IN THE UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS

FOR THE FIFTH CIRCUIT

___________________ 

No. 19-60133

___________________ 

JOSEPH THOMAS; VERNON AYERS; MELVIN LAWSON,

 Plaintiffs - Appellees

v.

PHIL BRYANT, Governor of the State of Mississippi,; DELBERT 

HOSEMANN, Secretary of State of the State of Mississippi, both in the 

official capacities of their own offices and in their official capacities as 

members of the State Board of Election Commissioners,

 Defendants - Appellants

_______________________ 

Appeal from the United States District Court

for the Southern District of Mississippi

_______________________ 

Before DENNIS, CLEMENT, and COSTA, Circuit Judges.

GREGG COSTA, Circuit Judge:

A district court found that the boundaries for Mississippi State Senate

District 22 dilute African-American voting strength and prevent those citizens 

from having the equal opportunity “to participate in the political process and 

to elect representatives of their choice” that the Voting Rights Act guarantees. 

52 U.S.C. § 10301(b). To remedy the violation, the district court switched 28 

precincts between District 22 and a bordering district. The Governor and 

Secretary of State seek a stay of the final judgment. 

United States Court of Appeals

Fifth Circuit

FILED

March 22, 2019

Lyle W. Cayce

Clerk

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I.

Most of District 22 lies in the heart of the Mississippi Delta. Those 

unfamiliar with the state’s geography might think that the Mississippi Delta 

is in the southern portion of the state that is closer to the mouth of the 

Mississippi River. But the “Delta” refers not to the outlet of that mighty river 

into the Gulf of Mexico, but to the alluvial plain between the Mississippi River 

and the Yazoo River. John M. Barry, RISING TIDE: THE GREAT MISSISSIPPI 

FLOOD OF 1927 AND HOW IT CHANGED AMERICA 96 (1997). It is located in the 

northwest section of Mississippi and looks like an “elongated diamond.” Id. 

The district court recited this colorful description of its boundaries: “The 

Mississippi Delta begins in the lobby of the Peabody Hotel [in Memphis] and 

ends on Catfish Row in Vicksburg.” David L. Cohn, GOD SHAKES CREATION

(1935). 

The sediment that the Mississippi River deposited in this region over the 

millennia made Delta soil some of the richest in the world. Barry, supra, at

97. And that soil made the Delta one of the leading cotton-producing areas in 

the world. One historian compared the influence the Delta once held over 

global cotton prices to the modern influence of Saudi Arabia over oil prices. 

Sven Beckert, EMPIRE OF COTTON: A GLOBAL HISTORY 113 (2014). 

But before agriculture could prosper in the Delta its forests of hardwood 

trees had to be cleared. Slaves were forced to begin that process, and 

emancipated slaves finished it in the latter part of the nineteenth century. 

Since that time, African-Americans have been a majority in the Delta. In the 

early twentieth century, they made up almost 90% of the region’s population. 

Barry, supra, at 125 (noting that in 1908 the Delta had “a black population of 

at least 171,209” and “a white population of 24,137”). The Great Migration to 

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the north reduced the African-American percentage, but they remain a 

sizeable majority in the region.

Of course, for most of their time laboring in the Delta, African-Americans 

could not vote. The Voting Rights Act changed that. It has resulted in 

numerous African-Americans being elected to office in the Delta. Indeed, the 

State of Mississippi has more African-American elected officials than any other 

state. U.S. Census Bureau, STATISTICAL ABSTRACT OF THE UNITED STATES:

2011, 258 (130th ed.).

But in places like the state legislature, African-Americans have still not 

achieved political power in Mississippi that comes close to their share of the 

population. This case involves a claim that one state senate district

contributed to that underrepresentation by diluting the voting strength of 

African-Americans that Delta demographics and geography should otherwise 

support and contributed to that underrepresentation.

District 22 includes all or part of five Delta counties: Bolivar, 

Humphreys, Sharkey, Washington, and Yazoo. It also includes parts of one 

non-Delta county: Madison. The addition of the white-majority Madison 

County precincts in the last redistricting reduced the African-American 

percentage in District 22. Overall the district still has an African-American 

majority, but just barely at 50.7%. 1 Without the non-Delta precincts from 

Madison County, that percentage would be much higher. 

 

1 Plaintiff Thomas told the Department of Justice that the 50.7% figure includes the 

population of the Yazoo City federal prison, the majority of whose inmates he says are 

African-American. He contended that without including that prison, African-Americans 

would not be a majority in the district. It is questionable whether disenfranchised people 

should be included in the BVAP (black voting age population) calculation for purposes of the 

Voting Rights Act. The focus is usually on those eligible to vote, thus the typical requirement

in our circuit that the percentage focus on those of voting age who are citizens. See Reyes v. 

City of Farmers Branch, Tex., 586 F.3d 1019, 1023 (5th Cir. 2009) (noting that only citizens 

are included in population calculations). 

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 The candidate preferred by the black majority did not prevail in the 2015 

election. The losing candidate those voters did prefer (Joseph Thomas), along 

with two voters (Vernon Ayers and Melvin Lawson), brought this lawsuit in 

2018 alleging that the district violated of Section 2 of the Voting Rights Act. 

Last month, the district court held a bench trial and agreed. It concluded 

that the threshold Gingles factors for establishing vote dilution existed. The 

African-American population is “sufficiently large and geographically compact” 

to constitute a majority with electoral power in the district; that racial group 

is politically cohesive; but the white population voted as a bloc to prevent 

African-Americans from electing their chosen candidate. LULAC v. Perry, 548 

U.S. 399, 425 (2006). The bloc voting by both racial groups was stark: in 10 

elections within district 22, the candidate favored by African-Americans 

received between 82% and 93% of their vote but only between 8% and 19% of 

the white vote. 

The district court then followed the statutory directive to consider the 

“totality of circumstances” in determining whether African-Americans “have 

less opportunity than other members of the electorate to participate in the 

political process and to elect representatives of their choice.” 52 U.S.C. 

§ 10301(b); LULAC, 548 U.S. at 425–26. It credited Plaintiffs’ expert’s analysis 

of voter participation as more rigorous and concluded that African-American

turnout was depressed in off-year elections—that is, odd-year elections without 

federal races—which is when Mississippi elects its legislature. The district 

court also highlighted the persistent representation gap in the Mississippi 

Senate, as well as substantial socioeconomic differences between black voters 

and white voters in the district. 

After finding a Voting Rights Act violation, the court initially declined to 

order a remedy so “the Mississippi Legislature [could] consider[] whether to 

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redraw the District and extend the candidate qualification deadline.”

Although the primary and general elections were months away, the deadline 

for candidate filing was March 1. 

 A flurry of procedural moves followed at warp speed. Three days after 

the court made its trial findings, the Governor and Secretary of State 

(Defendants)2 filed a motion a motion to stay with the district court and also 

filed an appeal, arguing that the ruling was an appealable interlocutory 

injunction. Less than a week later, they asked this court to stay the district 

court’s ruling. That same day, Plaintiffs asked the court to extend the 

qualification deadline in District 22 and bordering District 23 (the other 

district affected by the proposed remedy) by two weeks. Later that day, the 

district court ordered Defendants to update it on any progress, if any, in

legislative redrawing of District 22. 

The next day, Defendants filed a brief opposing Plaintiffs’ motion to 

extend the qualification deadline, in which they stated that they had contacted 

the leadership of the legislative chambers. The Senate leaders had said that 

“should the stay motions pending before [the district court] and the Fifth 

Circuit be denied, the Senate desire[d] the opportunity to enact a new 

redistricting plan redrawing Senate District 22.” Late that same day, the 

district court ruled that, because the legislature was unwilling to act, the first 

map drawn by one of Plaintiffs’ experts would be adopted as the boundaries of 

Districts 22 and 23. The court also moved the qualification deadline to March 

 

2 The third defendant, Attorney General Jim Hood, did not join these motions or this 

appeal. 

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15 for the two affected senate districts. The court also declined to enter a stay

and entered final judgment. 

The final judgment caused our court to dismiss the appeal of the 

preliminary ruling. Thomas v. Bryant, 2019 WL 994034 (5th Cir. Feb. 28, 

2019). But by that time the Defendants had already appealed from the final 

judgment, and not long after that they sought a stay pending the new appeal, 

which is the motion before this panel.3

This is the effect of the final judgment: It switches some precincts 

between Districts 22 and 23. It extends the candidate filing deadline to March 

15. In terms of other upcoming deadlines, the primary election is August 6, 

with a June 22 deadline to send ballots to troops overseas. The general election 

is November 5. 

II.

The stay Defendants seek is an extraordinary remedy. Nken v. Holder, 

556 U.S. 418, 437 (2009) (Kennedy, J., concurring). It is also an equitable one 

committed to this court’s discretion. Id. at 433; Ruiz v. Estelle, 666 F.2d 854, 

856 & n.4 (5th Cir. 1982). Four factors guide the exercise of our discretion: 

1) whether the applicant has made a strong showing of likelihood to succeed 

on the merits; 2) whether the movant will be irreparably harmed absent a stay; 

3) whether issuance of a stay will substantially injure other interested parties; 

and 4) where the public interest lies. Nken, 556 U.S. at 434. The first two 

factors are usually the most important. Id.; ODonnell v. Goodhart, 900 F.3d 

220, 223 (5th Cir. 2018).

