Assessment of the 3D Elevation Program

National Geospatial Advisory Committee

3D Elevation Program Subcommittee

June 2023
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Table of Contents 

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ..................................................................................................................................1

NGAC 3DEP SUBCOMMITTEE TASK ..........................................................................................................1

SUMMARY OF THE 3DEP SUBCOMMITTEE ASSESSMENT ........................................................................1

3DEP SUBCOMMITTEE RECOMMENDATIONS..........................................................................................3

CONCLUDING COMMENTS .......................................................................................................................6

INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................................................7

THE NEXT GENERATION OF 3DEP.............................................................................................................9

TRENDS AND DEVELOPMENTS IN 3DEP DATA COLLECTION AND PROCESSING ....................................11

TRENDS AND DEVELOPMENTS IN DATA DISSEMINATION......................................................................16

TRENDS AND DEVELOPMENTS IN DATA USE..........................................................................................21

COST AND EFFECTIVENESS OF THE 3D ELEVATION PROGRAM..............................................................24

THE NEED TO REVISE OR REORGANIZE THE 3D ELEVATION PROGRAM.................................................30

THE MANAGEMENT, COORDINATION, IMPLEMENTATION, AND ACTIVITIES OF THE 3D ELEVATION 

PROGRAM...............................................................................................................................................32

CONCLUDING REMARKS .........................................................................................................................36

RECOMMENDATIONS .................................................................................................................................36

OVERARCHING RECOMMENDATIONS ....................................................................................................36

TECHNICAL/TECHNOLOGY......................................................................................................................36

PARTNERSHIPS........................................................................................................................................37

PROGRAM ENHANCEMENTS/FUTURE PLANS ........................................................................................38

STANDARDS ............................................................................................................................................38

GOVERNANCE.........................................................................................................................................38

APPENDIX 1: SUBCOMMITTEE MEMBERSHIP.............................................................................................39

APPENDIX 2: PREVIOUS NGAC REPORTS ON THE 3D ELEVATION PROGRAM ............................................40

APPENDIX 3: 3DEP STANDARDS AND DATA FORMATS...............................................................................41

LIST OF ACRONYMS.....................................................................................................................................42

Cover images (clockwise from upper left):

a. Surveyors using GNSS at a field site near Grand Lake, Colorado (photo courtesy LIDAR Magazine)

b. 3D view of Geiger-mode 3DEP lidar of an area in downtown Chicago, IL. Points colored by elevation (blue, 

low – red, high) (USGS image)

c. First person view from small airplane cockpit (photo courtesy LIDAR Magazine)

d. 3D view of a 3DEP lidar collection over Hoover Dam, Arizona/Nevada border. Points colored by laser 

intensity (blue, low – red, high) (USGS image)
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

NGAC 3DEP SUBCOMMITTEE TASK

The National Geospatial Advisory Committee (NGAC) 3D Elevation Program (3DEP) 

Subcommittee was established through the National Landslide Preparedness Act (NLPA), P.L. 

116-323. The Federal Geographic Data Committee (FGDC) coordinated with the Department of 

the Interior’s United States Geological Survey (USGS) to establish the subcommittee and 

appoint members. 

The NLPA directs the subcommittee to assess the 3DEP program on the following topics:

o Trends and developments in the collection, dissemination, and use of three-dimensional 

(3D) elevation data

o The science and technology relating to 3D elevation data

o The effectiveness of 3DEP in carrying out the activities as described in the Act.

o The need to revise or reorganize 3DEP

o The management, coordination, implementation, and activities of 3DEP

The 3DEP Subcommittee is comprised of geospatial community experts from within the NGAC 

membership and from across State and local government units, academia and research 

institutions, standards development organizations, and the private sector.

SUMMARY OF THE 3DEP SUBCOMMITTEE ASSESSMENT

The 3D Elevation Program

Managed by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), in coordination with numerous partner 

agencies, 3DEP provides high-quality, high-value data that is widely used by government and 

business/industry to inform critical decisions made across our Nation every day that depend on 

elevation data, ranging from immediate safety of life, property, and environment to long-term 

planning for infrastructure projects. Improving hydrologic forecasting models and flood-risk 

maps with reliable elevation information has a positive impact on preparation for natural 

disasters. Understanding elevation data assists in the management of critical infrastructure, 

detecting land-surface changes from natural processes, such as landslides and erosion, and 

from human activities like urban growth and precision agriculture. 

The goal of 3DEP is to acquire nationwide lidar (interferometric synthetic aperture radar (IfSAR) 

in Alaska), to provide the first-ever national baseline of consistent, high-resolution topographic 

elevation data, both bare earth and 3D point clouds. The first full year of multi-year 3DEP 

production was initiated in 2016 to respond to growing needs for high-quality topographic data 

and a wide range of 3D representations of the Nation's natural and constructed features. The 

program is based on a National Enhanced Elevation Assessment (NEEA), published in 2012, that 

identified over 600 requirements for high-resolution 3D elevation data to address critical 

mission needs of 34 Federal agencies, 50 States and two territories, selected local and Tribal 

governments, and private-sector and not-for-profit organizations. A multi-year, nationwide 
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community partnership has been instrumental in funding 3DEP, with significant investments 

coming from other Federal and non-Federal partners to augment USGS investments. 

This report underscores significant opportunities to build upon what has already been 

accomplished, notes how continuous improvement advances a promising future, and offers 

recommendations which should be considered to reinforce the successes of the current 

program and, where appropriate, to redesign the program to flexibly integrate and share more 

data sources.

Trends and developments in the collection, dissemination, and use of 3D elevation data

As of the end of FY22, elevation data for approximately 89.5% of the Nation was available or in 

progress. Operating on an annual budget of ~$36M, the program has been recognized as a 

resounding success throughout the geospatial data-using community. Moreover, the program 

has attracted and managed partner funding and leveraged the power of the private sector to 

provide efficient data acquisition and processing services. About 65% of the cost of 3DEP has 

been contributed by over 300 partners for data acquisition, the majority of which come from 

the public sector. Nationally, 3DEP has generated an estimated return on investment of 5:1, 

with benefits estimated to be ~$690 million per annum with potential to increase to $1 billion if 

fully funded for completion within 8 years. 

Standardized and authoritative 3DEP data is available free of license or restricted use through 

The National Map. This democratization of data has enabled users to download 3DEP data, 

access it, work with it, and transform it into geo-information to make informed decisions. Public 

and private entities can apply their analytics for their own benefit. 3DEP, in a way, is a geo-data 

public utility. Overall, 3DEP has paved a path for a rich consumer experience. Availability, 

accessibility, and distribution mechanisms continue to advance vigorous data dissemination 

developments. 

Lidar has been the technology of choice for 3DEP (IfSAR in Alaska). Over the last few decades, 

gains in data-capture productivity, speed and precision have been transformative for the 

broader surveying and mapping applications. Developments in artificial intelligence/machine 

learning (AI/ML), electronics miniaturization, and signal processing have all contributed to 

improvements in lidar. Related enabling technologies such as the Global Navigation Satellite 

System (GNSS), inertial measurement units (IMUs), camera systems, data processing, and 

validation methods have also had significant gains. 

3DEP has advanced relevant standards - of which the Lidar Base Specification1(LBS) is the best 

known - best practices, and effective governance, in ways that help optimize current 

acquisition, data management and distribution. A broad commitment to standards compliance 

will be essential as more information and services from a diversity of sources become available 

to address national and international needs across expanding producer and user communities.

The Subcommittee has concluded that 3DEP has successfully advanced toward its initial goal of 

full high-accuracy elevation coverage of the Nation, helping to address many of the 

requirements and benefits as described in the NEAA and later expanded upon in the 3D Nation 

1 https://www.usgs.gov/ngp-standards-and-specifications/lidar-base-specification-online
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Elevation Requirements and Benefits Study2(referred to hereafter as the “3D Nation Study”), 

including U.S. topographic and inland, nearshore, and offshore bathymetric 3D elevation data 

requirements and benefits. The 3DEP data acquisition model and its effective use have 

established standard process protocols, including methods that encourage the program to 

continuously adapt to technological and service improvements. 

The management, coordination, implementation, and expanded activities of 3DEP

3DEP is effectively coordinating with other sectors, including State, Tribal and local 

governments, regional and local agencies, NGOs, and the private sector. This coordination 

results in boosting 3DEP program investments, information sharing, and messaging regarding 

the benefits of the program and enhancement of outcomes in communities. One factor in 

ensuring the success of this coordination is having a partner organization that is knowledgeable 

about the 3DEP program, who can convene multiple local and regional entities, determine their 

needs and willingness to provide financial and other investments, and help the coalition to 

apply for funding under the program. The comprehensive management and governance 

approach already established for the program and its array of collaborative partners from 

public and private sectors has been a model for the Nation.

The wisdom to revise 3DEP for the future

The establishment and working cooperation of the NLPA-mandated Federal Interagency 

Coordinating Committee (FICC) will continue to strengthen the plans for the next generation of 

3DEP, part of the 3D National Topography Model (3DNTM) which also includes the 3D 

Hydrography Program (3DHP). The FICC would provide Federal leadership to achieve the 

3DNTM objective of a joint USGS and NOAA 3D Nation vision to provide a continuous elevation 

surface from the depths of waters to the peaks of mountains.

An envisioned 3DEP Ecosystem concept would govern and connect elevation resources owned 

and managed by multiple agencies under a single user interface, transforming the program 

from managing data to providing information. In addition to authoritative 3DEP data managed 

by the USGS, the 3DEP Ecosystem would provide a standardized method of cataloging and 

accessing a wide variety of non-authoritative data sets, to enable fit-for-purpose dataset use.

3DEP has been and will continue to be a catalyst for growth of the lidar services and equipment 

industry, including technology and software tools for capturing, storing, and processing lidar 

data, and tools for and approaches to generating lidar-derived products and analytics.

3DEP SUBCOMMITTEE RECOMMENDATIONS

Overarching Recommendations

1. First and foremost, the subcommittee recommends that 3DEP “stay the course” to 

prioritize achievement of 100% national coverage as soon as practical.

2 https://iocm.noaa.gov/planning/3DNationStudy.html. The study was sponsored by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration (NOAA) and the U.S. Geological Survey and was completed in September 2022. Questions regarding the report 

should be directed to NOAA and iwg-ocm.staff@noaa.gov. The report was developed by Dewberry under contract to NOAA.
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2. The subcommittee recognizes that the USGS is not yet budgeted to address several of 

the recommendations provided below. However, given the significant projected return 

on investment discussed in this document, USGS should incorporate these 

recommendations into its design plans when additional funding is provided to achieve 

its future vision. 

In addition, the subcommittee provides the following recommendations that may help both the 

planning process and the execution of the resulting programs:

Technical/Technology

3. USGS should collaborate with its contractors to identify elements of the validation 

process that can be performed by the contractors prior to delivery to USGS validation, in 

order to speed up the process and help reduce the current 18-24 month delivery 

timeline. Furthermore, USGS should encourage research on the automation of 

processes such as qualify control (QC) of 3D point-cloud data.

4. The way work is performed and the expectations of the end-users are constantly 

changing. USGS and its Geospatial Products and Services Contracts (GPSC) contractors 

should continue their existing practice of being up-to-date on the latest technologies 

and products available for lidar data collection and processing. 3DNTM managers should 

remain open to new products to meet user needs. 

5. USGS should leverage new and emerging processing standards and artificial 

intelligence/machine learning (AI/ML) techniques to streamline and future-proof 3DEP 

processing, e.g., OGC API-Processes, OGC API-EDR (Environmental Data Retrieval), OGC 

API-Discrete Global Grid Systems (DGGS).

