STRATEGIES FOR REDUCING 

RESIDENTIAL WOOD SMOKE

 
Strategies for Reducing Residential Wood Smoke 

Page 1 

Publication No. EPA-456/B-13-001 

 Revised March 2013 

 

STRATEGIES FOR REDUCING 

RESIDENTIAL WOOD SMOKE

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 

Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards 

Outreach and Information Division 

Innovative Programs and Outreach Group 

Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
Strategies for Reducing Residential Wood Smoke 

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TABLE OF CONTENTS 

I. REGULATORY PROGRAMS ............................................................................................. 6

A. Wood-Burning Curtailment Programs ......................................................................... 6

B. Opacity and Visible Emission Limits ............................................................................... 7

C. Wood Moisture Content ................................................................................................ 8

D. Removal of Old Wood Stove Upon Resale of a Home .......................................... 8

E. Require EPA Certification .............................................................................................. 9

F. Ban the Use of Non-EPA-Certified Wood Stoves .................................................. 10

G. Restrictions on Wood-Burning Devices in New Construction ................................ 10

H. Hydronic Heater Rules .................................................................................................. 10

I. Requirements for Wood-burning Fireplaces .......................................................... 11

J. State/Tribal/Local Wood-Heating Emission Standards ...................................... 12

K. New Source Performance Standards for New Residential Wood ........................ 

 Heating Appliances ..................................................................................................... 13

II. VOLUNTARY PROGRAMS ............................................................................................. 13

A. Wood Stove, Hydronic Heater, and Fireplace Replacements ............................ 13

B. Hydronic Heaters ......................................................................................................... 15

C. Wood-burning Fireplaces .......................................................................................... 16

D. Particulate Matter (PM) Advance ............................................................................. 16

III. EDUCATION AND OUTREACH ..................................................................................... 16

A. Burn Wise Education and Outreach ......................................................................... 17

B. Air Quality Forecasts and Reports to the Public .................................................... 20

C. Additional Resources Available to State, Tribal and Local .................................... 

 Governments for Public Education ............................................................................ 20

IV. FUNDING MECHANISMS .............................................................................................. 21

A. Discounts/Vouchers ...................................................................................................... 21

B. Tax Credits ................................................................................................................... 21

C. Property Assessed Clean Energy (PACE) ................................................................ 22

D. Federal Programs to Support Replacements ......................................................... 22

E. Supplemental Environmental Projects and Mitigation Projects ........................... 23

V. PARTNERSHIPS ............................................................................................................ 24

A. Hearth, Patio & Barbecue Association (HPBA) ....................................................... 24

B. American Lung Association (ALA) .............................................................................. 24

C. Chimney Safety Institute of America (CSIA) .............................................................. 24

D. The Alliance for Green Heat ..................................................................................... 25

E. State Energy Departments ......................................................................................... 25

F. Other Potential Partners ............................................................................................. 25

VI. OTHER TOOLS .............................................................................................................. 25

A. County-level Emission Inventory for Residential Wood Combustion .................. 25

B. Wood Stove and Fireplace Changeout/Retrofit Emissions Calculator.............. 25

C. Residential Wood Combustion Surveys ................................................................... 26

D. Residential Wood Combustion Control Measures ................................................. 26
Strategies for Reducing Residential Wood Smoke 

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E. Residential/Mobile Wood Smoke Monitoring ....................................................... 26

F. Spatial Modeling .......................................................................................................... 27

SUMMARY ......................................................................................................................... 28

APPENDIX A: EXAMPLE WOOD SMOKE PROGRAM........................................................ 29

APPENDIX B: POTENTIAL COMPONENTS OF A WOODSMOKE REDUCTION PLAN........32

APPENDIX C: HEALTH STUDIES ........................................................................................ 35

APPENDIX D: RESIDENTIAL WOOD COMBUSTION CONTROL MEASURES................ 40 

COVER PHOTO PROVIDED BY FAIRBANKS NORTH STAR BOROUGH AIR QUALITY DIVISION 

 
Strategies for Reducing Residential Wood Smoke 

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INTRODUCTION 

This document identifies strategies to help state, tribal, and local air 

officials reduce fine particle pollution (PM2.5) that is attributed to residential 

wood smoke. For areas that are not meeting, or are close to exceeding the 

national ambient air quality standards for fine particles (PM2.5 NAAQS), 

developing a wood smoke reduction plan can help achieve meaningful 

emission reductions and improve public health in the local community. 

Developing and implementing a plan before exceedances occur will lower 

the likelihood of violations of the national standards, may limit the number 

of Clean Air Act requirements that apply in the future, or can be used to 

help an area comply with requirements that may apply in the future. To 

learn more about EPA’s PM2.5 regulations, visit: 

http://epa.gov/airquality/particlepollution/actions.html. 

This document also provides education and outreach tools, information on regulatory approaches to 

reduce wood smoke, as well as information about voluntary programs that communities around the 

country have used to replace old, inefficient wood stoves, hydronic heaters, and fireplaces. It includes 

EPA federal actions to help communities address residential wood smoke throughout the United States 

(U.S.). In addition, this document includes possible approaches for funding replacement programs, 

methods for calculating emission reductions, and the basic components of a wood smoke reduction plan 

for fine particles in areas where wood smoke is of concern. 

WHY IS RESIDENTIAL WOOD SMOKE A CONCERN? 

Residential wood smoke contains PM2.5, carbon monoxide (CO), toxic air pollutants (e.g., benzene and 

formaldehyde), and climate gases (e.g. methane and black carbon). According to EPA estimates,1 wood 

stoves, hydronic heaters, and fireplaces emit more than 345,000 tons of PM2.5 into the air throughout 

the country each year – mostly during the winter months. Nationally, residential wood combustion 

accounts for 44 percent of total stationary and mobile polycyclic organic matter (POM) emissions, 

nearly 25 percent of all area source air toxic cancer risks and 15 percent of noncancer respiratory 

effects. 

Residential wood smoke can increase particle pollution to levels that cause significant health concerns 

(e.g., asthma attacks, heart attacks, premature death). Wood smoke causes many counties throughout 

the U.S. to either exceed the national health-based standards for fine particles, or places them on the 

cusp of exceeding the standards. Because wood stoves, hydronic heaters, and other similar appliances 

can be used around the clock in residential areas, they can cause significant and varying health and 

quality of life issues. 

GROWING DEMAND FOR CHEAPER RESIDENTIAL HOME HEATING 

There is renewed interest in burning biomass (wood, corn, switch grass) to help save money on home 

heating bills, and reduce our dependence on foreign oil. The federal government and various states 

have provided economic incentives to increase the utilization of renewable energy. According to the 

U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), wood consumption in homes rose over a 10 year period 

(2000-2010), reversing a trend seen in the last two decades of the 20th century. In 2009, U.S. 

households consumed about 0.5 quadrillion Btu (quads) of wood. Household fuel oil consumption, by 

 

1 http://www.epa.gov/ttnchie1/trends/ 
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comparison, was only slightly higher at 0.6 quads. In homes across the U.S., wood is most commonly used 

as a secondary source of heat and is second only to electricity as a supplemental heating fuel. 

CHALLENGES AND BENEFITS 

Unlike other air pollution sources, such as industrial factories and commercial operations that may be 

regulated by states and tribes, existing wood stoves, fireplaces, and hydronic heaters are usually 

owned and operated by homeowners. This makes increasing the efficiency and decreasing the 

emissions of these sources challenging. Today, we believe there are over 29 million fireplaces, 243,000 

hydronic heaters, and 12 million wood stoves nationwide. 

The health benefits associated with reducing PM2.5 emissions, including wood smoke, are significant. 

Studies indicate that PM2.5 poses a serious public health problem. Exposure to PM2.5 can cause 

premature death and harmful effects on the cardiovascular system (the heart, blood, and blood vessels). 

Particle pollution exposure is also linked to a variety of other public health problems, including 

respiratory diseases. People with diseases that affect the heart or lung (including asthma), older adults, 

children, and people living in lower socioeconomic conditions are at greatest risk from PM2.5 exposure. 

Research indicates that pregnant women, newborns, and people with certain health conditions, such as 

obesity or diabetes, may also be at increased risk. EPA estimates that if all of the old wood stoves in 

the U.S. were replaced with cleaner-burning hearth appliances, an estimated $56-126 billion in health 

benefits per year would be realized. For more information, go to: 

http://www.epa.gov/airquality/benmap/sabpt.html. 

COMPONENTS OF A SUCCESSFUL PLAN 

As a first step in developing a residential wood smoke reduction plan, EPA recommends that air quality 

personnel evaluate monitoring and emissions data (e.g., wintertime organic carbon) to determine the 

nature and magnitude of residential wood smoke contributions in your airshed. In addition, conducting a 

local survey can help estimate how much wood is burned and the percentages of homes with fireplaces, 

wood stoves, and/or hydronic heaters. These specific data will prove extremely useful in planning an 

overall wood smoke program. 

Within this document, state, tribal and local air pollution control officials will find a comprehensive list of 

strategies and associated case studies to help identify appropriate wood smoke reduction measures for 

their communities. This includes: 

 regulatory approaches to reduce wood smoke; 

 voluntary programs to replace old wood stoves, hydronic heaters and fireplaces; 

 education and outreach tools; 

 air quality forecasting and public notification systems; 

 funding approaches for wood-burning appliance replacement programs; 

 federal actions to reduce residential wood smoke; and 

 methods for calculating emission reductions. 

65 PERCENT (7.8 MILLION) OF THE NATION’S WOOD 

STOVES ARE OLDER, INEFFICIENT DEVICES
Strategies for Reducing Residential Wood Smoke 

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EPA recommends a combination of regulatory, voluntary, and educational strategies to ensure a 

successful wood smoke program with measurable emission reductions. Even communities who do not 

have an air quality monitor but believe wood smoke is causing air quality problems can use the tools in 

this document. 

I. REGULATORY PROGRAMS 

A variety of regulatory options exist to address residential wood smoke. Each community should decide 

which measures are most appropriate given the nature and extent of their wood smoke problem. 

Communities should also gauge the knowledge and familiarity with air quality and wood smoke issues 

among elected leaders and the public. A public awareness program, along with a voluntary wood 

smoke curtailment program, may be a good first step. In communities where residential wood smoke 

continues to impact air quality despite active education and outreach efforts, local officials may choose 

to implement a regulatory program. There are several types. Mandatory curtailment programs prohibit 

the use of wood stoves and other devices under certain circumstances. Designing a curtailment program 

calls for the coordination of many factors, including provisions for homes that use wood burning as their 

only source of heat. Other types of regulatory programs include visible emission limits from chimneys, 

setback requirements, firewood moisture content requirements, and restrictions on the use and sale of 

non-EPA-certified wood stoves, all of which are discussed below. 

A. WOOD-BURNING CURTAILMENT PROGRAMS

Cold weather often coincides with an increase in wood burning and air inversions which can lead 

to unhealthy levels of air pollution. One of the quickest and most effective ways an air quality 

agency can reduce wintertime wood smoke is by developing a mandatory curtailment program, 

often known as “burn bans.” Some communities implement both a voluntary and mandatory 

curtailment program, depending on the severity of their wood smoke problem. Curtailment 

programs often have two stages: Stage 1 allowing EPA-certified wood stoves to operate, and 

Stage 2 banning the use of all wood-burning appliances unless wood burning is the household’s 

only source of heat. Stage 2 bans could also exempt pellet appliances, as they typically tend 

to burn cleaner throughout their burn cycle and cannot be loaded with unseasoned wood, like 

wood stoves. 

 Although curtailment programs are not always popular with the public, this measure 

can be highly effective at reducing wood smoke and has been successfully 

implemented in a number of communities. While there are certainly other strategies 

the Sacramento Air Quality Management District is implementing, the curtailment 

program alone has resulted in 40 percent fewer days above the NAAQS for PM2.5. 