In this case, the likelihood of success ends up being dispositive. That is 

because Defendants can establish irreparable harm. A court order preventing 

 

3 Before seeking the stay pending appeal for the second time in our court after entry 

of final judgment, Defendants also sought a stay in the district court for the second time. The 

district court denied that motion. 

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enforcement of a state law, including the drawing of legislative lines, 

constitutes that harm. Abbott v. Perez, 138 S. Ct. 2305, 2324 n.17 (2018). And 

that injury may be irreparable in light of the meaningful possibility (but not 

certainty) that a full appeal cannot be decided in time to provide Defendants 

relief before this year’s senate elections. But Plaintiffs face the same risk that 

the appellate ruling will prove futile should this court grant a stay. And the 

injury they seek to prevent—holding an election under an unlawful plan with 

discriminatory effects—is also, it should go without saying, a serious one. 

Veasey v. Abbott, 830 F.3d 216, 270 (5th Cir. 2016) (en banc) (“It would be 

untenable to permit a law with a discriminatory effect to remain in operation 

for that election.”); cf. Reynolds v. Sims, 377 U.S. 533, 585 (1964) (“[I]t would 

be the unusual case in which a court would be justified in not taking 

appropriate action to insure that no further elections are conducted under the 

invalid plan.”). So Defendants’ entitlement to a stay turns on whether they 

have a strong likelihood of success. 

III.

We will first address Defendants’ attempt to make that showing with a 

jurisdictional argument. They contend that a three-judge court should have 

decided this case. The statute says that a “district court of three judges shall 

be convened when otherwise required by Act of Congress, or when an action is 

filed challenging the constitutionality of the apportionment of congressional 

districts or the apportionment of any statewide legislative body.” 28 U.S.C. 

§ 2284(a). The Voting Rights Act does not require three-judge courts for 

Section 2 cases (notably it does for Section 5 cases, 52 U.S.C. § 10304(a)), so 

Defendants focus on the latter part of the statute. They contend that 

“constitutionality” modifies only challenges to apportionment of congressional 

districts, not challenges to apportionment of state legislatures. On their 

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reading, any challenge to state legislative redistricting—including the 

statutory Voting Rights Act one asserted here—requires a three-judge panel.

Defendants requested a three-judge panel late in the litigation, a week 

before trial. Failing to request such a panel in their answer may have forfeited

the issue unless it is a jurisdictional requirement. The three-judge statute has 

conflicting language on whether it is one. It begins by saying “a district court 

of three judges shall be convened” for specified cases. 28 U.S.C. § 2284(a). That 

mandatory language sounds jurisdictional. So does the statute’s prohibition 

on a single judge taking certain actions, including granting injunctive relief. 

Id. § 2284(b)(3). But the statute also says that the procedure for convening a 

three-judge court kicks in “[u]pon the filing of a request for three judges.” Id. 

§ 2284(b)(1). That does not sound jurisdictional. If the requirement is 

jurisdictional, then the single district judge first assigned the case would 

seemingly have an obligation to convene a three-judge panel even if a party 

does not ask for it. 

Recognizing these conflicting statutory signals, the leading federal 

procedure treatise is ambivalent about whether Section 2284 is jurisdictional. 

See 17A Charles Alan Wright et al., FED. PRAC. & PROC. § 4235, at 206–08 (3d 

ed. 2007). But apparently the courts that have considered the question—

including ours in a nonbinding decision—have treated Section 2284 as 

jurisdictional. See Kalson v. Patterson, 542 F.3d 281, 287 (2nd Cir. 2008); 

Armour v. Ohio, 925 F.2d 987, 989 (6th Cir. 1991) (en banc); LULAC of Texas 

v. Texas, 318 F. App’x 261, 264 (5th Cir. 2009). That consensus in the caselaw 

means that forfeiture is an obstacle Defendants will likely be able to overcome 

on appeal. 

Defendants’ delay in raising this issue does, however, say something 

about its merits. At the outset of this lawsuit, it was not obvious to Defendants 

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(or Plaintiffs or the district judge for that matter) that its exclusively statutory

claims required a three-judge court. Indeed, no reported case has ever used a 

three-judge panel for a case challenging district lines only under Section 2 of 

the Voting Rights Act. See Rural W. Tenn. African-American Affairs Council 

v. Sundquist, 209 F.3d 835, 838 (6th Cir. 2000) (noting case reassigned to single 

judge after dismissal of constitutional and Section 5 claims); Chestnut v. 

Merrill, 2019 WL 338909 (N.D. Ala. 2019) (rejecting argument that a single 

judge could not hear Section 2 challenge); Bone Shirt v. Hazeltine, 336 F. Supp. 

2d 976, 980 (D. S.D. 2004) (same as Rural West); Old Person v. Brown, 182 F. 

Supp. 2d 1002, 1003 (D. Mont. 2002) (single judge hearing Section 2 challenge); 

see also Armour, 925 F.2d at 989 (stating the jurisdictional test for Section 

2284 as whether “there exists a non-frivolous constitutional challenge to the 

apportionment of a statewide legislative body” (emphasis added)).4 That no 

court has adopted Defendants’ reading of the three-judge statute in the more 

than four decades it has been on the books alone seems enough to prevent them 

from showing a strong likelihood of succeeding on this issue. To be sure, only 

the Chestnut opinion from earlier this year addressed an argument like the one 

Defendants make. But that is again telling: Before this year, it apparently had 

never dawned on a judge or party in a Section 2-only state redistricting case 

 

4 Though uncited by Defendants or their amicus, the dissent finds Page v. Bartels, 248 

F.3d 175 (3d Cir. 2001), “most significant[].” Dissenting Op. at 15. But unlike the cases cited 

above, Page does not involve a situation in which plaintiffs only brought Section 2 claims. 

Instead, it involved both constitutional and statutory claims. Yet a single district court judge 

attempted to spin off the statutory claims and deny an injunction based on them. Id. at 187. 

The Third Circuit said that when plaintiffs bring both claims, both must be sent to a threejudge panel. Id. at 191. That is consistent with the common practice when both constitutional 

and statutory challenges to reapportionment are brought—the constitutional hook for threejudge jurisdiction sweeps in the statutory claims. While the dissent tries to find support for 

its position in some of Page’s discussion of legislative history and policy, notably the Third 

Circuit does not adopt the textual argument the dissent and amicus push. 

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that a three-judge panel might be required. And that is because the most 

straightforward reading of the three-judge statute is that it applies only when

the “constitutionality” of apportionment is being challenged.

So why does the dissent, adopting the argument of an amicus, think the 

three-judge statute applies to what is only a statutory challenge when no court 

has ever taken that view? One word—the “the” that precedes “apportionment 

of any statewide legislative body.” 28 U.S.C. § 2284(a). Inclusion of that article 

means, in their view, that “constitutionality” applies only to what immediately 

follows it: challenges to the “apportionment of congressional districts.” If 

“constitutionality” does not also modify the “apportionment of any statewide 

legislative body,” id., then any challenges to those districts, including statutory 

ones, require a three-judge panel. 

The textual argument is a dispute about application of the “series 

modifier” canon of construction. It normally means that a modifier 

(“constitutionality” in Section 2284) applies to an entire series of parallel 

terms. See Scalia & Garner, READING LAW: THE INTERPRETATION OF LEGAL 

TEXTS 147 (2012). The district court concluded that principle supports reading 

the statute as applying to constitutional challenges to apportionment of both 

congressional and state legislative seats. But an amicus supporting the 

defendants argues the “the” coming before “apportionment of any statewide 

legislative body” breaks the series modifier. The amicus notes that a 

“determiner” word, such as the “the” in Section 2284(a), is an indication that a 

modifier should not reach the second element.5 See id. at 148–49.

 

5 Defendants make a different textual argument in support of their position that this 

case belongs with a three-judge court. They focus not just on the “the,” but on “the 

apportionment” that precedes “of any statewide legislative body.” They contend it is 

superfluous if it does not break off the “constitutionality” modifier. But it may be 

“appropriate to tolerate a degree of surplusage.” United States v. Atl. Research Corp., 551 

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But inferring that “the” was meant to cut off the “constitutionality” 

modifier ignores what may be the most important teaching about the series 

modifier canon from the Scalia and Garner book on statutory interpretation:

“Perhaps more than most of the other canons, this one is highly sensitive to 

context.” Id. at 150. That context supports the natural reading that courts have 

long given it: that “constitutionality” modifies both “the apportionment of 

congressional districts” and “the apportionment of any statewide legislative 

body.” That Congress wanted the two phrases to sound the same—“the 

apportionment of congressional districts” and “the apportionment of any 

statewide legislative body” are word-for-word identical, with the exception of 

the type of district that they reference—is consistent with how ordinary people 

speak and write. See Lockhart v. United States, 136 S. Ct. 958, 970 (2016) 

(Kagan, J., dissenting). To illustrate this, consider what a reader would think 

after seeing the following in the newspaper: “The NCAA is investigating the 

recruiting practices of the football program and the basketball program.” As 

with the three-judge statute, the final “the” may not be necessary. But would 

it make the reader think the investigation into the basketball program is not 

limited to recruiting violations, but also might include point shaving or ticket 

scalping violations? Of course not. The dissent’s textual argument about the 

three-judge statute is just as detached from common usage. 

What is more, giving so much significance to “the” runs counter to 

another point Justice Scalia made about statutory interpretation: that 

Congress “does not . . . hide elephants in mouseholes.” Whitman v. Am.

