upper Amargosa drainage basin (AR95, ARAB, and FMAV), and a good fit for the ART gaging site in the lower 

Amargosa drainage basin (simulated total discharge of 78,525,258 m3/d compared with a measured total discharge 

of 71,543,027 m3/d) (table 13 at back of report). Model 2, which does not allow surface water run-on to infiltrate 

into soil or bedrock during the routing process, overestimates discharge by approximately 1 order of magnitude. In 

some cases, however, streamflow frequency is better predicted using model 2 relative to the other models. Model 3, 

which tends to overpredict streamflow by a factor of 3 to 5, also tends to provide improved predictions of the 

frequency and occurrence of streamflow relative to the predictions of models 1 and 4. For the purpose of estimating 

net infiltration and potential recharge and for simulating basinwide water balances, model performance based on 

predicting streamflow magnitude was considered more important than model performance based on streamflow 

frequency and occurrence.

Simulation of Net Infiltration, 1950–99 

The INFILv3 model was used to simulate daily net infiltration for water years 1950 to 1999. The start date 

for the simulation was specified as October 1, 1947, using an assumed initial water content for soil layers 20 

percent greater than the wilting-point water content for each soil type. The initial root-zone water content for the 

bedrock layer was set to 0. Results for water years 1947–49 were not included in the calculation of the average 

annual rates for the components of the water balance. The 3-year start-up period was assumed adequate for 

minimizing the effect of the assumed initial conditions on the calculated 50-year averages.

Watershed Model Domains for the Death Valley Region

Model simulations were done using a set of 61 separate INFILv3 model domains, or drainage basin modeling 

areas, referred to in this section as watershed model domains (fig. 35; table 17, at back of report). The separate 

watershed model domains are defined by the simulated surface-water drainage-basin network and generally 

coincide with the surface-water flow divides represented by the boundaries of the hydrographic areas (fig. 4; table 

1). Most of the 61 watershed model domains represent closed systems in terms of surface-water flow. Surface-water 

outflow from these closed systems is contained within the model domain area and represents discharge to playas at 

the lowest elevation grid cell. Outflow is assumed to contribute to temporary playa lakes, and all water to these 

lakes is assumed to evaporate. For some model domains, such as Beatty Wash 1 (map no. 6) and Las Vegas Valley 1 

(map no. 31), outflow is distributed to the downstream model domain. These smaller domains (Beatty Wash 1 

consists of only 119 grid cells, and Las Vegas Valley 1 consists of only 8 grid cells) define subbasins and grid cell 

clusters that were isolated sections of larger drainage-basin systems and were not initially included with the larger 

system because of limitations in the automated procedure used to extract watershed domains from the numerically 

generated drainage network. For several larger closed basins, such as Death Valley, Panamint Valley, and Pahrump 

Valley, the multiple watershed model domains discharge into a single playa. The composite area of the 61 

watershed model domains defines the INFILv3 model area for the Death Valley region and extends beyond the area 

of the DVRFS.
74 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using a Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA

Figure 35. Watershed model domains used for 50-year simulations of the INFIILv3 model of the Death Valley region, Nevada and California.
Model Calibration and Evaluation 75

Basin characteristics for the 61 watershed model domains (table 17) range from a maximum average 

elevation of 1,978 m for Fish Lake Valley 0 (map no. 18) to a minimum average elevation of 612 m for Death Valley 

1 (map no. 15). The Saline Valley watershed model domain (map no. 54) is characterized by rugged topography 

which has an average slope of 10.9 degrees and maximum slope of 43.1 degrees, as compared with domains such as 

Cactus Flat 0 (map no. 7) which has an average slope of 2.0 degrees and a maximum slope of 20.1 degrees. The 

average soil thickness of all the soil layers ranges from a maximum of 6.0 m for small domains in the central part of 

basins, such as Alkali Springs Valley 2 (map no. 4) and Las Vegas Valley 1 (map no. 31), to a minimum thickness of 

0.69 m for Beatty Wash (map no. 6), a small upland watershed model domain along the western boundary of the 

NTS.

 Twenty nine of the watershed model domains consist of more than 10,000 grid cells. The largest watershed 

model domain is defined by the Amargosa River Basin; it consists of more than 200,000 cells. The total 77,065 km2

area of the INFILv3 model (61 watershed model domains) used for the 50-year simulation consists of 993,635 

model cells. Results of the 61 separate model runs were combined using a postprocessing routine to develop a 

composite set of model results for the entire INFILv3 model area. The combined results were further developed as 

raster-based map images using GIS applications; the results were used for evaluating spatial distributions.

Simulation Results for Watershed Modeling Domains

Results of the INFILv3 model simulations include the basinwide average annual water-balance components 

and the daily time series for all water-balance components. Results of the 1950–99 simulation for INFILv3 model 1 

are given in table 18 (at back of report). Simulated average daily air temperatures range from 19.4°C for the Death 

Valley 1 watershed model domain (map no. 15) to 8.3 °C for Fish Lake Valley 0 (map no. 18). Simulated 

precipitation ranges from 289.6 mm/yr for Railroad Valley North 2 (map no. 48) to 120.3 mm/yr for Death Valley 1 

(map no. 15). Railroad Valley North 2 also has the greatest simulated snowfall (102.4 mm/yr). Maximum total net 

infiltration rates include 6.35 mm/yr for Coyote Valley 0 (map no. 12), 7.51 mm/yr for Pahrump Valley 0 (map no. 

43), 8.35 mm/yr for Railroad Valley North 2 (map no. 48), and 8.7 mm/yr for Saline Valley (map no. 54). Maximum 

runoff rates include 8.74 mm/yr for Beatty Wash 1 (map no. 6), 7.53 mm/yr for Death Valley 3 (map no. 17), 

7.56 mm/yr for Groom Lake 0 (map no. 21), 9.52 mm/yr for Panamint Valley 1 (map no. 37), and 9.68 mm/yr for 

Railroad Valley North 2 (map no. 48) (fig. 35).

The infiltrated run-on results indicate the average annual rate of surface-water infiltration into the root zone 

during the downstream routing process. For a given drainage basin, this component of the water balance can equal 

but cannot exceed the runoff generation rate. Surface-water outflow is equal to runoff minus the sum of run-on net 

infiltration and infiltrated run-on. If infiltrated run-on plus run-on net infiltration equals runoff, then surface-water 

outflow from the watershed model domain is 0 (surface water does not reach the playa or the mouth of the drainage 

system). Some examples of watershed model domains with relatively high outflow rates (exceeding 0.1 mm/yr) 

include Beatty Wash 1 (6.245 mm/yr), Death Valley 0 through Death Valley 3, Pahrump Valley 0, Pahrump Valley 

1, Railroad Valley North 2, and Panamint Valley 0 through Panamint Valley 2.

Infiltrated run-on is water added to the root-zone storage; it is either lost to evapotranspiration or contributes 

to total net infiltration. Higher values of infiltrated run-on indicate a greater potential for net infiltration; the 

maximum net infiltration rates tend to be well correlated to the maximum rates of infiltrated run-on. However, if the 

hydraulic conductivity of the underlying bedrock is low or the storage capacity of the soil is high, most of the 

infiltrated run-on can be lost to evapotranspiration, rather than contributing to net infiltration.

Run-on net infiltration is net infiltration that occurs during the downstream routing process. During 

streamflow, run-on net infiltration tends to occur only where the root zone is already close to being saturated and the 

available storage capacity of the root zone is low. As indicated by the results in table 18 (at back of report), net 

infiltration in direct response to run-on (run-on net infiltration) is less than 0.1 mm/yr for most drainage basins and, 

thus, is not a very significant component of the overall water balance. For the INFILv3 model used in this study, the 

total contribution of surface-water run-on to net infiltration could be quantified only by rerunning the model with 

surface-water flow decoupled (that is, run-on was not allowed to infiltrate during the routing process) and 

subtracting the two results.
76 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using a Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA

Results for Watershed Model Domains

Simulated 1950–99 precipitation results for four selected watershed model domains (fig. 36)—Amargosa 

River 0 (AR0), Saline Valley 0 (SV0), Kawich Valley 0 (KV0), and Pahrump Valley 0 (PV0)—indicates a high 

variability of annual precipitation in the Death Valley region and a strong similarity in annual precipitation patterns 

among the four areas (fig. 36A). Simulated annual precipitation ranges from about 480 mm for Kawich Valley 0 

(KV0) to 50 mm for Amargosa River 0 (AR0). The pattern of annual variability shows some correspondence to the 

El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO), which is a naturally occurring sea surface temperature oscillation in the 

tropical Pacific Ocean that has been shown to be correlated to global climate patterns (Philander, 1990). Simulated 

above average precipitation generally corresponds to positive (El Niño) phases of ENSO in water years 1952, 1958, 

1973, 1977–78, 1983, 1988, 1992–95, and 1998 (water years 1964 and 1970 do not follow this relation). The 5-year 

running mean annual precipitation calculated for the four model domains shows a good correspondence to the 

Pacific (inter) Decadal Oscillation (PDO), which is an interdecadal (10 to 50 year) index of climate variability 

based on the time series of the North Pacific sea-surface-temperature pattern (Mantua and others, 1997). This 

simulated trend of below average precipitation from water years 1950 through 1976 shows a good correspondence 

to the negative (cool) phase of the PDO, while the simulated trend of above average precipitation shows a good 

correspondence to the positive (warm) phase of the PDO from water years 1977 through 1998 (fig. 36B). All four 

model domains show a close similarity in the trends affecting the 5-year running mean, but the Pahrump Valley 0 

domain (PV0), located in the southern part of the Death Valley region, shows the greatest relative increase in 

average annual precipitation following the onset of the positive PDO. Results for all watershed model domains 

show an overall trend of increasing precipitation.

Simulated annual net infiltration for 1950–99 for the 61 watershed model domains in the DVRFS indicates an 

even higher degree of annual variability than precipitation (fig. 36C and D). Maximum annual net infiltration of 

approximately 15 mm occurred in water years 1978 and 1993, both years are characterized by an extended El Niño. 

The 5- and 10-year running means follow the trend of increasing precipitation and, thus, also correspond to the 

positive PDO trend. For the first 14 years of the simulation (1950–64), the annual net infiltration did not exceed the 

mean net infiltration rate of 2.6 mm/yr. For the last half of the simulation period (1975–99), the 10-year running 

mean exceeds 4 mm/yr for several years. In general, the periods of high annual net infiltration are consistent with 

the El Niño phase of ENSO and wetter than average winter seasons, whereas the general trend of higher annual netinfiltration rates during the last half of the 1950–99 simulation period is correlated to the combined occurrence of 

increased El Niño frequency and a positive PDO (Schmidt and Webb, 2001). Possible biases caused by changes in 

the location and coverage of climate records also may have had an effect on the observed trends, but this was not 

investigated for this study.

Relative differences in the 5-year mean net-infiltration rates are similar for all locations throughout the Death 

Valley region, and are well correlated to the 5-year mean precipitation rates for each selected area (fig. 36B and D). 

The long-term (50-year) trend of increasing net infiltration is the result of an apparent trend of increasing 

precipitation. During the first 15 to 19 years of the simulation (from 1950 to 1968), conditions were drier than 

average in the Death Valley region (fig. 36C). Spatial variability in net infiltration across the Death Valley region is 

dependent partly on spatial variability in precipitation trends. For example, differences in the spatial distribution of 

annual precipitation may have caused the Saline Valley (SV0) area in the northwestern part of the model domain to 

have some of the highest annual net infiltration rates in the time series; these high rates occurred during the drierthan-average 1970–76 period. In contrast, annual net infiltration for the other locations (AR0, KVO, and PV0) were 

not as high during this period compared with the wetter-than-average periods of the early 1980s and the mid 1990s. 

Variability in the annual distribution of rainfall and snowfall across the Death Valley region may be dependent 

partly on regional differences in ENSO- and PDO-cycle effects on precipitation and air temperature; that is, wetterthan-average years in the extreme southern part of the region occurred during average or drier-than-average 

conditions in the northern part of the region. 
Model Calibration and Evaluation 77

B

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

500

1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 1999

1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 1999

Wate r ye ar

Annual precipitation,

in millimeters

50

100

150

200

250

300

5-year mean average annual

precipitation, inmillimeters

Amargosa River 0 (AR0)

Saline Valley 0 (SV0)

Pahrump Valley 0 (PV0)

Kawich Valley 0 (KV0)

Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PD0)

Positive phase ENSO

Negative phase ENSO

EXPLANATION

Neither phase ENSO

cool phase (negative)

warm phase (positive)

A

Figure 36. Annual precipitation and mean annual precipitation for selected watershed model domains and the Pacific Decadal Oscillation, Death Valley 

region, Nevada and California.

Temporal distribution of the 1950–99 simulation results showing: A, Simulated annual precipitation for four selected model areas and phases of the El Niño 

Southern Oscillation (ENSO). B, Simulated 5-year mean precipitation for four selected model areas and phases of the Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO). C, 

Simulated annual net infiltration, 5-year mean net infiltration, 10-year mean net infiltration, and 50-year mean net infiltration, averaged for all 61 model 

areas. D, Simulated 5-year mean net infiltration, averaged for all 61 model areas and the simulated 5-year mean net infiltration for four selected model 

areas.
78 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using a Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA

Results for the Death Valley Regional Flow System

Results for all simulated water-balance terms are summarized for the area of the DVRFS (table 19, at back of 

report). The spatially distributed, time-averaged results were developed using the four INFILv3 models (models 1 

through 4) analyzed during model calibration and applied to the 50-year simulation. The four models were 

analyzed to evaluate model uncertainty and to quantify the contribution of simulated surface-water flow to 

simulated net infiltration and potential recharge. The basinwide water-balance results for the four models include 

inflows (precipitation, snowmelt, and infiltrated run-on), storage components (snowfall, change in root-zone water 

content, and runoff generation) and outflows (sublimation, evapotranspiration, run-on net infiltration, net 

infiltration, and surface-water outflow either to playas or out of the DVRFS). 

Adjustments were made to the simulated net-infiltration results to account for mapped ground-water 

discharge zones and playa lakebeds. Net infiltration was set to 0 for all grid cells in the areas of ground-water 

discharge zones identified in D’Agnese and others (2002) because the contribution of ground-water discharge to the 

water balance is not represented by the INFILv3 model (fig. 3). In a second adjustment to the net-infiltration 

results, net infiltration was set to 0 for all areas identified as playas (fig. 3) to evaluate potential contributions to 

recharge from playas not currently identified as ground-water discharge zones. In performing these adjustments, an 

assumption was made that the amount of net infiltration subtracted could be added to the evapotranspiration 

component of the basinwide water balance.

1950 1954 1958 1962 1966 1970 1974 1978 1982 1986 1990 1994 1998

Water Year

Net Infiltration, in millimeters per year

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

annual 5-year mean

50-year mean 10-year mean

C

EXPLANATION

Positive phase ENSO

Negative phase ENSO

Neither phase ENSO

Figure. 36—Continued.
Model Calibration and Evaluation 79

In addition to the simulation results of INFILv3 models 1, 2, 3, and 4, results from previous studies are 

included in table 19 at back of report. These results include PRISM estimates of annual precipitation, results for 

precipitation and net infiltration obtained in the preliminary application of INFIL to the Death Valley region (Hevesi 

and others, 2002), previous estimates of basinwide recharge for the 42 hydrographic areas (table 1), and a more 

recent estimate of total recharge to the DVRFS obtained in the process of calibrating a three-dimensional, steadystate ground-water flow model to measured water levels and estimated discharge (D’Agnese and others, 2002).

Results from the preliminary INFIL model include a basinwide average annual precipitation rate of 195.1 

mm/yr and an average annual net-infiltration rate of 7.8 mm/yr (D’Agnese and others, 2002). These results are high 

relative to the PRISM estimate of 181.5 mm/yr for average annual precipitation and to the average annual recharge 

rate of 2.6 mm/yr obtained using previous estimates of recharge and the more recent recharge estimate of 2.1 mm/yr 

from D’Agnese and others (2002). As discussed by D’Agnese and others (2002) and Hevesi and others (2002), the 

estimate of net infiltration obtained using the INFIL model represents a preliminary result that is approximately 

four times greater than what can be approximately accounted for using the total ground-water discharge estimates 

for the DVRFS. 

0.1

1

10

100

1950 1954 1958 1962 1966 1970 1974 1978 1982 1986 1990 1994 1998

Water Year

Net Infiltration, in millimeters per year

50-year mean averaged for 61 model areas

Averaged for 61 model areas

D

data runs below 0.1

EXPLANATION

Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PD0)

cool phase (negative)

warm phase (positive)

Amargosa River 0 (AR0)

Saline Valley 0 (SV0)

Pahrump Valley 0 (PV0)

Kawich Valley 0 (KV0)

Figure. 36—Continued.
80 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using a Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA

Results from INFILv3 model 1 for the DVRFS include a total net-infiltration volume, adjusted for groundwater discharge zones, of 342,100 m3/d (table 19, at back of report). The adjusted net-infiltration volume is 1,900 

m3/d less than the simulated net infiltration volume of 344,000 m3/d (1,900 m3/d was subtracted from the groundwater discharge zones). The total net-infiltration result adjusted for playas (340,500 m3/d) indicates that only 1,600 

m3/d, or less than 1 percent, was subtracted as net infiltration in the playa areas not defined as ground-water 

discharge zones. The total net-infiltration volume adjusted for ground-water discharge zones corresponds to the 

spatially averaged net-infiltration rate of 2.8 mm/yr; this rate is in close agreement with previous recharge estimates 

(2.6 mm/yr) and the more recent recharge estimate (2.1 mm/yr) from D’Agnese and others (2002). The INFILv3 

model 1 simulation results also include an average precipitation rate of 171.3 mm/yr, a runoff generation rate of 2.2 

mm/yr, and a surface-water outflow rate of 0.2 mm/yr. The surface-water outflow rate corresponds to a total 

surface-water discharge volume of 25, 900 m3/d assumed to evaporate from playas or discharge as surface water 

outflow from the DVRFS.

A comparison of the simulation results of INFILv3 model 1 with the results of INFILv3 models 2, 3, and 4 

indicates that model 1 simulated the highest net-infiltration volume. The simulation results of model 2, which is 

identical to model 1 except that surface-water run-on is not allowed to infiltrate, simulated an average annual netinfiltration rate (adjusted for discharge zones) of 2.4 mm/yr and a total net-infiltration volume of 293,100 m3/d. 

Model 3, which uses lower estimates of bedrock hydraulic conductivity, simulated an average annual netinfiltration rate of 1.4 mm/yr, which corresponds to a total net-infiltration volume of 178,700 m3/d. Model 4, which 

uses the lower estimates of bedrock hydraulic conductivity but a higher root density (which increases transpiration 

from the lower part of the root zone), simulated an average annual net infiltration rate of 1.2 mm/yr and a total netinfiltration volume of 144,700 m3/d. Although models 1 and 4 provide similar results in terms of simulated 

streamflow, potential recharge volumes predicted using model 4 are less than half that predicted using model 1. 

This result illustrates the non-uniqueness of models that are calibrated by fitting to streamflow data, and the need to 

incorporate additional constraints during the model calibration process. The simulation results of models 1, 3, and 4 

can be interpreted as realizations representative of uncertainty in model inputs: A more robust result may be 

developed by taking the average result from multiple realizations. For example, the average net infiltration 

simulated by models 1 and 3 is 2.1 mm/yr and the average net-infiltration volume is 260,400 m3/d. This netinfiltration volume is a good match to the recharge volume of 266,800 m3/d estimated by D’Agnese and others 

(2002). 

Simulation results for INFILv3 models 1, 2, 3, and 4 also were evaluated by comparing simulated runoff and 

infiltration between upland areas that have thin soils with that for the alluvial fan and basin areas that have deep 

soils. The upland areas were identified as areas where the root zone extends into the underlying consolidated rock 

layer, whereas alluvial fan basin areas were identified as areas where the root zone is underlain by unconsolidated 

material (deep soils). Results of all four INFILv3 models indicate that net infiltration for the DVRFS primarily is 

controlled by net infiltration in upland areas that have thin soils (table 19 at back of report). For example, 

simulation results for model 1 show that net infiltration in the upland areas is 309,800 m3/d but only 32,300 m3/d 

(adjusted for discharge zones) in the alluvial fan and basin areas. A comparison of results between model 1 and 

model 2 indicated that most of the net infiltration for the alluvial fan and basin areas is due to surface-water flow 

and stream-channel losses. When surface-water run-on is removed from the root-zone water balance (surface water 

is not allowed to infiltrate during the routing process), net infiltration for alluvial fans and basins decreases from 

32,300 m3/d to 1,400 m3/d. In all cases, adjustment of net infiltration to account for ground-water discharge zones 

had a negligible effect on the total net-infiltration volume, even when the adjusted result included all playa areas 

and the areas of the identified discharge zones. The average annual simulation results for selected components of 

the water balance obtained using INFILv3 model 1 are given in figures 37 through 43 and are summarized in 

table 19 at back of report. The figures illustrate the high degree of spatial variability in the simulated water-balance 

components, which include precipitation, snowfall, evapotranspiration, runoff, surface-water run-on, infiltrated runon, and net infiltration.
Model Calibration and Evaluation 81

INFILv3 Model 1 Simulated 50-Year Average Precipitation

INFILv3 model 1 simulated 50-year average annual precipitation (fig. 37) reflects expected orographic 

influences in the Death Valley region. The maximum precipitation rate (552 mm/yr) was simulated in the summit 

area of the Spring Mountains and the minimum rates (50 to 100 mm/yr) were simulated in locations of Death Valley 

and Panamint Valley. The relatively high precipitation rates (400 mm/yr and higher) were simulated in the summit 

areas of the Sheep Range, the Panamint Range, and the Timpahute Range. Precipitation rates simulated for the 

Yucca Mountain area range from 100 to 250 mm/yr; these rates are in good agreement with existing precipitation 

data for Yucca Mountain (Flint and Davies, 1997), which were not included in the model. The average precipitation 

rate for the entire INFILv3 model area is 182 mm/yr. A comparison of the 50-year average precipitation simulated 

by INFILv3 model 1 with estimates simulated by PRISM (fig. 6) indicates a generally good agreement between the 

two models in terms of orographic effects on the estimated spatial distribution of precipitation in the INFILv3 

model area.

INFILv3 Model 1 Simulated 50-Year Average Snowfall

The spatial distribution for the average annual snowfall simulated by INFILv3 model 1 indicates the 

increased contribution of snow accumulation, sublimation, and melting to the water balance for the higher 

elevations where recharge is more likely to occur (fig. 38). For the summit area of the Spring Mountains, the 

average annual snowfall depth is more than 400 mm/yr (in terms of a water equivalent depth), which is 

approximately 80 percent of the average annual precipitation. Simulated average annual snowfall for Rainier Mesa, 

in the northern part of the NTS, exceeds 100 mm/yr. For these locations, factors controlling the seasonal 

accumulation and melting of snow are likely to have a significant effect on the timing and magnitude of net 

infiltration. However, for most locations in the INFILv3 model area, estimated average annual snowfall is less than 

20 mm/yr (in water equivalent depth), and the processes of snow accumulation, sublimation, and melting probably 

are not important factors in controlling net infiltration.

