FGDC-STD-014.2-2015

Geographic Information Framework Data Content

Standard

Part 2: Digital Orthoimagery
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Federal Geographic Data Committee

Established by Office of Management and Budget Circular A-16, the Federal Geographic Data 

Committee (FGDC) promotes the coordinated development, use, sharing, and dissemination of 

geographic data.

The FGDC is composed of representatives from the Departments of Agriculture, Commerce, Defense, 

Education, Energy, Health and Human Services, Homeland Security, Housing and Urban 

Development, the Interior, Justice, Labor, State, and Transportation, the Treasury, and Veteran 

Affairs; the Environmental Protection Agency; the Federal Communications Commission; the General 

Services Administration; the Library of Congress; the National Aeronautics and Space Administration; 

the National Archives and Records Administration; the National Science Foundation; the Nuclear 

Regulatory Commission; the Office of Personnel Management; the Small Business Administration; the 

Smithsonian Institution; the Social Security Administration; the Tennessee Valley Authority; and the 

U.S. Agency for International Development.

Additional Federal agencies participate on FGDC subcommittees and working groups. The Department 

of the Interior chairs the committee.

FGDC subcommittees work on issues related to data categories coordinated under the circular. 

Subcommittees establish and implement standards for data content, quality, and transfer; encourage 

the exchange of information and the transfer of data; and organize the collection of geographic data to 

reduce duplication of effort. Working groups are established for issues that transcend data categories.

For more information about the committee, or to be added to the committee's newsletter mailing list, 

please contact:

Federal Geographic Data Committee Secretariat c/o 

U.S. Geological Survey

590 National Center

Reston, Virginia 22092

Facsimile: (703) 648-5755 

Internet (electronic mail): fgdc@fgdc.gov

World Wide Web: http://www.fgdc.gov
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Contents

Introduction ...............................................................................................................................................vii

2.1 Scope, purpose, and application..................................................................................................1

2.1.1 Scope...............................................................................................................................................1

2.1.1 Purpose...........................................................................................................................................1

2.1.2 Application......................................................................................................................................1

2.2 Normative references ....................................................................................................................1

2.3 Standards development ................................................................................................................1

2.4 Maintenance authority...................................................................................................................2

2.4.1 Level of responsibility ...................................................................................................................2

2.4.2 Contact information.......................................................................................................................2

2.5 Terms and definitions....................................................................................................................2

2.6 Symbols, abbreviated terms, and notations ...............................................................................8

2.7 Data description.............................................................................................................................9

2.8 Requirements .................................................................................................................................9

2.8.1 Digital orthoimagery structure .....................................................................................................9

2.8.2 Resolution.....................................................................................................................................10

2.8.2.1 Spatial resolution.....................................................................................................................10

2.8.2.2 Spectral resolution ..................................................................................................................10

2.8.2.3 Radiometric resolution............................................................................................................10

2.8.3 Areal extent...................................................................................................................................11

2.8.4 Coordinate systems and reference datums ..............................................................................11

2.8.4.1 Coordinate systems ................................................................................................................11

2.8.4.2 Reference datums....................................................................................................................11

2.8.4.3 Georegistration........................................................................................................................11

2.8.5 Accuracy requirements ...............................................................................................................11

2.8.5.1 Tested orthoimages RMSE .....................................................................................................12

2.8.5.2 Untested orthoimages RMSE .................................................................................................12

2.8.5.3 Horizontal positional accuracy narrative ..............................................................................12

2.8.5.4 Horizontal positional accuracy reporting..............................................................................12

2.8.6 Production components..............................................................................................................12

2.8.6.1 Image sources..........................................................................................................................12

2.8.6.2 Elevation data ..........................................................................................................................13

2.8.6.3 Calibration data........................................................................................................................13

2.8.6.4 Control data..............................................................................................................................13

2.9 Image rectification and restoration............................................................................................14

2.9.1 Geometric correction...................................................................................................................14

2.9.1.1 Image smear.............................................................................................................................14

2.9.1.2 Other elevation – related geometric distortions...................................................................14

2.9.2 Radiometric correction................................................................................................................14

2.9.3 Data completeness ......................................................................................................................15

2.9.4 Cloud cover ..................................................................................................................................15

2.10 Image mosaicking........................................................................................................................15

2.11 Data transfer formats...................................................................................................................15

2.12 Metadata........................................................................................................................................15

Annex 2-A (normative) Orthoimagery UML model ........................................................................16
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Annex 2.A.1 Orthoimagery schema ....................................................................................................16

2.A.1.1 Classes of the schema............................................................................................................16

2.A.2.1 Orthoimage...............................................................................................................................16

2.A.2.1.1 Introduction..........................................................................................................................16

2.A.2.1.2 Attribute: domainExtent .....................................................................................................17

2.A.2.1.3 Attribute: rangeType ...........................................................................................................17

2.A.2.1.4 Attribute: interpolationType...............................................................................................17

2.A.1.3.5 Attribute: commonPointRule .............................................................................................17

2.A.2.1.6 Attribute: dimension ...........................................................................................................17

2.A.2.1.7 Attribute: origin ...................................................................................................................17

2.A.2.1.8 Attribute: axisNames ..........................................................................................................17

2.A.2.1.9 Attribute: offsetVectors ......................................................................................................17

2.A.2.1.11 Attribute: values ..................................................................................................................18

2.A.2.1.12 Attribute: startSequence ....................................................................................................18

2.A.2.1.13 Attribute: sequencingRule .................................................................................................18

2.A.2.1.14 Attribute: metadata .............................................................................................................18

2.A.2.1.15 Association: Aggregation...................................................................................................18

2.A.1.3 OrthoimageryCollection..........................................................................................................18

2.A.1.3.11 Introduction..........................................................................................................................18

2.A.1.3.2 Attribute : metadata ............................................................................................................18

2.A.1.3.3 Associated role name: member.........................................................................................18

2.A.1.4 CV_GridEnvelope ....................................................................................................................18

2.A.1.4.1 Introduction..........................................................................................................................18

2.A.1.4.2 Attribute: low .......................................................................................................................18

2.A.1.4.3 Attribute: high......................................................................................................................18

2.A.1.5 CV_GridCoordinate .................................................................................................................19

2.A.2.1.1 Introduction..........................................................................................................................19

2.A.1.5.2 Attribute: coordValues........................................................................................................19

2.A.1.6 CV_SequenceRule...................................................................................................................19

2.A.1.6.1 Introduction..........................................................................................................................19

2.A.1.6.2 Attribute: type......................................................................................................................19

2.A.1.6.3 Attribute: scanDirection .....................................................................................................19

2.A.1.7 Vector........................................................................................................................................21

2.A.1.7.1 Introduction..........................................................................................................................21

2.A.1.7.2 Attribute: dimension ...........................................................................................................21

2.A.1.7.3 Attribute: ordinates .............................................................................................................21

2.A.1.8 DirectPosition ..........................................................................................................................22

2.A.1.8.1 Introduction..........................................................................................................................22

2.A.1.8.2 Attribute: coordinate...........................................................................................................22

2.A.1.8.3 Attribute: dimension ...........................................................................................................22

2.A.1.8.4 Association role: coordinateReferenceSystem ...............................................................23

2.A.1.9 SC_CRS ....................................................................................................................................23

2.A.1.10 SC_CoordinateReferenceSystem ......................................................................................23

2.A.1.10.1 Introduction..........................................................................................................................23

2.A.1.10.2 Attribute: kindCode.............................................................................................................23

2.A.1.10.3 Attribute: CRSID ..................................................................................................................23

2.A.11 Code lists and enumerations..................................................................................................29

2.A.11.1 CV_InterpolationMethod code list.....................................................................................29

2.A.11.2 CV_SequenceType code list ..............................................................................................29

2.A.11.3 CV_CommonPointRule code list .......................................................................................30

2.A.11.4 SC_KindCode enumeration................................................................................................30

Annex 2-B (informative) Data example ............................................................................................31

Annex 2-C (informative) Additional information about control.....................................................33
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Annex 2-D (informative) Bibliography .............................................................................................34

Figures

Figure 2.A.1 – Orthoimagery....................................................................................................................16

Figure 2.A.2 – Examples of scan directions...........................................................................................19

Figure 2.A.3 – DirectPosition ...................................................................................................................22

Figure 2.A.4 – Code lists ..........................................................................................................................29

Tables

Table 2.A.1 – Examples of interleaving...................................................................................................21

Table 2.A.2 – Data dictionary for orthoimagery .....................................................................................24

Table 2.A.3 – CodeList for CV_InterpolationMethod, as specified in ISO 19123................................29

Table 2.A.4 –CodeList for CV_SequenceType, as specified in ISO 19123..........................................29

Table 2.A.5 – CodeList for CV_CommonPointRule ...............................................................................30

Table 2.A.6 – SC_KindCode enumeration ..............................................................................................30
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Foreword

Geographic information, also known as geospatial information, both underlies and is the subject of much 

of the political, economic, environmental, and security activities of the United States. In recognition of 

this, the United States Office of Management and Budget issued Circular A-16 (revised 2002), which 

established the Federal Geographic Data Committee (FGDC) as a coordinating organization. 

