U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

Wind Energy in the United States and Materials 

Required for the Land-Based Wind Turbine Industry 

From 2010 Through 2030

Scientific Investigations Report 2011–5036
Cover. Photograph of the Twin Groves wind farm in McLean County, Ill., by Guenter Conzelmann, Argonne National Laboratories.
Wind Energy in the United States and 

Materials Required for the Land-Based 

Wind Turbine Industry From 2010 

Through 2030

By David R. Wilburn

Scientific Investigations Report 2011–5036

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
U.S. Department of the Interior

KEN SALAZAR, Secretary

U.S. Geological Survey

Marcia K. McNutt, Director

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2011

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reproduce any copyrighted materials contained within this report.

Suggested citation:

Wilburn, D.R., 2011, Wind energy in the United States and materials required for the land-based wind turbine industry 

from 2010 through 2030: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2011–5036, 22 p.
iii

Contents

Abstract...........................................................................................................................................................1

Introduction.....................................................................................................................................................1

Historical Perspective..........................................................................................................................1

Description of a Typical Wind Turbine ..............................................................................................2

Profile of Electricity Generation in the United States From Wind Power.............................................4

Life Cycle of a Wind Turbine ...............................................................................................................5

Transportation Logistics ......................................................................................................................6

Recent Technological Advancements...............................................................................................7

Material Requirements of Wind Turbines..................................................................................................7

Nacelle..................................................................................................................................................10

Rotor......................................................................................................................................................11

Tower ....................................................................................................................................................11

Projected Use of Materials Through 2030 ...............................................................................................11

Cast Iron and Steel .............................................................................................................................14

Concrete...............................................................................................................................................14

Fiberglass and Composites ...............................................................................................................15

Rare Earth Elements...........................................................................................................................15

Copper...................................................................................................................................................15

Land Area.............................................................................................................................................15

Conclusions...................................................................................................................................................16

References Cited..........................................................................................................................................17

Appendix 1. Estimates of Wind Turbine Life Cycle Emissions, Energy Consumption, 

and Water Consumption................................................................................................................20

Appendix 2. Wind Turbine Assumptions and Selection Methodology ............................................21

Figures

1. Diagrams showing a typical large wind turbine and major components. ..........................2

2. Graph showing the growth of the U.S. wind power industry ................................................4
iv

Tables

1. Estimates of the costs for components of a typical 1.5-megawatt wind turbine...............3

2. Principal advantages and disadvantages of wind power .....................................................6

3. Lifetime resource consumption per kilowatthour produced for representative 

onshore wind turbines in Europe ...............................................................................................7

4. Principal components of a wind turbine and areas of research for each 

component.....................................................................................................................................8

5. Estimated requirements for materials per megawatt capacity of electricity 

for representative wind turbine technologies .......................................................................12

6. Annual requirements for materials in selected years to meet projected 

wind turbine demand by 2030 ...................................................................................................13

A2–1. Estimates used in this report for the quality of selected materials required 

by the wind turbine industry from 2010 through 2030 ...........................................................23

Conversion Factors

Multiply By To obtain

Area

square meter (m2) 0.0002471 acre 

hectare (ha) 2.471 acre

Mass

kilogram (kg) 2.205 pound avoirdupois (lb)

megagram (Mg) or metric ton (t) 1.102 ton, short (2,000 lb)

Energy

watt (W) 0.00134 horsepower (HP)
Wind Energy in the United States and Materials Required 

for the Land-Based Wind Turbine Industry From 2010 

Through 2030

By David R. Wilburn

Abstract

The generation of electricity in the United States from 

wind-powered turbines is increasing. An understanding of 

the sources and abundance of raw materials required by the 

wind turbine industry and the many uses for these materials 

is necessary to assess the effect of this industry’s growth 

on future demand for selected raw materials relative to the 

historical demand for these materials. The U.S. Geological 

Survey developed estimates of future requirements for raw 

(and some recycled) materials based on the assumption that 

wind energy will supply 20 percent of the electricity consumed 

in the United States by 2030. Economic, environmental, 

political, and technological considerations and trends reported 

for 2009 were used as a baseline. Estimates for the quantity of 

materials in typical “current generation” and “next generation” 

wind turbines were developed. In addition, estimates for the 

annual and total material requirements were developed based 

on the growth necessary for wind energy when converted in a 

wind powerplant to generate 20 percent of the U.S. supply of 

electricity by 2030.

The results of the study suggest that achieving the market 

goal of 20 percent by 2030 would require an average annual 

consumption of about 6.8 million metric tons of concrete, 1.5 

million metric tons of steel, 310,000 metric tons of cast iron, 

40,000 metric tons of copper, and 380 metric tons of the rareearth element neodymium. With the exception of neodymium, 

these material requirements represent less than 3 percent of 

the U.S. apparent consumption for 2008. Recycled material 

could supply about 3 percent of the total steel required for 

wind turbine production from 2010 through 2030, 4 percent of 

the aluminum required, and 3 percent of the copper required. 

The data suggest that, with the possible exception of rareearth elements, there should not be a shortage of the principal 

materials required for electricity generation from wind energy. 

There may, however, be selective manufacturing shortages if 

the total demand for raw materials from all markets is greater 

than the available supply of these materials or the capacity 

of industry to manufacture components. Changing economic 

conditions could also affect the development schedule of 

anticipated capacity.

Introduction

As the amount of electricity generated from wind power 

increases, an understanding of the materials associated with 

the construction, transportation, installation, operation, 

decommissioning, and disposal of large wind powerplants1

(also referred to as wind farms) is essential. The analyses 

in this report provide policymakers and the public with an 

overview of factors currently and potentially affecting raw 

material requirements for land-based wind turbines. As the 

wind turbine industry modifies turbine designs, the demand 

for selected materials will also change. This study complements ongoing work by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) to 

evaluate the supply of raw materials available for established 

and emerging renewable energy technologies being implemented in the United States.

Historical Perspective

A wind-powered energy system transforms the kinetic 

energy of the wind into mechanical or electrical energy that 

is harnessed for practical use. Simple windmills were used 

to pump water in China before 200 B.C. By the 11th century 

AD, people in the Middle East were using windmills for 

grinding grain. Merchants returning from the East Indies 

brought knowledge of windmill technology to Europe, where 

the Dutch adapted it for driving pumps to remove water from 

lowland areas. Windmills were introduced to the New World 

in the 18th century and were used to pump water and grind 

grain for rural farms and ranches. Wind-driven turbines (wind 

turbines) are much larger devices that came into use in the 

1

For the purposes of this report, the term wind powerplant has been used 

to designate a group of wind turbines interconnected to a common power 

provider system through a system of distribution lines, substation(s), and 

transformers. In Europe, the equivalent is known as a generating station.
2 Wind Energy in the US and Materials Required for the Land-Based Wind Turbine Industry From 2010 Through 2030

United States after World War II to generate electricity for 

houses, businesses, and utility companies.

Technological advancements in the use of wind energy 

to produce electricity accelerated in the 1970s as one 

consequence of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting 

Countries oil embargo of 1973, which generated high 

fuel prices and stimulated research to find alternatives to 

nonrenewable sources of energy, such as coal, gas, and oil. 

The Solar Energy Research Development and Demonstration 

Act of 1974 led to increased research and development 

of renewable energy sources; as the costs of competing 

nonrenewable fuel sources increased, environmental concerns 

also increased, but so, too, did interest in achieving energy 

independence and securing sources of supply. The Solar 

Energy Research Institute (SERI) began operating in 1977. 

After SERI was consolidated with the Rocky Flats Wind Test 

Center and research was expanded to include wind energy in 

1991, the facility, located in Golden, Colorado, was designated 

a national laboratory and named the National Renewable 

Energy Laboratory (NREL).

In the United States, Federal and State investment and 

production tax credits offered during the 1980s, 1990s, and 

early 2000s further stimulated the development and use of 

renewable resources. Other countries also provided incentives 

for renewable energy development. By 1985, first-generation 

wind-driven electrical generators were developed with 

an average rating of 100 kilowatts (kW) (American Wind 

Energy Association, 2009a, p. 5). A combination of research 

and development, along with experience gained through 

deployment of this early technology, has led to larger, lower 

cost, and more efficient second-generation wind turbines. In 

2006, the President endorsed the Nation’s need for greater 

energy efficiency and independence and a more diversified 

energy portfolio. This led to a collaborative research effort 

by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), Black & Veatch 

Corporation, and the American Wind Energy Association 

(hereafter referred to as the DOE wind study) to develop a 

strategy to increase the contribution of wind energy to the U.S. 

electrical supply to 20 percent by 2030 (U.S. Department of 

Energy, 2008, p. 1). Most recently, the American Recovery and 

Reinvestment Act of 2009 extended the Federal production tax 

credit for wind energy through 2012.

Description of a Typical Wind Turbine

Wind turbines consist of three principal components, the 

nacelle, rotor, and tower (fig. 1). The nacelle compartment 

is connected to the rotor hub by a shaft and contains the 

generator, gears, and controlling mechanisms that maximize 

energy collection and conversion. The rotor, usually consisting 

of three wing-shaped blades connected to a central hub, 

converts the kinetic energy of the wind into rotational energy. 

The tower, including the supporting foundation, provides the 

height necessary to access the wind resource and the conduit 

required to transfer the turbine-generated electricity to the 

collection system of the wind powerplant where electricity 

from all wind turbines is often fed to the power grid.

Although wind turbines come in many sizes and 

configurations and are constructed from a wide range of 

70 m diameter

95 m

Blade - 35 m Boeing 747 

Jumbo Jet 

Span 59.6 m

Length 70.5m

Base height 60 m

Low-speed

shaft

Gear box

Generator

Controller

Anemometer

Wind vane

High-speed Nacelle

shaft

Tower

Yaw motor

Blades

Yaw drive

Brake

Rotor

Wind

direction

Pitch

A B

Rotor

Nacelle

(see inset for details)

Tower

Figure 1. Diagrams of (A) a typical large wind turbine and (B) major components.
Introduction 3

materials, most commercial-utility-scale turbines have 

installed generator nameplate capacity ratings of 1 to 3 

megawatts (MW). The average nameplate capacity of the 

3,190 wind turbines installed in the United States during 2007 

was 1.65 MW; similarly, the average nameplate capacity of 

the 5,029 wind turbines installed in 2008 was 1.66 MW, and 

the average nameplate capacity of the 5,734 wind turbines 

installed in 2009 was 1.74 MW (Wiser and Bolinger, 2010, p. 