INFILv3 Model 1 Simulated 50-Year Average Runoff

Simulation results of INFILv3 model 1 for runoff indicate that runoff primarily occurs in areas of thin soils 

that area underlain by impermeable bedrock and in areas with soils that have higher percentages of clays (and thus 

relatively lower permeability) repeatedly influenced by severe summer storms (fig. 39). Locations having relatively 

high runoff rates (greater than 20 to 50 mm/yr) due to a combination of thin soils and relatively impermeable 

bedrock include the Panamint Range, Rainier Mesa, the Groom Range, and the Black Mountains (see figure 2 for 

physiographic features). In contrast, runoff from the Spring Mountains and the Sheep Range was much lower than 

that from other locations that have comparable precipitation rates; the lower runoff was due to the higher 

permeability of the Paleozoic carbonate rocks that constitute the bedrock at these two locations. For areas with 

thicker soils, simulated runoff occurred primarily in response to severe precipitation during summer storms; the 

spatial distribution of runoff during summer is dependent on a combination of localized high daily precipitation 

amounts and the soil-saturated hydraulic conductivity. However, simulated runoff in model areas having thick soils 

was limited because of the number of severe summer storms between 1950 and 1999. 
82 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using a Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA

Figures 37. Average annual precipitation simulated by INFILv3 model 1, Death Valley region, Nevada and California, 1950–99.
Model Calibration and Evaluation 83

Figure 38. Average annual snowfall simulated by INFILv3 model 1, Death Valley region, Nevada and California, 1950–99.
84 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using a Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA

Figure 39. Average annual runoff simulated by INFILv3 model 1, Death Valley region, Nevada and California, 1950–99.
Model Calibration and Evaluation 85

Simulated 50-Year Average Surface-Water Run-On

Simulated average annual surface-water run-on for 1950–99 (fig. 40) indicates the downstream redistribution 

of runoff as surface water. Areas having relatively high run-on values (greater than 1,000 mm/yr) generally 

correspond to stream channels downstream of areas having high runoff, such as the Panamint Range, the NTS, the 

Black Mountains, and Rainier Mesa (see figure 2 for physiographic features). Simulated run-on for some locations 

along the major stream channels in the Amargosa River drainage basin indicate simulated run-on depths exceeding 

1,000 mm/yr. Locations having permeable bedrock, such as the Spring Mountains and the Sheep Range, are 

characterized by relatively lower values of run-on and runoff relative to the high precipitation and low potential 

evapotranspiration. 

INFILv3 Model 1 Simulated 50-Year Average Infiltrated Run-On

Simulated average annual infiltrated run-on indicates areas where maximum average annual stream-channel 

infiltration losses occur in response to the downstream routing of surface-water runoff (fig. 41). The highest 

simulated values of infiltrated run-on in the area of the ground-water flow model (greater than 1,000 mm/yr) occur 

in the middle and lower sections of drainage basins in the Panamint Range where the relatively high frequency of 

simulated runoff was caused by a combination of thin soils, impermeable bedrock, and orographic effects on 

precipitation. Simulated infiltrated run-on (100 to 500 mm/yr) also was high for sections of the main stream channel 

in the Fortymile Wash drainage basin. East and south of Yucca Mountain, in the downstream section of the 

Fortymile Wash channel, values were much lower (20 to 50 mm/yr). The lower values are in good agreement with 

recharge estimates for Fortymile Wash from Savard (1998), which were based on an analysis of the streamflow 

records (including both peak flow and daily mean discharge records), field observations, and geophysical logs of 

boreholes in the wash. 

Simulated 50-Year Average Evapotranspiration

The simulated average annual evapotranspiration values for 1950–99 indicate a general spatial distribution 

pattern that closely corresponds to the spatial distribution of average annual precipitation (figs. 37 and 42). 

Simulated evapotranspiration rates were highest for the summit area of the Spring Mountains (owing to the increase 

in available precipitation) and for the stream-channel locations (owing to the increase in available water from 

infiltrated run-on). These results indicate that following precipitation, evapotranspiration in recharge areas is the 

most dominant component of the water balance for net infiltration in the INFILv3 model area. 

Simulated 50-Year Average Net Infiltration

Simulated average annual net infiltration for 1950–99 (fig. 43) indicates a spatially complex pattern that 

reflects the combined effects of precipitation, soil thickness, and bedrock permeability. The Spring Mountains is a 

dominant area of high net infiltration in the Death Valley region because of the combination of high precipitation, 

low potential evapotranspiration, thin soils, and high permeability of Paleozoic carbonate bedrock. Simulated net 

infiltration is between 20 to 50 mm/yr for most of the upland area of the Spring Mountains. Maximum rates of more 

than 100 mm/yr were simulated for the summit location; the high rates reflect the increased effect of spring 

snowmelt on promoting net infiltration. The maximum net-infiltration rates, however, are in the active channel 

locations and exceed 500 mm/yr for many locations, such as the mountain-front locations in the Panamint Range 

and the upper section of the Fortymile Wash drainage. The importance of the estimated bedrock hydraulic 

conductivity in controlling net infiltration is indicated by the results for the Panamint Range; net-infiltration 

estimates were less than 2 mm/yr for much of the summit area even though precipitation exceeds 400 mm/yr. In 

contrast, locations that have thin soils underlain by the Paleozoic carbonate rocks are characterized by relatively 

high net-infiltration rates, even for areas with relatively low precipitation rates, such as the southern Funeral 

Mountains. 
86 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using a Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA

Figure 40. Average annual surface-water run-on simulated by INFILv3 model 1, Death Valley region, Nevada and California, 1950–99.
Model Calibration and Evaluation 87

Figure 41. Simulated average annual infiltrated surface-water run-on for the Death Valley region, Nevada and California, 1950–99.
88 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using a Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA

Figure 42. Simulated evapotranspiration for the Death Valley region, Nevada and California, 1950–99.
Model Calibration and Evaluation 89

Figure 43. Simulated average annual net infiltration in the Death Valley region, Nevada and California, 1950–99.
90 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using a Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA

Model Evaluation Using Hydrographic Areas

Model evaluation was done using averages simulated for the 42 hydrographic areas and subareas in and 

adjacent to the DVRFS (fig. 4). Simulated basinwide average annual precipitation rates were compared with 

basinwide rates estimated using PRISM. Simulated basinwide net-infiltration rates and total net-infiltration 

volumes were compared with previous estimates of basinwide recharge rates and volumes (fig. 5; table 1). 

Simulation results for the DVRFS area also were included in the analysis.

Comparison of Simulated Precipitation Estimates with PRISM Estimates

Average annual precipitation estimates simulated by the INFILv3 model were compared with estimates 

simulated by PRISM for the 42 hydrographic areas in the Death Valley region (table 20at back of report). The 

INFILv3 estimates are in general agreement with those estimated by PRISM for most of the hydrographic areas. 

The INFILv3 estimates closely match the PRISM estimates for five of the hydrographic areas (the lower Amargosa 

Valley, Shadow Valley, Chicago Valley, Crater Flat, and Death Valley). For some areas, average annual precipitation 

between the INFILv3 and the PRISM estimates for maximum basinwide precipitation exceeded 100 mm/yr. For 

example, the maximum PRISM estimate for the Garden Valley hydrographic area in the northern part of the model 

area is 686 mm/yr compared with 513 mm/yr for the INFILv3 estimate. For the Fortymile Canyon area, the 

maximum precipitation was 432 mm/yr for PRISM and 300 mm/yr for INFILv3. For this location, the precipitation 

estimates simulated using the INFILv3 model are considered fairly accurate because the model used daily 

precipitation data from the NTS monitoring network for several stations within and adjacent to the Fortymile 

Canyon area. Because PRISM does not include data from the NTS network, it tends to overestimate average annual 

precipitation for the NTS area. The PRISM-estimated average annual precipitation for all 42 hydrographic areas is 

182 mm/yr, which is slightly greater than that estimated using INFILv3 (175 mm/yr) (table 20, at back of report). 

Some of the differences between the PRISM estimates and the INFILv3 estimates may be attributed to 

differences in the period of records used in the models and to differences in the number and location of 

precipitation records. The PRISM estimates are for a 30-year period (1961–90); only stations that had a 30-year 

record were used to develop the estimates. The INFILv3 estimates are for a 50-year period, which includes the 

relatively dry 1950–60 period. Some stations included in the INFILv3 model have only 9 years of record. The 

shorter records were used to increase the spatial coverage and density of the daily climate records in the Death 

Valley region, which was assumed to improve the spatial interpolation of daily precipitation and air temperature. 

Simulated Water Balance for Hydrographic Areas

The 50-year water-balance terms simulated using INFILv3 model 1 are summarized as basinwide average 

rates for the 42 hydrographic areas (table 21, at back of report). The results were used to explore differences in the 

hydrologic characteristics among the various basin areas. For example, basins that have higher precipitation rates 

also tend to have a higher percentage of precipitation as snow. A maximum snowfall rate of 71.7 mm/yr was 

simulated for Garden Valley. Garden Valley, the most northern area included in the analysis, is associated with the 

highest basinwide precipitation rate of 282.7 mm/yr and a moderately high net-infiltration rate of 3.50 mm/yr. The 

highest net-infiltration rates are in Pahrump Valley (5.66 mm/yr), Las Vegas Valley (4.97 mm/yr), and Kawich 

Valley (4.89 mm/yr). 

Maximum simulated runoff rates include 7.70 mm/yr for Buckboard Mesa (area 227B) in northern Fortymile 

Canyon and 6.99 mm/yr for Kawich Valley (area 157) (table 21 at back of report). Buckboard Mesa, which includes 

a large part of the northern NTS area, also has the highest outflow rate (1.79 mm/yr). Outflow for Buckboard Mesa 

represents surface-water discharge downstream along the Fortymile Wash channel into Jackass Flats (area 227A) 

and the southern part of the Fortymile Wash drainage basin. Outflow for Jackass Flats is –0.77 mm/yr, indicating 

that the inflow from Buckboard Mesa along the Fortymile Wash channel exceeds the outflow from Jackass Flats 

along lower Fortymile Wash downstream into the Amargosa Desert (area 230). This result is consistent with the 

results of a study by Savard (1998) that shows significant channel losses during streamflow in Fortymile Wash.
Model Calibration and Evaluation 91

In contrast to Buckboard Mesa (227B), the outflow rate of 0.40 mm/yr for Pahrump Valley (162) indicates 

discharge to playas in the closed basin. The negative outflow rates obtained for many of the areas indicate that 

surface-water inflows exceed outflows (either to a playa or to a downstream area). For areas such as southern 

Ivanpah Valley (164B), a negative outflow occurs because the area boundary does not adequately define the true 

topographic divide. The total outflow to all areas is 0.17 mm/yr and represents the total assumed evaporation loss 

from playas. Although not done for this study, a comparison of the assumed evaporation from playas with 

independent estimates of playa–lake water budgets could be used as part of model evaluation. 

Adjusting the net-infiltration rates by setting the net infiltration in mapped discharge zones to 0 caused a 

reduction in basinwide net infiltration for only three of the hydrographic areas: Sarcobatus Flat, Death Valley, and 

Oasis Valley. The largest change was in Oasis Valley; net infiltration was reduced from 2.55 to 2.24 mm/yr. For this 

area, high net-infiltration rates were simulated in the channel of the Amargosa River upstream of Beatty, Nev. The 

location of the areas with high net-infiltration rates coincides with known discharge zones (springs) throughout this 

section of the channel. 

Net-Infiltration Results for Hydrographic Areas

Net infiltration simulated using INFILv3 models 1, 2, 3, and 4 was averaged for the 42 hydrographic areas 

with previous estimates of recharge (fig. 5). The net-infiltration values used to develop the basinwide averages 

included the discharge-area adjustment to the INFILv3 simulation results (simulated net infiltration was set to 0 

over mapped discharge zones). 

The relative differences in net-infiltration rates among the hydrographic areas were fairly consistent between 

the four models (figs. 44–47; table 2, at back of report). For example, regardless of which model was used, netinfiltration rates tended to be high for Pahrump Valley (area 162), Las Vegas Valley (area 212), Kawich Valley (area 

157), and Groom Lake Valley (area 158A), and low for Alkali Spring Valley (area 142), Jean Lake Valley (area 

165), Lida Valley (area 144), the Amargosa Desert (area 230), and the Lower Amargosa Valley (area 242). A 

dominant factor controlling the relative magnitude of net infiltration for all four models is the percentage of upland 

area that has thin soils. In general, basins characterized by a higher percentage of upland areas that have thin soils 

have higher values of net infiltration. Maximum elevations in a basin and bedrock hydraulic conductivity also are 

important factors in determining relative differences in net infiltration between basins. Basins that have the higher 

elevation mountains tend to have higher basinwide net-infiltration rates.

For the four net-infiltration models analyzed in this study, the relatively high net-infiltration rates for 

Pahrump and Las Vegas Valleys occurred because the two areas share a common topographic divide along the crest 

of the Spring Mountains. Many factors tend to increase net infiltration in the Spring Mountains including high 

precipitation, permeable bedrock (Paleozoic carbonate rocks) underlying a widespread upland area of thin soils, 

north-facing slopes that have minimum potential evapotranspiration demand, areas of barren ground or shallow root 

zones, and a high percentage of precipitation as snow. 
92 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using a Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA

Figure 44. Average net infiltration simulated by INFILv3 model 1 for the 42hydrographic areas within and adjacent to the Death Valley region, Nevada and 

California, 1950–99.
Model Calibration and Evaluation 93

Figure 45. Average net infiltration simulated by INFILv3 model 2 for the 42 hydrographic areas within and adjacent to the Death Valley region, Nevada and 

California, 1950–99.
94 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using a Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA

Figure 46. Average net infiltration simulated by INFILv3 model 3 for the 42 hydrographic areas within and adjacent to the Death Valley region, Nevada and 

California, 1950–99.
Model Calibration and Evaluation 95

Figure 47. Average net infiltration simulated by INFILv3 model 4 for the 42 hydrographic areas within and adjacent to the Death Valley region, Nevada and 

California, 1950–99.
96 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using a Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA

Differences in the spatial distribution of basinwide net infiltration between models 1 and 2 indicate areas 

where the streamflow contribution to net infiltration is important (figs. 44 and 45). For the NTS area, surface-water 

flow provides a significant contribution to total basinwide net infiltration for Buckboard Mesa (area 227B), which 

is the northern part of the Fortymile Canyon drainage basin. For Buckboard Mesa, direct (in-place) net infiltration 

from rain and snowmelt provides an average net-infiltration rate of 2.70 mm/yr (table 22, at back of report, model 

2). Total net infiltration increases to 4.04 mm/yr when surface-water contributions are included (table 22 at back of 

report, model 1), indicating that net infiltration from infiltrating overland flow and streamflow accounts for 

approximately 33 percent of total net infiltration. For Jackass Flats (the downstream part of the Fortymile Wash 

drainage basin), net infiltration increases from 1.55 to 2.67 mm/yr, or approximately 42 percent, when infiltration 

of surface water is included in the root-zone water balance. These results for the Fortymile Wash drainage basin 

(Buckboard Mesa and Jackass Flats) are qualitatively supported by field studies, which indicate a strong correlation 

between streamflow in Fortymile Wash, deep infiltration of water beneath the stream channel, and significant 

increases in the elevation of the water table underlying the stream channel (Savard, 1995, 1998). Other areas where 

streamflow contributions are relatively high (greater than 20 percent of total net infiltration) include Kawich Valley 

(32 percent), Groom Lake (34 percent), Death Valley (25 percent), California Valley (35 percent), Jean Lake Valley 

(31 percent), Valjean Valley (92 percent), and southern Ivanpah Valley (45 percent). Areas where streamflow 

contributions to net infiltration are very low (less than 5 percent) include Alkali Springs Valley (4 percent), 

Pahranagat Valley (4 percent), southern Tikapoo Valley (0 percent), northern Three Lake Valley (0 percent), Rock 

Valley (3 percent), Pahrump Valley (2 percent), and Las Vegas Valley (1 percent). 

Comparison of Simulated Net Infiltration with Previous Estimates of Recharge

Using the results obtained for the four net-infiltration models, the three goodness-of-fit statistics applied in 

the comparison of simulated and measured streamflow were applied to the comparison of net infiltration and 

previous estimates of recharge for the 42 hydrographic areas. Comparisons were made between basinwide average 

net infiltration and recharge rates (table 22, at back of report) and between total basinwide net infiltration and 

recharge volumes (table 23, at back of report). Comparisons involving rates eliminate the dependence of the results 

on basin area, which tends to greatly improve correlations based on volumes. On the other hand, incorporation of 

basin area has the affect of giving greater weight to the larger area basins, which also has benefits for analyzing 

results. For these reasons, both parameters were evaluated.

On the basis of an average estimation error (AEE) value of –0.07, a standardized mean-square error (SMSE) 

value of 0.61, and a correlation coefficient (CC) value of 0.67, net infiltration rates simulated using INFILv3 model 

1 provide the best fit to the recharge rates (fig. 48; table 22, at back of report). Model 2, which does not account for 

net infiltration associated with streamflow, provides the strongest correlation with estimated recharge, but the 

SMSE and the absolute values of AEE are higher for model 2 than for model 1. Net infiltration simulated by models 

3 and 4 do not compare well with basinwide recharge estimates because they tend to underpredict the recharge 

rates. All four models show a tendency to overpredict net infiltration relative to recharge for basins that have low 

recharge rates and to underpredict net infiltration relative to recharge for basins with high recharge rates (fig. 48). 

The largest underpredictions of net infiltration (using model 1) relative to estimated recharge were for (1) Pahrump 

Valley (net infiltration of 5.66 mm/yr and recharge estimate of 15.17 mm/yr), (2) Las Vegas Valley (net infiltration 

of 4.97 mm/yr and recharge of 8.87 mm/yr), (3) southern Three Lakes Valley (net infiltration of 2.05 and recharge 

of 9.48 mm/yr), (4) Indian Springs Valley (net infiltration of 3.27 mm/yr and recharge of 7.13 mm/yr), and (5) 

Garden Valley (net infiltration of 3.50 mm/yr compared to recharge of 9.97 mm/yr) (table 22, at back of report). 

The largest overpredictions of net infiltration (using model 1) relative to recharge were for (1) Chicago Valley (2.49 

mm/yr net infiltration and 0.22 mm/yr recharge), (2) Mesquite Valley (3.77 mm/yr net infiltration and 1.68 mm/yr 

recharge), (3) Frenchman Flat (1.98 mm/yr net infiltration and 0.10 mm/yr recharge), and (4) Rock Valley 

(2.00 mm/yr net infiltration and 0.17 mm/yr recharge) (table 22, at back of report). 
Model Calibration and Evaluation 97

0.01

0.1

1

10

0.01 0.1 1 10 100

Recharge, in millimeters per year

Net infiltration, in millimeters per year

1 to 1

Model 1

Model 2

Model 3

Model 4

Figure 48. Net infiltration simulated using INFILv3 models 1, 2, 3, and 4 and previous estimates of basinwide recharge rates for hydrographic areas and 

subareas in the Death Valley region, Nevada and California.
98 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using a Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA

A better match was obtained between simulated net infiltration and estimated recharge volumes (fig. 49) 

because these results were based on basin area and on the simulated net infiltration and estimated recharge rates. 

Overall, the simulated net-infiltration volumes are in good agreement with the estimated recharge volumes. In 

absolute terms, the largest differences between net infiltration and recharge are for Pahrump Valley and Las Vegas 

Valley (net infiltration volumes are approximately half the estimated recharge volumes) and for Death Valley (net 

infiltration volume is approximately twice the estimated recharge volume (table 23, at back of report). The 

simulation results of INFILv3 model 1 indicate that it has the best goodness-of-fit results, with an AEE of –317 

m3/d, a SMSE of 0.18, and a CC of 0.93. Although the SMSE of 0.12 for model 2 is lower than SMSE for model 1, 

the absolute AEE value is much higher at –2,954 m3/d. Goodness-of-fit results for models 3 and 4 showed higher 

SMSE values and absolute AEE values. The CC values for all four models are very similar, ranging from 0.93 to 

0.94.

10

10

100

100

1,000

1,000

10,000

10,000

100,000

100,000

1,000,000

1,000,000

Estimated recharge, in cubic meters per year

Simulated net infiltration, in cubic meters per year

1 to 1

Model 1

Model 2

Model 3

Model 4

Figure 49. Net infiltration simulated using INFILv3 models 1, 2, 3, and 4 and previous estimates of basinwide recharge volumes for hydrographic areas and 

subareas in the Death Valley region, Nevada and California.
Model Calibration and Evaluation 99

Comparison of the net-infiltration results for all four models using the sorted recharge estimates indicate that 

the net-infiltration estimates are a reasonable prediction of recharge; however, some areas have large relative 

differences, and the model consistently overpredicts the areas of estimated lower recharge volumes while 

underpredicting the areas of estimated higher recharge volumes (fig. 50). Simulation results for the four netINFILv3 models show an improved fit to intermediate recharge volumes; (volumes between approximately 2,000 

and 10,000 m3/d). 

10

100

1,000

10,000

100,000

1,000,000

158B

242165

225&226

164B

227A

227B

163

169A

170

243

158

Recharge and net infiltration, in cubic meters per day

Recharge

Model 1

Model 2

Model 3

Model 4

Figure 50. Recharge estimates and net-infiltration rates simulated using the INFILv3 models 1, 2, 3, and 4 for hydrographic areas and subareas in the Death 

Valley region, Nevada and California.
100 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using a Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA

Model Uncertainty

Although the findings of this study are not sufficient for a rigorous quantification of model uncertainty, the 

simulation results of the four INFILv3 models were used in a qualitative assessment of model uncertainty. 

Uncertainty remains high for many critical model inputs such as bedrock permeability, soil thickness, root density 

as a function of depth, parameters defining stream-channel characteristics, parameters defining monthly spatial 

distribution models for climate inputs, and coefficients used in modeling potential evapotranspiration (table 3, at 

back of report). Overall model calibration remains problematic owing to the non-uniqueness of the models, which 

were fitted to measured streamflow. Constraining calibration results using previous estimates of basinwide recharge 

provides a higher degree of confidence in the simulated net-infiltration values, especially when combined with 

calibration results that were based on measured streamflow.

Differences between models 1 and 2 are used to represent uncertainty in net infiltration owing to infiltrated 

run-on. Uncertainty in infiltrated run-on remains high owing to the high uncertainty in channel characteristics and 

storm durations; both of these model components have a strong effect on simulated discharge. For the INFILv3 

model area, uncertainty in the infiltrated run-on values is approximately ± 15 percent based on the differences 

between models 1 and 2. However, for the individual hydrographic areas and subareas within the area of the 

DVRFS, this uncertainty is much higher owing to a presumably greater contribution to net infiltration from surfacewater flow. For example, uncertainty in the Fortymile Wash hydrographic area is about ± 40 percent.