 Sacramento enacted a mandatory, episodic wood-burning curtailment program. 

The first stage occurs when PM2.5 concentrations are forecast to exceed 31 ug/m3. 

The second stage of the curtailment program occurs when PM2.5 concentrations are 

forecast to exceed 35 ug/m3. In addition to mandatory curtailment, a voluntary 

curtailment begins at 25 ug/m3. 

 During a Stage 1 no-burn day, burning is prohibited except in EPA-certified stoves 

or pellet stoves as long as they do not emit visible smoke. During a Stage 2 

no-burn day, all wood-burning is prohibited. The rule does not apply to fireplaces 

and stoves that burn gaseous fuels. Also, the rule exempts burning that is the sole 

source of heat or in financial hardship situations. 
Strategies for Reducing Residential Wood Smoke 

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 To ensure the success of your curtailment program, it is essential to have some 

enforcement capabilities and an air quality forecasting and public notification system 

in place. Forecasting air quality and having a notification system in place will help 

educate the public about air pollution in their community and facilitate efficient 

communication about actions the public are requested to take when a voluntary or 

regulatory burn ban is called. To learn more about air quality forecasting, go to the 

AirNow website at: www.AirNow.gov. 

 Educating the public about the health benefits of reducing wood smoke in the 

community is critical to gaining support from the public and community leaders. The 

following links provide examples of existing curtailment programs: 

 Puget Sound Clean Air Agency website outlines a two-stage burn ban system and 

frequently asked questions like, “What is a burn ban,?” and “How can I find out 

when a burn ban is called?” For more information go to: 

www.pscleanair.org/airq/burnban/default.aspx. See also the Puget Sound Clean 

Air Agency wood smoke burn ban rule language: 

apps.leg.wa.gov/RCW/default.aspx?cite=70.94.473; 

 Sacramento Air Quality Management District implements a two-stage “Check 

Before You Burn” curtailment program from November to February. For more 

information, see: www.sparetheair.com/burncheck.cfm; and 

Jackson County, Oregon, implements a Wood-Burning Advisory Program. This 

curtailment program designates days as green, yellow, or red depending on the 

amount of particle pollution in the air. For more information, see: 

www.co.jackson.or.us/page.asp?navid=2492. 

 

B. OPACITY AND VISIBLE EMISSION LIMITS 

“Opacity” measures how much your view is blocked by 

smoke. One hundred percent opacity means you are not 

able to see anything through the smoke. At 20 percent 

opacity, there is very little smoke and you can see almost 

perfectly through it. A well-controlled wood-burning 

appliance will have less than 20 percent opacity and 

typically no visible emissions. 

To help control smoke from chimneys or flues, and to encourage cleaner burning techniques, 

some states and localities have laws or rules that require no “visible emissions” or that limit the 

opacity of emissions. Burning dry seasoned wood in newer technology wood-burning devices 

will typically limit visible emissions. Prohibiting “visible emissions” means no smoke should be 

seen coming out of a chimney for a given amount of time. If smoke is seen, it could be 

considered a violation. 

VISIBLE EMISSION LIMITS ARE TYPICALLY EASIER TO 

IMPLEMENT AND ENFORCE THAN OPACITY LIMITS
Strategies for Reducing Residential Wood Smoke 

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Opacity limits are restrictions on the percentage of light that may be prevented from passing 

through the smoke plume and require personnel qualified as an opacity reader to determine 

compliance. See EPA Test Method 22 for details on determination of visible emissions: 

epa.gov/ttn/emc/methods/method22.html, and EPA Test Method 9: 

epa.gov/ttn/emc/methods/method9.html, for details on determination of opacity. 

 Effectively implementing an opacity limit or visible emissions program requires public 

awareness and a trained enforcement staff. For more details about these control 

measures, see section 3.7 of EPA’s “Guidance Document for Residential Wood Smoke 

Combustion Emission Control Measures Document” available at: 

epa.gov/burnwise/pdfs/EPA-450-2-89-015.pdf.

 Opacity: Washington State has an opacity rule that applies to wood burning in 

private residences: apps.leg.wa.gov/WAC/default.aspx?cite=173-433-110. In 

particular, the rule requires that “a person shall not cause or allow emission of a smoke 

plume from any solid fuel burning device to exceed an average of 20 percent opacity 

for six consecutive minutes in any one hour period.” This program has been in effect for 

more than 10 years. 

Visible Emissions: The Maricopa County Air Quality Department in Arizona has a wood 

smoke regulation that prohibits the presence of visible emissions during restricted burn 

periods. For specific language, see: 

maricopa.gov/aq/divisions/planning_analysis/rules/docs/P26-0803.pdf. 

C. WOOD MOISTURE CONTENT

Wood that is not properly seasoned will burn less efficiently and release more harmful 

pollutants. To increase the likelihood that stove owners will burn seasoned wood, some air 

pollution control agencies have encouraged the use of wood moisture meters. Puget Sound 

Clean Air Agency in Washington sends wood moisture meters to community members. For more 

information go to: http://www.pscleanair.org/2012chinook/. Households may purchase a 

basic wood moisture meter at woodworking specialty shops or 

online for less than $25. Some areas deem it illegal to sell, 

advertise or supply wood unless the wood moisture content is 20 

percent or less. For more information on moisture meters and wet 

wood, see “Wet Wood is a Waste” Brochure at: 

http://epa.gov/burnwise/burnwisekit.html. 

 Sacramento Air Quality Management District’s regulation 

requires that the wood moisture content may not exceed 

20 percent. For more information, see: 

www.airquality.org/rules/rule417.pdf (sections 214, 303, 

and 501.2). 

D. REMOVAL OF OLD WOOD STOVE UPON RESALE OF A HOME

Old wood stoves are usually made of metal, weigh 250 to 500 pounds, and last for decades. 

As a result, households are less likely to replace an old stove with newer, cleaner-burning 

technology or remove the old stove - especially if they are not using it often. To help get these 

old stoves “off-line,” some local communities require the removal and destruction of old wood 

stoves upon the resale of a home. This requirement has proven effective in locations like 

Mammoth Lakes, CA; Washoe County, NV; and the State of Oregon. 
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 Mammoth Lakes, California, requires that all non-EPA-certified wood-burning appliances 

(except pellet stoves) be removed or rendered inoperable upon the sale of a dwelling. 

Since 1990, approximately 2,500 wood stoves have been removed and 2,900 

fireplaces have been retrofitted. See Town of Mammoth Lakes, California: Link to Rule 

431-Particulate Matter, section E: www.gbuapcd.org/rulesandregulations/PDF/Reg4.pdf. 

 Washoe County, Nevada: Link to Wood Stove/Fireplace Emissions Rule section 

040.051: www.washoecounty.us/repository/files/4/prohibitedemissions2.23.06.pdf. 

 Oregon’s “Heat Smart” legislation requires the removal and destruction of old, 

uncertified wood stoves upon resale of a home anywhere in the state. 

 

 Legislation: 

http://arcweb.sos.state.or.us/pages/rules/oars_300/oar_340/340_262.html. 

 Notification and removal form: 

www.deq.state.or.us/aq/burning/docs/notificationForm.pdf. 

 Disposal receipt: 

www.deq.state.or.us/aq/burning/docs/heatsmart/disposalReceipt.pdf. 

E. REQUIRE EPA CERTIFICATION

Certified wood stoves must adhere to regulatory emission requirements established by EPA. 

EPA is in the process of expanding its requirements to apply to other types of wood-burning 

appliances beyond wood stoves. At this time, wood stove manufacturers may only sell wood 

stoves and wood stove inserts that meet EPA's mandatory smoke emission limit of 7.5 grams of 

smoke per hour (g/h) for non-catalytic stoves and 4.1 g/h for catalytic stoves. Wood stoves 

offered for sale in the state of Washington must meet a limit of 4.5 g/h for non-catalytic stoves 

and 2.5 g/h for catalytic stoves. Pellet stoves are typically cleaner than wood stoves. 

Fireplaces and hydronic heaters (outdoor wood boilers) are not currently regulated by EPA. 

However, manufacturers of these appliances may choose to meet voluntary emission levels set 

by EPA. Appliances that meet the voluntary requirements are considered "EPA-qualified." While 

these units are not certified by EPA, they do burn cleaner than older, unqualified models. 

Several states currently regulate hydronic heaters emissions. To learn more, visit: 

http://epa.gov/burnwise/choosing.html. 

Some states have adopted laws that make it illegal to install certain hearth appliances in homes. 

The Oregon Department of Environmental Quality (DEQ) established a law in 1991 stipulating 

that only DEQ-certified and EPA-certified stoves made after 1986 can be resold. The Oregon 

State Building Codes Division passed a complementary law in the early 1990s prohibiting the 

installation of any uncertified stove (pellet stoves and cook stoves are exempt) in homes or 

outbuildings. Though this type of measure may be difficult to enforce over a long period, it may 

result in significant emissions reductions. Washington State has a similar law. Building 

department inspectors enforce wood stove certification rules in some areas. For more 

information, go to: http://www.deq.state.or.us/aq/burning/woodstoves. To find a list of EPAcertified stoves, go to: 

http://www.epa.gov/Compliance/resources/publications/monitoring/caa/woodstoves/certified

wood.pdf. 
Strategies for Reducing Residential Wood Smoke 

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F. BAN THE USE OF NON-EPA-CERTIFIED WOOD STOVES 

For areas that do not meet the national particle standards due in part to wood smoke, the local 

jurisdiction may consider banning the use of non-EPA-certified wood stoves. The case of Lincoln 

County, Montana, is instructive on how to implement a ban on old 

stoves. In 2005, Lincoln County first provided low-income homes full 

replacement costs (which averaged $2,900) to upgrade to an 

approved cleaner-burning appliance, typically an EPA-certified wood 

stove. For other community members with an old wood stove or wood 

furnace, the County provided vouchers up to $1,750. The goal was to 

encourage all households to voluntarily replace their old wood stoves 

with cleaner-burning technologies to address the county’s particle 

pollution challenges. 

In 2006, following the donation of stoves to low-income households and cash incentives for other 

homes, the County passed a regulation that banned the use of non-EPA-certified wood stoves. 

The local government decided that each home using a “Solid Fuel Burning Device” (e.g., wood 

stove or fireplace) must have an operating permit. To enforce the regulation, Lincoln County air 

program personnel periodically look for visible emissions from chimneys. If there are visible 

emissions and the household does not have an operating permit, the county may issue a notice of 

violation for failure to have a permit. To read the regulation, go to: 

www.lincolncountymt.us/environmentalhealth/docs/NewAirOrdinanceFinal.pdf. 

G. RESTRICTIONS ON WOOD-BURNING DEVICES IN NEW CONSTRUCTION

Some areas may choose to reduce or prevent further degradation of air quality by banning the 

installation of any wood-burning hearth appliances in new construction, or restricting the number 

and density of new wood-burning appliances in a given area. For example, see California’s 

South Coast Air Quality District rule: www.aqmd.gov/rules/reg/reg04/r445.pdf. For frequently 

asked questions related to this rule go to: www.aqmd.gov/rules/doc/r445/Builders_FAQ.pdf. 

H. HYDRONIC HEATER RULES

Hydronic heaters, also known as outdoor wood 

boilers, are used to provide heat and hot water to 

homes and other buildings. These devices can be a 

significant local source of smoke – see photo at right. 

