Hydrologic Effects of the 1988 Galena Fire,

Black Hills Area, South Dakota

Water-Resources Investigations Report 03-4323

Prepared in cooperation with the State of South Dakota,

West Dakota Water Development District, and the

U.S. Department of Agriculture (Forest Service)

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

Hydrologic Effects of the 1988 Galena Fire,

Black Hills Area, South Dakota

By Daniel G. Driscoll and Janet M. Carter, U.S. Geological Survey, and Donald O. Ohlen,

SAIC, EROS Data Center, Sioux Falls, South Dakota

Water-Resources Investigations Report 03-4323

Prepared in cooperation with the State of South Dakota,

West Dakota Water Development District, and the

U.S. Department of Agriculture (Forest Service)
U.S. Department of the Interior

GALE A. NORTON, Secretary

U.S. Geological Survey

Charles G. Groat, Director

The use of firm, trade, and brand names in this report is for identification purposes only and

does not constitute endorsement by the U.S. Government.

Rapid City, South Dakota: 2004

For additional information write to:

District Chief

U.S. Geological Survey

1608 Mt. View Road

Rapid City, SD 57702

Copies of this report can be purchased from:

U.S. Geological Survey

Information Services

Building 810

Box 25286, Federal Center

Denver, CO 80225-0286
Contents III

CONTENTS

Abstract ................................................................................................................................................................................. 1

Introduction .......................................................................................................................................................................... 2

Purpose and Scope ...................................................................................................................................................... 2

Acknowledgments ...................................................................................................................................................... 2

Description of Study Area .................................................................................................................................................... 3

Climate ........................................................................................................................................................................ 3

Hydrogeology ............................................................................................................................................................. 3

Land Use ..................................................................................................................................................................... 9

Timber Management and Burn Characteristics .......................................................................................................... 11

Timber Management ......................................................................................................................................... 11

Burn Characteristics ......................................................................................................................................... 14

Previous Investigations ......................................................................................................................................................... 19

Data Sets Considered and Hydrologic Considerations ......................................................................................................... 22

Data Sets Considered .................................................................................................................................................. 22

Precipitation Data ............................................................................................................................................. 22

Streamflow Data ............................................................................................................................................... 23

Hydrologic Considerations ......................................................................................................................................... 25

Hydrologic Effects of the Galena Fire .................................................................................................................................. 27

Effects on Geomorphology and Water Quality ........................................................................................................... 27

Effects on Streamflow Characteristics ........................................................................................................................ 30

Effects on Annual-Yield Characteristics .......................................................................................................... 30

Effects on Peak-Flow Characteristics ............................................................................................................... 39

Summary ............................................................................................................................................................................... 54

References ............................................................................................................................................................................ 56

Supplemental Information ..................................................................................................................................................... 59

FIGURES

1. Map showing location of study area......................................................................................................................... 4

2. Isohyetal map showing distribution of average annual precipitation for the Black Hills area,

water years 1961-90 ................................................................................................................................................. 5

3. Graphs showing air temperatures at Custer and Mt. Rushmore climatic stations prior to and

during the Galena Fire.............................................................................................................................................. 6

4. Stratigraphic section for the Black Hills area........................................................................................................... 7

5. Map showing geology of the study area................................................................................................................... 8

6. Map showing land ownership in study area ............................................................................................................. 10

7. Photographs showing increase in pine forest between 1874 and 2000 in the Black Hills ....................................... 12

8. Aerial photographs showing changes in forest cover near northwestern corner of Custer State Park..................... 15

9. Landsat image of area burned by Galena Fire.......................................................................................................... 16

10. Map showing timber mortality in Custer State Park following the Galena Fire in 1988 and the

Cicero Peak Fire in 1990.......................................................................................................................................... 17

11. Photograph showing spalling of granite due to intense heat from Galena Fire........................................................ 18

12. Photographs showing aftermath of Galena Fire in severely burned areas................................................................ 19

13. Photographs showing progression of post-fire vegetation recovery at a site on the northeastern

flank of Mt. Coolidge ............................................................................................................................................... 20

14. Map showing location of precipitation gages within study area .............................................................................. 24

15. Graph showing relations between annual yield efficiency and precipitation for selected drainage basins.............. 26
IV Contents

FIGURES—Continued

16. Graph showing annual precipitation for drainage areas of selected streamflow-gaging stations............................ 28

17. Graph showing cumulative departure from long-term average annual precipitation for selected

drainage areas, water years 1977-98........................................................................................................................ 28

18. Duration hydrographs for selected streamflow-gaging stations .............................................................................. 29

19-24. Graphs showing:

19. Annual yield for French Creek, Battle Creek, and Grace Coolidge Creek ..................................................... 31

20. Mass analysis for selected streams in comparison to Grace Coolidge Creek ................................................. 32

21. Double mass analysis for selected streams in comparison to Grace Coolidge Creek ..................................... 33

22. Relations between annual yield and annual precipitation for Battle Creek and

Grace Coolidge Creek before and after the Galena Fire ................................................................................. 35

23. Relations between annual yield for Battle Creek and Grace Coolidge Creek for pre-burn

and post-burn periods ...................................................................................................................................... 36

24. Cumulative annual yield and cumulative annual precipitation departure from long-term

average for Battle Creek near Keystone .......................................................................................................... 38

25. Photographs showing that culverts occasionally became clogged with debris following large runoff events ........ 39

26. Photographs showing numerous sediment deposits formed as a result of heavy erosion ....................................... 40

27. Photographs showing how boulders were deposited following an extreme runoff event........................................ 41

28. Graphs showing maximum daily streamflow (April-October) for Battle Creek, Grace Coolidge

Creek, and Bear Gulch............................................................................................................................................. 42

29. Boxplots showing peak discharges for Grace Coolidge Creek near Hayward (06404800) and

Bear Gulch near Hayward (06405800).................................................................................................................... 45

30. Boxplots showing ratio of peak discharges per unit area for Bear Gulch near Hayward (06405800)

to Grace Coolidge Creek near Hayward (06404800) .............................................................................................. 46

31. Graphs showing cumulative annual peak flows for selected streamflow-gaging stations in

comparison to Grace Coolidge Creek...................................................................................................................... 48

32. Map showing burn severity of the Galena Fire determined on the basis of remotely sensed data

from July 3, 1988, and June 20, 1989...................................................................................................................... 50

33. Graph showing mean normalized difference vegetation index values for selected areas during or near June........ 51

34. Normalized difference vegetation index images for selected years......................................................................... 53

35. Conceptual model of hypothetical peak-flow response for increasing recurrence intervals ................................... 54

TABLES

1. Summary of selected site information for precipitation gages within study area................................................... 23

2. Selected site information for streamflow-gaging stations used in analyses ........................................................... 25

3. Summary of precipitation and yield data for selected periods for Battle Creek and Grace Coolidge Creek ......... 34

4. Estimates of increased annual yield for Grace Coolidge Creek, based on comparison of regression

equations from figure 23......................................................................................................................................... 35

5. Estimates of increased annual yield for Grace Coolidge Creek, based on comparison of actual

post-burn values with unburned regression equation from figure 23 ..................................................................... 37

6. Mean normalized difference vegetation index values for selected areas................................................................ 49

7. Peak-flow frequency estimates for selected recurrence intervals for selected streamflow-gaging stations ........... 52

8. Annual flow and precipitation data for selected streamflow-gaging stations......................................................... 60

9. Peak discharges for selected dates for Grace Coolidge Creek and Bear Gulch ..................................................... 62

10. Annual peak flows for selected streamflow-gaging stations, water years 1967-98................................................ 64
Contents V

CONVERSION FACTORS AND VERTICAL DATUM

Temperature in degrees Celsius (°C) may be converted to degrees Fahrenheit (° F) as follows:

° F = (1.8 × °C) + 32

Temperature in degrees Fahrenheit (° F) may be converted to degrees Celsius (°C) as follows:

°C = (° F - 32) / 1.8

Vertical coordinate information is referenced to the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 

(NGVD 29); horizontal coordinate information is referenced to the North American Datum of 1927 

(NAD 27).

Water year (WY): Water year is the 12-month period, October 1 through September 30, and is designated by the calendar year in which it ends. Thus, the water year ending September 30, 1998, is 

called the “1998 water year.”

Multiply By To obtain

acre 4,047 square meter

acre 0.4047 hectare

cubic foot per acre (ft3/acre) 0.0700 cubic meters per hectare

cubic foot per second (ft3/s) 0.02832 cubic meter per second 

cubic foot per second per square mile [(ft3/s)/mi2] 0.01093 cubic meter per second per square kilometer

cubic yard (yd3) 0.7646 cubic meter 

foot (ft) 0.3048 meter

inch (in.) 2.54 centimeter

inch (in.) 25.4 millimeter

inch per year (in/yr) 25.4 millimeter per year

mile (mi) 1.609 kilometer

square mile (mi2) 259.0 hectare

square mile (mi2) 2.590 square kilometer 

tons per acre (tons/acre) 2.242 metric tons per hectare
Abstract 1

Hydrologic Effects of the 1988 Galena Fire,

Black Hills Area, South Dakota

By Daniel G. Driscoll, Janet M. Carter, and Donald O. Ohlen

ABSTRACT

The Galena Fire burned about 16,788 acres 

of primarily ponderosa pine forest during July 5-8, 

1988, in the Black Hills area of South Dakota. The 

fire burned primarily within the Grace Coolidge 

Creek drainage basin and almost entirely within 

the boundaries of Custer State Park. A U.S. 

Geological Survey gaging station with streamflow 

records dating back to 1977 was located along 

Grace Coolidge Creek within the burned area. 

About one-half of the gaging station’s 26.8-

square-mile drainage area was burned. The drainage basin for Bear Gulch, which is tributary to 

Grace Coolidge Creek, was burned particularly 

severely, with complete deforestation occurring in 

nearly the entirety of the area upstream from a 

gaging station that was installed in 1989.

A study to evaluate effects of the Galena 

Fire on streamflow, geomorphology, and water 

quality was initiated in 1988. The geomorphologic 

and water-quality components of the study were 

completed by 1990 and are summarized in this 

report. A data-collection network consisting of 

streamflow- and precipitation-gaging stations was 

operated through water year 1998 for evaluation of 

effects on streamflow characteristics, including 

both annual-yield and peak-flow characteristics, 

which are the main focus of this report.

Moderately burned areas did not experience 

a substantial increase in the rate of surface erosion; 

however, severely burned areas underwent surficial erosion nearly twice that of the unburned 

areas. The sediment production rate of Bear Gulch 

estimated 8 to 14 months after the fire was 

870 ft3/acre (44 tons/acre). Substantial degradation of stream channels within the severely burned 

headwater areas of Bear Gulch was documented. 

Farther downstream, channel aggradation resulted 

from deposition of sediments transported from the 

headwater areas.

The most notable water-quality effect was 

on concentrations of suspended sediment, which 

were orders of magnitude higher for Bear Gulch 

than for the unburned control area. Effects on 

several other water-quality constituents, such as 

organic carbon and nitrogen and phosphorus nutrient constituents, probably were influenced by the 

large concentrations of suspended matter that were 

documented in initial post-fire, storm-flow events. 

The first post-fire stormflow produced the highest 

measured concentrations of specific conductance, 

nitrogen, phosphorus, organic carbon, calcium, 

magnesium, potassium, manganese, and sulfate in 

the burned areas. For most constituents sampled, 

differences in concentrations between burned and 

unburned areas were no longer discernible within 

about 1 year following the Galena Fire.

The effects of the Galena Fire on annualyield characteristics of Grace Coolidge Creek 

were evaluated primarily from comparisons with 

long-term streamflow records for Battle Creek, 

which is hydrogeologically similar and is located 

immediately to the north. Annual yield for Grace 

Coolidge Creek increased by about 20 percent as a 

result of the fire. This estimate was based on relations between annual yield for Grace Coolidge 

Creek and Battle Creek for pre- and post-burn 

periods. Many of the post-burn data points are well 
2 Hydrologic Effects of the 1988 Galena Fire, Black Hills Area, South Dakota

beyond the range of the pre-burn data, which is a 

source of uncertainty for this estimate.

Substantial increases in peak-flow characteristics for severely burned drainages were visually apparent from numerous post-fire field 

observations. Various analyses of streamflow data 

indicated substantial increases in peak-flow 

response for burned drainage areas; however, 

quantification of effects was particularly difficult 

because peak-flow response diminished quickly 

and returned to a generally pre-burn condition by 

about 1991. Field observations of vegetation and 

analysis of remotely sensed data indicated that 

establishment of grasses and forbs occurred within 

a similar timeframe. Comparison of pre-fire peak 

flows to post-1991 peak flows indicates that these 

grasses and forbs were equally effective in suppressing peak flows as the predominantly ponderosa pine forest was prior to the Galena Fire. 

Numerous peak-flow events with small 

recurrence intervals occurred within burned areas 

through 1990. Peak-flow events for Bear Gulch 

during this period were about one to two orders of 

magnitude larger than corresponding peaks for a 

small control drainage located along Grace 

Coolidge Creek upstream from the burn area. The 

small peaks do not provide quantitative information applicable to estimation of peak-flow magnitudes for larger events, however. Peak-flow events 

for Bear Gulch that occurred during 1991-98 were 

generally similar to those for the control drainage. 

A short-term increase in peak-flow potential also 

was documented for the longer-term gaging station 

located along Grace Coolidge Creek; however, 

peak-flow response was less pronounced than for 

Bear Gulch, which had nearly complete deforestation within a much smaller drainage area.

INTRODUCTION

On July 5, 1988, a forest fire was ignited by 

lightning along Galena Creek, which is a tributary to 

Grace Coolidge Creek, in the southern Black Hills of 

southwestern South Dakota. Firefighting efforts initially were largely unsuccessful because of the particularly dry conditions of the predominantly ponderosa 

pine forest; however, the Galena Fire was controlled the 

night of July 8 following approximately 0.75 in. of 

rain. The fire eventually burned about 16,788 acres, 

primarily within the Grace Coolidge Creek drainage 

basin and almost entirely within the boundaries of 

Custer State Park.

A U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) gaging station with streamflow records dating back to 1977 was 

located along Grace Coolidge Creek within the burned 

area. About one-half of the gaging station’s 26.8-mi2

drainage area was burned.

The existence of long-term, pre-burn streamflow 

data provided a unique opportunity to evaluate the 

hydrologic effects of forest fire, with potential to obtain 

additional insights regarding effects of timber harvest 

on streamflow in the Black Hills area. Numerous 

studies around the world have addressed the topic of 

hydrologic influences from silvicultural activities; 

however, information for the Black Hills area is sparse. 

In 1988, a study to evaluate effects of the Galena Fire 

on streamflow, geomorphology, and water quality was 

initiated by the USGS in cooperation with the South 

Dakota Department of Environment and Natural 

Resources and the South Dakota Department of Game, 

Fish and Parks. The geomorphologic (Whitesides, 

1989) and water-quality (Gundarlahalli, 1990) components of the study were completed by 1990. A datacollection network consisting of streamflow- and precipitation-gaging stations was operated through water 

year 1998 for evaluation of effects on streamflow characteristics. Additional cooperators that have supported 

this continuing component of the study included the 

South Dakota Department of Agriculture (Forestry 

Division), West Dakota Water Development District, 

and U.S. Department of Agriculture (Forest Service).

Purpose and Scope

The purpose of this report is to describe the 

hydrologic effects of the 1988 Galena Fire. The main 

focus is to evaluate effects on streamflow characteristics, including both annual-yield and peak-flow characteristics. Results from the studies of geomorphology 

(Whitesides, 1989) and water quality (Gundarlahalli, 

1990) also are summarized.

Acknowledgments

The authors acknowledge the various cooperators that have provided support throughout the 

extended duration of this study. Thanks are extended to 
Description of Study Area 3

staff from the Custer State Park Division of the South 

Dakota Department of Game, Fish and Parks for 

assisting with data collection and providing various 

data sets included in this report. Special thanks are due 

to Custer State Park Resource Program Manager Ron 

Walker for continued assistance throughout the duration of this study, including assistance with preparation 

of this report. The authors also thank Paul Horsted 

(Dakota Photographic LLC), Rollie Larson (retired 

Rapid City Central High School ecology teacher), and 

the Rapid City Journal for providing photographs. 

DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREA

The study area (fig. 1) encompasses the area 

burned by the Galena Fire. The fire burned about onehalf of the drainage area for gaging station 06404998, 

which is located along Grace Coolidge Creek and has 

pre-fire records dating back to 1977. The study area 

also includes French Creek, which is generally south of 

the burn area, and Battle Creek, which is north of the 

burn area. Available streamflow records for both of 

these drainages pre-date the Galena Fire and are used 

for comparisons with records for station 06404998. 

Following the Galena Fire, station 06404800 was 

installed along Grace Coolidge Creek just upstream 

from the burn area. This station is used for comparisons 

with station 06405800, which also was installed after 

the Galena Fire and provides streamflow records for the 

extensively burned Bear Gulch drainage. Drainages 

considered for comparisons have general similarities in 

climate, hydrogeology, and land use, as described in the 

following sections.

Climate

The climate of southwestern South Dakota is 

continental, with generally low precipitation amounts, 

hot summers, cold winters, and extreme variations in 

both precipitation and temperatures (Johnson, 1933). 

Climatic conditions in the Black Hills area are influenced by orographic effects, with generally lower temperatures and higher precipitation at the higher 

altitudes.

Precipitation patterns are generally similar in all 

of the drainage basins considered. Mean annual precipitation for 1961-90 (fig. 2) ranges from about 17 in. in 

the southeastern part of the study area to more than 

20 in. in the higher altitudes. The mean annual 

temperature is about 44°F at Custer and 45°F at 

Mt. Rushmore (National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration, 1991). Annual evaporation potential 

generally exceeds annual precipitation throughout the 

study area. Mean pan evaporation for April through 

October for two stations located near the study area is 

about 30 in. at Pactola Reservoir (located north of the 

study area) and about 50 in. at Oral (located southeast 

of the study area) (National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration, 1991).

Conditions in the study area prior to the Galena 

Fire on July 5, 1988, were hot and dry. Precipitation 

during May was 0.76 in. below normal at Custer and 

0.37 in. below normal at Mt. Rushmore; June precipitation at these sites was 1.38 and 1.73 in. below 

normal, respectively (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 1988). Daily maximum air 

temperatures during late May and June prior to the 

Galena Fire generally were 10 to 20°F higher than 

normal for the Custer and Mt. Rushmore stations 

(fig. 3), and mean temperatures for June 1988 for 

these stations were the highest on record (South 

Dakota State University, 2003). These high temperatures coupled with scant precipitation created extreme 

fire potential.

Hydrogeology

Hydrology within the Black Hills area is greatly 

influenced by geology (Driscoll and Carter, 2001), 

which is highly complex. The Black Hills uplift is a 

northwest-trending, asymmetric, elongate dome, or 

doubly plunging anticline. Uplift began about 62 million years ago during the Laramide orogeny and probably continued in the Eocene period (Redden and 

Lisenbee, 1996). The oldest rocks in the study area are 

the igneous and metamorphic rocks of Precambrian 

age (fig. 4), which are exposed in the “crystalline 

core” of the central Black Hills (fig. 5). A sequence of 

younger sedimentary rocks is exposed around the 

periphery of the Black Hills area and includes outcrops of the Cambrian- and Ordovician-age Deadwood Formation, the Mississippian-age Madison 

Limestone (also locally known as the Pahasapa Limestone), and the Pennsylvanian- and Permian-age 

Minnelusa Formation. This layered sequence has been 

erosionally removed from the crystalline core area. 

The bedrock sedimentary formations typically dip 

away from the uplifted Black Hills at angles that can 

approach or exceed 15 to 20 degrees near the outcrops 

(Carter and others, 2002). 
4 Hydrologic Effects of the 1988 Galena Fire, Black Hills Area, South Dakota

Figure 1. Location of study area. Locations of streamflow-gaging stations within the study area also are shown.