6. USGS should consider participating in software development sprints to directly engage 

the technology development and user communities in testing, prototyping, and 

validating next-generation 3DEP capabilities.

Partnerships

7. USGS should further leverage The National Map Liaison network to increase local and 

regional participation by exploring opportunities for partner organizations to act as 

“conveners” or “coordinators” across the country.

8. USGS has communicated widely and effectively on its activities and on the 3DEP 

program, but the need remains for further education. The Federal Interagency 

Coordinating Committee (FICC) and USGS should continue to apply effort to directly 

relate the utility of 3DEP data to key national priorities such as: the Nation’s 

Infrastructure, climate resilience; planning for, mitigation of and response to disasters; 

and the management, distribution, and infrastructure of water.

9. The NGAC 3DEP Subcommittee understands that Congress has recognized the 

connection lidar and USGS 3DEP provide for the national broadband mapping efforts. To 

reduce the digital divide, all Federal agencies involved in broadband mapping, coverage, 

and the deployment of related infrastructure-- such as the Federal Communications 

Commission (FCC), National Telecommunications and Information Administration 
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(NTIA), and Rural Utilities Services (RUS), among others—should fully leverage, 

participate, partner, and help to fund the 3DEP.

10. While USGS has been successful in partnership building, extensive efforts to reach out to 

key industry segments such as infrastructure and transportation, agriculture, and 

broadband and telecom, have not resulted in significant funding partnerships. USGS 

should continue to investigate and pursue private sector investment approaches that 

could help enable the goals of next generation 3DEP program.

Program Enhancement/Future Plans 

11. USGS and partners should embrace and implement the 3DEP Ecosystem concept as 

described in this report. That would allow for the import and integration of local 

acquisitions from agencies such as State Departments of Transportation (DOTs) with 

their statewide elevation data sets. The Ecosystem could provide a central location 

where users can find some level of authoritative data and share useful data that might 

not meet all the 3DEP specifications but supplies the quality and “fit for use” 

assessments provided by data producers. Data analysis tools and code could also be 

shared.

12. 3DEP data storage and dissemination are extremely important, especially as change 

detection from multiple collections over time becomes increasingly needed and should 

be fully funded. 

13. 3DEP should fully document the 3DEP system architecture to identify key system 

components, processes, standards, and data formats necessary to ensure 

interoperability across partners and the broader community, and to enable more 

effective and efficient 3DEP evolution.

14. 3DEP should include a requirement to develop a seamless 1-meter digital elevation 

model (DEM) for derivation of hydrography from elevation data.

15. 3DEP should explore workflows and processes that may yield Analysis Ready Data (ARD) 

and Decision Ready Information (DRI) of value to the community based on key 

indicators.

Standards

16. 3DEP should explore increasing representation and resources in relevant Standards 

Development Organizations (SDOs) such as those described in this report. Current levels 

of shared expertise and collaborative support are insufficient to properly influence 

standards development activities that support 3DEP operations and evolution.

Governance 

17. USGS should implement the design for the next generation of 3DEP described in the 3D 

National Topography Model Call for Action Part 2: Next Generation 3D Elevation 

Program (“the 3DNTM draft plan”) due for publication by USGS later this year.
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18. The Department of the Interior in coordination with the Departments of Commerce and 

Homeland Security and with the support of USGS should fully implement the 

governance process outlined in the NLPA. 

19. FICC and FGDC leadership should ensure participation from a broad range of Federal 

agencies with a need for data delivered through the 3DEP program. 

CONCLUDING COMMENTS

The Subcommittee has concluded through this assessment that 3DEP has successfully advanced 

its initial goal of full lidar coverage of the Nation, helping to address many of the requirements 

and benefits as described in the NEEA. The comprehensive management approach already 

established for the program and its array of partners from all national sectors has been a model 

for the Nation, which will only be enhanced through the establishment of an Interagency 

Coordinating Committee as directed by the NLPA.

There is opportunity for further, substantial improvement in 3DEP quality, efficiencies, and 

capabilities to support a growing range of user needs, given additional partner or appropriated 

funding. The vision for the next generation of 3DEP will build a modern elevation foundation for 

stronger, more resilient communities that strengthen and expand the U.S. economy, improve 

environmental and ecological decision-making, and ensure effective and efficient 

communication and transportation infrastructures. 

The very successful public/private partnerships, established by the 3DEP and nourished by the 

USGS managers, should continue, with added vigor, in the next generation.
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INTRODUCTION

3DEP provides high quality, high-value data that is widely used by government and 

business/industry to meet a broad range of needs, based on knowing more about the Earth’s 

topography. 3DEP data acquisition and use have become an industry standard as the program 

continuously adapts to technological improvements. USGS manages the program with 

numerous partner agencies within its existing authority. 

The goal of 3DEP is to acquire nationwide lidar3collections (IfSAR in Alaska) to provide the firstever national baseline of consistent, high-resolution topographic elevation data, both 3D point 

clouds (delineating features on the surface such as trees, buildings) and bare earth (lidar

processed to remove features, resulting in a digital elevation model). A multi-year 3DEP, 

managed by the USGS National Geospatial Program (NGP), was envisioned in The 3D Elevation 

Program Initiative – A Call for Action4(2014) to respond to growing needs for high-quality 

topographic data and a wide range of 3D representations of the Nation's natural and 

constructed features. The program is based on the NEEA that identified over 600 requirements 

for high-resolution 3D elevation data to address critical mission needs of over 34 Federal 

agencies, 50 States, Tribal governments, and private-sector organizations. A multi-year, 

nationwide community partnership has been instrumental in funding 3DEP, with significant 

investments coming from other Federal and non-Federal partners to augment USGS 

investments5.

As of the end of FY22, data for approximately 89.5% of the Nation is available or in progress

(Figure 1). 3DEP focuses on the collection of high-resolution 3D elevation data; facilitating the 

coordination, sharing, and use of this data across Federal and non-Federal, public, and private 

entities to produce publicly accessible data products for the U.S.; and promotion of 3D 

elevation data collection, dissemination, and use across all levels of government, institutions of 

higher education, and the private sector. 3DEP products and services are available through The 

National Map.6 They include point clouds and DEMs at various horizontal resolutions. All 3DEP 

products are available free of charge and without use restrictions.7

Given the approximately 90% nationwide coverage already available or in progress at the end 

of FY22, the program has been recognized as a resounding success. With an average annual 

budget of ~$36 million, the program has attracted and managed partner funding and has 

3 Alaska is the exception. The USGS coordinated with other Federal agency partners and the State of Alaska to fund 

the acquisition of the Alaska Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (IfSAR) data from 2010 to 2019.

4

Sugarbaker, L.J., Constance, E.W., Heidemann, H.K., Jason, A.L., Lukas, V., Saghy, D.L., and Stoker, J.M., 2014, The 3D 

Elevation Program initiative —A call for action: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1399, 35 pp, 

http://dx.doi.org/10.3133/cir1399.

5 3DEP By The Numbers | U.S. Geological Survey (usgs.gov), www.usgs.gov/3d-elevation-program/3dep-numbers

6 https://www.usgs.gov/programs/national-geospatial-program/national-map

7 https://www.usgs.gov/3d-elevation-program/about-3dep-products-services
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leveraged the power of the private sector to provide efficient data acquisition and processing 

services. About 65% of the cost of 3DEP for data acquisition has been contributed by over 300 

partners, the majority of which are from the public sector. 3DEP was designed based on the 

NEEA to produce an estimated return on investment of 5:1, with annual benefits estimated at

~$690 million with potential to increase to $1 billion8if fully funded for completion in 8 years.

Moreover, the program has advanced relevant standards - of which the LBS is the best known -

best practices, and effective governance, in ways that will benefit future developments. Future 

applications of interoperable data, information, and services from a diversity of sources, will

rely upon reliable commitment to standards compliance when addressing national and 

international needs across expanding producer and user communities.

The significance of 3DEP to the Nation has drawn the attention of Congress. In 2021 the NLPA 

established a 3DEP Subcommittee under the NGAC. The NGAC is a Department of Interior (DOI)

Federal Advisory Committee, which provides advice and recommendations to the FGDC on 

national geospatial policy issues. The 3DEP Subcommittee is comprised of appointed experts 

from within the NGAC membership and from across State and local government units, 

8 Data from a USGS internal paper, “3D Elevation Program – USGS NDP Summary of Successes and Challenges,” drawn from 3D 

Elevation Program Fiscal Year 2015 - 2022 Expenditures | U.S. Geological Survey (usgs.gov)

As of FY22 89.5% of the Nation had 3DEP data available or in progress (shown in dark green 

and blue). New acquisitions planned for FY23, as of 13 June 2023, are shown in bright green.

Figure 1. Map of 3DEP data availability. Latest status available at www.usgs.gov/media/images/3d-elevation-program-fy23-

partnerships
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academia and research institutions, standards development organizations, and the private 

sector (see Appendix 1). The subcommittee’s task is to conduct an assessment of the:

• Trends and developments in the collection, dissemination, and use of 3D elevation data 

and in science and technology relating to 3D elevation data.

• Effectiveness of 3DEP in conducting the activities described in the Act.

• Need to revise or reorganize 3DEP.

• Management, coordination, implementation, and activities of 3DEP.

The subcommittee was directed by the Act to produce a report within one year of its 

establishment. In response, this report details the findings of the assessment as assigned above, 

and makes several recommendations based on those findings. To focus its work, the 

subcommittee organized itself into two work groups: a Trends and Developments Work Group 

and a Program Management Work Group. Findings and recommendations from these work 

groups have been consolidated to produce this first-year report. 

This report underscores significant opportunities to build upon what has already been 

accomplished, notes how continuous improvement advances a promising future, and offers 

recommendations which should be considered to enhance the program design for improved 

flexibility, efficiency, and capability. Recommendations included in this report accommodate 

developments in technology, leverage an improved understanding of user needs, and address 

emerging applications.

As the 3DEP Subcommittee conducted its assessment, working group members realized that 

the assessment of “science and technology, relating to 3D elevation data” as called out in the 

subcommittee task was embedded within the other specifically identified “trends and 

developments.” Consequently, there is no separate section for science and technology. 

However, the topic is covered within the sections that follow.

THE NEXT GENERATION OF 3DEP

To assist the subcommittee’s assessment of trends and developments with 3DEP and ongoing 

work for the program’s future direction, USGS provided a draft document that outlines the 

emerging program plan for the next generation of 3DEP. Insights from that plan have 

contributed to this report. USGS had previously presented the major components of the 

emerging plan to key partners and stakeholders including the 3DEP and 3DHP Working Groups, 

National Society of Professional Surveyors (NSPS), MAPPS9, the National States Geospatial 

Information Council (NSGIC), and the U.S. Geospatial Executives Organization (US GEO). USGS is 

revising the proposed plan based on stakeholder feedback with the goal of releasing a final

9 Formerly known as the Management Association for Private Photogrammetric Surveyors, MAPPS is an association of 

geospatial private sector firms in the U.S., www.mapps.org
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draft document for a broader community review in summer of 2023, with a vetted and finalized 

program design published in Fiscal Year 2024.

