Reading Framework for the 

2003 National Assessment

of Educational Progress

National Assessment Governing Board

U.S. Department of Education
Mark D. Musick, Chair 

President, Southern Regional Education Board

Atlanta, Georgia

Michael T. Nettles, Vice Chair 

Professor of Education, University of Michigan

Ann Arbor, Michigan

Melanie A. Campbell 

Fourth-Grade Teacher

Topeka, Kansas

Honorable Wilmer S. Cody

Former Commissioner of Education

State of Kentucky

Frankfort, Kentucky

Daniel A. Domenech 

Superintendent of Schools, Fairfax County Public Schools

Fairfax, Virginia

Edward Donley 

Former Chairman, Air Products and Chemicals, Inc.

Allentown, Pennsylvania

Thomas H. Fisher 

Director, Student Assessment Services

Florida Department of Education

Tallahassee, Florida

Edward H. Haertel 

Professor, School of Education

Stanford University

Stanford, California

Juanita Haugen 

Local School Board Member

Pleasanton, California

Honorable Dirk Kempthorne 

Governor of Idaho 

Boise, Idaho 

Honorable Nancy Kopp 

Former State Legislator

Annapolis, Maryland

Honorable Ronnie Musgrove

Governor of Mississippi

Jackson, Mississippi

Roy M. Nageak, Sr. 

State School Board Member 

Barrow, Alaska 

Debra Paulson 

Eighth-Grade Mathematics Teacher

El Paso, Texas

Honorable Jo Ann Pottorff 

State Legislator

Wichita, Kansas

Diane Ravitch 

Research Professor, New York University

New York, New York

Sister Lourdes Sheehan, R.S.M. 

Secretary for Education, United States Catholic Conference 

Washington, D.C. 

John H. Stevens 

Executive Director, Texas Business and Education Coalition

Austin, Texas

Migdania D. Vega 

Principal, Coral Way Elementary Bilingual School 

Miami, Florida 

Deborah Voltz 

Assistant Professor, Department of Special Education 

University of Louisville 

Louisville, Kentucky 

Honorable Michael E. Ward 

State Superintendent of Public Instruction

North Carolina Public Schools

Raleigh, North Carolina

Marilyn A. Whirry 

Twelfth-Grade English Teacher 

Manhattan Beach, California 

Dennie Palmer Wolf 

Director, Annenberg Institute 

Brown University 

Providence, Rhode Island 

Grover (Russ) Whitehurst (Ex-Officio)

Assistant Secretary of Education

Office of Educational Research and Improvement

U.S. Department of Education

Washington, D.C.

Roy Truby

Executive Director, NAGB

Washington, D.C.

What Is NAEP? 

The National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) is the only nationally representative and continuing

assessment of what America’s students know and can do. It is a congressionally mandated project of the U.S.

Department of Education’s National Center for Education Statistics. NAEP measures student achievement 

in reading, mathematics, writing, science, U.S. history, geography, civics, the arts, and other subjects. Since 1969,

NAEP has surveyed the achievement of students at ages 9, 13, and 17 and, since the 1980s, in grades 4, 8, and 12. 

The National Assessment Governing Board 

The National Assessment Governing Board (NAGB) was created by Congress to formulate policy for NAEP. Among

the Board’s responsibilities are developing objectives and test specifications and designing the assessment methodology for NAEP.
Reading Framework for the

2003 National Assessment 

of Educational Progress
National Assessment Governing Board

Mark D. Musick

Chair

Michael T. Nettles

Vice Chair

Roy Truby

Executive Director

Mary Crovo

Project Officer

Reading Framework for the 2003 

National Assessment of Educational Progress

For further information, contact the National Assessment Governing Board:

800 North Capitol Street, N.W.

Suite 825

Washington, DC 20002

www.nagb.org

September 2002

For sale by the U.S. Government Printing Office

Superintendent of Documents, Mail Stop: SSOP, Washington, DC 20402–9328
iii

Contents

Executive Summary......................................................................................................................1

Chapter One: What Is the NAEP Reading Assessment?..........................................................5

Goals for Reading Literacy.........................................................................................................6

Definitions of Reading Literacy .................................................................................................6

Contexts for Reading ..................................................................................................................8

Aspects of Reading...................................................................................................................11

Grade 4 Sample Reading Passage and Questions: Informational ............................................16

Chapter Two: How Is the NAEP Reading Assessment Designed?.........................................19

Purposes of the Assessment......................................................................................................19

Methodology.............................................................................................................................19

Format of the Assessment.........................................................................................................19

Reading Passages......................................................................................................................20

Item Development.....................................................................................................................21

Review Process .........................................................................................................................25

Accommodations ......................................................................................................................25

Chapter Three: How Are the Results of the NAEP Reading Assessment Reported?..........27

Chapter Four: What Are the Foundations for the NAEP Reading Assessment?.................35

Reading Process........................................................................................................................35

Types of Assessments ...............................................................................................................35

Background Surveys .................................................................................................................36

Bibliography ................................................................................................................................37

Appendix A: Sample Reading Passages, Items, and Scoring Rubrics...................................39

Appendix B: NAEP 2002 Oral Reading Study ........................................................................75

Appendix C: NAEP Reading Framework Panels....................................................................81

2002 Reading Framework Advisory Panel...............................................................................83

1992 Steering and Planning Committees .................................................................................83

Executive Summary

What Is the NAEP Reading Assessment?

The National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) reading assessment measures

the achievement of the nation’s students in reading. Authorized by Congress and administered by the U.S. Department of Education, NAEP regularly reports to the public on

the educational progress of students in various subject areas. NAEP collects achievement information on nationally representative samples of students in grades 4, 8, and 12 and on state-level

samples of fourth and eighth graders. 

As the “Nation’s Report Card,” the NAEP reading assessment reports how well students perform in reading various texts and responding to those texts in multiple-choice and constructedresponse formats. The latter questions ask students to write their response and explain and

support their ideas with information from the text. NAEP provides information about student

achievement that is needed to help the public, decisionmakers, and education professionals 

understand strengths and weaknesses in student performance and make informed decisions

about education. 

Since 1992, the NAEP Reading Framework has provided guidelines for developing the reading assessments administered to random samples of students. The NAEP Reading Framework

reflects the ideas of many individuals and organizations involved in reading education, including

researchers, policymakers, teachers, business representatives, and other members of the public.

NAEP is a project of the National Center for Education Statistics, U.S. Department of Education,

and is overseen by the National Assessment Governing Board.

The NAEP Reading Framework reflects research that views reading comprehension as a dynamic, interactive process. The NAEP definition of reading literacy has been used internationally

to reach an understanding of what students should know and be able to do in reading. This understanding plays a role in unifying the important reading dimensions for student achievement. Reading includes the ability to understand and use written texts for enjoyment and to learn, participate

in society, and achieve one’s goals. 

What Must Students Know and Be Able To Do?

The NAEP Reading Framework specifies three contexts for reading: reading for literary experience, reading for information, and reading to perform a task (see exhibit 1). 

1
Exhibit 1. Contexts for Reading Specified in the NAEP Reading Framework

The framework also specifies four aspects of reading that characterize the way readers 

respond to text: Forming a General Understanding, Developing Interpretation, Making

Reader/Text Connections, and Examining Content and Structure (see exhibit 2).

Detailed information on sample questions and results can be found on the NAEP Web site at

www.nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard.

How Is the NAEP Reading Assessment Designed?

The reading assessment includes a booklet with reading materials and comprehension questions.

The questions are presented in both multiple-choice and constructed-response formats. At least

half are constructed-response questions, which allow students to write their answers and explain

and support their ideas. Materials used in the assessment are taken from sources that are typically

2

Context for

Reading Description

Reading for Readers explore events, characters, themes, settings, plots, actions, and 

literary the language of literary works by reading novels, short stories, poems,

experience plays, legends, biographies, myths, and folktales.

Reading for Readers gain information to understand the world by reading materials 

information such as magazines, newspapers, textbooks, essays, and speeches.

Reading to Readers apply what they learn from reading materials such as bus or train 

perform a task schedules, directions for repairs or games, classroom procedures, tax forms 

(grade 12), maps, and so on. 

Exhibit 2. Aspects of Reading and Reader Responses

Aspects of Reading

Forming a Making Examining 

General Developing Reader/Text Content and

Understanding Interpretation Connections Structure

Consider text in Focus on Think beyond Consider 

its entirety specific parts the text why and how 

the text was 

developed

Understanding in Linking Applying Considering 

a broad way information the text to the content,

across parts real-world organization,

of the text situations and form
available to students, such as collections of stories, children’s magazines, or informational books.

By giving students different types of materials, NAEP is able to provide a measure of reading

performance that reflects students’ typical reading experiences both in and out of school. 

What Accommodations Are Made for Special Populations?

NAEP’s intent is to assess all students who are capable of participating in the reading assessment. Although some students may be excluded according to carefully defined criteria, Englishlanguage learners and students with disabilities are accommodated as necessary through extra

testing time, individual or small-group administrations, large-print booklets, and/or multiple sessions. However, because NAEP is a reading comprehension assessment, test administrators are

not allowed to read the passages and questions aloud to students. 

How Are the Results of the NAEP Reading Assessment Reported?

NAEP reading assessment results are reported in two ways: scale scores and achievement levels. Scale scores are average scores for groups of students ranging from 0 to 500. Achievement

level scores are reported as percentages of students who attain each of three achievement levels:

Basic, Proficient, and Advanced. Achievement levels serve to identify percentages of students

taking NAEP who have demonstrated certain reading proficiencies. Authorized by NAEP legislation and adopted by the National Assessment Governing Board, the achievement levels are

performance standards based on the collective judgments of experts about what students should

know and be able to do in terms of the NAEP reading framework.

What Are the Limitations of the NAEP Reading Assessment?

School-based tests provide curriculum-specific results so that teachers and administrators can

alter classroom practice. As currently designed, the NAEP reading assessment cannot provide

the kind of diagnostic information that pertains to individual students. Instead, it profiles the

performance of groups of students at a given time—and across time—without promoting 

particular approaches in curriculum or prescribing actions for particular school districts. Yet,

combined with other information, NAEP is an integral part of our nation’s evaluation of the

condition and progress of education.

3

5

Chapter One

What Is the NAEP Reading Assessment?

The National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) reading assessment measures

the achievement of the nation’s students in reading. Authorized by Congress and administered by the U.S. Department of Education, NAEP regularly reports to the public on

the educational progress of students in various subject areas. NAEP collects achievement data

from nationally representative samples of students in grades 4, 8, and 12 and from state-level

samples of fourth and eighth graders. 

As the “Nation’s Report Card,” the NAEP reading assessment reports how well students perform in reading various texts and responding to those texts in multiple-choice and constructedresponse formats. It provides information about student achievement that is needed to help the

public, decisionmakers, and education professionals understand strengths and weaknesses in

student performance and make informed decisions about education. 

The NAEP reading assessment measures comprehension by asking students to read passages

and answer questions about what they have read. As such, it represents a measure of reading

achievement and provides a broad picture of what our nation’s students should be able to read

and understand at specific grade levels. Students use various skills and strategies in the reading

assessment. However, NAEP does not report on strategies such as finding a detail or summarizing a plot. This is in keeping with NAEP’s role as an assessment of overall achievement rather

than a diagnostic test for individual students.

Although broad implications for instruction can be inferred from the assessment, NAEP does

not specify how reading should be taught, nor does it prescribe a particular curricular approach

to teaching reading.

The NAEP Reading Framework provides the guidelines and theoretical basis for developing

the 1992–2003 reading assessments. The NAEP Reading Framework reflects the ideas of many

diverse individuals and organizations involved in reading education. In developing the framework for the national assessment of reading, researchers, policymakers, teachers, business representatives, and other experts have specified behaviors of proficient readers who are active,

strategic, knowledgeable, and motivated to read.

The Report of the National Reading Panel (National Institute for Child Health and Human

Development (NICHD), 2000b) summarizes research describing such a reader: “In the cognitive research, reading is purposeful and active. According to this view, a reader reads a text to

understand what is read, to construct memory representations of what is understood, and to put

this understanding to use” (p. 4-39). These processes are the basis for establishing broad goals

for reading that are addressed by NAEP. 
6

Goals for Reading Literacy

The goals for reading literacy are to develop good readers who

● read with enough fluency to focus on the meaning of what they read;

● form an understanding of what they read and extend, elaborate, and critically judge its

meaning;

● use various strategies to aid their understanding and plan, manage, and check the meaning 

of what they read;

● apply what they already know to understand what they read;

● can read various texts for different purposes; and

● possess positive reading habits and attitudes.

These characteristics of good readers are appropriate for students as early as third grade since

this is the grade level by which it is expected that children will learn to read. National programs

such as the Reading Excellence Act and No Child Left Behind focus on improving reading achievement. Policy and the commitment of resources at national and state levels continue to focus on this

goal. Therefore, it makes sense that the NAEP Reading Framework should also reflect this aim. 

The National Research Council’s research-based report Preventing Reading Difficulties in

Young Children (Snow, Burns, and Griffen, 1998) corroborates the characteristics listed above

when it describes third-grade accomplished readers as being able to

● summarize major points from fiction and nonfiction texts,

● read longer fictional selections and chapter books independently,

● discuss underlying themes or messages in interpreting fiction, and

● distinguish cause and effect, fact and opinion, main idea, and supporting details in interpreting nonfiction.

These characteristics are important for describing the performance of good readers in the

NAEP reading assessment.

Definitions of Reading Literacy

National

Reading literacy is a fundamental right of every person. It gives people access to information

and the ability to function in life. Reading enriches through the power of language and the beauty of poetry. It extends the human experience through the exploration of events in literary works.

It is the key to knowledge and information.
7

Today reading literacy means more than a functional ability to read simple directions and

books. In The Keys to Literacy, Reid Lyon (1998) describes the multifaceted nature of the 

reading process:

In general, if children can read the words on a page accurately and fluently, they will

be able to construct meaning at two levels. At the first level, literal understanding

is achieved. However, constructing meaning requires far more than literal comprehension. Children must eventually guide themselves through text by asking questions

such as: “Why am I reading this, and how does this information relate to my reasons

for doing so?” “What is the author’s point of view?” “Do I understand what the

author is saying and why?” “Is the text internally consistent?” It is this second level

of comprehension that leads readers to reflective, purposeful understanding. (p. 4)

In a world driven by information technology, the complexity of reading literacy is increasing as

the format of texts becomes more diverse. Varied texts such as CD-ROMs, Web pages, newspapers, and magazines place different demands on the reader. As information technology grows, people will encounter even more varied texts and will be called on to use information in new ways. 

