A Manual of Previously Recorded Nonindigenous Invasive and Native Transplanted 

Animal Species of the Laurentian Great 

Lakes and Coastal United States 

NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS NCCOS 77 
ii

Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute 

endorsement or recommendation for their use by the United States 

government. 

Citation for this report: 

Megan O’Connor, Christopher Hawkins and David K. Loomis. 2008. A Manual 

of Previously Recorded Non-indigenous Invasive and Native Transplanted 

Animal Species of the Laurentian Great Lakes and Coastal United States. NOAA 

Technical Memorandum NOS NCCOS 77, 82 pp.
iii

A Manual of Previously Recorded Nonindigenous Invasive and Native Transplanted 

Animal Species of the Laurentian Great Lakes 

and Coastal United States. 

Megan O’Connor, Christopher Hawkins and David K. 

Loomis. 

Human Dimensions Research Unit 

Department of Natural Resources Conservation 

University of Massachusetts-Amherst 

Amherst, MA 01003 

NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS NCCOS 77 

June 2008 

United States Department of National Oceanic and National Ocean Service 

Commerce Atmospheric Administration 

Carlos M. Gutierrez Conrad C. Lautenbacher, Jr. John H. Dunnigan 

Secretary Administrator Assistant Administrator 
i

TABLE OF CONTENTS 

SECTION PAGE 

Manual Description ii 

A List of Websites Providing Extensive 1 

 Information on Aquatic Invasive Species 

Major Taxonomic Groups of Invasive 4 

 Exotic and Native Transplanted Species, 

 And General Socio-Economic Impacts 

 Caused By Their Invasion 

Non-Indigenous and Native Transplanted 7 

Species by Geographic Region: Description 

of Tables 

Table 1. Invasive Aquatic Animals Located 10 

 In The Great Lakes Region 

Table 2. Invasive Marine and Estuarine 19 

 Aquatic Animals Located From Maine 

 To Virginia 

Table 3. Invasive Marine and Estuarine 23 

 Aquatic Animals Located From North 

 Carolina to Texas 

Table 4. Invasive Marine and Estuarine 28 

 Aquatic Animals Located on the West 

 Coast Including Alaska 

Table 5. Invasive Marine and Estuarine 39 

 Aquatic Animals Located In Hawaii 

Socio-Economic Impact of Non-Indigenous 50 

 and Native Transplanted Species 

References 74
ii

MANUAL DESCRIPTION

This manual presents geographic information by state of occurrence, and 

descriptions of the socio-economic impact created by the invasion of nonindigenous and native transplanted animal species in the Laurentian Great Lakes 

and the coastal waters of the United States. It is not a comprehensive literature 

review, but rather is intended as a primer for those unfamiliar with the socioeconomic impacts of invasive aquatic and marine animals. Readers should also 

note that the information contained in this manual is current as of its publication 

date. New information and new species are routinely being added to the wider 

literature base. Most of the information was gathered from a number of web sites 

maintained by government agencies, commissions, academic institutions and 

museums. Additional information was taken from the primary and secondary 

literature. This manual focuses on socio-economic consequences of invasive 

species. Thus, ecological impacts, when noted in the literature, are not discussed 

unless a connection to socio-economic factors can be made. For a majority of the 

species listed, either the impact of their invasion is not understood, or it is not 

published in sources surveyed. In the species summaries, sources of information 

are cited except for information from the U.S. Geological Survey’s (USGS) 

Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Database http://nas.er.usgs.gov. This website 

formed the base information used in creating tables on geographic distribution, 

and in many of the species summaries provided. Thus, whenever information is 

given without specific author/source and date citation, it has come from this 

comprehensive source.
1

LIST OF WEBSITES PROVIDING EXTENSIVE 

INFORMATION ON AQUATIC INVASIVE SPECIES 

We surveyed a number of sources of information in compiling this 

compendium. These sources included databases managed by government 

agencies, commissions or academic institutions/museums. The most 

comprehensive database for identifying species presented herein, by geographic 

region, was the United States Geological Survey (USGS) Nonindigenous Aquatic 

Species (NAS) information resource. 

U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). 2004. Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Database, 

Gainesville, FL. http://nas.er.usgs.gov

This database is a repository of spatially referenced biogeographic 

accounts of nonindigenous aquatic species found in the United States. This 

repository, located at the Center for Aquatic Resource Studies, is a comprehensive 

and integrated database. One can obtain information, maps, or issue queries from 

the NAS database regarding numerous nonindigenous aquatic species. For this 

report, we generated a preliminary list of coastal invasive species by querying the 

NAS database (USGS 2004). The database was queried for animals based upon 

hydrologic units (HUC) and for marine and brackish species only. The returned 

data were saved in text files and then imported and manipulated in MS Excel. We 

separated data taken from this site according to geographic area, and exotic and 

native transplant species are distinguished via color coding as seen in the data 

tables. These data formed the basis for the tables of this report, although a 

number of other sources were also used to include a small number of additional 

species not listed in NAS, and to provide information on the socio-economic 

impact caused by a number of the invasive species/transplanted natives. 

Pam Fuller, Biologist and NAS Program leader, performed the animal 

database queries for the Great Lakes Region and also answered many questions 

we had about the database structure and content. She can be reached at 

pam_fuller@usgs.gov, U.S. Geological Survey, 7920 NW 71st St., Gainesville, 

FL 32653. 

We also used several other databases, listed below. 

1. Smithsonian Environmental Research Center (SERC). 2004. Marine Invasion 

Research Lab, Edgewater, MD. 

http://www.serc.si.edu/labs/marine_invasions/databases/index.jsp, September 

2006. 

The Smithsonian Environmental Research Center (SERC) Marine Invasion 

Research Lab provides access to three databases, AIRD, NEMESIS and NISbase 

(SERC 2004). 
2

2. World Conservation Union (IUCN). 2006. Invasive Species Specialist Group 

(ISSG), Global Invasive Species Database, Auckland, New Zealand. 

http://www.issg.org/database/welcome/, September 2006. 

The Global Invasive Species Database was developed by the Invasive Species 

Specialist Group (ISSG) as part of the global initiative on invasive species led by 

the Global Invasive Species Program (GISP). The ISSG is part of the Species 

Survival Commission (SSC) of the World Conservation Union (IUCN). NISbase. 

The database contains information on species (from micro-organisms to animals 

and plants) biology and ecology, distribution (native and alien ranges), and 

impacts worldwide (IUCN 2006). 

3. National Invasive Species Information Center, USDA National Agricultural 

Library 

http://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/

This site provides opportunity to browse information by geography or by subject, 

including aquatic species, economic impacts, laws and regulations. 

4. Non-Native Aquatic Species in the Gulf of Mexico and South Atlantic Regions 

Gulf States Marine Fisheries Commission http://nis.gsmfc.org/

This site provides detailed summaries of invasive species, publications and a 

bibliographic database. 

5. Sea Grant National Aquatic Nuisance Species Clearinghouse 

http://www.aquaticinvaders.org/

This site provides an on-line library on “research, public policy, and outreach 

education publications pertaining to invasive marine and fresh-water aquatic 

nuisance species.” 

6. Guidebook of Introduced Marine Species of Hawaii. Bishop Museum and the 

University of Hawaii. 

http://www2.bishopmuseum.org/HBS/invertguide/invertintro.htm

This site provides substantial information in the form of species profiles. 

7. Aquatic Nuisance Species Task Force site. ANS Task Force. 

http://www.anstaskforce.gov/default.php

“The Aquatic Nuisance Species (ANS) Task Force is an intergovernmental 

organization dedicated to preventing and controlling aquatic nuisance species, and 

implementing the Nonindigenous Aquatic Nuisance Prevention and Control Act 

(NANPCA) of 1990” (from the site). 

8. Invasivespecies.gov: a gateway to federal and state invasive species activities 

and programs. http://www.invasivespecies.gov
3

This site is currently under construction – users are referred to 

http://invasivespeciesinfo.gov/ (listed above) 

9. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Great Lakes 

Environmental Research Laboratory (GLERL) site. 

http://www.glerl.noaa.gov/res/Programs/invasive/, February 2007. 

This site provides a “Great Lakes Aquatic Nonidgenous Species List”. This list 

was crossreferenced with the Great Lakes list obtained from NAS. 

For some species in this survey, we have included information additional to the 

databases from the primary, and secondary (review), literature. 
4

MAJOR TAXONOMIC GROUPS OF INVASIVE EXOTIC AND 

NATIVE TRANSPLANTED SPECIES, AND GENERAL SOCIOECONOMIC IMPACTS CAUSED BY THEIR INVASION 

Phylum Porifera (sponges) 

 As a group, the sponges can be considered fouling organisms, although the impact 

 of fouling for many of the species may be modest. 

Phylum Ectoprocta (including bryozoans) 

 As with the sponges (above), bryozoans are commonly considered fouling 

 organisms. 

Phylum Coelenterata (Cnideria) 

 Class Anthozoa (anemones and corals) 

 As a group anemones are considered fouling organisms, although the impact 

 of fouling in many instances may be modest. 

 Class Hydrozoa (hydroids and medusae) 

 This group has economic impact as fouling, and in the mortality some species 

 can impose on economically important commercial resources. Some species 

 also are considered nuisances due to the painful sting they can inflict on 

 humans. 

Phylum Rotifera (rotifers) 

 As a group, invasive rotifers are not known to generate socio-economic 

 Impact 

Phylum Gastrotricha (gastrotrichs) 

 As a group, this phylum is not known to generate socio-economic imact 

Phylum Annelida 

 Class Polychaeta (polychaetes, bristleworms) 

 The major impact of bristleworms is in fouling, although the impact is 

 probably modest for most species. 

 Subclass Oligochaeta (earthworms and leeches) 

 This subclass has little described socio-economic impact. 

Phylum Mollusca 

 Class Bivalvia (bivalves such as mussels, shipworms, clams and oysters) 

 Bivalves are noted for fouling, and for causing negative impacts on 

 recreationally and commercially important aquatic resources as well as taxa 

 protected under endangered species legislation. The economic impact created 
5

 by the introduction of a number of species has been substantial. Shipworms 

 cause economically important damage by destroying wooden structures. 

 Some of the species have the potential to provide economic benefit via 

 aquaculture or by supporting fisheries through natural production once 

 established.

 Class Gastropoda (snails, slugs and nudibranchs) 

 This taxonomic group includes species that have caused declines in the 

 abundance of native commercially important resources, have produced 

 bio-fouling problems in municipal water supplies, and have served as vectors 

 of serious human diseases. 

Phylum Arthropoda, Subphylum Crustacea

 Class Branchiopoda (including the cladocerans) 

 This group is largely innocuous; however, the species described in the socio- 

 economic impact section of this Manual (strating on page 42) are considered a 

 nuisance by recreational anglers. Their introduction has caused substantial 

 changes in plankton communities, with as yet undetermined possible 

 consequences to the productivity of commercially and recreationally 

 important fish species. 

 Class Maxillopoda 

 Subclass Thecostraca (including the barnacles) 

 Barnacles are fouling organisms that can produce substantial cost in 

 cleaning and maintaining fouled structures. 

 Subclass Copepoda (the copepods) 

 The impact of parasitic copepods on socio-economically important fish 

 species is probably modest. 

 Class Insecta (insects) 

 Although terrestrial invasive insects have produced substantial, 

 widespread socio-economic impact, aquatic taxa included herein are not 

 noted to do so. 

 Class Malacostraca 

 Order Amphipoda (the amphipods) 

 Very little socio-economic impact is described in the literature for this 

 group. 

 Order Isopoda (the isopods) 

 The major problems caused by introduced isopods include fouling and 

 deterioration of wooden structures such as pilings, docks and wooden hulled 

 ships. 
6

 Order Decapoda (including lobsters, crabs and shrimp) 

 Problems caused by exotic decapods include: introducing diseases 

 potentially destructive to native species of commercial importance, and/or 

 humans; reducing the quality of commercially important resources through 

 competitive interactions and predation; becoming a costly nuisance to 

 commercial harvesters through net clogging and destruction; weakening of 

 levees through tunneling activity; and others. 

Phylum Chordata 

 Subphylum Urochordata-Tunicata (the tunicates or sea squirts) 

 Tunicates are noted for fouling, although in many instances the fouling impact 

 may be modest. 

 Subphylum Vertebrata 

 Class Cyclostomata (including the sea lamprey) 

 Sea lampreys have been blamed for the destruction and loss of commercially 

 and recreationally important fisheries in the Great Lakes, although their 

 exact role versus overfishing in the decline of many species is not clear. 

 Substantial cost and effort is focused on controlling the abundance of this 

 invasive in the Laurentian Great Lakes basin, due to its potential to reduce 

 the productivity of numerous recreationally important fish species, and to 

 prevent successful restoration of locally extinct populations of the lake trout. 

 Class Osteichthyes (boney fishes) 

 The introduction and invasion of exotics from this group have created highly 

 valued recreational fisheries, and supported other economically and valuable 

 fisheries by serving as a food base for target species. However, species 

 from this Class have caused the decline or loss of equally or more valued 

 native resources, fouled beaches, power plant intakes and municipal water 

 supplies, introduced destructive diseases into native populations of fishes, 

 and caused other socio-economically important problems. 

 Class Mammalia 

 The nutria is the only mammal listed in any of our reference sources. It 

 causes degradation of salt marsh habitat and can destabilize levees and 

 dikes. 
7

NON-INDIGENOUS AND NATIVE TRANSPLANTED 

SPECIES BY GEOGRAPHIC REGION: 

DESCRIPTION OF TABLES 

The following pages (7-9) present tables listing common and scientific 

names, taxonomic grouping, and states (or lakes) of occurrence of non-indigenous 

exotic and native transplanted invasive species. 

The tables here are derived from listings in the USGS Nonindigenous 

Aquatic Species Database, Gainesville, FL. http://nas.er.usgs.gov. This database is 

the result of extension literature review and is maintained/updated by the USGS; 

it is the most comprehensive listing of U.S. invasives readily available. The NAS 

Database species listings provide links to collection maps and listings of 

collection information including date, site, habitat type (marine, brackish, 

freshwater) and status (listed as “collected”, “failed”, “extirpated”, or 

“established”). Pamela Fuller of the USGS searched their database for the Great 

Lakes region for us, and we search all coastal regions of the U. S. by conducting 

“queries” of listings for each coastal state. In this compendium species within 

major taxonomic groupings are alphabetically arranged by common name. 

This compendium focuses on the socio-economic consequences of 

invasive animal species. In the tables of this compendium, we included species 

listed in the NAS Database from all major animal taxonomic groups for which we 

could find some examples of socio-economic impacts; thus, even if specific 

species of invasives do not have a demonstrated socio-economic impact, or one 

that could be easily projected (which is true of the majority of species listed) but 

are in a Phylum or Class containing species that do, they are included. Three 

taxonomic groups, the Rotifera, Insecta and Gastrotricha, are included because 

they are represented by several or fewer invasive species documented in the 

literature we reviewed; thus, their inclusion, although socio-economic 

consequences are not delineated, did not unnecessarily “lengthen” the listings. 

We chose to exclude taxonomic groupings comprised solely of endoparasites 

(such as parasitic flukes and tapeworms). We consider these organisms a 

potential “consequence” of the invasion of free-living organisms rather than a 

direct invasion by exotic animals. However, parasitic copepods are included in 

tables where appropriate. This seeming “paradox” is based on inclusion of the 

Copoepoda in general, as there are free-living members of this group that have 

descriptions of socio-economic consequences in the literature; inclusion of some 

copepoda required inclusion of all invasives from that group. 

Other protocol used for including/excluding species listings in the NAS 

Database in this compendium’s tables included a specific set of criteria. 
8

1. Species listed as “extirpated” or “failed” (introduction failed) in the 

NAS database or other sources were excluded from tables, as were species for 

which all collection entries preceded 1900. 

2. If a species was not listed as “established”, and was collected two or 

fewer times across adjacent states within a region, it is designated with an asterisk 

(*) in tables of this compendium, thus noting that it represents an infrequent 

collection that likely has not become established. Species noted as “collected” 

only once or twice in one state, but showing multiple collection date/site listings 

or “established” listings for adjacent states are not designated with an asterisk. 

We do not differentiate between species the NAS Database designated as 

“established” from those “collected” on multiple dates/sites because original 

sources of collection information surveyed by the USGS - from Museum 

collection records to secondary literature references - may not have differentiated 

between the two designations. Thus, some species listed in the NAS database as 

“collected” across a number of sites/dates within a state may not be listed as 

“established” because the original literature did not designate them so, not 

because of an inability of these taxa to become an enduirng part of the biotic 

community even with a relatively widespread temporal and spatial invasive 

occurrence . 

3. For coastal regions, (all tables other than Table 1, which covers the 

Laurentian Great Lakes), only taxa collected/established in either saltwater or 

brackish water habitats in coastal waters were included in the tables here. Species 

listed in the NAS Database as freshwater, and collected only in freshwater 

systems, were excluded. In some instances, species in the NAS Database listed as 

solely freshwater were collected in coastal/brackish water-estuarine habitats; they 

are included in the tables here. If after reviewing NAS database collection 

information and collection maps it was not clear whether a species listed for a 

coastal state was collected solely in freshwater habitats or, both in freshwater and 

in brackish/marine coastal waters, the listing is designated with a “?”. 

4. A small number of taxa listings in the NAS database included species 

for a specific state whose native range included adjacent states within the same 

coastal region. Thus, the presence of these taxa may be more indicative of a 

ragne extension rather than an invasion. Such species are listed with a “+” in 

tables here. Since the Niagra River and Niagra Falls served as a natural barrier to 

movement between Lake Ontario and the upper Laurentian Great Lakes, and since 

a few taxa native to Lake Ontario produced substantial socio-economic impact 

once the barrier was breached, no species are designated with a “+” in the Great 

Lakes table even if native to Lake Ontario. Similarly, species native to either the 

Atlantic or Gulf Coasts, but listed by the NAS Database as invasive to the other, 

are not designated with a “+”. Table 3 includes both the South Atlantic and the 

Gulf of Mexico states because Florida, which has one of the highest diversity of 

non-indigenous transplants, occurs in both regions. Including Florida in two 

different tables (one for South Atlantic and one for Gulf of Mexico) would have 
9

been unnecessarily redundant; however, movement from one coastline to the 

other would more properly represent an invasion than a range extension, thus the 

“+” designation was not used in this table for such changes in distribution. 

The tables in this compendium are coded, with native transplants (species 

whose native range includes other regions of the U. S.) marked in gray. 

