I

HAWAII’S Coral Reef Management Priorities

HAWAIIAN ARCHIPELAGO

HAWAIIAN ARCHIPELAGO’S

CORAL REEF MANAGEMENT PRIORITIES

2010
HAWAIIAN ARCHIPELAGO’S

CORAL REEF MANAGEMENT PRIORITIES

The State of Hawai‘i and NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program. 2010. Priorities for Coral Reef Management in the 

Hawaiian Archipelago: 2010-2020. Silver Spring, MD: NOAA. 

The NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program would like to thank all those involved in the process to identify and publish the 

coral reef management priorities for the Hawaiian Archipelago. The commitment, time and effort invested in this process is 

greatly appreciated. These priorities will play an important role in defining NOAA’s partnership with the jurisdiction to work 

towards coral reef conservation. Special thanks to Zhe Liu for graphic design and Lauren Chhay for photo support. 

Cover Photo Credit: © James D. Watt / Oceanstock 
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HAWAII’S Coral Reef Management Priorities

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

SECTION ONE: CONTEXT

SECTION TWO: MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORK AND GUIDING PRINCIPLES

SECTION THREE: TEN YEAR PRIORITY GOALS AND OBJECTIVES 

SECTION FOUR: PRIORITY SITE SELECTION PROCESS AND NEXT STEPS

SECTION FIVE: RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HAWAII’S REEF MANAGEMENT 

PRIORITIES AND THOSE OF NOAA CRCP

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CORAL REEF MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION 

DOCUMENTS FOR HAWAI‘I BY AGENCY

APPENDIX ONE: THE HAWAI‘I CORAL REEF STRATEGY: PRIORITIES FOR MANAGEMENT IN THE MAIN HAWAIIAN ISLANDS, 2010–2020

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INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this Priority Setting document is to articulate a set of 

strategic coral reef management priorities developed in consensus by 

the coral reef managers in Hawai‘i. NOAA will use this document in 

conjunction with its NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program Goals 

& Objectives 2010-2015 (available at www.coralreef.noaa.gov) to 

direct its investment in activities in each jurisdiction through grants, 

cooperative agreements and internal funding. NOAA will also make 

the document available to other potential funders (non-governmental 

organizations [NGOs], federal partners, etc.) and encourage 

leveraging and new or expanded partnerships to build common coral 

reef conservation goals. 

Need and Purpose of an

Archipelagic Coral Reef 

Management Priorities 

Document

Recent federal initiatives by the National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

(NOAA) have provided an impetus for the 

development of this Hawaiian Archipelago 

Coral Reef Management Priorities document. 

While NOAA’s national level goals and 

objectives have special emphasis on 

addressing the impacts of climate change, 

fishing and land-based sources of pollution, 

it was recognized that state and territory 

priorities also needed to be identified 

to effectively manage coral reefs in the 

United States. In Hawai‘i, NOAA's Coral 

Reef Consevation Program built upon the 

priority setting process for the Main Hawaiian 

Islands being led by the State of Hawai‘i to 

further consult with site managers in the 

Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (NWHI) and 

develop archipelagic reef management 

priorities for the years 2010-2020 addressing 

key threats to reefs. NOAA CRCP will use 

this document to direct its investment and 

activities in each jurisdiction through grants, 

cooperative agreements and internal funding. 

NOAA will prioritize investments where 

actions will address the national level goals 

and objectives as well as the jurisdictional 

priorities. NOAA will also make the document 

available to other potential funders (NGOs, 

federal partners, etc.) and encourage leverage 

and partnership to build common coral reef 

conservation goals.
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HAWAII’S Coral Reef Management Priorities

Hawaiian Archipelago Coral 

Reef Management Priorities 

Document Process

The Hawaiian Islands Archipelago has often 

been divided into two separate geographic 

regions when developing management 

strategies: the Main Hawaiian Islands (MHI) and 

the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (NWHI). 

This distinction has been made mainly due to 

the vast geographic scope that the archipelago 

represents stretching for over 1,500 miles 

across the Pacific, as well as the distinct 

differences in threats in the larger eight 

populated islands versus the smaller nonpopulated islands to the northwest. However, 

this document is aimed at representing the 

coral reef resource management priorities 

throughout the entire archipelago, recognizing 

the value and importance of managing reefs 

at an ecoregional scale as well as coordinating 

and leveraging management efforts among 

both regions. The Hawaiian Archipelago has 

been designated as its own distinct Large 

Marine Ecosystem (Sherman et al., 2004). 

To coordinate and leverage management 

efforts at an ecoregional scale, this document 

identifies a set of goals and objectives 

designed to serve as a framework for 

management activities affecting coral 

reefs in the Hawaiian Archipelago for the 

next decade. This priorities framework is 

the result of the analysis of relevant ocean 

management plans, numerous past public 

meetings and interviews of key stakeholders 

representing input by hundreds of individuals 

and organizations. There are two specific 

processes and plans that significantly inform 

the scope of this document. They are: 

1. The Hawai‘i Coral Reef Strategy: 

Priorities for Management in the Main 

Hawaiian Islands, 2010–2020, and 

2. The Papahānaumokuākea Marine 

National Monument Management Plan

In addition, recent efforts made by the 

Hawai‘i Conservation Alliance to address 

climate change are referenced as they will 

provide valuable leverage throughout the 

archipelago in addressing this threat.

The Hawai‘i Coral Reef 

Strategy: Priorities for 

Management in the Main

Hawaiian Islands, 2010–2020

The eight main Hawaiian Islands support 

over 140,000 acres of coral reef habitat. On 

the most southern and largest island—

Hawai‘i—reefs are still forming around an 

island that continues to grow in size due to 

an active volcano. The types and variety of 

marine habitats are highly varied from island 

to island, from coral communities to fringing 

reefs, to unique patch reefs, reef slopes 

and barrier reefs. Reefs around population 

centers in the urban areas have been heavily 

impacted by development, runoff and 

overuse, experiencing increasing stress from 

human and land-based impacts due to everincreasing population pressures (Friedlander 

et al., 2008).

The State of Hawai‘i Department of Land and 

Natural Resources (DLNR) Division of Aquatic 

Resources (DAR) is the primary agency 

responsible for managing Hawaii’s aquatic 

resources and coordinating Hawaii’s reef 

management efforts in the main Hawaiian 

Islands. Over the past 10 years, DAR has led 

the development of six multi-agency Local 

Action Strategies (LAS) (under guidance 

from the U.S. Coral Reef Task Force): Climate 

Change and Marine Disease, Lack of Public 

Awareness, Coral Reef Fisheries, LandBased Sources of Pollution (supported by 

the EPA and NRCS), Recreational Impacts 

to Reefs, and Aquatic Invasive Species. LAS 

were developed as three-year strategic 

documents and included goals, objectives 
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and activities to abate respective threats. 

DAR also completed the marine component 

of the Comprehensive Wildlife Conservation 

Strategy, and developed a draft Marine 

Protected Areas (MPA) framework to provide 

clarity on the goals, objectives and key 

activities that currently exist in a suite of 

different types of marine managed sites.

While DAR has sought to coordinate these 

efforts, each strategy was developed 

somewhat independently. In order to 

provide a more cohesive strategy for coral 

reef management in Hawai‘i, DAR began 

development of The Hawai‘i Coral Reef 

Strategy: Priorities for Management in the Main 

Hawaiian Islands 2010–2020 (HCRS) in May 

2007. The Coral Reef Working Group (CRWG), 

made up of key state and federal partners 

involved in coral reef management, was 

established to help provide guidance for the 

state of Hawaii’s coral program and in 2008 

restructured to advise the development of 

The Hawai‘i Coral Reef Strategy.

Initial steps in the strategic planning 

process included review and analysis of 

numerous ocean, coral reefs, watershed, 

coastal zone management and ecosystembased management plans. The DLNR–DAR 

administrator, program managers and 

biologists were interviewed to gather 

their insights regarding gaps in coral reef 

conservation, emerging priorities and key 

management tasks necessary to improve 

overall coral reef conservation in Hawai‘i. 

Similar questions were asked of members 

of the CRWG, LAS Advisory Groups and 

other key stakeholders. Draft priorities 

were completed with an initial set of goals, 

objectives and actions in 2008.

The process of refining and ranking goals and 

objectives for The Hawai‘i Coral Reef Strategy 

began in November 2008 and was guided by 

the CRWG. DAR partnered with the NOAA 

CRCP consultant and local NOAA staff to 

design and implement a priority setting 

process for the ten-year strategy. The process 

included an ongoing exchange of expert 

opinion between the CRWG, LAS Advisory 

Groups, and DAR biologists. Further details 

on the process for development of goals 

and objectives can be found in Appendix 1 

(HCRS, Section 3: Development of Goals and 

Objectives).

Papahānaumokuākea 

Marine National Monument 

Management Plan

In addition to the eight main islands, the 

Hawaiian Island Archipelago also includes a 

chain of ten small islands and atolls. Starting 

155 miles north and west of the island of 

Kaua‘i, these small islands and atolls, once 

referred to as the NWHI, were recently 

designated as the Papahānaumokuākea 

Marine National Monument (PMNM). 