EPA recommends state, tribal, and local agencies 

that are in PM2.5 nonattainment areas, or areas at 

risk, to adopt regulations that use or improve upon 

the emission limits in the Northeast States for 

Coordinated Air Use Management (NESCAUM) 

Outdoor Hydronic Heater model rule. A 2007 study – Dispersion Modeling Assessment of Impacts 

of Outdoor Wood Emissions in Support of NESCAUM’s Model Rule – showed that smoke from a 

single old hydronic heater can cause significant air quality problems. Some local jurisdictions 

have chosen to ban hydronic heaters in their townships. Other jurisdictions chose to regulate the 

minimum distances these heaters must be set back from property lines to ensure the heaters are 

not used in close proximity to neighbors. Several states developed proposed rules or adopted 
Strategies for Reducing Residential Wood Smoke 

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emission standards. See: www.nescaum.org/topics/outdoor-hydronic-heaters for the NESCAUM 

model rule and the dispersion modeling analysis that supports the need for local or state 

regulations to avoid exceedances of the national fine particle standards. 

If hydronic heaters are permitted, EPA recommends that only EPA-qualified, Phase 2 units that 

are appropriately sized be allowed and that the area incorporate setback requirements. See 

NESCAUM’s model rule for their setback recommendations: 

http://www.nescaum.org/topics/outdoor-hydronic-heaters. The following are examples of state 

or local hydronic heater regulations: 

 In March 2011, the State of Indiana adopted a rule establishing emission limits for new 

outdoor hydronic heaters. In addition, the rule includes a fuel use restriction, stack height 

requirements, and a limited summertime operating ban for existing units. A copy of the 

rule is available at: www.in.gov/legislative/iac/T03260/A00040.pdf and a fact sheet 

at: http://www.in.gov/idem/files/factsheet_outdoor_hydronic_heater_rule.pdf. 

 The State of Vermont’s hydronic heater rule requires the removal of, “Any OWB 

[outdoor wood boiler/hydronic heater] in the state that is not certified under the air 

pollution control regulations to meet the Phase I, Phase II, or a more stringent emission 

limit shall be retired on or before December 31, 2012, if the OWB is located within 

200 feet of a residence, school, or health care facility... or has resulted or results in a 

complaint regarding emissions...” 

 Vermont Department of Environmental Conservation, Final Rule: 

www. vtwoodsmoke.org/pdf/Final07Rule.pdf.

 Vermont Department of Environmental Conservation, List of Outdoor 

Wood-Fired Boilers State and Local Ordinances: 

http://www.vtwoodsmoke.org/regl-other.html. 

 Town of Rosendale, NY: www.nescaum.org/documents/rosendaleny-final-heaterregulations-2009.pdf.

 Maine Department of Environmental Protection: 

www.maine.gov/sos/cec/rules/06/096/096c150.doc

I. REQUIREMENTS FOR WOOD-BURNING FIREPLACES

Over 29 million wood-burning fireplaces exist in homes throughout the U.S. Fireplaces should 

not be used for primary heating. Fireplaces contribute significantly to air quality problems - 

especially in high density urban settings. For example, fireplaces may represent as much as 

75 percent of the pollution from wood-burning devices on bad air quality days in the San 

Francisco Bay Area (an area that currently exceeds the PM2.5 NAAQS) and may be responsible 

for 20-25 percent of ALL sources of PM2.5. 

 IT IS BETTER TO GET A PROPERLY SIZED BOILER THAN TO DEAL WITH

WOOD SMOKE COMPLAINTS LATER. MANY STATE RESIDENTIAL CODES 

REQUIRE THAT BOILERS (GAS, OIL, ETC.) BE SIZED TO ACTUAL LOAD. 
Strategies for Reducing Residential Wood Smoke 

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EPA has a voluntary wood-burning fireplace program that qualifies new, cleaner-burning 

fireplace models and retrofit devices for existing fireplaces. Where fireplaces are allowed in 

new construction, EPA recommends the installation of only EPA-qualified, Phase 2 units. If 

installed and operated properly, EPA-qualified fireplaces can reduce air pollution by 

approximately 70 percent. For more information go to: 

http://epa.gov/burnwise/fireplaces.html. For example, beginning in January 2013, the 

Klamath Falls, Oregon area will only allow fireplaces that emit less than or equal to the Phase 2 

emission level of the EPA wood-burning fireplace program in all new housing construction. For 

more information go to: http://www.klamathcounty.org/depts/countycounsel/CountyCode.pdf

EPA also recommends that air programs consider purchase 

incentives for households that install EPA-qualified, Phase 2 

retrofit devices on existing fireplaces. For example, 

manufacturers have developed and tested catalysts, log 

lighters, and other retrofit devices that may reduce PM2.5 

emissions from existing fireplaces. For the list of EPA 

qualified appliances, go to: 

http://epa.gov/burnwise/fireplacelist.html. See section II C 

for more details. 

The California Bay Area Air Quality Management District (BAAQMD) developed a wood smoke 

ordinance for fireplaces and wood stoves to regulate new sources of particle pollution in their 

communities. The ordinance allows the installation of only natural gas fireplaces, EPA-certified 

wood heaters, pellet-fueled wood heaters, and EPA-qualified, Phase 2 fireplaces that have 

emissions no greater than those of a certified wood heater. The Bay Area District calculates 

significant emissions reductions due to the ordinance. For more information related to the 

BAAQMD’s model rule go to: www.baaqmd.gov/Divisions/Communications-and-Outreach/AirQuality-in-the-Bay-Area/Wood-Burning/Background-On-Model-Wood-Smoke-Ordinance.aspx. 

J. STATE/TRIBAL/LOCAL WOOD-HEATING EMISSION STANDARDS 

EPA is planning to revise the New Source Performance Standards (NSPS) for residential wood 

heaters established in 1988 (see section K. below). In the meantime, some states and local 

governments are developing regulations requiring that any wood-heating appliance sold in their 

jurisdiction must meet lower emission levels than the current NSPS emission limits. For example, 

since 1995, the State of Washington has had “solid fuel burning devices” emission limits that are 

more stringent than those set in EPA’s wood heater NSPS. 

 

For details on Washington’s emission standards go to: 

apps.leg.wa.gov/RCW/default.aspx?cite=70.94.457. 

FIREPLACES MAY REPRESENT AS MUCH AS 75% OF THE 

POLLUTION FROM WOOD-BURNING DEVICES ON BAD AIR 

QUALITY DAYS IN THE SAN FRANCISCO BAY AREA 
Strategies for Reducing Residential Wood Smoke 

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K. NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS F0R NEW RESIDENTIAL 

WOOD HEATING APPLIANCES

EPA is considering tightening the air pollution emission limits for new wood heaters, reducing the 

types of appliances that are exempt; and adding regulations for new hydronic heaters, 

furnaces, and masonry heaters. EPA expects to propose the revisions and new standards in 

2013, and anticipates that the rule will be finalized in 2014. The revised wood heater NSPS 

would reduce future residential wood smoke from new appliances throughout the U.S. For more 

information, go to: www.epa.gov/burnwise/ordinances.html. 

II. VOLUNTARY PROGRAMS 

In addition to regulatory approaches, communities may implement voluntary wood smoke control 

strategies to achieve wood smoke reductions. This section provides information on wood stove and 

fireplace replacements, hydronic heaters, manufactured (low mass) fireplaces, fireplace retrofit devices, 

and masonry fireplaces. 

A. WOOD STOVE, HYDRONIC HEATER, AND FIREPLACE REPLACEMENTS

EPA recommends that states, tribal governments, and local communities implement voluntary 

wood stove, hydronic heater, and fireplace replacement/retrofit programs to motivate 

households to replace older technologies with safer, more efficient, cleaner burning technologies. 

These programs are most effective when they also include education and outreach to ensure 

households burn more efficiently and cleanly. Wood stove replacement programs address both 

indoor and outdoor air quality, reduce fine particle and toxic air pollution, improve energy 

efficiency, and reduce the risk of chimney fires. See: epa.gov/burnwise/how-to-guide.html for 

more information. Over the last several years, more state and local agencies have implemented 

wood stove and fireplace replacement programs to help address wood smoke issues. EPA 

estimates that more than 24,000 wood stoves and fireplaces have been replaced or retrofitted 

in 50 communities, resulting in approximately 3,700 tons of fine particle emissions reduced each 

year, and an estimated $135-329 million per year of health benefits. Communities may 

consider only allowing replacement stoves that meet stricter emission standards than those 

mandated by the EPA. For example, a Maryland program allows the use of wood stoves that 

emit up to 3 grams of PM2.5 an hour and pellet stoves up to 2 grams of PM2.5 an hour. 

 Wood Stove and Hydronic Heater Changeout and Removal Program (Fairbanks, 

Alaska): Leveraging local, state, and federal funds, the Fairbanks North Star Borough 

implemented a wood stove and hydronic heater changeout and removal program as part of 

the area’s PM2.5 reduction strategy. The Borough developed education and outreach 

materials and investigated several voluntary programs, including dry kiln and utility subsidy 

programs. The program also provided funds for repairs and retrofits. Visit: 

www.aqfairbanks.com/wood-stoves/.

CHANGING OUT ONE OLD, DIRTY, INEFFICIENT 

WOOD STOVE IS EQUIVALENT TO THE PM2.5 

POLLUTION REDUCTION OF TAKING FIVE OLD 

DIESEL BUSES OFF THE ROAD
Strategies for Reducing Residential Wood Smoke 

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 Low-income Weatherization Program (Sacramento, California): 

The Sacramento Metropolitan Air Quality Management District (SMAQMD) partnered with 

the local weatherization program from 2008-2011 to replace stoves in the areas, with 

50 percent in environmental justice areas. The program paid up to $2,500 for a wood 

stove/insert and up to $3,500 for a gas stove, while the low-income weatherization 

program paid for installation labor. Currently, SMAQMD is continuing the low income 

program as a voucher system. Vouchers are available for up to $1,500 towards the 

purchase/installation of a less polluting device or removal of a wood-burning device. 

More details can be found at: http://www.airquality.org/woodstove/assistance.shtml 

and epa.gov/burnwise/pdfs/SacrementoLowIncomeWeateriztionProgram.pdf. 

 Entire Town Wood Stove Changeout and Emissions Reduction Data (Libby, Montana): 

Using significant financial contributions from the hearth industry, U.S. EPA, Montana 

Department of Environmental Quality, and funds appropriated by Congress, the Lincoln 

County Health Department replaced the majority of wood stoves in Libby. EPA, the State 

of Montana, the Hearth, Patio & Barbecue Association (HPBA), and the University of 

Montana supported the monitoring of air quality before and after the changeout, indoors 

and out. 

Wintertime outdoor PM2.5 pollution levels dropped after over 1,100 old wood stoves were 

replaced with cleaner burning technologies. The old stoves were replaced with properly 

installed and vented EPA-certified wood stoves and indoor PM2.5 emissions were reduced 

by 70 percent. 

For a report, including air quality emissions data, testimonials and a video summarizing this 

effort, go to: woodstovechangeout.org/index.php. 

 Small Town Low-interest Loan Wood Stove Changeout Program (Pendleton, Oregon): 

The City of Pendleton used funds from a Housing and Urban Development (HUD) 

Community Development Block Grant to provide initial funding for the purchase of new 

stoves. The money was then paid back by households that participated in the program. 

City contributions provided additional funding. Several programs have been implemented 

in Pendleton including one in which the property owner borrows money interest free and a 

lien is placed on the property pending repayment. The full principal amount of the loan is 

due at the sale of the home. Approximately 125 wood stoves have been changed out. For 

more information go to: 

epa.gov/burnwise/pdfs/PendWoodStoveReplacementSumforEPA.pdf. 