International

When the 1992 NAEP reading assessment was developed, no one could have predicted the 

effect the NAEP Reading Framework would have on the design of international reading assessments. The frameworks of two international assessments provide pertinent evidence of this trend:

● The Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) is being conducted under

the auspices of the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement and focuses on the achievement of young children (ages 9 and 10).

● The Program for International Student Assessment (PISA), conducted under the auspices of

the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, is a regular survey of 15-

year-olds and assesses aspects of their preparedness for adult life. Reading literacy, mathematical literacy, and scientific literacy are the primary domains that are assessed. 

PIRLS most closely aligns with the fourth-grade NAEP assessment. PISA samples students in

grade 10, in contrast to NAEP’s sampling of grades 8 and 12.

There are strong similarities among the three assessments’ definitions of reading literacy. 

PIRLS (International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement, 2000) defines reading literacy as “the ability to understand and use those written language forms required

by society and/or valued by the individual. Young readers can construct meaning from a variety

of texts. They read to learn, to participate in communities of readers, and for enjoyment.” (p. 3)

PISA (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2000) defines reading literacy as “understanding, using, and reflecting on written texts in order to achieve one’s goals,

to develop one’s knowledge and potential, and to participate in society” (p. 18).
8

All three definitions of reading literacy (NAEP, PIRLS, and PISA) convey the notion that

reading involves developing an understanding of text, thinking about it, and using various texts

for many different purposes. For example, readers may use maps to gain information, stories to

enjoy the human experience, and science texts to form new hypotheses about knowledge.

The congruence in framework definitions clearly represents a growing international agreement

on the important dimensions of reading literacy. This agreement has played the same unifying

role in the international assessment of reading as that of the Third International Mathematics

and Science Study in the international assessment of mathematics. 

One way NAEP reflects current definitions of literacy is by differentiating among three contexts for reading and four aspects of reading. Contexts for reading and aspects of reading are the

foundation of the NAEP reading assessment.

Contexts for Reading

● Reading for literary experience

● Reading for information

● Reading to perform a task

Many commonalities exist among the different reading contexts, including developing understanding, reflecting critically on the text, and analyzing the author’s perspective. The contexts are

not mutually exclusive. For example, readers may read historical novels for literary experience

and information. However, distinctions exist because various texts and tasks can place differing

demands on the reader. Readers often have greater facility with one type of reading material than

another. For example, some people can read novels with greater ease than they can read technical

manuals. 

Different contexts for reading lead to real differences in what readers do. When reading for

literary experience, readers make complex, abstract summaries and identify major themes. They

describe the interactions of various literary elements (e.g., setting, plot, characters, and theme).

When reading for information, readers may critically judge the form and content of the text and

explain their judgments. They may also look for specific pieces of information. When reading to

perform a task, readers may search quickly for specific pieces of information. The contexts for

reading and the reader’s expectations may influence the comprehension process, determine what

strategies and skills are used to develop meaning, and influence the extent to which content is

integrated with prior knowledge. 

The contexts for reading are addressed by the specific tasks, or items, on the NAEP reading

assessment. An item can be easy even if the text is complex. For example, given a difficult text

and a question with wording directly from the text, a reader might scan the text, find the relevant

information, and answer the question with ease. Because this type of item requires little more

than matching words or phrases, it can be accomplished without having an understanding of the

passage as a whole or even the specific part of the text addressed by the item. Once readers have

a certain level of automaticity, they can handle simple tasks such as this. However, to respond to
9

a text within the NAEP framework, readers must be able to understand the text in its entirety as

well as focus on specific parts and think beyond what was directly stated.

Reading for Literary Experience

● Involves the reader in exploring themes, events, characters, settings, problems, and the

language of literary works 

The reader brings his or her experiences and knowledge to the text in such activities as anticipating events, picturing settings, predicting consequences, analyzing actions, and considering the

language of literary works. The reader thinks about the perspective of authors and characters and

considers the language and story structure when reading for literary experience. Various types of

texts are associated with reading for literary experience, including novels, short stories, poems,

plays, legends, biographies, myths, and folktales. 

Reading for Information

● Involves the engagement of the reader with aspects of the real world

Reading for information is most commonly associated with textbooks, primary and secondary

sources, newspaper and magazine articles, essays, and speeches. Some features that distinguish

informational text from literary text are organization and the way information is presented. Informational text is organized by topic and supporting details, whereas literary text is organized by

the structure of a story, poem, or drama. Informational texts may have boldface headings, graphics, illustrations, and captions that signal importance in the text. However, some commonalities

exist between literary and informational text and the skills and strategies required for reading

each. Both require people to critically analyze the text, reflect on it, and draw conclusions. 

When reading for information, readers need to know the specific text patterns, or forms of organization (e.g., cause and effect, sequential order, comparison/contrast, opinion and supporting

arguments), to develop understanding. People frequently have different purposes for reading text

of this nature—for example, to find specific pieces of information, answer a question, or get some

general information when glancing through a magazine article. Reading informational text calls

for orientations to the text that differ from those used in reading for literary experience because

readers are specifically focused on acquiring information. When people read for information, they

may select parts of the text they need, rather than reading from beginning to end.

Reading To Perform a Task 

● Involves reading in order to accomplish or do something

When people read to perform tasks, they use their expectations of the purpose and structure of

practical text to guide how they select, understand, and apply information. Practical text may include charts, bus or train schedules, directions for games or repairs, classroom or library procedures, tax or insurance forms, recipes, voter registration materials, maps, referenda, consumer

warranties, or office memos. The reader’s orientation involves looking for specific information

to do something. Readers need to apply information, not simply understand it. In this type of

reading, readers are not likely to savor the style or thought in the texts as they might in reading

for literary experience.
NAEP assesses reading for literary experience and reading for information in grades 4, 8, and

12. Reading to perform a task is assessed only in grades 8 and 12. Contexts for reading are

shown in exhibit 1.

The proportion of items related to each context for reading changes from grade to grade to reflect the changing demands made of students as they mature. The proportion of items in each

grade is shown in exhibit 2.

10

Exhibit 2. Percentage of NAEP Reading Items, by Grade and Context for Reading

Context for Reading

For For To 

Grade Literary Experience Information Perform a Task

4 55 45 No scale

8 40 40 20

12 35 45 20

Exhibit 1. Contexts for Reading Specified in the NAEP Reading Framework

Context for

Reading Description

Reading for Readers explore events, characters, themes, settings, plots, actions, and 

literary the language of literary works by reading novels, short stories, poems,

experience plays, legends, biographies, myths, and folktales.

Reading for Readers gain information to understand the world by reading materials 

information such as magazines, newspapers, textbooks, essays, and speeches.

Reading to Readers apply what they learn from reading materials such as bus or 

perform a task train schedules, directions for repairs or games, classroom procedures,

tax forms (grade 12), maps, and so on. 
Aspects of Reading

● Forming a General Understanding

● Developing Interpretation

● Making Reader/Text Connections

● Examining Content and Structure

Readers develop understanding in different ways. They focus on general topics or themes, interpret and integrate ideas within and across texts, make connections to background knowledge

and experiences, and examine the content and structure of the text. NAEP questions and tasks are

based on these four aspects of reading and require the selection and integration of various reading

strategies rather than the application of a specific strategy or skill. Inherent in these aspects are

the strategies that readers use to build and examine their understanding and adjust their approach.

According to the Report of the National Reading Panel (NICHD, 2000b), readers use their knowledge of the world, including language and print, to make meaning.

Forming a General Understanding

To form a general understanding, the reader must consider the text as a whole and provide a

global understanding of it. Students may be asked, for example, to demonstrate a general understanding by giving the topic of a passage, explaining the purpose of an article, or reflecting on the

theme of a story. Tasks and questions that measure this aspect of reading include the following:

● Write a paragraph telling what the story/poem is about.

● Which of the following is the best statement of the theme of the story?

● Write a paragraph telling what this article generally tells you.

● What is this text supposed to help you do?

● What would you tell someone about the main character?

Developing Interpretation 

To develop an interpretation, the reader must extend initial impressions to develop a more complete understanding of what was read. This process involves linking information across parts of

a text as well as focusing on specific information. Questions that assess this aspect of reading

include drawing inferences about the relationship of two pieces of information and providing evidence to determine the reason for an action. Questions that assess this aspect of reading include

the following:

● What event marked a change in the plot or situation?

● What caused the character to __________? 

● What caused this event?

● What is the meaning of __________?

11
12

● What type of person is this character? Explain.

● What does this idea imply?

● In what ways are these ideas important to the topic or theme?

● What will be the result of this step in the directions?

● What does this character think about __________?

Making Reader/Text Connections

To make reader/text connections, the reader must connect information in the text with knowledge and experience. This might include applying ideas in the text to the real world. All student

responses must be text-based to receive full credit. NAEP does not ask students about their personal feelings. Tasks and questions that assess this aspect of reading include the following:

● Why do __________ (bullfrogs eat dragonflies)? Is there anything else you think

__________ (they might eat)? Explain your answer using information from the 

text and what you know.

● Colonists lived in different ways than we live today. Tell about two of these differences.

● Would you have liked to live in colonial times? Use information from the text to support

your answer.

● In this story, two characters chose different ways to solve a problem. Which solution 

was most effective in solving the problem? Use information from the text to support 

your answer.

● How would you change the directions to build this __________ if you did not have 

a __________?

Examining Content and Structure

Examining text content and structure requires critically evaluating, comparing and contrasting,

and understanding the effect of such features as irony, humor, and organization. Questions used

to assess this aspect of reading require readers to stand apart from the text, consider it objectively,

and evaluate its quality and appropriateness. Knowledge of text content and structure is important.

Questions ask readers to determine the usefulness of a text for a specific purpose, evaluate the

language and textual elements, and think about the author’s purpose and style. Some questions

also require readers to make connections across parts of a text or between texts. For example,

students might be asked to compare a poem and a story with the same theme or relate information from a first-person account to a textbook description of an event. Questions that assess this

aspect of reading include the following:

● Compare the structure of this magazine article to that one.

● How useful would this be for __________? Why?

● Does the author use (irony, personification, humor) effectively? Explain.
13

● What is the author’s point of view? Using the text, provide a sentence or two to support

your response.

● Is this information needed for __________? Explain your reasoning.

● What other information would you need to find out about __________? Support your 

answer with information from the text.

Exhibit 3 portrays the four aspects of reading. Although the strategies and skills required to

master these aspects overlap to some extent, successfully mastering one aspect may not depend

on successfully mastering any other aspect.

The aspects are not mutually exclusive. For example, comparing two authors’ points of view

would require forming a general understanding before making the comparison. The reader would

use several aspects of reading to provide a wide range of responses to reading. 

Exhibit 3. Aspects of Reading and Reader Responses

Aspects of Reading

Forming Making Examining

a General Developing Reader/Text Content and

Understanding Interpretation Connections Structure

Consider text Focus on Think beyond Consider 

in its entirety specific parts the text why and how 

the text was

developed

Understanding Linking Applying Considering

in a broad way information the text to the content,

across parts real-world organization,

of the text situations and form
14

Exhibit 4 shows the percentage of time students in a given grade would spend on NAEP items

that measure each aspect of reading (General Understanding and Developing Interpretation are

combined) if they responded to all items in the NAEP reading assessment. Originally, the 1989

Reading Committees proposed a distribution of one-third of the items for each reading aspect.

Please refer to the NAEP Web site (www.nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard) for sample student 

responses, performance data, and a glossary of NAEP terms.

Exhibit 4. Projected Distribution of Student Time, by Grade and Aspect of Reading

Aspect of Reading

Forming a General Making Examining 

Understanding and Reader/Text Content and 

Grade Developing Interpretation (%) Connections (%) Structure (%)

4 60 15 25

8 55 15 30

12 50 15 35
15

Exhibit 5. Sample NAEP Questions and Reading Strategies, by Context for Reading and

Aspect of Reading

Aspect of Reading

Forming a Making Examining

Context for General Developing Reader/Text Content and

Reading Understanding Interpretation Connections Structure

Reading What is the story/ How did this What other character What is the mood

for literary plot about? character change that you have read of this story and

experience ● Synthesis from the beginning about had a similar how does the author

● Analysis to the end of problem? use language to

● Inference the story? ● Analogy achieve it?

● Synthesis ● Synthesis ● Using details

● Analysis ● Using details ● Inference

● Inference ● Relating information ● Analysis

● Using details and ideas ● Synthesis

● Search

Reading for What point is the What caused this What other event Is this author

information author making change? in history or recent biased? Support

about this topic? ● Cause and effect news is similar to your answer with

● Generalization ● Inference this one? information about

● Using details ● Search ● Analogy this article.

● Synthesis ● Synthesis ● Synthesis

● Analysis ● Analysis

● Inference ● Judgment

● Using details ● Inference

● Relating information ● Using details

and ideas ● Determining fact 

and opinion

Reading to What time can What must you Describe a situation Is the information in 

perform a you get a nonstop do before step 3? in which you would this brochure easy 

task flight to X? ● Search omit step 5? to use?

● Search ● Inference ● Inference ● Evaluation

● Sequence ● Analysis ● Using details

● Using details ● Synthesis

● Relating information ● Search

and ideas

Exhibit 5 shows sample NAEP questions by context for and aspect of reading. The bulleted

items are the skills involved in each aspect of reading. Readers are expected to demonstrate a

level of competency in each aspect.
16

The following fourth-grade informational

passage and questions were released from

the NAEP 2000 reading assessment. The

boldface text below each question presents

the aspect of reading assessed and the percentage of students who answered the 

question successfully. Additional sample

passages and questions can be found in 

appendix A and on the NAEP Web site

(www.necs.ed.gov/nationsreportcard).

Please refer to the Web site for sample 

student responses and performance data.

Grade 4 Sample Reading Passage and Questions: Informational

I

magine shivering on a cold winter’s night. The tip of your nose tingles in the frosty air. 

Finally, you climb into bed and find the toasty treat you have been waiting for—your very

own hot brick.

If you had lived in colonial days, that would not sound as strange as it does today. Winters

were hard in this New World, and the colonists had to think of clever ways to fight the cold. At

bedtime, they heated soapstones, or bricks, in the fireplaces. They wrapped the bricks in cloths

and tucked them into their beds. The brick kept them warm at night, at least for as long as its

heat lasted.

Before the colonists slipped into bed, they rubbed their icy sheets with a bed warmer. This

was a metal pan with a long wooden handle. The pan held hot embers from the fireplace. It

warmed the bedding so well that sleepy bodies had to wait until the sheets cooled before 

climbing in.

Staying warm wasn’t just a bedtime problem. On winter rides, colonial travelers covered

themselves with animal skins and warm blankets. Tucked under the blankets, near their feet,

were small tin boxes called foot stoves. A foot stove held burning coals. Hot smoke puffed from

small holes in the stove’s lid, soothing freezing feet and legs. When the colonists went to Sunday services, their foot stoves, furs, and blankets went with them. The meeting houses had no

heat of their own until the 1800s. 

