Global Security: The peaceful intercourse of all nations for a parallel advancement of individual 

to societal well being and quality of life, and the actions taken by nations to guarantee shared 

sustainability, safety, and continuity that challenges mutual security. Threats and hazards to Global 

Security evolve from Man-made (Anthropogenic), Natural, and Technological [causes] and might include 

such actions as disruption of natural or commodity resources; failed or failing states; pandemics (swine 

flu or others); climate change; mass population migrations; civil unrest; and other unsuspected or 

surprising disturbances to national peace (TinMore Institute, 2010).

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

Fact Sheet 2010–3106

November 2010 Printed on recycled paper

Potable or clean freshwater availability is crucial to life and economic, 

environmental, and social systems. The 

amount of freshwater is finite and makes 

up approximately 2.5 percent of all water 

on the Earth (fig. 1). Freshwater supplies 

are small and randomly distributed, so 

water resources can become points of conflict. Freshwater availability depends upon 

precipitation patterns, changing climate, 

and whether the source of consumed water 

comes directly from desalination, precipitation, or surface and(or) groundwater. 

At local to National levels, difficulties in 

securing potable water sources increase 

with growing populations and economies. 

Available water improves living standards 

and drives urbanization, which increases 

average water consumption per capita. 

National Research Program 

Water Security—

Figure 1. Data taken from United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization, 2006.

Commonly, disruptions in sustainable 

supplies and distribution of potable water 

and conflicts over water resources become 

major security issues for Government 

officials. Disruptions are often influenced 

by land use, human population, use patterns, technological advances, environmental impacts, management processes 

and decisions, transnational boundaries, 

and so forth.

Water security is a critical factor

in Government planning. However, the 

decisions of water-security professionals are complicated by an uneven global 

distribution of freshwater (fig. 1), and 

local to regional freshwater deficits are 

caused when extraction exceeds available 

recharge—sustainability. When water 

supply falls below 1,700 m3 per person 

per year (about 123 gallons per person 

per day), which is considered minimum 

need (United Nations Development 

Programme, 2006), the source of supply is 

considered stressed. The demand for water 

grows fastest in areas of the world 

experiencing freshwater scarcity. Adding 

further stress to quality of life issues are 

inadequate sanitary living conditions and 

contaminated water, which can result in 

cancer, liver and kidney damage or failure, 

nervous system disorders, damage to the 

immune system, birth defects, and waterborne diseases (United Nations, 2010). 

Additionally, certain naturally occurring 

water-borne chemicals are suspect carcinogens, such as arsenic in Bangladesh and 

West Bengal, India, where problems associated with high arsenic levels arose due 

to switching from surface- to groundwater 

sources. Generally, areas of high-density 

populations stress water resources. Adding 

to this problem, population is increasing in 

areas where natural hazards—earthquakes, 

hurricanes, floods, and droughts—are 

most severe (Hinrichsen and others, 

1997). Such natural hazards can disrupt 

potable water distribution and destabilize 

population centers.

Oceans

(96.5%)

Groundwater

(30.1%)

Lakes

(20.1%)

Atmospheric

 Water (0.07%)

Biological

 Water (0.22%)

Rivers (0.46%)

Swamps and

Marshes

(2.53%)

Soil Moisture

(3.52%)

Glaciers

and

Ice Caps

(68.6%)

Other

Ice and Snow

(73.1%)

Lakes

(saline)

(0.07%)

Other

Groundwater

(saline)

(0.93%)

Freshwater

2.5%

Total Global

Water

Global Water Distribution

Surface water

1.3%

Water stress affects 44 percent of the world’s 

population. The United Nations Environment 

Programme (1999) projects that by 2025 , global 

freshwater stress owing to increasing population 

on water use will increase significantly, especially 

in northern Africa, Eurasia, the Middle East, and 

even the United States, and by 2050, nearly 5 billion 

people will be affected by freshwater scarcity.

“Water Security is the protection of adequate water supplies for food, fiber, industrial, and residential needs for expanding populations, which 

requires maximizing water-use efficiency, developing new supplies, and protecting water reserves in event of scarcity due to natural, [manmade], or 

technological hazards” (Tindall and Campbell, in press).