The first generation of 3DEP provides an essential national baseline of consistent, high-quality 

data that will continuously grow in value as it is used for comparison with new data collected 

over time. USGS is drawing on the 3D Nation Study, its experience with managing the 3DEP 

baseline, and stakeholder feedback to design the next generation program. The key features of 

the next generation of 3DEP being considered at the time of this report include:

• More frequent collections of higher quality nationwide topographic lidar to support 

existing and new business requirements Development of a 3DEP Ecosystem to govern 

and connect elevation resources owned and managed by multiple agencies under a 

single user interface, transforming from managing data to providing information. The 

3DEP Ecosystem will enable direct access and use of authoritative 3DEP data managed 

by USGS. It will also provide a standardized method of cataloging and accessing the wide 

variety attributes of non-authoritative data sets, to enable fit-for-purpose dataset 

selection and use.

• A plan to reassess the program design every 5 years to adjust course as needed to meet 

new partner needs, make use of new technologies, and/or move to a change-based 

refresh approach that will be researched and developed over the next several years.

• Focused coordination and development of best practices for inland bathymetry over the 

next 5 years to leverage partner investments and advance towards a more systematic 

national approach.

• An active research agenda that will provide major input into the 5-year assessment as 

well as evolving the direction of the program. Research topics include the 3DEP 

Ecosystem/data mesh, inland bathymetry, change detection to drive program updates, a 

national tiling system, new sensors, lidar-imagery integration, full 3D accuracy testing, 

uncertainty reporting, and more. 

The proposed program design for the next generation 3DEP would meet approximately 66% of 

the needs documented in the 3D Nation Study, provide an estimated $7.6 billion in annual 

benefits, and cost approximately $259 million a year if fully funded. To meet community needs 

and achieve the benefits of next generation 3DEP, advocacy should begin now for appropriate 

increases to the 3DEP budget. Refer to Figure 2 for comparison between the baseline and the 

next generation.

This improved program design is intentionally ambitious yet similar in relative magnitude to the 

original 3DEP baseline goal in terms of the community-wide involvement and funding increase 

it requires. It is impossible to predict the degree to which the community requirements 

documented in the 3D Nation Study will be accomplished until the increased investment in the 

next generation 3DEP is well-understood. The USGS strategy to manage this uncertainty will be 

to assess the funding trajectory in year 5 to determine if adjustment is necessary and to address 
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other changes to the program design to balance and best meet evolving user needs and 

investments.

Figure 2. Comparison of 3DEP baseline program goal with proposed next generation 3DEP goal in terms of quality level, scope, 

update frequency, cost, needs met, strategy, and deliverables subject to change as the final program design is completed.

TRENDS AND DEVELOPMENTS IN 3DEP DATA COLLECTION AND PROCESSING

The nationwide data collection objective has been well established. The approach to specific 

collections relies upon successful processes. Data collection begins with communication 

between potential partners (as seen in Figure 3) to define project scope and continues through 

funding agreements, the contracting process, and the data acquisition, data processing, and 

quality assurance processes that result in final deliverables. The extraordinary amount of 

communication and coordination between partners built into this process has been a critical 

factor in the success of the program.
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Figure 3. 3DEP high level process / workflow, source: USGS

The 3DEP governance and Broad Agency Announcement (BAA) process10 have been remarkably 

effective at bringing partnerships together to achieve larger projects with diverse stakeholders. 

The role of the private sector in the partnership development process, specifically the 

Geospatial Products and Services Contracts (GPSC) contractors, encourages greater 

understanding of and crosscutting relationships with State and local partners while conducting 

their regular business. (More about this process is described below.) These partnerships have 

had a significant impact on fostering collaboration among stakeholders. This model publicprivate partnership is a beacon for all other Federal agencies and has raised the bar for program 

management quality and cost-effectiveness.

The NGP developed LBS has brought order and standardization to the myriad of Federal 

agencies’ data acquisition requirements and is the foundation upon which the effectiveness of 

the data acquisition is built. LBS has been updated seven times since its initial publication in 

2012, illustrating the USGS commitment to keeping up with rapid technological change and 

evolving agency requirements. It is a model that has been referenced and applied by other 

domestic and international programs.

Data Collection Technologies

As noted above, lidar has been the technology of choice for 3DEP (IfSAR in Alaska). Over the last 

few decades, the growth and development of photonics, lidar, and SAR have been dramatic, 

producing tremendous improvements in the efficiency, speed, precision, and accuracy of 

acquired data. The resulting gains in data-capture productivity have been transformative for 

broader surveying and mapping applications. Advancements in AI/ML, electronics 

miniaturization, and signal processing have all contributed to improvements in lidar. Related 

enabling technologies such as the GNSS, IMUs, camera sensor and platform systems, data

10 https://www.usgs.gov/3d-elevation-program/3dep-broad-agency-announcement-portal
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processing, and validation methods have also experienced significant gains. Described below 

are data collection technologies that have been used and are being considered for 3DEP:

• Linear-mode lidar systems have been the predominant technology for 3DEP CONUS data 

acquisition. These systems offer effective measurement speed, very high accuracy and 

precision, and the lowest false-alarm rate of the data. Linear-mode lidar systems include 

purpose-built scanning mechanisms to enhance complex data capture of the built and 

natural world. These systems are readily available from multiple suppliers and 

substantial numbers are in use throughout the world. 

• Geiger-mode lidar has a very high measurement speed and offers very high resolution 

and point densities. This allows for collections over very wide areas. The trade-off is in 

precision and the high false-alarm rate of the data. The inability to determine the total 

propagation of uncertainty is an undermining factor, and the scan pattern is limited due 

to the instantaneous field of view.

• Single-photon lidar offers improved precision over Geiger-mode and a lower false-alarm

rate. Accuracy is similar to and measurement speed is a fraction of Geiger-mode.

• Bathymetric lidar uses a blue-green wavelength of light to penetrate water. This 

technology has been used for coastal and riverine mapping applications. In recent years, 

suppliers have introduced topobathymetric lidar sensors, capable of data collection over 

both land and water. Specialist bathymetric systems, however, can penetrate water to 

several tens of meters in good conditions, so the goal is to use lidar closer to shore, 

where operation of vessels equipped with multi-beam sonar is less safe.

• IfSAR, while much lower in vertical accuracy than lidar, is an effective tool for data 

acquisitions in challenging environments such as Alaska, due especially to its wide-area 

and through-cloud data collection characteristics. In addition to interferometry to 

determine range and elevation data, SAR offers both amplitude and polarimetric data, 

which yield a wide range of insightful data products. Orthorectified radar images are an 

easily derived, useful byproduct of the generation of elevation data. 

Traditional analog lidar records only discrete echo signals and provides limited feature 

parameters. Full Waveform Lidar (FWL) records the backscattered echo in the form of a 

waveform that provides additional information. FWL is logged at very small intervals and thus 

obtains more footprints, echoes, and a precise definition of the actual situation. FWL is 

powerful but data-heavy with a cumbersome processing regime. A variation of FWL is “online 

waveform processing,” which is fast and highly accurate when sophisticated algorithms are 

exploited. This digital signal processing allows high ranging accuracy, high precision, multitarget resolution, clean point clouds, and improved classification and filtering. The 3D Nation 

Study documented that only 2% of the mission critical activities require FWL for topographic 

elevation data collection and processing. However, with the advent of AI/ML, “online waveform 

processing” provides the basis for improved data products for 3DEP and should be investigated 

for its potential contributions. 
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The 3DEP has continually investigated a range of data-collection technologies and hybrids such 

as photogrammetry and lidar combinations. Elevation data was derived photogrammetrically 

for almost a century before airborne lidar became commonplace and photogrammetric 

techniques have improved immensely over the decades. Many of the 3DEP partners, such as 

cities, routinely acquire imagery as well as lidar. Additionally, there are bathymetric 

technologies that could assist USGS’s mission. Promising image processing techniques leverage

deep learning; emerging satellite capabilities and new constellations provide lidar, imaging and 

SAR; and uncrewed aircraft systems with powerful cameras and lidar sensors are coming to 

maturity. The committee encourages the continuation of investigation into these and other 

new technologies to determine if they meet program requirements. This should include 

consideration of how combinations of technologies can be tuned for different landscapes. The 

benefits of evolving technologies may enter the program both through data acquisition 

contracting and proposed Ecosystem concept.

Elevation-change data is of increasing interest and IfSAR is ideally suited to provide this 

routinely. More satellite constellations, including small sats, are coming on orbit with relevant 

sensors, and processing has improved. Local collects using UAV-lidar are another, 

complementary approach to generating elevation-change data.

Project Data Contracting, Acquisition, Processing, and Timelines

The BAA process mentioned above is the approach used by 3DEP to solicit data acquisition 

partnerships from the broadest possible stakeholder community. For the FY24 cycle, the 

process will be revised and streamlined in a new structure called the 3DNTM Data Collaboration 

Announcement (DCA) which is planned to be released in September, 2023. The process will be 

similar to the BAA. Like the BAA, the DCA process will invite proposals from applicants who wish 

to propose a partnership with 3DEP to fund lidar data acquisition and the production of lidarderived elevation products. Applicants may fund an acquisition project through the USGS GPSC, 

or they may request 3DEP funds to apply towards a lidar data acquisition project where the 

requesting partner uses its own contracting vehicle. Federal agencies, State and local 

governments, Tribes, academic institutions, and the private sector are eligible to submit 

proposals. Federal 3DEP partnerships are also developed in the 3DEP Working Group and 

carried out through Interagency Agreements. Finally, partners may also contribute 3DEPspecification-compliant data they have collected independently. Contributed data are quality 

assessed for inclusion in the national 3DEP holdings. 

USGS’s preferred method of data acquisition is through the GPSC, a multiple award acquisition 

vehicle that leverages the teams of firms on the contract for services needed to accomplish 

3DEP data acquisition. The contracts include acquisition, processing, and quality assurance of 

lidar and other source geographic data. These contracts are in place and have been awarded 

through a competitive process. Firms on the GPSC have been selected based on their 

qualifications and performance in providing the professional services needed for 3DEP. 
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The GPSC is an indefinite delivery, indefinite quantity (IDIQ) contract that helps to streamline 

the contract process and speed service delivery. To ensure data quality and efficient 

development of standard products and services, the USGS prefers that partners use GPSC when 

possible and practical. Approximately 85% of the total funding for 3DEP data acquisition 

between 2015-2022 went through GPSC. This contract mechanism is also offered as a service 

for acquiring elevation or other geospatial data for external organizations who are not seeking 

additional funding from USGS.

The GPSC contractors are experts in processing raw airborne lidar data. They primarily make 

use of off-the-shelf software products, which, like the lidar systems themselves, are enjoying 

incremental improvements as time passes. The introduction of artificial intelligence, especially 

in the form of deep learning, is increasing the productivity of end-users of these software tools. 

The contractors’ competitive advantages rest primarily on two aspects: the expertise of their 

employees and their firms’ abilities to weave the components of the workflow together into 

quality-based, productive, seamless continua.

Current 3DEP project lifecycles and timelines are complex and typically range from 18 to 24 

months (Figure 4). As in any project, if various steps are not completed correctly, the process 

takes longer. Contributing factors include time needed to develop partnerships and 

agreements, Federal budget, contracting process and timelines, flying season, weather and 

atmospheric conditions, data correction cycles with contractors, and Tribal notification 

timelines. Although most data deliveries fall within agreed-to task-order timelines of 18-24 

months, there are situations in which 3DEP funding partners require more rapid delivery. This 

forces some States, cities, and other government entities to go outside of 3DEP to meet their 

Figure 4. 3DEP Data Acquisition / Project Lifecycle Phases, Source: USGS
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needs. For example, some counties and other organizations in California formed consortia to 

acquire lidar for wildfire management in advance of 3DEP coverage. 