To ensure that this document is flexible with regard to future additions, an 

* is listed in the right hand column of the tables to indicate page location of the 

description of the socio-economic impact caused by the species’ invasion, rather 

than the page number itself. 
Table 1. Invasive Aquatic Animals located in the Great Lakes Region  Highlighted records indicate native transplants. * denotes rare species. ? indicate freshwater, brackish, marine ran

Taxonomic Group Family Genus Species Common Name Lake 

Protozoan Gastrotricha Acineta nitrocrae suctorian in Ricciardi 2001 (site

listed) 

Coelenterates-Hydrozoans Clavidae Cordylophora caspia freshwater hydroid Lake Erie 

Coelenterates-Hydrozoans Olindiidae Craspedacusta sowerbyi freshwater jellyfish Lake Erie Ectoprocts Vasicularidae Lophopodella carteri freshwater bryozoan Lake Michigan 

Annelids-Oligochaetes Naididae Ripistes parasita oligochaete Lake Huron, Lake Mic

Lake Superior 

Annelids-Oligochaetes Tubificidae Gianius aquaedulcis oligochaete Niagara River Annelids-Oligochaetes Tubificidae Potamothrix bedoti oligochaete Lake Michigan 

Annelids-Oligochaetes Tubificidae Potamothrix moldaviensis oligochaete Lake Michigan 

Annelids-Oligochaetes Tubificidae Potamothrix vejdovsky oligochaete Lake Michigan 

Annelids-Oligochaetes Tubificidae Branchiura sowerbyi tubificid worm Lake Erie, Lake Hu

Lake St. Clair 

Mollusks-Bivalves Corbiculidae Corbicula fluminea Asian clam Lake Erie, Lake Mich

Lake Superior 

Mollusks-Bivalves Sphaeriidae Sphaerium corneum European fingernailclam Lake Erie, Lake Ont

Lake Superior 

Mollusks-Bivalves Sphaeriidae Pisidium amnicum greater European peaclam Lake Ontario, Lake Su

Mollusks-Bivalves Sphaeriidae Pisidium henslowanum* Henslow's pea clam Lake Erie, Lake Mich

(Heard 1962) 
Table 1 con't. Invasive Aquatic Animals located in the Great Lakes Region 

Taxonomic Group Family Genus Species Common Name Lake 

Mollusks-Bivalves Sphaeriidae Pisidium supinum Humpback pea clam in Ricciardi 2001 (site

listed) 

Mollusks-Bivalves Sphaeriidae Pisidium moitessierianum pygmy pea clam Lake Erie, Lake Sup

Lake St. Clair 

Mollusks-Bivalves Dreissenidae Dreissena bugensis quagga mussel Lake Erie, Lake Mich

Lake Ontario, Lake S

Mollusks-Bivalves Dreissenidae Dreissena polymorpha zebra mussel 

Lake Erie, Lake Hu

Lake Michigan, La

Ontario, Lake St. Clai

Superior 

Mollusks-Gastropods Viviparidae Viviparus georgianus* banded mystery snail Lake Erie 

Mollusks-Gastropods Lymnaeidae Radix auricularia* big-ear radix Lake Erie, Lake Hu

Mollusks-Gastropods Hydrobiidae Gillia altilis buffalo pebble snail Oneida Lake (OntaMollusks-Gastropods Viviparidae Cipangopaludina chinensis malleata* Chinese mysterysnail Lake Erie, Lake Mich

Mollusks-Gastropods Valvatidae Valvata piscinalis European stream valvata Lake Erie, Lake On

Mollusks-Gastropods Viviparidae Cipangopaludina japonica Japanese mysterysnail Lake Erie Mollusks-Gastropods Bithyniidae Bithynia tentaculata mud bithynia or faucet snail Lake Erie, Lake Mich

Lake Ontario 

Mollusks-Gastropods Hydrobiidae Potamopyrgus antipodarum New Zealand mudsnail Lake Ontario, Lake Su
Table 1 con't. Invasive Aquatic Animals located in the Great Lakes Region 

Taxonomic Group Family Genus Species Common Name Lake 

Crustaceans-Amphipods Corophiidae Corophium mucronatum an amphipod Lake St. Clair Crustaceans-Amphipods Gammaridae Echinogammarus ischnus an amphipod 

Lake Erie, Lake Hu

Lake Michigan, La

Ontario, Lake St. Clai

Superior 

Crustaceans-Amphipods Gammaridae Gammarus fasciatus freshwater shrimp 

Lake Erie, Lake Hu

Lake Michigan, La

Ontario, Lake Supe

Crustaceans-Cladocerans Cercopagidae Cercopagis pengoi fish-hook water flea Lake Erie, Lake Mich

Lake Ontario 

Crustaceans-Cladocerans Cercopagidae Bythotrephes longimanus spiny water flea 

Lake Erie, Lake Hu

Lake Michigan, La

Ontario, Lake St. Clai

Superior 

Crustaceans-Cladocerans Daphniidae Daphnia lumholtzi water flea Lake Erie, Lake Mich

Crustaceans-Cladocerans Bosminidae Bosmina maritima water flea in Ricciardi 2001 (site

listed) 

Crustaceans-Cladocerans Bosminidae Eubosmina coregoni water flea 

Lake Erie, Lake Hu

Lake Michigan, La

Ontario, Lake Supe

Crustaceans-Copepods Temoridae Eurytemora affinis calanoid copepod 

Lake Erie, Lake Hu

Lake Michigan, La

Ontario, Lake Supe
Table 1 con't. Invasive Aquatic Animals located in the Great Lakes Region 

Taxonomic Group Family Genus Species Common Name Lake 

Crustaceans-Copepods Diaptomidae Skistodiaptomus pallidus calanoid copepod Lake Erie, Lake Hu

Lake Ontario, Lake S

Crustaceans-Copepods Cyclopidae Cyclops strenuus cyclopoid copepod in Ricciardi 2001 (site

listed) 

Crustaceans-Copepods Cyclopidae 

Megacyclops viridis cyclopoid copepod in Ricciardi 2001 (site

listed) 

Crustaceans-Copepods Ameridae Nirocra hibernica harpacticoid copepod in Ricciardi 2001 (site

listed) 

Crustaceans-Copepods Ameridae Nitocra incerta harpacticoid copepod in Ricciardi 2001 (site

listed) 

Crustaceans-Copepods Cletodidae Heteropsyllus cf. nunni harpacticoid copepod in Ricciardi 2001 (site

listed) 

Crustaceans-Copepods Diosacidae Schizopera borutzkyi harpacticoid copepod in Ricciardi 2001 (site

listed) 

Crustaceans-Copepods Argulidae Argulus japonicus parasitic copepod Lake Michigan 

Crustaceans-Copepods Lernaeopodidae Salmincola lotae parasitic copepod Lake Superior 

Crustaceans-Copepods Ergasilidae Neoergasilus japonicus parasitic copepod Lake Huron 

Crustaceans-Crabs Grapsidae Eriocheir sinensis Chinese mitten crab Lake Erie, Lake Sup

Crustaceans-Crabs Cambaridae Orconectes rusticus rusty crayfish Lake Superior 

Crustaceans-Shrimp Mysidacea Hemimysis anomala bloody-red shrimp Lake Michigan (NCR

2007) 

Platyhelminthes-flatworms Dugesilidae Dugesia polychroa flatworm Lake Ontario (Mills 

1993) 
Table 1 con't. Invasive Aquatic Animals located in the Great Lakes Region 

Taxonomic Group Family Genus Species Common Name Lake 

Insecta Pyralidae Acentropus niveus aquatic moth Lake Ontario, Lake 

(Mills et al. 1993

Insecta Erirhinidae Tanysphyrus lemnae aquatic weevil in Mills et al. 1993 (sit

listed) 

Fishes Clupeidae Alosa pseudoharengus alewife 

Lake Erie, Lake Hu

Lake Michigan, La

Ontario, Lake Supe

Lake St. Clair 

Fishes Anguillidae Anguilla rostrata American eel Lake Erie, Lake HuFishes Clupeidae Alosa sapidissima American shad 

Lake Erie, Lake Hu

Lake Michigan, La

Ontario, Lake St. C

Fishes Salmonidae Salmo salar Atlantic salmon 

Lake Erie, Lake Hu

Lake Michigan, La

Ontario, Lake Supe

Lake St. Clair 

Fishes Cyprinidae Hypophthalmichthys nobilis bighead carp Lake Erie 

Fishes Catostomidae Ictiobus niger black buffalo Lake Huron, Lake OFishes Clupeidae Alosa aestivalis blueback herring Lake Ontario 

Fishes Salmonidae Salmo trutta brown trout 

Lake Erie, Lake Hu

Lake Michigan, La

Ontario, Lake St. Clai

Superior 
Table 1 con't. Invasive Aquatic Animals located in the Great Lakes Region 

Taxonomic Group Family Genus Species Common Name Lake 

Fishes Esocidae Esox niger chain pickerel Lake Erie, Lake OnFishes Salmonidae Oncorhynchus tshawytscha Chinook salmon 

Lake Erie, Lake Hu

Lake Michigan, La

Ontario, Lake Supe

Lake St. Clair 

Fishes Salmonidae Oncorhynchus mykiss irideus coast rainbow trout Lake Michigan Fishes Salmonidae Oncorhynchus kisutch coho salmon 

Lake Erie, Lake Hu

Lake Michigan, La

Ontario, Lake Supe

Lake St. Clair 

Fishes Cyprinidae Cyprinus carpio common carp 

Lake Erie, Lake Hu

Lake Michigan, La

Ontario, Lake St. Clai

Superior 

Fishes Salmonidae Oncorhynchus clarkii cutthroat trout Lake Huron Fishes Percidae Gymnocephalus 

cernuus 

Eurasian ruffe Lake Huron, Lake Mic

Lake Superior 

Fishes Pleuronectidae Platichthys flesus European flounder Lake Erie, Lake Sup

Fishes Gasterosteidae Apeltes quadracus fourspine stickleback Lake Superior Fishes Cyprinidae Notropis buchanani ghost shiner Lake Erie, Lake Hu

Lake St. Clair 

Fishes Clupeidae Dorosoma cepedianum gizzard shad 

Lake Erie, Lake Hu

Lake Michigan, La

Ontario 
Table 1 con't. Invasive Aquatic Animals located in the Great Lakes Region 

Taxonomic Group Family Genus Species Common Name Lake 

Fishes Cyprinidae Carassius auratus goldfish 

Lake Erie, Lake Hu

Lake Michigan, La

Ontario, Lake St. Clai

Superior 

Fishes Cyprinidae Ctenopharyngodon idella grass carp Lake Erie, Lake Hu

Lake Michigan, La

Ontario 

Fishes Centrarchidae Lepomis cyanellus green sunfish Lake Huron Fishes Salmonidae Oncorhynchus nerka kokanee, sockeye 

Lake Erie, Lake Hu

Lake Michigan, La

Ontario 

Fishes Salmonidae Salmo salar sebago landlocked Atlantic salmon Lake Superior Fishes Ictaluridae Noturus insignis margined madtom Upper Great Lak

Drainage 

Fishes Centrarchidae Lepomis humilis orangespotted sunfish Lake Erie Fishes Cobitidae Misgurnus anguillicaudatus oriental weatherfish Lake Michigan Fishes Salmonidae Oncorhynchus gorbuscha pink salmon Lake Erie, Lake Hu

Lake Michigan. La

Ontario, Lake Supe

Fishes Osmeridae Osmerus mordax rainbow smelt 

Lake Erie, Lake Hu

Lake Michigan, La

Ontario, Lake Supe

Lake St. Clair 
Table 1 con't. Invasive Aquatic Animals located in the Great Lakes Region 

Taxonomic Group Family Genus Species Common Name Lake 

Fishes Salmonidae Oncorhynchus mykiss rainbow trout 

Lake Erie, Lake Hu

Lake Michigan, La

Superior, Lake St. C

Fishes Characidae Pygocentrus nattereri red piranha Lake Huron, Lake St

Fishes Cyprinidae Cyprinella lutrensis red shiner Lake Michigan 

Fishes Characidae Piaractus brachypomus red-bellied pacu Lake Huron, Lake O

Fishes Centrarchidae Lepomis microlophus redear sunfish Lake St. Clair Fishes Catostomidae Carpiodes carpio river carpsucker Lake Erie Fishes Percidae Percina shumardi* river darter Lake Michigan 

Fishes Gobiidae Apollonia melanostomus round goby 

Lake Erie, Lake Hu

Lake Michigan, La

Ontario, Lake St. Clai

Superior 

Fishes Cyprinidae Scardinius erythrophthalmus rudd Lake Erie, Lake On

Fishes Percidae Sander canadense sauger Lake Michigan Fishes Petromyzontidae Petromyzon marinus sea lamprey 

Lake Erie, Lake Hu

Lake Michigan, La

Superior, Lake St. C

Fishes Lepisosteidae Lepisosteus platostomus shortnose gar Lake Michigan Fishes Clupeidae Alosa chrysochloris skipjack herring Lake Michigan 
Table 1 con't. Invasive Aquatic Animals located in the Great Lakes Region 

Taxonomic Group Family Genus Species Common Name Lake 

Fishes Moronidae Morone saxatilis* striped bass Lake Ontario Fishes Cyprinidae Phenacobius mirabilis suckermouth minnow Lake Erie Fishes Gasterosteidae Gasterosteus aculeatus threespine stickleback Lake Erie, Lake Hu

Lake Michigan, La

Superior, Lake St. C

Fishes Gobiidae Proterorhinus semilunaris tubenose goby Lake Erie, Lake Hu

Lake St. Clair 

Fishes Poeciliidae Gambusia affinis Western mosquitofish Found in the watersh

several Great Lak

Fishes Ictaluridae Ameiurus catus white catfish Lake Erie Fishes Moronidae Morone americana white perch 

Lake Erie, Lake Hu

Lake Michigan, La

Ontario, Lake Supe

Lake St. Clair 

Reptiles-Turtles Emydidae Trachemys scripta elegans Red-eared Slider Lake Erie 

Notes: Source, USGS Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Database, Gainesville, FL. http://nas.er.usgs.gov
Table 2. Invasive Marine and Estuarine Aquatic Animals located from Maine to Virginia  Highlighted records indicate native transplants. * denotes rare species. ? indicate freshwater, brackish, marine range unk

+ indicates range extension 

Taxonomic Group Family Genus Species Common Name S

Coelenterates-Anthozoan Diadumenidae Diadumene lineata* Orange-striped (green) 

sea anemone 

Coelenterates-Hydrozoans Campanulinidae Blackfordia virginica* Black Sea jellyfish 

Coelenterates-Hydrozoans Moerisiidae Maeotias inexspectata Black Sea jellyfish 

Coelenterates-Hydrozoans Olindiidae Gonionemus vertens clinging jellyfish 

Coelenterates-Hydrozoans Clavidae Cordylophora caspia* freshwater/ hydroid M

Coelenterates-Hydrozoans Bougainvilliidae Garveia franciscana hydroid Coelenterates-Hydrozoans Moerisiidae Moerisia lyonsi*? M

Ectoprocts Membraniporidae Membranipora membranacea bryozoan CT, 

N

Ectoprocts Loxosomatidae Loxosomatoides laevis 

Entoprocts Pedicellinidae Barentsia benedeni entoproct MMollusks-Bivalves Corbiculidae Corbicula fluminea Asian clam M

Mollusks-Bivalves Mactridae Rangia cuneata+ Atlantic rangia MMollusks-Bivalves Teredinidae Teredo bartschi* Bartsch NMollusks-Bivalves Dreissenidae Mytilopsis leucophaeata dark false mussel 

Mollusks-Bivalves Ostreidae Ostrea edulis* edible oyster R
Table 2 con't. Invasive Marine and Estuarine Aquatic Animals located from Maine to Virginia Taxonomic Group Family Genus Species Common Name SMollusks-Bivalves Cyrenoididae Cyrenoida floridana+ Florida marsh clam 

Mollusks-Bivalves Teredinidae Teredo navalis naval shipworm Mollusks-Bivalves Teredinidae Teredo furcifera* shipworm 

Mollusks-Gastropods Littorinidae Littorina littorea common periwinkle VA, DE

C

Mollusks-Gastropods Muricidae Stramonita haemastoma Florida rocksnail 

Mollusks-Gastropods Ellobiidae Myosotella myosotis marsh snail 

Mollusks-Gastropods Truncatellidae Truncatella subcylindrica snail 

Mollusks-Gastropods Muricidae Rapana venosa veined rapa whelk Mollusks-Nudibranchs Tritoniidae Tritonia plebeia* European nudibranch M

Mollusks-Nudibranchs Tergipedidae Cuthona perca Lake Merritt cuthona 

Mollusks-Nudibranchs Tergipedidae Tenellia adspersa* miniature aeolis 

Annelids-Polychaetes Serpulidae Ficopomatus enigmaticus* Australian tubeworm 

Crustaceans-Amphipods Gammaridae Gammarus daiberi* amphipod 

Crustaceans-Barnacles Balanidae Balanus amphitrite striped barnacle, purple acorn barnacle MD, N

Crustaceans-Copepods Temoridae Eurytemora affinis calanoid copepod VA, MA

Crustaceans-Crabs Grapsidae Hemigrapsus sanguineus Asian shore crab 

CT, 

NH, N

NJ, 

Crustaceans-Crabs Grapsidae Eriocheir sinensis* Chinese mitten crab 
Table 2 con't. Invasive Marine and Estuarine Aquatic Animals located from Maine to Virginia Taxonomic Group Family Genus Species Common Name SCrustaceans-Crabs Cancridae Cancer magister* Dungeness crab 

Crustaceans-Crabs Portunidae Carcinus maenas green crab 

CT, 

MD, 

NJ, 

Crustaceans-Isopods Idoteidae Synidotea laevidorsalis* isopod Crustaceans-Isopods Ligiidae Ligia exotica wharf roach VA, 

Tunicates Styelidae Styela clava Asian tunicate CT, 

NH, 

Tunicates Styelidae Botrylloides violaceus orange sheath tunicate CT, 

NH, 

Tunicates Ascidiidae Ascidiella aspersa* tunicate CTunicates Perophoridae Ecteinascidia turbinata tunicate VATunicates Didemnidae Diplosoma macdonaldi tunicate CT, Tunicates Didemnidae Didemnum cf. lahillei white crust tunicate RI, MA

Fishes Salmonidae Salmo trutta? brown trout R

Fishes Salmonidae Oncorhynchus tshawytscha? Chinook salmon Fishes Salmonidae Oncorhynchus kisutch? coho salmon ME, 

MD, 

Fishes Salmonidae Oncorhynchus nerka? kokanee, sockeye Fishes Salmonidae Oncorhynchus gorbuscha*? pink salmon 

Fishes Scorpaenidae Pterois volitans red lionfish NJ, 
Table 2 con't. Invasive Marine and Estuarine Aquatic Animals located from Maine to Virginia Taxonomic Group Family Genus Species Common Name SFishes Clupeidae Dorosoma petenense? threadfin shad Fishes Gasterosteidae Gasterosteus aculeatus* threespine stickleback 

Notes: Source, USGS Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Database, Gainesville, FL. http://nas.er.usgs.gov
Table 3. Invasive Marine and Estuarine Aquatic Animals located from North Carolina to Texas  Highlighted records indicate native transplants. * denotes rare species. ? indicate freshwater, brackish, marine range unk