26). Utility-scale turbines typically have tower heights ranging 

from 45 to 105 meters (m), rotor diameters from 57 to 99 m, 

and rotor blades from 27 to 45 m. The 1.5-MW turbine on an 

80-m tower is the most widely used onshore wind turbine, 

accounting for more than 50 percent of the utility-scale units 

installed in 2008 in the United States (Wiser and Bolinger, 

2009). Most utility-scale turbines are installed in arrays of 30 

to 150 units; when these units provide power to the utility grid 

as a single source of electricity, they are collectively termed a 

wind powerplant or wind farm. A typical utility-scale 1.5-MW 

wind turbine has the capacity to generate about 3.4 million 

kilowatthours per year (kWh/yr) of electricity, equivalent to 

the annual electrical requirement of 300 households, assuming 

an individual household use of 11,300 kWh/yr (Saint Francis 

University, 2007; U.S. Energy Information Administration, 

2008). Table 1 shows several historical estimates of the total 

capital cost as a percentage of the initial capital investment for 

components of a typical 1.5-MW wind turbine.

Table 1. Estimates of the costs for components of a typical 1.5-megawatt wind turbine.

[Estimates are expressed in terms of the percent of total capital cost of a wind turbine. Inc., included in reported subtotal for component; NA, not available; XX, 

not applicable]

Component Part NAICS1

code Cost (percent)2

Reference year 20013 20024 20033 20095

Rotor Blade 326199 20–30 14.1 28 16.6 22.2

Blade extender 331511 Inc. NA Inc. NA NA

Hub 331511 Inc. 4 Inc. 7.2 1.37

Pitch drive 335312 Inc. 3.9 Inc. 4 2.66

Subtotal XX 20–30 22 28 27.8 26.23

Nacelle (excluding drivetrain machinery) Case 326199 Inc. 1.9 Inc. 1.9 1.35

Frame 331511 Inc. 8.6 Inc. 3.8 2.8

Anemometer 334519 Inc. NA Inc. NA NA

Brakes 333613 Inc. 0.3 Inc. 0.6 1.32

Controller 334418 Inc. 3.2 Inc. 3.4 NA

Convertor 335999 Inc. 5.55 Inc. 2.5 5.01

Cooling system 333412 Inc. 1.7 Inc. 0.3 NA

Sensors 334519 Inc. Inc. Inc. 0.8 NA

Yaw drive 335312 Inc. 1.85 Inc. 1.8 1.25

Subtotal XX 25 21.2 22 15.1 11.73

Drivetrain components (contained in the 

nacelle)

Shafts 333613 Inc. 1.9 Inc. 2.3 1.91

Bearings 332991 Inc. 1.1 Inc. 1.3 1.22

Couplings 333613 Inc. NA Inc. 0.7 0.96

Gear boxes 333612 10–15 14.1 17.3 13.4 12.91

Generators 333611 5–15 9.1 7 6.7 3.44

Subtotal XX 20–30 26.2 24 24.4 20.44

Tower Tower 332312 10–25 13.6 26 20.6 26.30

Tower flange 331511 Inc. NA Inc. NA 1.04

Tower foundation 238110 Inc. 4.25 Inc. 5.4 Inc.

Power electronics 335999 Inc. 11 Inc. 6.7 3.59

Subtotal XX 10–25 28.9 26 32.7 30.93

1

North American Industry Classification System (NAICS) as reported by the NAICS Association.

2

Percent of total capital cost for a typical turbine with blades 45.3 meters in length and a tower 100 meters in height.

3

Data are from Sterzinger and Svrcek (2004). 4Data are from Fingersh and others (2006). 5Data are from European Wind Energy Association (2009).
4 Wind Energy in the US and Materials Required for the Land-Based Wind Turbine Industry From 2010 Through 2030

Profile of Electricity Generation in the 

United States From Wind Power

Wind power is the conversion of wind energy into a 

useable form, such as electricity. The electricity-generating 

capacity of wind power contributed about 1.3 percent of 

the total U.S. electricity supply in 2008 and 1.8 percent in 

2009 (American Wind Energy Association, 2010a, p. 5–6). 

For comparison, coal was the source for 45 percent of U.S. 

electricity supplied in 2009; natural gas, 23 percent; nuclear 

power, 20 percent; and hydroelectric power, 7 percent. The 

electricity-generating capacity of wind power contributed less 

than 2 percent of the new electricity-generating capacity in the 

United States in 2004, but accounted for 42 percent of newly 

commissioned capacity in 2008 and 39 percent in 2009 (Wiser 

and Bolinger, 2010).

The annual electricity-generating capacity of the United 

States from wind power increased from 2.5 gigawatts (GW) 

in 2000 to more than 35 GW in 2009 (American Wind Energy 

Association, 2010a), an average annual growth rate of about 

23 percent (fig. 2). The top 10 States for generating electricity 

from wind turbines in 2009 were, in descending order, Texas, 

Iowa, California, Washington, Oregon, Minnesota, Illinois, 

New York, Colorado, and North Dakota.

Wind energy is generally considered to be abundant 

but highly variable, and production capacity varies widely 

from State to State. Many factors must be considered when 

determining the site for a wind powerplant. A thorough 

understanding of the dynamics of the wind available to 

the project is one necessary component contributing to the 

economic success and production efficiency of a wind power 

project. Accurate estimates of wind direction, distribution, 

duration, gradient, and speed are essential to the proper 

location of a wind powerplant. Areas with average annual 

wind speeds at or greater than 23.4 kilometers per hour (14.5 

miles per hour) at an 80-m height above the ground (the height 

of a typical wind turbine rotor) are generally considered to 

have a suitable wind resource for possible development (U.S. 

Department of Energy, 2009, p. 1). The DOE has published 

wind maps by State showing areas with a gross wind capacity 

factor (without losses) at an 80-m height above the ground 

that may be suitable for wind power generation. Statewide 

estimates of the potential capacity in megawatts that could be 

installed and the annual energy in megawatthours that could 

be produced from the capacity estimates are provided. From 

these and other data sources, utilities and other developers 

initiated projects so that, by 2009, 14 States had an installed 

capacity of more than 1,000 MW each, and 36 States had 

operational utility-scale wind projects (American Wind Energy 

Association, 2010a, p. 3).

An increasing number of foreign wind turbine 

manufacturers are supplying the U.S. market, and an 

increasing number of foreign manufacturers have established 

New capacity

Existing capacity

Percentage of new U.S. electricitygenerating capacity

EXPLANATION

2009

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

0

5,000

10,000

15,000

20,000

25,000

30,000

35,000

40,000

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

YEAR

Wind power capacity, in megawatts

Wind power contribution to electricity-generating 

capacity, in percent

Figure 2. Graph showing the growth of the U.S. wind power industry in terms of electricity-generating capacity and the contribution of 

wind turbines to new U.S. electricity-generating capacity. Data are from American Wind Energy Association (2010).
Profile of Electricity Generation in the United States From Wind Power 5

manufacturing facilities in the United States. Six of the top 

10 global utility-scale wind turbine manufacturers have a 

U.S. manufacturing presence. More than 70 manufacturing 

facilities for wind turbine components were opened, 

expanded, or announced from 2007 through 2008, 13 were 

opened or expanded in 2009, and 21 more were planned for 

production by the end of 2010 (David, 2009b). Nearly 50 

percent of the components used in wind turbines installed 

in 2009 were manufactured in the United States, an increase 

from less than 30 percent in 2005 (American Wind Energy 

Association, 2010b; Wiser and Bolinger, 2010). In 2009, 10 

manufacturing facilities of rotors or blade components were 

opened or planned by original equipment manufacturers 

(OEMs; 60 percent) or suppliers (40 percent), 11 nacelle 

manufacturing component facilities were opened or planned 

by OEMs, 15 tower component manufacturing facilities were 

opened by suppliers (87 percent) or OEMs (13 percent), and 

2 miscellaneous component plants were opened or planned by 

suppliers (David, 2009b).

The utility industry uses the capacity factor as a measure 

of rating a powerplant’s performance in terms of its actual 

electrical production over a period of time compared with 

the amount of electricity the plant would have produced if it 

had been operating at full capacity for the same period. The 

capacity factor for a fossil fuel-powered electricity-generating 

plant typically ranges from 40 to 80 percent, operating most of 

the time unless it is idled by equipment problems or scheduled 

maintenance. A wind powerplant, however, operates when the 

wind is blowing, and it operates at less than nameplate capacity 

when the wind is blowing less than the wind speed for which 

the plant turbines are rated. Although modern utility-scale 

wind turbines typically operate 65 to 90 percent of the time, 

turbines installed in 2009 had capacity factors ranging from 

15 to 45 percent (Wiser and Bolinger, 2010). The performance 

of a wind turbine is dependent on turbine design and wind 

characteristics, so variation occurs based on project location 

and turbine vintage. Since 1999, the megawatt capacity of wind 

turbines has been increasing, which can be attributed primarily 

to increasing hub heights and larger rotor diameters relative to 

nameplate capacity (Wiser and Bolinger, 2010).

Another measure of wind plant efficiency is the 

availability factor—the percentage of time the wind-powered 

plant is available to generate electricity. Because modern wind 

turbines require limited maintenance, wind turbines have an 

availability factor of more than 98 percent, if times when the 

wind is not blowing at a level sufficient to generate electricity 

are not taken into account. The availability factor for wind 

turbines is higher than for many other types of powerplants 

(Canadian Wind Energy Association, 2009).

A wind turbine that is found to be efficient and 

economical from a technical standpoint in one location 

may not be in another location because of variation in 

the characteristics of wind resources at each location. 

Consequently, the cost effectiveness of a specific wind 

generator system depends on effectively pairing the correct 

turbine design with the characteristics of the wind at a site 

(Herbert and others, 2007).

Much has been reported about the advantages and disadvantages of wind energy as a source of electric power when 

compared with other renewable and nonrenewable power 

sources, including cost and the demand for raw materials. 

Table 2 summarizes arguments commonly cited for or against 

increased use of wind turbines as a source of electricity generation in the United States. In general, wind energy has been 

considered by many to be abundant, renewable, ecofriendly, 

and increasingly economically competitive with other energy 

sources. Disadvantages cited for wind energy include a high 

initial capital cost, the possible disruption in the supply of 

construction materials, a large land requirement, resource variability, and environmental characteristics related to aesthetics, 

bird hazard, and noise.

Life Cycle of a Wind Turbine

Life cycle assessments of wind turbines have been used 

by the USGS to estimate and compare energy and mineral 

and (or) material resource requirements from various sources. 

Detailed assessments of the life cycle of utility-scale wind 

turbines have been conducted, including assessments by 

Elsam Engineering A/S (2004), Nalukowe and others (2006), 

U.S. Department of Energy (2008), and Vestas Wind Systems 

A/S (2006a,b), so only background information and their most 

significant findings as they relate to industry requirements for 

minerals and materials are reported here.