At home, colonial families huddled close to the fireplace, or hearth. The fireplace was wide

and high enough to hold a large fire, but its chimney was large, too. That caused a problem:

Gusts of cold air blew into the house. The area near the fire was warm, but in the rest of the

room it might still be cold enough to see your breath.

Reading or needlework was done by candlelight or by the light of the fire. During the winter,

animal skins sealed the drafty windows of some cabins and blocked out the daylight. The living

area inside was gloomy, except in the circle of light at the hearth.
Early Americans did not bathe as often as we do. When they did, their “bathroom” was the

kitchen, in that toasty space by the hearth. They partially filled a tub of cold water, then warmed

it up with water heated in the fireplace. A blanket draped from chairs for privacy also let the

fire’s warmth surround the bather.

The household cooks spent hours at the hearth. They stirred the kettle of corn pudding or

checked the baking bread while the rest of the family carried on their own fireside activities. 

So you can see why the fireplace was the center of a colonial home. The only time the fire was

allowed to die down was at bedtime. Ashes would be piled over the fire, reducing it to embers

that might glow until morning.

By sunrise, the hot brick had become a cold stone once more. An early riser might get dressed

under the covers, then hurry to the hearth to warm up.

Maybe you’d enjoy hearing someone who kept warm in these ways tell you what it was like.

You wouldn’t need to look for someone who has been living for two hundred years. In many

parts of the country, the modern ways didn’t take over from the old ones until recently. Your

own grandparents or other older people might remember the warmth of a hearthside and the joy

of having a brick to cuddle up to.

Used by permission of Highlights for Children, Inc., Columbus, OH

Copyright © 1991. Illustrations by Katherine Dodge.

Questions for “A Brick to Cuddle Up To”

(See appendix A for scoring criteria or rubrics.)

1. You would probably read this article if you wanted to know how the colonists

a. cooked their food

b. traveled in the winter

c. washed their clothes

d. kept warm in cold weather

[Aspect: General Understanding Key: D Percent correct: 85%]

2. After reading this article, would you like to have lived during colonial times? 

What information in the article makes you think this?

(Responses to this question were scored according to a three-level rubric.)

[Aspect: Reader/Text Connections Percent Full Comprehension: 20%]

3. Some of the ways that colonists kept warm during the winter were different from the

ways that people keep warm today. Tell about two of these differences.

(Responses to this question were scored according to a three-level rubric.)

[Aspect: Reader/Text Connections Percent Full Comprehension: 17%]

17
4. Do you think “A Brick to Cuddle Up To” is a good title for this article? Using 

information from the article, tell why or why not.

(Responses to this question were scored according to a three-level rubric.)

[Aspect: Developing Interpretation Percent Full Comprehension: 37%]

5. Give two reasons stated in the article why the hearth was the center of the home in 

colonial times.

(Responses to this question were scored according to a three-level rubric.) 

[Aspect: Developing Interpretation Percent Full Comprehension: 20%]

6. A colonist would probably have used a foot stove when

a. going on a trip

b. sleeping in bed

c. sitting by the fireplace

d. working around the house

[Aspect: Developing Interpretation Key: A Percent correct: 36%]

7. Pretend that you are an early American colonist. Describe at least three activities you

might do during a cold winter evening. Be specific. Use details from the article to help

you write your description.

(Responses to this question were scored according to a four-level rubric.)

[Aspect: Developing Interpretation Percent Extensive: 12%]

8. In writing this article, the author mostly made use of 

a. broad ideas

b. specific details

c. important questions

d. interesting characters

[Aspect: Examining Content and Structure Key: B Percent correct: 66%]

9. Does the author help you understand what colonial life was like? Use examples from

the article to explain why or why not.

(Responses to this question were scored according to a three-level rubric.) 

[Aspect: Examining Content and Structure Percent Full Comprehension: 20%]

18
19

Chapter Two

How Is the NAEP Reading Assessment Designed?

Purposes of the Assessment

With the reauthorization of the NAEP program in 1988, 1994, and 2002, Congress mandated that NAEP provide a fair and accurate measurement of academic achievement

in reading and other subjects. In this mission, NAEP

● informs the public about trends in the reading proficiency of students at state and national

levels,

● provides data for comparing student achievement across states,

● informs policymakers about relationships between student achievement and key background

variables, and

● provides comparative data on the performance of states, regions, and groups.

As the “Nation’s Report Card,” NAEP provides descriptive information about student reading

achievement to the general public, policymakers, and educators. The NAEP reading assessment

is not intended to be a model for teaching reading. It measures the outcomes of instruction as 

reflected in the behaviors of readers. 

Methodology 

NAEP measures student achievement by taking a stratified random sample of schools throughout the nation and in participating states. NAEP also uses a matrix-sampling design of test items

so that no one student takes the entire test.1 The design distributes the large numbers of items

across school buildings, districts, and states but limits the number of items that an individual student takes. The assessment is designed to glean information from hundreds of items but restricts

the amount of time that any student has to spend responding to the assessment to about 50 minutes. As a consequence, students taking the assessment will have one of eight or more possible

booklets of passages and questions.

Format of the Assessment 

Given the broad goals of the NAEP framework and its emphasis on the use of authentic texts,

the assessment is given in two 25-minute blocks or one 50-minute block. In the fourth grade,

only 25-minute blocks are used. Students receive a booklet containing the reading materials and

questions. Questions are presented in multiple-choice or constructed-response formats. At least

half are constructed-response questions, which allow students to write their answers and explain

and support their ideas. Constructed-response questions are of two types: short, requiring a oneor two-sentence answer, and extended, requiring a paragraph or full-page response. 

1. Passages and accompanying items are divided into blocks and administered to representative samples of students. Results are

pooled, profiling the performance of groups of students on the entire assessment.
All NAEP questions emphasize critical thinking and reasoning rather than factual recall. Multiplechoice questions require students to choose a single, clear answer. In contrast, constructedresponse questions require students to generate responses by integrating information from the 

text with their background knowledge, reorganizing ideas, and critically considering the text. 

In an assessment of reading, it is important to have items that can directly and accurately reflect

how readers use multiple strategies to build understanding.

Reading Passages 

To reach the goal of approximating actual reading experiences, NAEP reading passages are typical of those read by students every day. The passages are taken from authentic texts found in the

environments of students in grades 4, 8, and 12. Selected passages are original sources, not simplifications, paraphrases, abridgments, or modernizations. Only minimal changes are permitted

in reading passages used in NAEP (e.g., substituting an obscure word, revising a confusing phrase,

or replacing an unfamiliar popular name). Such changes do not affect overall passage difficulty

level, purpose, or meaning. Complete stories, articles, or chapters of textbooks are used to engage

students’ interest. These passages make it possible to ask questions that elicit various reading

strategies. 

Passages vary in length. In fourth grade, students read passages of 250 to 800 words; in eighth

grade, 400 to 1,000 words; and in twelfth grade, 500 to 1,500 words. In grades 8 and 12, students

may be given two related reading passages in the 50-minute block. 

The selected passages for each grade are developmentally and topically appropriate. In addition, passages are intact and meet criteria for genre, language, interest, and organization. These

criteria include curricular considerations, appropriateness of the topic, style, perspective, and fairness. Documents are genuine and related to tasks that are appropriate for the grade level and experiences of the students being assessed. Exhibit 6 outlines the major criteria for passage selection.

Exhibit 6. Criteria for Passage Selection

● Developmental appropriateness

● Topic appropriateness

● Language appropriateness

● Fairness

● Interest level

● Reproducibility (copyright, format, use for the Internet)

● Diversity among authors

20
Item difficulty is a function of the difficulty of the passage, the complexity of the text, and the

amount of background knowledge required to respond correctly. Because of their limitations,

conventional readability estimates are not the main criteria for determining the difficulty of a

passage, which is a function of the complexity of its arguments, the abstractness of its concepts,

and the inclusion of unusual points of view and shifting time frames—factors that are not addressed by traditional readability measures. As the difficulty of the passages increases, so does

the difficulty of the questions, because the questions focus on important points in the text.

Passages range in difficulty from those that could be read by the least proficient readers (e.g.,

about second-grade level in a fourth-grade class) to those that could be read by only the most

proficient readers (e.g., possibly eighth-grade level in a fourth-grade class), as determined by

teachers in specific grades. 

Item Development

Items are based on the aspects of reading and the related strategies readers use to build understanding. In developing the items, NAEP focuses on the range of questions that tap into each 

aspect of reading as well as the important elements of text. Exhibits 7–9 list sample questions that

address each aspect of reading and element of text in a given context: reading for literary experience (exhibit 7), reading for information (exhibit 8), and reading to perform a task (exhibit 9).

Note that the elements of text are related to the organization and type of text and therefore vary

with the context for reading. 

21
22

Exhibit 7. Sample NAEP Items, by Element of Literary Text and Aspect of Reading

Aspect of Reading

Element of Forming a Making Examining 

Literary General Developing Reader/Text Content and 

Text Understanding Interpretation Connections Structure

Theme What is the moral How does the Do you think the Explain what 

in the story? Use setting help to lesson in this story makes this story 

evidence from the illustrate the theme is true today? a fable.

story in your response. of the story? Why or why not?

Major What was the What causes the How do you think How does the 

characters major character’s main character to the character’s actions author’s description

opinion of _____? do _____? Use might be different of _____ help explain 

evidence from the today? Support your the character’s 

story in your response with actions?

response. evidence from the story. 

Major events Write a short What happens How do you think the How do the first

summary of the after _____? story would have events help you

major events ended if _____ had predict the ending?

in the story. not happened? 

Problem How does _____ How did _____ How does the Why does the

make the problem help solve the problem in the story author explain the 

worse? Use evidence problem? compare with another problem in the first 

from the text to story you have read? part of the story?

support your Include evidence Explain with 

response. from the text and evidence from

another story. the story.

Vocabulary Which words describe Which words let you Explain the double Why does the

what the story is know that time has meaning of _____. author use the

mostly about? Use gone by? Explain Tell which meaning words _____ to

evidence from the with evidence from better explains the describe how _____

text to support your the story. major ideas in the feels?

response. passage.
23

Exhibit 8. Sample NAEP Items, by Element of Informational Text and Aspect of Reading

Aspect of Reading

Element of Forming a Making Examining 

Informational General Developing Reader/Text Content and 

Text Understanding Interpretation Connections Structure

Central What might be the How does the author Do you agree with Based on what you 

purpose author’s message support the message? the author’s message? read, what might be

in this article? Give evidence from the reason the author 

the text. wrote this?

Major ideas Give a summary How does the Who might need What did the author 

of the major ideas. big idea in the or want this do to present 

first section relate information? Use information clearly?

to the big idea in details from the text

the last section? in your answer.

Supporting Identify ideas that How does the Which details about What information

ideas most closely relate author show you the _____ help you did the author have

to the topic. Give that the main idea to have a clear image to know before

evidence from the is important? of the topic? Explain writing the article.

text to support your why you chose them.

choice.

Adjunct aids The chart in this How does the Why did the author What is the

article is mostly information in the include the picture significance of

used to _____? chart support the with the chart? the map to the

information in the Explain using what article? Explain.

article? you know and 

information from

the text.

Vocabulary Which words describe Which words do Explain the double Why did the author 

what the passage is you think mean the meaning of _____. give a definition of 

mostly about? Use same as the title? Tell which meaning _____ in paragraph 

the evidence from Tell why you better explains the 2? 

the text to support think so. major ideas in the 

your choice. passage.
24

Exhibit 9. Sample NAEP Items, by Element of Practical Text and Aspect of Reading

Aspect of Reading

Element of Forming a Making Examining 

Practical General Developing Reader/Text Content and 

Text Understanding Interpretation Connections Structure

Central What is the purpose Do these directions Do you think the Is this mainly for

purpose of the document? list all the materials directions would be readers familiar

Use evidence from you need? Give a the same for _____? with the activity?

the document in reason for your Use evidence from Explain why or

your response. answer. the text. why not. 

Key Tell how this Why is it important Compare the dir- Name one step 

information information would to do _____ before ections to a set of that is important

be useful. Use _____? Use evidence directions you have in order to follow

evidence from the from the document used in the past. the directions.

document. in your response. Which set is easier Explain why this 

to follow? Tell why. step is important.

Key Tell what you need to What happens When might you use Explain how the 

organizing complete the steps. after _____? these steps? Support author organized 

features Which features Explain why this is your answer with this document. Use

indicate this? an important step? evidence from the support from the

text. text.

Key graphics What is the signifi- Why does the second Which additional Why is there 

cance of the graphics picture show _____? graphics would boldface print at 

to the total set of you add to make the the front of each 

directions? Use directions clear? section?

support from the Use support from 

text in your response. the text.

Vocabulary Which words tell Use the context to Explain why the Why does the

what the document tell the meaning phrase _____ is author use the

is mostly about? of _____. useful in these words _____ to

Use evidence from directions. present the last

the text to support step of the 

your response. directions?
Review Process 

An extensive review process ensures that the assessments are consistent in meeting the criteria outlined in the framework. External reading committees and state-level testing and reading

experts check the content of the assessments. Items are reviewed for bias and sensitivity, and

test specialists review the items for technical qualities. An extensive editorial review provides

for quality assurance. Finally, as mandated by NAEP law, the Governing Board reviews the

items both before and after field testing for appropriateness and bias.

Accommodations

NAEP reading is administered to English-language learners and students with disabilities

who, in the judgment of the school staff, are capable of taking the assessment. NAEP’s intent is

to assess all selected students from the target population. Therefore, every effort is made to ensure that all selected students who are capable of participating in the assessment are assessed.

Some students sampled for participation in NAEP are excluded according to carefully defined

criteria. These criteria were revised in 1996 to more clearly communicate a presumption of 

inclusion except under special circumstances. Students are excluded only if

● the school’s Individual Education Plan (IEP) team determines that the student cannot 

participate, or

● the student’s cognitive functioning is so severely impaired that she or he cannot participate.

According to these criteria, students who are English-language learners and those with disabilities who have IEPs that indicate accommodation strategies and procedures participate in 

the assessment. Accommodations include (but are not limited to) 

● extra testing time,

● individual or small-group administrations,

● large-print booklets, and 

● multiple testing sessions.

Accommodations may be provided in combination—for example, extra testing time and individual administration. Because NAEP considers the domain of its reading assessment to be

reading, the assessment cannot be read aloud. Moreover, NAEP does not provide an alternate

language version.

25

Chapter Three

How Are Results of the NAEP Reading Assessment Reported?