Differences between model 1 and models 3 and 4 are more representative of the uncertainty in the inputs that 

strongly affect direct (in-place) net-infiltration rates. Differences between models 1 and 3 indicate that uncertainty 

in the net-infiltration results that are due to uncertainty in bedrock hydraulic conductivity may be about ± 50 

percent for the area of the DVRFS. Differences between models 1 and 4 indicate that uncertainty in net infiltration 

owing to the combined uncertainty in bedrock hydraulic conductivity and root density may be about ± 60 percent. 

SUMMARY

Spatially distributed estimates of time-averaged net infiltration were simulated for the Death Valley region, 

which includes the area of the Death Valley regional flow system (DVRFS), using the distributed parameter 

watershed model INFILv3. The model uses a daily water balance to simulate net infiltration, defined as the 

downward drainage across the lower boundary of the root zone. The daily water balance accounts for changes in the 

root-zone water content in response to rainfall, snowmelt, surface-water run-on, evapotranspiration, and net 

infiltration. Runoff is generated when the root-zone storage capacity is exceeded or when the rainfall, snowmelt, or 

run-on rate exceeds the soil or bedrock saturated hydraulic conductivity. Surface-water routing takes place when 

runoff is generated, allowing for the infiltration of surface-water run-on back into the root zone as the routing 

process moves downstream through the drainage basin. 

The root zone is represented using a variable thickness, six-layer system, with the top five layers used to 

model the root zone in soils and the bottom layer used to model the extension of the root zone into fractured 

bedrock or to represent the unconsolidated deposits underlying the root zone for locations with thick (greater than 

6 m) soils. The thickness of each model layer is dependent on estimated soil thickness. A maximum root-zone 

depth of 6 m was assumed for all locations that have a soil thickness greater than 6 m, and the thickness of the 

bedrock layer is set to 0 for all locations with a soil thickness greater than 3 m. For locations with soils less then 3 

m thick, the depth to which the root zone is extended into the underlying bedrock ranges from 0 to 3 m, depending 

on the vegetation type assigned to the location. 

Infiltration through the layered root-zone system is simulated using an assumed vertical unit gradient and a 1-

dimensional continuous drainage function defined by soil texture data. Daily evapotranspiration from each rootzone layer is simulated as an empirical function of potential evapotranspiration, available root-zone water content, 

and estimated root densities. Daily potential evapotranspiration is estimated using simulated hourly net radiation 

and daily air temperature. Net radiation is estimated as a function of simulated incoming solar radiation, daily air 

temperature, terrain characteristics, and monthly atmospheric parameters.
Summary 101

 Model inputs defining drainage basin characteristics, rock properties, soil properties, and root densities were 

developed using a combination of geographic information system (GIS) applications and FORTRAN routines. The 

GIS data included digitized maps defining hydrogeologic units, soil types, and vegetation types. A digital elevation 

model was used to define the model grid, to calculate surface-water flow routing parameters, to estimate shading 

parameters for modeling potential evapotranspiration, and to model the spatial distribution of climate inputs. 

Historical streamflow records from 31 gaging sites were used to develop a composite model calibration based 

on a simultaneous fit to all records using a consistent set of model parameters across all drainage basins. Model 

calibration was based on a qualitative and quantitative comparison of the simulated and measured daily and annual 

hydrographs. A consistent calibration was difficult because of limitations in the daily climate records, estimated 

stream-channel characteristics, and, in some cases, baseflow contributions to the hydrograph. A set of parameters 

representing a calibrated model was selected, but was not considered as necessarily being an optimized parameter 

set.

 Daily net infiltration for the area of the INFILv3 model was simulated from 1950 through 1999 using the 

calibrated model. The 50-year simulation used daily climate records from 132 stations located throughout the 

southern Nevada and southeastern California region. The time-averaged net-infiltration rate is considered 

representative of current climate conditions for the area of the Death Valley regional flow system. 

The developed estimates of average annual net infiltration provide an indication of the spatial distribution of 

potential recharge to the Death Valley regional flow system under current climate conditions. Although the general 

magnitude of the estimated net-infiltration volume is consistent with discharge estimates and the general magnitude 

of previous basinwide recharge estimates throughout the Death Valley region, significant differences are observed 

between simulated net infiltration and recharge estimates for some basins. Average annual net infiltration was not as 

strongly correlated to precipitation as the previous basinwide recharge estimates. On average, the net-infiltration 

model underestimates higher recharge rates and overestimates lower recharge rates. These differences can be 

attributed to the many variables incorporated into the net-infiltration estimates, such as soil thickness, root-zone 

characteristics, and bedrock properties that are not directly accounted for in methods used to estimate basinwide 

recharge, especially in the case of Maxey–Eakin recharge estimates. 

Model results obtained in this study represent a substantial improvement in estimating net infiltration and 

potential recharge in the Death Valley region compared with the previous model version used in the initial 

application of a deterministic daily water-balance approach. Model improvements include a better representation of 

hydrologic processes affecting net infiltration, such as surface-water flow, snowmelt, transpiration, and groundwater drainage in the root zone. The INFILv3 model improvements also include an algorithm for modeling spatially 

distributed daily precipitation and air temperature using all available daily climate records from a network of 

132 historical and existing monitoring sites in and around the Death Valley region. Improvements in representing 

basin characteristics include the incorporation of available GIS databases for defining soil and vegetation 

characteristics and the vertical discretization of the root zone into a six-layer system. 

If assumptions of steady-state, one-dimensional vertical flow are applied to the unsaturated zone, the netinfiltration estimates can represent the magnitude and spatial distribution of potential recharge for the Death Valley 

region. Compared to the preliminary estimates of net infiltration obtained using the earlier version of INFIL, results 

from the updated net-infiltration model, INFILv3, provide an improved representation of potential recharge under 

current climate conditions. This conclusion is based on (1) a model calibration indicating satisfactory performance 

in predicting the general timing and magnitude of streamflow recorded in the Death Valley region, (2) a satisfactory 

model evaluation based on a comparison with basinwide recharge estimates and the estimated overall discharge rate 

for the Death Valley region, and (3) a qualitative evaluation of the spatially distributed net-infiltration estimates. 

The uncertainty in the net infiltration estimates as indicators of current climate recharge would likely be reduced if 

(1) uncertainty in input parameters, such as bedrock permeability, soil properties, and vegetation cover, was 

reduced; (2) uncertainty in estimates of storm duration and intensity was reduced; (3) uncertainties in parameters 

used to define stream channel characteristics were reduced; (4) real-time streamflow was routed using both 

dispersive and convergent flow algorithms; (5) snowfall and snowmelt were simulated using a more detailed energy 

balance model, and (6) deep percolation through thick unsaturated zones and lateral flow through perched saturated 

zones were included in the model. 
102 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using a Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA

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basins of Nevada: Journal of Hydrology, v. 31, p. 335–357.

Winograd, I.J., Riggs, A.C., and Coplen, T.B., 1998, The relative contributions of summer and cool-season precipitation to 

groundwater recharge, Springs Mountains, Nevada, Hydrogeology Journal, v. 6, p. 77–93.

Winograd, I.J., 1981, Radioactive waste disposal in thick unsaturated zones: Science, v. 212, no. 4502, p. 1457–1464.

Winograd, I.J., and Thordarson, William, 1975, Hydrogeologic and hydrochemical framework, south-central Great Basin, 

Nevada–California, with special reference to the Nevada Test Site: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 712-C, 

126 p.
106 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using the Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model, INFILv3, of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA Table 2. Soil texture attributes and developed inputs to the INFILv3 model of the Death Valley region, Nevada and California—Continued Soil type map code STATSGO MUID code Number of soil components Soil texture attributes for MUIDs (weighted averages for sequences and layers) Developed inputs (average v

Number of soil layers Percent rock Percent coarse sand, gravel, cobbles and boulders Percent material finer than gravel Grain size classes as a percentage of all material finer than gravel Soil thickness (SOILTHCK) (m) Porosity (SPOR) (dimension- less) Wilting po

(SWP) (dimensio

less) 

Sand Silt Clay 

1 NV326 14 3 1 60 39 73 19 8 1.46 0.381 0.014 2 NV329 18 3 21 48 31 52 32 16 .24 .429 .041 3 NV307 20 3 27 47 26 50 31 19 .28 .435 .042 4 NV324 21 3 1 59 40 69 20 11 1.52 .393 .021 5 NV303 18 3 2 60 38 67 22 11 1.46 .403 .022 6 NV301 21 2 3 27 70 56 28 16 1.48 .401 .068 7 NV506 7 3 0 22 78 75 19 6 1.37 .397 .021 8 NV501 14 3 17 56 27 49 33 18 .38 .436 .039 9 NV224 7 2 3 63 34 47 34 19 .11 .441 .044 

10 NV519 13 4 18 40 42 60 26 14 1.15 .415 .042 11 NV524 7 3 14 54 32 47 35 18 .21 .436 .045 12 NV523 19 4 7 44 49 65 22 13 1.40 .404 .036 13 NV521 12 2 0 15 85 50 33 17 1.54 .406 .087 14 NV388 12 3 0 11 89 45 37 18 1.54 .408 .104 15 NV514 14 4 4 44 52 65 23 12 1.47 .397 .035 16 NV500 21 3 21 50 29 40 41 18 .68 .472 .052 17 NV522 10 3 21 52 27 46 37 17 .47 .455 .041 18 NV508 12 2 1 12 87 42 42 16 1.50 .424 .102 19 NV313 12 4 20 36 44 54 33 13 .98 .401 .046 20 NV 25 15 4 26 34 40 48 36 17 1.03 .399 .056 

Table 2. Soil texture attributes and developed inputs to the INFILv3 model of the Death Valley region, Nevada and California[Soil texture attributes developed for each map unit (MUID) of the digital elevation model (DEM) using State Soil Geographic (STATSGO) data. m, meter; mm/d, millim
Tables 107

21 NV317 9 3 14 33 53 69 19 12 1.03 0.403 0.036 22 NV 99 7 4 0 34 66 58 28 14 1.52 .416 .057 23 NV311 15 2 3 63 33 51 37 12 .23 .454 .032 24 NV308 18 3 13 59 28 49 31 20 .20 .435 .040 25 NV175 17 3 14 49 37 42 32 26 .43 .450 .070 26 NV244 21 4 8 49 43 47 36 17 1.39 .413 .051 27 NV306 13 2 1 58 41 69 21 10 1.49 .376 .020 28 NV507 10 3 16 47 37 40 38 22 .91 .434 .063 29 NV510 11 4 13 34 53 65 23 12 1.23 .405 .038 30 NV325 20 4 11 50 39 64 24 11 1.30 .406 .027 31 NV302 8 3 0 4 96 42 36 22 1.52 .437 .136 32 NV 26 17 3 2 6 92 32 43 25 1.50 .438 .152 33 NV233 5 2 4 62 34 51 37 12 .19 .450 .033 34 NV314 19 3 14 52 35 55 28 17 .24 .439 .041 35 NV312 16 3 17 51 32 41 40 19 .27 .443 .051 36 NV526 6 2 0 0 100 10 39 51 1.52 .365 .220 37 NV511 8 3 13 53 34 48 32 20 .54 .445 .051 38 NV315 14 3 15 54 31 65 23 12 .19 .422 .024 39 NV236 7 2 1 61 38 49 28 24 .25 .448 .056 40 NV221 15 4 14 30 56 63 23 15 1.36 .400 .050 

Table 2. Soil texture attributes and developed inputs to the INFILv3 model of the Death Valley region, Nevada and California—Continued

Soil type 

map code

STATSGO 

MUID

code

Number of 

soil 

components

Soil texture attributes for MUIDs (weighted averages for sequences and layers) Developed inputs (average v

Number 

of soil layers

Percent 

rock

Percent 

coarse 

sand, 

gravel, 

cobbles 

and

boulders

Percent 

material 

finer than 

gravel

Grain size classes as a 

percentage of all material

finer than gravel Soil thickness

(SOILTHCK)

(m)

Porosity 

(SPOR) 

(dimensionless)

Wilting po

(SWP)

(dimensio

less)

Sand Silt Clay 
108 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using the Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model, INFILv3, of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA 41 NV223 4 3 0 29 71 52 31 17 1.22 0.413 0.072 

42 NV310 16 3 30 44 26 62 23 15 .23 .418 .030 43 NV230 13 3 6 60 34 51 26 23 .44 .437 .049 44 NV 98 5 3 4 7 88 43 35 22 1.32 .386 .116 45 NV309 16 3 23 45 31 43 31 26 .52 .460 .067 46 NV231 13 3 8 25 68 49 37 14 1.13 .414 .069 47 NV305 13 4 24 43 32 63 24 13 1.08 .404 .031 48 NV304 17 3 7 52 41 65 25 10 1.44 .381 .024 49 NV238 3 4 18 29 53 72 22 7 .88 .372 .020 50 NV316 7 3 3 51 46 61 26 13 1.46 .397 .034 51 NV204 8 2 2 74 24 45 43 12 .38 .480 .026 52 NV242 7 2 1 23 76 58 34 8 1.36 .381 .041 53 NV200 7 2 5 38 57 41 42 17 .40 .464 .080 54 NV213 7 3 41 11 48 66 25 9 .66 .411 .041 55 NV513 10 3 17 60 23 43 40 16 .30 .459 .035 56 NV237 8 3 22 56 23 60 27 13 .45 .427 .023 57 NV512 14 4 9 36 55 64 24 12 1.32 .405 .039 58 CA783 18 3 2 60 38 67 22 11 1.46 .403 .022 59 NV205 9 3 7 54 39 59 31 10 .78 .382 .025 60 CA738 17 3 17 46 38 57 29 15 .36 .376 .036 

Table 2. Soil texture attributes and developed inputs to the INFILv3 model of the Death Valley region, Nevada and California—Continued Soil type map code STATSGO MUID code Number of soil components Soil texture attributes for MUIDs (weighted averages for sequences and layers) Developed inputs (average v

Number of soil layers Percent rock Percent coarse sand, gravel, cobbles and boulders Percent material finer than gravel Grain size classes as a percentage of all material finer than gravel Soil thickness (SOILTHCK) (m) Porosity (SPOR) (dimension- less) Wilting po

(SWP) (dimensio

less) 

Sand Silt Clay 
Tables 109

61 CA784 8 3 0 4 96 42 36 22 1.52 0.437 0.136 62 NV536 17 3 19 49 31 36 43 21 .77 .479 .063 63 CA780 21 3 16 39 45 75 18 7 .37 .404 .016 64 CA905 15 1 43 36 21 59 32 9 .27 .398 .021 65 CA782 19 3 14 52 35 55 28 17 .24 .439 .041 66 CA744 19 3 11 41 49 63 25 12 1.29 .388 .036 67 CA785 14 3 15 54 31 65 23 12 .19 .422 .024 68 CA750 17 3 12 53 35 45 38 17 .42 .422 .046 69 CA786 17 3 7 52 41 65 25 10 1.44 .381 .024 70 NV202 8 3 4 64 32 55 31 14 .88 .406 .029 71 CA740 13 2 1 58 40 79 14 6 1.51 .368 .009 72 CA741 9 2 1 53 46 73 20 8 1.48 .366 .015 73 CA751 19 3 8 62 30 55 30 15 1.08 .379 .028 74 CA787 16 3 30 44 26 62 23 15 .23 .418 .030 75 NV381 5 2 0 9 91 51 30 19 1.52 .384 .095 76 CA788 20 3 27 47 26 50 31 19 .28 .435 .042 77 NV215 3 3 6 72 21 60 24 15 .90 .391 .019 78 CA909 17 1 35 29 36 67 22 11 .33 .387 .030 79 CA739 9 2 24 47 29 62 23 15 .43 .387 .029 80 NV543 17 1 35 29 36 67 22 11 .33 .387 .030 

Table 2. Soil texture attributes and developed inputs to the INFILv3 model of the Death Valley region, Nevada and California—Continued

Soil type 

map code

STATSGO 

MUID

code

Number of 

soil 

components

Soil texture attributes for MUIDs (weighted averages for sequences and layers) Developed inputs (average v

Number 

of soil layers

Percent 

rock

Percent 

coarse 

sand, 

gravel, 

cobbles 

and

boulders

Percent 

material 

finer than 

gravel

Grain size classes as a 

percentage of all material

finer than gravel Soil thickness

(SOILTHCK)

(m)

Porosity 

(SPOR) 

(dimensionless)

Wilting po

(SWP)

(dimensio

less)

Sand Silt Clay 
110 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using the Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model, INFILv3, of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA 81 NV387 11 2 5 63 32 55 31 14 1.08 0.414 0.030 

82 CA902 12 3 2 67 31 74 19 6 1.50 .369 .009 83 NV539 12 3 2 67 31 74 19 6 1.50 .369 .009 84 NV394 21 4 27 39 34 63 26 11 .76 .387 .028 85 CA906 16 3 17 51 32 41 40 19 .27 .443 .051 86 NV389 19 2 6 61 33 68 23 9 1.43 .388 .016 87 CA910 20 3 16 30 54 68 23 9 .95 .370 .027 88 NV390 5 3 33 51 16 55 36 9 .23 .411 .016 89 NV396 13 3 0 31 69 46 41 13 1.52 .408 .066 90 CA935 6 2 1 64 35 83 14 3 1.45 .343 .003 91 CA743 9 3 12 50 38 57 28 15 .35 .399 .037 92 NV544 15 1 43 36 21 59 32 9 .27 .398 .021 93 CA761 7 2 5 48 48 67 23 11 1.50 .356 .025 94 CA742 6 4 3 5 91 54 32 14 1.36 .378 .078 95 NV545 12 2 0 53 47 80 16 4 1.60 .370 .007 96 NV216 2 2 4 56 40 51 33 16 .31 .458 .046 97 CA923 6 2 0 0 100 14 37 49 1.53 .360 .207 98 NV385 14 3 17 46 37 56 33 12 1.07 .429 .036 99 CA901 12 2 0 53 47 80 16 4 1.60 .370 .007 

100 CA921 14 2 0 18 82 84 13 4 1.53 .354 .008 

Table 2. Soil texture attributes and developed inputs to the INFILv3 model of the Death Valley region, Nevada and California—Continued Soil type map code STATSGO MUID code Number of soil components Soil texture attributes for MUIDs (weighted averages for sequences and layers) Developed inputs (average v

Number of soil layers Percent rock Percent coarse sand, gravel, cobbles and boulders Percent material finer than gravel Grain size classes as a percentage of all material finer than gravel Soil thickness (SOILTHCK) (m) Porosity (SPOR) (dimension- less) Wilting po

(SWP) (dimensio

less) 

Sand Silt Clay 
Tables 111

101 NV393 14 4 15 40 45 59 32 9 1.36 0.388 0.031 102 CA760 18 2 3 53 44 68 21 11 1.49 .362 .022 103 CA650 7 2 0 2 98 17 36 47 1.52 .358 .197 104 CA765 8 4 0 21 79 70 19 10 1.57 .359 .035 105 CA917 14 1 25 46 29 47 38 14 .30 .468 .043 106 CA767 8 4 0 6 94 54 27 18 1.59 .400 .097 107 NV392 5 4 5 34 61 45 36 20 1.51 .429 .081 108 CA764 10 4 1 25 74 76 18 6 1.70 .330 .015 109 NV384 14 4 4 24 73 37 39 24 1.38 .430 .114 110 NV383 10 3 7 7 87 28 43 29 1.35 .430 .166 111 CA937 10 3 7 7 87 28 43 29 1.35 .430 .166 112 NV209 11 3 21 33 46 57 31 12 .82 .418 .044 113 CA911 20 2 16 21 63 68 22 10 .79 .377 .037 114 CA916 19 1 30 40 30 58 28 14 .36 .414 .035 115 CA907 18 1 49 25 25 65 26 9 .19 .360 .022 116 NV212 9 2 3 15 83 39 41 21 1.37 .437 .120 117 NV538 7 2 0 2 98 17 36 47 1.52 .358 .197 118 CA334 15 3 9 28 64 80 14 6 .81 .401 .014 119 NV210 11 2 9 48 43 62 29 9 1.31 .415 .027 120 NV211 9 3 7 4 90 35 46 19 1.33 .425 .130 

Table 2. Soil texture attributes and developed inputs to the INFILv3 model of the Death Valley region, Nevada and California—Continued

Soil type 

map code

STATSGO 

MUID

code

Number of 

soil 

components

Soil texture attributes for MUIDs (weighted averages for sequences and layers) Developed inputs (average v

Number 

of soil layers

Percent 

rock

Percent 

coarse 

sand, 

gravel, 

cobbles 

and

boulders

Percent 

material 

finer than 

gravel

Grain size classes as a 

percentage of all material

finer than gravel Soil thickness

(SOILTHCK)

(m)

Porosity 

(SPOR) 

(dimensionless)

Wilting po

(SWP)

(dimensio

less)

Sand Silt Clay 
112 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using the Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model, INFILv3, of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA 121 CA913 15 1 56 17 27 69 21 10 0.21 0.367 0.028 

122 NV218 10 3 13 59 28 69 22 9 1.27 .391 .014 123 NV220 7 2 1 71 28 57 36 8 .33 .404 .017 124 NV229 8 2 4 64 32 63 27 10 1.12 .410 .020 125 CA635 21 5 1 16 83 69 21 10 1.56 .355 .037 126 CA922 15 3 0 50 50 77 15 8 1.63 .359 .014 127 CA388 8 2 29 9 62 81 15 4 .80 .364 .012 128 CA927 12 3 7 43 50 59 26 15 1.53 .443 .051 129 CA919 14 3 27 18 55 63 24 13 .41 .373 .048 130 NV222 5 4 31 43 26 60 23 17 .47 .403 .035 131 CA930 17 3 2 57 41 72 20 8 1.53 .364 .014 132 CA931 19 4 0 28 72 78 17 5 1.53 .352 .013 133 CA339 13 3 4 12 84 56 26 18 1.51 .367 .080 134 NV227 11 2 7 18 75 55 34 12 1.46 .401 .062 135 NV217 9 3 2 20 78 59 27 14 1.52 .439 .069 136 CA934 11 2 7 18 75 55 34 12 1.46 .401 .062 137 NV226 8 4 10 52 39 56 31 13 1.16 .394 .035 138 NV228 6 3 1 68 31 46 28 27 .48 .440 .049 139 CA933 9 3 2 20 78 59 27 14 1.52 .439 .069 140 CA932 8 4 10 52 39 56 31 13 1.16 .394 .035 

Table 2. Soil texture attributes and developed inputs to the INFILv3 model of the Death Valley region, Nevada and California—Continued Soil type map code STATSGO MUID code Number of soil components Soil texture attributes for MUIDs (weighted averages for sequences and layers) Developed inputs (average v