Red

Canyon

Creek

Beaver

Battle

Spokane

Gulch

Bear

Iron

Flynn

Creek

Cr

Spring

Creek

Creek

Creek

French

Lame

Johnny

Grace

Coolidge

Creek

Creek

Creek

Creek

Creek

Highland

Center

Lake

Legion

Lake

Bismarck

Lake

Stockade

Lake

Galena

PENNINGT PENNINGTON COUNTY ON COUNTY

CUSTER C CUSTER COUNTY

PENNINGTON COUNTY

CUSTER COUNTY

Custer

Pringle

Hermosa

Fairburn

Keystone

Hayward

Hill City

06405800 06405800

06404998 06404998 06405000 06405000

06404800 06404800

06404000 06404000

06403300 06403300

06405800

06404998 06405000

06404800

06404000

06403300

SOUTH DAKOTA

Black

Hills Missouri River

Study

area

Custer

State

Park

Custer

State

Park

103o45' 103o30' 103o15'

43o52'30"

43o45'

43o37'30"

0 6 1 MILES 2 5 3 4

0 6 1 KILOMETERS 2 5 3 4

Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey digital data, 1:100,000, 1977

Fire perimeter from U.S. Forest Service digital data, 1:100,000

Universal Transverse Mercator projection, zone 13

X

X

Mt.

Coolidge

Harney

Peak

EXPLANATION

CUSTER STATE PARK

GALENA FIRE BURN AREA

DRAINAGE BASIN BOUNDARY

STREAMFLOW-GAGING STATION—

 Number is station number

Wind Cave National Park

Mt. Rushmore

National

Memorial

06405000
Description of Study Area 5

Figure 2. Isohyetal map showing distribution of average annual precipitation for the Black Hills area, water years 1961-90

(from Driscoll and others, 2000). Locations of streamflow-gaging stations outside the study area also are shown.

Belle Fourche

Reservoir

FOURCHE

Rhoads Fork

Coolidge

Angostura

Reservoir

Hell

Canyon

Canyon

Red

Creek

Crow

Sheridan

Lake

Center

Lake

Deerfield

Reservoir

Pactola

Reservoir

Owl

BELLE

Creek

RIVER

REDWATER

R I VER

Creek

Cr

Little Spearfish

Spearfish

Whitewood

Creek

Creek

Bear

Butte

Elk

Creek

Creek

Boxelder

Rapid

Rapid

Creek

Creek

Spring

Creek

Creek

Creek

Grace

Creek

Battle

French

Beaver

Creek

Creek

Creek

Creek

Fall R

Hat

Creek

Creek

Horsehead

CHEYENNE

RIVER

Cottonwood

Hay Creek

Bottom

False

Creek

Lame

Johnny

Beaver

Creek

Cottonwood

Castle

Castle

Creek

Creek

Bear Gulch

Creek

Elk

Whitewood

Spearfish

Saint

Onge

DEADWOOD

Englewood

Dumont

Lead

BELLE FOURCHE

Newell

STURGIS

Blackhawk

Piedmont

Tilford

Box Elder 

RAPID CITY

Hill City

Hermosa

CUSTER

HOT SPRINGS

Edgemont

Tinton

Roubaix

Nemo

Vale

Hayward

Keystone

Deerfield

Moon

Redfern

Rochford

Pringle

Fairburn

Buffalo Gap

Dewey

Provo

Oral

Mystic

Wind Cave

National Park

Jewel Cave

National Monument

Mt. Rushmore National

Memorial

CUSTER

STATE

PARK

Wind

Cave

Harney

Peak x

Terry

Peak

Crooks

Towerx

x

BUTTE CO

LAWRENCE CO MEADE CO

PENNINGTON CO

CUSTER CO

FALL RIVER CO

WYOMING

SOUTH DAKOTA

 104o 45' 103o30'

15' 103o

30'

44o45'

15'

44o

45'

30'

43o15'

16

17

18

19

21 20

29

28

25

27

27

26

26

25

24

24

19

23

23

20

22

22

21

20

20

18

19

18

17

17

16

16

3,000

4,000

4,000

3,000

3,000

5,000

5,000

3,000

6,000

6,000

3,000

7,000

3,000

3,000

5,000

5,000

7,000

7,000

7,000 7,000

7,000

5,000

6,000

6,000

4,000

6,000

6,000

5,000

4,000

4,000

4,000

3,000

3,000

4,000

5,000

06431500 06431500

06436190 06436190

06402500 06402500

06425500 06425500

06422500 06422500

06422500

06431500

06436190

06402500

06425500

06422500

0 10 20

0 10 20 MILES

KILOMETERS

Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey digital data,

1:100,000, 1977, 1979, 1981, 1983, 1985

Rapid City, Office of City Engineer's map, 1:18,000, 1996

Universal Transverse Mercator projection, zone 13

LINE OF EQUAL PRECIPITATION—Number

 is average annual precipitation in inches

STUDY AREA

EXPLANATION

20

LAND-SURFACE CONTOUR—Number is

 altitude above NGVD 29. Contour

 interval 1,000 feet

STREAMFLOW-GAGING STATION—

 Number is station number

SOUTH DAKOTA

Area

shown

Missouri River
6 Hydrologic Effects of the 1988 Galena Fire, Black Hills Area, South Dakota

Figure 3. Air temperatures at Custer and Mt. Rushmore climatic stations prior to and during the Galena Fire.

Data from South Dakota State University (2003) and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association (1988).

DATE

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Climatic station at Custer

5/16/1988 5/31/1988 6/15/1988 6/30/1988 7/15/1988

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES FAHRENHEIT

Climatic station at Mt. Rushmore National Memorial

Normal maximum daily temperature (1971-2000)

Normal maximum daily temperature (1971-2000)

Measured maximum daily temperature

Measured maximum daily temperature

Start of

Galena Fire

Start of

Galena Fire
Description of Study Area 7Figure 4. Stratigraphic section for the Black Hills area.

GEOLOGIC UNIT DESCRIPTION THICKNESS IN FEET

ABBREVIATION

FOR

STRATIGRAPHIC

INTERVAL

ERATHEM SYSTEM

QUATERNARY

& TERTIARY (?)

UNDIFFERENTIATED ALLUVIUM AND COLLUVIUM 0-50 Sand, gravel, boulder, and clay.

1,200-2,700

Tw WHITE RIVER GROUP Light colored clays with sandstone channel fillings and 

TERTIARY

QTac

Principal horizon of limestone lenses forming teepee bDark-gray shale containing scattered concretions. Widely scattered limestone masses, forming small teeBlack fissile shale with concretions. 

PIERRE SHALENIOBRARA FORMATION 180-300 Impure chalk and calcareous shale.

CARLILE SHALE Turner Sandy Member

Wall Creek Member

1350-750 Light-gray shale with numerous large concretions and 

Dark-gray shale

GRANEROS GROUP

GREENHORN FORMATION

Kps

225-380 Impure slabby limestone. Weathers buff.

Dark-gray calcareous shale, with thin Orman Lake lime

BELLE FOURCHE SHALE

MOWRY SHALE

MUDDY

SANDSTONE

NEWCASTLESANDSTONE

SKULL CREEK SHALE

150-850

Gray shale with scattered limestone concretions.Clay spur bentonite at base.

125-230

0-150

Light-gray siliceous shale. Fish scales and thin layers Brown to light-yellow and white sandstone.

150-270 Dark-gray to black siliceous shale.

CRETACEOUS

FALL RIVER FORMATION

LAKOTA

FM

INYAN KARA

GROUPFuson Shale Minnewaste Limestone Chilson Member

10-200 Massive to thin-bedded, brown to reddish-brown sand

Yellow, brown, and reddish brown massive to thinly b conglomerate, siltstone, and claystone. Local fine-g

10-190

0-25

25-485

0-2200-225

Green to maroon shale. Thin sandstone.Massive fine-grained sandstone.

250-450

0-45

Greenish-gray shale, thin limestone lenses.Glauconitic sandstone; red sandstone near middle.Red siltstone, gypsum, and limestone.

MORRISON FORMATION

UNKPAPA SS Redwater Member

Lak MemberHulett MemberStockade Beaver Mem.Canyon Spr Member

SUNDANCEFORMATIONGYPSUM SPRING FORMATION

Kik

JURASSIC Ju

Goose Egg Equivalent

TRIASSIC T Ps R SPEARFISH FORMATION

MINNEKAHTA LIMESTONE

Po OPECHE SHALE

Pmk

375-800

125-65

Red silty shale, soft red sandstone and siltstone with gGypsum locally near the base.Thin to medium-bedded, fine-grained, purplish gray laRed shale and sandstone. 125-150

1375-1,175

1<200-1,000

30-60

10-23510-15010-500

Yellow to red cross-bedded sandstone, limestone, and Red shale with interbedded limestone and sandstone Massive light-colored limestone. Dolomite in part. CaPink to buff limestone. Shale locally at base.Buff dolomite and limestone.Green shale with siltstone.Massive to thin-bedded buff to purple sandstone. Gre dolomite, and flat-pebble limestone conglomerate.  locally at the base.Schist, slate, quartzite, and arkosic grit. Intruded by d to amphibolite, and by granite and pegmatite.

PERMIAN

PENNSYLVANIAN

MISSISSIPPIAN

P Pm MINNELUSA FORMATION

MADISON (PAHASAPA) LIMESTONEENGLEWOOD FORMATION

MDme

Ou

DEVONIAN

WHITEWOOD (RED RIVER) FORMATIONWINNIPEG FORMATIONDEADWOOD FORMATIONUNDIFFERENTIATED IGNEOUSAND METAMORPHIC ROCKS

OCd

pCu

ORDOVICIAN

CAMBRIAN

PRECAMBRIAN

PALEOZOIC MESOZOIC CENOZOIC

Modified from information furnished by the Department of Geolog

South Dakota School of Mines and Technology (wri

0-300

Tui INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS Includes rhyolite, latite, trachyte, and phonolite. --

1Modified based on drill-hole data

Interbedded sandstone, limestone, dolomite, shale, an
8 Hydrologic Effects of the 1988 Galena Fire, Black Hills Area, South Dakota

Figure 5. Geology of the study area (modified from Strobel and others, 1999).

QTac

Tw

Kps

Ju

TRPs

MDme

Kik

Pmk

Po

PPm

OCd

pCu

PENNINGTON COUNTY

CUSTER COUNTY

Custer

Pringle

Hermosa

Fairburn

Keystone

Hayward

Hill City

Red

Canyon

Creek

Beaver

Battle

Spokane

Gulch

Bear

Iron

Flynn

Creek

Cr

Spring

Creek

Creek

Creek

French

Lame

Johnny

Grace

Coolidge

Creek

Creek

Creek

Creek

Creek

Highland

Center

Lake

Legion

Lake

Bismarck

Lake

Stockade

Lake

Galena

X

X

Mt.

Coolidge

Harney

Peak

Custer

State

Park

103o45' 103o30' 103o15'

43o52'30"

43o45'

43o37'30"

0 6 1 MILES 2 5 3 4

0 6 1 KILOMETERS 2 5 3 4

Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey digital data, 1:100,000, 1977

Universal Transverse Mercator projection, zone 13

EXPLANATION

Wind Cave National Park

Mt. Rushmore

National

Memorial

FAULT—Bar and ball on downthrown side

ANTICLINE—Showing trace of axial

 plane and direction of plunge.

 Dashed where approximated

SYNCLINE—Showing trace of axial plane

 and direction of plunge. Dashed

 where approximated

MONOCLINE—Showing trace of axial

 plane. Dashed where approximated

GEOLOGIC UNITS

Alluvium and colluvium, undifferentiated

White River Group

Pierre Shale to Skull Creek Shale, undifferentiated

Inyan Kara Group

Morrison Formation to Sundance Formation,

 undifferentiated

Spearfish Formation

Minnekahta Limestone

Opeche Shale

Minnelusa Formation

Madison (Pahasapa) Limestone and Englewood

 Formation

Deadwood Formation

Undifferentiated igneous and metamorphic rocks
Description of Study Area 9

The study area is underlain primarily by Precambrian igneous and metamorphic rocks that consist 

mostly of the Harney Peak granite and quartzite, with 

lesser amounts of granitic pegmatite and schist (DeWitt 

and others, 1989; Strobel and others, 1999). The Deadwood, Madison, and Minnelusa Formations underlie a 

much smaller portion of the burned area than the Precambrian rocks. 

Although geology within the study area is complex (fig. 5), streamflow records for analyses of 

annual-yield characteristics for this study are considered only for drainage areas upstream from outcrops 

of the Madison Limestone. These drainages are dominated by outcrops of Precambrian igneous and metamorphic rocks and are within the “crystalline core” 

hydrogeologic setting identified by Driscoll and 

Carter (2001). Streamflow characteristics for this setting are typified by relatively small base flow and 

strong correlations between annual streamflow and 

precipitation. 

Most streams, including Grace Coolidge Creek, 

generally lose all or part of their flow as they cross the 

outcrop of the Madison Limestone (Rahn and Gries, 

1973; Hortness and Driscoll, 1998). Large streamflow 

losses also occur in many locations within the outcrop 

of the Minnelusa Formation, and limited losses probably also occur within the outcrop of the Minnekahta 

Limestone (Hortness and Driscoll, 1998).

The Precambrian basement rocks generally have 

low permeability and form the lower confining unit for 

the series of aquifers in sedimentary rocks in the Black 

Hills area. Driscoll and others (2002) assumed negligible regional ground-water outflow for Precambrian 

rocks; however, localized aquifers within Precambrian 

rocks occur in many locations in the crystalline core of 

the Black Hills, where enhanced secondary permeability results from weathering and fracturing. Groundwater discharge from Precambrian rocks provides base 

flow for streams in the study area, especially at higher 

altitudes where moisture surpluses result from 

increased precipitation and reduced evapotranspiration. 

Base flow can diminish very quickly during particularly 

dry periods.

Within the Paleozoic rock interval, aquifers in the 

Deadwood Formation, Madison Limestone, Minnelusa 

Formation, and the Permian-age Minnekahta Limestone are used extensively and are considered to be 

major aquifers in the Black Hills area. These aquifers 

receive recharge from infiltration of precipitation on 

outcrops, and the Madison and Minnelusa aquifers 

also receive significant recharge from streamflow 

losses. These aquifers are collectively confined by the 

underlying Precambrian rocks and the overlying 

Spearfish Formation, where present (fig. 5). Individually, these aquifers are separated by minor confining 

units or by relatively impermeable layers within the 

individual units. In general, ground-water flow in 

these aquifers is radially outward from the crystalline 

core of the Black Hills.

Land Use

Although a wide variety of land ownership 

exists within the study area (fig. 6), hydrologic differences resulting from differing land uses within the 

drainages considered probably are relatively minor. 

Most of the burn area is within Custer State Park 

(fig. 1). Drainage basins used for comparisons consist 

of various combinations of land ownership; however, 

the U.S. Forest Service (USFS) is the majority landholder in all of the comparison basins. Private landholdings, which are excluded from the Black Hills 

National Forest, are common within parts of the comparison basins. The Battle Creek drainage includes 

Mt. Rushmore National Memorial, which is administered by the National Park Service.

Land use and vegetation patterns generally are 

similar throughout the study area, regardless of land 

ownership. The predominant tree species throughout 

the study area is ponderosa pine. Historically, ponderosa pine has been the primary species utilized by a 

timber industry that has existed since the earliest 

European settlement of the area, which began soon 

after the Custer Expedition of 1874 when gold was 

discovered in French Creek. White spruce, which are 

locally known as Black Hills spruce, occasionally are 

intermixed with ponderosa pine stands, most commonly in locations that are particularly damp or well 

shaded. Various deciduous species exist throughout 

the study area, most commonly in bottom areas. Bur 

oak and ironwood typically are found at lower altitudes and give way to aspen and paper birch at higher 

altitudes (Ron Walker, Custer State Park, oral 

commun., 1989).
10 Hydrologic Effects of the 1988 Galena Fire, Black Hills Area, South Dakota

Figure 6. Land ownership in study area.

Red

Canyon

Creek

Beaver

Battle

Spokane

Gulch

Bear

Iron

Flynn

Creek

Cr

Spring

Creek

Creek

Creek

French

Lame

Johnny

Grace

Coolidge

Creek

Creek

Creek

Creek

Creek

Highland

Center

Lake

Legion

Lake

Bismarck

Lake

Stockade

Lake

Galena

PENNINGTON COUNTY

CUSTER COUNTY

Custer

Pringle

Hermosa

Fairburn

Keystone

Hayward

Hill City

Custer

State

Park

Custer

State

Park

103o45' 103o30' 103o15'

43o52'30"

43o45'

43o37'30"

0 6 1 MILES 2 5 3 4

0 6 1 KILOMETERS 2 5 3 4

Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey digital data, 1:100,000, 1977

Land ownership data from U.S. Forest Service digital data, 1:100,000, 2003

Universal Transverse Mercator projection, zone 13

X

X

Mt.

Coolidge

Harney

Peak

EXPLANATION

CUSTER STATE PARK

Wind Cave National Park

Mt. Rushmore

National

Memorial

NORBECK WILDLIFE PRESERVE

BLACK ELK WILDERNESS

PRIVATE

BLACK HILLS NATIONAL FOREST

NATIONAL PARK
Description of Study Area 11

Land use within the study area historically has 

been dominated by timber harvesting and cattle 

grazing. One or both of these land uses have occurred 

to at least some extent throughout most of the study area 

since shortly after the Custer Expedition, in support of 

the mining industry. Grazing typically has been concentrated in the more heavily grassed bottom areas, many 

of which are in private ownership. Grassed understories 

within timber stands frequently are utilized during 

summer months, and private grazing permits are issued 

for many allotments within the Black Hills National 

Forest. An important focus of land management within 

Custer State Park is production of grasses for grazing 

by buffalo and a variety of big game.

Numerous other land uses have existed within 

the study area. Initial settlement of the area was during 

the gold rush, so in addition to mining, other support 

industries such as railroads and agriculture were 

common. Current mining activity is minimal, but most 

private lands exist on former mining claims or along 

relatively open bottom areas where agricultural activities (including grazing) were feasible. At the higher 

altitudes, cultivated cropland is uncommon and agricultural activities generally are limited to animal husbandry and hay production. Tourism has been a stable 

industry in the area since soon after the horseless 

carriage was invented. Outdoor recreation, including 

bicycling, fishing, hiking, and hunting, have become 

increasingly popular throughout the Black Hills area. 

During recent years, suburban growth has been 

increasing around the small communities in the study 

area. Although there are no urban areas within Custer 

State Park, tourist accommodations and facilities for 

Park staff are similar to many suburban areas 

throughout the study area.

Timber Management and Burn Characteristics

Most studies that have addressed the effects of 

timber harvest on water yield have utilized various 

indices of timber stand condition or density. Numerous 

records undoubtedly exist for various tracts of USFS 

land within the study area; however, documenting 

changes in timber stand conditions for numerous tracts 

of private land in the study area would not be practical. 

It is useful, however, to provide a general overview of 

the history of timber management in the area.

Streamflow records considered for this study 

could potentially be influenced by timber management 

dating back many decades. Various photographs taken 

during the 1874 Custer Expedition have been used to 

document long-term increases in ponderosa pine density (Progulske, 1974; Grafe and Horsted, 2002), and 

an example photograph pair is shown in figure 7. 

Increased density has resulted primarily from implementation of fire suppression since the arrival of 

European settlers in the area. Many parts of the French 

Creek drainage upstream from Stockade Lake have 

particularly large open areas that may result from a 

combination of fire effects before 1874 and subsequent human maintenance of open areas. In general, 

fire suppression can substantially reduce both the general percentages of open areas and ratios of mature to 

immature pines in typical stands. Fire suppression 

also causes reduced species diversity with increased 

dominance of ponderosa pine (Brown and Sieg,

1996).

Most studies of hydrologic effects of timber 

harvest have been conducted in small watersheds 

under highly controlled conditions. Hydrologic effects 

of timber management may be difficult to discern in 

large watersheds because timber stand conditions can 

be quite dynamic. Reduced timber stand density 

resulting from harvest or widespread mortality in a 

large watershed can be offset by ongoing timber 

growth in other parts of the watershed.