NAEP reading assessment results are reported in terms of average scores for groups of

students on the NAEP 0–500 scale and as percentages of students who attain each of the

three achievement levels: Basic, Proficient, and Advanced (see exhibit 10). The achievement levels offer a means of identifying percentages of students who have demonstrated certain

reading proficiencies. Authorized by NAEP legislation and adopted by the Governing Board, the

achievement levels are performance standards based on the collective judgments of experts about

what students should know and be able to do in terms of the NAEP Reading Framework.

As part of the process for setting achievement levels for each NAEP subject area, panels of

teachers, curriculum experts, policymakers, and members of the general public use the generic

policy definitions to develop descriptions of what students should know and be able to do at the

Basic, Proficient, and Advanced levels. These descriptions are presented in exhibits 11–13 to illustrate Basic, Proficient, and Advanced performance on the NAEP reading assessment for fourth,

eighth, and twelfth graders.

27

Exhibit 10. Policy Definitions of NAEP Achievement Levels

Advanced Superior performance.

Proficient Solid academic performance for each grade assessed. Students reaching this level have 

demonstrated competency over challenging subject matter, including subject-matter 

knowledge, application of such knowledge to real-world situations, and analytical skills 

appropriate to the subject matter.

Basic Partial mastery of prerequisite knowledge and skills that are fundamental for proficient 

work at each grade.
28

Exhibit 11. NAEP Reading Achievement Levels: Grade 4

Reading 

Achievement 

Level Description

Advanced Fourth-grade students performing at the Advanced level should be able to generalize about

topics in the reading selection and demonstrate an awareness of how authors compose and

use literary devices. When reading text appropriate to fourth grade, they should be able to

judge texts critically and, in general, give thorough answers that indicate careful thought. 

For example, when reading literary text, Advanced-level students should be able to make

generalizations about the point of the story and extend its meaning by integrating personal

experiences and other readings with ideas suggested by the text. They should be able to

identify literary devices such as figurative language. 

When reading informational text, Advanced-level fourth graders should be able to explain

the author’s intent by using supporting material from the text. They should be able to make

critical judgments of the form and content of the text and explain their judgments clearly.

Proficient Fourth-grade students performing at the Proficient level should be able to demonstrate an

overall understanding of the text, providing inferential as well as literal information. When

reading text appropriate to fourth grade, they should be able to extend the ideas in the text

by making inferences, drawing conclusions, and making connections to their own experiences. The connections between the text and what the student infers should be clear. 

For example, when reading literary text, Proficient-level fourth graders should be able to

summarize the story, draw conclusions about the characters or plot, and recognize relationships such as cause and effect. 

When reading informational text, Proficient-level students should be able to summarize the

information and identify the author’s intent or purpose. They should be able to draw reasonable conclusions from the text, recognize relationships such as cause and effect or similarities and differences, and identify the meaning of the selection’s key concepts. 

Basic Fourth-grade students performing at the Basic level should demonstrate an understanding of

the overall meaning of what they read. When reading text appropriate for fourth graders,

they should be able to make relatively obvious connections between the text and their own

experiences, and extend the ideas in the text by making simple inferences. 

For example, when reading literary text, they should be able to tell what the story is generally about—providing details to support their understanding—and be able to connect aspects of the stories to their own experiences. 

When reading informational text, Basic-level fourth graders should be able to tell what the

selection is generally about or identify the purpose for reading it, provide details to support

their understanding, and connect ideas from the text to their background knowledge and

experiences.
29

Exhibit 12. NAEP Reading Achievement Levels: Grade 8

Reading 

Achievement 

Level Description

Advanced Eighth-grade students performing at the Advanced level should be able to describe the more

abstract themes and ideas of the overall text. When reading text appropriate to eighth grade,

they should be able to analyze both meaning and form and support their analyses explicitly

with examples from the text, and they should be able to extend text information by relating

it to their experiences and to world events. At this level, student responses should be thorough, thoughtful, and extensive. 

For example, when reading literary text, Advanced-level eighth graders should be able to

make complex, abstract summaries and theme statements. They should be able to describe

the interactions of various literary elements (i.e., setting, plot, characters, and theme) and

explain how the use of literary devices affects both the meaning of the text and their response to the author’s style. They should be able to critically analyze and evaluate the composition of the text. 

When reading informational text, they should be able to analyze the author’s purpose and

point of view. They should be able to use cultural and historical background information to

develop perspectives on the text and be able to apply text information to broad issues and

world situations. 

When reading practical text, Advanced-level students should be able to synthesize information that will guide their performance, apply text information to new situations, and critique

the usefulness of the form and content.

Proficient Eighth-grade students performing at the Proficient level should be able to show an overall

understanding of the text, including inferential as well as literal information. When reading

text appropriate to eighth grade, they should be able to extend the ideas in the text by making clear inferences from it, by drawing conclusions, and by making connections to their

own experiences—including other reading experiences. Proficient eighth graders should be

able to identify some of the devices authors use in composing text. 

For example, when reading literary text, students at the Proficient level should be able to

give details and examples to support themes that they identify. They should be able to use

implied as well as explicit information in articulating themes; to interpret the actions, behaviors, and motives of characters; and to identify the use of literary devices such as personification and foreshadowing. 

When reading informational text, they should be able to summarize the text using explicit

and implied information and support conclusions with inferences based on the text. 

When reading practical text, Proficient-level students should be able to describe its purpose

and support their views with examples and details. They should be able to judge the importance of certain steps and procedures.

continued on page 30
30

Reading 

Achievement 

Level Description

Basic Eighth-grade students performing at the Basic level should demonstrate a literal understanding of what they read and be able to make some interpretations. When reading text appropriate to eighth grade, they should be able to identify specific aspects of the text that reflect

the overall meaning, extend the ideas in the text by making simple inferences, recognize

and relate interpretations and connections among ideas in the text to personal experience,

and draw conclusions based on the text. 

For example, when reading literary text, Basic-level eighth graders should be able to 

identify themes and make inferences and logical predictions about aspects such as plot 

and characters. 

When reading informational text, they should be able to identify the main idea and the 

author’s purpose. They should make inferences and draw conclusions supported by information in the text. They should recognize the relationships among the facts, ideas, events,

and concepts of the text (e.g., cause and effect, order). 

When reading practical text, they should be able to identify the main purpose and make

predictions about the relatively obvious outcomes of procedures in the text.

Exhibit 12. NAEP Reading Achievement Levels: Grade 8 (continued)
31

Exhibit 13. NAEP Reading Achievement Levels: Grade 12

Reading 

Achievement 

Level Description

Advanced Twelfth-grade students performing at the Advanced level should be able to describe more

abstract themes and ideas in the overall text. When reading text appropriate to twelfth grade,

they should be able to analyze both the meaning and the form of the text and explicitly support their analyses with specific examples from the text. They should be able to extend the

information from the text by relating it to their experiences and to the world. Their responses

should be thorough, thoughtful, and extensive. 

For example, when reading literary text, Advanced-level twelfth graders should be able to

produce complex, abstract summaries and theme statements. They should be able to use

cultural, historical, and personal information to develop and explain text perspectives and

conclusions. They should be able to evaluate the text, applying knowledge gained from

other texts. 

When reading informational text, they should be able to analyze, synthesize, and evaluate

points of view. They should be able to identify the relationship between the author’s stance

and elements of the text. They should be able to apply text information to new situations

and to the process of forming new responses to problems or issues. 

When reading practical text, Advanced-level twelfth graders should be able to make critical

evaluations of the usefulness of the text and apply directions from the text to new situations.

Proficient Twelfth-grade students performing at the Proficient level should be able to show an overall

understanding of the text, which includes inferential as well as literal information. When reading text appropriate to twelfth grade, they should be able to extend the ideas of the text by

making inferences, drawing conclusions, and making connections to their own personal experiences and other readings. Connections between inferences and the text should be clear, even

when implicit. These students should be able to analyze the author’s use of literary devices. 

When reading literary text, Proficient-level twelfth graders should be able to integrate their

personal experiences with ideas in the text to draw and support conclusions. They should be

able to explain the author’s use of literary devices such as irony and symbolism. 

When reading informative text, they should be able to apply text information appropriately

to specific situations and integrate their background information with ideas in the text to

draw and support conclusions. 

When reading practical text, they should be able to apply information or directions appropriately. They should be able to use personal experiences to evaluate the usefulness of text

information.

continued on page 32
The reading performance of fourth graders and the aspects of reading can be illustrated by a

map that positions item descriptions along the NAEP reading composite scale where items are

likely to be answered successfully by students (see exhibit 14). The descriptions used on the map

focus on the reading skill or ability needed to answer the question. For each test item indicated

on the map, students who scored above the scale point had a higher probability of successfully

answering the question, and students who scored below the scale point had a lower probability of

successfully answering the question. Item maps are useful indicators of higher or lower probability of successfully answering test questions depending on students’ overall ability as measured by

the NAEP scale.

NAEP achievement level descriptions provide descriptions of Basic, Proficient, and Advanced

performance. However, based on the NAEP reading results, it may be useful to give some information about students who score below the Basic level. These students are not necessarily nonreaders. They may be able to read but not well enough to attain the minimum score for Basic. For

example, exhibit 14 indicates what fourth-grade students scoring below Basic could do on the

2000 NAEP reading assessment. As one can see, students who scored below Basic could complete such tasks as identifying a character trait and identifying a character’s problem, tasks that

require some reading and comprehension skills. Given the length and difficulty of the passages,

the skills demonstrated by some of the students who scored below Basic indicated some comprehension. Additional NAEP reading questions with performance results are available on the

NAEP Web site at www.nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard.

The NAEP reading assessment provides important information for nationally representative

samples of students in grades 4, 8, and 12 and for state-level samples of fourth and eighth

32

Reading 

Achievement 

Level Description

Basic Twelfth-grade students performing at the Basic level should be able to demonstrate an overall understanding and make some interpretations of the text. When reading text appropriate

to twelfth grade, they should be able to identify and relate aspects of the text to its overall

meaning, extend the ideas in the text by making simple inferences, recognize interpretations, make connections among and relate ideas in the text to their personal experiences,

and draw conclusions. They should be able to identify elements of an author’s style. 

For example, when reading literary text, Basic-level twelfth graders should be able to explain the theme, support their conclusions with information from the text, and make connections between aspects of the text and their own experiences. 

When reading informational text, Basic-level twelfth graders should be able to explain the

main idea or purpose of a selection and use text information to support a conclusion or make a

point. They should be able to make logical connections between the ideas in the text and their

own background knowledge. 

When reading practical text, they should be able to explain its purpose and the significance

of specific details or steps.

Exhibit 13. NAEP Reading Achievement Levels: Grade 12 (continued)
graders. NAEP also reports on subgroups of students by gender, race/ethnicity, region of the country, type of school location (e.g., central city, urban fringe/large town, rural/small town), eligibility for free-reduced price lunch, public or nonpublic school, and other variables of interest. For an

example of how NAEP reports such data, see Fourth-Grade Reading Highlights 2000 (National

Center for Education Statistics (NCES), 2001) or the NAEP Web site at www.nces.ed.gov/

nationsreportcard.

One of the most important functions of NAEP is to report trends in the average reading

achievement of students over time. This information helps policymakers and the public answer

the following:

● Are students improving in reading achievement over time?

● Are percentages of students at the upper achievement levels increasing, decreasing, or 

remaining the same?

● Are the gaps in achievement among various groups narrowing?

This information is useful in making decisions about the allocation of resources and the framing

of policy related to reading. For examples of how NAEP reports trends, see Fourth-Grade Reading

Highlights 2000 (NCES, 2001) or the NAEP Web site at www.nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard. 

Students participating in NAEP respond to a background survey that provides information to

round out the picture of reading in the United States. This survey gathers information on items

such as the amount of time students spend reading in school and out of school, home activities

related to reading, and the types of activities their teachers use for reading instruction. Some activities are related to average scores on NAEP. NAEP collects only background information that

is related to reading achievement. For example, those students who report having the opportunity to read books for fun every day have significantly higher average scores than those who only

read for fun once or twice a week. However, a complex mix of educational and socioeconomic

factors may interact to affect student achievement. To see how NAEP reports relate information

from the surveys to the main part of NAEP, see Fourth-Grade Reading Highlights 2000 (NCES,

2001) or the NAEP Web site at www.nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard.

The results of the NAEP reading assessment and the analyses of those results provide a useful

snapshot of reading achievement in the United States that can be compared with achievement in

previous years to identify trends and background factors in reading. When interpreting NAEP

results, keep in mind that there is no simple causal relationship between membership in a subgroup and performance on NAEP.

33
34

Exhibit 14. Selected Item Descriptions on NAEP Reading Scale: Grade 4

324 Use text ideas to elaborate a hypothetical situation

312 Use metaphor to compare story characters

311 Contrast historical information to present day

300 Provide and explain an alternative ending

299 Interpret story action to provide lesson characters learned

299 Describe character’s changing feelings and explain cause

291 Use character trait to connect with prior knowledge

287 Extract relevant examples to support statement

286 Compare story characters using text details

280 Use text description and prior knowledge to support opinion

274 Explain purpose of direct quotations

273 Identify author’s illustration of theme through story action

264 Use text evidence to evaluate title

263 Use different parts of text to provide supporting examples

259 Explain author’s statement with text information

257 Infer character motivation from story setting

255 Evaluate author’s presentation of information

246 Identify main theme of story

240 Explain character’s motivation 

240 Identify author’s use of specific details

231 Use prior knowledge to make text-related comparison

230 Compare text ideas using specific information

225 Recognize meaning of specialized vocabulary from context

224 Identify main topic of article

218 Locate and provide explicitly stated information

212 Recognize a description of character’s motivation

210 Recognize accurate description of character’s feelings

206 Identify defining character trait

200 Recognize explicitly stated information

192 Provide a personal reaction with minimal supporting explanation

188 Recognize genre of story

184 Identify main reason for reading article

170 Identify character’s main dilemma

166 Provide plot-level lesson characters learned

330

320

310

300

290

280

270

260

250

240

230

220

210

200

190

180

170

160

500

0

268

238

208

Advanced

Proficient

Basic

Note: Regular type denotes a constructed-response question. Italic type denotes a multiple-choice question. Each grade 4 reading

question was mapped onto the NAEP 0–500 reading scale. The position of the question on the scale represents the scale score

attained by students who had a 65 percent probability of successfully answering a constructed-response question or a 74 percent

probability of correctly answering a four-option multiple-choice question. Only selected questions are presented. Scale score

ranges for reading achievement levels are referenced on the map. 

Source: National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), 2000 NAEP reading 

assessment.
35

Chapter Four

What Are the Foundations for the NAEP Reading 

Assessment?