Work on this standard started under the Geospatial One-Stop e-Government initiative. The standard was 

developed with the support of the member agencies and organizations of the FGDC and aids in fulfilling a 

primary objective of the National Spatial Data Infrastructure (NSDI), that is, creation of common 

geographic base data for seven critical data themes. The seven core data themes are considered 

framework data of critical importance to the spatial data infrastructure. 

The increasing need to coordinate collection of new data, identify applicability of existing data, and 

exchange data at the national level led to the submission of this standard to the ANSI process to become 

an American National Standard. The national standard contained in this document and its parts was 

sponsored by Technical Committee L1, Geographic Information Systems, of the InterNational Committee 

for Information Technology Standards (INCITS), an ANSI-accredited standards development 

organization. 

As the Geographic Information Framework Data Content Standard was developed using public funds, the 

U.S. Government will be free to publish and distribute its contents to the public, as provided through the 

Freedom of Information Act (FOIA), Part 5 United States Code, Section 552, as amended by Public Law 

No. 104-231, “Electronic Freedom of Information Act Amendments of 1996”. 
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Introduction

The primary purpose of this part of the Geographic Information Framework Data Content Standard is to 

support the exchange of orthoimagery data. This part seeks to establish a common baseline for the 

semantic content of orthoimagery databases for public agencies and private enterprises. It also seeks to 

decrease the costs and simplify the exchange of orthoimagery data among local, Tribal, State, and 

Federal users and producers. That, in turn, discourages duplicative data collection. Benefits of adopting 

this part of the standard also include the long-term improvement of the geospatial orthoimagery data

within the community.

Because of rapidly changing technologies in the geospatial sciences, this part of the Geographic 

Information Framework Data Content Standard covers a range of specification issues, many in general 

terms. This part is based on an approved FGDC standard, Content Standards for Digital Orthoimagery, 

FGDC-STD-008-1999. This version primarily replaces the analog camera references with the current 

digital sensors and recognizes satellite technology for digital orthoimagery production. The 2014 version 

of this standard was revised with the support of members of the American Society for Photogrammetry 

and Remote Sensing (ASPRS).
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Framework Data Content Standard – Digital orthoimagery

2.1 Scope, purpose, and application

2.1.1 Scope

Digital orthoimagery is one of the basic digital geospatial data framework themes as envisioned 

by the Federal Geographic Data Committee. This part of the Geographic Information Framework 

Data Content Standard specifies data content and logical structure for the description and 

interchange of framework digital orthoimagery. To a certain extent, it also provides guidelines for 

the acquisition and processing of imagery (leading toward the generation of digital orthoimagery) 

and specifies the documentation of those acquisition and processing steps. The primary focus of 

this part is on images sensed in the visible to near infrared portion of the electromagnetic 

spectrum. However, images captured from other portions of the electromagnetic spectrum are 

not precluded.

2.1.1 Purpose

It is the intent of this part of the Framework Data Content Standard to set a common baseline that 

will ensure the widest utility of digital orthoimagery for the user and producer communities 

through enhanced data sharing and the reduction of redundant data production. The framework 

will provide a base on which to collect, register, and integrate digital geospatial information 

accurately.

This part is intended to facilitate the interchange and use of digital orthoimagery data under the 

framework concept. Because of rapidly changing technologies in the geospatial sciences, this 

part covers a range of specification issues, many in general terms. This part stresses complete 

and accurate reporting of information relating to quality control and standards employed in testing 

orthoimagery data.

2.1.2 Application

The Digital Orthoimagery part applies to NSDI framework orthoimagery data produced or 

disseminated by or for the Federal government. According to Executive Order 12906, 

Coordinating Geographic Data Acquisition and Access: The National Spatial Data Infrastructure, 

Federal agencies collecting or producing geospatial data, either directly or indirectly (for example, 

through grants, partnerships, or contracts with other entities), shall ensure, prior to obligating 

funds for such activities, that data will be collected in a manner that meets all relevant standards 

adopted through the Federal Geographic Data Committee (FGDC) process.

Each thematic part of the Framework Data Content Standard includes a data dictionary based on 

the conceptual schema presented in that part. To conform to this standard, a thematic dataset 

shall satisfy the requirements of the data dictionary for that theme. It shall include a value for 

each mandatory element, and a value for each conditional element for which the condition is true. 

It may contain values for any optional element. The data type of each value shall be that 

specified for the element in the data dictionary and the value shall lie within the domain specified 

for the element.

2.2 Normative references

Annex A of the Base Document (Part 0) lists normative references applicable to two or more parts 

of the standard. Informative references applicable only to the Digital Orthoimagery part are listed 

in Annex D. Annex D of the Base Document lists informative references applicable to two or 

more of the parts.

2.3Standards development

This document is based on an approved FGDC standard, Content Standards for Digital 

Orthoimagery, FGDC-STD-008-1999, developed initially by the Subcommittee on Base 
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Cartographic Data of the FGDC. The Standards Reference Model, developed by the Standards 

Working Group of the FGDC, provides guidance to FGDC subcommittees for the standards 

development process. 

2.4Maintenance authority

2.4.1 Level of responsibility

The FGDC is the responsible organization for coordinating work on all parts of the Geographic 

Information Framework Data Content Standard. The U.S. Department of the Interior, United 

States Geological Survey, National Geospatial Programs Office, working with the FGDC, is 

directly responsible for development and maintenance of the Geographic Information Framework 

Data Content Standard, Part 2: Digital Orthoimagery.

2.4.2 Contact information

Address questions concerning this part of the standard to:

Federal Geographic Data Committee Secretariat

c/o U.S. Geological Survey

590 National Center

Reston, Virginia 20192 USA

Facsimile: (703) 648-5755

Internet (electronic mail): fgdc@fgdc.gov

WWW Home Page: http://fgdc.gov

Or

Associate Director for Geospatial Information

c/o U. S. Geological Survey

108 National Center

12201 Sunrise Valley Drive

Reston, VA, 20192

2.5 Terms and definitions

Definitions applicable to the Digital Orthoimagery part are listed below. More general terms and 

definitions can be found in the Base Document (Part 0). Users are advised to consult that part for 

a complete set of definitions.

2.5.1

accuracy

the degree of conformity of a measured or calculated value compared to a value that has been 

accepted as the actual value. Accuracy relates to the quality of a result and is distinguished from 

precision, which relates to the quality of the operation by which the result is obtained.

2.5.2

aerotriangulation

process of using aerial imagery or the extension of horizontal and/or vertical control whereby the 

measurements of angles and/or distances on overlapping imagery are related into a spatial 

solution using the perspective principles of the imagery [American Society of Photogrammetry, 

1980]

2.5.3

airborne Global Positioning System (AGPS)

AGPS
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consists of a GPS unit mounted on the acquisition platform that captures range measurements 

from satellites and uses triangulation techniques to compute the position of the receiver’s antenna 

and corresponding coordinates of the photo center at time of capture. When combined with an 

Inertial Naviagation System (INS), this can be used to provide direct georeferencing of exterior 

orientations, which define both the position and orientation associated with an image as they 

existing during image capture

2.5.4

aliasing

sampling effect that leads to spatial frequencies being falsely interpreted as other spatial 

frequencies. See also pixellation

2.5.5

band

The sub-file or sub-files of images depicting reflectance or emittance brightness as measured by 

digital numbers within particular bandwidths. A panchromatic image consists of a single band 

sensitive to a spectral range within the visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum (typically 

400 to 700 nm), while multispectral images typically consist of three to five bands of mediumwidth (e.g., 400 to 500 nm) and hyperspectral images consist of tens to hundreds of narrow 

bands (e.g., 10 nm wide).

2.5.6

band interleaved

ordered mixing of data from one or more bands with corresponding data from other bands for the 

purpose of forming a single image file

NOTE Images ordered band interleaved by line store values for each band by line sequentially prior to 

going to the next line and often carry the extension .bil. Images ordered band interleaved by pixels store 

pixel values for each band before going to the next pixel. They often carry the file extension .bip.

2.5.7

band sequential

sequence of one image band followed by another image band

NOTE A band sequential file can be formed by appending bands in sequence within a single file.

2.5.8

bandwidth

range of spectral sensitivity of an image acquired by a sensor or digital camera. The bandwidth 

determines the spectral resolution of an image.

2.5.9

bilinear interpolation

an extension of linear interpolation for interpolating data points on a two dimensional regular grid 

using four neighbors. The value of the bilinearlly interpolated pixel value, P’(x,y), equals 

P(1,1)*(1-d)*(1-d’)+P(1,2)*d*(1-d’)+P(2,1)*d’*(1-d)+P(2,2)*d*d’, where P(1,1), P(1,2),P(2,1) and 

P(2,2) are pixel values in the input raster, d is the distance between the position of the centroid of 

P’(x,y) and the line parallel to the y-axis with endpoints at the centroids of P(1,1) and P(2,1) and 

d’ is the distance between the position P’(x,y) and the line parallel to the x-axis with endpoints at 

the centroids of P(1,1) and P(1,2).