Number of soil layers Percent rock Percent coarse sand, gravel, cobbles and boulders Percent material finer than gravel Grain size classes as a percentage of all material finer than gravel Soil thickness (SOILTHCK) (m) Porosity (SPOR) (dimension- less) Wilting po

(SWP) (dimensio

less) 

Sand Silt Clay 
Tables 113

141 NV542 14 3 27 18 55 63 24 13 0.41 0.373 0.048 142 CA389 9 2 38 19 43 60 23 17 .40 .360 .055 143 CA926 19 3 18 49 33 56 28 16 .20 .439 .041 144 CA341 12 2 30 15 56 65 22 13 .51 .380 .050 145 CA340 8 5 3 21 76 69 18 13 1.46 .357 .041 146 CA643 14 3 20 14 66 66 22 12 .79 .369 .045 147 CA651 14 4 2 13 84 72 17 10 1.55 .360 .036 148 CA920 13 2 0 10 90 84 13 3 1.52 .352 .008 149 CA918 15 3 13 60 27 54 31 15 .48 .463 .032 

Table 2. Soil texture attributes and developed inputs to the INFILv3 model of the Death Valley region, Nevada and California—Continued

Soil type 

map code

STATSGO 

MUID

code

Number of 

soil 

components

Soil texture attributes for MUIDs (weighted averages for sequences and layers) Developed inputs (average v

Number 

of soil layers

Percent 

rock

Percent 

coarse 

sand, 

gravel, 

cobbles 

and

boulders

Percent 

material 

finer than 

gravel

Grain size classes as a 

percentage of all material

finer than gravel Soil thickness

(SOILTHCK)

(m)

Porosity 

(SPOR) 

(dimensionless)

Wilting po

(SWP)

(dimensio

less)

Sand Silt Clay 
114 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using the Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model, INFILv3, of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA Table 3. Summary of input parameters used in the INFILv3 model of the Death Valley region, Nevada and California—Continued Source data Preprocessing routines Input file Parameter name Parameter description Parameter use 

DEM and topographic parameters developed using the DEM DEM GIS calculated Watershed file ELEV(r,c) Land-surface elevation Potential evapotranspiration, spatial interpolation models

Watershed file SLP(r,c) Land-surface slope Potential evapotranspiration, streamflow rWatershed file ASP(r,c) Land-surface aspect Potential evapotranspiration Watershed file EAST(r,c) DEM grid cell east–west coordinate Grid cell location, spatial interpolation mWatershed file NORTH(r,c) DEM grid cell east–west coordinate Grid cell location, spatial interpolation mWatershed file LAT(r,c) DEM grid cell latitude Potential evapotranspiration Watershed file LON(r,c) DEM grid cell latitude Potential evapotranspiration 

SKYVIEW 

calculated

Watershed file RIDGE(r,c,36) 36 blocking ridge angles Potential evapotranspiration Watershed file SKYVIEW(r,c) Reduction in total skyview Potential evapotranspiration 

GRDSORT01 

calculated

Watershed file LOCID(r,c) Location identifier for upstream cell Streamflow routing 

ROUTER03 

calculated

Watershed file IROUT(r,c) Location identifier for downstream cell Streamflow routing Watershed file UPCELLS(r,c) Number of upstream cells Streamflow routing 

Soil properties associated with the STATSGO database

STATSGO GIS Watershed file SOILTYPE(r,c) Map code for STATSGO soil units Spatial distribution of soil properties 

STATSGO34 Watershed file SOILTHCK(r,c) Estimated soil thickness for root zone Root-zone layer thickness

Soil attribute table SPOR(soiltype) Soil porosity Root-zone storage capacity Soil attribute table SWP(soiltype) Wilting point Root-zone storage capacity, evapotranspir

model

Soil attribute table SKS(soiltype) Soil saturated hydraulic conductivity Root-zone infiltration and drainage functiSoil attribute table SOILB(soiltype) Soil drainage function coefficient Root-zone infiltration and drainage functi

Bedrock and deep alluvium properties associated with the digital map of hydrogeologic units

Faunt and others 

(1997)

GIS Watershed file ROCKTYPE(r,c) Map code for hydrogeologic units Spatial distribution of bedrock and deep 

properties

User defined Bedrock attribute 

table

RKPOR(rocktype) Effective root-zone porosity for bedrock 

layer

Defines storage capacity of root zone in b

layer

Bedrock attribute 

table

RKLO(rocktype) Effective unsaturated hydraulic conductivity 

for hydrogeologic unit

Defines lower bedrock hydraulic conduct

Bedrock attribute 

table

RKHI(rocktype) Effective saturated hydraulic conductivity 

for hydrogeologic unit

Defines upper bedrock and deep alluvium 

hydraulic conductivity

Table 3. Summary of input parameters used in the INFILv3 model of the Death Valley region, Nevada and California[Source data: DEM, digital-elevation model; STATSGO, State Soil Geographic database; GAP, Gap Analysis Program, Biological Resources; NOAA, National Oceanic 

NCDC, National Climatic Data Center; GIS, geographic information system; NWS, National Weather Service. Parameter name: r, row; c, column. Parameter units: m, m

degrees; d, degree; mm/d, millimeter per day; cm, centimeter; mm; millimeter; na, not applicable]
Tables 115

Vegetation and root-zone properties associated with the GAP database

GAP GIS Watershed file VEGTYPE(r,c) Map code for GAP vegetation units Spatial distribution of vegetation propertie

root- zone layer properties

User defined GIS Watershed file VEGCOV(r,c) Vegetation cover Evapotranspiration model User defined None Vegetation attribute 

table

RZDEN(vegtype,l) Root density for layer l Evapotranspiration model 

User defined None Vegetation attribute 

table

RZDPTH(vegtype,l) Root-zone layer thickness Evapotranspiration model, root-zone drain

model

Snowmelt and sublimation parameters

Maidment (1993) None Control file SNODAY1 Day number 1 for snowmelt model Define timing of early spring snowmelt mo

Control file SNOPAR1 Snowmelt parameter 1 Degree-day snowmelt rate Control file SNODAY2 Day number 2 for snowmelt model Define timing of late spring snowmelt modControl file SNOPAR2 Snowmelt parameter 2 Degree-day snowmelt rate 

User defined None Control file MELTIME Duration of daily snowmelt Controls intensity of snowmelt 

Control file SUBPAR1 Sublimation rate parameter 1 Sublimation Control file SUBPAR2 Sublimation rate parameter 2 Sublimation 

Simulation-time parameters

User defined None Control file YRSTART Simulation start year Identifies simulation start date 

Control file MOSTART Simulation start month Identifies simulation start date Control file DYSTART Simulation start day Identifies simulation start date Control file YREND Simulation end year Identifies simulation end date Control file MOEND Simulation end month Identifies simulation end date Control file DYEND Simulation end day Identifies simulation end date 

Storm duration parameters

Control file DYSUMBEG Start day number for summer storms Defines beginning day number for a summ

storm 

User defined None Control file DYSUMEND End day number for summer storms Defines ending day number for a summer 

Control file STORMSUM Duration of summer precipitation and 

streamflow

Defines precipitation and streamflow inten

for summer storms

User defined None Control file STORMWIN Duration of winter precipitation and 

streamflow

Defines precipitation and streamflow inten

for winter storms

Evapotranspiration parameters

Flint and Childs 

(1987)

None Control file BSEA Priestley–Taylor model coefficient 1 for bare 

soil evaporation

Evapotranspiration model coefficient for 

modified Priestley–Taylor equation, for soil evaporation

Table 3. Summary of input parameters used in the INFILv3 model of the Death Valley region, Nevada and California—Continued

Source

data

Preprocessing

routines Input file Parameter name Parameter description Parameter use 
116 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using the Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model, INFILv3, of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA Control file BSEB Priestley–Taylor model coefficient 2 for bare soil evaporation Evapotranspiration model coefficient for modified Priestley–Taylor equation, for 

soil evaporation

Control file HSTEP Potential evapotranspiration time step Define hourly time-step for potential 

evapotranspiration model

Control file ETA Priestley–Taylor model coefficient 1 for 

transpiration

Evapotranspiration model coefficient for 

modified Priestley–Taylor equation, for transpiration

User defined None Control file ETB Priestley–Taylor model coefficient 2 for 

transpiration

Evapotranspiration model coefficient for 

modified Priestley–Taylor equation, for transpiration

Stream-channel parameters

User defined None Control file CHAN1 Surface-water minimum wetted area factor Defines wetted area for stream-channel gri

Control file CHAN2 Surface-water wetted area model coefficient Defines wetted area for stream-channel griControl file CHAN3 Surface-water headwater wetted area factor Defines wetted area for stream-channel griControl file CHAN4 Surface-water maximum wetted area factor Defines wetted area for stream-channel griControl file KSCHN1 Model coefficient for stream-channel 

characteristics

Minimum number of upstream cells for us

KSCHN2

User defined None Control file KSCHN2 Model coefficient for stream-channel 

characteristics

Scaler for adjusting soil saturated hydrauli

conductivity in channels

Control file KSCHN3 Soil saturated hydraulic conductivity Maximum soil saturated hydraulic conduc

in channels

Daily climate inputs developed from NOAA/NCDC

Control file INITOPT Initial condition option Defines method for setting initial conditionControl file VWCFACT Scaler for setting initial water content for 

root zone

Defines initial water content for soil layers 

root zone

NOAA/

NCDC

DAYINP14 Precipitation. file PPT(day, st) Daily precipitation Daily precipitation input 

Maximum air 

temperature file

TMAX(day, st) Maximum daily air temperature Snowfall, snowmelt, sublimation, potentia

evapotranspiration

Minimum air 

temperature file

TMIN(day, st) Minimum daily air temperature Snowfall, snowmelt, sublimation, potentia

evapotranspiration

User defined EXCEL Monthly climate 

model

PPTMOD (month) Model type for monthly precipitationelevation regression model Defines model type for daily precipitation s

interpolation model

Daily climate inputs developed from NOAA/NCDC—Continued

Monthly climate 

model

PPTA(month) Regression model coefficient for 

precipitation-elevation regression model

Coefficient for daily precipitation spatial 

interpolation model

Table 3. Summary of input parameters used in the INFILv3 model of the Death Valley region, Nevada and California—Continued

Source

data

Preprocessing

routines Input file Parameter name Parameter description Parameter use 
Tables 117

Monthly climate 

model

PPTB(month) Regression model coefficient for 

precipitation-elevation regression model

Coefficient for daily precipitation spatial 

interpolation model

Monthly climate 

model

PPTC(month) Regression model coefficient for 

precipitation-elevation regression model

Coefficient for daily precipitation spatial 

interpolation model

Monthly climate 

model

TMAXMOD(month) Model type for monthly maximum air 

temperature-elevation regression model

Defines model type for maximum daily air 

temperature spatial interpolation model

Monthly climate 

model

TMAXA(month) Regression model coefficient for maximum 

air temperature-elevation model

Coefficient for maximum daily air tempera

spatial interpolation model

Monthly climate 

model

TMAXB(month) Regression model coefficient for maximum 

air temperature-elevation model

Coefficient for maximum daily air tempera

spatial interpolation model

Monthly climate 

model

TMAXC(month) Regression model coefficient for maximum 

air temperature-elevation model

Coefficient for maximum daily air tempera

spatial interpolation model

Monthly climate 

model

TMINMOD(month) Model type for monthly Minimum air 

temperature-elevation regression model

Defines model type for minimum daily air 

temperature spatial interpolation model

Monthly climate 

model

TMINA(month) Regression model coefficient for minimum 

air temperature-elevation model

Coefficient for minimum daily air tempera

spatial interpolation model

Monthly climate 

model

TMINB(month) Regression model coefficient for minimum 

air temperature-elevation model

Coefficient for minimum daily air tempera

spatial interpolation model

Monthly climate 

model

TMINC(month) Regression model coefficient for minimum 

air temperature-elevation model

Coefficient for minimum daily air tempera

spatial interpolation model

Monthly atmospheric parameters

NWS None Monthly atmospheric 

parameter

OZONE (month) Ozone layer thickness Potential evapotranspiration model, incom

solar radiation

Monthly atmospheric 

parameter

WP (month) Precipitable water in atmosphere Potential evapotranspiration model, incom

solar radiation

Monthly atmospheric 

parameter

BETA (month) Mean atmospheric turbidity Potential evapotranspiration model, incom

solar radiation, net radiation

Monthly atmospheric 

parameter

CSR(month) Circumsolar radiation Potential evapotranspiration model, incom

solar radiation, net radiation

Monthly atmospheric 

parameter

PG (month) Surface reflectivity Potential evapotranspiration model, incom

solar radiation, net radiation

Table 3. Summary of input parameters used in the INFILv3 model of the Death Valley region, Nevada and California—Continued

Source

data

Preprocessing

routines Input file Parameter name Parameter description Parameter use 
118 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using the Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model, INFILv3, of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA Table 4. Estimated hydraulic conductivities and root-zone water storage capacities for bedrock and deep soils in the root-zone of the Death Valley region, Nevada and 

Deep soils/bedrock set Hydrogeologic unit Hydrogeologic unit description Estimated root-zone storage capacity (RKPOR) 

(

Set A: (for models 1 and 2) Qtal Quaternary and Tertiary valley fill 0.35 50

Tv Quaternary and Tertiary lava flows .05 Tv Tertiary volcanic rocks .05 TSDVS Tertiary volcaniclastic rocks .05 TJi Tertiary and late Jurassic granitic rocks .001 Mvs Mesozoic sedimentary and metavolcanic rocks .10 LCA/UCA Paleozoic carbonate rocks .10 LCCU Paleozoic and Precambrian clastic rocks .02 pCgm Precambrian igneous and metamorphic rocks .002 QTp Quaternary playa deposits .45 UCCU Paleozoic clastic rocks .01 

Set B: (for models 3 and, 4) Qtal Quaternary and Tertiary valley fill .35 50

Tv Quaternary and Tertiary lava flows .05 Tv Tertiary volcanic rocks .05 TSDVS Tertiary volcaniclastic rocks .05 TJi Tertiary and late Jurassic granitic rocks .001 Mvs Mesozoic sedimentary and metavolcanic rocks .10 LCA/UCA Paleozoic carbonates rocks .10 LCCU Paleozoic and Precambrian clastic rocks .02 pCgm Precambrian igneous and metamorphic rocks .002 QTp Quaternary playa deposits .45 UCCU Paleozoic clastic rocks .01 

Table 4. Estimated root-zone water storage capacities and effective hydraulic conductivities for deep soils and bedrock underlying the root zone of the Death Valley reg[Hydrogeologic unit from D’Agnese and others (2002). Hydrogeologic unit description modified from Faunt and others (1997). mm/d, millimeter per day]
Tables 119

Table 5. Estimated vegetation type or land-surface characteristics and estimated root densities used to define the root-zone parameters for root-zone model A of the IN

region, Nevada and California—Continued

Map code

identifier for 

vegetation type or land-surface 

characteristic

(locations on

figure 7)

Vegetation type or land-surface 

characteristic

(VEGTYPE)

Estimated vegetation type or land-surface 

characteristic Estimated root density (RZDEN), in percent

Vegetation

type or land-surface 

characteristic

Vegetation 

cover

(VEGCOV),

in percent

Maximum

root 

depth

(m)

Soil

layer 1

(0 – 0.1 m)

Soil

layer 2

(0.1 – 0.3 m)

Soil

layer 3

(0.3 – 1.0 m)

Soil

layer 4

(1.0 – 3.0 m)

So

laye

(3.0 – 6

3 Subalpine pine Coniferous forest 50 6 50 50 50 50 50 4 Ponderosa pine Coniferous forest 60 6 60 60 60 60 60 5 Jeffrey pine Coniferous forest 60 6 60 60 60 60 60 6 White fir Coniferous forest 60 6 60 60 60 60 60 7 Meadow Grasslands 70 .3 70 70 40 20 10 8 Riparian wetland Discharge one 90 3 90 90 90 90 90 9 Ash Deciduous forest 50 6 50 50 50 50 40 

10 California chaparral Desert shrubs 40 3 40 40 40 40 30 11 Mountain shrub–clear cut Mountain shrub 70 3 70 70 70 70 20 12 Alpine–subalpine meadows Grasslands 60 .3 60 60 30 20 10 13 Juniper Coniferous forest 40 6 40 40 40 40 30 14 Pinyon pine Coniferous forest 50 6 50 50 50 50 40 15 Pinyon–juniper Coniferous forest 40 6 40 40 40 40 30 16 Mountain mahogany Mountain shrub 60 3 60 60 50 50 30 17 Sagebrush Desert shrubs 30 3 30 30 30 30 20 18 Sagebrush–perennial grass Desert shrubs 50 1 50 50 50 30 20 19 Rabbitbrush Desert shrubs 30 1 30 30 30 20 10 20 Great Basin grassland Grasslands 50 1 50 50 50 20 10 21 California disturbed grassland Grasslands 40 .3 40 40 20 20 10 22 Foothills grassland Grasslands 70 1 70 70 70 30 20 

Table 5. Estimated vegetation type or land-surface characteristics and estimated root densities used to define the root-zone parameters for root-zone model A of the INregion, Nevada and California[Root-zone parameter set A used in INFILv3 models 1, 2, and 3. Vegetation types from U.S. Geological Survey, National Gap Analysis Program (GAP), western region v

(Murray, 1997, accessed March 16, 2000). Map code identifiers 1 and 2 used for vegetation types identified as unknown in GAP. Map code identifiers for the purposes of association does not necessarily relate to any established vegetation associations, only to the groupings used for this study. m, meter]
120 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using the Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model, INFILv3, of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA 23 Salt desert shrub Desert shrubs 20 1 20 20 20 10 10 

24 Blackbrush Desert shrubs 30 .3 30 30 10 10 5 25 Creosote–bursage Desert shrubs 30 6 30 30 30 30 30 26 Greasewood Desert trees/shrubs 30 6 30 30 30 30 30 27 Hopsage Desert shrubs 20 1 20 20 20 10 5 28 Mesquite Desert trees/shrubs 30 6 30 30 30 30 30 29 Mojave mixed shrub Desert shrubs 20 1 20 20 20 10 5 30 Joshua tree Desert trees/shrubs 30 3 30 30 30 30 20 31 Shadescale Desert shrubs 20 1 20 20 20 10 5 32 Catclaw acacia Desert trees/shrubs 20 3 20 20 20 20 10 33 Water Discharge zone 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 34 Agriculture Agriculture 90 1 90 90 90 30 20 35 Highly developed Highly developed 50 6 50 50 50 50 50 36 Inland dune Barren 0 0 0 0 5 5 5 37 Barren Barren 0 0 0 0 5 5 5 

Table 5. Estimated vegetation type or land-surface characteristics and estimated root densities used to define the root-zone parameters for root-zone model A of the IN

region, Nevada and California—Continued Map code identifier for vegetation type or land-surface characteristic (locations on figure 7) Vegetation type or land-surface characteristic (VEGTYPE) Estimated vegetation type or land-surface characteristic Estimated root density (RZDEN), in percent 

Vegetation type or land-surface characteristic Vegetation cover (VEGCOV), in percent Maximum root depth (m) Soil layer 1 (0 – 0.1 m) Soil layer 2 (0.1 – 0.3 m) Soil layer 3 (0.3 – 1.0 m) Soil layer 4 (1.0 – 3.0 m) So

laye

(3.0 – 6
Tables 121

Table 6. Estimated vegetation type or land-surface characteristic and estimated root density used to define the root-zone parameters for root-zone model B of the INFIregion, Nevada and California, Nevada and California—Continued

Map code

identifier for 

vegetation 

type or landsurface 

characteristic 

(locations on 

figure 7)

Vegetation type or land-surface 

characteristic

(VEGTYPE)

Estimated vegetation type or land-surface 

characteristic Estimated root density (RZDEN), in perc

Vegetation 

or 

land-use

association

Vegetation 

cover

(VEGCOV),

in percent

Maximum

root

depth

(m)

Soil

layer 1

(0 – 0.1 m)

Soil

layer 2

(0.1 – 0.3 m)

Soil

layer 3

(0.3 – 1.0 m)

Soil

layer 4

(1.0 – 3.0 m)

S

la

(3.0 – 

3 Subalpine pine Coniferous forest 50 6 50 50 50 50 4 Ponderosa pine Coniferous forest 60 6 60 60 60 60 5 Jeffrey pine Coniferous forest 60 6 60 60 60 60 6 White fir Coniferous forest 60 6 60 60 60 60 7 Meadow Grasslands 70 .3 70 70 40 20 8 Riparian wetland Discharge zone 90 3 90 90 90 90 9 Ash Deciduous forest 50 6 50 50 50 50 

10 California chaparral Desert shrubs 40 3 40 40 40 40 11 Mountain shrub–clear cut Mountain shrub 70 3 70 70 70 70 12 Alpine–subalpine meadows Grasslands 60 .3 60 60 30 20 13 Juniper Coniferous forest 40 6 40 40 40 40 14 Pinyon pine Coniferous forest 50 6 50 50 50 50 15 Pinyon–juniper Coniferous forest 40 6 40 40 40 40 16 Mountain mahogany Mountain shrub 60 3 60 60 50 50 17 Sagebrush Desert shrubs 30 3 30 30 30 30 18 Sagebrush–perennial grass Desert shrubs 50 1 50 50 50 30 19 Rabbitbrush Desert shrubs 30 1 30 30 30 20 20 Great Basin grassland Grasslands 50 1 50 50 50 20 21 California disturbed grassland Grasslands 40 .3 40 40 20 20 22 Foothills grassland Grasslands 70 1 70 70 70 30 

Table 6. Estimated vegetation type or land-surface characteristic and estimated root density used to define the root-zone parameters for root-zone model B of the INFIregion, Nevada and California[Root-zone parameter set B used in INFILv3 models 1, 2, and 3. Vegetation types from U.S. Geological Survey, National Gap Analysis Program (GAP), western region v(Murray, 1997, accessed March 16, 2000). Map code identifiers 1 and 2 used for vegetation types identified as unknown in GAP. Map code identifiers for the purposes of association does not necessarily relate to any established vegetation associations, only to the groupings used in this study. m, meter]
122 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using the Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model, INFILv3, of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA 23 Salt desert shrub Desert shrubs 20 1 20 20 20 10 

24 Blackbrush Desert shrubs 30 .3 30 30 10 10 25 Creosote–bursage Desert shrubs 30 6 30 30 30 30 26 Greasewood Desert trees/shrubs 30 6 30 30 30 30 27 Hopsage Desert shrubs 20 1 20 20 20 10 28 Mesquite Desert trees/shrubs 30 6 30 30 30 30 29 Mojave mixed shrub Desert shrubs 20 1 20 20 10 10 30 Joshua tree Desert trees/shrubs 30 3 30 30 30 20 31 Shadescale Desert shrubs 20 1 20 20 10 10 32 Catclaw acacia Desert trees/shrubs 20 3 20 20 20 20 33 Water Discharge zone 0 0 0 0 0 0 34 Agriculture Agriculture 90 1 90 90 90 30 35 Highly developed Highly developed 50 6 50 50 50 50 36 Inland dune Barren 0 0 0 10 10 10 37 Barren Barren 0 0 0 10 10 10 