The framework for the NAEP reading assessment reflects professional viewpoints, empirical

evidence from high-quality research on reading, and the best technical design possible in a

reading assessment that measures the achievement of thousands of students. It embraces a

broad concept of reading that is supported by the findings of contemporary research and is relevant to state and local standards and curriculum. It is based on recognition of the fact that a balance of approaches and programs is needed to produce successful readers. The framework is a

synthesis of various perspectives, emphases, and opinions among professionals in universities,

states, local districts, and classrooms.

An obvious goal of reading education is the development of proficient readers. Consequently,

it is reasonable that a process guiding the development of a national assessment of reading should

start with a clear vision of that goal (see “What Is the NAEP Reading Assessment?”). As a result

of that starting point, the NAEP Reading Framework focuses on tasks proficient readers in fourth,

eighth, and twelfth grades should perform. The assessment does not focus solely on the many

specific skills a reader must use but seldom uses in isolation. This is also in keeping with NAEP’s

role as an assessment of overall achievement rather than a diagnostic tool for individual students.

Although teachers certainly need to know which specific skills students possess or need to improve, policymakers and the general public are mainly concerned with whether students are

reaching overall goals.

Reading Process

The NAEP reading assessment approaches reading as a complex process rather than a simple

set of skills. This approach is confirmed by the following statement in the Report of the National

Reading Panel (NICHD, 2000a):

Comprehension is defined as “intentional thinking during which meaning is constructed through interactions between text and reader” (Harris and Hodges, 1995). Thus,

readers derive meaning from text when they engage in intentional, problem-solving

thinking processes. (p. 14)

Types of Assessments

The NAEP reading assessment is an assessment of overall achievement, not a tool for diagnosing the needs of individuals or groups of students. A diagnostic assessment of reading ability for

students in grade 4 would examine an individual student’s ability to read fluently aloud, using

both the ability to decode words and to recognize them instantly. It would explore what specific

comprehension skills the reader could demonstrate such as finding the main idea, relating cause

and effect, inferring character qualities, and detecting sequence. However, an achievement 
measure such as NAEP asks broader questions; for example, how well does this student or group

of students read? Is this level of achievement good enough to meet the standard that has been set? 

NAEP examines whether students can use multiple skills, not specific skills, to comprehend

what they read. Effective reading programs definitely focus on teaching specific reading skills.

However, when people actually read, they choose and orchestrate arrays of skills, sometimes almost simultaneously. The NAEP reading assessment examines whether students can actually use

sets of skills in reading for different purposes.

Background Surveys

Because reading proficiency is the outcome of factors in the home, school, and community, the

NAEP reading assessment includes several background surveys. They provide information on the

resources and activities in school and out of school that affect students’ development as readers.

Surveys are administered to students, teachers, and principals. NAEP reports survey results as

general trends and as they relate to average scores and achievement levels on the assessment. The

factors addressed in the background surveys were considered carefully as the committee guiding

the development of the NAEP reading assessment debated, reached agreement, and worked to

articulate the framework for the assessment.

36
Bibliography

Adams, M.J. 1990. Beginning To Read: Thinking and Learning About Print. Cambridge, MA:

MIT Press.

Donahue, P.L., Finnegan, R.J., Lutkus, A.D., Allen, N.J., and Campbell, J.R. 2001. The Nation’s Report Card: Fourth-Grade Reading 2000. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics. 

Donahue, P.L., Voekl, K.E., Campbell, J.R., and Mazzeo, J. 1999. NAEP 1998 Reading 

Report Card for the Nation and the States. Washington, DC: National Center for Education

Statistics.

Harris, T.L., and Hodges, R.E., eds. 1995. The Literary Dictionary: The Vocabulary of Reading and Writing. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement. 2000. Framework

and Specifications for PIRLS Assessment 2001. Chestnut Hill, MA: International Study

Center, Boston College.

Kamil, M.L., Mosenthal, P.B., Pearson, P.D., and Barr, R., eds. 2000. Handbook of Reading

Research. Vol. 3. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Lyon, G.R. 1998. “Overview of Reading and Literacy Research.” In Patton, S., and Holmes,

M., eds. The Keys to Literacy. Washington, DC: Council for Basic Education.

National Assessment Governing Board. 2000. Reading Framework for the National Assessment of Educational Progress: 1992–2000. Washington, DC: Author.

National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). 2001. Fourth-Grade Reading Highlights

2000. Washington, DC: Author.

National Institute for Child Health and Human Development (NICHD). 2000a. Report of 

the National Reading Panel. Washington, DC: Author.

———. 2000b. Report of the National Reading Panel: Report of the Subgroups. Washington,

DC: Author.

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. 2000. Measuring Student 

Knowledge and Skills: The PISA 2000 Assessment of Reading, Mathematical, and 

Scientific Literacy. Paris, France: Author.

Snow, C.E. 2000. Reading for Understanding: Toward an R&D Program in Reading 

Comprehension. Santa Monica, CA: Rand.

Snow, C.E., Burns, S., and Griffin, P., eds. 1998. Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young

Children. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

37

Appendix A 

Sample Reading Passages, Items, and Scoring Rubrics

41

Sample Reading Passages, Items, and Scoring Rubrics

Grade 4—“A Brick to Cuddle Up To”

Scoring Criteria for Constructed-Response Questions

Note: Performance results may not total to 100 percent due to off-task and omitted responses.

Question 2. After reading this article, would you like to have lived during colonial times?

What information in the article makes you think this?

Scoring Guide 

Score and Description 

Evidence of Full Comprehension

These responses give an opinion using clear and substantive information from the article 

and displaying an ability to make a personal connection with the text information. The 

supporting information is explicitly from the article and is used appropriately in support 

of their opinion.

Evidence of Partial or Surface Comprehension

These responses support an opinion of colonial life with unclear information or information

related to colonial life that is not clearly from the article. Or, they use evidence from the 

article to describe colonial life without explicitly stating an opinion. 

Evidence of Little or No Comprehension

These responses contain inappropriate information from the article or personal opinions 

about the article but do not demonstrate an understanding of what it was like to live during

colonial times as described in the article. They may answer the question, but provide no 

substantive explanation. 

[Full 20%, Partial 58%, Little or No Comprehension 20%]
42

Question 3. Some of the ways that colonists kept warm during the winter were different

from the ways that people keep warm today. Tell about two of these differences.

Scoring Guide

Score and Description 

Evidence of Full Comprehension

These responses explain at least two ways the colonists kept warm that are different from 

two methods used today. The explanations of both the colonial and/or modern methods must

be clear, logical, and distinct. These responses demonstrate an ability to link information 

from the article with related knowledge about the way things are done today. 

Evidence of Partial or Surface Comprehension

These responses include some information about how people keep warm. However, they 

describe no more than one difference between the ways colonists kept warm and the ways

people keep warm today. Or, they talk only about the colonists without linking information

from the article with knowledge about methods of keeping warm today. 

Evidence of Little or No Comprehension

These responses contain inappropriate information from the article and/or do not explain how

colonists kept warm in the winter. They may or may not discuss how people keep warm today. 

[Full 17%, Partial 59%, Little or No Comprehension 21%]
43

Question 4. Do you think “A Brick to Cuddle Up To” is a good title for this article?

Using information from the article, tell why or why not.

Scoring Guide

Score and Description 

Evidence of Full Comprehension

These responses support an opinion with a clear explanation of the relationship between 

the title and the article. They summarize or articulate information from the article and tell

whether it does or does not relate to the title. 

Evidence of Partial or Surface Comprehension

These responses support an opinion with a vague explanation that does not demonstrate 

a clear understanding of how the title applies to the article. Or, they use evidence from the 

article to assess the title’s appropriateness without explicitly stating or implying an opinion. 

Evidence of Little or No Comprehension

These responses contain inappropriate information from the article or personal opinions 

about the article and/or do not demonstrate any understanding of the title. They may answer

the question, but they provide no substantive explanation from the article.

[Full 37%, Partial 32%, Little or No Comprehension 27%]

Question 5. Give two reasons stated in the article why the hearth was the center of the

home in colonial times.

Scoring Guide

Score and Description 

Evidence of Full Comprehension

These responses provide two text-based reasons why the hearth was the center of the 

colonial home. They demonstrate understanding of why the daily conditions in a colonial

household highlighted the hearth’s importance. 

Evidence of Partial or Surface Comprehension

These responses give only one text-based reason why the hearth was important. Although 

the responses must demonstrate the need for a hearth, they do not have to explicitly mention

its role. 

Evidence of Little or No Comprehension

These responses contain inappropriate information from the article or personal opinions 

about the article that fail to address the importance of the hearth. They demonstrate no 

understanding of how the colonists used the hearth as described in the article. 

[Full 20%, Partial 46%, Little or No Comprehension 20%]
44

Question 7. Pretend that you are an early American colonist. Describe at least three 

activities you might do during a cold winter evening. Be specific. Use details from the 

article to help you write your description.

Scoring Guide

Score and Description 

Extensive

These responses demonstrate an overall understanding of how staying warm was a central

concern for colonists on a cold winter evening. They present three or more evening 

activities, three of which involve the need to stay warm as described in the article. 

Essential

These responses demonstrate an understanding of the colonial lifestyle portrayed in the 

article. They present at least three text-based evening activities, one or two of which 

involve the need to stay warm as described in the article. 

Partial

These responses begin to discuss a typical evening in the colonies. They use details that are

based on superficial information from the article and describe one or two activities unrelated

to the need to stay warm (which was the major focus of the article). Or, they mention one or

two activities from the article that involve staying warm. Or, they generalize about the need 

to stay warm without specifying any activity. 

Unsatisfactory

These responses contain inappropriate information from the article or personal opinions 

about the article but do not discuss a typical colonial evening. They demonstrate no understanding of the colonists’ lifestyle as portrayed in the passage. 

[Extensive 12%, Essential 6%, Partial 52%, Unsatisfactory 24%]
45

Question 9. Does the author help you understand what colonial life was like? Use examples from the article to explain why or why not.

Scoring Guide

Score and Description 

Evidence of Full Comprehension

These responses provide an opinion about the author’s abilities. In addition, they provide at

least one supportive example from the text that demonstrates an objective consideration of 

the article and/or text-based critical judgment of the author’s competence. 

Evidence of Partial or Surface Comprehension

These responses provide an opinion about the author. These opinions go beyond simply 

“yes” or “no” by demonstrating some understanding of the information in the article. They

fail to provide appropriate evidence from the article to support their opinion concerning the

author’s abilities. 

Evidence of Little or No Comprehension

These responses contain inappropriate information from the article or unsupported personal

opinions about either the article or the author. These personal opinions provide no evidence 

of understanding the information in the article.

[Full 20%, Partial 29%, Little or No Comprehension 51%]
46

Grade 4 Sample Reading Passage: Literary

Questions for “Hungry Spider and the Turtle”

1. Why did Spider invite Turtle to share his food?

a. To amuse himself

b. To be kind and helpful

c. To have company at dinner

d. To appear generous

[Aspect: Developing Interpretation Key: D Percent correct: 40%]

2. There is a saying, “Don’t get mad, get even.” How does this apply to the story?

[Aspect: Examining Content and Structure Percent Acceptable: 55%]

HUNGRY SPIDER AND THE TURTLE 

(Description of Story)*

“Hungry Spider and the Turtle” is a West African folktale that humorously depicts hunger and the custom of hospitality through the actions

and conversations of the title characters.

Spider and Turtle live in different countries. They first meet when Turtle,

famished from traveling a long way from home, comes upon Spider’s

house. While Spider is well known among his neighbors for his great appetite and his greediness, Turtle, being a stranger, believes Spider’s offer

of a meal to be sincere. It becomes clear that Spider wants all the food

for himself and that his gesture of hospitality is merely show so that people will not speak badly of him. Turtle realizes that he has been tricked

out of having any food but doesn’t let on that he knows. He suavely concurs with Spider that it was a fine meal; and as Turtle leaves, he assures

Spider of similar hospitality if Spider ever visits in his country. 

In time, the gluttonous Spider finds himself a long way from home in

Turtle’s country. Now it is Turtle’s turn to use local custom as a camouflage for true intent. He repays Spider’s gesture of hospitality, and 

Spider gets the meal that he deserves. 

* We did not receive copyright approval to put the actual text from the student booklet on the Web site. The full text can be

found in Harold Courlander, “Hungry Spider and the Turtle,” from The Cow-Tail Switch & Other West African Stories.

Copyright © 1987 by Henry Holt and Company, Inc. 
3. Which best describes Spider’s character?

a. Patient

b. Friendly

c. Selfish

d. Angry

[Aspect: General Understanding Key: C Percent correct: 77%]

4. What do Turtle’s actions at Spider’s house tell you about Turtle?

[Aspect: Developing Interpretation Percent Acceptable: 41%]

5. When Turtle remains quiet about his mistreatment by Spider, the author wants to

a. believe Turtle is afraid

b. have sympathy for Turtle

c. feel dislike for Turtle

d. think Turtle deserved no dinner

[Aspect: Examining Content and Structure Key: B Percent correct: 60%]

6. Think about Spider and Turtle in the story. Pick someone you know, have read about,

or have seen in the movies or on television and explain how that person is like either

Spider or Turtle.

[Aspect: Reader/Text Connections Percent Extensive: 14%]

7. Spider’s behavior during the first part of the story is most like that of 

a. mothers protecting their children

b. thieves robbing banks

c. runners losing races

d. people not sharing their wealth

[Aspect: Reader/Text Connections Key: D Percent correct: 73%]

8. Who do you think would make a better friend, Spider or Turtle? Explain why.

[Aspect: Reader/Text Connections Percent Acceptable: 62%]

47
48

9. Spider’s visit to Turtle in the second part of the story mainly shows that

a. Turtle could treat Spider the same way

b. Spider could float on the water

c. Spider could get a free meal

d. Turtle lived in a small house

[Aspect: Examining Content and Structure Key: A Percent correct: 82%]

10. Do you think Turtle should have done what he did to Spider? Explain why or why not.

[Aspect: Reader/Text Connections Percent Acceptable: 61%]

11. The final sentence of the story is: “People always say that one good meal deserves another.” The author uses this sentence as a way of saying that

a. Turtle and Spider both were good cooks

b. Turtle should not have invited Spider to dinner

c. Spider earned what Turtle did to him

d. Spider should have cooked what Turtle liked to eat

[Aspect: Examining Content and Structure Key: C Percent correct: 73%]

Grade 4—“Hungry Spider and the Turtle”

Scoring Criteria for Constructed-Response Questions

Note: Performance results may not total to 100 percent due to off-task and omitted responses.

Question 2. There is a saying, “Don’t get mad, get even.” How does this apply to the

story?

Scoring Guide 

Score and Description 

Acceptable

Acceptable answers indicate that Turtle got back at Spider or got revenge for Spider’s not

sharing his food.

Unacceptable

Unacceptable responses do not demonstrate an understanding of Turtle’s getting back at 

Spider for not sharing his food.