2.5.10

color infrared
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false color

method for viewing or designating images sensed in the portion of the electro-magnetic spectrum 

generally from about 0.5 to 1.0 micrometers

2.5.11

cubic convolution

a technique for resampling or interpolating raster data which uses the average for the focal cell 

based on the 16 cells surrounding that cell. Images resampled using this technique are often 

smoother and have fewer artifacts than when using other techniques such as nearest neighbor 

and bilinear.

2.5.12

data dictionary

a catalog or table containing information about the datasets stored in a database (The definitions 

of all schema objects in the database).

2.5.13

digital image

image stored in binary form and divided into a matrix of pixels, each consisting of one or more 

bits of information that represent either the brightness, or brightness and color, of the image at 

that point

2.5.14

digital number

brightness value

describe pixel values in an image that have not yet been calibrated into physically meaningful 

units (relative reflectance or emittance of an object in a digital image)

NOTE digital number is generally referred to as DN. Brightness value is referred as BV

2.5.15

digital orthoimage

georeferenced digital image or other remotely-sensed data, in which displacement of objects in 

the image due to sensor distortions and orientation, as well as terrain relief, have been removed

2.5.16

displacement

shift in the position of an image on an image resulting from tilt, scale change, and relief of the 

area imaged [EM 1110-1-1000]

2.5.17

georegistration

alignment of one image to another image of the same area by placing any two pixels at the same 

location in both images “in register” resulting in samples at the same point on the Earth

2.5.18

Global Positioning System
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GPS

Full name is NAVSTAR Global Positioning System. A space-based radio Positioning system 

which provides suitably equipped users with accurate position, velocity and time data.

2.5.19

ground sample distance

ground sample interval

ground resolution

ground pixel resolution

in a digital photograph, which can be created by using a digital aerial camera or by scanning an 

analogue film negative, the ground sampling distance is the distance between pixel centers 

measured on the ground, expressed by using ground related units. 

NOTE: This appears also on ortho-photos. For example, in an image with 0.20 m (20 cm) GSD, 

the distance between adjacent pixel on the ground appears as 20 cm. Since pixel elements are 

squares, it will cover an area of 20 cm x 20 cm on the ground.

2.5.20

horizontal accuracy

accuracy of horizontal position

2.5.21

horizontal datum

geodetic datum specifying the coordinate system in which horizontal control points are located.

2.5.22

imagery

visible representation of objects and/or phenomena as sensed or detected by cameras, infrared 

and multispectral scanners, radar, and photometers [EM 1110-1-1000]

2.5.23

inertial measurement unit

IMU

instrument that records the pitch, roll, and heading of a remote sensing platform

2.5.24

inertial navigation system

INS

a system composed of an IMU and a navigation processor that solves for the motion of the IMU; 

the two combined provide a navigation solution for the platform’s position, velocity and 

orientation.

2.5.25

linear interpolation

a technique that uses a linear function and linear distance between known values to estimate 

unknown values or new data points within the range of a discrete set of data points with known 

values.

2.5.26

mosaic
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assemblage of overlapping or adjacent photographs or digital images whose edges have been 

matched to form a continuous pictorial representation of a portion of the Earth’s surface

2.5.27

natural color

pertaining to a portion of the electro-magnetic spectrum, 0.4 to 0.7 micrometers, that measures 

blue, green, and red reflectance

2.5.28

nearest neighbor

a two dimensional technique for resampling raster pixel values in which the value of each cell in 

an output raster is assigned to the value of the nearest pixel in an input raster, where nearest is 

defined by the minimum distance between the output pixel’s centroid and the centroids of 

neighbor pixel’s in the input raster. Nearest neighbor assignment only shifts a value’s position in 

space; some input values may be used more than once as output value, while other input values 

may not be used at all. Because no mathematical transformation is used in this method it is often 

used to resample categorical or nominal data (for example, land use, soil, or forest type), or 

radiometric values, such as those from remotely sensed images

2.5.29

orthorectification

process of removing geometric errors inherent within photography and imagery caused by relief 

displacement, lens distortion, and the like [Leica Geosystems GIS & mapping, LLC]

2.5.30

panchromatic

pertaining to monospectral imagery that records the intensity of reflected or emitted radiation in 

the visible spectrum, 0.4 to 0.7 micrometers

2.5.31

pan-sharpening

fusing of high-resolution panchromatic imagery with lower-resolution, multispectral imagery to 

create a high resolution multispectral image

2.5.32

pixel

picture element

a component of either a digital image or a digital sensor. In the case of a digital image, the pixel is 

the smallest discrete unit of information in the image's structure. Images based in raster data can 

be thought of as a grid.

2.5.33

pixellation

describes the abrupt and unnatural transition over an edge feature. Also referred to as

"staircasing" because of the jagged and abrupt transition.

2.5.34

radiometric resolution

describes its ability to discriminate very slight differences in energy The finer the radiometric 

resolution of a sensor, the more sensitive it is to detecting small differences in reflected or emitted 

energy.
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NOTE Radiometric resolution is inversely related to the number of digital levels used to express the 

data collected by the sensor. The number of levels is normally expressed as the number of binary digits 

needed to store the value of the maximum level, for example a radiometric resolution of 1 bit would be 2 

levels, 2 bit would be 4 levels and 8 bit would be 256 levels. The number of levels is often referred to as the 

digital number, or DN value. [Association of Geographic information, 1996]

2.5.35

resample

change in the pixel dimensions of an image by either adding or removing the total number of 

pixels using an interpolation method

2.5.36

resampling

calculation of new digital numbers (DN) for pixels created during geometric correction of a digital 

scene, based on the values in the local area around the uncorrected pixels. 2. is the process of 

transforming a sampled image from one coordinate system to another. 3 changing the amount of 

image data as you change either the pixel dimensions or the resolution of an image.

NOTE resampling always reduces image quality. Resampling to smaller dimensions reduces file 

size and sharpens appearance. Resampling to larger dimensions increases file size and blurs 

appearance.

2.5.37

resolution

measure of spectral sensitivity, radiometric sensitivity, or the smallest spatial unit represented in 

an image.

NOTE Also see, radiometric, spectral, and spatial resolution.

2.5.38

root mean square error

RMSE

the square root of the average of the squared discrepancies.

NOTE The RMSE statistic is used to describe accuracy encompassing both random and 

systematic errors. 

2.5.39

sharpening

amplification of the SFR by means of image processing to achieve sharper appearing images. 

Also, a class of image processing operations that enhances the contrast of selective spatial 

frequencies, usually visually important ones

2.5.40

Spatial Frequency Response

SFR

an imaging system's ability to maintain the relative contrast of input stimuli.

2.5.41

spatial resolution
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ability to separate closely spaced objects on an image or photograph. Commonly expressed as 

the most closely spaced line-pairs per unit distance that can be distinguished (size of the smallest 

possible feature that can be detected by the sensor).

2.5.42

spectral resolution

measure of the narrowest spectral feature that can be resolved by a spectral sensor. It is also 

defined as the full width at half maximum (FWHM) response in each band of data (the way an 

optical sensor responds to various wavelengths of light).

NOTE High spectral resolution means that the sensor distinguishes between very narrow bands 

of wavelength; a “hyperspectral” sensor can discern and distinguish between many shades of a 

color, recording up to 256 degrees of color across the infrared, visible, and ultraviolet 

wavelengths. Low spectral resolution means the sensor records the energy in a wide band of 

wavelengths as a single measurement; the most common “multispectral” sensors divide the 

electromagnetic spectrum from infrared to visible wavelengths into four generalized bands: 

infrared, red, green, and blue.

2.5.43

survey

act or operation of making measurements for determining the relative positions of points on, 

above, or beneath the Earth’s surface [American Society of Photogrammetry, 1980]

2.5.44

temporal resolution

revisit time

repeat cycle

frequency at which data are captured for a specific place on the earth. 

NOTE The more frequently data they are captured by a particular sensor, the better or finer is 

the temporal resolution of that sensor. Temporal resolution is relevant when using imagery or 

elevations datasets captured successively over time to detect changes to the landscape.

2.5.45

vertical accuracy

accuracy of elevation or height measurements

2.5.46

void areas

areas in an image or other geospatial dataset with no data

2.6 Symbols, abbreviated terms, and notations

The following symbols, abbreviations, and notations are applicable to the Digital Orthoimagery 

part. Symbols, abbreviations, and notations applicable to multiple parts are listed in the Base 

Document (Part 0).

AGPS – Airborne Global Positioning System

BIL – Band Interleaved by Line

BIP – Band Interleaved by Pixel

BSQ – Band Sequential

CIR – Color Infrared
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DN – Digital Number

DOQQ – Digital Orthophoto Quarter Quadrangle

FWHM – Full Width at Half Maximum

GPS – Global Positioning System

GSD – Ground Sample Distance 

IMU – Inertial Measurement Unit 

INS – Inertial Navigation System

IPI – Image Processing and Interchange

MODIS – Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer

SDTS – Spatial Data Transfer Standard

SFR – Spatial Frequency Response

SPCS – State Plane Coordinate System

SPOT – Satellite Pour d’Observation de la Terre

TM – Thematic Mapper

2.7 Data description

Digital orthoimages are georeferenced images of the Earth's surface that have been collected by 

a sensor and then, by correcting for sensor distortions and orientation as well as terrain relief, 

have had image object displacement removed. They encode the optical intensity of sensed 

radiation in one or more bands of the electromagnetic spectrum as discrete values in an array of 

georeferenced pixels that model the scene observed. 