Timeliness of data delivery is currently being studied within USGS, and the decision has recently 

been made to have the contractors deliver preliminary data to the funding partners early in the 

processing phase. Additional progress on the reduction of turnaround time will be important to 

the continued success of the program. While it is critical for 3DEP to define and enforce a 

rigorous data validation process, the process must be analyzed within the context of 

government and private sector contractor capacities if it is to be both rigorous and efficient. It 

will be important for USGS to actively socialize and promote program enhancements such as a 

self-validation tool for GPSC contractors to use prior to USGS final review to help facilitate 

earlier access to data by funding partners and the public at large.

USGS has built a workforce, tools, and workflow to perform 3DEP data validation. The final 

acceptance function is inherently governmental in nature. However, there is precedent for 

peer-validation for other data types, such as ortho imagery, which are also contracted through 

USGS using GPSC. One item of concern is how the GPSC contractors will be able to 

simultaneously support validation of other 3DNTM programs about to come online (i.e., inland 

bathymetry and 3DHP). This could put additional stress on the contractors’ validation system.

Action and communication are key to overcoming what might become a program execution 

deficiency. As a recommendation to improve the current situation, USGS should collaborate 

with its contractors to identify elements of the validation process that can be performed by the 

contractor prior to delivery to USGS validation (i.e., self-certification) to speed up the process. 

Changes in the validation process would also need to be vetted with partners who depend on 

USGS to ensure data quality. 

TRENDS AND DEVELOPMENTS IN DATA DISSEMINATION

The USGS 3DEP data is available to be downloaded free of license or other restrictions. This 

democratization of data has enabled everyone, regardless of technical background, to 

download 3DEP data, access it, work with it, and transform it into geo-information to make 

informed decisions. Public and private entities can apply their analytics for their own benefit. 

3DEP, in a way, is a geo-data public utility. The data has been collected to 3DEP standards and is 

authoritative. The data is available in LAS standardized binary format for 3D point-cloud data. 

Also provided is metadata, which describes the data structure. 

The 3DEP program is a world leader in the dissemination of data. This approach provides data 

models and exchange formats for many different analytic tools, including AI/ML, modeling and 

simulation environments, and some feature identification approaches. Overall, 3DEP has paved

a path for a rich consumer experience. Availability, accessibility, and distribution mechanisms 

continue to advance vigorous data dissemination developments. 
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Access to Lidar Data Products

First-generation 3DEP products are Quality Level2 (QL2) or better (Table 1) lidar point clouds 

and DEM, available through The National Map. IfSAR orthorectified radar intensity images 

(ORI), Digital Surface Models (DSM), and digital terrain models (DTM) are available in Alaska 

through The National 

Map and the USGS 

Earth Resources 

Observation and 

Science (EROS) 

Center. Through the 

life of 3DEP, users 

have grown 

accustomed to 

accessing and using

these products.

Reliable delivery has 

incorporated new 

technologies and 

techniques, including expanded cloud use. As use expands, new and revised needs have 

emerged. The 3D Nation Study documents clear user-demand for readily available higherresolution lidar data (QL1 or better); digital elevation models, digital terrain models, classified 

point-cloud data, digital surface models; hydro- flattened, hydro-enforced, and hydroconditioned DEMs; and seamless DEMs and lidar point clouds. The requirement of a seamless 

1-meter DEM for derivation of hydrography from elevation data will be a significant driver for 

development and maintenance of products in the next generation of 3DEP. The next generation 

of 3DEP should seriously consider including these upgrades.

3DEP Ecosystem Advances

In its first generation, 3DEP focused its resources and activities on acquiring, processing, and 

delivering a consistent nationwide dataset of QL2 or better lidar for the conterminous States 

and QL5 IfSAR in Alaska. With that task nearly complete, 3DEP can expand its mission in the 

next generation program by facilitating access to a variety of data and tools to support the even 

broader needs of the user community. The program will continue its primary function of 

acquiring and delivering standard baseline elevation data for the Nation. The success of 3DEP’s 

first generation spawned a myriad of sensors, data formats, data processing approaches and 

applications. Current 3DEP confronts the challenge of that success: more demand for basic 

credentialed and ready-for-analysis data delivered in a timelier fashion. 

The next generation of 3DEP should take advantage of these advances by adopting a 

development and coordination role, providing a central location where users can find the 

authoritative data and share useful data that might not meet all the 3DEP specifications, 

including quality and “fit for use” assessments provided by producers of the data. Data analysis 

Table 1. Lidar Data Quality Level (QL) requirements as described in the 3DEP Lidar Base 

Specification. www.usgs.gov/3d-elevation-program/topographic-data-quality-levels-qls
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tools and code could also be shared. One way to do this without placing an undue burden on

USGS would be to develop a system that connects to datasets in other locations (e.g., State 

governments, other Federal agencies) where users can access all kinds of elevation data. The US 

Interagency Elevation Inventory (USIEI)11which is an interactive map showing footprint, data 

type, and basic metadata, but not direct access to data could serve as the starting point.

In its draft program plan identified in the Introduction, USGS proposes creating a 3DEP 

Ecosystem that would serve the functions described above. The Ecosystem concept would 

expand on the capabilities of finding who owns various elevation data available in the U.S.

Interagency Elevation Inventory and enable USGS to continue its role of providing authoritative 

data while allowing users direct access to all data and derivatives that meet their needs and 

tools in a single interface to render these data more useful. While 3DEP would incur expenses 

for staff and infrastructure to build and maintain the Ecosystem, those costs may be wholly or 

partially offset by efficiencies in sharing data across government agencies at all levels.

Although 3DEP is focused on structured data collections, the program has shown flexibility to 

include provisions for emergency response data acquisitions. By cooperating with rapid 

collections, the program maximizes the value of this data for inclusion into 3DEP holdings. 

Making a formal space within 3DEP for rapid response collections by dedicating funds and 

adding the data to the 3DEP Ecosystem, as proposed in the 3DNTM draft plan, would be a 

useful advance toward providing data quickly to address a pressing need.

All manufacturers have made improvements to airborne lidar sensors, including the ability to 

collect higher-resolution data at higher altitude with more widely spaced flight lines, and hybrid 

systems that collect vertical and oblique images simultaneously with the lidar, in order to 

provide more economical data acquisition. UAV-mounted lidar sensors generate high-density, 

high-accuracy data over small areas at relatively low cost. UAV data collections have become 

common for certain applications. Mobile mapping systems (MMS) consisting of sensors and 

cameras mounted on road or rail vehicles are now mainstream. Whether or not such collections 

are funded by 3DEP, it is recommended that USGS consider a way to absorb such data into a 

3DEP Ecosystem.

Dissemination Benefits of 3DEP Alignment with the National Spatial Data Infrastructure 

(NSDI) and Community-Accepted Standards 

Well-intended collection of any geospatial data set misses the mark of interoperability with 

other existing data sources and efficacious reuse if it lacks adherence to accepted standards 

and specifications. Such circumstances continue to occur and limit benefits for a community of 

users. Under the leadership of USGS, 3DEP is responsible for the production and stewardship of 

the nationwide National Geospatial Data Asset (NGDA) elevation theme as outlined in OMB 

Circular A-16 and the Geospatial Data Act (GDA) of 2018. 3DEP adheres to NSDI principles with 

a governance structure based on GDA requirements including a strong emphasis on 

11 https://coast.noaa.gov/inventory/
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partnerships, collection, and processing strategies, and the “collect once, use many times” NSDI 

principle. To further aid in assuring adherence to these principles, key 3DEP coordination and 

collaboration activities have been established:

• A FGDC 3D Nation Subcommittee jointly led by USGS and NOAA as OMB Circular A-16 

co-leads has been established to ensure coordination of 3D elevation requirements 

across the Federal government. 

• A 3DEP Executive Forum and operational Working Group promote dialog and 

collaboration on strategies for the implementation and sustainability of 3DEP for 

stakeholders across government and the broader community. 

• A comprehensive nationwide and publicly available U.S. Interagency Elevation Inventory

(USIEI) has been implemented to raise awareness, encourage access to and use of 

existing elevation data, and to avoid duplication of effort.

• The SeaSketch U.S. Federal Mapping Coordination site is a NOAA hosted web-mapping 

tool used by Federal agencies and 3DEP partners to collaborate on elevation data 

requirements and acquisition.

• NOAA and USGS conducted the comprehensive 3D Nation Study to document the 

requirements and benefits of 3D elevation data and are using the results to inform their 

program directions. 

USGS is also taking steps to establish the 3D Elevation FICC as mandated in the NLPA. The new 

committee will be expanded in scope to the 3DNTM and will incorporate the 3DEP Executive 

Forum as the executive governance for both the elevation and hydrography themes. 

A key to success of the 3DEP is adherence by partners to the LBS, an FGDC-compliant standard,

which provides requirements for 3DEP data collection to assure data delivered to users meets 

expectations of quality. Other industry and international standards, both existing and emerging,

are critical to the 3DEP system operations including data ingest, processing, maintenance, 

access, and distribution. Appendix 3 provides a detailed list of standards and data formats used 

by 3DEP. This Appendix also lists emerging standards that have potential for streamlining 3DEP 

processes as well as to support next generation 3DEP capabilities. 

Many Federal government organizations such as USGS have access to the industry and 

international standards community resources through membership in organizations such as the 

Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) and the International Organization of Standards (ISO). As 

members, Federal government organizations, through designated representatives, work openly 

with industry and user community experts, both nationally and internationally, to influence and 

leverage new and emerging standards. This participation would benefit 3DEP operations and 

evolution. However, USGS 3DEP representation in these Standards Development Organizations 

(SDOs) at present is minimal and insufficient to properly influence emerging standards 

development activities in support of 3DEP requirements. 
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From the Subcommittee’s review of 3DEP, it appears that only limited use of community pilot 

initiatives and technology development “sprints” are being applied to help accelerate alignment 

of the user and technology provider communities to current and emerging standards and 

capabilities. Such initiatives represent proven practices that can help to secure user and 

technology community expertise and resources to rapidly test and prototype new and 

innovative solutions for improved efficiency of 3DEP operations. These initiatives also help to 

quicken the pace of development to operational readiness. Pilots and development sprints of 

relevance are routinely being conducted within SDOs, open-source associations, and innovation 

labs such as The Opportunity Project (TOP)12, managed by the U.S. Census Bureau. Such 

opportunities for 3DEP would broadly leverage community expertise to advance objectives for 

the next generation of 3DEP.

Within the scope of the NSDI (processes, practices, systems, data, resources, people), there 

appears to be no clear documentation of the 3DEP architecture that identifies the overall 

workflow, system components, processes, and implemented standards. Availability of such an 

architecture document can help communicate interoperability requirements across the 

producer and user community as well as minimize the time and effort related to the 

mobilization of future 3DEP capabilities.

Integration with and Derivation from Other Data

The 3D Nation Study demonstrated a strong need or desire for integration of elevation data 

with other kinds of data, including:

• Imagery – 96% of users in the 3D Nation Study state that integration of elevation data 

with imagery is required or highly desired. Integration in this context could mean flying 

imagery and elevation data at the same time, or in the same season. 

• Elevation-derived hydrography -. Hydrography data can be directly derived from 

elevation data, providing an unprecedented view of how water moves over the 

landscape, a view that is critical to water resource use and management, habitat 

preservation and restoration, and flood management and mitigation. The need for 

hydrography data will become a driving force for frequently updating elevation data. 

