Field Guide for the 

Identification of Snags and Logs in the Interior Columbia River Basin Catherine G. Parks, Evelyn L. Bull, and Torolf R. Torgersen
Field Guide 

Identification and Logs in tColumbia Ri

Catherine G. Parks, Evand Torolf R. Torgerse

Companion to General PNW-GTR-391 Published by: U.S. Department of AgPacific Northwest ReseTechnical Report PNW

Authors CATHERINE G. PARKS is a research pathologist, EVELYN L. BULL is a research wildlife biologist, and TOROLF R. TORGERSEN is a research entomologist Pacific Northwest Research Station, Forestry and Range Sciences Laboratory, 1401 Gekeler Lane, La Grande, Oregon 97850-3399. 
Abstract 

Parks, Catherine G.; Bull, Evelyn L.; Torgersen, Torolf R. 1997. 

Field guide for the identification of snags and logs in the interiorColumbia River basin. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-390. Portland, OR:US. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. Pacific Northwest Research Station. 40 p. 

This field guide contains descriptions and color photographs of snags andlogs of 10 coniferous and 3 deciduous tree species found in the interiorColumbia River basin. Methods arc described to distinguish among the different species when various amounts of branches, cones, and bark arc missing. Wildlife use of the different species of snags and logs are listed. Snags and logs are each classified into three categories based on structural features. Six indicators of fungal decay are illustrated. 

Keywords: Cavity nesters, decay fungi, habitat monitoring, hollow trees, interior Columbia River basin, logs, snags, wildlife, wood decay. 

Contents

Introduction ...........................................Ponderosa Pine.....................................Western White Pine...............................

Douglas-Fir ............................................Grand Fir and White Fir........................

Lodgepole Pine .....................................

Western Larch .......................................Western Redcedar.................................

Western Hemlock..................................Engelmann Spruce................................Subalpine Fir .........................................Black Cottonwood.................................

Quaking Aspen......................................Paper Birch............................................Structural Classes for Snags...............

Structural Classes for Logs .................Indicators of Decay...............................Acknowledgments ................................
Introduct

The purpose of this field guide is to assist witsnags (completely dead trees) and down wooas logs. This guide is specific to the interior Cincludes Oregon and Washington east of the and a portion of western Montana (fig. I). 

Only tree species typically found in commercincluded here and are presented in order of theto high). Three species of deciduous trees (blatrichocarpal); quaking aspen, [Populus tremulpapyriferal]) are included because they typicaand arc of significant value to wildlife in the iConiferous species that typically occur at highhemlock, [Tsuga mertensiana]; Pacific silver flarch, [Larix lyallii]; and whitebark pine, (Pinin this guide because stands containing these sharvested. Inventories of snags and logs, therehigher elevations. 
To provide snags and logs fox wildlife, it is essential to know which tree 

species are being left Although various tree species arc used bywoodpeckers for nesting, the wood must be decayed or softened in order for woodpeckers to excavate a cavity. Some tree species are more susceptible to the appropriate decay organisms than others. Woodpeckers, black bears (Ursus americanus), American martens (Manes americana),

and small mammals use hollow frets and logs; only a few tree species decay in the manner that creates a hollow fret. Carpenter ants (Camponotus spp.), a primary food source of pileated woodpeckers (Dryocopus pileatus)and black bears, favor some tree species over others. To provide the besthabitat to meet specific wildlife needs, it is critical to identify the tree species. 

Determining species of snags and logs can be difficult, especially when various amounts of branches, cones, and bark are missing. Observationsof the species of living trees in a stand can help in identifying snags and logs on the site. The following features also can be useful in identifying species of snags and logs: 

• Appearance and color of bark• Tree growth form and branching habit• Size and shape of branches• Presence and structure of cones • Relative amounts of sapwood and heartwood• Indications of activity of fungi (for example, blue stain, conks,

and cankers) 

• Patterns of galleries left by bark beetles • Special features evident in the texture of the wood

This field guide provides distinguishing characteristics for species of snagsand logs larger than 12 inches in diameter. We define large snags and logs as those larger than 20 inches in diameter. We describe the bark, growth form, branching pattern, wood condition, and wildlife value for snags and logs typical of the species. Stand conditions, like density of trees and site moisture, influence the characteristics of living trees and therefore affect the physical appearance of snags or logs. Some snags and logs will haveatypical characteristics. Although snags and logs are valuable to manybirds, small mammals, reptiles, and amphibians, we emphasize the predominant wildlife use of these structures for which there is specific information. This guide is particularly suited to identifying snags and logsthat are still mostly intact. Once they have deteriorated to the point that they arc crumbling or "melting" into the soil, the distinction of species has lost much of its significance to wildlife. 

