A11107 310311

NBSIR 83-2784-1

The Automated Office - An Environment

for Productive Work, or an Information

Factory?:

A Report on the State-of-the-Art

November 1983

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Center for Building Technology

National Engineering Laboratory

National Bureau of Standards

Washington, DC 20234

Public Buildings Service

General Services Administration

Washington, DC 20405
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THE AUTOMATED OFFICE - AN ENVIRONMENT FOR

PRODUCTIVE WORK, OR AN INFORMATION

FACTORY?:

A REPORT ON THE STATE-OF-THE-ART

Center for Building Technology

National Engineering Laboratory

National Bureau of Standards

Washington, D C. 20234

November 1983

Prepared for Public Buildings Service

Washington, D.C. 20405

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, Malcolm Baldrige, Secretary

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS, Ernest Ambler, Director

ABSTRACT

This study is a report of research findings and recommendations covering topics

which influence automated office design. The subjects covered are: office

design, office information systems, organizational factors, ergonomics,

technology, and communications.

Advances in technology, coupled with the explosive growth of office-based work

have resulted in the automation of many offices. To date, technology has

provided the major impetus for automation, with mixed results. Systems frequently do not meet the needs of the end-user because of the lack of appropriate

planning. Design issues are particularly neglected during planning, resulting

in problems with the visual, thermal, and acoustic environment in many offices.

These effects are particularly detrimental since many office automation,

management, and design experts agree that the quality of the environment is

especially important in the electronic office - to offset the impersonality of

many office tasks, and changes in work procedures resulting in limited social

interaction with colleagues. These issues are discussed as they relate to the

development of design guidelines and criteria for automated offices. The

report contains an extensive bibliography, dealing with the topics cited above.

Key Words: acoustic and visual privacy; design criteria; ergonomics; lighting;

noise; office automation; office design criteria; quality-of-lif e

space planning; VDT’s (video display terminal); workstation

requirements

iii
PREFACE

During the past decade, many new products and systems directed toward the

automation of office functions have been introduced into buildings, and countless others are being developed. The automation of professional, clerical,

and technical activities has changed the nature of many of these jobs and is

likely to have profound consequences for the design of federal office buildings.

However, these potential design implications have not been studied in any

systematic way, and therefore are not well understood. The present project is

designed to develop a better understanding of the relationship between office

design and the potential consequences of the "office of the future".

In order to effectively house the automated office, Public Buildings Service,

General Services Administration (PBS/GSA) must be capable of specifying environmental, spatial, and other criteria to support the administrative and operational activities performed in federal buildings. The development of such

criteria and guidelines is the long-term objective of this project. A necessary

prerequisite for developing such office design criteria is the identification

of the characteristics of the physical environment which merit design consideration. The present phase of this project is focused on this issue, using the

following approaches: 1) a literature search, 2) interviews at organizations

and with individuals at the forefront of office automation, 3) mailed inquiries

to selected A/E firms, and 4) attending meetings and conferences. The findings

obtained from these activities are reported in this paper.

Our findings to date suggest that the environmental attributes and requirements

of offices which are of particular importance for automated office activities

include the following:

° Lighting - its quality, intensity, location of source, distribution,

adaptability, and control all strongly influence the performance of

office tasks, and the acceptability of the work surrounds.

° Acoustics - noise is a major distraction in many open-office design

situations; many of the new office systems are quite noisy (e.g.,

printers, optical character readers), and must be isolated from staff

activities requiring analytic work; privacy is essential to many

activities and must be accommodated in open-plan designs.

0 Thermal - thermal comfort of the office staff must be maintained despite

the introduction of electronic equipment which produces a considerable

heat load.

° Indoor Air Quality - energy conserving designs have resulted in the

trapping of air pollutants produced by occupants (e.g., cigarette

smoke) and building materials.

° Spatial Requirements - tradeoffs must be considered between the reduced

needs for paper file storage, and the possible expanded space requirements for work stations to accommodate new technologies; functional

iv
grouping of activities should be considered to maintain group cohesiveness to offset reliance on electronic communication.

° Flexibility - electrical and telecommunications systems must be

designed to facilitate future changes and expansion; modular systems

are needed to accommodate change in work station.

° Integration - of building systems with office automation requirements.

0 Special Purpose Facilities - audio and teleconferencing activities will

require unique environmental and telecommunications requirements.

This report, supplemented with .findings to be obtained in interviews with

designers, a roundtable, and a further review of design guideline documents

for buildings and interior spaces, will serve as the basis for establishing

interim guidelines for federal office buildings. The guideline document is

intended for the use of the PBS/GSA-central and regional offices, the federal

design community, and architectural and other design firms which serve the

needs of the federal government.

In developing the present report we have been sensitive to the issue that if

design criteria and guidelines for office automation are to be valid, they

should be based upon "hard information" to the greatest extent possible, not

opinion. That is, design recommendations should be supported by a body of

information (preferably based upon research findings), which explain the

rationale for them. A major objective of this study has been to locate and

describe these findings.

Design guidelines, if they are to be useful, must not only be directed toward

the environmental attributes of buildings, but must be responsive to the particular needs of an organization and its staff. In the case of the automated

office, a major consideration is the desirability of taking advantage of

technological advances as a means of advancing organizational objectives, while

responding creatively to its most important asset - its work force.

The subject of office automation has been treated extensively in publications

emphasizing technological and communications advances, and therefore this report

touches only briefly on these topics, as they relate to building design. Our

emphasis instead is on the office as part of an organizational environment; a place concerned with the development, processing and transmission of information, and the impact of these office activities on the satisfaction and effectiveness office workers - clerical, managerial, and professional. A major

consideration is the examination of the processes, taxonomies, and analytic

methods used in the development of information for planning office automation

systems and the environment in which they are intended to function.

Thus far, many offices which have automated their functions have done so without adequate planning. This hardware driven approach has resulted in a situation where automation has influenced word processing activities and other

clerical and support functions but has had limited success in supporting professional and management activities - those which comprise the major portion of

v
the overall office expenditure. The absence of detailed planning in too many

instances has led to a neglect of the design implications, the effects of automation on office workers, and the consequences of such changes on the organization as an entity. The present report deals with these issues in considerable

detail

Although the report is organized into the topics such as 'Design’, 'Ergonomics',

'Organizational Factors', and 'Office Information Systems', the material covered

is closely interrelated and therefore cannot be readily organized into these,

or any other set of "pigeonholes". Consequently, a given idea is often

expressed in several different contexts. To some extent, this redundancy was

a matter of conscious choice, to suggest its broad range of applicability,

since a major objective of this effort is to provide a sense of the close

interdependencies of organizational, ergonomic, and design issues as they

relate to design guidelines and criteria.

While an extensive range of literature has been covered in this report, it

cannot claim to be a comprehensive treatment of the subject of office automation

and design - the data base is simply too large to be covered by any one study.

Additional reference sources are provided in the Bibliography for those who

want to pursue these subjects in more detail.

The Appendix contains examples of several data collection methods devised to

obtain information pertaining to Office Automation Design Issues. The report

also has a Glossary and an Index.

An executive summary of this report has also been prepared, and is available

as a separate document (NBSIR 83-2784-2).

vi
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like first to express my particular appreciation to Erma Striner of the

Public Buildings Service of the General Services Administration for her

assistance, guidance, and unfailing enthusiasm for the work reported here.

John Murray of the General Services Administration provided technical assistance

on the project,, and contributed to the success of several of the site visits

performed as part of this study. Belinda Collins, Terje Jacobsen, and

Ted Hattenberg . served as technical readers for this paper, and their

sugggestions for revising early drafts are gratefully acknowledged.

Finally, I would like to acknowledge the work performed by Keith Mackley in

producing the illustrations in this document, and the typing support provided

by Ulesia Gray, Brenda Thompson, and Mary Rams burg of the CBT Word Processing

Center

vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ABSTRACT .iii

PREFACE iv

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS vii

1. INTRODUCTION 1

2. BACKGROUND 8

2.1 Evaluation of Office Automation 15

3. DESIGN 19

3.1 Studies of Offices 19

3.1.1 Interior Layout and Design of Citicorp Person-toPerson 22

3.1.2 Technological Issues 22

3.1.3 Issues Identified by Research 23

3.2 Planning Approaches to Office Design 27

3.3 Environmental Systems .* 31

3.3.1 Acoustics 33

3.3.2 lighting 36

3.3.3 Power Distribution Systems 41

4. ERGONOMICS 44

4.1 Overview 44

4.2 The Workstation 47

4.2.1 Command and Communication 47

4.2.2 Current and Future Systems 48

4.2.3 One Virtual Display Map 48

4.2.4 One Frontend to Current and Future System 49

4.2.5 One Interface: Work Station and Environment 50

4.2.6 Analysis of the VDT Workstation 51

4.2.7 Problems with the VDT Workstation 52

4.2.8 Planning the Workstation 56

4.3 Job and Task Analysis 59

4.4 Architectural Programming Issues 59

4.5 User Involvement in Planned Change 60

4.6 Instruction and Training 62

4.7 Design Recommendations 62

viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

Page

4.7.1 VDT Filters 64

4.7.2 Glare Control 64

4.7.3 Work-rest Regimes 65

4.7.4 Postural Concerns 65

4.8 Computer Systems for End-users 65

5. ORGANIZATIONAL FACTORS 68

5.1 Management Issues 71

5.2 Introduction of OA into Organizations 74

5.3 Problem Areas in OA 77

5.4 Planning for OA 78

5.5 Case Studies of OA 81

5.6 Research Needs 83

6. OFFICE INFORMATION SYSTEMS 85

6.1 Information Systems and Types 88

6.1.1 Data Base Management Systems 88

6.1.2 Decision Support Systems 90

6.2 Distributed Data Processing 93

6.2.1 Potential Advantages of Distributed Responsibility .. 94

6.2.2 Potential Disadvantages of Distributed Responsibility 95

6.3 Information Analysis for Computer Use 95

6.4 User Software Issues 96

6.5 Information Systems - Some Design Implications 100

7. SOME TECHNOLOGY AND COMMUNICATIONS ISSUES 101

7.1 Local Area Networks 101

7.1.1 Baseband vs. Baseband 103

7.1.2 Lan Circuitry 104

7.2 Network Configurations 104

7.3 ETHERNET ' 108

7.4 Electronic Mail 110

7.5 Teleconferencing Ill

7.6 Design Issues - Communications Systems Ill

ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

Page

8. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS (PRESENT AND FUTURE) FOR AUTOMATED OFFICES 113

8.1 The Environment Being Designed 114

8.2 Architectural Programming 115

8.3 Flexibility as a Response to Change 115

8.3.1 Wiring and Power and Requirements 116

8.4 Design Recommendations and Considerations (Survey Responses) 117

8.5 Future OA Equipment Forecasts 118

8.6 Specialized Spaces/Rooms 118

8.7 Environmental and Workspace Information - Guideline and

Criteria Considerations 119

8.7.1 Lighting Criteria 120

8.7.2 Thermal Comfort Criteria 123

8.7.3 Ergonomic Criteria 124

8.7.4 Acoustic Criteria 126

8.7.5 Indoor Air Quality Criteria 128

9. PROSPECTS FOR THE AUTOMATED OFFICE - A PRODUCTIVE WORKPLACE 130

9.1 Design Issues 130

9.2 Human Resource (Ergonomic) Issues 132

9.3 Organizational and Informational Issues 134

9.4 Some Technological Issue 136

9.5 Office Automation Problems: General and Specific 138

9.6 Looking Ahead 139

10. BIBLIOGRAPHY 141

10.1 Responses to Design Inquiry 150

10.2 Additional Reference Sources 151

10.2.1 General 151

10.2.2 Design Related 153

11. APPENDIX - Information Development Methods 164

11.1 Design Information 164

11.2 Introduction of Automation into Offices 173

11.3 Analysis of Office Functions 176

11.4 Information for Computerization: Friendly Systems 181

11.5 Communications and Technology 186

12. GLOSSARY 189

INDEX 195

x
1. INTRODUCTION

Office design today is readily traceable to a tradition dating back more than one hundred years. The typical office is designed to generate, control and

distribute information in the form of paper. In the 1950s, repetitious operations involved in the handling of masses of data were systematized for computer

processing, and the design of offices had to accommodate this function. Data

processing was one important forerunner of office automation, while word processors and advanced telecommunications constituted two other driving forces

toward the office of the future.

The term 'office automation' (0A) is a vague and inexact one, but has been

primarily used to refer to any trend in office development where new technology

is applied to assist office workers in the performance of their jobs. OA

represents an integrated systems approach to the implementation of new and

improved ways of handling information. It is the application of technology to

create, manipulate, store, reproduce, retrieve, and disseminate information in

an office environment.

The advent of office automation (OA) has already had an important influence on the activities performed in offices despite its rather recent origin. There

is every reason to believe that this trend will accelerate as a result of new

technologies, and organizational changes instituted to better harness this

capability. Furthermore, the change in the way that office functions are conducted are likely to have profound implications for office design. For

example, an executive with a private secretary in an outer office and staff

support "down the hall" typifies many corporate offices today. Such an office

layout is designed to facilitate personal contact where the primary sources of

information are verbal, and in the form of written memos. The electronic

office provides a very different perspective. An executive is not likely to

be as dependent on staff assistance in many day to day operations. Rather, a centralized data base will be available for access on a personal computer

terminal. Similarly, all personnel who have reason to access the centralized

data base will be able to do so. Physical space layout will therefore have

much less influence on the ability of people to communicate with one another

than is the case today (except for telephone conversations).

Colleagues working on related activities will be able to readily exchange

information electronically regardless of their respective locations.

However, the availability of technology to process information electronically

and impersonally has its drawbacks as well as its advantages. A sense of common purpose (e.g., teamwork) is accepted as an important characteristic of all

work environments. The organization of workstations should therefore accommodate the desire for people to identify with a particular work group, and facilitate informal social interactions as well as work-oriented personal

communications

The overriding design concern is the need for flexibility to accommodate change

- organizational and technical. Technology advances are occurring so rapidly

1
that it is very difficult to make reasonable predictions about the design implications of future OA systems. As a result the emphasis is on design approaches

which can accommodate a variety of possible "futures”. The flexibility sought

is in terms of such factors as the location and configuration of work stations,

electronic outlets, lighting fixtures and office partitions. Another major

consideration is the need to plan for the expanded use (and linking) of

electrical and telecommunications technology as future hardware and systems

become more generally available. The electronic office will permit greater

control of individual workstation environments, thereby providing the capability

of countering some of the adverse effects associated with the impersonality of

such offices. Organizational decisions will determine whether this potential

will be realized.

The space requirements needed to house particular activities are undergoing

rapid change. The need to accommodate extensive filing systems for paper

documents is diminishing with the advent of electronic storage and microfiche

systems. But at the same time, the traditional desktop used for typing and

other paper generation activities is being replaced by a workstation, needed

to accommodate an ever increasing variety of electronic hardware and systems.

However, despite the trend toward the electronic office, papers are not likely

to disappear from the office in the foreseeable future.

Just as all people differ from one another in important ways, no two

organizations are alike. Each one is unique as a result of a combination and

the interaction of such factors as goals, ways of doing business, management

style and values and the personal and social characteristics of their staff.

The distinctive character of a given organization is sometimes termed its

'culture*. One of the major indicators of the culture of an organization is

concerned with the view of its workforce. Management theorists such as Argyris

(1), Likert (2), and Katz and Kahn (3) have examined organizational practices

from this perspective and have formulated a variety of concepts to describe and

explain different management approaches to achieve organizational objectives.

In general, two opposite approaches have been identified. One is a highly

centralized style, with most decisions being made "at the top" of the organization and communicated below by subordinate managers to their staffs. At the

other extreme is a decentralized procedure, which is aimed toward obtaining

maximum participation in decision making at all organizational levels.

Driscoll (4) views the office automation scene today, as well as current trends,

and concludes that the predominant mode of doing business is consistent with

the centralized "model” indicated above, which has been largely rejected by

management theorists. The humanistic style advocated by Driscoll recognizes

the need to deal with quality-of-working-lif e (QWL) issues in the workplace,

and assumes that workers are motivated to do challenging and meaningful work

and to expand their capabilities for their personal growth and for overall

organizational effectiveness. Driscoll contrasts the centralized management

approach (which he terms 'systems analytic') with a decentrailized humanistic

one, in table 1.

2
Table 1. Alternative Technological Paths (Driscoll)

System Analytic Humanistic

Assumptions about

human nature

lazy, untrustworthy, need

outside control

motivated, trustworthy, selfcontrol

Immediate function

of office automation

allow outside control, reduce

skill requirements, provide

information to key decisionmakers

provide feedback to individual

operators, utilize and increas*

skills and knowledge of

operators

Unit of analysis Indiviudals , tasks groups, organizational units,

functions

Scope of organizational

objectives

efficiency effectiveness, quality of work

life

Target group key decision makers all organizational members

Constituency top management all organizational members

External effects on societyincrease unemployment, threat

to physical and mental health,

little impact on productivity

decrease unemployment,

, beneficial impact on mental

health, increased productivity

Lodahl (5) points out that the earliest metaphor for office automation was

"word processing" which implied not only technology, but a production-style

organization characterized by centralization, extensive rules and procedures

and the replacement of men by machines. This orientation is in marked contrast

to the current view of the office as a place where information and communication

systems are centralized to serve organizational purposes, and where important

decisions have to be made in an ad hoc manner with incomplete information.

Lodahl observes that most modern offices house routine tasks that can be readily

structured for automation purposes, and specialized ones which distinguish one working group from another. He indicates that the office design task is basically that of identifying the routine tasks and those that are specialized,

and providing the tools necessary to accomplish each of there. Design is accomplished by means of an interactive process between the user subgroup and the

designer. The emphasis is not on developing procedures and tools that are standardized for the entire organization, but rather to determine which subgroups have unique sets of requirements that should be accommodated for overall

organizational effectiveness. He terms this approach as "custom design."

Table 2 contrasts traditional and interactive design emphases.

In an examination of the prospects for future office buildings, Downs (6)

indicates that the most important influence on them will be the new electronic

technology for office work. It will have a decentralizing overall impact but

3
Table 2. Traditional and Interactive Design Approaches (Lodahl)

The Traditional System Design

Emphasizes

® Standardization of behavior

o System controls the people (Centralization)

® Search for repetitive elements

• Seeks predictable performance

o Avoids changing itself

o Transfers of standard design elements

9 Punishment of nonconformity

Interactive Design

Key Elements:

1. Identify separable subunits ("Boundary location")

o Functions

o Goals

© Languages

• External relations

"Custom" design = caters to uniqueness

2. Scope parent organization

® Goals

o Constraints

o External environment * 9 Investment in current structure, style, philosophy

Emphasizes

• Fits technology to ongoing processes-tolerates uniqueness

• People control system (decentralizaiton)

• Seeks high payoff processes

• Supports outstanding performance

• Allows revision, iteration

• Transfers design approach, not identical elements

• Tolerates people, subunit variations

Interactive Design: Sociotechnical Implementation

"Re-Freezing"

• Redesign of jobs, roles

9 Redesign of social support system

9 Redesign of recruitment, selection, training

4
not eliminate the need for face-to-face contact in many situations. He

forecasts that the' office work force will continue to grow, accelerating the

trend toward a higher percentage of the total work force being engaged in service oriented activities. Many of the routine clerical operations are likely

to be mechanized, and the increasing sophistication of the technology will generate more interaction and communication within and among organizations. Operating this equipment will require more skills than current jobs demand, and

therefore organizations will try to recruit more skilled workers, and devote

more resources to continually training them. More office space will therefore

be devoted to meeting areas, training rooms and media presentation facilities

to accommodate these activities- The additional requirements for training and

seminar space will also meet the anticipated movement toward greater interaction and participation by staff members in the organizational decision making

process. While a small percentage of workers will work at home, keeping in

contact with their offices by means of computers, most 'office work is likely to

remain where it is today because of the desire to keep in personal contact with

colleagues and the need for client interactions.

More buildings are expected to be constructed around atriums to offer more

"outside space", save energy, and provide the opportunity to integrate the

atrium with the building in performing work and social activities.

While the physical setting of an office provides the direct support for

conducting required activities in a space, Becker (7) suggests that the

environment also serves a catalytic function in that it can promote or inhibit

discussions, meetings, social interactions and a variety of formal and informal

communications. (See figure 1.)

Ideas

Provide

Feedback

Figure 1. Environment as support and catalyst ( Becker)

5
Space characteristics, lighting, temperature levels, indoor air quality, the

opportunity for movement, all have the potential effect of playing a positive

or negative role with respect to the acceptability of the environment for performing necessary tasks and/or for general feelings of satisfaction. Since

organizations are housed in buildings, physical settings are created for them.

The question is not whether these decisions are made, but how, and on what

basis. Architects and space planners are sometimes motivated to ensure that

the environment that they create cannot readily be modified by the users. In

pursuit of this goal, a master plan is created which promotes order and conformity. Visual order is intended to reduce ambiguity while disregarding differences in individual requirements for performing similar activities. In large

organizations, environmental conditions are typically standardized for individuals within job categories. Variety is most apparent at the upper levels of

management, where the jobs themselves are more diverse.

Becker argues that many office jobs are intrinsically routine and rather boring,

and the environment can serve to compensate for the performance of such activities. He further notes that in open-space offices, environmental components

are expressed in terms of common elements, so differences in organizational

levels are more subtle than in traditional offices. Moreover, with the increase

in office automation the workstations of managers and support personnel will

become even more similar, and the quality or office environment will become

increasingly important to most office workers.

Becker views the automated office environment as having the potential to

improve productivity by responding to the particular needs of individuals.

Performance standards are advocated as a design approach in response to the

particular activities in which the individual is engaged, e.g., communication

privacy, interactions. The environment needed to perform these functions can

be created in any number of ways, to suit personal requirements and preferences.

The decentralization of decision making is seen as a further step in improving

organizational effectiveness.

He cites a number of investigations which suggest that employee participation

in decision making results in greater job satisfaction and improved productivity.

Such decisions must be perceived by the staff as being important ones. In the

context of the office environment, decisions about office size, location,

degree of enclosure, amount and type of storage space are all considered to be

important ones. He indicates that management maintains control by developing

and implementing procedures that are used by subordinates in accomplishing

organizational goals.

In examining the relationship of OA and design Mazo (8) forecasts that larger

workstations will be required for employees having a variety of electronic

devices. Increased use of computer terminals will require flexibility in

planning the wiring and cable runs. Individual circuits will often be required

to support advanced computerized workstations. Special attention will have to

be given to voltage regulation, power surges and static electricity because of

the sensitivity of computerized equipment to the electrical environment in

which they operate.

6
Electronic offices will require that more services be centrally located.

Larger, complex reproduction centers, with copying, printing and duplicating

facilities, will be prevalent. More filing will be centralized to improve

effectiveness and save space. Communication centers and conference facilities

for television and/or audio based meetings are likely to be common features of

offices. Equipment staging, assembly, and maintenance areas will have to be

available, as well as storage facilities for equipment and modular office systems (for open planned spaces). Above all, Mazo stresses the need for flexibility to accommodate the changes that are likely to occur as a result of

technical advances and organizational requirements.

Office automation experts are in general agreement that in too many instances

organizations purchase office technology without sufficient planning. Lack of

appropriate planning is given as the reason for the limited success of many OA

systems, and the outright failure of others. For the most part the planning

necessary must be undertaken by, or at least with, the using organization.

This is the case because OA is seen as a means of advancing organizational

goals by improving methods and procedures used to process information. It is

therefore necessary to have a detailed understanding of organizational goals

and the procedures currently in place, to accomplish them. When this information is available, then technology should be examined as a potential means of

improving operational efficiency. This planning information is also a vital

ingredient of the architectural program, if the building design is to make an effective contribution to organizational effectiveness.

7
2. BACKGROUND OF OFFICE AUTOMATION

Giuliano (9) believes that most offices today are in a "pre-industrial" stage

of development, where there is little conscious attention of efficiency, work

flow or productivity. The information handling devices that are present (telephone, copiers, etc.) are not used to their maximum advantage. Varied personal

styles are accommodated and loyalty and mutual respect are important ingredient

which contribute to the success of organizations. This style works as long as the operation is small and is fairly simple. Increases in size and complexity

cause disruptions in work.

A major response to complexity has been the introduction of the industrialstage office, where work is designed as a paper production line. Each worker

performs a highly specialized task and passes the work on to the next employee.

To create an assembly-line of work flow requires analysis of jobs into discrete

tasks, and standardization of methods to accomplish them. Responsibility is

fragmented and bureaucratic organizations are required to coordinate activities

This approach has led to many boring jobs and a proliferation of errors made

by people who have limited access to all of the pertinent information needed to

complete a task properly.

Vendors of automated equipment for offices have repeatedly justified the need

for such devices on the basis that business has spent only $2500 on capital

equipment for the office worker while the factory worker has been supported by

approximately ten times that amount according to Uttal (10). These numbers are contested by Michael Zisman, an office automation consultant, who is typically

named as the source for these data. Zisman (10) indicates that he used those

numbers because it represented the "folk wisdom" of the community. He notes

that "investment looks low because companies expense their office-related costs

instead of capitalizing them. If you capitalize actual expense streams for the

office, you'll find companies have already invested $15,000 to $20,000 per

office worker .

In defining the scale of operations conducted in offices, Connell (11) cites

figures for 1979 which indicate that the total cost of business office activities in the United States was $800 billion, with labor costs being $600 billion

of that amount. Furthermore, he notes that studies have consistently shown a yearly increase in these costs ranging from 12 percent to 15 percent.

Martin (12) cites a Booz , Allen & Hamilton study indicating that wasteful

office activities cost American businesses $300 billion per year - double the

total annual investment in research and development. The largest office

expense is payroll. The typical cost breakdown is: personnel - 90 percent,

space - 8 percent, equipment - 2 percent. He also indicates that the automating of office activities often starts with the telephone and mail systems,

estimating that every year businesses make more than 100 billion phone calls

and mail in excess of 105 billion documents. The charges associated with these

two types of communication is said to be more than $30 billion per year. U.S.

companies spend twice as much money on the electronic transmission of

information as they do on first class mail.

8
Zisman (13) examined several organizations in the process of automating their

operations and noted that their experience may be described in terms of four

stages of growth. (This concept was first formulated by Gibson and Nolan (14)

in an analysis of electronic data processing (EDP) operations).

1. Initiation . Organizations are said to introduce office automation as

a means to take advantage of technological opportunities to reduce costs and/or

increase productivity by the use of mechanized office equipment. This step is

often initiated in word processing activities, where the emphasis is on the

more efficient production of paper, rather than the reduction of paper work.

2. Expansion. After word processors have been introduced into the

workplace with some measure of success, then the objective is to replace the

paper flow of information by electronic systems. The emphasis here is on the

mechanization of existing office tools such as the calendar, files, and "in

baskets". As more and more organizational units have such tools, there is a problem of integrating them into a coherent system, because the question of

compatibility of diverse hardware elements has not been sufficiently examined.

3. Formalization . lack of integration and rising costs leads management

to decide that centralized authority is needed to provide proper planning.

There is also a change from mechanizing tools to automating processes . That

is, formal office procedures are institutionalized, and are then controlled by

means such as management information systems. Office functions are now being

automated - which addresses the problems of the manager, not only those of the

clerical staff.

4. Maturity . This is the final stage of automation, where routine

processes are automated and "intelligent" work stations are linked in networks

to serve the creative needs of the users.

Spinrad (15) concludes that the first products designed to modernize office

procedures were made to emulate the traditional ones. For example word processors and facsimile equipment were enhanced versions of an office system based

upon paper operations. The system elements were electronic, but the system

itself was based upon manual operations. The working unit of the system was a piece of paper with an image upon it. Paper is extremely flexible: it can be

mailed, carried, filed, copied, scribbled on. It is extremely flexible medium,

whose attributes are difficult to duplicate by electronic means. Paper also

provided a standard size for filing, duplicating, mailing, and other functions

that had to be performed. The paper based system served as a model for developments in office automation, where individual elements had to be designed as part of a coherent system to be used for creating, displaying, printing,

communicating and filing electronic documents.

Ness, et al . (16) point out that automating the office involves mechanizing

procedures which are routine and predictable, while allowing for human intervention in unusual circumstances. Since office environments differ from one another and are often subject to change, systems should be designed to

accommodate these changes by being flexible.

9
To the extent that processes are regular and information is structured, machine

interactions can be made conversational - prompting the user for information

needed to complete a particular process. This capability makes limited demands

upon the operator for knowing computer procedures, permitting greater concentration on the functions to be performed. This approach has the advantages of

simplifying work, maintaining uniformity, and enabling formats to be changed in an entire organization with minimum disruption to activities.

The standardization of office systems elements is consistent with a modular

approach which can accommodate a mixture of manual and automated functions.

For example a typist can prepare a document by typing in some material and

retrieving information from the files, which consist of standardized elements

included in many documents. Since proper time management is considered to be

the most important factor in office productivity, time wasting activities

should be minimized and duplication of effort avoided. A major goal is therefore that any item dealt within an office should be handled only once. For

example, data in any form, once entered into an electronic file by means of

keystrokes (or any other method) should never again have to be reentered.

Changes should be achieved with text editing tools.

Existing organiations fostered this approach because of the desire to

standardize tasks at their lowest level of detail as a means of increasing

efficiency. This is especially likely to occur when:

° The activities are relatively simple and easily standardized as in

banking, order entry, parts management.

° The patterns and contents of transactions are relatively stable, as in airline reservation systems.

0 The numbers of transactions is large, as in payroll systems.

° A rather straightforward system of evaluating costs and benefits is

available to assess possible future changes.

The trend toward the breakdown of tasks into components paradoxically leads to

complexity rather than simplicity, when it is extended beyond a critical scale,

According to Strassman (17) for example, if five separate units deal with a given customer, inter-organizational communication links among these units are necessary in order for all of them to keep current on a given transaction. As

other functional missions are created (e.g., safety, security), additional

channels are created. Strassman has found that in many organizations, one transaction requires upward of 40 messages to keep files current.

Possibly the single most important factor paving the way to the automated office

is the change which occurred in the production of typed materials. The advent

of word processing (WP) provides a means of electronically coding alphanumeric

information in contrast with the mechanical systems used before. The electronic

coding of information was a necessary precondition for all of the advanced technologies which have followed in its wake - electronic mail, teleconferencing

with electronic displays, remote printing and display devices, etc.

10
One of the most important and time consuming activities performed in the office

is the preparation of documents. For the most part, reports are produced today

in the same manner as that used a generation ago. The many activities such as text and graphic preparation, illustrations and photographs are individual

operations which are coordinated at the final phase of a project. Moreover,

these tasks are frequently done in serial fashion, rather than in parallel.

This process is a very time consuming and inefficient one and understandably

has received considerable attention from manufacturers of automated equipment

and organizational managers.

Word processing equipment and electronic storage media have provided two of

the critical prerequisites to radically change the methods available to prepare

documents. Many systems exist today which permit the manager and professional

to combine work tasks which in the past had to be performed separately, e.g.,

text preparation and the acquisition and analysis of data from electronic

storage. Another tool becoming available is the intelligent copier, based

upon laser or optic fiber technology. These systems can generate documents

that include graphics or any other material that can be digitally coded.

Connell (11) indicates that the most mature office technology is data processing,

but the most widely publicized one is word processing. In comparing the two,

he cites several similarities and major differences. The machines used for

them are very often the same and the information stored within them takes the same form, resulting in a tendency to characterize word processing as an offshoot of computing equipment. However, when they are examined in terms of the

operations performed and the skills required by the operators, another picture

emerges

Information stored in a computer is defined logically be a sequence of

operations and once stored in memory the user plays a monitoring role except

for interactive systems. But even in these instances, the user must follow a predesigned set of logical procedures. With word processing equipment, information is not stored in accordance with a set of logical rules, instead the

user reads the information on the screen and interprets it. Without the human

interface the data displayed serves no function, because it is the interaction

of the user with the machine that defines the successful operation of the "system". In general, the focus of attention for the new office technologies is on the user to a much greater extent than it is in data processing applications,

A second major difference between data processing and word processing is with

respect to the approach taken to training. In the computer and telecommunications world, training covered not only how to operate machines, but how they

functioned internally-based on logical structures which can be controlled by

appropriate instructions. In word processing, users are taught that if they

push a given key, then the machine will perform a particular function. Training is therefore focused on the user as an operator rather than as a programmer.

When people trained in data processing and telecommunications work together

with those in office technologies, it is not too surprising that there are several communications barriers with respect to conceptual understanding as well as the different jargons employed.

11
McNurlin (18) describes the automated office as an integrated system,

interconnected by a communications network. The electronic network might connect the following services: "word processing for the generation of formal and

Informal correspondence, electronic message systems for person-to-person electronic communication, facsimile for rapid document and graphic transmission,

electronic 'file cabinets' for document storage and retrieval, and links to

various corporate files and outside services. All of these services would be

accessible from electronic work stations."

McNurlin (19) presents the following as a list of system components that she

encountered in her study of automated office components (table 3).

Implicit in the automated office is the use of computers - computers for

controlling every facet of the system. So the automated office is really a multi-function, integrated, computer-based communication system that allows

many business communications to be performed in an electronic mode. An example

of one of the first integrated systems is the ARPANET, described by Uhlig,

Farber and Blair (20).

The ARPANET is described as an example of an advanced communications network.

It is a data network started in the 1960s by the Advanced Research Project

Agency (ARPA) of the Department of Defense, with the purpose of sharing

resources, which Included hardware, software, and data bases. ARPANET consists

of a set of autonomous, independent computer centers which are interconnected

and use a standard transmission method, to permit interactive resource sharing

among all participants. A "host" computer is located at each center, and connects with the network by means of an interface message processor (IMP), which

is the standard interface for the network. It also handles messages and controls messages routing along alternative paths. Messages are transmitted from

center to center in packets, using a distributed store-and-forward approach.

Each packet contains about 1000 bits; the transit time through the network

takes about two seconds.

The Information Sciences Institute (IS I) is one of the main computer centers

of the ARPANET, and operates in an automated office environment. ISI employees

have access to all other people on the net. Almost all text and data generated

at ISI are stored in electronic form - including memos, messages, research

drafts and papers, personal calendars, and software. Electronic files are created using any header - e.g., project name, subject, month, etc. All desks

are equipped with CRT terminals used to enter, edit, file, and retrieve

information electronically.

12
Table 3. Automated Office System Components (McNurlin)

Information Generation Information Distribution

Voice activated input devices

Multi-function intelligent work

stations

Two-way cable home television

Handwriting entry devices

Graphical input devices

Word processing

Portable radio telephone

’ Intelligent ' telephones with

digitized voice

Information Storage

Electronic message files

Computer output microfilm and

updatable microforms

Multi-media digitized storage

Automated personal calendars

Automated information storage and

retrieval systems

Automatic message content indexing

systems

Distributed data networks

Integrated communications

('word/ data/graphics /voice/ image

Store and forward communications

Computer message systems

Smart facsimile devices

(combined wit h OCR) Computerized branch exchanges

(CBX)

Micropublishing ( computer

typsetting from microforms;

Intelligent copiers/printers

Automatic typesetting

Multi-media tele-conf erencir.g

Electronic bulletin boards

OCR interfaces

Electronic funds transfer

systems (EFT)

Information Query

'Personal assistant’ services

via software

Bibliographic search services

Automated training techniques

Interactive graphics

Data base management systems

(DBMS)

Electronic pointers 'light per. mouse)

Specialized information services

Simple English query /retrieval

languages

Decision support systems

Liebermar. et al . (21) analyze the general office environment and its functions

as in table 4.

Hammer (22) in an overview of office automation observes that despite the

availability of such systems as ARPAh*ET that today, office automation is virtually synonymous with word processing. After word processing, the most widely

used function in office systems is records processing, which permits the

maintenance and updating of files. Records processing permits the user to
Table 4. Elements of the Office and Administrative Environment (LLeberman)

Elements Description

People

Processes

Information

Technology

Plan/Direct /Organize

Coordinate/ Control

levels and classification of personnel involved:

managers (all levels), professionals, technicians

(research assistants), secretaries, and clerks

involved in the processes.

1. Creation - act of thinking and formulating a communication

.

2. Capture - placing the communication on a medium

(paper, terminal, tape recording) or conveying

the message (via a telephone, at a conference).

3. Preparation - entry to, processing by, output

from, a keyboard.

4. Revision - act of changing.

5. Distribution - message carrying, mail handling,

electronic transmissions, traveling.

6. Expansion - copying (reprographics), printing,

micrographics (microfilming).

7. Search, storage, and retrieval - indexing,

storing, searching, information.

8. Disposal - discarding and purging of information.

Encompasses the media and form of the information:

voice, graphics (charts), images (pictures), data

(numbers), text (narrative).

Involves the electronic, printing, and photographic

technologies utilized in an office environment:

typewriters, word processors, copiers, terminals,

voice automation, computers, communications networks, printers, dictation equipment, photocomposition components, computer output and input microfilm, facsimile, offset printers, graphics, optical

charter recognition (OCR), and others.

The basic managerial functions involved in

establishing goals, objectives and strategies.

Components of the basic managerial functions involved

in the coordination of resources to ensure that

objectives and action programs are achieved within

certain guidelines.

select records which meet specified criteria and create documents using the

basic data contained in files. Present systems are limited in processing

several files simultaneously and impose severe restrictions on the size and

number of records that can be managed.

Communication is central to the needs of the automated office and current

technology offers many competing approaches. Communicating word processors and

facsimile devices can improve document distribution, and electronic mail and

14
message systems permit enhanced interpersonal communications. Few organizations

have made commitments to either computer or voice mail as yet. Voice mail has

the advantages of not requiring a keyboard, being usable from any touchtone

telephone and requiring almost no training. However, it has the disadvantage

of not being amenable to being searched and/or edited. Computer mail is most

suitable for operational use, where written records can be edited, stored and

retrieved

While many individual technologies exist today (e.g., word processing,

teleconferencing, micrographics, electronic mail systems, telecommunications),

the future of office automation lies with the integration of these individual

technologies into interdependent networks, according to Connell (11). Such

networks are important because they will enable a broad range of technical

advances to be brought to every office worker, regardless of location. This

approach is opposite to the trend in the past to centralize computer applications into specialized departments, which were organizational entities and

physically separated from the activities they were intended to support.

Networking takes place in three ways:

° Local networking - products of the same vendor communicate with each

other in the same building or site.

° Remote networking - the same vendor products communicate with each other

from site to site.

0 Integrated networking - products of one vendor communicate with products

of another vendor.

The phenomenon of integrated networks is also important because individual

technologies must be subordinated to the needs of the network. These networks,

to be effective, require an on-going coordinated planning effort which includes

all office disiplines. This effort will substantially impact the organizational

structure and operating practices of offices. The new technologies and networks

permit managers to interact directly with information stored in a variety of

locations and in countless forms, and be able to respond in a timely and effective manner. The ability to respond quickly to changing conditions may be the

greatest contribution of modern office technologies to business effectiveness.

2.1 EVALUATION OF OFFICE AUTOMATION

In many instances where automation has been introduced into offices, the results

have been very disappointing. The cause for this experience has often been a lack of sensitivity to human factors issues. Winegar (23) notes that employees

are suspicious, especially when the word 'productivity* is mentioned. He

stresses the need to seriously consider means of achieving job enrichment, as

a means of offsetting the widespread concern by office worker that their tasks

will be comprised of repetitive and routine operations, subordinated to the

needs of computerized systems, and requiring a minimum of thought and initiative. Winegar points out that "job enrichment doesn't mean operating a machine

15
like a production-line worker. It means freeing up time so office workers can spend it on more people-oriented, stimulating, and creative tasks in the office.