The life cycle of a wind turbine can be divided into the 

following five phases:

• construction—the acquisition of all raw materials and 

the production of components that make up the wind 

turbine, as well as ancillary materials necessary for site 

development

• transportation—the equipment and supplies necessary 

to transport the raw materials from extraction, processing, fabrication, and manufacturing facilities; the transport of manufactured components to the site of the wind 

powerplant; and the transport of maintenance supplies 

and replacement parts during turbine operation

• installation—erecting the wind turbine onsite and connecting the turbine to other turbines at the powerplant 

and to the electrical energy grid

• operation—the operation and maintenance of the 

utility-scale turbine during its expected operating 

life of 20 to 30 years; a turbine can be refurbished to 

extend its lifespan by an additional 15 years or more, 

making the expected operating life of a wind turbine 

comparable to the 30 to 50 years for coal-generated 

powerplants and 40 to 50 years for nuclear powerplants

• decommissioning and disposition—dismantling the 

turbine and the subsequent disposal of its components; 

this phase includes the transport of equipment to recycling or remanufacturing facilities or to landfills
6 Wind Energy in the US and Materials Required for the Land-Based Wind Turbine Industry From 2010 Through 2030

Table 2. Principal advantages and disadvantages of wind power.

[Sources: American Wind Energy Association (2009e), U.S. Department of Energy (2010), Windturbinesnow.com, Windustry.org, Wiser and Bollinger (2010)]

Advantage Disadvantage

Wind power is becoming increasingly cost competitive with other 

power-generation sources.

The initial capital cost of a wind power plant is substantial, with 

installed costs ranging from $900 to $2,500 per kilowatt.

The unit cost of wind power is likely to decrease relative to other 

energy sources as wind production increases and fossil fuel costs 

increase.

As of 2009, the life cycle cost of onshore wind power (including 

capital and operating costs) is higher than the life cycle cost of 

fossil fuels.

Wind power is abundant, widely available, indigenous, and not subject to long-term disruption of supply.Wind power is variable and often located in rural areas far from 

demand; thus transmission and transportation distances are long. 

Wind power plants can be sited to be compatible with other rural 

land uses such as farming or cattle ranching. Lease royalties can 

provide supplemental income to landowners.

Large areas of land are required for wind power plants. The land 

often cannot be utilized productively during construction or decommissioning.

Wind energy is renewable and has many environmental benefits, has 

a smaller environmental footprint than other fuel sources, and does 

not emit materials harmful to humans or the environment.

Concerns about the environmental effects on birds, electronic 

signals, noise pollution, and long-term storage need to be evaluated. Also, large wind power plants are considered by some to be 

aesthetically displeasing because of turbine size and the possible 

restriction of scenic views.

Wind power plants can be granted a permit and built more quickly 

than a conventional power-generation plant. 

Permitting times vary from State to State, depending on local ordinances and State regulatory policies.

Once constructed, the overall “footprint” for wind- generated 

electricity is relatively small. It does not pose mining or security 

issues. The construction phase accounts for about 80 percent of 

emissions. The consumption of fossil fuels and water during 

the production phase is low compared with other power sources. 

Greenhouse gas emissions are low in comparison with most other 

sources of power.

The consumption of fossil fuels and water during construction and 

decommissioning can be significant. Transportation of oversized 

equipment can be expensive and hazardous. Although energy 

storage issues have yet to be solved, recent studies suggest that 

wind-generated electricity could supply more than 20 percent of 

the U.S. demand without the need for energy storage.

In anticipation of increased demand for products associated with 

wind power, manufacturers are constructing domestic facilities in 

support of the U.S. wind power generation industry, creating new 

jobs and increasing the local tax base for communities.

Wind power currently requires the manufacturing of large pieces 

of equipment from foreign sources. As demand increases, supply 

disruptions of selected equipment and materials may occur if 

manufacturing or supply capacity can not keep up with anticipated 

demand for these materials.

Data collected by Vestas Wind Systems A/S in 2006 for 

its 1.65-MW and 3-MW onshore wind turbines summarizes 

resource consumption estimates per kilowatthour produced 

for significant fuel, mineral, and freshwater resources (Vestas 

Wind Systems A/S, 2006a,b), when considering the entire 

life cycle of a wind turbine. Table 3 lists estimates of the 

lifetime consumption of selected materials that are required 

for processes associated with generating electricity from two 

sizes of wind turbines. These estimates include the resources 

used in raw material extraction, component manufacturing 

and transport, wind turbine installation and operation, and 

decommissioning and disposal of turbine components at 

the end of their life cycle. For wind turbines, the lifetime 

consumption of water and fossil fuels is low when compared 

with other energy sources (U.S. Department of Energy, 2005).

Life cycle assessments provide data on emissions and the 

environmental burden associated with electricity-generation 

from various sources. Although a detailed analysis is beyond 

the scope of this study, a 2007 compilation of onshore wind 

turbine data by the European Wind Energy Association 

suggested that the overall environmental footprint for windgenerated electricity is relatively small when compared with 

other sources of energy and that the construction and initial 

transport phases account for about 80 percent of total lifetime 

wind turbine emissions (European Wind Energy Association, 2007). A brief discussion of emissions rates for selected 

energy sources is provided in appendix 1.

Transportation Logistics

Costs and logistics associated with transportation can 

represent obstacles to establishing wind powerplants. The 

rapid growth of the wind turbine industry has contributed to 

transportation and logistics challenges for manufacturers and 

developers that can also cause delays in turbine development, 

namely the short-term availability of equipment large enough 

to manufacture, transport, and erect these large components, 

and the local availability of experienced personnel to 

manufacture, construct, and operate this equipment. Because 
Material Requirements of Wind Turbines 7

Table 3. Lifetime resource consumption per kilowatthour 

produced for representative onshore wind turbines in Europe.

[Source: Vestas Wind Systems A/S (2006a,b). MW, megawatt; g/kWh, grams 

per kilowatthour]

Turbine size 1.65 MW 3 MW

Resource Consumption estimates,

in g/kWh

Water (fresh) 38 51

Stone 3.6 3.5

Hard coal 1.1 0.64

Quartz sand 0.12 0.59

Crude oil 0.71 0.54

Natural gas 0.53 0.42

Lignite 0.23 0.34

Limestone 0.33 0.10

Rock salt 0.14 0.08

Clay 0.05 0.05

component sections are large and heavy, they are difficult to 

transport and require special handling. Wind turbines are often 

located in remote areas distant from major transportation hubs. 

The cost of transportation and erection is therefore expensive, 

and the cost of routine maintenance and unscheduled repairs 

can be higher than for facilities located near urban areas. 

Efforts are ongoing to develop tower configurations that are 

less costly and more easily transported and installed. Tower 

research includes onsite tower fabrication, self-erecting tower 

technologies, slip-formed concrete bases, and truss tower 

sections (Thresher and Laxson, 2006).

A single turbine may require eight to ten hauls to deliver 

the components (one nacelle, one hub, three blades, and three 

to five tower sections) to the site of the wind powerplant. 

When one considers that about 8,500 MW of wind-powered 

capacity was installed in 2008, this new construction likely 

required more than 40,000 transportation hauls during the 

year (American Wind Energy Association, 2009d). As more 

turbine components are manufactured in assembly plants 

in States with favorable wind profiles, the capital cost of 

wind powerplant construction has decreased by reducing the 

distance the wind turbine components must be transported.

Recent Technological Advancements

Wind turbine research continues to focus on identifying the 

most efficient and cost effective combinations of turbine design 

and energy capture by refining component design to incorporate 

stronger, lower cost materials while achieving high-volume 

production rates and maintaining or improving efficiency. 

Research is focusing on using lighter weight components in 

blades and towers. Larger wind turbines tend to have larger and 

heavier components. Gearboxes and brushings are expensive 

and historically have required frequent maintenance or 

replacement. Research into smaller, multiple-drive generatorand-drivetrain configurations may reduce the cost, maintenance, 

and size of gearboxes. Research suggests that the use of 

direct-drive permanent magnet generators, which eliminate 

the gearbox and thus the need for frequent maintenance, may 

be advantageous in remote areas where maintenance costs are 

expensive. Recent technology trends have been summarized in 

table 4 for the principal wind turbine components.

In 2008, the DOE wind study (U.S. Department of 

Energy, 2008) determined that reaching a 20 percent market 

share from wind energy by 2030 was achievable, although the 

researchers noted several challenges to achieving this goal 

(David, 2009a; U.S. Department of Energy, 2010), including 

the following:

• continued efforts to make wind turbines cost competitive with other energy sources through technological 

advances and improved performance

• environmental, political, and social concerns related 

to land disturbance, proximity to population centers, 

sound and wildlife issues, and visual effect

• effective integration into the Nation’s electrical energy 

transmission system

• consistent long-term regional plans among Federal, 

State, and local entities

• difficulties associated with permits and the transport of 

turbine components

• growing the manufacturing sector to remedy any shortterm shortage of parts and materials

Material Requirements of Wind 

Turbines

A typical wind turbine is reported to contain 89.1 percent 

steel, 5.8 percent fiberglass, 1.6 percent copper, 1.3 percent 

concrete (primarily cement, water, aggregates, and steel 

reinforcement), 1.1 percent adhesives, 0.8 percent aluminum, 

and 0.4 percent core materials (primarily foam, plastic, and 

wood) by weight (U.S. Department of Energy, 2008). In 2008, 

utilities and manufacturers installed more than 5,000 utilityscale wind turbines in the United States, requiring more than 

1.1 million metric tons (Mt) (1 million short tons) of iron 

and steel, 920,000 cubic meters (1.2 million cubic yards) of 

concrete, 2.4 million steel bolts, and 43,000 kilometers (km) 

(27,000 miles) of reinforced steel rebar (American Wind 

Energy Association, 2009b).