Extending over 1,200 miles and 

encompassing an area of approximately 

140,000 square miles, Papahānaumokuākea 

is one of the largest MPA in the world. 

The abundant coral ecosystem that can 

be found in the subtropical waters of 

Papahānaumokuākea were one of the 

primary reasons for imposing a restrictive 

management system over the area. Coral 

covers an area of 911,077 acres within the 

boundaries of Papahānaumokuākea. Fiftyseven species of stony corals have been 

identified in the shallow subtropical waters 

including seventeen species found only in the 

Hawaiian Archipelago [Papahānaumokuākea 

Marine National Monument Plan, 2008, 27].

Management of the PMNM is shared by 

three trustees acting on behalf of the State 

of Hawaii’s Department of Land and Natural 

Resources, the U.S. Department of Interior 

[through the Fish and Wildlife Service] and 

the Department of Commerce (through 

NOAA). Except for Midway, Laysan and Tern 

INTRODUCTION
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HAWAII’S Coral Reef Management Priorities

Islands and French Frigate Shoals, the islands 

of Papahānaumokuākea are uninhabited. 

Access to PMNM and its resources is carefully 

regulated by the PMNM management staff 

and a rigorous permitting process. Activities 

with potentially adverse impacts, such as 

commercial fishing, are being phased out 

by 2011. As part of this process, co-trustee 

agencies and their staff were consulted to 

identify priority coral management objectives 

for the NWHI.

Between 2000 and 2005, NOAA conducted 

an extensive information-gathering 

process, including over 100 meetings 

with jurisdictional agency partners, the 

Reserve Advisory Council, NGOs, fishing 

and other stakeholder groups with the 

aim of developing a range of alternatives 

to create a National Marine Sanctuary 

in the NWHI. When the Monument was 

designated in June 2006, the proclamation 

instructed the co-trustees to use the draft 

Sanctuary Management Plan as the basis 

for the development of a comprehensive 

Monument Management Plan. Additional 

public informational meetings on each island 

as well as a formal request for additional 

input and public hearings on the draft 

Monument Management Plan provided 

significant opportunity for input into the 

develop of the final plan. Between 2000 and 

2009, over 65,000 public comments were 

received, which provided the basis for the 

final documents.

Hawai‘i Conservation Alliance

Also to be noted in this document are recent 

efforts to address the current and future 

impacts from global climate change by the 

Hawai‘i Conservation Alliance (HCA). HCA 

is a collaboration of conservation leaders 

representing 15 state and federal agencies, 

educational institutions and nonprofit 

organizations. Collectively, HCA members are 

responsible for managing the biodiversity 

of Hawaii’s lands and waters. HCA also 

represents people who work and use the land 

and water for social, cultural and agricultural 

purposes. The member organizations of 

HCA are at the forefront of research on 

climate change impacts, the development 

of management solutions that encompass 

mitigation and adaptation, and effective 

communications about climate change. 

As climate change is a threat to the entire 

archipelago, it is anticipated that HCA will 

become a strong partner in mitigating this 

threat to coral reefs. To do this, HCA and its 

members will continue:

■ conducting critical research on 

climate change impacts to natural 

systems and native species;

■ developing, implementing and 

sharing best management practices;

■ crafting policy recommendations for 

mitigation and adaptation strategies;

■ convening conferences, forums and 

other meetings to enable the sharing 

of knowledge and strategies by 

experts from a variety of disciplines;

■ providing education and outreach to 

residents and visitors about climate 

change impacts on Hawaii’s lands, 

waters and native species;

■ coordinating between member 

organizations; and

■ directing funding and other resources 

to Hawai‘i.
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Context: This section describes the 

coral reef ecosystems of the Hawaiian 

archipelago and the threats they face.

Management Framework and Guiding 

Principles: This section describes the 

colllaborative conservation approach 

suggested for managing reefs in the 

archipelago. It also identifies a core set 

of principles to serve as the foundation 

for how work will be conducted to 

address the primary threats to coral reefs 

in Hawai‘i. 

Ten Year Priority Goals and Objectives:

This section presents the entire 

framework of goals and objectives 

developed and agreed upon by the core 

group during this process. The Priority 

Goals and Objectives are highlighted in 

this section. These are the top priorities 

for management action as agreed upon 

by the core managers group.

Priority Site Selection Process 

and Next Steps: This section lists 

priority sites for application of the 

Priority Goals and Objectives. It also 

describes the process by which the 

sites were determined.

Relationship Between Hawaii’s Reef 

Management Priorities and Those 

of the NOAA CRCP: This section 

describes how the local jurisdiction 

management priorities align with 

NOAA CRCP's priorities and direction 

forward.

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This Priority Setting document is divided into the following sections: 

INTRODUCTION
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HAWAII’S Coral Reef Management Priorities

SECTION ONE:

CONTEXT

Coral Reef Ecosystem

As one of the most isolated archipelagos 

on earth, Hawai‘i has estimated rates of 

endemism of 25% or greater for most coral, 

fish, and invertebrate species. This unique 

marine life is found nowhere else in the world 

(DLNR–DAR 2005). This isolated island chain 

consists of two regions, the Main Hawaiian 

islands (MHI) and the Northwestern Hawaiian 

Islands (NWHI). The MHI, where the state’s 1.3 

million residents live, consists of high volcanic 

islands with nonstructural reef communities 

and fringing reefs abutting the shore. 

In contrast, the NWHI consists of mostly 

uninhabited atolls, islands, and banks that 

span over 2,000 kilometers (km) northwest of 

the MHI (Friedlander et al., 2005a).

Historically, coral reefs played an important 

role in Hawaiian culture and subsistence 

agriculture (Friedlander et al., 2008). Native 

Hawaiians had intimate knowledge of their 

ocean resources and employed a system to 

manage resources in ways that reduced waste 

and ensured long-term use. Some of these 

methods included the “kapu” system in which 

the chiefs would decree an area off-limits to 

regulate fishing during certain times (e.g., 

spawning season). Species restrictions were 

also practiced (DLNR–DAR 2005). Over time, 

these practices have eroded due to cultural, 

political and demographic changes that 

have affected water rights, land use and land 

ownership. These changes have disrupted 

ecosystem functions and sustainable 

management practices over just a few 

generations (Friedlander 2004). 

Notwithstanding these changes, reefs 

remain extremely important as habitats, 

natural buffers, sites for recreation and 

cultural practices and as a key component 

of the marine economy. In addition to 

providing protection from large ocean swells 

and providing food for sustenance and 

commerce, it is estimated that the state’s 

coral reefs generate approximately $800 

million annually in added value to the state’s 

economy from marine tourism (Friedlander et 

al., 2008). Reef species also provide medical 

benefits, including the development of new 

medicines—some of which are applied to 

the treatment of HIV, cancer, ulcers and 

cardiovascular diseases. Hawaii’s physical 

setting and extensive marine science research 

facilities have made the state a significant 

player in the marine biotechnology industry. 

Threats to Marine Resources

Hawaii’s coral reef and coastal ecosystems 

reflect a wide variety of habitats as described 

above. In the Main Hawaiian Islands these 

habitats are impacted by a combination 

of natural- and human-induced events. 

According to the Hawai‘i section of the Status 

of the Coral Reef Ecosystems of the United 

States (Friedlander et al., 2008), the condition 

of marine resources has generally degraded 

in the MHI over the past 20 years. This is not 

the case for the more isolated and protected 

NWHI. While Hawaii’s reefs are still in fair 

to good condition, many urban areas and 

popular destinations have suffered from landbased sources of pollution, fishing pressure, 

recreational overuse and invasive species. 
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Land-Based Sources of 

Pollution

Land-based sources of pollution are not a 

threat to the reefs of the NWHI. However, 

Land-based sources of pollutants, such as 

sediment, nutrients and other pollutants, 

represent one of several factors threatening 

the quality of coral reef ecosystems in the 

MHI. These pollutants are transported in 

surface-water runoff and by groundwater 

seepage into coastal waters. While the 

complex interrelationship between landbased sources of pollution, water quality, 

overfishing and the health and integrity of 

coral reef ecosystems is not well understood, 

enough is known to require management 

policies that minimize polluted surface-water 

runoff and prevent overfishing (Davidson et 

al., 2003).

Sediment is probably the leading landbased pollutant causing alteration of reef 

community structure in the MHI (Friedlander 

et al., 2008). Although some major sources 

of erosion have been removed or reduced 

with the closure of several large mono-crop 

plantations, recent years have seen damage 

to nearshore coral reefs due to coastal 

construction projects. Other significant 

pollutants include pesticides, petroleum 

hydrocarbons, pharmaceuticals, heavy 

metals, pathogens and excess nutrients. 