[Acceptable 55%, Unacceptable 37%]
49

Question 4. What do Turtle’s actions at Spider’s house tell you about Turtle?

Scoring Guide 

Score and Description 

Acceptable

Acceptable responses indicate, essentially, that Turtle was any of the following:

● Passive ● Long-suffering

● Patient ● Smart

● Polite ● Hungry/desperate for food

● Correct or right ● Suckered

● Resigned ● Always trying over and over

Unacceptable

Unacceptable responses include:

● Washed his feet

● Dirty

The following responses are unacceptable unless accompanied by a valid explanation or 

supportive information. 

● Nice

● Friendly

[Acceptable 41%, Unacceptable 52%]
50

Question 6. Think about Spider and Turtle in the story. Pick someone you know, have

read about, or have seen in the movies or on television and explain how that person is

like either Spider or Turtle.

Scoring Guide 

Score and Description 

Extensive

These responses demonstrate an in-depth, rich understanding of the character of Spider or

Turtle and link this understanding to a real-world person or a fictional character. Evidence of

depth of understanding includes describing more than one essential story-character trait linked

to a real-world person or a fictional character, providing a sophisticated interpretation of an

essential story-character trait that is linked to a real-world person or a fictional character,

identifying how a real-world person or a fictional character is like Spider in one way and 

like Turtle in another, or identifying a pair of real-world people or fictional characters and 

explaining how these two people or characters are like Spider and Turtle. For example:

● “My brother and Spider are alike because they both unfairly control the people around

them to their own advantage.”

● “My brother and Spider are alike because they both cheat people and are selfish.”

● “Scrooge is like Spider because he is greedy, and Bob Cratchet is like Turtle because

he gets something in the end too.”

● “My friend Anne is like Turtle because when someone calls her names, she just walks

away, but sometimes she’s like Spider and plays tricks on people.”

Essential

These responses demonstrate a good understanding of the character of Spider or Turtle by

providing any important character trait that is related or linked to a real-world person or a 

fictional character. For example:

● “My older brother and Turtle are alike because they both get revenge on their enemies.”

● “My sister is like Spider because she likes to trick people.”
51

Scoring Guide (Question 6, continued)

Score and Description 

Partial

These responses indicate some understanding of the character of Spider or Turtle in the story

by providing information about the character of Spider or Turtle but fail to make a connection

with a real-world person or character; or they make the connection between a story character

and a real-world person or a fictional character but do so on a trivial point; or they make a

connection between a story character and a real-world person or fictional character but don’t

distinguish whether the story character is like Spider or like Turtle. For example:

● “Turtle was right to get revenge on Spider for the way that Spider treated him.”

● “My friend is like Turtle because they both wipe their feet a lot.”

● “Mindy is like Turtle because she is friendly.”

● “On Chip and Dale’s Rescue Rangers, Dale is always selfish.”

Unsatisfactory

These responses demonstrate little or no understanding of the character of Spider or Turtle. 

In these responses, students often name a character but do not relate this character to Spider

or Turtle or provide only inappropriate characteristics. Also, students may summarize a story

or movie but not relate it to Spider or Turtle in any clear way. For example:

● “My friend is like Turtle.”

● “Turtle always washed his feet.”

● “My friend Jeff because he is friendly.”

● “Someone in my class is friendly like Spider.”

[Extensive 14%, Essential 16%, Partial 22%, Unsatisfactory 34%]
52

Question 8. Who do you think would make a better friend, Spider or Turtle? Explain why.

Scoring Guide

Score and Description 

Acceptable

Acceptable responses mention either Spider or Turtle and cite evidence from the story to 

support the student’s choice. The information cited in the explanation must be appropriate

within the context of the story.

For example:

● “I think Turtle would be a good friend because he isn’t mean to people.”

Unacceptable

Unacceptable responses include:

● “I think Spider, because he shared his food.”

[Acceptable 62%, Unacceptable 34%]

Question 10. Do you think Turtle should have done what he did to Spider? Explain why

or why not.

Scoring Guide 

Score and Description 

Acceptable

Acceptable responses either agree or disagree with Turtle’s actions and mention something

about the fact that Spider was mean to Turtle or that Turtle tricked him and got revenge. The

information included in the explanation must be appropriate within the context of the story.

For example:

● “Turtle was right to get back at Spider because Spider was mean to him.”

● “Turtle was not right to get back at Spider because it was not a nice thing to do.”

Unacceptable

Unacceptable responses include:

● “Turtle was right to get back at Spider because Turtle was hungry.”

[Acceptable 61%, Unacceptable 32%]
Grade 8 Sample Reading Passage: Informational

53

THE LOST PEOPLE OF MESA VERDE

by Elsa Marston

The Anasazi lived peacefully on the mesa for 800 years. Then they disappeared.

In the dry land of southwestern Colorado, a beautiful plateau rises. It has so many

trees that early Spanish explorers called it Mesa Verde, which means “green table.”

For about eight hundred years Native Americans called the Anasazi lived on this

mesa. And then they left. Ever since the cliff houses were first discovered a hundred

years ago, scientists and historians have wondered why.

Anasazi is a Navajo word meaning “the ancient ones.” When they first settled

there, around 500 A.D., the Anasazi lived in alcoves in the walls of the high canyons.

Later they moved to the level land on top, where they built houses of stone and mud

mortar. As time passed, they constructed more elaborate houses, like apartment buildings, with several families living close together.

The Anasazi made beautiful pottery, turquoise jewelry, fine sashes of woven hair,

and baskets woven tightly enough to hold water. They lived by hunting and by growing corn and squash. Their way of life went on peacefully for several hundred years.

Then around 1200 A.D. something strange happened, for which the reasons are not

quite clear. Most of the people moved from the level plateau back down into alcoves

in the cliffs. The move must have made their lives difficult because they had to climb

back up to the plateau to do the farming. But it seems the Anasazi planned to stay in

the canyon walls, for they soon filled the alcoves with amazing cliff dwellings. “Cliff

Palace,” the most famous of these, had more than two hundred rooms.

For all the hard work that went into building these new homes, the Anasazi did not

live in them long. By 1300 A.D., the cliff dwellings were empty. Mesa Verde was

deserted and remained a ghost country for almost six hundred years. Were the people driven out of their homes by enemies? No sign of attack or fighting, or even the

presence of other tribes, has been found.

Archaeologists who have studied the place now believe there are other reasons.

Mesa Verde, the beautiful green table, was no longer a good place to live. For one

thing, in the second half of the thirteenth century there were long periods of cold,

and very little rain fell—or else it came at the wrong time of year. Scientists know

this from examining the wood used in the cliff dwellings. The growth rings in trees

show good and bad growing seasons. But the people had survived drought and bad

weather before, so there must have been another reason.

As the population grew, more land on the mesa top had to be farmed in order to

feed the people. That meant that trees had to be cut to clear the land and also to use

for houses and fuel. Without the forests, the rain began to wash away the mesa top.
Used by permission of Highlights for Children, Inc.,

Columbus, OH. Copyright ©1991.

54

How do we know about erosion problems that happened about eight hundred years

ago? The Anasazi built many low dams across the smaller valleys on the mesa to slow

down rain runoff. Even so, good soil washed away, and the people could no longer

raise enough food. As the forests dwindled, the animals, already overhunted, left the

mesa for mountainous areas with more trees.

And as the mesa “wore out,” so did the people. It appears that the Anasazi were not

healthy. Scientists can learn a lot about ancient people’s health by studying the bones

and teeth found in burials. The mesa dwellers had arthritis, and their teeth were worn

down by the grit in corn meal, a main part of their diet.

As food became scarce, people grew weaker. Not many lived beyond their twenties. Women died very young, and few babies survived. Living so close together in

the cliff houses, where everyone was hungry and worried, the people must have 

suffered from emotional strain. They probably quarreled often.

In the end, the Anasazi must have given up hope that things would get better.

Families packed up and went away. Of course, the “ancient ones” did not simply

disappear. They moved southeast to another area and mingled with other peoples.

After a while, their heritage as the people of the Mesa Verde was forgotten.

In time the trees grew back, and the plateau became green once more. But, for

the Anasazi, it was too late. Although they respected nature and tried to farm 

wisely, land that was used too hard could not support them forever.

Yet in their cliff houses and crafts, the “ancient ones” left us a superb monument.

It is truly one of the most fascinating pictures of America’s past.
Questions for “The Lost People of Mesa Verde”

1. After reading this article, what do you think is the most important information about

the Anasazi?

[Aspect: General Understanding Percent Acceptable: 60%]

2. The three moves made by the Anasazi are listed below. Explain the possible reasons

that were suggested in the article for each move.

500–1200 A.D.—The Anasazi moved from the alcoves to the top of Mesa Verde.

1200 A.D.—The Anasazi moved back down into the alcoves in the cliffs.

1300 A.D.—The Anasazi left Mesa Verde.

[Aspect: Developing Interpretation Percent Extensive: 9%]

3. If you had lived with the Anasazi at Mesa Verde, would you have preferred living on

the top of the mesa or in the cliff houses built into the alcoves? Explain your preference

by using information from the article.

[Aspect: Reader/Text Connections Percent Full Comprehension: 29%]

4. If you could talk to the author of this article, what is one question you could ask her

about the Anasazi that is not already answered in the article? Explain why you would

want to know this information?

[Aspect: Reader/Text Connections Percent Full Comprehension: 15%]

5. Which idea from the text about the Anasazi do the photographs support?

a. They were able to create many useful objects.

b. Farming was probably their major source of food.

c. Wood seems to have been their primary building material. 

d. Their life became much easier when they moved into the cliff dwellings.

[Aspect: Developing Interpretation Key: A Percent correct: 70%]

6. Imagine that you are living with the people of Mesa Verde during the 1200s when 

they left the mesa. Some of your friends and neighbors do not want to leave the area.

Based on information in the article, what would you tell these people to convince them 

to leave?

[Aspect: Examining Content and Structure Percent Full Comprehension: 41%]

55
56

7. The Anasazi’s life before 1200 A.D. was portrayed by the author as being

a. dangerous and warlike

b. busy and exciting

c. difficult and dreary

d. productive and peaceful

[Aspect: Developing Interpretation Key: D Percent correct: 59%]

8. The title and photograph on the first page of the article are probably meant to make

the disappearance of the Anasazi seem to be

a. a personal tragedy

b. a terrible mistake

c. an unsolved mystery

d. an important political event

[Aspect: Developing Interpretation Key: C Percent correct: 84%]

9. Some people say that the Anasazi’s success as a civilization may have actually caused

their own decline. Using information in the article, explain why you agree or disagree

with this statement.

[Aspect: Developing Interpretation Percent Extensive: 12%]

Grade 8—“The Lost People of Mesa Verde”

Scoring Criteria for Constructed-Response Questions

Note: Performance results may not total to 100 percent due to off-task and omitted responses.

Question 1. After reading this article, what do you think is the most important information about the Anasazi?

Scoring Guide

Score and Description

Acceptable

These responses provide a specific detail or a general impression from the passage that 

relates to some aspect of the Anasazi portrayed in the article.

Unacceptable

These responses contain inaccurate information from the article or inappropriate personal

opinions about the article. They do not provide any valid information or appropriate interpretation about the Anasazi as they were portrayed in the article.

[Acceptable 60%, Unacceptable 40%]
57

Question 2. The three moves made by the Anasazi are listed below. Explain the possible

reasons that were suggested in the article for each move.

500–1200 A.D.—The Anasazi moved from the alcoves to the top of the Mesa Verde.

1200 A.D.—The Anasazi moved back down into the alcoves in the cliffs.

1300 A.D.—The Anasazi left Mesa Verde.

Scoring Guide 

Score and Description 

Extensive

These responses identify a reason for all three moves, even though the reasons for all the

moves are not explicitly discussed in the article. These responses go beyond simply restating

the article to interpret some of the information provided in the article as it relates to the moves.

Essential

These responses identify a reason for three of the moves discussed in the article. The reasons

may be brief or simple restatements of information in the article as long as they are logical

and taken from the passage.

Partial

These responses discuss reasons for only one or two of the moves described in the article.

They receive credit for one explanation if they state that the article did not provide possible

reasons for the first move.

Unsatisfactory

These responses do not identify the reasons provided by the article for any of the moves that

were made by the Anasazi. These responses may provide some facts about the Anasazi but 

do not relate them to any of the moves.

[Extensive 9%, Essential 16%, Partial 56%, Unsatisfactory 15%]
58

Question 3. If you had lived with the Anasazi at Mesa Verde, would you have preferred

living on the top of the mesa or in the cliff houses built into the alcoves? Explain your

preference by using information from the article.

Scoring Guide 

Score and Description 

Evidence of Full Comprehension

These responses state a preference and provide an explanation that reflects an appropriate 

interpretation of information in the article. The evidence must logically support the preference and must come directly from the article.

Evidence of Partial or Surface Comprehension

These responses state a preference but explain it with a vague or somewhat unclear interpretation of the information in the article. Or, they may not state a preference, but they may use

information from the article to explain the conditions on top of the Mesa and in the alcoves.

Or, they state a preference but use information from the article that does not support their

preference.

Evidence of Little or No Comprehension

These responses contain inappropriate information from the article or personal opinions 

about the article that demonstrate no understanding of life on top of the mesa or in the 

alcoves. They may answer the question but not explain their preference. Or, they may 

only repeat information from the prompt.

[Full 29%, Partial 44%, Little or No Comprehension 22%]
59

Question 4. If you could talk to the author of this article, what is one question you could

ask her about the Anasazi that is not already answered in the article? Explain why you

would want to know this information.

Scoring Guide 

Score and Description 

Evidence of Full Comprehension

These responses pose one unanswered question about the Anasazi and provide a clear 

explanation of how this additional information would be useful. The explanation must 

be noncircular. For example, it may focus on why the question is puzzling or how the 

answer might be useful on a personal level.

Evidence of Partial or Surface Comprehension

These responses demonstrate some understanding of the article by posing a question that 

is not answered in the article. However, the question is accompanied with a circular explanation or no explanation. Or, they may ask a question about the Anasazi experience that is

only vaguely answered in the text and provides essential information about the Anasazi.

Evidence of Little or No Comprehension

These responses contain inappropriate information from the article or personal opinions 

about the article but fail to pose any questions concerning the Anasazi. Or, they pose 

questions that are already answered in the article. Or, they pose questions that provide 

no indication that they have read the passage (e.g., questions about the author).

[Full 15%, Partial 51%, Little or No Comprehension 25%]
60

Question 6. Imagine that you are living with the people of Mesa Verde during the 1200s

when they left the mesa. Some of your friends and neighbors do not want to leave the

area. Based on information in the article, what would you tell these people to convince

them to leave?