Taxonomic Group Family Genus Species Common Name S

Coelenterates-Anthozoan Dendrophylliidae Tubastraea coccinea orange cup coral FL, Coelenterates-Anthozoan Haliplanellidae Diadumene lineata orangestriped green anemone 

Coelenterates-Hydrozoans Moerisiidae Maeotias inexspectata* Black Sea jellyfish 

Coelenterates-Hydrozoans Clavidae Cordylophora caspia freshwater hydroid 

Coelenterates-Scyphozoan Mastigiidae Phyllorhiza punctata Australian spotted jellyfish AL, 

M

Coelenterates-Scyphozoan Cyaneidae Drymonema dalmatinum pink meanie A

M

Ectoprocts Victorellidae Sundanella sibogae bryozoan 

Ectoprocts Victorellidae Victorella pavida bryozoan Annelids-Polychaetes Serpulidae Hydroides elegans polychaete worm Annelids-Polychaetes Spionidae Boccardiella ligerica spionid worm 

Mollusks-Bivalves Mactridae Rangia cuneata Atlantic rangia 

Mollusks-Bivalves Mytilidae Mytella charruana Charru mussel F

Mollusks-Bivalves Tridacnidae Tridacna crocea* giant clam 

Mollusks-Bivalves Tridacnidae Tridacna maxima* giant clam Mollusks-Bivalves Gryphaeidae Hyotissa hyotis giant coxcomb oyster, honeycomb oyster 

Mollusks-Bivalves Mytilidae Perna viridis green mussel FL, 

Mollusks-Bivalves Teredinidae Lyrodus medilobatus* Indo-Pacific shipworm 

Mollusks-Bivalves Mytilidae Perna perna Mexilhao mussel 
Table 3 con't. Invasive Marine and Estuarine Aquatic Animals located from North Carolina to Texas 

Taxonomic Group Family Genus Species Common Name S

Mollusks-Bivalves Pteriidae Pinctada margaritifera* Pacific pearl oyster Mollusks-Bivalves Ostreidae Crassostrea ariakensis Suminoe oyster 

Mollusks-Gastropods Littorinidae Littorina littorea* common periwinkle 

Mollusks-Gastropods Ellobiidae Myosotella myosotis* marsh snail 

Mollusks-Gastropods Thiaridae Melanoides tuberculatus red-rim melania Mollusks-Gastropods Truncatellidae Truncatella subcylindrica snail Mollusks-Nudibranchs Tergipedidae Cuthona perca* Lake Merritt cuthona 

Mollusks-Nudibranchs Stiligeridae Ercolania fuscovittata* nudibranch 

Crustaceans-Amphipods Cheluridae Chelura terebrans amphipod 

Crustaceans-Barnacles Balanidae Balanus reticulatus barnacle Crustaceans-Barnacles Balanidae Balanus trigonus barnacle Crustaceans-Barnacles Balanidae Balanus amphitrite striped barnacle, purple acorn barnacle F

N

Crustaceans-Barnacles Balanidae Megabalanus coccopoma Titan acorn barnacle NC

GA

Crustaceans-Copepods Temoridae Eurytemora affinis* calanoid copepod 

Crustaceans-Copepods Centropagidae Centropages typicus copepod 

Crustaceans-Crabs Grapsidae Hemigrapsus Asian shore crab 

Crustaceans-Crabs Portunidae Callinectes bocourti Bocourt swimming Crab, red blue crab FL

SC

Crustaceans-Crabs Grapsidae Eriocheir sinensis* Chinese mitten crab 

Crustaceans-Crabs Porcellanidae Petrolisthes armatus green porcelain crab SC, 

Crustaceans-Crabs Portunidae Charybdis hellerii Indo-Pacific crab FL, 
Table 3 con't. Invasive Marine and Estuarine Aquatic Animals located from North Carolina to Texas 

Taxonomic Group Family Genus Species Common Name S

Crustaceans-Crabs Portunidae Callinectes exasperatus* rugose swimming crab 

Crustaceans-Isopods Sphaeromatidae Sphaeroma terebrans isopod Crustaceans-Isopods Sphaeromatidae Sphaeroma walkeri isopod Crustaceans-Isopods Idoteidae Synidotea laevidorsalis* isopod Crustaceans-Isopods Ligiidae Ligia exotica wharf roach FL, Crustaceans-Shrimp Penaeidae Penaeus monodon Asian tiger shrimp F

S

Crustaceans-Shrimp Penaeidae Penaeus stylirostris* blue shrimp 

Crustaceans-Shrimp Palaemonidae Macrobrachium rosenbergil* Malaysian prawn 

Crustaceans-Shrimp Nannosquillidae Pullosquilla litoralis mantis shrimp 

Crustaceans-Shrimp Penaeidae Litopenaeus vannamei Pacific white shrimp S

Crustaceans-Tanaids Tanaidae Zeuxo maledivensis tanaid 

Tunicates Styelidae Botryllus schlosseri golden star tunicate Tunicates Styelidae Styela plicata pleated sea squirt 

Tunicates Didemnidae Didemnum perlucidum white crust tunicate 

Fishes Salmonidae Salmo salar* Atlantic salmon 

Fishes Pomacanthidae Pomacanthus asfur* Arabian angel 

Fishes Cichlidae Sarotherodon melanotheron blackchin tilapia Fishes Pomacanthidae Pomacanthus annularis* blue ringed angelfish 

Fishes Pomacanthidae Pomacanthus xanthometopon* bluefaced angel Fishes Callichthyidae Hoplosternum littorale brown hoplo Fishes Salmonidae Salmo trutta ? brown trout 
Table 3 con't. Invasive Marine and Estuarine Aquatic Animals located from North Carolina to Texas 

Taxonomic Group Family Genus Species Common Name S

Fishes Balistidae Rhinecanthus verrucosus* bursa triggerfish Fishes Pomacanthidae Pomacanthus imperator* emperor angelfish 

Fishes Grammatidae Gramma loreto fairy basslet Fishes Serranidae Cromileptes altivelis humpback grouper Fishes Scorpaenidae Pterois volitans/miles lionfish N

Fishes Zanclidae Zanclus cornutus* Moorish Idol 

Fishes Cichlidae Oreochromis mossambicus? Mozambiqua tilapia F

Fishes Acanthuridae Naso lituratus* orangespine unicornfish Fishes Ephippididae Platax orbicularis* orbiculate batfish Fishes Serranidae Cephalopholis argus* peacock hind 

Fishes Poeciliidae Belonesox belizanus pike killifish 

Fishes Chaetodontidae Chaetodon lunula* Racoon Butterfly 

Fishes Salmonidae Oncorhynchus mykiss*? rainbow trout A

Fishes Scorpaenidae Pterois volitans red lionfish F

N

Fishes Chaetodontidae Heniochus intermedius* Red Sea bannerfish 

Fishes Ancanthuridae Zebrasoma desjardinii* sailfin tang 

Fishes Ancanthuridae Zebrasoma veliferum* sailfin tang Fishes Scatophagidae Scatophagus argus* scat 

Fishes Pomacanthidae Pomacanthus semicirculatus* semicircle angelfish, zebra angelfish Fishes Acanthuridae Acanthurus sohal* Sohal surgeonfish 

Fishes Tetraodontidae Tetraodon nigroviridis spotted green pufferfish 
Table 3 con't. Invasive Marine and Estuarine Aquatic Animals located from North Carolina to Texas 

Taxonomic Group Family Genus Species Common Name S

Fishes Clupeidae Dorosoma petenense? threadfin shad NC

G

Fishes Characidae Colossoma or Piaractus sp. unidentified pacu 

Fishes Moronidae Morone chrysops? white bass FFishes Ancanthuridae Zebrasoma flavescens* yellow tang 

Fishes Pomacanthidae Pomacanthus maculosus* yellowbar angelfish Fishes Ancanthuridae Zebrasoma xanthurum* yellowtail tang 

Mammals Capromyidae Myocastor coypus nutria GA

Notes: Source, USGS Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Database, Gainesville, FL. http://nas.er.usgs.gov
Table 4. Invasive Marine and Estuarine Aquatic Animals located on the West Coast including Alaska  Highlighted records indicate native transplants. * denotes rare species. ? indicate freshwater, brackish, marine range un

Taxonomic Group Family Genus Species Common Name Sta

Sponges Suberitidae Prosuberites sp. American Atlantic sponge CSponges Clionidae Cliona sp. boring sponge CA, ORSponges Halichondridae Halichondria bowerbanki Bowerbank's halichondria CA, O

Sponges Halichondridae Hymeniacidon sinapium Orange sponge C

Sponges Haliclonidae Haliclona loosanoffi Loosanoff's haliclona CASponges Clathriidae Microciona prolifera red beard sponge CA

Coelenterates-Anthozoan Diadumenidae Diadumene cincta orange anemone C

Coelenterates-Anthozoan Haliplanellidae Haliplanella lineata orangestriped green anemone CA, O

Coelenterates-Anthozoan Diadumenidae Diadumene lineata orange-striped sea 

anemone CA, O

 Coelenterates-Anthozoan Diadumenidae Diadumene franciscana San Francisco anemone C

Coelenterates-Anthozoan Diadumenidae Diadumene leucolena white anemone CACoelenterates-Hydrozoans Tubulariidae Tubularia crocea hydroid CA, O

Coelenterates-Hydrozoans Campanulariidae Obelia spp. hydrozoan W

Coelenterates-Hydrozoans Cladonematidae Cladonema uchidae hydrozoan C

Coelenterates-Hydrozoans Campanulinidae Blackfordia virginica Black Sea jellyfish CA

Coelenterates-Hydrozoans Moerisiidae Maeotias inexspectata Black Sea jellyfish C

Coelenterates-Hydrozoans Corynidae Sarsia tubulosa clapper hydromedusa CACoelenterates-Hydrozoans Clavidae Clava multicornis club hydroid C
Table 4 con't. Invasive Marine and Estuarine Aquatic Animals located on the West Coast including Alaska 

Taxonomic Group Family Genus Species Common Name S

Coelenterates-Hydrozoans Campanulariidae Obelia bidentata doubletoothed hydroid CA, 

Coelenterates-Hydrozoans Clavidae Cordylophora caspia freshwater hydroid CA, 

Coelenterates-Hydrozoans Corymorphidae Corymorpha sp. hydroid 

Coelenterates-Hydrozoans Bougainvilliidae Garveia franciscana hydroid 

Coelenterates-Hydrozoans Campanulariidae Gonothyraea clarki hydroid CA, 

Coelenterates-Hydrozoans Campanulariidae Obelia dichotoma* hydroid 

Coelenterates-Hydrozoans Cladonematidae Cladonema radiatum 

Coelenterates-Hydrozoans Moerisiidae Moerisia sp. 

Coelenterates-Scyphozoan Mastigiidae Phyllorhiza punctata Australian spotted jellyfish Coelenterates-Scyphozoan Ulmaridae Aurelia aurita moon jelly CAPlatyhelminthes Callioplanidae Pseudostylochus ostreophagus* flatworm 

Ectoprocts Nolellidae Anguinella palmata ambiguous bryozoan 

Ectoprocts Bugulidae Bugula sp. bugula bryozoan O

Ectoprocts Bugulidae Bugula stolonifera bryozoan CA

Ectoprocts Victorellidae Victorella pavida bryozoan 

Ectoprocts Watersiporidae Watersipora subtorquata bryozoan C

Ectoprocts Alcyonidioidea Alcyonidium gelatinosum bryozoan Ectoprocts Cryptosulidae Cryptosula pallasiana bryozoan CA, 

Ectoprocts Vesiculariidae Zoobotryon verticillatum bryozoan 

Ectoprocts Vesiculariidae Bowerbankia gracilis creeping bryozoan CA, Ectoprocts Membraniporidae Conopeum tenuissimum lacy crust bryozoan CEctoprocts Schizoporellidae Schizoporella unicornis single horn bryozoan CA, OEctoprocts Alcyonidiiae Alcyonidium sp. C
Table 4 con't. Invasive Marine and Estuarine Aquatic Animals located on the West Coast including Alaska 

Taxonomic Group Family Genus Species Common Name 

Entoprocts Pedicellinidae Barentsia benedeni entoproct Annelids-Oligochaetes Naididae Paranais frici tubificid worm Annelids-Oligochaetes Tubificidae Branchiura sowerbyi tubificid worm 

Annelids-Oligochaetes Tubificidae Potamothrix bavaricus tubificid worm 

Annelids-Oligochaetes Tubificidae Limnodriloides monothecus tubificid worm Annelids-Oligochaetes Tubificidae Tubificoides apectinatus tubificid worm Annelids-Oligochaetes Tubificidae Tubificoides brownae tubificid worm Annelids-Oligochaetes Tubificidae Tubificoides wasselli tubificid worm Annelids-Oligochaetes Tubificidae Varichaetadrilus augustipenis tubificid worm 

Annelids-Oligochaetes Tubificidae Teneridrilus mastix oligochaete 

Annelids-Oligochaetes Tubificidae Tubificoides diazi Annelids-Polychaetes Serpulidae Ficopomatus enigmaticus Australian tubeworm Annelids-Polychaetes Maldanidae Sabaco elongatus bamboo worm Annelids-Polychaetes Capitellidae unknown unknown capitellid thread worm 

Annelids-Polychaetes Capitellidae Capitella capitata capitellid worm 

Annelids-Polychaetes Capitellidae Capitella spp. capitellid worm 

Annelids-Polychaetes Capitellidae Heteromastus filiformis capitellid worm CAnnelids-Polychaetes Nereididae Nereis acuminata* clam worm Annelids-Polychaetes Phyllodocidae Eteone sp. milky paddle worm Annelids-Polychaetes Spionidae Polydora cornuta mud worm 

Annelids-Polychaetes Spionidae unknown unknown other Spionid mud worms Annelids-Polychaetes Phyllodocidae unknown unknown Phyllodocid paddle worms 
Table 4 con't. Invasive Marine and Estuarine Aquatic Animals located on the West Coast including Alaska 

Taxonomic Group Family Genus Species Common Name 

Annelids-Polychaetes Nereididae Neanthes succinea pile worm Annelids-Polychaetes Eunicidae Marphysa sanguinea red-gilled Marphysa Annelids-Polychaetes Sabellidae Manayunkia speciosa sabellid worm 

Annelids-Polychaetes Sabellidae Potamilla sp. sabellid worm 

Annelids-Polychaetes Sabellidae Terebrasabella heterouncinata sabellid worm Annelids-Polychaetes Spionidae Boccardiella ligerica spionid worm 

Annelids-Polychaetes Spionidae Marenzellaria viridis spionid worm 

Annelids-Polychaetes Spionidae Pseudopolydora kempi spionid worm Annelids-Polychaetes Spionidae Pseudopolydora paucibranchiata spionid worm 

Annelids-Polychaetes Spionidae Streblospio benedicti spionid worm 

Annelids-Polychaetes Ampharetidae Amphicteis floridus 

Annelids-Polychaetes Dorvilleidae Ophryotrocha labronica* 

Annelids-Polychaetes Syllidae Pionosyllis uraga Annelids-Polychaetes Cirratulidae Tharyx tesselata Mollusks-Bivalves Veneridae Gemma gemma amethyst gemclam 

Mollusks-Bivalves Corbiculidae Corbicula fluminea Asian clam 

Mollusks-Bivalves Corbulidae Corbula amurensis Overbite clam Mollusks-Bivalves Semelidae Theora lubrica Asian semele 

Mollusks-Bivalves Tellinidae Macoma balthica Baltic macoma 

Mollusks-Bivalves Teredinidae Lyrodus pedicellatus blacktip shipworm 

Mollusks-Bivalves Mytilidae Mytilus complex blue mussel Mollusks-Bivalves Teredinidae Bankia carinata* carinate shipworm 

Mollusks-Bivalves Anomiidae Anomia chinensis Chinese jingle 

Mollusks-Bivalves Ostreidae Crassostrea virginica eastern oyster 
Table 4 con't. Invasive Marine and Estuarine Aquatic Animals located on the West Coast including Alaska 

Taxonomic Group Family Genus Species Common Name 

Mollusks-Bivalves Ostreidae Ostrea edulis edible oyster Mollusks-Bivalves Petricolidae Petricolaria pholadiformis false angelwing Mollusks-Bivalves Pholadidae Zirfaea crispata great piddock 

Mollusks-Bivalves Mytilidae Musculista senhousia green mussel Mollusks-Bivalves Veneridae Meretrix lusoria hard clam 

Mollusks-Bivalves Veneridae Astralium triumphans Japanese littleneck Mollusks-Bivalves Laternulidae Laternula marilina* littoral spoon clam Mollusks-Bivalves Mytilidae Mytilus galloprovincialis Mediterranean blue mussel 

Mollusks-Bivalves Teredinidae Teredo navalis naval shipworm 

Mollusks-Bivalves Veneridae Mercenaria mercenaria northern quahog 

Mollusks-Bivalves Ostreidae Crassostrea gigas Pacific giant oyster 

Mollusks-Bivalves Psammobiidae Nuttallia obscurata purple mahogany-clam 

Mollusks-Bivalves Trapezidae Neotrapezium liratum quadrate trapezium 

Mollusks-Bivalves Mytilidae Geukensia demissa ribbed mussel 

Mollusks-Bivalves Semelidae Theora fragilis semele 

Mollusks-Bivalves Myidae Mya arenaria softshell clam C

Mollusks-Bivalves Ostreidae Crassostrea ariakensis Suminoe oyster 

Mollusks-Bivalves Arcidae Arca transversa* transverse ark Mollusks-Bivalves Pteriidae Pteria sterna* wing-oyster Mollusks-Bivalves Tellinidae Macoma petalum 

Mollusks-Gastropods Muricidae Thais clavigera* rocksnail 

Mollusks-Gastropods Muricidae Urosalpinx cinerea Atlantic oyster drill 

Mollusks-Gastropods Muricidae Rapana thomasiana* Black sea murex 
Table 4 con't. Invasive Marine and Estuarine Aquatic Animals located on the West Coast including Alaska Taxonomic Group Family Genus Species Common Name 

Mollusks-Gastropods Melongenidae Busycotypus canaliculatus channeled whelk 

Mollusks-Gastropods Viviparidae Cipangopaludina chinensis Chinese mysterysnail 

Mollusks-Gastropods Calyptraeidae Crepidula fornicata common Atlantic slippersnail 

Mollusks-Gastropods Littorinidae Littorina littorea common periwinkle 

Mollusks-Gastropods Calyptraeidae Crepidula convexa convex slippersnail Mollusks-Gastropods Calyptraeidae Crepidula glauca* convex slippersnail Mollusks-Gastropods Nassariidae Nassarius obsoletus eastern mudsnail Mollusks-Gastropods Calyptraeidae Crepidula plana eastern white slippersnail 

Mollusks-Gastropods Turbinidae Astralium triumphans* gastropod 

Mollusks-Gastropods Potamididae Batillaria attramentaria Japanese false cerith 

Mollusks-Gastropods Nassariidae Nassarius fraterculus Japanese nassa 

Mollusks-Gastropods Muricidae Ceratostoma inornatum Japanese oyster drill CMollusks-Gastropods Pomatiopsidae Cecina manchurica Manchurian cecina 