As the use of wind turbines increases and research 

leads to the development of new technologies, requirements 

for materials for wind turbines will likely change, and 

the cumulative amount of these materials required by this 
8 Wind Energy in the US and Materials Required for the Land-Based Wind Turbine Industry From 2010 Through 2030 Table 4. Principal components of a wind turbine and areas of research for each component.—Continued [Data are from Sterzinger and Svrcek (2004), de Vries (2008), Abreu and others (2009), and Sakki (2009). NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NA, not available; mph, miles per hour] Component Part NAICS code Cost (percent)1 Description Technology trends Rotor Blade 326199 22.2 Rotor blades convert wind energy to mechanical energy. Can have stall-regulated or variable-pitch design. Principal materials are fiberglass and reinforcing products, such as epoxy resin with steel. Trend is toward lighter and stronger blades. Currently use fiberglass reinforced plastic. Increased use of composite materials including carbon fiber reinforced plastic, steel, and fiberglass. Blade extender 331511 NA Steel components that support blades and secure them to the hub. Typically more than 1 metric ton in weight. Mounted to ball bearing, which is mounted to the hub. Hub 331511 1.37 Hub serves as a base for rotor blades and blade extenders, and as a housing for pitch control systems. Attaches to the shaft by means of a shaft/bearing assembly. Material is typically cast iron. Testing to make the cost of two-blade systems competitive with three-blade systems. Pitch drive 335312 2.66 Controls blade angle to achieve optimum angle for wind speed and desired rotation speed. Typically three motors, one for each blade. Variable-pitch turbines use a drive system to adjust pitch and divert excess energy, reducing blade stress and keeping the blade speed within design specifications. Nacelle (excluding drivetrain machinery) Case 326199 1.35 Encloses mechanical components of the turbine. Primary materials are fiberglass and steel-reinforced plastic. Use of rubber dampers for mounting to mainframe with steel supports. Frame 331511 2.8 Inner casing of the nacelle. Primarily, materials are cast iron and steel. Holes are drilled into the nacelle for stability, maintenance entry, and to minimize vibration. Anemometer 334519 NA Meteorological instrumentation to provide wind velocity data to yaw controls. More accurate laser anemometers are in development. Brakes 333613 1.32 Mechanical brakes are used as auxiliary devices to stop machinery during maintenance and inclement weather. Prevents undesired rotation or turbine fatigue. Yaw controls typically halt blade rotation by turning blade rotors perpendicular to the wind direction. Brake systems provide emergency backup. Controller 334418 NA Electronic and fiber optic monitoring equipment that report perfor- mance to the central controller. Traditionally at the top and bottom of the tower. More recently, a third controller is mounted in the hub. The three controllers communicate via fiber optics. Convertor 335999 5.01 Converts direct current (DC) electricity from the generator to alter- nating current (AC) to achieve compatibility with the electrical grid. NA Cooling system 333412 NA Axial fans convectively cool machinery and exhaust waste heat from nacelle. Cooling and dehumidifying units maintain conditions to reduce rust and corrosion. Sensors 334519 NA Instrumentation relays information to controllers, which automati- cally adjust components to address changing conditions. Instrumentation includes wind vane (anemometer), cable twist counter, and thermocouples. Other sensors are added as required. Yaw drive 335312 1.25 Turns the turbine into the wind to generate maximum power. Typi- cally four drives are used. When wind speeds exceed 60 miles per hour, the mecha- nism turns the turbine perpendicular to the prevailing 

wind to reduce stress or prevent stalling.
Material Requirements of Wind Turbines 

9

Table 4. Principal components of a wind turbine and areas of research for each component.—Continued[Data are from Sterzinger and Svrcek (2004), de Vries (2008), Abreu and others (2009), and Sakki (2009). NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NA, not available; mph, miles per hour]

Component Part NAICS code Cost (percent)1 Description Technology trends

Drivetrain components Shafts 333613 1.91 Low- and high-speed shafts are the mechanisms for conversion 

from low-speed rotation of the rotor (kinetic energy) to highspeed rotation of the gearbox (electrical energy).

Shaft sizes have decreased as component parts such as 

bearings have become smaller. Smaller shafts have greater fatigue, necessitating better fatigue-handling systems and more frequent maintenance.

Bearings 332991 1.22 Bearings are required for the shafts, gearbox, yaw mechanism, generator, and other rotating parts. The nacelle and tower are connected by a contact ball bearing, allowing the nacelle to rotate. Technological improvements allow for smaller bearings.Couplings 333613 0.96 The flexible coupling is attached to the high-speed shaft to dampen 

out oscillating loads introduced by the gearbox, improving electricity quality produced by the generator.

Increased use of composite materials for increased 

strength and flexibility. Use of these materials is expected to increase to lighten turbine weight.

Gear boxes 333612 12.91 A gearbox is used to convert low-speed rotation of the input shaft 

from the rotor to high-speed rotation. The high speed is necessary to drive the generator.

Trend toward large turbines has led to very expensive 

gearboxes because torque increases more quickly than the power when increasing rotor diameter. Research is ongoing for multiple-generator drivetrain configurations while increasing energy capture and reliability.

Generators 333611 3.44 Generator produces electrical energy by spinning the rotor around a 

magnetic stator using electromagnetism to produce AC electricity. Alternatively, permanent magnet materials may be used to generate electricity.

Primarily synchronous and asynchronous. Increased use 

of direct-drive generators to eliminate the need for a gearbox, reducing maintenance costs of a turbine.

Tower Tower 332312 26.3 Primarily made of steel (or concrete), built in sections because 

of size. May use composite materials if costs can be reduced. Oversize-load issues often constrain transportation to the site.

Research is ongoing to overcome transportation problems 

and the high cost of erection, focusing on slip-formed concrete bases, onsite tower fabrication, truss tower sections, and self-erecting tower technologies.

Tower flange 331511 1.04 Ductile iron fittings that join tower segments. Bolting and welding are used to connect tower seams.Power electronics 335999 3.59 Transformer and other DC to AC power-conversion apparatus, 

except for electronic circuitry.

NA.

1Percentage of total capital cost for a typical turbine with blades 45.3 meters in length and a tower 100 meters in height.
10 Wind Energy in the US and Materials Required for the Land-Based Wind Turbine Industry From 2010 Through 2030

industry will likely increase. One scenario for achieving the 

proposed goal of producing 20 percent of the projected U.S. 

electrical consumption from wind power by 2030 would 

require the installation of wind turbines capable of generating 

more than 16,000 MW of new capacity annually by 2018, 

with this generation rate continuing annually through 2030 

(American Wind Energy Association, 2009c). All the windderived electricity produced in the United States during 2008 

originated from onshore wind turbines. Under this scenario, 

the DOE envisioned that 82 to 92 percent (255,000 to 285,000 

MW) of wind-generated electricity could come from onshore 

wind turbines, 7 to 17 percent (23,000 to 54,000 MW) from 

offshore wind turbines, and less than 1 percent from small 

wind turbines (U.S. Department of Energy, 2008). Because 

electrical production from small (capacity of less than 0.1 

MW) wind turbines would likely account for less than 0.4 

percent of U.S. electricity-generating capacity in 2030, small 

wind turbines were excluded from this analysis.

Although table 4 includes a description of principle 

components and parts of a typical wind turbine, material 

requirements of wind turbines in use today can vary from 

one type or manufacturer to another, and current and future 

research may result in the development of wind turbines with 

mixes of materials different from those widely used today. 

The following discussion outlines each major component in 

terms of current use of materials and possible technological 

improvements that could lead to changes in material use.

Nacelle

The nacelle contains much of the equipment required for 

energy conversion and generation and typically accounts for 

25 to 40 percent of the weight of the wind turbine (Ancona 

and McVeigh, 2001). The nacelle case contains the drivetrain 

components (bearings, coupling, gears, generator, and shafts) 

and the analytical and auxiliary equipment (anemometer, 

brakes, controller, convertor, cooling system, sensors, and yaw 

drive system). Materials used for these components consist 

primarily of aluminum, cast iron, copper, plastic, stainless 

steel, and steel alloys.

Torque is converted to electrical power using a speedincreasing gearbox and a generator. Many utility-scale wind 

turbines use a three-stage gearbox to convert the low-speed, 

high-torque power derived from the rotor to the high-speed, 

low-torque power that feeds the generator. Gearboxes 

comprise primarily cast iron and stainless steel, with minor 

amounts of aluminum and copper. Utility-scale wind turbines 

in use or under development in 2008 included double-fed, 

asynchronous (induction) wound-rotor generators (used in 73 

percent of the wind turbines under contract for development in 

2008); asynchronous generators with a cage rotor (14 percent); 

direct-drive, synchronous generators (11 percent); and 

permanent magnet generators (2 percent) to produce electrical 

energy suitable for transfer to the electrical power grid (Sakki, 

2009, p. 7). Electromagnets found in many generators consist 

of iron cores surrounded by wound copper wire; smaller 

turbines may utilize cage rotors in their induction generators, 

comprising copper or aluminum rods connected electrically by 

aluminum end rings mounted to an iron core.

The trend toward larger turbines has led to very expensive 

gearboxes because torque increases more quickly than the 

power when increasing rotor diameter, leading to increased 

stress on the gears and higher maintenance requirements for 

gearboxes. The increased use of multiple-generator drivetrain 

configurations or direct-drive generators that do not require a 

gearbox has led to turbines with fewer moving parts, resulting 

in less maintenance and lower operating costs. The use of 

composite materials in couplings can increase component 

strength and flexibility and lighten weight but may add to 

component cost. Technological improvements allow smaller 

component parts, such as bearings, to be used. Shaft sizes have 

decreased accordingly, but smaller shafts experience greater 

fatigue, necessitating improvements in shaft design and more 

frequent maintenance (Sterzinger and Svercek, 2004).

Since 2006, manufacturers such as GE Energy, Siemens 

AG, and Vestas Wind Systems A/S (Vestas) have introduced 

into their product lines permanent magnet generators in 

drivetrains for wind turbines. Permanent magnets are used 

in the generator’s rotor instead of wound copper-coiled 

electromagnets, eliminating much of the weight associated 

with copper windings and stator coils and the energy required 

to power up the electromagnets. Designs with permanent 

magnets use a power convertor to provide flexible, variablespeed power control in case of grid power fluctuations with 

no additional power required to initiate the magnetic field 

(Shankir, 2010). Disadvantages include a higher cost for 

the convertor and power electronics, energy losses in the 

power conversion process, and the possible introduction of 

harmonic distortions when connecting to the electrical grid 

(Kusiak, 2010; Shankir, 2010). Sintered ceramic magnets and 

rare-earth magnets are the two types of permanent magnets 

used in wind turbines. Sintered ceramic magnets, comprising 

iron oxide (ferrite) and barium or strontium carbonate, have 

a lower cost but generate a lower energy product than do 

rare-earth permanent magnets comprising neodymium, iron, 

and boron (Nd-Fe-B). The energy-conversion efficiency of 

sintered Nd-Fe-B is roughly 10 times that of sintered ferrite, 

but the cost per kilogram of sintered Nd-Fe-B is 30 times that 

of ferrite. Sintered Nd-Fe-B is electrically conductive, causing 

current losses and inductive heating in the magnets, which 

can result in efficiency losses or performance degradation at 

higher wind speeds (Marcos, 2009). Availability, cost, and 

efficiency factors for each type of generator therefore must 

be considered before selection. Although use of permanentmagnet generators of both types is increasing, the higher 

forecast projections of cost, technical limitations, and market 

pricing of materials are likely to reduce the rate of market 

penetration considerably below levels predicted by some 

manufacturers (Marcos, 2009; Sakki, 2009). Permanentmagnet generators were used in about 2 percent of the wind 

turbines manufactured globally in 2008 (Sakki, 2009).
Projected Use of Materials Through 2030 11

Rotor

The rotor typically makes up 10 to 14 percent of the 

weight of the wind turbine (Ancona and McVeigh, 2001). 