The 3D Nation Study found that 84% of users required or highly desired elevation data 

integration with inland surface water features, 74% required or highly desired 

integration with wetlands, and 69% required or highly desired integration with bridges 

and culverts. Provision of high quality, up-to-date hydrography data will require close 

collaboration between 3DEP and 3DHP.

• Inland bathymetry - 62% of users in the 3D Nation Study indicated a need for inland 

bathymetry data. The development and integration of inland bathymetry (principally 

from airborne lidar with supplemental water-based sonar) will be a core element of the 

next generation of 3DEP and offers a significant opportunity for the private sector to 

12 The Opportunity Project | The Opportunity Project (census.gov)
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support evolving requirements and applied use. While USGS is exploring options for 

collecting bathymetry, such as structure from motion (well known as SfM) from optical 

satellites, it is important to understand that these options would only be used in 

situations where access is impossible with airborne or waterborne assets. While costeffectiveness is well documented, the resolution weakness cannot be ignored from a 

user’s perspective.

Additionally, many kinds of local high-density surveys offer valuable vertical information, 

from those done by the GSPC contractors for non-USGS clients to surveys by other 

contractors, as well as Federal, State, and local governments. There are UAV projects using 

imagery and lidar, numerous collects using mobile mapping systems, and even ground 

surveys by professional land surveyors that include height points. Although these potential 

suppliers might be willing to sell inexpensively to USGS, the fit-for-use qualifications and 

government openly-available data policies would require well-structured checks on 

intellectual-property issues, peer review, QC, and any decisions about transforming local 

collections into the 3DNTM coordinate reference system or requiring suppliers to do that. 

Metadata reports on these topics provided within the Ecosystem could provide a way to 

characterize limitations on use and identify standards that have not been met, allowing 

users to make judgments about risk and its mitigation.

Data Storage

Data storage and archive management is a critical back-office issue for data accessibility and 

dissemination. 3DEP has generated nearly nationwide QL2 lidar data that must be retained. 

Currently more than 52 trillion data points are being distributed and the number is increasing 

daily. Highest-quality QL1 and QL0 data required to meet next-generation needs will 

necessitate even more storage, as will new derived products mentioned above. Elevation and 

land-use change detection at the local and regional scale, obtained by comparing different 

generations of lidar or SAR, are a growing element of many user applications. Therefore, prior 

datasets must be retained even as new data is being generated. The Subcommittee 

recommends that 3DEP be provided with resources to secure sufficient and permanent data 

storage.

TRENDS AND DEVELOPMENTS IN DATA USE

3DEP informs critical decisions made across our Nation every day that depend on elevation 

data, ranging from immediate safety of life, property, and environment to long-term planning 

for infrastructure projects. Improving hydrologic forecasting models and flood-risk maps with 

reliable elevation information has a positive impact on preparation for natural disasters. 

Understanding elevation data assists in the management of critical infrastructure, detecting 

land surface changes from natural processes, such as landslides and erosion and human 

activities, and supporting sensor-rich smart infrastructure including transportation and utility 

grids. Previously unanticipated applications include the use of high-resolution 3D elevation data 
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from 3DEP in the development of digital twins of the natural and built world. Growth of the 

program towards greater density of data and faster refresh cycles will help to meet emerging 

needs. These applications will require innovative data acquisition schemes, in which 3DEP has 

already demonstrated competence.

The following examples illustrate both routine and innovative uses of 3DEP data and emphasize 

the benefits of the 3DEP program.

State of Texas 

A critical component of real-time response to flood events is to understand flood impact on the 

road and bridge system. The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) has invested 

several billion dollars in digital floodplain mapping, primarily for flood insurance purposes to 

assess flood risk to building infrastructure. However, there has been little emphasis on flood 

risk to the transportation system. Through a partnership with the Texas Department of 

Transportation, the Center for Water and the Environment of the University of Texas at Austin 

has begun work to characterize the elevation of bridge decks using 3DEP lidar point cloud data 

(Figure 5). Flood inundation mapping is normally developed using bare-earth elevation models 

with bridges removed. This work will allow maps and models to include inundation of bridges

during flood events. Texas has about 25,000 bridge spans over water in the National Bridge 

Inventory, which catalogs all bridges greater than 20 feet in length. The National Bridge 

Inventory includes about 500,000 bridges over water in the continental United States that could 

be similarly characterized.

Figure 5. 3DEP lidar point-cloud representation of the bridge deck for highway TX 95 over the Colorado River near Smithville, 

Texas.

Sonoma County, California 

In Sonoma County, California, local and regional governments, agencies, and non-governmental 

organizations (NGOs) derive important benefits, including significant cost savings, from 3DEP

data and products by augmenting local planning efforts with high-resolution data that supports

objective and effective prioritization of investments. 
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Many application instances are highlighted on the Sonoma Veg Map website13. The program 

also benefits from local and regional partnerships leveraging Federal investments with the 

allocation of local and regional matching funds, local staff resources to work with USGS staff,

and development of derivatives related to planning, implementation and monitoring of projects 

including water quality and supply, built infrastructure, and ecosystem conservation. 

Leveraging local and regional partnerships and investments provides an opportunity for the 

3DEP program to expand its impact and cost-effectiveness. Regional USGS liaison roles should 

continue and expand the development of partnerships and consortia. Funding should be 

provided in the form of grants or contracts to support entities, which can work with the 

regional USGS liaisons to form those teams.

Implementing this recommended approach with other States and regions would result in 

increased local and regional appreciation of 3DEP. Leveraging Federal investments through the 

allocation of local and regional matching funds and designation of local staff resources to work 

with USGS staff, will promote more development of derivative products and provide improved 

service. This case example includes impact to planning, implementation and monitoring of 

projects including water quality and supply, climate change and disaster resilience, as-built 

infrastructure insights, and ecosystem conservation. 

State of North Carolina 

North Carolina’s statewide imagery program provides another relevant example. Starting in 

2010, the North Carolina 911 Board has funded the collection and production of high-resolution 

orthoimagery for North Carolina. The State was divided into four project areas with imagery 

data collection performed in one project area per year. The statewide imagery program 

supports the 911 Public Safety Answering Points in North Carolina and is used for other 

applications including engineering, land surveying, urban and regional planning, county tax 

revaluations, environmental assessment, mitigation projects, and economic development. A 

DTM/DEM is required to orthorectify the imagery to reduce distortion due to terrain effects. 

The North Carolina Floodplain Mapping Program has collected statewide QL1 and QL2 lidar 

data, which provides the elevation data needed to address imagery orthorectification 

requirements. This is one example of a statewide lidar project that can be used to support a 

statewide imagery project. The statewide lidar data is a key dataset for the completion of the 

imagery project each year. 

Post-Event Lidar Data Collection

Post-event lidar data collection can be used as a change detection tool in storm-impacted areas

for such items as the determination of beach erosion and the amount of debris. The FEMA 

recovery team depends heavily on having lidar available to help determine both the financial 

considerations and the severity of impacts in affected areas. FEMA has recently published 

elevation guidance to be used for flood risk to provide guides for procurement of either 

13 https://sonomavegmap.org/
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leveraged or newly acquired elevation data, requiring compliance with QL2 data as defined in 

the USGS Lidar Base Specification14.

Precision Agriculture

High-quality lidar data provides value to users in agriculture and forestry. One key benefit is the 

ability to produce topographic maps of agricultural fields. Seemingly minor changes in elevation 

can affect the ability of the soil to hold moisture. These changes in moisture content in the soil 

can have a significant impact on plant health or vigor and ultimately impact crop yield. 

Topographic maps can also be developed at the field or farm level to aid in the planning of 

terraces for erosion control. Elevation data within streams and ditches can be used to monitor 

drainage capability, flowing water capacity, catchment areas, and erosion potential. Lidar is also 

used to measure plant height in fields and orchards and vineyards to determine the amount of 

biomass above the ground. It can also be used to develop stand counts for various crops. 

Similar applications in forestry include stand counts for trees as well as estimating the area and 

volume of the tree crown. In applications where lidar can penetrate the canopy, estimates of 

branch or trunk diameter can be made. New research is active and expanding; using lidar will 

undoubtedly yield more applications in agriculture and forestry. As an example, plant 

phenomics is a new way to connect environmental research with plant genomics, one aspect of 

plant management and breeding. Lidar offers a new tool for 3D plant monitoring across seasons 

and science disciplines15.

COST AND EFFECTIVENESS OF THE 3D ELEVATION PROGRAM

The examples above describe multiple methods to address a variety of issues by using elevation 

data. NLPA requires the 3DEP subcommittee to assess the “effectiveness of the 3D Elevation 

Program in carrying out the activities described in subsection (a)(1)” of Sec. 5. 3D ELEVATION 

PROGRAM. The previous and following sections explain how well the 3DEP is meeting the 

general criteria described in the NLPA for this assessment:

A. 3D coverage for the United States; 

B. coordination and facilitation among Federal departments and agencies and non-Federal 

entities; 

C. production of standard, publicly accessible elevation data; 

D. promotion of the collection, dissemination, and use of the data among Federal, State, 

local, and Tribal governments, communities, institutions of higher education, and the 

private sector through agreements, reliable spatial data infrastructure, coordination 

with the 3D Elevation Federal Interagency Coordinating Committee, and improvement 

of the accuracy and efficiency of the program. 

More details appear in the legislative language.

14 https://www.fema.gov/sites/default/files/documents/fema_elevation-guidance_112022.pdf

15 https://roboticsbiz.com/advantages-of-lidar-sensors-in-agriculture/
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The extent of coverage across the Nation was well described in the Introduction to this report 

and captured visually in Figure 1. USGS contracting and validation processes have created a 

cooperative collection, processing, and dissemination methodology that establishes a fully 

national coordination and collaboration environment to assure production of quality data. 

Technology trends that might improve the program are carefully considered and incorporated 

wisely. The program team also plans for future improvements, involving producers and users in 

shared discussions about the next generation 3DEP.

3DEP Funding to Achieve Effectiveness

The inputs to the community-wide 3DEP budget, illustrated graphically in Figures 6 and 7,

include:

• USGS 3DEP funding – part of the Core Science Systems - National Geospatial Program 

line item that funds 3DEP and other components. 

o The USGS 3DEP budget funded about 32% of the total costs of 3DEP during FY15-

22 which includes data acquisition funding that is used to attract and leverage 

partner investments and funding to operate the program, including program 

management, data processing and delivery. USGS has received budget increases 

in previous years for data acquisition for a number of specific projects.

• Partner funding – About 64% of funding for the total cost of 3DEP between FY15-22 was 

contributed by Federal, State, local, Tribal, and other partners. Partner funding is 

applied solely to data acquisition. About 81% of data acquisition funding is from Federal 

and 19% from non-Federal sources.

• Supplemental funding – in addition to appropriations, USGS 3DEP has received the 

following supplemental funding that has been used primarily for data acquisition with 

10% applied to program management, data processing and delivery:
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o Supplemental hazards and wildfire funding – The USGS received $18.3M in 

FY18, $10.2M in FY19, and $5.3M in FY22 in supplemental funds for lidar 

o acquisition for areas impacted by hurricanes and wildfire disasters. 

o Bipartisan Infrastructure Law funding – Through the USGS Earth Mapping 

Resources Initiative, 3DEP received $5M for data acquisition in FY22 and FY23.

• Inflation Reduction Act (IRA) funding – In FY23, USGS received $23.5M in IRA funding to 

help achieve complete national 3DEP baseline coverage, to ensure efficient and timely 

data processing and delivery, and support research and acquisition to help establish the 

3D National Topography Model (3DNTM). For example, in FY23, $6M in IRA funds are 

being used to accelerate completion of the 3DEP baseline dataset.