Strassman (17) indicates that the costs of implementing OA systems are largely

unknown at present. He stresses the point that while data processing costs

have been examined carefully by some organizations, administrative costs associated with office functioning have not received comparable attention, primarily

because such costs are widely diffused and treated as overhead expenses, rarely

aggregated under a single heading. In his view, these administrative information handling activities should be integrated as a major step toward increasing

productivity. As a means of developing an appropriate system, the following

steps are suggested by Strassman:

0 Costs must be identified, not just computer and telecommunications costs,

but budget elements of administrative processing and office labor.

° Determine detailed unit costs; e.g., purchase order, typed page.

° Establish standard costs as in a manufacturing assembly line.

° Decentralize responsibilities to permit middle level managers to make

decisions about appropriate procedures.

° Use competitive pricing as a means of evaluating efficiency of internal

information processing.

0 Long term planning is needed - 2-5 year cycles rather than annual ones.

Strassman also observes that even when the costs of the knowledge worker can

be quantified, the results achieved are elusive and not readily measureable in

terms of product or profit. Surveys of large organizations have shown that the

majority of the time spent by knowledge workers is in giving or receiving

information; moreover, the bulk of this time is spent with people in the same organization. Electronic devices currently have limited capability in

automating the non-standard and ever-changing communication patterns typical

of knowledge workers.

Hammer (24) also cites the view the principal challenge to automation as the

difficulty of measuring managerial and professional productivity as a means of

cost-justifying office automation. Analyses of activities such as communicating, writing, and searching for information are thought to be irrelevant because

they are not the most important components of their jobs. The most successful

applications of office automation systems have been at the department level,

to solve specific and well defined problems dealing with its business operations. Detailed planning for introducing strategies and developing the means

to evaluate changes after introducing new systems are often overlooked. Hammer

concludes that "A realistic appraisal of the capacities of the technology com- bined with an overriding concern for the firm's business goals and for the

people in the organization will lead to an effective implementation of the

office of the future - today.”

16
Martin (12) suggests that the goal for office automation in the 1980s should

be an improvement of productivity by effectively integrating the three major

components of office automation - the people, the organization and the technology. The users should have a more important role in the planning and implementation process; the organization should place less emphasis on short-term

goals; the technology should have improved usability and should include better

user education as part of their marketing strategy. Martin notes that several

barriers limit the usefulness of office automation today (table 5).

Table 5. Barriers to Successful Office Automation (Martin)

Organizational

o Dominated by short-term goals /earnings

o Failure to understand the potential for improved operations

o Failure to understand productivity/cost-benefits t o Wants benefits without costs.

People

o Resist change.

o Want control

o Don’t understand what office automation requires them to do.

Implementors

€ o Unsure of user requirements.

o Seeking "ultimate" solutions.

o Lack planning expertise.

o Don't understand the anxiety of employees toward change

Technological

o Number of choices,

o Incompatibility of technology,

o Incompatibility of media.

o Too few communication standards to permit standards integration,

o Questionable security,

o Changing user skills.

o Poor planning of physical space in the office.

Technological advances have provided the means to perform traditional office

work in new ways; data and word processing exemplify the mechanization of such

routine tasks. However, in recent years OA system designers and management

theorists are focusing their attention on professional and managerial activities as offering the greatest potential for technology to increase organizational effectiveness. Many of these activities can be restructured to optimize

the usefulness of computerized data bases and new communications systems by

17
means of electric workstations. If future offices are to contain numerous

workstations, often linked by networks to one another, and used by professional,

managerial and support personnel, their design is likely to be quite different

from that of the traditional office. The implications of the changed office

work environment will be explored in the following chapters of the present

report

.

18
3. DESIGN

A necessary preliminary step in the development of criteria for automated

offices is the evaluation of current offices which share many of the important

features of automated offices. Studies of open-space office design provide

most of the available information, although there is little evidence to suggest

that traditional (private) offices or a mix of open and closed spaces will not

be equally appropriate for automated offices.

Open space design was formulated with the view of the office as an information

processing center. The planning was based on the assumption that a given office

environment should be structured in accordance with the organizational processes

that it contains. The geometry of a layout is intended to reflect the pattern

of how individuals and groups work together. It was anticipated that this

design would foster communication and enhance the cohesiveness of working

groups, thereby improving productivity. Another feature of the design is to

provide the flexibility to the individual for creating (and changing) the

immediate environment - i.e., workspace.

While there is some research evidence that the open-space design has been

successful in fostering group "togetherness", it's effects on increased

productivity are unproven and questionable. In fact, several studies suggest

that the open-plan design has resulted in many problems which are likely to

adversely affect job performance.

3.1 STUDIES OF OFFICES

Rubin and Murray (25) conducted site visits at two large organizations with

considerable experience in office automation - the Sheraton Corporations and

Citicorp-Person-to-Person. The goal of these particular visits was to gain

some insights regarding their experiences with planning and implementing OA for

two diverse activities.

The Sheraton Corporation has a paperless office to carry out one major purpose - to book hotel reservations from travel agents (26). The office was designed

for maximum effectiveness, with a centralized computer system containing

information about room availability everywhere in the world.

Among the management concerns for planning this center were the following:

(1) A highly computerized telephone switching system that could be used

to keep track of each employee's calls, and provide a method of

measuring and managing the operation.

(2) A convenient remote access to the Sheraton reservation central

computer system in Boston.

(3) A direct interface with each of the travel agents using the system.

19
(4) An open space office plan, designed to give the operators acoustical

and visual privacy when seated, and a flexible and modular based

system to allow for future expansion or relocation.

(5) A floor plan with enough flexibility to accommodate more than twice

the number of operators required when the center was to open - 96

initially, with expansion capability for 250.

(6) A backup system consisting of an array of batteries, providing

uninterrupted power in case of a power failure.

The orientation of the center is to balance the needs of the employees for a pleasant work environment with the requirement to ensure the quality and responsiveness of the work performed by the staff. Considerable time and effort has

been expended to accommodate the personal needs of the workforce, while at the same time equal efforts have been expended on the development of a Management

Information System (MIS), and a monitoring capability designed to ensure the

effectiveness of the reservation system.

The site was carefully selected to ensure a pleasant visual surround, access to

parking and restaurants and in a relatively secluded location. Employee lounge

areas with couches are provided, as well as informal dining areas for eating

lunch or conducting conversations. A dedicated room is available for the

training of new staff members, and refresher courses for experienced personnel.

Hotel managers promoting various vacation "packages" are invited to talk to the

staff as a means of ensuring that they are kept current with the institutional

advertising. These meetings, held in the training room, have the added advantage of enriching the overall work environment of the operators by introducing

some variety into their work day. The management also encourages the operators

to read or otherwise amuse themselves during the times when they are not actually

at the terminal making reservation.

The work floor follows an open space plan, with the walls, floors and ceilings

being acoustically "treated”. The overall environment is one which is quiet

and comfortable. The color scheme is quite subdued, with workstations separated by partitions 4 feet in height, to enable individuals to see and talk to one another when standing. Each light fixture has three parabolic lenses to

minimize possible glare onto the CRT screen. The layout is such that at most

workstations, there is a view to the outside to provide some visual relief.

Each workstation has a minimum of 72 square feet, which contains a chair, and

a table with a video display screen and a keyboard. No filing cabinet is

available and there is no requirement for any traditional paper work - it is

essentially an electronic work station. Direct circuits are leased from a multitude of vendors and "fed" through the local phone company into an automatic

call distribution system. This system provides a constant log of calls,

enabling calls to be automatically routed through each operator position. It also provides a constant monitoring of all phone calls and a record of the

troubles that occur within the circuit. This telephone monitoring and call

distribution system has provided management with the information required con- cerning the times that their circuits are operating. Thus, management can be

certain that it is obtaining maximum utilization and distribution of call load

20
across the entire system as it being fed to their operator positions. A technician is on duty during the prime time of the operation of the center and is on call after duty hours. The computer and the telephone systems are provided

with backup power in the event of a power failure.

Citicorp Person-to-Person, which specializes in first and second mortgages for

homeowners provides a different approach to office automation design. In

contrast to the single purpose needs of the Sheraton Corporation in its reservation center, this operation is characterized by the need to respond to frequent changes (27). The stated goal of the company is to provide the most

modern office technology to assist staff to do their jobs effectively in a pleasant environment, while allowing management the flexibility for expansion

which has characterized the organization to date.

When this activity was initiated, the management of the organization was highly

centralized, with most decisions being made at the headquarters in St. Louis.

At present, the headquarters performs mainly a monitoring function and central

staff functions such as accounting, personnel and data processing. Operational

activities are now decentralized to seven regional offices.

In designing a new facility for its operations, Citicorp-Person-to-Person

planned for future expansion by leasing 52,000 sq. ft. in a new development with

the option of purchasing the entire building after 10 years, if required. In

the design of the facilities, aesthetics were not considered to be a frill, but

an essential ingredient for a good work place, thought to be conducive for high

morale and work effectiveness. The exterior and interior environments of the

building were both thought to be important considerations. For example, the

site was chosen as providing a pleasant setting for work, and for presenting an interesting view from the interior of the building.

While one design goal was to provide the most advanced technology available for

the workforce, the layout and design of the interior spaces and workstations

received a great deal of attention. Lighting, sound conditioning, and the

general appearance of the building interior were carefully planned. Considerable

thought went into the organization of working groups within an open-plan concept

as well; for example, to provide the opportunity for social interaction among

individuals working on different but related tasks.

A major consideration in the design was to provide response to a fast-changing

environment. The building was not equipped with a floor-duct electrical system, and consequently this became the first building in Missouri to use flatwire cable for bringing power to work stations. This necessity became a virtue

because management determined that it was cost effective over the long term,

although representing a greater initial investment. The benefits include

enormous flexibility and ease of rewiring, eliminating the need for power poles,

and compatibility with the carpet tiles used throughout the facility. The wire

is virtually imperceptible beneath the carpet tiles. As a result of this

system, approximately 100 people can be relocated over a weekend with very

little difficulty, in new office space equipped with new telephones and work

station facilities. Moving the phones consists of plugging into a new grid

modular plug and reprogramming the number and location into the main switch.

21
3.1.1 Interior Layout and Design of Citicorp Person-to-Person

Each corporate level vice president has approximately 200 square feet of hard

wall office on the perimeter of each floor. All other management and working

level people share an open-plan office environment. Panels which separate workstations from one another vary in height from 75 inches to 53 inches, depending

upon the status of the individual within the organization, with the managers

provided with the highest panels. Seven standard, but differently sized workstations are assigned according to job rank and functional requirements. The

workstations with the tallest partitions occupy the center of the floor, with

the shorter ones sloping downward toward the windows. This design places the

clerical and secretarial staff at the windows and allows everyone to enjoy the

view, and also permits the enhanced use of natural light. An added advantage

is that the tall partitions form a corridor that separates departments from one another, creating a sense of community for each section.

The open-space was designed to allow ready transit by supervisors and others.

This design was utilized to prevent the employees from having a sense of

isolation and detachment from the mainstream of activities taking place in

the office. Individuals are free to move from their workstations around the

floor to meet other people doing similar or related jobs.

The employees have the opportunity to select from two types of designer

furniture for their workstations. Top management selected furniture from

other manufacturers to avoid expressing a preference for either "standard".

Individualization of workstations was encouraged, i.e., personal items such as photographs. A name plate identifies the occupant of the particular workstation. As noted earlier, the floor area was constructed of acoustically

soft carpet tiles, having accent colors. The tile colors, offered another

possibility for individual expression and opportunity by the employee to select

from a range of possible choices to be used in a given work area.

Each building level contains a service center, which is centrally located. It provides free coffee to employees and access to equipment such as copying

machines. Also available on each floor are two conference centers, one large

and one small, to accommodate meetings and provide a place for private conversations. (Unfortunately, the rooms adjoin one another and do not have appropriate acoustical separation, and consequently privacy is compromised and the

activities performed in one room interfere with those in the adjoining one.)

3.1.2 Technological Issues

o The information processing capability consists of a data processing center

and a local area network that provides support to professional workstations,

and a centralized word processing center providing administrative support

for all activities. The data processing center is used for such activities

as billing information, permanent file retention of transactions, accounting

and financial information and designated management information. The individual microprocessors are used for correspondence, local calculations and

inter-office communications among specified elements within the organization.

22
o All word processing equipment and local area network equipment, comprised of

approximately 25 to 50 word processing terminals with a shared logic system,

are integrated into the basic phone system by utilizing a fully digital

switch. The two wire pair not only provides concurrent telephone operations

but also the basic background support for all the local area networks. The

communications facilities that support the phone system utilizes several

services from several vendors. This approach allows the PBX system to

employ least-cost routing of all of the company's long distance calls.

Although the immediate demand for digital telephone system capability was

not readily apparent, management felt that it was a good investment since

their demand for data type communications was likely to grow over the next

five years.

o An uninterruptable power supply with standby batteries and generator protect

the basic computer center and the local area office network from basic system

failure during critical support times.

o Most of the field offices have a choice of the technology that they use,

determined by whatever solution is most cost-effective. As a result, these

offices contain a variety of telephone switches and terminal equipment.

Equipment is obtained from local Bell operating companies or any of the

various interconnect vendors.

o At present, a teleconferencing capability is being planned to provide services

among the local, regional and central offices.

3.1.3 Issues Identified by Research

Brookes and Kaplan (28) reviewed studies of open-office environments and

concluded that the loss of privacy and intrusions of noise into the workplace

posed major difficulties for the people working in these environments. They

also indicated that there was no evidence to suggest that employees were given

the opportunity to modify their workplaces to suit their individual needs and

tastes; rather, workplace design and layout was apparently controlled by organizational policy. Nemecek and Grandjean (29) performed a questionnaire survey

of open-space offices and obtained findings which confirmed those of Brookes

and Kaplan. They found that in addition to noise and privacy being problem

areas, that almost 25 percent of the workforce complained about lighting

conditions. Depsite these difficulties with open-space design, the authors

conclude that the advantages of such a plan outweighed the disadvantages.

Hedge (30) in another questionnaire survey of office employees, wanted to

determine their general reactions to open-space planning, and whether jobrelated factors contributed to their assessments. He found that loss of privacy

and work disturbances attributed to unwanted interruptions were the major problem areas. The staff members with the most complex and demanding jobs appeared

to be more sensitive to environmental conditions and expressed a greater degree

of dissatisfaction with them than the workers doing more routine tasks. Another

observation made by Hedge is that although the open-space plan was selected

because of its flexibility, there were few individual or organizational changes

of the working environment during the course of occupancy. The author theorizes

23
that after the initial move-in period, the design features selected because of

their inherent flexibility are nonetheless perceived by the staff and the

organization as being "fixed”, consistent with their past experiences.

A national survey was conducted among design professionals, company executives

and office workers by Harris (31, 32) to determine their attitudes toward

features of present and future offices. Among the major study conclusions are:

° Nearly all office workers believed that their job performance and

personal satisfaction are influenced by their job surroundings.

° While workers indicated that the need for personal privacy is a very

important one, designers and executives equated this need with executive

work, not general office work. The same dichotomy of viewpoints characterized the desire of office workers to be directly involved in planning

their work spaces.

° Inadequate temperature control and poor air circulation were identified

as major complaints by office workers. Other factors mentioned was the

desire for more space, and a place to work when there was a need to con- centrate without distractions. Noise was said to be a major problem by

a sizable minority of respondents.

° Most of the workers pointed to the need for good lighting as an essential

characteristic of an effective office environment.

° Almost half of the respondents indicated that a comfortable chair, with

good back support, would contribute to their productivity.

Brill et al . (33) described the major findings of a questionnaire survey of

more than 4000 office workers employed in 50 offices. The major finding of the

study was that: "Changes in productivity and quality of work life are caused

by changes in the design of specific aspects of the office, and by overall

satisfaction with changes in that environment." Table 6 summarizes the factors

impacting the major attributes of the jobs that were examined:

24
Table 6. Factors Influencing Job Satisfaction, Performance, Communication (Brill)

Job Performance and/or Job Satisfaction

° Amount of floor area in personal work space

° Temperature and air quality

° Lighting at the work station

° Sense of safety and security

0 Control over physical access by others to your work space

° How many people you see and who see you in your work space

0 Noise

° Ease and quality of communication with others

0 Comfort in the work space

° Frequency of relocation of workers

0 Quality of maintenance

0 Participation in the design decision process

Ease and Quality of Communication and Interaction with Others

° Degree of enclosure (number and height of walls, panels, etc.)

° Layout of the office

° Speech privacy

u Status, as reflected in physical environment

Quinan (34) in a study of the use of systems furniture identified several

problem areas among the federal office workers questioned:

0 Loss of speech privacy was the most frequent complaint mentioned.

° The open-office plan has increased the need for small conference spaces

to conduct meetings.

0 Many people expressed the desire to have visual access to the outside by

means of windows.

0 The available furniture systems did not accommodate all of the space and

storage needs of the staff, e.g., more file space needed.

0 The open-plan often makes it difficult for people to find their way to

proposed destinations. Appropriate signage and graphics systems are essential to facilitate ''pathfinding"; this is especially true for

organizations which have many visitors.

Table 7 describes the issues which affected job satisfaction and performance,

as well as satisfaction with the environment. Job performance ratings were

made by individuals and by supervisors.

25
Table 7. Summary of Findings of Questionnaire Survey (Quinan, et al.)

Issue Bottom-Line Measures

Environment

Satisfaction

Job

Satisfaction

Job

Performance

(Self)

Job

Performance

( Supervisor)

FURNITURE

Layout X*

Comfort X X

Furniture Quality X X

AMBIENT CONDITIONS

Temperature/ Air Quality

Lighting X

Noise X

PRIVACY

Control Over Access X X

Intrusions /Distract ions X

Speech Privacy X

Visual Access X

COMMUNICAT IONS

Ease of Communication X X

Support for Communication X

FLEXIBILITY

i

X X

Issues affecting job satisfaction.

26
Pile (35) summarized the advantages of open system planning as compared with

the traditional approach by noting that open offices provide easy flexibility

to take account of organizational changes. It offers improved communications

through convenient visual contact . Each workstation can be individually

tailored for a specific person and/or task. Task lighting can be readily

supplied. Finally, a sense of openness and informality associated with open

space design can be aesthetically pleasing.

Several problem areas were also identified by Pile. One of the major ones is

the lack of privacy - acoustic and visual. Open-space designs are difficult to

plan initially, and pose difficulties when it is necessary to modify existing

design. The need to store "spare parts" (e.g., modules, furniture, panels,

etc.) is both costly and requires additional storage space. The location of

available wiring connections when changes are being made is often a costly and

time-consuming activity.

3.2 PLANNING APPROACHES TO OFFICE DESIGN

Quinan (34) describes an "ideal" process to implement integrated furniture

systems. The first step is to perform a diagnostic study and analysis of the

current environment to determine whether any changes are required. Organizational, personal and environmental issues are examined. Then space needs which

meet the functional requirements of the organization and the staff are determined, as well as the personal satisfaction needs of the workers. Design alternatives are then examined, with tenant agencies participating actively in the

decision making process. The move-in activity should be facilitated by providing assistance in using the new environment and equipment. An owner's manual

should be developed and distributed to all tenant agencies to facilitate the

proper use of the facilities and systems. A post-occupancy evaluation is

advocated to determine the effectiveness of the designed space, and to establish

whether the problems identified earlier had been solved by the new design. Finally, the building should be monitored annually by means of "mini” post-occupancy

studies, to ensure that physical and organizational changes do not degrade the

performance of the building.

Brill, et al. (36), in a study performed for Hauserman, Inc. identified many

of the subject areas which merit attention in the development of performance

requirements for offices. They cited the following major considerations:

° "Provide COMFORT

° Allow PERSONALIZATION

° Provide TASK SUPPORT

° Furnish STORAGE

° Insure appropriate SECURITY

° Facilitate appropriate levels of PRIVACY

° Facilitate COMMUNICATIONS

0 Accommodate VISITORS

° Be SAFE

0 Provide STABILITY and STRENGTH

0 Be DURABLE

0 Facilitate POWER distribution

27
0 Facilitate appropriate ILLUMINATION and ILLUMINATION CONTROL

0 Facilitate appropriate ACOUSTIC CONTROL

° Facilitate appropriate HVAC CONTROL

0 Facilitate WASTE MANAGEMENT

° Be easily MAINTAINABLE

° Permit USER EXPERIMENTATION

° Provide appropriate INFORMATION ABOUT ITS USE & MODIFICATION

° Be AESTHETICALLY SATISFYING

° Be efficiently STORABLE when not in use"

The authors conclude that these requirements must be met on at least four

levels. The design of: 1) components, 2) individual work places, 3) clusters

of individual work places, and 4) office floors.

Lozar and Porter (37) use the term 'habitability' to describe the impact of

the environment on the behavior of building users with respect to their welfare,

task performance, and job satisfaction. They describe the development and

testing of a research approach intended to better understand the relationship

between design and the activities, behaviors and experiences of building occupants. Among their goals was to determine: how the occupant relies on the

environment to provide information; ways in which the occupant can control the

environment and surroundings; how the environment is used to fulfill needs for

social interaction and stimulation, and a sense of private space (territoriality). In examining these issues a questionnaire survey covering a broad

range of issues was administered. Table 8 lists the many individual needs

examined in the survey.

Brauer et al . (3.8) were also concerned with developing design information from

the standpoint of habitability. The process consists of six phases:

1. Defining goals, requirement, constraints and background data.

2. Collecting and organizing reference materials.

3. Preparing an initial draft of design data.

4. Updating the draft document - identifying gaps and filling them.

5. Developing supporting procedures to assist user in the application of

habitability data.

6. Final document preparation. Substantive and procedural information

is organized and formatted for publication.

The Veterans Administration has designed a proposed computerized system which

is intended to integrate six major functions of the projects performed by their

office of construction (39). The system will cover: Design Criteria, A/E

28
Table 8. Occupant Needs for Welfare, Task Performance, Satisfaction

(Lozar & Porter)

Optimum Occupant Welfare

° Climate - air change, temperature, humidity

0 Avoidance of odor

° Avoidance of eye fatigue due to glare, light-dark contrasts

° Avoidance of noise disturbances from external and internal sources

° Avoidance of danger-safety rules

0 Easy maintenance

° Consideration of cleanliness requirements of user groups

° Avoidance of emissions from polluting sources

Optimum Task Performance - Function

0 Adequate space area and volume

0 Adequate amount of equipment and furnishings

0 Ergonomically suitable equipment and funishings

Optimum Occupant Satisfaction

° Sociable - enabling or inhibiting social interaction

0 Privacy - sharing of space based on visual, acoustical and physical

relationships

° Choice - degree of allowing co-existing behaviors. Accommodating

extensive individual expression

° Comfort - degree of spatial, acoustical and visual "fit"

0 Clarity - degree to which space is identifiable with purpose

0 Efficiency - enabling desired activities to be performed

0 Adaptability

° Formality - degree to which activities are structured by space

° Territoriality - allowing individual control of space

0 Activity - extent to which dynamic activities can be performed

0 Image - aesthetic expression of the functions of the facility

29
Package Production, Design Drawing Review, Area Reports for in-house and A/E

use, and Design Proposals. Figure 2 provides an overview diagram of the system.

VA Standards

04 Dastgn

Figure 2. Overview diagram facility development, design & review system

(Veterans Administration)

30
Marans and Spreckelmeyer (40) developed and tested a conceptual model for

evaluating office environments. The model is intended to help understand the

interrelationships of evaluative data concerned with the actions and feelings

of workers and environmental features. It can also serve as an organizational

framework to collect and analyze building evaluation findings. Job satisfaction

and work performance are posited as the appropriate behaviorial characteristics

to be measured in such evaluations. Figure 3 illustrates the model formulated

by the authors.

In testing the model, researchers administered a questionnaire to employees of

federal offices. Some of the workers were housed in traditional offices, while

others occupied open-space settings. The reactions of the two groups of

employees were compared. The major findings were as follows:

° Occupants of traditional offices expressed greater satisfaction with

their environment than their colleagues in open-space offices.

° Conversational and visual privacy were major problem areas for the open

space occupants.

° People having control of their individual environment expressed greater

satisfaction with their workplace than those having little control.

0 The general assessment of the larger setting (e.g., the building) was substantially influenced by the feelings about the individual workplace.

° The amount of workspace available was the single most important indicator

of satisfaction with the workplace.

3.3 ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS

In user surveys of open-office designs, and of video display terminal usage in

offices, two major problem areas have been identified - acoustics and lighting.

The acoustic environment has posed difficulties with respect to the need for

speech privacy. Confidential discussions play an important role in many of the

activities performed in offices. Within an organization a need frequently

exists for colleagues to discuss personal and/or work related activities without being concerned about being overheard by third parties. Similarly, the

general public is often served by private and public organizations in openoffice environments. The subjects of many such discussions are highly personal

and confidential, and should not be in danger of being compromised.

Another problem area associated with the acoustic environment is the lack of

effective noise isolation from noise producing equipment such as electric

typewriters and printers. Unlike the situation in a private office where such

noises are largely confined to a specific work area, in the open-office design

situation these noises frequently intrude to many work areas where individuals

require a quiet environment to engage in analytical activities. Noise has a detrimental effect on the ability to concentrate on the job at hand, especially

so for management and professional personnel.

31
/A

•••••manta 1

fl £ • O * 5 •co «. Z • 2 • • • S 5 • — • e e — — •c e • 2 : m € - a o • Ellto> « e• *> » e a 5 • • o « ; f 1 3 c » £.f > § i * •k - i E 5 ? o J • e • • • z • : • Hi® JSz e

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32

Figure

3.

Conceptual

model

for

evaluating

work

environments

(Marans)
The other office environmental issue which has received considerable attention

is lighting. The introduction of video display terminals in increasing numbers

has posed problems for lighting designers, who must now provide an environment

which accommodates both paper tasks and activities centered on an electronic

terminal. A major problem is the prevention of glare on the surface of the

video screen, by daylight or artificial illumination. Individual control of

lighting is an important factor as is the mix of task and ambient lighting.

3.3.1 Acoustics

As noted previously, in the open-office environment, the major acoustic issues

identified by researchers and designers are those of noise and privacy. Montone

(41) provides a general overview of noise related acoustical concerns as they

impact the design of building interiors. He noted that the acoustical properties of spaces are influenced by such factors as the thickness and density of

structural membranes, the porosity of wall and floor covers, insulation, drapes

and furnishings. Sound is affected by room shape, volume, and the characteristics of the interior surfaces. The surface treatment of the space is considered

to be the single most important determinant of the acoustical properties of the

space. The sound absorbing qualities of the surface treatments are characterized

by their sound absorption properties. The sound absorption coefficient is a measure of the amount of sound absorbed by a surface. Hard materials (e.g.,

concrete, metals) have very low values, with carpeting having a higher relative

value (the scale ranges from 0 to 1.0).

Four basic methods are used to reduce unwanted sound intrusions (noise):

(1) Sound barriers reduce or eliminate noise by reflecting it or resisting

its transmission. The mass of the material used as a barrier determines its effectiveness. Typical barriers in buildings are sheet rock,

gypsum board, concrete, brick or wood. Sound Transmission Class (STC)

ratings are employed to describe the effectiveness of partitions from

an acoustical standpoint.

(2) Sound absorption employs porous materials to absorb or dissipate

acoustical energy. Materials used for this purpose are fiberglas insulation, open foam insulation and cloth. This approach is concerned

with the control of noise within a space, but is not effective in

preventing sound transmission to adjoining location.

(3) Vibration damping treatment prevents a material from resonating to a primary noise source, thereby acting as a secondary noise source.

Windows, walls and machine components are potential problem areas. Rubber or vinyl is typically laminated to the surface of the noiseproducing element, to prevent this problem from occurring.

(4) Vibration isolation is a means of preventing vibrations from one space

being transmitted to an adjoining one. This is usually accomplished

by means of rubber, compressed fiberglass or springs. (An example of

this approach is the placement of a rubber mat between a typewriter or printer and a desk surface.)

33
(Berendt , Corliss and Ojalvo (42) provide a detailed description of the

procedures available for noise control in buildings.)

In a discussion of privacy requirements for open-office designs, Walker (43, 44)

deals with some of the major issues in office acoustics. He first makes a distinction between two kinds of privacy - normal and confidential. Normal privacy

is defined as a condition where speech from adjacent locations can be understood

if one listened intently, but the speech is not loud enough to cause disturbance.

Confidential privacy requirements would preclude the understanding of phrases

and/or sentences in adjoining locations and is therefore a much more stringent

condition.

Walker indicates that the Articulation Index (AI) is the preferred method of

assessing speech privacy. It is a measure of the percentages of sentences that can be understood from a person speaking in a normal conversational tone. The

index is based upon the signal-to-noise (S/N) differences in decibels (dB),

weighted in terms of the relative contribution of each one-third octave band to

speech intelligibility. As the speech signal drops toward the noise level, the

AI value approaches zero; as the speech level rises above the noise, the AI

value nears 1.0. (See figure 4.)

"9O

O

O

C3

u.•

o

e•

e

e•

ow

Oa

Figure 4. Approximate relation between AI and speech intelligibility (Walker)

34
Another technique for specifying the desired acoustical properties of spaces in

the use of Noise Criterion (NC) Curves.’ ((Yaniv and Flynn (45) provide a critical overview of other noise criteria that have been used for building design.))

The NC curves were developed by Beranek (46), based upon opinion surveys of

office workers. Questionnaire survey responses were correlated with physical

acoustical measurements in specifying the acoustical properties of spaces for

the performance of given activities. Figure 5 illustrates the characteristics

of a set of NC curves. Noise Criteria (NO Curves

. Old Octave- Band Limtfin9 (Hz)

gelc+J 75- 150- *cC- icCO- i ZOO- 240 4Za>

75 T5C -bOO 4tOO Y2CO Z4GO 4^00 9*00

35
Probst and Wodka (47) describe their acoustic approach for the Action Office by

first citing their major objectives: being able to accommodate normal conversation; maintaining privacy within a radius of 10-15 feet between speakers, and

to provide acoustic environments appropriate for their performance of particular

activities. The following are among the design issues which merit particular

attention:

(1) Ceilings . Those which reflect sound are apt to be the major acoustical

problem in an open office. If a high percentage of the ceiling is

devoted to light fixtures, major reflection problems are encountered.

The authors note that: "Ideally, a flat ceiling in Action Office

equipped spaces should absorb from 90 to 95 percent of the sound

reaching it."

(2) Distance . Individuals and working groups should be clustered (or

separated) based on their needs for quiet, and their requirement to

interact with one another.

(3) Configuration . Panels and screens can be used to cut off horizontal

paths of sound, while providing a degree of acoustic and visual privacy

to individuals and/or working groups.

(4) Masking sound . At times, the introduction of electrically generated

sound is needed to provide comfort or privacy. The authors stress the

need for such systems to be under the control of the user for maximum

effectiveness

.

(5) Floors Carpeting provides an efficient means of eliminating impact

sounds on floors caused by people, equipment and furniture movement.

They also have very desirable sound absorption properties.

Hirtle and Powers (48) developed a system (OPLAN) which employs a computer

program for the acoustical design of open-plan offices. The system is intended

to provide an estimate of the degree of speech privacy anticipated for each of

the workstations analyzed. The program takes into account all paths by which

sound travels from one location to another. "The program user is asked to

input anticipated speech effort, source/receiver distance, screen locations and

dimensions, materials, background noise levels, and the degree of privacy

required." Figure 6 summarizes the approach developed.

Walker (43) in a discussion of the components to be considered for the

acoustical design of offices, notes that overall performance will be equivalent

to the weakest link in the system, and therefore all elements must be considered

as they interact with one another.

3.3.2 Lighting

With respect to the general lighting conditions, the following observations

were made by Brown et al. (49):

36
Figure 6. Simplified block diagram of CP LAN program (Hirtle and Powers

37

ACK

TO

APPROPRIATE

PARI

OF

PROGRAM
"A properly designed lighted environment that may be comfortable for

office workers performing traditional desk-top work may not be comfortable for workers performing VDT tasks. Office environments are generally

designed under the assumption that the worker will perform tasks requiring the line-of-sight to be depressed approximately 20-40° from the

horizontal. The design of many VDT's requires line-of-site to be at or near horizontal. This elevation brings the operator's fixation point

closer to ceiling luminaires, resulting in a greater possibility of

discomfort glare. Exposure to large luminance differences between the

VDT screen and some other part of the visual surround, such as a window

or luminaire, increases the possibility of discomfort glare... Glare

reflected from surfaces of the VDT and ceiling reflections reduce the

visibility of the display by reducing the physical contrast between the

characters and the screen background."

Christensen (50) observes that fluorescent type luminaires are generally used

in offices where video display terminal VDT displays are employed. The primary

design consideration for lighting in these situations is to eliminate reflections of the lamp from the face of the tube. He recommends that this be accom- plished by using a "specular parabolic wedge louver," since it has a cutoff of

45°, which is below the normal viewing angle. The characteristics of the sur- rounding environment must also be carefully controlled to ensure the visual

comfort of VDT operators. He suggests that walls and other sufaces should have

reflectance values of less than 50 percent, to accomplish this goal. Keating

(51) further notes that all desk and work surfaces should be comprised of

matte, or low glare non-ref lective surfaces, and should have medium tone colors.

They should not be black or white, or exhibit sharp contrasts in color or relective surfaces in order to minimize "visual irritation". Another consideration is to position VDT's so they are not parallel to each other. This

approach avoids the possibility of the light from the screens reflecting on each

other. A final test to ensure that the major problems have been eliminated is

to move a mirror along the front surface of the VDT screen. This procedure

will reveal bright sources to light that should be attended to.

Keating advocates indirect lighting for VDT's, with the source being mounted

below the ceiling, suspended from the ceiling, or placed in a kiosk. In all of

these approaches the light should be directed toward the ceiling, which acts as

a reflector. "The major point is that light rays are directed laterally,

resulting in shadow-free lighting and the light source being hidden from view,

and therefore being eliminated as a possible irritant."

Lautzenheiser (52) observes that with the advent of open offices lighting

design has become an integral part of the overall design decision process,

affecting factors such as acoustics and power distribution systems. As a means

of clarifying the design choices made for lighting, he developed a decision

tree model (figure 7).

The most basic decision to be made is whether the system should be a task/ambient or an ambient one. In the task/ambient approach, task lighting

is treated sepatately from the general surround (ambient), which is usually at

38
HID

REQUIREMENTS

Figure 7.

.DIRECT-

•FLUORESCENT

TASK/ AMBIENT

INDIRECT^

.DIRECT-

, HID

'FLUORESCENT

.HID

'FLUORESCENT

AMBIENT'

INDIRECT:

-HID

FLUORESCENT

LIGHTING D

Decision tree of lighting decisions (Lautzenheiser)

39
a lower level. The task location must be known in advance to ensure the adethe planning density of the space, and the particular needs of workstations

which might house different tasks. Power use can be quite variable because the

lighting is typically controlled by the user. The overall space may present a non-uniform appearance because of the lack of a standardized lighting scheme.

The task lighting systems can be furniture mounted, free standing, or depend on suspended luminaires. The major requirement is to meet the needs of individual

users with diverse performance, habits, and visual abilities.

An ambient system provides uniform illumination across the entire space, at the

level required to support the most visually demanding visual task to be performed in the office. The location of particular tasks do not have to be

specified because the assumption is that if the lighting level is appropriate

for the most demanding task, then it will be sufficient for less difficult

ones. The connected power requirements are a function of the overall lighting

level and the size of the area served. Ambient lighting can be provided by

direct (usually part of the building system) or indirect means. Table 9

summarizes some of the major features of each approach.

Table 9. Features of Direct and Indirect Lighting Systems ( Lautzenheiser)

Direct Systems

° High lumen efficiency

° Increased energy efficiencyheat can be vented and treated

separately

° Shadowing must be controlled

0 Possible source of glare

Indirect Systems

° Lumen efficiency lowered by ceiling

reflectance (usually 80%)

° Power system must accommodate a large number of 120 volt circuits

° Fewer shadow problems ; light source

is ceiling

° Luminaire is not visible; little

chance of glare from source.

The final system element considered by Lautzenheiser in his model is the light

source. He observes that the two major sources used in offices are fluorescent

and high intensity discharge (HID). The HID lamps are high in energy efficiency but are said to present a number of difficulties: high light reduction

over the life of the lamp (up to 50 percent); a limited number of colors are available; there are sometimes problems with color stability and the standardization of particular colors. The author notes that fluorescent lamps are more

readily available than HID sources, their color consistency is high, and lumen

maintenance is good (deterioration about 20 percent) (This paper was written

in 1981, and the preceding evaluation may not represent the present state-ofthe-art of HID lamps.)

40
3.3.3 Power Distribution Systems

One of the major design considerations in providing the required flexibility to

the automated office is the treatment of electrical systems. This subject was introduced in an Architectural Record article (53) as follows:

"For many years wiring systems remained basically the same because offices

remained the same. But manufacturers now offer new arrays of systems

designed to provide more flexibility in delivering power and communications

to work areas; greater flexibility in running wires to, and in switching

lighting fixtures; and greater capacities and security for communications

wiring. The impetus for these changes stem from: 1) the growth of the

open plan; 2) the advent of the electronic office; 3) energy conservation;

and 4) labor savings in running wiring and connecting it to lights and

outlets.

Providing power and communication services anywhere requires a wire

conductor within a conduit (sheath, raceway, plane under carpet squares,

raised floors, etc.) connected to a terminal within the room and/or above

the ceiling. The degree of flexibility varies among systems - and initial

costs vary commensurately . Undercarpet cable can go anywhere. Wiring

below access floors can go anywhere there is an "electrified" panel. With

cellular flooring and underfloor ducts, flexibility is governed by the

spacing of electrical cells, but the flexibility can be enhanced by

augmenting these systems with carpeting tile."

Rush (54) observes that the major features of the open office system has led to

the popularity of the underfloor system for electrical distribution and communication. The replacement of permanent walls with partitions and dividers and

the movement of desks away from exterior walls have had the effect of decreasing

the potential of walls for power distribution purposes. The selection of the

particular wiring approach taken is dependent on the likelihood and frequency

of change in workstation location and/or configuration. For example the number

and spacing of service fittings in an electrical grid configuration can dictate

the degree of flexibility available (assuming no flat-conductor cable system).

Rush makes the point that every underfloor system shares the requirement to

penetrate the actual floor surface, but the particular method used can be as simple as a lid, or as complex as a hole drilled through a concrete slab.

Rush discusses several underfloor systems that are being increasingly use today:

3.3.3. 1 Electrical cellular deck

A matrix of preset service fittings is spaced approximately just below the

surface floor in a trench. The required service is obtained by punching a hole through a thin panel, and bringing the appropriate cables through the

opening. The system provides great flexibility with a minimal change in

required floor depth to accommodate the system. Physically, the wiring must

penetrate the floor, and in the case of carpet tiles, the carpet might have to

be cut out or peeled back. Service fittings are sometimes flush with the

41
floor, but frequently they project through the floor, causing an unsightly

appearance and a potential tripping hazard.

3.3. 3. 2 Raised Floor

This approach was originally taken to accommodate the special requirements of

major computer facilities. Since many types of spaces require the use of

conventional floors (bathrooms and washrooms), ramps, steps, or sunken floors

have to be accommodated in some locations.

3. 3.3.3 Concrete Underfloor Systems

An underfloor raceway can run within the structural depth of the floor or be

placed on the completed floor slab. "Once the main trench duct has been placed,

the branch ducts can be spaced at virtually any interval. Preset fittings

poke up from the duct desired. Perhaps it is because of this inherent freedom,

and the history of the success of this approach that the underfloor duct systems

have been so little altered over the year."