The rotor of a wind turbine consists of four principal 

components—the blades, the blade extender, the hub, and the 

pitch drive system. Rotor blades are constructed primarily of 

fiberglass-reinforced plastic mixed with epoxy adhesive and 

lightweight core materials, such as balsa wood or polymer 

foam. A steel blade extender is used to provide additional 

blade support and to attach the blade to the hub. The hub, 

constructed primarily of cast iron, serves as a base for the 

rotor blades and extenders and as a housing for pitch control 

systems. The pitch drive, constructed primarily of stainless 

and alloy steels, controls blade angle for optimum energy 

recovery and enables adjustment for wind speed and other 

weather conditions that may affect wind turbine operation.

As of 2009, the trend in blade design was toward 

increased use of composite materials, such as carbonreinforced plastic, in highly stressed locations to stiffen blades 

and improve fatigue resistance while reducing weight. Blade 

design and configurations are customized because wind 

characteristics vary between locations. At sites with lower 

wind speeds, longer blades may be used to increase energy 

capture. Variable-pitch drive systems are used to automatically 

adjust turbine pitch for changing wind patterns, reduce blade 

stress, and keep blade speed within design specifications.

Tower

The tower provides the support system for the turbine 

blades and the nacelle and serves as the conduit for electrical 

and electronic transmission and grounding. The most widely 

used tower configuration in the United States comprises steel 

sections with a concrete foundation custom designed for local 

site conditions. A tower, including the concrete base, typically 

accounts for 30 to 65 percent of the total weight of the wind 

turbine. Tower height is selected to optimize wind energy 

capture.

Projected Use of Materials Through 

2030

Although an in-depth study of materials used in the wind 

turbine industry is beyond the scope of this report, a careful 

selection of existing wind turbine data can allow for the 

development of simplified distribution models for materials 

required by representative wind turbines and allow for estimates 

of the total material requirements necessary for the United 

States to meet the goal of supplying 20 percent of its electricity 

demand from wind power by 2030. Estimates of materials 

use are compared with U.S. consumption statistics for these 

materials as developed by the USGS to evaluate how increased 

demand from this sector could affect U.S. and world markets 

and possibly lead to changes in the supply of these materials.

As of 2009, small wind turbines of less than 100-kW 

capacity accounted for 0.06 percent of the wind-generating 

capacity of the United States, and onshore utility-scale 

turbines accounted for 99.94 percent of generating capacity. 

There was no capacity in 2009 from offshore wind turbines; 

the American Wind Energy Association projected that the 

first domestic utility-scale production from offshore turbines 

would occur in 2016. Wind turbine capacity that has come 

online since 2000 accounted for 93 percent of the total 2008 

U.S. capacity from wind turbines, more than 50 percent of 

which are 1.5 MW in size. Turbines produced by GE Energy 

and Vestas accounted for approximately 52 percent of the 

wind turbines placed into production in the United States from 

2000 through 2008 (Wiser and Bolinger, 2009, p. 15), and 

wind turbines manufactured by GE Energy and Vestas were 

considered representative of the current generation of wind 

turbine used in the United States. Given that the average life 

of a turbine is 20 to 30 years, it is likely that the majority of 

these turbines will still be in operation in 2030. In addition, 

this analysis considered two newer, larger wind turbines 

developed by these manufacturers with operational parameters 

and material technologies consistent with the latest wind 

turbine trends. It is expected that these turbines would be 

representative of the next generation of wind turbine coming 

online after 2010.

Turbine data supplied by the manufacturers and published 

data from other sources were used by the USGS to develop 

estimates of the principal materials required for two classes 

of wind turbine, a current-generation 1.5-MW onshore 

wind turbine and a next-generation 3.0-MW onshore wind 

turbine (table 5). Requirements for small wind turbines and 

offshore wind turbines were not addressed in this analysis; 

neither were requirements for the large-scale replacement 

of turbine components during the operating life of a turbine. 

Assumptions related to the estimates for materials required for 

both current- and next-generation onshore wind turbines are 

provided in appendix 2.

As rotor blades increase in size, greater amounts of 

fiberglass and carbon fibers are required per blade, but 

improvements in blade technology are leading to the use 

of less material per unit of energy generated. Modern wind 

turbine towers still contain large quantities of steel and 

concrete, although advances in tower materials increase tower 

compartmentalization and strength while allowing for lighter 

and more portable tower components and more efficient tower 

foundation designs. This allows less steel and concrete to be 

used per unit of energy generated. Increased use of ferrite and 

rare-earth permanent magnets would reduce the number of 

moving parts in a turbine by simplifying or eliminating the 

gearbox, but the unit requirements for iron oxide and rareearth elements in permanent magnets would increase.

Economically, permanent magnet generators have 

become increasingly competitive with other generator types 

used in wind turbines. Increased demand for rare-earth 
12 Wind Energy in the US and Materials Required for the Land-Based Wind Turbine Industry From 2010 Through 2030

Table 5. Estimated requirements for materials per megawatt capacity of electricity for representative wind turbine technologies.

[kg, kilogram; kg/MW, kilograms per megawatt; MW, megawatt; Nd, neodymium; Nd-Fe-B, neodymium, iron, and boron; Nd2O3, neodymium oxide; XX, not 

applicable]

Turbine

Steel, 

stainless

(kg/MW)

Concrete

(kg/MW)

Fiberglass

(kg/MW)

Miscellaneous1

(kg/MW)

Copper2

(kg/MW)

Nd in 

magnet3

(kg/MW)

Cast iron

(kg/MW)

Total 

weight

(kg/MW)

Current generation4 115,000 590,000 9,800 8,050 2,500 0 23,900 750,000

Next generation5 103,000 402,000 6,800 9,300 3,000 43.2 20,000 540,000

Average change 

in megawatt 

consumption, in 

percent -10 -32 -31 +16 +20 XX -16 -28

(million kg) (million kg) (million kg) (million kg) (million kg) (million kg) (million kg) (million kg)

Average for 2010–20306 1,500 6,800 110 130 40 0.38 310 8,890

Total by 20307 30,000 135,000 2,300 2,400 750 6 6,000 176,456

1

Includes aluminum, plastic, epoxy resins, polymer foam, and wood.

2

Includes copper windings, copper alloys in components, copper wire, and copper in electronics.

3

Estimates of rare-earth element requirements were developed based on published information on rare-earth content of wind turbine generators from Hatch 

(2009) and Lifton (2009). Wind turbines of the current generation typically did not use permanent magnets; therefore, the rare-earth element requirement of 

these wind turbines was considered negligible. It was assumed that 20 percent of the next generation wind turbines would use rare-earth permanent magnets. The 

remaining 80 percent would either use conventional electromagnets or ferrite permanent magnets that use no rare-earth elements. A next generation wind turbine 

that used a rare-earth permanent magnet would require 216 kg/MW Nd or 251 kg/MW Nd2O3, assuming that Nd accounts for about 27 percent of the weight of a 

rare-earth (Nd-Fe-B) permanent magnet. The Nd content of the average next generation wind turbine was therefore estimated as [(80 percent × 0) + (20 percent 

× 216 kg/MW)] = 43.2 kg/MW Nd [50 kg/MW Nd2O3].

4

The representative current-generation onshore wind turbine is capable of generating 1.5 MW of electricity using conventional technology that includes a 

three-blade rotor, steel tower, three-stage gearbox, and a wound-rotor type generator.

5

The representative next-generation wind turbine is capable of generating 3 MW of electricity and could use more composite materials in the rotor blades, 

steel-concrete towers, and a mixed generator technology assuming 80 percent double-fed induction generator technology and 20 percent permanent magnet 

technology. The latter could use rare-earth elements.

6

The estimate of the average amount of material that would be required annually for 2010–2030 in order to achieve the goal of wind power supplying 20 

percent of the U.S. demand for electricity by 2030 based on the distribution of current and next generation wind turbines as reported in appendix 2.

7

The estimate of the total amount of material that would be required for 2010–2030 in order to achieve the goal of having wind power supply 20 percent of the 

U.S. demand for electricity by 2030 based on the distribution of current and next generation wind turbines as reported in appendix 2.

elements used in some permanent magnets has contributed to 

renewed interest in evaluating the need to redevelop domestic 

sources of supply for these strategic elements; in 2009, 

the United States imported most of its rare-earth elements 

from China (Hedrick, 2010), and most rare-earth permanent 

magnets manufactured worldwide use rare-earth elements 

from China (Lifton, 2009).

As global requirements for rare-earth elements continue 

to grow, any sustained increase in demand for neodymium 

oxide from the wind resource sector would have to be met by 

increased supply through expansion of existing production 

or the development of new mines. China’s own domestic 

use of its rare-earth resources is increasing, with domestic 

consumption rates reported to be about 60 percent of 

production (Molycorp Minerals LLC, 2010). The availability 

of rare-earth elements required for permanent magnets 

is currently being evaluated by U.S. policymakers (U.S. 

Government Accountability Office, 2010).

In 2008, the DOE wind study assessed the likelihood 

of wind energy being able to provide 20 percent of the U.S. 

electricity supply by 2030 (U.S. Department of Energy, 2008). 

Included in this analysis was a comprehensive assessment 

of associated material requirements to meet this goal. Table 

6A summarizes the estimates for selected materials required 

to meet the anticipated growth of the wind turbine industry 

for selected years based on the raw data provided by the 

DOE wind study; replacement parts were not included in 

these estimates. The amount of material that is available for 

recycling, remanufacturing, or disposal was not considered 

by the DOE study, but estimates of the amounts of material 

recycled (table 6B) or disposed of in landfills (table 6C) 

from dismantled wind turbines have been evaluated and are 

included in this report. Annual estimates for the amount of 

material recycled or landfilled were developed using the 

historical turbine capacities in megawatts from 1995 through 

2005, an average turbine life of 25 years, and the average unit 
Projected Use of Materials Through 2030 13

Table 6. Annual requirements for materials in selected years to meet projected wind turbine demand by 2030.