National and Global Issues

Global population tripled during the 

20th century and demand for water increased 

ninefold (Hinrichsen and others, 1997). 
World

Presently, millions of people lack access to adequate potable water supplies, and 

Government officials are unable to appropriately manage and assess water resources 

owing to insufficient information and expertise. The United Nations (2003) states that 

approximately one billion people are deprived of potable water due to mismanagement 

and depletion of water resources (fig. 2). If people are deprived of water, it is likely 

that water needed for food production is limited, if not absent, leading to increased 

water-resource conflicts and negative effects on security (Tindall, 2008). Without proper 

prioritization of water use, production of sufficient food to meet the demands of global 

population growth could be more challenging. Unfortunately, unsustainable potable 

water supplies are becoming a global trend, especially in large urbanized areas, often 

leading to water-use conflicts. Water shortages and increasing conflicts between supplies, distribution, and use and management signify the need to develop and implement 

processes for mitigating water-security issues.

United States

 Because most future population growth in the United States is projected to be in 

water-stressed areas, demand (fig. 3) and distribution could remain a problem. Irrigation 

requires about 34 percent of U.S. water supplies (table 1). Other uses include thermoelectric powerplant cooling, which returns water back to the environment (Hutson and 

others, 2004).

Water-security strategies depend upon appropriately developed and implemented 

water-management plans and practices that are best developed in concert. Also, watermanagement practices necessary for water security include plans for potable-water 

sustainability, proper wastewater- and 

waste-disposal methods, distribution, 

water-use priorities, and water-resource 

development.

Developing Countries 

Water-management practices 

designed to improve water supplies can 

be restricted by disparate water distribution, poor infrastructure, insufficient 

water quantity and quality, and excessive 

cost issues. Nevertheless, developing 

appropriate practices is vital if public 

health and quality of life are to improve 

while reducing security, economic, and 

political concerns (Tindall and Campbell, 

2009; United Nations, 2003). In this 

regard, local and national water-security 

strategies can improve foreign relations 

as related to transboundary water disputes 

and nationalist, minority, and ethnic 

aspirations of a State.

Development and mitigation of 

water-security processes follow the 

Water Threats and Hazards Triad (WTHT) 

and represent common types of hazards 

affecting water supply and sustainability 

(table 2). As an example, an occurrence of 

a WTHT component against critical water 

infrastructures could prove disastrous to 

water supply and sustainability from a 

local to regional or national level (Tindall 

and Campbell, 2009). From a Homeland 

Security perspective, an evaluation of these 

three primary hazards reveals risks and vulnerabilities to the population at large: a net 

Figure 2. Global freshwater stress (Source: United Nations Environment Programme, 1999).

Effective management of “virtual water” (water used in the production of a good or service) 

likely will become key to water sustainability and distribution. For example, ethanol produced from 

corn requires nearly 2,500 liters of water to produce one kilogram (300 gal per lb) of ethanol (Brown, 

2008). In the United States, corn commonly is grown in areas experiencing a 20 to 50 percent 

growth in population (Brown, 2008). This combination could change irrigation or crop management 

practices but still significantly stress water resources. Similar trends occur globally. 

Urbanization in the metropolitan Denver area requires a water withdrawal of about 33.5 inches 

per year from the Dawson aquifer, while the natural recharge rate is only 0.5 inches per year (Moore 

and others, 2004): a prime example of water-resource stress and a potable-water extraction and 

recharge deficiency.

more than 40 percent

40 to 20 percent

20 to 10 percent

less than 10 percent
Table 1. Freshwater use in the United States

(Hutson and others, 2004).

Sector Water use

(billion cubic meters/day)

Industry 291 (76.61 trillion gallons/day)

Domestic 35.8 (9.45 trillion gallons/day)

Agriculture 120.9 (34.94 trillion gallons/day)

Total 563.7* (408 billion gallons/day) *

Includes other sources not listed.

Table 2. The Water Threats and Hazards Triad (Tindall and Campbell, 2009): The most common 

hazards affecting water security, supply, and sustainability.

Manmade

(Anthropogenic) Natural Technological

Terrorism* Climate change Infrastructure failure

War and civil unrest Hurricanes Hazardous chemicals and biological 

material events Population growth Earthquakes

Human error and poor assessment 

and resource allocation

Tsunamis

Droughts Malfunctions of information technology 

Floods and equipment

Wildfires

Landslides

Volcanoes *

Includes foreign and domestic cyber and industrial sabotage, particularly against/including Supervisory 

Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) control systems.

to remove debris, replace culverts, build sediment dams, and seed slopes for restoration 

(Robichaud and others, 2003). Further, deforestation of hillsides by fire promotes flooding 

and debris flow during wet periods that affect water quality.