Digital orthoimages are captured from a wide variety of sources and have the geometric 

characteristics of a map. They are also available in a number of formats, spatial resolutions, and 

areas of coverage. They allow for the interpretation and compilation of many geographic features, 

including some in other framework data themes.

2.8 Requirements

2.8.1 Digital orthoimagery structure

Framework digital orthoimagery shall consist of images, each of which consists of a twodimensional, rectangular array of pixels. The ground area covered by each pixel, called ground 

resolution cells, determines the resolution of each pixel. The pixels shall be arranged in 

horizontal rows (lines) and vertical columns (samples). The order of the rows shall be from top to 

bottom; the order of columns shall be from left to right. The uppermost left-hand pixel shall be 

designated pixel (0,0). Images describing more than 1 band of electromagnetic radiation (natural 

color, color infrared, multi-band) shall be structured in one of three orders: band interleaved by 

line (BIL), band interleaved by pixel (BIP), or band sequential (BSQ). The image shall have equal 

line (row) and column lengths, resulting in a rectangular image. This may be accomplished by 

padding with over-edge image or non-image pixels, that have a digital number (DN) equal to zero 

(black or no reflectance), to an edge defined by the extremes of the image. The northern, 

eastern, southern and western bounding coordinates of the image shall be documented in 

accordance with an FGDC endorsed geospatial metadata standard. . For images that contain 

over-edge coverage or are padded with non-image pixels, descriptions of both the specific area of 

interest and any over-edge coverage shall be documented by the metadata. When over-edge 

information in the image exists, the producer is obliged to describe the image quadrangle in 

metadata.
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NOTE Some digital orthoimagery quadrangles include over-edge imagery beyond the boundaries of 

the area of interest. This part recognizes that annotations may be included in an over-edge image. These 

images are generally created using color lookup tables that provide for a transparent pixel value to 

accommodate the portrayal of the over-edge information; otherwise this part limits the orthoimage to the 

significant pixel values of the image. 

NOTE Photo enlargements, simply rectified. and rubber sheeted images are not orthoimages and do 

not comply with the basic procedures involved in photogrammetry that produce accurate orthoimages.

2.8.2 Resolution

When referring to orthoimagery, three different definitions of resolution are important: spatial, 

spectral, and radiometric.

2.8.2.1 Spatial resolution

Sensor spatial resolution is the smallest unit which is detected by a sensor [Falkner and Morgan, 

2002, p.12] under the acquisition parameters. The spatial resolution of a published orthoimage is 

the uniform size of the pixels contained within, while the spatial resolution for the source image is 

the ground sample distance (GSD), which is variable within the source image. For the purpose of 

this part, framework digital orthoimages shall have a GSD of 2 meters or finer. GSD will be 

established from the coarsest GSD that occurs within the flight line considering the majority of all 

terrain relief. Images may be resampled to create coarser resolution images than the original 

raster data. Subsampling of images may be applied only within the limits defined by the Nyquist 

theorem [Pratt, 1978]. Images of higher resolution can be used to create orthoimages of lower 

resolution but the reverse is not acceptable.

NOTE The Nyquist frequency limits subsampling to a maximum of two times (2X) to avoid undesirable 

aliasing.

2.8.2.2 Spectral resolution

Spectral resolution describes a sensor’s sensitivity to a particular wavelength band or bands. For 

the purpose of this part, the focus for framework orthoimage will be on images sensed in the 

visible to near infrared portion of the electromagnetic spectrum, 0.4 to1.0 micrometers. However, 

this does not preclude images captured from other bands.

2.8.2.3 Radiometric resolution

Radiometric resolution is the sensitivity of a detector to measure radiant flux that is reflected or 

emitted from a ground object [Falkner and Morgan, 2002, p.12]. Relative radiance from the 

ground resolution cells shall be described by numerical representations (digital numbers (DNs) or 

brightness values) of reflected radiance amplitudes. The cell value for a single band shall be 

recorded as a series of binary digits or bits, with the number of bits per cell determining the 

radiometric resolution of the image. Where Q is a finite number of bits, the number of discrete 

DNs (NDNs) shall be given, as follows:

NDN = 2Q. (NDN = 2^Q)

The DN can be any integer in the range, as follows:

DNrange = [0, 2Q-1]

The radiance values for black and white (gray scale) image data are represented in a single band 

as 8 to 12-bit data and the radiance values for color images are represented by three bands of 8 

to 12 bits of binary data per band. Greater radiometric resolution values are possible (e.g. 16 bits 

for hyperspectral images).

EXAMPLE SPOT and TM are both 8 bits per pixel; AVHRR is 10 bits; MODIS is 12 bits.
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NOTE Brightness values of most digital orthoimages created are commonly represented as 8-bit binary 

numbers with a range of values from zero, (black, no reflectance ) to 255 (white, full reflectance).

2.8.3 Areal extent

This part places no constraints on the geographic extent of an orthoimage. Areal extent of 

quadrilateral orthoimagery may be adjusted as appropriate for the type of sensor and sensor 

platform, height, requirements of the user, and so on.

2.8.4 Coordinate systems and reference datums

2.8.4.1 Coordinate systems

A common method for referencing coordinate positions on the Earth is essential for integrating 

geospatial data. While it is desirable that framework data be described by longitude and latitude 

coordinates, orthoimagery is more often represented in a grid coordinate system, such as 

Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) or State Plane Coordinate Systems (SPCS).

2.8.4.2 Reference datums

The North American Datum of 1983 (NAD83) or World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS84) datum 

shall be used as the horizontal datum for framework digital orthoimagery. Circumstances, 

however, may present themselves for data to be accepted in a different format.

NOTE For more information on geodetic control, refer to Geographic Information Framework Data 

Content Standard, Part 4: Geodetic Control.

2.8.4.3 Georegistration

All orthoimages shall be georeferenced to reflect their locations, both horizontally and vertically. 

Georegistration will be described by a 4-tuple in the metadata which will establish the 

geographical position of the first pixel in the first row of the image [pixel (0,0)]. The metadata will 

reflect the row # = 0, column # = 0, and georeference values in X and Y for the documented 

datum and horizontal coordinate system. Under this part, georegistration (spatial coordinates) 

refers to the center of the pixel. This establishes the georegistration at one point in the 

orthoimage. Since row and column offsets are both constant and supplied by the metadata, 

(XY_pixel resolution), all other points can be georegistered. Additional 4-tuples may be provided 

for additional georegistration.

NOTE Photo enlargements, simply rectified and rubber sheeted images are not orthoimages and do 

not comply with the basic procedures involved in photogrammetry that produce accurate orthoimages.

2.8.5 Accuracy requirements

This part specifies that map accuracy shall be determined by comparing the mapped location of 

selected well defined points to their "true" location, as determined by a more accurate, 

independent field survey. Accuracy of new or revised spatial data shall be reported according to 

the National Standard for Spatial Data Accuracy (NSSDA) [FGDC-STD-007.3-1998]. Accuracy of 

existing or legacy spatial data and maps may be reported, as specified, according to the NSSDA 

or the accuracy standard by which they were evaluated.

Framework digital orthoimagery accuracy shall employ the NSSDA, which implements a 

statistical and testing methodology for estimating the positional accuracy of points in digital 

geospatial data, with respect to georeferenced ground positions of higher accuracy. This 

reporting methodology provides a common language for reporting positional accuracy so that 

users can evaluate datasets for fitness of use for their applications for normally distributed data 

where all systematic errors have been removed. (For non-normal data sets, or data sets where 

the mean is deviates significantly from zero, the correlation breaks down.) Accuracy is reported in 

ground distances at the 95% confidence level. Accuracy reported at the 95% confidence level 

means that 95% of the positions in the dataset will have an error with respect to true ground 
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position that is equal to or smaller than the reported accuracy value. The reported accuracy 

value reflects all uncertainties, including those introduced by geodetic control coordinates, 

compilation, and final computation of ground coordinate values in the product. The NSSDA does 

not define threshold accuracy values. Users are encouraged to establish thresholds for their 

product specifications and applications and for contracting purposes. Data producers may elect 

to use accuracy thresholds in standards such as the National Map Accuracy Standards of 1947 

[U.S. Bureau of the Budget, 1947] or Accuracy Standards for Large-Scale Maps [American 

Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing (ASPRS) Specifications and Standards 

Committee, 1990] if they decide that these values are applicable to their digital geospatial data 

accuracy requirements. However, accuracy of new or revised data products will be reported 

according to the NSSDA. Data producers shall ensure that all critical components have known 

accuracies suitable for the construction of orthoimagery, and that those accuracies are reported 

in the metadata. Producers of digital orthoimagery must report the horizontal positional accuracy 

of data.