Figure 7. Breakdown of Total 3DEP Expenditures for Fiscal Years 2015 - 2022

Figure 6. Breakdown of Annual 3DEP Expenditures for Fiscal Years 2015 - 2022
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USGS Budget Priorities Now into the Future

USGS designed the program to meet documented user requirements, and on an average annual 

budget of about $36M attracted and managed $542M of partner funding between FY15-22 to 

reach 89.5% of the Nation with 3DEP data available or in progress by the end of FY22. The 

leading priority was to maintain a clear goal and focus resources on completing the nationwide 

3DEP baseline dataset, primarily investing in data acquisition and processing. Key to developing 

partnerships has been establishing and implementing governance and best practices among the 

Federal community in the 3DEP Working Group and Alaska Mapping Executive Committee, and 

with the State level via NSGIC and Association of American State Geologists (AASG)

representation to the 3DEP Working Group. LBS has been managed in association with the 

governance process and has helped to maintain consistency and allowed for the program to 

ingest data from a variety of sources. 

While the 3DEP has been successful in focusing resources to keep pace with the goal for 

nationwide 3DEP coverage, the current USGS budget has limited further innovation or 

development of additional products and services, or expansion into areas such as OGC 

standards. Funding for program management, data processing and delivery has remained 

relatively flat while the volume of data flowing through the system has risen dramatically due 

primarily to partner funding and modest budget increases for data acquisition. This has had 

multiple impacts including pressure on data validation and processing resources and IT 

infrastructure. 
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The next generation 3DEP program design is even more ambitious than the national baseline 

3DEP goal, with 3-4 times as much funding needed to increase quality levels and refresh cycles, 

and to implement the 3DEP Ecosystem as a major new capability. Budget pressures will be even 

greater in the next generation program, and recommendations for additional staffing or other 

efforts must be balanced against the funding needed for data acquisition to meet partner 

requirements. 

Effectiveness Measured by the Economic 

Benefits of 3DEP

Studies by USGS and its partners, including 

the 3D Nation Study, which built upon NEEA, 

speak to the value and importance of the 

3DEP program and products. NEEA highlights 

numerous business use cases and benefits 

associated with enhanced elevation data for 

the Nation and includes a top ten list of 

Expected Benefits (Figure 8). USGS announced 

on its website that the 3D Nation Elevation 

study documents $13.5 billion of benefits for 

1352 mission critical requirements.16

Stakeholders for both studies include Federal, 

State, local, Tribal, non-profit, academic, and 

private organizations, and agencies.

Effectiveness Measured by the Value of 3D 

Elevation Data for Risk Reduction and 

Environmental Management

Nationwide coverage of key geospatial 

information including high-resolution 3D elevation data is a key requirement to properly 

prepare for, respond to, and mitigate the 

effects of landslides, floods, fires, 

hurricanes, and other natural disasters. 

Risk-reduction tools use this data along with 

other geospatial data layers to improve 

disaster resilience by better understanding 

localized vulnerabilities and degrees of 

exposure of communities and assets to 

diverse kinds of disasters. High-resolution 

3D elevation data has other uses in the 

16 https://www.usgs.gov/3d-elevation-program

In 2022, there were 18 separate weather and 

climate related disasters with losses exceeding 

$1 billion, with 474 deaths recorded for these 

events. The total Consumer Price Index (CPI) 

adjusted cost for these events was $175.2 billion, 

making this the third most costly year on record. 

The total cost for the last five years ($611.8

billion) is approximately one-quarter of the total 

cost since 1980 ($2.55 trillion).

Source: NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information, 

www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/billions/ (as reported 17 June 2023)

Figure 8. NEEA Potential Benefits
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public and private sectors, including development of smart and safe cities, agriculture and 

precision farming, wildlife habitat management, forest resources management, riverine and 

flood management, climate change impact assessment, navigation, and related benefits 

associated with risk management and insurance protection17.

Leveraging Public-Private Partnerships

Several other reports and recommendations published by NGAC address 3DEP (Appendix 2). 

Among them is a December 2020 report identifying Public-Private Partnerships18 (P3) as one 

important approach to advance the National Spatial Data Infrastructure (NSDI) by establishing 

and sustaining effective public-private collaboration. The report cites the potential for greater 

risk and reward sharing between government and industry as part of innovative partnerships 

where government benefits from capabilities and resources of industry to deliver public 

services, while offering the private sector an opportunity for marketization of products and 

services. The report defines P3s as (NGAC, p.6, 2020):

“A long-term agreement between one or more public agencies (Federal, State, 

and/or local) and private sector entity or entities that includes shared 

responsibility, risk, and reward among the parties. Through this agreement, the 

skills and assets of the private sector are employed in delivering a product, 

service, or infrastructure for use by the public at large.”

The paper cites 3DEP as an example of an Innovative Partnership with potential to become a 

true P319. In a detailed assessment of national 3D requirements and benefits20, and through the 

release of a multi-year BAA, 3DEP harnesses a broad array of State, local, Tribal, and not-forprofit partners who contribute funding, data, and related resources. As explained previously, 

3DEP leverages the expertise and capacity of the private mapping firms that collect the data 

funded by the USGS and its partners. The NGAC P3 Report suggests that future industry 

technologies, collection strategies, funding tactics, and consortia arrangements may create 

additional opportunities for P3. Possibilities include:

• Partnering on government data acquisition

• Establishing government purchases to provide government and public access to 3D 

elevation data maintained by industry, with industry ability to license / sell versions of 

the data at higher resolution or more frequent refresh rates

• Generating revenue from other market applications including precision agriculture, 

flood forecasting/warning, insurance risk assessment and policy valuation, timber/forest 

resource management, and engineering planning.

17 3D Nation Requirements and Benefits Study Appendix E – Business Uses, www.dewberry.com/docs/defaultsource/documents/3d-nation-elevation-requirements-and-benefits-study/appendix_e_business_uses.pdf?sfvrsn=7d81d167_1

18 NGAC Report and use cases are available at: https://www.fgdc.gov/ngac/meetings/december-2020

19 http://www.fgdc.gov/ngac/meetings/december-2020/ngac-use-case-3d-elevation-program-dec-2020.pdf

20 http://www.dewberry.com/services/geospatial-mapping-and-survey/3d-nation-elevation-requirements-and-benefits-study
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Coordination with Other Groups

The 3DEP program consistently leverages its governance process to receive input from partners 

and to further develop and define the program. This includes the 3D Executive Forum and the 

3DEP Working Group with representation from 18 Federal agencies, NSGIC, and the AASG. 

3DEP governance has been instrumental in selecting the program design, implementing best 

practices, managing the partnership process, and providing input to the specification and other 

technical decisions. 3DEP governance has resulted in about 65% of the program costs being 

invested by over 300 partners.

USGS notifies Federally-recognized Native American Tribes regarding the collection of lidar data 

for their reservation and trust lands. USGS leads Tribal notification for all projects that involve 

USGS funding or for any lidar data published on The National Map. USGS has sent over 1,000 

Tribal notification letters since 2017. Tribes have provided a range of responses, from requests 

for copies of the lidar data for Tribal use, to requests to restrict public access to the highresolution elevation products for Tribal lands. Tribes have also partnered with the 3DEP 

program. For example, several Tribes have provided funding to 3DEP for lidar acquisition, and 

USGS also has entered a contract with the Yurok Tribe to conduct a lidar survey for a portion of 

their reservation and ancestral lands in California. 

In the future, representative expertise from other organizations would be valuable additions to 

3DEP working groups. Examples include the American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote 

Sensing (ASPRS), the professional association responsible for developing standards for 

photogrammetric and remotely sensed data, information, and products, including those for 

lidar and IfSAR21, and OGC, which represents over 500 businesses, government agencies, 

research organizations, and universities united by a desire to make location information 

findable, accessible, interoperable, and reusable.

THE NEED TO REVISE OR REORGANIZE THE 3D ELEVATION PROGRAM

The NGP has managed 3DEP in an effective and collaborative manner since its inception. The 

NGP has established ambitious goals for the program, communicated and collaborated 

effectively with a wide range of stakeholder groups, and has delivered impressive results with 

limited resources. It has established strong partnerships with Federal agencies, with other 

levels of government, and with the private sector. While the subcommittee does not see a need 

to revise or reorganize the program at this time, this report offers a set of recommendations to 

enhance the effectiveness of the program.

3D Elevation Federal Interagency Coordinating Committee

NLPA outlines a revised governance process for 3DEP with which 3DEP is mandated to 

coordinate. The new governance process requires the Secretary of the Interior, in coordination 

21 ASPRS Accuracy Standards for Digital Geospatial Data. 

https://www.asprs.org/a/society/divisions/pad/Accuracy/Draft_ASPRS_Accuracy_Standards_for_Digital_Geospatial_Data_PE&

RS.pdf
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with the Secretaries of Commerce and Homeland Security, to establish an interagency 

committee known as the ‘‘3D Elevation Federal Interagency Coordinating Committee’’ to better 

coordinate 3DEP data management across the Federal Government. The Interagency 

Coordinating Committee will include the following members (or their designees):

• Secretary of the Interior (Chair)

• Secretary of Agriculture

• Secretary of Commerce

• Secretary of Homeland Security

• Director of the National Science Foundation

• Director of the Office of Science and Technology Policy

• Director of the Office of Management and Budget

• The head of any other Federal department or agency, at the request of the Chair

The Interagency Coordinating Committee will coordinate with existing groups including the 3D 

Elevation Program Executive Forum, the Alaska Mapping Executive Committee, the 3D 

Elevation Working Group, the 3D National Elevation Subcommittee; and State offices. The 

duties of the Interagency Coordinating Committee will be to:

• Oversee the planning, management, and coordination of the 3DEP program.

• Develop and periodically update a strategic plan that establishes goals and priorities for 

the 3DEP program. 

• Develop a detailed management plan to implement the strategic plan.

As of the publication of this report, the Department of the Interior and USGS have taken initial 

steps to establish the Interagency Coordinating Committee. 

3DNTM Call for Action Part 2: Next Generation 3DEP

As mentioned in the Introduction, a draft paper is nearing completion that will detail 

recommendations for 3DEP and the community of producers and users to consider regarding 

important revisions to the current program. These reflect recommendations from the 3D 

Nation Requirement and Benefits study as well as other insights from leaders within the current 

program. 

3D National Topography Model

“Topography is defined by terrain and water, each influencing and shaping the other. The 3D 

National Topography Model (3DNTM) is a new initiative that updates and integrates USGS 

elevation and hydrography data, and the relationships between them, into a 3D model to 

deliver higher-quality data and support improved geospatial analysis. The 3DNTM, including 

3DHP and the next generation of 3DEP will provide foundational data to meet the most 
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demanding scientific requirements and enable data-driven decisions across user 

communities.”22

THE MANAGEMENT, COORDINATION, IMPLEMENTATION, AND ACTIVITIES OF THE 3D 

ELEVATION PROGRAM

There are many examples of 3DEP effectively coordinating with other sectors, including State, 

Tribal and local governments, regional and local agencies, NGOs, and the private sector. This 

coordination results in leveraging 3DEP program investments (Figure 9), information sharing 

and messaging regarding the benefits of the program and enhancement of outcomes on the 

ground in communities. One factor in ensuring the success of this coordination is having an 

entity or individual that is knowledgeable about the 3DEP program, who can convene multiple 

local and regional entities, determine their needs and willingness to provide financial and other 

investments, and help the coalition to apply for funding under the Program. Having a partner 

“convener” can result in a much more robust application in response to a BAA (one that 

represents the interests of a broad diversity of entities in the geographic area of interest), and 

this same coalition will often provide significant matching funding to leverage 3DEP 

investments and will often continue to work together to develop funding for lidar derivatives 

and other assessment and analysis outputs. There may be opportunities for USGS or a partner 

foundation to fund “conveners” or “coordinators” across the country, to enhance the 

nationwide understanding of and access to the 3DEP Program by local and regional partners.