 Wood Stove Bounty Program (Methow Valley, Washington): 

The Washington State Department of Ecology (DOE) sponsored a “woodstove roundup” 

near Winthrop, Washington. Stove owners were offered up to $250 for turning in an old 

wood stove. A total of 69 stoves qualified for the program and all were disposed and 

recycled. Washington DOE estimates that the program has resulted in the removal of 

approximately 3 tons of PM2.5 out the Methow Valley Airshed each year. For more 

information, contact Sean Hopkins: seho461@ECY.WA.GOV or go to: 

http://www.ecy.wa.gov/news/2012/189.html. 

 Annual Wood Stove Changeout Program (Yakima, Washington): 

Yakima Regional Clean Air Agency has partnered with local hearth retailers and others to 

implement a recurring wood stove changeout campaign. They have changed out over 700 

wood stoves. For a summary of their program go to: 

epa.gov/burnwise/pdfs/yakima.pdf. 
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 Tribal Wood Stove Changeout Program, Indoor Air Quality Focus (Swinomish Tribe, 

Washington): 

The focus of this program was on improving indoor air quality and addressing tribal 

members’ asthma. Before and after stove replacements, indoor air quality sampling was 

conducted in several homes. Every tribal member’s home with an old wood stove was 

changed out to a cleaner burning appliance (epa.gov/burnwise/tribal.html#case-studies). 

B. HYDRONIC HEATERS

EPA’s Hydronic Heater program encourages manufacturers to design cleaner and more efficient 

hydronic heater models. These heaters are commonly referred to as outdoor wood boilers 

(OWB). See: http://www.epa.gov/burnwise/owhhlist.html for more details and a current list of 

the qualified models. 

 EPA-qualified, Phase 2 models are 90 percent cleaner than unqualified models. 

 Thirty-five models have qualified at the Phase 2 emission level. 

 

The replacement of old, inefficient hydronic heaters with new cleaner-burning units can result in 

local air quality improvements. Retrofitting existing hydronic heaters to address wood smoke 

emissions may be another option. Limited testing of hydronic heater retrofit devices has been 

conducted and more is needed to determine if these devices can be a cost effective measure. 

 The Vermont Air Pollution Control Division (APCD) has offered a voluntary OWB 

Change-Out Program that provides financial incentives to encourage people to 

replace their old OWBs with cleaner, more efficient heating systems. The Program 

has offered $6,000 for replacement and $1,000 for a manufacturer rebate match. 

For more information, visit: 

http://www.anr.state.vt.us/air/htm/OWBchangeoutprogram.htm.

 NESCAUM has researched the effectiveness of retrofitting hydronic heaters to help 

reduce emissions. Field tests have also been done with some mixed results. Newer 

retrofit device technologies have been developed to address some of the initial 

problems. In 2013, EPA plans to conduct limited testing to help better characterize 

the overall effectiveness of hydronic heater retrofit devices. For more information on 

NESCAUM’s study go to: 
Strategies for Reducing Residential Wood Smoke 

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http://www.ct.gov/dep/lib/dep/air/wood_stove_furnaces/ctdep_woodsmokefinalrep

ort.pdf. 

C. WOOD-BURNING FIREPLACES

EPA’s wood-burning fireplace program encourages fireplace manufacturers to develop cleanerburning fireplaces for consumers. The voluntary program sets a qualifying emission level for 

new fireplaces, including pre-manufactured and site-built masonry fireplaces. Similar to the 

hydronic heater voluntary program the fireplace program sets Phase 1 and Phase 2 qualifying 

emission limits. However, the time period for Phase 1 qualification has expired, and all 21 

fireplace models qualified under the voluntary fireplace program have qualified at the Phase 2 

emissions level. In communities that allow wood-burning fireplaces in new construction, EPA 

recommends that homeowners and developers consider installation of cleaner-burning, EPA 

Phase 2 qualified models.

EPA adopted ASTM method 2558 specifically for wood burning fireplaces when the method 

was finalized in 2009. ASTM E-2558 is the recognized test method accepted for qualification 

by EPA for the Wood-Burning Fireplace Program. EPA has a separate test (Method 28) for 

wood heaters, including wood stoves for compliance with the NSPS.

EPA also recommends that air districts consider creating incentives to encourage the installation 

of retrofit devices on existing fireplaces to reduce emissions. The qualifying Phase 2 emissions 

level remains the same for retrofit devices as it is for new fireplaces. EPA’s fireplace program 

has qualified certain catalysts, log lighter,s and other retrofit devices that reduce fine particle 

emissions from existing fireplaces to help improve air quality. For information related to the 

EPA wood-burning firehttp://sarahj.store.willowhouse.com/category.aspx?zcid=289place 

program, go to: www.epa.gov/burnwise/participation.html#fireplace.

D. PARTICULATE MATTER (PM) ADVANCE 

PM Advance is a collaborative effort between EPA, state, tribal, and local air agencies to 

reduce PM2.5 to help participating areas continue to meet the PM2.5 NAAQS. Areas that have 

high levels of PM2.5, but not designated as “nonattainment” areas, are working with EPA and 

others to reduce emissions from sources such as residential wood smoke and diesel vehicles. In 

many areas, wood smoke is a major contributor to high levels of particle pollution. Go to: 

epa.gov/ozonepmadvance to see if your area is a good candidate for participation. 

III. EDUCATION AND OUTREACH 

Wood smoke education is an important part of reducing PM2.5 in your community. Engaging the public 

and giving them the tools to make informed decisions about what they burn and how they burn is the 

first step in an overall wood smoke reduction plan. Enough education programs have been in effect 

long enough that we know they are effective. With proper burning techniques and well-seasoned 

wood, emissions (even in older wood-burning appliances) can be significantly reduced. While a new 

wood stove, hydronic heater, or wood-burning fireplace will typically pollute less than older appliances 

when used properly, it is important to emphasize that how a user operates their appliance is equally 

important in maximizing energy efficiency and reducing emissions. 
Strategies for Reducing Residential Wood Smoke 

Page 17 

“THE CITY SHALL ESTABLISH AND MAINTAIN AN ON-GOING PROGRAM TO EDUCATE THE PUBLIC ON THE 

PROVISIONS OF THIS ORDINANCE AND THE HEALTH IMPACT OF WOOD SMOKE. THE EDUCATION PROGRAM 

SHALL ALSO IDENTIFY THE VARIOUS TYPES OF WOOD-BURNING APPLIANCES AND GAS FIREPLACES, AND 

INSTRUCT RESIDENTS HOW TO BURN FIRES MORE CLEANLY. THE CITY WILL EDUCATE THE PUBLIC THAT 

FIREPLACE AND WOOD STOVE (PROPER OPERATION AND) MAINTENANCE ARE ALSO EFFECTIVE IN MINIMIZING 

AND REDUCING WOOD-BURNING EMISSIONS, ENCOURAGE CLEANER-BURNING ALTERNATIVES SUCH AS GASFUELED DEVICES, PROPER WOOD BURNING TECHNIQUES TO BUILD HOTTER, MORE EFFICIENT FIRES. THE CITY 

WILL INVESTIGATE WAYS TO ASSIST THE PUBLIC WITH REPLACEMENT OR REMOVAL, THROUGH PROGRAMS OR 

SERVICES.”- BAY AREA QUALITY MANAGEMENT DISTRICT

A commitment from local community leaders to support wood smoke reduction programs is important for 

the success of an education campaign. A plan for education and outreach to the public should definitely 

be included when introducing burn ban ordinances or wood-burning appliance replacement programs to 

elected leaders. The following is an example policy statement from the California Bay Area Air Quality 

Management District that could be used in other communities to help advance education and outreach 

campaigns. 

A. BURN WISE EDUCATION AND OUTREACH 

EPA’s Burn Wise program can be an important resource for states and communities. Burn Wise 

is a way to encourage the importance of burning the right wood, the right way, in the right 

wood-burning appliance to protect your home, health and the air we breathe. The program 

offers a website, outreach tools and information to help consumers make informed decisions 

about what it means to burn wise. For more information visit the Burn Wise website at: 

www.epa.gov/burnwise. 

We encourage air pollution professionals to work with local hearth retailers, local firefighters, 

chimney sweeps, insurance agents, doctors, teachers, and others to deliver the Burn Wise 

message to the public. EPA’s Burn Wise education and outreach tools promote responsible 

wood-burning techniques for those who choose to burn wood. The goal is to educate people on 

the connection between what they burn, how they burn, and the impacts on their health and the 

environment. In addition, it promotes safety, cost savings, and energy efficiency. EPA is “fuel 

neutral” and does not encourage wood heat over gas, electric, propane, or other fuel types. 

However, if people choose to burn wood, it is important to provide tools and knowledge so they 

burn responsibly. 

 KEY EPA BURN WISE MESSAGE:

IF YOU CHOOSE TO BURN WOOD, BURN THE RIGHT WOOD, 

THE RIGHT WAY, IN THE RIGHT APPLIANCE 
Strategies for Reducing Residential Wood Smoke 

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 Burn the Right Wood: People should only burn dry, seasoned wood (i.e. 20 percent or less 

moisture) or wood pellets. Dry hardwoods or pellets have the best combustion efficiency 

and create less smoke inside and outside the home. EPA recommends that local wood smoke 

reduction campaigns share information on what not to burn as well. People should never 

burn garbage, plastic, or pressed and treated wood in their wood stove, hydronic heater, or 

fireplace. The toxic chemicals released in the air are harmful and can potentially damage 

wood-burning appliances. Also, people should never burn wet or “green” wood that is not 

properly seasoned. While it may be cheaper and easily available, burning wet or green 

wood is inefficient and creates more smoke and less heat when burned. To learn about four 

easy steps for drying wood, see “Wet Wood is a Waste” Brochure at: 

www.epa.gov/burnwise/burnwisekit.html. 

 The Right Way: When heating with wood, people should maintain a bright, hot fire and not 

let it smolder. More smoke means decreased efficiency and more creosote build-up which 

could lead to a chimney fire. Wood stoves and fireplaces should be inspected each year 

by a certified Chimney Safety Institute of America (CSIA) service technician. A list of CSIAcertified technicians in your area can be found at: www.csia.org/search. 

 In the Right Appliance: Replacing an old wood stove (i.e. manufactured before 1990), 

hydronic heater, or fireplace with an energy-saving wood pellet stove or an EPA-approved 

wood stove or EPA-qualified appliance that is installed by a professional will improve air 

quality and efficiency. Wood heating appliances should be properly sized for the area 

they will heat. An appliance that is too large or too small will not operate at peak 

efficiency and will create more pollution. To learn more about EPA certified and qualified 

wood-burning appliances visit: www.epa.gov/burnwise/appliances.html. 

To support the Burn Wise education campaign, EPA, with help from the hearth industry, CSIA, 

U.S. Forest Service, states, tribes, and others, developed the following tools and initiatives for 

state, tribal, and local communities. Most materials are available online at: 

www.epa.gov/burnwise/burnwisekit.html and a few are available in hard copy. Contact the EPA 

library at: www.epa.gov/nscep to order hard copies. 

 Burn Wise Website – provides outreach tools, key messages, case studies and 

additional information to help state, tribal and local communities reduce residential 

wood smoke www.epa.gov/burnwise. 

 Burn Wise Widgets – are small images that display wood-burning tips directly on your 

Web page and link back to the Burn Wise website. Once a widget is added to your 

Web page there is no technical maintenance; Burn Wise will update the content 

automatically www.epa.gov/burnwise/widgets.html. 

 Burn Wise Video PSAs – promote best burn tips and can be used on websites or 

television. EPA has video public service announcements (PSAs) that are available on 

YouTube at: 
Strategies for Reducing Residential Wood Smoke 

Page 19 

 Wet Wood is a Waste: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jM2WGgRcnm0;

 Split, Stack, Cover, Store: Four Simple Steps for Drying Wood: 

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yo1--Zrh11s; 

 The Pledge: www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ev4XogvRbME; 

 Meet Carl, Learn or Burn: www.youtube.com/watch?v=7fDWWOBhWsc; and 

 Learn Before You Burn, Super Sketch: www.youtube.com/watch?v=CuhUcLa64VA. 

