Disclaimer This publication reports research and management issues involving mushroom harvesting. It neither recommends the use of mushrooms nor implies that mushroom use

is without risks.

CAUTION: Mushroom consumption can pose a serious, even fatal, risk to humans. It

is strongly recommended that you spend your first collecting season using field identifications guides and collecting with an expert if you intend to collect mushrooms to

eat.

Authors CATHERINE G. PARKS is a research plant pathologist, Pacific Northwest Research

Station, Forestry and Range Sciences Laboratory, 1401 Gekeler Lane, La Grande, OR

97850; CRAIG L. SCHMITT is a Zone Pathologist, Blue Mountains Pest Management

Zone, Wallowa-Whitman National Forest, 1401 Gekeler Lane, La Grande, OR 97850

Cover photograph: morel mushrooms. Photo taken by Paula Brooks at Hidden Campground, Hells Canyon

National Recreation Area.

Abstract Parks, Catherine G.; Schmitt, Craig L. 1997. Wild edible mushrooms in the Blue

Mountains: resource and issues. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-393. Portland,

OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research

Station. 22 p.

This paper reviews the wild mushroom resource of the Blue Mountains of northeastern

Oregon and southeastern Washington and summarizes issues and concerns for regulation, monitoring, and management. Existing biological information on the major

available commercial mushrooms in the area, with emphasis on morels, is presented.

Brief descriptions of the most commonly collected mushrooms are given, as well as

the site conditions and plant communities influencing their occurrence or proliferation.

Keywords: Morels, special forest products, commercial mushroom harvest, Blue

Mountains.
Contents 1 Introduction

1 Mushroom Harvest in the Blue Mountains -a Historical Perspective

2 Mushrooms in Western Culture

3 Harvesting the Resource

4 Commercial Harvest

5 Regulations

7 Private Lands

8 Conflicts

8 Biology

8 General

9 Reproduction

10 Morels

11 Concerns

11 Effect on the Mushroom Resource From Overharvesting of Mushrooms

12 Effect of Mushroom Harvest on Other Resources

12 Effect on the Mushroom Resource From Timber Harvesting

13 Monitoring

13 Research Needs

14 Conclusions

14 Acknowledgments

15 Literature Cited

17 Appendix: Mushrooms Commercially Important in the Blue Mountains

17 Morel, Morchella Species

18 King Bolete, Boletus edulis

19 Conifer Coral Hericium, Hericium Species

20 Oyster Mushroom, Pleurotus ostreatus

21 Shaggy Mane, Coprinus comatus

22 Commercial Mushrooms of the Blue Mountains
Introduction In the last several years, forest managers in the Blue Mountains have observed a

marked increase in the recreational and commercial pursuit of wild mushrooms. What

had once been a casual recreational pastime and resource used by a few of the local

population has developed into a major commercial industry for at least 2 months of the

year. The commercial market has become increasingly organized and has spawned

an influx of pickers and buyers into the area during the mushroom season. Aware

ness of the availability of this resource also has increased the recreational pursuit of

wild mushrooms. Given the high demand and limited resource, there are concerns

about the increasing conflicts among commercial pickers and recreational users, and

that mushroom harvesting may reduce future mushroom harvests or adversely affect

other forest resources. Public land management agencies are striving to regulate

mushroom harvest in a way that conforms to sustaining healthy ecosystems.

This document provides back

ground information to individuals

and organizations interested in

the wild mushroom resource of

the Blue Mountains of northeastern Oregon and southeastern

Washington (fig. 1). It provides

information for an environmental

analysis, including issues and

concerns for regulation, monitoring, and management. This

paper consolidates and presents

existing biological information of

the major available commercial

mushrooms in the area, with an

emphasis on morels (Morchella

spp.). Brief descriptions of the

most commonly collected mush

rooms are given, as well as the

site conditions and plant communities influencing their occurrence

or proliferation.

Mushroom Harvest in the The forests of the Blue Mountains produced an abundance of resources and commodBlue Mountains—a ities for Native Americans for thousands of years and for European settlers during the

Historical Perspective last 150 years. The ever-increasing population of the inland West and the continued

demands on forested land have created controversy about proper forest management.

The major conflict involves production and extraction of commodities versus maintenance of healthy and sustainable ecosystems. The current and future management

direction of public lands will be to protect ecosystem health and viability while producing commodities. This strategy is known as ecosystem management.'

' Ecosystem management is a system of making, implementing, and evaluating decisions based on the ecosystems

approach, which recognizes that ecosystems and society

are always changing (Bormann and others 1994).

1
2

Much of the historical commodity production on public and private forest lands has been 

timber, mining, and livestock grazing. Various other resources also are produced on 

these lands, including water, wildlife, Christmas trees, scenery, fuel wood, and 

mushrooms. These resources benefit the U.S. public and private land owners. Other 

"special products" continue to become increasingly important, especially when their 

production and use can be done on a sustained and ecologically sound basis.