2.8.5.1 Tested orthoimages RMSE

Per NSSDA, report accuracy at the 95% confidence level for data tested for both horizontal and 

vertical accuracy as:

Tested ____ (meters, feet) horizontal accuracy at 95% confidence level

____ (meters, feet) vertical accuracy at 95% confidence level

2.8.5.2 Untested orthoimages RMSE

Per NSSDA, report accuracy at the 95% confidence level for data produced according to 

procedures that have been demonstrated to produce data with particular horizontal and vertical 

accuracy values as:

Compiled to meet ____ (meters, feet) horizontal accuracy at 95% confidence level

____ (meters, feet) vertical accuracy at 95% confidence level

2.8.5.3 Horizontal positional accuracy narrative

Enter the text “National Standard for Spatial Data Accuracy” for these metadata elements, as 

appropriate to dataset spatial characteristics.

2.8.5.4 Horizontal positional accuracy reporting

Regardless of whether the data was tested by an independent source of higher accuracy or 

evaluated for accuracy by alternative means, provide a complete description on how the values 

were determined in metadata, as appropriate to dataset spatial characteristics.

2.8.6 Production components

The following section describes requirements for the primary production components of digital 

orthoimages: image sources, elevation data, control, and camera or sensor calibration data. It 

follows then that all orthoimagery discussed will be created through a true displacement 

rectification process. Georeferenced or “rubber-sheeted” images, therefore, are not acceptable 

as true orthoimages.

2.8.6.1 Image sources

Source for digital orthoimages may be from any remote sensing device capable of producing 

images with resolutions 2-meters or finer. Remote sensing devices may be photographic or 

electronic, airborne, or satellite.

2.8.6.1.1 Aerial camera images

Imagery in the visible and near-infrared light portion of the electromagnetic spectrum from aerial 

sensors are the primary source currently used to produce digital orthoimages. Sensor types for 

orthoimages compliant with this part shall be confined to black and white (panchromatic), color 
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infrared (CIR), and natural color. Black and white orthoimages may be generated from CIR and 

natural color source.

2.8.6.1.2 Aerial photo image scanning

A digital image may be created from an analog photographic image utilizing a high-resolution 

scanner. The intent of the scanning process is to capture the same level of detail in the digital 

image as is found on the film. The combination of the scanner optical resolution setting and the 

scale of the source imagery will determine the ground resolution distance that can be attained 

from the digital image following orthocorrection. The optical resolution of the scanning process is 

typically measured in either micrometers or dots-per-inch and should as closely as possible 

match the intended ground sample distance (GSD) without excessive resampling. Resampling 

from a higher resolution to create a lower resolution image is acceptable.

2.8.6.1.3 Digital images

Images from airborne and satellite platforms, utilizing digital cameras or line scanners to convert 

analog/film data to digital, are increasingly more common sources used in the production of digital 

orthoimages. For the purposes of framework orthoimagery they include images from electrooptical, near infrared, and multi-spectral sensors/platforms operating in the visible to near 

(reflected) infrared wavelengths, 0.4 to 1.0 micrometers. This document does not discuss the 

details and specifications of digital cameras or satellite remote sensors. Nor does it debate the 

advantages or disadvantages of using one image acquisition system over another.

2.8.6.2 Elevation data

Elevation data used to correct displacement shall be sufficiently accurate to ensure the image 

meets user defined requirements for the intended accuracy: the appropriate point density, point 

spacing, and area coverage in order to meet the accuracy requirements and scale of the 

orthoimage, and to reliably describe the terrain.

Note For more information on elevation data refer to Geographic Information Framework Data 

Content Standard, Part 3: Elevation.

2.8.6.3 Calibration data

With the exception of documenting the appropriate source metadata, camera or imaging 

instrument calibration parameters requirements for production purposes are not covered by this 

part.

Note Information on analog camera calibration can be found in the USGS publication, Aerial Camera 

Specifications (revised January 2003).

Note For digital systems, the calibration techniques will differ by system, but calibration still needs to 

be done.

2.8.6.4 Control data

Control point locations are required when creating digital orthoimagery. Without control 

information, rigorous orthorectification is not possible. For orthorectification, control must have 

known X, Y, and Z-coordinate values. The process of orthorectifying the image must use a 3-

dimensional (3D) space resection algorithm. Images processed via simple rectification or rubbersheeting are not considered true orthoimages from which accurate measurements may be 

ascertained. The accuracy of the control determines the initial accuracy of the orthoimage. 

Control must be used to provide the 3D foundation during the orthorectification process and can 

be acquired from a variety of sources.

NOTE More detailed information is contained in Annex C. For more information on geodetic control, 

refer to Geographic Information Framework Data Content Standard, Part 4: Geodetic Control.
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2.9 Image rectification and restoration

Image rectification and restoration are processes for correcting distortions and degradations that 

result from image acquisition or production. Digital orthoimagery is processed in a number of 

ways, and different orthoimagery production systems have unique characteristics. However, all 

accept raw (or unprocessed) imagery that contain some degree of error in geometry (geometric 

distortion) and in the measured brightness values of the pixels (radiometric distortion). This part

specifies rectification or restoration procedures only in context of geometric and radiometric 

corrections.

2.9.1 Geometric correction

All systematic and random errors shall be removed to the extent required to meet orthoimagery 

accuracy requirements as defined by the intended user. Nearest neighbor, bilinear interpolation, 

and cubic convolution resampling algorithms are common methods used to transform image 

values to fit map geometry. Nearest neighbor resampling is not recommended for the large-scale 

framework because of the disjointed appearance in the output due to spatial offsets as great as 

one-half pixel. Images transformed using bilinear interpolations are generally acceptable. A 

precise resampling method such as cubic convolution is recommended.

Note Geometric corrections are performed to match raw image data to map geometry. Distortions 

can be classified as either systematic (predictable errors that follow some definite mathematical or physical 

law or pattern associated with particular processes and instruments) or random (errors that are wholly due to 

chance and do not recur). Most of the distortions associated with orthoimagery are random. Terrain relief, 

random variation in platform position, and faulty elevation data are the sources of nonsystematic distortion, 

or random errors. These random errors can be detected by comparing identifiable points on an image to 

their known ground coordinates.

2.9.1.1 Image smear

When image smears occur, efforts shall be made to correct them or to identify them as 

anomalies. Where feasible, areas of image smear may spatially be defined as polygons, linked to 

documentation in lineage metadata.

Note Occasionally, because of spikes in the elevation data or excessive topographic relief, an 

anomaly or artifact best described as an "image smear" may appear on a rectified image. Basically, the 

steepness of the terrain is such that some ground image is effectively hidden from view (for example, on the 

backside of the mountain or the sides of a steep cliff). This can be especially prominent near the edge of

images from large-scale aerial photography (generally, incidence of the anomaly decreases as the altitude 

of the sensor platform increases). When that portion of the scanned raster image is adjusted to its 

conjugate area on the elevation model, the void area in the image is assigned brightness values via an 

interpolation algorithm that uses the visible image surrounding the void. This sometimes results in a 

"smeared" or "stretched" area on the image.

2.9.1.2 Other elevation – related geometric distortions

Double or missing features in the image may be indications of a poor elevation model or 

unsuitable control. Such distortions may render the image unusable. Producers should recheck 

the source elevation or control to establish if the distortion is systematic or not; if the distortion is 

systematic, a better elevation model and (or) control should be used. Non-systematic distortions 

need to be reviewed on a case-by-case basis and if deemed acceptable by the producer and 

customer, identified and recorded in the metadata by the producer.

NOTE Linear features (such as highways and bridges) may require special treatment to maintain their 

alignment, form, and integrity.

2.9.2 Radiometric correction

Image brightness values may deviate from the brightness values of the original imagery, due to 

image value interpolation during the scanning, rectification, and post-processing procedures and 
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it is common practice to perform some radiometric enhancements and corrections (for example, 

contrast stretching, analog dodging, noise filtering, destriping, edge matching) to images prior to 

release of the data. However, data producers are cautioned to minimize the amount of 

radiometric correction applied to an image. Data producers shall use processing techniques that 

minimize data loss from the time the information was captured until its release to the users.

2.9.3 Data completeness

Visual verification shall be performed for image completeness, to ensure that, whenever possible, 

no gaps exist in the image area.

2.9.4 Cloud cover

Any cloud cover or cloud shadows which obscure image features may render the image 

unusable. However, for some areas of an image (for example, over broad bodies of water) cloud 

cover obstruction may be deemed acceptable to some users. Therefore, some users may find 

images containing varying percentages of cloud cover or cloud shadow to be acceptable.

2.10 Image mosaicking

Single orthoimages are commonly created through the mosaicking of multiple images and many 

producers go through extensive image processing steps to attain a “seamless” appearance. This 

document will not discuss mosaic procedures nor will it prescribe the degree of quality for the 

appearance of mosaicked orthoimages. However, all the images that comprise the source of a 

mosaicked image shall be documented in the metadata field.