Mollusks-Gastropods Ellobiidae Myosotella myosotis marsh snail C

Mollusks-Gastropods Philinidae Philine auriformis New Zealand sea slug 

Mollusks-Gastropods Haliotididae Haliotis rufescens* red abalone 

Mollusks-Gastropods Thiaridae Melanoides tuberculatus red-rim melania Mollusks-Gastropods Muricidae Ocenebra japonica rocksnail 

Mollusks-Gastropods Littorinidae Littorina saxatilis rough periwinkle 

Mollusks-Gastropods Lottiidae Collisella striata* Striate limpet 

Mollusks-Gastropods Pyramidellidae Boonea bisuturalis two-groove odostome 

Mollusks-Gastropods Buccinidae Neptunea arthritica* whelk Mollusks-Gastropods Turbinidae Turbo soronatus coreensis* 

Mollusks-Nudibranchs Tergipedidae Catriona rickettsi nudibranch 

Mollusks-Nudibranchs Goniodorididae Okenia plana flat okenia 
Table 4 con't. Invasive Marine and Estuarine Aquatic Animals located on the West Coast including Alaska 

Taxonomic Group Family Genus Species Common Name S

Mollusks-Nudibranchs Tergipedidae Cuthona perca Lake Merritt cuthona Mollusks-Nudibranchs Tergipedidae Tenellia adspersa miniature aeolis C

Mollusks-Nudibranchs Eubranchidae Eubranchus misakiensis* Misaki balloon aeolis 

Mollusks-Nudibranchs Cumanotidae Cumanotus beaumonti polyp aeolis 

Mollusks-Nudibranchs Facelinidae Sakuraeolis enosimensis* white-tentacled Japanese aeolis Mollusks-Polyplacophors Acanthochitonidae Acanthochitona achates* Japanese chiton 

Crustaceans-Amphipods Ampeliscidae Ampelisca abdita amphipod Crustaceans-Amphipods Ampithoidea Ampithoe longimana* long-antennaed tube- building amphipod Crustaceans-Amphipods Ampithoidae Ampithoe valida amphipod CA, 

Crustaceans-Amphipods Caprellidae Caprella mutica skeleton shrimp CA, 

Crustaceans-Amphipods Cheluridae Chelura terebrans amphipod CA

Crustaceans-Amphipods Corophiidae Corophium acherusicum slender tube amphipod CA, 

Crustaceans-Amphipods Corophiidae Corophium alienense amphipod 

Crustaceans-Amphipods Corophiidae Corophium herteroceratum amphipod 

Crustaceans-Amphipods Corophiidae Corophium insidiosum amphipod CA, 

Crustaceans-Amphipods Corophiidae Corophium uenoi amphipod 

Crustaceans-Amphipods Phoxocephalidae Eobrolgus spinosus amphipod O

Crustaceans-Amphipods Oedicerotidae Eochelidium sp. 

Crustaceans-Amphipods Gammaridae Gammarus daiberi amphipod 

Crustaceans-Amphipods Corophiidae Grandidierella japonica amphipod CA, 

Crustaceans-Amphipods Ischyroceridae Jassa marmorata tube amphipod CA, 

Crustaceans-Amphipods Leucothoidae Leucothoe sp. amphipod 

Crustaceans-Amphipods Gammaridae Melita nitida amphipod CA, Crustaceans-Amphipods Gammaridae Melita sp. amphipod 
Table 4 con't. Invasive Marine and Estuarine Aquatic Animals located on the West Coast including Alaska 

Taxonomic Group Family Genus Species Common Name S

Crustaceans-Amphipods Dexaminidae Paradexamine sp. amphipod Crustaceans-Amphipods Pleustidae Parapleustes derzhavini amphipod CA, 

Crustaceans-Amphipods Stenothoidae Stenothoe valida amphipod Crustaceans-Amphipods Talitridae Transorchestia enigmatica amphipod 

Crustaceans-Barnacles Balanidae Balanus improvisus bay barnacle CA, 

Crustaceans-Barnacles Balanidae Balanus amphitrite striped barnacle, purple acorn barnacle 

Crustaceans-Copepods Centropagidae Sinocalanus doerrii Asian calanoid copepod CACrustaceans-Copepods Pseudodiaptomidae Pseudodiaptomus inopinus Asian calanoid copepod CA,Crustaceans-Copepods Acartiidae Acartiella sinensis Asian copepod 

Crustaceans-Copepods Oithonidae Limnoithona sinensis Asian copepod CA, 

Crustaceans-Copepods Oithonidae Oithona sinenesis? Asian copepod Crustaceans-Copepods Tortanidae Tortanus dextrilobatus Asian copepod 

Crustaceans-Copepods Leuconidae Nippoleucon hinumensis Asian cumacean CA, 

Crustaceans-Copepods Temoridae Eurytemora affinis calanoid copepod 

Crustaceans-Copepods Oithonidae Oithona davisae calanoid copepod 

Crustaceans-Copepods Pseudodiaptomidae Pseudodiaptomus forbesi calanoid copepod 

Crustaceans-Copepods Pseudodiaptomidae Pseudodiaptomus marinus calanoid copepod CA

Crustaceans-Copepods Tortanidae Tortanus sp. calanoid copepod Crustaceans-Copepods Oithonidae Limnoithona tetraspina copepod Crustaceans-Copepods Stephidae Stephos pacificus copepod Crustaceans-Copepods Mytilicolidae Mytilicola orientalis parasitic copepod CA

Crustaceans-Crabs Grapsidae Eriocheir sinensis Chinese mitten crab CA

Crustaceans-Crabs Xanthidae Rhithropanopeus harrisii estuarine mud crab, Harris mud crab C
Table 4 con't. Invasive Marine and Estuarine Aquatic Animals located on the West Coast including Alaska Taxonomic Group Family Genus Species Common Name 

Crustaceans-Crabs Portunidae Carcinus maenas green crab CCrustaceans-Crabs Grapsidae Eriocheir japonicus* Japanese mitten crab Crustaceans-Crayfish Cambaridae Procambarus clarkii red swamp crayfish Crustaceans-Crayfish Cambaridae Orconectes virilis virile crayfish 

Crustaceans-Isopods Bopyridae Orthione griffenis Griffen's isopod 

Crustaceans-Isopods Anthuridae Paranthura sp. isopod Crustaceans-Isopods Cirolanidae Eurylana arcuata isopod Crustaceans-Isopods Idoteidae Synidotea laevidorsalis isopod 

Crustaceans-Isopods Janiridae Iais californica isopod 

Crustaceans-Isopods Sphaeromatidae Dynoides dentisinus isopod 

Crustaceans-Isopods Sphaeromatidae Sphaeroma quoyanum Burrowing Australian isopod 

Crustaceans-Isopods Sphaeromatidae Sphaeroma walkeri* isopod Crustaceans-Isopods Limnoidae Limnoria tripunctata wood boring gribble CCrustaceans-Isopods Limnoidae Limnoria quadripunctata wood boring gribble 

Crustaceans-Isopods Asellidae Caecidotea racovitzai 

Crustaceans-Mysids Mysidae Acanthomysis bowmani mysid 

Crustaceans-Mysids Mysidae Acanthomysis aspera crab 

Crustaceans-Mysids Mysidae Deltamysis holmquistae Crustaceans-Ostracods Sarsiellidae Eusarsiella zostericola an ostracod 

Crustaceans-Sea fleas Nebaliidae Nebalia sp. sea flea Crustaceans-Shrimp Alpheidae Salmoneus gracilipes snapping shrimp 

Crustaceans-Shrimp Palaemonidae Palaemon macrodactylus Oriental shrimp C

Crustaceans-Shrimp Palaemonidae Exopalaemon modestus Siberian prawn Crustaceans-Tanaids Tanaidae Sinelobus sp. tanaid Crustaceans-Tanaids Tanaidae Sinelobus stanfordi tanaid 
Table 4 con't. Invasive Marine and Estuarine Aquatic Animals located on the West Coast including Alaska 

Taxonomic Group Family Genus Species Common Name S

Crustaceans-Tanaids Tanaidae Tanais sp. tanaid Tunicates Cionidae Ciona savignyi tunicate CA

Tunicates Didemnidae Didemnum cf. lahillei white crust tunicate CA

Tunicates Styelidae Botrylloides violaceus orange sheath tunicate CA, O

Tunicates Styelidae Styela clava Asian tunicate CA, 

Tunicates Molgulidae Molgula manhattensis common sea grape CA, 

Tunicates Styelidae Botryllus schlosseri golden star tunicate CA, 

Tunicates Styelidae Styela plicata pleated sea squirt 

Tunicates Steylidae Styela canopus rough sea tunicate 

Tunicates Didemnidae Diplosoma listerianum sea squirt 

Tunicates Cionidae Ciona intestinalis Sea vase CAFishes Anguillidae Anguilla rostrata American eel Fishes Clupeidae Alosa sapidissima American shad CA, OFishes Salmonidae Salmo salar Atlantic salmon OR, Fishes Salmonidae Thymallus arcticus Arctic grayling Fishes Fundulidae Lucania goodei bluefin killifish Fishes Salmonidae Salvelinus fontinalis? brook trout 

Fishes Salmonidae Salmo trutta? brown trout C

Fishes Gobiidae Tridentiger trigonocephalus chameleon goby 

Fishes Salmonidae Oncorhynchus masou? Cherry salmon 

Fishes Anguillidae Anguilla anguilla* European eel 

Fishes Atherinidae Menidia beryllina inland silverside 

Fishes Cichlidae Oreochromis mossambicus? Mozambiqua tilapia 

Fishes Fundulidae Lucania parva rainwater killifish C

Fishes Gobiidae Tridentiger bifasciatus Shimofuri goby 
Table 4 con't. Invasive Marine and Estuarine Aquatic Animals located on the West Coast including Alaska 

Taxonomic Group Family Genus Species Common Name S

Fishes Gobiidae Tridentiger barbatus Shokihaze goby Fishes Anguillidae Anguilla australis* shortfin eel Fishes Moronidae Morone saxatilis striped bass CA. Fishes Clupeidae Dorosoma petenense threadfin shad C

Fishes Anguillidae Anguilla sp.? unidentified eel C

Fishes Moronidae Morone chrysops? white bass CA

Fishes Gobiidae Acanthogobius flavimanus yellowfin goby Mammals Capromyidae Myocastor coypus? nutria Notes: Source, USGS Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Database, Gainesville, FL. http://nas.er.usgs.gov
Table 5. Invasive Marine and Estuarine Aquatic Animals located in Hawaii  Highlighted records indicate native transplants. * denotes rare species. ? indicate freshwater, brackish, marine range unkn

Taxonomic Group Family Genus Species Common Name 

Sponges Chalinidae Sigmadocia (Haliclona) caerulea blue Caribbean sponge Sponges Clionidae Cliona sp. boring sponge 

Sponges Niphatidae Gelliodes fibrosa gray encrusting sponge 

Sponges Suberitidae Suberites zeteki Lobate sponge 

Sponges Mycalidae Mycale (Aegogropila) armata orange keyhole sponge Sponges Mycalidae Mycale armata orange sponge 

Sponges Mycalidae Mycale (Zygomycale) parishii red-brown branching sponge 

Sponges Amphilectidae Biemna fistulosa sponge 

Sponges Amphilectidae Biemna sp.* sponge 

Sponges Callyspongidae Callyspongia cf. diffusa sponge Sponges Dysideidae Dysidea arenaria* sponge Sponges Dysideidae Dysidea avara* sponge 

Sponges Dysideidae Dysidea cf. arenaria sponge 

Sponges Dysideidae Dysidea cf. avara sponge Sponges Dysideidae Dysidea sp. 3* sponge 

Sponges Raspailiidae Echinodictyum asperum sponge Sponges Heteropiidea Heteropia glomerosa sponge 

Sponges Sollasellidae Topsentia sp. sponge 

Sponges Haliclonidae Toxiclona sp.* sponge 
Table 5 con't. Invasive Marine and Estuarine Aquatic Animals located in Hawaii 

Taxonomic Group Family Genus Species Common Name 

Sponges Dysideidae Dysidea sp. sponge Sponges Halichondriidae Halichondria melanadocia sponge Sponges Mycalidae Mycale (Camia) cecilia sponge 

Sponges Mycalidae Neofolitispa unguiculata sponge Coelenterates-Anthozoan Haliplanellidae Haliplanella lineata orangestriped green anemone 

Coelenterates-Anthozoan Diadumenidae Diadumene lineata Orange-striped sea anemone 

Coelenterates-Anthozoan Diadumenidae Diadumene franciscana San Francisco anemone Coelenterates-Anthozoan Clavulariidae Carijoa (Telesto) riisei snowflake coral 

Coelenterates-Anthozoan Diadumenidae Diadumene leucolena white anemone 

Coelenterates-Anthozoan Xeniidae Sarcothelia n. sp.* Coelenterates-Hydrozoans Halocordylidae Pennaria (Halocordyle) disticha Christmas tree hydroid 

Coelenterates-Hydrozoans Campanulariidae Obelia bidentata doubletoothed hydroid 

Coelenterates-Hydrozoans Sertulariidae Dynamena crisiodes hydroid Coelenterates-Hydrozoans Haleciidae Halecium beanii* hydroid Coelenterates-Hydrozoans Sertulariidae Thyroseyphus fruticosus hydroid 

Coelenterates-Hydrozoans Campanulariidae Clytia hemisphaerica hydroid Coelenterates-Hydrozoans Bougainvilliidae Garveia humilis hydroid 

Coelenterates-Hydrozoans Campanulariidae Obelia dichotoma hydroid 

Coelenterates-Hydrozoans Clavidae Turritopsis nutricula hydroid Coelenterates-H

ydrozoans Plumulariidae Antennella secundaria* thecate hydroid 

Coelenterates-H

ydrozoans Lafoeidae Anthohebella parasitica* 

Coelenterates-H

ydrozoans Campanulariidae Clytia latitheca* 

Coelenterates-Hydrozoans Eudendriidae Eudendrium sp.* 

Coelenterates-Hydrozoans Plumulariidae Halopteris polymorpha* 
Table 5 con't. Invasive Marine and Estuarine Aquatic Animals located in Hawaii Taxonomic Group Family Genus Species Common Name Coelenterates-Hydrozoans Plumulariidae Plumularia floridana* Coelenterates-Hydrozoans Plumulariidae Plumularia strictocarpa Coelenterates-Hydrozoans Sertulariidae Sertularella areyi* Coelenterates-Hydrozoans Sertulariidae Sertularella tongensis* Coelenterates-Hydrozoans Sertulariidae Sertularia ligulata* Coelenterates-Hydrozoans Sertulariidae Tridentata humferi Coelenterates-Hydrozoans Sertulariidae Tridentata ligulata* Coelenterates-Hydrozoans Sertulariidae Tridentata turbinata* Coelenterates-Hydrozoans Kirchenpaueriidae Ventromma halecioides* Coelenterates-Hydrozoans Syntheciidae Synthecium megathecum 

Coelenterates-Scyphozoan Mastigiidae Phyllorhiza punctata Australian spotted jellyfish 

Coelenterates-Scyphozoan Casseopeidae Cassiopea medusa upsidedown jellyfish 

Coelenterates-Scyphozoan Ulmaridae Aurelia sp. Ectoprocts Bugulidae Bugula dentata blue-green Bryozoan Ectoprocts Schizoporellidae Schizoporella errata branching bryozoan 

Ectoprocts Bugulidae Bugula neritina brown bryozoan 

Ectoprocts Bugulidae Bugula stolonifera bryozoan Ectoprocts Bugulidae Aetea truncata bryozoan 

Ectoprocts Watersiporidae Watersipora edmondsoni bryozoan 

Ectoprocts Vesiculariidae Zoobotryon verticillatum bryozoan 

Ectoprocts Vesiculariidae Amathia distans bushy bryozoan 

Ectoprocts Schizoporellidae Schizoporella unicornis single horn bryozoan 

Ectoprocts Scrupocellariidae Caberia boryi* Ectoprocts Bugulidae Caulibugula dendrograpta 

Ectoprocts Diaperoeciidae Diaperforma intricata 
Table 5 con't. Invasive Marine and Estuarine Aquatic Animals located in Hawaii Taxonomic Group Family Genus Species Common Name Ectoprocts Bugulidae Bugula robusta Ectoprocts Bugulidae Caulibugula caliculata Ectoprocts Savignyellidae Savignyella lafonti 

Ectoprocts Schizoporellidae Schizoporella cf. errata 

Ectoprocts Schizoporellidae Schizoporella sp. Annelids-Polychaetes Serpulidae Ficopomatus enigmaticus Australian tubeworm 

Annelids-Polychaetes Capitellidae Capitella sp.* capatellid worm 

Annelids-Polychaetes Sabellidae Sabellastarte sanctijosephi Featherduster worm, Fan worm 

Annelids-Polychaetes Chaetopteridae Chaetopterus sp. parchment worm Annelids-Polychaetes Sabellidae Branchiomma nigromaculata polychaete worm 

Annelids-Polychaetes Chaetopteridae Chaetopterus variopedatus polychaete worm 

Annelids-Polychaetes Serpulidae Hydroides crucigera polychaete worm Annelids-Polychaetes Serpulidae Hydroides dirampha polychaete worm 

Annelids-Polychaetes Serpulidae Neodexiospira foraminosa* polychaete worm 

Annelids-Polychaetes Nereidae Nereis areanacoedonta* polychaete worm 

Annelids-Polychaetes Spionidae Polydora nuchalis polychaete worm Annelids-Polychaetes Spionidae Polydora websteri* polychaete worm 

Annelids-Polychaetes Serpulidae Pomatoleios kraussi polychaete worm 

Annelids-Polychaetes Spintheridae Spinther japonicus polychaete worm Annelids-Polychaetes Serpulidae Hydroides elegans polychaete worm Annelids-Polychaetes Serpulidae Salmacina dysteri serpulid worm 

Annelids-Polychaetes Spionidae Streblospio benedicti* spionid worm 

Annelids-Polychaetes Opheliidae Armandia intermedia Annelids-Polychaetes Capitellidae Capitella sp. cf. capitata* 
Table 5 con't. Invasive Marine and Estuarine Aquatic Animals located in Hawaii Taxonomic Group Family Genus Species Common Name Annelids-Polychaetes Serpulidae Serpula vermicularis Annelids-Polychaetes Phyllodocidea Eulalia sanguinea Annelids-Polychaetes Serpulidae Hydroides branchyacantha 

Annelids-Polychaetes Sabellidae Sabellastarte spectabilis 

Mollusks-Bivalves Semelidae Abra sp. a* abra 

Mollusks-Bivalves Hiatellidae Hiatella arctica Arctic hiatella 

Mollusks-Bivalves Teredinidae Teredo bartschi Bartsch shipworm 

Mollusks-Bivalves Teredinidae Lyrodus pedicellatus blacktip shipworm Mollusks-Bivalves Ostreidae Saccostrea glomerata commercial rock oyster 