Timber Management

In spite of the wide variety in land ownership, 

timber management practices throughout the study 

area historically have been similar. Most parts of the 

study area with merchantable timber stands have been 

subject to selective-cut harvest practices during the 

last century and repeated rotational harvests have 

occurred in many locations. Logging methods in the 

study area have been largely independent of land ownership and over time have evolved from hand saws and 

animal-drawn equipment to complete mechanization, 

in many cases. Logging practices have evolved from 

high grading of the most desirable and accessible saw 

timber to highly controlled timber sales that can 

include pre-commercial thinning of non-merchantable 

timber throughout large areas. Large-scale clear cuts 

have been uncommon in the Black Hills area because 

of various factors including the particularly prolific 

germination characteristics of ponderosa pine in the 

area and propensity towards multi-story stands.
12 Hydrologic Effects of the 1988 Galena Fire, Black Hills Area, South Dakota

Figure 7. Photographs showing increase in pine forest between 1874 and 2000 in the Black Hills. (Photo pair is from the 

book, Exploring with Custer: The 1874 Black Hills Expedition, by Ernest Grafe and Paul Horsted. Published by Golden Valley 

Press, Custer, South Dakota. Information at www.custertrail.com. Used with permission.)

Wagon train passing through Castle Creek Valley, July 26, 1874
Description of Study Area 13

Figure 7. Photographs showing increase in pine forest between 1874 and 2000 in the Black Hills. (Photo pair is from the 

book, Exploring with Custer: The 1874 Black Hills Expedition, by Ernest Grafe and Paul Horsted. Published by Golden Valley 

Press, Custer, South Dakota. Information at www.custertrail.com. Used with permission.)—Continued

July 2000
14 Hydrologic Effects of the 1988 Galena Fire, Black Hills Area, South Dakota

Local logging practices at any given time typically have been heavily influenced by standards established by the USFS, which administers the majority of 

forest lands in the study area. The Black Hills Forest 

Reserve was established in 1897 by President Grover 

Cleveland and in 1905 was transferred to the USFS, an 

agency of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, for 

management of forested lands in the Black Hills (U.S. 

Forest Service, 1994). It was renamed the Black Hills 

National Forest in 1907. The first commercial timber 

sale on Federal forested land in the United States was 

authorized in 1898 near the town of Nemo in the 

northern Black Hills (fig. 2). 

In 1912, about 50,000 acres in Custer County 

were designated Custer State Forest, which was established as Custer State Park in 1919 through efforts by 

South Dakota Governor Peter Norbeck. Additional 

lands were acquired in the 1920s and in 1964. Custer 

State Park now encompasses about 71,000 acres and is 

one of the largest State parks in the United States.

From 1917 to 1927, approximately 45 million 

board feet of pine timber were harvested from Custer 

State Forest/Park (Walker and others, 1995). In 1927, 

the South Dakota Legislature limited harvesting in 

Custer State Park to 100,000 board feet per year. There 

are no records of timber sales from 1927-1951 (Walker 

and others, 1995). 

Extensive non-commercial timber management 

occurred in Custer State Park during the 1930s through 

efforts by the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC). The 

CCC also made many improvements throughout the 

park including campgrounds, lodges, roads, and 

bridges. Additionally, the CCC built the dams that 

created Stockade, Center, and Legion Lakes.

Timber harvesting in Custer State Park resumed 

in 1951; however, management activities generally 

were very limited until the late 1970s when an aggressive timber management program was initiated. Extensive pre-commercial thinning was performed in the 

northwestern part of Custer State Park as part of this 

program. Effects of thinning activities are visible in an 

aerial photograph from 1978 (fig. 8), in which the 

western boundary of Custer State Park is clearly 

apparent because of lower timber density east of the 

boundary. The boundary also is clearly apparent in an 

aerial photograph from 2000 (fig. 8), which shows a 

general reversal of relative timber densities that 

resulted from timber growth within Custer State Park 

and decreased density from timber harvest that 

occurred west of the boundary during the 1990s. Thus, 

the dynamic nature of timber stand density is well illustrated by these aerial photographs. 

Relatively recent (last few decades) timber management in many parts of the drainages used for comparisons with Grace Coolidge Creek probably has been 

fairly similar to that which has occurred in Custer State 

Park. A general exception is the Norbeck Wildlife Preserve, which was established in 1920 by Congress. The 

preserve includes about 35,000 acres, of which 

27,800 acres are managed by the USFS and most of the 

rest is part of Custer State Park (fig. 6). A relatively 

long period of logging inactivity in the Norbeck Wildlife Preserve occurred between the Cayauga Timber 

sale in the 1970s and the Needles 2 Timber sale that 

began in 2002 (Blaine Cook, U.S. Forest Service, oral 

commun., 2003) because of environmental challenges. 

The Norbeck Wildlife Preserve includes the 13,426-

acre Black Elk Wilderness Area (fig. 6), which was 

established in 1980 and in which logging activity is 

precluded because mechanized equipment is not 

allowed.

Burn Characteristics

The Galena Fire (figs. 1 and 9), which burned 

16,788 acres, stands out as the most notable recent 

change in forest cover within the study area. About 

8,569 acres (13.4 mi2) of the burned area were within 

the 26.8 mi2

 drainage area for gaging station 

06404998, which represents about 50 percent of the 

drainage area. In 1990, the Cicero Peak Fire burned 

about 14,203 acres along both sides of the western 

boundary of Custer State Park, from the southwestern 

edge of the Galena Fire and extending to about 6 mi 

south of there (fig. 10). The Cicero Peak Fire was primarily within the Flynn Creek drainage and other 

drainages to the south, but also included a small part 

(about 9 mi2) of the French Creek drainage, which is 

used for comparisons with burned drainages. 

Numerous other small fires with little potential for substantial hydrologic influence have occurred during 

recent decades; however, no documentation or evidence of other particularly large fires in the study area 

has been identified.
Description of Study Area 15

Figure 8. Aerial photographs showing changes in forest cover near northwestern corner of Custer State Park.

Custer

State

Park

Image

area

SOUTH DAKOTA

Study

area

Study

area

Photograph from July 27, 1978 Photograph from June 5, 2000

Photographs courtesy of Custer State Park
16 Hydrologic Effects of the 1988 Galena Fire, Black Hills Area, South Dakota

Figure 9. Landsat image of area burned by Galena Fire. Custer State Park boundary depicted on 1988

image is generalized.

103o30' 103o25' 103o20'

43o45'

43o50'

43o40'

U.S. Geological Survey/Geography Discipline, EROS Data Center

LANDSAT Thematic Mapper, 7/27/1988

Modified from Scene ID: Y4220317055XO

Universal Transverse Mercator projection, zone 13
Description of Study Area 17

Figure 10. Timber mortality in Custer State Park following the Galena Fire in 1988 and the Cicero Peak Fire in 1990.

TIMBER MORTALITY AND LAND COVER

Complete (100 percent) timber kill

Less than 50 percent timber kill

Between 50 and 100 percent timber kill

Rock

Non-timbered

Surviving stands

No data

Creek

Beaver

Battle

Spokane

Gulch

Bear

Iron

Flynn

Creek

Cr

Creek

Creek

Creek

Creek

French

French

Lame

Johnny

Grace

Coolidge

Creek

Creek

Creek

Creek

Highland

Center

Lake

Legion

Lake

Bismarck

Lake

Stockade

Lake

Galena

PENNINGTON CO

CUSTER CO

Custer

Pringle

Hayward

Custer

State

Park

0 6 1 MILES 2 5 3 4

0 6 1 KILOMETERS 2 5 3 4

Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey digital data, 1:100,000, 1977

Timber and land cover data from Custer State Park digital data, 1:24,000

Fire perimeters from U.S. Forest Service digital data, 1:100,000

Universal Transverse Mercator projection, zone 13

Mt.

Coolidge

Harney

Peak

EXPLANATION

CUSTER STATE PARK

Wind Cave National Park

Mt. Rushmore

National

Memorial

103o30' 103o15'

43o52'30"

43o45'

43o37'30"

X

Cicero X

Peak

Fire

perimeter

Galena Fire

perimeter

Cicero

Peak

Fire

perimeter

Galena Fire

perimeter
18 Hydrologic Effects of the 1988 Galena Fire, Black Hills Area, South Dakota

As with most forest fires, burn intensities of the 

Galena Fire varied immensely. A few limited areas suffered only partial consumption of surface fuels, usually 

within valley bottoms. Most hillslopes and hilltops 

burned much more intensely, however, because of 

generally drier fuels, better air circulation, and upward 

convection of massive heat generated. Total crown consumption was common in many such areas. Because of 

extreme fire conditions, particularly large tracts were 

burned very intensely, with total mortality of timber 

stands occurring in numerous and widespread areas 

(fig. 10), accounting for about 54 percent of the area 

within the fire perimeter. About 29 percent of the area 

within the fire perimeter had partial timber mortality, 

and only 7 percent of the area had surviving timber 

stands initially following the fire. Most of the sparse 

remaining surviving timber stands have suffered additional mortality from wind throw, breakage, and disease 

(Walker and others, 1995). About 10 percent of the area 

within the fire perimeter was non-timbered.

Available fuel in many of the severely burned 

areas was almost entirely consumed, with the general 

exception of standing tree boles, which typically do not 

burn completely. Such areas typically incurred crown 

consumption; near-total consumption of surface fuels, 

which include forest floor litter and fuels to a height of 

about 4 ft; and widespread consumption of ground 

fuels, which include duff, roots, punky wood, and peat 

located beneath the floor litter (Walker and others, 

1995). Ground-surface temperatures were sufficient to 

cause spalling of rocks (fig. 11) in many locations.

Figure 11. Spalling of granite due to intense heat from

Galena Fire.

Photograph by Dietrich H. Whitesides

One possible effect of forest fire is development 

of water repellent or “hydrophobic” soils (Doerr and 

others, 2000) that can increase runoff potential because 

of decreased permeability within the soil horizon. 

When surface and ground fuels burn, the types of volatile organic compounds that are released depend upon 

the temperature of the fire. Some of the compounds 

may condense on soil particles below the soil surface 

where temperatures are relatively cooler than at the soil 

surface. This process does not necessarily create a 

uniform hydrophobic layer below the soil surface 

because the fire-induced hydrophobicity reflects the 

mosaic distribution of surface and ground fuels that 

burn and the variable heat impulse from the fire into the 

soil (DeBano, 2000). 

Initial post-fire remediation consisted of various 

components (South Dakota Department of Environment and Natural Resources, 1991). Logging operations that were performed by private contractors during 

1988-89 salvaged virtually all accessible stands of 

merchantable timber within the burn area. The Soil 

Conservation Service participated in several watershed 

stabilization projects in various severely burned locations that were prioritized for erosion control measures. 

Sediment traps were constructed from straw bales in 

numerous small channels. Hillside terraces that were 

anchored with downslope log barriers were constructed 

using earth-moving equipment in selected locations. 

Cross-slope felling and slash spreading were implemented in some hillside areas, and occasional slash 

piling was emplaced in small channels. Various agencies participated in aerial seeding efforts during 1988, 

with yellow blossom sweet clover sown over about 

5,000 acres of severely burned hillsides and annual rye 

grass sown over about 500 acres of drainage bottoms. 

Additional remediation efforts included limited 

pine seeding (totaling about 300 acres) and seeding of 

grass mixes on logging roads (about 140 acres 

including about 20 acres of landings). Reseeding of 

grass mixes was done in a 970-acre area in the Bear 

Gulch drainage after a 1989 survey indicated failure to 

meet an established target of 20 percent ground cover 

(South Dakota Department of Environment and Natural 

Resources, 1991). A 1990 survey indicated exceedance 

of a 40 percent ground cover target in nearly all areas 

that were seeded (Walker and others, 1995); thus, no 

further seeding was performed.

Regeneration of woody vegetation, including 

ponderosa pine, has been particularly slow in the 

burned area. Regeneration of species such as bur oak, 
Previous Investigations 19

ironwood, aspen, and birch probably has been slow 

because root stock was entirely consumed in many 

locations. Regeneration of ponderosa pine has been 

slow in many locations because of sparsity and remoteness of seed stock. Pictures showing the aftermath 

(circa 1988-89) are presented in figure 12. The 

regrowth of vegetation following the fire is documented in a series of post-fire photographs taken from 

a site on the northeastern flank of Mt. Coolidge 

(fig. 13). Particularly heavy growth of yellow blossom 

sweet clover occurred during 1990. Various grasses and 

forbs, such as clover and dandelions, also began to 

re-establish, and vegetation has been dominated by 

grasses during subsequent years.

PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS

Numerous previous investigations have documented hydrologic effects of logging activities. Most of 

these studies have been in controlled settings and have 

indicated increased water yield associated with 

decreased forest cover (Bosch and Hewlett, 1982) 

because of decreased evapotranspiration potential. 

Hydrologic changes after logging in Oregon coastal 

watersheds were presented by Harris (1977) and 

Beschta (1978). During the 7 years following logging 

in the watershed, sediment yield increased about 

180 percent and annual runoff increased 19 in. (Harris, 

1977). More recently, Bowling and others (2000) 

reported on the hydrologic effects of logging on 23 

watersheds in western Washington. 

Locally, Anderson (1980) evaluated the effects 

of selective timber harvest on water yield in the 

Sturgis Watersheds, which was a small research site 

operated by the USFS in the northern Black Hills of 

South Dakota. For 8 years of post-harvest data, 

measured annual water yield in the harvested watershed averaged 8.05 in., relative to a predicted yield of 

6.12 in., based on regression analysis with annual 

yield for a control watershed. Thus, annual yield 

increased 1.93 in., or about 30 percent, relative to preharvest conditions. The largest increases generally 

occurred during the wettest years; however, percentage increases were largest during dry years. No 

discernible decrease in yield characteristics occurred 

during the 8-year post-harvest period for which data 

were collected.

Various previous investigations also have 

addressed hydrologic effects of forest fire, which typically can include increased stormflow potential and 

associated erosion rates from removal of ground cover 

and development of water-repellent characteristics in 

the soil horizon. Local investigations are sparse; however, data for 1989-91 for Bear Gulch (within the area 

of the Galena Fire) were considered by Moody and 

Martin (2001), who explored post-fire relations 

between rainfall intensity and peak discharge for three 

mountainous watersheds in the western United States. 

This study showed that the change in the unit-area peak 

discharge for burned drainages is greater for the more 

frequent, lower intensity rainfall events than for the less 

frequent, higher intensity rainfall events.

Figure 12. Aftermath of Galena Fire in severely burned areas.

Photographs by Mark T. Anderson

August 1988 May 1989
20 Hydrologic Effects of the 1988 Galena Fire, Black Hills Area, South Dakota

Figure 13. Progression of post-fire vegetation recovery at a site on the northeastern flank of Mt. Coolidge (photographs taken

during October, courtesy of Rollie Larson, retired Rapid City Central High School ecology teacher).

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1995
Previous Investigations 21

Figure 13. Progression of post-fire vegetation recovery at a site on the northeastern flank of Mt. Coolidge (photographs taken

during October, courtesy of Rollie Larson, retired Rapid City Central High School ecology teacher).—Continued

1996

1998

1999

2001

2002

2003
22 Hydrologic Effects of the 1988 Galena Fire, Black Hills Area, South Dakota

Following studies of fire effects in southern 

California mountains, Colman (1953) reported that erosion rates remained above normal for at least 8 years 

following fire and that flood peaks of streams remained 

above normal for at least 20 years. Streamflow records 

from mountain streams in north-central Washington 

before, during, and after a fire in 1970 that burned over 

120,000 acres showed that streamflow was greatly 

reduced while the fire was actively burning and that 

streamflow quickly increased to above-normal conditions following the fire (Berndt, 1971). Hydrologic 

effects in the years following the 1970 Washington fire 

were reported by Helvey (1973) and Helvey and others 

(1976).

The U.S. Forest Service (1979) summarized 

hydrologic effects of fire based on studies across the 

United States through 1978. The effects summarized 

included land stability, erosion, sedimentation, mass 

erosion, nutrient concentrations, and biological composition.

Flooding and debris flows were documented by 

Parrett (1987) for a small Missouri River tributary near 

Helena, Montana, following a forest fire and subsequent rainfall event in 1984. No significant runoff from 

unburned tributaries contributed to the documented 

flooding that yielded unit peak debris discharges 

ranging from 143 to 34,000 (ft3/s)/mi2

 and moved an 

estimated 80,000 yd3 of material. 

Changes in water-quality characteristics for a 

reservoir in west-central California following a large 

fire in 1985 and a flood in 1986 are documented by 

Taylor and others (1993). Following the Yellowstone 

fires of 1988, the observed channel response of a 

spring-fed stream in eastern Idaho was documented by 

Simon (1999). Following a wildfire in 1996 near the 

mountain community of Buffalo Creek, Colorado, rainfall events over the next 3 years produced 10 floods 

larger than a 100-year (pre-fire conditions) flood and 

numerous smaller floods (Jarrett, 1999). 

A study of infiltration rates following a prescribed fire in Northern Rocky Mountain forests 

showed greater runoff rates from areas with highseverity burn than unburned and low-severity burn 

areas, especially during the initial stages of the first 

simulated rainfall event (Robichaud, 2000). The results 

indicated hydrophobic or water repellent soil conditions, which temporarily caused a 10 to 40 percent 

reduction in hydraulic conductivity values when compared to a normal infiltrating soil condition.

The effects of wildfires in 1977 and 1996 on the 

hydrology of two watersheds in Bandelier National 

Monument, New Mexico, were documented by 

Veenhuis (2002). The peak flow at one streamflowgaging station was about 160 times the maximum 

recorded flood prior to the fire. The hydrologic effects 

were most pronounced during the first 3 years following the fire; however, flood magnitudes had not 

completely returned to pre-fire conditions following 

the 1977 fire. 

Drainage basin characteristics and initial 

channel response to storm rainfall for 95 recently 

burned drainage basins in Colorado, New Mexico, and 

southern California are documented by Cannon 

(2001). Debris flows were produced from about 

40 percent of the basins examined. Sediment-laden 

streamflow was produced in most of the remaining 

basins, whereas a few basins showed no discernible 

response. The study concluded that drainage basin 

morphology and lithology and the presence or 

absence of water-repellent soils are the factors that 

control the generation of fire-related debris flows.

DATA SETS CONSIDERED AND HYDROLOGIC 

CONSIDERATIONS

The primary focus of this report is evaluation of 

effects of the Galena Fire on streamflow characteristics, including both annual-yield and peak-flow characteristics. Within this section, a description of data sets 

considered and an overview of various hydrologic considerations relevant to evaluating effects on streamflow 

characteristics is presented.

Data Sets Considered

Precipitation and streamflow records for 

numerous measurement sites have been considered in 

evaluating the hydrologic effects of the Galena Fire. 

Some of the measurement sites were installed specifically for this study; however, records for numerous 

other sites also are considered, as discussed in the 

following sections.

Precipitation Data

Many of the precipitation data sets that are used 

within this report are from Driscoll and others (2000), 
Data Sets Considered and Hydrologic Considerations 23

who summarized available precipitation data for water 

years 1931-98 for the Black Hills area. These investigators compiled monthly precipitation records for 52 

long-term precipitation gages operated by National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and 42 shortterm precipitation gages operated by the USGS. The 

precipitation gages that are within the study area are 

shown in figure 14 and selected site information for 

these gages is presented in table 1. Driscoll and others 

(2000) used a geographic information system (GIS) to 

generate spatial distributions of monthly precipitation 

data for 1,000-by-1,000-meter grid cells for the Black 

Hills area. Data sets and methods developed by these 

investigators were used for estimating precipitation 

amounts over drainage areas for selected streamflowgaging stations using monthly precipitation distributions that were compiled by water year.

Most of the USGS precipitation gages listed in 

table 1 were installed and operated specifically for the 

study of fire effects. Many of these were nonrecording 

gages operated by observers, who reported daily precipitation totals. A number of recording gages, which 

can provide information regarding precipitation intensity, also were operated.

Streamflow Data

Streamflow-gaging stations used for analyses in 

this report that are located within the study area are 

shown in figure 1, and stations outside the study area 

are shown in figure 2. Selected site information for all 

gaging stations is presented in table 2. Data for the 

gaging stations that are used in analyses in this report 

have been published in USGS annual data reports (U.S. 