These pollutants can cause or exacerbate 

the deleterious effects of watershed 

transport of pollutant constituents onto 

coral reefs (Richmond, 1993).There are an 

estimated 100,000 cesspools in Hawai‘i, 

which contribute to nutrient and pathogen 

runoff onto reefs. Excess nutrients, including 

dissolved nitrogen and phosphorus from 

sewage, wastewater and fertilizers, promote 

the growth of algae that compete with 

juvenile and adult corals for space on benthic 

reef surfaces and can affect success of 

coral settlement (Sammarco, 1996). Many 

nearshore areas of Hawai‘i are comprised 

SECTION ONE: CONTEXT

Left Image: Sediment runoff along the Kahana coast of Maui threatens local reefs with the potential for partial burial in sediment and 

the potential introduction of toxins and disease. Photo Credit: US EPA Right Image: Sediment from land-based sources of pollution 

covers coral near the Kaunakakai wharf, HI. Photo Credit: Kathy Chaston, NOAA CRCP
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HAWAII’S Coral Reef Management Priorities

of a mix of seawater and freshwater from 

submarine groundwater discharge or surfacewater runoff. Groundwater in Hawai‘i typically 

contains two to three orders of magnitude 

higher concentrations of dissolved nitrogen 

and phosphorus than seawater. Impacts from 

toxic pollutants are also poorly understood 

but also potentially severe. 

Fishing Pressure 

Coral reef fisheries are an integral part of life 

in Hawai‘i, providing resources such as food, 

recreation, commerce and culture. However, 

there is evidence from both researchers and 

resource users that coral reef fisheries have 

been steadily declining over the past century. 

Friedlander and DeMartini’s 2002 study showed 

that the numerical density, size and biomass of 

fish that inhabit shallow reefs are dramatically 

lower in the MHI compared to the remote and 

lightly fished NWHI. This same comparative 

study revealed “dramatic differences” in 

abundance, size and species composition. 

Specifically: 

■ Standing fish stock in the NWHI was 

more than 260% greater than in the MHI. 

■ More than 54% of the total fish 

biomass in the NWHI consisted of 

apex predators, compared to less than 

3% in the MHI.

■ Most of the dominant species by 

weight in the NWHI were either rare 

or absent in the MHI and the target 

species that were present, regardless 

of trophic level, were nearly always 

larger in the NWHI.

A trend of declining catches despite 

increasing effort has been observed in several 

studies of time series data. In a review of 

commercial landings data between 1980 

and 1990, the DAR found that “while catch 

per unit effort (CPUE) was declining... an 

equivalent amount of landings was being 

shared among an increasing number of 

fishermen” (Smith, 1993). This indicated the 

Left Image: Abundance and size of fish, such as the bluefin trevally vary greatly between the MHI and NWHI. Photo Credit: © James 

D. Watt / Oceanstock Right Image: Apex predators, such as sharks, are also more prevalent around the uninhabited NWHI. Photo 

Credit: Luiz Rocha 
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decline was due to decreasing fish stocks and 

not decreased fishing effort. Also, CPUE for 

species that are harvested by recreational and 

subsistence users has declined dramatically 

over time, despite new developments in 

fisheries technology (Friedlander, 2003). 

The quantitative evidence of declining 

reef fisheries is corroborated by qualitative 

information from public surveys, oral histories 

and interviews with members of fishing 

communities. In 1997, DAR surveyed 863 

fishermen and found reports of “a decline in 

the amount of fish that they’re able to catch 

now compared with what they were able to 

catch 20 or 30 years ago” (Hawai‘i Division of 

Aquatic Resources, 1998). In a compilation of 

over 130 oral history interviews with kupuna 

(“elders”) and kama‘aina (Hawaiian residents; 

literally “those who are of the land”), the 

majority of interviewees reported changes 

in the quality of the fisheries as well as a 

significant decline in fish abundance, and 

they attributed these trends to overfishing 

(Maly, K. and Maly, O. 2003).

Recreational Overuse 

Hawaii’s Local Action Strategy to Address 

Recreational Impacts to Reefs (2005) identifies 

the ways in which marine recreational 

activities, such as snorkeling, diving and 

boating, may affect coral reefs. Specifically: 

■ Breakage of coral skeletons and tissue 

from direct contact such as walking, 

touching or gear contact; 

■ Breakage of coral skeletons and tissue 

from boat anchors; 

■ Alteration in the behavior of marine 

life from feeding or harassment; and

■ Potential introduction of pollution 

from discharged grey water or 

sunscreen or transfer of aquatic 

invasive species (AIS). 

Coral reefs in the MHI are under increasing 

strain from recreational use as Hawaii’s 

resident population and thriving marine 

tourism industry continue to grow at nearly 

SECTION ONE: CONTEXT

Corals at many popular Hawaiian dive locations exhibit damage from divers and snorkelers standing upon them, like these coral heads at 

Kahalu`u Beach Park . Photo Credit: Ziggy Livnat, For the Sea Productions / Marine Photobank
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HAWAII’S Coral Reef Management Priorities

exponential rates. From 1990 to 2007, 

there was a 59% increase in tourism, which 

represents almost 4 million visitors. Slightly 

over half of these visitors from the U.S. 

West and Canada went snorkeling or diving 

(Hawai‘i Department of Business, Economic 

Development and Tourism, 2007). There 

are over 1,000 ocean tourism companies in 

Hawai‘i, generating an estimated $700 million 

in gross revenues annually. This increase in 

visitors and ocean tourism companies places 

additional pressure on marine resources, as 

many visitors seek calmer waters in areas with 

corals in shallow areas. A study by Holland 

and Meyers (2003) found that the greatest 

concentration of human-substrate contact 

occurred at shoreline entry points, where 

people tend to congregate. Although longterm impacts of heavy recreational use of 

reefs in Hawai‘i are not fully understood and 

the relative impacts of different activities have 

not been evaluated, negative impacts from 

recreational activities are well documented. 

Invasive Species

Invasive species are organisms not native 

to a region that, when introduced either 

accidentally or intentionally, outcompete 

native species for available resources, 

reproduce prolifically and dominate regions 

and ecosystems. Invasive species are 

particularly damaging to Hawaiian marine 

ecosystems, which are ecologically fragile 

due to their geographic isolation. Introduced 

aquatic species can arrive in Hawai‘i from 

anywhere in the world, often transported 

by maritime boat traffic but also sometimes 

deliberately introduced in a misguided 

attempt to supplement local fisheries and 

aquaculture. Once they arrive these new 

introductions can wreak havoc by displacing 

and outcompeting native plants and animals, 

upsetting the delicate balance of reef species 

that for thousands of years have evolved to 

inhabit Hawaiian reef ecosystems.

Left Image: Invasive algae, Kappaphycus spp., overgrowing coral in northern Kaneohe Bay, Oahu. This is only one of the problematic 

marine invasive species currently found in HI. Photo Credit: Tony Montgomery/DLNR Right Image: Invasive algae removal efforts often 

utilize divers and the Supersucker Junior or Senior--shipboard vacuums that physically remove the algae while leaving the underlying 

reef in tact. Right Image: Sterling Kaya
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Coral reefs in Hawai‘i are currently struggling 

with numerous invasive species, including 

algae, fish and invertebrates. Several different 

species of alien algae have smothered acres 

of reefs around O‘ahu, while floating mats of 

algae have taken over large areas off of Maui. 

Many introduced fish have caused the decline 

of native species through competition for 

food and habitat. Non-native invertebrates 

like snowflake coral (Carijoa riisei) and orange 

keyhole sponge (Mycale armata) have been 

shown to impact coral reefs in Hawai‘i (Grigg, 

2003). When native coral reef species have 

been smothered or displaced by an invasive 

species the damaged, sometimes nonfunctioning ecosystem can be very difficult 

or impossible to restore. The import of new 

species, both deliberate and accidental, is a 

large threat. State efforts also work to control 

the spread and distribution of existing alien 

species so that impacted reefs can eventually 

be restored. 

In sharp contrast to the MHI, which harbors 

at least 287 introduced invertebrates, only 

five introduced invertebrates have been 

established in the NWHI, mainly around the 

harbor at Midway Atoll and French Frigate 

Shoal—the sites with the longest histories of 

human activity. Only two introduced species 

are found throughout the NWHI archipelago: 

a hydroid and Ta‘apae. The populations of 

AIS that have become well established and 

colonized in areas of the MHI are the most 

likely sources of invasive species in the NWHI. 

To address this threat, the PMNM requires 

hull inspections of all vessels entering these 

waters from the MHI. 

Global Warming, Coral 

Bleaching, Ocean

Acidification and Disease 

Ocean warming is a result of global climate 

change and can be extremely dangerous 

to coral organisms, which are very sensitive 

to changes in temperature. Coral bleaching 

can occur in response to several different 

stressors such as changes in salinity, light 

irradiance or temperature fluctuation. Usually 

though, mass bleaching events are associated 

with increased sea surface temperature. The 

first large-scale coral bleaching in the Hawai‘i 

region occurred in 1996 predominantly in 

Kāne’ohe Bay on the island of O‘ahu (Jokiel 

and Brown, 2004). The bleaching event 

was attributed to increases in sea-surface 

temperature and high light during a cloudless 

period. Bleaching has also been documented 

in the NWHI in both 2002 and 2004 (Kenyon 

et al., 2006; Kenyon and Brainard, 2006). 