Trucking Ass’n, 531 U.S. 457, 468 (2001). The historical development of the 

three-judge statute—that is, statutory history as opposed to the more 

 U.S. 128, 137 (2007). Indeed, one could make the case that even the first “the,” the one before 

“apportionment of congressional districts,” is unnecessary. 

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controversial legislative history Defendants rely on—shows why it would have 

been so significant and anomalous to require three-judge panels for statutory 

claims. The statute was first enacted in the aftermath of Ex parte Young to 

require three judges to hear what Congress thought would be an increasing 

number of suits challenging state laws “upon the ground of the 

unconstitutionality of such statute.” 28 U.S.C. § 2281 (1970); see generally

David P. Currie, The Three-Judge District Court in Constitutional Litigation, 

32 U. CHI. L. REV. 1, 5–8 (1964). When courts later struck down many New 

Deal reforms, one of the only aspects of President Roosevelt’s court-packing 

plan to become law was a measure also requiring three-judge panels for suits 

seeking to enjoin “any Act of Congress for repugnance to the Constitution of 

the United States.” 28 U.S.C. § 2282 (1970); see Wright, FED. PRAC. & PROC.

§ 4234, at 194–95. Both laws’ focus on only constitutional challenges made 

sense as striking down democratically enacted laws is “the gravest and most 

delicate duty” courts are “called on to perform.” Nw. Austin Mun. Util. Dist. 

No. One v. Holder, 557 U.S. 193, 204 (2009) (referring to striking down an Act 

of Congress (quoting Blodgett v. Holden, 275 U.S. 142, 147–48 (1927) (Holmes, 

J., concurring))). The idea of requiring three judges for this “class of cases of 

special importance” was to “assure more weight and greater deliberation by 

not leaving the fate of such litigation to a single judge.” Phillips v. United 

States, 312 U.S. 246, 249–50 (1941) (first quotation from Ex parte Collins, 277 

U.S. 565, 567 (1928)). But in the mid-1970s, Congress decided to scrap just 

about all of the three-judge regime because it was burdening the Supreme 

Court and lower courts and had resulted in procedural complexities. See 

Wright, FED. PRAC. & PROC. § 4234, at 195–98; Kalson, 542 F.3d at 287 (noting 

that the 1976 Act “vastly reduced the category of cases for which a three-judge 

court is mandated”). It nonetheless decided to retain the procedure for a small 

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set of important cases: constitutional challenges to redistricting for 

congressional and state legislative seats, then-recent phenomena in the 

aftermath of the revolutionary one person, one vote line of cases. See, e.g., 

Reynolds v. Sims, 377 U.S. 533 (1964). If Congress had intended to expand the 

statute it was otherwise contracting by applying it for the first time to 

statutory challenges there were certainly better ways to do it than by stealthily 

inserting an extra “the.” 

Reading the statute in the way Defendants suggest does not make sense 

for another reason: Why would Congress require three judges to hear statutory 

claims challenging state legislative redistricting but not congressional 

redistricting? The dissent posits, without citing any authority, that perhaps 

federalism concerns would explain such a difference. But there are also strong 

federalism concerns with how a state chooses to divvy up its citizens into 

congressional districts. In fact, contemporary critics of the initial judicial foray 

into review of legislative apportionment viewed courts’ redrawing of 

congressional district as even more intrusive on traditional state prerogatives 

than judicial redrawing of state legislative districts. That is because of the 

view that Article I, Section II of the Constitution grants “States . . . plenary 

power to select their allotted Representatives in accordance with any method 

of popular election they please, subject only to the supervisory power of 

Congress.” Wesberry v. Sanders, 376 U.S. 1, 23 (1964) (Harlan, J., dissenting).

The other problem with the dissent’s theory—that Congress in 1976 had 

a special concern with statutory challenges to the drawing of state legislative 

districts—is that it fails to grapple with the rarity of Section 2 challenges to 

redistricting at that time. It was then not even clear that Section 2 provided a 

private right of action. City of Mobile v. Bolden, 446 U.S. 55, 60 & n.8 (1980)

(assuming without deciding such a suit could exist). A few years later the 

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Supreme Court held Section 2 did not prohibit discriminatory effects which 

meant it provided no guarantee beyond what the Constitution already did. See 

id. And the typical pre-1982 Section 2 claim that courts did consider was a 

challenge to at-large electoral systems, not the line drawing of single member 

districts. See, e.g., id. In other words, there was no practice of statutory 

challenges to state legislative apportionment that Congress needed to address 

in 1976.

To sum up, the dissent would give this much weight to the “the” that 

comes before “reapportionment of any statewide legislative body”: Insertion of 

that article would require three-judge panels for exclusively statutory claims—

followed by direct appeal to the Supreme Court, 28 U.S.C. § 1253—when the 

three-judge regime Congress was contracting in 1976 never did. It would 

require those three-judge panels only for statutory challenges to 

apportionment of state legislative seats, not congressional ones. And it would 

do all this to address statutory challenges to apportionment of state 

legislatures when those claims hardly existed in 1976. An elephant indeed.

The dissent contends that there might have been clearer ways to 

emphasize that the statute is limited to constitutional challenges. Dissenting 

Op. at 12. But if Congress intended to include statutory-only challenges within 

the reach of the general three-judge statute for the first time, there were many

easy ways to make that clear. This brings up a final point on the jurisdictional 

question. To the extent there is ambiguity, the longstanding principle that 

“congressional enactments providing for the convening of three-judge courts 

must be strictly construed” comes into play. Allen v. State Bd. of Elections, 393 

U.S. 544, 561 (1969); Phillips, 312 U.S. at 250 (noting the three-judge statue 

should be read narrowly because of its impact on the Supreme Court docket 

and the burdens of convening three-judge courts). 

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That rule of construction, the text of the three-judge statute, its lineage, 

and the caselaw applying it all favor the district court’s view that three judges 

are not required for a claim raising only statutory challenges to state 

legislative redistricting. Defendants thus face a steep climb in convincing this 

court to be the first to ever read the statute as applying to a case challenging 

a district’s lines only under Section Two of the Voting Rights Act. 

IV.

A.

Defendants also seek a stay on the ground that we are likely to reverse 

the district court’s ruling that District 22 dilutes the voting power of AfricanAmericans. The standard of review poses an obstacle to undoing the factual 

findings that led the court to conclude that the district violates Section 2. An 

appellate court “will not set aside” Section 2 factual findings “unless [it is] left 

with the definite and firm conviction that a mistake has been committed.” 

Magnolia Bar Ass’n, Inc. v. Lee, 994 F.2d 1143, 1147 (5th Cir. 1993) (quotation 

omitted); see NAACP v. Fordice, 252 F.3d 361, 365 (5th Cir. 2001) (noting that 

clear error review applies).

In an attempt to avoid the clear-error standard, Defendants frame their 

primary challenge to liability as a legal one. They contend that a court cannot 

find vote dilution of a racial group that makes up a majority of the challenged 

district (recall that here that is just barely the case for District 22). This per 

se rule they advocate—a bar on vote dilution claims whenever the racial group 

crosses the 50% threshold—is at odds with the reason we give such deference 

to factual findings in Section 2 cases: the question of vote dilution is “peculiarly

dependent upon the facts of each case,” Thornburg v. Gingles, 478 U.S. 30, 79 

(1986) (quoting Nevett v. Sides, 571 F.2d 209, 224 (5th Cir. 1978)), and

“requires an ‘intensely local appraisal’ of the challenged district,” LULAC, 548 

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U.S. at 437 (quoting Gingles, 478 U.S. at 79). The numerous local factors courts 

consider—including the strength of bloc voting, demographics, and voter 

turnout—may mean that a minority group has the equal electoral opportunity 

the Voting Rights Act guarantees when its members make up only 40% of a 

district, but not when they make up 51%. Applying Defendants’ absolute bar 

on Section 2 scrutiny of 50%-plus districts to this case shows how it would 

arbitrarily override the numerous local considerations that Congress and the 

Supreme Court have said courts need to consider in this important area. If 

there were a few hundred fewer African-Americans out of the nearly 44,000 

voting-age citizens in District 22, Defendants would allow courts to engage in 

the regular multifaceted vote dilution inquiry. But, to Defendants, just over 

300 additional African-Americans makes the difference between that ordinary 

inquiry and removing Section 2’s protections for tens of thousands of 

Mississippi voters. 

Given the statutory mandate to focus on the “totality of circumstances” 

in Section 2 cases, 52 U.S.C. § 10301(b), it is not surprising that numerous 

courts have found dilution of the voting power of a racial group in districts 

where they make up a majority of the voting population. Most importantly, 

our court has long rejected the argument Defendants advance. In an early vote 

dilution case—also out of the Mississippi Delta—we explained that the “mere 

existence of a black population majority does not preclude a finding of dilution.” 

Moore v. Leflore Cty. Bd. of Election Comm’rs, 502 F.2d 621, 624 (5th Cir. 1974). 