[Based on a mix of 1.5-megawatt onshore and 4-megawatt offshore wind turbines selected to supply 20 percent of U.S. electrical demand by 2030, and a 

maximum wind turbine installation rate of 7,000 wind turbines per year. Data are from U.S. Department of Energy (2008). Units are reported in thousands of 

metric tons. Averages and totals have been rounded to two significant digits because they reflect a combination of reported and estimated data. In part B, for 

example, turbines constructed in 1996 would be available for recycling in 2021 and those constructed in 1997 could be recycled in 2022. A recycling rate of 90 

percent was assumed for aluminum, cast iron, concrete, copper, electronics, and steel. No recycling was assumed for adhesives, core materials, fiberglass, or 

plastic. Recycling of rare-earth elements from permanent magnets would likely occur but not during the period of study. Abbreviations: kWh/kg, kilowatt hours 

per kilogram; NA, not applicable]

Year kWh/kg Steel1 Concrete2

Glass fiber 

reinforced 

plastic

Carbon fiber 

composite

Adhesive 

materials

Blade core 

materials Aluminum Copper Permanent magnet3

A. Total material requirements for selected years

2006 65 110 1,614 7.1 0.2 1.4 0.4 1.2 1.6 0.03

2010 70 464 6,798 29.8 2.2 5.6 1.8 4.6 7.4 0.07

2015 75 1,188 16,150 73.8 9.0 15.0 5.0 15.4 10.2 0.96

2020 80 2,644 37,468 162.2 20.4 33.6 11.2 29.6 20.2 2.20

2025 85 2,544 35,180 156.2 19.2 31.4 10.4 27.8 19.4 2.10

2030 90 2,308 33,800 152.4 18.4 30.2 9.6 26.4 18.4 2.00

Average 2010–2030 NA 1,800 26,000 120 14 23 8 21 15 1.50

Total by 20304 NA 44,000 620,000 2,700 320 550 180 490 370 34

B. Estimates of material recycled for selected years or periods, based on industry capacity and recovery estimates and 25-year turbine life.

2006 65 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

2010 70 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

2015 75 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

2020 80 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

2021–2025 85 140 550 0 0 0 0 3 3 0

2026–2030 90 880 3,500 0 0 0 0 15 20 0

Total by 20304 NA 1,000 4,000 0 0 0 0 18 23 0

C. Estimates of material landfilled for selected years or periods, based on industry capacity and recovery estimates and 25-year turbine life

2006 65 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

2010 70 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

2015 75 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

2020 80 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

2021–2025 85 16 62 12 0 2 3 0.3 0.3 0

2026–2030 90 98 390 72 0 13 16 2 2 0

Total by 20304 NA 110 450 84 0 15 19 2 2 0

1

Steel includes iron and steel alloys, stainless steel, and cast iron.

2

Concrete used in tower foundations may last longer than the 25 year life of a wind turbine so may not need to be recycled. 

3

The composition of the permanent magnets are not specified but assumed to include both ferrite and rare-earth permanent magnets. Permanent magnets were 

not used in utility-scale, onshore wind turbines before 2006 (Europe) and 2015 (projected for the United States). Assuming a service life for the magnet of 25 

years, any magnets installed in U.S. turbines are assumed to be in operation in 2030.

4

Estimated by the USGS based on available data as reported from U.S. Department of Energy (2008).
14 Wind Energy in the US and Materials Required for the Land-Based Wind Turbine Industry From 2010 Through 2030

capacity estimates in kilograms per megawatt for selected 

materials, assuming that all wind turbines to be recycled 

or landfilled would be similar to the representative current 

generation of wind turbines used in this study.

As of 1995, the cumulative generating capacity for 

first-generation wind turbines was reported to be 1,416 MW, 

and some of that capacity has since been decommissioned 

or retrofitted; thus, negligible recycling of wind turbines 

prior to 2020, or 25 years after the start of the secondgeneration turbine technology, has been assumed for this 

study. From 1995 through 2005, 7,583 MW of capacity came 

into production, mostly from turbines in the 0.8- to 1.5-MW 

range (U.S. Department of Energy, 2008). This capacity is 

for new or expanded projects and does not include capacity 

from wind turbines that have been replaced or retrofitted. 

Assuming a 25-year turbine life, material from turbines 

that came into production in 1995 would be available for 

recycling, remanufacturing, or disposal by 2019 unless the 

turbines had since been decommissioned or retrofitted with 

newer technology; turbines that came into production in 2005 

would be available for dismantling by 2029. Turbines that 

came online after 2005 would likely still be in service in 2030. 

Recycling rates as of 2005 were assumed.

The profile of composite materials for the current 

generation of wind turbines (table 5, “Miscellaneous”) was 

used to characterize the profile of composite materials in 

the wind turbines that made up the 7,583 MW of capacity 

that came into production from 1995 through 2005. It was 

assumed that a turbine using state-of-the-art technology could 

be erected at the site of the turbine being replaced, so only the 

blades, the nacelle and its components, and the tower of the 

outdated wind turbine would be recycled or landfilled from 

2020 through 2030. No provisions for selective replacement 

of turbine parts, turbine retrofitting, or turbine foundation 

recycling were considered in these estimates.

The amount of the selected materials recycled or disposed 

of for specified periods was estimated based on calculated 

amounts of these materials that were available for recycling, 

estimates of anticipated recycling rates used in the Vestas life 

cycle studies (Elsam Engineering A/S, 2004; Vestas Wind 

Systems A/S 2006a,b), and assuming a wind turbine life of 

25 years. These estimates suggest that recycled steel could 

account for up to 12 percent of the total steel requirement for 

wind turbine production in 2030, 22 percent of the aluminum 

requirement, and 39 percent of the copper requirement. These 

should be considered the “best case” estimates, however, 

as no attempt was made to account for metal recovery or 

processing losses. It is likely that materials recovered from 

recycled 25-year-old turbines would be different from 

materials required for new turbines because of technological 

improvements, so 100 percent substitution may not be possible 

or desirable.

Table 6A shows the material requirements as reported by 

the 2008 DOE wind study. These estimates represent data as of 

2005 on the total material requirements to meet the goal of 20 

percent wind power by 2030 using a specific mix of small wind 

turbines and onshore and offshore utility-scale wind turbines. 

Discussions with technical staff at the National Renewable 

Energy Laboratory (Maureen Hand, oral commun., 2010) 

support the assumption that the material estimates (Fingersh 

and others, 2006; U.S. Department of Energy, 2008) are 

representative of current-generation wind turbine technology.

The USGS analysis described in this report used the DOE 

material estimates as a baseline. The growth patterns used in 

the DOE wind study for onshore wind turbines were applied 

to this analysis. Recent technical advances in wind turbine 

technology were incorporated into this assessment to develop 

the typical next generation wind turbine. The simplified 

assumptions used in this analysis can be found in tables 5, 6, 

and A2–1 (appendix 2). Variation from the DOE estimates 

reported in table 6A and estimates from this study (table 

A2–1) can be attributed to changes in material requirements 

for newer technology, differences in study methodology and 

the projected rate of wind turbine growth, consideration of 

recycled material in this study, and inclusion of small wind 

and offshore turbines in the DOE study. The DOE study data 

have been provided to give readers an indication how material 

requirements might vary depending on base assumptions.

Table 5 shows estimates for the average change in 

material consumption between current- and next-generation 

wind turbines. The trend toward using lighter weight materials 

is reflected in the decrease in consumption of materials per 

unit for cast iron, concrete, and steel and the increase in 

consumption of plastic and composite materials (table 5, 

“Miscellaneous”). The increased use of copper in wind turbine 

components is attributed primarily to the more sophisticated 

electronic components and copper wiring used to transmit 

power among individual wind turbines at a wind powerplant 

and then to transport the electricity to the power grid.

Data from tables 5 and A2–1, were used to develop a 

range for the average and cumulative amount of selected 

resources that would be required assuming wind energy was 

able to supply 20 percent of the U.S. electricity supply by 

2030. A brief discussion of resource requirements to meet this 

goal follows.

Cast Iron and Steel

Available data suggest that developing the commercial 

wind turbine industry to a level sufficient to meet the 2030 

goal would require 36 to 44 Mt of cast iron and steel from 

2010 to 2030, or an annual average of 1.8 Mt. This average 

annual requirement represented less than 2 percent of the 

U.S. apparent consumption of steel in 2008 (102 Mt) (Fenton, 

2010).

Concrete

Similarly, the available data suggest that 135 to 615 Mt 

of concrete would be required. Between 6.8 and 26 Mt of 

concrete would be required annually, or less than 3 percent of 
Projected Use of Materials Through 2030 15

the U.S. apparent consumption of concrete in 2008 as reported 

by the USGS, assuming portland cement is 11 percent of the 

concrete mix (van Oss, 2010).

Fiberglass and Composites

The data suggest that 2.3 to 2.7 Mt of fiberglass would be 

required. From 110,000 to 115,000 metric tons (t) of fiberglass 

would be required annually, and an additional 14,000 t 

of composite material would also be required each year. 

This estimate of the average annual fiberglass requirement 

represents about 14 percent of the U.S. consumption of 

fiberglass for 2008 as reported by the USGS (Dolley, 2009).

Rare Earth Elements

Permanent-magnet generators have become more 

economically feasible for wind turbine generators. This 

technology yields smaller, lighter generators by eliminating 

copper from the generator rotor. An assessment of available 

data (Hatch, 2009; Lifton, 2009) suggests that wind 

turbines that use rare earth permanent magnets comprising 

neodymium, iron, and boron require about 216 kilograms (kg) 

of neodymium per megawatt of capacity, or about 251 kg of 

neodymium oxide (Nd2O3) per megawatt of capacity. If the 

growth projections reported for the stated goal of 20 percent 

wind energy by 2030 are used as a basis for estimating rare 

earth element requirements for electricity generated by wind 

power, and assuming the total market penetration rate of 

rare earth permanent-magnet generators for wind-generation 

applications is 20 percent of annual installed capacity, then 

about 560 t of neodymium or about 650 t of additional Nd2O3

would be required annually to reach the 310-GW electricitygeneration capacity projected for the United States in 2030. 

For comparison, projected world production of neodymium in 

2009 was 19,096 t (Lowder, 2010), world demand for Nd2O3 

in 2010 was estimated to be 27,000 t, and world supply was 

estimated to be 24,400 t (Lynas Corporation Limited, 2010), 

leading to a reported supply deficit of about 10 percent for 

2010. China produced about 96 percent of the world’s rareearth elements in 2009 (Hedrick, 2010). Using these data, 

industry growth through 2030 would require an additional 

380 metric tons per year of neodymium, or about 2 percent 

of the projected 2010 world supply. In July 2010, however, 

China’s Ministry of Commerce reduced China’s export quota 

for rare earth oxides by 77 percent for the second half of 

2010 (Industrial Minerals, 2010). The continued restriction of 

Chinese rare earth exports could affect the short-term global 

supply of rare earth elements.

Laxson and others (2006) estimated that, if wind energy 

could be harnessed to supply 20 percent of the U.S. electricity 

demand by 2030, then the wind turbine industry would 

require up to 19 percent of the annual global production 

of neodymium and Nd2O3; this is based on a 1999 global 

production estimate for permanent magnet materials of 13 

Mt increased by 28.5 percent annually to 75 Mt in 2005 and 

assuming all turbines have permanent-magnet generators. 

The DOE wind study concluded that there did not appear to 

be a resource limitation for permanent magnets based on the 

estimated U.S. rare earth reserve of 13 Mt (Hedrick, 2006). 