Contaminants—Heavy rains and flooding could create particularly severe water 

contamination problems that can be fatal. E-coli infiltrated water pipes following 

torrential rains in Walkterton, Ontario, Canada; 7 people died and more than 2,300 

became seriously ill after contracting food poisoning from the bacteria (Vicente and 

Christoffersen, 2006). In 1993, dozens died and an estimated 400,000 developed chronic 

illnesses due to the parasite Cryptosporidium, which contaminated the water supply of 

Milwaukee, Wisconsin, after heavy rainfall (Corso and others, 2003). 

Climate Change—Water-security strategies need also to consider events related to 

extreme drought. In 1995, a severe drought extended from central, eastern, and western 

Texas and New Mexico into Arizona and parts of California, Nevada, Utah, Colorado, 

Oklahoma, and Kansas. Water restrictions increased in many cities, forcing residents 

to cut usage about 25 percent; winter wheat conditions in 19 States were poor; wind 

and insect damage significantly affected crops; a shortage of hay throughout the region 

reached disastrous proportions, forcing ranchers to sell cattle at the lowest prices in 

10 years; and agricultural losses for cotton, wheat, feed grains, cattle, and corn and agriculturally related industries such as harvesting, trucking, and food processing in Texas 

alone reached $5 billion (Wilhite and Vanyarkho, 1999). Reduced supplies of irrigation 

water led to decreased vegetable production with related job and income losses; food 

prices increased as much as 22 percent in response to the lower production levels for 

milk, meat, produce, and other foodstuffs; and prices for gasoline, diesel, and liquefied 

petroleum rose 15 percent above previous levels. Fires raged throughout the region and in 

Colorado alone burned 262,009 hectares (647,440 acres). Total regional drought effects 

were estimated at $10–15 billion, although it is difficult to quantify many social and environmental impacts (Wilhite and Vanyarkho, 1999).

Figure 3. Total U.S. water withdrawals since 1950 (Source: Hutson 

and others, 2004). Since 1950, per capita water use has declined.

Natural Threats to Water Security

Hurricanes—Hurricane Katrina (2005) caused large loss of life, ruptured levees, and led to serious water-quality consequences (Palser, 2007).

Earthquakes—Scientists predict a major earthquake will hit 

Los Angeles (Fialko, 2006), an event that could sever the Colorado River 

Aqueduct, and(or) the California Aqueduct supplying water from Lake 

Mead in Nevada. These two distribution systems supply potable water to 

18 million residents within metropolitan Los Angeles.

Wildfires—The short- and long-term effects of wildfires are serious considerations for any water-security program. This may be particularly true in the United States after 100 years of fire suppression, where 

large fires have burned about 6,000,000 acres in drier years (National 

Interagency Fire Center, 2009). The Hayman fire in Colorado in 2002, 

the largest fire in Colorado’s history (138,000 acres), seriously degraded 

the water quality of Cheeseman and Strontia Springs Reservoirs—primary 

water sources for metropolitan Denver—requiring $8 million over 4 years 

Terrorism—A Manmade Hazard

Manmade threats currently are a 

major concern. Officials dedicate much 

time and effort to prevent attacks on 

exposed infrastructure. For example, an 

attack on Hoover Dam could affect water 

and power availability in the Western 

United States and denotes why the 

U.S. Intelligence Community is concerned about these types of possibilities.

Enhanced technology complications, such as operations controlled by 

Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition 

(SCADA) valves that can be operated 

over the Internet, make water systems 

more vulnerable. Similar types of 

controls/valves are used in the electrical power grid and nuclear plants, where 

nuclear power generation requires water 

for cooling.

assessment—“all hazards” approach—in 

addressing water security and protecting 

finite potable-water resources against various threats. The WTHT components are a 

pressing concern for public (Government) 

and private (corporate) officials.

According to the FBI, prior to the 

9/11 terrorist attacks Mohamed Atta scouted 

Hoover Dam as a potential target (Tamm, 2004).

Ground water

Surface water

Total

Population

400

350

300

250

WITHDRAWALS, IN BILLION GALLONS PER DAY 200

150

100

50

0

1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

0

50

POPULATION, IN MILLIONS

100

150

200

250

300
Technological Hazards

Technological hazards include, 

but are not limited to, biohazards and 

hazardous materials incidents and nuclear 

powerplant failures. Generally, little or no 

warning precedes these incidents. Victims 

may not know they have been affected 

until years later. For example, health 

problems caused by hidden toxic waste 

sites—Love Canal near Niagara Falls, 

New York—surfaced years after initial 

exposure (Heath, 1984). Perhaps the most 

well known example of a technological 

hazard is the Chernobyl nuclear reactor disaster, April 1986, in the Ukraine 

(International Nuclear Safety Advisory 

Group, 1992).