Mollusks-Bivalves Ostreidae Crassostrea amasa coral rock oyster 

Mollusks-Bivalves Ostreidae Lopha cristagalli coxcomb oyster 

Mollusks-Bivalves Ostreidae Crassostrea virginica eastern oyster 

Mollusks-Bivalves Tridacnidae Tridacna crocea giant clam Mollusks-Bivalves Tridacnidae Tridacna gigas giant clam 

Mollusks-Bivalves Tridacnidae Tridacna squamosa giant clam 

Mollusks-Bivalves Veneridae Venerupis philippinarum Japanese littleneck 

Mollusks-Bivalves Chamidae Chama brassica jewelbox 

Mollusks-Bivalves Chamidae Chama fibula jewelbox 

Mollusks-Bivalves Chamidae Chama lazarus jewelbox 

Mollusks-Bivalves Chamidae Chama pacifica jewelbox Mollusks-Bivalves Anomiidae Anomia nobilis Jingle shell, Saddle oyster 

Mollusks-Bivalves Chamidae Chama macerophylla Leafy jewelbox 

Mollusks-Bivalves Mytilidae Mytilus galloprovincialis Mediterranean blue mussel 

Mollusks-Bivalves Ostridae Dendrostrea sandvichensis oyster 

Mollusks-Bivalves Ostreidae Crassostrea gigas Pacific giant oyster 
Table 5 con't. Invasive Marine and Estuarine Aquatic Animals located in Hawaii Taxonomic Group Family Genus Species Common Name Mollusks-Bivalves Myidae Sphenia luticola Pacific sphenia 

Mollusks-Bivalves Pteriidae Pinctada fucata martensi pearl oyster Mollusks-Bivalves Ostridae Saccostrea cuccullata rock oyster 

Mollusks-Bivalves Taredinidae Bankia bipalmulata* shipworm 

Mollusks-Bivalves Teredinidae Lyrodus affinis shipworm Mollusks-Bivalves Teredinidae Teredo furcifera shipworm 

Mollusks-Bivalves Myidae Sphenia sp. a sphenia Mollusks-Bivalves Pholadidae Martesia striata striate piddock 

Mollusks-Bivalves Chamidae Chama elatensis 

Mollusks-Gastropods Cypraeidae Cypraea clandestina cowrie Mollusks-Gastropods Cypraeidae Cypraea cribraria cowrie 

Mollusks-Gastropods Cypraeidae Cypraea cylindrica cowrie Mollusks-Gastropods Cypraeidae Cypraea gaspardi cowrie Mollusks-Gastropods Cypraeidae Cypraea hirundo cowrie Mollusks-Gastropods Cypraeidae Eurosaria poraria cowrie Mollusks-Gastropods Cypraeidae Mauritia depressa cowrie 

Mollusks-Gastropods Fissurellidae Diodora ruppelli limpet 

Mollusks-Gastropods Hipponicidae Hipponix australis limpet 

Mollusks-Gastropods Lymnaeidea Pseudosuccinna columella mimic lymnaea 

Mollusks-Gastropods Calyptraeidae Crucibulum spinosum spiny cup-and-saucer shell 

Mollusks-Gastropods Calyptraeidae Crepidula aculeata spiny slippersnail 

Mollusks-Gastropods Muricidae Vitularia miliaris spotted vitularia Mollusks-Gastropods Pyramidellidae Hinemoa indica 

Mollusks-Gastropods Vermetidae Eualetes tulipa 

Mollusks-Gastropods Vermetidae Vermetus alii 
Table 5 con't. Invasive Marine and Estuarine Aquatic Animals located in Hawaii Taxonomic Group Family Genus Species Common Name Mollusks-Nudibranchs Tergipedidae Cuthona perca Lake Merritt cuthona Arthropoda-Pycogonid Phoxichilidiidae Anoplodactylus californicus* sea spider Arthropoda-Pycogonid Phoxichilidiidae Anoplodactylus digitalis* sea spider 

Arthropoda-Pycogonid Callipallindae Callipallen sp.* sea spider 

Arthropoda-Pycogonid Tanystylidae Tanystylum rehderi* sea spider 

Arthropoda-Pycogonid Phoxichilidiidae Anoplodactylus arescus sea spider 

Arthropoda-Pycogonid Phoxichilidiidae Pigrogromitus timsanus sea spider Crustaceans-Amphipods Corophiidae Grandidierella japonica amphipod 

Crustaceans-Amphipods Leucothoidae Leucothoe micronesiae amphipod 

Crustaceans-Amphipods Leucothoidae Paraleucothoe flindersi amphipod Crustaceans-Amphipods Stenothoidae Stenothoe valida amphipod 

Crustaceans-Amphipods Corophiidae Corophium insidiosum amphipod Crustaceans-Amphipods Corophiidae Ericthonius brasiliensis amphipod Crustaceans-Amphipods Ischyroceridae Jassa falcata amphipod Crustaceans-Amphipods Podoceridae Podocerus brasiliensis amphipod Crustaceans-Amphipods Stenothoidae Stenothoe gallensis amphipod Crustaceans-Amphipods Corophiidae Corophium baconi amphipod 

Crustaceans-Amphipods Gammaridae Elasmopus repax amphipod 

Crustaceans-Amphipods Isaeidae Photis hawaiensis* amphipod Crustaceans-Amphipods Chthamalidae Chthamalus sp.* barnacle 

Crustaceans-Amphipods Corophiidae Corophium acherusicum slender tube amphipod 

Crustaceans-Amphipods Caprellidae Caprella scaura 

Crustaceans-Amphipods Aoridae Grandidierella bispinosa* 

Crustaceans-Barnacles Balanidae Balanus reticulatus barnacle 
Table 5 con't. Invasive Marine and Estuarine Aquatic Animals located in Hawaii Taxonomic Group Family Genus Species Common Name Crustaceans-Barnacles Chthamalidae Chthamalus proteus Caribbean barnacle Crustaceans-Barnacles Balanidae Balanus eburneus Ivory barnacle 

Crustaceans-Barnacles Balanidae Balanus amphitrite striped barnacle, purple acorn barnacle Crustaceans-Copepods Pseudodiaptomidae Pseudodiaptomus marinus calanoid copepod 

Crustaceans-Crabs Xanthidae Panopeus herbstii Atlantic mud crab Crustaceans-Crabs Portunidae Callinectes sapidus blue crab 

Crustaceans-Crabs Pilumnidae Pilumnus oahuensis crab 

Crustaceans-Crabs Xanthidae Atergatopsis immigrans crab Crustaceans-Crabs Grapsidae Nanosesarma minuta crab Crustaceans-Crabs Xanthidae Panopeus pacificus crab Crustaceans-Crabs Portunidae Carcinus maenas green crab 

Crustaceans-Crabs Pilumnidae Glabropilumnus seminudus hairy crab 

Crustaceans-Crabs Portunidae Charybdis hellerii Indo-Pacific crab Crustaceans-Crabs Grapsidae Pachygrapsus fakaravensis Polynesian grapsid crab 

Crustaceans-Crabs Portunidae Scylla serrata 

Serrate swimming crab, 

Samoan crab, Mangrove 

crab 

Crustaceans-Crabs Majidae Schizophrys aspera spider crab Crustaceans-Isopods Sphaeromatidae Exospaeroma sp. a* isopod Crustaceans-Isopods Sphaeromatidae Sphaeroma walkeri isopod 

Crustaceans-Isopods Sphaeromatidae Paracerceis sculpta isopod 

Crustaceans-Isopods Pseudozeuxidae Leptochelia dubia tanaidacean 

Crustaceans-Isopods Ligiidae Ligia exotica wharf roach 

Crustaceans-Isopods Limnoriidae Limnoria tripunctata wood boring gribble 
Table 5 con't. Invasive Marine and Estuarine Aquatic Animals located in Hawaii Taxonomic Group Family Genus Species Common Name Crustaceans-Isopods Sphaeromatidae Exospaeroma sp. * Crustaceans-Isopods Anthuridae Mesanthura sp. 

Crustaceans-Shrimp Gonodactylidae Gonodactylaceus falcatus a mantis shrimp 

Crustaceans-Shrimp Penaeidae Penaeus monodon Asian tiger shrimp 

Crustaceans-Shrimp Penaeidae Penaeus stylirostris blue shrimp 

Crustaceans-Shrimp Penaeidae Penaeus japonicus Japanese shrimp 

Crustaceans-Shrimp Palaemonidae Macrobrachium rosenbergii Malaysian prawn 

Crustaceans-Shrimp Penaeidae Litopenaeus vannamei Pacific white shrimp 

Crustaceans-Shrimp Gonodactylidae Gonodactylus aloha Philippine mantis shrimp 

Crustaceans-Shrimp Palaemonidae Macrobrachium lar Tahitian prawn Crustaceans-Tanaids Paraseudidae Parapseudes latifrons Tunicates Styelidae Phallusia nigra black sea squirt 

Tunicates Styelidae Botrylloides simodensis orange sheath tunicate Tunicates Steylidae Styela canopus rough sea tunicate 

Tunicates Didemnidae Diplosoma listerianum sea squirt 

Tunicates Cionidae Ciona intestinalis Sea vase 

Tunicates Ascidiidae Ascidia sp. a tunicate 

Tunicates Ascidiidae Ascidia sp. b tunicate 

Tunicates Styelidae Botrylluss sp. tunicate 

Tunicates Corellidae Corella minuta tunicate 

Tunicates Pyuridae Herdmania momus tunicate 

Tunicates Pyuridae Microcosmus exasperatus tunicate Tunicates Styelidae Polyandrocarpa sagamiensis tunicate Tunicates Styelidae Polyandrocarpa zorritensis* tunicate 

Tunicates Polyclinidae Polyclinum constellatum tunicate 
Table 5 con't. Invasive Marine and Estuarine Aquatic Animals located in Hawaii Taxonomic Group Family Genus Species Common Name Tunicates Styelidae Symplegma brakenhielmi tunicate Tunicates Styelidae Symplegma oceania tunicate Tunicates Styelidae Symplegma reptans tunicate 

Tunicates Styelidae Eusynstyela aliena tunicate 

Tunicates Styelidae Eusynstyela hartmeyeri tunicate Tunicates Polyclinidae Herdmania pallida tunicate 

Tunicates Pyuridae Herdmania sp. tunicate 

Tunicates Styelidae Polyandrocarpa sp. tunicate Tunicates Ascidiidae Ascidia syndeiensis tunicate (gray sea squirt) 

Tunicates Didemnidae Didemnum perlucidum white crust tunicate 

Tunicates Didemnidae Didemnum candidum white didemnid Fishes Mullidae Upeneus vittatus bandedtail goatfish Fishes Lutjanidae Lutjanus fulvus blacktail snapper Fishes Serranidae Epinephelus fasciatus blacktip grouper 

Fishes Blenniidae Parablennius thysanius blenny 

Fishes Lutjanidae Lutjanus kasmira bluestripe snapper 

Fishes Loricariidae Ancistrus cf. ? bristlenose catfish Fishes Serranidae Cephalopholis urodeta darkfin hind Fishes Engraulidae Anchoa compressa deepbody anchovy 

Fishes Serranidae Epinephelus merra dwarf spotted grouper 

Fishes Lethrinidae Lethrinus sp. emperor 

Fishes Lutjanidae Lutjanus sebae emperor snapper 

Fishes Blenniidae Omobranchus ferox fang-toothed blenny 

Fishes Pomacanthidae Centropyge loricula flaming angelfish 

Fishes Clupeidae Herklotsichthys quadrimaculatus goldspot herring 
Table 5 con't. Invasive Marine and Estuarine Aquatic Animals located in Hawaii Taxonomic Group Family Genus Species Common Name Fishes Pomacanthidae Apolemichthys 

xanthopunctatus goldspotted angelfish 

Fishes Fundulidae Fundulus grandis gulf killifish 

Fishes Gobiidae Mugilgobius parvus helmeted goby 

Fishes Serranidae Cromileptes altivelis humpback grouper Fishes Lutjanidae Lutjanus gibbus humpback snapper Fishes Mugilidae Valamugil engeli kanda Fishes Pomacanthidae Centropyge flavissima lemonpeel angel 

Fishes Gobiidae Mugilgobius cavifrons mangrove goby 

Fishes Serranidae Epinephelus irroratus Marquesan grouper 

Fishes Clupeidae Sardinella marquesensis Marquesan sardine 

Fishes Cichlidae Oreochromis mossambicus Mozambiqua tilapia 

Fishes Serranidae Cephalopholis argus peacock hind 

Fishes Salmonidae Oncorhynchus mykiss? rainbow trout 

Fishes Pomacanthidae Pygoplites diacanthus regal angelfish 

Fishes Lutjanidae Lutjanus guttatus rose snapper Fishes Pomacanthidae Pomacanthus semicirculatus semicircle angelfish, zebra angelfish Fishes Serranidae Epinephelus hexagonatus star-spotted grouper 

Fishes Clupeidae Dorosoma petenense? threadfin shad 

Fishes Poeciliidae Poecilia sp ? unidentified poecilid Fishes Pomacanthidae Chaetodontoplus mesoleucus vermiculated angelfish 

Notes: Source, USGS Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Database, Gainesville, FL. http://nas.er.usgs.gov
50

SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACT OF NON-INDIGENOUS AND 

NATIVE TRANSPLANTED SPECIES 

The following pages (51 to 79) present descriptions of the impact created by specific 

invasive and native transplanted species. Either the impact was taken directly from the 

literature surveyed for this manual, or it is an inferred socio-economic impact based on 

ecological impacts described in the literature. We do not describe ecological impacts unless 

they have social or economic consequences of importance. 

 Species are organized by major taxonomic groupings. Within these groups, 

species occur in alphabetical order of common name. 

 The USGS website “U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). 2004. Nonindigenous 

Aquatic Species Database, Gainesville, FL http://nas.er.usgs.gov” was the source of a 

substantial portion of the information provided in this section. Thus, information 

occurring here without specific citation is from this comprehensive source. Other sources 

of information presented in this section are cited within the text, with full citations listed 

in alphabetical order by author/source in the REFERENCES section. 

 
51

Phylum Porifera (sponges) 

Blue Caribbean Sponge (Sigmadocia caerulea) – This species was introduced to 

Hawaiian waters via ship hull fouling. The blue Caribbean sponge is a fouling organism, 

restricted to shallow waters; it affects structures such as piers and floating docks (Bishop 

Museum and University of Hawaii). 

 Bowerbank’s halichondria (Halichondria bowerbanki) – as with several other 

invertebrate native transplants (the creeping bryozoan, the lacy crust bryozoan and the single 

horn bryozoan) and even possibly the rainwater killifish, the Bowerbank’s halichondria may 

have been introduced to the West Coast via purposeful plantings of the Atlantic oyster. 

Other means of introduction for these invertebrates may also have been via ballast water or 

ship fouling. 

 Gray encrusting sponge (Gelliodes fibrosa) – a shallow water species restricted in 

Hawaii to the fouling communities of major island harbors, the gray encrusting sponge is 

also found on shallow reef patches. It was probably introduced as ship fouling; it fouls pier 

pilings, floating docks, and ship hulls. This species may be a threat to coral reef patches in 

protected habitats. 

Lobate Sponge (Suberites zeteki) – This species is a common fouling organism in 

Hawaiian harbors, occurring on floating docks, ship hulls, dock pilings, or on mangrove 

roots. As with other sponges, the lobate sponge was probably introduced to Hawaii as ship 

fouling. 

Orange sponge (Mycale armata) – The orange sponge was introduced via ship 

fouling. This fouling species is restricted to the same habitat/areas as the red-brown sponge 

(below: Bishop Museum and University of Hawaii 2002). 

Red-brown branching sponge (Mycale parishii) - In Hawaii, this sponge is mainly 

restricted on Oahu to structures such as pilings and docks in shallow water of the major 

harbors, or in dredged channels and artificial lagoons. It is also found on patch reefs in the 

southeast corner of the Kaneohe bay as well as on floating docks on Coconut Island. This 

fouling species was most likely introduced to Hawaii via ship hull fouling (Bishop Museum 

and University of Hawaii 2002). 

A Sponge (Halichondria melanadocia) – This species’ entry to Hawaii probably 

was via fouling on ship’s hull. Like many of the sponges, this is considered a fouling 

species, although the fouling impact may be modest. 

A Sponge (Hymeniacidon sinapium) – This sponge is bright orange. Common in the 

northeast Atlantic and also found in southern California, it has recently turned up in Elkhorn 

Slough, an estuary in central California. It is thought to be influencing community 

composition via its filtering activities and limiting soft bottom habitat use of other species by 

occupying same (Wasson et al. 2001). 

 
52

Phylum Ectoprocta (including bryozoans) 

Branching Bryozoan (Schizoporella cf. errata) – introduced to Hawaiian islands 

as ship fouling, this species is an encrusting bryozoan found on hard substrates such as 

pilings, corral rubble, ship hulls and other surfaces. It is most commonly found in harbors 

and bays but also on more open shallow water reefs. The branching bryozoan is a 

member of the fouling community (Bishop Museum and University of Hawaii 2002). 

Brown Bryozoan (Bugula neritina) – introduced to Hawaii as ship fouling, it now 

is found throughout the main islands in harbors, bays and shallow reefs. Although it is a 

fouling species, the impact of fouling is unknown but probably is modest (Bishop 

Museum and University of Hawaii 2002). 

Bushy Bryozoan (Amathia distans) – The bushy bryozoan forms soft, bushy 

growths on hard substrates in shallow waters; it fouls pilings, docks and ship hulls. 

Occasionally it is found fouling shallow water reefs in protected shorelines. Introduced 

to Hawaii as ship fouling, the bushy bryozoan is a common fouling species throughout 

the Hawaiian island, although the impact of its fouling is probably modest (Bishop 

Museum and University of Hawaii 2002). 

 A Bryozoan (Watersipora subtorquata) – This is a fouling organism commonly 

on boat hulls. In Japan this species is a noted fouler of oyster culturing operations, thus it 

is a potential pest to bivalve aquaculture activities. 

 A Bryozoan (Cryptosula pallasiana) – This is another fouling organism. It grows 

in flat, encrusting sheets on shells, wood, glass, plastic, cement, sea grasses and other 

surfaces. 

A Bryozoan (Membranipora membranacea) – This species is found in coastal 

New England. “This bryozoan has apparently contributed to the defoliation of the kelp 

bed at Cape Neddick, Maine” (Lambert et al. 1992). It out competes other encrusting 

growth such as Electra pilosa (another bryozoan) and Obelia geniculata (a hydroid) 

(Bermann et al. 1992). Kelps encrusted with M. membranacea are more susceptible to 

fracturing during storms (Berman et al. 1992; Lambert et al. 1992). Heavy encrusting can 

also affect the abundance and composition of organisms in affected kelp communities 

(Lambert et al. 1992). The character and composition of New England kelp beds 

changed dramatically between 1989 and 1991 in conjunction with the increased 

abundance of M. membranacea (Lambert et al. 1992). The sea urchin Strongylocentrotus 

droebachiensis, which supports a commercial fishery, declined in abundance an average 

of between 20 and 280 per square meter before the invasion to 0.47 per square meter after 

the invasion (Lambert et al. 1992; from NAS site). 