We echoed that more recently, stating that “a protected class that is also a 

registered voter majority is not foreclosed, as a matter of law, from raising a 

vote dilution claim.” Salas v. Sw. Tex. Jr. Coll. Dist., 964 F.2d 1542, 1550 (5th 

Cir. 1992). We have even gone so far so to describe the authority on this point 

as “unimpeachable.” Monroe v. City of Woodville, 881 F.2d 1327, 1333 (5th 

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Cir. 1989) (describing the caselaw from our circuit that “has rejected any per 

se rule that a racial minority that is a majority in a political subdivision cannot 

experience vote dilution”). We are not alone. Many courts of appeals, including 

one last year, have rejected the argument that a “racial minority cannot prevail 

on a Section 2 claim when it constitutes a bare numerical majority within the 

district.” Mo. St. Conf. of the NAACP v. Ferguson-Florissant Sch. Dist., 894 

F.3d 924, 933 (8th Cir. 2018) (collecting cases from the Second, Fifth, Eleventh, 

and D.C. Circuits).

Defendants try to distinguish these cases and others by arguing that 

they addressed at-large elections rather than single-member districts. But 

nothing in these cases turned on that feature. And one court of appeals case 

directly confronting the question rejected a bar on vote dilution claims for 

groups that make up more than 50% of the challenged single-member district. 

Kingman Park Civic Ass’n v. Williams, 348 F.3d 1033, 1041 (D.C. Cir. 2003) 

(agreeing with Salas and Moore in a single-member district vote dilution case). 

So did a recent three-judge panel in this circuit. See Perez v. Abbott, 253 F. 

Supp. 3d 864, 879–90 (W.D. Tex. 2017) (rejecting Defendants’ position when 

finding vote dilution in a congressional district with a Hispanic voting-age 

population of 58.5%). 

Against all this authority of both old and recent vintage, all Defendants 

can point to is Justice Kennedy’s opinion in Bartlett v. Strickland, 556 U.S. 1 

(2009) (opinion of Kennedy, J.).6 Here is the statement they contend supports 

a categorical rule that there can be no Voting Rights Act violation when a racial

group exceeds 50% of the district’s population: “Where an election district could 

 

6 The defendants also cite Jeffers v. Beebe, 895 F. Supp. 2d 920, 932 (E.D. Ark. 2012),

as an example of a court employing their 50%+ bar on Section 2 claims. Even if they read 

that case correctly, that holding is no longer good law in its circuit. See Mo. St. Conf. of the 

NAACP, 894 F.3d at 933. 

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be drawn in which minority voters form a majority but such a district is not 

drawn,” a Section 2 claim is possible. This is an “objective, numerical test.” Id.

at 18. Assuming this opinion is the controlling one under Marks7 (Justice 

Kennedy wrote for only three judges), it is addressing a different question. He 

was rejecting the concept of crossover districts and instead would require that 

a vote-dilution plaintiff show that a district could be drawn in which the racial 

group is a majority. Id. at 15-20. In fact, that is the first showing Gingles 

requires. LULAC, 548 U.S. at 425 (noting the first “condition[] for establishing 

a § 2 violation” is that “the racial group is sufficiently large and geographically 

compact to constitute a majority in a single-member district” (cleaned up)). 

From that requirement it does not follow that vote dilution cannot occur when 

the protected group already makes up a majority in the contested district. It 

is thus not surprising that no court has read Bartlett to override the widely 

accepted view that the voting strength of a protected group can still be diluted 

when that group is a majority of a challenged district. Indeed, if any opinion 

from Justice Kennedy addresses the question before us, it is his recognition in 

LULAC that “it may be possible for a citizen voting-age majority to lack real 

electoral opportunity.” Id. at 428. 

Recognizing this robust caselaw rejecting Defendants’ per se rule

(including in single-member cases), the dissent relies on an argument the 

Defendants have never made: that there needed to be a finding of cracking or 

packing minority voters. We typically will not consider arguments not 

advanced by a party. State Indus. Prods. Corp. v. Beta Tech Inc., 575 F.3d 450, 

456 (5th Cir. 2009). That principle makes even more sense in the stay context. 

 

7 See Marks v. United States, 430 U.S. 188, 193 (1977) (“When a fragmented Court 

decides a case and no single rationale explaining the result enjoys the assent of five Justices, 

the holding of the Court may be viewed as that position taken by those Members who 

concurred in the judgments on the narrowest grounds.” (quotation omitted)). 

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If a “party is not entitled to a stay as a matter of right” even based on objections 

it raised before the district court and in requesting a stay, Campaign for 

Southern Equality v. Bryant, 773 F.3d 55 (5th Cir. 2014), it should not be 

entitled to that extraordinary remedy based on arguments the district court 

never had the chance to consider.

Even if we could grant a stay based on a challenge to the judgment 

Defendants do not raise, the dissent’s position misses the marks on the merits. 

It argues that vote dilution can occur in a 50%-plus district only if the dilution 

is the result of cracking or packing minority voters. The terms cracking 

(dividing minority voters among various districts to weaken their strength) 

and packing (concentrating minority voters in one or a small number of 

districts where they make up an excessive majority and thus reduce that 

group’s influence in other districts) describe gerrymandering techniques. Gill 

v. Whitford, 138 S. Ct. 1916, 1924 (2018) (describing the practice in challenge 

alleging partisan gerrymander); Shaw v. Reno, 509 U.S. 630, 670 (1993)

(White, J., dissenting) (same in challenge alleging racial gerrymander). They 

explain why vote dilution is occurring. Gill, 138 S. Ct. at 1931. The terms can 

thus be used to describe types of Section 2 vote dilution claims. See, e.g., 

Voinovich v. Quilter, 507 U.S. 146, 153 (1993). But the “cracking” or “packing” 

description does not result in a different Section 2 test or finding. Whether the 

theory for dilution is cracking or packing or something else, Section 2 claims 

are evaluated by first looking at the three Gingles factors to determine whether 

demographics, geography, and voting behavior would allow the creation of a 

district in which the minority group has electoral power. LULAC, 548 U.S. at 

425. If the plaintiffs satisfy that threshold, then a court considers the “totality 

of the circumstances” to determine if “members of a racial group have less 

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opportunity than do other members of the electorate.” Id. at 425–26. The

district court faithfully followed this path.8

Although cracking and packing are not official parts of the Section 2 

analysis, as a matter of arithmetic vote dilution will often exist because of 

cracking or packing. Put another way, minority voting strength is often 

weaker than demographics would allow because those voters have been 

crammed into one district with a very high minority percentage and thus 

diluted in other districts (packing) or spread among various districts when they 

could have formed an electoral majority in at least one (cracking). Indeed, the 

district court’s findings demonstrate cracking occurred here.9 District 22 has 

a BVAP of 50.77% and District 23 has a BVAP of 42.00% when, as the remedy 

adopted by the district court demonstrates, African-Americans could easily 

form sufficient electoral strength to elect their representative of choice in at 

least one of these two districts. 

The district court correctly focused on the Section 2 factors as prescribed

by the Supreme Court and the Voting Rights Act. Part of the reason it found 

that the <51% majority of African-American voters in the district did not result 

in an ability to elect a representative of that group’s choosing was because of 

turnout in off-year elections. So the “50%-plus” issue is largely an attempt to 

package Defendants’ challenge to the factual finding in a more favorable 

standard of review. But as with any other factual finding, the clearly 

 

8 It is thus not true that the district court thought that “simply because a district can 

be drawn in a way that will guarantee a minority an election win, the Voting Rights Act 

compels that such a district be drawn.” Dissenting Op. at 7–8. The district court considered 

all of the statutorily prescribed factors in finding vote dilution. The dissent is also wrong in 

saying that the district court thought a 62% African-American district was required. See id. 

That is just the demographics of the remedy it adopted that changed only 28 precincts. To 

say that the court thought that percentage was a requirement is to say that any time a 

district court remedies a Section 2 violation it is creating a new minimum.

9 There was no need to use the cracking label because Defendants never made the argument 

the dissent advances.

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erroneous standard means it is unlikely to be disturbed on appeal. That is 

particularly true when the factfinder gives a sound reason for crediting one 

side’s evidence over the other’s. The district court did that in explaining why 

it relied on Plaintiffs’ expert for turnout data rather than Census Bureau

figures. The Census Bureau’s election data is for even-year elections, while 

Mississippi conducts odd-year state senate elections. 

Defendants have not shown a high likelihood of overturning the finding 

of vote dilution because their legal argument is at odds with “unimpeachable 

authority” from our court and their factual challenges must overcome 

deferential standards of review. 

B.

Defendants also argue that the district court erred by not dismissing the 

lawsuit on laches grounds, focusing entirely on Thomas’s delay in bringing this 

lawsuit. Even if he were the only plaintiff, the standard of review would again 

pose a substantial obstacle for Defendants to overcome on appeal. A district 

court’s equitable ruling on laches is reviewed for abuse of discretion, and the 

factual findings of delay, inexcusability, and prejudice that underlie it are 

reviewed for clear error. See Retractable Tech., Inc. v. Becton Dickinson & Co., 

842 F.3d 883, 898 (5th Cir. 2016). 

More problematic than that for Defendants, Thomas is not the only 

person who brought this suit. The stay motion makes no argument for why 

laches should bar the lawsuit as to Plaintiffs Ayers and Lawson. As with all 

affirmative defenses, the party asserting a laches defense bears the burden of 

proving it. See City of El Paso, Tex. v. El Paso Entm’t, Inc., 382 F. App’x 361, 

366 (5th Cir. 2010). Defendants did not even attempt to meet this burden for 

Ayers and Lawson. Nor is there, despite the dissent’s attempt to salvage a 

laches defense, an exception for the “main plaintiff,” whatever that means. Cf.