Hazards Interdependence

Understanding the complex interdependency of water with other lifesupport systems (critical infrastructures) 

is important. Certain types of energy 

generation are dependent on water; for 

example, Hoover Dam in the United 

States, Bhakra Nangal Dam in India, 

and nuclear powerplants.

International agencies such as the 

World Bank are well aware of the seriousness of water-security issues. Since ancient 

times, limiting access to water has been 

used as a weapon through the destruction 

of water resources and distribution facilities 

(Young, 2006). Water-use and actual or 

perceived ownership conflicts create social 

and political disorder and serious security 

risks to a region or a country, and international law has proven inadequate in defending the equal use of shared water supplies. 

Such conflicts can become zero-sum 

disputes involving cultural, tribal, religious, 

and regional and(or) transnational victims 

(Tindall and Campbell, 2009).

Water Security 

and USGS Activities

U.S. Agencies, such as the 

Department of Energy, Department of 

Defense, Federal Bureau of Investigation, 

Environmental Protection Agency 

(USEPA), and Department of Homeland 

Security, understand and acknowledge the 

importance of water security and the results 

of neglect to the Nation and individual 

States. These agencies link water security to 

critical infrastructure protection (CIP) and 

intelligence gathering capabilities (fig. 4) 

to develop a security strategy for water and 

other resources. In short, they merge the 

intelligence cycle (typified by the Human 

Intelligence [HUMINT] Cycle—upper 

right fig. 4) with water-resources data and 

information (provided by such agencies as 

the USGS), energy, and other fixed assets 

of critical infrastructure such as dams, 

water ways, and operations facilities (green 

circle, upper left). Although increasing in 

complexity, CIP also must consider detection, prevention, response, and mitigation 

as interdependent components of this 

process (center, fig. 4). Also considered 

must be the organization type in terms 

of structure to merge management and 

operations methods to the inclusive process 

(lower left, fig. 4). The overall process is 

highly complex.

To strengthen water-security strategies and processes, a dual strategy is needed that will 

both monitor infrastructure and supplies and assess, understand, and manage water resources 

to avoid the threat of water-related security and conflict concerns. Also, effective monitoring of 

water scarcity, energy, and environmental degradation can aid water managers. In the Homeland 

Security arena, intelligence estimates also can factor water security into threat assessments 

and consider the need for creating specialized water-security data-collection platforms.

A major goal of the USGS is to reduce the 

vulnerability of people and communities at risk 

from hazards by working with partners throughout 

all sectors of society.

An International Alert identified 46 countries with a combined population of 2.7 billion in which both climate change and water-related crises may create 

a high risk of violent conflict (Smith and Vivekananda, 2007); 56 countries represent an additional 1.2 billion people at high risk of political instability.

A 2004 to 2006 Somalia/Ethiopia dispute over water wells and pastoral lands left nearly 250 people killed and many more injured. A 3-year drought led 

to the violence, aggravated by the lack of effective government and central planning (BBC News).

In African Burkina Faso in 2007, declining rainfall led to growing clashes among animal herders and farmers with competing water needs (United 

Nations Office Commissioner for Human Rights, 2008). Two thousand people (including 1,400 children) fled their homes because of water disputes.

As part of its mission, the USGS 

engages in efforts to improve the understanding and effective management of 

water resources around the globe to 

help address scientific and management 

concerns regarding water-resources 

supply, sustainability, protection, and 

security. The USGS investigates the 

complex interdependency of water with 

Figure 4. Critical Infrastructure Protection (CIP) within the Intelligence Process. Acronyms: 

IMINT (Imagery Intelligence); OSINT (Open Source Intelligence); MASINT (Measurement and 

Signature Intelligence); SIGINT (Signal Intelligence). Copyright James Tindall; free for public use.
The study and development of 

strategies and countermeasures to ensure 

water sustainability and security require 

a fusion of scientific and analytical skills 

and increased awareness by the public, 

resource managers, and Government 

entities. Programs including those promoting institutional capacity-building 

and networking, continuing professional 

education, and other activities targeting 

training and increasing the knowledge of 

citizens demonstrate the fusion of water 

availability and national security. The 

U.S. military is at the forefront of these 

issues and provides a high level of education and training, most notably at the 

U.S. Naval Postgraduate School’s Center 

for Homeland Defense and Security. 