Geological Survey, 1968-99). About one-half of the 

drainage area for station 06404998 (Grace Coolidge 

Creek near Game Lodge) is within the burn area, with 

streamflow records dating back to 1977. Station 

06405000 (Grace Coolidge Creek near Custer), which 

was located a short distance downstream, has records 

for 1967-76. This station was eventually discontinued 

and moved upstream to the current location when it was 

determined that the original station was located within 

the upstream part of the reach where streamflow losses 

occur to the Madison Limestone. Thus, low-flow 

records for the downstream station were not considered 

for analyses of annual-yield characteristics. High-flow 

records were used for analyses of peak-flow characteristics, however, because effects of streamflow losses on 

peak flows are negligible. 

Table 1. Summary of selected site information for precipitation gages within study area

[Station type: N, Nonrecording gage (year-round); R, Recording gage (year-round); S, seasonal gage]

Site number

(fig. 14) Station number Station name Station 

type

Period of record

(water years)

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration stations

1 392087 Custer N 1931-98

2 393775 Hermosa 3SSW N 1941-98

3 393868 Hill City N 1955-98

4 394556 Keystone N 1990-97

5 395870 Mt. Rushmore National Memorial N 1962-98

U.S. Geological Survey stations

6 06404000 Battle Creek near Keystone N 1988-98

7 06405800 Bear Gulch near Hayward R 1989-98

8 434002103214500 Racetrack Butte near Fairburn R 1984-98

9 434444103282000 Custer State Park at Mt. Coolidge R 1984-90

10 434534103290500 Mt. Coolidge near Custer R 1990-98

11 434638103253500 Road Camp at Custer State Park N 1989-98

12 434645103240700 Water Treatment Plant at Custer State Park S 1989-98

13 434732103305500 Bismark Lake near Custer S 1989-98

14 434807103235400 Center Lake near Hayward R 1989-98

15 434928103214800 North Farm at Custer State Park S 1989-98

16 434939103272800 Camp Remington near Hayward R 1989-98

17 435355103432800 Medicine Mountain near Custer R1 1989-98

1Operated as nonrecording gage prior to 1994.
24 Hydrologic Effects of the 1988 Galena Fire, Black Hills Area, South Dakota

Figure 14. Location of precipitation gages within study area. Precipitation amounts for a storm on September 7, 1989, also 

are shown.

Center

Lake

Red

Canyon

Creek

Beaver

Battle

Spokane

Gulch

Bear

Iron

Flynn

Creek

Cr

Spring

Creek

Creek

Creek

French

Lame

Johnny

Grace

Coolidge

Creek

Creek

Creek

Creek

Creek

Highland

Legion

Lake

Bismarck

Lake

Stockade

Lake

Galena

PENNINGTON COUN PENNINGTON COUNTY

CUSTER C CUSTER COUNTY

PENNINGTON COUNTY

CUSTER COUNTY

Custer

Pringle

Hermosa

Fairburn

Keystone

Hayward

Hill City

5

0.60

4

3

0.15

2

0.55

2

0.55

8

1.15

1

1.38

Custer

State

Park

Custer

State

Park

103o45' 103o30' 103o15'

43o52'30"

43o45'

43o37'30"

0 6 1 MILES 2 5 3 4

0 6 1 KILOMETERS 2 5 3 4

Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey digital data, 1:100,000, 1977

Universal Transverse Mercator projection, zone 13

X

X

Mt.

Coolidge

Harney

Peak

EXPLANATION

CUSTER STATE PARK

PRECIPITATION GAGE—Upper number is site number

 in table 1. Lower number is precipitation, in inches,

 for September 7, 1989, where available (data from

 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,

 1989, and U.S. Geological Survey, 1990)

Operated by National Oceanic and Atmospheric

 Administration

Operated by U.S. Geological Survey

Wind Cave National Park

Mt. Rushmore

National

Memorial

9

1.65

8

1.15

7

1.84

6

0.43

17

0.10

16

0.43

15

1.70

14

1.86

13

12

11 1.90

1.65

10
Data Sets Considered and Hydrologic Considerations 25

Table 2. Selected site information for streamflow-gaging stations used in analyses

[B, burned; U, unburned; AY, annual yield; PF, peak flow]

Station

number Station name

Drainage

area

(square

miles)

Period of record 

considered

(water years)

Watershed

condition

Analytic

usage

B U AY PF

106402500 Beaver Creek near Buffalo Gap 130 1967-98 X X

2

06403300 French Creek above Fairburn 105 31983-98 X X X

206404000 Battle Creek near Keystone 458.5 1967-98 X X X

206404800 Grace Coolidge Creek near Hayward 7.48 1990-98 X X

206404998 Grace Coolidge Creek near Game Lodge, near Custer 426.8 1977-87 X X X

1989-98 X X

1988-98 X X

206405000 Grace Coolidge Creek near Custer 426.9 1967-76 X X

206405800 Bear Gulch near Hayward 4.23 1990-98 X X

106422500 Boxelder Creek near Nemo 96.0 1973-98 X X

106425500 Elk Creek near Elm Springs 540 1967-98 X X

106431500 Spearfish Creek at Spearfish 168 1967-98 X X

1

06436190 Whitewood Creek near Whitewood 77.4 1982-98 X X

1

Location shown in figure 2. 2Location shown in figure 1. 3Available partial record in water year 1982 (April-September) used for peak-flow analyses. 4

Revised values.

Station 06404800 (Grace Coolidge Creek near 

Hayward) was installed after the fire, just upstream 

from the burn area (fig. 1). This station provides data 

for the unburned headwaters of the Grace Coolidge 

Creek drainage and, as such, serves as a control watershed for comparative purposes. Another streamflowgaging station (06405800) was installed after the fire 

on Bear Gulch, which is tributary to Grace Coolidge 

Creek several miles downstream from station 

06404998. The Bear Gulch drainage was severely 

burned, with complete deforestation occurring in 

nearly the entirety of the area upstream from the gaging 

station. 

Several existing streamflow-gaging stations 

(table 2) also were considered for comparisons with 

streamflow data for the burned areas (Grace Coolidge 

Creek and Bear Gulch). Stations along French Creek 

and Battle Creek (fig. 1, table 2) were considered as 

control watersheds for analyses of effects on annualyield characteristics, and various additional stations 

were considered for analyses of effects on peak-flow 

characteristics (fig. 2, table 2).

Hydrologic Considerations

Various hydrologic considerations have been 

important in evaluating effects of the Galena Fire on 

streamflow characteristics. Selection of appropriate 

streamflow records for comparisons between burned 

and unburned areas has required consideration of 

various factors. For analysis of annual-yield characteristics, pre-fire and post-fire comparisons are possible 

using records for station 06404998, Grace Coolidge 

Creek near Game Lodge, of which about one-half of 

the drainage area was burned (fig. 1). For this station, 

11 years of pre-fire data (WY 1977-87) and 10 years of 

post-fire data (WY 1989-98) are available (table 2). 

Data for WY 1988, which is when the Galena Fire 

occurred, are not considered for analysis of annualyield characteristics. Bear Gulch (station 06405800) is 

not considered for analysis of annual-yield characteristics because pre-fire data are not available. 

Unburned drainages considered for analysis of 

annual-yield characteristics include French Creek and 

Battle Creek, which are located immediately south and 

north, respectively, of Grace Coolidge Creek. For the 
26 Hydrologic Effects of the 1988 Galena Fire, Black Hills Area, South Dakota

French Creek station (06403300), only 5 years of data 

are available for the pre-fire period (WY1983-87); 

however, records for Battle Creek (station 06404000) 

are much longer and pre-date records for Grace 

Coolidge Creek (table 2). Thus, comparisons with 

Battle Creek are most useful for analysis of effects of 

fire on annual-yield characteristics in Grace Coolidge 

Creek. Furthermore, both of these drainages have very 

similar hydrogeologic characteristics. Large outcrop 

areas of the Harney Peak Granite and other similar 

rocks occur in both drainages (DeWitt and others, 

1989). Precipitation patterns also are very similar 

(fig. 2) and are influenced by a topographic high that is 

generally centered around Harney Peak and extending 

from about Mount Coolidge to Mount Rushmore.

A number of drainages are considered for analysis of peak-flow characteristics. Consideration of both 

pre- and post-fire records are possible for Grace 

Coolidge Creek near Game Lodge (station 06404998) 

and comparisons are made with various stations along 

the eastern flank of the Black Hills (fig. 2) for which 

pre- and post-fire records are available. Peak-flow 

characteristics for Bear Gulch (station 06405800) can 

be considered only for the post-fire period. The size of 

the severely burned drainage area for this station 

(table 2) is comparable to that for Grace Coolidge 

Creek near Hayward (station 06404800), which is 

upstream from the burn area and also was installed after 

the fire.

Comparability of precipitation patterns between 

drainage basins is another important consideration in 

evaluating streamflow characteristics. Peak-flow 

events often result from relatively short-term, highintensity precipitation events, which generally tend to 

have extremely large spatial variability in precipitation 

amounts and intensities. Thus, for consideration of 

peak-flow characteristics, comparability of annual precipitation patterns may not be particularly important. 

Annual-yield characteristics, however, are highly influenced by annual precipitation amounts (Driscoll and 

Carter, 2001), as shown by relations between annual 

yield efficiency and precipitation (fig. 15) for the 

Figure 15. Relations between annual yield efficiency and precipitation for selected drainage basins.

0 10 15 20 25 30 35 5

PRECIPITATION, IN INCHES

0

5

10

15

20

25

YIELD EFFICIENCY, IN PERCENT

French Creek above Fairburn (06403300), water years 1983-98

Battle Creek near Keystone (06404000), water years 1962-98
Hydrologic Effects of the Galena Fire 27

unburned control watersheds (French Creek and Battle 

Creek). Data sets for these stations are provided in 

table 8 in the Supplemental Information section at the 

back of the report. For these basins, annual yield efficiencies (ratios of annual streamflow yield, in inches, to 

annual precipitation, in inches) have varied by as much 

as an order of magnitude over the range of measured 

conditions.

A comparison of annual precipitation amounts 

for the drainage areas associated with stations 

06403300 (French Creek), 06404000 (Battle Creek), 

and 06404998 (Grace Coolidge Creek near Game 

Lodge), is presented in figure 16; data considered are 

provided in table 8. Annual precipitation for periods of 

overlapping streamflow record are shown for Battle and 

Grace Coolidge Creeks. For French Creek, annual precipitation is shown for the entire period of available 

streamflow record. Annual means (WY 1977-98) for 

Battle and Grace Coolidge Creeks are nearly identical 

(21.24 and 21.37 in., respectively). The annual mean 

(WY 1983-98) for French Creek (20.95 in.) is notably 

lower than for Grace Coolidge Creek for the same 

period (22.66 in.), which is consistent with the longterm spatial patterns indicated by figure 2. 

An important trend in precipitation patterns is 

shown by the plots of cumulative annual precipitation 

departures for WY 1977-98 for the Battle and Grace 

Coolidge Creek drainages (fig. 17). These plots clearly 

indicate a pattern of generally average to below-average 

precipitation through WY 1988 and average to aboveaverage precipitation during the post-fire period. 

Climatic conditions during WY 1995-98 were particularly wet, with annual precipitation substantially above 

average in the French, Battle, and Grace Coolidge 

Creek drainages (fig. 16).

The above-average precipitation trends during 

the late 1990s are an extremely important consideration 

in evaluating the effects of forest fire on streamflow 

characteristics. Because yield efficiencies generally 

increase with increasing annual precipitation (fig. 15), 

distinctions between climatic and fire-related effects 

are confounded, as illustrated in figure 18, which shows 

daily duration hydrographs for pre- and post-fire 

periods for Battle and Grace Coolidge Creeks. Flow 

characteristics for both drainages are consistently 

higher for the post-fire period, for all but the largest 

exceedance percentiles (which represent extreme lowflow characteristics). 

Low-flow characteristics are nearly identical for 

pre- and post-fire periods for Battle Creek, with zeroflow conditions occurring about 7 percent of the time 

for both periods (fig. 18). For Grace Coolidge Creek, 

extreme low-flow conditions are less common than 

for Battle Creek, with zero-flow conditions occurring 

only about 0.2 percent of the time during the pre-fire 

period and 0.8 percent of the time during the post-fire 

period. The post-fire, low-flow characteristics for both 

stations are predominantly affected by conditions 

during WY 1989, near the end of the drought conditions during which the Galena Fire occurred. 

Figure 18 excludes flow records for WY 1988, for 

which mean annual flow is the lowest year of record 

for both stations (U.S. Geological Survey, 1999). 

HYDROLOGIC EFFECTS OF THE GALENA FIRE

Hydrologic effects of the Galena Fire have 

included effects on geomorphology, water quality, and 

streamflow. This section of the report includes a brief 

summary of effects on geomorphology and water 

quality, and a detailed description of effects on streamflow characteristics.

Effects on Geomorphology and Water Quality

The USGS was involved with cursory studies 

of geomorphologic and water-quality effects immediately following the Galena Fire. These studies 

were performed in conjunction with the South 

Dakota School of Mines and Technology, and were 

completed by 1990. Results were described in two 

unpublished M.S. theses and are summarized within 

this section.

Whitesides (1989) described geomorphologic 

effects of the Galena Fire, including effects on erosion 

and sedimentation. Moderately burned areas did not 

experience substantial increases in rates of surface 

erosion. Severely burned areas, however, underwent 

surficial erosion nearly twice that of the unburned 

areas, with south-facing slopes experiencing more 

erosion than north-facing slopes in both severely 

burned and unburned areas. The increased erosion was 

caused by a combination of sheet erosion and wind 

erosion. The sediment production rate of Bear Gulch 

estimated 8 to 14 months after the fire was 

870 ft3

/acre (44 tons/acre).
28 Hydrologic Effects of the 1988 Galena Fire, Black Hills Area, South Dakota

Figure 16. Annual precipitation for drainage areas of selected streamflow-gaging stations.

Figure 17. Cumulative departure from long-term average annual precipitation for selected drainage areas,

water years 1977-98.

1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

WATER YEAR

0

10

5

15

20

25

30

35

40

ANNUAL PRECIPITATION, IN INCHES

French Creek above Fairburn (06403300)

Battle Creek near Keystone (06404000)

Grace Coolidge Creek near Game Lodge,

 near Custer (06404998)

1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

WATER YEAR

-40

-30

-35

-25

-20

-15

-10

-5

5

0

PRECIPITATION DEPARTURE, IN INCHES

Battle Creek near Keystone (06404000)

 average annual precipitation = 21.24 inches

Grace Coolidge Creek near Game Lodge, near Custer (06404998)

 average annual precipitation = 21.37 inches
Hydrologic Effects of the Galena Fire 29

Figure 18. Duration hydrographs for selected streamflow-gaging stations.

Before fire (1977-87)

After fire (1989-98)

0.1 1 2 5 30 50 70 80 90 95 98 99 99.8 99.9 10 20

PERCENT OF TIME INDICATED VALUE WAS EQUALED OR EXCEEDED

Grace Coolidge Creek near Game Lodge, near Custer (06404998)

0.01

0.1

1

10

100

10,000

1,000

0.01

0.1

1

10

100

10,000

1,000

DAILY MEAN STREAMFLOW, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND

Before fire (1977-87)

After fire (1989-98)

Battle Creek near Keystone (06404000)
30 Hydrologic Effects of the 1988 Galena Fire, Black Hills Area, South Dakota

Whitesides (1989) also described effects of the 

Galena Fire on stream-channel morphology. Substantial degradation of stream channels within the severely 

burned headwater areas of Bear Gulch was documented. Farther downstream, channel aggradation 

resulted from deposition of sediments transported from 

the headwater areas. Movement of large quantities of 

sediment associated with several high-flow events that 

occurred soon after the fire also was described by 

Whitesides (1989).

Gundarlahalli (1990) described effects of the 

Galena Fire on water quality. Sampling locations 

(fig. 1) included Grace Coolidge Creek upstream 

(station 06404800) and downstream (station 

06404998) of the burn area and Bear Gulch (station 

06405800), which was extensively burned. The most 

notable effect was on concentrations of suspended sediment, which were orders of magnitude higher for Bear 

Gulch than for the unburned area. Concentrations of 

suspended sediment were intermediate for the downstream site on Grace Coolidge Creek, which was considered representative of a moderately burned area.

Effects on several other water-quality constituents, such as organic carbon and nitrogen and phosphorus nutrient constituents, probably were influenced 

by the large concentrations of suspended matter that 

were documented in initial post-fire, stormflow events 

(Gundarlahalli,1990). The first post-fire stormflow produced the highest measured concentrations of specific 

conductance, nitrogen, phosphorus, organic carbon, 

calcium, magnesium, potassium, manganese, and sulfate in the burned areas. For most constituents sampled, 

differences in concentrations between burned and 

unburned areas were no longer discernible within about 

1 year following the Galena Fire.

Large sediment loads resulting from the Galena 

Fire may have influenced streamflow losses to the 

Madison aquifer that occur along Grace Coolidge 

Creek downstream from station 06404998 (fig. 1). In 

an unrelated study, Hortness and Driscoll (1998) 

reported that calculated loss rates along Grace 

Coolidge Creek were consistently smaller for water 

years (WY) 1990-95 than calculated losses during WY 

1978 and WY 1996. Deposition of fine-grained sediment within the stream channel following the Galena 

Fire was hypothesized as the cause for the decrease in 

the loss rate.

Effects on Streamflow Characteristics

Within this section, effects of the Galena Fire on 

streamflow characteristics are evaluated. Evaluations 

of effects on both annual-yield and peak-flow characteristics are described.

Effects on Annual-Yield Characteristics

Numerous previous studies have indicated 

increased water yield following timber harvests; thus, 

increased yields also might be expected from decreased 

timber density resulting from forest fire, especially in 

areas with low to moderate burn intensity. Alternatively, one might hypothesize that in areas of highintensity burns, decreased shading from denuding of 

forest cover could result in increased evaporation. In 

this section, a variety of approaches are utilized to evaluate potential changes in annual-yield characteristics 

for Grace Coolidge Creek.

As discussed in the previous section, potential 

effects of the 1988 Galena Fire on annual-yield characteristics of Grace Coolidge Creek are evaluated using 

comparisons between station 06404998 (burned area) 

and stations on French Creek (06403300) and Battle 

Creek (06404000). Hydrographs showing annual yield 

(in inches) for these three stations are presented in 

figure 19. All three hydrographs clearly show trends of 

substantially increased yields in response to the particularly wet years of the 1990s (fig. 16).

Mass analysis (Linsley and others, 1982) is a 

simple plotting procedure that can be useful for examination of trend data. Plots of cumulative annual yield 

versus time are presented in figure 20 for periods of 

overlapping streamflow record between Grace 

Coolidge Creek and each of the two comparison basins 

(French Creek and Battle Creek). Increased trends in 

annual yield resulting from increased precipitation 

trends (fig. 16) are clearly indicated for all three basins 

by inflection points around 1990. Another change in 

slope reflecting the especially wet conditions during 

1995-98 also is apparent for each of the three basins.

Graphs of cumulative annual yield versus cumulative annual precipitation (double mass analysis) are 

presented in figure 21. Close examination of the upper 

plot in figure 21 indicates that contrary to the long-term 

regional pattern (fig. 2), cumulative precipitation for 

the French Creek drainage was slightly, but consistently, greater than or equal to cumulative precipitation 

for the Grace Coolidge Creek drainage for the first few 

years of overlapping streamflow record. Annual 
Hydrologic Effects of the Galena Fire 31

precipitation during the pre-burn period (WY 1983-87) 

averaged 18.46 and 18.21 in. for French Creek and 

Grace Coolidge Creek, respectively, compared with 

annual means of 22.91 and 24.67 in. for WY 1989-98. 

This subtle change in precipitation patterns contributes 

substantially to the large difference in annual yield patterns for the two drainages during these two periods 

(fig. 21). Thus, potential effects resulting from the 

Galena Fire cannot be distinguished from climatic 

effects, and no further comparisons are made between 

French Creek and Grace Coolidge Creek for analysis of 

annual-yield characteristics.