3.3. 3.4 A Plug in a Poke

This system does not require any underfloor raceway. The conduit runs from

its connection to the service fittings on the underside of the slab to the

currently spaced junction box. A sleeve may be preset during construction or after. When a hole is drilled, a sleeve is forced into place and the service

fittings is then installed from above. The first costs of this system is

attractive, but change is difficult.

3*. 3 . 3 . 5 Flat Conductor Cable

This approach is receiving increasing attention today. Cables can be mounted

directly on the floor (with a hidden protective metal shield) under existing

carpet tiles. locational changes and/or new systems are installed by simply

raising the carpet tiles in the desired path, and redirecting existing flat

cable runs or by tapping into a run. Connections between flat and round cables

are made at transition boxes, usually located in walls or columns. A major

consideration in the use of flat cable systems is to ensure that they are shielded against puncture or other contact. Pearce (55) lists the following

benefits of these systems.

° Short installation time.

° Simplified specification of branch circuit wiring (e.g., no drilling).

0 Maintained structural integrity of the floor system.

0 Elimination of slab height increase needed with floor ducts.

Lilly (56) offers the following observations about flat cable, based upon the

experiences of his organization:

° Cable ridges might be evident shortly after installation of work

stations. This problem might be a temporary one.

42
0 The steel cable cover for the flat cable should not be reused; it often

does not retain its shape when changes are made, causing the carpet

tiles to become uneven.

Ceiling based systems offer an alternative to the underfloor systems described

above. In these designs, the power is brought down to individual work stations

by means of power poles or by using flexible tubing with connect to office

panels (57). This approach is said to be more acceptable to owner occupied

buildings than for speculative structures because of added first-cost

requirements

The review of published findings revealed limited and fragmentary office

automation design information. While some acoustic, lighting and power distribution design issues were touched upon, they represent the viewpoint of an individual rather than the consensus of a larger community - design, research

or engineering. Other data appearing in this chapter and elsewhere in this

paper deal with the design of the traditional office, not the automated one. This information represents the state-of-the-art consensus of the scientific

community, which might or might not be changed by the additional concern for

office automation activities.

While the survey findings are largely based upon traditional office

environments, the issues that they raise concerning the demand for improved

environmental quality and individual control of the workspace, are echoed and

reinforced by the experience with office automation tasks, as will be evidenced

in later chapters. Finally, a number of conceptual schemes to develop design

information have been noted and described. The need still exists to develop

appropriate planning tools to integrate the traditional building systems with

the informational, communications, monitoring, and other operational office

systems, as part of a comprehensive design program activity.

43
4. ERGONOMICS

4.1 OVERVIEW

The development of design criteria for automated offices is ultimately dependent

on an understanding of the needs and desires of the people who use buildings.

Criteria must be responsive to the requirements of an individual as a contributing member of an organization and as a human being with personal and social

needs. The discipline of ’ergonomics' deals with the interaction of the person

with his surrounds - environmental, workspace, informational, social, and

technological

.

New technologies influence the ways that people perform work. Zuboff (58)

examines the history of mechanization in industry and concludes that the resistance to change evident when jobs are automated in the factory is being repeated

in the offices which have been automated. Her findings are based upon interviews

with more than 200 employees, managers, and professionals from several large

organizations. Her study was designed to investigate the acceptance of

computer-mediated work.

Zuboff notes that information technology alters the relationship between the

person and the task being performed as well as the way that managers interact

with their staffs and other members of their organization. With respect to the

task, the computer now serves as an intermediary between the person and the

tangible tools and products that are usually worked with. She draws an analogy

between the office worker and the craftsman who knows the feel of the materials

as they are being shaped and transformed into end-products. In the case of the

craftsman, the feedback information is tangible, familiar, and contains a variety of sensory attributes (e.g., tactile, visual), while the feedback for

the computer-mediated worker is in the form of abstract, symbolic information.

Furthermore, computer-mediated work demands conceptual skills which may or may

not be present in office workers, and therefore considerable training might be

required to acquire these skills.

Information technology can be used as a means to depersonalize many office

tasks by restricting the range of options available to workers in the perfor- mance of their jobs. For example, procedures can be automated, requiring

employees to perform routine functions. Furthermore the technology exists for

supervisors and managers to monitor in detail how jobs are performed, and the

nature of the information used to make decisions. The author suggests that

systems planners must guard against the depersonalization of the workplace and

the disruption of social contacts and should instead facilitate the opportunities

for employees to make creative contributions to the organization. An important

means of accomplishing this result is to provide the freedom to employees for

exercising judgements by not overly structuring the jobs that they do.

Hendricks et al. (59) developed a comprehensive guide for the development of

ergonomic data for management information systems. Figure 8 presents an overview of the approach taken to analyze the workplace. The methodology used to

44
develop information is based on the administration of detailed questionnaires

and checklists.*

Figure 8. Expanded levels of the environment affecting personnel

performance (Hendricks)

Stout (60) emphasizes that productivity gains do not depend solely on technological factors, but instead on a spectrum or activities including people,

management and technology and that the ergonomics area provides the greatest

potential for improvement, because of its neglect. The following table lists some of the factors which can significantly influence productivity:

After describing several theories formulated to explain productivity, Stout

discusses seven major job-related and personal changes brought about by office

automation.

(1) Make-up of the work group. People are often regrouped to make most

efficient use of the equipment. Long term work relationships are disrupted

(2) Social relationships. The number and type of social contacts change

because of acquiring information electronically rather than as a result

of personal interactions.

(3) Duties, skills and job potential are altered. Old career paths may no longer be available, and new ones are opened up. Managers must be

sensitive about creating dead-end jobs.

* Table 39 appendix.

45
(4) Responsibilities are modified. The introduction of technology can be

a means of downplaying the contributions of the worker by attributing

increased productivity to the machine.

(5) The degree of job autonomy changes. Office workers must respond to

conform with the characteristics of "the machine" and have limited

freedom to exercise their judgement in many work areas.

(6) The work environment is changed. Characteristics of the space - e.g.,

noise, lighting conditions, and of the work setting - e.g., lack of

privacy, can result in lowering of productivity.

(7) The person’s self-image, status and motivation may change. All of the

above factors must be attended to if office automation is to achieve

its potential as a means of increasing job satisfaction, and in turn,

job productivity.

Table 10. Factors Influencing Productivity (Stout)

People Factors

o Satisfying psychosocial needs

o Motivation, interest, goals and

values

• Personality

o Group dynamics /psychology

9 Attitude toward the work and the

organization

® Outside influences/goals/problems

o Pay and other incentives

® Skills, knowledge, training and

experience

® Human-machine interface

o Health, stress and endurance

9 Interest and challenge of work

itself

Management Factors

® Procedures and workflow

® Controls, feedback and

adjustments

o Management style, leadership

and employee relations

o Organizational structure (and

the informal structure)

® Incentives, punishments and

expectations for performance

Technology Factors

o Tools, machines and technological knowledge

9 Applicability of a specific

technology to a specific task

® Specific cost savings and other

benefits resulting from using

technology

o Benefits that come only from the

"confluence of technologies"

46
4.2 THE WORKSTATION

The workstation is the basic unit of office planning and layout, whether it be

a secretarial or data processing station, or the office of the chief executive

of an organization. All spatial arrangements and circulation patterns are an outgrowth of the interrelationships of workstations in the view of Kaplan (61).

From an ergonomic standpoint, the workstation is the domain of the individual

and must be planned and designed to meet a variety of requirements. User anthropometry, physical and sensory capabilities (and limitations) and the cognitive

requirements of particular jobs must be taken into account in its design. The

specific placement of components, equipment and furniture requires a consideration of the way that the body moves, and the requirements for physical comfort.

Manual controls must be designed to accommodate the movements required to perform a given task, and displays should be designed and environmentally situated

for ease of use. The size of individual components, the clearances between

them, and the allowance for movement, are all integral to the proper fit of the

person to the workplace. Finally, the workstation does not exist in isolation,

but is part of a total environment.

Bair (62) sees the need for OA systems to respond to the way that people

typically think and work, with one focal point - the work station. The system

should also be highly adaptable, flexible, and permit the implementation of new

developments in technology as they become available, with minimal disruption to

on-going activities. Bair suggests the following guidelines for office systems.

The first two guidelines deal with the interface languages used by the computer

operator

4.2.1 Command and Communication

The language requires a consistent syntax, one which contains the same structural elements as a natural language. The recommended syntax is verb,

noun, qualifier, address, and a confirmation of the command sequences, such

as key labeled 'OK*. Table 11 illustrates several possible commands.

• Subset of Natural Language (User's Words)

• New Services Require More Extension of Language by Builder or Users

o One Consistent Systax:

47
Table 11 . One Language for Command and Communication (Bair)

Verb Noun Qualifier Addresses Confirm

Delete Word ( point) OK

Move Branch (from) ( point

)

( to)(point)

OK

Print File Copies OK

Show Personnel (record for) (person) OK

Compute Cash (flor for) (dates

)

OK

4.2.2 Current and Future Systems

Another consistent language is required

illustrates this approach.

to access OA subsystems. Table 12

Table 12. One Language for Current and Future Services (Bair)

Subsystem Commands

MIS Retrieve records (for) product (line) (product) OK

Communicating Send message (at) (point (to) (distribution list) OK

Personal Remind me (that) (event) (on) (date) OK

Forecasting Project earnings (using) ( scenario) (from) (time) OK

4.2.3 One Virtual Display Map

All services and systems should be accessible to the user by means of one display that is subdivided into windows which are assigned functions consistent

for all applications. For example, one window would present all commands

available, another would provide immediate feedback to the user on whatever

activity is being performed at a given time.

48
Subty »t«m

i i Feedback

i i Commands

New Text or Oata or Halp

Currant Taxt ar Data or Graphics

(pointing)

Multiple Windows

V:

Figure 9. Same functional windows for all applications (Bair)

4.2.4 One Frontend to Current and Future System

This system maintains the command language and the display. The 'frontend'

interprets what the user specfies and interacts with the 'backend' of the

computer, which performs the detailed operations desired. The frontend can

be customized to suit the individual user, requiring only the specification of

the job to be performed. For example, the user may request information of a certain type but the backend would perform the operations to determine whether

a local or remote network should be accessed for the information.

49
FRONT END NETWORKS

BACK ENDS

(uimolti)

Protocol*

Figure 10. One frontend system (Bair)

4.2.5 One Interface: Work Station and Environment

Central to the system described by Bair is the workstation itself, which

operates in a complex informational environment.

Figure 11. One interface: workstation and environment

50
Schoichet (63) shares Bair’s concept, indicating that the workstation has the

versatility to address all of the worker’s computer needs with a single integrated system. It is dedicated to the single individual; instant availability

and personal control characterize the work station. In terms of hardware, a personal work station is a system which gives the user his own screen, processor, memory and mass storage, and provisions for resource sharing. The workstation is a logical culmination of many recent developments, such as intelligent terminals and minicomputer networks, that were designed to overcome the

disadvantages of timesharing and distributed data processing (DDP) systems

(poor user responsiveness). The ability to dedicate significant computer power

to the individual has several economic implications. The simplicity and standardization inherent in them lead to lower costs and higher reliability.

Dedicated nodes, integrated by means of local area networks (LAN) result in

systems with low incremental growth costs, and virtually unlimited size.

4.2.5 Analysis of the VDT Workstation

4. 2. 5.1 Activities Performed

Grandjean (64) distinguishes between two different kinds of activities performed

at VDT workstations. One is an interactive system where the operator inputs

data by a keyboard and receives feedback information by means of a display.

In this type of work, the operator spends half of the time reading source

documents and the remainder of the time is devoted to reading the VDT display.

The other activity is where the operator spends virtually all of the time

looking at source documents, with the balance of the time expended viewing the

screen or the keyboard. The operating speed at this type of task is said to

be considerably higher than in interactive work.

* 4. 2. 5. 2 Entering Information

The means of entering information is important for the effectiveness and

acceptance of new technology. Keyboard entry is the dominant mode today, but

new technology is facilitating the use of equipment by inexperienced and

occasional users of OA. Dedicated function keys provide the opportunity to

perform complex operations by activating complete programs. Controls such as the 'mouse' or a 'joystick' which translate movements over a convenient surface

into corresponding movements of a cursor. Pointing devices such as light pens

or the touching of the screen with a finger to select an timq from a 'menu' are other modes of data entry requiring limited expertise and experience by the user

4.2. 5.3 The VDT Viewing Task

Wood-Robinson (65) observes that some of the visual tasks involved in using a VDT differ from those encountered in a traditional office. The self-luminous

nature of the screen characters and the three task areas of source material,

keyboard and screen present a challenge to the lighting designer. The light

reflecting on the VDT screen cannot help the viewer in any way, and will usually

impair the visibility of the message to be seen.

51
4. 2. 5. 4 The Hardware Interface

Users will probably be spending much of their workday seated at a workstation

- it must be designed to permit ready access to all tools and materials without

undue stress or discomfort. Keyboard and display design as well as chairs and

other furniture are required to allow a comfortable working posture.

4. 2.5.5 The Software Interface

Command language used by the operator to use the system

care, as must the dialogue for making use of facilities

and message routing.

Galitz (66) emphasizes the need for systems approach to

stations, based on the effectiveness of the worker, who

system. Figure 12 illustrates his concept.

Shackel (67) provides a broad overview of the ergonomic

automated office, table 13.

4.2.2 Problems with VDT Workstations

The video display terminal (VDT) is the basic device used in all office

automation systems, and it is therefore not surprising that it has received

considerable attention by ergonomic researchers. Their major concern is to

ensure that the design of the terminal and inputing devices are responsive to

the various needs of operators. A number of concerns have been identified with

respect to the operating characteristics of the VDT’s themselves, as well as the overall operating envifonment in which they are used.

Brown, et al. (49) report on the result of a Symposium conducted by the National

Research Council of the National Academy of Sciences. They indicate that the

most common complaint expressed by VDT operators is visual fatigue. The term

is used to describe symptoms of ocular irritation, burning, blurring of images

and double vision; for the most part these changes are temporary in nature

according to current research findings. Several factors are said to contribute

to visual fatigue; the quality of the CRT system, general lighting conditions,

workspace design and job related factors.

With respect to the design of displays, the quality of displays often used in

the workplace are no better than those used in home television sets, which were

never intended for close viewing and prolonged work activity. Many problems

with lighting in VDT workplaces are caused by their introduction into environments designed for desktop work. VDT displays create new geometrical

relationships between work surfaces, resulting in visual problems.

Another study by the National Academy of Science (68) revealed that there is no evidence to support the belief that VDT workers are being exposed to health

hazards, but inappropriate work design is likely the cause of many complaints.

For example, poorly designed VDT's are placed on traditional desks, with work

being performed in cramped space, and with limited room for documents holders

or manuscripts. This results in work being performed in uncomfortable working

must be chosen with

such as text processing

the design of work

is at the core of the

considerations in an

52
Work Station Design

Figure 12. Conceptual analysis of work station design, (Galitz)

53
Table 13. Major Factors in Man-Computer Interaction (MCI) (Shackel)

Human Performance

Basic characteristics and limitations,

flexibility etc.

Special aspects e.g., selection

training

user support

e.g., size, seed, skills, errors,

e.g., modeling the user

decision making

problem solving

Computer System Performance

Basic characteristics and limitations, e.g., capacity, speed, reliability

Special aspects for MCI e.g., language facilities

system response time

security

Hardware Interface

Displays, controls, terminals and consoles

Applied ergonomics for good workstation design

Human need and new devices

Software Interface

The non-hardware communication media

Languages and linguistic systems (MCI apsects)

Information organization

e.g., logical structural of content and procedures

e.g., message structure and verbosity, display format and layout including

e.g., microfilm output, questionnaires and other input forms)

Environment

Physical workstation space and layout, lighting, noise, etc.

Psychological, influence (e.g., via motivation, strain, etc.) of the working

group, of the job structure (e.g., shift working), of the system structure

(e.g., open closed, rigid flexible, etc.), the solid climate and of the

organization design

Applied ergonomics and social science for good environment design

Specific application — e.g. : Specialist users Computer assisted learning

Business users Computer aided design

Naive users Man computer telecommunications

Public systems Computer conferencing

Special problems — e.g. : Evaluation — especially criteria and methods — especially social implications versus cash costs — importance of real world studies (not laboratory only)

Privacy of personal information

Ergonomics of programming and the job of the programmer

Documentation and related job aids

Influence of MCI upon job design and organization design

Influence of MCI upon society

54
postures. Operators working in such situations are likely to experience visual

discomfort, muscular discomfort and fatigue. Working at a VDT places a number

of interacting demands on the visual and musculoskeletal systems that differ

from the traditional office. If the VDT is at a comfortable viewing distance,

the fixed keyboard is sometimes at a distance that requires the operator to

hold his or her hands, wrists and arms in uncomfortable positions.

Static muscle load and postural stress, discomfort and fatigue created by the

fixed postures can be relieved by moving the body. Operators should be able

to readily change positions at their workstations.

Many VDT based jobs are badly designed; they are characterized by the need to

perform repetitive tasks at a fast pace, with little or no opportunity to vary

the pace or the work, or even adjust to uncomfortable equipment. Such jobs are often seen as being highly undesirable in that they stifle initiative creativity, and sense of achievement. Total job design consists of determining

what the worker is expected to do, the methods and procedures to be followed,

the skills and abilities required to perform the job, and the interactions

with other people working at the same location. One approach to examining job

stress is to determine the fit between the person and the environment from

two standpoints: the fit between the needs of the person (preferences, values,

desires) and the extent to which these are met by the job situation and the

fit between the abilities of the person and the requirements of the job. An

important influence on the desirability of a given job is the degree of autonomy

that individual has:

"VDT jobs, like other jobs, vary greatly on such factors as the amount of

control given an employee and the employee’s opportunity to participate in

decisions that affect the way in which his or here work is carried out.

VDT jobs vary in the extent to which an employee can control the introduction into the workplace of VDT equipment, the amount of incoming work and

associated deadlines, the variety of the work content, the amount and

scheduling of time spent at the VDT, and the extent of interactions with

other people. Although research on VDT use does not permit firm conclusions as to how variations in control influence employee well-being,

research on other types of work suggests that lack of control has measurable, undesirable effects on employee well-being. Because individuals

vary in their need for control, the person-environment fit approach would

predict that lack of (or too much) control can act as a psychosocial

stressor for workers in jobs in which there is a misfit between the work

and the job on this dimension." (68)

Yates (69) notes that the prospect of change is often a cause for alarm by the

workforce. Among the changes which are potentially important are:

0 Working hours (e.g., a decrease made possible by higher productivity or an increase to ensure full utilization of an expensive system).

55
0 Working environment (e.g., an improvement if noisy or hot equipment can

be remote-controlled or a degradation if poorly designed visual display

terminals are installed.)

0 Type of tasks (e.g., automation of tedious tasks or introduction of

apparently meaningless procedures dictated by the machine.)

0 Variety of tasks (loss of visits to other offices, loss of some tasks,

introduction (of others.))

° Pace of working (e.g., automation could eliminate intermediate steps to

final decisions, individual could lose his control over pace of work.)

0 Skill requirements (some jobs could become deskilled, others could

require additional skills.)

° Supervision (machine could provide data on performance - could be used

as means of tightening supervision or could provide valuable feedback

to the operator.)

4.2.3 Planning the Workstation

Kroemer and Price (70) note that the present day workstation and job design is

a holdover from the orientation of equipment and furniture manufacturers that

their designs should accommodate the 'average' person. The concept of the

average person has now been discarded by researchers and designers with the

recognition that it is necessary to accommodate individuals who come in a wide

variety of shapes and sizes, as well as having different preferences for equipment and furnishings. Just as the design emphasis today for office automation

is on the need for flexibility, there is a parallel interest in furnishings and

workspace design, for adjustability by the individual to suit personal needs

and tastes. A major consideration for determining the range of adjustments

needed for office furnishings and equipment are bodily dimensions, as outlined

in table 14.

An equipment office automation study performed for Barclay's bank in England

was reported by Taylor (71), and has led to the establishment of a number of

guidelines for introducing such systems. Among them are the following:

They specified that the keyboards for equipment not be attached to the display

unit, but be connected by means of a flexible cable. This design enables the

operator to adjust the keyboard to suit his or her individual working style.

With respect to lighting, one requirement is that light sources be shielded to

prevent direct reflections on the CRT screens. Clean power, independent from

electrical surges from other building equipment (e.g., elevators) is an important consideration in the installation of office systems. Based on the

experience of implementing a number of office systems at the Barclay banks,

the following recommendations were made:

56
Table 14. Selected Body Dimensions Determining Proper Design of

Office Work Place Components (Kroemer and Price)

Location/Adjust ability/

Dimensions of

Work Place Components Relevant Human Data

CRT/source document Eye height above seat; preferred direction

of sight; trunk/neck posture

Keyboard/wrist rests Finger and arm dimensions; shoulder height;

trunk posture; muscle tension in fingers/

arms/shoulders/trunk; finger mobility.

Writing surfaces Seeing distance; arm dimensions; shoulder

height; muscle tension.

Backrest of chair Sitting height; shoulder height; back

curvature; muscle tension; mobility of

trunk/shoulder blades /arms; buttock-knee

length.

Seat pan of chair Buttock-knee length; hip breadth; body

weight; popliteal height.

Leg room Buttock-knee length; thigh height; hip

breadth; lower leg length; patella height;

leg length; foot length.

° The correct office environment should be described, and in place,

before installing any system. More efforts expended during the design

stage result in greater savings during implementation, and a higher

degree of acceptance by employees involved in the design process.

° Users should be involved in pilot system studies, to obtain their ideas

and familiarize them with the changes being planned-technological and

organizational

° In order to minimize problems associated with electrostatic discharge

(e.g., annoyance, deleting data in memory), a number of suggestions

were offered.

Use an anti-static spray, applied to the floor or carpets.

Use a humidifier to increase the humidity level in the workplace.

Use anti-static carpeting, which limits charges to the 5,000-6,000

volt range.

57
- Place equipment directly on mats impregnated with carbon.

- Alter traffic patterns around computer teminals.

Taylor outlines a team-oriented approach to office automation with the goal of

enriching the various tasks performed by employees. He suggests that several

steps be taken when planning and implementing these changes.

o Scanning the work group. Determining what product is being produced by the

group, the boundaries of the group (where in the work process that they

interact with other groups), the inputs that they receive, and their reporting

relationships

.

o Problem solving. 'For each problem identified, what solutions are typically

required to solve the problem, and who is responsible for solving the problem.

One objective is to determine where supervisor intervention is needed.

o Social system analysis. Examination of the role of each worker within

the group, and the relationships of groups to one another in completing tasks.

A primary goal is to determine when problems originating in one group must be

solved by another group.

o Socio-technical design. Once technical and social elements of the process

are analyzed, they can be recombined in new ways - to permit problems to be

solved within the group where they originate. Employees can thereby have

greater control over their work place and the jobs that they perform. This

approach is said to result in improved quality of products and services, and

decreased costs.

Workstation manufacturers were asked about their design criteria (72). A

summary of the major issues noted by them appears below:

1. Detailed analysis of requirements

° Communications

° Storage

° Tasks to be performed

° Need for flexibility

2. Environment/design issues

0 Acoustic privacy

0 Glare-free lighting

0 Freedom from auditory and visual distractions

° Physical separation of unrelated activities

° Ease of power changes and additions

0 Non-disruptive traffic patterns

58
3. Ergonomic factors

° Ready access to work materials

° Adequate storage - horizontal and vertical

° Integration of task functions

° Layout of workspace consistent with tasks performed

° Adjustable VDT screens and detachable keyboard

0 Adequate work surface

0 Easily reached controls and easily read displays

Kaplan (61) notes that the desire for environmental control is not limited to

workstation components such as chairs, keyboards, work surfaces, and visual

displays, but that it often extends to being able to turn lights on or off and

selecting colors for our surrounds. He identifies the need for privacy as the

central issue from which other aspects of spatial control emanate. Among

these issues are:

° Territoriality - defining of areas and boundaries that are under our control and for our exclusive use.

° Personal Space - the immediate space around our bodies.

° Interpersonal Space - the distance we permit and regulate between

ourselves, and others, dependent on the particular situation.

° Crowding - The individual reaction to a number of people within a given

area

Yates (69) indicates that the intrinsic nature of the work itself is an important determinant of job satisfaction. This usually relates to the variety

of the tasks performed and the degree of skill needed and the autonomy possible.

Among the important factors are: reasonably demanding work with some variety;

opportunity to learn; some decision making; social support and recognition;

significance and meaning; and future prospects.

4.3 JOB AND TASK ANALYSIS

VDT's are used to perform a broad range of functions which vary with respect to

the visual tasks involved, the time spent viewing the VDT, the familiarity of

the information processed, and the work schedule. These factors are likely to

influence the likelihood of visual and other job-related complaints. The factors examined in job analyses should include the determination of whether a requirement exists for repetitive eye movements from hard copy to the VDT screen

and whether there are rigid requirements with respect to the activities and time

spent at the VDT, as opposed to having sufficient flexibility to temporarily

modify the work pattern if discomfort is experienced (68).

4.4 ARCHITECTURAL PROGRAMMING ISSUES

Many office layouts and plans for office automation do not succeed because of

inadequate architectural programming and planning according to Kaplan (61).

59
For programming to be effective in providing an appropriate work setting it

must cover organizational, motivational, communicative, ergonomic, functional

and technical factors. Four major areas must be covered in programming.

(Figure 13 illustrates his general approach.)

Essential Programming Information (Kaplan)

° Objectives and Philosophy . A clear statement of goals is the first

step. These are based on the history and background of the organization and its attitudes and expectations towards its client and staff.

° Functional Relationships . An analysis of the interactions and

transactions of individuals and organizational units is needed to understand traffic flow, communication, information flow and access. It is

also necessary to determine the appropriate placement of support services

such as word processing, mail reproduction, data storage and communication, etc., with relation to the location of administrative and organizational units. The proper location of conference and meeting rooms,

libraries, internal waiting areas, lunchrooms, lounges, all merit

particular attention.

° Facility Spatial Requirements . Spatial needs for individual and

organizational units are based upon a complex of interfacing factors

such as ergonomics, communication requirements, status, and needs for

privacy.

0 Development of the Program and Program Criteria . The program should be

written in performance language, describing the functional requirements

of a system for example, not the hardware specifications.

Post Occupancy Evaluation . To prepare for future evaluations, a log of

projects should be kept and preserved, including all plans, the program,

decisions and changes made. Evaluation should be made on the basis of

general staff satisfaction, staff use of space and facilities, environmental and communications systems, task performance, and the value and

use of staff amenities.

4.5 USER INVOLVEMENT IN PLANNED CHANGE

Damodaran (73) notes that user involvement is needed to ensure that new

technology is compatible with other aspects of the work situation, skills,

expectations and work roles. A good fit between the user and the office systems requires detailed analysis of the job. The real expert on many tasks is

frequently the job occupant. Potential benefits of involvement are: greater

degree of commitment and cooperation as a result of participating in the change

process, and improvement in the quality of the design decisions because of the

expertise of the users supplementing those of the other design team members.

60
PROGRAMMING - PHASE 1 PLANNING - PHASE 2

STATEMENT OF ORGANIZATIONAL SPACE

PLANNING AND DESIGN GOALS AND OBJECTIVES.

IN TERMS OF FUNCTIONAL, ORGANIZATIONAL, ANO AESTHETIC EXPECTATIONS.

IDENTIFICATION OF RELATIONSHIPS ANO TRANSACTIONS BETWEEN ANO WITHIN ADMINISTRATIVE, OPERATIONAL ANO PERSONNEL

DEPARTMENTS. ALSO. THE DETERMINATION OF PATTERNS OF ACTIVITIES AS WELL AS INFORMATION ANO MA TERI AL FLOW,

ASSIGNMENT OF SPATIAL AREA AND

CONFIGURATION REQUIREMENTS FOR: WORK STATIONS. PRIVATE OFFICES,

DEPARTMENTS, SUPPORT SERVICES ANO

AMENITIES; SASEO ON TASK FUNCTION, FACE

TO FACS TRANSACTIONS, AMS HIERARCHY.

DEVELOPMENT OFZZTHE PROGRAM BRIEF AS A DIRECTIVE FOR SPACE PLANNING AMO OSBISN IN TERMS OF CRITERIA. GUIOELINES, AMS PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS.

TECHNICAL - PHASE 3 EVALUATION - PHASE 4

TECHNICAL DRAWINGS:

PARTITION ELECTRICAL

LIGHTING DEMOLITION

H V AC TELEPHONE

FURNITURE CABINETS

STEEL WORK

FINISHES

SCHEDULING WORK AMO AREA PHASES -PERT/ CPM DIAGRAM

OFFICE ELECTRONICS

FURNITURE ANO EQUIPMENT EVALUATION

OF EXISTING ANO RE- CONDITIONING MEW

FURNITURE AND

EQUIPMENT SPECS.

PUNCH LISTS AMO ADJUSTMENTS

Figure 13. Office design process (Kaplan)

61
Areas where users can make specific contributions about the performance of

given tasks are:

° non-routine events

° queries generated

° "bottle-necks” and interruptions in work flow

° human interactions in the work process

0 procedures/techniques/special skills

0 documents/reference books/equipment used

0 task interdependencies

° storage facilities

0 layout of work place

A. 6 INSTRUCTIONS AND TRAINING

Information about the use and maintenance of systems is critical. It is

important to know the knowledge, skills and abilities of the user population and

the preconceptions that they bring to their task. Two classes of users must be

accommodated - experienced and inexperienced. As the user becomes more expert

with practice, this increase in skill should be accommodated. The rate of progress will be governed by the skill of the operator and the frequency of use. The instructions need to be flexible, presenting detailed information only to

whose require it, but responding to the needs of the expert with abbreviated

instructions. Training programs are also an effective way of preparing the

staff to cope with the new technologies which have to be mastered in the

automated office.

4.7 DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS

Kroemer & Price (70) describe some of the functional requirements for VDT

operators

° Display . Must be located at the proper seeing distance and at the

preferred inclinations of the line-of-sight

.

° Source Document . The distance depends on the ability of the individual

to focus with or without spectacles (as required), and the height depends

on the line-of-sight desired.

° Work Surfaces . Should be located at the preferred height and distance

for ease of manipulation, support of forearm, palm and wrist, and

convenience for seeing visual task.

Leg Room . Lower extremities should be accommodated with room to move.

° Seating . Adjustability is essential to accommodate different body sizes

and posture. Firm back and neck support are required.

° Keyboard . Should be detachable from VDT for individual convenience and

preference.

Figure 14 indicates the authors’ suggestions concerning workstation design.

62
Recommended Approximate Dimensions (In centimeters)

Adjustment Features of an Ergonomic Work Seat

Adjustment Features of an Ergonomic VDU Work Station

Figure 14. Workstation and seat design (Kroemer and Price)

63
4.7.1 VDT Filters

Filters can be placed over screens to reduce glare, but have to be used

carefully because they can result in loss of image quality. The National

Academy of Science study cited earlier (68) note the following approaches:

"° Circular Polarizer with Antiref lective Coating . Use to reduce both

specular and diffuse reflections. The outside surface is coated with

several layers of optically transparent materials to form an antireflective coating to reduce specular reflections from the surface of

the filter. The remainder of the filter package is a polarizer to

eliminate reflections from the underlying VDT screen.

° Neutral Density Filters . The simplest filter, consisting of a neutrally tinted plastic allowing a small percentage (usually 15-25) of

the light falling on it. It is more effective in reducing diffuse

reflections by light from ambient sources.

° Notch or Color Filters . Allows transmission of a high percentage of

light from certain wavelengths (usually green), and absorption at other

wavelengths. It is designed to be 'tuned' to the color of the VDT

screen, permitting the desired light from the VDT to come through, while

absorbing the undesirable ambient light.

° Directional Filters . Use geometric or optical means to prevent ambient

light from reaching the screen to prevent reflections from reaching the user

.

4.7.2 Glare Control

Direct and reflected glare should be limited by means of one or more of the

following method according to Murray (74):

0 Drapes, shades, and/or blinds over windows should be closed, especially

during direct sunlight conditions.

0 Terminals should be properly positioned with respect to windows and

overhead lighting.

° Screen hoods may be installed.

0 Anti-glare filters may be installed on the VDT screen.

0 Direct lighting fixtures may need to be recessed; and baffles may be

used to cover fluorescent fixtures to prevent the luminaries from

acting as a glare source, or special covers on light fixtures may be

used to direct the light downward rather than allowing the light to

diffuse

.

64
° Properly installed indirect lighting systems will limit the luminaries

'potential as glare sources, although some reflected glare may still be

present .

4.7.3 Work-Rest Regimes

Murray (74) indicates that: "based on our concerns about potential chronic

effects on the visual system and musculature and prolonged psychological

distress, we recommend the following work-rest breaks for VDT operators:"

1. A 15-minute work-rest break should be taken after two hours of

continuous VDT work for operators under moderate visual demands and/

or moderate work load.

2. A 15-minute work-rest break should be taken after one hour of

continuous VDT work for operators under high visual demands, high

workload and/or those engaged in repetitive work tasks."

4.7.4 Postural Concerns

Grandjean and Vigliani (64) make the following workstation recommendations:

° Movable keyboards are better than sunken keyboards.

° Special, separate devices to adjust the height of desk or keyboard

level source documents terminal screen are recommended.

° Forearm/hand supports are indicated, but studies to develop appropriate

designs are necessary.

° Chairs with high backrests and adjustable inclination are recommended.

Ketchell (75) conducted a study of 20 VDT operators, and table 15 summarizes the

major complaints noted by them.

4.8 COMPUTER SYSTEMS FOR END USERS

Englebart (76) describes the automated office in terms of a system comprised of

"tools" and a "human system". To date, the office tools have been the focus of

attention by system and hardware designers as well as organizational managers.

He suggests that if the human system components are not given comparable consideration, the tools will be "out of control", making it very difficult to design

effective system for end users. Englebart describes the system elements in the

metaphor of a craft, which is suggested as an accurate characterization of

the requirements of a knowledge worker.

65
Table 15. Significant Complaints and Findings of VDT Operators (Ketchel)

o Heat - Equipment generates heat which is often not adequately

removed by the air conditioning system.

® Lighting - Sun glare and artificial lighting require adequate

control. Some type of glare shield, CRT etch, or antireflective coating is necessary.

• Noise - Printers are noisy. A noise cover is required if the

printer is in the same room with an operator.

o Training - Technical training by the vendors is typically 2.5 to 3.0

days. This provides basic familiarity, but not proficiency. On-the-job training, continuing vendor support,

and good reference materials are important.

o Stress - Supervisors and staff members who use VDT operator outputs

tend to expect instant proficiency from newly trained

operators. It actually takes about 6 weeks to reach high

performance. Education is required to avoid false

expectancies and resultant operator stress.

® Planning - Operators should have a major role in decisions about

which equipment to buy and how it is to be used.

‘Consideration should be given to scheduling, priority

setting, inter-group cooperation and equipment compatibility, and specific system features.

o Vendor

Support - Reliable, prompt and effective vendor support is important

for installation, maintenance, and training.

Q Shared

Equipment - Some problems in priorities and scheduling occur when

equipment needs to be shared by several people.

Architects have a potentially significant contribution to make to organizational

effectiveness in the design of individual workspaces as well as the general

environment shared by the office staff. The studies cited earlier have pointed

to the importance of workstation features such as furniture and task lighting

in performing VDT work. These same investigations have cited the importance of

job-design as an important consideration for performing automated office activities. Job-design is a response to the type of work performed at the workstation, and the demands that it places on the office employee, physical and mental

The design of the office itself can play a very important role in ameliorating

some of the difficulties associated with VDT-based work noted earlier. This

aspect of design assumes greater importance when we consider that the earlier

66
The Categories of System Elements (Englebart)

1. Tools: Craftsmen benefit from balanced collections of well-designed

tools

2. The Human System

a. Methods: To be effective, tools must be used with well designed

work methods.

b. Skills: It takes practiced skill to exercise a competent blend of

tool and method.

c. Knowledge: True craftsmen depend upon much integrated "shop"

knowledge

d. Craft Language: Craftsmen need an effective means of communicating

with one another to discuss, teach, plan and collaborate.

e. Training: To create an effective group of craftsmen, training is

needed in all of the above elements.

f. Organization: Role differentiation and organization structure are needed for integrating craftsmen into an organization.

findings pertained to people who have been trained to perform VDT work, primarily support personnel. The problems are likely to be intensified as managers

and professionals, typically untrained in the use of keyboard devices, are required to work with VDT-based systems. Working in this mode will be particularly difficult because of the lack of user-friendly computer systems. At the same time, managers and professionals, because of the nature of their work,

have indicated the need for an environment free from distraction (4.10) e.g.,

noise, intrusions on their privacy. These factors taken together, suggest both

the need for a supportive workspace and attractively designed public spaces for

social contact and relief from intensive computer-based work activities.

The advent of office automation is profoundly changing the office as a place to

work, thereby impacting the individual worker in many ways that are only partially understood. The electronic revolution brought with it many of the undesirable effects of automation: noise, machine pacing of many jobs, and reduced

discretion and autonomy in determining how a particular job is to be performed.

A complicating factor is that in many instances automation has been introduced

in open-office settings, where sufficient attention has not been paid for the

need for privacy. Furthermore, when VDT's are employed, all too often they

have been placed on traditional desks as substitutes for typewriters without

regard to the differences between the two devices from the standpoints of the

operator, or the environmental systems required to support them.

67
5. ORGANIZATIONAL FACTORS

Organizational issues cannot be readily separated from those of design,

ergonomics, and technology. All of these factors come together critically when

we consider the need for organizations to cope with changing external environments and internally generated priorities. Ackoff (77) and Probst (78) make

the point that the ability to grow and respond to change is the essential prerequisite for organizational survival. The design challenge is to provide an environment with sufficient flexibility and adaptability to support

organizational goals and processes as they evolve.

Becker (7), Ackoff (77), and Lodahl (5) suggest that the advances in office

technology, and the trend toward an increased percentage of knowledge workers

in the workforce is likely to increase the importance of the environmental

characteristics of the spaces where office work is performed. As more and

more of the routine office processes are automated, more time will be available

for planning and creative thinking, which will require spaces conducive to these

activities. Such working areas should be free from distractions such as noise

and heat, which accompany many of the devices now being placed in offices as part of the OA activities. Dealing with the conflicting demands of equipment

and people will be a major design challenge. Another important factor which

will tend to highlight design issues is that managers and professionals will

be exposed to the same workstation and environmental features as the clerical

and support staff. Their past experiences and job demands are likely to sensitize them to the shortcomings of the typical VDT workstation to be found in

offices today, and provide an impetus for improved work surrounds.

With the advent of automation in the 1950's, the design of computer-based

information (CIS) in complex production processes typically followed one of two

paths: 1) using workers to carry out decisions made by preprogrammed automatic

control systems, or 2) enabling workers to monitor complex technology, thereby

being able to control unpredictable events. The latter approach exemplifies

the trend away from the treatment of a man as a machine (or machine component)

and the recognition of the unique abilities of people to deal with unstructured

and complex information.

Taylor (79), in discussing complex processes such as chemical manufacturing and

oil refining, observes that the task required in such systems are usually beyond

the capability of one person. The design of work in these instances has often

been based upon the integration of management knowledge and skills with those

of the workers. The process employed to merge the talents of both groups is

termed a sociotechnical approach, based on a systematic analysis of the technology and the patterns of human interaction in an organization. Among the

factors examined in such an analysis is work arrangement, reporting relationships, decision making and social support systems, including environmental

issues. The need for employee participation in the analysis, design, and

implementation of sociotechnical systems is emphasized - with participation

including problem definition, and data collection. In discussing the potential

of automation for the office worker, Taylor summarizes:

68
"Computerization does not require fragmented jobs of the assembly-line

approach. The technology itself is largely neutral. Whether jobs are made more challenging and congenial or more fragmented and dreary depends

on integrative organization design. The difference lies in whether people

are regarded as extensions of the machine or the machine is designed as an extension of people. A participative approach to sociotechnical systems

analysis can assure that the work of all members is integrated toward a common purpose."