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Massachusetts v. EPA, 549 U.S. 497, 518 (2007) (observing that only one 

petitioner needed to have standing to bring suit). The Voting Rights Act 

protects the rights of voters, not politicians. As to voters Ayers and Lawson, 

Defendants point to nothing showing that a laches defense is likely to succeed 

on appeal. 

V.

A.

The final ground on which Defendants seek a stay is the remedy the 

district court ordered. The standard of review again poses a challenge: the 

district court’s remedy is reviewed for abuse of discretion. Rodriguez v. Bexar 

Cnty., Tex., 385 F.3d 853, 870 (5th Cir. 2004). 

But “whenever practicable . . . a reasonable opportunity [should be 

afforded] the legislature to meet constitutional requirements by adopting a 

substituted measure rather than for the federal court to devise and order into 

effect its own plan.” Veasey, 830 F.3d at 270 (quoting Wise v. Lipscomb, 437 

U.S. 535, 540 (1978) (opinion of White, J.)) (emphasis original). As recounted 

above, the district court first honored this principle in noting it would allow 

time for a legislative fix before it would redraw the district. When the court 

was informed that the legislature would not act until it saw the outcome of the 

stay requests, the district court went ahead and redrew the lines given 

concerns about the candidate qualifying deadline. It noted, however, that the 

legislature always has the ability to redraw districts. Plaintiffs also point this 

out in their response to the stay motion. 

The legislature’s desire to wait to see the outcome of the stay ruling is 

understandable. It would have been inefficient for it to remedy a violation only 

to have this court grant a stay of the district court’s entire judgment on the 

ground that Defendants were likely to overturn the finding of vote dilution. 

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But now that we have concluded to the contrary, the legislature should have 

the initial opportunity to draw new lines for District 22 that comply with the 

Voting Rights Act. The only reason not to give it that first shot at crafting a 

remedy is the candidate filing deadline, but the Secretary of State is requesting 

the legislative fix and has not indicated that a further extension of that 

deadline for the affected districts is problematic. And while the legislature is 

always able to redraw lines, the remedial preference is for it to have the first 

chance to remedy a Section 2 violation, not for it to act only after the court 

draws a new district, which would result in three different districts in a short 

time period. United States v. Brown, 561 F.3d 420, 435 (5th Cir. 2009).

We thus issued an order on March 15 granting a temporary stay to allow 

the legislature until April 3 to remedy the Section 2 violation. The order also 

extended the candidate filing deadline for any affected districts until April 12. 

B.

Defendants otherwise are not likely to surmount the abuse of discretion 

standard in challenging the court’s remedy. If the legislature does not act and 

the judicial remedy goes into effect, it must still respect the legislature’s policy 

objectives as much as possible. See Perry v. Perez, 565 U.S. 38, 393 (2012). The 

remedy is a narrowly-tailored one that does that. While redistricting cases

often result in redrawing the entire state or at least several districts, this 

remedy moves just 28 precincts, less than 2% of the precincts in the state. The 

remedy affects only 2 of Mississippi’s 52 Senate districts. The court found that 

the new lines met traditional redistricting criteria: compactness, contiguity, 

preservation of political subdivisions like counties and cities, and avoiding 

pairing incumbents. It adopted the proposed map of an expert it found credible 

who also determined that the new map honored traditional criteria of 

compactness and contiguity. In fact, the new district is more consistent with 

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traditional geographic divisions in one important respect: it removes the 

suburban Madison county precincts and thus limits the district to counties in 

the rural and agricultural Delta. 

The slightly altered districts are, if anything, also more compact than 

they were before. The following map of the new and old districts show the 

limited impact of the court’s remedy. The orange and pink highlighting shows 

the new districts; the blue lines show the old ones.

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Defendants’ main critique is that the new lines split Vicksburg between 

the districts. But some splitting of counties or cities is inevitable given equal 

population requirements. A look at the statewide senate districts reveals this. 

The lines the legislature drew split at least eight cities with populations 

between 23,000 and 27,000 residents (Vicksburg had a population of 26,407

when the 2012 maps were drawn) into different senate districts, including 

Clinton, whose 25,216 citizens are split among 5 districts. Having to split 

Vicksburg thus does not lack fidelity to the legislature’s redistricting policy 

which often results in the same situation. Defendants have not demonstrated 

a high likelihood of showing that that district court’s narrow redraw was an 

abuse of discretion. 

C.

The dissent also contends that the district court’s remedy interferes with 

ongoing election preparation, though the Defendants—including the Secretary 

of State—do not cite this as a reason for a stay. In a recent case denying a stay 

in a voting rights case, we did not consider this issue when government officials 

did not argue that the district court’s plan would substantially disturb the 

election process. Patino v. City of Pasadena, 677 F. App’x 950, 951–52 (5th Cir. 

2017). 

The election is even further away in this case than it was in Patino. Id. 

(denying stay sought during the candidate registration period with election 

three months away); see also Patino v. City of Pasadena, 229 F. Supp. 3d 582, 

585 (S.D. Tex. 2017) (providing the relevant dates). Primary voting is more 

than four months away; the general election is more than seven months away. 

That distance to the election means the potential for voter confusion that 

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animates this concern, Purcell v. Gonzalez, 549 U.S. 1, 4 (2006), is absent.10 

Mississippi voters in the 28 affected precincts will go to the same voting 

location they always have, face the same voting requirements, and have 

months to research the candidates in advance of the election. Indeed, the effect 

of redrawing some of the lines for just two state senate districts with elections 

months away pales in comparison to the impact of statewide redistricting that 

has been implemented in a similar timeframe. See, e.g., Covington v. North 

Carolina, 2018 WL 604732 (M.D. N.C. 2018); Common Cause v. Rucho, 284 F. 

Supp. 3d 780 (M.D. N.C. 2018); Larios v. Cox, 305 F. Supp. 2d 1335 (N.D. Ga. 

2004). 

With no risk of voter confusion, and no outcry from state officials that 

implementing the district court’s remedy substantially disturbs its election 

process, this is not a basis for a stay.

D.

One final comment is necessary to set the record straight in response to 

the dissent’s attack on the remedy. It irresponsibly insinuates that the district 

judge—whom it takes the unusual step of repeatedly naming—drew new lines 

with the aim of eliminating partisan opposition to Plaintiff Thomas. That is 

not true. Importantly, the incumbent state senator in District 22 had decided 

not to run for reelection before the district court ruled in this case. The 

dissent’s conjecture also ignores that primary candidates file with the political 

party (not the state), with the parties notifying state officials of the candidates 

 

10 As most of the cases cited by the dissent show, the voter confusion concern is 

typically greatest when a court alters election procedures (as opposed to districts) with an 

election quickly approaching. See Veasey v. Perry, 769 F.3d 890, 892 (5th Cir. 2014) (staying 

district court injunction striking down voter ID laws); Purcell, 549 U.S. at 1 (same); North 

Carolina v. League of Women Voters of N.C., 135 S. Ct. 6 (2014) (staying district court order 

that changed voter ID requirements, voting hours, voting locations, and voter registration); 

Husted v. Ohio State Conference of NAACP, 135 S. Ct. 42 (2014) (staying district court order 

that changed voting hours). 

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only after the filing deadline. That had not yet occurred when the court issued 

final judgment. 

In light of these circumstances, there is no basis for believing that the 

Plaintiffs’ expert who drew the proposed remedy back in mid-January, or the 

district court that later adopted it, knew who the new candidates would be. No

one brought the names or residences of the candidates to the court’s attention

prior to its remedy ruling. And the district court issued its remedy before the 

initial candidate qualifying deadline, so there may have been additional 

candidates. Not until after the court issued its remedy, in a motion for stay, 

did Defendants bring to the court’s attention the fact that two candidates 

would no longer reside in District 22. On learning this, the district court 

lamented that it was not told prior to its ruling. As for the competition in the 

new district, we do not know who has filed nor who will file prior to the new 

qualifying deadline. 

* * *

Per the order issued last week, the motion for stay is GRANTED IN 

PART and DENIED IN PART. A majority of the panel concludes Defendants 

have satisfied the stay factors only based on the need to give the legislature 

and Governor an opportunity to remedy the Section 2 violation. A stay is 

entered for that purpose until April 3, 2019. The candidate filing deadline for 

any districts whose lines are redrawn (whether by the legislature, or if it does 

not act, per the district court’s remedy) is extended to April 12, 2019. The 

district court has jurisdiction to consider any challenges to the adequacy of a 

legislative remedy.

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EDITH BROWN CLEMENT, Circuit Judge, dissenting in part.

Joseph Thomas is a black Democrat and resident of Yazoo County, 

Mississippi. A one-time State Senator who lost in 2007 and sat out the 2011 

election cycle, he is trying hard to get his seat back. Thomas ran in the 2015 

State Senate election in District 22 and lost to the Republican incumbent by a 

thin margin. Three years later, Thomas and two voters sued the Mississippi 

Governor, Secretary of State, and Attorney General, accusing them of 

gerrymandering District 22 in violation of Section 2 of the Voting Rights Act. 

The plaintiffs argued that black voters in District 22 are politically cohesive, 

but that white bloc voting prevents them from electing their candidate of 

choice. Although black voters already comprised a majority of the voting age 

population in District 22 at 51%, the plaintiffs argued that this majority was 

too narrow for them to elect a candidate. They say they need at least a 62% 

majority to do that. The district court agreed that 62% was necessary. And 

because achieving that percentage was possible by shifting black voters from 

a neighboring district into District 22, Judge Reeves ordered it done. But he 

also managed to move something important out of District 22 in the process. 