The first recorded incidents of mass coral 

bleaching were documented in the NWHI in 

2002 and again in 2004 throughout the NWHI. 

In both years, the incidents of bleaching 

were greatest at the northern-most three 

atolls of Pearl and Hermes, Midway and Kure. 

Bleaching was most extensive on the shallow 

back reef flats and inner lagoon habitats, with 

evidence of some coral mortality. 

Ocean acidification is a risk throughout the 

archipelago. Worldwide, oceans absorb 

approximately one-third of the additional 

CO2 generated every year by human 

activities, making the ocean more acidic 

(Caldeira and Wickett, 2003). This uptake 

of CO2 results in changes to the chemistry 

of ocean waters by decreasing pH levels, 

impacting the calcification cycle and various 

organisms, including corals. Calcification 

rates in reef-building and reef-associated 

organisms have already been reduced due to 

ocean acidification, with mass coral bleaching 

events occurring worldwide. (De’ath et al., 

2009).

Disease can be defined as any impairment of 

vital body functions, systems or organs. There 

has been a worldwide increase in the reports 

of diseases affecting marine organisms. 

Outbreaks of disease in corals may be 

aggravated or caused by the introduction of 

SECTION ONE: CONTEXT
13

HAWAII’S Coral Reef Management Priorities

novel pathogens to an environment or shifts 

in environmental conditions. Water quality 

and habitat deterioration have also been 

identified as potential environmental drivers 

of coral disease (Kaczamrski et Al., 2005; 

Harvell et al., 2007). Because temperatures 

modulate the metabolic rate and growth of 

organisms, pathogens can become more 

virulent at higher temperatures. Thus, disease 

conditions can be facilitated by opportunistic 

infectious pathogens whose virulence is 

enhanced during increased temperature 

episodes. Although the study of coral disease 

within Hawai‘i is still in its infancy, a number 

of patterns are starting to emerge. Aeby 

(in press) and Aeby and Work (unpub. data) 

found that the most common disease in both 

the Main and Northwestern Hawaiian Islands 

is Porites trematodiasis (CCMD LAS, 2006). 

Levels of disease appear stable throughout 

time in most areas of the archipelago with 

the exception of Acropora white syndrome 

at French Frigate Shoals, and Porites growth 

anomalies and Montipora white syndrome at 

sites in the MHI.

Lack of Awareness

A lack of public awareness and appreciation 

regarding the significance of coral reef 

communities and how they can be harmed 

is another threat to reefs. While Hawai‘i is an 

ocean state, many residents and visitors are 

not aware of the direct or indirect impacts 

their activities have on ocean environments. 

Several surveys of Hawai‘i residents 

conducted with regards to public awareness 

found high levels of public awareness of 

the declining reefs (Ward Research, 2001). 

However, in another study, focus group 

participants had a difficult time connecting 

their personal behavior to the impacts on 

local reefs and had little knowledge as to 

what caused the reefs to decline or how to 

preserve them. Participants did state a need 

to be given specific instructions and directions 

to save or help protect coral reefs (Ward 

Research, 2007). In 2004, a major outreach 

campaign with the slogan “A living reef gives 

our islands life” aimed to build and increase 

Left Image: Coral bleaching at Pearl and Hermes Atoll. Photo Credit: © James D. Watt / Oceanstock Right Image: Trematodiasis, or ‘coral 

zits’, is one of the most prevalent coral disease in the Hawaiian archipelago. Photo Credit: Greta Aeby, HIMB
14

general public awareness of the importance of 

the coral reef ecosystem to Hawaii’s lifestyle. 

This statewide campaign was based on the 

belief that increased public knowledge and 

community involvement in the protection of 

coral reefs will help to decrease the threats to 

this valuable natural resource. 

Active community involvement in marine 

resource management often results in 

locally acceptable resolution of resource 

management issues, increased conservation 

and compliance with the rules and greater 

capabilities within the community to 

influence resource management decisions. 

Opportunities for communities to become 

involved in coastal and marine stewardship 

projects have resulted in a network of at least 

32 communities statewide taking action. 

Many of these groups are also interested in 

preserving traditional knowledge and have 

incorporated mechanisms to document this 

knowledge into their resource management 

actions. The NWHI provides a unique 

opportunity for some of these practitioners 

to experience the marine resources in a 

natural state, and to compare and contrast 

the relatively pristine areas with the resources 

in their own backyards. As a result of lessons 

learned from coral reef awareness outreach 

campaigns and community stewardship 

projects the current outreach efforts through 

the Hawai‘i Coral Program are focused on 

specific audiences with key messages. 

Marine Debris

Marine debris from marine and terrestrial 

sources continues to wash up on the shores 

of the islands throughout the Hawaiian 

Archipelago daily. Marine debris, specifically 

derelict fishing gear (DFG), continues to 

present a potentially lethal entanglement 

hazard to various marine species of concern, 

including the critically endangered Hawaiian 

monk seal, the threatened green turtle, 

several protected species of whales and other 

wildlife. DFG also causes significant physical 

damage to sensitive reef habitats, including 

corals and other flora and fauna, and may 

serve as a potential vector for invasive 

species. Between 2005 and 2007, over 100 

tons of marine debris were removed from 

beaches in the MHI (Friedlander et al., 2008). 

The amount that washes ashore is likely much 

higher, as this figure only represents the 

documented efforts of community groups. 

In the NWHI, efforts to reduce entanglements 

to the Hawaiian monk seal have been 

underway since 1982. To date, over 600 metric 

tons of marine debris, mainly comprised of 

DFG, has been removed from the reefs and 

beaches of the NWHI. While DFG is the main 

source of the marine debris, more than 70% 

of the smaller debris that washes ashore is 

made of plastic, including buoys, bottles and 

cigarette lighters (Morishige, 2007). There is 

also evidence to suggest an increase in marine 

debris on the shores of the NWHI during the El 

Niño periods (Morishige, 2007).

Cumulative Impacts

While each of these threats is described 

separately, it is nearly impossible to link 

only one as the main threat to coral reefs 

in the Hawaiian Islands. For example, 

excessive nutrient runoff increases macroalgae (often invasive) blooms. This problem 

is exacerbated through over-fishing with 

the removal of herbivores from the system 

who normally keep algal populations down. 

Collectively, threats reduce coral fitness, 

which in turn reduces the organism’s ability 

to withstand and recover from impacts such 

as elevated water temperatures and the 

resulting bleaching. To improve ecosystem 

health these threats have to be managed 

comprehensively and in a holistic manner.
15

HAWAII’S Coral Reef Management Priorities

SECTION TWO:

MANAGEMENT 

FRAMEWORK AND 

GUIDING PRINCIPLES

Management Framework

To comprehensively and effectively address 

threats to coral reefs and carry out priority 

management goals, it is important that 

management agencies and organizations 

involved in coral reef conservation approach 

their work collaboratively and where 

appropriate with an ecoregional and/or 

archipelagic view. No longer is it appropriate 

to manage Hawaii’s resources as two separate 

units. As such, the management framework 

proposed in this document is one that fosters 

coordination, information sharing, resourcesharing and appropriately scaled research 

and management to bridge solutions across 

the two ends of the archipelago.

Additionally, it has been established that 

resource management is more successful 

when stakeholders are engaged. As such, 

Hawaii’s communities should be included 

as constituents and stakeholders of both 

the areas where they live and the remote, 

uninhabited islands, atolls and reefs of the 

NWHI. This management framework also 

promotes the engagement of communities 

in ways that (1) encourage an understanding 

of the numerous values and threats to our 

nearshore resources, and (2) empower them 

with skills to be stewards of the reefs. 

Guiding Principles

In determining the management priorities 

for coral reefs across the archipelago, core 

principles and practices were identified 

during both MHI and PMNM planning 

processes as crucial for success. As such, a 

core set of principles have been identified 

that will serve as the foundation for how work 

will be conducted to address the primary 

threats to coral reefs in Hawai‘i. 

These principles should help guide the 

development of coral reef management 

projects and programs to maximize 

effectiveness of these efforts. As such, these 

principles can also assist decision-makers in 

how resources will be allocated to address the 

key threats. Those efforts that incorporate 

these principles should be considered more 

likely for success and therefore higher priority 

over those efforts that do not take these 
16

principles into consideration. 

Coral reef management efforts in the 

Hawaiian Archipelago should aim to:

■ Integrate and foster land-sea (reef-toridge) connections.

■ Bridge indigenous, local and 

community knowledge with western 

science by directly engaging Hawaiian 

scholars, practitioners, ocean-users 

and communities.

■ Involve social science as well 

as biophysical science in an 

interdisciplinary ecosystem-based 

management approach. 

■ Incorporate community needs 

and priorities in project planning, 

implementation and evaluation.

■ Address priority needs and threats 

through an archipelago-wide and/or 

ecoregional approach as appropriate.

■ Build local capacity, enabling on-theground managers and communities 

to increase their respective abilities to 

conduct local-level management.