Driscoll (80) believes that most organizations today are spending money on mechanizing existing functions as a means of increasing efficiency - i.e.,

accommplishing the same work by using fewer resources. Increased efficiency

however does not necessarily translate into greater effectiveness, which refers

to meeting organizational goals. For example, in some instances ongoing tasks

should be eliminated rather than being performed more efficiently. The approach

advocated by Driscoll is an analysis of the tasks needed to accomplish the

major objectives of the organization, resulting in an organizational redesign.

This analysis should be accomplished by relying on end-users for supplying

detailed information about the tasks and functions to be accomplished. They

are the most knowledgeable resource available to the organization. Organizational redesign, according to the author, ought to have job redesign as a major goal as well - which would result in greater participation in decision

making by all members of a given organization. In summary, Driscoll hypothesizes three stages of office automation, mechanization, automation, and

organizational redesign. These stages are summarized in table 16.

The office constitutes an information environment, defined as the set of

variables that affect the flow of messages into, within and outside of any

organization, in the view of Taylor (79). Any such environment can be

described in terms of the following:

0 What is the organization and what does it do?

0 What kinds of media, messages, and technologies exist within the

organization?

0 What kinds of people work in the organization?

° What kinds of problems do they have, and how can these problems be

translated into informal terms?

° What kinds of barriers and rewards exist in the environment?

I An understanding of the dynamics and interactions of these variables is needed

to design more effective systems and services within formal organizations.

These issues are quite different from the technological emphasis of most

computer system vendors and purchasers. They arise from the adverse experiences

of past users of automated equipment. For example, Melly (81) indicates that

many company executives are now questioning whether their investments in com-

! puter systems have been cost effective. One problem is that their exposure to

69

i
Table 16. Three Stages of Office Automation (Driscoll)

STAGE Mechanization Automation Organizational

redesign

FOCUS Tasks Whole Procedures Missions

CRITERION Individual

Efficiency

Organizational

Efficiency

Organizational

Effectiveness

FORM Hardware Software Management

DISCIPLINE Electrical

Engineering

Artificial

Intelligence

Applied

Behavioral

Science

ORIGIN Vendor Vendor User

OB STAC IE User resistance Programming Management

FEASIBLITY Present - 5 years Present

APPLICATION 5 years 10 years 15 years

data processing has been carefully and strongly directed by hardware and software vendors, who are constantly promoting their new generation of computer

technology. These executives are now asking, "What are our company's real

electronic data processing (EDP) needs, and can we justify them?" instead of,

"What is the state of the art?". These same questions are now being asked by

organizational purchasers of OA systems.

Conrath, et al. (82) conclude that the design of the electronic office has been

dominated by the thinking of technical experts with little effort expended on understanding the requirements of users functioning in an organizational setting. They see a need to better understand the activities performed in offices

as a necessary part of the planning process. An evaluation of operating systems

to determine their effects on individual, social and organizational activities

is also needed. The first step in this process is the need to define and measure the relevant office automation variables. Toward this end, the authors

have developed several taxonomies of office tasks using the following general

procedure

.

The authors start by analyzing the content (the message being communicated).

Next, they identify the source /destination . Identifying an input source or an output distribution should include information about the physical location

(affecting the communications network) and the organizational function (impacting the role played by the individual in the operating environment). The mode

of communication (face-to-face, telephone, written) is then examined. The work

70
process (individual responsibilities on the job) is then scrutinized, together

with the aids (technical support systems) employed in performing a given activity. The final consideration is the significance of the activity from the

standpoint of organizational goals. (Table 42 presents an overview taxonomy of

office tasks developed by the authors. (appendix, p. 234)).

Young (83) cites several ways in which the office work force can be increased

in effectiveness. He points to the decentralized office as an opportunity for

employees to stay at home and yet play a vital role as programmers, word

processors, data entry operators and analysts. All of these functions can be

performed by means of remote terminals. Flextime, part time employment, and job

sharing also represent somewhat untraditional approaches to office work, which

are becoming increasingly prevalent in today's job market. Young describes

these flexible working procedures as being effective due to "decreased absenteeism and tardiness, improved morale, increased productivity and reduced job

stress .

5. 1 MANAGEMENT ISSUES

Future automated office systems will have to be responsive to the needs of

professionals and managers. It is necessary therefore to better understand

what they do, and how they do it. The classical description of a manager

indicates that he plans, organizes., coordinates and controls. This viewpoint

is disputed by Mintzberg (84) by discussing four "myths":

1. THE MANAGER IS A THOUGHTFUL SYSTEMATIC PLANNER. Studies have

demonstrated that management activities are typically brief, varied, discontinuous and mostly ad hoc in nature. In most instances the manager responds

to external stimuli. a

2. THE EFFECTIVE MANAGER HAS NO REGULAR DUTIES TO PERFORM. The manager

handles exceptions, negotiations, ceremonial contacts; he is the "nerve center"

of the organization, constantly processing "soft" information gained informally

from networks of external contacts.

3. THE SENIOR MANAGER NEEDS SUMMARY INFORMATION, BEST PROVIDED BY A

FORMAL SYSTEM. Managers obtain and transmit information verbally in most

instances. Their information channels are meetings and informal conversations

in person or by means of telephone. Decision making and use of information is

highly personalized and depends largely on data in their memories, therefore

there is a reluctance to delegate responsibilities to those who cannot share

I this "data base".

I

I 4. MANAGEMENT IS BECOMING A SCIENCE. A science is dependent on standardized procedures while management decision making processes are not

understood, being based on intuition and judgement. Mintzberg says that

managers today are functioning in virtually the same way as their counterparts

more than 100 years ago. He summarizes the several roles played by managers

in the following table:
Table 17. Managerial Roles - (Mintzberg)

Formal Authority Interpersonal

and Status

Informational Decision Making

° Figurehead

0 Leader

° Liaison

0 Monitor

0 Disseminator

0 Spokesman

° Entrepreneur

° Disturbance Handler

° Resource Allocator

° Negotiator

Poppel (35) describes the result of a study by Booz, Allen & Hamilton of 15

large representative organizations. They wanted to determine: (1) how managers

and other office workers spend their time, and (2) the effect of office automation on productivity. Five major findings resulted from the investigation:

1. Many respondents spend less time than half of their working time on activities directly related to their jobs. Traveling and performing

routine administrative tasks are especially time consuming.

2. Almost 25 percent of the time is spent on waiting for people or information, performing clerical chores such as making copies of

documents and travel reservations.

3. Meetings, in person and by telephone are the most common form of

professional activity (almost 50 percent of the total time).

4. Professionals spend an average of 21 percent of their work time in

preparing and/or reading documents. Only 8 percent of their time is

spend on analytic work (problem solving, conceptualizing).

5. Most knowledge workers would prefer to allocate their time differently,

e.g., spending more time on analytic and planning work, and less time

at meetings.

In examining the tasks performed by the respondents, and obtaining insights into

how office automation can help the effectiveness of managers, the researchers

used the concept of critical success factors (CSF) - those activities most

important to performing the major job functions.

The following CSF ' s were those that were frequently identified by the

respondents

"° Direct, timely access to accurate product, customer, and internal

performance information, primarily by making it accessible through

terminals or other types of automated work stations.

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° Effective intradepartmental communications, mainly through electronic

mail systems.

° More effective interaction with customers (both external and

interdepartmental) , through higher quality documents and faster message

systems

0 Adequate, uninterrupted time for work activities most directly related

to functional objectives, by taking the time saved from less productive

activities .

Alloway and Quillard (86) were also interested in clarifying the role of a manager in an organization. They did this in the context of studying information requirements by conducting a survey of 19 industrial firms, and more than

1000 managers. The study was performed to recommend improved policies and

procedures for information systems (IS), based on an evaluation of present

systems. Evaluations were made on the basis of 26 criteria, divided into three

categories. A sample of the criteria is presented in the table below together

with the categories used:

Table 18. Categories and Criteria for Evaluating I/S (Alloway and Quillard)

Strategic activities

o Involvement of senior user managers in 1/ S policy formulation and

evaluation

• Responsiveness to user needs

® I/S strategic planning and allocation of resources to key business

areas

Technical activities

• Technical competence of the I/S staff

® Improving new systems development

o I/S support for users in preparing proposals for new systems

Operational activities

® Efficiency of hardware utilization

® Hardware and systems downtime

o Availability and timeliness of report delivery to users

The survey consisted of administering questionnaires to managers of 1/ S and

managers of users of such systems. The authors summarize their findings as follows: "The results suggest that the 1/ S function has not succeeded in the

past, for whatever reason, in improving the performance of those things judged

to be important by both 1/ S and user managers."

73
5.2 INTRODUCTION OF OFFICE AUTOMATION INTO ORGANIZATIONS

Luke (87) notes that when new technology or equipment is introduced into an existing operational environment, it is necessary to pay special attention to

the way that we manage the introduction, implementation, training and feedback

of the new system. This care is needed to ensure that the staff is motivated

and informed, positive and cooperative. Of primary importance is the need to

plan and communicate with all of those who will be affected by the change.

Among the goals that should be pursued are:

o Do it right note experts' advice on how/where to install new technology;

o Keep up the motivation and morale of the staff during and after the

changes

;

o Counteract the usual resistance to change and fear of learning new

things (the potential for failures),

o Create excitement about the capabilities and potential of the new

equipment

;

o Enlist enthusiasm and creative ideas for how best to bring up and use

the new systems;

o Ensure full cooperation of all of those involved, from top management

to the support staff;

o Keep all of those involved fully informed; and

o Keep the routine work going during the transition.

Exxon initiated an OA program as a result of technological opportunities and

rising costs of office operations with constant productivity. Dickensen (88)

describes the steps used by his organization in initiating OA.

° The first step is to learn as much as possible about OA technologies

without becoming immersed in details. The focus was on the functional

application of technology, using a system approach. A concept for

thinking about OA was then formulated (table 19).

0 The education of the management of an organization is an essential part

of a successful OA program. Meetings to explain the effort, and followup

written information are essential parts of this process.

0 Tools and techniques must be developed as a means to systematically

study current office operations and suggest means of improving them by

using OA technologies.

0 As new systems are installed in an organization, they must be tested

and evaluated to provide information which can lead to future

improvements

.

74
° Finally, the group responsible for developing OA assists in the

implementation phase of OA and consults with users as required to ease

the transition from the traditional office to the automated one.

Table 19. Seven Components

(Dickenson)

of the Business Communications Systems.

1 . Creation The act of thinking, analysis, generation

of ideas and words.

2. Capture Putting the thoughts and words into some processable medium-writing, dictation,

etc

3. Entry into/editing by a processor

Keyboarding

4. Expans ion/materializat ion Printing, copying, microfilming

5. Distribution Mail, cable, TWX, telex, facsimile,

electronic mail

6. Indexing/ storage/retrieval

7. Disposal

McNurlin (18) suggests that the implementation of OA is best achieved by a series of short steps, consistent with a long term plan. Each project should

be cost-justified and make use of previously tested technologies. After the

new system is running smoothly, additional features can be gradually introduced.

Finally, when an advanced system is being installed, it should be located in

only those departments where the operating management gives full support and

cooperation to the effort. A general approach to implementing OA in large or small organizations is then recommended.

An OA team is formed, and lists the opportunities for OA to make a significant

contribution to organizational effectiveness. The list is based upon a study

of the available technologies, the organization and examination of critical

success factors (CSF) - the key areas of organizational performance where things

must go right. Information needs are then identified. One requirement is the

ability to monitor the flow of work by means of milestones. Information about

the past, the present and the future, must be stored. Managers need the tools

to communicate electronically with other people, and with data bases to retrieve

information. The office systems in place must be described and their effectiveness assessed from a functional standpoint, and in terms of costs. A study is

then made of the activities of the target group to suggest improvements.

75
Questionnaires, activity diaries, personal interviews, and samples of files

and tasks are used in this study. The final step is to forecast how organizational goals are likely to be met in the future. Among the issues to be examined

are human, economic and organizational ones. For example, to forecast whether:

employees are likely to require the same work environment; they will be housed

in one or more buildings; teleconferencing is likely to influence travel

requirements

.

Lodahl and Meyer (89) describe six "pathways" to office automation, which have

been used by various organizations embarking on this course.

1. Administrative Typing . The most commonly found experience is the

company which takes the initial step to office automation by focusing on word

processing and administrative support activities. The systems purchased to

accomplish these purposes were obtained with the aim of saving money on text

production by improving the efficiency of secretarial and clerical personnel.

To justify the capital investment initially, the philosophy led to organizational disruptions resulting from the change in the traditional working relationship between managers and their personal secretaries. At present, with

the reduced prices of word processing equipment, a more decentralized approach

is possible, maximizing the effectiveness of the organization, rather than that

of the equipment.

2. Administrative Filing . Filing space is very expensive (estimated by

the authors at $8 to $25 per square ft per month). Paper files are also difficult to access and often grow without any administrative control. A growing

trend exists to make greater use of microfor* and digital electronic storage

techniques as a substitute for paper files. It is estimated that the compression factor for digital media is 300:1 and for microform 1,500:1, when compared

with paper storage.

However, regardless of the media involved, records management requires a great deal of analysis of the contents of files before an effective system can

be designed. That is, the nature of the files must be determined, where copies

are maintained, how they will be used, and their expected lifetimes must be

specified - all of which requires a considerable involvement by the user of the

information. In short, while payoffs may be considerable in using microform

and electronic storage, implementation costs are also significant.

3. Telecommunications . Under this heading, the authors concentrate on

the development of computer-based information systems (CMBS). This system

enables the user to enter a message by means of any computer terminal and

address it to one or more individuals or groups. The message is instantly

delivered to the recipients file space, where he/she receives notification

that a message has been received. The systems are designed for direct use by

professionals and managers, and are of particular value to project teams who

regularly communicate across multiple time zones. Users speak of the benefits

from more frequent contact with peers, resulting in closer collaboration

efforts

.

76
4. Information Gathering . It is the author's claim that vast data bases

are now available to managers and are frequently not well utilized. These

informational resources consist of data internal to an organization and those

available on a time-shared basis, ranging from current news to professional and

journal publications. The proper use of these data bases however, frequently

requires considerable expertise in the use of search strategies, requiring

training or the use of an intermediary familiar with such activities.

5. Professional Writing . Text writing tools to be used by managers and

professionals provide a management work station approach to office automation.

They typically are considered as extensions of the word processing activities,

with additional features such as structured files, calendar and reminder

features, formatting and programming capabilities. Ease of use is an important

consideration for the design of executive work stations.

6. Decision Support Systems . These systems combine data bases, models,

statistical analysis, and graphic tools which are under the control of a useroriented interactive command language. They are of particular benefit to those

organizational areas requiring analytic work- planning, finance, marketing.

Much of the benefits of these systems is the direct user involvement in the

design and implementation process, where specific alternatives can be

considered and analyzed.

5.3 PROBLEM AREAS - OA

Driscoll (80) notes that when word processors (WP) were first introduced into

offices, that the results were often dissapointing. The output was of inferior

quality; they generated little cost savings and encountered widespread resistance from users. These early WP systems sought savings only from more efficient typing, neglecting the greater potential savings by systems designed for use by managers and professionals. One of the major reasons for the shortcomings

of these systems is attributed to the lack of involvement at the planning

stage of the ultimate users of the equipment. Driscoll points to three major

shortcomings of past and currently proposed OA approaches:

• In the rush to install new hardware, vendors and users have neglected

a careful diagnosis of the critical function of office work.

• Mechanization often neglects the human side of the enterprise. Little

attention is paid to the need for a "social redesign” of the office to

facilitate the use of new equipment.

o Current mechanization programs neglect the body of information from

management and ergonomic sources, which deal with organizational

changes.

Hammer and Kunin (90) suggest that one of the major obstacles faced by those

advocating office automation is the problem of measuring managerial and professional productivity as a means of justifying these systems. They indicate that

the analysis and measurement of such activities as communicating, writing and

reading reports may or may not be important job components. For example, is an

77
executive more effective if he can generate eight memoranda in a day instead

of the five that were possible before automation?

In their view, the most successful applications of OA systems have been at

the department level, to solve specific and well defined problems dealing with

business operations. They stress the need to introduce strategies and develop

the means to evaluate changes after the introduction of new systems. This

orientation is based upon the view that OA achieves its greatest potential by

simplifying tasks and eliminating unnecessary steps in performing a job, and

by solving problems which were not amenable to solution before the OA tools

became available.

Since paper is so much a part of our everyday lives we tend to underestimate

its importance, especially as it impacts our work habits in the office, according to McIntosh (91). Too frequently, an electronic system is designed to offset the shortcomings of a bad paper system, instead of determining whether the

existing paper based system can be substantially improved first.

Both paper and electronic systems require structured and effective management

of information. In an automated environment, the classification and indexing

of information must be far more precise than most systems in use today. The

value and life cycle of information are among the most important attributes

that must be classified as prerequisites to automation, if outmoded systems are not to be transformed into electronic systems which are also inefficient.

Eichorn (92) summarizes a number of important problems identified by major

users of office automation:

° Difficulty in getting employees interested in the system.

° Underestimation of the organizational problems associated with the

introduction of such systems.

° Unfriendly user interfaces of many of the systems on the market.

° Lack of suitable opportunities for exchange of information among

vendors and users.

5.4 PLANNING FOR OA

Eichorn suggests that for a company to be successful in the future, the staff

would have to interact, and be part, of an information control system. Such a system must be responsive to:

° The dynamics of the organization.

° The procedures and systems employed by the organization.

° The automation technology - likely to be the least important factor

contributing to success, since the pace of technology has historically

78
outpaced the rate at which organizations have been able to assimilate

change.

Riley (93) emphasizes the need to examine the total operations of an officeorganization, functions and products, before acquiring equipment representing

the latest technological advances. He notes that all offices have in common

the need to process information, but they differ in terms of the purpose for

the information, the types of data needed and how the information is to be

processed and ultimately presented. Among the questions to be posed should be

the following:

o Is the information intended to support decision making, promote a product, implement plans or communicate policies?

o Is the information in the form of narrative or data?

9 Are the documents stable or do they have to be updated regularly?

« What volume of documents is produced?

• How often are they used?

9 How long do they have to be kept?

With respect to document retrieval (from micrographic storage especially), he

points to the need for sophisticated indexing and retrieval systems.

Lieberman et al. (21) developed an office system planning framework as in

figure 15. This approach is directed to the needs of organizational management.

Office automation is said to be most successful in systems designed to help

carry out specific office functions or processes (94). A clear understanding

of the functions of a group considering automation is therefore a prerequisite

for an organization embarking on such an effort. The highest potential for

successful automation resides in an organization having a combination of the

following characteristics:

0 Large volume of data or information processed.

0 Operations involved uniform or similar repetitive processes.

° Complex calculations.

0 Persistent backlogs.

0 Difficulties in scheduling or resource allocation.

° Continuous need for rapid information retrieval and/or distribution.

Alloway and Quillard (86) suggest the following priorities for action to

improve future 1/ S systems (table 20).

79
a3—

(Anasw

04a

V)a9

75

80

Figure

15i

Office

systems

planning

framework

diagram

(Lieberman)
Table 20. Priorities for Improving I/S (Alloway and Quillard)

Top Priority

® Obtain greater responsiveness to user needs.

Second Priority

® Develop more analytic systems,

o Improve communication with managerial users.

® Develop training programs for users in general I/S capabilities.

® Employ user oriented systems analysts who know user operations.

Third Priority

• More effective I/S strategic planning and allocation of resources to

key business areas.

® Improve new system development approaches (time, cost, quality,

disruptions )

5.5 CASE STUDIES OF OA

Luke (87) cites an example of the introduction of a new information processing

system «t Xerox. A company-wide survey of users was administered to determine

the information production procedures used. A plan was then prepared indicating

the proposed locations of the new machines and an installation schedule. Meetings were then held with the managers of the operating units scheduled to

receive the new equipment. The general approach for implementing the system

was described, as well as the operating characteristics and the concepts

governing its installation and use. Volunteers among the groups were solicited

to pilot test the installation of the system. Meetings were then held with the

support staff, covering the same subject matter as in the previous meetings.

In both sets of meetings suggestions were sought from the staff, and in some instances the plan was modified in accordance with their recommendations. An

implementation team was then established to guide the work of the pilot-test

groups and evaluate the results. Training of the operators was an important

component of the plan. The training advocated covers the complete system,

including the logical foundation for its design, not just how to "push buttons".

The in-depth training was designed to enable users to use the system in creative

ways and provide some know-how to get out of trouble when malfunctions occur. The trainers should be professionals, not users who have been previously trained.

Training should be carried out at all organizational levels, not just for

clerical operations, if the automated office is to come into being.

81
McNurlin (18) cites the experience of CITIBANK, N.A. as an example of the

planning and implementation of an office automation system. In 1975, CITIBANK

decided to broaden the responsibilities of the services management group. In

addition to providing assistance to other departments in the installation of

word processing they would now also determine how office technologies could

be used to aid management.

They initiated a study to determine the nature of the work that their management

personnel performed. They found that managerial activities were very similar

for all job types, but communications requirements often differed considerably

from job to job. For example, some groups had a great deal of contact with

customers, others held many internal meetings, and still others traveled a good deal. The telephone use as well as the flow of internal and external

mail were all quite different from group to group. As a result of this study,

it was determined that a new communications network was required to meet the

diverse needs of the various groups studied.

McNurlin described the first step of OA as follows:

"The first step toward implementing the corporate network was the

installation of sixteen prototype systems. These systems are standalone units, each shared between a manager and a secretary. They

are linked using 1200 bps dial-up lines with each system automatically

sending and receiving messages. Each system consists of a 24-line

CRT display terminal in the manager's office, and a similar display

unit, an impact printer, a floppy disk unit, and a mini-computer in

the secretary's office . . . The software for the system was written

by Citibank. The system provides word processing, message

distribution and filing capabilities.”

CITIBANK then evaluated the system and identified several problems. Many

managers didn't want to use the system because they did not want to type.

They also found the system difficult to use, because of the need to learn and

remember the required procedures. Other comments made were that function keys were preferable to typing in commands, and that managers wanted to see full

pages of text displayed at one time. Finally, objections were made to the

appearance of the system - with the suggestion that it ought to be suitable to

the decor of the office.

Mumford (95) describes the process used to introduce automation into an office

environment in which a central planning role was given to the users of the system. The clerks responsible for preparing purchasing invoices in a large engineering firm worked together with professional systems analysts to restructure

their work environment. The clerks were involved in diagnosing their own requirements to attain job satisfaction, and to identify problem areas which

led to inefficiency on the job. As a result of this effort, alternative forms

of work organization were formulated aimed at greater efficiency and job enrichment. Problems encountered in the design process centered on factors of interpersonal relationships and trust - e.g., the clerks needed to be convinced that

management did not have any ulterior motives in this effort. The study was conducted to be successful in meeting its goals.

82
Achieving the of f ice-of-the-future will be difficult unless organizations

change to accommodate new needs, in the view of Holmes (96). In the past, new

systems and technologies have often led to new departments - separate and distinct organizational elements, e.g., data processing. However, well designed

information management systems do not stop at organizational boundaries. For

example, payroll, personnel records and employee benefits are now often combined

with general accounting functions. This development has important implications

for the autonomy of each of these departments with a given organization, and

consequently for the individual employee working in these departments.

An effective office automation system requires organizational elements to work

together in harmony in a non-parochial way. Holmes suggests the formation of

task forces, with representatives from all affected departments bo design and

implement office automation systems. The best person to serve as chairman for

the task force would be a key user, not merely a member of the user organization

who can be "spared".

5.6 RESEARCH NEEDS

While general agreement exists about the need to measure productivity, it has

been very difficult for researchers to develop appropriate and sensitive

indicators for such measurements.

Productivity is typically defined as the relationship of outputs to inputs. In

practice many output and input factors are not included in these computations.

Inputs and outputs are also defined in many ways. For example, Slagle et al.

(97) note that inputs can be measured by (1) the number of personnel needed to

do a job, (2) the number of pieces of equipment to do a job, (3) the dollar

cost of personnel, (4) the dollar cost for all inputs such as labor, equipment,

space utilities, supplies and maintenance. The inclusion of all inputs is suggested as an approach to "total factor productivity", but it implies the total

outputs should be valued as well. In an office automation study, these outputs

would include factors such as quality and quantity of output, response time,

morale, personnel turnover, and the quality of the office environment.

Few thorough studies have been completed dealing with the impact of word

processing on the productivity of secretarial and clerical functions Slagle et

al., conclude after a literature review of the topic. The authors reach the same conclusion in their examination of professional and managerial tasks.

They also point to the unique quality of each office system and organization

as a result of a combination of the employees, managerial style, organizational

climate and the nature of the work and methods used to accomplish their work.

Among the factors which influence productivity are:

0 The mission of the organization.

0 The volume and kind of workload.

0 Work methods and procedures.

° The outlook of the employees toward technological change.

83
0 The expectations of the staff regarding management & organizational

climate.

° The approach used to introduce automation and training.

Keen (98) notes that it took the data processing field almost 30 years to

discover that the introduction of technology into an organization can have a profound effect on it. However, while data processing (DP) did impact the

specific job functions of some individuals, most people in an organization had

little direct contact with DP. The advent of 0A on the other hand has much

widespread organization implications which are only now receiving some serious

attention by researchers. Keen's paper summarizes the responses of researchers

and practitioners of 0A to the following questions:

° What are the positive aspects of office technology (0T)? The negative?

Which will win?

° What are the implementors and sellers of office technology overlooking?

What research is needed here?

0 Where will applications have reached five years in the future? What

will be the major changes to organizations and to individuals?

° What are the key issues for research?

0 What conceptually and empirically do the fields of social science,

management and even liberal arts offer to the study of office

technology and people?

The responses indicated that the primary need is for methodological research,

examining issues of how to study work processes and what aspects should be

explored. Another theme was the need to pay more attention to behavioral and

organizational issues rather than solely concentrating on technological ones.

The research agenda compiled as a result of the study contained the following

six subject areas:

1. The study of work

2. The impacts of technical change on the individual and the organization

3. The criteria for design of 0A tools

4. A suitable conception and measure of productivity for 0A

5. The knowledge base needed for effective education and

6. A deeper, broader and more realistic picture of the relationship

between people and technology and vice versa.

84
6. OFFICE INFORMATION SYSTEMS

Martin (23), Hammer (99), Connell (11) and countless other OA experts have

characterized the office as a setting for developing, processing, and disseminating organizational information, Strassman (100) makes the further point

that in the of f ice-of-the future, information will have to be handled electronically in ways that reduce labor requirements, since they already constitute a major organizational expense and have been steadily increasing. The trend away

from an almost total reliance on paper as an informational medium toward electronically based systems, importantly influences office design in many respects.

For the forseeable future, office design must accomodate informational systems

that rely on paper and electronic media, and increasingly, microfiche systems

are being used as well. A worker at a single workstation often is required to

deal with information in all three of these forms during the course of a workday. The lighting designer who must provide a system whch accomodates the

visual needs of an office worker who accesses information from a VDT screen,

paper copy, and a microfiche reader, is faced with a formidable challenge.

The increased use of VDT based workstations, and the linking of individual

stations into networks has already changed the appearance and functioning of

many offices, and as noted earlier, most OA experts anticipate an acceleration

of this trend. The workstation is the place where the information and telecommunication technologies have come together to provide the opportunity to

restructure to restructure the way that office work is performed by all people

engaged in office work. The individual at a workstation is becoming increasingly autonomous in being able to perform many office tasks —having the

ability to access data bases and peripheral devices by electronic means. This

increasing degree of independence from other people in the office (e.g.,

support personnel) , has already transformed the workplace as a social setting

in many instances, in ways that are only partially understood, and only now

are beginning to be investigated by researchers. Office designers are faced

with a major challenge to provide a setting where the shared purposes of the

staff and the organization can be identified for individuals who are capable

of performing many jobs with litle or no interaction with their associates.

Information is a corporate resource, and should be looked upon as the product

of the office according to Connell (101). While important, it is hard to place

a value on information because it is far different than traditional products.

Managers need to know about information technology developments. Data processing was an outgrowth of the punched card equipment in the 1950s and the electronic computers in the 1960s. WP started with the typewriters with magnetic

tape storage in the 1960s. The office today is organized around technologies

as they have developed historically, and their separation has been institutionalized. This is now changing because the distinction among technologies is

being blurred, and the advances in telecommunications now permit the

interconnection of previously separate technologies into networks.

The minicomputer exemplifies the change which moves the computer power out of

the hands of the information specialists and the data center into the office.

85
Many of the DP systems in use today require experts to maintain and update

programs - a very inefficient system.

In the development of conventional information systems, users propose a system

to accomplish a given function. The information services activity then conducts

a feasibility study and reviews the findings with the users. A system is then

designed, which is then received and finally accepted by the using organization. In this approach, the views of the systems designers predominate, with

the users having at best a secondary role, and a limited understanding of the

decisions being made. As a result of this process users are often dissatisfied

with the system provided to them, and consequently underutilize it.

Connell suggests an evolutionary approach which centers on the system user

(figure 16). The user is responsible for conducting the design effort and the

system analyst's role is one of a catalyst for the design team. The emphasis

on the user is to ensure that the system is understood by him, responsive to

his needs, and that he has an important stake in the success of the system. In the design, special attention is given to the user interface - the design element most influential in determining the user reaction to a system. The criteria used to evaluate the final system is also established by the user, in terms

of its usefulness and general acceptability rather than its technical elegance,

often sought by the systems designer.

Documents may be originated internal or external to an organization and may be

in one of many forms, from a telephone message to a formal report. For most

intra-organizational documents, initiation and word processing may be combined

into a single step. Once a document is in digital form, it is disseminated

electronically to recipients, and/or filed for subsequent retrieval by those

requiring the information. Developing effective office information systems for

organizations requires:

° Determining appropriate formats for typical office documents.

° Formulating improved indexing systems for corporate documents.

° Identifying those who should be responsible for document indexing.

° Developing efficient search strategies for document retrieval.

McNurlin (18) suggests that field studies should be conducted in a variety of

organizational settings to study the mechanics of document processing in offices.

She also advocates the development and testing of several indexing procedures

to determine their effectiveness of system performance.

The need for a company-wide data base is being increasingly recognized by many

organizations, according to Nolan (102). It is based upon two premises: The

data in computer storage is an independent resource, not merely the raw material to be manipulated by computer programs. These data can be structured and

managed to enable them to be an important resource for the organization as a whole, especially on an ad hoc basis - where they would be especially responsive

to requests by higher levels of management.

86
Traditional

STAGES

inception

Fm»%ibillty

Aj\*#y** £ OmIqa

Programming

Coovorsloo

Makilonanc*

Evolutionary

STAGES

Inception

Initial Groping

Mutual Prograaa

Convaraion

Maturity

Figure 16. Traditional and evolutionary design (Connell)

Many of the current data bases ’nave been developed independently by

working units in an organization to meet particular needs . The data

are often quite fragmentary as a result, and compatibility across

organizational boundaries is quite rare. This historical development

of data files has resulted in several problems:

87
° Files and records are often duplicated to meet particular needs. The

updating of such files is burdensome and costly, and it is inefficient

to maintain redundant files.

0 The advantages of the new technologies (reduced costs of data storage)

are not capitalized upon, and programming requirements are increased

when modifications are needed.

0 Middle and upper management cannot readily obtain the information that

they need because of the existing data structures and organization.

In general - the more closely related the functional use of the data, the

easier it is to design a noh-redundant integrated data base comprised of com- puter readable data. Key task identification has been an effective strategy

in developing computerized data bases, when organized in accordance with

commercial software packages (KEY TASKS = Top Management needs).

Connell (101) observes that information needs are not being met today, not

because of the lack of data but from an overload of irrelevant data. A major

problem today is that no individual manages today's office, rather assignments

are made in accordance with departments or functions. The office is task

centered instead of being oriented toward organizational goals.

6.1 INFORMATION SYSTEMS AND TYPES

Computer message systems for managers constitute a major challenge to systems

designers since management work is characterized by its unpredictability and

variety, according to Newman (103). No body of data is available to help structure a job, or its informational requirements. Furthermore, by its very nature

a management job in one organization is likely to be very different from a "similar" job elsewhere. What a decision maker needs is the ability to manipulate

pulate a continuously updated data base, to extrapolate trends and visualize

information in various formats. This capability would require an interface

that enables him to access all relavant information simply and in the same way

- not requiring a good deal of specialized training in order to use the system.

One of the most important attributes of an automated office is the organization

of a data base to enable all workers to have access to the information that

they require. Clark (104) defines such a data base as:

"a stored collection of integrated records used by two or more applications

systems. It is intended to handle the data requirements in a dynamic

environment, and facilitate planned and organized change. To facilitate

change, it uses principles of data redundancy and centralized coordination

and control over the physical resource through a data base management

system (DBMS)."

6.1.1 Data Base Management Systems (DBMS)

While there is no generally accepted definition for a DBMS, Clark suggests that

such a system consists of:

88
o

o

o

o

o

Figure

User requesters of data - read-data, modify-data , add-delete-data.

Software to retrieve, write, or modify data.

The data base which serves as the physical repository of data.

An Applications program, which writes codes to process user requests.

The control of information resource by generating data descriptions and

selecting user access policies.

17 illustrates the DBMS operational environment.

(D P>

Figure 17. DBMS operational environment (Clark)

89
6.1.2 Decision Support Systems (DSS)

Morgan (105) believes that decision support systems (DSS) can play an important

role for professionals and managers in the automated office. These systems

provide direct input and feedback in the decision making process. For the most

part the available systems can operate on terminals used for word processing

and electronic mail. They enable a manager to examine a range of alternatives

in making a decision, or examine the effects of a range of variables more effectively than by using manual or batch processing methods.

Managers seldom need access to individual transactions which occur in an organization. Rather, they want to see aggregated sets of data describing

operations and functions. Initially, management information systems (MIS) were developed to fill this need; they focused on historical data and information

generated within an organization. The advent of DSS demonstrates the shift

from historical data requirements to projections that can be used for planning

purposes

.

DSS, unlike other information systems, must be designed for a specific user in

a specific decision situation. It is rare that a DSS will be used in the same way by a group of users. Under these circumstances, the DSS must be capable of

being built quickly and inexpensively. The heart of any DSS is the model which

the user builds of a given decision problem. This model may be analytical, * tabular or a simulation. The ease of entering and changing the model is of

central importance since the user is not likely to be an expert programmer.

Since one major purpose of the DSS is to permit many alternatives to be

examined, good output mechanisms are required, especially graphics.

6. 1.2.1 Building Blocks of a DSS

Morgan indicates that there are four key building blocks of a DSS, making use

of generalized programming procedures and application generators.

1. Interactive user interface . Dialog managers are employed, which are standard subroutines which are called upon for input/output functions

at the terminal. They list parameters such as: question to be asked,

type of response desired, reference pointer.

2. Database manager . Brings external information into the system, saves

and restores information from one run to the next, and links different

application modules, and provides ready access to raw data.

3. Modeling system . Enables users to select from a variety of models.

4. Output generator . Data can be presented in a number of forms,

depending on the nature of the information used and the decisions to

be made. An important attribute is the capability to deal with "what

if" type of questions by demonstrating the effects of changing

individual parameters.

The author suggests that a DSS be implemented by starting with a set of

prototype menus , and determining whether the user can go through them in a

90
logical sequence. The system designer must work closely with the user to

clarify particular needs and desires, resulting in a rough model that should

then be tested by the user before being implemented.

Keen (106) describes a DSS as a means to improve the effectiveness of managers

by supporting the process used to make management decisions. The DSS neither

automates the decision process nor imposes a sequence of analysis on the user.

It is characterized by the following:

0 It is used for non-routine (ad-hoc) problem solving.

° It often addresses "what if" questions.

0 It does not result in "correct" answers, but clarifies the tradeoffs

that are available to the manager.

Table 21. Potential Benefits of DSS, and the Ease of Measuring them (Keen)

Easy to

Measure?

Benefit can quantified

"bottom line"

. be

in a figure?

1 . Increase in number of alternatives

examined

Y N

2. Better understanding of the

business

N N

3. Fast response to unexpected

situations

Y N

4. Ability to carry out ad hoc

analysis

Y N

5. New insights and learning N N

6. Improved communication N N

7. Control N N

8. Cost savings Y Y

9. Better decisions N N

10. More effective teamwork N N

11. Time savings Y Y

12. Making better use of data

resource

Y N

91
As computer users operate more of their own equipment they want control of how

and when their activities are performed. This orientation has important implications for Management Information Systems (MIS), against centralized control,

toward a distributed systems approach, and increasing end-user responsibilities

this trend is especially true for organizational units with unique short-term

informational requirements.

The trend to centralization has led to a number of problems:

° Isolation of the MIS activivity from the end-user and incomplete

understanding of his needs.

° A great deal of time and money expanded in developing and maintaining

a centralized system.

0 Bottlenecks occurring in central system, leading to the purchase of

microcomputers to deal with specific uses.

Advantages of Distributed Systems:

° Less costly to purchase and operate; can be tailored to specific needs

of operating groups.

° Communications costs less because of networking; less need for leased

lines

.

0 Avoidance of bottlenecks associated with centralized facilities.

Organizational Impact of Distributed Systems:

° User management will have to be somewhat knowledgable about system.

° User will be responsible for daily operation of system.

° User will have to spend time learning how to operate system; increased

job responsibilities.

0 Diminished need for centralized systems.

Robey (107) examined the impact of computers on management personnel by

surveying managers in eight organizations located in five different countries.

The respondents were asked questions about the effects of automation on the

factors listed on table 22.

92
Table 22. Office Performance Factors (Robey)

• Enriching factors - which reflect intrinsically satisfying aspects of

work.

1. Degree of complexity in the task

2. Number of problems recognized within the task

3. Possibility of developing new ideas or methods

4. Feedback on decisions

® Structural factors - which reflect rigidity and routine in the task.

1. Degree of routine of the task

2. Standardization of codes or terminology in the task

o Load factors - which reflect work pace and its variations

1. Work pace in the task

2. Variations in work pace in the task

3. Work load within the task

Robey found that managers were enthusiastic about the new technologies because

they were perceived to improve their job performance. A large percentage of

users believed that their jobs were enriched because of the increase in time

available for creative activities, and for the opportunity to deal with more

complex and demanding tasks; and opportunity to deal with difficult challenges.

The additional structuring of tasks required by computer control was not perceived to be a disadvantage, because this standardization freed the managers to

apply new ideas and methods to a wider variety of problems that they

encountered.

6.2 DISTRIBUTED DATA PROCESSING

Distributed processing refers to the division of logically related processing

functions among geographically dispersed computer systems. Instead of one computer performing all of the jobs, physically separate mini and/or microcomputers will each perform part of the processing function. Feidelman (108)

evaluates DDP as follows:

The advantages of DDP are:

Design modularity which permits computer power or peripheral capability to

be added or subtracted in accordance with the needs of the user.

System Reliability is enhanced because a breakdown is not catastrophic,

that is, only part of the information is lost.

93
User Interaction is facilitated because "user friendly” languages are more often employed than is the case with centralized systems.

Disadvantages of DDP:

0 More sophisticated control programs are required.

° Current MIS are designed to support central data bases. A new

technology is required to provide updating capability and maintain the

integrity of the data base.