Namely, the two Republican challengers to Thomas for the 2019 election.

I feel confident that the district court’s decision will ultimately be 

reversed. At least, it should be. Laches may well bar the challenge. There is a 

jurisdictional issue. The theory of liability is unheard-of. The evidence is 

suspect. And the remedy (as even the majority acknowledges) is faulty. A 

likelihood of success on any one of these cascading objections is enough to 

entitle the defendants to a stay of the district court’s redistricting plan. After 

all, as the majority explains, the stakes are high here. When the majority 

says there is a “meaningful possibility” that a full appeal could come too late, 

that is quite the understatement. It is like saying there is a “meaningful 

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possibility” that a Republican could win an election in the new District 22. 

Possible in theory, perhaps, but contrary to common understanding and 

experience.

I dissent from the panel’s refusal to grant the stay in its entirety. 

Unless we act now, the November election in Senate District 22 is all but 

decided. True, predictable election results are not uncommon. What is 

uncommon, however, is for a federal district judge to be the one to decide 

them.

I. The Remedy Problem

I begin where the district court ended, because even the majority has 

trouble defending that. Even if Judge Reeves was permitted to decide this 

case by himself and even if he was correct that District 22 violates Section 2, 

it remains obvious that his remedy should be stayed and, ultimately, 

reversed. It is not even a close call.

“Federal-court review of districting legislation represents a serious 

intrusion on the most vital of local functions.” Miller v. Johnson, 515 U.S. 

900, 915 (1995). It is well settled that “reapportionment is primarily the duty 

and responsibility of the State.” Id. Appropriately, therefore, our case law is 

clear that “whenever practicable, . . . a reasonable opportunity [should be 

afforded] for the legislature to meet constitutional requirements by adopting 

a substitute measure rather than for the federal court to devise and order 

into effect its own plan.” Veasey v. Abbott, 830 F.3d 216, 270 (5th Cir. 2016) 

(en banc) (quotation omitted).

That standard undoubtedly leaves room for a district court to act before 

the legislature when necessary. Given that the original candidate qualifying 

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deadline has come and gone, that the ballots must be sent to overseas troops 

by the end of June, and that the primary is scheduled for early August, I can 

appreciate that we are operating on an abbreviated timetable. But that is all 

the more reason to preserve the status quo. Federal courts rarely have the 

right to issue orders the effect of which is to dramatically interfere with 

ongoing election preparation. See Veasey v. Perry, 769 F.3d 890, 892 (5th Cir. 

2014) (“The Supreme Court has repeatedly instructed courts to carefully 

consider the importance of preserving the status quo on the eve of an 

election.”). “[U]nder certain circumstances, such as where an impending 

election is imminent and a State’s election machinery is already in progress, 

equitable considerations might justify a court in withholding the granting of 

immediately effective relief in a legislative apportionment case, even though 

the existing apportionment scheme was found invalid.” Reynolds v. Sims, 377 

U.S. 533, 585 (1964).

When issues are hotly contested or when the district court’s reasoning 

or remedy are flawed, when time to act is short, and when elections hang in 

the balance, it is almost always better to wait than to interfere. Our court has 

stayed district court orders in such situations in the past. See, e.g., Veasey, 

769 F.3d 890. And when we or other appellate courts have been unwilling to 

do so, the Supreme Court has stepped in to preserve the status quo. See, e.g.,

North Carolina v. League of Women Voters of N.C., 135 S. Ct. 6 (2014)

(overturning Fourth Circuit injunction which barred implementation of the 

state’s voting reform laws); Husted v. Ohio State Conference of NAACP, 135 

S. Ct. 42 (2014) (staying district court’s injunction); Perry v. Perez, 565 U.S. 

1090 (2011) (same); Purcell v. Gonzalez, 549 U.S. 1, 4–5 (2006) (per curiam) 

(vacating Ninth Circuit injunction, and observing that “[c]ourt orders 

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affecting elections, especially conflicting orders, can themselves result in 

voter confusion and consequent incentive to remain away from the polls”).

Curiously, the majority believes that because the Supreme Court has 

mostly done so in cases involving “election procedures,” not redistricting, the 

Court’s admonitions carry less weight here. But they have it backwards. 

Altering which candidates appear on a voter’s ballot is a much greater 

imposition on him than changing the location of his poll or the form of ID he 

must have in his pocket. Indeed, I have not found a case in which a court 

altered district boundaries during or after a candidate qualification period. 

We should maintain the status quo here, or else expect the country’s highest 

court to once again do it for us.

But even if Judge Reeves had little choice but to implement a remedy 

himself, I am deeply concerned with the remedy he chose and the way that he 

chose it. As the majority explains, Judge Reeves adopted the first of three 

plans submitted by the plaintiffs. He adopted it without making factual 

findings and without a hearing. In his single-page order adopting the plan, 

Judge Reeves did not explain why “Plan 1” was the narrowest remedy or 

clarify why he had rejected “Plan 2” and “Plan 3.” The only time Judge 

Reeves discussed the details of the plans was in his liability opinion, where 

he devoted three pages to describing them.

The three plans are similar. All require moving several thousand 

individuals (27,000 for Plan 1) either into or out of District 22 from one or two 

adjacent districts. Plans 1 and 2 only affect only Districts 22 and 23, whereas 

Plan 3 also changes the boundary of District 13. All three plans split the city 

of Vicksburg in half, though only Plan 2 and Plan 3 offset that splitting by 

reuniting other cities that are currently split. Under Plan 1, the black voting 

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age population of District 22 would increase to 62%. Under Plan 2, the 

population would increase to 61%. And under Plan 3, it would increase to 

66%. Apart from stating generically that none of the plans “dilute minority 

voting strength,” Judge Reeves did not discuss the effect each of the plans 

would have on the black voting age population of District 23 or District 13. 

He simply noted that Plan 1 would decrease the black voting age population 

in neighboring District 23 from 42% to 31%.

Looking at the record, I have no idea why Judge Reeves preferred one 

plan over another. I do not understand why he selected the one plan in which 

the splitting of Vicksburg was not offset in some other way. I do not 

understand how Judge Reeves could endorse increasing the black voting age 

population of one district without discussing the effect that the change would 

have on the black voting age population of adjacent districts. And I do not 

understand why Judge Reeves did not hold a hearing before making his 

decision. The fact remains that his order—perhaps, inadvertently—

eliminated meaningful competition for Thomas in the upcoming election. The 

majority says that Judge Reeves’s plan is “narrowly tailored.” Agreed—it is 

“narrowly tailored” to win Thomas the election.1 In my view, our circuit’s 

strong preference for the legislature to have the first say on redistricting, 

combined with the obvious defects in Judge Reeves’s remedy, make it likely 

that his redistricting plan will ultimately be reversed.

 

1 The majority thinks this observation “irresponsibl[e].” But even though the slate of 

candidates had not and could not have been finalized at the time of the district court’s order, 

it does not require a crystal ball to foresee the result of Judge Reeves’s remedy. He eliminated 

the Republican base in District 22, essentially making the primary election dispositive. As 

far as we know, Thomas is the only previously-elected State Senator running in that primary 

and as far as we know, his only two Republican challengers are now in another district. 

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II. The Merits Problem

Another problem with the remedy is that there shouldn’t be one. 

Indeed, I also think the district court erred in finding a Voting Rights Act 

violation. I agree with the majority that, at least as a matter of theory, it may 

be possible for a state to violate Section 2 of the Act even when a protected 

group forms a majority of the voting population. That option is left open by 

our precedent. See Salas v. Southwest Texas Jr. College Dist., 964 F.2d 1542, 

1550 (5th Cir. 1992); Moore v. Leflore County Bd. of Election Com’rs, 502 F.2d 

621, 624 (5th Cir. 1974). But even accepting that possibility, there is a strong 

likelihood that Judge Reeves committed clear error by finding a Section 2 

violation here. Where “the ultimate finding of dilution” is based on “a 

misreading of the governing law,” there is reversible error. Johnson v. De 

Grandy, 512 U.S. 997, 1022 (1994).

As the Supreme Court has explained, “a plaintiff may allege a § 2 

violation in a single-member district if the manipulation of districting lines 

fragments politically cohesive minority voters among several districts or 

packs them into one district or a small number of districts, and thereby 

dilutes the voting strength of members of the minority population.” Shaw v. 

Hunt, 517 U.S. 899, 914 (1996). In other words, a state can violate Section 2 

by “cracking” the minority vote into separate districts so that the minority is 

unable to elect its chosen representatives, or by “packing” the minority vote 

into supermajority-minority districts—thereby reducing the overall number 

of representatives that the minority receives. See, e.g., Pope v. Cty. of Albany, 

687 F.3d 565, 567 (2d Cir. 2012) (minority alleging that their population size 

and geographical distribution warranted five majority-minority districts, not 

four); Kingman Park Civic Ass’n v. Williams, 348 F.3d 1033, 1038 (D.C. Cir. 

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2003) (minority alleging that redistricting diluted the minority vote overall 

by packing it into some districts and cracking it in others).