■ Foster communication that is locally/

culturally appropriate, and effectively 

conveys information to various 

stakeholders.

A healthy reef ecosystem in Hawai‘i supports an abundance of coral and fish species, among others. Photo Credit: Ziggy Livnat, For the 

Sea Productions / Marine Photobank

SECTION TWO: MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORK AND GUIDING PRINCIPLES
17

HAWAII’S Coral Reef Management Priorities

SECTION THREE:

TEN-YEAR PRIORITY 

GOALS AND 

OBJECTIVES

Scope of the Coral Reef 

Management Priorities

The scope of these priorities covers coral reef 

ecosystems and related land management 

activities in the Hawaiian Islands from 2010–

2020.

The complete list of “long-term goals 

and objectives” for coral conservation 

developed through both the MHI Coral 

Strategy process and Papahānaumokuākea 

Marine National Monument management 

planning process can be found in Appendix 

One (HCRS, Appendix B: Long-Term Goals 

and Objectives). However, the intent of 

this document is to identify mediumterm goals and objectives for conserving 

Hawaii’s coral reefs. These Priority Goals and 

Objectives identified will guide Hawai‘i coral 

management activities over the next ten 

years. Those objectives identified as having a 

geographic focus of ARCH will be targeted for 

partnership activities among state agencies 

and PMNM. Those objectives identified 

as only a PMNM geographic focus will be 

primarily implemented by the PMNM while 

those identified as having a MHI geographic 

scope will be primarily implemented through 

activities funded by the Hawai’i Coral Reef 

Management and Monitoring grant.

 In this section, the Priority Goals and 

Objectives are highlighted in turquoise/

bold and turquoise/italic font, respectively. 

Each objective is also associated with a 

specific region of Hawai’i; for the purposes 

of brevity, the following abbreviations are 

utilized below: MHI = Main Hawaiian Islands, 

PMNM = Papahānaumokuākea Marine 

National Monument, and ARCH = Archipelago 

wide.

GOAL 1: Coral reefs undamaged by 

pollution, invasive species, marine 

construction and marine debris.

Objectives:

1.1 (MHI) Reduce key anthropogenic threats 

to two priority nearshore coral reef 

sites by 2015 using ahupua‘a-based 

management. Two sites—Ka‘anapaliKahekili and Pelekane-PuakoAnaeho‘omalu Bay—were identified as 

3–5 year priority areas for the program 

funding support.
18

1.2 (ARCH/MHI) Prevent new AIS 

introductions and minimize the spread 

of established AIS populations by 2020.

1.3 (PMNM) Derelict fishing gear will be 

removed from coral reef environments 

at or above the rate at which it is 

introduced, minimizing damage to coral 

reefs.

GOAL 2: Productive and sustainable 

coral reef fisheries and habitat.

Objectives:

2.1 (MHI) Increase the abundance and 

average size of ten targeted coral reef 

fisheries species critical to reef health 

and ecological function by 2020.* 

 *Species to be determined by FLASH advisory 

group

2.2 (MHI) Designate a sufficient area 

of marine waters under effective 

conservation by 2020 to ensure 

sustainable and resilient coral reef 

ecosystems.

2.3 (MHI) Reduce anchor damage and 

trampling on coral reefs through the 

implementation of no-anchor zones, 

utilization of day-use mooring buoys 

and other means by 2020.

GOAL 3: Coral reef ecosystems resilient 

to climate change, invasive species and 

marine disease.

Objectives:

3.1 (PMNM) Establish a baseline and tracking 

of information over 10 years by which 

the PMNM can be used as a sentinel site 

for assessing impacts of climate change 

and ocean acidification in the MHI.

3.2 (ARCH) Develop and implement 

protocols that enable state and federal 

managers to effectively and consistently 

SECTION THREE: TEN-YEAR PRIORITY GOALS AND OBJECTIVES

Marine debris like these nets (left image) directly impact Hawaii’s reefs, while pervasive waterborne plastics (right image) in the 

uninhabited NWHI impact reef ecosystems and their inhabitants before being deposited on beaches like Laysan Island. Photo Credits: 

Left Image: NOAA NMFS PIFSC CRED Marine Debris Team, Right Image: Dwayne Meadows, NOAA PIFSC CRED
19

HAWAII’S Coral Reef Management Priorities

assess and respond to incidents of coral 

bleaching, disease, aquatic invasive 

species and sedimentation by 2012.

GOAL 4: Increased public stewardship 

of coral reef ecosystems.

Objectives:

4.1 (ARCH) Provide at least 8 community 

organizations working at priority 

sites** with technical support needed 

to implement coral reef management 

strategies that are consistent with 

ahupua’a principles and that enhance 

ecological resilience by 2020. 

 ** priority sites have been selected and are 

identified in Section Four

Left Image: White syndrome is the second most prevalent coral disease in the Hawaiian archipelago, shown here at French Frigate 

Shoals in the NWHI. Photo Credit: Bernardo Vargas-Angel, NOAA PIFSC CRED Right Image: Porites sp. showing partial bleaching 

during the 2002 bleaching event in the NWHI. Photo Credit: © James D. Watt / Oceanstock
20

SECTION FOUR:

PRIORITY SITE 

SELECTION PROCESS 

AND NEXT STEPS

Site Selection Process 

and Results

It was recognized early in the HCRS process 

that many of the management activities 

identified in the goals and objectives need 

to be implemented at a site-specific level to 

effectively and realistically show success (e.g., 

reduction of sediment and nutrient runoff, 

sufficient areas under effective conservation, 

etc.). For this reason, the CRWG decided 

that identifying “priority sites” to implement 

specific ridge-to-reef management activities 

was critical. 

To do this, a process was developed to 

utilize the expertise of LAS Advisory Groups, 

the CRWG and key biologists to assess and 

prioritize reef sites for future Hawai‘i coral 

reef program activities. Site prioritization 

was guided by (1) criteria developed by the 

Coral Reef Working Group (see Appendix 

One [HCRS, Section 5, Table 2: Criteria for 

Hawai‘i Program Site Prioritizations]) and 

(2) the Priority Goals and Objectives for the 

Hawai‘i Coral Strategy. The Hawai‘i Coral 

Program also utilized the results of the 

Marine Ecoregional Assessment for the Main 

Hawaiian Islands, recently completed by 

The Nature Conservancy (TNC), as a starting 

point for site prioritization (see Appendix 

One [HCRS, Appendix C: Overview of the 

Marine Ecoregional Assessment for the Main 

Hawaiian Islands]). This plan identified 43 

areas of biological importance for long-term 

resiliency of coral reefs based on similar 

criteria as the CRWG, extensive databases of 

scientific information, rigorous analyses and 

expert reviews. From this plan, a preliminary 

set of nine priority sites were identified by all 

of the LAS Advisory Groups, the CRWG and 

personnel from key partner organizations. Full 

details on the process for site prioritization 

can be found in Appendix One (HCRS, Section 

5: Priority Site Selection Process).

These nine sites were further ranked by the 

CRWG in terms of “readiness” (availability 

of information, ability to leverage funding, 

availability of potential partners and existing 

plans), “urgency” (current or potential threats 

such as land-based sources of pollution, 

AIS, over-fishing, nearshore development, 

etc.), “cross-LAS potential” (opportunities 

for LAS to collaborate) and “potential for 

effective management” (potential for success 

in maintaining or improving reef health). 

Two sites— Ka‘anapali-Kahekili (Maui) and 

Pelekane Bay-Puako-Anaeho‘omalu Bay 

(Hawai‘i)—were identified as 3–5 year priority 

areas for the program funding support. 
21

HAWAII’S Coral Reef Management Priorities

Table 1 above lists all nine sites considered by 

the CRWG and levels of support that will be 

provided based on the ranking

results. The two priority sites will receive 

program funding and technical assistance 

support from the Hawai‘i Coral

Management Grant in the initial three to 

five years. Some sites will continue to have 

technical support and also receive funds for 

implementation of LAS projects throughout 

2010. Several sites identified have received 

large amounts of LAS funds in the past and 

there is a continued desire on the part of 

several LAS advisory groups to support 

initiatives in these areas when possible. The 

final group of sites are in need of additional 

community/agency engagement before 

designation as a HCRS priority site. Sites will 

be reevaluated in 2013 and additional sites 

could be added as priorities at that time. 

Immediate Next Steps

In 2010, the CRWG has worked to initiate 

site-based management planning for 

Ka‘anapali-Kahekili and Pelekane Bay-PuakoAnaeho‘omalu Bay. Some of the initial 

tasks have included: defining the scope of 

the site, assembling a planning team and 

coordinator and carrying out a stakeholder 

analysis. The development of strategies and 

activities for objectives not related to sitebased management are being led by the LAS 

Advisory Groups. 

The extensive planning process used to 

develop the HCRS has led to increased 

participation of key stakeholders and an 

enhanced dialogue between DAR, partner 

agencies and other statewide ocean 

initiatives. Throughout this process the 

CRWG, LAS Advisory Groups and other 

stakeholders worked towards a more 

strategic approach to address threats to coral 

reefs in Hawai‘i. Full details on the proposed 

strategies for implementation of priority 

objectives can be found in the attached 

HCRS document (see Appendix One [HCRS, 

Section 5, Table 4: Hawaii’s MHI Priority Coral 

Reef Management Objectives, Activities and 

Outcomes). 