Scoring Guide 

Score and Description 

Evidence of Full Comprehension

These responses discuss one or more ways of convincing the Anasazi to leave the mesa. 

The arguments are based on appropriate information from the article.

Evidence of Partial or Surface Comprehension

These responses discuss one or more ways of convincing the people to leave the mesa. They

do so, however, with arguments based on personal conjecture rather than information from 

the text. Or, they use broad statements such as “If you stay, you will die” rather than specific

information from the article.

Evidence of Little or No Comprehension

These responses contain inappropriate information from the article or personal opinions 

about the article that fail to address the need to leave the mesa. Or, they address the issue

using inaccurate information to support their opinion.

[Full 41%, Partial 29%, Little or No Comprehension 22%]
61

Question 9. Some people say that the Anasazi’s success as a civilization may have actually

caused their own decline. Using information in the article, explain why you agree or

disagree with this statement.

Scoring Guide

Score and Description 

Extensive

These responses assess the statement and provide an explanation that focuses on more than

one aspect of the Anasazi’s lifestyle. They demonstrate an explicit understanding of causal 

relationships between events and outcomes by connecting and integrating ideas across the 

text with their own ideas about the statement. Or, they must demonstrate their understanding

of the paradox of success leading to decline.

Essential

These responses state whether they agree or disagree with the statement and provide an 

appropriate explanation that is based on information in the article. The explanation must

demonstrate a clear understanding of the statement.

Partial

These responses state whether they agree or disagree with the statement, but their explanation 

is based solely on inappropriate information from the text. Or, they provide some information from the article about the Anasazi but do not relate it to why the civilization declined.

Unsatisfactory

These responses do not discuss the validity of the statement. Or, they simply state their 

agreement with no explanation or an explanation relying on circular reasoning. Or they 

give an elaborate opinion that is not text-based.

[Extensive 12%, Essential 16%, Partial 30%, Unsatisfactory 25%]

Grade 12 Sample Reading Passage: Perform a Task

Instructions for Form 1040EZ

• Your filing status is single. • You were under 65 and not blind.

• You do not claim any dependents. • Your taxable income (line 5) is less than $50,000.

• You had only wages, salaries, tips, and taxable scholarships or fellowships, and your taxable

interest income was $400 or less. Caution: If you earned tips (including allocated tips) that

are not included in Box 14 of your W-2, you may not be able to use Form 1040EZ. See page 23

in the booklet. If you are not sure about your filing status or dependents, see pages 15 through

20 in the booklet.If you can’t use this form, see pages 11 through 13 in the booklet for which

form to use. 

Use this 

form if:
62

Please print your numbers inside the boxes. Do not type your numbers. Do not use dollar signs.

You may round off cents to whole dollars. To do so, drop amounts under 50 cents and increase

amounts that are 50 cents or more. For example, $129.49 becomes $129 and $129.50 becomes

$130. If you round off, do so for all amounts. But if you have to add two or more amounts to figure the amount to enter on a line, include cents when adding and round off only the total. 

Please use the mailing label we sent you. It can help speed your refund. After you complete your

return, put the label in the name and address area. Cross out any errors. Print the right information

on the label (including apartment number). If you don’t have a label, print your name, address,

and Social Security number. If your post office does not deliver mail to your home and you have a

PO box, show your PO box number instead of your home address. 

Congress set up this fund to help pay for Presidential election costs. If you want $1 of your tax to

go to this fund, check the “Yes” box. If you check “Yes,” your tax or refund will not change. 

Line 1. If you don’t get your W-2 by February 15, contact your local IRS office. You must still report your wages, salaries, and tips even if you don’t get a W-2 from your employer. Students, if

you received a scholarship or fellowship, see page 23 in the booklet. 

Line 2. Banks, savings and loans, credit unions, etc., should send you a Form 1099-INT showing

the amount of taxable interest paid to you. You must report all your taxable interest even if you

don’t get a Form 1099-INT. If you had tax-exempt interest, such as on municipal bonds, write

“TEI” in the space to the left of line 2. After “TEI,” show the amount of your tax-exempt interest.

Do not add tax-exempt interest in the total on line 2. 

Line 4. If you checked “Yes” because someone can claim you as a dependent, fill in this worksheet to figure the amount to enter on line 4. 

Standard deduction worksheet for dependents who checked “Yes” on line 4

A. Enter the amount from line 1 on front. A.

B. Minimum amount. B. 500.00

C. Compare the amounts on lines A and B above. 

Enter the LARGER of the two amounts here. C. 

D. Maximum amount. D. 3,100.00

E. Compare the amounts on lines C and D. Enter the SMALLER 

of the two amounts here and on line 4 on front. E.

If you checked “No” because no one can claim you as a dependent, enter 5,100.00 on line 4.

This is the total of your standard deduction (3,100.00) and personal exemption (2,000.00).

Line 6. If you received a Form 1099-INT showing income tax withheld (backup withholding), include the amount in the total on line 6. To the left of line 6, write “Form 1099.” If you had two or

more employers and had total wages of over $48,000, see page 35 in the booklet. If you want IRS

to figure your tax, skip lines 7 through 9. Then sign and date your return. If you paid too much

tax, we will send you a refund. If you didn’t pay enough tax, we will send you a bill. We won’t

charge you interest or a late payment penalty if you pay within 30 days of the notice date or by

April 16, whichever is later. If you want to figure your own tax, complete the rest of your return. 

Figure 

your tax

Completing

your return

Name and 

address

Presidential 

campaign fund

Report your 

income
Line 9. If you owe tax, attach your check or money order for the full amount. Write your Social

Security number, daytime phone number, and “Form 1040EZ” on your payment. 

You must sign and date your return. If you pay someone to prepare your return, that person must

sign it and show other information. See page 40 in the booklet. 

Mail your return by April 16. Use the envelope that came with your booklet. If you don’t have

that envelope, see page 49 in the booklet for the address. 

Questions for Tax Form

1. The purpose of the tax table is to help you determine

a. your gross income

b. the amount of tax you owe

c. your net earnings

d. your allowable deductions

[Aspect: General Understanding Key: B Percent correct: 64%] 

2. Name one place where you can find the instructions for completing the 1040EZ tax 

return.

[Aspect: Developing Interpretation Percent Acceptable: 76%]

3. Name two factors that would make you ineligible to file a 1040EZ tax return.

[Aspect: Developing Interpretation Percent Acceptable: 42%]

4. What should you do if you do not receive a W-2 form from your employer?

[Aspect: Developing Interpretation Percent complete: 82%]

5. If you cannot be claimed as someone’s dependent, what is the maximum amount you

can claim for a personal exemption?

a. $5,100

b. $3,100

c. $2,000

d. $500

[Aspect: Developing Interpretation Key: C Percent correct: 28%]

6. List two mistakes that you could make in completing your tax return that might delay

its processing.

[Aspect: Examining Content and Structure Percent Acceptable: 37%]

63

Amount 

you owe

Sign your 

return

Mailing 

your return
64

7. What should you do if you have tax-exempt interest?

a. Ignore the fact that you have the interest and do not report it.

b. Obtain a separate interest-exemption tax form.

c. Write the amount of interest and the letters TEI to the left of line 2.

d. Add the amount of the interest to your taxable total income on line 2.

[Aspect: Developing Interpretation Key: C Percent correct: 59%]

8. Why are the lines on the tax return numbered?

[Aspect: Examining Content and Structure Percent Acceptable: 40%]

9. In order to find the amount of your taxable income, you must

a. multiply the state sales tax by your gross income

b. subtract line 4 from line 3 on the tax return

c. add line 6 and line 7 on the tax return

d. ask your employer for the amount of your adjusted income

[Aspect: Developing Interpretation Key: B Percent correct: 64%]

10. Give one reason why you would not use the 1040 EZ form, even if you were single.

[Aspect: Examining Content and Structure Percent Acceptable: 44%]

11. If you are claimed on the tax return of someone else, then you are considered to be a 

a. dependent

b. tax credit

c. deduction

d. personal exemption

[Aspect: Developing Interpretation Key: A Percent correct: 85%]

12. If your income on line 5 of the 1040EZ tax return is $12,550, what is the amount of

your tax?

a. $1,879

b. $1,886

c. $3,700

d. $5,100

[Aspect: Examining Content and Structure Key B Percent correct: 53%]
13. Why is it important that you file your tax return before April 16?

[Aspect: Developing Interpretation Percent Acceptable: 57%]

14. When using the 1040EZ tax return, the amount of income tax owed is determined by

your

a. filing status

b. level of income

c. number of deductions

d. tax-exempt interest

[Aspect: Developing Interpretation Key: B Percent correct: 70%]

15. Complete the income tax return using the table and the following W-2 statement. 

You have no taxable interest to claim.

[Aspect: Examining Content and Structure Percent Extensive: 12%]

65

20 Local income tax 21 Local wages, tips, etc 22 Name of locality

This information is being 

furnished to

the Internal Revenue Service

1 Control number 4 Employer’s State number

3 Employer’s-Identification 

number

2 Employer’s name, address, and Zip code 

Your Job

1 First Street

Anywhere, Anystate 00001

W-2 Wage and

Tax Statement 1989

5

Statutory

employee

Deceased Pension

plan

X

Legal

rep.

942

emp.

Subtotal Deferred

compensation

Void

6 Allocated Tips 7 Advance EIC payment

NONE

NONE

8 Employee’s social

security number 

9 Federal income tax 

withheld 

10 Wages, Tips, other compensation 11 Social security tax withheld

12 Employee’s name, address, and Zip code

111-22-1111 1,670.54 15,829.38 4.45

John Smith

2 First Street

Anywhere, Anystate 00001

13 Social security wages 14 Social security tips

16 16a Fringe benefits incl. in Box 10

307.09

17 State income tax 18 State wages, tips, etc 19 Name of state

400.20 15,829.38 Anystate

OMB No. 

1545-008

Department of the Treasury - 

Internal Revenue Service

16-0331690
66

Grade 12—Instructions for Form 1040EZ

Scoring Criteria for Constructed-Response Questions

Note: Performance results may not total to 100 percent due to off-task and omitted responses.

Question 2. Name one place where you can find the instructions for completing the

1040EZ tax return.

Scoring Guide

Score and Description 

Acceptable

Acceptable answers state one of the following:

● On the back of the return 

● On the back of the front page 

● In the booklet for Form 1040A/1040EZ 

● The IRS 

Unacceptable

● At the post office, library, or bank 

● From a tax accountant 

[Acceptable 76%, Unacceptable 21%]
67

Question 3. Name two factors that would make you ineligible to file a 1040EZ tax 

return.

Scoring Guide

Score and Description 

Acceptable

Acceptable responses state any two of the following:

● You are married 

● You have dependents 

● You are over 65 and blind 

● Your taxable income is over $50,000 

● Your taxable interest income is over $400 

● You have income other than wages, salaries, tips, or taxable scholarships or fellowships 

Unacceptable

Unacceptable responses fail to state factors or give one or more inaccurate factors. For 

example:

● You are single 

● Your income is over $10,000 

[Acceptable 42%, Unacceptable 51%]

Question 4. What should you do if you do not receive a W-2 form from your employer?

Scoring Guide 

Score and Description 

Acceptable

Acceptable responses state one of the following:

● Contact the IRS 

● Report your best estimate of wages, salaries, tips, etc. 

● Contact your employer 

Unacceptable

● Ask for one 

[Acceptable 82%, Unacceptable 15%]
68

Question 6. List two mistakes that you could make in completing your tax return that

might delay its processing.

Scoring Guide 

Score and Description 

Acceptable

Accept any combination of two of the following:

● Failure to sign the form 

● Incorrect Social Security number reported 

● The numbers on the W-2 form do not match the numbers reported on the tax return 

● Line 4 was not checked or amount was not entered 

● Incorrect addition and/or subtraction 

● Was not sent to the correct service center 

● Did not find the correct tax amount in tax table and/or did not use column for 

single people 

● Line 2 taxable interest exceeds limit of $400 

● Typing numbers on the form 

● Using dollar signs 

● Writing in the “IRS use only” box 

● Not sending the W-2 

● Not using the mailing label 

Unacceptable

● Mailing mistakes 

● Fill out form incorrectly

[Acceptable 37%, Unacceptable 52%]
69

Question 8. Why are the lines on the tax return numbered?

Scoring Guide 

Score and Description 

Acceptable

Acceptable responses mention one of the following:

● Something to the effect that each line is to be completed in sequential order 

● The line numbers on the tax return also correspond to line numbers in the directions 

● For easy reference 

Unacceptable

● Because that’s how the forms are made 

● To correspond with something 

● So you know what to answer 

[Acceptable 40%, Unacceptable 52%]
70

Question 10. Give one reason why you would not use the 1040EZ form, even if you were

single.

Scoring Guide 

Score and Description 

Acceptable

Acceptable responses mention one of the following:

● If they wanted tax credits 

● If they want to claim itemized deductions 

● Another form might be more suitable to your situation 

● So that you could receive any tax reductions for which you are eligible 

● Tips not in box 14 

● You have dependents 

● You are over 65 and blind 

● Your taxable income is over $50,000 

● Your taxable interest income is over $400 

● You have income other than wages, salaries, tips, taxable scholarships, or fellowships 

Unacceptable

Any answer that refers to the filing status requirements:

● If you are married 

[Acceptable 44%, Unacceptable 44%]
71

Question 13. Why is it important that you file your tax return before April 16?

Scoring Guide 

Score and Description 

Acceptable

Appropriate responses indicate that April 16 is the last date to file a return without penalty 

or interest. For example:

● “Because that’s when it’s due”

Unacceptable

Inappropriate responses provide an inaccurate explanation:

● “It’s the last date to get a refund”

[Acceptable 57%, Unacceptable 36%]

Question 15. Complete the income tax return using the tax table and the following W-2

statement. You have no taxable interest to claim.

20 Local income tax 21 Local wages, tips, etc 22 Name of locality

This information is being 

furnished to

the Internal Revenue Service

1 Control number 4 Employer’s State number

3 Employer’s-Identification 

number

2 Employer’s name, address, and Zip code 

Your Job

1 First Street

Anywhere, Anystate 00001

W-2 Wage and

Tax Statement 1989

5

Statutory

employee

Deceased Pension

plan

X

Legal

rep.

942

emp.

Subtotal Deferred

compensation

Void

6 Allocated Tips 7 Advance EIC payment

NONE

NONE

8 Employee’s social

security number 

9 Federal income tax 

withheld 

10 Wages, Tips, other compensation 11 Social security tax withheld

12 Employee’s name, address, and Zip code

111-22-1111 1,670.54 15,829.38 4.45

John Smith

2 First Street

Anywhere, Anystate 00001

13 Social security wages 14 Social security tips

16 16a Fringe benefits incl. in Box 10

307.09

17 State income tax 18 State wages, tips, etc 19 Name of state

400.20 15,829.38 Anystate

OMB No. 