A classification system for snags and logs bapresented, as well as indicators of decay. Thspecifically for field use. More detailed infofor use during project planning is available iPNW-GTR-391.1

' Bull, Evelyn L.; Parks, Catherine G.; Torgersen, Torolf Trees and togs important to wildlife in the interior Columbasin. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-391 . Portland, OR: UDepartment of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific NorthResearch Station. 

2 
Ponderosa Pine 

(Pinus ponderosa)

Bark: Thick, orange colored and flaky; in large plates near the base on 

large trees (figs. 2 and 3); underside of bark plates often blonde; outerbark is blackish on small trees, although bark may be orange colored infaster growing trees; bark usually retained fewer than 10 years on snags.Form: Variable; branches often restricted to upper half of bole and seldom extend to base on large trees (fig. 4). Branches: Large diameter and widely spaced on large trees (fig. Q). 

Wood: Thick layer of sapwood (up l0 50 percent of volume of tree); bluestain of sapwood common; split wood without dimples as compared to the dimpled wood of lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta); wood occasionally may be bright yellow because of rosin in wood (fig. 5); spiral grain may be evident; sinuous galleries of western pine beetle (Dendroctonus brevicomis) (fig. 6) and longitudinal galleries of mountain pine beetle(Dendroctonus ponderosae) (fig. 7) may help to confirm identification ofthis species. 

Wildlife value: Highly preferred by woodpeckers for nesting because ofthe rapid decay in the thick layer of sapwood; sapwood of other fret species is not sufficiently thick for woodpeckers to nest in. Existing cavities usedby many secondary cavity nesters, including the flammulated owl (Otus flammeolus), which is largely restricted to pine forests. Commonly used bywoodpeckers, which forage in and under the bark (fig. 3). White-headed woodpeckers (Picoides albolarvatus) arc particularly dependent on this treespecies for nesting and foraging. 

4 
Western White Pine 

(Pinus monticola)

Bark: Gray to light brown; bark plates well-defined smallish rectangles (fig. 8); shape of bark plates consistent along entire bole (fig. 9); not flaky; lacking the large orange, thick, platelike bark of ponderosa pine; can be confused with grand fir (Abies grandis) except that the rectangles 

of bark are smaller and more uniform than those of grand fir; bark tends to crack and start to slough off within a few years after death. 

Form: Long, straight bole; limbs frequently limited to upper half of bole (fig. 10). 

Branches: Small and dense; limbs tend to point downward; branches retained for along time after death; branches smaller than those on ponderosa pine. Wood: Thick layer of sapwood; scars caused by cankers from the fungus white pine blister rust (Cronartium ribicola) common (fig. 1 I). 

Wildlife value: Not extensively used by woodpeckers, although pileated woodpeckers occasionally use it for nesting and foraging. 

6 
 Douglas-Fir 

(Pseudotsuga menziesii)

Bark: Not flaky; deep furrows in large trees; similar to grand fir except cross section of bark reveals marbling of dark brown with buff (lackingthe red present in grand fir) (fig. 12); thick layer of bark; snags and logsusually retain their bark for a long time. Form: In open-grown situations, large branches often to base of free inlarge trees (fig. 13); mistletoe (Arceuthobium spp.) brooms common (fig.

14), unlike grand fir which rarely has mistletoe brooms. 

Branches: Large; fine twigs showing tiny needle pegs; cones rarely present.

Wood: Thin layer of sapwood that decays rapidly; reddish heartwood that

is resistant to decay: galleries of Douglas-fir beetle (Dendroctonus pseudotsugae) found predominantly on this species dominated by 12-inchlongitudinal galleries, finer galleries across the grain (fig. l5).

Wildlife value: Bark and interior of wood frequently used for foraging bywoodpeckers; relatively rapid decay of sapwood may be a deterrent tocavity excavation in some localities; in other areas, snags arc used for nesting by various woodpeckers; mistletoe brooms retained on snags maybe used by long-cared (Asia otus) and great horned (Bubo virginianus)owls for nesting, and by American martens, fishers (Manes pennanti), and porcupines (Erethizon dorsatum) for cover.