Although documented mushroom use in the Blue Mountains is sketchy, it likely has a long 

history. Across North America, Native Americans used various fungus fruiting bodies 

(mushrooms, conks, etc.) for food, medicine, and culture (Hobbs 1995). Use differs by 

location and tribe. Knowledge of fungi was passed from generation to generation in chains 

of oral tradition. Much of the information, ancient expertise, and wisdom of these cultures 

has disappeared. Burke (1983) reported that the Indians of the Pacific Northwest and 

British Columbia were apt to be suspicious of mushrooms and considered them best used 

for medicine rather than food. Clark (1977), however, reported that Indians in northern 

California did collect morels for food. Native Americans in the Blue Mountains likely used 

fungi for food and medicine.

Today, mushroom gathering has become a major activity in the forests of northeastern 

Oregon and southeastern Washington, both as a recreational pursuit and as a major 

commercial enterprise. Morel mushrooms, currently account for most of the recreational 

and commercial harvests. Another significant species is the king bolete (Boletus edulis). 

Several other edible mushrooms in the Blue Mountains are collected by knowledgeable 

individuals, and a limited market exists for some of them.

At least 23 mushroom species found in the Blue Mountains have some commercial 

value.2 By far, most of the mushroom harvest are the morels that fruit in late spring and 

early summer and to a much lesser extent, the boletes. The valuable American 

matsutake mushroom (Tricholoma magnivelare), well known along the coast, on the 

slopes of the Cascade Range, and in Idaho, does not fruit in commercial quantities in the 

Blue Mountains.

Mushrooms in Although increasing interest in natural food products, and gourmet and ethnic cuisine,

Western Culture has recently contributed to wild mushroom popularity, interest and knowledge of fungi

as a forest resource has been slow to develop in American culture. In the mushroom

loving societies of Japan, China, northern and continental Europe, and Russia,

mushrooms have long been culturally important, particularly valued for their wide

ranging uses as food and medicine.

Early immigrants to the United States from Asia and Europe, brought with them their

tradition of collecting forest fungi. The traditions of these immigrants have continued

and are now the basis for much of the current recreational mushroom gathering. Con

temporary immigrants, especially from Asia, bring with them cultures that include

substantial reliance on wild mushrooms as food. Many commercial pickers are recent

immigrants from Southeast Asia and Latin America. Picking mushrooms, often in

family groups, generates a source of income for people who often are unable to se

cure traditional mainstream employment.

2 Personal communication. 1996. Floyd Reese, owner,

North West Mushroom Co. Inc. P.O. Box 2997, La Grande,

OR 97850.
3 Arora, David. 1994. Unpublished survey. On file with: 

Catherine Parks.

3

In the last several years, there has been a large influx of commercial pickers into portions of 

the Blue Mountains during May and June to pick morels. Many commercial pickers are of 

Southeast Asian and Latin American descent, ethnic groups not well represented in the resident population. At the La Grande 

Ranger District, in 1994, commercial permits were 

purchased by individuals with Asian (51.3 percent), 

Anglo-American (44.2 percent), and Hispanic (4.5 

percent) surnames. Nonlocal commercial permit 

holders were more common than locals; 73 percent 

and 27 percent, respectively (see footnote 3).

A Northwest-wide survey conducted in 1992 identified 

mushroom harvesters as Caucasian (AngloAmerican) 

(49 percent), Asian (37 percent), Native American (9 

percent), and Hispanic (4 percent) (Schlosser and 

Blatner 1995).

Although mushroom research is practically absent from American medical research, Asian 

medical research has extensive programs evaluating the nutritional and healing properties 

of mushrooms. Several antitumor agents (immunotherapeutic drugs) have been 

developed from mushrooms and these products have become commercially important 

items in Japan (Mizuno 1995, Mizuno and others 1995). Experiments have demonstrated 

significant anti-infection activity by select mushroom derivatives against various kinds of 

bacterial, viral, and parasitic infections, including Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome 

(AIDS) (Mizuno and others 1995).

Harvesting the Resource Population growth in Blue Mountain communities and nearby population centers has 

resulted in steadily increasing recreational use of our woodlands. Improved access, 

development of campgrounds, and many recreational opportunities have contributed to use 

of the National Forests. Recreation often includes collecting of various forest products: fuel 

wood, berries, mushrooms, and other products. Recreational collecting of mushrooms is 

pursued predominately by local individuals. In a 5.8-percent sample of personal-use permits 

issued by the La Grande Ranger District, Wallowa-Whitman National Forest, in 1994, all 

(100 percent) had Anglo-American surnames and 90 percent designated local addresses.3

Some of the increased commercialization and development of new forest products has 

occurred in recent years (fig. 2). Some of this use may be due to a high proportion of 

seasonal labor, nontraditional careers, and live-off-the-land rural life-styles. Additionally, a 

reduction in the number of traditional rural jobs, such as logging and millwork, has forced 

families remaining in the area to find other sources of income.
Commercial Harvest In 1992, wholesale mushroom companies processed $11.8 million dollars worth of

mushrooms in the eastern portions of Washington and Oregon, and Idaho. Processors

paid about $9.9 million to harvesters for all mushrooms purchased in 1992. This in

cluded 1.9 million pounds (861834 kilograms) of wild mushrooms (Schlosser and

Blatner 1995).