Table 6. Estimated vegetation type or land-surface characteristic and estimated root density used to define the root-zone parameters for root-zone model B of the INFIregion, Nevada and California, Nevada and California—Continued Map code identifier for vegetation type or land- surface characteristic (locations on figure 7) Vegetation type or land-surface characteristic (VEGTYPE) Estimated vegetation type or land-surface characteristic Estimated root density (RZDEN), in perc

Vegetation or land-use association Vegetation cover (VEGCOV), in percent Maximum root depth (m) Soil layer 1 (0 – 0.1 m) Soil layer 2 (0.1 – 0.3 m) Soil layer 3 (0.3 – 1.0 m) Soil layer 4 (1.0 – 3.0 m) S

la

(3.0 – 
Tables 123

Table 7. Summary of daily climate records used as input to the INFILv3 model of the Death Valley region, Nevada and California—Continued 

Daily climate recording station

Station location

coordinates

(UTM zone 11, NAD27) Station

elevation

(m)

Daily

precipitation

Daily maximuair temperatu

Station

identifier

Station

name

Station

code

Easting

(m)

Northing

(m)

Number

years

of record

Annual

average

(mm/yr)

Number

years

of record

Da

aver

(°C

1 Twentynine Palms 49099 588,807 3,776,455 602 50 105 50 29 2 Adaven 260046 624,188 4,219,501 1,905 51 324 51 18 3 Adelanto 40024 461,786 3,826,721 869 17 91 0 — 4 Amargosa Farms Garey 260150 548,143 4,047,290 747 25 114 25 28 5 Apple Valley 40244 480,113 3,819,271 894 27 132 0 — 6 Backus Ranch 40418 391,948 3,867,940 808 13 123 13 25 7 Baker 40436 584,263 3,902,719 287 20 109 20 30 8 Baker 9 NNW 40437 580,231 3,915,714 320 17 69 17 29 9 Barstow 40519 496,955 3,861,757 659 48 113 48 27 

10 Barstow Fire Station 40521 497,919 3,860,401 707 19 124 19 27 11 Beatty 260714 522,269 4,085,454 1,007 23 105 22 25 12 Beatty 8 N 260718 525,064 4,094,152 1,082 26 161 26 24 13 Beaver Dam 20672 772,454 4,087,604 572 32 193 31 28 14 Benton Inspection ST 40684 369,923 4,189,196 1,664 34 203 0 — 15 Big Pines Park FC83B 40779 437,179 3,804,676 2,086 47 632 0 — 16 Bishop AP 40822 379,749 4,136,703 1,250 51 136 51 24 17 Bishop Creek Intake 40819 359,576 4,123,577 2,485 39 316 0 — 18 Blythe 40924 722,656 3,722,044 82 67 100 67 31 19 Blythe FCWOS 40927 711,830 3,721,798 119 50 94 50 31 20 Bodie 40943 323,659 4,231,043 2,551 32 350 33 13 

Table 7. Summary of daily climate records used as input to the INFILv3 model of the Death Valley region, Nevada and California[See figure 23 for location of climate recording stations. [UTM, Universal Transverse Mercator coordinates; NAD27, North American Datum of 1927; NWS, National W

millimeters per year, °C, degrees Celsius; —, not available]
124 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using the Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model, INFILv3, of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA 21 Boulder City 261071 694,423 3,983,464 770 66 146 66 25 

22 Bouse 20949 775,048 3,759,638 282 47 143 47 31 23 Bullhead City 21050 721,590 3,891,202 165 22 171 22 31 24 Caliente 261358 719,256 4,166,013 1,341 68 229 65 22 25 Cantil 41488 412,110 3,906,543 613 19 104 18 27 26 China Lake Armitage 41733 438,166 3,948,842 677 20 111 0 — 27 Cow Creek 42092 510,444 4,042,910 –46 12 41 12 33 28 Daggett FCWOS 42257 518,918 3,856,539 586 50 101 51 28 29 Davis Dam No. 2 22439 721,532 3,897,737 201 19 110 17 29 30 Death Valley 42319 512,221 4,035,025 –59 38 58 38 33 31 Deep Canyon Laboratory 42327 557,825 3,723,485 366 36 151 0 — 32 Deep Springs College 42331 412,926 4,135,799 1,593 45 158 42 20 33 Desert National Wildlife Range 262243 646,408 4,033,051 890 50 112 49 26 34 Desert Rock AP 262251 586,936 4,053,019 1,006 12 157 12 25 35 Duckwater 262390 611,846 4,309,346 1,710 28 188 28 18 36 Dunn Siding 42570 551,679 3,878,537 491 11 87 0 — 37 Dyer 262431 404,475 4,171,028 1,493 48 129 47 21 38 Eagle Mountain 42598 643,484 3,740,867 297 51 93 51 29 39 Llano Eberle Ranch 45002 431,118 3,813,960 1,165 17 168 16 23 40 Ehrenberg 22787 728,886 3,720,341 98 27 90 27 31 

Table 7. Summary of daily climate records used as input to the INFILv3 model of the Death Valley region, Nevada and California

—Continued 

Daily climate recording station

Station location

coordinates

(UTM zone 11, NAD27) Station

elevation

(m)

Daily

precipitation

Daily maximuair temperatu

Station

identifier

Station

name

Station

code

Easting

(m)

Northing

(m)

Number

years

of record

Annual

average

(mm/yr)

Number

years

of record

Da

aver

(°C
Tables 125

41 Ehrenberg 2 E 22790 739,761 3,718,756 142 22 133 22 31 42 Elgin 262557 717,633 4,136,081 1,042 14 315 13 24 43 Elgin 3 SE 262562 721,539 4,132,729 1,006 18 349 17 24 44 El Mirage 42771 442,122 3,827,531 899 27 152 27 24 45 Enterprise 422558 790,668 4,163,305 1,622 44 358 0 — 46 Goldfield 263285 479,457 4,173,245 1,734 41 164 42 18 47 Goldstone Echo No. 2 43498 519,603 3,904,072 899 25 150 0 — 48 Greenland Ranch 43603 511,949 4,033,669 –51 12 37 12 33 49 Gunlock Powerhouse 423506 790,077 4,130,812 1,253 50 317 0 — 50 Haiwee 43710 414,276 3,999,573 1,166 50 171 50 23 51 Hayfield Pumping PLA 43855 626,658 3,729,538 418 51 95 51 29 52 Hesperia 43935 472,431 3,808,202 976 17 164 0 34 53 Independence 44232 392,620 4,072,943 1,204 68 133 61 24 54 Indian Springs 263980 617,794 4,049,257 952 15 74 15 27 55 Indio Fire Station 44259 572,716 3,729,931 –6 67 82 67 32 56 Inyokern 44278 426,069 3,945,237 744 49 104 49 27 57 Inyokern Armitage 44280 438,166 3,948,842 682 29 88 0 — 58 Iron Mountain 44297 672,128 3,778,319 281 51 88 50 30 59 Joshua Tree 44405 563,008 3,776,956 830 14 123 0 — 60 Kee Ranch 44467 543,013 3,780,539 1,321 27 211 0 — 

Table 7. Summary of daily climate records used as input to the INFILv3 model of the Death Valley region, Nevada and California—Continued 

Daily climate recording station

Station location

coordinates

(UTM zone 11, NAD27) Station

elevation

(m)

Daily

precipitation

Daily maximuair temperatu

Station

identifier

Station

name

Station

code

Easting

(m)

Northing

(m)

Number

years

of record

Annual

average

(mm/yr)

Number

years

of record

Da

aver

(°C
126 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using the Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model, INFILv3, of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA 61 Kingman 24639 768,637 3,897,163 1,025 63 263 60 25 

62 Kingman No. 2 24645 771,618 3,899,103 1,079 25 266 25 24 63 Lake Valley Steward 264384 705,452 4,243,358 1,935 27 401 27 16 64 Lancaster FSS 44749 388,613 3,843,949 713 25 196 25 24 65 Lancaster 44747 397,707 3,838,298 732 24 128 24 25 66 Las Vegas AP 264436 666,108 3,994,073 648 50 106 50 27 67 Las Vegas 264429 667,897 4,003,848 613 27 111 26 28 68 Lake Havasu 24759 741,929 3,815,003 147 22 117 13 30 69 Logandale 264651 725,069 4,055,097 430 23 131 21 28 70 Lake Sabrina 44705 356,556 4,119,929 2,763 24 429 0 — 71 Lucerne Valley 1 WSW 45182 504,593 3,811,858 903 23 101 22 26 72 Mitchell Caverns 45721 632,693 3,867,556 1,326 41 270 41 23 73 Mecca Fire Station 45502 585,697 3,714,823 –55 49 74 49 32 74 Mina 265168 403,419 4,249,090 1,387 70 120 68 21 75 Mount San Jacinto WS 45978 533,941 3,739,847 2,568 9 655 8 13 76 Mojave 45756 393,600 3,879,012 834 50 149 33 24 77 Morongo Valley 45863 538,464 3,765,736 781 18 199 0 — 78 Mountain Pass 45890 632,115 3,926,003 1,442 41 221 36 21 79 Needles FCWOS 46118 717,726 3,849,272 279 50 118 50 30 80 North Las Vegas 265705 668,726 4,008,765 573 19 107 19 28 

Table 7. Summary of daily climate records used as input to the INFILv3 model of the Death Valley region, Nevada and California

—Continued 

Daily climate recording station

Station location

coordinates

(UTM zone 11, NAD27) Station

elevation

(m)

Daily

precipitation

Daily maximuair temperatu

Station

identifier

Station

name

Station

code

Easting

(m)

Northing

(m)

Number

years

of record

Annual

average

(mm/yr)

Number

years

of record

Da

aver

(°C
Tables 127

81 Overton 265846 727,504 4,047,635 381 27 109 26 29 82 Pahranagat Wildlife Refuge 265880 666,720 4,126,186 1,036 34 164 32 24 83 Pahrump 265890 589,539 4,015,111 815 42 120 40 26 84 Palmdale 46624 399,113 3,827,191 791 67 199 67 25 85 Palmdale CAA Airport 46627 400,701 3,832,720 767 25 131 25 25 86 Palm Springs 46635 545,369 3,742,944 130 70 147 69 32 87 Parker 26250 749,182 3,782,449 125 97 123 95 31 88 Parker Reservoir 46699 760,825 3,797,011 225 51 139 51 30 89 Pierce Ferry 17 SSW 26538 763,301 3,974,739 1,176 20 268 20 23 90 Pioche 266252 722,660 4,202,474 1,884 48 344 48 17 91 Quartzsite 26865 756,534 3,728,439 267 28 103 27 30 92 Randsburg 47253 440,725 3,913,980 1,088 51 155 51 24 93 Rattlesnake 266630 572,718 4,255,868 1,803 14 126 13 19 94 Red Rock Canyon State Park 266691 638,660 3,992,455 1,152 22 301 22 24 95 Reese River O'Toole 266746 464,287 4,323,585 1,996 24 207 23 16 96 Sarcobatus 267319 498,522 4,124,252 1,226 12 85 12 24 97 Searchlight 267369 688,588 3,926,521 1,079 51 194 50 24 98 Shoshone 48200 565,819 3,980,883 479 25 132 0 — 99 Silverpeak 267463 450,209 4,179,348 1,298 31 115 31 22 

100 Snowball Ranch 267640 569,333 4,321,344 2,182 32 228 32 15 

Table 7. Summary of daily climate records used as input to the INFILv3 model of the Death Valley region, Nevada and California—Continued 

Daily climate recording station

Station location

coordinates

(UTM zone 11, NAD27) Station

elevation

(m)

Daily

precipitation

Daily maximuair temperatu

Station

identifier

Station

name

Station

code

Easting

(m)

Northing

(m)

Number

years

of record

Annual

average

(mm/yr)

Number

years

of record

Da

aver

(°C
128 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using the Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model, INFILv3, of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA 101 South Lake 48406 360,559 4,114,498 2,920 24 506 0 — 

102 ST George 427516 805,068 4,111,957 844 70 209 69 26 103 Sunrise Manor Las Vegas 267925 672,321 4,007,633 555 27 109 27 29 104 Tempiute 4 NW 267983 613,161 4,171,251 1,490 13 200 12 21 105 Thermal FAA Airport 48892 577,288 3,721,620 –34 49 77 49 32 106 Tonopah 268160 479,532 4,213,032 1,836 26 126 26 17 107 Tonopah FCWOS 268170 492,226 4,212,085 1,655 44 136 44 19 108 Trona 49035 464,669 3,957,601 517 50 100 49 28 109 Twin Springs FALLINI 268443 572,162 4,228,491 1,615 12 155 12 19 110 Valyermo Fire Station 79 49250 420,387 3,812,198 1,098 12 276 11 23 111 Valyermo Ranger Station 49251 421,918 3,812,185 1,129 22 223 20 24 112 Valley Of Fire State Park 268588 722,847 4,034,283 610 26 174 26 27 113 Veyo Powerhouse 429136 795,265 4,138,957 1,402 42 359 41 20 114 Victorville Pump Palza 49325 471,935 3,821,325 871 51 140 51 25 115 Wildrose R S 49671 483,357 4,013,218 1,250 29 180 29 22 116 Willow Beach 29376 711,171 3,971,702 226 31 140 31 30 117 Yucca 1 NNE 29645 761,920 3,863,008 594 46 195 45 27 118 Rainier Mesa 990001 569,647 4,116,362 2,283 40 310 0 — 119 Buster Jangle Y 990002 584,237 4,102,256 1,240 39 163 0 — 120 Cane Springs 990003 581,044 4,074,427 1,219 35 198 0 — 

Table 7. Summary of daily climate records used as input to the INFILv3 model of the Death Valley region, Nevada and California

—Continued 

Daily climate recording station

Station location

coordinates

(UTM zone 11, NAD27) Station

elevation

(m)

Daily

precipitation

Daily maximuair temperatu

Station

identifier

Station

name

Station

code

Easting

(m)

Northing

(m)

Number

years

of record

Annual

average

(mm/yr)

Number

years

of record

Da

aver

(°C
Tables 129

121 Desert Rock 990005 587,107 4,053,284 991 36 147 0 — 122 Jackass Flats 990007 563,450 4,071,227 1,043 41 140 0 — 123 40 Mile Canyon 990008 563,355 4,100,564 1,469 39 208 0 — 124 Little Feller 2 990009 561,842 4,108,195 1,560 23 210 0 — 125 Mercury 990010 588,477 4,057,705 1,149 28 149 0 — 126 Mid Valley 990011 573,704 4,092,142 1,420 35 231 0 — 127 Pahute Mesa 1 990012 549,886 4,122,631 1,996 36 199 0 — 128 PHS Farm 990013 585,307 4,118,478 1,391 35 190 0 — 129 Rock Valley 990014 572,169 4,060,264 1,036 36 156 0 — 130 Tippipah Springs 2 990015 571,898 4,101,064 1,518 39 220 0 — 131 Well 5 B 990016 592,305 4,073,401 939 36 127 0 — 132 Yucca Dry Lake 990017 584,799 4,090,458 1,196 41 171 0 — 

Table 7. Summary of daily climate records used as input to the INFILv3 model of the Death Valley region, Nevada and California—Continued 

Daily climate recording station

Station location

coordinates

(UTM zone 11, NAD27) Station

elevation

(m)

Daily

precipitation

Daily maximuair temperatu

Station

identifier

Station

name

Station

code

Easting

(m)

Northing

(m)

Number

years

of record

Annual

average

(mm/yr)

Number

years

of record

Da

aver

(°C
130 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using the Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model, INFILv3, of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA Table 8. Monthly regression coefficients used to spatially distribute daily precipitation and air temperature using elevation in the INFILv3 model of the Death Valley re

[Model types: 1, linear regression model; 3, quadratic regression model. PPTMOD, precipitation model; PPTA, PPTB, PPTC: regression coefficients for estimating precip

daily air temperature model; TMAXA, TMAXB, TMAXC: regression coefficients for estimating maximum daily air temperatures; TMINMOD, minimum daily air temp

TMINC: regression coefficients for estimating minimum daily air temperatures. na, not applicable] Parameter Month Model type Regression model coefficients r-square

A B C

PPTMOD PPTA PPTB PPTC

Average monthly 

precipitation (PPT),in millimeters

January 3 8.0 × 10–6 –0.0041 17.93 0.32February 3 7.0 × 10–6 –.0003 15.11 .38March 3 5.0× 10–6 .0037 12.04 .41April 3 1.0× 10–6 .0059 2.96 .62May 3 5.0× 10–7 .0075 –.05 .64June 3 8.0× 10–7 .0035 –.28 .60July 3 –1.0× 10–6 .0091 4.50 .25August 1 0 na na na naSeptember 3 3.0× 10–6 –.0009 9.01 .41October 3 1.0× 10–6 .0024 5.23 .35November 3 4.0× 10–6 .0004 8.78 .49December 3 7.0× 10–6 .0052 13.25 .38

TMAXMOD TMAXA TMAXB TMAXC

Monthly average 

maximum daily air temperature (TMAX), 

in degrees Celsius)

January 1 –7.3× 10–3 19.7 0 0.91February 1 –7.9× 10–3 23.1 0 .96March 1 –8.1× 10–3 26.5 0 .97April 1 –8.3× 10–3 31.2 0 .96May 1 –8.0× 10–3 35.8 0 .95June 1 –7.8× 10–3 41.2 0 .94July 1 –7.1× 10–3 44.0 0 .93August 1 –7.2× 10–3 43.1 0 .95September 1 –7.8× 10–3 39.8 0 .97October 1 –7.8× 10–3 33.4 0 .97November 1 –7.4× 10–3 25.2 0 .95December 1 –7.0× 10–3 19.9 0 .91
Tables 131

TMINMOD TMINA TMINB TMINC

Monthly average 

minimum daily air temperature (TMIN) in degrees Celsius

January 1 –6.7× 10–3 4.9 0 0.75February 1 –7.1× 10–3 7.5 0 .83March 1 –7.5× 10–3 10.3 0 .87April 1 –8.0× 10–3 14.2 0 .86May 1 –8.1× 10–3 18.6 0 .85June 1 –8.2× 10–3 23.2 0 .80July 1 –8.4× 10–3 27.2 0 .79August 1 –8.6× 10–3 26.5 0 .81September 1 –8.4× 10–3 22.3 0 .80October 1 –7.7× 10–3 15.7 0 .78November 1 –6.8× 10–3 8.9 0 .75December 1 –6.5× 10–3 4.8 0 .72

Table 8. Monthly regression coefficients used to spatially distribute daily precipitation and air temperature using elevation in the INFILv3 model of the Death Valley re[Model types: 1, linear regression model; 3, quadratic regression model. PPTMOD, precipitation model; PPTA, PPTB, PPTC: regression coefficients for estimating precip

daily air temperature model; TMAXA, TMAXB, TMAXC: regression coefficients for estimating maximum daily air temperatures; TMINMOD, minimum daily air temp

TMINC: regression coefficients for estimating minimum daily air temperatures. na, not applicable]

Parameter Month Model type

Regression model coefficients 

r-square

ABC
132 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using the Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model, INFILv3, of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA

Month

Atmospheric parameters 

Ozone

layer

thickness

(OZONE)

(cm)

Precipitable

water in

atmosphere

(WP)

(cm)

Mean

atmospheric

turbidity

(BETA)

(dimensionless)

CIrcumsolar

radiation

(CSR)

(dimensionless)

Surface

reflectivity

(PG)

(dimensionless)

January 0.29 1 0.075 0.85 0.24

February .31 1 .075 .85 .24

March .32 1.05 .075 .85 .24

April .33 1.1 .085 .85 .24

May .33 1.5 .085 .74 .24

June .32 1.8 .09 .74 .24

July .3 2.2 .09 .57 .24

August .29 2.44 .084 .57 .24

September .28 2 .077 .66 .24

October .27 1.4 .075 .74 .24

November .27 1.05 .075 .9 .24

December .28 0.95 .075 .9 .24

Table 9. Monthly values for atmospheric parameters used to simulate potential evapotranspiration in the INFILv3 model of the Death Valley region, Nevada 

and California

[For the INFILv3 model version used in this study, surface reflectivity was not adjusted to account for the absence or presence of snow cover. cm, centimeter]
Tables 133

Table 10. Stream gages and streamflow records used for calibrating the INFILv3 model of the Death Valley region, Nevada and California —Continued

Streamgage 

station 

number

Streamgage

map 

identifier

Stream-gage location

Universal Transverse 

Mercator coordinate

(UTM zone 11, NAD27)

Elevation of 

stream gage

(m)

Upstream

drainage 

basin

area

(km2)

Numbe

of 

upstrea

model

cells

easting

(m)

northing

(m)

10251300 ART Amargosa River at Tecopa 569,608 3,967,232 399 8,000 105,544 10251259 AR127 Amargosa River at Hwy 127 near California–Nevada line 551,770 4,026,790 628 3,992 52,610 10251100 SC Salt Creek near Stovepipe Wells 498,857 4,050,237 na na 51,417 10251220 ARNB Amargosa River near Beatty 521,441 4,080,090 863 1,217 15,771 10251218 AR95 Amargosa River at Hwy 95 below Beatty 522,180 4,081,510 975 1,217 15,743 10251217 ARAB Amargosa River at Beatty 521,701 4,084,775 1,006 1,186 15,333 10251258 FMAV Fortymile Wash near Amargosa Valley 550,563 4,058,397 824 818 11,032 10251255 FMJ13 Fortymile Wash near well J13 553,497 4,073,483 988 788 10,351 10247901 YL (YL01) Yucca Lake 01 3024 587,573 4,087,725 na na 10,165 10247902 YL (YL02) Yucca Lake 02 2415 587,573 4,087,725 na na 10,165 10251250 FMN Fortymile Wash at Narrows 555,199 4,082,307 1,122 667 8,678 10250800 DC Darwin Creek near Darwin 453,048 4,019,429 na 448 5,803 10251215 BW Beatty Wash near Beatty 525,007 4,088,451 1,055 245 3,258 10251249 FMSW Stockade Wash near Fortymile Wash 558,697 4,102,638 1,442 177 2,359 10251242 FMCC Fortymile Wash above East Cat Canyon 558,028 4,102,911 1,454 106 2,334 10251980 LW Lovell Wash near Blue Diamond 622,225 3,984,906 1,170 137 1,383 10250600 WC Wildrose Canyon near Wildrose Station 484,031 4,013,155 na 61 831 10251243 ECC East Cat Canyon Wash at Fortymile Wash 558,029 4,102,849 1,454 34 475 10252330 WW Wheaton Wash near Mountain Pass 637,364 3,925,651 na 26 424 09419610 LC Lee Canyon near Charleston Park 621,154 4,022,336 2,383 24 313 