If you would like a higher resolution video, contact Leigh Herrington, 

herrington.leigh@epa.gov. 

 Burn Wise Live-read PSAs – available in 15-, 30- or 60-second lengths, these radio 

public service announcements help promote best burn tips: 

www.epa.gov/burnwise/burnwisekit.html. 

 Burn Wise Facebook and Twitter – provide weekly best burn tips and wood smoke 

information through www.facebook.com/EPABurnWise and twitter.com/epaburnwise. 

 Burn Wise Photo Flickr – provides over 200 wood-burning related photos that may be 

downloaded for use in presentations or materials. www.flickr.com/photos/epaburnwise.

 EPA State Implementation Plans: Residential Wood Smoke Video – Training video 

module for state, local, and tribal governments to learn more about PM2.5

implementation and wood smoke: 

www.epa.gov/apti/video/Larry%20Brockman%20Revised%20051410.wmv. 

 Chimney Safety Institute of America (CSIA) Online Training – developed by EPA as a 

free, 2-day online training for CSIA continuing education credits. Chimney sweeps 

looking to earn or maintain CSIA accreditation may take the course that provides 

information on EPA’s wood heaters NSPS, voluntary programs, health effects of wood 

smoke and best burn tips. The course is currently available online to CSIA members at: 

www.csia.org. 

 Hearth, Patio and Barbecue Association (HPBA) Educational DVD and Videos – HPBA 

developed several videos to promote best burn tips. Visit HPBA’s Home Heating 

YouTube Channel: www.youtube.com/user/HomeHeatingHelp to view the following 

videos: 

Introduction to Wood Stoves, 

How to Buy, Split and Store Wood, 

Five Rules to Follow for an Efficient Fire, 

How to Burn Wise with an EPA Non-Catalytic Stove, 

How to Burn Wise with an EPA Catalytic Stove, 

Safety and Maintenance Information for Wood Stoves and Fireplace Inserts, and 

Troubleshooting Information for Wood Stoves and Fireplace Inserts. 
Strategies for Reducing Residential Wood Smoke 

Page 20 

You may order the complete high resolution “Burn Wise: A Video Guide to Operating 

Your Wood Stove Efficiently” DVD at: www.hpba.org/consumers/hearth/responsiblewood-burning. 

B. AIR QUALITY FORECASTS AND REPORTS TO THE PUBLIC 

EPA has tools for states, tribes, and local communities to use to help raise awareness about 

wood smoke. We recommend that air agencies incorporate these tools in their education 

campaigns and wood smoke curtailment programs. 

AIRNow.gov provides the public with easy access to national air quality information. The 

website offers daily Air Quality Index (AQI) forecasts as well as real-time AQI conditions for 

over 400 cities across the U.S., and provides links to more detailed state and local air quality 

websites. An AIRNow app is also available for iPhone and Android devices at 

m.epa.gov/apps/airnow.html.

EPA recommends that air quality officials include a commitment to forecast PM2.5 and provide 

reports to the public that includes an e-mail alert system, like EPA’s EnviroFlash air quality 

notifications: www.enviroflash.info. 

EnviroFlash.info is a free air quality notification system that sends air quality forecasts to the 

subscriber’s e-mail, smart phone or mobile device. Individuals who receive EnviroFlash 

notifications can adjust their wood-burning practices on unhealthy air quality days. Knowing the 

air quality forecast is important for everyone. People most at risk from particle pollution include 

people with diseases that affect the heart or lung (including asthma), older adults, children, and 

people of lower socioeconomic status. States, tribes, and local agencies can tailor the 

EnviroFlash messages and send special alerts related to smoke and wildfires. If your area does 

not forecast particle pollution or use EnviroFlash, contact John White at white.john@epa.gov to 

learn more. EPA recommends that air quality officials include a commitment to forecast PM2.5

and provide reports to the public that includes an e-mail alert system like EPA’s Enviroflash air 

quality notifications www.enviroflash.info. 

C. ADDITIONAL RESOURCES AVAILABLE TO STATE, TRIBAL AND LOCAL 

GOVERNMENTS FOR PUBLIC EDUCATION

 

EPA wood smoke educational materials are available for copying and distribution. Materials 

may be ordered from the EPA library at: www.epa.gov/nscep/ or online at: 

www.epa.gov/burnwise/burnwisekit.html. 

The following are examples of resources available on the EPA Burn Wise web site: 

 Burn Wise Tip Sheet – Provides information about best burn practices, how to burn a 

proper fire and keep your home and community safe from wood smoke. This full-color 

fact sheet is available in English (document # 456F09004) and Spanish (document # 

456F11006) at: www.epa.gov/burnwise/pdfs/BurnWiseTips.pdf and 

www.epa.gov/burnwise/pdfs/BurnWiseTipsESP.pdf.

 Wood Stove “Dirty Little Secrets” Brochure and Poster – This tri-fold color brochure 

and poster explain the difference between old and new stoves, health effects from 

breathing wood smoke, and links to more information on the website. Both the brochure 

(document #456F11002) and poster (document #456H11001) are available from the 
Strategies for Reducing Residential Wood Smoke 

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EPA library www.epa.gov/nscep/ or online at: 

www.epa.gov/burnwise/pdfs/dirtysecretbrochure2011.pdf and 

www.epa.gov/burnwise/pdfs/dirtysecretposter/pdf. 

 Wet Wood is a Waste Brochure – EPA, along with the Northwest Tribal Air Group, 

developed a tri-fold brochure (document #456F10003) that provides four simple steps 

to dry firewood: Split, Stack, Cover, and Store. Hard copies are available through the 

EPA library at at www.epa.gov/nscep/ and online at 

www.epa.gov/burnwise/pdfs/TribalBrochure.pdf. 

 Modular Wood Shed Plans – This two-page fact sheet 

developed by The Makah Nation provides a list of 

materials and detailed construction diagrams to build a 

modular wood shed. Plans may be printed from 

epa.gov/burnwise/pdfs/WoodShedDiagram.pdf. 

IV. FUNDING MECHANISMS 

Financial incentives may be a necessity to encourage households to replace or retrofit old woodburning appliances. Such incentives could include a low-cost means to purchase cleaner-burning 

appliances. The following approaches may assist communities: 

A. DISCOUNTS/VOUCHERS

The Hearth, Patio and Barbecue Association (HPBA), along with retailers and manufacturers, 

works with organizations to provide discounts for wood stove changeout campaigns. In the past, 

industry discounts have ranged between 10 to 15 percent off the price of a cleaner-burning 

appliance. For more information, contact John Crouch of HPBA at crouch@hpba.org. 

B. TAX CREDITS

 

Tax credits can reduce the amount of taxes owed. Periodically, state and/or federal tax credits 

may apply to cleaner-burning appliances. Tax credits, deductions, and rebates can be very 

effective (for example, as they are with Energy Star appliances) to steer consumers to the 

cleanest and most efficient products. EPA encourages jurisdictions considering such incentives for 

biomass heating appliances to focus on the cleanest devices and require appliance destruction 

through recycling the metal. EPA also encourages jurisdictions that may want to use efficiency 

thresholds to qualify units for a tax credit to require third party testing and use the Canadian 

Standards Administration B415.1 test protocol to verify efficiency numbers. 

In past years, federal tax legislation has provided 10-30 percent tax credits for purchase and 

installation expenses of up to $1,500 for cleaner wood and pellet stoves. Go to: 

http://energy.gov/savings or http://www.dsireusa.org/ for current tax credit information. 

Some states have offered tax credits, which are typically limited in their duration: 

 Montana - offered an Alternative Energy Systems Credit ($500) against income tax 

liability for the cost of purchasing and installing an energy system in a principal home 

that uses " . . . a low emission wood or biomass combustion device such as a pellet or 

wood stove." For more information, go to: 

www.deq.state.mt.us/Energy/renewable/taxincentrenew.asp#15-32-201. 
Strategies for Reducing Residential Wood Smoke 

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 Idaho - offered taxpayers who bought new wood stoves, pellet stoves, or natural gas or 

propane heating units for their residences a tax deduction (up to $5,000) to replace 

old, uncertified wood stoves. For more information go to: 

www.deq.state.id.us/air/prog_issues/burning/wood_stove_tax_deduction_brochure.pdf. 

 Oregon - offered a Residential Energy Tax Credit Program for the highest energy 

efficient wood and pellet stoves that meet specific criteria. The tax credit amount was 

based on the estimated average first year energy savings and cost for equipment. For 

wood and pellet stoves that qualified, the tax credit amount was 25 percent of the net 

cost up to $300. For more information, go to: 

www.oregon.gov/ENERGY/CONS/RES/tax/HVAC-Biomass.shtml. 

C. PROPERTY ASSESSED CLEAN ENERGY (PACE)

 

PACE is an innovative way to finance energy efficiency and renewable energy upgrades for 

buildings and homes. Interested property owners evaluate measures that achieve energy 

savings and receive 100 percent financing, and then must repay the funds to the local 

government as a property tax assessment for up to 20 years. For detailed information go to: 

pacenow.org/about-pace/what-is-pace/.

D. FEDERAL PROGRAMS TO SUPPORT REPLACEMENTS

The following are examples of various federally supported programs or mechanisms for 

possibly replacing and/or retrofitting older inefficient or unsafe wood-burning appliances with 

cleaner, more energy efficient and safer heating appliances. 

DOE Low-income Weatherization Program (WAP): enables low-income families to permanently 

reduce their energy bills by making their homes more energy efficient. New EPA-certified wood 

stoves are 50 percent more energy efficient than older wood stoves. Older wood-burning 

appliances like wood stoves are sometimes improperly installed and vented and/or have cracks 

rendering the appliance unsafe. This can cause indoor air quality problems and risk of fire. 

WAP funds can be used to replace heating appliances for “health and safety” reasons. To 

pursue a potential partnership with your local weatherization program to changeout old dirty 

inefficient wood stoves, go to the following website: apps1.eere.energy.gov/states/. 

Department of Health and Human Services: Low Income Home Energy Assistance Program 

(LIHEAP): This program is a Federally-funded program that helps low-income households with 

their home energy bills. The local LIHEAP program determines if a household’s income qualifies 

for the program. LIHEAP may offer one or more of the following types of assistance: 

 Bill payment assistance; 

 Energy crisis assistance; 

 Weatherization; and 

 Wood stove energy efficiency upgrades, repairs and replacements. 

To pursue a potential partnership with your local LIHEAP office to changeout old dirty inefficient 

wood stoves, go to the following website: www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/ocs/liheap/. 

Department of Agriculture: The Rural Housing Repair and Rehabilitation Loan and Grant 

Programs enable low-income, elderly (62+) households to remove health and safety hazards 
Strategies for Reducing Residential Wood Smoke 

Page 23 

from their homes. Changing out old or improperly installed wood stoves may be eligible under 

this program. Funding availability is determined by the local service center. For more 

information and to locate your service center, go to: www.rurdev.usda.gov/rhs/. 

Department of Housing and Urban Development: Several programs provide funding for 

wood smoke mitigation. You can find programs located in your area at: 

www.hud.gov/offices/adm/grants/fundsavail.cfm and click on “Information by State.” You will 

need to search Housing Preservation Grants, Rural Housing Development Program, Housing 

Block Grant Program, and the Community Development Block Grant Program. The following are 

sample programs: 

 Indian Housing Block Grants: Tribes have discretion to use these funds on most housingrelated projects. Wood stove changeouts are an eligible activity for low income 

households. For more information, go to: www.hud.gov/recovery/native-americanformula.cfm. 