Morels are the biggest money

maker among the Blue Mountain

mushrooms. Nearly 1 million

pounds were gathered in Oregon in 1992, most of them from

the Blue Mountain region (fig. 3).

Pickers earned an average of $6

per hour in 1992 (Schlosser and

Blatner 1995). Forty percent of

morels harvested are sold to

Asian and European markets,

and 42 percent are sold in the

Western United States. In 1995,

fresh morels sold for $5 to $6 per pound wholesale and $48 to $60 per pound retail.

Until 1996, most morels were dried for packing by large-scale processing plants (fig.

4). Beginning in 1996, much of the morel harvest was sold fresh and shipped within

24 hours of harvest to the European markets (see footnote 2).

There is a substantial amount of conflicting information concerning commercial aspects of mushroom collection. Some claim that reports of pickers earning $300 to

$400 per day are exaggerations. They claim also that these exaggerations may be

deliberate attempts by buyers and dealers to entice people into collecting. Similarly,

the amount reportedly paid is for only the highest grade specimens, whereas most of

the mushrooms picked are of lower quality and command a much lower price.

Mushrooms are bought from

pickers by individuals or agents

who set up buying stations in

nearby towns, communities, and

occasionally, in the National Forests. Most of the freelance

buyers in turn sell to established

wholesalers and processors.

Available records on production

and processing are restricted to

the established processors and

shippers. This has largely been

an "underground" business that

deals in cash. It is likely that

only a small portion of the generated income is reported.

4
In La Grande, OR, there is one established year-round mushroom buyer and processor. 

Mushrooms are mostly sold by pickers, fresh, at the end of the day. Some pickers will dry their 

own mushrooms and later sell them, adding value to the product. Large-scale processors 

partially dry and freeze their product for shipping out of the area and overseas. A small amount 

of the commercial harvest is marketed fresh locally in area restaurants and shipped to markets 

in the Northwest. Most of the market for processed mushrooms is in Europe (see footnote 2).

Regulations Regulation of the mushroom resource has increased steadily over the last 10 years. In

Washington, a task group of agencies and individuals representing State, Federal, and

private lands was convened in 1985 by the Commissioner of Public Lands. An early product was a position paper on the issues involved in harvesting wild mushrooms (Acker

1986). Several workshops increased awareness of the resource and the developing industry. Washington State legislation requiring licensing and reporting of data was initially

attempted in 1986 but failed to pass. A law passed in 1994 currently requires a validated

specialized forest products permit (Washington Legislature 1994). The law is administered by the Washington State Department of Natural Resources and requires annual

licensing of people who buy and process wild mushrooms for market. Monthly reporting is

required of licensed buyers. Reports include information on species harvested, weights,

location of harvest sites, dates purchased, prices paid, and name of dealer to whom the

mushrooms were later sold. Dealers also are required to report to the U.S. Department of

Agriculture, the quantity of mushrooms, by species, sold in-State, in the United States,

and to individual foreign countries.

The 1993 Oregon Legislature passed House Bill 2130: Special Forest Products

(Oregon Legislature 1993). This statute is designed to reduce illegal gathering and

theft of various nontimber forest products, including mushrooms. This law requires

wholesale buyers to keep a record of purchases which includes the social security

number of the person from whom they bought the product, typically the gatherer. In

Oregon, there are no State-wide regulations prohibiting mushroom collection; there

may be individual city, county, State, or Federal parks and other lands where picking

of mushrooms is prohibited or otherwise regulated.

The USDA Forest Service has used several methods to regulate harvesters and buyers in the Pacific Northwest Region. In the Blue Mountains, until 1994, there was

a free-use permit available to people who collect for their own use (up to 10 days of

picking per year). Until 1995, these permits were available from each Ranger District

and were good throughout the Wallowa-Whitman, Umatilla, and Malheur National Forests. In 1995, regulations were changed slightly for the three Blue Mountains National

Forests, and the Forests have discontinued issuing personal-use permits. Currently,

recreational pickers are able to collect and possess up to 1 gallon (4.4 liters) (3 gallons [13.2 liters] in Washington) of mushrooms per day. These may not be sold.

Commercial picking permits have been required since the late 1980s for those individuals 

who pick on National Forest lands for sale to buyers. Recent regulations have reduced the 

cost of commercial permits as managers have found that most pickers will avoid buying 

commercial permits if the cost is high. At the Wallows -Whitman National Forest, in 1992, the 

cost of commercial permits was lowered to $1.00 per day. In 1996, commercial permits 

became available for $2.00 per day per person with a $10 minimum. A $50 annual permit also 

is available. It is believed that

5
many people pick commercially without a permit or use permits improperly. Table 1 

indicates the historical issuance of commercial and free-use permits for the WallowaWhitman, Umatilla, and Malheur National Forests.