Four phases have been identified by Fiedelman in establishing an integrated

DDP system:

1. Remotely located data entry /processing terminals are satellites to the

centralized computer. The central computer takes on the responsibility

for management requirements.

2. Minicomputer systems perform specific DP functions and are satellites

to the central computer.

3. Professional work stations with microcomputers can work both

independently and as terminals to the main computer.

4. A central computer with a network of other computers to perform OA & DP work.

Several methods are suggested by Withington (109) to cope with the advent of

distributed data processing (DDP). Programmers, systems analysts and information specialists should work with professionals and managers who want to become

knowledgable about data processing. New and limited experimental DDP systems

should be developed as needed, and findings should be shared throughout

organizations after assessments of the systems are made. Experimental systems

should follow existing standards and procedures to the extent feasible, while

permitting a degree of flexibility and innovation to enable improved systems

to evolve. A balance must also be maintained toward central guidance and the

encouragement of creative ideas from lower levels of the organization.

The success of experimental systems is thought to be primarily dependent on the

motivation and preference of the end-users, and they should be given as much

responsibility as possible in system development, consistent with general

organizational guidelines. Failure of some new systems must be tolerated to

encourage innovation. Withington summarizes the potential advantages and

disadvantages of distributed responsibility as follows:

6.2.1 Potential Advantages of Distributed Responsibility

° Disperses expertise to users and increases technological awareness

throughout an organization.

94
° Innovation is fostered, while some central control is maintained.

° Internal guidelines can be upgraded as a result of new experiences.

° It promotes better communication across organizational units.

° It encourages the use of common procedures because of substantial user involvement in their development.

6.2.2 Potential Disadvantages of Distributed Responsibility

° Proliferation of many independent and dedicated systems.

0 Time spent on meetings to develop consensus on new systems.

° Data processing professionals are required to perform new functions,

e.g. teaching.

0 The process is difficult to control centrally.

0 The approach assumes little centralized long-range planning.

6.3 INFORMATIONAL ANALYSIS FOR COMPUTER USE

Kunin (110), in a fundamental paper, indicates the need to develop a language

tailored to describe office functions. He starts with the premise that a structure exists in an office. A office is then described as a system which

includes space, equipment, information and people. It has a particular mission

- a set of goals which may be specified. The activities of office workers

should be designed to effect that mission - and other system components exist

to help the worker carry out that mission (e.g., hardware and systems). A

second premise is that a high degree of commonality exists in the structures

and activities of diverse offices, and that these commonalities can be expressed

in terms of a formal language. A third premise is that office procedures are basically simple, but are often obscured by implementation details. Finally,

documents are not the fundamental focus of office procedures , but rather are artifacts of the current implementation procedures. Kunin stresses the

difference between functions and procedures in the following way. Functions

manage objects while procedures change the state of objects, until the objects

are no longer pertinent to the procedure. This object orientation enables the

procedure to be defined as a sequence of desired object state changes .

Rosenbaum (111) developed a procedure of specifying the functional requirements

of office automation users. Features and requirements of systems are organized

under the following general categories:

° Text entry (document creation)

0 Text output (document production)

0 Text editing

0 Text file, search and retrieval

° Document distribution and receipt

95
0 Computer based messaging and conferencing

0 Automated personnel and administrative aids and service

6.4 USER-SOFTWARE ISSUES

James (112) asserts that present Computer systems are deficient in many respects

but particularly with their responsiveness to users. He summarizes the problems

as follows

"In a typical 'system' we have hardware controlled by some arbitrary

'machine code' which represents how engineers think about computing.

Then we have an operating system , which attempts to disguise the

collection of separately designed hardware components so that systems

programmers do not have to spend all their time using special control

codes for each component. Associated with this level is a control

language which represents how a 'system' programmer has viewed the

computing process. Finally, we have a collection of programming

language compilers which impose a variety of models on the representation of 'solutions' to users' problems. Some parts of the programming language talk directly to hardware arithmetic units, some parts

talk to a great hierarchy of operating system commands which insulate

time-dependent operations of the input and output hardware from the

programmer's consideration; yet again, other parts of the language

modify the program itself to induce the repetition of nearly identical sequences of operation.

There is an enormous variation in relative power of individual

instruction in terms of what .the hardware eventually does to realize

each one, and enormous variation in the levels of language employed

and the precision with which they must be specified."

James attributes many of the problems in OA to the failure to define clear

objectives, which should focus on the ease of system use by the end-user.

Current systems are designed for computer specialists for the most part. The

user is faced with a foreign system, and documentation which is not suitable to

the layman.

The end-user needs a system that is reliable, and one that provides feedback

information as a result of user actions. The user should not be placed in the

position of waiting for something that is not going to occur. In the event of

a system breakdown, the user needs information indicating when it will be

operational again.

Kling and Scacchi (113) observe that people who use computers are required to

adjust to changes in computer systems and develop back-up procedures to use when automated systems are not available to them. Most solutions to computer

use have focused on hardware improvements rather than dealing with the needs of

the user and/or the organization. Computer use occurs in a complex social

setting, defined by characteristics such as:

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0 Many people who are computer users expect that it will make them more

effective in their work, although the computer is not central to their

job responsibilities.

0 The same data base is often needed by several different users who have

conflicting views as to the data processing requirements for systems,

and varying degrees of understanding about how much systems are used

and operated.

° Data bases are often designed to serve managers with limited skills and

knowledge concerning how such information is accessed.

° Computer based services are organized in many different ways within and

between organizations.

Common issues in computer use:

° Users and computer specialists have different views about their work

and how they are to interact with one another.

0 People have conflicting views about the priorities and importance of

various tasks.

0 Conflicts often occur between users and computer specialists regarding

who "controls" .the computer capability.

C.P. Snow (114) made the point that two cultures are involved in modern society:

the the scientific and non-scientif ic. Kintisch and Weisbord (115) suggest that

designers and users of computer systems exemplify these differences, which can

be divided into four categories:

1. Goal orientation . The computer specialist often sees himself as a member of a profession with transferable skills, which can be used by

any organization. The users are primarily oriented toward the present

employer and feels secure using present methods of doing their jobs.

Change is a burden, and a threat.

2. Time orientation . Computer specialists often work in a long-term time

frame, not requiring immediate feedback information concerning the

effectiveness of his work. The user is more concerned with meeting

short-term objectives in his day-to-day responsibilities.

3. Formality of organizational structure . Computer specialists often

operate in a rather informal manner because of the requirement to

respond to individuals at various levels in an organization. Most

users operate within an organizational "chain of command".

4. Interpersonal orientation . Computer specialists work with abstract

material, using formal language structures required by their computers.

Users conduct business by means of verbal communications in many

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instances, interacting with peers, superiors and subordinates in

traditional ways; a "people" rather then computer orientation.

A team approach is needed to bring together these diverse groups. The leader

of such a team should be knowledgeable about the subject matter being discussed,

and hold a prominent organizational position.

Zuboff (116) observed that the primary goal of most computerized systems is to

substitute decision rules or algorithms for individual judgement. This enables

the development of computer programs which formalize the skills required to

perform desired tasks. As the decision rules become more precise, more activities can be planned in advance and the less actual decision making is required

at each stage of a process. A danger exists that decision rules will be based

more and more on analytic procedures which do not deal with the real world com- plexity of many situations. Zuboff indicates that "the demands of the information system thus come to define the questions that are posed, the problems that

are tackled, the meaning of valid information, and eventually the limits of

knowledge itself." She suggests that managers will resist using information

systems which appear to limit their freedom or increase the possibility of

their work output being subject to measurement.

Zuboff agrees with the authors cited earlier; most professionals and managers

now work in a relatively ambiguous environment, operating with incomplete

information. The uncertainty of the limited information available enables them

to freely exercise their judgements in many situations. This operating freedom

is one of the major reasons for preferring professional work to the performance

of routine and highly structured tasks such as those encountered on an assembly

line. When the design of complex systems is highly centralized and computerized,

the end user is likely to have little or no understanding of the comprehensive

functioning of the system, or the decision rules or normative criteria built

into the programs. As a result, it becomes difficult to challenge the validity

of the information that they must work with.

The rhythm of work can also be profoundly affected by the availability of

computerized information. In the past, when data printouts were available

within 24 hours the users were quite content; now those who work with computers

are often impatient when a wait of several seconds is necessary before the

information can be accessed.

Finally, the computer terminal affects the quality and frequency of social

interactions in the workplace, and their frequency. Instead of approaching a colleague for clarifying information associated with a problem, it becomes

much easier to access a data base.

Bennett (117) describes a method of employing the concept of 'usability' as a means of evaluating the effectiveness of computer software from the standpoint

of the end user. Usability refers to the ease of learning and ease of use. It is defined as a relationship among task, system and user to accomplish a given

purpose (which can be objectively measured. Table 23 describes several categories of usability.

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Table 23. Measureable "Ease of Use" Attributes Can Be Applied to Managing

System Usability (Bennett)

LEARNAB ILITY

1. Training time for the population of intended users.

If an interface is "obvious" and fits smoothly into the user's pre-set or pre-conceived way of doing things, then the actions taken by the user will

be "correct", and the training time will be short.

2. learning time until a user can enter actions "automatically".

When tasks involve creative thinking, the person's limited cognitive

capacity makes it desirable that he or she can do any mechanical actions

involved in the tasks without thinking about them. The person typing is

most efficient when thinking of content, not the location of keys on a keyboard.

THROUGHPUT

3. Kind and rate of errors.

Errors can be a revealing indicator of where the "correct" action of the

user (based on the "model" of the system in the user's mind) does not agree

with the action expected by the system (the actual "model" as represented

in the design of its hardware and software). The designer can use the

pattern of errors as a diagnostic cue and choose to change the user's

"model" of the system (through training) or to change the user interface

(redesign of the system).

4. Time to recover from (user or system) errors.

Whatever the task, people will make mistakes. This is especially true for

people who are infrequent users. An inhibitor to increased use of computer

power is a concern that work will have to be repeated. Sure and rapid

recovery from an error will be extremely important to people who entrust

their creative work to an office system.

5. Warm-up time after being away from the equipment.

The wide variety of functions available through a computer terminal makes

it unlikely that a user can always remember immediately how to get useful

results. The amount of "how do I do that?" review needed is important for

office workers who use a terminal irregularly or who use a variety of

computer-based tools.

ATTITUDE

6.

Feelings about continued use.

If a user's perception is that the system puts a physical or mental strain

on him, he is not likely to be favorably disposed toward using it. In fact

he may find active ways to prove that his use of that particular tool is

not in his organization's best interest.

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Stewart (118) discusses software requirements from the standpoint of dialogue

requirements - which involves the sharing of knowledge by the exchange of

information. An important characteristic of the communications medium is that

it should not limit the ability of individuals to express complex and subtle

ideas. The success of a dialogue also depends on the availability of suitable

feedback, to signal when a message has been received properly or requires

additional clarification to be understood. At times, dialogues require that

withholding of some information which may make the message too complicated to

understand. These general requirements also apply to human-computer dialogues,

except the communications medium and the responsiveness of at least one participant are limited.

Crenshaw and Philipose (119) describe a friendly computer environment as one which meets the needs of users rather than violates them. Several such needs

are

0 The need to have our expectations met. Machine performance should be

predictable.

0 The need for clear information.

° The need to succeed. Systems should allow for different levels of user

experience and knowledge.

° The right to fail. Everyone makes mistakes, and computer systems

should minimize the adverse effects of failure.

° The need for individuality. An environment which has no flexibility is

constraining to the user.

6.5 INFORMATION SYSTEMS - SOME DESIGN IMPLICATIONS

The phasing out of many papers files in favor of electronic and microfiche

technology has several design implications:

° Accessibility of electronically stored data is not dependent upon

physical^ location.

0 Electronically stored information requires emergency backup power to

ensure that it is not lost during a power outage.

° The physical space required for data storage is likely to be reduced.

° The workstation design must accommodate the technology needed to access

data stored electronically and on microfiche.

° Special facilities might be required to house the electrical storage

system.

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7. SOME TECHNOLOGICAL AND COMMUNICATIONS ISSUES

While technological and telecommunications developments are already influencing

the design of offices, the "electronic revolution" has only started, in the

view of most forecasters (4, 5, 11, 17). Buildings are now being designed to

accomodate the electronic office, and the monitoring of building management

functions (120). Workstations within buildings are being linked together to

enable the sharing of information and other resources. Moreover, new spaces

are being designed, which provide the capability to perform many traditional

organizational functions, such as meetings, in new ways - e.g., teleconference

rooms. Finally, the proliferation of electronic and electro-mechanical devices

in offices designed to accomodate paper-based information systems, has led to

environmental problems of noise and thermal discomfort for many office workers.

Office designs are needed which accomodate the needs of both the equipment and

the working staff. Moreover, these designs must be flexible enough to

accomodate the changes that are inevitable - technological and organizational

ones.

The driving forces behind office automation are the rapid advances made in

technology and telecommunication. The diversity and volume of information

dealing with these topics, as well as rate at which new products are being

marketed, preclude any attempt to cover these subject areas in the present

report. A limited number of issues will be addressed—those of particular

relevance to the development of office design criteria.

An office system may be thought of as a collection of machines which are capable of being linked together to perform necessary office tasks. The goals

of each office or business may differ from one another in significant ways, so the configuration and composition of systems show considerable variability.

However, the architecture for office automation must provide for the connection

of a number of machines which perform different functions, depending upon the

particular requirements of a given office. Local area networks (LAN) will be

the primary means of connecting office machines into a system within an office.

7.1 LOCAL AREA NETWORKS (LAN)

All of the advanced office technologies share the requirement to interface with

one another by electronic means. Yet, one of the major impediments to office

automation today is the lack of standardized systems (software and hardware) to

move information from device to device, from system to system. As a result

much of the available technology is incompatible.

In order to overcome this difficulty, several internally compatible systems

have been developed. These systems are designed to access information from the

"outside world" and also to facilitate the acquisition, transfer, analysis, and

modification of data within an organization. These systems are often termed

local area networks (LAN). Lowenthal (121) defines a IAN as a system where:

° Distances are measured in meters rather than kilometers

° Bandwidths are on the order of 1 to 20 megabits per second

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° One operating unit (node) can potentially communicate with any

other note at a given time.

In the view of Connell (122) the major advance of office automation technology

in the 1980s is the advent of LAN designed to interconnect different machines,

languages, and operating techniques into a coherent system. Networks are important because they provide the capabilities of advanced technologies to

every office worker in every location. In the past, new technologies have been

removed from the regular office into special centers. The specialized center

approach has typified advances in data processing, word processing and reprographics. Furthermore, the capabilities of the technologies were made available

through specialists in the given area, but not to the general work force. The

physical separation of the activities was therefore reflected in the

organizational structure of the company.

A second reason why networks are important in the view of Connell, is that

individual technologies must be subordinated to organizational needs. As

mentioned previously, offices have been organized into departments responsible

for given technologies, with each one operating with considerable independence.

The advent of networking requires coordinated planning which should include all

office disciplines. This planning should be from the top-down and may result

in a centralized or decentralized approach for office operations, depending on the nature of the organization and the viewpoint of top management.

While there is no single definition of a local area computer network (IAN)

table 24 indicates the requirements of such a system in the view of Shoch et al.

(123)

:

LAN is a development which responds to the need for integrated communication and

information systems, but also reflects the technological marketplace. Saal

(124) observes that as a result of the revolution in microchip technology the

cost of a central processing unit (CPU) no longer dominates the development of

a computer system. Instead, disc drives, printers and other electro-mechanical

devices sometimes cost more than the central processor. The emphasis today is

for rapid access to information by clerical, management and professional

personnel. The personal computer is dedicated toward meeting this need by a one-person, one-computer approach. However, while sharing a personal computer

is often not feasible today, the need still exists to share information and

peripheral equipment which would not be cost-effective if employed by a single

person (e.g. a high quality printer).

Personal computer networks preserve the independence of each work station while

enabling users to share data and peripheral devices. Another standard feature

of such networks is the ability to connect multiple networks by means of an internetwork link (gateway). Because of the multiplicity of technologies and

communication protocols in use today, electrical and software protocols must

be converted when passing data through these gateways.

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Table 24. Requirements for a LAN (Shoch)

0 Relatively high data rates (typically 1 to 10 megabits per second);

° Geographic distance spanning at most 1 kilometer (typically within a building or a small set of buildings).

° Ability to support several hundred independent devices;

0 Simplicity, or the ability "to provide the simplest possible mechanisms

that have the required functionality and performance"; [Crane and Taft,

1980]

° Good error characteristics, good reliability, and minimal dependence

upon any centralized components or control;

0 Efficient use of shared resources, particularly the communications

network itself;

0 Stability under high load;

° Fair access to the system by all devices;

° Easy installation of a small system, with gradual growth as the system

evolves

° Ease of re-configuration and maintenance;

0 Low cost

Blackmarr (125) defines a LAN as an electronic communication linkage which does

not require the use of any public communication facilities. He then discussed

two major LAN issues:

7.1.1 Baseband vs Broadband

Broadband LAN uses one of several approaches often Frequency Division

Multiplexing (FDM), to divide the throughput capacity of a LAN among several

concurrent users. It is more sophisticated than baseband and therefore is

more expensive. It has the advantage of providing a tremendous data throughput

and is therefore suitable for high volume data transmissions. A baseband

system is more limited in that it typically assigns its entire capacity to a single user for a brief period of time. It is especially suited to many

low-volume users - typical of many present users of office automation.

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7.1.2 IAN Circuitry

Many IAN use a data cable or CATV cable to connect network stations. An

alternative approach is the use of existing telephone lines (twisted pairs),

which is especially useful for offices located in existing buildings where it

is difficult and expensive to string new cable. The major consideration is

the communication capability needed, telephone lines being limited to

approximately 56 Kbits/sec under ideal conditions.

Table 25. Typical Data Throughput Requirements (Blackmarr)

Application Type

Preferred Throughput Rate*

(Bits/ Second)

O Telex 55

• Low Volume Data Communication 4,800

9 Moderate Volume Data Communication 9,600

O High Volume Data Communication 56,000

o Digital Voice 32,000

9 Analog Voice 64,000

9 Digital Video 3,000,000

• Television Grade Color Video 92,000,000

* Using current transmission techniques typical for each type of communication.

7.2 NETWORK CONFIGURATIONS

The newest (fifth) generation of computer technology is defined by Holzman

(126) as an interlinked system of microcomputers which enable users to operate

independently, while being able to directly access data within a computer

network. Most local networks are designed to accommodate 200 or more microprocessor stations (nodes), separated from each other by as much as one mile.

Each node operates as a personal computer and a communications system enabling

data from diverse organizational units to be used by an individual working to

solve a given problem or perform other office functions. Three types of

configurations exemplify the structure of most networks:

1. The Star. This is the oldest arrangement, with a multiplexing device

at the hub of the network. Microcomputers connect to the hub directly

by coaxial cable or a telephone, using a modem. The problem with this

104
Figure 18. Star network topology

arrangement is that the net is centrally controlled - resulting in a breakdown of the entire system when the hub encounters problems.

2. The Ring. This configuration eliminates the need for a central hub

switcher. A signal repeater is located at each node of the network,

enabling signals to travel greater distances. The ring permits the use of fiber-optic cable for transmissions, permitting very high

Figure 19. Ring network topology

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performance. A major problem with this approach is that if one node

goes down, the entire network is out of operation. This also means

that when a new station is added to the ring, the network is down.

3. A bus network. This is the most common form of network, and consists

of a length of coaxial cable (bus), to which microcomputer stations

are attached by means of simple cable taps. There is no centralized

control hub, and signals from one station move along the bus in both

directions to all stations tapped into the cable. This system is

especially suited to a business environment because they are installed

relatively easily and cheaply, without requiring the system to shut

down when such changes are made. Also, it has a high degree of reliability because there are no active components along the transmission

cable. It has the disadvantage of not being able to accommodate

fiber-optic cables.

Figure 20. Bus network topology

A current problem with local area network (LAN) is the lack of standardization.

To help solve this problem, the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers

(IEEE) created project 802 to establish network standards which would in turn

impact the standardization of hardware and software components of networks.

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Table 26. Evaluation of LAN Network Configurations (Holzman)

1. Star

Positive Features Negative Features

Permits multiple simultaneous access. Memory may reside in both peripheral

terminals (a)-(h) and Central

Processor. Ideally suited to continuous

monitoring of individual and full

system performance.

System architecture permits

independent hook-up to selected

terminals

Central process unit malfunction

affects entire system.

CPU operational limitations

influence system capability.

High load operation calls for

carefully planned access

strategy.

This network scheme emphasizes a cop down, centralized decision-making

structure; office layout may either reinforce of "soften" this effect.

2. Ring

Positive Features

High overall performance.

Each terminal (a)-(h) communicates

with every other terminal.

Supports distributed

decision-making

Repeaters boost signal for large

terminal separation distances.

Terminal fault detection and

diagnosis possible from any

other terminal.

Negative Features

Relatively less reliable due

to more physical connects. Relatively easy to gain access (security problems).

Ring's bandwidth ultimately

limits data transmission

capability.

Requires on-line access control strategy.

The layout of offices using this type of network scheme should supports its

positive features and reduce the potential impact of ics negative features.

3 . Bus

Positive Features

Each terminal (a)-(e) communicates

with every ocher terminal.

Control may be decentralized.

In wide use today with good track

record.

Relatively fewer maintenance

problems due to use of a common data linking bus.

Allows for addition of peripheral

equipment with relative ease. Data repeater module(s) may be

added along bus for long

distance applications.

Highly useful for EMS.

Negative Features

Broken bus effectively

cripples all down-line

communication.

Relatively easy to tap

(security problems).

Bus bandwidth ultimately

limits data transmission

capability.

Requires some strategy

(and tailored software)

to control user access during "high load"

operation.

Office layout with this type of communications network should cake inco careful

consideration the fact of its decentralized system control. All users can speak

with Che same volume. Office layout may be used to help establish user priorities.

107
7.3 ETHERNET

Metcalfe and Boggs (127) describes ETHERNET as a system for local communication

among computing stations. A typical application is to carry variable length

digital data packets among such systems as personal computers, printing facilities, storage devices and larger central computers. The primary objective of

the system is to design communications which can grow smoothly to accommodate

several buildings containing personal computers and associated equipment. The

layout and changing needs of the office led to the choice of a network topology

which lends itself to extension and modification with minimal disruption of

service

.

Lowenthal (121) describes ETHERNET as an example of a LAN. "It envisions a federation of microcomputer device elements communicating with one another

through a coaxial cable. No node is in control of the network, and there is no notion of master or slave implicit in the network itself." The system is

dominated by "workstations" and by "servers" who directly control the data resources. ETHERNET is an example of distributed data processing (DDP), where

the workstation is specifically designed for a given function such as word

processing and therefore has a data processing capability such as formatting

and editing.

Norris (128) describes the electronic system implemented at Micronet, Inc., an office designed to minimize the paper needed for internal handling. The impetus of the design is to reduce filing space while expediting information retrieval and handling. In planning the facility only off-the-shelf equipment was used. Another design principle is that "the systems and technology are tools,

not solutions. People are the solution, and training at all levels is needed

to put the tools to work effectively. Most offices have only budgeted for

hardware; they have not planned for training, analysis, procedures and integration - with the result that users are often dissatisfied with the effectiveness

of the final systems, and place the blame on the technology."

The focal point of the Micronet system is a modular workstation, which includes

a VDT terminal to access a central computer, a telephone, and a microfiche

reader. In preparing a document, the operator dictates the material by means

of a touch-tone telephone connected to a dictagraph system which provides the

opportunity to review the dictation. An operator then transcribes the material,

using a word processor. After the document has been created and edited it is

transported electrically to a microcomputer, where it is indexed and transferred

to magnetic tape for future retrieval. The tape is then loaded on a computeroutput microfilm (COM) recorder, which converts the electronic data to readable

form and records it at 16,000 lines per minute on 4" x 6" microfiche. Formatting for the COM is accomplished by a front-end microcomputer on the COM

recorder. The microfiche are then filed in a mass storage and retrieval system

which can randomly retrieve the equivalent of more than 20 million pages of

material at the push of a button.

An optical character recognition (OCR) unit is used to convert documents in

paper form to digital data for revision by a dedicated word processor. Documents outputted by means of the COM, the computer or the word processor can

108
readily be converted into paper form for further processing by the OCR, permitting easy revision of documents without having paper storage. At Micronet, the

digital files are checked daily, and if not used in the preceding 90 days, the

originator is asked whether they are still needed.

Figure 21 below describes the creation of internally generated information at

Micronet.

Figure 21. Internally created information Micronet (Norris)

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7.4 ELECTRONIC MAIL

While traditional message switching is accomplished by messages being routed to

a particular physical terminal, Sirbu (129) observes that electronic mail

systems are designed to serve particular users. An important aspect of any

mail system is the convenience of using a "third party carrier" between the

sender and the intended receiver of mail, so that personal contact between the

two people communicating is not required. Another key characteristic of the

latter approach is that messages for a given person are stored and can be

accessed by him from any terminal connected to the time sharing system. Office

automation should provide individuals and offices with communications facilities

that permit written messages to be sent at the sender's discretion and delivered

in machine readable form to other individuals or groups. The recipient should

have the ability to use the messages to suit their own purposes, and be able to

treat them with all of the flexibility that they have in handling messages that

they themselves create.

Electronic mail is transmitted on private lines or through the telephone

systems. Private telephone lines are more expensive and limited to the particular points in the network. They do not permit virtually error-free transmission. Telephone systems are more universally available and charges are based

upon actual use, but have the disadvantages of being electronically noisy

(resulting in data containing errors), and not being capable of carrying

high-volume transmissions.

The communications requirements for electronic mail systems are quite different

from those of normal voice traffic. For example, a one letter page can be sent

in from 5-10 seconds, but it takes from 11-17 seconds to dial the number

required for data transmission. More important, the ordinary telephone lines

are characterized by fading, where whole blocks of text may be lost in

transmission. One way of dealing with the error problem is the use of packet

switching in networks such as TYMNET or Telenet. These value added networks

(VAN) lease high capacity channels from primary carriers and then use sophisticated switching computers to break the message into packets, which are transmitted with error detection and correction. Sirbu (S-16) suggests criteria

for an ideal communications systems:

° Ubiquity . Access must be comparable to the telephone system, and the

terminal hardware must be inexpensive.

° Simplicity . Sending a message should be as simple as typing a letter

or dialing a telephone.

0 Flexibility . The system should be able to transmit texts of any

length, in any format and also be able to transmit pictures.

° Reliability . It must be available for use virtually all of the time.

0 Privacy and Authentication . Privacy concerns the protection of messages

from inspection by unauthorized persons, while authentication is the

positive identification of the sender to the recipient. Most systems

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use passwords to establish the identity of the user, and attach that

identification to any mail sent by the individual.

7.5 TELECONFERENCING

A teleconference is a meeting involving two or more people at two or more

different locations, with the discussions being transmitted through audio,

digital and/or video techniques. Nilles (130) distinguishes between two types

of audio conferences —private and public. In the private conference rooms are instrumented with microphones and speakers. In the private mode, the telephone

is used in conjunction with a switching center to interconnect the participants.

Audio conferences are useful when the participants know one another and the

agenda being discussed is a rather specific and limited one.

In computer conferences, participants use terminals to communicate with one another. It is especially useful for researchers and policymakers, according

to Barcomb (131). It enables communications to be rich and interactive and

permits real time exchange of information. Another advantage of this mode of

conferencing is that asynchronous exchanges of data and other information is

possible, whereby people in different time zones can exchange information at

a time convenient for each participant. Furthermore, if conference proceedings

are to be prepared, all informational exchanges are available in electronic

storage, thereby facilitating the preparation of a final report. Both audio

and computer conferencing can be augmented by graphics —electronically, or by hard copy material made available beforehand to all participants.

Video teleconferencing offers the greatest potential for substituting for

meetings because of the availabiity of powerful technologies to simulate a live meeting. However, although this form of conferencing has received a great deal of publicity, it is not in widespread use as yet because of the

costs involved in establishing such systems. The design requirements for a video conference facility are quite stringent.

7.6 DESIGN ISSUES - COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS

While teleconferencing is a highly specialized activity, many of the design

issues present in the automated office are highlighted in a facility designed

for this purpose. Gold (132) cites the following major factors in designing

spaces for video teleconferencing:

° The location of the room is an important consideration. For example,

when placed in the "executive suite" many potential users will be

reluctant to take advantage of it.

0 Converting existing conference rooms for teleconferencing often results

in acoustical problems. For example, most such rooms are constructed

using building materials constructed in 4’ x 8' sizes. This generally

results in a room with a ratio of length to width to height of 3:2:1,

a ratio which reinforces many of the negative acoustic properties of

teleconferencing spaces, such as reverberation.

Ill
° The equipment often found in teleconferencing rooms (e.g. facsimile

devices, input and output systems, video display units) often generate

considerable heat and noise, and require special consideration. One

solution is to locate much of the electronic support equipment in

adjacent rooms, which are acoustically isolated and air conditioned.

° Lighting and color selections for such rooms are of critical

importance. Room surfaces should be non-ref lecive , and the colors of

carpets and furniture should be neutral.

Rosenthal (133) discusses the design requirements for accommodating local area networks. He indicates that the number and placement of buildings (and equipment within buildings) are determined by analyzing the expected functioning

entities. Space requirements for networks include:

° Room for interconnection units colocated with support units.

° Available wall and floor space for taps/ transceivers

.

0 Areas within or outside of walls, ceilings and floors for cabling,

and repeaters/amplifiers.

0 Dedicated rooms or floor space for network control units, placed

centrally, or distributed appropriately.

The network should be able to operate under the typical environmental conditions

of the buildings in which they are located, with normal exposure to dust,

humidity and temperature changes. Specifications for network performance should

include the amount of dedicated cooling required for proper operation, and

limits for noise and heat generation to ensure that overall environmental quality is not compromised. Finally, the equipment may be required to operate

within given electrical constraints, e.g., power, voltage, phase and/or frequency. These conditions are of special importance when the network must be

placed into an operational environment.
8. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS (PRESENT AND FUTURE) FOR AUTOMATED OFFICES

In an effort to obtain preliminary information concerning present design for

I automated offices, and forecasts about the future, 60 architectural and

1 architectural/engineering firms which specialize in office design were contacted

for information by' Wilson and Rubin (34); 29 responses were obtained in this

inquiry. A followon study was conducted for the same authors by the Institute

of Building Designers (IBD), which polled a sample of its membership: 10

responses were obtained. While several specific questions were asked in these

inquiries, they were intended to enable the respondents to cover general issues

thought to be appropriate for OA design. A brief summary of the findings, and

a sample of representative responses are provided below. They included the

identification of issues and a description of some of the new design approaches

* advocated. As might be expected, there was widespread agreement on some points

(e.g., the importance of flexibility), but limited consensus on design solutions

(This investigation was a limited one, and its intent was that of a pilot study.

The findings should be considered tentative in nature and were not amenable to

statistical analysis; they suggest the types of issues currently being considered by designers of automated offices. A comprehensive investigation of OA

design issues is needed before general conclusions can be supported

I scientifically.)

[ The questions which formed the basis of this study are as follows:

1. What is your design response to change in office methods occasioned

by the growing automation of business, institutional, and corporate

offices?

2. How do you use and adapt present traditional offices and open-plan

office space functions and layouts to the demands of automated

office equipment and procedures?

3. What are your predictions concerning future automation for offices?

4. How do you prepare in your present designs for future electronic

equipment changes?

5. What recommendations for design criteria and guidelines would you

suggest for a major client?

• Before summarizing the specific responses obtained to these questions,

general issues will be addressed - the quality of the automated office

environment, and the design process used to formulate a program.

two
8.1 THE ENVIRONMENT BEING DESIGNED

The need to humanize the automated office environment was a subject of

discussion by several of the respondents. Musho (a) provides his impression

of the sensitivity of clients for quality environments as follows:

"Clients are getting more aware of their environment in a general sense

and that the advent of more automation has heightened this new awareness

even further. It is as if the intensity which the CRT screen imposes on

the participant requires an immediate antidote that must be provided by

the space immediately around them. By extension, the same is true for

the building as well. The working spaces are getting larger for flexibility, and the atrium has been reinvented, to offer changes of scale and

the possibility of unexpected social contact."

Gensler (b) supports the same view:

"It is my opinion that we will not have "high tech" offices as a typical

solution, but rather a more traditional, relaxed, and comfortable environment to counterbalance the technology and equipment. As we create a society of knowledge workers with enormous powers of communication, data

retrieval, the successful organizations, in order to attract and retain

their staff, will be required to provide a humane and quality office

environment .

Kurz (c) emphasized the need to be responsive to the requirements of the

workforce likely to occupy the automated office. Workers are likely to be well

educated, desire stimulation on the job, have a great desire to "see the job

through", and participate in decisionmaking. These employees will be sophisticated and discerning about their environments. They will experience more of

the overall workplace and therefore will want to have a voice in determining

its quality - including issues such as privacy, personalization of workstations,

circulation, lighting, and acoustics. They will also be sensitive to their

general surrounds - the architecture and the common spaces - indoors and

outdoors (e.g., parking lots).

Among the specific recommendations made by several respondents; to improve the

quality of the automated office environment are the following:

° Specialized areas for the staff, adjacent to CRT workspaces - lounge,

recreation

° Individually controlled environmental systems - task lighting, HVAC

° Modular furniture and systems to situ individual requirements

° Spaces set aside for casual conversation - near corridors.

* Responses are coded in terms of respondents for design firms; survey

participants are listed in Bibliography.

114
Just as the automated office has profound implications for the characteristics

of the physical setting, it has altered the procedures typically used by

designers - by placing increased emphasis on the need for detailed planning.

•8.2 ARCHITECTURAL PROGRAMMING

While architectural programming is an integral part of the building design

today, it frequently is accomplished in a rather unsystematic and haphazard

manner. The complexity of office automation design is likely to increase the

importance of programming activities in the view of Mattison (d):

"The starting point in determining criteria for any office environment is

to first observe the unique qualities or procedures inherent in the

client’s product, service, or operation which make for its existence and success. A successful critique sorts out the similarities and defines

the differences. Each client and situation must be approached as unique.

This would, of course, lead to a diversity of solutions dependent upon the

relative importance of the findings and objectives of the client and

designer.

Waters (e) indicated that his firm has also placed a great deal of importance

on the need to thoroughly understand the requirements of their clients.

"Our design approach is changing. We find we must spend substantially

more time developing a thorough understanding of our client's program

(i.e., spatial; functional; adjacency; equipment; work, paper, and people

flow; mechanical, electrical, and mechanical requirements). This

client-architect team approach to extensive programming and planning

allows us to give our clients sound advice and realistic designs that

balance future needs with today’s budget."

8.3 FLEXIBILITY AS A RESPONSE TO CHANGE

The survey respondents were unanimous in their view that the most important

design consideration for office automation is the need to account for future

changes in their designs. Among the design issues requiring flexibility are

the following:

0 Power and localized cooling to accomodate heat loads from electrical

equipment

° Mechanical, electrical distribution, lighting, and communications

systems.

0 Workstation design - to accomodate a range of tasks, and individuals.

0 Standardization of components for workstations - work surfaces, task

lighting, panels, furniture.

115
° Changes in space use.

° Air supply and return.

The topic receiving the most attention with respect to flexibility was that of

electrical and power supply; the following recommendations were made by

respondents

8.3.1 Wiring and Power Requirements

Deane (e) discussed and evaluates electrical distribution systems as follows:

"The most important planning consideration and the one which is most

difficult and expensive to accommodate is wire management. Equipment

types, densities, and locations are all very likely to change frequently

within the useful lifetime of a building, so power and communications

systems must be designed to move and to adapt. The options for distribution of power, lighting, electronics, and communication services (PLEC)

consist of five basic approaches, with greater flexibility generally

costly more. The five basic approaches identified are the following:

1. Raised access floor

2. Flat cable distribution

3. Integrated floor ducts

4. Ceiling distribution and poke-through

5. Ceiling distribution and power poles or flex connectors

This office has heretofore used approaches 3 and 4 on most projects.

Raised access floor, although seen as a very desirable approach, has

generally proven to be too expensive. Until recently, flat cable was not

believed to be technically viable, and even now, its primary application

will probably be as a supplementary distribution system or for remodeling

projects. Ceiling distribution with power poles in open office areas is

relatively flexible but has been regarded as aesthetically undesirable.

The major problem with approach No. 3 has been the difficulty of planning

for adequate flexibility without excessive initial cost. Ceiling distribution with poke-through floor access has the advantage of maximum flexibility with low initial investment; its major disadvantage is the disruption

caused by making changes.

The office of the future for clients who can afford to look at life-cycle

costs rather than initial costs will probably be served from underfloor

plenums created by raised access floors. This approach offers the

greatest flexibility, convenience, and planning freedom."

° Spare capacity to main and distribution panels.

0 Uninterruptable power supply - battery pack and generator backup.

° Power panels for station-to-station distribution.

116
° Additional capacity in electrical bus risers.

° Placement of additional sleeves for future power and communications.

0 Dedicated circuits for certain equipment - for security purposes.

° Flat wire under the carpet tiles was a favored approached by many

respondents for power distribution within an office.

8.4 DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONSIDERATIONS (SURVEY RESPONSES)

Following is a summary of some of the general recommendations made by the

survey participants. No effort has been made to evaluate these responses. The

intent is to describe a range of the alternative approaches being considered

by the design community.

Recommendations

Space Considerations :

° Expansion space in the building core for installing additional

risers for communications and power.

0 Adequate built-in floor/ceiling and/or wall conduits for future wiring.

° An increase in floor-to-ceiling heights - to accomodate the vertical

stacking of equipment.

° Less room needed for paper filing - more for workstations.

° Floors with computer facilities an additional 2 feet in height to

accomodate wiring.

° Clustering of equipment in specialized areas - facilitate cooling,

isolate noise sources.

° Zoning with individual HVAC control - concentrated heat load;

accomodate 24 hour occupancy.

Acoustics :

° Floor, ceiling, and wall finishes - material selected for sound

properties.

° Even distribution of air-constant sound.

0 White noise in open-noise environments.

117
Lighting:

0 Task/ambient systems.

° Individual control at workstation.

Air Quality :

° Humidification to accomodate equipment needs - avoid static electricity.

Energy Efficient Design :

° Designs should be responsive to energy usage.

Specialized Needs :

° Fire protection and security systems for automated equipment.

° Environment system control.

° More local control of environmental systems.

8.5 FUTURE OA EQUIPMENT FORECASTS

0 Miniaturization of electronics - will facilitate placement of equipment,

lessen problems of cooling and noise.

° Automated equipment will be used at all management levels.

*

0 Advanced telecommunication systems satellite transmission - roofs

will have to accomodate antennas.

° Video conferencing will become widespread.

° Centralized computer systems and networks for sharing of peripherals - data, informaton, monitoring or service systems. Any tenant can purchase service; prewired by optical fiber systems.

° More information and computer systems available than can be assimilated.

0 Electronic filing systems.

0 Grouping of electronic VDT stations.

0 Shared use of particular workstation configurations.

8.6 SPECIAL SPACES /ROOMS

° Teleconferencing facilities.

° PBX/ Switch Gear Rooms - to interconnect with offices and cover stations.

118
I

° Small and Large Conference Rooms.

0 Audio-Visual Rooms.

° Storage areas for modular components - workstation, dividers, furniture

systems.

8.7 ENVIRONMENTAL AND WORKSPACE CRITERIA

Throughout the report, design information has been presented which pertains to

the development of design guidelines and criteria for automated offices. Following, is a compilation of recommendations by professional societies and

researchers and suggestions made in Handbooks, which pertains to the design of

speces housing office activities. NONE OF THIS MATERIAL PERTAINS SPECIFICALLY

TO THE DESIGN OF AUTOMATED OFFICES.