Table 10. Stream gages and streamflow records used for calibrating the INFILv3 model of the Death Valley region, Nevada and California [Stream-gage station number, location, elevation, and upstream drainage area from the U.S. Geological Survey National Water Information System (NWIS) database. Datdecreasing drainage area. Stream-gage map identifier assigned for purpose of this study only; see figures 27 and 28 for location of gages. Elevation of stream gages in mekm2, square kilometer; na, not available]
134 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using the Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model, INFILv3, of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA 10251350 HTC Horsethief Canyon near Tecopa, Calif. 599,669 3,960,032 na 8 110 

10251248 SWUT Stockade Wash, unnamed tributary 565,120 4,115,166 1,823 10 67 10247860 PV Penoyer Valley Tributary near Tempiute 616,548 4,160,417 1,670 4 57 102512535 DHU Upper Drillhole Wash 548,405 4,079,924 1,314 2 46 10252300 CHI China Spring C Nr Mountain Pass, Calif. 635,346 3,925,774 na 2 43 10252550 CC Caruthers Creek near Ivanpah, Calif. 654,852 3,901,342 1,719 2 33 102512533 PWL Pagany Wash Number 1, NTS, Nev. 550,315 4,079,380 1,176 2.12 32 10251000 BDC Big Dip Creek near Stovepipe Wells Ca 473,896 4,085,619 na 2 27 102512533 PWU Pagany Wash near the Prow at Yucca Mtn 550,315 4,079,380 1,176 2 18 102512537 USW Upper Split Wash at Yucca Mountain 549,183 4,078,079 1,274 .85 11 102512536 WREN Wren Wash At Yucca Mountain 548,657 4,079,216 1,286 .6 8 

Table 10. Stream gages and streamflow records used for calibrating the INFILv3 model of the Death Valley region, Nevada and California —Continued Stream- gage station number Stream- gage map identifier Stream-gage location Universal Transverse Mercator coordinate (UTM zone 11, NAD27) Elevation of stream gage (m) Upstream drainage basin area (km2) Numbe

of upstrea

model cells 

easting

(m)

northing

(m)
Tables 135

Parameter description Parameter

name

Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4

Sublimation rate parameter 1 SUBPAR1 0.4 0.4 0.35 0.4

Surface-water flow coupled to root zone na yes no yes yes

Surface-water minimum wetted area factor CHAN1 .10 .10 .05 .05

Surface-water wetted area model coefficient CHAN2 10,000 10,000 10,000 5,000

Surface-water headwater wetted area factor CHAN3 .8 .8 .8 .8

Surface-water maximum wetted area factor CHAN4 2.0 2.0 1.0 1.0

Model coefficient for stream-channel characteristics KSCHN1 20.0 20.0 20.0 2.0

Model coefficient for stream-channel characteristics KSCHN2 2,000 2,000 2,000 4,000

Soil saturated hydraulic conductivity KSCHN3 4.0 4.0 2.0 2.0

Potential evapotranspiration time step (hours) HSTEP 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.0

Duration of summer precipitation and streamflow (hours) STORMSUM 2.0 2.0 1.0 2.0

Duration of winter precipitation and streamflow (hours) STORMWIN 12.0 12.0 8.0 12.0

Bedrock properties input file1 na A A B B

Root-zone parameters input file2 na A A A B

Table 11. Model coefficients used to simulate streamflow and net infiltration in INFILv3 models 1–4 of the Death Valley region, Nevada and California

[na, not applicable]

1Refer to table 4 for description of bedrock properties input files A and B. 2Refer to table 5 for description of root-zone parameters input file A and table 6 for description of root-zone parameters input file B.
136 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using the Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model, INFILv3, of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA Table 12. Measured and simulated streamflow frequency (number of days with streamflow) using INFILv3 models 1–4 of the Death Valley region, Nevada and Californ

Stream- gage station number Stream- gage map identifier Stream-gage location Number of days of record Number of days with flow Estimated baseflow (m3/d) Number of days with flow greater than estimated baseflow Simulated n

Model 1 Mo

10251300 ART Amargosa River at Tecopa 9,133 6,947 10,000 683 4 10251259 AR127 Amargosa River at Hwy 127 near California–Nevada line 760 28 100 17 0 10251100 SC Salt Creek near Stovepipe Wells 5,344 5,344 3,000 56 41 10251220 ARNB Amargosa River near Beatty 1,827 87 0 87 0 10251218 AR95 Amargosa River at Hwy 95 below Beatty 1,675 41 0 41 0 10251217 ARAB Amargosa River at Beatty 840 840 5,000 8 0 10251258 FMAV Fortymile Wash near Amargosa Valley 2,191 13 0 13 0 10251255 FMJ13 Fortymile Wash near well J13 5,054 10 0 10 3 10247901 YL (YL01) Yucca Lake 01 3024 128 5 0 5 1 10247902 YL (YL02) Yucca Lake 02 2415 203 3 0 3 1 10251250 FMN Fortymile Wash at Narrows 4,759 13 0 13 12 10250800 DC Darwin Creek near Darwin 9,862 9,862 2,500 66 10 110251215 BW Beatty Wash near Beatty 2,556 3 0 3 2 10251249 FMSW Stockade Wash near Fortymile Wash 1,501 4 0 4 8 10251242 FMCC Fortymile Wash above East Cat Canyon 1,515 6 0 6 4 10251980 LW Lovell Wash near Blue Diamond 3,653 153 5,000 82 2 10250600 WC Wildrose Canyon near Wildrose Station 5,478 25 0 25 1 10251243 ECC East Cat Canyon Wash at Fortymile Wash 1,523 3 0 3 5 10252330 WW Wheaton Wash near Mountain Pass 1,461 0 0 0 8 09419610 LC Lee Canyon near Charleston Park 11,323 49 0 49 4 10251350 HTC Horsethief Canyon near Tecopa, California 3,652 13 0 13 0 10251248 SWUT Stockade Wash, unnamed tributary 4,148 153 0 153 51 10247860 PV Penoyer Valley tributary near Tempiute 4,383 7 0 7 1 102512535 DHU Upper Drillhole Wash 402 1 0 1 2 10252300 CHI China Spring C Near Mountain Pass, Calif. 4,383 7 0 7 8 

Table 12. Measured and simulated streamflow frequency (number of days with streamflow) using INFILv3 models 1–4 of the Death Valley region, Nevada and Californ[Stream-gage station number and location from the U.S. Geological Survey National Water Information System (NWIS) database. Stream-gage map identifier assigned fo

figures 27 and 28 for location of gages. Elevation of stream gages in meters above sea level. m3/d, cubic meters per day]
Tables 137

10252550 CC Caruthers Creek near Ivanpah, Calif. 12,937 1,909 500 812 459 102512533 PWL Pagany Wash Number 1, NTS, Nev. 1,095 2 0 2 0 10251000 BDC Big Dip Creek near Stovepipe Wells, Calif. 2,375 10 0 10 0 102512533 PWU Pagany Wash near the Prow at Yucca Mountain 401 2 0 2 0 102512537 USW Upper Split Wash at Yucca Mountain 751 3 0 3 0 102512536 WREN Wren Wash At Yucca Mountain 403 3 0 3 0 

Average estimation error (AEE) days 0.0 –50 Standardized mean-squared error (SMSE) .0 .59 Pearson correlation coefficient (CC) 1.0 .57 

Table 12. Measured and simulated streamflow frequency (number of days with streamflow) using INFILv3 models 1–4 of the Death Valley region, Nevada and Californ

Streamgage 

station 

number

Streamgage

map 

identifier

Stream-gage location

Number

of days

of record

Number

of days

with flow

Estimated

baseflow

(m3/d)

Number

of days

with flow

greater

than 

estimated

baseflow

Simulated n

Model 1 Mo
138 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using the Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model, INFILv3, of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA Table 13. Measured and simulated total discharge using INFILv3 models 1–4 of the Death Valley region, Nevada and California—Continued Stream- gage station number Stream- gage map identifier Stream-gage location Measured total discharge (m3/d) Simulated total discharg

Model 1 Model 2 Mo

10251300 ART Amargosa River at Tecopa 71,543,027 47,274,526 513,667,685 229,610251259 AR127 Amargosa River at Hwy 127 near California–Nevada line 206,340 0 39,682,778 2,310251100 SC Salt Creek near Stovepipe Wells 761,243 8,289,442 163,864,728 34,010251220 ARNB Amargosa River near Beatty 943,434 0 1,951,977 310251218 AR95 Amargosa River at Hwy 95 below Beatty 1,723,161 0 22,109,760 3,410251217 ARAB Amargosa River at Beatty 729,231 0 11,953,658 2,910251258 FMAV Fortymile Wash near Amargosa Valley 843,194 0 54,296,498 6,010251255 FMJ13 Fortymile Wash near well J13 881,851 2,509,943 79,398,147 35,610247901 YL (YL01) Yucca Lake 01 3024 32,883 1,102,673 8,572,858 11,710247902 YL (YL02) Yucca Lake 02 2415 367 1,102,673 8,600,019 11,710251250 FMN Fortymile Wash at Narrows 958,897 7,374,068 68,932,916 38,710250800 DC Darwin Creek near Darwin 3,195,738 266,189 101,782,598 10,10251215 BW Beatty Wash near Beatty 508,270 211,743 10,576,626 3,010251249 FMSW Stockade Wash near Fortymile Wash 286,333 1,557,364 19,067,938 6,410251242 FMCC Fortymile Wash above East Cat Canyon 880,310 747,607 5,875,083 2,10251980 LW Lovell Wash near Blue Diamond 2,080,949 436,272 3,722,207 810250600 WC Wildrose Canyon near Wildrose Station 252,520 13,094 12,473,917 10251243 ECC East Cat Canyon Wash at Fortymile Wash 45,557 531,838 1,037,585 710252330 WW Wheaton Wash near Mountain Pass 0 317,146 2,003,650 809419610 LC Lee Canyon near Charleston Park 486,739 593,295 1,920,154 2,10251350 HTC Horsethief Canyon near Tecopa, Calif. 161,480 0 1,120,704 10251248 SWUT Stockade Wash, unnamed tributary 241,633 931,892 1,175,789 1,010247860 PV Penoyer Valley Trib. near Tempiute 19,696 20,912 128,509 102512535 DHU Upper Drillhole Wash 12,233 8,523 95,275 10252300 CHI China Spring C near Mountain Pass, Calif. 10,986 51,940 195,476 

Table 13. Measured and simulated total discharge at 31 stream gages using INFILv3 models 1–4 of the Death Valley region, Nevada and California [Stream-gage station number and location from the U.S. Geological Survey National Water Information System (NWIS) database. Stream-gage map identifiers assigned f

figures 27 and 28 for location of gages. Elevation of stream gages in meters above sea level. m3/d, cubic meters per day]
Tables 139

10252550 CC Caruthers Creek near Ivanpah, Calif. 3,250,785 2,252,006 2,712,257 2,4102512533 PWL Pagany Wash Number 1, NTS, NV 21,066 0 31,660 10251000 BDC Big Dip Creek near Stovepipe Wells, Calif. 38,511 0 0 102512533 PWU Pagany Wash near the Prow at Yucca Mtn 33,519 0 17,349 102512537 USW Upper Split Wash at Yucca Mountain 11,255 0 0 102512536 WREN Wren Wash At Yucca Mountain 10,325 0 0 

Total (m3/d) 90,171,534 75,593,146 1,136,967,802 407,2Average estimation error (AEE) (m3/d) .0 –470,271 33,767,622 10,2Standardized mean-squared error (SMSE) .0 .14 49.14 Pearson correlation coefficient (CC) 1.0 .95 .86 

Table 13. Measured and simulated total discharge using INFILv3 models 1–4 of the Death Valley region, Nevada and California—Continued 

Streamgage 

station 

number

Streamgage

map 

identifier

Stream-gage location

Measured

total

discharge

(m3/d)

Simulated total discharg

Model 1 Model 2 Mo
140 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using the Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model, INFILv3, of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA Table 14. Measured and simulated maximum daily discharge using INFILv3 models 1–4 of the Death Valley region, Nevada and California—Continued Stream- gage station number Stream- gage map identifier Stream-gage location Measured maximum daily discharge (m3) Simulated maximum daily d

Model 1 Model 2 M

10251300 ART Amargosa River at Tecopa 3,659,997 37,389,028 107,854,200 136,10251259 AR127 Amargosa River at Hwy 127 near California–Nevada line 61,067 0 17,020,672 2,10251100 SC Salt Creek near Stovepipe Wells 138,907 2,405,267 15,761,368 9,10251220 ARNB Amargosa River near Beatty 638,579 0 269,015 10251218 AR95 Amargosa River at Hwy 95 below Beatty 1,338,326 0 6,174,311 2,10251217 ARAB Amargosa River at Beatty 560,180 0 6,160,303 2,10251258 FMAV Fortymile Wash near Amargosa Valley 440,400 0 10,032,231 4,10251255 FMJ13 Fortymile Wash near well J13 562,733 1,085,760 10,033,452 8,10247901 YL (YL01) Yucca Lake 01 3024 18,839 1,102,673 8,572,858 11,10247902 YL (YL02) Yucca Lake 02 2415 196 1,102,673 8,572,858 11,10251250 FMN Fortymile Wash at Narrows 611,666 2,937,097 9,265,382 6,10250800 DC Darwin Creek near Darwin 1,054,459 79,888 5,029,695 3,10251215 BW Beatty Wash near Beatty 489,333 210,230 2,725,665 1,10251249 FMSW Stockade Wash near Fortymile Wash 278,920 815,838 2,701,112 1,10251242 FMCC Fortymile Wash above East Cat Canyon 489,333 560,431 1,555,324 1,10251980 LW Lovell Wash near Blue Diamond 1,022,599 341,259 1,338,775 10250600 WC Wildrose Canyon near Wildrose Station 112,547 13,094 274,599 10251243 ECC East Cat Canyon Wash at Fortymile Wash 39,147 398,584 480,255 10252330 WW Wheaton Wash near Mountain Pass 0 157,931 266,914 09419610 LC Lee Canyon near Charleston Park 146,800 202,608 512,948 

Table 14. Measured and simulated maximum daily discharge using INFILv3 models 1–4 of the Death Valley region, Nevada and California[Stream-gage station number and location from the U.S. Geological Survey National Water Information Service (NWIS) database. Stream-gage identifiers assigned for th

figures 27 and 28 for the location of gages. Elevation of stream gages in meters above sea level. m3, cubic meters]
Tables 141

10251350 HTC Horsethief Canyon near Tecopa Ca 44,040 0 135,815 10251248 SWUT Stockade Wash, unnamed tributary 31,807 134,588 136,807 10247860 PV Penoyer Valley Trib. near Tempiute 6,606 20,912 96,687 102512535 DHU Upper Drillhole Wash 12,233 7,136 34,322 10252300 CHI China Spring C Nr Mountain Pass Ca 5,872 16,173 24,177 10252550 CC Caruthers Creek near Ivanpah Ca 195,233 66,211 71,293 102512533 PWL Pagany Wash Number 1, NTS, NV 21,041 0 7,152 10251000 BDC Big Dip Creek near Stovepipe Wells Ca 29,360 0 0 102512533 PWU Pagany Wash near the Prow at Yucca Mtn 29,360 0 6,906 102512537 USW Upper Split Wash at Yucca Mountain 7,340 0 0 102512536 WREN Wren Wash At Yucca Mountain 6,361 0 0 

Average estimation error (AEE) (m3/d) 0.0 1,193,358 6,550,381 6,Standardized mean-squared error (SMSE) .0 74.93 770.03 Pearson correlation coefficient (CC) 1.0 .74 .74 

Table 14. Measured and simulated maximum daily discharge using INFILv3 models 1–4 of the Death Valley region, Nevada and California—Continued

Streamgage 

station 

number

Streamgage

map 

identifier

Stream-gage location

Measured 

maximum

daily

discharge

(m3)

Simulated maximum daily d

Model 1 Model 2 M
142 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using the Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model, INFILv3, of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA

Table 15. Measured and simulated monthly streamflow for the Death Valley region, Nevada and California.

Parameter Measured 

streamflow

Simulated streamflow

Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4

Average number of days

with streamflow per month 0.61 0.18 1.59 0.24 0.17

Maximum number of days

with streamflow per month 31 29 31 29 29

Total discharge (m3) 89,667,928 74,481,948 1,128,131,154 395,438,207 123,283,134

Average monthly discharge (m3) 25,863 21,483 325,391 114,058 35,559

Maximum monthly discharge (m3) 7,682,689 37,389,028 110,249,454 136,631,600 54,265,728

Variance in monthly discharge (m3)

2 8.08 × 1010 4.42 × 1011 8.37 × 1012 6.77 × 1012 1.02 × 1012

Average estimation error (AEE) 0.0 –4,380 299,528 88,194 9,696

Standardized mean-square error (SMSE) .0 4.11 91.22 74.45 9.86

Pearson correlation coefficient (CC) 1.0 .50 .71 .57 .53

Table 15. Measured and simulated monthly streamflow using INFILv3 models 1–4 of the Death Valley region, Nevada and California

[m3, cubic meters; (m3)

2, cubic meter squared]
Tables 143

Table 16. 

Parameter Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 

Measured streamflow

Total number of days in records 108,229 108,229 108,229 Number of days with measured streamflow 2,104 2,104 2,104 Number of flow periods compared 599 999 696 Average number of days with measured streamflow per flow period 3.51 2.11 3.02 Maximum number of days with measured streamflow per flow period 80 80 80 Variance in number of days measured streamflow per flow period 50.42 38.61 44.88 Total measured discharge (m3) 89,697,287 89,697,287 89,697,287 Average measured discharge per flow period (m3) 149,745 89,787 128,875 Maximum measured discharge per flow period (m3) 9,385,239 9,418,853 9,385,239 Variance of measured discharge per flow period (m3)2 5.36 × 1011 3.58 × 1011 4.64 × 1

Simulated streamflow

Total number of days with simulated streamflow 625 5511 849 Average number of days with simulated streamflow per flow period 1.04 5.52 1.22 Maximum number of days with simulated streamflow per flow period 40 125 40 Variance in number of days measured streamflow per flow period 13.07 160.14 11.41 Average estimation error for number of days with streamflow –2.47 3.41 –1.80 Standardized mean square error for number of days with streamflow .96 4.04 .92 Pearson correlation coefficient for number of days with streamflow .41 .35 .40 Total simulated discharge (m3) 75,584,621 1,136,967,802 407,276,093 Average simulated discharge per flow period (m3) 126,185 1,138,106 585,167 Maximum simulated discharge per flow period (m3) 37,389,028 109,864,729 136,631,600 Variance of discharge per flow period (m3)2 2.55 × 1012 1.49 × 1029 4.09 × 1Average estimation error for discharge per flow period (m3) –23,560 1,048,319 456,291 Standardized mean square error for discharge per flow period 3.75 92.58 65.35 Pearson correlation coefficient for discharge per flow period .46 .72 .50 

Table 16. Measured and simulated total discharge and flow-period statistics using INFILv3 models 1–4 of the Death Valley region, Nevada and California[m3, cubic meters; (m3)2, cubic meter squared]
144 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using the Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model, INFILv3, of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA Table 17. Selected basin characteristics of the INFILv3 watershed model domains in the Death Valley region, Nevada and California—Continued Map code for watershed model domain Watershed model domain Number of model grid cells Area of watershed model domain (km2) Elevation (m) Slope Average root-zone 

Soil layers 

Average Maximum Minimum Average Maximum All layers Layer 3 La

1 Amargosa River 0 203,149 15,757 944 2,336 –77 4.8 42.0 3.77 0.47 12 Alkali Springs Valley 0 9,074 704 1,675 2,441 1,523 2.2 17.7 4.08 .51 13 Alkali Springs Valley 1 1,245 97 1,621 2,249 1,523 3.0 13.1 4.41 .56 14 Alkali Springs Valley 2 3 .2 1,523 1,523 1,523 .0 .0 6.00 .70 25 Alkali Springs Valley 3 2 .2 1,523 1,523 1,523 .0 .0 6.00 .70 26 Beatty Wash 1 119 9 1,712 1,910 1,558 4.7 14.6 0.69 .06 7 Cactus Flat 0 7,993 620 1,773 2,757 1,621 2.0 20.1 4.46 .54 18 Cactus Flat 1 6,330 491 1,817 2,790 1,623 2.6 27.0 4.41 .53 19 Clayton Valley 0 14,917 1,157 1,724 2,833 1,310 5.0 27.8 3.39 .44 1

10 Clayton Valley 1 4,485 348 1,645 2,617 1,310 4.5 22.7 4.03 .50 111 Coal Valley 0 30,608 2,374 1,781 3,060 1,483 4.0 31.1 3.98 .51 112 Coyote Spring Valley 0 7,442 577 1,441 2,908 794 7.7 37.7 3.32 .43 113 Coyote Spring Valley 1 1,203 93 1,503 2,192 1,045 9.1 26.1 1.57 .25 14 Death Valley 0 8,938 693 877 2,743 –70 9.1 40.3 3.42 .42 115 Death Valley 1 5,924 459 612 3,127 –77 10.6 39.4 3.37 .43 116 Death Valley 2 7,957 617 668 2,546 –73 9.3 39.4 3.23 .38 117 Death Valley 3 4,005 311 703 3,302 –75 10.8 38.8 3.25 .40 118 Fish Lake Valley 0 5,576 432 1,978 2,786 1,575 4.4 16.9 3.30 .47 119 Frenchman Flat 29,127 2,259 1,370 2,315 958 3.9 27.7 3.76 .48 120 Gold Flat 22,502 1,745 1,752 2,638 1,531 2.8 25.2 3.34 .40 121 Groom Lake 0 11,934 926 1,737 2,767 1,401 4.7 26.7 3.22 .39 122 Groom Lake 1 7,200 558 1,535 2,241 1,401 3.0 21.0 3.71 .46 123 Groom Lake 2 2,038 158 1,470 1,874 1,401 2.9 16.7 4.23 .50 124 Hot Creek Valley 10,993 853 1,895 2,807 1,584 4.1 30.5 3.34 .42 125 Indian Springs Valley 1 21,784 1,690 1,346 3,110 906 5.2 31.6 3.99 .50 1

Table 17. Selected basin characteristics of the INFILv3 watershed model domains in the Death Valley region, Nevada and California[See figure 35 for location of watershed model domains. Elevation in meters above sea level. km2, square kilometer; m, meter]
Tables 145