The lower plot in figure 21 indicates that subtle 

changes in precipitation patterns also occurred for the 

Battle Creek and Grace Coolidge Creek drainages; 

however, close examination of these data supports a 

conclusion of increased post-burn water yield for Grace 

Coolidge Creek. For the pre-burn period (WY 

1977-87), cumulative annual precipitation for Grace 

Coolidge Creek was slightly larger than for Battle 

Creek (fig. 21). Mean annual precipitation was about 

2 percent larger for Grace Coolidge Creek than for 

Battle Creek during this period (table 3). Mean annual 

yield and yield efficiency during the pre-burn period 

also were slightly larger for Grace Coolidge Creek than 

for Battle Creek (table 3), which is consistent with 

larger precipitation (fig. 15). During WY 1989-94, 

mean annual precipitation for Grace Coolidge Creek 

was less than 1 percent larger than for Battle Creek 

(table 3); however, divergence of the cumulative yield 

plots is much larger than divergence during the preburn period (fig. 21). During WY 1995-98, mean 

annual yields and yield efficiencies for Grace Coolidge 

Creek were substantially larger than for Battle Creek, 

in spite of slightly smaller mean annual precipitation 

(table 3). For the entire post-burn period (WY 

1989-98), when most of the divergence in cumulative 

yield occurred, mean annual precipitation for Grace 

Coolidge Creek was about 1 percent smaller than for 

Battle Creek. During the post-burn period, mean yield 

efficiency for Grace Coolidge Creek was 32 percent 

larger than for Battle Creek, compared with a 

16 percent differential for the pre-burn period.

Standard approaches to evaluation of increased 

yields typically would include determination of the statistical significance of yield increases. Because the distribution of mean annual precipitation between Grace 

Coolidge Creek and Battle Creek changed slightly 

during the pre-burn and post-burn periods, statistical 

evaluations described in the following paragraphs were 

performed using comparisons of yield efficiencies, 

which account for differences in annual precipitation.

Figure 19. Annual yield for French Creek, Battle Creek, and Grace Coolidge Creek.

1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

WATER YEAR

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

ANNUAL YIELD, IN INCHES

French Creek above Fairburn (06403300)

Battle Creek near Keystone (06404000)

Grace Coolidge Creek near Game Lodge,

 near Custer (06404998)
32 Hydrologic Effects of the 1988 Galena Fire, Black Hills Area, South Dakota

Figure 20. Mass analysis for selected streams in comparison to Grace Coolidge Creek.

1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

WATER YEAR

0

10

20

30

60

50

40

Battle Creek near Keystone (06404000)

Grace Coolidge Creek near Game Lodge,

 near Custer (06404998)

0

10

20

30

60

50

40

CUMULATIVE ANNUAL YIELD, IN INCHES

French Creek above Fairburn (06403300)

Grace Coolidge Creek near Game Lodge,

 near Custer (06404998)
Hydrologic Effects of the Galena Fire 33

Figure 21. Double mass analysis for selected streams in comparison to Grace Coolidge Creek.

1988

1988

0 100 50 200 300 400 500 150 250 350 450

CUMULATIVE ANNUAL PRECIPITATION, IN INCHES

Battle Creek near Keystone (06404000), water years 1977-98

Grace Coolidge Creek near Game Lodge, near Custer (06404998),

 water years 1977-98

0

10

20

30

60

50

40

0

10

20

30

60

50

40

CUMULATIVE ANNUAL YIELD, IN INCHES

French Creek above Fairburn (06403300), water years 1983-98

Grace Coolidge Creek near Game Lodge, near Custer (06404998),

 water years 1983-98
34 Hydrologic Effects of the 1988 Galena Fire, Black Hills Area, South Dakota

Table 3. Summary of precipitation and yield data for selected periods for Battle Creek and Grace Coolidge Creek

Period

(water years)

Battle Creek (06404000) Grace Coolidge Creek (06404998)

Mean annual 

precipitation 

(inches)

Mean annual

yield

(inches)

Mean yield

efficiency

(percent)

Mean annual 

precipitation

(inches)

Mean annual

yield

(inches)

Mean yield

efficiency

(percent)

1977-87 18.67 1.29 6.9 19.10 1.53 8.0

1989-94 21.90 1.92 8.8 22.05 2.57 11.7

1995-98 29.36 4.57 15.6 28.60 5.97 20.9

1989-98 24.89 2.98 12.0 24.67 3.93 15.9

A one-sided comparison of pre- and post-burn 

yield efficiencies for Grace Coolidge Creek using the 

Wilcoxon rank-sum test (Helsel and Hirsch, 1992) confirms that the post-burn increase is statistically significant (p-value = 0.012), which indicates a 98.8 percent 

probability that the increase is not a chance occurrence. 

The same test for Battle Creek indicates that because of 

increased yield efficiency associated with increased 

precipitation (fig. 15), yield efficiency for the control 

watershed also increased during the post-burn period, 

but at a lower confidence level (p-value = 0.029).

A one-sided comparison of paired post-burn 

yield efficiencies using the Wilcoxon signed-rank test 

(Helsel and Hirsch, 1992) provides strongly significant 

confirmation (p-value = 0.001) that post-burn efficiencies for Grace Coolidge Creek are larger than for Battle 

Creek. The same test for the paired pre-burn efficiencies indicates that pre-burn efficiencies for Grace 

Coolidge Creek also are significantly larger (p-value =

0.013) than for Battle Creek, which again limits the 

capability of making a definitive statistical inference 

that yield efficiencies have increased because of deforestation.

The preceding discussions indicate that statistical 

interpretations are not conclusive, but do not necessarily indicate that yield efficiencies have not increased 

because of deforestation. Another perspective is 

obtained from a somewhat intuitive approach. As discussed previously, mean annual post-burn yield for 

Grace Coolidge Creek increased substantially relative 

to yield for Battle Creek, despite a small relative 

decrease in mean annual precipitation (table 3). A comparison of annual yield efficiencies (table 8) indicates 

that yield efficiency for Battle Creek equalled or 

exceeded that for Grace Coolidge Creek for 3 of 11 

pre-burn years (one year was a tie); however, yield 

efficiency for Grace Coolidge Creek was not exceeded 

during any of the 10 post-fire years.

The sign test (Helsel and Hirsch, 1992), which 

compares strictly non-zero differences in paired data, is 

similar to the Wilcoxon signed-rank test, but has less 

power because magnitudes of differences are not considered. A one-sided sign test comparing post-burn 

yield efficiencies (p-value = 0.001) indicates a 

99.9 percent probability that 10 consecutive exceedances of Battle Creek by Grace Coolidge Creek is a 

non-chance occurrence. The same test for the pre-burn 

period (p-value = 0.055) indicates only a 94.5 percent 

probability of non-chance occurrence for the 8 of 10 

non-tied exceedances of Battle Creek by Grace 

Coolidge Creek. This is justification for acceptance of 

the null hypothesis (no difference in pre-burn yield 

efficiencies between Grace Coolidge Creek and Battle 

Creek) and rejection of the one-sided alternative 

hypothesis (pre-burn efficiency larger for Grace 

Coolidge Creek than Battle Creek) at a significance 

level of 0.05 that typically is used for hypothesis testing 

(Helsel and Hirsch, 1992).

Plots of annual yield versus precipitation for preand post-burn periods for both Battle Creek and Grace 

Coolidge Creek (fig. 22) provide another graphical perspective on the post-burn change in yield characteristics 

for Grace Coolidge Creek. The pre-burn regression 

lines indicate very similar yield characteristics for both 

drainages, and clearly reflect the slightly higher yield 

characteristics for Grace Coolidge Creek. The effect of 

slightly higher pre-burn precipitation for Grace 

Coolidge Creek is evaluated by substituting the mean 

pre-burn precipitation value of 18.67 in. for Battle 

Creek (table 3) into the regression equation for Grace 

Coolidge Creek. The resulting (calculated) annual yield 

of 1.49 in. is about 97 percent of the actual mean annual 

yield of 1.53 in/yr, and also is substantially larger than 

the actual mean of 1.29 in/yr for Battle Creek. Thus, the 

effect of slightly larger pre-burn precipitation for Grace 

Coolidge Creek is considered negligible.
Hydrologic Effects of the Galena Fire 35

Complications associated with quantification of 

post-burn yield characteristics for Grace Coolidge 

Creek also are well illustrated in figure 22. Divergence 

of the post-burn regression lines indicates increased 

post-burn yield for Grace Coolidge Creek, relative to 

Battle Creek; however, it also is apparent that substantial increases in yield have resulted from increased 

precipitation during the post-burn period for both drainages. The absence of high-yield data points during the 

pre-burn period is another apparent problem.

Relations between annual yield for Grace 

Coolidge Creek and Battle Creek (fig. 23) are used to 

quantify increased yield for Grace Coolidge Creek. As 

discussed, many of the post-burn data points are well 

beyond the range of the pre-burn data, which requires 

extrapolation of the pre-burn regression equation to 

obtain estimates of annual yield for an “unburned” condition for Grace Coolidge Creek for the upper range of 

the yield values.

Estimates of increased yield for Grace Coolidge 

Creek derived from comparisons between the post-burn 

and unburned regression equations from figure 23 are 

presented in table 4. The estimates for both unburned 

and post-burn conditions for Grace Coolidge Creek are 

obtained by substituting hypothetical values of annual 

yield for Battle Creek into the regression equations. For 

most of the range of annual yield values, the estimates 

indicate increased yields of about 20 percent for the 

post-burn condition, relative to predicted yields for the 

unburned condition. Estimated increases are somewhat less than 20 percent for hypothetical values of 

annual yield for Battle Creek that are less than about 

3.0 in.

Table 4. Estimates of increased annual yield for Grace 

Coolidge Creek, based on comparison of regression 

equations from figure 23

Hypothetical 

yield for

Battle Creek

(inches per 

year)

Predicted 

unburned yield 

for Grace 

Coolidge Creek 

(inches per 

year)

Predicted 

post-burn yield 

for Grace 

Coolidge 

Creek

(inches per 

year)

Predicted 

yield increase 

for Grace 

Coolidge 

Creek

(percent)

0.50 0.72 0.80 11.1

1.00 1.24 1.43 15.3

2.00 2.27 2.69 18.5

3.00 3.31 3.96 19.6

4.00 4.35 5.22 20.0

5.00 5.38 6.48 20.4

6.00 6.42 7.75 20.7

7.00 7.46 9.01 20.8

Figure 22. Relations between annual yield and annual precipitation for Battle Creek and Grace Coolidge

Creek before and after the Galena Fire.

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

ANNUAL PRECIPITATION, INCHES

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

ANNUAL YIELD, IN INCHES

Battle Creek near Keystone (06404000), water years 1977-87

Grace Coolidge Creek near Game Lodge, near Custer (06404998),

 water years 1977-87

Battle Creek near Keystone (06404000), water years 1989-98

Grace Coolidge Creek near Game Lodge, near Custer (06404998),

 water years 1989-98

y = 0.105x - 0.47

R2 = 0.29

y = 0.506x - 8.54

R2 = 0.90

y = 0.111x - 0.79

R2 = 0.43

y = 0.342x - 5.53

R2 = 0.87
36 Hydrologic Effects of the 1988 Galena Fire, Black Hills Area, South Dakota

Figure 23. Relations between annual yield for Battle Creek and Grace Coolidge Creek for pre-burn and

post-burn periods.

012 3 4 5 67

ANNUAL YIELD FOR BATTLE CREEK NEAR KEYSTONE, IN INCHES

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

ANNUAL YIELD FOR GRACE COOLIDGE CREEK

NEAR GAME LODGE, IN INCHES

Pre-burn, water years 1977-87

Post-burn, water years 1989-98

y = 1.038x + 0.20

R2 = 0.86

y = 1.264x + 0.16

R2 = 0.93

Estimates of increased yield also can be derived 

by comparing measured post-burn yields for Grace 

Coolidge Creek with predicted yields for the unburned 

condition (table 5), which are obtained by substituting 

measured post-burn yields for Battle Creek into the 

unburned regression equation from figure 23. For this 

analysis, the predicted yield increases (in percent) for 

individual years demonstrate considerable variability 

because they reflect the variability of the measured 

post-burn values for Grace Coolidge Creek about the 

post-burn regression line.

Another useful perspective is obtained by consideration of the mean values that are summarized in 

table 5. The arithmetic mean increase in yields for the 

individual years is 23.8 percent; however, the mean 

increase calculated from the totals for all years is 

19.5 percent. An inherent characteristic of the leastsquares regression method is that the regression line 

passes through the mean of the data sets for both the 

dependent and independent variables. Thus, substitution of the post-burn mean yield of 2.98 in. for Battle 

Creek (table 5) into the unburned and post-burn regression equations (fig. 23) would result in predicted yields 

of 3.29 in. and 3.93 in., respectively, which are the 

means for the unburned and post-burn conditions for 

Grace Coolidge Creek (table 5). These are the calculations that were summarized in table 4, and results are 

very closely approximated by the value of 3.00 in. for 

Battle Creek that was used as one of the hypothetical 

input values. Therefore, the mean increase of 

19.5 percent truly represents the central tendency for 

the data sets and provides a better estimate of increased 

yield than the arithmetic mean of 23.8 percent.

Because annual precipitation is not considered in 

the “yield versus yield” regression equations (fig. 23), 

an inherent assumption in the approach is that differences in annual precipitation for Battle Creek and 

Grace Coolidge Creek are negligible. As discussed previously, mean annual precipitation for Grace Coolidge 

Creek was slightly larger than for Battle Creek during 

the pre-burn period, but was slightly smaller during the 

post-burn period (table 3). Thus, the post-burn increase 

in annual yield for Grace Coolidge Creek could actually be slightly larger than estimated.

As discussed, many of the post-burn data points 

are well beyond the range of the pre-burn data, which 

requires extrapolation of the pre-burn regression equation to obtain estimates of annual yield for the unburned 
Hydrologic Effects of the Galena Fire 37

condition for Grace Coolidge Creek for the upper range 

of the yield values (fig. 23). The possibility of substantially disproportionate differences in yield characteristics (either smaller or larger) between Battle Creek and 

Grace Coolidge Creek, for a higher range of yield 

values than what occurred during the pre-burn period, 

cannot be discounted. This possibility is the largest 

source of uncertainty in estimating post-burn yield 

increases for Grace Coolidge Creek. The strong correlations between annual yield data for the two basins for 

both the pre-burn (r2 = 0.86) and post-burn (r2 = 0.93) 

periods (fig. 23) provide confidence, however, that reasonable estimates are obtained by extrapolation of the 

regression equation for the pre-burn period.

It is possible that estimated yield increases for 

Grace Coolidge Creek may have been influenced by 

timber management activities in addition to the Galena 

Fire. Possible influences could have included increased 

timber density in the Battle Creek drainage or 

decreased timber density in the unburned part of the 

Grace Coolidge Creek drainage. These potential influences are evaluated in the following discussions.

Logging activity in the Norbeck Wilderness 

Area, which composes much of the Battle Creek 

drainage area, has been relatively minimal during 

recent years, as was discussed in the Timber Management section of this report. Thus, potential has existed 

for relatively slow, but steady increases in timber density, which could result in decreased water yield over 

time. This potential is evaluated by examination of 

figure 24, which shows cumulative annual yield and 

cumulative annual precipitation departure for the entire 

period of streamflow record available for the Battle 

Creek drainage (WY 1962-98). Trend lines for annual 

yield during three short periods of approximately 

average precipitation trend have been constructed in 

figure 24 using an “eyeball” fit. Very slight cumulative 

precipitation deficits occurred during 1965-70 and 

1975-79, and slopes for annual yield are essentially 

identical during these periods. A slight precipitation 

surplus occurred during 1990-95, and the slope for the 

corresponding yield trend is slightly steeper than the 

slopes for the other two periods. Thus, it is concluded 

that there is no evidence of measurably declining yield 

for the Battle Creek drainage.

Table 5. Estimates of increased annual yield for Grace Coolidge Creek, based on comparison of actual post-burn values with 

unburned regression equation from figure 23

[NA, not applicable]

Water year

Measured yield for 

Battle Creek

(inches)

Predicted unburned 

yield for Grace 

Coolidge Creek

(inches)

Measured post-burn 

yield for Grace 

Coolidge Creek

(inches)

Predicted post-burn yield increase

for Grace Coolidge Creek

(inches) (percent)

1989 0.24 0.45 0.71 0.26 58.9

1990 1.93 2.20 2.44 .24 10.9

1991 3.87 4.21 4.51 .30 7.1

1992 .81 1.04 1.51 .47 45.5

1993 3.51 3.84 4.62 .78 20.4

1994 1.17 1.41 1.65 .24 16.9

1995 6.43 6.87 9.68 2.81 41.0

1996 3.36 3.68 4.02 .34 9.2

1997 5.51 5.91 5.95 .04 .6

1998 3.00 3.31 4.23 .92 27.8

Total 29.83 32.91 39.32 6.40 NA

Mean 2.98 3.29 3.93 .64 119.5

Arithmetic mean of predicted increases for individual years 23.8

1

Mean percent increase based on totals for 10-year period.
38 Hydrologic Effects of the 1988 Galena Fire, Black Hills Area, South Dakota

Figure 24. Cumulative annual yield and cumulative annual precipitation departure from long-term average for 

Battle Creek near Keystone (06404000). Trends for three periods of generally average precipitation also are shown.

1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

WATER YEAR

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

-40

-30

-20

-10

0

10

20

30

CUMULATIVE ANNUAL YIELD, IN INCHES

CUMULATIVE ANNUAL PRECIPITATION DEPARTURE,

 IN INCHES

Cumulative yield

Cumulative precipitation departure

Trend for water years 1965-70

Trend for water years 1975-79

Trend for water years 1990-95

Evaluation of various additional information 

indicates that the estimated increases in water yield 

have not been influenced by decreased timber stand 

density within unburned parts of the Grace Coolidge 

Creek drainage during the post-burn period. Walker and 

others (1995) reported timber harvest from 13,618 

acres within Custer State Park of 22,541 thousand 

board feet (MBF) during 1981-87 and 8,383 MBF 

during 1989-94. Non-commercial thinning consisted of 

5,780 acres during 1981-87 and 728 acres during 

1989-94. About one-half of the reported timber treatment occurred within the Grace Coolidge Creek 

drainage, most of which was in the unburned part of the 

drainage in the northwest part of Custer State Park. The 

reported acreages are for unburned areas; however, the 

extent of the Galena Fire did include very minor areas 

where harvest or thinning treatments had previously 

occurred (Ron Walker, Custer State Park, oral 

commun., 2003). With the exception of post-fire salvage operations, timber management within the Grace 

Coolidge Creek drainage during 1989-98 has been very 

minimal (Ron Walker, Custer State Park, oral 

commun., 2003). Thus, timber stand density within the 

unburned part of the Grace Coolidge Creek drainage 

probably did not decrease substantially during the 

post-burn period, and may in fact have increased, as 

evidenced by the aerial photographs provided in 

figure 8.

Evaluation of all available information supports a 

conclusion of increased annual yield of about 

20 percent for Grace Coolidge Creek as a result of the 

Galena Fire, which is consistent with a preponderance 

of literature that indicates increased yields associated 

with deforestation from both timber harvest and fire 

effects. The fire-induced timber treatment included 

about one-half of the Grace Coolidge Creek drainage 

area, and consisted of nearly 100 percent timber 

removal from about 54 percent of the burn area and 

about 50 percent removal from about 29 percent of the 

burn area. About 7 percent of the burn area had predominantly surviving timber stands, and about 

10 percent of the area was non-timbered prior to the 

fire. The resulting overall timber treatment might 

approximate 20 to 25 percent timber removal from the 
Hydrologic Effects of the Galena Fire 39

entire basin. Pre-burn timber stand densities in the 

Grace Coolidge Creek drainage probably were not uniformly distributed because of extensive timber management activities in the generally unburned northwest part 

of Custer State Park during the late 1970s and early to 

mid 1980s. Thus, the overall net effect of the Galena 

Fire on timber density cannot necessarily be generalized. 