2.11 Data transfer formats

Data transfer formats for digital orthoimagery are not specified in this part. Data producers are 

encouraged to employ ISO and ANSI standards for information exchange. In all cases, 

producers shall provide detailed descriptions of the format.

2.12Metadata

The FGDC emphasizes the importance of rich metadata to support the exchange and use of 

geospatial data: providing quality information will allow users to match data to their needs. Wellcrafted metadata facilitates the search and collection process while alleviating some of the 

burden on the user to assess quality and applicability of data. The more metadata there is for a 

product, the more it can support the user’s determination of its reliability, quality, and accuracy. 

Metadata is intended to be of value to the producer as well as to the user.

The FGDC Content Standard for Digital Geospatial Metadata [FGDC-STD-001-1998] with all 

FGDC-approved profiles of and extensions to it, in conjunction with the ISO 191xx series of 

geospatial metadata standards, are the source for terminology and definitions relating to 

metadata. Organizations documenting digital orthoimagery are strongly encouraged to utilize the 

most current version of ISO 19115-2, Geographic information – Metadata – Part 2: Extensions for 

imagery and gridded data.
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Annex 2-A

(normative) 

Orthoimagery UML model

Annex 2.A.1 Orthoimagery schema

Figure 2.A.1 – Orthoimagery

2.A.1.1 Classes of the schema

The orthoimagery schema specified in this annex includes two classes: Orthoimage, which is a 

realization of three types specified in ISO 19123, and OrthoimageryCollection.

2.A.2.1 Orthoimage

2.A.2.1.1 Introduction

The class Orthoimage (Figure A.1) realizes three types specified in ISO 19123: 

CV_ContinuousQuadrilateralGridCoverage, CV_GridValuesMatrix, and CV_RectifiedGrid. It 

implements 13 attributes specified for those types in ISO 19123, as well as one attribute and one 

association specified in this part. Its attributes use classes specified in ISO standards as data 

types.
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2.A.2.1.2 Attribute: domainExtent

The attribute domainExtent shall describe the extent of the domain of the orthoimagery coverage. 

It uses the data type EX_Extent specified in ISO 19115. EX_Extent has several subtypes 

including EX_GeographicBoundingBox, EX_BoundingPolygon, EX_GeographicDescription, 

EX_TemporalExtent, EX_SpatioTemporalExtent, and EX_VerticalExtent. This part requires that 

the attribute be populated with a value for at least one of these subtypes.

2.A.2.1.3 Attribute: rangeType

The attribute rangeType shall provide a description of the attributes in the range of the coverage. 

The class RecordType is specified in ISO 19103. An instance of RecordType consists of a set of 

keyword:value pairs in which the keyword is an attribute name and the value is the data type of 

the attribute.

2.A.2.1.4 Attribute: interpolationType

The attribute interpolationType shall identify the interpolation method recommended for 

evaluating the coverage. The code list CV_InterpolationMethod is specified in ISO 19123.

2.A.1.3.5 Attribute: commonPointRule

The attribute commonPointRule shall identify a rule to be followed in evaluating a coverage if the 

position at which evaluation is to be done falls within or on the boundary between two or more 

domain objects. In the case of a grid coverage, it applies only if the position falls on a grid line. 

The code list CV-CommonPointRule is specified in ISO 19123.

2.A.2.1.6 Attribute: dimension

The attribute dimension shall identify the dimension of the grid. In the case of orthoimagery, the 

grid dimension is always 2 as indicated by the constraint {dimension = 2}.

2.A.2.1.7 Attribute: origin

The attribute origin shall identify the position of the origin of the grid coordinate system with 

respect to an external coordinate reference system. The data type DirectPosition (A.1.8) is 

specified in ISO 19107. The constraint {origin.dimension = 2} indicates that the DirectPosition 

shall be described by a 2D coordinateDirectPosition that has an optional association to the class 

SC_CRS (A.1.9) specified in ISO 19111. That association is mandatory for this part, as indicated 

by the constraint: {origin.coordinateReferenceSystem -> notEmpty}. 

This part also specifies that the external coordinate reference system shall use either the North 

American Datum of 1983 (NAD83) or the datum defined for the World Geodetic System of 1984 

(WGS84).

2.A.2.1.8 Attribute: axisNames

The attribute axisNames shall provide a list of the names of the grid axes. The length of the list 

equals the value of the attribute dimension. This part requires the axis names to be “row” and 

“column” as indicated by the constraint {axisNames = “row”, “column”}.

2.A.2.1.9 Attribute: offsetVectors

The attribute offsetVectors shall describe the orientation of the grid axes with respect to the 

external coordinate reference system as well as the spacing between grid lines. Its value is a 

Sequence of Vectors. The data type Vector (0) is specified in ISO/TS 19103. The length of the 

sequence shall equal the value of the attribute dimension. ISO 19123 specifies that the ordering 

of the sequence of offsetVectors shall be the same as the ordering of the sequence of 

axisNames.
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2.A.2.1.10 Attribute: extent

The attribute extent shall identify the set of grid points for which attribute values are provided. 

The data type CV_GridEnvelope (A.1.4) is specified in ISO 19123.

2.A.2.1.11 Attribute: values

The attribute values shall provide a sequence containing all of the values associated with grid 

points within the extent of the coverage. Each record in the sequence shall contain the list of 

values for a single grid point. The data type Record is specified in ISO 19103. For this attribute, 

each Record shall conform to the RecordType provided as the value for Orthoimage.rangeType.

2.A.2.1.12 Attribute: startSequence

The attribute startSequence shall identify the grid coordinates of the point associated with the first 

record in the sequence of values. The data type CV_GridCoordinate (A.1.5) is specified in ISO 

19123.

2.A.2.1.13 Attribute: sequencingRule

The attribute sequencingRule shall identify the rule to be followed in assigning records from the 

sequence of values to individual grid points. The data type CV_SequenceRule (A.1.6) is 

specified in ISO 19123.

2.A.2.1.14 Attribute: metadata

The attribute metadata shall provide a link to metadata about the Orthoimage.

2.A.2.1.15 Association: Aggregation

The optional association Aggregation may link an instance of Orthoimage to other instances in 

two ways. The role name collection identifies an OrthoimageryCollection to which the 

Orthoimage belongs. In the role of mosaic, an instance of Orthoimage is characterized as an 

aggregate of one or more other instances of Orthoimage. In the role of component, an instance 

of Orthoimage is characterized as a member of one or more mosaics.

2.A.1.3 OrthoimageryCollection

2.A.1.3.11 Introduction

The class OrthoimageryCollection represents a set of Orthoimages that are transferred as a set.

2.A.1.3.2 Attribute : metadata

The attribute metadata shall provide a link to metadata about the OrthoimageryCollection.

2.A.1.3.3 Associated role name: member

The role name member identifies an Orthoimage that belongs to the OrthoimageryCollection.

2.A.1.4 CV_GridEnvelope

2.A.1.4.1 Introduction

The data type class CV_GridEnvelope has two attributes.

2.A.1.4.2 Attribute: low

The attribute low takes as its value an instance of CV_GridCoordinate that contains the minimum 

coordinate of the grid envelope with respect to each axis of the grid.

2.A.1.4.3 Attribute: high

The attribute high takes as its value an instance of CV_GridCoordinate that contains the 

maximum coordinate of the grid envelope with respect to each axis of the grid.
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2.A.1.5 CV_GridCoordinate

2.A.2.1.1 Introduction

The data type class CV_GridCoordinate has a single attribute.

2.A.1.5.2 Attribute: coordValues

The attribute coordValues contains the coordinates of a grid point expressed as integer values.

2.A.1.6 CV_SequenceRule

2.A.1.6.1 Introduction

The data typeclass CV_SequenceRule describes the method to be followed in assigning records 

from the sequence of Orthoimage.values to grid points within the grid envelope. It has two 

attributes.

2.A.1.6.2 Attribute: type

The attribute type identifies the sequencing method to be used. The data type 

CV_SequenceType is specified in ISO 19123. The default value is "linear". Other methods for 

sequential enumeration are described in Annex D of ISO 19123.

2.A.1.6.3 Attribute: scanDirection

The attribute scanDirection is a sequence of signed axis names that indicates the direction in 

which sequencing operates. An additional element may be included in the sequence to describe 

interleaving of attribute values. In the case of linear scanning of a 2D grid, grid coordinates are 

incremented first along a grid line parallel to the first axis named in the list, and then along the 

second axis. To describe interleaving, the range of the coverage is treated similarly to a grid axis 

– the index of the list of values in a record is incremented in the same way that the grid 

coordinates are incremented.

EXAMPLE 1 In Figure A.2, the grid axes are named Row (R) and Column (C). The grid origin is at the 

upper left corner, and the axes are positive downward and to the right.

Figure 2.A.2 – Examples of scan directions

Row

Column

Row

Column

Row Major(C, R) Order Column Major (R, C) Order
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EXAMPLE 2 Given grid axes named Row (R) and Column (C), and identifying the range of the grid 

coverage as A, the various forms of interleaving are identified by ordering the axes as shown in the table 

below.
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Table 2.A.1 – Examples of interleaving

Organization Axis Sequence

Band interleaved by pixel ACR or ARC

Band interleaved by row CAR

Band interleaved by column RAC

Band sequential CRA or RCA

2.A.1.7 Vector

2.A.1.7.1 Introduction

The type class Vector is specified in ISO 19103. It has two attributes.