 
53

Phylum Coelenterata (Cnideria) 

 Class Anthozoa (anemones and corals) 

 

 Orange-Striped Green Anemone (Diadumene lineata) – This is a fouling species 

of bays and estuaries often found on rocks and debris; hulls of ships; structures such as 

pilings, buoys and floats; seaweeds; and oyster, clam and mussel shells. This species was 

either introduced as ship fouling or with commercial oysters in the Hawaiian island chain. 

Its impact is unstudied but assumed modest (Bishop Museum and University of Hawaii 

2002). 

Snowflake coral (Carijoa riisei) – This coral is a fouling species invasive to the 

Hawaiian island chain; it is most commonly found on pier pilings or ship wrecks in areas 

of harbors not exposed to direct sunlight, and on hard surfaces in deeper water reefs. 

Because of its tremendous rate of growth, its potential to effect on the lucrative black 

coral industry is particulary worrisome. Snowflake coral has already caused some 

decline in black coral habitat and colonies in Hawaii. The snowflake coral is native to 

the western Atlantic from Brazil to Florida (Bishop Museum and University of Hawaii 

2002). 

 Class Hydrozoa (hydroids and medusae) 

 

Australian Spotted Jellyfish, white-spotted jellyfish (Phyllorhiza punctata) – The 

invasion of this species on the West Coast, Hawaii Islands and the Gulf of Mexico may 

have been due to fouling of ships or other structures while in the polyp stage, or from 

ballast water. Once in a new region, it can further spread as nektonic medusae due to 

ocean circulation patterns. Medusae occur annually in coastal waters west of the 

Mississippi River, indicating this species is well-established in the northern Gulf of 

Mexico. The Australian spotted jellyfish has had a significant economic impact in the 

Gulf of Mexico, particularly in the prosecution of shrimp fisheries. Medusae clog shrimp 

trawls, foul boat intakes, and damage fishing gear. Some evidence suggests that shrimp 

harvest in Mobile Bay, AL and the Mississippi Sound has been reduced by more than 

25% due to this jellyfish (USGS-NAS site). Medusae also can have significant impact on 

commercially important species, causing very high rates of mortality of early life stages 

of fishes such as Anchoa mitchilli (eggs) and bivalves such as oysters (larvae) through 

predation, thus reducing the productivity of these commercial taxa. 

Upsidedown jellyfish (Cassiopea medusa) – This species was introduced to 

Hawaii as ship fouling or in ballast water. This is a nuisance species, which can inflict a 

painful sting to people (Bishop Museum and University of Hawaii 2002). 

Christmas Tree Hydroid (Pennaria disticha) – The Christmas tree hydroid is a 

common fouling organism introduced via fouling of ship hulls. It will foul other 

structures such as pilings, buoys and floats. This hydroid will sting humans, causing a 

mild irritation (Bishop Museum and University of Hawaii 2002). 

 

 
54

 Freshwater Hydroid (Cordylophora caspia) - This colonial hydroid causes fouling 

problems by clogging intake pipes and screens at power plants. It is more prevalent in 

freshwater habitats but is also found in euryhaline waters of estuaries (Foulino-Rorem 

and Indelicato 2005). 

 Hydroid (Garveia franciscana) - First identified in 1902, this species has only 

recently been found in New England. A fouling organism, its economic impact includes: 

water-pump failures, increases in cleaning frequency at water inlets, and decreases in 

efficiency of deoxygenating towers (MIT Sea Grant). 

Phylum Annelida 

 Class Polychaeta (polychaetes, bristleworms) 

 Featherduster worm (Sabellastarte spectabilis) – The featerhduster worm was 

introduced to Hawaiian waters incidentally as ship fouling. This is a nuisance fouling 

species, with modest impact. 

 Parchment worm (Chaetopterus sp.) – The parchment worm was introduced to 

Hawaiian waters via ship hull fouling or ballast water. It is a fouling organism with 

undescribed and probably modest impact (Bishop Museum and University of Hawaii 

2002). 

 A polychaete (Ficopomatus enigmaticus) – This fouling colonial organism is 

found in intertidal to shallow subtidal habitats on rocks, concrete, and wooden structures 

including pilings, docks, buoys and boat hulls. It is established in Chesapeake Bay. 

 Sebellid polychaete (Terabrasabella heterouncinata) – This species is known for 

its unusual technique of settling inside the growing end of the host gastropod’s shell. It is 

thus far a West Coast species that has caused economic losses to abalone culture facilities 

in California (Kuris and Culver 1999). 

 Serpulid worm (Salmacina dysteri) – This species was probably introduced to 

Hawaii as ship fouling. This is a fouling species with minimal known impact. 

 Subclass Oligochaeta (earthworms and leeches) 

 A tubificid worm (Branchiura sowerbyi) - Through its feeding behavior, B.

sowerbyi can transport large quantities of sediment particles from deep water zones and 

may enhance solute transport between sediments and overlying water. Potentially, this 

species can have a large impact on its surroundings, as it can burrow to a depth of 20 cm 

and after a short period of time move to a new location to build new burrows. Its 

economic impacts are unclear but it can cause bioaccumulation of toxins. 

Phylum Mollusca 

 
55

 Class Bivalvia (bivalves such as mussels, clams and oysters) 

 

 Asian Clam (Corbicula fluminea) - The most prominent effect of the introduction 

of this species has been bio-fouling, especially of raw water intake pipes, thus affecting 

power and water suppliers, and other industries. Clams are drawn into intake pipes, 

obstructing water flow through condenser tubes, valves and service water systems. They 

also alter benthic substrate and compete with native species for limited resources. 

Brown Mussel (Perna perna) – Probably introduced through ballast water release, 

this species now inhabits waters of the western Gulf of Mexico coast. First reported in 

Gulf of Mexico in 1990 on the Port Arkansas Jetty, TX, within several years it colonized 

expansively along the TX coast and into Mexico waters (Gulf States Marine Fisheries 

Commission 2003a). Survival of larvae requires settlement on a hard substrate. Thus 

this species is found along rocky shorelines, and on hard structures such as jetties, 

channel buoys and oil rigs. This species is viewed as a good candidate for commercial 

cultivation. However, where invasive, it competes with valued native bivalves, and it is a 

fouling pest, capable of sinking navigation buoys and affecting shipping safety. 

 Atlantic Oyster Drill (Urosalpinx cinerea) – The Atlantic oyster drill occurs in 

intertidal and shallow subtidal waters of bays and estuaries to a maximum depth of 15 m. 

It has not caused problems on the West Coast, but has proven to be a major predator of 

oyster spat on the Atlantic Coast, thus potentially impacting reproductive success of this 

commercial species. 

Charru mussel (Mytella charruana) – The charru mussel has been noted in water 

systems of a power plant in Jacksonville, FL; more recently it has also been found in 

Mosquito Lagoon, near Kennedy Space Center in East-Central FL. The charru mussel 

was probably introduced through ballast water releases. Although its current distribution 

as an invasive is limited to Mosquito Lagoon, it has the potential to cause bio-fouling of 

intake pipes at power plants. 

Green mussel (Perna viridis) – The green mussel was possibly introduced through 

ballast water dumping or as ship fouling. It is typically found in low intertidal estuaries. 

The green mussel can have commercial importance, and is particularly useful for 

cultivation as it can reproduce throughout the year. It is a serious fouling organism of 

power plants. Green mussels have fouled the surfaces of intake condenser tunnels of 

power plants in Florida, and can cause mechanical damage to pumps. This fouling can 

reduce the heat transfer efficiency of power plant cooling systems. Mechanical and 

chemical control methods eliminate this species in enclosed fouling systems of power 

plants - continuous high-level chlorination is necessary to detach and kill green mussels 

(Gulf States Marine Fish Commission 2005). It also fouls navigation buoys, and may 

compete with commercially valuable fisheries such as oysters and native mussels. 

Controlling the spread of green mussels can be facilitated by inspection of the hulls of 

large and small vessels before they enter un-infested waters. 

 
56

Japanese Littleneck Clam (Venerupis philippinarum) – This species is 

found in bays and intertidal areas on muddy sand, mud and buried cobble. It is grown 

commercially in California and sold as the “Manila clam”. This species accounts for 

about half of the hard-shell clam harvest in Washington, with much smaller harvests in 

Oregon and California. 

 Japanese Oyster Drill (Ocinebrellus inornatus) – The Japanese oyster drill is a 

marine snail that was most likely imported from Japan with shipments of Pacific oysters 

at the turn of the last century. It drills holes through the shell of juvenile oysters to get to 

the soft flesh of the animal. With the original infestation came the devastation of the 

already struggling Olympia oyster populations. Today it is considered a major 

impediment to the re-establishment of Washington state's only native oyster. Taxonomic

synonyms include Ceratostoma inornatum, Ocenebra japonica and Ocinebrellus 

inornatus. Common name synonyms include Asian drill and Asian oyster drill (ISSG, 

2007). 

 Mediterranean Blue Mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis) – Although impacts in 

areas of the U. S. where it has become established are not documented, this species has 

replaced indigenous mussel populations in South Africa. It was introduced into Hawaiian 

waters as hull fouling when the decommissioned battleship U.S.S. Missouri was 

transferred from the state of Washington to Pearl Harbor; it also may have been 

introduced accidentally from the ballast tank of a submarine (NAS site). 

Naval Shipworm (Teredo navalis) – This is a wood boring species. The naval 

shipworm can be destructive to any wooden structures in shallow bays and inlets. 

Shipworms and other bivalve wood-borers cause tens of millions of dollars worth of 

damage annually to underwater wooden structures (estimated at $25 million in 1961; 

Castagna, 1961). Chemical treatment such as anti-fouling paints or hard coatings over 

wood, such as plexiglass, are major means of controlling damage (Castagna 1961). 

 Overbite Clam (Corbula amurensis) – This is an invasive predator of subtidal and 

intertidal mudflats. This species is believed to have influenced the decline of other 

invasive species such as the soft-shell clam (Mya arenaria) in Suisan Bay area of 

northern San Francisco Bay. A major concern with the overbite clam is its remarkable 

filtration capabilities. It is suspected that this mass amount of filtration will lead to tropic 

level changes in areas it inhabits, as great amounts of plankton are removed from the 

surrounding water. 

Quagga mussel (Dreissena bugensis) see also Zebra Mussel – The quagga mussel 

was introduced into the Great Lakes via released ballast water. The ability of this species 

to rapidly colonize hard surfaces causes serious economic problems. This bio-fouling 

organism can clog water intake structures, such as pipes and screens, therefore reducing 

pumping capabilities for power and water treatment plants. Recreation-based industries 

and activities have also been impacted: docks, breakwalls, buoys, boats, and beaches 

have all been heavily colonized. D. bugensis is able to colonize both hard and soft 

 
57

substrata (Mills et al. 1996). Thus it is not as restricted to shallow water habitats with 

harder substrates as is the closely-related invasive zebra mussel. 

Its ecological impacts - which may generate substantial socio-economic problems 

- are as yet unclear due to the limited time scale of North American colonization. 

However, potential ecological impacts of socio-economic importance may result from the 

capacity of high densities of this species to filter the water column. Quagga mussels have 

the capacity to substantially reduce densities of plankton through filter feeding activity 

(Claxton et al. 1998). Impacts associated with filter feeding include: 1) increasing water 

transparency, which in turn can cause proliferation of aquatic plants, changing energy 

transfer through the food web while clogging the water column with vegetation. This can 

negatively impact boating and other recreational activities; 2) reducing the availability of 

the zooplankton community as food for early life stages of recreationally important fish 

species, thus reducing the productivity of these taxa; 3) possibly decreasing reproductive 

success of bottom-spawning fishes due to egg mortality. Its capacity to foul shells of 

native species of threatened and endangered bivalves, and ensuing competition for 

plankton foods may seriously threaten the continued existence of these native taxa. The 

pseudofeces that are produced accumulate and create a foul environment - as the waste 

particles decompose, oxygen is depleted, the pH becomes very acidic and toxic 

byproducts are produced. In addition, quagga mussels accumulate organic pollutants 

within their tissues to levels more than 300,000 times greater than concentrations in the 

environment and these pollutants are found in the pseudofeces, which can be passed up 

the food chain, therefore increasing wildlife exposure to organic pollutants (Snyder et al.

1997). 

Rock Oyster, leafy jewelbox (Chama macerophylla) – This species probably was 

introduced as hull fouling. Rock oysters attach to hard substrates, including natural rock 

surfaces and structures such as pilings and ship hulls. This species is considered a 

“stubborn” fouling organism, which is very difficult to remove from hulls and other 

structures, often requiring a hammer and a chisel. As of 2002 in Hawaii, it has only been 

reported in Pearl Harbor. It has been locally abundant on the hull of a floating dock, and 

in two other nearby collecting stations (Bishop Museum and University of Hawaii 2002). 

Saddle Oyster, jingle shell (Anomia nobilis) – This invasive inhabits harbors 

throughout the main islands of Hawaii. This common fouling organism is typically found 

on hard structures such as floating docks and pier pilings. When abundant it forms stacks 

multiple animals thick, making its removal difficult (Bishop Museum and University of 

Hawaii 2002). 

Shipworm (Teredo furcifera) - first found in Barnegat Bay, NJ, T. furcifera is 

adapted to boring into wood; therefore, it can destroy docks and wooden-hulled boats. 

This species is well established in warmwater effluents of power plants. 

 Soft-Shell Clam (Mya arenaria) – This Atlantic Coast native is found in upper 

intertidal, and shallow subtidal zones of bays and estuaries. Where it occurs on the West 

coast, it provided significant commercial harvests from late nineteenth through mid-

 
58

twentieth centuries. Currently on the West Coast the soft-shell clam supports very 

modest recreational harvests for food and bait. 

 Zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha) - The zebra mussel entered the Great 

Lakes in the 1980s in ballast water of ships from Europe, and is now widely distributed 

throughout the Great Lakes and most major eastern U. S. watersheds. This species is a 

fouling organism, clogging water intake and condenser pipes. It also encrusts boat hulls, 

docks and buoys and fouls shells of native mollusks, including federally endangered 

species, and spawning grounds of recreationally important fishes such as the walleye 

(Zander vitreum) and smallmouth bass (Micropterus dolomieui). Economic impacts 

include: loss of revenues from industries during closure for cleanout of intake pipes; cost 

of control in municipal water treatment plants and power plants; local cost of removal 

from docks and boat hulls (ISSG database). Ecological impacts, as described for the 

Quagga mussel, may produce long-term economic consequences. 

 Class Gastropoda (snails, slugs and nudibranchs) 

 

Channeled Whelk (Busycotypus canaliculatus) – This species inhabits subtidal 

and intertidal habitats on mud and sand bottoms. The West Coast population in San 

Francisco Bay may have come from aquarium enthusiasts or from discards of grocery 

stocks, or perhaps in shipments of Atlantic oysters. This species does not appear to have 

serious impact on the West Coast, but within its native range on the Atlantic coast it is a 

serious predator pest in oyster and clam beds. 

Chinese Mysterysnail (Cipangopaludina chinensis malleata) – This species is 

typically found partially buried in the mud or silt of lakes, although it can occur in 

brackish waters of estuaries. This species was sold in Chinese food markets in San 

Francisco in the late 1800’s. It possibly competes with native snails. “This species can 

serve as a vector for various parasites and diseases, including serving as “an intermediate 

host for Echinocasmus elongatus, E. redioduplicatus, E. rugosus, Eupariphium ilocanum, 

E. recurvatum, Echinostoma macrorchis, and E. cinetorchis which can infect human 

beings” (Gulf States Marine Fisheries Commission 2005e; Pace, 1973). 

 European nudibranch (Tritonia plebeia) – This nudibranch is found in coastal 

areas of Maine and Massachusetts. “Although only present in the Gulf of Maine during 

the Mid-1980s, it had a severe impact on the soft coral, Alcyoniuum siderium.” (NAS 

site). 

Mud Bithynia or Faucet Snail (Bithynia tentaculata) – The mud Bithynia has been 

known to infest municipal water supplies in abundance. It was first introduced into the 

Great Lakes (Lake Michigan) about 1870 and remains abundant in the Great Lakes 

watershed. 

New Zealand mudsnail (Potamopyrgus antipodarum) – This mudsnail is a prolific 

species with the potential to be a bio-fouler at facilities drawing from infested waters. Its 

tolerance of a broad range of ecological factors makes the possibility of further spread 

 
59

likely. In moist conditions, this snail can withstand short periods of desiccation (NAS 

site). 

 Red-rimmed melania (Melanoides tuberculatus) – This species is typically found 

in shallow slow running water, but is highly salinity tolerant; it has been reported in both 

fresh and estuarine waters in south Florida in salinities up to 30 ppt. It was introduced by 

the pet trade industry (Gulf States Marine Fisheries Commission 2003b). This species is 

a potential human health hazard, because it serves as the vector for the Chinese liver 

fluke and the Oriental lung fluke. It also carries parasites of waterfowl that can infect 

mammals. 

Veined Rapa Whelk (Rapana venosa) – This species is found in subtidal habitats. 

The veined rapa whelk is a carnivore that consumes other mollusks such as native 

oysters. It has become a serious pest elsewhere, causing declines and losses of bivalves 

in the Black Sea. Although specific impacts have not been noted in U. S. waters, there is 

caution concerning serious impacts on economically important shellfish stocks (Harding 

1999; 2000). 

Phylum Arthropoda, Subphylum Crustacea

 Class Branchiopoda (including the cladocerans) 

 

Spiny water flea (Bythotrephes longimanus)- This water flea is found among the 

zooplankton in the upper water column of large and small temperate lakes, reaching 

greatest abundance in late summer and autumn; it also can tolerate brackish water. “The 

first noticeable impact of Bythotrephes [is] on fishermen. The tail spines of Bythotrephes

hook on fishing lines, fouling fishing gear. Bythotrephes consume small zooplankton 

such as small cladocerans, copepods, and rotifers, competing directly with planktivorous 

larval fish for food” (Berg and Garton 1988, Evans 1988, Vanderploeg et al. 1993). 

Bythotrephes have been implicated as a factor in the decline of alewife (Alosa 

pseudoharengus) in Lakes Ontario, Erie, Huron, and Michigan (Evans 1988). The 

invasion of B. longimanus into the Laurentian Great Lakes has resulted in substantial and 

sustained decreases in the populations of a number of (mostly cladoceran) native 

zooplankton species (Barbiero and Tuchman, 2004). The ultimate impact of this change 

in the plankton community on productivity of recreationally important fish species is 

unknown. Bythotrephes is a food source for fish including yellow perch, white perch, 

walleye, white bass, alewife, bloater chub, chinook salmon, emerald shiner, spottail 

shiner, rainbow smelt, lake herring, lake whitefish and deepwater sculpin (Bur et al. 