Table 1: Ranked Sites and Level of Support Available

*Site identifier corresponds with maps in The Hawai’i Coral Reef Strategy Site Prioritization Maps Appendix One 

(HCRS, Appendix D).

Site Level of Support Available

Ka‘anapali-Kahekili (M-7)* Hawai‘i Coral Program Priority Site 3–5 years to receive 

Pelekane Bay-Puako-Anaeho‘omalu Bay (H-1) funding and technical assistance

Maunalua Bay (O-4) 

Technical support, continued LAS projects through 2010

Kāne’ohe Bay (O-2) 

Olowalu (M-6) 

Hā'ena-Hanalei (K-2) 

Kealakekua (H-9) 

Wai‘anae (O-6) No action at this time/re evaluate site after 3 years/ 

Sites in need of additional community/agency 

South Shore Moloka‘i (MO-4) engagement 
22

SECTION FIVE:

RELATIONSHIP 

BETWEEN HAWAII’S 

REEF MANAGEMENT 

PRIORITIES AND 

THOSE OF NOAA CRCP

The NOAA CRCP Roadmap identifies three 

key priority threats to coral reef ecosystems:

1. Understanding and addressing the 

impacts of fishing.

2. Understanding and addressing landbased sources of pollution.

3. Understanding and addressing the 

impacts of climate change (NOAA 

CRCP, 2008).

This document reflects these national 

priorities. The threats to reefs posed by 

fishing, land-based sources of pollution and 

climate change are incorporated in Hawaii’s 

goals. Two of Hawaii’s priority objectives 

directly address the CRCP’s priorities. Hawai‘i 

has committed to a watershed-based 

approach to addressing critical land-based 

sources of pollution at critical sites. Hawai‘i 

has also committed to reducing fishing 

impacts on reefs through education, new 

regulations, more rigorous enforcement and 

improved habitat protection.

Table 2 shows how Hawaii’s Priority Goals 

and Objectives correlate to NOAA CRCP’s 

National Goals and Objectives for coral reef 

conservation. Table 2 was developed to 

explicitly identify potential partnerships 

between the managers in Hawai‘i and NOAA 

CRCP. Addressing both local jurisdictional 

priorities and national goals and objectives 

will increase efficiency and leveraging 

of the resources available for coral reef 

conservation. NOAA CRCP will use this table 

to inform future investments in coral reef 

conservation in Hawai‘i. 

These priorities are each also assigned a 

geographic priority (MHI, PMNM, and/or 

ARCH), as noted in the table to the right. 
23

HAWAII’S Coral Reef Management Priorities

Hawaii’s Ten-Year Priority 

Goals and Objectives

NOAA CRCP’s National Goals 

and Objectives for Coral Reef 

Conservation

Explanation of Correlation

(as needed)

GOAL 1: Coral reefs undamaged by pollution, invasive species, marine construction and marine debris.

Objective 1: Reduce key anthropogenic 

threats to two priority nearshore coral 

reef sites by 2015 using ahupua‘a-based 

management. 

Two sites—Ka‘anapali-Kahekili and 

Pelekane Bay-Puako-Anaeho‘omalu Bay 

—were identified as 3–5 year priority 

areas for the program funding support.

(MHI)

LBSP Impacts Objective 1.3: Implement 

watershed management plans and 

relevant Local Action Strategies (LAS) 

within priority coral reef ecosystems 

and associated watersheds to improve 

water quality and enhance coral reef 

ecosystem resilience. Where needed, 

develop (or update) watershed 

management plans that incorporate 

coral reef protection measures. 

Fishing Impacts Objective 2.4: Work 

with relevant agencies, offices, and 

communities to create, implement, 

and improve the management of MPAs 

that protect key coral reef ecosystem 

components and functions.

The intent of the Hawai‘i objective 

is to reduce anthropogenic threats 

to key reef areas, regardless of 

their origin (land or water). The 

correlation to national goals and 

objectives therefore includes 

objectives found in both the 

Land-Based Sources of Pollution 

(LBSP) section and Fishing Impacts 

sections. The first objective 

identifies the need to develop and 

implement watershed management 

plans to reduce LBSP and the second 

identifies improving management of 

MPAs for coral reef protection. 

Objective 9: Prevent new AIS 

introductions and minimize the spread 

of established AIS populations by 2020.

(ARCH/MHI)

None

Derelict fishing gear will be removed 

from coral reef environments at or 

above the rate at which it is introduced, 

minimizing damage to coral reefs.

(ARCH/MHI)

None
24

Hawaii’s Ten-Year 

Priority Goals and 

Objectives

NOAA CRCP’s National Goals and 

Objectives for Coral Reef Conservation

Explanation of 

Correlation

(as needed)

GOAL 2: Productive and sustainable coral reef fisheries and habitat.

Objective 1: Increase the 

abundance and average size 

of ten targeted coral reef 

fisheries species critical to reef 

health and ecological function 

by 2020.*** 

***Species to be determined 

by FLASH advisory group

(MHI)

Fishing Impacts Goal 1

Increase the abundance and average size of key1

 

coral reef fishery species to protect trophic structure 

and biodiversity and improve coral reef ecosystem 

condition.

Objective 1.1: Support the creation or improvement 

of coral reef fisheries management plans that address 

ecological, social, and economic considerations. 

Objective 1.2: Prioritize key coral reef associated species 

or functional groups (e.g. herbivores, apex predators, 

etc.) on which to focus management, research and 

monitoring activities for each jurisdiction or managed 

area. 

Objective 1.3: Obtain essential life history and 

ecological information on key species or functional 

groups to support management actions. 

Objective 1.4: Obtain necessary information on fishing 

effort in U.S. coral reef ecosystems by measuring fishing 

intensity, fishing mortality, frequency, area coverage, 

community dependence, etc. to inform management 

activities.

Objective 1.5: Predict appropriate levels of extraction 

for key species or groups by developing and utilizing 

valid, precise, place-based and realistic ecosystem 

dynamics models. 

No explanation needed. 

SECTION FIVE: RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HAWAII’S REEF MANAGEMENT PRIORITIES AND THOSE OF NOAA CRCP

1 Key coral reef species (or functional groups) should be identified by each jurisdiction or managed area, and are defined as the 

composite of species essential to effective ecosystem-based function. Key species/groups may be those most affected by extractive 

activities, those that serve as indicator or keystone species or other criteria.

Table 2 continued
25

HAWAII’S Coral Reef Management Priorities

Hawaii’s Ten-Year 

Priority Goals and 

Objectives

NOAA CRCP’s National Goals and 

Objectives for Coral Reef Conservation

Explanation of 

Correlation

(as needed)

GOAL 2: Productive and sustainable coral reef fisheries and habitat.

Objective 2: Designate a 

sufficient area of marine waters 

under effective conservation 

by 2020 to ensure sustainable 

and resilient coral reef 

ecosystems.

(MHI)

Fishing Impacts Goal 2

Support effective implementation and management 

of marine protected areas2

 (MPAs) and ecological 

networks3

 of MPAs that protect key coral reef 

ecosystem components and functions.

Objective 2.1: Identify, characterize and rank priority 

areas for protection within each jurisdiction, including 

(but not limited to):

•	 spawning sites, nursery habitats, or other areas

critical to particular life-history stages

•	 biodiversity hotspots

•	 areas with greatest resilience or potential for

restoring resilience

•	 areas facing greatest threats

Objective 2.2: Synthesize research on the performance 

of MPAs that protect key coral reef ecosystem 

components and functions.

Objective 2.3: Using outputs of Objective 2.1 

and 2.2, appropriate models, and socioeconomic 

considerations, identify MPAs that require increased 

protections or improved management, and areas to 

be considered for siting of new MPAs that protect key 

coral reef ecosystem components and functions.

Objective 2.4: Work with relevant agencies, offices, 

and communities to create, implement, and improve 

the management of MPAs that protect key coral reef 

ecosystem components and functions.

Objective 2.5: Conduct biological and socioeconomic 

research and monitoring to assess the performance of 

MPAs with respect to protection and restoration of key 

coral reef ecosystem components and functions.

No explanation needed. 

Table 2 continued

2 Marine Protected Area (MPA): An area of the marine environment that has been designated by law or regulation to provide lasting 

protection for part or all of the resources therein.

3 Ecological Network: A set of MPAs that are connected through ecological processes and that share complementary purposes and 

synergistic protections.
26

Hawaii’s Ten-Year 

Priority Goals and 

Objectives

NOAA CRCP’s National Goals and 

Objectives for Coral Reef Conservation

Explanation of 

Correlation

(as needed)

GOAL 2: Productive and sustainable coral reef fisheries and habitat.

Objective 5: Reduce anchor 

damage and trampling 

on coral reefs through the 

implementation of no-anchor 

zones, utilization of day-use 

mooring buoys and other 

means by 2020. 