 Rural Housing and Economic Development Program: This program provides support for 

innovative housing and economic development activities in rural areas. Eligible 

applicants are local rural non-profits, community development corporations (CDC’s), 

federally recognized Indian tribes, state housing finance agencies (HFA’s), and state 

community and/or economic development agencies. For more information, go to: 

www.hud.gov/offices/cpd/economicdevelopment/programs/rhed/. 

 Indian Community Development Block Grants: This program funds a variety of 

community development activities, including wood stove changeouts as part of “housing 

rehabilitation”. For more information, go to: 

www.hud.gov/offices/pih/ih/grants/icdbg.cfm. 

E. SUPPLEMENTAL ENVIRONMENTAL PROJECTS AND MITIGATION 

PROJECTS 

Settlement agreements for violation of federal and state environmental laws may include 

Supplemental Environmental Projects (SEPs) and/or mitigation projects. SEPs used to implement 

a wood-burning appliance replacement/retrofit program are an effective way to leverage 

resources and significantly improve public health and the environment. These types of projects 

can be used to address various types of pollutants including PM2.5, CO, volatile organic 

compounds, and hazardous air pollutants. Over the last 5 years, state and federal settlement 

agreements have included more than $5.5 million for wood-burning appliance 

replacement/retrofit projects. 

 A SEP is an environmentally beneficial project that a violator of an environmental law 

voluntarily agrees to undertake in the settlement of a civil enforcement action. The goal 

of a SEP is to improve the environmental health of a community that has been placed at 

risk due to a violation of an environmental law. 

 A mitigation project is an environmentally beneficial project performed as part of a 

settlement of alleged violations which tends to compensate the environment for past 

environmental harms caused by the alleged violations. The project should be related to 

the same media (e.g. air, water, waste) and should have a similar nexus (e.g. location) 

as the alleged violations. 
Strategies for Reducing Residential Wood Smoke 

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Several wood stove replacement SEP/mitigation projects have been implemented throughout the 

country, including a $750,000 mitigation project for a coal-fired power plant that was 

administered by a health organization. The project replaced 425 old wood stoves with pellet, 

gas and EPA-certified wood stoves and included education on proper burning and appliance 

operation. To learn more about this project go to: 

www.epa.gov/compliance/resources/decrees/civil/caa/srp-cd.pdf. 

Example wood-burning appliance replacement consent decree language and a mitigation plan 

are available at: www.epa.gov/burnwise/funding.html. 

EPA encourages air pollution control personnel to work with and educate air enforcement 

personnel and management about the potential use of wood-burning appliance (wood stove, 

fireplace and hydronic heater) replacement and/or retrofit projects in settlements. Often SEPs 

and mitigation projects are finalized at the end of long settlement processes. If your community 

is engaged in a settlement process, and there is interest in a wood-burning appliance 

replacement project, EPA recommends that you draft a project plan to share with the company 

that may want to implement a SEP in that area. 

Some settlement agreements are not site specific because the company has operations 

throughout the U.S. In these cases the company may choose a location to implement a woodburning appliance replacement project. EPA maintains a list of possible locations for a company 

to implement such a project; visit http://epa.gov/burnwise/funding.html#SEP. If you would like 

to add an area to the list, contact Larry Brockman at brockman.larry@epa.gov. For more 

information about SEPs, go to: 

http://www.epa.gov/woodstoves/Documents/Process/Funding/ws_sepguide_042807.pdf. 

V. PARTNERSHIPS 

To implement a residential wood stove replacement program, EPA finds that partnerships are very 

helpful in leveraging resources and reaching out to the public. Below are some suggested organizations 

to contact. 

A. HEARTH, PATIO & BARBECUE ASSOCIATION (HPBA) is a trade organization 

that represents more than 1,000 hearth retailers and manufacturers across the country. HPBA 

can potentially support replacement programs and help with outreach initiatives to reduce wood 

smoke emissions. Contact HPBA’s John Crouch at crouch@hpba.org for more information. 

B. AMERICAN LUNG ASSOCIATION (ALA) can help bring experience to your wood 

smoke public education campaign. In addition to public education, ALA has been a partner and 

supporter of wood stove changeouts. Contact your local ALA office to request their assistance in 

helping raise awareness about wood smoke health effects and your wood smoke control 

program. Go to www.lungusa.org to find your local ALA office. 

C. CHIMNEY SAFETY INSTITUTE OF AMERICA (CSIA) is a non-profit, educational 

organization dedicated to chimney and venting system safety. The organization represents 

more than 1,000 chimney sweeps throughout the country. Chimney sweeps are an excellent 

source of information and may provide insight on local wood-burning practices. CSIA may also 

assist in identifying chimney sweeps in most communities. Contact Melissa Heeke at 

mheeke@csia.org or go to www.CSIA.org for more information. 
Strategies for Reducing Residential Wood Smoke 

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D. THE ALLIANCE FOR GREEN HEAT is a non-profit environmental organization that 

promotes cleaner-burning technology. The Alliance for Green Heat works with environmental 

and forestry organizations, air quality experts, the wood and pellet stove industry, and others in 

the wood-burning community. Contact John Ackerly at jackerly@forgreenheat.org or go to 

http://www.forgreenheat.org for more information.

E. STATE ENERGY DEPARTMENTS have worked with state and local air offices to help 

fund and implement wood stove changeouts. For example, biomass programs in Maryland and 

New Hampshire encourage cleaner biomass technology to reduce climate gases and improve air 

quality. 

F. OTHER POTENTIAL PARTNERS There are many other organizations that may be able 

to offer resources and assistance in addressing wood smoke in your community: 

 Firefighters; 

 Health Organizations; 

 Environmental Groups; and 

 Local Businesses. 

VI. OTHER TOOLS 

A. COUNTY-LEVEL EMISSION INVENTORY FOR RESIDENTIAL WOOD 

COMBUSTION

EPA, along with state, local, and regional planning organizations, created a methodology to 

estimate emissions from residential wood-burning appliances for the purposes of developing an 

emission inventory. The result is a tool that calculates emissions at the county level. The five 

inputs to the tool include: (1) percentage of people that burn wood in each appliance; (2) the 

number of occupied housing units in the county; (3) the amount of wood burned in each 

appliance; (4) the density of the wood; and (5) the amount of emissions (per pollutant, in mass 

units) emitted per ton of wood burned. The result is a county level emission inventory for 

residential wood combustion appliances. 

EPA initially populated the tool with default data based on regional averages. The tool has the 

capability to use state-specific data. To date, 15 states have submitted state-specific data 

which EPA has incorporated into the tool (2011). 

More information on the tool may be obtained by contacting Roy Huntley at 

Huntley.Roy@epa.gov . The web address for the CHIEF website is: 

www.epa.gov/ttn/chief/eiinformation.html. Any agency wanting to incorporate state-specific inputs 

is encouraged to contact Roy Huntley for assistance. 

B. WOOD STOVE AND FIREPLACE CHANGEOUT/RETROFIT EMISSIONS 

CALCULATOR

EPA has developed a simple emissions calculator to estimate PM2.5 and toxic air emissions 

reductions from wood stove or fireplace changeouts. Users of the calculator should use site 

specific inputs (e.g., cords of wood burned) rather than the defaults in the program, if available. 

However, site specific data must be added in the same units (e.g., pounds of pollutant emission 

per ton of wood burned) as the default inputs to the calculator. The references for the default 

inputs are defined on the readme tab of the calculator. For a copy of the calculator, go to the 
Strategies for Reducing Residential Wood Smoke 

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EPA web site at: epa.gov/burnwise/resources.html#air and click on “Wood Stove and Fireplace 

Changeout Emissions Calculator (Excel).” Contact Roy Huntley at Huntley.Roy@epa.gov for 

assistance. 

Variables to the calculator include: 

 number of stoves/fireplaces changed out; 

 cords of wood burned; 

 the fraction of the changeouts expected to be new certified wood stoves; 

 wood stove efficiency; and 

 wood density. 

A wood density variable is necessary because wood is usually bought by the “cord,” which is a 

unit of volume, and the emission factors used in the calculator are in units of mass. Default 

emission factors are included in the calculator in units of pounds of pollution emitted per ton of 

oven-dried wood burned. The default density (1.162 tons per cord) used in the calculator 

comes from the Energy Information Administration (U.S. Department of Energy). 

C. RESIDENTIAL WOOD COMBUSTION SURVEYS

Collecting information on wood burning (e.g., number of stoves and fireplaces, amount of wood 

burned) about your community is a critical step in determining whether to develop a wood 

smoke reduction program. For examples of past wood smoke related surveys that may assist a 

local community in developing and conducting their own survey, go to: omnitest.com/publications/Comp2.pdf.

D. RESIDENTIAL WOOD COMBUSTION CONTROL MEASURES

EPA has developed a table that lists residential wood combustion control measures that air 

quality officials may implement to reduce PM2.5 and other pollutants. The table includes 

estimated control efficiency and cost effectiveness numbers along with additional information. 

See Appendix D of this document. 

E. RESIDENTIAL/MOBILE WOOD SMOKE MONITORING 

Tools for wood smoke monitoring in the ambient air are 

fairly limited, but a few techniques are available. Almost 

all state, tribal and local monitoring programs already 

employ continuous PM2.5 monitors located at long term 

monitoring stations. The monitors provide useful background 

information on the PM levels for an area, but are limited in 

their ability to characterize PM exposures resulting from 

residential wood smoke if they are not located in the 

specific neighborhood or street of concern. These monitors 

typically report hourly data on monitoring agency web sites and to Airnow.gov as described in 

III.B above. 

To support characterizing PM exposures in locations with elevated wood smoke, monitoring 

agencies can deploy temporary PM2.5 monitors; however, these are often expensive and siting 

and logistics can be challenging. Alternatives to fixed site PM2.5 mass continuous monitors exist, 

but the concentration units are primarily used as a screening tool and not compared to health 

based standards. 
Strategies for Reducing Residential Wood Smoke 

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A nephelometer can be used to identify wood smoke if it is configured with a UV channel, and it 

can be used to provide light scattering. NESCAUM has developed an integrated system to 

measure PM2.5 from wood smoke at receptor locations impacted by local wood-burning sources. 

The monitoring kit can help address wood smoke complaints and for research projects. The 

residential/mobile wood smoke PM monitoring kit includes: a ThermopDR-1500 nephelometer 

for PM2.5 (BGI cyclone inlet), and a Gill 2-d heated sonic wind and sonic temperature sensor. 

The kit can accommodate an additional monitor such as an electrochemical CO sensor, or a 

recording GPS for mobile use. 

The system is remotely accessible and designed to be deployed outside in all winter weather 

conditions. It can also be used for other PM sources such as prescribed burns, wildfires, or road 

dust when configured to measure PM10. Mobile monitoring of wood smoke or other PM sources 

can be done with 1-second resolution to provide larger spatial scale assessments. The kit 

includes on-site training, Standard Operating Procedures, and extended support. If your 

agency is interested in learning more about the kit and how to acquire one, please contact 

George Allen at: gallen2@nescaum.org. 

In 2012, the Lake Michigan Air Director’s Consortium (LADCO), in cooperation with the University 

of Wisconsin-Stevens Point (UWSP), conducted an air quality study of RWC emissions in Grand 

Rapids, Wisconsin, using fixed and mobile monitoring techniques. The final report can be found 

here: 

http://ladco.org/reports/wood_smoke/grand_rapids_wood_smoke_case_study_final_report_8_31

_2012.pdf.

F. SPATIAL MODELING/MONITORING 

The New York State Energy Research and Development Authority (NYSERDA) commissioned a 

study to evaluate the effect of wood combustion on local air quality in the Adirondacks of New 

York. The study approach used topography, U.S. Census data, property assessments, and other 

relevant publicly accessible databases as inputs into a geographic information system model. 