1986, Makarewitz and Jones 1990, Branstrator and Lehman 1996; directly from NAS 

site). 

 Fish-hook water flea (Cercopagis pengoi)-similar to the spiny water flea (B. 

longimanus), this species is euryhaline and eurythermic. The fish-hook water flea “is a 

consumer of other zooplankton, competing with other planktivores of the Great Lakes, 

including the Alewife (Alosa pseudoharengus) and Rainbow Smelt (Osmerus mordax) 

(Bushnoe et al., 2003), two species that serve as a major food source for economically 

 
60

valuable salmonine species. C. pengoi's establishment in Lake Ontario in 1998 

corresponded with the lowest alewife populations in twenty years (Makarewicz et al., 

2001). C. pengoi is a nuisance to recreational anglers as it also fouls fishing gear. A 2002 

study of the food web impacts of C. pengoi showed that the depth at which C. pengoi

exists is depleted of small organisms (<0.15 g) (Benoit et al., 2002). The full impact of C. 

pengoi on the food web, and thus on important fish species, has not yet been extensively 

studied.” (NAS site). 

 Water flea (Daphnia lumholtzi)- First found in Lake Michigan in 1997, this 

species may have negative impacts on ecosystems; however, because of its recent 

introduction its impacts are not fully understood. 

 Class Maxillopoda 

 Subclass Thecostraca (including the barnacles) 

 

Barnacle (Balanus trigonus) – This species was introduced into the south Atlantic 

basin (Brazil) in the 1860s by ships from the Pacific. It possibly was brought into the 

North Atlantic basin by whaling ships in the mid-1900s (Gulf States Marine Fisheries 

Commission 2005d). It is a fouling organism found on ship hulls, buoys, and other hard 

substrates in the water column as well as inflow pipes of desalinization plants. When 

found in intake pipes, it can cause corrosion of metals and increase maintenance costs. 

Substantial encrustation of this species on ship hulls increases drag, thus increasing fuel 

costs. 

Caribbean barnacle (Chthamalus proteus) – This barnacle was probably 

introduced into the Hawaii islands via ship hull fouling. It inhabits the high or supra-tidal 

zones of protected harbors, growing on pier pilings and other structures. It is considered a 

nuisance fouling organism, which can commonly be seen as hull fouling at and above the 

water line. 

Ivory Barnacle (Balanus eburneus) – The ivory barnacle is a common fouling 

organism in the intertidal fouling community, probably introduced as ship hull fouling. 

The ivory barnacle is considered a nuisance fouling species that occurs on structures such 

as ship hulls, buoys, and pilings as well as on oysters and mangrove roots. It is 

distributed throughout the Hawaiian main islands (Bishop Museum and University of 

Hawaii 2002). 

 Striped Barnacle (Balanus amphitrite) – The striped barnacle was probably 

introduced as vessel fouling. This species is a very common member of intertidal fouling 

community. It can cause serious fouling on structures such as buoys and pilings in 

harbors and bays, ship hulls, and inflow pipes of desalination plants. This species can 

cause corrosion of metals and increased maintenance costs. Striped barnacles on ship 

hulls can increase friction to the point of increased fuel consumption and higher travel 

costs (Bishop Museum and the University of Hawaii 2002; Gulf States Marine Fisheries 

Commission 2003e). 

 

 
61

 Subclass Copepoda (the copepods) 

 A parasitic copepod (Neoergasilus japonicus) – This species has been found in 

Lake Huron. Host fish include bluegill, carp, channnel catfish, goldfish, green sunfish, 

fathead minnow, largemouth bass, smallmouth bass, rock bass, yellow perch, and 

pumpkinseed. The impact of this parasite on populations of valued fish species is 

probably modest. 

Predatory copepods (particularly Pseudodiaptomus inopinus) – Several bays and 

estuaries on the West Coast of the United States have recorded exotic planktonic copepod 

populations (Cordell and Morrison 1996). San Francisco Bay is perhaps the most 

affected, with eight known Asian copepods inhabiting the area (Orsi and Ohtsuka 1999). 

These invaders apparently occupy multiple zones of salinity and trophic levels. Socioeconomic impacts may include copepodic predation on the larvae of commercially 

important marine species. 

 Class Malacostraca 

 Order Amphipoda (the amphipods) 

 Amphipod (Echinogammarus ischnus) – This species prefers fresh and brackish 

shallow waters and hard substrates; is closely associated with zebra mussel colonies. It is 

most likely to become the dominant amphipod in rocky habitats with moderate current, 

wave-washed cobble beaches, rubble-armored shorelines, and breakwalls. Interactions 

between E. ischnus and native gammarid species may result in displacement and possible 

local extinction of native species. 

 

 Order Isopoda (the isopods) 

 

An isopod (Paranthura sp.) – This species is widely distribution in San Francisco 

Bay and adjacent bays. This is a wood-boring organism that fouls and can cause 

deterioration of pilings, wooden hulled ships, and other wooden structures. 

An isopod (Synidotea laevidorsalis) – This is an estuarine inhabitant from 

brackish to full seawater. It was most likely introduced as ship fouling. This species 

fouls piling, buoys and other maritime structures. 

Burrowing Australian isopod (Sphaeroma quoyanum) – The burrows of these 

isopods have been shown to undermine the steep vertical banks of salt marshes, resulting 

in large local sediment losses in San Francisco Bay (Levin 2002). Projected and current 

socio-economic impacts include increased sedimentation, which affects fishing and water 

quality, shallowing of navigable waterways, and loss of aesthetic values associated with 

salt marshes. 

 Wood boring gribble ((Limnoria quadripunctata) – a boring isopod that can cause 

deterioration of wood structures, such as piers. 

 
62

 

 Order Decapoda (including lobsters, crabs and shrimp) 

 

Asian Tiger Shrimp, Jumbo Tiger Prawn (Penaeus monodon) – This species has 

been collected by commercial shrimpers along the East coast of the U. S. to Florida, and 

the Gulf of Mexico. This species was probably released by commercial aquaculture 

facilities; it may not be established as reproducing populations. Juveniles are found in 

estuarine waters and mouths of rivers, while adults are found in deeper coastal waters 

over soft substrates in depths up to 110 meters. Exotic viruses, bacteria and fungi carried 

by this species may pose a threat to native penaeid shrimp (Gulf States Marine Fisheries 

Commission 2003d). 

 Asian shore crab (Hemigrapsus sanguineus)- Hemigrapsus was first recorded in 

the United States at Townsend Inlet, Cape May County, New Jersey in 1988 (Balabam 

2001). This species is now well established and exceptionally abundant along the Atlantic 

intertidal coastline of the United States from Maine to North Carolina (MIT Sea Grant). It 

is actively breeding and expanding within its nonnative range. It has the potential to 

affect populations of native crab species such as blue crab and rock crab, the non-native 

green crab, as well as other shellfish such as the American lobster and fish. This 

potential impact on native species may be a result of direct predation or competition for a 

food source. Recent trends indicate numbers of shore crabs are steadily increasing while 

native crab populations are declining. This opportunistic omnivore may also threaten 

shellfish aquaculture operations (NAS site). Most occurrences of this species in the U. S. 

do not seem to represent reproducing populations. 

 Bloody-red shrimp (Hemimysis anomala) – This freshwater shrimp species was 

forst found in the Great Lakes in November 2006. The National Center for Research on 

Aquatic Invasive Species lists it as established with multiple reproducing populatins in 

the Great Lakes (NCRAIS 2007). Nothing is known about the impact this species might 

ultimately have as an invasive, but a similar species from the same Order (Mysidacea), 

the opossum shrimp Mysis relicta, caused disruptons in the make-up of plankton 

communities when purposely introduced as a forage species into lakes in the western U. 

S. This indirectly caused a decline in growth, abundance and mean size at capture of a 

number of recreationally important salmonid species in those systems (Nesler and 

Bergersen 1991). 

 Chinese mitten crab (Eriocheir sinensis) – This is a catadromous species, adults 

migrating to reproduce in salt water and juveniles and sub-adult life stages occurring in 

subtidal, estuarine and adjacent freshwater systems. This species seems to be established 

in the U. S. only in the San Francisco Bay system. Mitten crabs can be transported in 

ballast water. However, due to this species being considered a delicacy in Asian food 

markets, it has been found in carry-on luggage in U. S. international airports, and has 

been marketed in San Francisco and Los Angeles, so introduction into CA may have been 

due to purposeful plantings. In Europe, this species causes substantial damage to nets 

and other commercial fishing gears. When caught in shrimp fisheries of the San 

 
63

Francisco Bay area, it is a major nuisance to harvesters as it is time consuming to remove 

the crabs from nets, and it can cause damage to the shrimp, eliminating their value to the 

fresh bait market. Juveniles burrow into banks and levees in subtidal areas of estuaries; in 

Europe this behavior has caused considerable damage to the stability of levees. Mitten 

crabs have impeded fish salvage operations at federal and state water pumping plants in 

California due to entrainment; in 1998, over 1 million were entrained at one federal 

facility alone (Veldhuizen and Stanish 1999). This species has also caused reduced flow 

in cooling water systems of several CA power plants due to entrainment. In the Far East, 

mitten crabs serve as an intermediate host to lung flukes, including a species that infects 

humans (Gulf States Marine Fisheries Commission 2003c). Although established 

populations appear restricted to CA and other West Coast states, it has also been found in 

Lake Erie. 

Green crab (Carcinus maenas) – The green crab is common in all types of 

protected marine and estuarine habitats, protected rocky shores, cobble beaches, sandflats 

and tidal marshes, from high intertidal zone to 60 meters. On the West Coast of the U. 

S., it is most often associated with tidal/salt marshes and oyster beds (Washington 

Department of Fish and Wildlife – no date). Once established on the Atlantic coast of 

North America, it has been implicated in the decline of soft-shelled clam fisheries of New 

England (Mya arenaria) in the mid-20th century, as well as declines in northern quahog 

(Mercenaria mercenaria) and scallop resources. In Humboldt Bay, CA, the green crab 

has been implicated in a 40% drop in Manila clam harvests (Washington Department of 

Fish and Wildlife – no date). Washington State is particularly concerned about its 

potential to out-compete and predate upon the native Dungeness crab, which supports 

important commercial and recreational fisheries. It is a pest of cultivated clam culturing 

activities. Of particular concern is the inadvertent introduction and spread of this species 

by commercial shellfish transfers. 

 Harris mud crab, estuarine mud crab (Rhithropanopeus harrisii) – The Harris mud 

crab was introduced from the Atlantic coast/Gulf of Mexico most probably via ballist 

water release. It inhabits brackish and freshwater systems. This species is a carrier of 

white spot baculovirus, which can cause disease in other crab species and shrimps. It 

also has caused fouling of PVC water intakes of personal residences (normally in 

freshwater areas). 

 

 Rusty crayfish (Orconectes rusticus) – One sample of this species was collected 

in Lake Superior in 1999. The rusty crayfish has the potential to compete with native 

crayfish species for hiding places and also to destroy aquatic plant beds. Rusty crayfish 

aggression is not limited to other crayfish species – they can also pinch waders and 

swimmers. Some bathers in heavily-infested lakes have stopped swimming because rusty 

crayfish in high concentrations occupy swimming areas throughout the day and they fear 

stepping on them and getting pinched by the crayfishes’ large-claws. Disruption and 

destruction of rooted aquatic vegetation can cause the decline of recreationally important 

fish species (Li and Moyle 1993; Rosenthal et al. 2006). 

 
64

Serrated Swimming Crab, Edible Mud Crab (Scylla serrata) – This species is an 

inhabitant of brackish shoreline waters, mouths of rivers and mangrove swamps, most 

often associated with mud substrates. Purposely introduced, the present status of this 

species in waters of southeastern and Gulf States is unknown. The serrated swimming 

crab is a valued human food in Asia. It is host to a parasitic dinoflagellate 

(Haematodinium sp.) that causes “bitter crab disease”, which affects the marketability 

and value of the Tanner Crabs (Chionoestes bairdi) in Alaska (Gulf States Marine 

Fisheries Commission 2003e). 

Pacific White Shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) – The Pacific white shrimp was 

originally imported for aquaculture; due to its tolerance of a wide range of salinities the it 

has been cultured in both coastal areas and freshwater ponds in GA, FL, TX and SC, as 

well as a few inland states. It inhabits muddy substrates from the shoreline to 70 meters 

(Gulf States Marine Fisheries Commission 2005c). Those found outside of aquaculture 

facilities are a result of escape or accidental release. Shrimp viruses introduced with this 

invasive species may pose a threat to penaeid shrimp fisheries along the southeastern 

Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico states. Viruses include TSV (Aaura Syndrome Virus), white 

spot virus (WSSV) and IHHN virus – the latter may be responsible for a decline in wild 

shrimp populations of Mexico’s Pacific coast (JSA 1997). 

Phylum Chordata 

 Subphylum Urochordata-Tunicata (the tunicates or sea squirts) 

 Asian tunicate, Club Sea Squirt (Styela clava) – a fouling organism. When in 

high densities, the Asian tunicate may harm other organisms through competition, or by 

consuming planktonic larvae, becoming a major nuisance in shellfish aquaculture. In 

Europe, mussel catches are so covered with this tunicate that they cannot be marketed. 

The Asian tunicate can severely foul structures, including weighing down floating docks 

to the point they are difficult to remove from the water. This species is harvested and 

eaten in parts of its native range, including southern Korea. 

Black Sea Squirt (Phallusia nigra) – It is common in bays and harbors, attached 

to any hard substrates including pier pilings and floats. A fouling organism, the black sea 

squirt probably was introduced as ship hull fouling (Bishop Museum and University of 

Hawaii 2002). 

 Chain Sea Squirt, Orange Sheath Tunicate (Botrylloides violaceus) – This is a 

fouling organism. This species is a nuisance due to boat hull fouling. 

Gray Sea Squirt (Ascidia sydneiensis) – Introduced as ship hull fouling, this 

species is common in shallow water of bays, attaching to any available substrates such as 

dead coral, pilings, boat hulls or buoys and floats. 

 
65

 Pleated Sea Squirt (Styela plicata) – The pleated sea squirt is a dominant 

component of the biota of San Diego Harbor. It is a fouling species that has replaced 

native tunicate species in that system. 

Sea Vase (Ciona intestinalis) – The sea vase was likely introduced to the West 

coast via ship fouling. This species fouls pilings, floats, and ship hulls. Although it does 

not seem to reach the extremely high population densities of the past, it still is quite 

abundant seasonally in specific areas of the California coast. 

 Star Sea Squirt, golden star tunicate (Botryllus schlosseri) – This is a fouling 

organism. The star sea squirt grows on boat hulls, buoys, ropes, pilings, and on living 

organisms such as mussels and eelgrass. It can overgrow and compete with cultured 

oysters and mussels and increase processing costs for these shellfish. This species has 

been used in studies of reproduction, development and genetics. 

Rough Sea Tunicate (Styela canopus) – This species fouls ship hulls. 

A Tunicate (Herdmania pallida) – This species fouls ship hulls. 

A Tunicate (Polyandrocarpa sp.) – This species fouls ship hulls. 

 White Crust Tunicate (Didemnum cf. lahillei) – This is another fouling organism. 

The white crust tunicate forms encrusting mats that overgrow a variety of living 

organisms including oysters, scallops and other economically valuable species. Once 

introduced, this rapidly expanding species can become a serious fouling organism, 

covering maritime structures (docks, floats, pilings, moorings, ropes), ship’s hulls and 

large areas of fishing ground; it has encrusted 50-90% of a 100 sqare kilometer area of 

Georges Bank. In 14 months it covered 100% of the surface of a sunken oil rig off the 

coast of Texas (NAS site). This species can reach abundance sufficient to threaten 

commercial fishing, commercial culture of mussels, and other coastal and offshore 

activities. 

 White Crust Tunicate (Didemnum perlucidum) - “This tunicate has been collected 

in the Gulf of Mexico off Texas ... and has been identified from Pensacola Bay, Florida

(SERC, Nemesis Database); however, there is some question as to whether it is 

indigenous to the Gulf. Even if it is determined to be native to the Gulf, it may still be 

classified as invasive because of its aggressive nature and ability to rapidly colonize and 

overgrow artificial structures. Collected from the island of Oahu, Hawaii. In areas where 

it is abundant, it overgrows other epibionts and smothers them. Lambert (2002) noted 

that in 14 months, D. perlucidum colonized and covered 100% of a sunken petroleum rig 

off Texas.” (all from NAS site ). 

White didemnid (Didemnum candidum) – This is a common colonial ascidian that 

forms patches or mounds in shallow water; it fouls all substrates including living animals 

and algae. Introduced as ship’s fouling, this species inhabits all of the Hawaiian main 

islands 

 
66

 

 Subphylum Vertebrata 

 Class Cyclostomata (including the sea lamprey) 

 

Sea Lamprey (Petromyzon marinus) – The sea lamprey has been considered one 

of the most deleterious and costly invasives (native transplants) in the United States. 

This species first entered the Great Lakes via entrance into Lake Ontario in the mid1800s, probably via the Mohawk Valley River and Erie Barge Canal. Construction of the 

Welland Canal system allowed passage of this species into the upper Great Lakes in the 

early- to mid-twentieth century, although it first appeared in these waters decades after 

the Welland Canal was opened. In Lake Erie, because of the lack of expansive spawning 

habitat with appropriate clean gravel/rock substrates and optimal water velocities in its 

tributary streams (due largely to wide-scale damming, and excessive silt loading from 

agriculture), this species never reached the high densities that it later achieved in the three 

upper Great Lakes (Trautman 1957; Fuller 1999). Once entering Lake Huron, Lake 

Michigan, and Lake Superior, the sea lamprey exhibited rapid population expansions, 

reaching very high densities in just a few generations of reproduction. 

Substantial controversy has surrounded the role that the sea lamprey played in the 

collapse/extinction of a number of native fish species in the Great Lakes, including the 

lake trout and a number of coregonine species (whitefishes and ciscoes such as the 

longjaw cisco Coregonus johannae, blackfin cisco C. nigripinnis and longjaw cisco C. 

alpenae). The loss of these resources happened over several decades, showing patterns 

that could be explained either by fishing mortality or predation by sea lamprey. The lake 

trout declined and disappeared sequentially from lake to lake based on distance from 

Lake Erie; commercial fishing tended to develop in the same manner, with fleets shifting 

their efforts greater and greater distances from the metropolitan areas of Ohio, southern 

Michigan and northern Indiana/Illinois as fish stocks declined locally. The sea lamprey 

entered and expanded throughout the Great Lakes basin in a similar manner, arriving in 

Lake Superior last due to distance of expansion once successfully traversing the Welland 

Canal. The same pattern persisted within specific lakes, with local stocks of lake trout 

disappearing followed by effort of fishing fleets expanding to more distant parts of the 

lake to fish previously unharvested stocks. Another pattern of loss was seen among the 

deepwater ciscoes, particularly in Lake Michigan. Among the assemblage of species of 

this fish group that existed in Michigan, there were sequential lake-wide losses starting 

with the largest bodied species sequentially through the next largest until the smallest 

species was all that remained reasonably intact (Judd and Leach 1993). Commercial 

fishing fleets behave in a way that would produce all of these patterns of loss; however, 

the manner in which the sea lamprey invaded the upper Great Lakes, and its behavior as a 

predator that may select larger bodied prey first (the same behavior exhibited by 

commercial fishing) had supported those researchers that contend the sea lamprey was 

the major agent causing declines of native species while fishing played a secondary role 

if any. 