It is crucial to understand this context. No court has ever found that a 

majority-minority single-member district violates Section 2 by itself. The idea 

that a majority-minority district violates Section 2 only makes sense if the 

allegation is that packing or cracking has occurred. See Thornburg v. Gingles, 

478 U.S. 30, 46 n.11 (1986) (“Dilution of racial minority group voting strength 

may be caused by the dispersal of blacks into districts in which they 

constitute an ineffective minority of voters or from the concentration of blacks 

into districts where they constitute an excessive majority.”). Both kinds of 

violations span district lines. A plaintiff cannot prove packing or cracking 

without analyzing minority population and voter statistics for multiple 

districts. See, e.g., Perez v. Abbott, 253 F. Supp. 3d 864, 879 (W.D. Tex. 2017) 

(analyzing statistics for numerous districts and concluding that “while 

Plaintiffs may not have submitted sufficient proof that they are entitled to 

eight [Hispanic citizen voting age population]-majority districts in 

South/West Texas, they have shown that they are entitled to seven such 

districts, and they may assert claims under . . . § 2 against the districts in 

[the current plan]”).

There was no such evidence in this case. Indeed, the complaint nowhere 

mentions “packing” or “cracking,” and the evidence focused on District 22 

alone. I do not understand how a majority-minority district could violate 

Section 2 unless the district is the result of packing or cracking the minority 

vote among a geographical area that is larger than the district itself. The 

allegation that the minority’s majority is not large enough to overcome white 

bloc voting would only become actionable if the minority’s majority is being 

artificially lowered to dilute the minority vote.

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The majority opinion suggests that Section 2 vote dilution requires that 

a minority group be deprived of a district in which it has electoral strength to 

elect a representative of its choice when such a district is possible. But 

nothing in Section 2 “establishes a right to have members of a protected class 

elected in numbers equal to their proportion in the population.” 52 U.S.C. § 

10301(b). “[T]he ultimate right of § 2 is equality of opportunity, not a 

guarantee of electoral success for minority-preferred candidates of whatever 

race.” De Grandy, 512 U.S. at 1014 n.11; see also Gingles, 478 U.S. at96 

(O’Connor, J., concurring in the judgment).

The district court and the majority seem to think that simply because a 

district can be drawn in a way that will guarantee a minority an election win, 

the Voting Rights Act compels that such a district be drawn. Not so. Section 2 

does not grant the plaintiffs a right to a 62% majority to overcome low black 

turnout or white bloc voting in the abstract. It is only when the drawing of 

district lines along traditional methods should have resulted in a different 

electoral scheme that Section 2 is violated. There must be evidence that 

packing or cracking has taken place (whether or not it is expressly referred to 

as such).2 That is the difference between guaranteeing equal opportunity and 

guaranteeing electoral success.

The majority would avoid this reality by saying the defendants do not 

raise the issue. But challenging the viability of Voting Rights Act claims in 

majority-minority single-member districts and also challenging the plaintiffs’ 

 

2 Putting these fundamental concerns to the side, I also believe the plaintiffs did not 

offer sufficient evidence to support their claim. I am particularly troubled by Judge Reeves’s 

decision to disregard Census Bureau statistics concluding that black voter turnout generally 

exceeds white voter turnout. Even the cases relied on by the plaintiffs acknowledge that 

Census Bureau statistics are usually dispositive. See Mo. St. Conf. of the NAACP v. FergusonFlorissant Sch. Dist., 894 F.3d 924, 932–33 (8th Cir. 2018).

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evidence in this case—both of which defendants do—places the district court’s 

merits ruling in contention. It is telling that the majority, apparently 

recognizing the conceptual difficulty of finding vote dilution in the absence of 

packing or cracking, ultimately attempts to recast the district court’s finding 

in that vein. But because there was no such evidence—indeed, neither 

packing nor cracking was even alleged—the plaintiffs have not shown a 

Section 2 violation.

III. The Laches Problem

The plaintiffs are entirely to blame for the haste with which we must 

resolve this case. The challenged redistricting occurred seven years ago. 

Disliking what he saw from the start, Thomas contacted the Department of 

Justice in 2012 and asked them to “look hard” at newly drawn Senate 

Districts 21, 22, and 34. He questioned whether the new redistricting plan as 

a whole reduced black voting strength in Mississippi. Rejecting Thomas’s 

concerns, the DOJ precleared the plan in September 2012.

Thomas waited. He did not file a Voting Rights Act challenge in 2012, 

2013, or 2014. He chose instead to run in the 2015 election, losing 54% to 46% 

to the incumbent chairman of the State Senate Appropriations Committee. 

Thomas was “real disappointed” that despite his efforts to appeal to white 

voters in the 2015 election, he garnered little of the white vote. See Thomas v. 

Bryant, 2019 WL 654314, at *1 (S.D. Miss. Feb. 16, 2019).

Still, Thomas did nothing. He did not file a Voting Rights Act challenge 

in 2015, 2016, or 2017. Thomas has explained that he was unaware that an 

individual could file a Voting Rights Act challenge until his lawyer told him 

in 2018. But “laches does not depend on subjective awareness of the legal 

basis on which a claim can be made.” Envtl. Def. Fund, Inc. v. Alexander, 614 

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F.2d 474, 479 (5th Cir. 1980). The letter to the DOJ shows that Thomas had 

concerns about District 22 as early as 2012, yet he waited until halfway 

through 2018 to act.

That delay prejudiced the defendants and the public. Laches is an 

inexcusable delay on the part of the plaintiff that results in prejudice to the 

defendant. Conan Props., Inc. v. Conans Pizza, Inc., 752 F.2d 145, 153 (5th 

Cir. 1985). It has been applied by the Supreme Court to bar untimely Voting 

Rights Act challenges. Lopez v. Hale Cty., Tex., 506 U.S. 1042 (1993) 

(affirming Lopez v. Hale Cty., Tex., 797 F. Supp. 547, 550 (N.D. Tex. 1992)); 

Cf. White v. Daniel, 909 F.2d 99, 102 (4th Cir. 1990). By waiting until now to 

challenge the district, Thomas has injected needless uncertainty into the 

November 2019 election. Mere months before Election Day, Mississippi voters 

went to bed in one district and woke up in another. Candidates suddenly find 

themselves running for office in a district they do not know, appealing to a 

public that does not know them. And the Republican Party finds itself 

without a horse in the race, moments before the starting gun is fired.

The delay has inured to the benefit only of Thomas, whose prospects 

have brightened noticeably since the district court redrew the political 

landscape. His postponement of legal action has—unless the stay is 

granted—all but ensured that there will be no time for reconsideration of the 

district court’s opinion before the election. Judge Reeves’s decision, made on 

an accelerated timeline following expedited discovery, is likely to be the end 

of the matter. The balance of the equities, in my view, is not on Thomas’s 

side.3

 

3 The other plaintiffs, Vernon Ayers and Melvin Lawson, do not undermine this view. 

Lawson is a District 22 voter who worked on Thomas’s Senate campaign and then joined 

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IV. The Jurisdiction Problem

Assuming Thomas did not unduly delay, however, was it permissible 

for the district court to decide this Voting Rights Act case without convening 

a three-judge panel? As the majority notes, there is no need to get into this 

unless 28 U.S.C. § 2284(a) is jurisdictional. That statute provides: “A district 

court of three judges shall be convened when otherwise required by Act of 

Congress, or when an action is filed challenging the constitutionality of the 

apportionment of congressional districts or the apportionment of any 

statewide legislative body.”

The majority is right that the statute certainly “sounds jurisdictional.” 

Maybe that is why every court to consider the question has said that it is. See 

Kalson v. Patterson, 542 F.3d 281, 287 (2nd Cir. 2008); Armour v. State of 

Ohio, 925 F.2d 987, 988–89 (6th Cir. 1991) (en banc); LULAC of Texas v. 

Texas, 318 F. App’x 261, 264 (5th Cir. 2009) (per curiam). I think so too. And 

since the majority ultimately concedes that forfeiture is an obstacle the 

defendants “will likely be able to overcome on appeal,” I will get straight to 

the heart of the question.

This lawsuit is indisputably an action challenging the apportionment of 

a statewide legislative body. The only question is whether the “constitutional” 

modifier in § 2284(a) applies to the second phrase in the sentence. The 

district court ruled that it does, giving three reasons. Thomas v. Bryant, No. 

0190219C, 2019 WL 454598, at *2–3 (S.D. Miss. Feb. 5, 2019). First, that 

 Thomas’s lawsuit. No one seems to know anything about Ayers besides the fact that he is a 

registered voter in District 22. Thomas is the main plaintiff (even the district court’s opinion 

focused almost exclusively on Thomas). In any event, all the plaintiffs are challenging district 

lines which were implemented seven years ago. It is that unnecessary delay, common to all 

the plaintiffs, which should bar the suit.

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there was no reason to treat Voting Rights Act claims and constitutional 

claims as identical in the statewide context. Second, that the plain language 

of the text and statutory canons of construction compelled the court’s 

interpretation. Third, that the court’s decision was buttressed by other 

persuasive decisions. The first two reasons are totally incorrect, and the third 

is weak.