8 
Grand Fir 

(Abies grandis)

and 

White Fir 

(A. concolor)

Bark: Platelike in lower bole with deep furrows in large trees (fig. 16); smooth in upper bole, sometimes showing resin blisters; not flaky; gray; cross section of bark reveals marbling of dark red or purplish-red withlight red (or peach) blotches (fig. 76): bark retained for a long time after death. 

Form: Limbs often to base of tree; top often broken off and hollow (figs.17 and 18).

Branches: Small; fine branches relatively smooth with rounded needle scars instead of needle pegs as in Douglas-fir; cones rare; mistletoe brooms absent.Wood: Thin layer of sapwood; brownish-colored heartwood that is often extensively decayed by Indian paint fungus (Echinodontium tinctorium)(fig. 17) leaving heartwood hollow or with stringy fibers of wood (fig. 19); transverse egg galleries of fir engraver beetle (Scolytus ventralis) (fig.20) common on true firs and a good characteristic to distinguish fromDouglas-fir. 

Wildlife value: Snags frequently used as nest sites by sapsuckers,nuthatches, and chickadees; occasionally used by pileated woodpeckers for nesting. Hollow snags extremely valuable to pileated woodpeckers for roosting at night, to black bears for hibernation, to American martens fordens and rest sites, to bushy-tailed woodrats (Neotoma cinerea) and flyingsquirrels (Glaucomys sabrinus) for cover, to Vaux's swifts (Chaeturavauxi) for nest and roost sites. Hollow logs are valuable as dens and rest sites for mammals such as black bears, American martens, squirrels, and other small mammals. Snags and logs used extensively by pileated woodpeckers and black bears for foraging on ants in the interior wood. 

10 
Lodgepole Pine 

(Pinus contorla)

Bark: Very thin; dark; flaky (fig. 21). Bark often sloughs off within 4 to 8years after death. 

Form: Typically small trees less than 12 inches diameter at breast height; long, straight bole; branches may be along entire bole or onupper half of bole (fig. 22). 

Branches: Small diameter with persistent small cones often attached(fig. 23). 

Wood: Relatively thick layer of sapwood, but less so than ponderosa pine; blue stain fungi common; small dimples on split wood, compared to nodimples on ponderosa pine; beetle-killed trees with 12- to 36-inchlongitudinal galleries of mountain pine beetle. Several species of canker forming fungi may leave characteristic fusiform depressions in stern (fig. 24). Wildlife value: Used by black-backed (Picoides areticus), three-toed (P.tridactylus), and hairy woodpeckers (P. villosus) for nesting and foraging;rarely contains ants and is therefore seldom used by pileated woodpeckersfor foraging in interior wood; pileateds may forage under the bark formountain pine beetle larvae. 

12 
Western Larch 

(Larix occidentalis)

Bark: Thick layer of deeply fissured bark at base of large trees (fig. 25); flaky in flat-plated ridges higher on bole of large trees (fig. 26); underside of bark plates orange or dark red; outer bark appears orangish or darkbrown. 

Form: Long, straight, limbless bole (fig. 27); branches mostly gonewhen tree dies; often gnarled with large knots of wood where branches once erupted from trunk (fig. 28). Branches: Brittle branches with tiny cones on recently dead trees; cones 

with scales that may have bracts protruding from between them (fig. 29);twigs with globose buds from which clusters of needles grew (fig. 29);witches brooms caused by dwarf mistletoe. 

Wood: Thin layer of sapwood; both sapwood and heartwood moderately resistant to decay; some large snags contain extensively decayed heartwood. Wildlife value: Commonly used for nesting by pileated and blackbackedwoodpeckers and by sapsuckers; frequently contains colonies of carpenter ants and therefore used extensively by pileated woodpeckers and blackbears for foraging on these ants. Mistletoe brooms used for nesting bygreat gray owls (Strix nebulosa), great horned owls, northern goshawks 

(Accipiter gentilis), and red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis); mistletoe 

brooms used as rest sites by American martens. Natural cavities formedfrom top injuries used by barred (Strix varia) and great horned owls for nesting. 