Areas having had large fires may produce abundant morel mushrooms and attract pickers 

who are willing to invest in costly permits (fig. 5). The area that burned in the 

Wallowa-Whitman National Forest in the 1988 Tepee Butte Fire was opened in 1989 only 

to people with commercial permits. Three-day permits were $10 and 30-day per6
7

mits were $50. Season permits 

were $100. In 1995, the 1994 

Boundary Fire area was open 

only to those holding commercial 

permits. For some Forests, the 

Forest Service has auctioned 

picking rights to given areas in a 

manner similar to other forest 

product sales. Such was the case 

in 1991 when the Sheep 

Mountain Fire area was 

auctioned at the Malheur National 

Forest. Also in 1991 at the 

Malheur, commercial permits 

were sold for the nonwilderness 

portion of the

Snowshoe Fire, that burned east and south of the Strawberry Wilderness. Cost was

$50 for a 10-day permit and $150 for the entire season. The wilderness portion of the burn 

was open to personal use only.

Buyer permits have been offered for sale with few takers. These permits allow a buyer to 

set up a buying station on National Forest land. Only one $500 permit was sold in the 

Wallows -Whitman National Forest (La Grande District) in 1994.

Private Lands Most private landowners have ignored mushroom harvesting on their lands, but many

have come to realize the income potential associated with the mushroom industry.

Some believe the value of mushrooms that could be produced under proper management and regulated harvest is likely to equal or exceed that of other land uses. Other

land management practices may be compatible with mushroom management. Use of

fire, timber harvest, and grazing may even enhance production of some mushrooms if

done properly. Recently, some private landowners, including Boise Cascade, have

either posted their properties to prohibit picking, or have a policy of prohibiting commercial harvests on their lands. Some private landowners likely will sell picking rights

on their lands in the future. Currently, there are landowners in the area who are at

tempting to develop the mushroom resource on their lands by active management and

culturing (see footnote 2). Presently, most of the mushroom harvest is removed with

out compensation to or permission from the landowner.
Conflicts In the last several years there have

been several reports of confrontations among mushroom

pickers (fig. 6). Other reForest Service as an agency

may be able to control picker

density by limiting the number of

permits that are issued for a particular area.

others involve display or 

discharge of firearms. Although this is currently a law 

enforcement concern, the

would occur at streamside during a heavy

steelhead run. Some of 

these confrontations involve verbal threats,

picking conditions

are ideal and many 

people are in an 

area, conflicts can 

develop such as

ports claim that 

conflicts among 

pickers have 

been exaggerated (Rogers 

1991). When

Biology Fungi are a broad and diversified group of organisms that range from simple yeasts

and molds to specialized plant parasites such as wheat rusts and grass smuts, and

General those that cause various tree diseases. Fungi are not plants but belong to their own

kingdom. They typically reproduce by spores and exist by deriving their food and energy from other organisms (fig. 7).

Saprophytic activity occurs where fungi derive their energy from dead material. Parasitic activity includes a similar activity on living hosts. Most plant diseases and some

human diseases are the result of fungal infections. Many fungi once thought to be

solely saprophytic, including some common wood decayers, are now known to actively

hunt, capture, and digest various nematodes, rotifers, amoebas, copepods, and bacteria. Protein from these lower animal forms serves as a needed source of nitrogen

(Baryon 1992).

Mutualists are another group of fungi that live in symbiotic association with plant hosts.

Fungi in this group include mycorrhizae that are associated with the roots of trees. Mycorrhizal fungi modify the root systems of associate plants and trees by providing substantially

. more surface area and extensions of the small feeder roots. Consequently, these fungi

provide the plant with an efficient uptake of nutrients and minerals. The plant, in turn, supports the mycorrhizal fungus that is less able to decompose complex carbohydrates than

are saprophytic or parasitic fungi. Many of the choice edible mushrooms found in the West

8
are produced by mycorrhizal fungi. These include 

representatives within the 

class Basidiomycetes 

(mushrooms), which 

includes the genera 

Cantharellus 

(chanterelles), Boletus 

(Boletes), Lactarius (milky 

caps), Tricholoma 

(matsutake), Hydnum 

(tooth fungi), and Ramaria 

(coral fungi) (Molina and 

others 1993). Edible fungal 

fruiting bodies also are 

produced by the class 

Ascomycetes (cupfungi), 

represented by Morchella 

(morels) and the 

mycorrhizal Tubercles 

(truffles).

Plants can have many 

mycorrhizal associates; 

trees are believed to 

have more than other 

plant groups. Douglas -

fir (Psuedotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco) is known to have nearly 2,000 fungal species 

(Trappe 1977). Mycorrhizal fungi rely on the presence of their host, and will die with their host. 

Harvesting or fire can result in a short-term disappearance of these fungi, but they recolonize 

when trees again become established. Trees that are hosts to mycorrhizal fungi in the Pacific 

Northwest include those mainly in the families Pinaceae, Fagaceae, Betulaceae, Salicaceae, 

and a few Ericaceae (Molina and others

1993). _ _

Reproduction Specific reproductive processes are different for different species and groups of fungi. Af -

ter spores are dispersed and germinate, they form haploid (monokaryote) vegetative

hyphal strands (mycelium) through their adapted substrate. Sexual reproduction can occur

when two compatible mating types grow together and fuse, and dikaryotic or binuculeate

mycelium develops. When conditions are correct, the sexual stage is initiated and mush

room primordia develop. Primordia eventually develop into the fruiting structures where the

final process of meios is takes place and spores are again produced.