The model provides a map of predicted wood smoke PM2.5 spatial variability across a region. 

The predicted spatial pattern of wood smoke PM2.5 was compared to observed ambient levels 

at fixed monitoring sites and with data collected using mobile monitoring to gauge the 

prevalence of high wood smoke spikes. This approach may provide emission inventory 

developers with a better sense of the prevalence of outdoor wood boilers and other high 

emitting wood smoke sources compared to assumptions made in inventory models. The 

monitoring results showed that wood combustion was responsible for most of the PM2.5 measured 

in the Adirondacks during the study. 

The model coupled with the monitoring field campaign demonstrates that U.S. Census 

information can be combined with additional survey and property assessment data to provide a 

broadly applicable estimate of wood smoke spatial patterns and population exposure in the 

Adirondacks. This approach is a promising method for screening potential wood smoke problem 

areas in complex terrains across the Northeast and elsewhere in the U.S. For more information 

about this study contact Dr. Ellen Burkhard at egb@nyserda.ny.gov.

The model is available at: 

www.nyserda.ny.gov/~/media/Files/EIBD/Economic%20Development/spatial_modeling_ 

monitoring_residential_woodsmoke.pdf?sc_database=web.
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PM2.5 in Outdoor Air Near Outdoor Wood-Fired Boilers

New York State Department of Health scientists investigated the potential for hydronic heaters 

to increase outdoor levels of PM2.5. Real-time measurements of PM in ambient air at residences 

near hydronic heaters were compared to levels at nearby residences. Evaluation of the 

monitoring data showed statistically significant increases in PM2.5 at five of six study locations, 

correlated to hydronic heater distance, direction and meteorological conditions. This report and 

other information can be found here: 

http://www.health.ny.gov/environmental/outdoors/air/owb/index.html. 

Dispersion Modeling Assessment of Impacts of Outdoor Wood Boiler Emissions in Support of 

NESCAUM’s Model Rule

As mentioned earlier in this document, a dispersion modeling assessment was undertaken by the 

New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (NYSDEC) in 2007 to assess the air 

quality impacts of existing hydronic heaters. This study was conducted in support of the 

NESCAUM model rule for hydronic heaters. The results of the study show that hydronic heaters 

produce 24-hr PM2.5 air quality impacts in excess of 100 ug/m3 at distances up to 40 meters 

from the hydronic heater. In addition, they produced air quality impacts in excess of the 24-hr 

PM2.5 NAAQS of 35 ug/m3 at distances up to 150 meters from the hydronic heater. For more 

information go to: http://www.vtwoodsmoke.org/pdf/NY-Modeling.pdf. 

Fireplace Dispersion Modeling

A dispersion modeling study was undertaken by EPA in late 2009 to assess the air quality 

impacts of the cleaner EPA Phase 2 qualified fireplaces. The results of the study show that the 

corresponding modeled impact of a fireplace for comparison to the 24-hour PM2.5 NAAQS was 

approximately 2.7 ug/m3. This impact occurred at a distance of 15 to 20 meters from the 

chimney. The impact of a typical fireplace would likely be twice this impact. For further 

information on this study, go to: http://epa.gov/burnwise. 

SUMMARY 

Wood smoke contains PM2.5 and toxic air pollutants and significantly impacts air quality, both indoors 

and outdoors. Depending on the circumstances in your area, EPA recommends that communities 

concerned with wood smoke emissions consider the following strategies that have proven to be effective: 

(1) compile wood-burning-related information; (2) take steps to implement an education and outreach 

campaign; (3) provide a wood-burning appliance (wood stove, hydronic heater, fireplace) 

replacement/retrofit program; (4) implement a wood smoke curtailment program; and (5) adopt the 

NESCAUM hydronic heater model rule and/or a new fireplace construction rule. If your agency or 

community has other suggestions or “lessons learned” about addressing wood smoke, please share your 

recommendations with your EPA Regional Office. EPA will update and improve this document 

periodically. 

 
Strategies for Reducing Residential Wood Smoke 

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Appendix A: Example Wood Smoke Program 

The following is an example of a fictitious community that implements most of the key steps and 

components of a residential wood smoke reduction plan. 

Every winter in a mid-sized, rural town, wood smoke can be seen hanging over the valley, particularly 

on days with f reezing temperatures and little wind. As more information about the health problems 

from breathing fine particle pollution (PM2.5) became available, the local health and air quality officials 

realized that wood smoke was negatively impacting community members’ health and dirtying the skies. 

As you drive through, you can see smoke streaming out of chimneys and, where there is smoke, there is 

an inefficient fire. 

Local air quality officials decided on a multi-pronged approach for this community of 30,000 people to 

address its wood smoke problem. That approach included: 

 Implementation of EPA’s Burn Wise education and outreach campaign, 

 Incentives to replace old dirty wood stoves 

 Incentives to retrofit existing fireplaces, and 

 Implementation of a wood smoke curtailment program. 

The 24-hour PM2.5 design value2 for the community is 42 micrograms per cubic meter (ug/m3). This 

exceeds the PM2.5 NAAQS of 35 ug/m3. Through analysis of air quality data, emissions inventory and 

wood stove survey information, officials identified the exceedances of the NAAQS in the area as 

occurring in the winter and influenced by wood smoke. For the area to meet the 24-hour PM2.5 NAAQS, 

it would require a minimum reduction of 20 percent in the monitored PM2.5 air quality concentrations. 

Local air quality and health officials decided to replace 50 percent of the non-EPA-certified wood 

stoves and retrofit 20 percent of the fireplaces in the area. In addition, they initiated a two stage burn 

ban based on the air quality forecast made by local meteorologists and air quality public officials. 

Also, to increase the likelihood that the people in the community would participate in the replacement 

and retrofit program and wood smoke curtailment program, air quality officials decided to spend the 

first six months raising awareness about wood smoke health effects and ways to burn cleaner and more 

efficient. 

EDUCATION AND OUTREACH CAMPAIGN

Establish a baseline 

Before implementing the campaign, the town established a baseline assessment of residents’ woodburning habits. They polled their local hearth retailers to see how many EPA-certified stoves were 

bought in previous years. They also spoke with local chimney sweeps to understand how often people 

had their wood-burning appliances inspected and maintained and the types of appliances (e.g., old 

wood stoves, new stoves, fireplaces) in which people were burning the most wood. To cross check what 

the chimney sweeps reported and to get additional information, they conducted informal telephone 

interviews to determine people’s perspectives on wood smoke (i.e., is it a health problem?), how much 

wood do people burn, and what appliances are used in the community. This information allowed 

officials to target their messages and their audience and provided a baseline to evaluate the program 

at the end of the winter season. 

 

2 http://www.epa.gov/airtrends/values.html 
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Enlist local spokespersons 

The town decided to partner with several groups to help convey the Burn Wise messages. First, they 

identified physicians, particularly pulmonologists and pediatricians. They provided these physicians with 

Burn Wise posters and brochures that could be handed out to patients and/or displayed in the waiting 

room. 

Second, they worked with the local fire department to set up two Burn Wise community workshops. The 

workshop included a demonstration of an old wood stove next to an EPA-certified wood stove to show 

the difference in smoke. A local retailer provided the old stove and a new stove at no cost to help 

demonstrate that the new stoves can be operated with no visible emissions. A county health official 

spoke about health effects from wood smoke, and a local chimney sweep provided demonstrations on 

how to choose the best firewood and how to build a hot fire; the firefighter emphasized the importance 

of annual chimney inspections and proper wood-burning techniques to prevent chimney fires. In addition, 

they provided free wood moisture meters to anyone who showed up to the workshops. 

Tap into the media 

The air program officials placed scripted public service announcements (PSAs) with the local radio 

station. These PSAs ran during commuting drive times and throughout the day. Air program officials 

used the scripts from EPA’s web site and tailored them with specific information. The local radio station 

carried the PSAs for the entire wood-burning season from September through March. 

The town also placed a Burn Wise banner on the town’s home page. The banner listed the Burn Wise 

tips and provided links to EPA’s web site. 

In addition to the Burn Wise workshop article, the town worked with the local newspaper to run another 

story about wood-burning issues in the community. They invited the press to the demonstration at the 

firehouse to take pictures and interview local citizens. 

After one burn season, the town ran a follow-up survey with local hearth retailers, chimney sweeps, and 

citizens. From the retailers, the officials learned that replacement sales of old wood stoves to EPAcertified wood-burning appliances had increased. From the chimney sweeps, they learned that more 

households had scheduled maintenance checks of their wood-burning appliances after hearing the radio 

PSAs, and from another informal telephone survey the town found that citizens were now more aware of 

the Burn Wise messages and made changes in their wood-burning habits. 

WOOD-BURNING APPLIANCE RE PLACEMENT AND RETROFIT 

PROGRAM 

The town has 3,000 wood stoves, of which 2,000 are non-EPA-certified, and 5,000 existing fireplaces. 

Wood stoves in the town emit 123 tons per year of fine particle pollution and fireplaces 40 tons per 

year. The area will use hearth industry discounts and $600,000 from a recent Supplemental 

Environmental Project to changeout 1,000 old wood stoves over a four year period and retrofit 200 

fireplaces to gas. The area plans to changeout and recycle 250 of these old wood stoves and retrofit 

50 fireplaces each year for the next four winters. They expect that the 250 non-EPA-certified wood 

stoves will be changed out for 200 EPA-certified wood stoves and 50 gas stoves before the next winter. 

The resulting reduction in PM2.5 emissions from the wood stove changeouts and fireplace retrofits will be 

more than 10 tons each winter, or 40 tons (32.5 percent) over the four-year period. Officials 

calculated the emissions reductions with the EPA Wood Stove and Fireplace Changeout Emissions 

Calculator found at the EPA web site: epa.gov/burnwise/resources.html#air.
Strategies for Reducing Residential Wood Smoke 

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BURN BAN 

To reduce the likelihood of exceedances of the 24-hour PM2.5 health standard, the public officials also 

initiated a two stage burn ban to begin the following winter. The Stage 1 burn ban is implemented 

when meteorologists and public officials forecast the next day’s air quality for PM2.5 to reach 30 g/m3. 

A Stage 2 burn ban is implemented when PM2.5 is forecast for the next day to reach 35 ug/m3. Under 

a Stage 2 burn ban, no wood burning may take place, except where it is the only source of home heat. 

Based on data analysis from other communities that have implemented burn bans, officials anticipate 

their Stage 2 ban will reduce the concentration of fine particles in the outdoor air by approximately 

10 ug/m3. 

 
Strategies for Reducing Residential Wood Smoke 

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APPENDIX B: POTENTIAL COMPONENTS OF A WOOD SMOKE REDUCTION PLAN 

For all areas with residential wood smoke concerns, development and implementation of a wood smoke 

reduction plan is vital to attaining and/or maintaining healthier air and compliance with the national 

health-based fine particle standards. Wood smoke reduction plans are especially important in areas 

that are designated nonattainment for the 24-hour or annual PM2.5 NAAQS. These plans can provide 

early emission reductions that may enable the area to redesignate to attainment before state 

implementation plan (SIP) nonattainment planning documents need to be approved. If early 

redesignation is not possible, the wood smoke reduction plan can be readily used in developing an 

attainment SIP for the area. 

In some communities, wood smoke is the dominant source of PM2.5 emissions; in others, it may not be the 

overriding contributor to nonattainment, but wood smoke emission reductions may provide an 

opportunity to obtain air quality improvements. In addition to the regulatory measures implemented for 

industrial, commercial, and mobile sources, voluntary wood smoke reduction measures may play an 

important role in helping a community attain the PM2.5 standards. 