Effects on Peak-Flow Characteristics

Numerous previous studies have documented 

increased peak-flow characteristics following forest 

fire. Various physical factors contribute to the potential 

for increased stormflows. Increased stormflow volumes 

could result from several factors, including: (1) 

reduced interception from removal of pine canopy; 

(2) reduced interception from removal of ground litter 

and grasses; and (3) reduced infiltration rates from 

development of water repellent layers within the soil 

horizon. Increased antecedent soil-moisture storage 

resulting from decreased evapotranspiration also could 

be expected for some percentage of storm events, based 

on results of the analysis of effects on annual-yield 

characteristics. In addition, reduced traveltimes from 

hillslopes to channels resulting from removal of ground 

cover would be expected to contribute to generally 

steeper hydrographs with larger peak discharges.

Substantial increases in peak-flow characteristics 

for severely burned drainages were visually apparent 

after the Galena Fire from numerous post-fire field 

observations that were obtained in collecting data for 

studies of geomorphologic effects (Whitesides, 1989) 

and water-quality effects (Gundarlahalli, 1990). 

Evidence of frequent, minor runoff events from burned 

drainages was readily apparent because stream banks 

were coated with fine ash mobilized from burned areas. 

Somewhat larger runoff events also occurred frequently, and would mobilize large volumes of woody 

debris, including pine needles, charred pine bark, and 

tree limbs. Clogging of culverts occurred frequently, 

and typically resulted in deposition of large volumes of 

woody debris upstream from roads (fig. 25). Mobilization of sediment for large events was apparent from 

sediment deposits formed in numerous locations 

(fig. 26). Dramatic evidence of a particularly extreme 

runoff event from a small, intensively burned drainage 

was provided by a deposit of boulders emplaced as a 

small alluvial fan at the base of an extremely steep 

channel (fig. 27).

Available streamflow records support the evidence from visual observations of increased stormflow potential from burned areas; however, 

quantification of effects is complicated by various 

factors. A primary difficulty is an inability to accurately account for extremely large variability in precipitation intensities and totals that can occur over 

very small distances during short-duration, highintensity storms that often are influential in driving 

peak-flow events. Effects from differences in antecedent precipitation conditions probably are relatively minor because of the generally similar trends 

in longer term precipitation conditions in the proximity of drainage basins used for comparisons. 

Figure 25. Culverts occasionally became clogged with 

debris following large runoff events.

Photographs by Mark T. Anderson

September 1989

August 1988
40 Hydrologic Effects of the 1988 Galena Fire, Black Hills Area, South Dakota

A qualitative perspective regarding effects of 

the Galena Fire on peak-flow characteristics is provided by a graphical comparison of maximum daily 

instantaneous streamflow values (April through 

October during post-fire years) for selected sites 

(fig. 28). In spite of smaller drainage area (table 2), 

numerous peaks for Bear Gulch during 1989 are substantially larger than for Grace Coolidge Creek (near 

Hayward). The steepness of many of these peaks for 

Bear Gulch is consistent with the anticipated post-fire 

response, and the relative frequency of occurrence is 

consistent with the field observations discussed previously. Substantially fewer peaks for Bear Gulch are 

larger than for Grace Coolidge Creek during 1990, 

with the number of exceeding peaks generally 

declining during subsequent years.

Various data for selected peaks from figure 28 

for Bear Gulch and Grace Coolidge Creek (near 

Hayward) are presented in table 9 (in the Supplemental 

Information section). The selected peaks include all 

peaks where the maximum daily instantaneous streamflow equalled or exceeded 10.0 ft3

/s for at least one of 

the sites, and the data set presented includes the maximum value for associated peaks for both sites. Most of 

the matched peaks occurred on the same dates; however, several peaks are lagged by one day.

Boxplots showing distributions of peak discharges from table 9 are presented in figure 29. These 

Figure 26. Numerous sediment deposits formed as a result of heavy erosion.

Photographs by Dietrich H. Whitesides

September 1989

March 1989
Hydrologic Effects of the Galena Fire 41

boxplots confirm the previous observation that peaks 

for Bear Gulch routinely exceeded associated peaks for 

Grace Coolidge Creek (near Hayward) during 1989 and 

1990, and that peak-flow potential for Bear Gulch 

decreased dramatically after 1990. Differences in 

drainage areas between Grace Coolidge Creek 

(7.48 mi2

) and Bear Gulch (4.23 mi2) are an important 

consideration in comparing the data in figure 29. Peakflow estimates for ungaged areas commonly are 

obtained by factoring estimates for gaged areas by the 

drainage-area ratio raised to an exponent of 0.5 (Burr 

and Korkow, 1996). Application of this method would 

yield a coefficient of 0.75 for estimating peaks for Bear 

Gulch on the basis of the control watershed (Grace 

Coolidge Creek). This coefficient closely approximates 

the ratios between Bear Gulch and Grace Coolidge 

Creek for both median and mean values for the 46 peaks 

during 1991-98 period (table 9). This comparison indicates general similarities in peak-flow characteristics 

for the two drainages after 1990.

Peak discharges per unit area for the selected 

peaks also are presented in table 9, in addition to ratios 

of the unit-area peak discharges (Bear Gulch to Grace 

Coolidge Creek). Boxplots of this data set are presented 

in figure 30. Unit-peak discharges for Bear Gulch 

would be expected to exceed those for Grace Coolidge 

Creek (near Hayward) by a factor of about 1.33 (the 

inverse of 0.75) because of the drainage area considerations discussed in the preceding paragraph. The 

median of the 46 values for 1991-98 is 1.6, which 

again indicates similar peak-flow characteristics for 

the two drainages for this period. The mean value of 

4.6 is not representative of the central tendency for the 

data set because it is heavily skewed by a large outlier 

for August 5, 1995, with a ratio of 98.24 (table 9). In 

comparison, mean and median values for 1990 and 

1989 are about one and two orders of magnitude 

larger, respectively, than the median for 1991-98. 

These ratios are influenced primarily by the 

numerous, but relatively small, peaks that occurred 

frequently within the first several years of the fire and 

are not representative of the magnitude of effects that 

might occur for larger events.

Comparisons of maximum daily instantaneous 

streamflow for Grace Coolidge Creek (near Game 

Lodge) and Battle Creek also are provided in 

figure 28. Increased peak-flow response for Grace 

Coolidge Creek is apparent only for 1988-89. The 

most notable responses are the particularly large 

peaks in August of 1988 and September of 1989. 

Minor responses also are apparent for a series of 

small peaks for Grace Coolidge Creek during 

September and October of 1989, when corresponding responses for Battle Creek were minimal, 

with the exception of a single large peak during late 

September that was an order of magnitude larger 

than the corresponding peak for Grace Coolidge 

Creek.

Figure 27. Boulders were deposited following an extreme runoff event.

Photographs by C.J. Winter

August 1988 August 1988
42 Hydrologic Effects of the 1988 Galena Fire, Black Hills Area, South Dakota

Figure 28. Maximum daily streamflow (April-October) for Battle Creek, Grace Coolidge Creek, and Bear Gulch. Zero-flow

values are plotted as 0.001 cubic feet per second.

DATE

0.001

0.01

0.1

1

10

100

1,000

10,000

1988

BATTLE CREEK NEAR KEYSTONE (06404000)

GRACE COOLIDGE CREEK NEAR GAME LODGE,

 NEAR CUSTER (06404998)

GRACE COOLIDGE CREEK NEAR HAYWARD

 (06404800)

BEAR GULCH NEAR HAYWARD (06405800)

0.001

0.01

0.1

1

10

100

1,000

10,000

MAXIMUM DAILY INSTANTANEOUS FLOW, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND

1989

0.001

0.01

0.1

1

10

100

1,000

10,000

1990

APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT

DATE

APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT

0.001

0.01

0.1

1

10

100

1,000

10,000

1991

1989

1990

1991

EXPLANATION
Hydrologic Effects of the Galena Fire 43

Figure 28. Maximum daily streamflow (April-October) for Battle Creek, Grace Coolidge Creek, and Bear Gulch. Zero-flow

values are plotted as 0.001 cubic feet per second.—Continued

DATE

0.001

0.01

0.1

1

10

100

1,000

10,000

1992

0.001

0.01

0.1

1

10

100

1,000

10,000

MAXIMUM DAILY INSTANTANEOUS FLOW, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND

1993

0.001

0.01

0.1

1

10

100

1,000

10,000

1994

APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT

DATE

APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT

0.001

0.01

0.1

1

10

100

1,000

10,000

1995

1993

1994

1995

1992
44 Hydrologic Effects of the 1988 Galena Fire, Black Hills Area, South Dakota

Figure 28. Maximum daily streamflow (April-October) for Battle Creek, Grace Coolidge Creek, and Bear Gulch. Zero-flow

values are plotted as 0.001 cubic feet per second.—Continued

DATE

0.001

0.01

0.1

1

10

100

1,000

10,000

1996

0.001

0.01

0.1

1

10

100

1,000

10,000

MAXIMUM DAILY INSTANTANEOUS FLOW, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND

1997

0.001

0.01

0.1

1

10

100

1,000

10,000

1998

APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT

DATE

APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT

1997

1998

1996
Hydrologic Effects of the Galena Fire 45

Figure 29. Peak discharges for Grace Coolidge Creek near Hayward (06404800) and Bear Gulch

near Hayward (06405800).

8

EXPLANATION

75th percentile

Number of values

Data value less than or equal to 1.5 times the interquartile

 range outside the quartile

Median

25th percentile

Outlier data value less than or equal to 3 and more

 than 1.5 times the interquartile range outside the quartile

Outlier data value greater than 3 times the interquartile

 range outside the quartile

Interquartile

range

Grace

Coolidge

Creek

Bear

Gulch

Grace

Coolidge

Creek

Bear

Gulch

Grace

Coolidge

Creek

Bear

Gulch

1989 1990 1991-98

0.1

1

10

100

1,000

10,000

PEAK DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND

8 8 46 46 6 6
46 Hydrologic Effects of the 1988 Galena Fire, Black Hills Area, South Dakota

Figure 30. Ratio of peak discharges per unit area for Bear Gulch near Hayward (06405800) to

Grace Coolidge Creek near Hayward (06404800).

8

EXPLANATION

75th percentile

Number of values

Data value less than or equal to 1.5 times the interquartile

 range outside the quartile

Median

25th percentile

Outlier data value less than or equal to 3 and more

 than 1.5 times the interquartile range outside the quartile

Outlier data value greater than 3 times the interquartile

 range outside the quartile

Interquartile

range

1989 1990 1991-98

0.1

1

10

100

1,000

10,000

RATIO

8 46 6
Hydrologic Effects of the Galena Fire 47

The preponderance of information considered 

thus far strongly supports a conclusion of increased 

stormflow potential in burned areas during the first 2 to 

3 years following the Galena Fire, after which peakflow response decreased substantially. Additional supporting evidence is provided by double mass analyses 

of cumulative annual peak flows for selected long-term 

streamflow-gaging stations (table 10 in Supplemental 

Information section). Plots of cumulative annual peaks 

for Grace Coolidge Creek (near Game Lodge) versus 

cumulative annual peaks for other selected gages are 

presented in figure 31. Locations of other gages were 

shown previously in figures 1 and 2. Gaging stations 

considered include relatively long-term stations along 

the eastern flank of the Black Hills that are appropriate 

for this analysis. Several long-term gages were 

excluded because of influences such as reservoir regulation. Peak-flow records for Grace Coolidge Creek 

include records for WY 1967-76 for station 06405000 

(Grace Coolidge Creek near Custer), as discussed previously in the Streamflow Data section of this report. 

The resulting, combined period of peak-flow record for 

Grace Coolidge Creek (WY 1967-98) is used for many 

of the plots in figure 31. For stations with shorter 

records, only the period of overlapping record can be 

considered. Records for WY 1967-72 are excluded for 

Battle Creek and Boxelder Creek because of the influence of a massive storm that occurred during 1972 and 

resulted in a flood peak with a recurrence interval in 

excess of 100 years (U.S. Geological Survey, 1975).

All of the plots in figure 31 indicate large 

annual peaks for Grace Coolidge Creek during the 

first several post-fire years (generally WY 1988-89 or 

1990), relative to annual peaks for other stations 

during this period. Plots for several stations (Beaver, 

French, and Whitewood Creeks) have substantially 

steeper slopes for subsequent outyears (generally 

1991-98) than for the pre-burn period, which could be 

interpreted as indicative of a longer term increase in 

stormflow potential, but at a reduced level. For all 

other stations, however, slopes for the subsequent outyears are similar to or less steep than slopes for the 

pre-burn period. Thus, it is concluded that stormflow 

potential for Grace Coolidge Creek increased substantially for the first several years after the Galena Fire, 

but then diminished to a generally pre-burn condition.

Diminishment of peak-flow potential can be 

explained by vegetation recovery that is documented by 

remotely sensed imagery available for the study area. 

LANDSAT Thematic Mapper data contain a wealth of 

information about earth features. Each spectral band 

responds in unique ways to terrain features, which 

enhances the ability to distinguish the identity and 

condition of these features, such as vegetation type, 

structure, and water content. 

The normalized difference vegetation index 

(NDVI), which provides an estimate of vegetation 

condition (greenness), was used as a means for evaluating relative changes in vegetation density over time 

for the area burned by the Galena Fire. NDVI is a ratio 

of measured intensities from the visible and nearinfrared spectral bands as measured by bands 3 (0.63-

0.69 micrometers) and 4 (0.76-0.90 micrometers) on 

the LANDSAT Thematic Mapper sensor. Healthy vegetation absorbs most of the visible light and reflects a 

large portion of the near-infrared light. Unhealthy or 

sparse vegetation reflects more visible light and less 

near-infrared light. NDVI is calculated using the following formula (from Weier and Herring, 2001):

NDVI = (NIR-VIS)/(NIR+VIS)

where

NIR = near-infrared radiation, and

VIS = visible radiation.

NDVI values range between -1 and 1. Very low 

values of NDVI (less than 0.1) correspond to barren 

areas; moderate values (0.2 to 0.3) represent shrub and 

grassland; and high values (0.6 to 0.8) indicate temperate and tropical rainforests (Weier and Herring, 

2001).

The establishment of grasses and forbs in the 

burned area occurred much more quickly than 

regrowth of the ponderosa pine forest, as shown by the 

succession of photographs in figure 13. Maximum 

greenness from grasses and forbs generally occurs 

during June in the Black Hills area. Thus, LANDSAT 

Thematic Mapper images showing negligible or minimal cloud cover for the Custer State Park area were 

acquired for a day in June (or as close to June as possible) for each year from 1988 through 2002 (table 6); 

adequate (cloud-free) images were not available in 

1994, 1995, and 1999. LANDSAT images from 2000-

02 are included in analyses to provide additional information about the Galena Fire beyond the general study 

period (through water year 1998). Each selected 

annual image was processed to obtain the NDVI data 

for the study area. 
48 Hydrologic Effects of the 1988 Galena Fire, Black Hills Area, South Dakota

Figure 31. Cumulative annual peak flows for selected streamflow-gaging stations in comparison to Grace Coolidge Creek.

CUMULATIVE ANNUAL PEAK FLOW,

IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND

Beaver Creek near Buffalo Gap (06402500)

CUMULATIVE ANNUAL PEAK FLOW FOR GRACE COOLIDGE CREEK NEAR GAME LODGE NEAR CUSTER (06404998), IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND

French Creek above Fairburn (06403300)

Battle Creek near Keystone (06404000)

Boxelder Creek near Nemo (06422500)

8,000

6,000

4,000

2,000

7,000

5,000

3,000

1,000

0

4,000

3,000

2,000

1,000

0

6,000

4,000

2,000

5,000

3,000

1,000

0

0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000

0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000

0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 12,000 10,000

0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000

water years 1967-98

water years 1982-98

water years 1973-98

water years 1973-98

1988

1988

1988

1988

1989

1989

1989

1989

1990

1990

1990

1990

6,000

4,000

2,000

5,000

3,000

1,000

0

CUMULATIVE ANNUAL PEAK FLOW,

IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND

Elk Creek near Elm Springs (06425500)

Spearfish Creek near Spearfish (06431500)

Whitewood Creek near Whitewood (06436190)

8,000

6,000

4,000

2,000

7,000

5,000

3,000

1,000

0

8,000

6,000

4,000

2,000

7,000

5,000

3,000

1,000

0

4,000

2,000

5,000

3,000

1,000

0

0 20,000 40,000 60,000 80,000

0 4,000 8,000 12,000 16,000

0 4,000 8,000 12,000 16,000 20,000

water years 1967-98

water years 1967-98

water years 1982-98

1988

1988

1989

1989

1990

1990

1988

1989

1990
Hydrologic Effects of the Galena Fire 49

Table 6. Mean normalized difference vegetation index values for selected areas

Image date

Areas within perimeter of Galena Fire Control area in

northwest corner of

Custer State Park

(fig. 32)

All areas

Moderate-low to highseverity burn areas

(fig. 32)

Unburned to low-severity 

burn areas

(fig. 32)

7/3/1988 0.515 0.517 0.511 0.473

6/20/1989 .199 .145 .299 .389

6/23/1990 .391 .367 .434 .454

7/12/1991 .401 .365 .467 .497

6/12/1992 .369 .342 .421 .449

5/14/1993 .281 .250 .339 .403

6/7/1996 .370 .336 .433 .516

6/26/1997 .443 .414 .500 .533

7/15/1998 .478 .454 .522 .553

6/2/2000 .340 .306 .404 .488

6/5/2001 .351 .316 .418 .489

5/31/2002 .268 .227 .346 .437

LANDSAT images also were used to determine 

the burn severity of areas within the fire perimeter 

using methods presented by Key and Benson (2003). 

The methods employ a scaled index that gauges the 

magnitude of ecological change caused by fire and 

groups areas within the fire perimeter into the following five categories: unburned, low severity, 

moderate-low severity, moderate-high severity, and 

high severity. Figure 32 shows the Galena Fire perimeter and burn severity as determined from comparisons 

between pre-fire (July 3, 1988) and post-fire (June 29, 

1989) images. The data shown in figure 32 were not 

calibrated with field measurements, but compare 

reasonably well with the timber mortality and fire 

perimeter shown in fig. 10. Figure 32 also shows an 

area in the northwest corner of Custer State Park that 

was considered to represent an unburned control area 

within the study area for subsequent NDVI analyses.

Mean NDVI values were calculated for areas 

with selected burn severities (table 6) using the processed data for each year for which an adequate image 

was available. The 1988 image was taken only 2 days 

before the Galena Fire began and provides a baseline 

for pre-fire conditions. In 1988, the mean NDVI for all 

areas within the fire perimeter was 0.515 (table 6), 

which indicates healthy vegetation prior to the fire. It 

should be noted that NDVI values probably were 

slightly lower in 1988 than previous years due to the 

extended drought conditions in 1988. 

Figure 33 shows the temporal changes in NDVI 

values for the images listed in table 6 for the different 

burn-severity categories within the burned area and for 

the control area. As expected, the NDVI values for all 

of the burn-severity categories are much lower for 1989 

than for 1988, with much lower values for the higher 

severity burn areas than for the lower severity burn 

areas. The NDVI value for the control area also is 

somewhat lower for 1989 than for 1988 because of the 

prolonged effects of drought conditions on vegetative 

condition. A very large increase in NDVI values for the 

burn areas is apparent for 1990, with the largest 

increase occurring for the higher severity areas. Much 

of the large increase for the higher severity areas probably resulted from particularly heavy stands of yellow 

blossom sweet clover, which was the primary seed 

stock used for post-fire remedial seeding during 1988 

(South Dakota Department of Environment and 

Natural Resources, 1991; Walker and others, 1995). 

The sweet clover was widely established as seedlings 

by 1989, and developed particularly heavy growth 

during 1990, but generally phased out very quickly 

thereafter (Ron Walker, Custer State Park, oral 

commun., October 2003). This general progression is 

visible in the photograph sequence of figure 13, which 

shows numerous sweet-clover stalks in background 

areas during 1990. The disturbed area in the foreground 

(fig. 13) also had relatively heavy sweet clover during 

1992 (presumably because sweet clover is a biennial); 

however, various grasses are the predominant species 

apparent for all other years.
50 Hydrologic Effects of the 1988 Galena Fire, Black Hills Area, South Dakota

Figure 32. Burn severity of the Galena Fire determined on the basis of remotely sensed data from

July 3, 1988, and June 20, 1989. Control area used to represent an unburned area also is shown.