Mushrooms and cup-fungi are reproductive structures of individual fungal organisms that

are primarily large networks of filamentous microscopic cells (hyphae) in soil, in wood, or

on plants. Masses of hyphae (mycelium) are actually the vast bulk of the fungus. Because

mycelium is either hidden or not visible to the naked eye, its importance often is overlooked

relative to the apparent mushroom and cup-fungus fruiting structures. In actuality, the

mycelium network functions throughout the year, whereas the mushroom or cup-fungus is

produced for only a few weeks. Picking the mushroom does not alter the individual in the

soil (or other substrate) but is analogous to picking fruit from a tree.

9
10

Individual mushrooms and cup-fungi produce millions to billions of spores, which serve

as mechanisms for long-distance spread and maintenance of genetic diversity in the

population. Usually spores are discharged and spread through the air, often for long

distances, when temperature and humidity conditions are favorable. Although only a

small proportion of spores germinate and colonize suitable substrates, long-distance

spread is achieved, and different genetic material is continuously added to the population. Spores are produced from the hymenal surface of mature mushrooms. The

hymenal surfaces are the gills or pores, usually on the underside of these fruiting bodies. On cup-fungi, such as morels, the spore-bearing surface lines the pits of the outer

surface of the cap, known as the pileus. Timing of spore production differs by species

of fungus. Spores are not produced in significant amounts until the mushroom is ma

ture. For the Basidiomycetes, maturity is indicated after the cap expands, separating

from the stem (stipe) and exposing the spore-bearing surface. Morels produce spores

15 to 30 days after the fruiting body is first formed; the spores line the exposed surface

of the pits and grooves (Ower 1982, Weber 1995). Truffles produce spores inside the

fruiting body itself. Various animals eat the mature truffle and the spores then travel

through their digestive tract and are dispersed in the fecal pellets.

Mushroom fruiting differs among species. Some mushroom species are easily propa--

gated and can be grown on farms. Some are more difficult to raise but are cultivated

by hobbyists and small-scale entrepreneurs who use intensive and exacting tech

niques. Other species have very exacting requirements, seldom fruit, and are considered rare, although the vegetative fungus (mycelium) may be common. Most fungi

usually have fairly exacting requirements of temperature and moisture for the formation of mushrooms. It is widely believed and frequently hypothesized that weather of

previous months (that is, abundant moisture and accumulated degree days) will

strongly influence fruiting. Most mushrooms have their specific season, usually spring

or fall when moist conditions prevail. When conditions are favorable, mushroom production literally can occur overnight. Site or substrate conditions also are critical for

mushroom formation. Some fungi fruit after fires or ground disturbance, others will be

produced only on a few species of trees, and others may require undisturbed conditions. As sites experience constant change in vegetation as plant succession occurs,

mushroom production also will change.

Morels, and some other fungi, produce sclerotia, which are dormant fungal structures that

carry the fungus through periods of poor growing conditions by storing food reserves used

when conditions for fruiting occur. Sclerotia require a disturbance such as high heat (fire)

for activation and cause the fungus to become active, grow, and fruit. There is a clear re

lation between fire and subsequent abundant fruiting of morels. In some cases, abundant

mushroom production is restricted to the following year; in other cases mushrooms are

Morels produced for 2 or 3 years. Fruiting is observed in burned harvest units as well as sites

burned by wildfires. The relation between burn intensity levels and subsequent fruiting is

currently being studied in the Blue Mountains.4

4

Pilz, D.; Weber, N.; Carter, C.; Parks, C. 1995. Investigations of morel mushroom productivity, ecology, taxonomy, and population genetics following wildfires and tree

mortality in Pacific Northwest forests: a study plan. On file

with: Catherine Parks.
11

Morel collectors claim there are distinct morphological differences in mushrooms found in 

burned areas, in unburned areas, early or late in the season, and between years after a 

disturbance. These observations indicate that several species may exist in the Blue 

Mountains. These different morel species also may exhibit different reproductive strategies 

that affect their occurrence and distribution of fruiting bodies. Effort is being made to 

determine conditions that promote mushroom fruiting. Favorable conditions are generally 

well known, but predicting the precise timing and location of heavy mushroom production is 

more difficult.

Morels may form mycorrhiza with tree roots under certain conditions. It is possible that in 

nondisturbed conditions, much of the fruiting may be largely of a mycorrhizal species, 

whereas after fire and heavy tree mortality, fruiting may mainly be saprophytic species that 

are triggered by the flush of carbohydrates made available when trees die (see footnote 4).

Although the biology of some morel species is well documented under laboratory conditions, their field ecology, reproduction, taxonomy and population genetics in the wild have 

not been well studied. The effects of fire, fire intensity, different burn season, levels of tree 

mortality, and weather patterns are all believed to substantially influence the abundance of 

morel fruiting. Fire and tree mortality are known to make major changes in soil chemistry 

broadly described as nutrient flushes, pH shift, major population shifts in microorganisms, 

and partial sterilization (see footnote 4).