2.A.1.7.2 Attribute: dimension

The attribute dimension indicates the dimension of the coordinate reference system, which is 

constrained to 2 in the case of this part.

2.A.1.7.3 Attribute: ordinates

The attribute ordinates provides the ordinates relative to each axis of the coordinate reference 

system.
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2.A.1.8 DirectPosition

Figure 2.A.3 – DirectPosition

2.A.1.8.1 Introduction

The data type class DirectPosition (Figure A.3) is specified in ISO 19107. DirectPosition has two 

attributes that carry the coordinates of a position and the coordinate dimension. It also has an 

optional association to the class SC_CRS specified in ISO 19111.

2.A.1.8.2 Attribute: coordinate

The attribute coordinate carries the coordinates of a single position as a sequence of numbers.

2.A.1.8.3 Attribute: dimension

The attribute dimension identifies the dimension of the coordinate space. This information is 

derived through the association to SC_CRS. For framework orthoimagery, the value of dimension 

is constrained to 2.

{origin.dimension = 2}
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2.A.1.8.4 Association role: coordinateReferenceSystem

The association role coordinateReferenceSystem identifies the instance of SC_CRS to which the 

DirectPosition is referenced.

2.A.1.9 SC_CRS

SC_CRS, as specified in ISO 19111 is an abstract class, meaning that it can only be instantiated 

as an instance of one of its concrete subclasses. This part requires that coordinate reference 

system be associated with either the North American Datum of 1983 (NAD83) or the datum 

defined for the World Geodetic System of 1984 (WGS84). These two coordinate reference 

systems are instances of the subclass SC_CoordinateReferenceSystem.

2.A.1.10 SC_CoordinateReferenceSystem

2.A.1.10.1 Introduction

The data type class SC_CoordinateReferenceSystem inherits two attributes from SC_CRS and 

has four attributes defined for the class itself. Four of these attributes are optional; none of the 

four is required by this part, so they are not documented in the text below.

2.A.1.10.2 Attribute: kindCode

The attribute kindCode is inherited from SC_CRS. Its data type is the enumeration

SC_KindCode, which includes two values. The value for any 2D horizontal coordinate reference 

system is 1, generalCase.

2.A.1.10.3 Attribute: CRSID

The attribute CRSID contains an identifier for the coordinate reference system. Its data type is 

RS_Identifier. RS_Identifier has one mandatory attribute, code (which is inherited from 

MD_Identifier); its value is of data type CharacterString.
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Table 2.A.2 – Data dictionary for orthoimagery

Line Name/Role Name Definition Obligation/

Condition

Maximum 

Occurrence Data Type Domain

1 Orthoimage

Set of data forming an orthorectified 

image of a portion of the Earth's 

surface

<<Feature>> Lines 2-17

2 domainExtent Spatial extent of the image M * EX_Extent Unrestricted

3 rangeType Description of the types of values in 

the range of the coverage M 1 RecordType Unrestricted

4 interpolationType

Recommended method for 

interpolating values at points within 

grid cells

M 1

<<CodeList>>

Coverage Core::

CV_InterpolationMethod

Unrestricted. Default 

is bilinear

5 commonPointRule

Rule to follow in interpolating a 

value at a point that falls on the 

boundary between two pixels

M 1

<<CodeList>>

Segmented Curve::

CV_CommonPointRule

Unrestricted. Default 

is average

6 dimension Dimension of the image grid M 1 Integer 2

7 origin

Coordinates, in an external 

coordinate system, that map to grid 

coordinates 0, 0

M 1

<<DataType>>

Elevation::

DirectPosition

Unrestricted

8 axisNames Names of the axes of the image grid M 1 Sequence<CharacterString> “row”, “column”

9 offsetVectors

Vectors that specify the orientation 

of the grid axes and the dimensions 

of the pixels in directions parallel to 

the axes

M 1 Sequence<Vector> Unrestricted

10 extent Limits of the set of pixels included in 

the image M 1

<<DataType>>

Quadrilateral Grid:: 

CV_GridEnvelope

Unrestricted

11 sequencingRule Rule for assigning values to specific 

pixels M 1

<<DataType>>

Quadrilateral Grid::

CV_SequenceRule

Unrestricted
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Line Name/Role Name Definition Obligation/

Condition

Maximum 

Occurrence Data Type Domain

12 startSequence Grid point associated with the first 

record in the values sequence M 1

<<DataType>>

Quadrilateral Grid::

CV_GridCoordinate

Unrestricted

13 values Recorded radiance values M 1 Sequence<Record> Unrestricted

14 metadata Data about the Orthoimage M 1 CharacterString Free text

15 Role name: component Orthoimage that is part of a mosaic C/is image part of 

a mosaic? *

<<Feature>>

Orthoimage Unrestricted

16 Role name: mosaic Orthoimage composed of smaller 

Orthoimages

C/is image 

composed of 

parts?

1

<<Feature>>

Orthoimage Unrestricted

17 Role name: collection Pointer to a set of orthoimages to 

which this orthoimage belongs O *

<<FeatureCollection>>

OrthoimageryCollection Unrestricted

18 OrthoimageryCollection Orthoimages exchanged as a set <<FeatureCollection>> Lines 19-20

19 metadata Data about the 

OrthoimageryCollection M 1 CharacterString Free text

20 Role name: member Pointer to a Orthoimage included in 

the OrthoimageryCollection M *

<<Feature>>

Orthoimage Unrestricted

21 CV_GridEnvelope

Grid coordinates for the 

diametrically opposed corners of the 

image

<<DataType>>

Quadrilateral Grid Lines 22-23

22 low Minimal grid coordinate values of 

the image M 1

<<DataType>>

Quadrilateral Grid::

CV_GridCoordinate

Unrestricted

23 high Maximal grid coordinate values of 

the image M 1

<<DataType>>

Quadrilateral Grid::

CV_GridCoordinate

Unrestricted

24 CV_GridCoordinate Data type for holding the 

coordinates of a grid point

<<DataType>>

Quadrilateral Grid Line 25
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Line Name/Role Name Definition Obligation/

Condition

Maximum 

Occurrence Data Type Domain

25 coordValues

Number of pixel offsets from the 

origin of the grid parallel to each 

axis

M 1 Sequence<Integer> Positive

26 CV_SequenceRule

Description of how grid points are 

ordered for association to the 

elements of the sequence values

<<DataType>>

Qaudrilateral Grid Lines 27-28

27 type Identifier of the type of sequencing 

method M 1

<<CodeList>>

Quadrilateral Grid::

CV_SequenceType

Unrestricted

28 scanDirection

List of signed axisNames that 

indicates the order in which grid 

points shall be mapped to position 

within the sequence of values

M 1 Sequence<CharacterString> Unrestricted

29 Vector Quantity having magnitude and 

direction

<<Type>>

Numerics Lines 30-31

30 dimension

Dimension of the coordinate 

reference system in which the vector 

is specified

M 1 Integer 2

31 ordinates

Coordinates that describe the 

position of one end of a vector when 

the other end is taken to be at the 

origin of the coordinate reference 

system

M 2 Number Unrestricted

32 DirectPosition Description of a position relative to a 

coordinate reference system

<<DataType>>

Elevation Lines 33-35

33 coordinate Numerical description of the spatial 

position M 1 Sequence<Number> Unrestricted

34 dimension Dimension of the coordinate space M 1 Integer 2
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Line Name/Role Name Definition Obligation/

Condition

Maximum 

Occurrence Data Type Domain

35 Role name: 

coordinateReferenceSystem

Spatial reference system to which 

the positions is associated M 1

<<Abstract>>

Spatial Referencing by 

Coordinates::

SC_CRS

Unrestricted

36 SC_CRS

<<Abstract>>

Spatial Referencing by 

Coordinates

Lines 37-38

37 kindCode Identifies the type of coordinate 

reference system M 1

<<enumeration>>

SC_KindCode

Restricted to the 

values in the 

enumeration 

SC_KindCode

38 remarks O 1 CharacterString Unrestricted

39 SC_CoordinateReferenceSystem Data describing a coordinate 

reference system

<<DataType>>

Spatial Referencing by 

Coordinates

Lines 40-43

40 CRSID Name of the coordinate reference 

system M 1

<<DataType>>

Reference system 

information::

RS_Identifier

Unrestricted

41 alias Alternative name of the coordinate 

reference system O * CharacterString

42 validArea Area for which the coordinate 

reference system is valid O 1 EX_Extent

43 scope

Application for which the coordinate 

reference system is valid O * CharacterString

44 MD_Identifier

<<DataType>>

Reference system 

information

Lines 45-46

45 authority O 1 CI_Citation
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Line Name/Role Name Definition Obligation/

Condition

Maximum 

Occurrence Data Type Domain

46 code Code that identifies the coordinate 

reference system M 1 CharacterString Unrestricted

47 RS_Identifier Information identifying a reference 

reference system

<<DataType>>

Reference system 

information

Lines 48-49

48 codeSpace O 1 CharacterString

49 version O 1 CharacterString
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2.A.11 Code lists and enumerations

Figure 2.A.4 – Code lists

2.A.11.1 CV_InterpolationMethod code list

CV_InterpolationMethod is a CodeList of values for the attribute interpolationType.