However, the DOE wind study concluded that the capacity 

for additional raw-material production and the capability to 

manufacture wind turbines would need to accommodate both 

the wind turbine industry and projected increases for rareearth permanent magnets in other sectors (Laxson and others, 

2006). USGS data suggest that the global mining industry is 

endeavoring to respond to the increase in demand for rareearth elements by expanding or developing new capacity, but 

significant new production is not expected before 2015 (Lynas 

Corporation Limited, 2010).

Copper

The data from this study suggest that, although use of 

permanent magnets may reduce the copper in wind turbine 

generators, this decrease is offset by an increase in copper 

use in electronic components and the copper wiring necessary 

to connect wind turbines within the wind powerplant and to 

connect the powerplant to the utility grid. Wind powerplants 

are often located in areas distant from consumers, and large 

amounts of copper wire are necessary to provide power 

connections. The Sweetwater II 91.5-MW wind powerplant 

in Texas, for example, is reported to use more than 56 km of 

copper low-voltage wire and grounding cable and more than 

108 km of wire containing copper in its high-voltage power 

cable to connect the wind turbines within the wind powerplant 

and to connect the wind powerplant to the power grid (Harwell 

and others, 2005).

The data used in this study suggest that 370,000 to 

750,000 t of copper would be required for wires and cables 

from 2010 to 2030. Between 15,000 and 40,000 t of copper 

would be required annually, or less than 2 percent of the U.S. 

apparent consumption of refined copper in 2008 of more than 

2 Mt (Edelstein, 2010).

Land Area

Wind turbines require a large land area for siting, 

construction, and operation. Although land is not considered 

a material component in wind turbines, land requirements 

for turbine erection and operation must be considered when 

assessing overall resource requirements of this growing 

energy sector. Estimates to reach the goal of supplying 20 

percent of the U.S. demand for electricity by 2030 suggest 

that about 50,000 square kilometers (km2) of land would be 

required for onshore wind turbines and an additional 11,000 

km2 would be required for offshore projects (U.S. Department 

of Energy, 2008, p. 110). However, much of this land area 

could be used for other purposes, such as farming or grazing, 

during the operational phase of the wind project. The effective 
16 Wind Energy in the US and Materials Required for the Land-Based Wind Turbine Industry From 2010 Through 2030

footprint of land that would be occupied by turbines and related 

infrastructure would range from 2 to 5 percent of this amount. A 

2006 estimate suggested that about 0.2 to 1.0 hectare (0.5 to 2.5 

acres) per turbine is required during the construction phase and 

about 0.3 to 0.4 hectare (0.7 to 1 acre) per turbine is required 

during the operation phase (Strickland and Johnson, 2006). A 

second estimate attributed about 0.3 hectare per megawatt for 

the direct impact area that is permanently occupied and about 

0.7 hectare per megawatt for the direct impact area that would 

be temporarily occupied during construction (Denholm and 

others, 2009). An estimate of the average land area leased by 

existing U.S. wind projects in 2008 was reported to be 34.5 

hectares per megawatt (Denholm and others, 2009). Using this 

estimate, a wind powerplant consisting of 100 of the 1.5-MW 

wind turbines would occupy about 5,175 hectares, but only 150 

hectares would be temporarily or permanently affected by a 

wind powerplant that would have the capability for supplying 

power to about 30,000 households, assuming an individual 

household uses 11,300 kWh/yr.

Conclusions

Achieving the goal of using wind energy as the source for 

20 percent of the electricity-generating capacity of the United 

States by 2030 would require an average annual consumption 

of about 6.8 Mt of concrete, 1.5 Mt of steel, 310,000 t of cast 

iron, 40,000 t of copper, and 380 t of the rare-earth element 

neodymium. With the exception of neodymium, the annual 

material requirements represent less than 3 percent of the U.S. 

apparent consumption of these materials for 2008.

Dismantling of wind turbines during the 2010 to 2030 

period could result in approximately 1 Mt of recycled steel, 

and an additional 114,000 t of steel could be sent to landfills. 

Recycled material could account for about 3 percent of the 

total steel requirement for wind turbine production from 2010 

to 2030, 4 percent of the aluminum requirement, and 3 percent 

of the copper requirement. Approximately 4 Mt of concrete 

could be recycled during this period if concrete used in tower 

foundations is not reused for retrofitted wind turbines; an 

additional 450,000 t of concrete could be sent to landfills. 

About 23,000 t of copper and 18,000 t of aluminum could be 

recycled during the period covered under this study; about 

84,000 t of fiberglass and 2,300 t of aluminum and copper 

could be sent to landfills.

The use of rare earth elements in wind turbine generators 

has increased with the development of permanent-magnet 

direct-drive generators; in selective applications, these 

generators appear to be competitive with conventional 

electromagnetic generators. Data suggest that, unless the 

market penetration of rare earth permanent magnets in windgeneration applications greatly exceeds the 20 percent level 

assumed in this study or unless China, the principal supplier 

of rare earth elements to the market, should restrict the supply 

of these materials, the current and proposed production 

level of rare earth elements may be sufficient to supply the 

wind turbine industry in the short term until new rare earth 

production and downstream manufacturing facilities come 

online. In July 2010, however, China’s Ministry of Commerce 

reduced China’s export quota for rare earth oxides by 77 

percent for the second half of 2010 (Industrial Minerals, 

2010). This action reduced the amount of rare earth oxide 

exports from China below the world consumption level for 

these materials. Data analyzed for this report to assess the 

supply of materials required for electricity generation from 

wind power suggest that, with the possible exception of 

rare-earth elements, there should not be a shortage of any 

of the principal materials. There may, however, be selective 

shortages from a manufacturing perspective if the total 

demand for these materials from all markets is greater than the 

available supply of raw materials or component manufacturing 

capacity. Changing economic conditions could also affect 

the capacity and the development schedule for meeting the 

anticipated capacity.

The requirements for materials reported in this study were 

developed using the assumption that wind energy converted to 

wind power would contribute 20 percent of the U.S. electricity 

demand and require up to 310 GW of capacity by 2030, as 

proposed by the DOE wind study. With the exception of the 

rare-earth element neodymium, these material requirements 

represent less than 3 percent of the U.S. apparent consumption 

in 2008. However, the wind energy sector must overcome 

many challenges to meet the goal of wind power providing 20 

percent of the electricity-generating capacity for the United 

States by 2030. For electricity generation from wind turbines 

to assume a larger contribution in U.S. energy production, 

the wind turbine industry must resolve issues such as local 

opposition to site locations, the high cost of transportation for 

components, and U.S. power grid routing issues. This will be 

essential before the United States can achieve a national power 

supply that includes a sizeable wind power component. At the 

end of 2009, the wind turbine industry was growing faster than 

the rate projected by the 2008 DOE wind study, perhaps in 

part because of Federal support for the growth of this industry, 

as demonstrated by the renewal of the investment tax credit 

for renewable energy resources and additional provisions 

included in the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 

2009. Information published by the U.S. Energy Information 

Administration (2010) projects the wind-powered generating 

capacity of the United States to level off at about 64 GW of 

capacity by 2015, well below the level proposed in the 2008 

DOE wind study. The actual rate of growth will depend on 

future economic, political, and technological conditions. In 

spite of this uncertainty, it seems likely that the industry will 

continue to grow at some level and continue to require large 

amounts of steel, concrete, copper, and specialty metals and 

materials to support this growth.
References Cited 17

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lcav82165mwonshore.pdf.

Vestas Wind Systems A/S, 2006b, Life cycle assessment of 

offshore and onshore sited wind powerplants based on 

Vestas V90–3.0 MW turbines: Vestas Wind Systems A/S, 

60 p., accessed May 7, 2010, at http://www.vestas.com/files/

filer/en/sustainability/lca/lcav90_juni_2006.pdf.

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of wind energy reviewed: Wind Turbines Now, accessed 

January 5, 2011, at http://www.windturbinesnow.com/

advantages-disadvantages-wind-energy.htm.

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January 5, 2011, at http://www.windustry.org/wind-basics/

learn-about-wind-energy/wind-basics-why-wind-energy/

why-wind-energy.

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EA/EMS/reports/2008-wind-technologies.pdf.

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technologies market report: U.S. Department of 

Energy, August, 78 p., accessed August 11, 2010, 

at http://www1.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/

pdfsfs/2009_wind_technologies_market_report.pdf.
Appendix 1. Estimates of Wind Turbine Life Cycle Emissions, Energy 

Consumption, and Water Consumption

Although an analysis of the emissions from a wind 

turbine is not within the scope of this report, an understanding 

of these emissions relative to other energy sources can provide 

a clearer understanding of why wind energy is favored by 

many when compared with other sources of electrical power.

Published life cycle analyses provide information on 

the amount of water and embedded energy necessary for 

the production of wind turbines. The following estimates 

were developed by Vestas Wind Systems A/S for their wind 

turbines, but are considered representative of the industry. 

Estimates include the amount of energy and water required 

to extract raw materials, process these raw materials into 

usable products, manufacture components for wind turbines, 

transport and assemble the components of turbines, operate 

the turbines, and decommission the turbines at the end of the 

turbine’s life.

Wind-generated electricity uses less water than electricity 

generated by fossil fuels or nuclear power. As shown in table 3 

of this report, a representative utility-scale wind turbine would 

need about 144 to 193 liters (L) (38 to 51 gallons) of fresh 

water to generate 1 kWh of electricity. During an estimated 

20-year life, a 1.65-MW wind turbine would consume about 

780 t of water and a 3-MW wind turbine would consume 

about 8,000 t of water (Vestas Wind Systems A/S, 2006a). 

The U.S. Department of Energy has reported that each 

megawatthour generated by wind power has the potential to 

save 2,300 L (600 gallons) of water that would otherwise be 

used in fossil-fuel powerplants to produce electricity (U.S. 

Department of Energy, 2008, p. 17). Wind turbines typically 

consume less energy than do conventional fossil fuel-powered 

facilities. Vestas life cycle studies suggest that a 1.5- to 3-MW 

wind turbine consumes about 0.1 megajoule per kilowatthour 

(MJ/kWh) produced, or it consumes about 4 gigawatthours 

of energy during a 20-year life (Vestas Wind Systems A/S, 

2006 a,b). Studies suggest that a 1.65-MW wind turbine must 

operate about 7.2 months before it would produce as much 

electricity as it consumes during its 20-year life (Vestas Wind 

Systems A/S, 2006a).

Wind power studies suggest that lifetime carbon dioxide 

emissions vary from 5.6 to 9.6 grams per kilowatthour of 

energy (g/kWh) for the type of utility-scale wind turbines 

under consideration. Methane emissions range from 11.6 

to 15.4 milligrams per kilowatthour of energy (mg/kWh). 

Nitrogen oxide emissions range from 20 to 38.6 mg/kWh. 