Concerns A commonly expressed concern regarding the recent surge in commercial harvesting

is the potential to deplete the resource by overharvesting. Some of this concern has

Effect on the Mushroom resulted from European reports of recent reductions in mushroom fruiting. Cherfa

Resource From Over- (1991) reports that there has been a dramatic reduction of mushroom fruitings in reharvesting of Mushrooms cent years. Because production records exist, it has been possible to document this

event. However, because edible and inedible species are both affected, overpicking

has been ruled out. Forest management practices have been diminished as a cause,

as the drop has been documented in various types of mature forests. Air pollution,

largely the prevalence of nitrogen, sulfur, and ozone, has been shown to suppress

abundance and diversity of fungi. Farming, and the application of nitrogen fertilizer,

also has a negative influence on fungi in adjacent communities as hydrides and oxides

of nitrogen are dispersed by wind and rain. In Europe, this is a concern beyond the

production of mushrooms for eating; many of the fungi are mycorrhizal, and their demise has implications for the entire ecosystem. The relatively low level of industrial

pollutants in the air of the Blue Mountains should eliminate this as an immediate concern.

Currently, we do not know the effect of picking on morel populations and long-term fruiting 

levels. This is a research need. A study of chanterelle mushrooms (C. formosus) and the 

effect of picking on production has shown no short-term trends in production of mushrooms 

associated with picking (Norvell and others 1995). Because the mushroom is simply the 

fruiting reproductive structure of the fungus, its removal likely has little affect on the 

remaining portions of the individual in the substrate (soil, wood, etc.).

There is concern over reduction in spore dispersal owing to removal of mushrooms. Spore 

production does not occur until after the mushroom cap expands. Commercial
12

buyers grade most mushrooms as higher quality if they are picked before full cap expansion. Only mature morel mushrooms have mature spores.5

 The level of maturity is 

often beyond that desirable for the commercial market. Although many sporophores are 

missed by pickers and may produce mature spores, it is unknown whether extensive 

harvest pressure will affect long-term reproduction.

Trappe (1989) makes a strong case for overharvesting of truffles occurring when they are 

located by raking the soil. Under natural conditions, primary spread of spores and 

rejuvenation of the species is by animals eating the truffle fruiting body and dispersing 

spores in feces. Raking disturbs the site and includes harvest of sporophores that are 

immature. Observations by Trappe indicated marked reductions in production after several 

years of heavy harvesting in western Oregon. The European technique of using trained 

dogs and pigs to hunt truffles is most apt to target the fragrant mature specimens and leave 

those that are immature.

As with truffles, some collectors of the pine or matsutake mushroom will use a rake to 

expose the lower duff layers and find the small prized buttons of this species. This 

mushroom is not known in the Blue Mountains, so duff scraping is not a problem here. 

Wherever there is mushroom harvest by raking, the concern is not only for the effect on the 

mushroom resource, but also for possible damage to other forest resources.

Effects of Mushroom Other forest resources may be affected by many people collecting and removing

Harvest on Other mushrooms. Mushroom harvesting traffic can lead to road damage after heavy spring

Resources rains. Broken gates and similar damage may occur also.

In the Malheur National Forest, heavy concentration of pickers living in dispersed 

campgrounds has been reported as a potential source for some environmental effects 

(Volk 1991). Although traffic-related damage has been observed as a result of heavy use 

of dispersed camps during deer and elk hunting seasons, the total impacts associated with 

both hunting and mushroom picking were considered minimal (Volk 1991).

The spring morel season may closely coincide with elk calving in some cases. Disturbances associated with many people walking through these areas may result in some 

adverse effects on animals. Forest Service personnel in the Blue Mountains have taken 

an aggressive approach in creating and maintaining secure areas during elk calving. 

Large blocks of forested areas are closed to road vehicle travel and all-terrain vehicle 

offroad use.

Effect on the Mushroom Because some prized mushrooms are mycorrhizal, there is concern that timber harResource From Timber vesting will decrease the availability of certain mushrooms. There is also the similar

Harvesting concern that removal of mycorrhizal mushrooms may affect tree growth. The population of fungi on forested sites likely will change substantially as communities go

through successive stages of plant succession. Those mushrooms requiring cool,

moist conditions associated with mature forests are less likely to be found on sites

that have recently had a regeneration harvest. Similarly, those fungi associated with

disturbed communities will occur soon after timber harvest but disappear as a regenerated stand develops on the site. Thus, mushrooms are part of the diversity of plants

5 Personal communication. 1996. Nancy Weber, assistant

professor, Forest Science Department, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331.
that change with succession. Similar changes occur with natural disturbances such as fire. 

Because forested communities in the Blue Mountains are closely associated with 

disturbance, especially fire, these changes in fungal populations should be considered a 

normal process.