(MHI)

None

GOAL 3: Coral reef ecosystems resilient to climate change, invasive species and marine disease.

Establish a baseline and 

tracking of information over 

10 years by which the PMNM 

can be used as a sentinel 

site for assessing impacts of 

climate change and ocean 

acidification in the MHI.

(PMNM)

Climate Change Impacts Objective 2.1: Characterize 

physical and chemical changes in coral reef 

environments by enhancing question-based 

monitoring to fill gaps in our current observations. This 

both establishes a baseline to assess climate change 

impacts on coral reef ecosystems and reveals changes 

through time.

No explanation needed.

Develop and implement 

protocols that enable state 

and federal managers to 

effectively and consistently 

assess and respond to 

incidents of coral bleaching, 

disease, aquatic invasive 

species and sedimentation by 

2012.

(ARCH)

Climate Change Impacts Objective 1.3: 

Develop and implement climate-related crisis response 

plans in all U.S. coral reef jurisdictions to provide 

a framework for early warning, communication, 

monitoring, research, and management response 

to protect coral reef ecosystems from acute events 

such as coral bleaching, infectious disease outbreaks, 

tropical storm impacts, and major rainfall events. 

The intent of the jurisdictional 

objective is to develop tools 

for managers responding 

to coral bleaching, disease 

and aquatic invasive 

species. The national 

objective that correlates to 

this jurisdictional objective 

calls on jurisdictional crisis 

response planning for acute 

events related to climate 

change. However, it does not 

identify response to aquatic 

invasive species introductions 

as that is not a priority across 

all jurisdictions.

Table 2 continued

SECTION FIVE: RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HAWAII’S REEF MANAGEMENT PRIORITIES AND THOSE OF NOAA CRCP
27

HAWAII’S Coral Reef Management Priorities

Hawaii’s Ten-Year 

Priority Goals and 

Objectives

NOAA CRCP’s National Goals and 

Objectives for Coral Reef Conservation

Explanation of 

Correlation

(as needed)

GOAL 4: Increased public stewardship of coral reef ecosystems. 

Provide at least 8 community 

organizations working 

at priority sites** with 

technical support needed 

to implement coral reef 

management strategies that 

are consistent with ahupua’a 

principles and that enhance 

ecological resilience by 2020. 

** priority sites have been 

selected and are identified in 

Section Four

(ARCH)

Climate Change Objective 1.5: In collaboration with reef 

managers, develop, test, and apply the best available 

science to provide new and innovative tools to help 

managers prepare and respond to climate change and 

ocean acidification related impacts. 

Fishing Impacts Objective 2.4: Work with relevant 

agencies, offices, and communities to create, 

implement, and improve the management of MPAs 

that protect key coral reef ecosystem components and 

functions.

Fishing Impacts Objective 3.2: Strengthen local agency 

and community capacity for effective and consistent 

enforcement of regulations or behaviors that reduce 

impacts of fishing on coral reef ecosystems. 

LBSP Impacts Objective 3.2: Build partnerships 

among local, state, federal, and non-governmental 

entities to identify, leverage, and apply financial and 

other resources to facilitate improved coastal and 

upland watershed management to protect coral reef 

ecosystems from impacts of land-based sources of 

pollution.

The jurisdictional priority 

objective refers to technical 

support to community 

organizations for coral reef 

management consistent 

with ahupua’a principles. In 

a ridge-to-reef approach, 

you must integrate technical 

assistance and capacity 

building for all three threats 

to coral reef ecosystems. 

Therefore, there are four 

associated national objectives 

that correlate to the 

jurisdictional objective. 

Table 2 continued
28

Hawai‘i Local Action Strategies

Department of Land and Natural Resources, 

Division of Aquatic Resources with CCMD Steering 

Committee (2006). Hawaii’s Climate Change and 

Marine Disease Local Action Strategy. 38pp. 

Department of Land and Natural Resources, 

Division of Aquatic Resources, NOAA Fisheries, 

Pacific Islands Regional Office and Western 

Pacific Regional Fisheries Management Council 

(2004). Main Hawaiian Islands Coral Reef Fishery 

Management Local Action Strategy. 53pp.

Department of Land and Natural Resources, 

Division of Aquatic Resources and Hawai‘i 

Ecotourism Association (2005). Hawaii’s Local 

Action Strategy to Address Recreational Impacts to 

Reefs. 66pp. 

Land Based Pollution Local Action Strategy 

members, with technical assistance from Tetra 

Tech, Inc. (2004). Hawaii’s Local Action Strategy to 

Address Land-Based Pollution to Coral Reefs. 83pp. 

Shluker, A. (2003). State of Hawai‘i Aquatic 

Invasive Species Management Plan. Prepared for 

Department of Land and Natural Resources, 

Division of Aquatic Resources. A publication of 

the State of Hawai‘i Division of Aquatic Resources, 

Department of Land and Natural Resources, The 

Nature Conservancy of Hawai‘i, and relevant 

partners through a grant from the Hawai‘i 

Community Foundation. 205pp.

Hawai‘i Plans and Reports

Bryant, K. (2003). Department of Land and Natural 

Resources, Division of Aquatic Resources Strategic 

Planning Framework. 13pp. 

CSV Consultants (2007). Report to the Hawai‘i 

Department of Land and Natural Resources: 

Recommended Strategies for Addressing Ocean 

Recreation User Conflicts. 60pp. A report of the 

Hawai‘i Office of Planning, State of Hawai‘i, 

Department of Business, Economic Development 

and Tourism and Department of Land and 

Natural Resources pursuant to National Oceanic 

and Atmospheric Administration Award No. 

NA05NOS4191060. 65pp.

Fletcher, C. (2003). Hawai‘i Department of 

Land and Natural Resources, Land DivisionCoastal Lands Program. Hawaii’s Coastal Erosion 

Management Plan. 90pp. 

Grober-Dunsmore, R., M. Ridgley and L. Tran 

(2000). Integrating Science and Policy for an 

Uncertain and Conflictive World: Developing and 

Operational Methodology for Strategic Multiobjective Coral Reef Management. Prepared for the 

Hawai‘i Coral Reef Initiative. 91pp.

Hawai‘i 2050 Sustainability Task Force (2008). 

Hawai‘i 2050 Sustainability Plan: Charting a Course 

for Hawaii’s Sustainable Future. 99pp. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CORAL 

REEF MANAGEMENT AND 

CONSERVATION DOCUMENTS 

FOR HAWAI‘I BY AGENCY
29

HAWAII’S Coral Reef Management Priorities

Hawai‘i Coastal Zone Management Program 

(1996). Hawaii’s Coastal Nonpoint Pollution Control 

Program Management Plan Volume 1. A publication 

of the Hawai‘i Office of State Planning, pursuant to 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

Award Nos. NA47OZ0264 and NA57OZ0270. 

445pp. 

Hawai‘i Coastal Zone Management Program 

(2000.) Hawaii’s Implementation Plan for Polluted 

Runoff Control. A publication of the Hawai‘i Office 

of Planning, Coastal Zone Management Program, 

pursuant to National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration Award No. NA970Z0161, and the 

Hawai‘i Department of Heath, Polluted Runoff 

Control Program, pursuant to Federal Clean 

Water Act Section 319(h) funds from the U.S. 

Environmental Protection Agency. 181pp.

Hawai‘i Department of Business, Economic 

Development and Tourism (2006). Planning for 

Sustainable Tourism, Part 1 Summary report. 93pp.

Hawai‘i Department of Health (1999). Strategic 

Plan for Hawaii’s Environmental Protection 

Programs. 109pp.

Hawai‘i Department of Health (2001). Strategic 

Plan Update For Hawaii’s Environmental Protection 

Programs.

Komoto, J. (2006). Revised Recommendations to 

Integrate and Improve Hawaii’s Marine Managed 

Areas for the Conservation of Aquatic Resources: 

Recommendations from the Division of Aquatic 

Resources. Prepared for the Department of Land 

and Natural Resources, Division of Aquatic 

Resources. 53pp.

Mitchell C., C. Ogura, D. Meadows, A. Kane, L. 

Strommer, S. Fretz, D. Leonard, and A. McClung 

(2005). Hawaii’s Comprehensive Wildlife 

Conservation Strategy. Department of Land and 

Natural Resources. Honolulu, Hawai‘i. 722pp.

Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument 

Management Plan (2008) Honolulu, Hawai‘i. 

Tetra Tech, Inc. (2006). Hawai’i Ocean Resources 

Management Plan. Prepared for the Hawai‘i Coastal 

Zone Management Program. 73pp.

Tetra Tech EM, Inc. (2006). Defining Elements of 

a Moku Management Plan. Prepared for: Hawai‘i 

State Department of Business and Economic 

Development—

Office of Planning, Coastal Zone Management 

Program. 33pp.

University of Hawai‘i Sea Grant Extension Service 

and State of Hawai‘i Department of Land and 

Natural Resources Office of Conservation and 

Coastal Lands (2004). Draft Erosion Management 

Alternatives for Hawai‘i. 6pp.