Areas designated as nonattainment for the PM2.5 NAAQS are required to develop a SIP within 18 

months of the effective date of the designations. In the interim, EPA encourages these areas to develop 

and implement a wood smoke reduction plan expeditiously to curtail wood smoke emissions where those 

emissions are a significant contributor to nonattainment. Those areas may be able to obtain 3 years of 

“clean data” before SIPs are due and thereby be exempt from reasonable further progress, attainment 

demonstration, and contingency measure requirements under the EPA 2004 Clean Data Policy: 

www.epa.gov/pmdesignations/1997standards/documents/Clean_Data_Policy.pdf. The wood smoke 

reduction plan can readily be augmented for conversion to a CAA section 175(a) maintenance SIP if the 

area can be redesignated to attainment. Otherwise if the area is still nonattainment, the wood smoke 

reduction plan can be incorporated into attainment planning. 

Below are possible components of a wood smoke reduction plan that may be useful when developing a 

SIP if required: 

 Description of the area (physical, topographic, common meteorology, population, economic 

activity, common, and meteorological). 

 Description of outreach and education efforts on wood smoke issues. 

 Air quality data analysis: involves reviewing the composition of fine particle air quality 

data and meteorological conditions on the highest PM2.5 days (for example, days exceeding 

25-30 ug/m3) for recent years. 

o What is the design value for the area? How much does it exceed the standard? 

o Do the highest days occur primarily in the winter, or during other times of year too? 

o What are typical meteorological conditions (e.g. inversion conditions, wind direction) 

on the high days? 

o How does the composition vary on the high days? Is the same PM2.5 component (such 

as organic carbon) always the largest component on the high days, or does it vary? 
Strategies for Reducing Residential Wood Smoke 

Page 33 

From composition data, conclusions can be drawn regarding key contributing 

sources. For example, data showing that organic carbon is a large percentage of 

the PM2.5 mass on the highest days is often an indicator of high wood smoke 

emissions. 

 Emissions inventory and survey of wood-burning devices in the area. 

o See section VI for information on emissions inventory tools and related information. 

o See various case studies throughout this document regarding survey techniques 

successfully used in other communities. 

o Characterize emissions for EPA-certified and non-certified wood stoves, outdoor 

wood boilers, and fireplaces. 

 Possible emission reduction measures 

o See section I for regulatory measures. 

o See section II for voluntary measures. 

o The use of emissions and air quality data from case studies (e.g., Libby, MT) could 

help identify potential emissions reductions and air quality changes that could be 

expected from certain types of emission reduction programs (such as wood stove 

replacements or burn bans). 

o For example: 

 What was air quality improvement after “x” number of wood stove 

replacements? 

 How much improvement can be attributed to a burn ban on a specific day? 

 Analysis of emission reductions needed to reach attainment by the attainment date (or 

target year). 

o Projection of emissions and air quality in target year, with anticipated growth and 

no control measures. 

o Analysis of candidate measures (through modeling, emissions rollback, or other 

techniques) and associated emissions reductions and air quality improvement to be 

achieved by attainment/target year. 

 Annual or seasonal emission reduction milestones for relevant control measures. 

 Compilation of enforceable state regulations adopted to require implementation of any 

mandatory programs (e.g. changeout program or burn ban.) 

 Measures to track progress in terms of program implementation, emission reductions, and 

ambient monitoring. Milestones could be developed for the following: 
Strategies for Reducing Residential Wood Smoke 

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o Number of noncompliant wood stoves taken out of use or replaced by EPA-certified 

units; 

o Number of wood fireplaces converted to gas; 

o Number of problem hydronic heater units shutdown, moved or replaced; 

o Estimated wood smoke emissions reductions; 

o Target design value; 

o Percent reduction in number of AQI alert days; 

o Reduction in number of monitored violations; and 

o Reduction of visual smoke reports on burn curtailment days. 

 Measures that will be implemented in the Wood Smoke Reduction Plan automatically if the 

area fails to attain by its attainment date, or meet key milestones such as emission reduction 

or ambient monitoring milestones. Measures could include: 

o Increased funding for replacement programs; 

o Increased and targeted outreach and education efforts; 

o Increased enforcement efforts or fines for burn curtailment violations; 

o More protective triggers for burn curtailment days; and 

o If included, submit state rules for changeout program and burn curtailment. 
Strategies for Reducing Residential Wood Smoke 

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APPENDIX C: HEALTH STUDIES3

Barregard, L., Sallsten, G., Gustafson, P., Andersson, L., Johansson, L., Basu, S. & Stigendal, L., 2006. 

Experimental exposure to wood-smoke particles in healthy humans: effects on markers of 

inflammation, coagulation, and lipid peroxidation. Inhalation toxicology 18: 845-853. 

Bunnell JE, Garcia LV, Furst JM, Lerch H, Olea RA, Suitt SE, Kolker A. 2010. Navajo coal combustion and 

respiratory health near Shiprock, New Mexico. J Environ Public Health. 2010;2010:260525.Epub 

2010 Jun 30. 

Butterfield, P., Edmunson, E., LaCava, G., and Penner, J. 1989. Woodstoves and Indoor Air. J. Environ. 

Health 59: 172-173. 

Chapin, F. S. 1974, Human activity patterns in the city. New York: Wiley-Interscience. 

Collins, D.A., Martin, K.S., and Sithole, S.D., 1990. Indoor Woodsmoke Pollution Causing Lower 

Respiratory Disease in Children. Trop. Doctor 20: 151-155 

Danielsen, P., Brauner, E., Barregard, L., Sallsten, G., Wallin, M., Olinski, R., Rozalski, R., Møller, P., & 

Loft, S., 2007. Oxidatively damaged DNA and its repair after experimental exposure to wood 

smoke in healthy humans. Mutat. Res. 642: 37–42. 

Demarest, G. M., Hudson, L.D., and Altman, L.C., 1979. Impaired Alveolar Macrophage Chemotaxis in 

Patients with Acute Smoke Inhalation. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 119:279-286. 

ERMD. 2000. Characterization of Organic Compounds from Selected Residential Wood Stoves and 

Fuels. Emissions Research and Measurement Division, Environmental Technology Advancement 

Directorate, Environment Canada. Report ERMD 2000-01. 

Hart JF, Ward TJ, Spear TM, Rossi RJ, Holland NN, Loushin BG.2011. Evaluating the effectiveness of a 

commercial portable air purifier in homes with wood-burning stoves: a preliminary study. J Environ 

Public Health. 2011;2011:324809. Epub 2011 Jan 27. 

Honicky, R.E., Akpom, C.A., and Osborne, J.S., 1983. Infant Respiratory Illness and Indoor Air Pollution 

from a Woodburning Stove. Pediatrics 71: 126-128. 

Honicky, R.E., Osborne, J.S., and Akpom, C.A., 1985. Symptoms of Respiratory Illness in Young Children 

and the Use of Woodburning Stoves for Indoor Heating. Pediatrics 75: 587-593. 

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Strategies for Reducing Residential Wood Smoke 

Page 40 APPENDIX D: PM2.5 CONTROL EFFICIENCY AND COST EFFECTIVENESS OF CERTAIN RESIDENT

 COMBUSTION CONTROL MEASURES 

APPLIANCE MEASURE 

 ESTIMATED COST  EFFECTIVENESS  CONTROL (2012 $/ton) 

EFFICIENCY* except where 

 noted

DESCRIPTION/NO

Fireplaces Use EPA Phase 2 

Qualified Units

70% $9,500** If new fireplace construction is allowed

qualified models. Under the EPA Woocleaner wood-burning fireplaces are q

emissions are at or below the Phase 2 

list of Phase 2 qualified cleaner burninhttp://www.epa.gov/burnwise/firepla

Fireplaces Use Gas Logs in 

Existing Woodburning Fireplaces 

100% $11,000 Incentives by various air districts in CA 

thousands of open fireplaces to gas log gas log sets, the option exists to install a wood-burning fireplace. Unlike gas heat, a gas stove insert can be an efficroom. The cost per ton of PM2.5 reduct

gas stove inserts cost more than gas log 

Fireplaces Install Retrofit 

Devices into Existing Wood-burning Fireplaces 

70% $9,500 Provide incentives to encourage use of 

Under the EPA Wood-burning Fireplacare qualified when their PM2.5 emission

program Phase 2 PM2.5 emissions level

qualified retrofits, go to: http://www.epa.gov/burnwise/firepla
Strategies for Reducing Residential Wood Smoke 

Page 41 APPLIANCE MEASURE 

 ESTIMATED COST  EFFECTIVENESS  CONTROL (2012 $/ton) 

EFFICIENCY* except where 

 noted

DESCRIPTION/NO

Hydronic Heaters (OWHH, OWB) 

Install Cleaner Wood-burning Hydronic Heaters vs. Old Technology 

90% $740 If hydronic heaters are allowed, only a

models. A Partnership Agreement (PA) wood-burning hydronic heater manufaburning hydronic heaters are qualified particulate emissions level. For a list of heaters go to: http://www.epa.gov/bu

Hydronic Heaters(OWHH, OWB) 

Install Retrofit Devices in Existing Hydronic Heaters 

60% $980 Provide incentives to encourage the ins

retrofit devices. Retrofits may significaeliminate visible smoke emissions. This accompanied by education and outreaseasoned wood). 

Wood Stoves Wood to Wood 

Replacement Program 

60% $9,900 (2010$) Implement a program and provide ince

uncertified wood stoves with new EPA-cEducation on proper wood stove use (emaintenance is critical. See for more inhttp://www.epa.gov/burnwise/how-to

Wood Stoves Wood to Gas

Replacement Program

99% $7,200 (2010$) Implement an incentive program to rep

stoves with new gas stoves or gas logs. wood pellet stove are another good ophttp://www.epa.gov/burnwise/how-to
Strategies for Reducing Residential Wood Smoke 

Page 42 APPLIANCE MEASURE 

 ESTIMATED COST  EFFECTIVENESS  CONTROL (2012 $/ton) 

EFFICIENCY* except where 

 noted

DESCRIPTION/NO

Fireplaces,Hydronic Heaters,Wood Stoves 

Curtailment Program (“Burn Ban”) 

75% $8,700 (2010$)

Full curtailment 

State and local air quality agencies fo

levels. When it is expected to be near 

NAAQS, limited (e.g., wood pellet onlyburning is required. A public awareneare critical. 

Fireplaces,Hydronic Heaters,Wood Stoves 

Burn Dry Seasoned Wood 

n/a n/a Implement a program to allow only the 

dry seasoned wood (e.g., <20% moistappliances. 

Fireplaces,Hydronic Heaters,Wood Stoves 

No Visible Emissions n/a n/a Implement a local program that allows 

option is typically easier to enforce/improgram.. 

Fireplaces,Hydronic Heaters,Wood Stoves

Opacity Program n/a n/a Limit wood smoke emissions by establis

limit. 

Wood Combustion Appliances 

Education Campaign 

n/a n/a Focus the Campaign on Best Burning Pr

contained on the EPA Burn Wise web shttp://www.epa.gov/burnwise/burnwi
Strategies for Reducing Residential Wood Smoke 

Page 43 * Control efficiency applies to an individual residential wood combustion (RWC) appliance, except for the curtailment program where it aarea. Inferences about adequate environmental protection should not be made from these control efficiencies. **Indicates incremental cost of installing a Phase 2 qualified RWC appliance instead of a non-Phase 2 RWC appliance. 

Other pollutants controlled by all measures may include: carbon dioxide, volatile organic compounds, carbon monoxide, methane, toxics, 

review the input and assumptions into these calculations, go to: www.epa.gov/burnwise/resources.
Strategies for Reducing Residential Wood Smoke 

Page 44 United States Environmental Protection Agency 

Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards

Outreach and Information Division 

Research Triangle Park, NC 

Publication