To date, there is no indication that heavy harvesting of mycorrhizal fungi fruiting bodies 

has a detrimental effect on the remnant vegetative structure or the fungal-root relations in 

the soil.

Monitoring Monitoring of diversity, production, and harvest of edible mushrooms was not included

in the forest plans of any of the National Forests in the Blue Mountains. The importance of this resource in both value and the heavy recreational use it generates

warrants more than passive management. Monitoring of the resource is needed to

assure that land management practices are not affecting this ecosystem component.

In some cases, there may be decisions to actively manipulate sites to promote mush

room production. Molina and others (1993) recommend three types of monitoring

applicable to wild edible fungi.

1. Detection monitoring is needed to provide a benchmark for future comparisons of

mushroom diversity and abundance. This type of monitoring should tie mushroom

information to existing databases, preferably on ecology plots where various other

site and vegetation data already exist. The different mushroom fruiting periods and

the often short-lived duration of fruiting present a challenge. Some sites also would

need to be established as controls, where harvest is restricted. Selected sites

could be revisited in successive years to determine annual variation. Given

enough plots, information could be extracted on site and vegetation factors that

influence fruiting.

2. Evaluation monitoring should occur when detection monitoring indicates a declining

population or resource. Evaluation monitoring is designed to determine the extent

and cause of the effect. Evaluation monitoring also can include studies that evaluate strategies for continued mushroom production. Determining the effects of

different timber harvest strategies, wildfire and prescribed fire, plant succession,

and commercial mushroom harvest all are included in evaluation monitoring.

3. Research monitoring is designed to provide detailed information on forest ecosystems at intensive research sites where long-term studies are already in place.

Research Needs There are several morel and other wild mushroom research questions that pertain to

the Blue Mountains. Land managers are most interested in monitoring and research

that eventually will help direct management decisions (Pilz and Molina 1996).

Mushroom production differs not only from year to year because of weather conditions, but also between locations because of various site, disturbance, vegetation, and

other conditions. Treatments to enhance mushroom production likely will be incorporated in future land management strategies. Initiation of monitoring and inventory

procedures are expected to help managers predict production and regulate this re-

. source. There are several research needs associated with selecting management

strategies for short- and long-term mushroom production. The most important research questions include:

13
14

1. Can productivity be predicted knowing plant

community type and successional stage?

2. What are the temperature and precipitation parameters that begin and end mushroom 

production?

3. What are the cultural techniques that contribute

to optimal mushroom production?

4. What are the negative and positive effects of land 

management practices, such as timber harvest, 

burning, and tree planting? Would any changes in 

management operations mitigate negative 

effects?

5. What is the effect of repeated heavy collection

on a site to future mushroom production?

6. Are there different species or varieties of morels 

in an area? Are some forms mycorrhizal? Do they 

respond to management differently?

7. What are the proportions of different species or 

races of morels after fires of different intensities, 

and after tree mortality caused by spruce 

budworm and bark beetle?

8. What is the population ecology of the mush

rooms in an area over time? How is genetic

variability in the population related to spore spread?

Conclusions Wild edible mushrooms from the forests of the Blue Mountains are being marketed

locally, nationally, and around the world. We are just beginning to develop an appreciation for the biological and economic value of this special resource. Effective man

agement of the commercial mushroom harvest requires anticipating the demand, the

primary locations affected, and potential conflicts (fig. 8). Any regulations for protect

ing the mushroom resource must apportion the harvest fairly. Extensive communication and cooperation among the public, industrial land owners, and governmental

agencies is essential. Research and monitoring are important factors in developing

strategies that will both protect and promote the Blue Mountain mushroom resource.

Acknowledgments We thank the following people for their useful contributions and technical review of the

manuscript: David Pilz, Jane Smith, Randy Molina, and Nan Vance, USDA Forest

Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station; and Mike Rassbach and Diane Hildebrand, USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region. Many of the photographs

were generously provided by Paula Brooks, botanist, Wallowa-Whitman National For--

est and by David Pilz. Our thanks to Lynn Starr of the Blue Mountains Natural Re

source Institute for assistance in editorial review and to Dancing Cranes Graphic Images, La Grande, OR, for content design and layout.
15

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Bormann, B.T.; Cunningham, P.G; Brooks, M.H. [and others]. 1994. Adaptive

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Burke, W. 1983. Puffball usages among the North American Indians. The Journal of

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Hobbs, C. 1995. Medicinal mushrooms, an exploration of tradition, healing, and culture. 2d ed. Santa Cruz, CA: Botantica Press. 252 p.

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with the elephant: Proceedings, the business and science of special forest

products-a conference and exposition; 1994 January 26-27; Hillsboro, OR. [Place

of publication unknown]: University of Idaho Extension Service: 117-128.

Sponsored by: Northwest Forest Products Association; Western Forestry and

Conservation Association.

Oregon Legislature House Bill 2130: Special Forest Products. Passed December 1995. amending ORS 164.813.

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Schlosser, W.; Blatner, K. 1995. The wild edible mushroom industry of 

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209 p.