119
8.7.1 Lighting Recommendations - Illuminating Engineering Society (IES) (135)

Table 27. Illuminance Categoriess and Illuminance Values for

Generic Types of Activities in Interiors (IES)

Type of Activity Illuminance

Ranges of Illuminances Reference

Work-Plane

Category

Lux Footcandles -

Public spaces with

dark surroundings

A 20-30-50 2-3-5

Simple orientation for

short temporary visits

B 50-75-100 5-7.5-10

General

lighting

throughout

spaces

Working space where

visual tasks are only

occasionally performed

C 100-150-200 10-15-20

Performance of visual

tasks of high contrast

or large size

D 200-300-500 20-30-50

Performance of visual

tasks of medium

contrast or small size

E 500-750-1000 50-75-100 Illuminance

on task

Performance of visual

tasks of low contrast

or small size

F 1000-1500-2000 100-150-200

Performance of visual

tasks of low contrast

and very small size over

a prolonged period

G 2000-3000-5000 200-300-500

Illuminance

on task,

Performance of very

prolonged and exacting

visual tasks

H 5000-7500-10000 500-750-1000

obtained by

a combination

of general

and local

Performance of very

special visual tasks of

extremely low contrast

and small size

I 10000-15000-20000 1000-1500-2000

( supplementary

lighting)

120
Shemitz (136) provides a list of criteria for evaluating the quality of task/

ambient lighting.

Table 28. Criteria for Evaluating Task/Ambient Lighting (Shemitz)

1. Lighting should be evenly distributed over the task area.

2. Veiling reflections should be minimized.

3. A proper brightness relationship between task and surround is

essential. (No more than 3:1 in the immediate seeing zone, no more than 10:1 in the total zone.)

4. Luminaires should be glare free. The light source should not

be visible.

5. Ballast noise should be minimized by the use of a properly

mounted, high quality ballast.

6. The ballast and housing should not radiate excessive heat.

7. Fixtures should be easy to clean and maintain. Replacement

of lamps and ballasts should be easy.

8. Fixture should be properly mounted to prevent vibration.

9. Upward light distribution should minimize shadows, while

avoiding "hot spots" on the ceiling.

10.

Downlights should light the back part of a workstation uniformly.

121
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8.7.2 Thermal Comfort Recommendations - American Society of Heating,

Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) (137)

VA*0*

IX

022 04 -r <00

•i.3

spaces with low air movement, where the MRT equals air temperature.

Figure 22. New effective temperature scale (ET*) (ASHRAE)

123
8.7.3 Ergonomic Criteria for Workspaces (138)

ZTr BETWEEN

.OPERATORS 13. n MIN WSPL AY DISTANCE 20 In PREFERRED

STD LINE OF SIGHT-0*

MIN TO AVOIO SEEING TCP * 54

m

STD HORlZ SIGHT LINE-0*

MAX TO SEE OVER TOP- A7 in

NORMAL SIGHT LINE -15*

A- TYPING* TYPEWRITER KEYBOARD

LOWEST LEVEL SHOULD SE2Sm

20*- SO* UPPER ROW NO HIGHER THAN 31 m

8-CXSPLAY-CONTROL

C“ display, set-up control

O-EMERGENCY DISPLAY, SET-UP CONTROL

E -REF DISPLAY, AOJ. CONTROL

NOTE • 5th “95th f, OPERATORS

Figure 23. Suggested parameters for mockup of a seated operator console

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125
8.7.4 Acoustical-Criteria

Table 31. Types of Offices Applicable to Articulation Index Ranges

(Walker (43))

I 00.00- Confidential Privacy. a) Closed offices with

0.05 Speech cannot be followed STC of 40-45.

with understanding. b) Open plan, or office

landscape environment.

II 0.05- Normal Privacy. a) Closed offices with STC

0.20 Speech may be understood with of 35-40.

careful listening attention b) Open-plan environmental.

but should not interfere with

the ability to concreate on other work.

Approximate Requirement for Class II (E-9)

1) Acoustical ceiling, selected for AI potential.

2) Carpet.

3) Acoustical screens; selected for AI potential.

4) Masking Sound. (This should be provided by electronic masking system

unless there is sufficient other background noise, such as from heating and ventilation systems. Electronic masking sound is preferred,

and definitely would be needed in the lower end of this class.)

5) Acoustical wall panels (probably needed at the low end of this class

(0.5)); possibly not needed at the higher end (0.20) if electronic

masking noise is used.

6) Position and type of luminaries not quite as critical as in the

confidential privacy range.

Ill

IV

V

0 . 20- 0.35

0.35-

0.50

0.50-

Marginal Privacy. Open-plan environment

Provides a relatively quite

office environment when privacy

is not of supreme importance.

Fair communciation, no privacy

typical, relatively noisy

environment. Does not promote

maximum productivity.

Good to excellent Not normally an office

communication, no privacy. feature. Usually found

only in conference rooms

and auditoriums.

126
PHA Reccmrrended Sound Insulation Criteria

eound Transmission Losses)

10

Airborne

Crane 15TC =55

6rsdellSTC=5Z 11

6racanrsT6=48 HI

ST6 • Sound Transmission

C1344

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75

£50 5001 2K 4K

Frequency, hf2 Impact

6rade nr IIC = 49

6radeH tic -52.

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HC '• impact insulation

Class

Figure 24. FKA recommended sound insulation criteria (139)

127
Table 32. Noise Criteria (NC) Recommended for Rooms (Beranek (46))

Maximum permissible level (dB)

(measured in vacant rooms)

Type of room NC

Secretarial offices, typing

Coliseum for sports only (amplification)

Small private office

Conference room for 20

Movie theater

Conference room for 50

Theaters for drama, 500 seats (no amplification)

Homes, sleeping areas Assembly halls (no amplification)

Schoolrooms

Concert halls (no amplification)

50-55

50

30-35

20-30

20-25

20-25

25

15-20

30

30

8.7.5 Indoor Air Quality

Energy conserving design - buildings with unopenable windows, increased

insulation, "tighter” construction, and reduced ventilation - has resulted in

a concern for the air quality in buidlings , according to Messite (140). She

suggests that the reduced outdoor air supply has increased the potential for

the accumulation of noxious agents in office air. Office workers in such

buildings have complained about such factors as undesirable odors and irritation of the skin and eyes. In addition to design concerns, air quality issues

are thought to be influenced by the new materials used in building construction

and rehabilitation and chemicals used in office systems - e.g., duplicating

machines. Spengler and Sexton (141) indicated tht the discomfort of office

occupants may be the result of a synergistic effect of a combination of environmental contaminants and environmental conditions. They suggest control measures

for indoor air pollutants (table 33).

128
Table 33. Control Measures for Indoor Air Pollutants; Responsibilities (Spengler and Sexton)

Control Measure Description Pollutant Example

Ventilation: dilution of indoor air

with fresh outdoor air or recirculated

filtered air, using mechanical or

natural methods to promote localized,

zonal, or general ventilation

Radon and radon progeny;

combustion by-products; tobacco

smoke; biological agents

(particles)

Local exhaust of gas stove emissions; air-toair heat exchangers; building ventilation

codes

Source removal or substitution: removal

of indoor emission sources of substitution of less hazardous materials or

products

Organic substances; asbestiform

minerals; tobacco smoke Restrictions on smoking in public places;

removal of asbestos

Some modification: reduction of emission races through changes in

design or processes; containment of

emissions by barriers or sealants

Radon and radon progeny;

organic substances; asbestiform

minerals; combustion by-products

Plastic barriers to reduce radon levels; containment of asbestos; design of buildings

without basements to avoid radon; catalytic

oxidation of CO to CO 2 in kerosene burners

Air cleaning: purification of Indoor

air by gas adsorbers, air filters,

and electrostatic precipitators

Particulate matter; combustion

by-products; biological agents

(particles)

Residential air cleaners to control tobacco

smoke or wood smoke; ultraviolet irradiation

to decontaminate ventilation air; formaldehyde sorbant filters

Behavioral adjustments: reduction in

human exposure through modification of

behavior patterns; facilitated by

consumer education, product labeling,

building design, warning devices, and

legal liability

Organic substances; combustion

by-products; tobacco smoke Smoke-free zones; architectural design of Interior space; certification of formaldehyde concentrations for home products

Responsibilities for Healthful Indoor Environments

Individuals

Maintain and properly use products and appliances

Exercise direct discretionary control of ventilation in most residential and some occupational circumstances

Building Owners or Managers

Operate and maintain a balanced ventilation system in compliance with building

ventilation codes

Use zone ventilation or local exhaust for indoor contaminant sources Properly use cleaning solvencs, paints, varnishes, herbicides, insecticides,

furnishings, and insulation

Architects, Developers, Contractors

Adopc protection of indoor air quality as a design objective

Design ventilation systems to comply with new ASHRAE standard 62-1961 Provide for separation of occupants and indoor pollutant sources Elimination or containment of potential sources

i 29
9. PROSPECTS FOR THE AUTOMATED OFFICE - A PRODUCTIVE WORKPLACE?

While technology has provided the major impetus for office automation today,

as this study has demonstrated, many experts on this topic are wary of current

practices and observable trends. Their concern centers on the narrowly defined

uses of automation now prevalent, which often places many workers in the position of being adjuncts to the machines that they operate. This viewpoint is

said to be shortsighted from the standpoint of meeting organizational requirements and the personal needs and desires of the office workforce. Many of the

problems associated with office automation are traceable to this orientation.

The United States is rapidly evolving into an information-based economy. A

recent study by the American Productivity Center (143) was concerned with this

trend. This study indicates that almost 53 percent of the adult workforce in

this country is engaged in white collar work, accounting for 70 percent of the

total annual payroll of all industry. The same report notes that the Bureau of

Labor Statistics estimates that the white collar workforce will grow to 65

percent by 1985.

Since so many activities are now concentrated in the office, the productivity

of office workers has received considerable attention by organizational

researchers and corporate managers. A study by Harris (32) indicates that

productivity in the office has been virtually stagnant for almost a decade;

increases averaging .02 percent per year from 1973 to 1981. (This time period

coincides with the rapid expansion of the white collar workforce.) The trend

of office-based activities, the productivity findings, technological advances

accompanied by decreased costs of office machines, systems, communications,

and computers, have all combined to create a great demand for the automation of

office functions. Yet, at a time when technology is seen by some observers to

the solution to office productivity problems, others are skeptical about this

view; they point to the importance of design, organizational and human resource

issues as key factors which influence productivity (4, 7, 17, 23).

9.1 DESIGN ISSUES

All too often office automation has resulted from the piecemeal acquisition of

new devices and systems which have been placed on available desks and other

work surfaces in an environment designed to accommodate information in paper

form. Systematic design planning has been a rarity. This process has resulted

in a considerable number of complaints by workers about the unsuitability of

their offices for performing VDT-based activities. Noise and glare produced by

inappropriate lighting systems lead the list of concerns, with the design of

workstations also receiving considerable attention. Researchers and designers

indicate the need for a thorough architectural programming activity to precede

the implementation of office automation systems (7, 28, 77). This planning

should be accomplished with the designer working closely with the organizational

client, including the end-user, to identify and respond to their unique

requirements

.

130
The most frequently expressed requirement for the automated office is for

flexibility, to accommodate future organizational and technological change.

Among the systems singled out for particular attention are:

0 Power and localized cooling to accommodate heat loads from electrical

equipment

° Mechanical, electrical distribution, lighting, and communications

systems

° Workstation design - to accommodate a range of tasks, and individuals.

° Standardization of components for workstations - work surfaces, task

lighting, panels, furniture.

° Changes in space use.

° Air supply and return.

Another major challenge for the designer to achieve a high-quality work setting

to offset the technology dominated office. Burlage (g) notes that:

"There is a distinct need for personal communication among office and

technical people, occasional by the long hours of intense work on the

CRT. Buildings should have spaces for the casual interchange of ideas

on a formal or informal basis by using conference rooms, coffee areas,

casual lounges in corridors, and a variety of cafeteria, vending and

dining spaces."

Developments in computerized control systems have made it possible to automate

many building systems such as HVAC , lighting, energy management, fire, and

security. However, the problems associated with the early word processing

experiences should be considered before fully automating systems simply because

the technology exists to do so. Individuals and working groups often have

requirements that differ from one another, and standardization of environmental

conditions isn't always the most effective solution. Furthermore, automation

is frequently considered from an "all-or-none" standpoint; a mixed system

(partially automated) merits consideration as a means of providing a balance

between manual and automated control. Even when systems are fully automated, a manual override function is often needed to accommodate individual needs. The

design of such systems requires an optimization of several factors: economic,

operational, and user requirements and/or desires.

While open-office design is being used by more and more organizations, research

evidence suggests that the automated office may be better accommodated by a variety of open-spaces and private offices. Questionnaire surveys have uncovered

a number of complaints associated with open-space design; the lack of visual

and auditory privacy and disturbance by noise and unwanted intrusions were prominently mentioned as problem areas.

131
Technological developments have raised new and complex demands on the architect.

Systems are now available to monitor and control building service, maintenance,

and many operational functions. The effective integration of these systems is

a major design requirement. Teleconferencing is being used in some organizations

as a substitute for face-to-face meetings. The design of appropriate facilities

for this purpose requires stringent control of heating, lighting and acoustical

systems. Finally, although office automation is proceeding at a rapid pace,

for the forseeable future paper will continue to be an important informational

medium. This factor has particular significance for two aspects of design,

space requirements and lighting. Space planning will be complicated by the

need for accommodating new electronically based information storage systems and

microfiche records, in addition to the paper-based systems still required.

With respect to lighting, many employees at VDT-based workstations are required

to alternatively read material appearing on: (1) a VDT screen, (2) paper, and

(3) a microfiche viewer. The design of lighting systems which accommodate all

of these tasks poses many difficulties for the lighting profession.

9.2 HUMAN RESOURCE (ERGONOMIC) ISSUES

It is self-evident that the greatest single determinant of office productivity

is the performance of the working staff. Yet, discussions of this topic are frequently confined to technological "quick-fixes." Management and office automation experts are in general agreement that ergonomic and technological factors

must be considered jointly, if office productivity is to improve in the future

(5, 11, 12, 17). Technology should be integrated into the workplace in a way

that increases work effectiveness, while not compromising the quality of working

life. The experiences of many organizations which introduced word processing

into their offices and encountered unexpected problems, support this

recommendation (18, 31).

The advent of word processing in some organizations resulted in a variety of

complaints. The typist often had little or no contact with the author of the

copy being worked on, and limited opportunity to carry many jobs through from

beginning to end. A major concern expressed was the feeling that "the wordprocessor was in charge;" their work was being subordinated to the requirements

of technology and pre-programmed work methods, leaving little room for personal

initiative. In short, the job was becoming depersonalized and no longer under

the control of the individual worker. These feelings were frequently mainfested

by lowered morale and impaired work performance (7, 9, 20). Finally, considerable evidence exists to suggest that in many instances where office automation

has resulted in outright failure (reduced efficiency and/or productivity), the

primary reason for this outcome has been the lack of its acceptance by the

workforce (61, 66, 80).

Much of the reported experiences with office automation deals with the

experiences of clerical and administrative personnel, and for the most part

predates the automation of managerial and professional jobs. With the advent

of more such knowledge workers in the automated office, the general makeup of

the workforce is changing. Current office workers are more highly educated

than their earlier counterparts and indicate the desire for better work surrounds, and greater involvement in making decisions which affect their jobs.

132
Recent findings have demonstrated the importance of these issues in automated

offices. For example, Bickson and Gutek (142) conducted a questionnaire survey

in 55 offices of large and small organizations with office automation experience. Their purpose was to determine the satisfaction of the office workers

with the automation of their jobs. The workers surveyed were primarily from

the professional and managerial staffs, and were highly educated; 84 percent

of the respondents had some college training. Four issues were identified as determining user satisfaction with their automated office systems.

1. Functionality: what the system requires to enter, organize and store

information.

2. Equipment performance: the speed and quantity of maintenance required,

VDT and printout characteristics.

3. Interaction: whether the user is equipped to interact effectively

with the computer.

4. Environment: adequacy, convenience, and comfort of equipment, funiture

and space.

The authors found that the respondents where generally pleased with the

functionality of the equipment but that they were dissatisfied with the work

environment, which was generally considered to be uncomfortable and inappropriate

for the work to be performed. Complaints about the environment take on great

significance when we consider that the investigators found the office environment to be an important predictor of satisfaction with the office technology.

The survey respondents were significantly more positive about the effect of

computers on their work (quality and quantity), than on the potential effects

on the "quality of working life." Finally, variety of work, and the approach

of the organization in introducing change, were important contributors to

satisfaction; individual control and participation being positive factors.

In another study, the American Productivity Center (143) dealt with the same issues that concerned Bickson and Gutek (142), and their findings were quite

similar. A questionnaire survey of 140 firms was conducted, to examine the

relationship among human resources development, automation technologies, and

environmental considerations. This investigation, like the previous one, was concentrated on professional and management tasks, rather than the routine

clerical and administrative functions which were the focus of early office

automation activities. The goal for automating the operations of professionals

and managers is said to be improved quality (added value) to work, not increased

"efficiency", which is equated with more output and/or reduced costs.

The authors conclude that increased productivity in office activities results

from the effective integration of people, tools and places. This integration is

to be accomplished by proper planning by a team comprised of organizational

representatives from human resources, technology and information processing,

and design - who often find themselves in competition with one another in

productivity improvement programs.

133
The ultimate users should control the development of information systems, their

purchase and maintenance according to Strassman (17). This approach leads to

job enrichment as a means of improving performance insteand of depending on technology. The goal should be to develop generalists rather than technical

specialists, according to Strassman. People should be encouraged to deal with

situations of increasing complexity rather than be severely limited in their

freedom to operate as creative employees.

9.3 ORGANIZATIONAL AND INFORMATIONAL ISSUES

Organizations are required to cope with a fast-changing environment in order to

survive and prosper. Technological advances, the "information explosion," and

the growth of the white-collar workforce has led to an increasing reliance on office automation to improve the productivity of office worker. However, as Hammer (90) and other office automation experts point out, automation is a potential means-to-the-end of improved organizational effectiveness, not the

solution to productivity problems. They also observe that at present,

technological capabilities rather than organizational requirements still provide the major impetus for automation, and that this emphasis is considered

to be misplaced.

The first office activities to be automated were selected largely because they

could be readily analyzed, simplified and standardized. A variety of office

functions were thereby restructured to be suitable for the new technologies

available in the marketplace. The standardization of routine tasks fostered

the development of computer-based procedures which resulted in clerical and

administrative activities that were largely pre-planned and pre-structured by

people other than the users. Considerable evidence exists that this "model"

for office automation is not an appropriate one for the activities of professionals and managers, where the greatest potential for improved productivity is

anticipated (9).

Knowledge workers must cope with problems of ever-increasing complexity and a proliferation of information which must be somehow assimilated and acted upon.

Moreover, they are required to perform creative and planning functions, often

with the limited and uncertain data, highly individualized kowledge and experience, in a rather unstructured information environment (84). Activities such

as these are not readily amenable to analytic and standardized treatment.

Moreover, the nature of traditional managerial and professional work is

characterized by the individual being given a particular set of job responsibilities, and considerable freedom to formulate appropriate procedures for

carrying them out. The degree of autonomy associated with this work is considered to be one of its major attractions, and plays a major part in the satisfaction derived in pursuing these careers (58). To the extent that knowledge

workers are required to adopt to work methods and technologies selected by

others, they are likely to be less productive, and less satisfied with the

quality of their working life (58). In order to function at maximum effectiveness therefore, the knowledge worker requires tools that are flexible and

powerful and under his control, and an environment which supports mentally

134
demanding work. Automation has an important role in supporting these

activities, but a far different one that it has played in the past.

Knowledge workers require automated systems that are responsive to them;

requiring little training or expertise to operate. The systems should provide

the capability to develop and maintain information designed for particular purposes, e.g., Decision Support Systems. The microcomputer-based workstation of

today has data storage and processing capabilities which enable many managerial

and professional activities to be performed without external support - personal

or informational. At the same time, the complexity (and interdependency) of

many of their problems requires the capability to readily communicate with colleagues (and data bases) in their own organization, and with the "outside world

Whether working independently or interactively, a great deal of autonomy is

exercised by the individual in selecting and organizing the resources needed to

accomplish the job at hand.

As the knowledge workers become the most important users of office automation,

it is likely that they will want more control over their jobs and their environ

ments , which can provide a respite from their immersion into technology.

Studies of worker satisfaction by Harris (31) and Marans (40) support the

conclusions cited above, about the importance of this attribute of office work.

Individual control can take many forms:

0 Environment - lighting, heating

0 Information

° Work Procedures

0 Task Decisions

0 Workspace

° Communications

0 Social Settings

0 Furniture - selection, modification

0 Personalization of Space

° Planning of Individual Work

Ackoff (77) discusses the relationship of the working staff and an organization

He notes that an organization is a purposeful system and that the people within

this system, comprise an important system component, with purposes of their

own. He observes that "how well an organization performs depends on how it is

affected by both the people who are part of it and the systems of which it is

a part."

The continuing health of an organization, according to Ackoff, is dependent on

its ability to respond creatively to change by proper planning, which should

maximize the most important organizational resource —its staff. Planning

should therefore be accomplished by having workers participate in the decision

making process as it affects the workplace to the extent possible. The process

includes environmental and ergonomic issues, as well as those of "job design".

This approach not only responds to the needs of the individual for personal

growth and development (see figure belotO , but increases the "stake' in the

135
outcome. It also provides essential detailed information about particular job

functions unavailable elsewhere.

Management style is an important determinant of the overall layout and

appearance of the standard office and the electronic one. One important decision to be made' concerns the balance between design uniformity and diversity

within the organization, among working groups, the hierarchy within the organization and for individuals. A centralized organizational management style frequently results in considerable uniformity throughout the office, with little

opportunity for personalization of the workspace by the individual. The

decentralized approach to management provides the opportunity for working units

and individuals within them, to help design their immediate environments in a manner that distinguishes them from other operating units. In this way, the sense of group autonomy can be fostered in an environment where the individual

performs most of his or her work independent at an electronic workstation. In

many instances tradeoffs are required between some uniformity and the

possibility of expressing diversity.

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(Maslow)

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9.4 SOME TECHNOLOGICAL ISSUES

A combination of technical and economic factors are cited by Magleby (144) as major forces which will accelerate the trend toward office automation. Economic

developments include the high cost of energy and travel, the increased cost and

population of knowledge workers, and the increased cost of office operations.

Some of the technical developments are the availability of advanced PBX’s using

digital technology that can be integrated with computers into complete office

systems, advances in computer hardware and software, and reduced cost of these

systems by advances in the semiconductor industry; in recent years the average

price decline in minicomputers has been more the 30 percent per year.

136
The author indicates that computer systems and communications systems are converging in two ways: (1) users increasingly require office information systems and communications systems which are combined into providing a single service, (2) communications systems are increasingly based on computer technology.

Future office systems will require many layers of communication linkages, unlike

those today which tend to be centrally organized.

Technological advances which affect office design and operations are occurring

at an ever-increasing rate. These new technologies range from improved and new

devices to perform specific office functions, to integrated systems with the

capability to automate many of the operational and service systems of buildings.

One of the most significant developments is the central importance given to the

individual workstation. Many microcomputer-based workstations have the information processing, and other capabilities, equivalent to that possessed by large

organizations in the recent past. Furthermore, by means of local area networking

these capabilities can be significantly expanded. For example, information can

be exchanged with colleagues in electronic form to facilitate cooperative

efforts such as report writing.

The central role played by paper as an informational medium in the office is

being supplanted by both electronic and microfiche systems. This change has

greatly increased the capabilities to store information, while at the same time

has reduced the space requirements for such purposes. The fact that information

is now available in so many forms has posed the technological challenge of

effectively integrating these media for a comman purpose, e.g., preparing a document

Technology has provided the opportunity to perform traditional office functions

in new ways. For example, electronic mail is becoming increasingly popular as

a means to facilitate internal and external communication. It is also becoming

commonplace for employees away from the office (on travel or at home) to be able

to access information in the office by means of a microcomputer or a remote terminal. Finally, teleconferencing is gaining acceptance in many organizations,

as a substitute for face-to-face meetings.

Several technological components of the automated office of the future are identified by Tapscott and MacFarlane (145).

0 Information gathering and capture. At present, word processing is the

only "sophisticated" text entry system in most offices. A debate is

under way, concerning the relative merits of providing special hardware

with limited functions as a means of inputing data to accommodate nontypists, or whether standard typing keyboards are appropriate for this

purpose

0 Information storage. New developments include bubble memories and

optical disks.

° Information retrieval. Natural language is needed, as is the

requirement to focus on the management decision process. The design

137
of the human interface is important; systems which can respond to how

people actually think and compose copy.

° Information integration. Digital networks providing voice, image, and

textural information to office and home over fibre-optice links already

exists, and points to the way toward more complex integration of

information and communication.

Martin (146) forsees that the answer to high-speed interoffice communications

might be the communication satellite systems now being developed and used.

These systems use all-digital transmission, permitting the integration of voice,

data and image data. The advantages of such systems is that cost is not linked

to distance, and that any number of stations can be linked simultaneously.

9.5 OFFICE AUTOMATION PROBLEMS: GENERAL AND SPECIFIC

Technological advancements in office systems have been too rapid for them to be

properly assimilated by most organizations according to Magleby (144). He

observes that this results in an increasing gap between what is technically

feasible and the organizational practices in being. In Sadleir's (147) view,

"the problem is one of complexity arising from the convergence of technologies

focused on a ’new’ area - the office. We are facing this target without much

knowledge of what today's office is, and with only marginal success at utilizing

the technologies that we have already, despite at least two decades of effort."

Tapscott and MacFarlane (145) indicate that as organizations have grown and

and increased in complexity, the need to decrease the amount of data, and

increase the amount of usable information available to the knowledge worker,

has never been greater. They believe the primary problem with office automation

to be the lack of appropriate methodologies to assess the automation needs of an organization; the design and implementation of such systems, and finally

assessing the effects of such changes.

These, and other experts have identified specific problems associated with

office automation; a sample of them are mentioned below:

0 Office design is not given appropriate attention.

° Office automation is often implemented with insufficient and inadequate

planning.

° The functions performed in offices are not well understood.

° Improved methods of measuring office productivity are needed.

° Organizational and ergonomic issues are not sufficiently considered.

° There is an absence of industry-wide standards for signals, codes,

protocols and hardware interfaces; compatibility problems abound.

° No agreed-upon criteria exists to distribute information effectively.

138
0 There is insufficient integration of functions at workstations.

° More forums are needed for interested parties (e.g., users, researchers,

vendors and designers) to exchange information.

Markus (148) is concerned with determining the effectiveness of automation

systems after they have been implemented. He observes that evaluations of

computer systems usually focus on determining what happens when a system is

turned over to the user. Measures include: success or failure of a system,

rates of use, and the satisfaction of the user. In almost all instances, the

dependent variable is called "success of the system" despite the fact that the

outcome is evaluated before the user has had an adequate opportunity to use

the system. The author suggests that the implementation of such systems is

analagous to building design, where it may take from six to 24 months to "shake

down” the building sufficiently; that is, to enable the various subsystems to

be "fine tuned".

Another shortcoming in many evaluations according to Markus is that the

organizational consequences of introducing computer systems are not sufficiently

examined. For example, system designers often obtain feedback information

about the adequacy of the system exclusively from the client, the individual

or organizational unit who purchased the system. The end-user of the system

is often neglected in such an evaluation.

9.6 LOOKING AHEAD

In a summary of a "new perspective on the office of the future", Tapscott and

MacFarlane (145) the authors identify several critical needs.

° User requirements for communications should drive office automation,

not technology.

° A multidisciplinary perspective is needed to address the problems,

incorporating information science, management sciences, behavioral

research and interior design.

° Ergonomic issues are important in system design and implementation,

e.g., user participation and involvement is needed throughout the

process

° Education and training of users is also an essential ingredient of an automation program.

0 Studies should not be strictly empirical; scientific methods must be

used, including the development of analytic procedures to obtain

reliable and pertinent measures of activities, functions, processes

and attitudes in office settings.

The design approach to the automated office today is directed toward meeting

the needs of the average office worker performing typical tasks in a

139
characteristic organization. This depiction of the automated office is both

widespread and meaningless! There is no such thing as a typical:

° Person

° Organization

° Task

0 Office

° Office Automation System

° Workstation

° Office Procedure(s)

Organizations and individuals have unique characteristics which merit attention

in design, and it is the function of the design process to develop the information required to respond to the particular of requirements of both of them.

Many of the writers cited earlier have identified the need for a high quality

environment to offset the increasing presence of technology in the office.

Design responses to this need should not be considered as extraneous to the

objectives of an organization, but integral to the well-being of the staff and

therefore a pragmatic investment to support its most important (and most

expensive) resource.

140
10.

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63. Schoichet, S. Personal Work Stations: A Concept Evolves into a Booming

Industry", Mini-Micro Systems, Vol. 14, No. 4, April 1981.

64. Grandjean and Vigliani, E. (ed) Ergonomic Aspects of Visual Display

Terminals , Proc. of Workshop, Milan, Italy, Taylor & Francis Ltd., London,

Eng., 1980.

65. Wood-Robinson , M. "Visual Aspects of the Electronic Office", in The

Electronic Office , IERE Conf . Proc #45, London, Eng., April 1980.

66. Galitz, W. Human Factors in Office Automation , Life Office Mgmt . Assn.

Atlanta, Ga., 1980.

144
67. Shackel, B. "Dialogues and Language - Can Computer Ergonomics Help?",

Ergonomics, Vol. 23, No. 9, 1980.

68. Video Displays, Work and Vision , National Academy Press, Wash. D.C., 1983.

69. Yates, R. "Human Factors Aspects of the Electronic Office” in The

Electronic Office , IERE Conf. Proc. #45, London, Eng., 1980.

70. Kroemer, K. , and Price, D. "Ergonomics in the Office: Comfortable

Workstations Allow Maximum Productivity, Ind . Eng., July 1982.

71. Taylor, R. "On Defining Organizational Environments", Proc. of the 44th

AS IS Annual Mtg., Vol. 18, Oct. 1981.

72. "Office Work Stations: What to Consider in Using Them", The Office,

Vol. 96, No. 6, Dec. 1982.

73. Damodaran, L. "Human Choices in the Office of the Future". in IERE Conf.

Proc. #45, London, Eng., April 1980.

74. Murray, W. , et al. "Potential Health Hazards of Video Display Terminals",

NIOSH Res. Dept. 81-129, June 1981.

75. Ketchel, J. "Human Factors Issues in the Design and Use of Video Display

Terminals (VDT's), Office Autoamtion Conf. Proceedings, San Francisco,

Cal., April 1982.

76. Englebart, D. "Toward High Performance Knowledge Workers", in Office

Automation Conf. Proceedings, San Francisco, Cal., April 1982.

77. Ackoff, R. Creating the Corporate Future, John Wiley and Sons, New York,

N. Y., 1981.

78. Probst, R. "Action Office - The System that Works for You", Herman Miller

Res. Corp., Ann Arbor, Michigan, Aug. 1978.

79. Taylor, J. "Integrating Computer Systems in Organization Design", National

Prod. Rev., Spring 1982.

80. Driscoll, J. "Office Automation: The Organization Redesign of Office

Work", CISR #35, MIT, Cambridge, Mass., May 1979.

81. Melly, F. "Report on Computer Backlash", S.A.M. Advanced Management

Journal, April 1974.

82. Conrath, D., Higgins, C., Thachenkary, C. and Wright, W. "The Electronic

Office and Organizational Behavior - Measuring Office Activities" , Computer

Networks, Vol. 5, No. 6, Dec. 1981.

83. Young, R. "New Technologies, Alternative Work Patterns Increase Office

Flexibility", Office of the Future, Indus. Eng., Sept. 1981.

145
84. Mintzberg, H. "The Managers's Job: Folklore and Fact", Harvard Bus.

Rev., Vol. 53, No. 4, Jul/Aug 1975.

85. Poppel, H. "Who Needs the Office of the Future?", Harvard Bus. Rev.

Vol. 60, No. 6, Nov/Dec 1982.

86. Alloway, R. and Quillard, J. "Top Priorities for the Information

Systems Function", CISR #79, MIT, Cambridge, Mass., Sept. 1981.

87. Luke, A. "Effective Management in a Period of Technological Change",

in Proc. of the 44th Annual Mtg. of the 44th ASIS, Vol. 18, Oct. 1981.

88. Dickenson, R. "EXXON - How a Major Corporation is Coping with the

Pressures of an Office Automation Program", Ind. Eng., July 1980.

89. Lodahl , T. and Meyer, N. "Six Pathways to Office Automation", Admin.

Mgmt., Vol. 41, No. 3, March 1980.

90. Hammer, M. and Kunin, J. "Productivity —The Means, Not the End",

Computerworld/Of f ice Automation, March 1982.

91. McIntosh, L. "Prepare for the Office of the Future with Paper", Ind.

Eng., July 1980.

92. Eichorn, R. "Office Automation - How It's Developing”, 1980 Fall IE

Proc. , Dec. 1980.

93. Riley, M. "Sorting through the New Office Gadgetry", S.A.M. Advanced

Management Journal, Autumn 1981.

94. "Government's Alice in Wonderland Approach to the Automated Office",

Gov't. Executive, Vol. 13, No. 9, Sept. 1981.

95. Mumford, E. "Designing Office Automation for Human Needs", IEEE Colloq.

on Sociological Impact of Computers, March 1979.

96. Holmes, F. "IRM: Organizing for the Office of the Future", Journal of

Systems Mgmt., Vol. 30, No. 1, Jan. 1979.

97. Slagle, L. , Oman, R. and Dixon, R. "Organizational Productivity: The

Impact of Office Technology Change", ASPE National Conf., Detroit, Mich.,

April 1981.

98. Keen, P. "Office: Technology and People", CISR WP//87 , MIT, Cambridge,

Mass . , Apr . 1982.

99. Hammer, M. "A Progress Report on Office Automation: The Need for

Integration", ICP INTERFACE Admin, and Accounting, Summer 1982.

100.

Strassman, P. "Managing the Costs of Information", Harvard Bus. Rev.,

Vol. 54, No. 5, Sep/Oct 1976.

146
101. Connell, J. "Information Resource Management", Business Week, March 29,

1982.

102. Nolan, R. "Computer Data Bases: The Future is Now”, Harvard Bus. Rev.,

Sep/Oct 1973.

103. Newman, J. "Human Factors Requirements for Managerial Use of Computer

Message Systems", in Computer Message Systems . (ed) Uhlig, R. , North

Holland Pub. Co., IF IP, N.Y. , 1981.

104. Clark, J. Data Base Selection, Design, and Administration, Praeger Pub.,

New York, N.Y., 1980.

105. Morgan, H. "Decision Support Systems: Technology and Tactics", Office

Automation Conf., Houston, Tex., March 1981.

106. Keen, P. "Value Analysis: Justifying Decision Support Systems", CISR

#64, MIT, Cambridge, Mass., Oct. 1980.

107. Robey, D. "MIS Effects on Manager's Task Scope and Satisfaction", AFIPS

Conf. Proc., N.Y. , June 1979.

108. Feidelman, L. "Distributed Data Processing: Today and Tomorrow", Data

Management, June 1982.

109. Withington, F. "Coping with Computer Proliferation", Harvard Bus. Rev.,

May/Jun 1980.

110. Kunin, J. "Analysis and Specification of Office Procedures", Lab. for

Computer Sciece, MIT/LCS/TR -275, MIT, Cambridge, Mass., Feb. 1982.

111. Rosenbaum, R. "Conceptual Functional Requirements from a User's

Perspective", Standard Oil Company (Indiana), July 1980.

112. James, E. "The User Interface: A Programme for Improvement", EURO IF IP

79, (ed) Samet , P., North Holland Pub. Co., IF IP, N.Y., 1979.

113. Kling, R. and Scacchi, W. "Recurrent Dilemmas of Computer Use in Complex

Organizations", AFIPS Conf. Proc., N.Y., June 1979.

114. Snow, C. P. The Two Cultures: A Second Look , Mentor Books, New York,

N.Y., 1964.

115. Kintisch, R. and Weishord, M. , "Getting Computer People and Users to

Understand Each Other", S.A.M. Advanced Management Journal, Spring 1977.

116. Zuboff, S. "Psychological and Organizational Implications of ComputerMediated Work", CISR #71, MIT, Cambridge, Mass., June 1981.

147
117. Bennett, J. "Managing to Meet Usability Goals in the Development of

Office Systems", Office Automation Conf. Proc., San Francisco, Cal.,

April 1982.

118. Stewart,- T. "Communicating with Dialogues", Ergonomics, Vol. 23, No. 9,

1980.

119. Crenshaw, J. and Philipose, J. "Can Computers Really be Friendly?",

Computer Design, Feb. 1983.

120. Shifrin, E. "Arlington Offices Come Wired for the Future", Washington

Post, June 4, 1983.

121. Lowenthal, E. "Database Systems for Local Nets", Datamation, Aug. 1982.

122. Connell, J. "Networks of Office Machines Provide Desktop Access to the

Information Pool", Ind . Eng., Sept. 1981.

123. Shoch, J., Dalai, Y., Crane, R. and Redell, D. "Evolution of the Ethernet

Local Computer Network", Xerox, Palo Alto, Cal., Sept. 1981.

124. Saal , H. "Local-Area Networks - Possibilities for Personal Computers",

BYTE Pub. Inc., Vol. 6, No. 10, Oct. 1981.

125. Blackmarr, B. "An Application Oriented Perspective for Planning Local

Area Networks", INFO '82 Proced., N.Y., Oct. 1982.

126. Holzman, H. "Local Area Networks from Information Web", Modern Office

Procedures, June 1982.

127. Metcalfe, R. and Boggs, D. "Ethernet: Distributed Packet Switching for

Local Computer Networks", Xerox, Palo Alto, Cal., Feb. 1975.

128. Norris, C. "Integrated Office Systems: The Paperless Office", Journal

of Micrographics, Vol. 13, No. 5, May/Jun 1980.

129. Sirbu, M. "Innovative Strategies in the Electronic Mail Marketplace",

Telecom. Policy, Vol. 2, No. 3, Sept. 1978.

130. Nilles , J. "The Automated Office: Preliminary Observations on Changes

in Work Style", NTC Conf., Los Angeles, Cal., Dec. 1977.

131. Barcomb, D. Office Automation: A Survey of Tools and Technology , Digital

Press, Bedford, Mass., 1981.

132. Gold, E. "The Importance of Design in a Teleconference Room”, The Office,

Nov. 1982.

133. Rosenthal, R. ed. "The Selection of Local Area Computer Networks", NBS

Spec. Pub. 500-96, Nov. 1982.

148
134. Wilson, F. and Rubin, A. Unpublished Survey Findings of Architecture

Firms on Computer Automation Design, Aug. 1983.

135. IES Lighting Handbook - Reference Volume , Illuminating Engineering

Society, N.Y. , 1981

136. Shemitz, S. "Evaluating the Quality of Task/Ambient Lighting", LD&A,

Vol . 9, No. 1, Jan. 1979.

137. ASHRAE Handbook - Fundamentals , ASHRAE , N.Y., 1977.

138. Van Cott, H. and Kinkade, R. Human Engineering Guide to Equipment

Design , U.S. Govt. Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1972.

139. Rubin, A. and Elder, J. Building for People , NBS Sp. Pub. 474,

U.S. Govt. Printing Off., Wash. D.C., June 1980.