Figure 9. 3DEP Acquisition Investment Participation, Source USGS

22 http://www.usgs.gov/national-hydrography/3d-national-topography-model-call-action-part-1-3d-hydrography-program
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Encouraging Greater Participation from Non-Federal Partners

The above graphic shows the funding participation from various organizations between 2015

and 2022. 3DEP partner organizations have indicated a need for USGS to establish earlier and 

clearer communication with potential partners (State, local and Tribal government, universities, 

non-profit organizations, and agencies) to explain the program and processes for establishing a 

3DEP agreement through the BAA and GPSC processes. 

Regional Consortia

Partnerships with some non-Federal entities could be increased through the establishment of 

regional (sub-state) geospatial consortia. There are successful examples of regional groups 

sharing best practices and contracting for elevation data and all geospatial data.

As an example, the North Coast Resource Partnership (NCRP) is a collaboration of seven 

California counties and over 30 Federally-recognized Tribes, working together to enhance the 

quality of life in the 19,000 square mile North Coast Region of California. USGS recently 

awarded the NCRP $7 million in funding to fill in gaps in lidar coverage in Northern California. 

The BAA award included matching funds from the State of California ($3.5 million) and funds 

and other contributions from three local agencies in two counties, and the University of San 

Diego. The data developed from the 3DEP program award will be further leveraged by local, 

regional, State, and Tribal partners by the creation of an array of derivative products that will 

be used for resilience planning and implementation for wildfire, flooding, climate change and 

extreme events, and planning, implementation, and monitoring of built and natural 

infrastructure projects. The North Coast is a severely economically disadvantaged region, home 

to a high number of Tribes and Tribal communities and has experienced over 25% of California’s 

wildfires in the last five years, while representing only 12% of California’s land mass. 3DEP 

program investments in this region have multiple long-term benefits for north coast 

ecosystems, economies, and communities.

Where they exist, regional consortia help manage and coordinate data acquisition, reduce data 

duplication, and effect better return on investments with the sharing of improved quality data.

Leveraging USGS National Map Liaisons and the National Map Liaison Network

The 3DEP program could boost non-Federal participation through well-established mechanisms. 

such as the USGS National Map Liaisons who are assigned to specific States and Territories in 

the U.S. Liaisons could support regional 3DEP data development and incorporation of elevation 

data from other sources. Many users still view elevation data as only a DSM and are missing the 

opportunity to use high-quality elevation data for multiple purposes including derived products. 

The USGS National Map Liaisons have played a vital role in identifying State champions and 

some potential partners. With some increased funding or labor, the potential exists to build 

upon these established partnerships and reach a broader audience, spreading existing 

information. Formal cooperative agreements or memoranda of understanding with more 

groups and universities would increase program participation, possibly adding funding for 

higher density and/or more frequent coverage. Even though the 3DEP provides the framework 
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for elevation data acquisition, many users do not have a mechanism to acknowledge and share 

derived products through 3DEP as yet another opportunity to leverage others’ good work. Their 

beneficial data and analyses need an exchange methodology to contribute derived products, 

applications, and tools to 3DEP as another source investment.

The Challenge of Differing Partner Budget Cycles

There is substantial preparatory work required for non-Federal participation. The BAA/DCA

application and contracting timelines are short. Furthermore, Federal and non-Federal agency 

budget cycles often differ. These factors may limit the ability of non-Federal agencies to identify 

funding, develop and submit a proposal, and enter into contracts in time to meet BAA 

deadlines. This is often an issue with coordination of budget cycles, which non-Federal agencies 

have found to be problematic when partnership funding must be identified and committed on 

short notice. 

Increased participation could add needed financial collaboration for more frequent or higherdensity collections. Communicating and coordinating with potential partners in advance of 

planned projects would allow prospective partners to anticipate the schedule for planned data 

captures in advance in order to better synchronize them with their organizational budget 

cycles. USGS should consider approaches that may better balance provision of advance notice 

to potential community partners while maintaining flexibility to capitalize on funding 

opportunities as they arise.

Improving Communication of 3DEP non-Federal Benefits

The 3D Nation Study, referenced earlier, involved study participants from 45 Federal agencies, 

56 States and territories, and 58 NGOs. Table 2 below breaks out the factors from the $13.5 

billion in projected benefits. Non-Federal agencies are expected to receive 57% of future annual 

benefits from 3DEP should their requirements be met. Increased communication with nonFederal agencies could lend itself to increased overall program participation including 

participatory funding.

Working through Regional Consortia and Liaison networks can help to educate the community, 

agency representatives, and elected officials about the importance and multiple benefits of 

Table 2. Projected 3DEP Benefits Per 3D Nation Study, P12, Table 5
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investments in elevation data, including drawing attention to the significant cost savings 

associated with availability of 3DEP for better decision-making.

Improving Coordination with Federal Agencies

As elevation data becomes more widely collected across agencies, complying with the NLPA 

mandated FICC23 will be important to improve coordination. Duties of this committee of 

designated members from multiple offices, led by the DOI in coordination with the Secretary of 

Commerce and the Secretary of Homeland Security, will oversee the planning, management, 

and coordination of the 3D Elevation Program and it will develop, implement, and periodically 

update a strategic plan. This governance body, when fully implemented, would aid in 

prioritizing competing collection demands including security and rapid response needs using its 

authority to have a periodically updated strategic plan with a detailed management plan. 

Developing mechanisms to receive interagency data while balancing security constraints in an 

information-sharing environment would provide derivative products for public consumption. 

Functional inter-agency coordination should include a variety of inputs, applications, and tools, 

adding new users across multiple platforms. 

Many Federal agencies are identified on the USGS website as partners. Many Federal 

government organizations are recognized as users of elevation data, which is necessary for 

their operations, but they do not necessarily contribute to the data collections or to the 

resources needed. Utilizing a comprehensive list of Federal agency users24 coupled with 

increased allocations from their budgets to support the acquisition and development of these 

information products would help to ensure this important program continues to support their 

operational workflows and business use cases.

Improving Partnerships with the Private Sector

While the USGS has been successful in partnership building25, extensive efforts to reach out to 

key industry segments- such as infrastructure and transportation, agriculture, and broadband 

and telecom - have not resulted in funding partnerships. Partnerships to date have been largely 

governmental. The private sector uses the data extensively, yet the 3DEP program has not been 

able to directly attract private sector partnerships. In recent years, the USGS has engaged in P3 

discussions with the NGAC and has worked with the GeoBuiz community to raise awareness 

and potential for the private sector to partner with 3DEP on data acquisition or technical 

development. New private investment approaches could help finance success for the goals of 

the next generation 3DEP.

23 PUBLIC LAW 116–323—JAN. 5, 2021, Section 5 (b)

24 See Appendix F - Federal Agency MCAs (dewberry.com)

25 Reference factsheets: Infrastructure - The 3D Elevation Program and America's infrastructure 

(usgs.gov), Precision Agriculture - The 3D elevation program - Precision agriculture and other farm 

practices (usgs.gov), broadband - 3D Elevation Program supports broadband internet access | U.S. 

Geological Survey (usgs.gov)).
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CONCLUDING REMARKS

The Subcommittee has concluded through this assessment that 3DEP has successfully advanced 

its initial goal of full lidar coverage of the Nation, helping to address many of the requirements 

and benefits as described in the NEEA. The comprehensive management approach already 

established for the program and its array of partners from all national sectors has been a model 

for the Nation, which will only be enhanced through the establishment of an Interagency 

Coordinating Committee as directed by the NLPA. 

3DEP has also been a catalyst for growth of the lidar services and equipment industry. It has 

effectively driven the advancement of private-sector technology, including tools for storing and 

processing lidar data. In addition, this program has delivered both tools for and approaches to 

storing, manipulating, and generating lidar-derived products and analytics. 

Just as USGS should confidently advance on the goals of the current 3DEP to reach 100% 

coverage efficaciously, they will not miss any opportunity for further, substantive improvement 

in 3DEP quality, efficiencies, and capabilities to support a growing range of user needs. A 

3DNTM draft plan is under development, which strongly promotes ongoing research, 

technology and application development, and a critical assessment of the existing and future 

program design. When finalized, this plan will position the program to respond to advances in 

sensor technology as well as potentially incorporating new types of data to meet current and 

future user needs.

This very successful public/private partnership will continue in the next generation of 3DEP.

RECOMMENDATIONS

OVERARCHING RECOMMENDATIONS

1. First and foremost, the subcommittee recommends that 3DEP “stay the course” to 

prioritize achievement of 100% national coverage as soon as practical.

2. The subcommittee recognizes that the USGS is not yet budgeted to address several of 

the recommendations provided below. However, given the significant projected return 

on investment discussed in this document, USGS should incorporate these 

recommendations into its design plans when additional funding is provided to achieve 

its future vision. 

In addition, the subcommittee provides the following recommendations that may help both the 

planning process and the execution of the resulting programs:

TECHNICAL/TECHNOLOGY

3. USGS should collaborate with its contractors to identify elements of the validation 

process that can be performed by the contractors prior to delivery to USGS validation, in 

order to speed up the process and help reduce the current 18-24 month delivery 
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timeline. Furthermore, USGS should encourage research on the automation of 

processes such as qualify control (QC) of 3D point-cloud data.

4. The way work is performed and the expectations of the end-users are constantly 

changing. USGS and its Geospatial Products and Services Contracts (GPSC) contractors 

should continue their existing practice of being up-to-date on the latest technologies 

and products available for lidar data collection and processing. 3DNTM managers should 

remain open to new products to meet user needs. 

5. USGS should leverage new and emerging processing standards and artificial 

intelligence/machine learning (AI/ML) techniques to streamline and future-proof 3DEP 

processing, e.g., OGC API-Processes, OGC API-EDR (Environmental Data Retrieval), OGC 

API-Discrete Global Grid Systems (DGGS).

6. USGS should consider participating in software development sprints to directly engage 

the technology development and user communities in testing, prototyping, and 

validating next-generation 3DEP capabilities.

PARTNERSHIPS

7. USGS should further leverage The National Map Liaison network to increase local and 

regional participation by exploring opportunities for partner organizations to act as 

“conveners” or “coordinators” across the country.

8. USGS has communicated widely and effectively on its activities and on the 3DEP 

program, but the need remains for further education. The Federal Interagency 

Coordinating Committee (FICC) and USGS should continue to apply effort to directly 

relate the utility of 3DEP data to key national priorities such as: the Nation’s 

Infrastructure, climate resilience; planning for, mitigation of and response to disasters; 

and the management, distribution, and infrastructure of water.

9. The NGAC 3DEP Subcommittee understands that Congress has recognized the 

connection lidar and USGS 3DEP provide for the national broadband mapping efforts. To 

reduce the digital divide, all Federal agencies involved in broadband mapping, coverage, 

and the deployment of related infrastructure-- such as the Federal Communications 

Commission (FCC), National Telecommunications and Information Administration 

(NTIA), and Rural Utilities Services (RUS), among others—should fully leverage, 

participate, partner, and help to fund the 3DEP.