16
Appendix Morchella species including:

Morchella escuienta

Mushrooms Commer- M. deliciosa

cially Important in the M. crassipes

Blue Mountains M. angusticeps

M. elata

M. conica

Common names: Morel,

white morel, black morel, naturals, gray morel, cone

shaped morel

Edibility: Choice (with caution). Some individuals have

an adverse reaction to morels, especially when they are eaten while consuming alcohol. First-time eaters need to try a small amount to test for adverse reactions. Never

eat morels raw.

Description: The most abundant and commercially valuable mushrooms in the Blue

Mountains. These cup-fungi are members of the Ascomycetes. They are saprophytes and grow in soil. Although generally not considered mycorrhizal, they typically

are found in forested sites in this area. The fruiting body is likened to a pine cone on

a stem. Both the body and stem are hollow. The body is a unique honeycombed system of pits and ridges. Coloration differs from very light to dark brown. Several

closely related species, strains, and varieties seem to exist. Some species fruit early

in the season, others later. Black morels and cone shaped morels are usually associated with burned areas and are slightly different from fruiting bodies found in adjacent

nonburned sites.

Habitat: Morels fruit in the spring usually starting in warmer, lower elevations on

ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa Dougl. ex Laws.) sites. Fruiting continues in mixed

conifer sites and later on higher elevation true fir sites as the season progresses.

Almost all harvesting occurs in May and June. Burned conifer stands often have spectacular fruiting the spring after the fire. Fruiting often declines in subsequent years,

although in a few cases, abundant fruiting on burned sites may continue through a

second or third year. Riparian communities and those sites having had past ground

disturbance are often prolific perennial producers of mushrooms. The mushroom

appears most commonly a day or two after a rain on exposed sites. Cool wet and

riparian sites are more apt to fruit when the temperature is optimum, rather than after

rain. Morels quickly deteriorate and are subject to maggot infestation after 2 or 3 days.

Uses: This popular mushroom is a favorite of both commercial and recreational pickers. It can be partially dried and frozen or completely dried and stored in airtight

containers. Drying the mushroom is believed to concentrate the flavor as well as help

preserve quantities for future use. Use of home food dryers adjusted to a moderate

temperature is a popular way to preserve morels. 17
18

Boletus edulis

Common name: King bolete

Edibility: Choice

Description: This large, easily 

identified mushroom has a thick 

bulbous stalk, especially at the 

base, and a whitish 

spongy-pored (not gilled) 

hymenium undersurface. The 

surface of the cap is brown to 

reddish with a netlike pattern of 

raised veins. Because of

the unique pored undersurface, boletes are easily identified, but other nonedible boletes also 

occur in this area. Boletes with red-pored hymenium or that bruise to blue are species other 

then B. edulis, and should be avoided. At the current time, boletes are a distant second to 

morels in popularity and contribute only slightly to the commercial harvest in this area.

Habitat: Boletes are mycorrhizal with conifers in the Blue Mountains. Fruiting is from the soil 

and may be single mushrooms but more often in groups. Fruiting is apt to be during the fall at 

lower elevations, although some spring fruiting of the mushroom may occur. At higher 

elevations, late spring and summer fruitings are common.

Uses: This is a prized edible and often is exported to Europe. There is substantial contract 

collecting by professional pickers.
Hericium species

Common names: Conifer coral 

hericium; goats beard, lion's 

mane hericium; old man's 

beard, comb hericium, coral 

tooth

Edibility: Good

Description: The fruiting body 

is white to yellow-white and 

branched. As their name 

suggests, they have a form 

similar to branched forms of

coral. They fruit on dead wood of conifers and hardwoods, mainly in the fall. They often appear 

perennially on the same log or tree. All of the Hericium species are edible.

Habitat: Although occasionally found in larch/Douglas -fir/ponderosa pine communities, this 

fungus is most common in the Engelmann spruce/grand fir and subalpine fir type. These are 

typically higher elevation, cool, wet sites.

Uses: Mainly local consumption by a few collectors. Some collecting by professional pickers.

19
Habitat: They are not as common in the Blue Mountains as in western Oregon. In the Blue 

Mountains, most fruiting is from hardwoods, especially cottonwoods (probably also aspen) 

in the relatively restricted communities where these species occur. Mushrooms fruit in both 

summer and fall.

Uses: Mainly local consumption by a few collectors. Some collecting by professional 

pickers are made when requested by commercial buyers to fill an order.

20

Pleurotus ostreatus

Common name:Oyster 

mushroom

Edibility: Choice; flavor 

suggests oysters to some.

Description: This shelf-like 

mushroom grows directly from 

woody material. A symmetrical 

cap and stem may be 

produced when the mushroom 

grows from the top of logs.
21

Coprinus com atus

Common names: Shaggy mane, ink cap

Edibility: Choice

Description: This mushroom fruits in disturbed sites 

and is common along sides of gravel roads.

Habitat: Common in the Blue Mountains, 

mushrooms fruit in early summer and fall.

Uses: Mainly local consumption by a few collectors. 

Some collecting by professional pickers. Note: This 

species does not keep well when fresh because it 

matures and decays rapidly. It is also difficult to 

preserve by drying.
22