National security planners, analysts, and 

agencies are increasingly studying the 

challenge of hazards and threats to water 

supplies and infrastructure from hazards 

and transnational terrorists (Copeland, 

2009; Behrens and Holt, 2005). One 

example is the Water Infrastructure 

Security Enhancements (WISE) Project 

supported by the USEPA, an effort to get 

all water utilities serving populations of 

more than 3,300 to voluntarily perform 

vulnerability and risk assessments and 

take preventive measures against possible 

attacks and other hazards.

The U.S. Government can provide 

world leadership on water security and 

sustainability issues through science, 

education, and international programs. 

Research activities of the USGS are well 

suited to solve many scientific, technical, 

and management problems encountered 

in this area. Universities and research 

institutes could further promote and 

develop water security as a distinct discipline, thus expanding public education. 

Intelligence agencies could be further 

tasked to integrate water-security issues 

and define them within the context of 

national security.

life-support systems such as power 

and energy, agriculture and food, and 

public health and how these are affected 

by natural disasters. These systems 

and(or) assets, vulnerable to the Triad 

threats and hazards, are essential for 

public health and safety, the functioning and sustainability of society, the 

economy, and the security of nations. 

In conjunction with its future science 

strategy (U.S. Geological Survey, 

2007), the USGS continues to examine 

—By James A. Tindall and Andrew A. Campbell

interdependencies of ecosystem functions, energy and water, and integrated 

information (information coupled from 

numerous fields of science) that can be 

used to help develop solutions to watersecurity problems. The USGS can create 

new products, such as mathematical models, that can aid in increasing resource 

security and are useful for reducing loss 

of life and property, as well as environmental risks. This also considers the 

effect on and relations to other fields of 

science such as climatology, hydrology, 

ocean sciences, seismology, volcanology, 

geology, biology, and so forth.

Water security and sustainability 

problems related to climate change, 

desertification, growing populations, 

biodiversity, disparate water distribution, 

and distribution management and hazards, particularly wildfires, are increasing 

stress on global water supplies. Water 

conservation methods and technology 

such as dams, cloud seeding, desalination 

plants, and underground water storage 

may be insufficient to meet the demands 

of a growing global population. Because 

the water supply is finite, the potential 

for water-related conflicts are likely 

to increase and become more acute as 

demand increases (Tindall, 2008). The 

need for transboundary water sharing, 

which has been a constant source of contention since territorial times in the arid 

Western United States and recently in the 

drought-stricken Eastern United States 

(Dellapenna, 2005), is now a global issue.

Perhaps the most advantageous approach to enhance water security is a local, 

regional, national, and global dialogue to address pertinent questions such as:

1. How do we best develop flexible and adaptable transboundary water-sharing policies 

and planning for hydrologic, political, and socioeconomic circumstances?

2. What are the interdependencies between water and energy, agriculture, ecosystems, 

biodiversity, conservation, and climate change? 

3. How should long-term planning and policy account for these issues to ensure that 

competing users of water, especially energy and agriculture, have adequate supplies 

to continue regional and national economic growth?

4. Given the critical importance of water, what capacity and capabilities within the 

U.S. Government would be needed to address and manage national and international 

water-security policies, intelligence resource conflicts, and threats?

5. The primary threats to water security are population growth, terrorism, climate 

change (sustained droughts), and industrialization. These threats can be interdependent. What are the best procedures for developing comprehensive strategies 

to address them? 

6. How can we achieve stakeholder cooperation between the Federal and private 

sectors for information sharing, vulnerability analysis, and risk assessment to 

improve sustainability?

Few other issues affect the United States or the global community

 so directly as water security. All are stakeholders for ensuring 

the sustainability and security of water supplies.

Merging the intelligence cycle, 

intelligence sources, critical infrastructure 

assets and their protection, resource data, 

and other information is a complex process; 

however, implementation is crucial for 

protecting billion-dollar infrastructures and 

favors a strategic rather than tactical approach. 

A cooperative and concerted effort between 

the public, policymakers, planners, managers, 

science agencies, security and intelligence groups, 

and law enforcement will be required to develop 

solutions to water-security threats. Ensuring and 

protecting water supplies is a complex issue that 

is critical to national and international security 

interests and the health, welfare, and security of 

all Americans. 
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U.S. Geological Survey, National Research Program

Box 25046, MS 413

Denver, CO 80225-0046

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Water infrastructure (clockwise from top right: tap; second Los Angeles 

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used by permission.