10. While USGS has been successful in partnership building, extensive efforts to reach out to 

key industry segments such as infrastructure and transportation, agriculture, and 

broadband and telecom, have not resulted in significant funding partnerships. USGS 

should continue to investigate and pursue private sector investment approaches that 

could help enable the goals of next generation 3DEP program.
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PROGRAM ENHANCEMENTS/FUTURE PLANS

11. USGS and partners should embrace and implement the 3DEP Ecosystem concept as 

described in this report. That would allow for the import and integration of local 

acquisitions from agencies such as State Departments of Transportation (DOTs) with 

their statewide elevation data sets. The Ecosystem could provide a central location 

where users can find some level of authoritative data and share useful data that might 

not meet all the 3DEP specifications but supplies the quality and “fit for use” 

assessments provided by data producers. Data analysis tools and code could also be 

shared.

12. 3DEP data storage and dissemination are extremely important, especially as change 

detection from multiple collections over time becomes increasingly needed and should 

be fully funded. 

13. 3DEP should fully document the 3DEP system architecture to identify key system 

components, processes, standards, and data formats necessary to ensure 

interoperability across partners and the broader community, and to enable more 

effective and efficient 3DEP evolution.

14. 3DEP should include a requirement to develop a seamless 1-meter digital elevation 

model (DEM) for derivation of hydrography from elevation data.

15. 3DEP should explore workflows and processes that may yield Analysis Ready Data (ARD) 

and Decision Ready Information (DRI) of value to the community based on key 

indicators.

STANDARDS

16. 3DEP should explore increasing representation and resources in relevant Standards 

Development Organizations (SDOs) such as those described in this report. Current levels 

of shared expertise and collaborative support are insufficient to properly influence 

standards development activities that support 3DEP operations and evolution.

GOVERNANCE

17. USGS should implement the design for the next generation of 3DEP described in the 3D 

National Topography Model Call for Action Part 2: Next Generation 3D Elevation 

Program (“the 3DNTM draft plan”) due for publication by USGS later this year.

18. The Department of the Interior in coordination with the Departments of Commerce and 

Homeland Security and with the support of USGS should fully implement the 

governance process outlined in the NLPA. 

19. FICC and FGDC leadership should ensure participation from a broad range of Federal 

agencies with a need for data delivered through the 3DEP program. 
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APPENDIX 1: SUBCOMMITTEE MEMBERSHIP

SECTOR NAME ORGANIZATION

State/Local 

Government

Mr. Gary Thompson

(Subcommittee Chair)

Chief, North Carolina Geodetic Survey 

State of North Carolina

State/Local 

Government

Gale Blackmer, Ph.D.

(Subcommittee Vice Chair)

State Geologist and Bureau Director

Pennsylvania Geological Survey

State/Local 

Government

William Haneberg, Ph.D. State Geologist & Director 

Kentucky Geological Survey

State/Local 

Government

Steven Steinberg, Ph.D. Geographic Information Officer 

County of Los Angeles, California

Regional Government Ms. Lynn Dupont Principal Planner/GIS Manager

New Orleans Regional Planning 

Commission

Research and 

Academic Institutions

David Maidment, Ph.D. Hussein M. Alharthy Centennial Chair in 

Civil Engineering Emeritus 

University of Texas

Industry Standards 

Development 

Organizations

Mr. Mark Reichardt Former President & CEO 

Open Geospatial Consortium 

Private Sector Stewart Walker, Ph.D. Managing Editor 

LIDAR Magazine

Private Sector Mr. Jim Van Rens Senior Vice President 

Riegl USA Inc.

Non-Profit Ms. Karen Gaffney Co-Founder and CEO, West Coast 

Watershed

Tribal Mr. Garet Couch President 

National Tribal Geographic Information 

Support Center

2022-2023 NGAC Vice Chair Roberta Lenczowski also made significant contributions to this report.
NGAC Assessment of the 3D Elevation Program – June 2023

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APPENDIX 2: PREVIOUS NGAC REPORTS ON THE 3D ELEVATION PROGRAM 

The NGAC has provided advice and recommendations on 3DEP through multiple reports and papers 

since the inception of the program in 2012. Highlights include the following: 

• In 2012, the NGAC published a report titled “Toward a National Geospatial Strategy.” One of the 

recommendations in the paper was to implement coordinated multi-agency, intergovernmental 

geospatial data initiatives. A key example included with the recommendation was 3DEP.

• In 2012, the NGAC published a report titled “Elevation Subcommittee Summary Report.” This 

report was developed in response to FGDC requesting advice and recommendations on the 

NEEA and 3DEP. The report addressed several issues, including expanding coordination with 

Federal partners, increasing project size, communicating availability of Federal partners’ plans 

and funding, coordinating funding for projects with State partners, and engaging with partners 

using 3DEP program data.

• In 2015, the NGAC published a paper titled “3D Elevation Program Data Acquisition 

Coordination.” This report addressed the following question: “Given the new (3DEP) approach, 

what advice and/or recommendations does NGAC have for improving coordination and 

communication on 3DEP partnerships among community stakeholders?”

• In 2015, the NGAC produced a paper, “Comments on NAPA Report on FEMA Flood Mapping 

Program,” which included the following recommendations:

o NGAC endorsement of the recommendations in the National Academy of Public 

Administration's FEMA Flood Mapping report

o NGAC recommendation that the FGDC community consider and take action on 

additional mechanisms described in the report of the National Academy of Public 

Administration (NAPA) report to facilitate coordination between FEMA and the 3DEP 

program.

The paper also included a resolution endorsing NAPA’s recommendation that the Office of 

Management and Budget should use the implementation plan of 3DEP for nationwide elevation

data as a guide for the development of the President’s annual budget.

• In 2016, the NGAC published a paper, “Addressing National Priorities through Geospatial 

Technologies,” providing recommendations for the 2017 Presidential Transition. The paper 

provided information on geospatial technology and data, including overarching benefits, 

benefits to government operations, and benefits to the public. As part of its recommendations, 

the NGAC urged the Administration to fully implement 3DEP. 

• In 2020, the NGAC’s Public-Private Partnerships Subcommittee published a “Public-Private 

Partnership Use Case” report on 3DEP. The report included 3DEP background information, and 

addressed 3D lidar acquisition partnerships, how 3DEP works and why it works, and lessons 

learned from the program.
NGAC Assessment of the 3D Elevation Program – June 2023

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APPENDIX 3: 3DEP STANDARDS AND DATA FORMATS

Application of broadly adopted, open data formats and standards is critical to ease interoperability and 

to facilitate rapid mobilization of new capabilities across a growing variety of collection platforms and 

the broader 3DEP workflow that includes ingest and harmonization of data sets received from an array 

of partners and suppliers, data processing data management, and 3D elevation data distribution.

The following is a detailed list of existing, commonly used standards/data formats used across the 

community, many of which are implemented within 3DEP:

• http://www.usgs.gov/ngp-standards-and-specifications/lidar-base-specification-online: LBS provides a 

common base specification for data acquired through 3DEP.

• Cloud Optimized GeoTIFF A Cloud Optimized GeoTIFF (COG) is a GeoTIFF file with an internal 

organization that enables more efficient workflows in the cloud environment.

• LAS 1.4 LASer (LAS) file format supports point cloud data sets including those derived from Lidar 

and related sources. The standard is developed by ASPRS and has been adopted by the Open 

Geospatial Consortium (OGC) as a Community Standard. Version 1.5 is currently under 

development.

• HDF5 Hierarchical Data Format Version 5 (HDF5®) is a data model, a programming interface, and 

a storage model for keeping and managing data. It supports an unlimited variety of data types 

and is designed to be flexible and efficient for large and complex data. Developed by the HDF 

Group and now an OGC standard, this standard would be most useful as topographic and 

hydrographic information is integrated as part of the 3DNTM NextGen program. 

• LAZ, a compressed form of LAS from the company rapidlasso GmbH (proprietary, but opensource)

• Cloud Optimized Point Cloud (which is based on LAZ) developed by Hobu, Inc. (proprietary)

Consideration should be given to additional existing and emerging data standards/formats that could be 

useful in improving / streamlining 3DEP operations and to support the incorporation of new capabilities. 

Examples include:

• OGC APIs including API-3D GeoVolumes, API-Coverages, API-Processes, API-EDR (Environmental 

Data Retrieval), API-Discrete Global Grid Systems (DGGS)

• Other OGC standards including, I3S, 3D Tiles

• National Imagery Transmission Format (NITF), MIL-STD- 2500 C

The GDA encourages the use of open standards “consistent with international standards to the 

maximum extent possible.” Further, OMB Circular A-119 cites preference for voluntary consensus open 

standards. There is interest and activity within the SDO community to transition the above-mentioned 

proprietary standards to open standards where possible, which would minimize the potential for issues 

related to intellectual property and unexpected and undesired unilateral change. 
NGAC Assessment of the 3D Elevation Program – June 2023

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LIST OF ACRONYMS

3D Three-dimensional

3DEP 3D Elevation Program

3DHP 3D Hydrology Program

3DNTM 3D National Topography Model (used also for Next Generation 3DEP) 

AASG Association of American State Geologists

API Application Programming Interface

ARD Analysis Ready Data

ASPRS American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing

BAA Broad Area Announcement

COG Cloud Optimized GeoTIFF

CONUS Continental (or Contiguous) United States

CPI Consumer Price Index

DCA Data Collaboration Announcement

DEM Digital Elevation Model 

DGGS Discrete Global Grid Systems 

DOT Department of Transportation

DRI Decision Ready Information

DSM Digital Surface Model

DTM Digital Terrain Model 

EROS Earth Resources Observation and Science Center

FCC Federal Communications Commission

FEMA Federal Emergency Management Agency

FGDC Federal Geographic Data Committee

FICC Federal Interagency Coordinating Committee

FWL Full Waveform Lidar

GDA Geospatial Data Act 

GNSS Global Navigation Satellite System

GPSC Geospatial Products and Services Contracts

HDF5 Hierarchical Data Format Version 5®

IDIQ Indefinite Delivery, Indefinite Quantity Contract

IfSAR Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar

IMU Inertial Measurement Unit

IRA Inflation Reduction Act

ISO International Organization of Standards 

LAS LASer file format

LAZ A compressed form of LAS

LBS Lidar Base Specification 

Lidar Light Detection and Ranging

MAPPS Management Association for Private Photogrammetric Surveyors
NGAC Assessment of the 3D Elevation Program – June 2023

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MMS Mobile Mapping System

NAPA National Academy of Public Administration

NCRP North Coast Resource Partnership

NEEA National Enhanced Elevation Assessment 

NGAC National Geospatial Advisory Committee 

NGDA National Geospatial Data Asset 

NGO Non-Governmental Organization

NGP National Geospatial Program

NITF National Imagery Transmission Format 

NLPA National Landslide Preparedness Act

NSDI National Spatial Data Infrastructure 

NSGIC National States Geographic Information Council 

NSPS National Society of Professional Surveyors

NTIA National Telecommunications and Information Administration

OGC Open Geospatial Consortium 

OMB Office of Management and Budget

ORI Orthorectified Radar Image

P3 Public-Private Partnerships

QC Quality Control

QLs Topographic Data Quality Levels

RUS Rural Utilities Services

SAR Synthetic Aperture Radar

SDOs Standards Developing Organizations

SfM Structure from Motion

TOP The Opportunity Project

UAV Unmanned Aerial Vehicle

US GEO U.S. Geospatial Executives Organization

USGS United States Geological Survey

USIEI US Interagency Elevation Inventory