140. Cohen B. Ed. "Proceedings of the Conference on Occupational Health

Issues Affecting Secretarial and Clerical Personnel," NIOSH, Cincinnati,

Ohio, Sept. 1982.

141. Spengler , J. and Sexton, K. "Indoor Air Pollution: A Public Health

Perspective," Science, Vol. 221, No. 4605, 1 July 1983.

142. Bickson, T. and Gutek, B. "Advanced Office Systems: An Empirical Look

at Utilization and Satisfaction," The Rand Corporation, Santa Monica,

Cal., Feb. 1983.

143. "White Collar Productivity: The National Challenge," The Productivity

Center, Houston, Texas, 1983, (Available from Steelcase Inc., Grand

Rapids, Mich.).

144. Magleby, K. "Trends in Future Electronic Office Systems", WESCON '80

Conf. Proc., Anaheim, Cal., 1980.

145. Tapscott, D. and MacFarlane, D. "Perspective for the Office of the

Future", Proc. of the 7th Annual Conf. on Info. Science, May 1979.

146. Martin, J. "How to Succeed in Office Automation - Part II", Computer

Decisions, Vol. 13, No. 7, July 1981.

147. Sadleir, C. , "Office of the Future: New Challenges for Operations

Research", OMEGA, Int ' 1 . Journal of Management Science, Vol. 8, No. 1,

1980.

148. Markus, M. "Some Neglected Outcomes of Organizational Use of Computer

Technology." AFIPS Conf. Proc., N.Y., June 1979.

149. Veneklasen, W. "The Role of Habitability Information in Post-Occupancy

Evaluation", CERL Interim Rept. E-46, March 1979.

149
150. Grandjean, E. Fitting the Task to the Man - An Ergonomic Approach , Taylor & Francis Ltd., London, England, 1969.

151. Zackrison, H. "Light Distribution Controlling Mediums for Use in

Facilities Utilizing CRT's", 1D&A, Vol. 13, No. 3, March 1983.

152. "Guidance on Requirements Analysis for Office Information Systems", NBS

Spec. Pub. 500-72, Dec. 1980.

153. Doubler, J. "Audition for Apples", Datamation, Feb. 1983.

154. Licklider, J. and Vezza, A. "Applications of Information Networks",

Proc. of the IEEE, Vol. 66, No. 11, Nov. 1978.

155. Didsbury, H. Communications and the Future , World Future Society,

Bethesda, Md , 1982.

10.1 RESPONSES TO DESIGN INQUIRY

The following organizations responded to the inquiry for information by Wilson

and Rubin (134) concerning their design approaches to present and future office

automation:

Cited in the Study

a. I.M. Pei & Partners, New York, N.Y.

b. (?ensler and Associates, San Francisco, Cal.

c. 3D International, Houston, Texas

d. The Grad Partnership, Newark, N.J.

e. Morris Aubrey Architects, Houston, Texas

f. Heery & Heery, Atlanta, Georgia

g. The Architects Collaborative, Cambridge, Mass.

Not Cited in Study

Architectural and Architectural/Engineering Firms

0 Albert Martin & Associates, Los Angeles, California

° Charles Pankow Inc., Altadena, California

° The Eggers Group, New York, N.Y.

° Fishbach Corp., New York, N.Y.

0 George Hyman Construction Corp., Bethesda, Md

.

° Gresham Smith Partners, Nashville, Tenn.

° The Gruzen Partnership, New York, N.Y.

0 Haines Lundberg Wahler, New York, N.Y.

° Harry Weese & Associates, Chicago, 111.

° HOK, St. Louis, Mo.

0 Jack Train and Associates, Chicago, 111.

° John Portman and Associates, Atlanta, Georgia

0 The Kling Partnership, Philadelphia, Pa.

° Leo Daly, Omaha, Nebraska

150
0 The Luckman Partnership, Los Angeles, California

0 Marnell Corrao Associatse, Las Vegas, Nevada

0 Murphy/Jahn, Chicago, 111.

| 0 Opus Corporation, Minneapolis, Minn.

° Perkins and Will, Chicago, 111.

° Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, Chicago, 111.

° Smith Hinchman Grylls , Detroit, Mich.

° Turner Construction Co., New York, N.Y.

:! Interior Design Organizations

0 Institute of Business Designers

0 National Office, Chicago, Illinois

° Carolinas Chapter, Charlotte, N.C.

° Northern California Chapter, San Francisco, Cal.

0 Associated Interior Design, Columbia, S.C.

° Business Design Group, Boston, Mass.

° Design Concepts, Grimes, Iowa

° Interiors Partnership, Grand Rapids, Mich.

° Interiors Unlimited Inc., St. Louis, Mo.

i ° Royal Equipment Company, Kansas City, Mo.

0 Southwest Business Interiors, San Diego, Cal.

i 10.2 ADDITIONAL REFERENCE SOURCES

10.2.1 General

"An All-Out Drive to Equip the Office of the Future", Business Week, December

14, 1981.

Bair, J. "Communication in the Office of the Future: Where the Real Payoff

May Be", Computers and People, Nov/Dec., 1978.

"Booz-Allen Multi-Client Study of Managerial/Prof essional Productivity", BoozAllen Hamilton Inc., New York (Undated).

Brown, J. "The Friendly Future in Office Automation", Computer Decisions,

April 1982.

' Convergence: Computers, Communications, and Office Automation", Vol. 2,

Invited Papers, Infotech Int'l. Ltd., Maidenhead, England, 1979.

Gupta, A. "An Overview of Contemporary Office Automation Technology",

i

j Behaviour and Information Technology, Vol. 1, No. 3, 1982.

Landau, R. , Bair, J. and Siegman, J. Emerging Office Systems , Ablex Pub. Corp.,

Northwood, N.J., 1982.

151
Morgan, H. "The Future of the Office of the Future", Office Automation Conf .

,

Atlanta, Ga . , March 1980.

"Office Automation", Data Management, May 1979.

"Office of the Future", Ind . Eng., July 1982.

"Office of the Future", Ind. Eng., Sept. 1981.

"Office of the Future", Ind. Eng., July 1980.

"Practical Office Automation", EDP Analyzer, Vol. 20, No. 1, Jan. 1982.

Ranko, R. "Facing Basic Issues in Office Automation", Computer Networks,

Vol. 5, No. 6, Dec. 1981.

Saffady, W. "The Automated Office: An Introduction", Journal of Micrographics,

Vol. 13, No. 8, Nov/Dec 1980.

Salerno, L. "Catching Up with the Computer Revolution", Harvard Bus. Rev.,

Nov/Dec 1981.

Smith, D. and Dieterly, D. "Automation Literature: A Brief Review and

Analysis", NASA Tech. Memo. 91245, Oct. 1980.

Sommerlatte, T. "Office Automation: A Winning Strategy", Telephony, Vol. 201,

No. 1, July 1981.

Stallard, J. , Smith, E. and Reese, D. The Electronic Office : A Guide for

Managers , Pub. Dow Jones-Irwin, Homewood, 111., 1983.

Tapscott, D. "Investigating the Office of the Future", Telesis, 1981.

Taylor, R. "Office Automation", Interiors, June 1981.

"The Electronic Office", Proc. of Conf. IERE, No. 45, London, England,

April 1980.

"The Office of the Future", Dun's Review, Vol. 114, No. 2, Aug. 1979.

"The Office of the Future", Business Week, June 30, 1975.

"Toward the Electronic Office", The Board on Telecommunications —Computer

Applications, The National Research Council, National Academy of Sciences,

Wash. D.C., 1981.

Verrijn-Stuart , A. "The Past and Future of Information Systems", EURO IFIP

79, IFIP, 1979.

152
10.2.2 Design-Related

"Adaptable Furnishings Accomodate New WP Functions", Word Processing Systems,

Mar. 1980.

Bartholomew, R. "Lighting, Color, and Space as Factors in Designing Interior

Environments", Vance Bibliographies A-310, Monticello, 111., Aug. 1980.

Brauer, R. "A Method for Users to Review Facility Design Concepts", CERL

Tech. Rept. P-117, Dec. 1981.

Brauer, R. and Davis, T. "Development of an Objective Definition of

Habitability, and a Habitability Data Base", CERL-SR-D-79 , June 1979.

Brown, D. "PLEC: The Explosion in Floor Delivery Capability", BLdg. Design

and Construction, Oct. 1982.

Cohen, E. and Cohen A. Planning the Electronic Office, McGraw Hill, New York,

N.Y., 1983.

Class, K. "Panels Electrify Today’s Open Office", Bldg. Design and

Construction, Oct. 1982.

"Coping with the Paper Explosion", Prog. Arch., June 1979.

Dawson, R. "Computerized Space Management Helps Contain Office Plan Costs",

Bank Systems & Equipment, Feb. 1982.

Driscoll, P. , Marzeki, J. and Wilson, F. "Architecture and the Information

Revolution", AIA Journal, July 1982.

Duffy, F. and Pye , R. "Paper Factory or Room with a View", Arch. Journal,

Vol . 170, No. 39, Sept. 1979.

Durkin, M. "A Review of Architectural Methods and their Effectiveness for

Communicating Human Requirements", CERL-TR-D-54 , June 1975.

Gibbs, W. and Dinnat , R. "Cost-Effectiveness of Three Different Interior

Open Offices", CERL-TM-D-2 , Jan. 1973.

Gorrell, E. "Office Environment Design: An Assessment of Efficiency",

DICEM Tech. Comm. No. 79-C-47, Nov. 1979.

Grant, D. "A Partially Annotated Bibliography on Space Planning Methods

for Architects and Physical Planners", Vance Bibliographies A-l,

Monticello, 111., June 1978.

Hales, L. "The Changing Office Environment”, Modern Office Procedures,

April 1978.

153
Harris, D. , Palmer, A., Lewis, M. , Gerdes, R. , Munson, D. and Meckler, G.

Planning and Designing the Office Environment , Van Nostrand Reinhold Co.

New York, N.Y. , 1981.

Helmers, J. "New Options in Office Lighting”, Modern Office Procedures,

July 1977.

Jacobs, F., Bradford, J., and Ritzman, L. "Computerized Layout: An Integrated

Approach to Special Planning and Communications Requirements", Ind. Eng.,

July 1980.

Jones, J. Design Methods - Seeds of Human Futures , John Wiley & Sons,

New York, N.Y., 1980.

Kaplan, A. "Ergonomics of Open Planning Workstations", Modern Office Procedures

April 1978

Keating, R. "A Common Sense Approach to Lighting for CRT Areas", LD&A, Vol. 11,

No. 5, May 1981.

Kleeman, W. "Flexible Interiors Plug into the Computer Age", The Constr. Spec.,

Nov. 1982.

Kleeman, W. "The Future of the Office”, Env. and Beh., Vol. 14, No. 5, Sept.

1982.

Konar , E. "Status Demarkation in the Of f ice" , *Env . and Beh., Vol. 14, No. 5,

Sept. 1982.

Ledbetter, C. "Guidelines for Architectural Programming of Office Settings",

CRREL SR 77-5, March 1977.

Leonard, W. "Start Now to Think About Office Space", Admin. Mgmt . , Vol. 42,

No. 12, Dec. 1981.

Lozar, C. "Establishing Habitability Factors for the Design of Office

Environments”, CERL AD/A-056 463, June 1978.

Lynn, M. "Designing Open Landscape Offices: Needs are Similar Yet Different",

The Office, Vol. 92, No. 3, Sept. 1980.

McCombs, R. "Interaction of Systems in the Open Office is an Important Design

Consideration", Ind. Eng., July 1982.

Mileaf , H. "Computers: The Evolution is Over; the Revolution is On", Arch.

Record, June 982.

Miller, N. "Interior Technics: Office Seating", Prog. Arch., May 1980.

Montone, W. "Sound Decisions: Architectural Acoustic Design of

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154
"Movable Power Grid Core of Futuristic Office Plan", The Office, Vol. 96,

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"Office Accomodation Study", Building Design Performance Div., Public Works

Canada, Dec. 1976.

"Office Accomodation Study: Phase II", Building Design Performance Div.,

Public Works Canada, May 1977.

Pile, J. "Open Office Systems: An Evaluation", Ind . Design, Vol. 25, No. 6,

Nov/Dec 1978.

Pile, J. "The Open Office: Does it Work?", Prog. Arch., June 1977.

Planck, R. "The Office of the Future: Electronic Mating Miracles", Interiors

Vol. 88, No. 3, Oct 1978.

Prince, J. "Future Office Lighting", Admin. Mgmt . , Vol. 40, No. 12, Dec. 1979

Probst, R. , Adams, J. , and Probst, C., "The Senator Hatfield Office Innovation

Project", Herman Miller Res. Corp., Ann Arbor, Mich., June 1977.

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Vol. 26, No. 1, Jan. 1981.

Rand, G. "The Office Can be Hazardous to Your Health", AIA Journal, Oct. 1979

Riggs, C. "Furnishing Tomorrow's Office Today", Dun & Bradstreet Reports,

Vol. 29, No. 3, May/ June 1981.

Rush, R. "Interior Technics: Office Acoustics”, Prog. Arch., Sept. 1979.

Saphier, M. Planning the New Office , McGraw-Hill, New York, N.Y., 1978.

Steinberg, S. "Computer Hookups Grow Leaner and Cleaner", Bldg. Des . and

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155
Sundstrom, E., Kastenbaum, D. and Konar-Goldband , E. "Physical Office

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* % "Ten Years of Open Planning", Modern Office Procedures, April 1978.

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"Toward the Integrated Office", Modern Office Proc., Vol. 26, No. 1, Jan. 1981.

Viladas, P. "Interior Technics: Open-Office Partition Systems", Prog. Arch.,

May 1982.

Villecco, M. and Brill, M. "Environmental Design Research - Concepts, Methods

and Values, Nat’l. Endowment of the Arts, Nov. 1981.

White, G. "The Senate Office Systems Research Project, A Report to the Senate

Committee on Rules and Administration, Govt. Printing Office, Wash. D.C.,

May 1981.

Wodka, M. , Probst, R. , and Randolph, T. "The Action Office - Energy

Distribution Handbook", Herman Miller Res. Corp., Ann Arbor, Mich., June 1979.

10.2.3 Ergonomics

Ballantine, M. "Conversing with Computers", Ergonomics, Vol. 23, No. 9, 1980.

Banks, W. , Gertman, D. , and Petersen, R. "Human Engineering Design

Considerations for CRT-Generated Displays, EG&C, Oct. 1981.

Brown, C., Burkleo, H., Mangledorf, J. , Olsen, R. , and Williams, A., "Human

Factors Engineering Standards for Information Processing Systems", Lockhead

Missiles & Space Co., June 1981.

Bullen, C., Bennett, J., and Carlson, E. "A Case study of Office Workstation

Use", IBM Systems Journal, Vol. 21, No. 3, 1982.

"Comfort and Human Factors in Office and Residential Settings, 1964-1980,

NTIS Citations, Sept. 1980.

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Proc., March 1982.

"Critical Review and Analysis of Performance Models Applicable to Man-Machine

Systems Evaluation", AFOSR TR-77-0520, Bolt, Beranek, and Newman, Cambridge,

Mass., March 1977.

Dainoff, M. , Happ , A., Crane, P. "Visual Fatigue and Occupational Stress in

VDT Operators", Human Factors, Vol. 23, No. 4, 1981.

156
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Computer", Ergonomics, Vol . 23, No. 9, 1980.

Engel, S. and Granda, R. "Guidelines for Man/Display Interfaces", IBM Tech.

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Fisher, T. "Introducing Personal Workstations to Enhance Professional

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Green, T. , Sime, M. , and Fitter, M. "The Problems the Programmer Faces",

Ergonomics, Vol. 23, No. 9, 1980.

Gruhn, A. and Hohl , A. "A Research Perspective on Computer-Assisted Office

Work", IBM Systems Journal, Vol. 18, No. 3, 1979.

Kail, T. "User Need Analysis", Journal of System Mgmt . , Vol. 30, No. 1,

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"Human Engineering Guidelines for Management Information Systems", U.S.

Army Human Engineering Lab., Aberdeen, Md . , Nov. 1982.

Jones, A. and James, L. "Psychological Climate: Dimensions and Relationships

of Individual and Aggregated Work Environment Perceptions", NR 78-42, Naval

Health Research Center, San Diego, Cal., Nov. 1978.

Miller, L. and Thomas, J. "Behavioral Issues in the Use of Interactive

Systems", Int . J. Man-Machine Studies, Vol. 9, 1977.

Miller, L. "Behavioral Studies of the Programming ProceS's", IBM Thomas Watson

Res. Center, Yorktown Heights, N.Y. , Oct. 1978.

Olesen, R. "Task Analysis and Attributes Specification in Augmented Office

Systems", Proc. of the Human Factors Soc. 25th Annual Mtg., 1981.

Parsons, H. "The Scope of Human Factors in Computer Based Data Processing

Systems", Human Factors, Vol. 21, No. 2, 1970.

Peace, D. M. and Easterby, R. "The Evaluation of User-Interaction with

Computer-Based Management Information Systems", Human Factors, Vol. 15,

No. 2, 1973.

Robey, D. and Farrow, D. "User Involvement in Information System Development:

A Conflict Model and Empirical Test", Management Science, Vol. 28, No. 1,

Jan. 1982.

Rupp, B. "Visual Display Standards: A Review of the Issues", Proc. of the

SID, Vol. 22, No. 1, 1981.

Shackel, B. ed., Man-Computer Interaction: Human Factors Aspects of Computers

and People , NATO Advanced Study Series E: No. 44, Alphen aan den Rijn, The

Netherlands, 1981.

157
Smith, S. "User-Ssytem Interface Design for Computer-Based Information

Systems", The Mitre Corp., Rept. ESD-TR82-132 , April 1982.

Stammerjohn, L. , Smith, M. , and Cohen, B. "Evaluation of Workstation Design

Factors in VDT Operations", Human Factors, Vol. 23, No. 4, Aug. 1981.

"The Human Side of Automation"', EDP Analyzer, Vol. 20, No. 5, May 1982.

Thomas J. and Carroll, J. "Human Factors in Communications, IBM Systems

Journal, Vol. 20, No. 2, 1981.

Towers, J. et al., "Frustration in the Workplace - Its Effect on Productivity",

Journal of Micrographics, March" 1982.

Turof f , M. and Hiltz, R. "User Behavior Patterns in the Information Exchange

System", ACM-78, Proc. of Annual Conf., Wash., D.C., Dec. 1978.

Williamson, H. and Rohlfs, S. "The User Interface Design Process", in

Computer Message Systems , ed. R. Uhlig , North Holland Pub. Co., IFIP, 1981.

Wilson, B. "The Human Factor in Change", Journal of Micrographics, Vol. 13,

No. 5, May/June 1980.

Young, R. "New Training, Work Analysis Methods Needed to Manage the Office

of the Future", Ind . Eng., July 1982.

10.2.4 Organizational and Management

Assad, A. and Golden, B., "A Categorized Bibliography of Survey Articles in

Management Science and Operations Research", Management Science, Vol. 28,

No. 4, Apr. 1982.

Austin, J. "Educating Management in the Use of Information Systems", S.A.M.

Advanced Management Journal, Spring 1975.

Bartezzaghi, E., et al. "Computers, Management, and Organization", Info. & Mgmt., Vol. 4, No. 5, Nov. 1981.

Dickenson, R. "Success in Measuring Professional Productivity, INFO ’82,

New York, N.Y. , Oct. 1982.

DiSylvester, B. "Value Analysis Aids Managers in Search of Most Effective

Office Procedures”, Ind. Eng., Sept. 1981.

"Executives Change with the Office Automation Tide", Data Mgmt., Feb. 1982.

Friend, D. "Graphics for Managers: The Distributed Approach", Datamation,

July 1982.

Hammer, M. "Improving Business Performance: The Real Objective of Office

Automation", Proc. of Third 0A Conf., San Francisco, Cal., 1982.

158
Huber, G. "Organizational Information Systems: Determinants of Their

Performance and Behavior", Management Science, Vol. 28, No. 2, Feb. 1982.

Keiper, R. "What’s Needed to Justify Corporate Teleconferencing?", The Office,

Nov. 1982.

Kincaid, M. "Image vs. Productivity", The Construction Spec., Nov. 1982.

Krumland, R. "Interactive Modeling Systems for Managers", AFIPS Conf. Proc.,

1979 Computer Conf., N.Y. , June 1979.

Lucas, H. and Turner, J. "A Corporate Strategy for the Control of Information

Processing”, Sloan Mgmt. Rev., Spring 1982.

Matteis, R. "The New Back Office Focuses on Customer Service", Harvard Bus.

Rev., Mar/Apr 1979.

Mertes, L. "Doing Your Office Over —Electronically", Harvard Bus. Rev.,

Mar/Apr 1981.

Miller, M. "Computers Offer Management Aid", Bldg. Des. and Constr., April 1982.

Poppel , H. "Managerial/Professional Productivity", Outlook, Fall/Winter 1980.

Shea, E. "Management Workstations Cater to Professionals", Word Processing

and Information Systems, Jan. 1982.

10.2.5 Information/Systems

Akoka, J. "Centralization Versus Decentralization of Information Systems: A

Critical Survey and an Annotated Bibliography", CISR WP//36, MIT, Cambridge,

Mass . , Sept . 1977

Buchanan, J. and Linowes , R. "Making Distributed Processing Work", Harvard

Bus. Rev., Sept/Oct 1980.

Buchanan, J. and Linowes, R. "Understanding Distributed Data Processing",

Harvard Bus. Rev., July/ Aug 1980.

Connell, J. "Information Resource Management", Business Week, March 29, 1982.

Curtice, R. and Dieckemann, E. "A Survey of Data Dictionaries", Datamation,

March 1981.

"Data Processing: For Users, More Power per Dollar", Modern Office Procedures,

Jan. 1978.

Eckhouse, R. , Stankovic, J. and van Dam, A. "An Overview of Two Workshops

on Distributed processing", Computer, Vol. 11, No. 1, Jan. 1978.

159
Ellis, C. and Nutt, G. "Office Information Systems and Computer Science",

Computing Surveys, Vol. 12, No. 1, March 1980.

Engel, G. , Groppuso, J., Lowenstein, R. , and Traub, W. "An Office Communications

System", IBM Systems Journal, Vol. 18, No. 3, 1979.

Enslow, P. "What is a Distributed Data Processing System?", Computer, Vol. 11,

No. 11 , Jan. 1978.

Forsdick, H., Schantz, R. , and Thomas, R. "Operating Systems for Computer

Networks", Computer, Vol. 11, No. 1, Jan. 1978.

Good, M. "An Ease of Use Evaluation of an Integrated Editor and Formatter",

Lab. for Computer Science, MIT/ LCS/TR-266 , MIT, Cambridge, Mass., Nov. 1981.

Ives, B., Hamilton, S., and Davis, G. "A Framework for Research in ComputerBased Management Information Systems", Management Science, Vol. 26, No. 9,

Sept. 1980.

Lucas, H. "The Evolution of an Information System: From Key-Man to Every

Person", Sloan Management Review, Winter 1978.

Morton, S. "Decision Support Systems: Emerging Tools for Planning", CISR #44,

MIT, Cambridge, Mass., May 1979.

Mueller, R. "Automation and the Office Environment", Info. & Records Mgmt.,

Vol. 16, No. 5, May 1982.

Peebles, R. and Manning, E. "System Architecture for Distributed Data

Management", Computer, Vol. 11, No. 1, Jan. 1978.

Polk, W. and Byrd, K. "Managing the Very Large Database", Datamation, Sept.

1981.

Rutterbusch, M. "Information Management in the Modern Automated Office",

Info. & Records Mgmt., Vol. 13, No. 4, April 1979.

Sibley, E. "The Distributed Information System: Its Architecture and

Management", IFSM Tech. Rept. No. 11, U. of Maryland, Nov. 1977.

Steifel, M. "Survey Data Base Management Systems", Mini-Micro Systems,

Nov. 1979.

Steinbrecher , D. "Data Bases Speed the Decision-Making Process", Word Proc. & Info. Systems, Jan. 1982.

Tapscott, D. "Research on the Impact of Office Information Communications

Systems", in Computer Message Systems , ed . R. Uhlig, North Holland Pub. Co.,

IF IP , 1981.

160
van Dam, A. and Stankovic, J. "Distributed Processing", Computer, Vol. 11,

No. 1, Jan. 1978.

Ziegler, K. "A Distributed Information System Study", IBM Systems Journal,

Vol. 18, No. 3, 1979.

10.2.6 Technology and Communication

"Automating Offices for Diverse Communications Needs", Systems and Software,

Elec. Des., April 15, 1982.

Brown, R. and King, C. "Voice Mail: A Look at the Cornerstone of the Office

of the Future", Telephony, April 1982.

Cox, J. "Architecture for Office Automation" in Lecture Notes in Computer

Science No. 123 , ed. G. Goos and J. Haremanis, Springer Verlag, N.Y., 1981.

"Distributed Networks Deliver More Mail More Reliably", Systems and Software,

Elec. Des., April 15, 1982.

Enslow, P. "Languages for Operating Systems Description, Design, and

Implementation", AFIPS Conf . Proc., 1979 Computer Conf., N.Y. , June 1979.

Filley, R. "Opening the Door to Communications Through Graphics: A Primer

for IE's", Ind. Eng., Sept. 1981.

Gardner, P. "A System for the Automated Office Environment", IBM Systems

Journal, Vol. 20, No. 3, 1981.

3 Greif , I. "Cooperative Office Work, Teleconferencing, and Calendar Management:

A Collection of Papers", Lab. for Computer Science, MIT/ LCS/TM-218 , MIT,

Cambridge, Mass., May 1982.

Hammer, C. "Telecommunications", Data Management, April 1974.

"Higher-level Protocols Enhance Ethernet", Systems and Software, Elec. Des.,

April 15, 1982.

Holden, J. "Electronic Mail Overview - 1980", 1980 IEEE NTC, Nov. 1980.

"Intelligent Copying is Growing Up", Modern Office Procedures, Feb. 1980.

Klinck, C. "Office Telephone Systems: Current State-of -the-Art " , The Office,

April 1982.

Kobayashi, K. "Computer, Communications, and Man: The Integration of Computer

and Communications with Man as an Axis", Computer Networks, Vol. 5, No. 4,

July 1981.

Konsynski, B., Bracker, L. , and Bracker, W. "A Model for Specification of

Office Communications", IEEE Trans, on Comm., Vol. Com-30 , No. 1, Jan. 1982.

161
Korman, R. "Seven Pioneering Firms: Corporate Teleconferencing Comes of Age

Facil. Des. and Mgmt . , July/Aug. 1983.

Lasden, M. "Will You Love Electronic Mail or Hate It?", Computer Decisions,

Dec. 1979.

Lindsey, C. and Costain, R. "Word Processing in Transition", Modern Office

Procedures, June 1982.

Meyer, N. "Computer-Based Message Systems: A Taxonomy", Telecom. Policy,

Vol. 4, No. 2, June 1980.

"Multifunction Terminals Gear Up for Communications", Systems and Software,

Elec. Des., April 15, 1982.

Myers, W. "Interactive Computer Graphics: Poised for Takeoff?", Computer,

Vol. 11, No. 1, Jan. 1978.

Naffah, N. "Communication Protocols for Integrated Office Systems", Computer

Networks, Vol. 5, No. 6, Dec. 1981.

Panko, R. and Panko , R. "An Introduction to Computers for Human Communication

IEEE NTC 1977, Dec. 1977.

Patrick, R. "A PBX Cookbook", Datamation, Vol. 29, No. 5, May 1983.

Penniall, T. "Trends in Graphics", Ergonomics, Vol. 23, No. 9, 1980.

Reifer, D. and Trattner, S. "A Glossary of Software Tools and Techniques",

Computer, July 1977.

Richer, I. and Steiner, M. "Office Communications and the Digital PBX",

Computer Networks, Vol. 5, No. 6, Dec. 1981.

Romei, L. "Communication Software Powers the Multifunction Office", Modern

Office Procedures, Vol. 26, No. 3, April 1981.

Schicker, P. "The Computer-Based Mail Environment - An Overview", Computer

Networks, Vol. 5, No. 6, Dec. 1981.

Shoch, J. "An Annotated Bibliography on Local Computer Networks", 3d Edition

Xerox, Palo Alto, Cal., Apr. 1980.

Stefferud, E. and McHugh, J. "The Role of Computer Mail in Office Automation

in Computer Message Systems , ed. R. Uhlig, IFIP, 1981.

Steifel, M. "Surveying Serial Printers", Mini -Micro Systems, Jan. 1980.

Takeuchi, H. and Schmidt, A. "New Promise of Computer Graphics", Harvard

Bus. Rev., Jan/Feb 1980.

162
Thomas, M. "Satellite Video Conferencing in Good Hands at Allstate," Facil.

Des. and Mgmt . , Feb. /Mar. 1983.

"Today's Facsimile Systems - Where Do They Go From Here?", The Office,

Nov. 1981.

Tydeman, J. et al. Teletext and Videotex in the United States, McGraw Hill,

New York, N.Y. , 1982.

"Videotex, Viewdata & Teletext", Online Pub., Middlesex, England, 1980.

10.2.7 Looking Toward the Future - 0A

Blackmarr, B. "Office 2000”, Words, June/ July 1982.

Cornish, E. Communications Tomorrow - The Coming of the Information Society , World Future Soc., Bethesda, Md., 1982.

Doyle, S. "The Social Implications of Emerging Telecommunications Technologies

Nat'l. Telecom. Conf. Proc., NTC'79, Wash. D.C., 1979.

Edwards, K. "The Electronic Newspaper", The Futurist, April 1978.

Henrich, C. "Challenge of the Decade: Roundtable Discussion", Buildings,

Sept. 1981.

Kornbluh, M. "The Electronic Office: How it Will Change the Way You Work",

The Futurist, June 1982.

Levy, J. "Trends in Computer Applications for the '80s, Int'l. Data Corp.,

Framingham, Mass., 1980.

"Looking Toward Office Automation", Modern Office Procedures, March 1979.

Mankin, D. , Bilkson, T. , and Gutek, B. "The Office of the Future: Prison or Paradise?", The Futurist, June 1982.

Michels, D. L. "Bringing the Future into Your Office", The Futurist, June 1982

Olson, M. and White, N. "Impact of Automation on Society: Implications for

Education, Policy and Research," Center for Research on Information Systems,

New York University, Dec. 1979.

Rosenberg, N. "An Assessment of Approaches to the Study of Factors Affecting

Economic Payoffs from Technological Innovation", Stanford Univ., Stanford,

Cal., March 1975.

Rotolo, E. "Entering the '80s with a Challenge", Ind. Eng., July 1980.

163
11. APPEND LX - INFORMATION DEVELOPMENT METHODS

If the researchers and other office automation experts cited in this report are correct, the conclusion is inescapable that detailed planning and information

development prior to making office automation decisions is critical, if automation is to fully achieve organizational goals. Many of the researchers cited

in this report have developed methods of acquiring OA information, as have

others, not yet mentioned in the text. This appendix contains a variety of

such methods, dealing with a range of issues. It is designed to provide the

reader with an overview of some approaches available to meet particular

information needs.

11.1 DESIGN INFORMATION

Veneklasen (149) developed a checklist for evaluating the habitability

facilities; the approach is a generic one and with slight modifications could

be used in automated offices:
Table 25. Example Checklist for Facility Evaluation (Veneklasen)

-

OCCUPANT

REQUIREMENT FACILITY RATING COMMENTS

IMPORTANT f

i

UNIMPORTANT

>

X

> o

X >- o o

H < u *- < ® = :

< z

n 3 PRIVACY - Auditory and

Visual

SOCIABILITY - Accomodate

Conversations

FORMALITY - Restricted

Activities

CHOICE - Control of Environment

COMFORT - Appropriate

Environmental Features —

IMAGERY - Space Depicts

Purpose

EFFICIENCY - Easy to Arrange Workspace

ACTIVITY - Selection of Furnishings, Colors

FLEXIBILITY - Ability to Modify

TASK PERFORMANCE - Space Accomodates Job

TERRITORIALITY - Personalization

LACK OF CROWDING - Not Overoccupied
Table 34. Analytic Approach for Relating Technology Issues to Design (Rubin and Murray (25))

PRESENT OFFICE AUTOMATED OFFICE POSSIBLE DESIGN IMPACT

INFORMAT ION/ MANAGEMENT

SYSTEMS

Record Storage & Management

Paper files Limited paper, Electronic files

- Less space for file cabinets,

changed layout

- Added electronics , added cooling load

Internal mail generation

4 Distribution

Paper Electronic - Smaller mail room, more electronics

Document distribution Typed copy Opcical Character

Recognition devices

(Hard copy readied for electronic distribution)

- Need for physical separation of system (Noisy), special

acoustic design

Document preparation Separated functions; Manual typing, artwork,

graphics

Centralized and electronic - Large work station for preparing

documents, less space needs for visual arts

Organization of activities Specialized and decentralized

Work stations - clerical,

managerial, professional

- Change in adjacency locations - e.g., management-secretarial

- More electronics and capability

to access information from various sources (wiring, cooling)

Expansion of capabilities Space set aside More power, wiring to accomodate future needs

- Added capacity for electronics

power; plan for 'local" cooling

Planning activities for organizational needs Minimal necessary Detailed planning of systems essential,

building, mgmt,

communication, info.

- Much greater need for detailed

architectural programming

activity

POWER SYSTEMS

Emergency Power None 3atteries, Generator -

Support for electrical

equipment during oucage

- Additional space, special

venting systems, fuel storage,

special flooring for acid, fuel runoff; fire protection, security

Wire Distribution

Techniques

Conduics Under floor systems

In-wall outlets

Flat wire cables under

carpet

Raised floors

- New floor systems - carpets

- Increased size of floor/ceiling

systems

- Changed power loading factorsless load per local circuit, more runs

- Changed needs for wire closet

space

- Soecial orotection for cables

OFFICE TECHNOLOGY

BASED ACTIVITIES

Typing Electronic typewriter VP system Glare free lighting, additional

workspace

Communica cion- individualTelephone, mail, memos Electronic mail CRT terminal, wiring

Filing Paper files, individual Centralized data base Specialized computer facility - raised floor, clean, emergency

power, less paper storage space

Facsimile

production

Hands-on duplicating Duplication at a distance - FAX machine

Specialized facility to accomodate a variety of devices,

acoustic treatment, cooling

Reading Paper copy CRT's, microfiche Special lighting, additional

desktop area for more equipment

166
Table 35 provides an example of an outline of a habitability design document.

Table 35. Outline for a Typical Habitability Design Document (Brauer (36))

1. INTRODUCTION

Purpose of Document

What Document Includes and Excludes

Scope - What Projects the Design

Information Applies to

Who is User(s)

How to Use (Explains Organization.

Format, Applications)

Explanation of Key Terms

2. PROCEDURES

Variable depends on the purpose of

the document and its anticipated

users

MCA and New Construction Process

Rennovation Procedures

Design Procedures

Space Management Methods

Procurement of Furnishings and

Equipment

Site Selection and Orientation

Evaluating Alternative Facilities

or Designs

Preparing Functional Requirements

for Design for Improvement Projects

3. GENERAL DESIGN INFORMATION

(For a particular facility)

General Goals and Policies for a Facility and Its Design

Description of Facility users,

Users, and Contents (Equipment,

Material, Supplies)

Site Layout Information

General Design Information for

this Kind of Facility

General Design Information for

Typical Subsystems

4. DETAIL DESIGN INFORMATION

Major Category of Spaces

Typical Design Information for

this Category

Specific Space Type

Users, Uses, and Contents

Subsystems and Characteristics

(Blocks of Requirements, Criteria,

and Guidance Statements)

(Repeat for All Space Types

Within this Major Category)

(Repeat As Needed for Each Major

Category of Spaces)

5. GLOSSSARY OF TERMS AND

ABBREVIATIONS

6. REFERENCES

7 . APPENDICES (Typical Forms and

Other Special (Materials)

8. INDEX OF TERMS

167
Table 36. Questionnaire for Controlling Working Conditions (Grandjean (150))

With the questionnaire at hand the person supervising the work situation can consider the relevant factors systematically. A comparison with the check list

of an aircraft pilot may make this clearer. Before take-off a pilot checks

that all systems are functioning properly with the help of a list of questions.

The check list helps him to remember all the important parts of the aeroplane.

In a similar way, the questionnaire below is intended to help the responsible

person to remember all the important points when creating an efficient and safe

working environment.

1 Estimating the Work Load

11 Main Occupation.

Occupation of secondary importance.

12 Is the work physically strenuous?

13 Does the work put great demands on skill, vigilance or perception?

14 Does the working environment contain disturbing factors (climate, noise,

lighting)?

15 Does the type of work impose an extra burden on the worker (shift work,

work without rest pauses, paced work)?

16 Does the worker carry a heavy responsibility?

2 Questions referring to Physical Stress

21 Position of body (sitting, standing, stooping).

211 Does the position of the body demand considerable static muscular

work?

212 Is the working height correct?

213 Are the ranges of movement of handles anatomically correct?

214 Is there sufficient room for free movement?

215 Does visual control of the work or the instrumental display allow

a natural body position?

216 Does the operation of pedals allow a natural body position?

Questions for sedentary work

217 Is the seat adjusted to the working height?

218 Is the seat comfortable?

219 Is a foot rest necessary?

3 Questions referring to Perception, Vigilance and Skill

31 Demands on perception

311 Is the lighting satisfactory?

312 Is the supply of information adequate and properly displayed?

313 Do the size of the figures, words, symbols and scale marks fit the

reading distance?

314 Are the instruments, components and other structures so placed

that control is easy and error free?

315 Is optical magnification required?

316 Is the relationship between the visual display and the controls

properly designed?

317 Can speech or sound signals be heard clearly; is their meaning

fully understood?

32 Demands on vigilance

321 Is attention disturbed by noise or other acoustic stimuli?

322 Is attention disturbed by the activities of other persons?

323 Is attention disturbed by processes at the work place?

168
33 Demands on skill

331 Does the skilled work take place under visual control?

332 Does the work need a long training time?

333 Have all conditions for the easy acquisition of

automatic activity been provided?

334 Are the directions and sequences of required movements

organized efficiently?

335 Is the arrangement of controls such that a natural

posture is possible?

336 Does the manipulation of the controls require excessive

force?

337 Are the controls adequate for the task they are required

to perform?

4 Questions referring to the Working Environment

41 Light and colour

411 Is the intensity of light sufficient during the day?

412 Is the artificial lighting sufficiently bright?

413 Is there excessive brightness contrast in the working

visual field?

414 Does the eye have to move periodically from dark to

light areas?

415 Are there any reflecting surfaces at the work place?

416 Are the light sources correctly placed?

417 Is the light supplied of uniform quality (fluorescent

tubes free from flicker, tubes shifted in phase, no stroboscopic effects)?

418 Do colours at the work place present suitable brightness

contrasts?

419 Does the background coloration interfere with the colour

coding of knobs and handles?

41.10 Is the colour scheme in the room quiet and friendly?

42 Environmental climate

421 Is the air temperature comfortable?

422 Are the temperatures of surrounding surfaces similar to

the air temperature?

423 Are draughts perceptible?

424 Does the relative humidity correspond to the physiological

requirement?

425 Are the heating appliance placed correctly?

426 Is the supply of fresh air sufficient?

Questions referring to work under hot conditions

427 Is the heat load tolerable?

428 Is the clothing suitable?

429 Is there an adequate supply of liquids?

42.10 Can the heat stress be reduced by screening or other

measures?