Nonmethane volatile organic compound emission rates range 

from 2.2 to 8.5 mg/kWh, particulates range from 10.3 to 32.3 

mg/kWh, and sulfur dioxide emissions range from 22.5 to 

41.5 mg/kWh (European Wind Energy Association, 2007). 

For comparison, fossil fuel production in 1998 emitted an 

average of 689 g/kWh of carbon dioxide, 3.63 g/kWh of sulfur 

dioxide, and 2.22 g/kWh of nitrogen oxide (American Wind 

Energy Association, 1999). The U.S. Department of Energy 

estimated that in 2008, emissions from domestic fossil fuel 

and renewable energy sources amounted to an average of 601 

g/kWh of carbon dioxide, 1.9 g/kWh of sulfur dioxide, and 

0.81 g/kWh of nitrogen dioxide (U.S. Energy Information 

Administration, 2010). Carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and 

nitrogen oxide emissions from electric power-generation 

facilities using other renewable sources are reported to be 

at comparable levels to those of wind-powered operations 

(National Academy of Sciences, 2010).

Life cycle studies suggest that the construction and initial 

transportation phases for wind turbines account for about 74 to 

90 percent of total lifetime emissions. The operational phase 

of a wind turbine, including maintenance and replacement of 

materials and components, contributes 7 to 12 percent of the 

emissions, and transportation and decommissioning contribute 

the remaining 3 to 14 percent (European Wind Energy 

Association, 2007).

When emissions from the construction of various wind 

turbine components are analyzed, construction of the tower 

accounted for about 30 percent of carbon dioxide emissions, 

20 percent of nitrogen oxide emissions, and 19 percent of 

particulate emissions. Construction of the nacelle accounted 

for about 30 percent of sulfur dioxide emissions, 29 percent 

of the particulate emissions, 26 percent of methane emissions, 

and 17 percent each of carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxide, and 

nonmethane volatile organic compound emissions. Rotor 

blade construction accounted for about 14 percent of methane 

emission, but contributed to less than 10 percent of all other 

emission categories (European Wind Energy Association, 

2007).
Appendix 2. Wind Turbine Assumptions and Selection Methodology

Estimates of the materials needed by the wind turbine 

industry from 2010 through 2030 were developed using the 

growth scenario developed by the U.S. Department of Energy 

(2008) that used 20 percent of electric power generated 

from wind power by 2030 as a baseline. Representative 

wind turbines were selected based on the number of units 

in production and the availability of technical data for these 

turbines. GE Energy’s 80-meter, 1.5-MW wind turbine has 

been the top selling wind turbine in the United States (from 

2004 through 2009) and more than 12,000 units have been 

sold worldwide. More than 1,200 of the Vestas 80-meter, 1.65-

MW wind turbines are operating worldwide, and turbines of 

this widely used class of wind turbines have been selected for 

a number of new U.S. wind powerplants. These two turbines 

were selected for this study to represent the generation of wind 

turbines currently in operation or planned by 2015.

GE Energy’s 100-meter, 2.5-MW wind turbine is one 

of a new class of wind turbine using a rare-earth permanentmagnet generator instead of the wound-motor type of 

generator and incorporates larger rotor blades and power train 

features into the turbine design. More than 150 units have been 

installed, and more than 400 units are currently on order. The 

Vestas 105-meter, 3-MW wind turbine is designed for higher 

wind speeds than the other representative wind turbines. Other 

new features include a larger nacelle configuration but with 

about the same weight because of the increased use of lighter 

weight composite materials in the larger rotor blades. These 

wind turbines were selected to represent the next generation 

of onshore wind turbines planned for use from 2010 through 

2030.

Data for these wind turbines were compiled from various 

company and public sources. Estimates of the requirements for 

materials for current- and next-generation wind turbines were 

developed by aggregating the weight and composition data 

for the selected wind turbines and adapting these data to meet 

the reported or anticipated requirements of the industry based 

on industry practice as of 2010. Because the requirements 

for materials in individual components were considered 

proprietary, the raw component data used to develop material 

estimates cannot be reported. Consequently, the reported 

requirements for materials for the typical wind turbines in 

table 5 will not precisely match the individual data for any of 

the representative wind turbines that were selected for use in 

this study.

Annual and cumulative requirements for selected 

materials were developed by incorporating the estimated 

requirements for the representative wind turbine technologies 

shown in table 5 with estimated growth projections for 

the industry for 2010 through 2030. Table A2–1 lists these 

estimates for 2010 through 2030. For each study year, the 

estimated ratio of current and next generation wind turbine 

technology was developed. Material requirements for a 

given year (expressed in thousands of metric tons) were then 

estimated by combining the annual growth of turbine capacity 

(in megawatts) estimated for that year, the requirements for 

materials for the representative current- and next-generation 

wind turbines (in kilograms per megawatt), and the estimated 

percentages of current and next generation wind turbines 

applicable for that year. Estimates reflect the contribution of 

onshore wind turbines, which account for most U.S. wind 

turbine capacity through 2015 and are expected to account 

for more than 80 percent of production capacity for new 

wind turbines until 2030. Although estimates shown in this 

appendix were developed using baseline growth patterns 

reported by the DOE wind study (U.S. Department of Energy, 

2008), growth estimates were adjusted to reflect the actual 

2005 to 2009 industry growth, the exclusion of small wind and 

offshore turbines, and material assumed to be recycled during 

the period. In this report, estimates of materials required were 

developed independently from the estimates reported in the 

DOE wind study, which used a different methodology, so 

estimates in this report should be considered complementary 

to the earlier estimates.

This study assumes that the principal metals used in 

the construction of wind turbines can be recycled at a rate 

of 90 percent (excluding rare earth elements); each material 

would have a 10 percent loss that likely would end up in a 

landfill. The study assumes that all plastic, core material, and 

fiberglass components would be disposed of in landfills after 

a 25-year operating life. No attempt was made to account for 

the recycling of defective parts before the end of turbine life. 

The assumptions are based on life cycle studies performed for 

the Vestas wind turbines considered in this study (Vestas Wind 

Systems A/S, 2006a,b) and do not consider improvements in 

the recycling rate that may have occurred after 2005.

Before 2007, landfills were the only option for the 

disposal of the wind turbine blades made of composite 

material that could not be recycled. Recent research suggests 

it may be possible to incinerate some blade components and 

reprocess the glass component from these blades. Although 

preliminary, the research suggests that the energy consumption 

is approximately 6 percent lower when recycling the materials 

in blades when compared with placing the rotors in landfills 

(Vestas Wind Systems A/S, 2006a).

Because steel is a major component in wind turbines, 

small changes in the amount of steel recycling affect the 

overall amount of waste generated during the disposal of wind 

turbines. The Vestas’ life cycle studies found that an increase 

in steel recovery from 90 percent to 96 percent led to a 3 

percent decrease in carbon dioxide generation (Vestas Wind 

Systems A/S, 2006b); a 10 percent increase in recycling would 

result in an 8 percent decrease in carbon dioxide emissions 

(Vestas Wind Systems A/S, 2006a).
Table A2–1. Estimates used in this report for the quality of selected materials required by the wind turbine industry from 2010 through 2030.

[Gt, billion metric tons; kg, kilogram; MW, megawatt; NA, not available; Nd, neodymium; Nd-Fe-B, neodymium-iron-boron; Nd2O3, neodymium oxide; t, metric ton; XX, not applicable]

Year

New 

onshore

capacity 

(MW)

Onshore 

percent

of total 

(percent)

Currentgeneration 

turbine

(percent)

Nextgeneration 

turbine

(percent)

Steel/ s

tainless

steel (Gt)

Concrete

(Gt)

Fiberglass

(Gt)

Miscellaneous1

(Gt)

Copper2

(Gt)

Rare earths3

(Gt)

Cast iron

(Gt)

Prior to 2010 35,000 100 100 0 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA2010 8,000 100 100 0 920 4,720 78 64 20 0.00 1912011 10,000 100 95 5 1,144 5,806 97 81 25 0.02 2372012 9,000 100 90 10 1,024 5,141 86 74 23 0.04 2122013 9,600 100 85 15 1,087 5,393 90 79 25 0.06 2242014 9,600 100 80 20 1,081 5,303 88 80 25 0.08 2222015 13,400 100 75 25 1,501 7,276 121 112 35 0.14 3072016 13,200 99 70 30 1,470 7,044 117 111 35 0.17 300

2017 15,600 98 65 35 1,728 8,178 137 132 42 0.24 3522018 15,300 96 60 40 1,686 7,876 132 131 41 0.26 3422019 15,300 96 55 45 1,677 7,733 129 132 42 0.30 3392020 15,300 96 50 50 1,668 7,589 127 133 42 0.33 3362021 15,800 96 45 55 1,713 7,688 129 138 44 0.38 3442022 15,800 96 40 60 1,703 7,540 147 139 44 0.41 3412023 15,300 96 35 65 1,640 7,157 116 136 43 0.43 3272024 15,300 96 30 70 1,631 7,014 118 137 44 0.46 3242025 15,200 95 25 75 1,611 6,825 115 137 44 0.49 319

2026 14,500 91 20 80 1,528 6,374 107 131 42 0.50 3012027 13,300 86 15 85 1,394 5,722 96 121 39 0.49 274

2028 12,800 83 10 90 1,334 5,386 91 117 38 0.50 2612029 10,400 80 5 95 1,077 4,279 72 96 31 0.43 2102030 10,100 78 0 100 1,040 4,060 69 94 30 0.44 202Total by 20304 307,800 XX XX XX 29,658 134,103 2,262 2,375 753 6 5,963

Average for 2010–20305 12,990 NA NA NA 1,500 6,800 110 130 40 0.38 310

 turbine would require A 3.5-MW anent magnet material per megawatt of power or 0.2 to 0.33 t of Nd per megawatt of power. turbine requires 0.6 to 1.0 t of perm

1Includes aluminum, plastic, epoxy resins, polymer foam, and wood.2Includes copper windings, copper alloys in components, copper wire, and copper in electronics.3Published estimates suggest that a 2.5-MW

an average of 2 t (2,000 kg) of permanent magnet material, or an average of 216 kg of Nd per megawatt produced, assuming Nd accounts for about 27 percent of the weight of a Nd-Fe-B permanent magnet. Assuming that turbines using rare-earth permanent magnets would account for 20 percent of the wind turbine market by 2030, the average rare-earth (primarily Nd) weight per megawatt of a next generation 

) per megawatt of power [(80 percent × 0) + (20 percent × 216 kg)]. 3 O wind turbine would be 43.2 kg of Nd (50 kg of Nd2

4Estimate of the total amount of the specified material that would be required for 2010–2030 based on the reported annual material assumptions given.

5Estimate of the average values that would be required for 2010–2030. 
Wilburn, D.R.—Wind Energy in the United States and Materials Required for the Land-Based Turbine Industry From 2010 Through 2030—SIR 2011–5036