“The task of statutory interpretation begins and, if possible, ends with 

the language of the statute.” United States v. Lauderdale Cty., Mississippi, 

914 F.3d 960, 964 (5th Cir. 2019). The district court said that the “seriesqualifier” canon compelled its conclusion that the constitutionality modifier 

applied to both phrases. Thomas, 2019 WL 454598 at *2–3. The book 

“Reading Law” explains the canon as follows: “When there is a 

straightforward, parallel construction that involves all nouns or verbs in a 

series, a prepositive or postpositive modifier normally applies to the entire 

series.” ANTONIN SCALIA & BRYAN A. GARNER, READING LAW: THE 

INTERPRETATION OF LEGAL TEXTS 147 (2012). A typical example is the phrase 

“Forcibly assaults, resists, opposes, impedes, intimidates, or interferes with,” 

in which the modifier “forcibly modifies each verb in the list.” Id. at 148. 

Crucially for our purposes, however, the authors also explain when the 

modifier does not apply:

The typical way in which syntax would suggest no 

carryover modification is that a determiner (a, the, some, etc.) will 

be repeated before the second element: [for example,] The 

charitable institutions or the societies (the presence of the second 

the suggests that the societies need not be charitable).

Id.

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That is exactly the situation we have here. The statute provides for a 

three-judge court “when an action is filed challenging the constitutionality of 

the apportionment of congressional districts or the apportionment of any

statewide legislative body.” 28 U.S.C. § 2284(a) (emphasis added). The 

determiner “the” (or the determining phrase “the apportionment”) cuts off the 

continued application of the word “constitutionality” to the second phrase. 

That the sentence has a parallel structure, as the majority harps on, is not 

dispositive. After all, if the statute did not have a parallel structure, we 

would not be discussing the series-qualifier canon in the first place. The 

whole point of the canon is to describe when a modifier applies to a parallel 

series, and when it does not. The canon and the context both answer that 

question in the negative.

If Congress intended the majority’s interpretation, there would have 

been much clearer ways to say so. Here are just three examples:

• A district court of three judges shall be convened . . . when an 

action is filed challenging the constitutionality of the 

apportionment of congressional districts or [the 

apportionment] of any statewide legislative body.

• A district court of three judges shall be convened . . . when an 

action is filed challenging the constitutionality of [either] the 

apportionment of congressional districts or the apportionment 

of any statewide legislative body.

• A district court of three judges shall be convened . . . when an 

action is filed challenging the constitutionality of the 

apportionment of congressional districts or [of] the 

apportionment of any statewide legislative body.

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Notably, Congress said none of those things. At the risk of quoting someone 

other than the late Justice Scalia, the Supreme Court has observed time and 

again that we “must presume that a legislature says in a statute what it 

means and means in a statute what it says.” Connecticut Nat. Bank v. 

Germain, 503 U.S. 249, 253–54 (1992); see also, e.g., Arlington Cent. Sch. 

Dist. Bd. of Educ. v. Murphy, 548 U.S. 291, 296 (2006); In re Camp, 631 F.3d 

757, 759 (5th Cir. 2011).

This may seem overly technical. But the district court explicitly noted 

that “[d]espite its ‘fancy name,’ the series-qualifier canon ‘reflects the 

completely ordinary way that people speak and listen, write and read.’” 

Thomas, 2019 WL 454598 at *2 n.5 (quoting Lockhart v. United States, 136 S. 

Ct. 958, 970 (2016) (Kagan, J., dissenting)). And the canon supports the 

opposite interpretation from the one adopted by the district court. It is this 

reading, and not the majority’s reading, which reflects the plain meaning of 

the statute. Further, the district court admitted the defendants had a “fair 

point” that the court’s interpretation resulted in the statute containing 

needless words. Id. at *2. “If ‘the constitutionality of’ is indeed carried over to 

all following phrases, the second use of ‘the apportionment of’ is rendered 

unnecessary.” Id. The correct application of the series-qualifier canon has the 

added benefit of avoiding that contradiction and giving meaning to every 

word in the statute. This is consistent with yet another canon: the surplusage 

canon. See SCALIA & GARNER, at 174–79.

The district court could not understand why Congress would treat 

Voting Rights Act and constitutional claims as identical, focusing on the fact 

that they have different evidentiary requirements and that a plaintiff is 

master of his complaint. Thomas, 2019 WL 454598 at *2. But the differing 

burdens of proof and the plaintiff’s undenied ability to select the claims he 

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wishes to bring do not undermine the rationale for treating all challenges to 

statewide legislative apportionment the same. Both constitutional and 

statutory attacks on legislative redistricting implicate the same fundamental 

concern: balancing judicial respect for a state’s decision regarding the best 

manner of selecting its representatives with the need to ensure equal 

opportunity within the electorate. Whether court-ordered redistricting is 

based on the Constitution or the Voting Rights Act makes little difference to 

the state whose actions have been curtailed.

Indeed, a more relevant question than the one asked by the district 

court is why the statute would treat challenges to congressional redistricting 

differently from challenges to statewide legislative redistricting. The answer 

to that challenge may well lie in federalism. It is entirely plausible that 

Congress wanted federal courts to show more deference to state 

reapportionment plans that only affect state interests than to state 

reapportionment plans which affect national interests. The majority suggests 

that federalism would actually support the opposite inference, considering 

that a state’s power to select its congressional representatives stems directly 

from Article I, Section II of the Constitution. But that line of reasoning is 

undermined by Supreme Court precedent, which has allowed the states 

greater latitude in creating state legislative districts than in creating 

congressional districts. See Gaffney v. Cummings, 412 U.S. 735, 742–44 

(1973).

In any event, I am not arguing that federalism compels the statutory 

interpretation for which I advocate. I simply offer a plausible explanation for 

why the plain text says what it does. The truth is that most of the time, the 

opposing interpretations of § 2284(a) will not matter, as Voting Rights Act 

claims and constitutional claims are usually asserted together. That is why—

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far from hiding an elephant in a mousehole—the correct interpretation 

merely ensures equal treatment for stand-alone Voting Rights Act claims 

whose implications can be quite as severe as constitutional ones. My view has 

the additional benefit of avoiding the forum-shopping concerns implicit in the 

majority’s reading.

Finally, the district court’s conclusion that non-binding cases 

“buttress[]” its decision is weak. See Thomas, 2019 WL 454598 at *3. The 

district court cited a Sixth Circuit decision, a Third Circuit decision, and a 

decision from the Northern District of Georgia. Id. The majority adds a 

citation from the Northern District of Alabama, the District of South Dakota, 

and the District of Montana. The sum of persuasive authority on this point is 

two circuit court opinions and four district court opinions. And as the 

majority admits, these cases really aren’t on point to begin with. The Sixth 

Circuit opinion does not mention § 2284(a)—it simply affirmed a single-judge 

decision. Rural West Tennessee African-American Affairs Council v. 

Sundquist, 209 F.3d 835 (6th Cir. 2000). Of the district court opinions, only 

the Northern District of Alabama addresses the question head-on, and it fails 

to mention the series-qualifier canon or the superfluous language that all 

parties admit results from the district court’s reading. See Chestnut v. 

Merrill, 2019 WL 338909 (N.D. Ala. 2019).

Most significantly, the Third Circuit decision supports the opposite 

conclusion from that reached by the district court. In Page, the court was 

considering whether a single judge may decide a Voting Rights Act claim 

when statutory and constitutional claims are brought together. See Page v. 

Bartels, 248 F.3d 175, 186–94 (3d Cir. 2001). While the opinion says that § 

2284(a) “only requires a three-judge district court for certain constitutionallybased apportionment challenges,” the court further stated that Congress 

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likely did not make a “deliberate choice to distinguish between constitutional 

apportionment challenges and apportionment challenges brought under § 2 of 

the Voting Rights Act.” Id. at 189.

Indeed, most redistricting challenges at the time of the 1976 

amendment were constitutional, meaning the distinction carried less 

importance in 1976 than it does today. And “the legislative history of the 

1976 revisions to 28 U.S.C. § 2284 clearly demonstrates that Congress was 

concerned less with the source of the law on which an apportionment 

challenge was based than on the unique importance of apportionment cases 

generally.” Id. at 190. Because all cases attacking “the legitimacy of the state 

legislative apportionment” are “highly sensitive matters,” the Third Circuit 

concluded that practical and policy considerations weighed in favor of threejudge review irrespective of the nature of the claims asserted. Id. So in its 

survey of the caselaw, the majority seems to have missed that the only circuit 

court opinion to address the issue in any depth goes the other way.4

Of course, none of these opinions (and there are not very many of them) 

are binding on this court. As noted earlier, the issue does not come up often 

since plaintiffs normally bring suit using all the potential weapons in their 

arsenal. To the extent that the opinions that have considered this question 

cut in any direction, however, I’d submit they cut in favor of the three-judge 

panel for Voting Rights Act claims. The district court was wrong to read § 

2284(a) in the manner it did. A three-judge panel should have decided this 

case.

 

4 The majority acknowledges Page in a footnote, noting that it “does not adopt the 

textual argument” I am advocating here. That is unsurprising, considering that no one 

advocated for such an interpretation in Page. It is the reasoning from the opinion which 

supports my view—not the opinion’s different answer to a different question.

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* * *

This case presents several extraordinary issues. Unfortunately, this 

court’s usual procedures do not appear to permit en banc review of this denial 

of a stay even if a majority of the active judges would otherwise grant it. I am 

afraid defendants have simply had the poor luck of drawing a majorityminority panel. I trust that in light of this, the State will pursue a stay in the 

Supreme Court because of the injustice that results from the joint efforts of 

the district judge and the motions panel majority. I also encourage the State 

to move for an expedited appellate process before this court, preferably 

seeking an April or May sitting—it might yet be possible for this court to 

undo its own mistake.

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