43 Protection against noise

431 Does the noise disturb vigilance or intellectual effort?

432 Does the noise interface with speech?

433 Is the noise great enough to damage the auditory apparatus?

434 Can the noise be reduced?

169
Table 37. Illustrations of Questionnaire Items on Environmental Survey

(Lozar & Porter (37))

| WORK STATION

~

|

Your work station is the physical space in the room you and your office

equipment occupy. Various aspects of your work station layout may affect your

job performance. Please indicate the degree to which you agree or disagree

with the following statements.

rHU V

JZ <D H to U

V U H to u rH CD u to CO CO to H

< rH 4) Q CO 4J >% 03 U X rH <u U to

JO <v u CD JZ

to M 3 CD to -H to 4) H •H

SC < z Q

16. The size of my desk surface is adequate for my

tasks.

17. The area my space occupies is adequate for my

tasks.

18. I have enough storage space in and around my

desk.

19. I find my work station flexible enough to meet changing requirements.

20. I think my work station presents a professional

image .

1 ROOM j

Your work station is in a room. Certain attributes of this room can be rated individually and make up your total perception of your space in the

room. Please answer the following questions.

WINDOWS

51. How important is it for you to be able to see outside?

Extremely important : : : : : : Not important at all

52. Do you feel having a window is a factor in your ability to do you job?

1. Yes 2. No

53. Do you feel a window:

Improves my performance Distracts from my

on the job : : : : : performance on the job

54. Can you see out of any window from where you normally sit?

1. Yes 2. No

55. If so what can you see? (circle as many as necessary)

1. trees 2. cars 3. fields 4. buildings 5. supplies 6. trash

170
Table 38. Questionnaire for Evaluating VDT Lighting (Zackrison (151))

NAME:

OFFICE LOCATION:

INTERVIEWED BY: DATE:

TIME:

Male Age Health Condition: Excellent

Good

Female Fair

Poor

1. How do you feel about the present lighting in your area both in terms of quantity

(levels of illumination in footcandles) and quality (how does it feel under the illuminated area?)?

2. Does your area seem quiet and serene? That is, no harsh glare, no lighting

distractions.

3. Explain .lamp obscuration - (fixture lens obscures the lamp image outline if there

is good lamp obcuration. In lenses without this quality the fluorescent tubes

appear as bright lines behind the lens). Does seeing the lamp image within the lighting fixture annoy you?

4. Explain direct glare - (direct glare harsh uncontrolled lighting coming directly

from the source "luminaire", directly into your eyes. This is also one form of disability glare). Do you feel there is direct glare at your work station.

5. Explain indirect glare - (indirect glare is light that is reflected into your

eyes off the task). Do you feel there is indirect glare at your work station?

6. Explain veiling reflections which are caused by indirect glare - (A veiling

reflection is caused by reflected light or Indirect glare and can be linked to placing a veil over the task thus masking it out and rendering it more difficult

to see - "see contrast rendition factor"). Do you feel there is veiling being

cast on your work surface or on the screen of your CRT and/or VDT?

7. Explain contrast rendition factor (CRF) - (Poor contrast rendition factors are • due to poor contrast that is caused by indirect glare casting a veiling reflection

- usually a reflection of the overhead lighting fixture - upon the tasks, thereby

reducing the contrast of the printed material in relation to other material

“paper" it is printed on).

8. Do you feel that there is too much brightness and glare at your work station?

9. Do you feel comfortable in your lighted environment?

10. Do you feel that there is good visibility in your area by virtue of the proper

intensity of lighting? (Lighting levels of lllumlnacion in footcandles Is sufficient - neither too high nor too low.)

11. Does the lighting appear to harsh to you? (Too bright, too glary, distracting,

too much contrast, hurts your eyes?)

12. Does the lighting hurt your eyes?

13. Are you subject to eye fatigue?

14. Are you subject or prone to frequent headaches? (Possibly the result of poor lighting quality and/or quantity, "too much or possibly too little".)

15. Does the taks appear more difficult to read towards the end of the day?

16. Do you feel you are more subject to reading, writing or typing errors towards the end of the day?

17. Do you feel your task Is placed within dark areas caused by shadows being cast upon that area? (This can be caused by poor placement of lighting fixtures or the addition of bank style partitions being added within your area after the installation of the original overhead lighting system.)

18. Do you feel that your productivity level (quantity of work produced) has fallen

off due to poor quality lighting and too high or too low of quantity of illumination "footcandles")?

19. How long do you work each day at this station or terminal? (How many hours a day

and are they all at once or in several segments, i.e. 2-3 hour work periods?)

20. How many days a week to you work at this station or terminal?

171
Table 39. Checklist for Developing Human Engineering Data for a Management

Information System (MIS) (Hendricks (59))

Not Not Yes applicable Aware* No*

1. Are private offices available for personnal who conduct

professional or supervisory counceling or confidential _

discussions on a regular basis? _

2. Have conference spaces been provided for those times

when employees need to work together? j |

1

; j

3. In circumstances where several employees share equipment, are those employees co-located? i

j _! !

:

!

4. Are the employees separated from noisy equipment such

as CPUs, copiers, etc? ; j _ i !

;

'

5. Have office locations been chosen with regard to expected __ interactions? ; _ j

i

j

I __

6. Are partitions used to screen traffic? j

1

j _j j |

;

7. Are all commonly used facilities centrally located? j

j

j

: j_ i

8. Are frequently interacting functions located on the same |

j

j

j j j floor?

9. Are the pathways to and from offices straight? (That is, __ are confusing spirals, curves, or dead-ends avoided)? j J ,

j jj j

10. Where an open office concept has been used, is some amount

of pathway continuity present? 1!

!

j

!

|

i

11. Are the dimensions of all private offices at least 7 .5 x __ 7.5 ft (2.3 m x 2.3 m)? | | | | | | | |

12. Are the private offices designated so no one faces a window

while working? | | | | | | | |

13. Does each private office have a good source of illumination? |

;

'

| j

'

j

14. Does each office have independent control of its ventilating

s y stem? l_l l_l l_l l_l

15. Is there adequate space at the workstation for the equipment

and data (printouts, microfiche, manuals, etc.) that the . user needs? j

: i

j j j |

16. Is the work area adjustable so that it can accommodate

comfortably the 5th to the 95th percentile of the adult ___ population? :

! !

i

:

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17. If the CRTs, the microfiche readers, etc., are not at the immediate workstation, are they as close as possible to _ that station? | | | | | | | |

18. Is the workstation adjustable so that the home typing keys

are 2 inches (55 mm) below the elbow height? | | | | | | | |

19. Are all employees trained to adjust their furniture, or is adjustment provided as requested? | | | | | | | |

20. Are office noise levels below 45 dB(A), 37 dB PSIL-4, or

38 dB PSIL? i '!

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172
11.2 INTRODUCTION OF AUTOMATION INTO OFFICES

Luke (87) lists the following points as critical to the successful introduction

of automation into her organization:

"1. Collect your facts, so that your method of installing equipment can

be supported with numbers.

2. Start early to announce and explain the new systems, answer questions,

share your plans, and generate enthusiasm.

3. Share information with both the management staff and the support

staff-pref erably , the same information.

4. Take it slowly. Allow time to pilot-test a few systems. Allow time

for people to get used to the new idea. Again, communicate test

results as they come in. The slow, careful approach always works

best.

5. Notice whether, and what "grapevine" information is leaking out, and

try to make the informal network positive and working for you.

6. Collect information as systems are installed, to assess effectiveness

and pinpoint problem areas. Share the results with all involved.

7. Admit and face up to problems; find solutions to them immediately

(call in experts if needed) so that the spirit and support are maintained

8. Think of ways to generate enthusiasm and motivate the user groups,

from the inception of the plan through to the refresher training and

the documentation of the system procedures. Involve managers and

support staff together.

9. Know when to turn each operation over to its manager (with documented

procedures and with available assistance when needed)."

173
Riley (93) cites the following checklist as an aid to decision making and

planning associated with office automation:

Table 40. Office Automation Objectives Considerations Checklist (Riley)

Check

REDUCE WASTE (Efficiency)

Decrease Workload

Reduce Overtune

Free Skilled People from Routine Work

Reduce "Down" or "Off” Time of Equipment

Increase Off-Lane Operations

REDUCE COST (Economy)

Reduce Number of Operations Performed

Reduce Size or Quantity of Equipment

Reduce Manhour Requirements

Reduce Number of Reports Produced

Reduce Distribution of Reports

BETTER INFORMATION (Accuracy)

Increase Accuracy of Input/Output

Select Better Reporting Elements

Improve Distribution (Right Data to Right People)

Increase Precision or Capacity of Equipment Used

Increase Flexibility or Variety of Processing Operations

1

MORE CURRENT INFORMATION (Timeliness)

Decrease Throughput Time (effective Date of Information)

Cut-Down Process Turnaround Time

Reduce Reproduction Service Time

Reduce Distribution/Transmission Times

Provide More Frequent Reports

MORE OUTPUT FROM AVAILABLE RESOURCES (Productive)

Increase Hardware Utilization

Provide More Compact or Efficient Storage

Provide Greater Compaction of Data

Eliminate Redundant Operations

Eliminate Unnecessary Operations

174
McNurlin (18) details several characteristics that an office automation strategy

ought to contain:

° Obtain top management commitment - a corporate information strategy

must be formulated, with top management playing an important role. A

senior executive should be a key person in advocating and directing

the program.

° Choose an initial user community - a pilot program should be undertaken

with a group need to communicate with one another, and be widely

dispersed geographically. The managers should be enthusiastic

experimenters, who will make use of the system themselves.

0 A corporate information plan should be developed - the goal of such a plan should be improved organizational efficiency and better information

handling. The plan should consider the following:

° Organizational factors - the effect of the automated office on organizational structure and procedures.

0 Data processing - what applications are needed, what are the equipment

requirements?

° Communications - internal and external requirements.

° People considerations - how to gain acceptance and support.

° Environmental factors - considerations of lighting, space, noise

levels, etc.

0 Implementation program - studies of managerial work, information flow,

the office automation marketplace. Expand the system slowly, adding

additional user groups after the pilot study. Finally, gradually

expand the capabilities of the system.

175
11.3 ANALYSIS OF OFFICE FUNCTIONS

Office functions are analyzed by Eichorn (92) into five basic types.

1. Communications - estimates are quoted where managers and professionals

spend between 65 percent and 75 percent of their time on scheduled and

unscheduled meetings, and time on the telephone. Electronic mail systems are proposed as a means of increasing communications efficiency.

2. Information Storage and Retrieval - a large proportion of time is

spent working with written information; reading material and then

preparing responses. A good deal of the technology is focused on

this area.

3. Data Analysis - computing power will allow professionals to have

available the information and resources to aid in their decision

making process.

4. Personal Assistance - making travel arrangements, maintaining a personal calendar and similar activities can be readily performed with

the aid of a computer system.

5. Task Management - maintaining a continuous record of tasks to be

performed, deadlines, and messages received may be the most critical

functions to be performed by an office automation system.
Kunin (110) indicates that three categories of action must be expressed to

describe the office functions.

Table 41. Office Functions to be Specified (Kunin)

1. Routine manipulations of objects. These are primarily actions concerned

with the existence of objects, and include the following operations:

• creation of a new object

o removal of an object from the environment

o changing of some characteristic of an object

© transmitting an object to another site

© placing a record of an object in a long-term archive

o adding an object to a set

© removing an object from a set

2. Actions that require some decision. These, primary judgment-based, actions

can be further subdivided into:

a. basic decisions, concerned with whether a single object satisfies

certain conditions, including:

© verifying the correctness of an object

© approving the creation/issuance of an object (by a person with

authority to do so)

© evaluating an object and recording a judgment

• negotiating the characteristics of an object among several parties

b. Aggregate decisions, those made simultaneously about several objects

of the same type, due to a interdependence of the decisions about the

individual objects: selecting a subset of a set of objects

• allocating objects among several users

• partitioning a set of objects into several groups

3. Actions that concern the control of procedures and the handling of

exception conditions:

• initiating a procedure

• terminating a procedure

• calling a (subroutine) procedure

• restarting an action that caused an exception

• notifying a party responsible for handling an exception

177
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Table 42. Taxonomy of Office Tasks (Conrath, et al. (82))

Task Description

Planning, budgeting, analyzing (future oriented) Involves substantial cognitive activity. The

emphasis is on things which have an effect on the organization in terms of establishing

guidelines, constraints, etc., for future

action.

Deciding, authorizing, approving (action oriented)

Evaluating, controlling (task oriented)

Human relating, supervising, appraising, staffing,

motivating (people oriented)

Participating in interactive meetings (two-way

communication)

Informing, reporting, requisitioning (one-way

communication)

Advising, counselling, assisting, problem solving,

acting as a liaison (limited to 2 or 3 people)

Selling, convincing, persuading (change oriented)

General administration, handling paperwork

(managerial level)

Completing forms, recording, logging, filing,

retrieving (routine oriented)

Typing, transcribing, copying (going from one medium to another)

Bookkeeping, accounting, inventorying (basic

clerical computations)

Arranging meetings and appointments, telephone

calls, distributing mail (secretarial tasks)

Miscellaneous

Action oriented, either reaching a decision

about an action to be taken or the taking of an action, or the approval of one or the other.

Involves the evaluation and control of past or ongoing actions. Are things being done

properly? It can also involve the coordination or review of projects.

The management of people a general category

involving the influence on subordinates and is more than just informing or talking things over with them.

The formal interactions with several people to give them ideas or to get ideas, responses,

etc. from them.

A one-way flow of information, data, facts, and

the like. The essence is the flow of knowledge

which may be useful to the recipient.

Giving advice or assistance especially with

regard to problem solving. It is more than

informing since there is give and take.

Trying to convince someone to do something.

Using an emotional appeal or a well developed

argument.

Managerial tasks Involving general

administration and paperwork. Used when the task does not clearly belong elsewhere.

Task is doing no more than filling in the blanks or routine search and retrieval tasks.

Transcribing something into another form, and

nothing more (cognitive activity is nominal).

Working with figures, numbers, especially on

a rather routine level. The preparation of simple unannotated financial statements e.g. Secretarial type tasks other than those which

come under T and F. Acting as a routine go- between.

Used when the task decription cannot be coded

or the information given is meaningless.

180
11.4 INFORMATION FOR COMPUTERIZATION; FRIENDLY SYSTEMS

The following characteristics are suggested by Crenshaw and Philipose (119) for

the development of a friendly user/computer system:

"Tools . Small independent tools are preferred to large ones. Each tool

should carry out one and only one well-defined function. The tools should

be named using common words which describe their functions.

Input commands . A single interface should control all input to a computer's operating system. This will ensure a uniform command syntax.

The system should allow users to edit command lines and correct errors,

either prior to entry or after detection.

Output interface . All programming tools should communicate with the user

through a single output driver and, to the extent possible, make all output formats uniform. For commands with several phases, the system should

indicate when each phase is completed and the user should be able to

suppress these computer responses.

Extensibility . Users should be allowed to collect groups of command

lines into "command files." There should be no distinction between the

response needed to invoke a common file, like an editor, or a simple

system command.

Context memory . A record should be maintained of user options and program

status.

Error handling . No combination of user input should cause an unrecoverable

error. The system should report all errors to the user through the same output driver in the uniform format. The system's error messages should

be printed clearly and tell the user what is wrong.

Documentation . Extensive online documentation and learning aids should

be available to the operator. Written documentation should be considered

only as a secondary source of information."

181
Section 4—Text File, Search, 4.4 Retrieval

Table 43. Procedure Used for Collect Functional Requirement Data

(Rosenbaum (111))

Features /Requirements Mgrs Prof Admn Corr

4.25 User can designate another person (e.g., a file administrator) to receive system

messages about his files and their status. M M M M

4.26 User can restrict a document in the

department or general files so that only

certain individuals or certain departments

can have access to it. M M M M

4.27 User can restrict certain portions of text

within a document so that only certain

individuals or departments can have access

to the portions restricted. I I I I

4.28 User can file a document in an encoded

state so that anyone who retrieves it

must have the system decode it before it can be read or printed out. M M M M

4.29 User receives a notice from the system

when his personal file "cabinet" allocation

becomes full. M M M M

4.30 File administrator users receive notices

from the system when department and general

file "cabinets" become full. M M M M

4.31 System allows for the expansion of all

electronic file" cabients" upon the addition of space and is transparent to the user. M M M M

4.32 User can receive a listing of his

personal, department, and/or general files

sorted in any order or by any index that

he desires. M M M M

4.33 User can randomly search or browse file

folder listings and/or document names. M M M M

B. Search and Retrieval

4.35 User can search for a document in any one

or more of his available electronic

"cabinets" —i.e., personal, department,

or general, simultaneously. M M M M

Importance Codes: M=Mandatory, 1= Important, D=Desirable

O.T. Systems Conceptual Functional Requirements July, 1980

182
Stewart (118) suggests the following guidelines for the design of human-computer

dialogues:

1. Documentation. Easy to use manuals are essential, as are indexes and

lookup lists which serve as reference material.

2. Allowances for different skill levels of users. Individuals vary

considerably in terms of their familiarity with computers at the outset, and

also in terms of their speed of learning. One solutions is to require simple

procedures at the outset , and then let the user advance at his own rate in the use of more powerful and faster approaches.

3. Abbreviations. Codes and abbreviations should be treated as a separate language and the listing should be readily available to all system

operators. The terms used should be carefully selected to avoid inconsistency

and ambiguity.

4. layout. The layout and format of the information may be as important

as the content, and should be carefully designed and tested. A good design

would entail logical sequencing of information in relation to the system and

the user's task. Similar items should be grouped together as a means of

highlighting interrelationships of findings. The display should not be

cluttered with too much information. The screen displays should be consistent

with one another to simplify its use. Finally, the formats used should be as simple as possible.

5. Order. The sequence of information should be consistent with the

ordering of the functions to be performed by the operator.

6. Graphics. Often this means of presenting information is more

effective than text.

7. User oriented. Formats and procedures should be tested by proposed

users before being implemented. The awareness and involvement in the process

are both important in the design of computer systems.

8. Errors. Common errors will occur, but the system should be designed

so that such errors should not have a catostrophic effect.

9. System response time. Ideally, delays should be minimized, but in

general variability in the delay is more disruptive to the users than the

length of delay.

10. The final general guideline is that no set of general principles will

cover any particular situation. Rather, the sequence of issues covered must be

considered from the standpoint of a particular user group and the activities

that they perform.

183
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In a study for Owens Corning Fiberglas, an analysis of the potential use of

personal computers was made by Doubler (153) table 44.

Table 44. User Goals and Measures for Personal Computers (Doubler)

Goal Measure

Time savings Is there an overall -reduction in the time required

to do tasks currently performed manually? How

much?

Improved quality of

information

Does the personal computer provide access to information not otherwise available?

Creativity To what extent does the machine aid the user in

developing new perspectives and ideas?

Ease of use How long does it take to learn to use the computer

and each of the program packages evaluated? How

complete are the documentation and instructions

provided by the vendor? To what degree is expert

help required?

Timeliness To what degree does the computer speed up the

retrieval and sending information, and help the user comply with deadlines and time constraints?

Applicability What specific tasks can be performed more effectively with the help of the personal computer? Does it meet the needs originally identified?

Does use of the personal computer suggest

applications not previously considered? What are

the specific irritations of use?

Availability/ reliability

• How reliabile are the individual hardware and

software components? How frequently do they fail?

How rapidly can service be obtained? How much

preventive maintenance must the user perform?

Communications To what extent does the personal computer improve

the user's flexibility in communication with

others?

Overall impact Does the user view the personal computer as a nec positive influence in doing his/her job?

TECHNICAL GOALS AND MEASURES

Goal Measure

Utilization How much is the personal computer actually used?

Is sharing viable? Does usage increase or decrease over time?

Prototyping Is vendor supplied software useful in analyzing

user needs? Does it help the user express his

overall requirement in more concrete terms? Does

it help the professional staff design more effective applications for the mainframe?

S ecuri cy What specific security issues are raised by the use of personal computers? How can these issues

be addressed?

Data integrity/radundancy To what extent are useful data isolated from

general use? To what extent are data being

duplicated by individual users?

Development alternatives Is the use of vendor supplied software an effective alternative to custom system development? Is the use of a minicomputer an effective alternative

to use of the central computer system? In what

soecific cases?

185
11.5 COMMUNICATIONS AND TECHNOLOGY

Table 45. Automated Office System Components (McNurlin (18))

Information Generation Information Distribution

Voice activated input devices

Multi-function intelligent work

stations

Two-way cable home television

Handwriting entry devices

Graphical input devices

Distributed data networks

Integrated communications

(word/ data /graphics /voice /image

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Store and forward communications

Computer message systems

Smart facsimile devices

(combined with OCR)

Word processing Computerized branch exchanges

(CBX)

Portable radio telephone Micropublishing (computer

'Intelligent* telephones with

digitized voice

typesetting from microforms)

Intelligent copiers/printers

Automatic typesetting

Multi-media tele-conferencing

Electronic bulletin boards

OCR interfaces

Electronic funds transfer

systems (EFT)

Information Storage Information Query

Electronic message files ’Personal assistant' services

via software

Computer output microfilm and

updatable microforms

Multi-media digitized storage

Automated personal calenders

Automated inforamtion storage and

retrieval systems

Automatic message content indexing

systems

Bibliographic search services

Automated training techniques

Interactive graphics

Data base management system

(DBMS)

Electronic pointers (light pen

mouse)

Specialized information services

Simple English query/retrieval

languages

Decision support systems

186
A major motivation for networking is the sharing of such resources as communications facilities, computer facilities and information itself. Network

design can influence the ease with which resources can be shared, thereby

influencing the amount of sharing that occurs. Information sharing has the

most far-reaching implications in organizations - i.e. the facility with

which information can move across the boundaries of individual applications.

Figure 29 illustrates how this information is compiled in a system devised

by Licklider and Vezza ( 154)

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187
The framework for defining a communications network is based on a highly layered

series of protocols developed by the International Standards Organization (ISO),

called the Open System Interconnection (OSI) protocols (155). The OSI

architecture defines seven layers of communications:

"1. The Physical layer. This defines the electrical and mechanical

interfaces to the network. The physical layer specifies the particular signaling means (baseband vs RF for example), the modulation technique adopted, station identification addresses, etc.

2. The Data-Link Level. This is where the actual packet formats are established, along with the particular access control mechanism

used to regulate use of the physical network. Data are encapsulated in packets that contain physical addressing information,

error detection, etc.

3. The Network Layer. This level determines how to get a message from

one network to another one, since many paths may exist. It may use several intermediate steps to get information to its ultimate

destination.

4. The Transport Layer. This provides another level of connections

between network entities. It manages the connections and segments

messages into smaller pieces that the network can support. It may

also be involved in error and flow control.

5. The Session Layer. This is used to set up and break communications

paths across the network. and manage the exchange of data. It is

responsible for multiplexing and demultiplexing messages, managing

the sequencing and priority of these messages, and providing the

needed buffers.

6. The Presentation Layer. It is primarily responsible for making

data available to the Application layer in a meaningful fashion.

It takes care of protocol conversion, data unpacking, translation,

or encryption.

7. The Application Layer. It provides for the identification of users

and services, and is responsible for initiation and reliability of

data transfers, as well as general network access, flow control and

recovery. Utility programs may perform network file-transfers,

terminal to network support, etc."

188
12. GLOSSARY

ANALOG COMPUTER

ANTHROPOMETRY

AI

ARPANET

ARTICULATION

INDEX

ASHRAE

BASEBAND

BATCH

PROCESSING

BROADBAND

BUS

CENTRAL

PROCESSING

UNIT

CIS

CMBS

COAXIAL

CABLECOM

COMMAND

LANGUAGE

A calculating machine that operates with numbers represented

by directly measurable quantities (as voltages, resistances,

or rotations).

The study of human body measurements, especially on a comparative basis.

Articulation Index

A set of autonomous, interconnected, and independent computer

centers which use a standard transmission method to permit

interactive resource sharing among all participants —set up

by ARPA (Advanced Research Project Agency).

A numerically calculated measure of the intelligibility of

transmitted or processed speech. It takes into account the

limitation of the transmission path and the background noise.

American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air

Conditioning Engineers, Inc.

The band of frequencies occupied by all transmitted signals

used to modulate the radio wave that is produced by the

transmitter in the absence of a signal.

A technique that uses a single program loading to process

many individual jobs, tasks or signals for service.

A band with a wide range of frequencies.

A length of coaxial cable, to which microcomputer stations

are attached.

The computer at the center of an on-line system which performs

the processing according to the applications package.

Computer based information system.

Computer based information system.

A transmission line in which one conductor is contained

inside and insulated from an outer metal tube that serves

as a second conductor.

Computer output microfilm

A type of dialogue in which the user formulates control

entries with minimal prompting by the computer.

189
COMPUTER MAIL - The transmission of messages using computer systems.

CPU - Central processing unit

CRITICAL

SUCCESS

FACTORS

- Those activities most important in performing major job

functions

.

CSF - Critical success factors

DATA BASE

MANAGEMENT

SYSTEM

- General purpose programs that accept data in a format

determined by the user, process, the data, the output it in

a desired format.

dB - Decibel

DBMS - Data base management system

DDP - Distributed data processing

DECIBEL - The unit of sound intensity.

DECISION

SUPPORT

SYSTEM

- A computer information system designed for managers and

professionals, using simplified interactive programming with

acess to one or more data bases.

DIALOGUE - A structured series of interchanges between a user and a terminal. They can be computer-initiated (question and

answer) or user controlled by a command language.

DIGITAL SWITCH - Interconnecting data, word processing, and telephone

equipment by a digital PBX.

DISABILITY

GLARE

- Glare resulting in reduced visual performance and visibility

DISCOMFORT

GLARE

- Glare producing discomfort; not necessarily interfering

with performance

DISTRIBUTED

DATA

PROCESSING

- Sharing of computing among several computers at different

locations.

DP - Data processing

DSS - Decision support systems

EDP - Electronic data processing.

190
ELECTRONIC

MAIL

- An electronic system using communications lines, computers,

CRT and hard copy terminals to transmit documents and

messages to individual addresses.

ERGONOMICS - A subject are which deals with the interaction of person/,

machine and person/environment issues.

ETHERNET - An example of a distributed processing network, with several

microcomputers; it is based upon workstations designed for a given function, with data processing capability.

FDM - Frequency division multiplexing

FIBER OPTICS - Very thin strands of glass, used to transmit information by means of light pulses.

F IRMWARE - Routines wired into the computer as part of the circuitry.

FLOPPY DISC - A small mylar data storage device, resembling a phonograph

record.

FRONTEND

SYSTEM

- The part of the computer system that interprets what the

user specifies, and interacts with the "background" of the

system, which performs the detailed operations desired.

HAB LIABILITY - The impact of the environment on the behavior of building

users with respect to their* welfare , task performance, and

job satisfaction.

HID - High intensity discharge

IBD - Institute of Business Designers

IEEE - Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers

IES - Illuminating Engineering Society

INTELLIGENT

TERMINAL

- Terminal with limited programming capabilities such as format

creation and parameter definition.

IS, I/S - Information system

ISO - International Standards Organization

JOYSTICK - Manual input device for graphic display consoles, which

allows the user to specify 2 dimensional or 3 dimensional

coordinates

KNOWLEDGE

WORKER

- A person with a major responsibility for developing, analyzing

and/or acquiring information, e.g., professional, manager.

191
IAN

LOCAL AREA

NETWORK

MAINFRAME

MANAGEMENT

INFORMAT ION

SYSTEM

MANUAL

PROCESSING

MENU

META

LANGUAGE

MICROGRAPHICS

MINICOMPUTER

MIS

MICROCOMPUTER

MULTIPLEX

NODE

OA

OCR

OPTICAL

CHARACTER

READER

PABX

PACKET

SWITCHING

PBX

- Local area network

- Systems of computers and peripheral devices linked together

in adjacent offices or buildings.

- The central processing unit of a large computer system.

- A computerized procedure for providing managers with immediate

knowledge, information, and data needed to make decisions,

direct people, and regulate operations to better attain

organizational goals. •

- Any data processing operation performed by hand.

- A type of dialogue in which the user selects from a number

of displayed alternatives.

- A set of symbols and words used to describe another

language (in which these symbols do not appear).

- The capture, retrieval, and display of miniaturized,

high-resolution photographic images containing either

textural or graphic information.

- A computer whose physical size is between a microcomputer

and a full size computer.

- Management information system

- Used to described the small physical size of a computer

- to interleave or simultaneously transmit two or more messages on a single channel.

- A single station in a local area network

- Office automation

- Optical character reader

- The reading and identification of characters optically,

under computer control.

- Private automatic branch exchange

- The internal operation of a particular type of data

communications network which uses software to dynamically

route messages from source to receiver.

- Private branch exchange

192
QWL - Quality of working life

SCIENTIFIC

MANAGEMENT

- Analysis of tasks into smallest possible standard components;

"time-and-motion" studies to increase productivity

SEMANTICS - The meaning of language intended by the originator of a message

SOFTWARE - Computer programs, rules, procedures, and associated

documentation concerned with the operatio of a computer-based

system.

SOUND

TRANSMISSION

CLASS

- The preferred single figure rating scheme designed to give an estimate of the sound insulation properties of a partition.

Used when speech and office noise constitute the major noise

problem.

STC - Sound transmission class

SYNTAX - A set of rules specifying which forms of the language are grammatically acceptable.

TASK/

AMBIENT

LIGHTING

- A combination of task and ambient lighting in a given area,

with the ambient lighting being lower in intensity and

complimentary to the task lighting.

TASK

ANALYSIS

- Used to determine the psychological and physical factors

essential to the adequate performance of a task.

TERRITORIALITY - The perception of a person or a group that they possess a given place to the exclusion of others.

TIMESHARING - A function of software that enables parcelling out access

to the processor among input/output devices such as CRT's

often by means of dial-up ports.

TWISTED PAIR - A cable comprised of two small insulated conductors twisted

together without a common covering.

TWX - A network of telegraph-grade communications lines and

terminals used to transmit messages.

USABILITY - The ease of learning a task, and ease of use.

USER

FRIENDLY

- Requiring only a limited amount of experience, knowledge

or training to operate.

VALUE-ADDED

NETWORK

- Transmission networks used to facilitate communication among

terminals and computers.

193
VDT - Video display terminal

VDU - Visual display unit

VEILING

REFLECTIONS

- Regular reflections superimposed upon diffuse reflections

from an object that partially or totally obscures the

details to be seen, by reducing the contrast.

WHITE NOISE - An acoustical stimulus composed of all audible frequencies

at the same intensity with random phase relations between

them; it sounds like "shhhhh"

.

WORD

PROCESSING

- The keyboarding, editing, and printing of documents on a system that includes hardware and software in many instances

WORKSTATION - The general physical environment in which the user works.

It includes computer terminals, source documents, desks,

chairs, and lighting.

WP - Word processing

194
INDEX

Ackoff - 68, 135

Acoustics - 20, 22, 31, 43, 111, 126,

127, 128

Air Quality - 116, 129

Alloway - 73, 79, 80

Architectural Programming - 7 , 60

Argyris - 2 ARPANET - 12

Articulation Index - 34

Bair - 12, 47, 48

Barcomb - 111

Becker - 5, 68

Bennett -98, 99, 184

Beranek - 35

Berendt - 34

Bickson - 133

Blackmarr - 103, 104

Boggs - 108

Brauer - 28, 167

Brill - 24, 25

Brookes - 23

Brown - 36, 52

Christensen - 38

Clark - 88 , 89

Color - 20

Communications - 5, 15, 70

Connell - 13, 18, 120, 125, 143

Conrath - 70, 180

Control - 28, 31, 43, 13, 3, 136

Corliss - 34

Crenshaw - 100, 181

Critical Success Factors - 72, 75

CRT ( VDT) - 12, 20, 31, 51, 52, 54, 64,

68, 85, 108, 122

Damodaran - 60

Data Base - 1, 88, 97

Data Processing - 1, 11, 22, 84, 93

Decision Support - 77, 90

Depersonalization - 44, 132

Design Criteria - 19

Dickensen - 74, 75

Displays - 48 , 52 , 62

Doubler - 185

Downs - 3

Driscoll - 2, 3, 69, 80, 77

82, 133

Eichorn - 78, 176

Electrical Systems - 112, 115

Electronic Files - 12

Electronic Mail -15, 110

Employee Participation - 6

Englebart -65, 66

Environment - 6, 23, 114

Ergonomics -44, 62, 124, 125

ETHERNET - 108

Farber - 12

Feidelman - 93

Filing Systems - 2, 7, 20, 106

Flexibility - 1, 21, 42, 47, 58,

59, 94, 110, 115

Flynn - 35

Furniture - 22, 24, 27, 38, 40, 47,

56, 65

Galitz - 52, 53

Gibson - 2, 9

Giuliano - 8

Glare -

33, 38, 51

Gold - 111

Grandjean - 23, 65,

Gutek - 133

Habitability - 28

Hammer - 13, 77 , 85

Harris -24, 130, 1 Hedge - 23

Hendricks - 44, 172

Hirtle -36, 37

Holmes - 83

Holzman - 104, 107

Information

Analysis - 81

Management - 79

Integration - 9, 137

James - 96

Job

Design -46, 55, 65, 66, 68

Enrichment - 15

Performance -24, 31

Satisfaction - 6, 24, 31, 59,

195
Kahn - 2 Kaplan - 23, 47, 59, 60, 61

Katz - 2

Keating - 38

Keen -84, 91

Ketchell - 65, 66

Kintisch - 97

Kling - 96

Knowledge Worker - 16, 134

Kroemer -56, 57, 62, 63

Kunin - 77 , 95 , 177

Lautzenheiser - 38, 39, 40

Licklider - 187

Lieberman - 13, 14, 79, 80

Lighting - 24, 33, 36, 38, 43, 52, 56,

112, 115, 120, 121

Likert - 2 Lilly - 42

Local Area Networks - 15, 22, 49, 51,

64, 101

Lodahl - 3, 4, 68, 75

Lowenthal - 101, 108

Lozar - 28, 29, 170

Luke - 74, 81, 173

MacFarlane - 137

Magleby - 136

Management - 71

Management Information Systems -20, 90

Marans -31, 32, 135

Markus - 139

Martin - 8, 17, 85, 138

Maslow - 136

Mazo - 6

McIntosh - 78

McNurlin - 12, 13, 75, 82, 86, 175, 186

Melly - 69

Metcalfe - 108

Meyer - 76

Mintzberg - 71 , 72

Montone - 33

Morgan - 90

Mumford - 82

Murray - 19, 64, 65, 186

Nemecek - 23

Ness - 9 Networks - 102

Newman - 88

Nilles - 111

Noise Criteria (NC) - 35

Nolan - 9, 86

Norris - 108, 109

Office Functions - 9

Ojalvo - 34

Open-space - 19, 20, 22, 34, 36, 131

Organizational Factors - 6, 7, 74,

79, 83

Paperwork - 1, 9, 137

Pearce - 42

Pile - 27

Philipose - 100, 181

Planning - 7, 17, 68, 77

Poppel - 72

Porter - 28, 29, 170

Post Occupancy Evaluation - 27, 60

Power - 6, 21, 23, 41, 43, 56, 112,

116

Powers -36, 37

Price - 56, 57, 62, 63

Privacy - 23, 24, 131

Auditory -25, 59

Visual - 25

Probst -36, 68

Productivity - 6, 8, 10, 15, 16,

45, 77, 83, 130, 134

Quality of Work Life - 2, 24, 114,

132

Ouillard - 73, 79, 80

Quinan - 25, 26

Research - 84

Riley - 79, 174

Robey - 92 , 93

Rosenbaum - 95, 182

Rubin - 19, 113, 166

Rush - 42

Saal - 102

Sadleir - 138

Scacchi - 96

Schoichet - 51

Shackel -53, 54

Shoch - 102, 103

Sirbu - 110

Slagle - 83

Snow - 97

Sound - 33

196
Space

Layout - 19

Needs - 27, 76, 117

Storage - 100

Spinrad - 9

Spreckelmeyer - 31

Standardization - 10, 51, 134

Stewart - 100, 183

Stout - 45, 46

Strassman - 10, 16, 85, 136

System Integration - 86

Tapscott - 137, 139

Task Analysis - 59, 69

Taylor -56, 58, 68, 69

Telecommunications - 2, 19, 76, 85,

101, 110

Teleconference - 15, 23, 101, 111

Thermal Comfort - 123

Training - 5, 20, 62, 81,

Uhlig - 12

User-Friendly Systems - 96, 181, 182,

183, 184

Uttal - 8

Veneklasen - 164, 165

Vezza - 187

Vibration - 33

View - 22

Vigliani - 65

Voice Mail - 15

Walker - 34, 36

Weisbord - 97

Wilson - 113

Winegar - 23

Withington - 94

Wodka - 36

Wood-Robinson - 51

Word Processing - 3, 10, 23

Workspace - 31, 66, 96

Workstation - 6, 18, 47, 50, 58, 85, 100,

102, 131, 137

Yaniv - 35

Yates - 56, 59

Young - 71

Zackrison - 171

Zisman - 8, 9 Zuboff -44, 98

197
NSS-HiA PEv. 2-«CI J.3. SE?T. O * COmm.

BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA

1. PUBLICATION OR

REPORT NO.

2. Performing Organ. Report No. 3. Publication Date

SHEET (See instructions) NBSIR 83-2784-1 November 1983

4. TITLE ANO SUBTITLE ' THE AUTOMATED OFFICE - AN ENVIRONMENT FOR PRODUCTIVE WORK

INFORMATION FACTORY?: A REPORT ON THE STATE-OF-THE-ART

1, OR AN

5. AUTHCR(S)

Arthur I. Rubin

S. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION (If joint or other than NBS. see instructions)

NATIONAL 3UREAU OF STANOARDS

DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

WASHINGTON, D.C. 20 234

7. Contract/Grant No.

S. Type of Report & Period Covered

9. SPONSORING ORGANIZATION NAME AnO COMPLETE ADDRESS (Str set. City. State, ZIP)

General Services Administration

Washington, DC 20405

10. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

1 Document describes a computer program; SF-IS5. FlPS Software Summary, is attached.

11. A 3STRACT (A SCO- word a r less factuci summery of most si gn i fi can t in formation. If documen t includes a si gn i fi cant

Si b< io greeny or literature survey, mention it ,‘ii'e) This study is a report of research findings and recommendations covering topics which

influence automated office design. The subjects covered are: office design, office

information systems, organizational factors, ergonomics, technology and communications.

Advances in technology, coupled with the explosive growth of office-based work have

resulted in the automation of many offices. To date, technology has provided the

major impetus for automation, with mixed results. Systems frequently do not meet che

needs of the end-user because of the lack of appropriate planning. Design issues are particularly neglected during planning, resulting in problems with the visual, thermal,

and acoustic environment in many offices. These effects are particularly detrimental

since many office automation, management, and design experts agree that the quality

of the environment is especially important in the electronic office - to offset the

impersonality of many office tasks, and changes in work procedures resulting an limited social interaction with colleagues. These issues are discussed as they

relate to the development of design guidelines and criteria for automated oitices.

The report contains an extensive bibliography, dealing with the topics cited above.

12. <EY WORDS (Six to twelve entries; aipn soeti cal order; capitalize oniy proper ncrr.es; ana separate <ey Acoustic privacy; design criteria; ergonomics; lighting; office automat

desizn criteria; cuali ty-of-lif e ; space planning; thermal comfort; VDT

disolav terminal) ; work station.

veras by semicolon S) ion; office

s (video

13. availability 14. NO. OF 1fll PRINTED PAGES

= or Official Distribution. Do Not Release ta NTIS

Drier From Suoerm tendent of Documents. U.S. Government P'inting Office, Wasnmgccn. D.C. 207

2C-02.

Order From National Tecnnical information Service ..NT’S), Springfield, VA. 22I6T

IS. Price

SI 9. 00

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