BURN SEVERITY

CONTROL AREA

Unburned

Moderate-low

Low

High

Moderate-high

Creek

Beaver

Battle

Spokane

Gulch

Bear

Iron

Flynn

Creek

Cr

Creek

Creek

Creek

Creek

French

French

Lame

Johnny

Grace

Coolidge

Creek

Creek

Creek

Creek

Highland

Center

Lake

Legion

Lake

Bismarck

Lake

Stockade

Lake

Galena

PENNINGTON CO

CUSTER CO

Custer

Pringle

Hayward

Custer

State

Park

0 6 1 MILES 2 5 3 4

0 6 1 KILOMETERS 2 5 3 4

Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey digital data, 1:100,000, 1977

Universal Transverse Mercator projection, zone 13

Mt.

Coolidge

Harney

Peak

EXPLANATION

CUSTER STATE PARK

Wind Cave National Park

Mt. Rushmore

National

Memorial

103o30' 103o15'

43o52'30"

43o45'

43o37'30"

X

X
Hydrologic Effects of the Galena Fire 51

Figure 33. Mean normalized difference vegetation index 

values for selected areas during or near June.

During 1991, the NDVI value for the lower 

severity burn areas increased moderately; however, the 

value for the higher severity areas decreased slightly 

(fig. 33). NDVI values for all subsequent years track 

similarly. The decrease during 1991 for the higher 

severity areas may have resulted from a general transition from sweet-clover dominance to somewhat lighter 

stands of various grasses in many areas. Much of the 

variability in NDVI values for subsequent years probably reflects vegetation response to differences in 

climatic conditions. The maximum mean post-fire 

NDVI value for the burned area (0.478) occurred in 

1998 following several years of wet climatic conditions. 

The regrowth of vegetation following the Galena 

Fire could be identified visually in the NDVI images for 

post-fire years in comparison to the pre-fire image in 

1988. Only selected images from post-fire years (1989, 

1990, and 1998) are shown in figure 34, but all available images were considered in the following discussion. In figure 34, the dark tones within the area burned 

by the Galena Fire in the 1989 image indicate relatively 

low quantities of green vegetation. The light tones in 

other areas indicate relatively high quantities of green 

vegetation. Within the area burned by the Galena Fire, 

the tones became progressively lighter from 1989 to 

1998, which correspond to increases in green vegetation. The largest annual increase to lighter tones within 

the burned area of the Galena Fire occurred between the 

1989 and 1990 NDVI images. Areas burned intensively 

during the 1990 Cicero Peak Fire also are readily 

apparent in the 1998 image.

1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002

YEAR

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

NORMALIZED DIFFERENCE VEGETATION

INDEX

All areas within fire boundary

Moderate-low to high severity burn areas

Unburned to low severity burn areas

Control area

The NDVI analyses provide evidence that 

establishment of grasses and forbs as a replacement 

for the previous stands of ponderosa pine had largely 

occurred by 1990. Although NDVI analyses indicate 

that post-fire vegetation density has remained generally smaller than pre-fire vegetation density, analyses 

of streamflow data indicate that peak-flow characteristics subsequent to 1990 are approximately similar to 

peak-flow characteristics prior to the Galena Fire. 

Thus, these data indicate that the grasses and forbs that 

replaced the ponderosa pine forest are approximately 

equally effective in suppressing peak flows. 

As discussed previously, quantification of 

increased stormflow potential is difficult because of 

various factors. Peak-flow frequency analyses for 

selected sites and periods of record are presented in 

table 7 for consideration of various quantitative 

aspects of increased stormflow potential. These peakflow frequency estimates were derived using the logPearson Type III procedure recommended in Bulletin 

17B of the Hydrology Subcommittee of the U.S. Interagency Advisory Committee on Water Data, 1982, 

“Guidelines for Determining Flood Flow Frequency” 

(United States Water Resources Council, 1982). 

Annual peak flows used in the analyses are provided 

in table 10. Readers are cautioned that the peak-flow 

estimates provided in table 7 are heavily influenced by 

conditions during the short periods of record considered, and should not be considered representative of 

long-term peak-flow characteristics for these sites.

Peak-flow frequency estimates for pre- and 

post-burn periods for Battle Creek and Grace 

Coolidge Creek (near Game Lodge) are presented in 

table 7. The pre-burn period considered excludes data 

prior to 1973 because of the influence of a massive 

storm that occurred during 1972 and resulted in a 

flood peak in excess of 26,000 ft3

/s for Battle Creek 

(table 8). The corresponding peak, however, was less 

than 1,000 ft3/s for Grace Coolidge Creek, which was 

on the south fringe of the storm. The post-burn 

(1988-98) peak-flow estimates for Grace Coolidge 

Creek (table 7) generally are about twice as large as 

the pre-burn (1973-87) estimates for corresponding 

recurrence intervals; however, post-burn estimates for 

Battle Creek are about three to four times larger than 

the corresponding pre-burn estimates. Thus, it is 

apparent that the influence of the Galena Fire on peakflow frequency estimates for Grace Coolidge Creek is 

minor, relative to the influence of episodic rainfall 

events that caused a series of large peaks for Battle 

Creek during 1993-98 (table 8) and resulted in the 

particularly large peak-flow frequency estimates for 

the post-burn period for this station.
52 Hydrologic Effects of the 1988 Galena Fire, Black Hills Area, South Dakota

Table 7. Peak-flow frequency estimates for selected recurrence intervals for selected streamflow-gaging stations

Station

number Station name

Period of 

analysis

(water 

years)

Peak flow, in cubic feet per second, for recurrence interval, in years

2 5 10 25 50 100 200 500

06404000 Battle Creek near Keystone 1973-87 137 425 788 1,550 2,420 3,660 5,350 8,570

1988-98 297 1,270 2,660 5,730 9,310 14,300 21,100 33,500

06404998 Grace Coolidge Creek near 

Game Lodge near Custer

1973-87 48 181 371 809 1,350 2,160 3,320 5,640

1988-98 211 657 1,170 2,120 3,100 4,330 5,860 8,410

06404800 Grace Coolidge Creek near 

Hayward

1989-98 81 201 320 522 713 942 1,210 1,640

06405800 Bear Gulch near Hayward 1989-98 69 276 573 1,260 2,100 3,310 5,040 8,420

Most peak-flow frequency estimates for Bear 

Gulch (table 7) are considerably larger than for Grace 

Coolidge Creek (near Hayward), despite smaller 

drainage area (table 2). The peak-flow estimates for 

Bear Gulch are roughly comparable to estimates for 

three of the four periods considered for Battle Creek 

and Grace Coolidge Creek (near Game Lodge), both of 

which have drainage areas that are about an order of 

magnitude larger than Bear Gulch. The peak-flow frequency estimates for Bear Gulch are heavily influenced 

by the peak of 1,250 ft3

/s on September 7, 1989, which 

is about an order of magnitude larger than any of the 

other peaks for Bear Gulch (tables 9 and 10). 

Data summarized in figures 29 and 30 provided 

strong evidence of increased stormflow potential for 

Bear Gulch through 1990. With the exception of the 

peak of 1,250 ft3

/s for Bear Gulch, however, other 

peaks for Bear Gulch and Grace Coolidge Creek (near 

Hayward) during 1989-90 were of relatively small 

magnitude. Peaks exceeding the estimated magnitude 

for a 2-year recurrence interval (table 7) did occur for 

both streams on May 29, 1990 (table 10). The relative 

magnitudes of these peaks, and the associated unit-area 

discharges (table 9), however, are approximately commensurate with the predicted ratios based on drainage 

areas that were discussed previously. Thus, increased 

stormflow response for Bear Gulch is not indicated for 

this event, although increased response is apparent for 

several other smaller events that occurred later in 1990. 

Measured precipitation totals (U.S. Geological Survey, 

1991) for this storm generally were in the range of 3 to 

4 in. for applicable precipitation gages (table 1); 

however, rainfall intensities were low for this longduration storm (Moody and Martin, 2001).

Extremely high precipitation intensities occurred 

during the storm that resulted in large peaks (1,030 and 

1,250 ft3

/s, respectively) on September 7, 1989, for 

Grace Coolidge Creek (near Game Lodge) and Bear 

Gulch (table 10). Precipitation amounts for these drainages (fig. 14) were much larger than for Battle Creek 

and Grace Coolidge Creek (near Hayward); thus, valid 

comparisons between burned and unburned conditions 

cannot be made for this storm. Moody and Martin 

(2001) reported a maximum 30-minute intensity of 

about 2.6 in/hr (1.3 in. per 1/2 hour) for Bear Gulch, 

which constituted most of the storm total for that day. 

Additional rainfall in the range of 1 to 2 in. occurred 

during the next 1 to 2 days throughout the burned area, 

but failed to produce substantial runoff.

Moody and Martin (2001) investigated relations 

between peak discharge and rainfall intensity for three 

severely burned watersheds, including Bear Gulch, in 

the western United States. These investigators estimated a recurrence interval of about 10 years for the 

September 7, 1989, rainstorm. These investigators 

concluded that precipitation intensity is a particularly 

important factor in driving the occurrence of largedischarge events. Comparison of peak discharges for 

Bear Gulch for the two storms discussed in detail supports this conclusion (the high-intensity storm yielded 

a peak discharge that was an order of magnitude larger 

than the high-volume storm with low intensity).
Hydrologic Effects of the Galena Fire 53

Figure 34. Normalized difference vegetation index images for selected years.

U.S. Geological Survey/Geography Discipline, EROS Data Center

Universal Transverse Mercator projection, zone 13

July 3, 1988

June 20, 1989

June 23, 1990

July 15, 1998

EXPLANATION

Dark tones—Low quantites of green vegetation

Light tones—High quantites of green vegetation
54 Hydrologic Effects of the 1988 Galena Fire, Black Hills Area, South Dakota

Although available data sets are insufficient for 

complete quantification of effects on peak-flow characteristics, various conclusions can be made. One reason 

that available data are sparse is that the window of 

opportunity for determination of effects is short. 

Increased peak-flow response was readily apparent 

through 1990, but diminished substantially during 

subsequent years. This conclusion is consistent with 

photographic evidence (fig. 13), vegetation surveys 

(Walker and others, 1995), and NDVI analyses, all of 

which indicate that establishment of grasses and forbs 

as a replacement for the ponderosa pine forest had primarily occurred by about 1991. Readers are cautioned 

that reduced peak-flow potential does not necessarily 

equate to a return to pre-fire conditions. Although 

peak-flow potential diminished quickly, it cannot necessarily be ascertained that increased peak-flow potential was completely eliminated by 1991. It also should 

be pointed out that peak-flow potential may not 

diminish as quickly for other burn areas, where factors 

such as differences in soil types, post-fire climatic conditions, or the aggressiveness of remedial revegetation 

efforts could influence establishment of grasses and 

forbs.

Peak flows for Bear Gulch were shown to be as 

much as two (or more) orders of magnitude larger than 

for Grace Coolidge Creek (near Hayward) for 

numerous stormflow events during 1989-90 (figs. 29 

and 30) that generally were smaller than 2-year recurrence interval events. The primary reason for such large 

differences is that peak-flow responses for Grace 

Coolidge Creek were essentially non-existent for these 

relatively small events. For larger events, smaller relative differences between the two drainages would be 

expected, as was the case for the May 29, 1990, storm, 

for which peak-flow responses for the two drainages 

were similar. Results of peak-flow frequency analyses 

(table 7) indicate a much smaller relative level of 

increased peak-flow response (generally much less 

than an order of magnitude) for all of the recurrence 

intervals that are listed. These results are not definitive 

because of important differences in storm patterns 

during the short periods of record considered and 

because the post-fire response diminished substantially 

within several years of the fire. Thus, potential for 

increased peak-flow response during the first several 

post-fire years probably is somewhat larger than what 

may be inferred from examination of table 7.

Although quantification of increased peak-flow 

response cannot be accomplished from the available 

data, a conceptualized model is presented in figure 35. 

This model is consistent with numerous small peaks 

that equate to large percentage increases for small 

recurrence-interval events. Conversely, for large recurrence-interval events, the magnitudes of increased 

responses should be much larger; however, the percentage increases would be relatively small.

Precipitation intensity is an especially important factor in driving the occurrence of relatively lowrecurrence interval events, as noted by Moody and 

Martin (2001). It is readily apparent that precipitation 

intensities that cause negligible to minimal runoff in 

unburned drainages can cause substantially larger 

runoff in burned drainages. Opportunities for measurement of runoff resulting from the combination of 

large precipitation intensity following large precipitation volume were not available during the critical first 

few years following the Galena Fire. The documented 

response for the high-intensity storm of September 7, 

1989, certainly indicates that progressively larger 

runoff could be expected with increasing amounts of 

antecedent rainfall.

Figure 35. Conceptual model of hypothetical peak-flow 

response for increasing recurrence intervals.

SUMMARY

The Galena Fire burned about 16,788 acres of 

primarily ponderosa pine forest during July 5-8, 1988, 

in the Black Hills area of South Dakota. The fire burned 

primarily within the Grace Coolidge Creek drainage 

basin and almost entirely within the boundaries of 

2 years 100 years

RECURRENCE INTERVAL

PERCENT INCREASE

MAGNITUDE OF INCREASE
Summary 55

Custer State Park. A U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) 

gaging station with streamflow records dating back to 

1977 was located along Grace Coolidge Creek within 

the burned area. About one-half of the gaging station’s 

26.8-square-mile drainage area was burned. The 

drainage basin for Bear Gulch, which is tributary to 

Grace Coolidge Creek, was burned particularly 

severely, with complete deforestation occurring in 

nearly the entirety of the area upstream from a gaging 

station that was installed in 1989.

The existence of long-term, pre-burn streamflow 

data provided a unique opportunity to evaluate the 

hydrologic effects of forest fire. In 1988, a study to 

evaluate effects on streamflow, geomorphology, and 

water-quality was initiated by the USGS in cooperation 

with the South Dakota Department of Environment and 

Natural Resources and the South Dakota Department of 

Game, Fish and Parks. The geomorphologic and waterquality components of the study were completed by 

1990. A data-collection network consisting of streamflow- and precipitation-gaging stations was operated 

through water year 1998 for evaluation of effects on 

streamflow characteristics, including both annual-yield 

and peak-flow characteristics. Additional cooperators 

that have supported this continuing component of the 

study included the South Dakota Department of 

Agriculture (Forestry Division), West Dakota Water 

Development District, and U.S. Department of 

Agriculture (Forest Service).

Moderately burned areas did not experience a 

substantial increase in the rate of surface erosion; however, severely burned areas underwent surficial erosion 

nearly twice that of the unburned areas. The increased 

erosion was caused by a combination of sheet erosion 

and wind erosion. The sediment production rate of Bear 

Gulch estimated 8 to 14 months after the fire was 

870 ft3

/acre (44 tons/acre). Substantial degradation of 

stream channels within the severely burned headwater 

areas of Bear Gulch was documented. Further downstream, channel aggradation resulted from deposition 

of sediments transported from the headwater areas.

The most notable water-quality effect was on 

concentrations of suspended sediment, which were 

orders of magnitude higher for Bear Gulch than for the 

unburned control area. Effects on several other waterquality constituents, such as organic carbon and 

nitrogen and phosphorus nutrient constituents, probably were influenced by the large concentrations of suspended matter that were documented in initial post-fire, 

stormflow events. The first post-fire stormflow produced the highest measured concentrations of specific 

conductance, nitrogen, phosphorus, organic carbon, 

calcium, magnesium, potassium, manganese, and 

sulfate in the burned areas. For most constituents 

sampled, differences in concentrations between 

burned and unburned areas were no longer discernible 

within about 1 year following the Galena Fire.

The effects of the Galena Fire on annual-yield 

characteristics of Grace Coolidge Creek were evaluated primarily from comparisons with long-term 

streamflow records for Battle Creek, which is hydrogeologically similar and is located immediately to the 

north. Analyses were complicated by climatic conditions, which were considerably wetter during the postburn period than during the pre-burn period. Thus, 

statistically significant increases in annual yield 

occurred during the post-burn period for both drainages. Various analyses indicated larger increases for 

Grace Coolidge Creek than for Battle Creek. Between 

the pre- and post-burn periods, the mean annual yield 

increased from 1.53 to 3.93 in. for Grace Coolidge 

Creek compared to an increase from 1.29 to 2.98 in. 

for Battle Creek. Relations between annual yield for 

Grace Coolidge Creek and Battle Creek for pre- and 

post-burn periods were used to estimate increased 

annual yield of about 20 percent for Grace Coolidge 

Creek. Many of the post-burn data points are well 

beyond the range of the pre-burn data, which required 

extrapolation of the pre-burn regression equation used 

in estimating yield increases, and is a source of uncertainty for the estimates.

Substantial increases in peak-flow characteristics for severely burned drainages were visually 

apparent from numerous post-fire field observations. 

Evidence of frequent, minor runoff events from 

burned drainages was readily apparent because stream 

banks were coated with fine ash mobilized from 

burned areas. Somewhat larger runoff events also 

occurred frequently, and would mobilize large volumes of woody debris, including pine needles, charred 

pine bark, and tree limbs. Mobilization of sediment 

was apparent for particularly large runoff events in 

several locations, with mobilization of large boulders 

documented in one small, intensively burned drainage.

Various analyses of streamflow data indicated 

substantial increases in peak-flow response for burned 

drainage areas; however, quantification of effects was 

particularly difficult because peak-flow response 

diminished quickly and returned to a generally preburn condition by about 1991. Field observations of 

vegetation and analysis of remotely sensed data indicated that establishment of grasses and forbs in the 
56 Hydrologic Effects of the 1988 Galena Fire, Black Hills Area, South Dakota

burn area occurred within a similar timeframe. Comparison of pre-fire peak flows to post-1991 peak flows 

indicates that these grasses and forbs were equally 

effective in suppressing peak flows as the predominantly ponderosa pine forest was prior to the Galena 

Fire. Peak-flow potential may not diminish as quickly 

for other burn areas where various factors could influence revegetation.

Numerous peak-flow events with small recurrence intervals occurred within burned areas through 

1990. Peak-flow events for Bear Gulch during this 

period were about one to two orders of magnitude 

larger than corresponding peaks for a small control 

drainage located along Grace Coolidge Creek upstream 

from the burn area. The small peaks do not provide 

quantitative information applicable to estimation of 

peak-flow magnitudes for larger events, however. Peakflow events for Bear Gulch that occurred during 

1991-98 were generally similar to those for the control 

drainage. A short-term increase in peak-flow potential 

also was documented for the longer-term gaging station 

located along Grace Coolidge Creek; however, peakflow response was less pronounced than for Bear 

Gulch, which had nearly complete deforestation within 

a much smaller drainage area.

One particularly high-intensity storm (recurrence interval of about 10 years) occurred during 1989 

within the burned areas for both Grace Coolidge Creek 

and Bear Gulch, but produced minimal rainfall in the 

two primary control drainages. Especially large peaks 

occurred from the burned areas; however, representative comparisons with unburned areas could not be 

made.

REFERENCES

Anderson, M.T., 1980, Water quantity and quality of three 

adjacent Black Hills watersheds: Rapid City, South 

Dakota School of Mines and Technology, unpublished 

M.S. thesis, 158 p.

Berndt, H.W., 1971, Early effects of forest fire on streamflow 

characteristics: Portland, Oregon, U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest 

and Range Experiment Station, Research Note 

PNW-148, 9 p.

Beschta, R.L., 1978, Long-term patterns of sediment production following road construction and logging in the 

Oregon Coast Range: Water Resources Research, v. 14, 

no. 6, p. 1011-1016.

Bosch, J.M., and Hewlett, J.D., 1982, A review of catchment 

experiments to determine the effect of vegetation 

changes on water yield and evapotranspiration: Journal 

of Hydrology, v. 55, p. 3-23.