Table 2.A.3 – CodeList for CV_InterpolationMethod, as specified in ISO 19123.

Name

nearestNeighbor

linear

quadratic

cubic

bilinear

biquadratic

bicubic

lostArea

barycentric

2.A.11.2 CV_SequenceType code list

CV_SequenceType is a CodeList of values for the attribute type

Table 2.A.4 –CodeList for CV_SequenceType, as specified in ISO 19123.

Name
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Name

linear

boustrophedonic

CantorDiagonal

spiral

Morton

Hilbert

2.A.11.3 CV_CommonPointRule code list

CV_CommonPointRule is a CodeList of values for the attribute commonPointRule.

Table 2.A.5 – CodeList for CV_CommonPointRule

Name

average

low

high

all

start

end

2.A.11.4 SC_KindCode enumeration

SC_KindCode is an enumeration of values for the attribute kindCode.

Table 2.A.6 – SC_KindCode enumeration

Name

generalCase

compound
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Annex B (informative): Data example

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Annex 2-B

(informative)

Data example

The data below represent an orthoimagery coverage that holds reflectances for three bands of 

the visible spectrum interleaved by pixel in row major sequence. The grid is referenced to NAD83 

with a grid spacing of 1 arc second. The image covers an area 2 minutes in latitude by 5 minutes 

in longitude.

Table 2.B.1 – Data example

Line Name/Role Name Value

1 Orthoimagery Coverage

2 domainExtent1

westBoundLongitude 76.00000

southBoundLatitude 39.46667

eastBoundLongitude 75.91667

northBoundLatitude 39.50000

3 rangeType

aName:attributeType

red:Integer

green:Integer

blue:Integer

4 interpolationType bilinear

5 interpolationParametersType ------

6 commonPointRule average

7 role name: data see row 8

8 Orthoimage

9 dimension 2

10 axisNames row, column

11 origin

coordinate 39.500, 76.000

dimension 2

coordinateReferenceSystem.kindCode 1

coordinateReferenceSystem.name NAD83

12 offsetVectors

dimension ordinates (1) ordinates (2)

2 -0.00028 0

2 0 -0.00028
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Line Name/Role Name Value

13 extent

low 0,0

high 120,3000

14 startSequence 0,0

15 sequencingRule

type linear

scanDirection column, row

16 values

239, 17, 128

37, 219, 50

etc., for a sequence of 36421 records

17 role name: component -------

1 Uses Ex_GeographicBoundingBox, a subclass of EX_Extent.
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Annex 2-C

(informative)

Additional information about control

Currently, there are three methods used to acquire the necessary control: from existing map or 

digital orthoimagery, from a ground survey, or from a platform specific navigation direct 

georeferencing system composed of an Airborne Global Positioning System (AGPS) and Inertial 

Navigation System (INS).

Control data in the form of survey ground control provides coordinates and elevations of known 

locations on the Earth’s surface which are used in the orthorectification process to obtain the 

precise location and orientation of the raw image at the time it was acquired. This is 

accomplished through a process called aerotriangulation which derives the camera attitude and 

positions by performing a space resection using ground control, tie points, and camera model 

geometry. When completed, this process provides the location and orientation information of the 

all the imagery allowing the user to locate any on-the-ground positions to known projections, 

coordinates, and accuracy standards.

Control derived from existing map or orthoimagery sources can also be used during the 

orthorectification process, if survey ground control is not available. Control locations would 

consist of known horizontal and vertical values that, in turn, can be used in aerotriangulation 

process. For any given final orthoimage scale, control derived from a less accurate source is not 

recommended.

Direct georeferencing currently incorporates both AGPS and INS data and is the measurement of 

sensor position and orientation allowing for direct relationship between locations on the imagery 

to locations on the ground, without the need for additional ground information over the project 

area. 

Airborne GPS consists of a GPS unit on an aircraft that captures range measurements to 

satellites and uses triangulation techniques to compute the position of the receiver’s antenna and 

relates that position to the sensor.

Inertial Navigation System is composed of two components: one is the inertial measurement unit 

(IMU) comprised of a series of accelerometers and gyros that measure position, orientation, and 

velocity, and the second is the navigation processor of the INS which solves for the motion of the 

IMU. The two combined provide a navigation solution comprised of the platform’s position, 

velocity, and orientation.

When the data from the AGPS is integrated with the INS data, the 3-dimensional and angular 

position of the aircraft sensor can be accurately estimated as the position of the AGPS 

complements that of the INS data providing location and orientation information to estimate and 

correct the errors of the imaging platform. The AGPS and INS data can then be used to help 

locate and orient the image in space during the orthorectification process.

At times, digital orthoimagery may be created using direct georeferencing information without the 

need of any ground survey control. In other cases, this information is used to augment the 

aerotriangulation block adjustment solution.
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Annex D (informative): Bibliography 

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Annex 2-D

(informative)

Bibliography

The following documents contain provisions that are relevant to this part of the Framework Data 

Content Standard. Annex D of the Base Document (Part 0) lists informative references 

applicable to two or more of the parts of the standard. For dated references, only the edition cited 

applies. For undated references, the latest edition of the referenced document applies.

ANSI and ISO standards may be purchased through the ANSI eStandards Store at 

http://webstore.ansi.org/ansidocstore/default.asp, accessed November 2006.

American Society of Photogrammetry, 1980. Manual of photogrammetry, Fourth edition, Falls 

Church, VA, American Society of Photogrammetry

American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing (ASPRS), 1990, Specifications and 

Standards Committee, Accuracy standards for large-scale maps

ANSI NCITS 320-1998, Spatial data transfer standard (SDTS)

Applanix, http://www.applanix.com/products/posav_index.php#applications, accessed November

2006

Association of Geographic Information, 1996, AGI GIS dictionary, The University of Edinburgh 

and Association for Geographic Information, at http://www.geo.ed.ac.uk/agidict/welcome.html, 

accessed November 2006

Department of the Army, U.S. Corps of Engineers, 2002, EM 1110-1-1000 Engineering and 

design – Photogrammetric mapping

Falkner, E., Morgan, D., 2002. Aerial mapping – Methods and applications, 2nd edition, CRC 

Press, LLC

FGDC-STD-007.1-1998, Geospatial positioning accuracy standards, Part 1, Reporting 

methodology, http://www.fgdc.gov/standards/projects/FGDC-standardsprojects/accuracy/part1/index_html/?searchterm=Geospatial%20positioning%20accuracy%20sta

ndards, accessed November 2006

FGDC-STD-008-1999, Content standards for digital orthoimagery, 

http://www.fgdc.gov/standards/projects/FGDC-standardsprojects/orthoimagery/index_html/?searchterm=Content%20standards%20for%20digital%20ortho

imagery, accessed November 2006

FGDC-STD-012-2002, Content standard for digital geospatial metadata: Extensions for remote 

sensing metadata, http://www.fgdc.gov/standards/projects/FGDC-standardsprojects/csdgm_rs_ex/remote-sensingmetadata/?searchterm=Content%20standard%20for%20digital%20geospatial%20metadata, 

accessed November 2006

FGDC-STD-002.5, Spatial data transfer standard (SDTS), Part 5: Raster profile and extensions, 

http://www.fgdc.gov/standards/projects/FGDC-standardsprojects/SDTS/sdts_pt5/srpe0299.pdf/view?searchterm=Spatial%20Data%20Transfer%20Standa

rd, accessed November 2006

FGDC-STD-014.4-2008, Geographic Information Framework Data Content Standard, Part 4: 

Geodetic Control, http://www.fgdc.gov/standards/projects/FGDC-standards-projects/frameworkdata-standard/GI_FrameworkDataStandard_Part4_GeodeticControl.pdf/view, accessed April 

2014
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Annex D (informative): Bibliography 

2-D-35

ISO/IEC 12087-1:1995, Information technology – Computer graphics and image processing –

Image processing and interchange (IPI) – Functional specification – Part 1: Common architecture 

for imaging

Leica Geosystems GIS & Mapping, LLC, Photogrammetry – Photogrammetic terms, 

http://gis.leica-geosystems.com/Support/FocusOn/FocusOn_detail.aspx?article_ID=17, accessed 

November 2006

Maune, Dave, 2001, Digital elevation model technologies and applications: The DEM users 

manual, ASPRS

Pratt, William K., 1978, Digital image processing, John Wiley & Sons

Schowengerdt, Robert A.,1997, Remote sensing – Models and methods for image processing, 

2nd edition, San Diego, CA, 522 pp.

U.S. Bureau of Budget, 1947, United States national map accuracy standards, 

http://rockyweb.cr.usgs.gov/nmpstds/nmas647.html, accessed November 2006