26 Ivanpah Valley North 9,289 720 1,117 2,366 801 4.6 24.8 3.93 .50 127 Ivanpah Valley South 16,413 1,273 1,195 2,332 800 4.6 31.5 3.95 .49 128 Jean Lake Valley 4,221 327 1,020 1,701 853 3.7 19.4 4.00 .54 129 Kawich Valley 12,331 956 1,852 2,586 1,615 4.2 28.4 3.59 .42 130 Las Vegas Valley 0 50,593 3,924 1,209 3,500 479 5.0 43.4 3.88 .49 131 Las Vegas Valley 1 8 1 819 853 792 1.4 1.8 6.00 .70 232 Lida Valley 16,850 1,307 1,713 2,699 1,431 3.5 24.6 3.91 .51 133 Mesquite Valley 12,877 999 1,080 2,455 792 4.9 26.5 3.78 .46 134 North Death Valley 64,372 4,993 1,029 2,702 –70 8.3 43.9 3.08 .38 35 North Saline Valley 18,349 1,423 1,500 3,052 883 7.7 34.1 3.07 .41 36 Panamint Valley 0 21,902 1,699 990 2,671 301 7.2 35.6 2.95 .36 37 Panamint Valley 1 13,381 1,038 1,186 3,247 302 10.0 34.7 3.28 .41 138 Panamint Valley 2 15,371 1,192 1,439 2,644 464 7.1 35.0 2.88 .36 39 Panamint Valley 3 3,911 303 1,014 2,256 465 7.7 31.4 4.61 .56 140 Penoyer Valley 0 16,795 1,303 1,686 2,447 1,462 2.9 27.2 3.90 .47 141 Penoyer Valley 1 6,792 527 1,775 2,757 1,462 4.5 28.3 3.98 .52 142 Pahranagat Valley 32,647 2,532 1,471 2,558 776 4.7 27.5 3.68 .45 143 Pahrump Valley 0 24,328 1,887 1,341 3,486 747 5.1 31.0 4.08 .50 144 Pahrump Valley 1 9,947 771 1,091 2,611 729 5.4 31.4 4.45 .55 145 Pahrump Valley 2 1,119 87 877 1,499 735 5.4 26.7 3.53 .51 146 Ralston Valley 43,760 3,394 1,799 2,824 1,565 2.7 28.8 4.12 .51 147 Railroad Valley North 0 2,509 195 1,857 3,038 1,493 4.9 27.6 3.43 .47 148 Railroad Valley North 2 1,852 144 1,970 3,046 1,476 9.4 33.2 3.14 .45 49 Railroad Valley North 3 315 24 1,633 2,424 1,484 2.3 13.4 5.08 .62 150 Railroad Valley North 4 2,047 159 1,621 2,199 1,485 3.2 30.5 4.47 .54 151 Railroad Valley South 20,778 1,611 1,766 2,623 1,468 3.7 26.7 4.06 .49 1

Table 17. Selected basin characteristics of the INFILv3 watershed model domains in the Death Valley region, Nevada and California—Continued 

Map code for 

watershed

model

domain

Watershed

model domain

Number

of model

grid cells

Area of 

watershed

model domain

(km2)

Elevation (m) Slope

Average root-zone 

Soil layers 

Average Maximum Minimum Average Maximum All layers Layer 3 La
146 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using the Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model, INFILv3, of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA 52 Sarcobatus Flat 0 30,110 2,335 1,493 2,574 1,188 3.7 27.2 3.75 .47 1

53 Sarcobatus Flat 1 768 60 1,312 1,770 1,205 4.3 23.8 4.05 .48 154 Saline Valley 26,015 2,018 1,318 3,277 309 10.9 43.1 2.56 .35 55 Shadow Valley 0 526 41 1,205 1,401 958 3.9 14.6 1.24 .20 56 Stonewall Flat 12,161 943 1,645 2,385 1,402 3.0 26.0 3.40 .40 157 Tikapoo Valley North 2,027 157 1,438 2,044 1,218 5.0 24.7 3.72 .46 158 Tikapoo Valley South 31,388 2,434 1,488 2,838 991 4.9 34.9 3.54 .44 159 Three Lakes Valley N 9,551 741 1,421 2,948 1,066 5.9 32.3 3.54 .45 160 Three Lakes Valley S 11,336 879 1,362 3,121 914 4.8 27.6 4.24 .53 161 Tonopah Flat 0 22,471 1,743 1,649 2,723 1,403 3.1 37.2 4.43 .53 1

Table 17. Selected basin characteristics of the INFILv3 watershed model domains in the Death Valley region, Nevada and California—Continued Map code for watershed model domain Watershed model domain Number of model grid cells Area of watershed model domain (km2) Elevation (m) Slope Average root-zone 

Soil layers 

Average Maximum Minimum Average Maximum All layers Layer 3 La
Tables 147

Table 18. Simulation results of INFILv3 model 1 for watershed model domains in the the Death Valley region, Nevada and California, 1950–99—Continued 

Map code 

for 

watershed

model 

domain

Watershed

model domain

Average air 

temperature

(°C)

Simulation results (average for the watershed model domain), in millimeters per y

Potential 

evapotranspiration Precipi- tation Snow Sublimation Evapotrans- piration Change in root- zone water content Runoff (A) Infiltrated run-on (B) Ru

infil

1 Amargosa River 0 16.7 1,582 140.4 5.3 0.5 138.4 0.07 1.59 1.52 02 Alkali Springs Valley 0 10.9 1,348 159.7 24.1 2.8 156.8 –.13 .39 .39 3 Alkali Springs Valley 1 11.1 1,343 153.9 20.3 2.1 151.8 –.16 .22 .22 4 Alkali Springs Valley 2 12.0 1,406 147.0 13.9 1.4 145.8 –.18 .00 .00 5 Alkali Springs Valley 3 12.0 1,389 147.0 14.0 1.4 145.8 –.18 .00 .00 6 Beatty Wash 1 10.5 1,351 211.5 29.1 2.8 196.6 .11 8.74 2.45 7 Cactus Flat 0 10.0 1,322 206.2 40.6 4.4 199.7 .01 2.29 2.03 8 Cactus Flat 1 9.6 1,314 207.2 48.2 5.8 199.8 –.07 2.05 1.94 9 Clayton Valley 0 10.0 1,310 168.6 38.1 4.5 163.1 –.08 1.05 1.04 

10 Clayton Valley 1 10.7 1,357 156.3 26.1 3.0 153.2 –.13 .40 .40 11 Coal Valley 0 10.1 1,316 267.8 57.0 6.1 257.8 .01 4.49 4.15 12 Coyote Spring Valley 0 12.6 1,396 208.1 32.1 3.3 198.5 –.14 .49 .48 13 Coyote Spring Valley 1 12.2 1,377 209.0 23.8 2.1 201.1 –.16 .43 .43 14 Death Valley 0 17.4 1,564 123.5 7.1 .5 120.1 .14 2.12 1.89 15 Death Valley 1 19.4 1,629 120.3 16.0 1.8 115.2 .41 6.22 5.44 16 Death Valley 2 18.8 1,625 124.1 6.4 .6 120.3 .49 4.78 4.24 17 Death Valley 3 18.8 1,603 125.0 24.4 2.8 117.1 .27 7.53 6.82 18 Fish Lake Valley 0 8.3 1,268 210.1 68.3 8.3 200.3 .00 2.90 2.89 19 Frenchman Flat 13.2 1,448 174.6 10.8 .9 171.3 .20 2.27 2.15 20 Gold Flat 10.2 1,330 204.2 36.9 3.8 197.0 .05 3.81 3.39 21 Groom Lake 0 10.3 1,341 219.3 42.8 4.6 208.8 .27 7.56 7.00 22 Groom Lake 1 11.8 1,397 197.4 17.6 1.5 191.9 .32 2.79 2.43 23 Groom Lake 2 12.4 1,398 183.9 10.7 .8 182.3 .17 1.96 1.91 24 Hot Creek Valley 8.8 1,262 224.8 60.2 6.9 214.5 –.06 3.60 3.56 25 Indian Springs Valley 1 13.4 1,447 168.7 16.6 1.4 164.2 .00 1.16 1.07 

Table 18. Simulation results of INFILv3 model 1 for watershed model domains in the the Death Valley region, Nevada and California, 1950–99 [See figure 35 for location of watershed model domains. °C, degrees Celsius]
148 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using the Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model, INFILv3, of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA 26 Ivanpah Valley North 16.0 1,570 178.6 5.9 0.6 175.7 0.11 0.96 0.88 0

27 Ivanpah Valley South 15.8 1,551 194.9 6.8 .6 192.6 .27 4.55 4.38 28 Jean Lake Valley 16.6 1,581 163.4 1.8 .1 163.0 .00 .15 .15 29 Kawich Valley 9.4 1,294 227.6 52.8 5.4 216.6 .25 7.17 6.63 30 Las Vegas Valley 0 14.6 1,508 174.4 25.3 2.9 166.8 –.20 .91 .86 31 Las Vegas Valley 1 17.5 1,615 121.1 .4 .0 121.3 –.21 .00 .00 32 Lida Valley 10.5 1,345 180.2 33.3 3.8 176.0 –.10 0.98 .98 33 Mesquite Valley 16.1 1,560 170.4 5.6 .5 166.6 .15 1.62 1.61 34 North Death Valley 16.0 1,531 140.6 16.7 1.6 136.1 .12 1.69 1.56 35 North Saline Valley 12.1 1,391 168.8 28.3 2.8 163.0 .29 1.25 1.25 36 Panamint Valley 0 16.2 1,555 144.4 10.6 1.1 141.2 .15 4.28 4.13 37 Panamint Valley 1 14.9 1,494 166.6 37.6 4.3 157.0 .40 9.52 9.05 38 Panamint Valley 2 12.9 1,446 187.1 31.0 3.1 179.7 .18 4.88 4.85 39 Panamint Valley 3 16.3 1,546 142.5 12.1 1.2 139.3 .28 1.04 .91 40 Penoyer Valley 0 10.5 1,332 217.5 34.6 3.3 209.5 –.02 4.18 3.69 41 Penoyer Valley 1 10.0 1,334 248.1 56.0 6.5 239.6 –.26 4.30 3.97 42 Pahranagat Valley 12.2 1,401 216.9 23.1 2.2 211.9 –.11 .89 .89 43 Pahrump Valley 0 13.6 1,484 194.4 37.5 5.0 181.7 –.05 2.08 1.79 44 Pahrump Valley 1 15.0 1,528 147.1 12.8 1.4 142.7 .02 2.82 2.16 45 Pahrump Valley 2 16.8 1,575 126.1 1.1 .0 124.0 –.08 1.64 .87 46 Ralston Valley 9.8 1,310 186.0 40.2 4.8 179.5 –.11 1.77 1.69 47 Railroad Valley North 0 9.4 1,272 257.6 75.8 8.9 244.0 –.15 8.27 7.85 48 Railroad Valley North 2 8.6 1,188 289.6 102.4 10.6 270.2 –.16 9.68 8.88 49 Railroad Valley North 3 11.1 1,326 223.1 32.9 3.0 217.6 –.35 2.79 2.69 50 Railroad Valley North 4 10.9 1,356 199.6 24.4 2.5 195.8 –.40 2.08 2.02 

Table 18. Simulation results of INFILv3 model 1 for watershed model domains in the the Death Valley region, Nevada and California, 1950–99—Continued Map code for watershed model domain Watershed model domain Average air temperature

(°C)

Simulation results (average for the watershed model domain), in millimeters per y

Potential 

evapotranspiration Precipi- tation Snow Sublimation Evapotrans- piration Change in root- zone water content Runoff (A) Infiltrated run-on (B) Ru

infil
Tables 149

51 Railroad Valley South 9.9 1,307 222.4 44.7 4.6 214.5 –0.05 3.62 3.36 052 Sarcobatus Flat 0 12.1 1,401 171.5 19.2 1.8 168.0 .01 2.17 2.01 53 Sarcobatus Flat 1 13.4 1,464 149.5 6.9 .6 148.0 –.10 1.06 1.01 54 Saline Valley 13.8 1,422 170.8 36.2 3.5 158.1 .49 4.59 4.51 55 Shadow Valley 0 15.2 1,549 181.7 3.3 .3 180.8 .03 .55 .54 56 Stonewall Flat 11.1 1,365 177.6 26.2 2.7 173.3 –.09 1.12 1.08 57 Tikapoo Valley North 12.5 1,387 192.0 14.6 1.1 187.7 –.15 .55 .51 58 Tikapoo Valley South 12.1 1,398 203.5 24.6 2.4 198.0 –.08 .96 .96 59 Three Lakes Valley North 12.8 1,429 188.9 19.7 1.9 183.9 –.04 .51 .49 60 Three Lakes Valley South 13.3 1,435 176.5 26.6 2.8 171.1 –.16 .34 .34 61 Tonopah Flat 0 10.7 1,338 163.8 24.8 2.7 160.6 –.13 .85 .79 

All areas 12.7 1,421 183.0 27.3 2.9 177.1 .02 2.72 2.43 

Table 18. Simulation results of INFILv3 model 1 for watershed model domains in the the Death Valley region, Nevada and California, 1950–99—Continued 

Map code 

for 

watershed

model 

domain

Watershed

model domain

Average air 

temperature

(°C)

Simulation results (average for the watershed model domain), in millimeters per y

Potential 

evapotranspiration Precipi- tation Snow Sublimation Evapotrans- piration Change in root- zone water content Runoff (A) Infiltrated run-on (B) Ru

infil
150 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using the Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model, INFILv3, of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA

Table 19. Summary of INFILv3 model results for the Death Valley regional flow system, Nevada and California —Continued

Model or method Parameter Total volume

(m3/d)

Average

annual

rate

(mm/yr)

Maximum

average

annual

rate

(mm/yr)

Minimum

average

annual

rate

(mm/yr)

Absolute

percentage

of total

precipitation 

PRISM annual precipitation Precipitation (rain and snow) 22,501,500 181.5 584.2 25.4 na

Previous recharge estimates Recharge (basinwide) 327,300 2.6 12.5 <.1 na

MODFLOW ground-water 

flow model (D’Agnese 

and others, 2002) Recharge (basinwide) 266,800 2.1 na na na

Preliminary INFIL model 

(Hevesi and others, 2002) Precipitation (rain and snow) 24,094,100 195.1 765.4 76.0 na

Total net infiltration 963,300 7.8 362.6 .0 4.00

INFILv3, model 1 Results for the entire area within the INFILv3 

watershed model boundary

Potential evapotranspiration 142,767,500 1,151.4 1,615.8 465.0 672.0

Inflows

Precipitation (rain and snow) 21,242,200 171.3 551.7 53.5 100.0

Snowmelt 2,432,000 19.6 388.8 .0 11.4

Infiltrated run-on1 249,400 2.0 1,513.6 .0 1.17

Storage

Snowfall 2,717,100 21.9 467.7 .0 12.8

Change in root-zone water content2 4,200 .03 37.2 –4.0 .02

Runoff generation3 275,300 2.2 136.3 .0 1.30

Outflows

Sublimation 285,100 2.3 92.8 .0 1.34

Evapotranspiration 20,585,400 166.0 580.9 44.9 96.9

Run-on net infiltration4 2,400 .02 125.5 .0 .01

Net infiltration 344,000 2.8 1,262.3 .0 1.62

Surface water outflow (inflow to 

playas)5 25,900 .2 na na .12

Adjusted net infiltration

Net infiltration adjusted for 

discharge zones6 342,100 2.8 1,262.3 .0 1.61

Net infiltration adjusted for all 

playas7 340,500 2.7 1,262.3

.0

1.60

Net infiltration for playa areas8 1,600 .01 na na .01

Results for upland areas9

Runoff generation 226,100 4.3 136.3 .0 1.06

Infiltrated run-on 87,600 1.7 303.0 .0 .41

Run-on net infiltration 1,300 .02 19.8 .0 .01

Net surface water outflow10 138,500 2.7 na na .65

Net infiltration 309,800 5.9 256.8 .0 1.46

Table 19. Summary of INFILv3 model results for the Death Valley regional flow system, Nevada and California

[Total volumes are rounded to nearest 100 cubic meters per day. m3/d, cubic meter per day; mm/yr, millimeter per year; <, less than; na, not available]

See footnotes at end of table.
Tables 151

Results for alluvial fan and basin areas11

Runoff generation 49,100 .7 37.01 0 .23

Infiltrated run-on 161,800 2.3 1,513.6 0 .76

Run-on net infiltration 1,000 .01 125.5 0 .005

Net surface water outflow –112,700 –1.6 na na 1.03

Net infiltration 34,200 .5 1,262.3 .0 .16

Net infiltration adjusted for discharge zones 32,300 0.5 1,262.3 0.0 0.15

INFILv3, model 2 Results for the entire area within the INFILv3 

watershed model boundary

Potential evapotranspiration 142,767,500 1,151.4 1,615.8 465.0 672.0

Inflows

Precipitation (rain and snow) 21,242,200 171.3 551.7 53.5 100.0

Snowmelt 2,432,000 19.6 388.8 .0 11.4

Infiltrated run-on 0 .0 .0 .0 .00

Storage

Snowfall 2,717,100 21.9 467.7 .0 12.8

Change in root-zone water content –6,300 –.05 14.8 –2.6 .26

Runoff generation 263,700 2.1 136.3 .0 1.24

Outflows

Sublimation 285,100 2.3 92.8 .0 1.34

Evapotranspiration 20,406,200 164.6 403.7 44.9 96.1

Run-on net infiltration 0 .0 .0 .0 .00

Net infiltration 293,500 2.4 210.2 .0 1.38

Surface-water outflow (inflow to 

playas) 263,700 2.1 na na 1.24

Adjusted net infiltration

Net infiltration adjusted for 

discharge zones 293,100 2.4 210.2 .0 1.38

Net infiltration adjusted for all 

playas 291,900 2.4 210.2 .0 1.37

Net infiltration for playa areas 1,200 .01 .0 .0 .001

Results for upland areas

Runoff generation 214,600 4.1 136.3 .0 1.01

Infiltrated run-on 0 .0 .0 .0 .00

Run-on net infiltration 0 .0 .0 .0 .00

Net surface water outflow 214,600 4.1 na na 1.01

Net infiltration 291,700 5.6 210.2 .0 1.37

Results for alluvial fan and basin areas

Runoff generation 49,100 .7 37.0 .0 .23

Infiltrated run-on 0 .0 .0 .0 .00

Run-on net infiltration 0 .0 .0 .0 .00

Net surface water outflow 49,100 .7 na na .23

Net infiltration 1,700 .02 12.8 .0 .01

Net infiltration adjusted for discharge 

zones 1,400 .02 12.8 .0 .01

Table 19. Summary of INFILv3 model results for the Death Valley regional flow system, Nevada and California —Continued

Model or method Parameter Total volume

(m3/d)

Average

annual

rate

(mm/yr)

Maximum

average

annual

rate

(mm/yr)

Minimum

average

annual

rate

(mm/yr)

Absolute

percentage

of total

precipitation 
152 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using the Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model, INFILv3, of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA

INFILv3, model 3 Results for the entire area within the INFILv3 

watershed model boundary

Potential evapotranspiration 142,767,500 1,151.4 1,615.8 465.0 672.0

Inflows

Precipitation (rain and snow) 21,242,200 171.3 551.7 53.5 100.0

Snowmelt 2,464,100 19.9 397.8 .0 11.6

Infiltrated run-on 404,200 3.3 828.0 .0 1.90

Storage

Snowfall 2,717,100 21.9 467.7 .0 12.8

Change in root-zone water content 8,700 .07 39.4 –2.5 .04

Runoff generation 500,600 4.0 139.8 .0 2.36

Outflows

Sublimation 252,900 2.0 82.6 .0 1.19

Evapotranspiration 20,705,600 167.0 488.4 40.1 97.5

Run-on net infiltration 1,100 .009 50.7 .0 .01

Total net infiltration 179,800 1.4 697.4 .0 .85

Surface-water outflow (inflow to 

playas) 96,300 .8 na na .45

Adjusted net infiltration

Net infiltration adjusted for 

discharge zones 178,700 1.4 697.4 .0 .84

Net infiltration adjusted for all 

playas 177,700 1.4 697.4 .0 .84

Net infiltration for playa areas 1,200 .01 na na .006

Results for upland areas

Runoff generation 363,400 7.0 139.8 .0 1.71

Infiltrated run-on 178,100 3.4 267.6 .0 .84

Run-on net infiltration 1,100 .02 11.9 .0 .01

Net surface water outflow 185,300 .8 na na .87

Net infiltration 164,000 3.1 215.8 .0 .77

Results for alluvial fan and basin areas

Runoff generation 137,200 1.9 56.0 .0 .65

Infiltrated run-on 226,100 3.1 828.0 .0 1.06

Run-on net infiltration < 100 <.001 50.7 .0 <.001

Net surface water outflow –88,900 .8 na na .42

Net infiltration 15,700 .2 697.4 .07

Net infiltration adjusted for discharge zones 14,700 .2 697.4 .0 .07

INFILv3, model 4 Results for the entire area within the INFILv3 

watershed model boundary

Potential evapotranspiration 145,330,400 1,172.1 1,624.2 479.2 684.16

Inflows

Precipitation (rain and snow) 21,242,200 171.3 551.7 53.5 100.00

Snowmelt 2,426,800 19.6 387.0 .0 11.42

Infiltrated run-on 238,800 1.9 1,015.7 .0 1.12

Table 19. Summary of INFILv3 model results for the Death Valley regional flow system, Nevada and California —Continued

Model or method Parameter Total volume

(m3/d)

Average

annual

rate

(mm/yr)

Maximum

average

annual

rate

(mm/yr)

Minimum

average

annual

rate

(mm/yr)

Absolute

percentage

of total

precipitation 
Tables 153

Storage

Snowfall 2,717,100 21.9 467.7 .0 12.79

Change in root-zone water content 4,200 <.1 37.2 -3.7 .02

Runoff generation 270,800 2.2 136.3 .0 1.27

Outflows

Sublimation 290,300 2.3 93.9 .0 1.37

Evapotranspiration 20,771,300 167.5 530.9 45.0 97.78

Run-on net infiltration 1,100 .01 39.9 .0 .01

Total net infiltration 145,700 1.2 882.6 .0 .69

Surface water discharge to playas 32,000 .3 na na .15

Adjusted net infiltrations

Net infiltration adjusted for 

discharge zones 144,700 1.2 882.6 .0 .68

Net infiltration adjusted for all 

playas 143,100 1.2 882.6 .0 .67

Net infiltration for playa areas 1,600 .01 .0 .0 .001

Results for upland areas

Runoff generation 221,700 4.25 136.3 .0 1.04

Infiltrated run-on 85,200 1.63 264.4 .0 .40

Run-on net infiltration 900 .02 12.7 .0 .004

Net surface water outflow 136,500 2.6 na na .64

Net infiltration 124,100 2.4 224.7 .0 .58

Results for alluvial fan and basin areas

Runoff generation 49,100 .7 37.0 .0 .23

Infiltrated run-on 153,600 2.1 1,015.7 .0 .72

Run-on net infiltration 200 .003 39.9 .0 .001

Net surface water outflow –104,400 –1.4 na na –.49

Net infiltration 21,600 .3 882.6 .0 .10

Net infiltration adjusted for discharge zones 20,600 .3 882.6 .0 .10

Average for models 1, 2, 3, 4 Net infiltration adjusted for discharge zones 239,700 1.9 542.2 .0 1.1

Average for models 1, 3, 4 Net infiltration adjusted for discharge zones 221,800 1.8 722.9 .0 1.0