 Class Osteichthyes (boney fishes) 

 

 
67

 Alewife (Alosa pseudoharengus) – The alewife invaded the Great Lakes via the 

Welland canal system in the 1940’s. The decline and disappearance of lake trout stocks 

in Lake Huron and Lake Michigan led to an explosive expansion of this species in these 

water bodies (Judd and Leach 1993). By the 1960s, the alewife had become the most 

abundant species in biomass in these lakes, often undergoing massive die-offs, littering 

recreationally important beaches and plugging intake pipes of power plants and 

municipal water supplies, causing “economic havoc” (Judd and Leach 1993). The 

alewife was at least in part responsible for the decline of native coregonine species that 

had supported commercial or recreational fisheries – including the whitefish (Crowder 

and Binkowski 1983), deepwater cisco and lake herring (the latter also affected by 

rainbow smelt), and the rainbow smelt due to competition, and egg and larval predation. 

In Lake Michigan, the decline of yellow perch coincided with the increase in dominance 

of the alewife; perch did not rebound until the alewife stock declined due to predation by 

introduced Pacific salmon. The decline of the alewife in Lake Michigan and Huron 

caused a decline in the quality of the very valuable put-grow-and-take Pacific salmon 

recreational fishery, as well as potentially affecting success of lake trout restoration, due 

to a reduction in the forage base of these salmonine predators. Predation by alewives on 

lake trout fry might also impact success of lake trout restoration programs (Krueger et al. 

1995). 

American eel (Anguilla rostrata) – The American eel was first intentionally 

released into California waters in 187; it has been released since that time for aquaculture 

and potential establishment of reproducing populations. 

American shad (Alosa sapidissima) – This was one the earliest transplants of 

native fishes from the Altantic to the Pacific coast, after creation of the U. S. Office of the 

Fish Commissioner in 1871. Current production rates in California are strongly 

influenced by river flows in systems such as the Sacramento/San Joaquin estuary. Water 

diversion in that system can lead to loss of larvae to diversion canals, to decreased 

nursery habitat and declines in food productivity (Ross 1997). 

Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) – The Atlantic salmon was stocked extensively on 

the West Coast in an attempt to establish spawning populations. More recently this 

species has been intensively “farmed” throughout the Pacific coast of the U. S. and 

Canada. Although hundreds of thousands of Atlantic salmon have escaped from 

aquaculture facilities, no reproduction has been reported in West Coast states. 

Reproduction has been found in British Columbia. This species’ introduction to the West 

Coast led to the establishment of viral hemorraghic disease, a potentially deadly salmonid 

pathogen particularly in rearing facilities (agency hatcheries and private aquaculture 

systems). 

 Bighead carp (Hypophthalmichthys nobilis) – The bighead carp was collected in 

Lake Erie in 2000. Its impacts are unknown. This species is planktivorous and attains a 

large size. 

 
68

Blacktail snapper (Lutjanus fulvus) – The Hawaiian Division of Fish and Game 

stocked several species of non-indigenous snappers in the 1950s, including the blacktail, 

humpback, rose and bluestripe snappers to create new recreational fishing opportunities. 

The blacktail and bluestripe snappers have since become established throughout the 

Hawaiian Islands, although the blacktail is not abundant in any locality. The rose snapper 

never became established, and the humpback, although once considered established, has 

not been collected in Hawaii since the early 1990s. 

Brown Trout (Salmo trutta) – first introduced into U. S. waters in the 1880s by 

the U. S. Office of the Fish Commissioner; since that time this species has been actively 

propagated and stocked by both federal and state agencies widely through the U. S. The 

brown trout currently supports economically important recreational fisheries via putgrow-and-take programs and natural production (Fuller et al. 1999; Ross 1997). 

Although highly valued as a recreational species and widely held to be a successful 

introduction to North American waters, the brown trout has caused serious problems with 

native fauna. Where naturally reproducing populations overlap in geographic distribution 

with the native brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis; a stream-dwelling species), brook trout 

populations are restricted in habitat to upstream headwaters; the brown trout, via 

competition for food and space, and possibly predation, has eliminated them from using 

more productive downstream habitats. Thus the quality and distribution of brook trout 

fisheries has diminished. It has had similar impact in freshwaters of western U. S. with 

other native species such as the cutthroat trout, the federally listed golden and Gila trouts, 

and Dolly Varden (Ross 1997). Potentially the greatest harm caused by the introduction 

of the brown trout will be the spread of whirling disease in the U. S. Whirling disease, 

caused by the protozoan parasite Myxobolus cerebralis, attacks cartilaginous tissues of 

the vertebral column and skull of salmonid fishes. If infecting young-of-the-year trout, 

this disease can cause severe cranial deformity, putting pressure on the brain and spinal 

cord that leads to behavioral aberrations (expressed as uncoordinated whirling behavior) 

and death. Whirling disease can generate extremely high mortalities of native North 

American salmonids, although it does not do so with the European brown trout, its native 

host. Once thought to be contained to hatchery systems, in a short number of years in the 

1990s it was found in a number of watersheds in western U. S. and in New York state. 

Since its discovery in the wild, whirling disease already has caused the collapse of 

native/resident trout populations in several western states (Fuller et al. 1999). As yet it 

potential impact on lake trout is not well understood, but it could affect the success of 

lake trout restoration in the Great Lakes, as well as salmonine fisheries supported by 

other species in that system. 

 Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) - native to the West Coast of the 

USA, this species has been stocked in all the Great Lakes. The chinook salmon may 

compete with native lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush), thus impeding the restoration of 

this important native species to the Great Lakes drainage; it also may impact restoration 

of Atlantic salmon in Lake Ontario due to competitive interactions (Fuller et al. 1999; 

NAS site). Evidence strongly suggests that this species has become naturalized in Lake 

Superior and natural production exceeds hatchery production in terms of sport fish catch 

(Peck et al. 1999; NAS site). Due to the loss of deepwater predators, particularly the 

 
69

lake trout, and the dominance of the introduced alewife which served as a substantial 

forage base, the stocking of Chinook salmon (begun in Lake Michigan in 1967) led to the 

creation of a very valuable recreational fishery in the Great Lakes, particularly Lakes 

Michigan and Huron; the Lake Michigan fishery for chinook and coho salmon alone was 

valued at $150,000,000 by the mid-1980s (Judd and Leach 1993). The growth of this 

put-grow-and-take fishery (a fishery supported by annual stocking of young fishes, 

without measurable natural reproduction supplementing the population) is felt to be a 

major reason for the decline of the nuisance alewife resource in Lake Michigan. 

However, by the 1990s concern was growing that continued stocking of put-and-take 

Chinook salmon and other top predators would lead to population collapses of alewife 

and populations of other forage fish, thus disrupting the food base that supports the 

economically valuable sport fisheries of the Great Lakes (Jones et al. 1993; NAS site). 

 Common carp (Cyprinus carpio)- Introduced into North American waters from 

Europe as early as 1831 (Courtenay et al. 1984) this species was propagated and widely 

distributed in the late 1800s by the U. S. Office of The Fish Commissioner. Its 

propagation in federal hatcheries was terminated by about 1900 when public enthusiasm 

turned to criticism because of the carp’s tendency to displace native species. It has since 

become established in freshwater systems in more than 40 states, including the Great 

Lakes. The common carp has proven to be a nuisance throughout the U. S.; “while 

foraging, the carp can uproot aquatic vegetation, and can cause marked increased in 

turbidity due to suspension of bottom substrates” (Ross 1997), thus degrading habitat 

conditions for native species supporting recreational fisheries. 

 Eurasian Ruffe (Gymnocephalus cernuus) – The Eurasian ruffe was introduced to 

Lake Superior in the mid-1980’s in the ballast water of a trans-oceanic ship, first found in 

Duluth Harbor of Lake Superior in 1986 (Savino and Kolar 1996). This species competes 

with native fish for food and habitat; it may have a particular detrimental effect on native 

yellow perch, Perca flavescens (Savino and Kolar 1996). Due to its high reproductive 

rate and its feeding efficiency across a wide range of environmental conditions, it is a 

threat to other forage fish species. The Eurasian ruffe is a serious threat to commercial 

and sport fishing and has the potential to seriously disrupt the delicate predator/prey 

balance necessary to sustaining a healthy fishery. 

Fang-toothed blenny (Omobranchus ferox) – This species was probably 

introduced to Hawaii via ballast water. Although not socio-economically important, this 

invasive species is somewhat of a pest to people, readily biting them with its large, sharp 

teeth (NAS site). 

Goldspot herring (Herklotsichthys quadrimaculatus) – The goldspot herring was 

introduced to Oahu, Hawaii in 1972, likely by a National Marine Fisheries Service 

research vessel that carried this species to use as bait while exploring tuna fisheries of the 

Marshall Islands (NAS site). Fish were presumably dumped into Kewalo Basin, Oahu 

when the vessel returned to port after completing its cruise. Fishermen believe this 

species is responsible for stock declines of native baitfish species and silversides. 

 
70

 Grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella)- The grass carp was first introduced in the 

US in the 1960’s as a biological control of rooted aquatic vegetation. The grass carp was 

first seen in the Great lakes in the 1980’s. Impacts include interspecific competition for 

food with invertebrates and other fishes, significant changes in the composition of 

macrophyte, phytoplankton, and invertebrate communities, interference with the 

reproduction of other fishes, and decreases in vegetation refugia for other fishes. 

Humpback Grouper (Cromileptes altivelis) – Occurrence in Forida and Hawaii is 

probably due to aquarium releases. The impact of its introduction is unknown, but it is 

considered to be “endangered” in its native range by the IUCN. 

Marquesan sardine (Sardinella marquesensis) – released in Hawaii during 

research cruises, it is now established on all major islands. The impact of this species is 

unknown. The Marquesan sardine caused the death of a fishermen in 1975 due to 

clupeoid poisoning (NAS site). 

 Pink salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha)- This species, introduced periodically in 

the Great Lakes since the 1880s, has become widely established although not as a 

dominant member of the fish communities of this system. This species may have 

displaced native chubs and the lake herring (coregonines) through competition for food, 

(Fuller et al. 1999). Where established it provides recreational fishing opportunities. 

Peacock hind (Cephalopholis argus) – An inhabitant of shallow water coral reefs, 

this species was intentionally introduced to the Hawaiian Islands originally in 1956. By 

the early 1970s it had spread throughout the Hawaiian islands and had become the target 

of both commercial and recreational fishing. 

 Rainbow smelt (Osmerus mordax) – The rainbow smelt entered the “upper” four 

Great Lakes after construction of the Welland canal system provided passage past 

Niagara Falls. Once established, this species became a principal forage species for the 

lake trout, also supporting a modest commercial fishery (Judd and Leach 1993). It was 

the primary prey of salmonines (Pacific salmon and the lake trout) in Lake Huron, and 

reached a dominant biomass in Lake Erie. The loss of the blue pike in Lake Erie, an 

endemic species supporting an important commercial fishery into the mid-twentieth 

century, has been blamed on the combined effects of overfishing and competition with 

the rainbow smelt. The smelt may also have been partially responsible for the decline of 

the walleye in Lake Erie, although that species has rebounded in the latter decades of the 

twentieth century (Ross 1997). The rainbow smelt competes with lake herring 

(Coregonus artedii) for food and may be responsible for the decline of whitefish 

(Coregonus spp.). Its decline in Lake Superior in the later twentieth century is felt to 

have been due to predation from Pacific salmon and the recovering lake trout stocks. 

 Red Lionfish (Pterois volitans) – This species inhabits reefs from 10 to 175 

meters in depth. Liberated into coastal waters of Florida and coastal states possibly by 

aquarists, by ballast water release, and as escapees from a beachside aquarium during 

hurricane Andrew in 1992 (Courtenay 1995). Its dorsal and anal spines can inflict a 

 
71

painful sting by release of a potent venom when handled. The National Centers for 

Coastal Ocean Science recently completed an integrated assessment of this species. Of 

particular concern is the potential impact on marine ecosystems of the southeast U.S. and 

diver-fish interactions (Hare and Witfield 2003). 

 Round Goby (Apolonia (Neogobius) melanostomus) – The round goby invaded 

the Great Lakes in 1990. The round goby tolerates a wide range of environmental 

conditions. Its diverse diet that includes dreissenids, its aggressive behavior, its ability to 

spawn repeatedly throughout the spring and summer, its large size compared with species 

of a similar benthic lifestyle, and egg predation (Charlebois et al. 2001; Steinhart et al. 

2004) may make it a threat to valued recreational fishes such as the smallmouth bass 

(Micropterus dolomieui). It probably served as the major factor in the local extinction of 

a native species, the mottled sculpin (Cottus bairdi) in southern Lake Michigan (Janssen 

and Jude 2001). 

 Rudd (Scardinius erythrophthalmus) – a recent Great Lakes invader (1989), 

impacts caused by its introduction are largely unknown in the Great Lakes region. This 

species is omnivorous and can tolerate eutrophic and polluted waters. It probably 

competes with native species for food resources. 

Shimfuri goby (Tridentiger bifasciatus) – The shimfuri goby occurs in 

marshes and bays. This species has become a dominant member of the fish community in 

Suisan Bay, California. It may compete with the federally endangered tidewater goby 

(Eucyclogobius newberryi), further threatening its continued existence, if the two come 

into sympatry (NAS site). 

Steelhead Salmon/rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) – an andromous form of 

the rainbow trout, steelhead salmon were introduced into the Great Lakes to support 

recreational fisheries. Self-sustaining populations now exist throughout Great Lakes 

basin. Steelhead use tributary streams for spawning, and reside as juveniles and adults in 

the Great Lakes proper (Kocik and Taylor 1996). A species native to the western slope 

of the Rocky Mountains, the rainbow trout has also been widely introduced into the Great 

Lakes watershed, and throughout the eastern two-thirds of the U. S. Where introduced, O. 

Mykiss has caused widespread extinction or collapse of local populations of a number of 

native salmonids, due to competition, predation and introgressive hybridization. In 

western states this species has displaced federally listed Lahontan cutthroat trout (O. 

clarki), and hybridized extensively with the listed Gila trout (O. gilae) and Arizona trout 

(O. apache), and is held responsible for the extinction of the Alvord cutthroat in Arizona 

(Fuller et al. 1999). Widespread stocking of rainbow trout infected with whirling disease 

has introduced this deadly parasite (an exotic disease of the European brown trout – see 

brown trout) into watersheds of more than 20 states (Fuller et al. 1999). 

Striped Bass (Morone saxatilis) – First introduced into California waters in the 

late 1870s by the U. S. Office of the Fish Commissioner; it is one of the earliest 

government introductions of an Atlantic coast/Gulf of Mexico native to the Pacific coast. 

A highly prized sport fish, the abundance of striped bass in California has been 

 
72

challenged by water-use patterns. Water withdrawals from the San Joaquin River basin 

result in changes in salinity in the lower basin that can disrupt striped bass spawning 

activity, particularly in low flow years (Ross 1997). Diversion-related low flows in that 

same system can increase mortality of postlarval striped bass in the Sacramento/San 

Joaquin estuary, possibly doe to loss of estuarine nursery habitat. When abundant, the 

striped bass can serve as an important source of mortality to Pacific salmon fingerlings 

due to predation. 

Western mosquitofish (Gambusia affinis) – Western mosquitofish have had 

several ecological impacts. Their aggressive and predatory behavior may negatively 

affect populations of small fish through predation and competition and may actually lead 

to increases in local mosquito populations by displacing select native fish species 

regarded as better or more efficient mosquito control agents. Introduced mosquitofish 

have also contributed to the elimination or decline of populations of federally endangered 

and threatened species. Mosquitofish are very aggressive, even toward larger fish. They 

often injure and sometimes kill other species. When these include zooplankton grazers, 

algal blooms can occur. They are known to prey on eggs, larvae, and juveniles of various 

fishes, including those of largemouth bass, which is a preferred fish of many anglers. 

Known socioeconomic impacts thus far seem to be limited to some watersheds of the 

Great Lakes, rather than the lakes themselves. 

White perch (Morone americana) – The white perch first gained access to Lake 

Ontario through the Mohawk River Valley and the Erie Barge Canal, and gained access 

to Lake Erie (1953) and the upper Great Lakes (Lake Huron 1987) through the Welland 

Canal (Fuller 1999). This species causes significant egg mortality to native species 

supporting recreational fisheries such as the walleye and yellow perch; at times, up to 

100% of the diet of the white perch is comprised of eggs or one or both of these species 

(Fuller 1999). In Lake Erie, white perch compete with yellow perch for food, possibly 

affecting the production dynamics of this species (Parrish and Margraf 1990). 

 Yellowfin goby (Acanthogobius flavimanus) – The yellowfin goby was 

introduced via the release of ballast water, or possibly as eggs deposited on organisms 

fouling ship’s hulls. It is a dominant species where established in San Francisco Bay and 

other CA embayments and coastal marshes. This species may be causing declines in 

native CA fishes, and may eliminate the federally endangered tidewater goby. 

 
73

Class Mammalia 

 

 Nutria, swamp beaver, coypu (Myocastor coypus) – The nutria is an aquatic South 

American rodent that was purposely introduced to the Gulf of Mexico states in the 1930s 

as a fur producer. Although nutria fur did not develop major economic value, it currently 

is more important than the native muskrat in Louisiana’s fur/trapping industry (Gulf 

States Marine Fisheries Commission 2005b). Once introduced, the nutria displayed 

explosive population expansion. Although generally associated with freshwater, this 

species can also inhabit brackish and coastal salt water habitats. Nutria can cause 

substantial damage to aquatic vegetation, severely damaging wetlands; the nutria has 

been implicated in the loss of emergent marsh habitats in the Chesapeake Bay (Haramis 

2006). Extensive burrowing behavior can cause damage to the stability of levees. After 

introduction to the Mississippi Barrier Islands, this species’ feeding behavior of digging 

up and eating roots and rhizomes of sea oats, has threatened the stability of beach dunes. 

This species carries the nematode Strongiloides myopotami, which causes a severe rash 

called “marsh itch” in humans. The nutria threatens the habitat and survival of rare 

marsh birds, such as bitterns. 

 
74

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51

 
 

52

United States Department of Commerce 

Carlos M. Gutierrez 

Secretary 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

Vice Admiral Conrad C. Lautenbacher, Jr. USN (Ret.) 

Undersecretary of Commerce for Oceans and Atmosphere 

National Ocean Service 

John H. Dunnigan 

Assistant Administrator for Ocean Services and Coastal Zone Management