Hawai‘i Watershed Prioritization 

Processes

The Nature Conservancy, Marine Ecoregional Plan; 

Hawaiian High Islands Ecoregion Plan; Coastal 

Ecoregion Plan.

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home.html

Coastal: http://www.hawaiiecoregionplan.info/

coastalsystem.html

DLNR–DAR Hawai‘i Watershed Atlas: http://www.

hawaiiwatershedatlas.com/

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dbedt/czm/initiative/nonpoint.php

National Coral Reef Plans

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(2007). Draft 2007 NOAA Guidance on Coral Reef 

Local Action Strategies. U.S. Coral Reef Task Force. 

(2000) National Action Plan to Conserve Coral 

Reefs. 41pp. 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration, Coral Reef Management Program. 

(2008). NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program 

Roadmap: A Plan for Developing CRCP through 

2015. Washington, D.C. 12 pp.
30

Meeting Reports

Ferguson, O. (2007). Envisioning the Future of 

Coastal Management, Hawai‘i Stakeholder Meeting 

Summary. National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration. 13pp. 

Multicriteria Decision-Making and 

Prioritization

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Decision-Making Method for the Evaluation 

of Pollution-Sensitive Coastal Areas in the 

Mediterranean Sea. Environmental Management

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Lahdelma, R., P. Salminen and J. Hokkanen (2000). 

Using Multicriteria Methods in Environmental 

Planning and Management. Environmental 

Management Vol. 26, No. 6, pp. 595–605.

Other Area Plans

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Vision for Our Ocean and Coast: Five Year Strategic 

Plan. 60pp. 

ESSIM Planning Office (2006). Coral Conservation 

Plan, Maritimes Region (2006–2010). Oceans and 

Coastal Management Division Oceans and Habitat 

Branch Maritimes Region Fisheries and Oceans 

Canada Bedford Institute of Oceanography. 71pp. 

Ferns, L. (2003). Victoria’s System of Marine National 

Parks and Marine Sanctuaries; Management 

Strategy 2003–2010. Parks Victoria and the 

Department of Sustainability and Environment.

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Keeping it Great: A 25 Year Strategic Plan for the 

Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area. 74pp.

Gulf of Mexico Alliance (2006). Governors’ Action 

Plan For Health and Resilient Coasts. 34pp. 

Hennessey, J. (ed)., H. Ballash, M. Culver, K. Drew, 

S. Dzinbal, J. Hansen, M. Hershman, D. Larman and 

B. Lynn (2006). Washington’s Ocean Action Plan: 

Enhancing Management of Washington State’s 

Ocean and Outer Coasts. Volume 2: Final Report of 

the Washington State Ocean Policy Work Group. 

184pp.

National Resource Management Ministrial Council, 

Commonwealth of Australia (2006). National 

Cooperative Approach to Integrative Coastal 

Management: Framework and Implementation Plan.

(Queensland) 57pp.

Shea, E.L, G. Dolcemascolo, C.L. Anderson, A. 

Barnston, C.P. Guard, M.P. Hamnett, S.T. Kubota, N. 

Lewis, J. Loschnigg and G. Meehl. 2001. Preparing 

for a Changing Climate: The potential Consequences 

of Climate Variability and Change. East-West Center, 

Honolulu, Hawai‘i. 100pp. 

Sherman K., P. Celone, S. Adams. 2004. NOAA 

Fisheries Service's Large Marine Ecosystems Program: 

Status Report , NOAA Technical Memorandum 

NMFS-NE-183. 30pp.

Coastal Planning Books

Clark, R and J. Alder (2005). Coastal Planning and 

Management (2nd ed.). Taylor & Francis. 400pp.

Funding

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Sustainable Financing of Protected Areas: A 

global review of challenges and options. Gland, 

Switzerland and Cambridge, UK: IUCN. x + 97pp.

Hawai‘i Department of Land and Natural 

Resources Division of Forestry and Wildlife (2007). 

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Regular Session of 2008 Requesting the Department 

of Land and Natural Resources To Conduct an 

Analysis of Incentives To Promote Landowner 

Protection of Important Mauka Lands. In response 

to House Concurrent Resolution 200, House 

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Honolulu, Hawai‘i. 17pp.

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CORAL REEF MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION DOCUMENTS FOR HAWAI‘I BY AGENCY
31

HAWAII’S Coral Reef Management Priorities

Spergel, B and M. Moye (2004). Financing Marine 

Conservation: A Menu of Options. Center for 

Conservation Finance, Building Conservation 

Capital for The Future. Washington, DC: World 

Wildlife Fund. 76pp.

Adaptive Management

University of Michigan (2003). Measuring Progress: 

A guide to the development, implementation, and 

interpretation of an evaluation plan. A publication 

of the Ecosystem Management Initiative, School of 

Natural Resources and Environment, University of 

Michigan. Development of this guide was partially 

supported by a grant from the William and Flora 

Hewlett Foundation and the McIntire-Stennis 

Forestry Research Program administered by the 

USDA-Cooperative State Research Service. 131pp. 

Section One References

Friedlander, A.M. and DeMartini, E.E. (2002). 

Contrasts in density, size, and biomass of reef 

fishes between the Northwestern and Main 

Hawaiian Islands: The effects of fishing down apex 

predators. Marine Ecology Progress 230: 253–264.

Friedlander, Alan M. (2004). Status of Hawaii’s 

coastal fisheries in the new millennium.: proceedings 

of the 2001 Fisheries Symposium. Honolulu, Hawai‘i: 

American Fisheries Society, Hawai‘i Chapter.

Friedlander, A., G. Aeby, E. Brown, A. Clark, S. Coles, 

S. Dollar, C. Hunter, P. Jokiel, J. Smith, W. Walsh, I. 

Williams and W. Wiltse (2005b). The State of Coral 

Reef Ecosystems of the Main Hawaiian Islands. 

pp222–269. In: J. Waddell (ed.), The State of Coral 

Reef Ecosystems of the United States and Pacific 

Freely Associated States: 2005. NOAA Technical 

Memorandum NOS NCCOS 11. NOAA/NCCOS 

Center for Coastal Monitoring and Assessment’s 

Biogeography Team. Silver Spring, Maryland. 

522pp.

Friedlander, A., G. Aeby, R. Brainard, A. Clark, 

E. DeMartini, S. Godwin, J. Kenyon, R. Kosaki, 

J. Maragos and P. Vroom. 2005c. The State of 

Coral Reef Ecosystems of the Northwestern 

Hawaiian Islands. pp270-311. In: J. Waddell (ed.), 

The State of Coral Reef Ecosystems of the United 

States and Pacific Freely Associated States: 2005. 

NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS NCCOS 11. 

NOAA/NCCOS Center for Coastal Monitoring and 

Assessment’s Biogeography Team. Silver Spring, 

Maryland. 522pp.

Friedlander, A. G. Aeby, R. Brainard, E. Brown, K. 

Chaston, A. Clark, P. McGowan, T. Montgomery, 

W. Walsh, I. Williams and W. Wiltse (2008). The 

State of Coral Reef Ecosystems of the Main 

Hawaiian Islands. pp219-261. In: Waddell, J.E. 

and A.M. Clarke (eds.), 2008. The State of Coral 

Reef Ecosystems of the United States and Pacific 

Freely Associated States: 2008. NOAA Technical 

Memorandum NOS NCCOS 73. NOAA/NCCOS 

Center for Coastal Monitoring and Assessment’s 

Biogeography Team. Silver Spring, Maryland. 

569pp.

Hawai‘i Department of Business, Economic 

Development and Tourism. 2007 Visitor Statistics. 

Honolulu, Hawai‘i.

Hawai‘i Department of Land and Natural 

Resources (DLNR) Division of Aquatic Resources 

(DAR) (2005). Marine Protected Areas in Hawai‘i. 

Honolulu: Custom Publishing Group of the 

Honolulu Advertiser, March 9, 2005.

Holland, K.M. and Meyer, C.G. (2003). Human 

Activities in Marine Protected Areas, Impact on 

Substrates; Final Report (Final Report). Kaneohe: 

Hawai‘i Institute of Marine Biology.

Smith, M.K. (1993). An ecological perspective on 

inshore fisheries in the Main Hawaiian Islands. 

Marine Fisheries Review, 55(2): 34–49.

Section Two References

Davidson, K., M. Hamnett and C. Minato (eds) 

(2003). The First Four Years: Hawai‘i Coral Reef 

Initiative Research Program, 1998–2002. Social 

Science Research Institute, University of Hawai‘i at 

Manoa. 72pp.
32
APPENDIX ONE: 

The Hawai‘i Coral Reef Strategy: 

Priorities for Management in the 

Main Hawaiian Islands, 2010–2020

To access this report online or for more information, visit:

http://coralreef.noaa.gov/aboutcrcp/strategy/reprioritization/managementpriorities/

33
34

To access this report online or for more information, visit:

http://coralreef.noaa.gov/aboutcrcp/strategy/reprioritization/managementpriorities/