Average for models 1, 3 Net infiltration adjusted for discharge zones 260,400 2.1 764.6 .0 1.2

Table 19. Summary of INFILv3 model results for the Death Valley regional flow system, Nevada and California —Continued

Model or method Parameter Total volume

(m3/d)

Average

annual

rate

(mm/yr)

Maximum

average

annual

rate

(mm/yr)

Minimum

average

annual

rate

(mm/yr)

Absolute

percentage

of total

precipitation 

1Infiltrated run-on is runoff that has been routed to downstream grid cells and has infiltrated into the root zone causing an increase in the root-zone 

water content. 2Change in root-zone water content indicates difference in water content between the first and last day of the simulation; positive values indicate an 

increase relative to the first day, and negative values indicate a decrease relative to the first day. 3Runoff generation indicates in-place runoff calculated as excess rain or snowmelt. 4Run-on net infiltration is net infiltration in direct response to the downstream routing and infiltration of surface water (runoff). 5Surface-water outflow indicates either inflow to playa lakes (all of which is assumed to evaporate) or streamflow into or out of a basin. Positive values 

indicate a net loss of surface water, while negative values indicate a net gain of surface water (inflow to basin). 6Net infiltration is set to zero for all areas identified as discharge zones in D’Agnese and others (2002). 7Net infiltration is set to zero for all areas identified as playas (figure 3).
154 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using the Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model, INFILv3, of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA

Table 20. Average annual precipitation simulated using the INFILv3 model and estimated using PRISM for hydrographic areas and subareas in the Death 

Valley region, Nevada and California—Continued 

Hydrographic areas and subareas Simulated precipitation using INFILv3

(mm/yr) 

Estimated precipitation using PRISM

(mm/yr)

Name Identifier Average Maximum Minimum Average Maximum Minimum

Alkali Spring Valley 142 159 246 143 145 178 127

Amargosa Desert 230 126 265 104 132 330 76

Cactus Flat 148 207 355 177 189 330 127

California Valley 241 153 290 118 148 330 127

Chicago Valley 240 131 236 110 134 229 127

Clayton Valley 143 164 312 118 159 279 127

Coal Valley 171 251 418 221 253 432 178

Crater Flat 229 146 247 112 145 279 127

Death Valley 243 132 488 54 130 483 25

Emigrant Valley (Groom Lake) 158A 208 388 175 230 330 178

Emigrant Valley (Papoose Lake) 158B 190 228 177 232 279 178

Fortymile Canyon (Buckboard Mesa) 227B 212 300 163 301 432 178

Fortymile Canyon (Jackass Flats) 227A 157 275 113 170 381 127

Frenchman Flat 160 163 277 120 185 381 127

Garden Valley 172 282 513 235 292 686 178

Gold Flat 147 204 334 179 219 432 127

Hidden Valley (south) 166 161 189 151 143 178 127

Indian Springs Valley 161 172 453 123 213 533 127

Ivanpah Valley (north) 164A 184 384 147 169 381 127

Ivanpah Valley (south) 164B 189 357 148 178 330 127

Jean Lake Valley 165 168 298 146 147 279 127

Kawich Valley 157 226 341 196 246 432 178

Las Vegas Valley 212 174 551 104 195 584 76

Lida Valley 144 179 316 152 155 279 127

Lower Amargosa Valley 242 125 211 99 121 229 76

Mercury Valley 225 148 267 125 171 330 127

Mesquite Valley 163 175 394 139 168 432 127

Oasis Valley 228 178 273 127 226 381 127

Pahranagat Valley 209 210 375 152 225 381 127

Pahrump Valley 162 176 547 115 201 584 127

Penoyer Valley 170 225 429 186 229 483 178

Railroad Valley (south) 173A 226 348 186 208 330 127

Rock Valley 226 144 226 115 146 229 127

Sarcobatus Flat 146 170 325 140 169 381 127

Shadow Valley 245 186 358 141 186 330 127

Stonewall Flat 145 178 273 151 150 279 127

Table 20. Average annual precipitation simulated using the INFILv3 model and estimated using PRISM for hydrographic areas and subareas in the Death 

Valley region, Nevada and California

[See figure 4 for location of hydrographic areas and subareas. PRISM, parameter-elevation regressions on independent slopes model (Daly and others, 1994). 

mm/yr, millimeters per year]
Tables 155

Three Lakes Valley (north) 168 182 430 147 200 381 127

Three Lakes Valley (south) 211 171 431 125 195 533 127

Tikapoo Valley (north) 169A 209 394 167 229 330 178

Tikapoo Valley (south) 169B 189 380 149 200 381 127

Valjean Valley 244 127 302 92 137 279 76

Yucca Flat 159 184 300 153 217 432 127

Total area covered by all hydrographic 

areas and subareas

175 551 54 182 686 25

Table 20. Average annual precipitation simulated using the INFILv3 model and estimated using PRISM for hydrographic areas and subareas in the Death 

Valley region, Nevada and California—Continued 

Hydrographic areas and subareas Simulated precipitation using INFILv3

(mm/yr) 

Estimated precipitation using PRISM

(mm/yr)

Name Identifier Average Maximum Minimum Average Maximum Minimum
156 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using the Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model, INFILv3, of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA Table 21. Simulation results using INFILv3 model 1 for hydrographic areas and subareas in the Death Valley region, Nevada and California, 1950–99—Continued Hydrographic areas and subareas Potential evapotran- spiration Precipitation Snowfall Subli- mation Evapotran- spiration Change in storage Runoff Infiltrated run-on N

infil

 Name Identifier Alkali Spring Valley 142 1,060 159.8 24.2 2.81 156.9 –0.13 0.39 0.38 0

Amargosa Desert 230 1,244 125.8 2.4 .18 124.9 –.02 .52 .58 Cactus Flat 148 1,039 207.0 43.9 4.99 200.1 –.01 2.21 2.06 1California Valley 241 1,222 153.1 4.7 .35 149.7 .14 2.91 2.82 2Chicago Valley 240 1,277 131.4 1.3 .09 128.8 –.03 .32 .33 2Clayton Valley 143 1,042 164.8 34.5 4.01 160.0 –.09 .89 .88 Coal Valley 171 1,051 251.6 40.9 3.91 243.7 .24 3.88 3.51 3Crater Flat 229 1,196 146.6 5.5 .47 145.3 .07 .92 .84 Death Valley 243 1,243 132.5 13.9 1.42 128.4 .16 2.48 2.16 2Emigrant Valley (Groom Lake) 158A 1,074 208.8 31.4 3.21 200.7 .27 5.35 4.80 4Emigrant Valley (Papoose Lake) 158B 1,104 190.7 13.5 1.04 187.0 .26 3.90 3.10 1Fortymile Canyon (Buckboard Mesa) 227B 1,057 212.7 35.3 3.68 203.0 .20 7.70 5.92 4Fortymile Canyon (Jackass Flats) 227A 1,184 157.2 8.0 .73 154.4 .32 2.79 3.56 2Frenchman Flat 160 1,161 163.3 7.0 .54 160.8 .07 1.41 1.44 1Garden Valley 172 1,022 282.7 71.7 8.11 271.1 –.22 5.08 4.82 3Gold Flat 147 1,047 204.4 37.2 3.84 197.2 .05 3.84 3.37 2Hidden Valley (south) 166 1,247 161.3 1.4 .12 160.9 –.02 .00 .00 Indian Springs Valley 161 1,134 172.0 20.1 1.88 166.7 –.02 1.09 .98 3Ivanpah Valley (north) 164A 1,223 184.6 8.0 .78 181.0 .00 .65 .53 2Ivanpah Valley (south) 164B 1,234 189.2 5.8 .51 187.1 .35 3.93 4.09 1Jean Lake Valley 165 1,236 168.7 2.8 .21 168.3 .06 .46 .67 Kawich Valley 157 1,021 226.8 51.8 5.30 216.1 .25 6.99 6.62 4Las Vegas Valley 212 1,188 174.5 26.8 3.13 166.6 –.21 .94 .89 4Lida Valley 144 1,063 179.7 32.7 3.73 175.6 –.11 .98 .96 Lower Amargosa Valley 242 1,286 125.7 1.0 .06 125.0 –.02 .22 .33 

Table 21. Simulation results using INFILv3 model 1 for hydrographic areas and subareas in the Death Valley region, Nevada and California, 1950–99 [Net infiltration over designated discharge zones set to 0. Positive outflow indicates net discharge from area to playa or to downstream drainage; negative outflow indicates 

in millimeters per year. na, not applicable]
Tables 157

Mercury Valley 225 1,177 148.8 5.0 0.38 146.2 0.04 2.29 1.68 1Mesquite Valley 163 1,224 175.1 7.4 .69 170.5 .22 1.66 1.73 3Oasis Valley 228 1,105 178.2 19.1 1.87 173.3 .10 2.94 2.50 2Pahranagat Valley 209 1,107 210.2 20.9 1.99 205.8 –.14 .52 .52 2Pahrump Valley 162 1,181 176.7 29.7 3.88 166.9 –.08 2.19 1.80 5Penoyer Valley 170 1,050 225.5 40.0 4.12 217.7 –.09 4.07 3.79 3Railroad Valley (south) 173A 1,025 226.9 48.8 5.16 218.1 –.02 4.05 3.64 3Rock Valley 226 1,220 144.0 3.0 .24 141.5 –.01 1.08 .80 2Sarcobatus Flat 146 1,106 170.2 18.2 1.67 166.9 .00 2.17 1.97 1Shadow Valley 245 1,218 186.6 5.9 .53 184.1 .20 1.00 1.33 2Stonewall Flat 145 1,071 178.2 26.8 2.79 173.8 –.09 1.13 1.08 1Three Lakes Valley (north) 168 1,136 182.2 13.8 1.14 178.7 –.04 .45 .45 2Three Lakes Valley (south) 211 1,141 170.9 21.0 2.09 167.0 –.16 .29 .31 2Tikapoo Valley (north) 169A 1,087 209.8 27.8 2.77 204.1 –.12 1.28 1.27 3Tikapoo Valley (south) 169B 1,125 188.9 15.7 1.36 184.7 –.03 .35 .37 2Valjean Valley 244 1,320 127.4 2.1 .19 126.4 .10 2.23 2.37 Yucca Flat 159 1,126 184.4 15.1 1.42 180.1 .37 3.07 2.96 2All hydrogaphic areas and subareas na 1,153 175.0 21.7 2.29 169.9 .03 2.19 2.02 2

Table 21. Simulation results using INFILv3 model 1 for hydrographic areas and subareas in the Death Valley region, Nevada and California, 1950–99—Continued 

Hydrographic areas and subareas Potential 

evapotranspiration Precipitation Snowfall Subli- mation Evapotran- spiration Change in storage Runoff Infiltrated run-on N

infil

 Name Identifier

1Net infiltration is slightly reduced in some basins to account for ground-water discharge zones.
158 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using the Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model, INFILv3, of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA

Table 22. Previous estimates of recharge rates and simulated net-infiltration rates using INFILv3 models 1–4 for hydrographic areas and subareas in the 

Death Valley region, Nevada and California, 1950–99 —Continued 

Hydrographic areas and subareas

Estimated 

modern-day

recharge

(mm/year)

Recharge

estimation

method

Simulated net infiltration, in millimeters per year

Name Identifier Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4

Average 

for

models 1 

and 3

Alkali Spring Valley 142 0.15 ME 0.21 0.20 0.05 0.03 0.12

Amargosa Desert 230 .54 ME .77 .70 .33 .21 .49

Cactus Flat 148 .72 ME 1.70 1.37 1.03 .81 1.26

California Valley 241 .85 ME 2.75 1.78 1.42 1.20 1.98

Chicago Valley 240 .22 ME 2.49 2.45 1.22 .80 1.65

Clayton Valley 143 1.29 ME .90 .72 .41 .32 .61

Coal Valley 171 2.09 ME 3.47 2.82 1.88 1.57 2.52

Crater Flat 229 .57 ME .70 .66 .26 .16 .43

Death Valley 243 1.04 ME 2.22 1.65 1.11 .90 1.54

Emigrant Valley (Groom Lake) 158A 2.31 ME 4.14 2.74 2.25 2.12 3.13

Emigrant Valley (Papoose Lake) 158B .02 ME 1.61 1.23 .75 .70 1.15

Fortymile Canyon (Buckboard Mesa) 227B 2.89 ME 4.04 2.70 2.02 1.99 3.02

Fortymile Canyon (Jackass Flats) 227A 1.51 ME 2.67 1.55 1.69 1.35 2.01

Frenchman Flat 160 .10 ME 1.98 1.85 1.14 .79 1.39

Garden Valley 172 9.97 ME 3.50 2.80 2.02 1.77 2.64

Gold Flat 147 2.66 ME 2.94 2.26 1.57 1.36 2.15

Hidden Valley (south) 166 .14 ME .33 .33 .11 .06 .20

Indian Springs Valley 161 7.13 ME 3.27 3.16 1.50 1.16 2.22

Ivanpah Valley (north) 164A 2.92 ME 2.73 2.69 1.55 1.12 1.92

Ivanpah Valley (south) 164B .47 ME 1.47 .81 .55 .54 1.00

Jean Lake Valley 165 .48 ME .36 .25 .10 .07 .21

Kawich Valley 157 4.64 ME 4.89 3.31 2.85 2.76 3.82

Las Vegas Valley 212 8.87 AVG 4.97 4.91 2.94 2.39 3.68

Lida Valley 144 .42 GFM .54 .47 .20 .16 .35

Lower Amargosa Valley 242 .09 GFM .79 .75 .38 .22 .50

Mercury Valley 225 1.07 ME 1.54 1.45 .59 .41 .97

Mesquite Valley 163 1.68 AVG 3.77 3.50 2.22 1.75 2.76

Oasis Valley 228 1.01 ME 2.55 2.01 .94 .71 1.47

Pahranagat Valley 209 1.01 AVG 2.61 2.51 1.20 .89 1.75

Pahrump Valley 162 15.17 AVG 5.66 5.53 3.30 2.70 4.18

Table 22. Previous estimates of recharge rates and simulated net-infiltration rates using INFILv3 models 1–4 for hydrographic areas and subareas in the 

Death Valley region, Nevada and California, 1950–99 

[See figure 4 for locations of areas and subareas (by identifier). For areas having more than one estimate of recharge (see table 1), the average recharge 

estimate was used. AVG, average; D, Deuterium mixing model; GFM, ground-water flow model; ME, Maxey–Eakin. mm/yr, millimeters per year; na, not 

applicable]
Tables 159

Penoyer Valley 170 2.59 AVG 3.55 2.93 1.87 1.42 2.49

Railroad Valley (south) 173A 4.18 AVG 3.32 2.66 2.01 1.60 2.46

Rock Valley 226 .17 ME 2.00 1.94 .94 .67 1.33

Sarcobatus Flat 146 .70 ME 1.44 1.18 .79 .58 1.01

Shadow Valley 245 1.46 ME 2.11 1.82 .83 .62 1.36

Stonewall Flat 145 .13 ME 1.56 1.46 .86 .56 1.06

Three Lakes Valley (north) 168 3.16 ME 2.36 2.35 .97 .68 1.52

Three Lakes Valley (south) 211 9.48 ME 2.05 2.03 .84 .71 1.38

Tikapoo Valley (north) 169A 2.01 ME 3.07 2.84 1.37 1.10 2.08

Tikapoo Valley (south) 169B 4.37 ME 2.96 2.95 1.21 .81 1.88

Valjean Valley 244 .46 ME .77 .06 .30 .44 .60

Yucca Flat 159 1.11 ME 2.48 1.91 1.34 1.05 1.76

Combined areas:

California and Chicago Valleys 241 and 240 .58 GFM 2.64 2.10 1.32 1.02 1.83

Emigrant Valley 158 8.04 GFM 3.78 1.83 1.35 1.76 2.77

Fortymile Canyon 227 .63 GFM 3.28 2.05 1.83 1.70 2.49

Garden and Coal Valleys 172 and 171 5.61 D 3.49 2.81 1.92 1.68 2.58

Mercury and Rock Valleys 225 and 226 0.94 GFM 1.74 1.69 0.76 0.57 1.15

Death Valley regional flow system 

(DVRFS) model na 2.15 GFM 2.77 2.36 1.44 1.17 1.96

Average estimation error (m3/d) –.07 –.49 –1.26 –1.47 –.77

Standardized mean square error .61 .64 .89 .97 .73

Pearson correlation coefficient .67 .70 .63 .64 .66

Table 22. Previous estimates of recharge rates and simulated net-infiltration rates using INFILv3 models 1–4 for hydrographic areas and subareas in the 

Death Valley region, Nevada and California, 1950–99 —Continued 

Hydrographic areas and subareas

Estimated 

modern-day

recharge

(mm/year)

Recharge

estimation

method

Simulated net infiltration, in millimeters per year

Name Identifier Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4

Average 

for

models 1 

and 3
160 Simulation of Net Infiltration and Potential Recharge Using the Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model, INFILv3, of the Death Valley Region, NV and CA

Table 23. Previously estimated recharge volumes and simulated net infiltration volumes using INFILv3 models 1–4 for hydrographic areas and subareas in 

the Death Valley region, Nevada and California, 1950–99—Continued

Hydrographic areas and subareas

Estimated 

modern-day

recharge

(m3/d)

Recharge

estimation

method

Simulated net infiltration (m3/d)

Name Identifier Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4

Average 

for

models 1 

and 3

Alkali Spring Valley 142 338 ME 480 459 109 73 294

Amargosa Desert 230 5,066 ME 7,225 6,602 3,065 2,009 5,145

Cactus Flat 148 2,026 ME 4,761 3,840 2,873 2,271 3,817

California Valley 241 814 ME 2,617 1,689 1,353 1,142 1,985

Chicago Valley 240 169 ME 1,920 1,887 936 615 1,428

Clayton Valley 143 5,066 ME 3,549 2,842 1,606 1,252 2,577

Coal Valley 171 6,754 ME 11,219 9,100 6,060 5,081 8,640

Crater Flat 229 743 ME 904 860 335 209 620

Death Valley 243 27,017 ME 57,041 42,865 28,872 23,374 42,956

Emigrant Valley (Groom Lake) 158A 10,807 ME 19,382 12,810 10,520 9,906 14,951

Emigrant Valley (Papoose Lake) 158B 14 ME 1,243 954 579 540 911

Fortymile Canyon (Buckboard Mesa) 227B 4,728 ME 6,616 4,416 3,301 3,260 4,959

Fortymile Canyon (Jackass Flats) 227A 3,039 ME 5,347 3,114 3,389 2,701 4,368

Frenchman Flat 160 338 ME 6,426 5,998 3,681 2,573 5,054

Garden Valley 172 33,771 ME 11,223 8,969 6,469 5,677 8,846

Gold Flat 147 12,833 ME 14,201 10,922 7,603 6,569 10,902

Hidden Valley (south) 166 34 ME 78 77 26 14 52

Indian Springs Valley 161 33,771 ME 15,505 14,979 7,113 5,493 11,309

Ivanpah Valley (north) 164A 5,066 ME 4,723 4,659 2,680 1,938 3,702

Ivanpah Valley (south) 164B 1,689 ME 5,299 2,909 1,987 1,930 3,643

Jean Lake Valley 165 338 ME 248 175 70 51 159

Kawich Valley 157 11,820 ME 12,454 8,428 7,253 7,022 9,854

Las Vegas Valley 212 97,936 AVG 51,154 50,557 30,233 24,650 40,694

Lida Valley 144 1,600 GFM 2,059 1,781 773 594 1,416

Lower Amargosa Valley 242 300 GFM 2,591 2,470 1,245 719 1,918

Mercury Valley 225 844 ME 1,214 1,139 464 319 839

Mesquite Valley 163 5,234 AVG 11,719 10,861 6,888 5,443 9,303

Oasis Valley 228 3,377 ME 7,459 6,689 3,141 2,371 5,300

Pahranagat Valley 209 5,572 AVG 13,663 13,129 6,292 4,675 9,978

Pahrump Valley 162 106,378 AVG 39,712 38,772 23,171 18,969 31,441

Table 23. Previously estimated recharge volumes and simulated net infiltration volumes using INFILv3 models 1–4 for hydrographic areas and subareas in 

the Death Valley region, Nevada and California, 1950–99 

[See figure 4 for locations of areas and subareas (by identifier). For areas having more than one estimate of recharge (see table 1), the average recharge 

estimate was used. AVG, average; D, Deuterium mixing model; GFM, ground-water flow model; ME, Maxey–Eakin. m3/d, cubic meters per day. na, not 

applicable]
Tables 161

Penoyer Valley 170 12,720 AVG 17,427 14,346 9,167 6,984 13,297

Railroad Valley (south) 173A 17,561 AVG 13,964 11,181 8,456 6,736 11,210

Rock Valley 226 101 ME 1,189 1,157 560 398 874

Sarcobatus Flat 146 4,053 ME 8,329 6,866 4,560 3,357 6,445

Shadow Valley 245 4,053 ME 5,847 5,051 2,296 1,711 4,071

Stonewall Flat 145 338 ME 4,191 3,912 2,306 1,504 3,248

Three Lakes Valley (north) 168 6,754 ME 5,031 5,014 2,078 1,446 3,555

Three Lakes Valley (south) 211 20,263 ME 4,382 4,350 1,798 1,509 3,090

Tikapoo Valley (north) 169A 8,780 ME 13,410 12,400 6,004 4,798 9,707

Tikapoo Valley (south) 169B 11,482 ME 7,751 7,743 3,168 2,122 5,460

Valjean Valley 244 1,351 ME 2,266 178 891 1,291 1,579

Yucca Flat 159 2,364 ME 5,257 4,051 2,852 2,223 4,054

Combined areas:

California and Chicago Valleys 241 and 240 1,600 GFM 4,538 3,576 2,289 1,757 3,413

Emigrant Valley 158 43,900 GFM 20,625 13,764 11,099 10,446 15,862

Fortymile Canyon 227 2,300 GFM 11,963 7,530 6,690 5,961 9,327

Garden and Coal Valleys 172 and 171 37,148 D 22,442 18,069 12,529 10,758 17,485

Mercury and Rock Valleys 225 and 226 1,300 GFM 2,402 2,296 1,024 718 1,713

Death Valley regional flow system 

(DVRFS) model na 266,800 GFM 342,098 293,121 178,675 144,700 260,387

Average estimation error (m3/d) –317 –2,954 –8,371 –10,010 –4,344

Standardized mean-squared error .18 .12 .26 .37 .14

Pearson correlation coefficient .93 .94 .94 .94 .93

Table 23. Previously estimated recharge volumes and simulated net infiltration volumes using INFILv3 models 1–4 for hydrographic areas and subareas in 

the Death Valley region, Nevada and California, 1950–99—Continued

Hydrographic areas and subareas

Estimated 

modern-day

recharge

(m3/d)

Recharge

estimation

method

Simulated net infiltration (m3

/d)

Name Identifier Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4

Average 

for

models 1 

and 3