1545-008

Department of the Treasury - 

Internal Revenue Service

16-0331690
72

Scoring Guide 

Score and Description 

Extensive

These responses demonstrate an indepth understanding of how to complete an income 

tax form by completing all of the following sections of the form with the appropriate 

and accurate information:

● Name and address (includes Social Security number, may be student’s name or name

on W-2 Form, may not be “your job”) 

● Report your income (lines 1–5) 

● Figure your tax (must complete line 6–9) 

● Sign your return (date must also be included) 

● Presidential Election Campaign Fund (yes or no must be checked) 

In addition, these responses consistently round off numbers or do not round off numbers. 

Essential

These responses demonstrate an understanding of correctly completing an income tax form

by completing each of the following sections of the form with the appropriate and accurate

information:

● Name and address (includes Social Security number, may be student’s name or name

on W-2 Form, may not be “your job”) 

● Report your income (lines 1–5) 

● Figure your tax (may only be line 6, lines 7–9 are optional) 

● Sign your return (date is optional) 

Partial

These responses demonstrate some understanding of how to complete the income tax form 

by providing appropriate information for one or more (but not all) of the following sections 

of the form:

● Name and address (includes Social Security number, may be student’s name or name

on W-2 Form, may not be “your job”) 

● Report your income (lines 1–5) 

● Figure your tax (may only be line 6, lines 7–9 are optional) 

● Sign your return (date is optional) 
73

Scoring Guide (Question 15, continued)

Score and Description 

Unsatisfactory

These responses demonstrate little or no understanding of how to complete the income tax

form by providing inappropriate/incorrect information. For example:

● Line 1 = 10,000.00 

● Line 4 = No and 51.00 

[Extensive 12%, Essential 3%, Partial 41%, Unsatisfactory 10%]

Acceptable Response Variations:

Rounding: Accept rounded numbers (e.g., 15,829.00) that have been rounded correctly. To

round correctly, students should have dropped amounts under .50. If students rounded off,

they should have done so for all amounts. Inconsistencies in reporting rounded figures 

prevent students from attaining a score of “extensive.”

Line 2: Accept blank spaces or any number from 0 to 400.

Line 4: If students choose to use a personal exemption amount other than $5,100, it must be

an amount between 0 and 3,100, and they must check the yes box on line 4. The worksheet

on the back of the form will not be scored.

Appendix B 

NAEP 2002 Oral Reading Study

77

NAEP 2002 Oral Reading Study

Background of the Study

The Oral Reading Study (ORS) conducted as a part of the 2002 NAEP reading assessment

replicated procedures used in the 1992 Integrated Reading Performance Record (IRPR) to

evaluate fourth graders’ oral reading. Although the 1992 IRPR was broader in scope, including an extensive one-on-one interview with fourth graders regarding their instructional and

recreational reading experiences, the 2002 ORS focused solely on the oral reading measure that

was part of the 1992 IRPR. 

Analysis of oral reading is used frequently in classrooms to supplement other measures of

reading development. Observing the oral reading of students can reveal elements of their reading ability that are not necessarily captured in paper-and-pencil assessments of reading comprehension. Teachers who observe students reading grade-appropriate material fluently, accurately,

and with adequate speed are reassured of their students’ developing skills. The insights gained

through these observations, in combination with students’ performance on reading comprehension tests, create a more complete profile of students’ overall reading development.

The oral reading component of the 1992 IRPR was the first such assessment to be administered

on a large-scale basis to a nationally representative sample of students. It supplemented the results

of the main reading assessment, providing additional information about fourth graders’ oral reading ability and its relation to reading comprehension. Among the major findings from the oral

reading component of the 1992 IRPR were the following:

● Oral reading fluency was highly correlated with reading comprehension (NAEP reading

scores). On average, the most fluent readers also had the highest NAEP scores.

● The relationship between oral reading accuracy and reading comprehension was somewhat

dependent on the types of errors made by students in their oral reading. Errors that changed

the meaning of the text were more directly related to reading comprehension than were 

errors that did not result in a change of meaning.

● The most fluent readers read the most books on their own, were more likely to use the library

to find recreational reading materials, and were more likely to have teachers who gave them

time to read books of their own choosing in school.

Overview of the 2002 Oral Reading Study

The ORS conducted in 2002 was administered to a subsample of fourth graders who participated in the main assessment. As such, results from the ORS can be linked to student performance on the main assessment and to student, teacher, and principal responses to background

questionnaires. As in 1992, the special study was conducted only in fourth grade because this is

the grade among the three assessed by NAEP that focuses most on reading development and instruction. Students selected for the ORS were asked to work with a trained administrator at a

time separate from the administration of the assessment. During this one-on-one session, the

student was asked to read aloud a portion of one of the two passages the student had read for 

the main assessment. The taped oral reading was analyzed subsequently by trained raters. The
analysis and reporting of results from this special study will focus on the unique aspects of reading development that can be learned from observing students reading aloud and will capitalize

on the links with the main assessment—including students’ performance on the paper-and-pencil

comprehension assessment and the contextual information gathered through the student, teacher,

and school questionnaires. More detailed information about the study is provided below.

Sample

A subsample of approximately 2,000 fourth graders who participated in the main assessment

was drawn. This sample was selected to be representative of the national population of fourth

graders and included sufficient subgroup representation to allow the reporting of ORS results 

by gender and by the three largest racial/ethic subgroups (White, Black, and Hispanic). 

Materials 

A single passage included in the 2002 fourth-grade reading assessment was selected to be used

in the ORS. The passage was selected based on its comparability to the passages used for the oral

reading component of the 1992 IRPR. Although reporting trends (1992 to 2002) in oral reading

ability was not technically feasible due to changes in administration procedures, choosing the

most comparable passage from among the 2002 passages may make it possible to compare results from the two years.

Administration 

Students selected for the study worked with a trained Westat administrator during a one-onone session scheduled within a month of the students’ participation in the main assessment. The

entire session was recorded on laptop computers provided by the administrator. The laptop computers guided administration procedures by displaying scripted directions for administrators to

read and by playing previously recorded instructions for students. Students listened to these prerecorded instructions through headsets that included a microphone for recording purposes. The

scripted directions and recorded directions resulted in highly standardized procedures for collecting data. An oral reading passage approximately at the second-grade reading level was used to

screen students for whom reading the passage from the assessment would have been very difficult. (In 1992, only 2 percent of students were excluded based on the screening passage.) After

the initial screening passage, students were asked to reread the passage from the assessment silently. Students were then asked to discuss the passage by answering three constructed-response

comprehension questions that had been used in the main assessment. Immediately following the

comprehension questions, students were asked to read a section of the passage aloud (approximately 200 words). The oral reading was timed using software on the laptop. 

78
Scoring 

Two teams of raters were formed: (1) fluency raters and (2) accuracy coders. Each audiotaped

session was evaluated by both teams. The fluency rating involved listening to a student’s oral

reading twice and assigning a fluency rating from 1 to 4 based on the fluency scale developed for

the 1992 IRPR. This scale considers several elements of oral reading fluency including phrasing,

adherence to author’s syntax, and expressiveness. The accuracy coding involved carefully noting

every error made by students. The types of errors documented were omissions, substitutions, and

insertions. In addition, each error was judged for whether it resulted in a change of meaning to

the text and whether the student accurately self-corrected the error. For both the fluency rating

and accuracy coding, at least 25 percent of student recordings were scored twice to evaluate the

reliability of the scoring procedures.

Analysis and Reporting 

Percentages of students within each fluency rating category will be reported. The relationship

between fluency and comprehension (NAEP scale scores) and between fluency and relevant instructional experiences (background questionnaire responses) will be analyzed and reported. Accuracy will be analyzed in terms of the overall percentage of oral reading errors as well as the type

and nature of errors. The relationship between types of oral reading errors and comprehension, and

between overall accuracy and instructional experiences, will be analyzed and reported. The average reading rate and distribution of reading rates will also be reported. Finally, relationships between fluency, accuracy, rate, and comprehension will be analyzed and reported.

Additional Coding of Types of Errors

The ORS was enhanced to further address issues related to phonemic awareness by adding a

word-level decoding dimension to the oral reading accuracy coding process. The accuracy coding,

as conducted in 1992 and planned for 2002, considers only the following three elements in

recording and analyzing errors made by students:

1. Type of error—omission, substitution, and insertion;

2. Meaning change—changed meaning of text or did not change meaning of text; and

3. Self-correction—student accurately self-corrected, student did not accurately self-correct. 

One important aspect of oral reading errors that is not accounted for in this coding scheme is

the degree to which an error made by a student approximates the structure of the word in the text.

Referred to in the reading literature as “grapho-phonemic” strategies, approximating the graphic

or phonemic structure of a word is an important type of decoding strategy that was not captured

in the 1992 coding scheme. By including this type of analysis in the 2002 coding procedures,

NAEP can examine students’ reliance on word-level cues in decoding unfamiliar words. This

adds a dimension to the error coding that more directly examines students’ word-reading strategies (i.e., reliance on phonetic cues).

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One issue that has engaged the reading community in recent years is whether reliance on context clues (the text surrounding a word) or reliance on word-level cues (individual word construction) is more indicative of skilled reading. The original accuracy coding scheme used in the

1992 IRPR addressed only reliance on context clues. Noting whether an error (specifically, a

word substitution) changed the meaning of the text gave some indication of students’ reliance on

context clues. However, the coding scheme did not include any analysis of students’ reliance on

word-level cues. An example of how adding this dimension to the coding process may enhance

findings from the ORS follows.

Assume that the word “horse” is an unfamiliar word in a text being real aloud by a

student. Then assume that the student substitutes the word “pony” for “horse” in her

oral reading. In this case, it would not be considered a meaning-change error, because 

it is unlikely that understanding the difference between a pony and a horse is critical 

to understanding the overall story. Nevertheless, it would be considered a fairly serious

disregard of the structure of the word “horse.” It could be assumed then that the student

was relying solely on context clues in decoding the unfamiliar word.

Now assume that another student reads the word “horse” and substitutes the word

“house.” In this case, it would be considered a meaning-change error. However, the 

student’s substitution clearly indicates reliance on word-level cues; both initial and 

ending consonant sounds were produced accurately in the student’s substitution—only

the middle vowel sound was altered.

By adding this dimension to the coding scheme, the 2002 ORS provides a richer database and

analysis of students’ reading development. For example, by adding this dimension to the coding

process, the 2002 ORS can examine how context clues and word-level decoding strategies are

related to overall reading proficiency.

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Appendix C 

NAEP Reading Framework Panels

83

NAEP Reading Framework Panels

2002 Reading Framework 

Advisory Panel

Phyllis Aldrich (Chair)

Curriculum Coordinator

Saratoga-Warren BOCES

Saratoga Springs, New York

Marilyn Adams 

Senior Scientist

BBN Laboratories, Inc.

Cambridge, Massachusetts

Peter Afflerbach

Professor

University of Maryland 

College Park, Maryland 

Rosalinda Barrera

Professor

University of Illinois 

Champaign, Illinois

Sheila Colson

English Teacher

Andrew Hamilton Elementary

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Janet Jones

Reading Resource Teacher

Berry Elementary School

Waldorf, Maryland

Peggy McCardle

Associate Chief

Child Health & Behavior Branch

National Institute for Child Health and 

Human Development (NICHD)

Rockville, Maryland

Patricia McGonegal

English Teacher

Mount Mansfield High School

Jericho, Vermont

Jane Murray

English Teacher

The Levy Curriculum Center

Manhattan Beach, California

Peggy Peterson

Mississippi Dept. of Education

Jackson, Mississippi

Sheila Potter

Formerly with the Michigan Department 

of Education

Lansing, Michigan

Cathy Roller

Director for Research and Policy

International Reading Association

Newark, Delaware

Mary Rogers Rose

North Carolina Department of Education

Raleigh, North Carolina

Steve Stahl

Professor

University of Georgia

Athens, Georgia

Consultants

Suzanne Clewell

Supervisor of Reading (retired)

Montgomery County Public Schools

Rockville, Maryland

Barbara Kapinus

Reading Consultant

Hyattsville, Maryland
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1992 Reading Steering and Planning 

Committees

Steering Committee 

American Association of School 

Administrators

Gary Marx, Associate Executive Director

Arlington, Virginia

American Educational Research Association

Carole Perlman, Director of Research and

Evaluation

Chicago, Illinois

American Federation of Teachers

Marilyn Rauth, Director of Educational

Issues

Washington, D.C.

Association of State Assessment Programs

Edward Roeber, Cochairman

Lansing, Michigan

Association of Supervision and Curriculum 

Development

Helene Hodges

Alexandria, Virginia

Council of Chief State School Officers

H. Dean Evans, Superintendent of Public

Instruction

State Department of Education

Indianapolis, Indiana

National Alliance of Business

Esther Schaeffer

Washington, D.C.

National Association of Elementary School 

Principals

Kathleen Holliday, Principal

Potomac, Maryland

National Association of Secondary School 

Principals

Scott Thompson, Executive Director

Reston, Virginia

National Association of Test Directors

Paul LeMahieu

Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

National Catholic Education Association

Brother Robert Kealey

Washington, D.C.

National Education Association

Ann Smith, Board Member

Ormond Beach, Florida

National Governors’ Association

Mike Cohen

Washington, D.C.

National Parent-Teacher Association

Ann Kahn

Alexandria, Virginia

National School Board Association

Harriet C. Jelnek, Director

Rhineland, Wisconsin

Project Planning Committee

Marilyn Adams

BBN Laboratories

Cambridge, Massachusetts

Marsha Delain

South Carolina Department of Education

Columbia, South Carolina

Lisa Delpit

Institute for Urban Research

Morgan State University

Baltimore, Maryland

William Feehan

Chase Manhattan Bank

New York, New York

Philip Gough

Department of Psychology

University of Texas at Austin

Austin, Texas
85

Edward Haertel

Stanford University

Stanford, California

Elfrieda Hiebert

School of Education

University of Colorado

Boulder, Colorado

Janet Jones

Charles County Public Schools

Waldorf, Maryland

Judith Langer

School of Education

State University of New York, Albany

Albany, New York

P. David Pearson

University of Illinois

College of Education

Champaign, Illinois

Charles Peters

Oakland Schools

Pontiac, Michigan

John P. Pikulski

College of Education

University of Delaware

Newark, Delaware

Keith Stanovich

Oakland University

Rochester, Michigan

Sheila Valencia

University of Washington

Seattle, Washington

Paul Randy Walker

Maine Department of Education

Augusta, Maine

NAEP Reading Project Staff 

Ramsay W. Selden

Project Director

Barbara Kapinus

Framework Author

Diane Schilder

Project Associate