Bowling, L.C., Storck, Pascal, and Lettenmaier, D.P., 2000, 

Hydrologic effects of logging in western Washington, 

United States: Water Resources Research, v. 36, 

no. 11, p. 3223-3240.

Brown, P.M., and Sieg, C.H., 1996, Fire history in interior 

ponderosa pine communities of the Black Hills, South 

Dakota, USA: International Journal of Wildland Fire, 

v. 6, no. 3, p. 97-105.

Burr, M.J., and Korkow, K.L., 1996, Peak-flow frequency 

estimates through 1994 for gaged streams in South 

Dakota: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 

96-202, 407 p.

Cannon, S.H., 2001, Debris-flow generation from recently 

burned watersheds: Environmental & Engineering 

Geoscience, v. 7, no. 4, p. 321-341.

Carter, J.M., Driscoll, D.G., Williamson, J.E., and Lindquist, 

V.A., 2002, Atlas of water resources in the Black Hills 

area, South Dakota: U.S. Geological Survey Hydrologic Investigations Atlas HA-747, 120 p.

Colman, E.A., 1953, Fire and water in southern California’s 

mountains: Berkeley, California, U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Forest Service, California Forest and 

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SUPPLEMENTAL INFORMATION
60 Hydrologic Effects of the 1988 Galena Fire, Black Hills Area, South Dakota Table 8. Annual flow and precipitation data for selected streamflow-gaging stations [Precipitation data are for drainage area upstream of streamflow-gaging station. Precip, precipitation; YE, yield efficiency; ft3/s, cubic feet per second; acre-ft, acre-fe

Water year French Creek above Fairburn (06403300) Battle Creek near Keystone (06404000) Grace 

Flow Precip (inches) YE (percent) Flow Precip (inches) YE (percent) Fl

ft3/s acre-ft inches ft3/s acre-ft inches ft3/s ac

1962 -- -- -- -- -- 14.2 10,250 3.29 29.09 11.30 -- 1963 -- -- -- -- -- 15.0 10,830 3.47 27.00 12.86 -- 1964 -- -- -- -- -- 7.90 5,730 1.84 19.05 9.64 -- 1965 -- -- -- -- -- 19.5 14,100 4.52 30.98 14.59 -- 1966 -- -- -- -- -- 3.79 2,740 .88 17.43 5.04 -- 1967 -- -- -- -- -- 15.3 11,100 3.56 22.23 16.00 -- 1968 -- -- -- -- -- 4.01 2,910 .93 19.49 4.79 -- 1969 -- -- -- -- -- 5.80 4,200 1.35 20.23 6.65 -- 1970 -- -- -- -- -- 6.83 4,940 1.58 21.69 7.30 -- 1971 -- -- -- -- -- 15.8 11,420 3.66 26.91 13.60 -- 1972 -- -- -- -- -- 21.1 15,310 4.91 24.65 19.91 -- 1973 -- -- -- -- -- 8.61 6,230 2.00 18.60 10.73 -- 1974 -- -- -- -- -- 1.65 1,190 .38 12.45 3.06 -- 1975 -- -- -- -- -- 4.58 3,320 1.06 17.14 6.21 -- 1976 -- -- -- -- -- 13.2 9,550 3.06 23.39 13.09 -- 1977 -- -- -- -- -- 2.78 2,010 .64 18.25 3.53 1.27 91978 -- -- -- -- -- 11.9 8,590 2.75 21.75 12.66 5.58 4,01979 -- -- -- -- -- 6.00 4,350 1.39 21.22 6.57 4.33 3,11980 -- -- -- -- -- 2.48 1,800 .58 15.32 3.77 1.17 81981 -- -- -- -- -- 5.79 4,190 1.34 18.20 7.38 3.82 2,71982 -- -- -- -- -- 6.38 4,620 1.48 22.60 6.55 4.13 2,91983 7.55 5,470 0.98 17.36 5.63 3.98 2,880 .92 14.83 6.23 2.48 1,81984 10.1 7,340 1.31 22.76 5.76 8.64 6,280 2.01 21.87 9.20 4.12 2,91985 3.53 2,560 .46 12.48 3.66 1.11 803 .26 10.44 2.47 .81 5
Supplemental Information - Table 8 61

1986 3.97 2,870 0.51 23.63 2.17 5.05 3,660 1.17 24.26 4.84 2.03 1,41987 7.03 5,090 .91 16.05 5.66 6.84 4,950 1.59 16.60 9.55 3.49 2,51988 3.04 2,210 .39 13.79 2.86 .69 503 .16 13.13 1.23 .61 41989 1.01 734 .13 18.09 .72 1.02 736 .24 19.36 1.22 1.40 1,01990 4.94 3,570 .64 21.50 2.97 8.32 6,020 1.93 23.38 8.25 4.82 3,41991 13.7 9,950 1.78 24.20 7.34 16.7 12,070 3.87 26.96 14.35 8.89 6,41992 4.57 3,310 .59 18.80 3.14 3.50 2,540 .81 19.03 4.28 2.98 2,11993 12.0 8,720 1.56 24.51 6.35 15.1 10,950 3.51 26.88 13.06 9.12 6,61994 7.06 5,110 .91 15.38 5.93 5.03 3,640 1.17 15.82 7.38 3.26 2,31995 34.7 25,110 4.48 30.63 14.64 27.7 20,050 6.43 33.34 19.28 19.1 13,81996 17.6 12,790 2.28 25.52 8.95 14.4 10,470 3.36 28.72 11.68 7.93 5,71997 24.7 17,900 3.20 26.60 12.02 23.7 17,180 5.51 29.92 18.40 11.8 8,51998 19.5 14,140 2.53 23.89 10.57 12.9 9,360 3.00 25.44 11.79 8.35 6,0

Table 8. Annual flow and precipitation data for selected streamflow-gaging stations–Continued[Precipitation data are for drainage area upstream of streamflow-gaging station. Precip, precipitation; YE, yield efficiency; ft3/s, cubic feet per second; acre-ft, acre-fe

Water

year

French Creek above Fairburn (06403300) Battle Creek near Keystone (06404000) Grace 

Flow Precip 

(inches)

YE

(percent)

Flow Precip 

(inches)

YE

(percent)

Fl

ft3/s acre-ft inches ft3/s acre-ft inches ft3/s ac
62 Hydrologic Effects of the 1988 Galena Fire, Black Hills Area, South Dakota

Table 9. Peak discharges for selected dates for Grace Coolidge Creek and Bear Gulch

[ft3/s, cubic feet per second; (ft3/s)/mi2, cubic feet per second per square mile]

Date1

Grace Coolidge Creek near Hayward 

(06404800)

Bear Gulch near Hayward

(06405800) Ratio of peak

discharge per unit

area of Bear Gulch to

Grace Coolidge Creek

Maximum daily 

instantaneous 

streamflow

(ft3/s)

Peak discharge

per unit area

[(ft3/s)/mi2]

Maximum daily 

instantaneous 

streamflow

(ft3/s)

Peak discharge

per unit area

[(ft3/s)/mi2]

6/17/1989 0.4 0.1 10.0 2.4 41.1

6/25/1989 .6 .1 57.0 13.5 158

7/14/1989 .3 .0 49.0 11.6 333

7/17/1989 .2 .0 54.0 12.8 531

8/7/1989 .1 .0 20.0 4.7 589

8/14/1989 .1 .0 23.0 5.4 313

9/7-8/1989 .9 .1 1,250 296 2,480

9/21/1989 25.0 3.3 27.0 6.4 1.91

5/29/1990 168 22.5 111 26.2 1.17

6/6/1990 19.0 2.5 4.6 1.1 .43

6/16/1990 5.7 .8 19.0 4.5 5.89

7/7/1990 1.5 .2 46.0 10.9 54.2

7/15/1990 2.8 .4 53.0 12.5 33.5

7/20/1990 2.0 .3 54.0 12.8 47.7

4/26/1991 5.2 .7 38.0 9.0 12.9

5/12/1991 26.0 3.5 13.0 3.1 .88

5/18/1991 38.0 5.1 12.0 2.8 .56

5/22-23/1991 72.0 9.6 13.0 3.1 .32

5/28/1991 91.0 12.2 16.0 3.8 .31

6/1/1991 104 13.9 16.0 3.8 .27

6/3/1991 210 28.1 17.0 4.0 .14

6/21-22/1991 12.0 1.6 11.0 2.6 1.62

7/10-11/1991 25.0 3.3 48.0 11.3 3.40

6/21/1992 18.0 2.4 3.5 .8 .34

7/29/1992 11.0 1.5 2.8 .7 .45

5/6/1993 50.0 6.7 57.0 13.5 2.02

5/8/1993 37.0 4.9 71.0 16.8 3.39

6/4/1993 12.0 1.6 16.0 3.8 2.36

6/7/1993 141 18.9 115 27.2 1.44

6/17/1993 12.0 1.6 6.1 1.4 .90

7/17/1993 15.0 2.0 3.0 .7 .35

10/16/1994 22.0 2.9 1.5 .4 .12

5/8/1995 337 45.1 169 40.0 .89

5/13/1995 59.0 7.9 72.0 17.0 2.16
Supplemental Information - Table 9 63

5/19/1995 26.0 3.5 33.0 7.8 2.24

5/26/1995 28.0 3.7 33.0 7.8 2.08

6/4/1995 35.0 4.7 4.2 1.0 .21

6/9/1995 77.0 10.3 19.0 4.5 .44

6/16/1995 19.0 2.5 15.0 3.5 1.40

6/21/1995 19.0 2.5 29.0 6.9 2.70

8/5/1995 1.8 .2 100 23.6 98.2

5/24/1996 13.0 1.7 16.0 3.8 2.18

5/27/1996 52.0 7.0 81.0 19.1 2.75

6/12/1996 18.0 2.4 12.0 2.8 1.18

7/31/1996 1.8 .2 12.0 2.8 11.8

8/15/1996 3.9 .5 42.0 9.9 19.0

8/29/1996 4.8 .6 14.0 3.3 5.16

10/29/1996 23.2 3.1 30.0 7.1 2.28

5/2-3/1997 15.4 2.1 18.7 4.4 2.14

5/25/1997 112 14.9 98.3 23.2 1.55

6/3/1997 17.6 2.3 15.9 3.8 1.60

7/21/1997 7.0 .9 14.4 3.4 3.64

7/29/1997 6.7 .9 12.8 3.0 3.35

7/31/1997 4.3 .6 13.0 3.1 5.38

5/21/1998 10.5 1.4 6.2 1.5 1.04

6/8/1998 9.4 1.3 12.6 3.0 2.36

6/18/1998 126 16.8 108 25.6 1.52

7/8/1998 16.1 2.2 14.0 3.3 1.53

8/11/1998 23.7 3.2 2.7 .6 .20

8/21/1998 10.5 1.4 2.6 .6 .43

Mean 1989 3.4 .5 186 44.0 556

Median 1989 .3 .0 38.0 9.0 323

Mean 1990 33.2 4.4 47.9 11.3 23.8

Median 1990 4.3 .6 49.5 11.7 19.7

Mean 1991-98 43.0 5.7 31.7 7.5 4.6

Median 1991-98 19.0 2.5 15.9 3.8 1.6

1

Selected dates are those when peak discharge for either station equalled or exceeded 10 ft3/s. For consecutive days with discharges exceeding 

10 ft3/s, the day with the largest discharge was used.

Table 9. Peak discharges for selected dates for Grace Coolidge Creek and Bear Gulch–Continued

[ft3/s, cubic feet per second; (ft3/s)/mi2, cubic feet per second per square mile]

Date1

Grace Coolidge Creek near Hayward 

(06404800)

Bear Gulch near Hayward

(06405800) Ratio of peak

discharge per unit

area of Bear Gulch to

Grace Coolidge Creek

Maximum daily 

instantaneous 

streamflow

(ft3/s)

Peak discharge

per unit area

[(ft3/s)/mi2]

Maximum daily 

instantaneous 

streamflow

(ft3/s)

Peak discharge

per unit area

[(ft3/s)/mi2]
64 Hydrologic Effects of the 1988 Galena Fire, Black Hills Area, South Dakota Table 10. Annual peak flows for selected streamflow-gaging stations, water years 1967-98 [ft3/s, cubic feet per second; --, no data] Water year Beaver Creek near Buffalo Gap (06402500) French Creek above Fairburn (06403300) Battle Creek near Keystone (06404000) Grace Coolidge Creek near Hayward (06404800) 

Date Peak flow (ft3/s) Date Peak flow (ft3/s) Date Peak flow (ft3/s) Date Peak flow (ft3/s) 

1967 06/23/1967 109 -- -- 06/15/1967 1533 -- -- 1968 06/07/1968 111 -- -- 06/25/1968 1103 -- -- 1969 07/17/1969 340 -- -- 07/17/1969 1551 -- -- 1970 03/10/1970 15 -- -- 06/12/1970 1680 -- -- 1971 05/04/1971 340 -- -- 06/01/1971 1429 -- -- 1972 06/10/1972 829 -- -- 06/09/1972 126,200 -- -- 1973 03/14/1973 13 -- -- 04/19/1973 737 -- -- 1974 04/11/1974 16 -- -- 07/19/1974 35 -- -- 1975 07/24/1975 861 -- -- 07/19/1975 239 -- -- 1976 07/31/1976 660 -- -- 06/15/1976 1,260 -- -- 1977 05/05/1977 16 -- -- 04/12/1977 27 -- -- 1978 03/10/1978 157 -- -- 05/18/1978 230 -- -- 1979 07/23/1979 192 -- -- 07/04/1979 409 -- -- 1980 10/29/1980 15 -- -- 06/17/1980 21 -- -- 1981 10/20/1981 14 -- -- 05/17/1981 763 -- -- 1982 05/20/1982 19 06/24/1982 194 06/04/1982 101 -- -- 1983 12/09/1983 12 05/05/1983 50 05/07/1983 80 -- -- 1984 06/14/1984 21 07/15/1984 166 06/11/1984 327 -- -- 1985 12/04/1985 13 09/12/1985 23 03/18/1985 34 -- -- 1986 04/26/1986 31 06/10/1986 41 05/09/1986 105 -- -- 1987 05/27/1987 56 03/07/1987 329 10/03/1987 75 -- -- 1988 01/12/1988 19 07/16/1988 53 06/23/1988 9.2 -- -- 1989 01/22/1989 18 08/14/1989 4.6 09/21/1989 166 09/21/1989 25 
Supplemental Information - Table 10 65

1990 06/21/1990 12 05/30/1990 141 05/30/1990 473 05/29/1990 168 1991 06/03/1991 97 06/04/1991 304 06/05/1991 620 06/03/1991 210 1992 09/08/1992 23 06/22/1992 32 06/22/1992 37 06/21/1992 18 1993 08/20/1993 49 06/08/1993 266 06/07/1993 1,250 06/07/1993 141 1994 11/25/1994 17 03/03/1994 110 05/14/1994 35 05/13/1994 3.1 1995 07/03/1995 203 05/08/1995 1,060 05/08/1995 1,690 05/08/1995 337 1996 10/02/1996 14 05/28/1996 162 05/27/1996 595 05/27/1996 52 1997 07/29/1997 216 05/25/1997 239 05/25/1997 854 05/25/1997 112 1998 07/25/1998 43 06/19/1998 323 06/18/1998 1,520 06/18/1998 126 

Table 10. Annual peak flows for selected streamflow-gaging stations, water years 1967-98–Continued[ft3/s, cubic feet per second; --, no data]

Water 

year

Beaver Creek near Buffalo Gap 

(06402500)

French Creek above Fairburn 

(06403300)

Battle Creek near Keystone 

(06404000)

Grace Coolidge Creek

near Hayward

(06404800)

Date Peak flow (ft3/s) Date Peak flow (ft3/s) Date Peak flow (ft3/s) Date Peak flow (ft3/s) 
66 Hydrologic Effects of the 1988 Galena Fire, Black Hills Area, South Dakota Table 10. Annual peak flows for selected streamflow-gaging stations, water years 1967-98—Continued [ft3/s, cubic feet per second; --, no data] Water year Bear Gulch near Hayward (06405800) Boxelder Creek near Nemo (06422500) Elk Creek near Elm Springs (06425500) Spearfish Creek at Spearfish (06425500) 

Date Peak flow (ft3/s) Date Peak flow (ft3/s) Date Peak flow (ft3/s) Date Peak flow (ft3/s) 

1967 -- -- 06/12/1967 1950 06/16/1967 4,960 06/16/1967 230 1968 -- -- 06/09/1968 162 06/07/1968 1,020 06/25/1968 106 1969 -- -- 05/04/1969 1144 07/17/1969 2,300 05/15/1969 466 1970 -- -- 06/12/1970 1648 04/26/1970 2,920 06/12/1970 884 1971 -- -- 04/25/1971 1221 05/23/1971 3,510 05/10/1971 234 1972 -- -- 06/09/1972 130,100 06/11/1972 1,880 05/13/1972 163 1973 -- -- 04/20/1973 117 04/22/1973 1,440 05/31/1973 287 1974 -- -- 04/19/1974 23 04/09/1974 54 01/01/1974 175 1975 -- -- 07/30/1975 427 04/27/1975 1,210 05/07/1975 143 1976 -- -- 06/15/1976 1,460 06/17/1976 2,230 06/15/1976 3,870 1977 -- -- 04/17/1977 170 06/14/1977 2,270 05/02/1977 167 1978 -- -- 05/11/1978 301 03/18/1978 2,830 05/11/1978 230 1979 -- -- 07/04/1979 97 03/17/1979 92 08/07/1979 182 1980 -- -- 03/13/1980 35 06/15/1980 437 04/21/1980 85 1981 -- -- 05/18/1981 26 08/13/1981 124 07/01/1981 102 1982 -- -- 05/20/1982 272 05/21/1982 5,300 05/22/1982 2,110 1983 -- -- 05/07/1983 178 10/10/1983 1,940 05/08/1983 500 1984 -- -- 06/15/1984 215 05/04/1984 890 06/17/1984 285 1985 -- -- 03/18/1985 129 03/20/1985 73 04/17/1985 89 1986 -- -- 05/09/1986 82 02/27/1986 4,960 04/28/1986 104 1987 -- -- 03/06/1987 123 05/27/1987 718 04/18/1987 86 1988 -- -- 05/09/1988 33 03/24/1988 101 05/14/1988 118 1989 09/07/1989 1,250 03/10/1989 30 03/22/1989 11 05/09/1989 106 1990 05/29/1990 111 05/05/1990 29 09/02/1990 47 05/05/1990 82 
Supplemental Information - Table 10 67

1991 07/10/1991 48 06/06/1991 401 05/28/1991 620 05/22/1991 106 1992 07/13/1992 4.0 06/13/1992 53 06/21/1992 27 04/29/1992 70 1993 06/07/1993 115 06/07/1993 293 05/08/1993 3,660 06/08/1993 100 1994 10/14/1994 6.1 05/06/1994 125 06/08/1994 5,570 04/25/1994 175 1995 05/08/1995 169 05/09/1995 1,140 05/10/1995 4,580 05/08/1995 1,900 1996 05/27/1996 81 05/30/1996 826 05/28/1996 7,660 05/30/1996 204 1997 05/25/1997 98 06/02/1997 463 02/18/1997 3,000 05/08/1997 322 1998 06/18/1998 108 06/18/1998 607 06/19/1998 592 06/18/1998 899 

1Records for water years 1967-72 are excluded from peak-flow analyses for Battle Creek and Boxelder Creek because of the influence of a massive storm that o

a flood peak with a recurrence interval in excess of 100 years.

2Peaks for water years 1967-76 are for station 06405000, which was located just downstream.

Table 10. Annual peak flows for selected streamflow-gaging stations, water years 1967-98—Continued[ft3/s, cubic feet per second; --, no data]

Water 

year

Bear Gulch near Hayward 

(06405800)

Boxelder Creek near Nemo 

(06422500)

Elk Creek near Elm Springs 

(06425500)

Spearfish Creek at Spearfish 

(06425500)

Date Peak flow (ft3/s) Date Peak flow (ft3/s) Date Peak flow (ft3/s) Date Peak flow (ft3/s)