14 
Western Redcedar

(Thuja plicata)

Bark: Shaggy, reddish-brown; can be pulled off in strips with long straightfurrows between; outer texture of bark hairy (fig. 30); usually some bark present on snags and logs. Form: Long, straight bole (fig. 31); often has multiple tops; top may bebroken: branches generally limited to upper half of bole; fluted buttress form at base of tree. Branches: Small, flexible branches predominate, although large 

branches resembling upturned "arms" common (fig. 32). Wood: Extensive heart-rot decay in older trees, although young trees are resistant to decay; commonly hollow at base of tree (fig. 33); wood tendsto come apart in plates. 

Wildlife value: Used for roosting by pileated woodpeckers, bats, and

16 
Western Hemlock

(Tsuga heterophylla)

Bark: Gray; somewhat platy, but plates not as large as those on grand fir or Douglas-fir (figs. 34 and 35); narrow vertical furrows; cross section ofbark reveals reddish maroon color without marbling thin layer close to the cambium is a bright maroon. Form: Branches occur on at least upper half of bole; top often broken(fig. 36). Branches: Brittle branches; branch nubbins may be all that remain (fig. 37). 

Wood: Decays quickly in dead trees and logs. Wildlife Value: Woodpeckers may forage in or under bark but noextensive foraging for ants. Pileated, three-toed, and hairy woodpeckers and northern flickers (Colaptes auratus) may use it for nesting and 

roosting. 

18 
Engelmann Spruce 

(Picea engelmannii)

Bark: Scalloped bark in thin, loosely attached flakes in rather squarish pieces (fig. 38); lower end of flake often unattached; thin layer: bark characteristics primary means of distinguishing from subalpine fir. 

Form: Dense branches to base of tree, often sloping downward (fig. 39);broom rust (Chrysomyxa arctostaphyli) occasional (fig. 40).

Branches: Small: dense fine twigs with tiny needle pegs. 

Wood: Thin layer of sapwood. 

Wildlife value: Occasionally used for nesting by woodpeckers; frequently 

used by woodpeckers for foraging in and under the bark (fig. 41),particularly on bark beetles; bark appears orange from the removal of the outer bark flakes where woodpecker foraging has occurred. Broomsformed by broom rust arc used by American martens for rest sites. 

20 
Subalpine Fir 

(Abies lasiocarpa)

Bark: Very smooth, thin layer; silver gray (fig. 42); peels away frombole in sheets after being dead for some time (fig. 43). 

Form: Branches to base of tree (fig. 44); lower branches often pointing

downward (fig. 45); gradual taper giving spirelike form; broom rust(Melampsorella caryophyllacearum) occasional. Branches: Small; very dense branching (fig. 44); branches persistentand tend to lie closer to the bole than those on Engelmann spruce. Wood: Thin layer of sapwood; light-colored wood; Indian paint fungus common in some areas. Wildlife value: Snags and logs occasionally used by woodpeckers for 

foraging. Primary value is in brooms created by broom rust. Brooms are 

commonly used by American martens as rest sites. 

22 
Black Cottonwood 

(Populus trichocarpa)

Bark: Thick, deeply furrowed; not flaky; gray to grayish-brown toyellowish brown (figs. 46 and 47); underside is fibrous (fig. 46). 

Form: Single or multiple stems; V-form common (figs. 48 and 49) Branches: Large; often originating low on bole. 

Wood: Soft. light colored wood; sapwood white; heartwood palcyellowish-brown; coarse. 

Wildlife value: Valuable riparian habitat species; bole and branches commonly used for nest cavities by northern flickers and Lewis' woodpeckers (Melanerpes lewis) because of the soft decayed wood; used 

by pileated woodpeckers for nesting and roosting in Montana. Oldwoodpecker cavities and natural cavities located on bole at branch scars used by many secondary cavity nesters including western screech-owls (Otus kennicottii) and northern saw-whet owls (Aegolius acadicus). 

24 
Quaking Aspen 

(Populus tremuloides)

Bark: Smooth; thin; white or light gray (fig. 50); dark horizontallenticels. Form: Long, straight bole (figs. 51 and 52); brancbes in upper crown oflarger trees. Branches: Small with knots common.

Wood: Light colored, soft wood; conks of Phellinus iremulae common (fig. 53). Wildlife value: Commonly used for nest cavities by woodpeckers, sapsuckers, and secondary cavity nesters because of the soft decayedwood. 

26 
Paper Birch 

(Betula papyrifera)

Bark: Thin white bark (fig. 54); papery; peels in strips horizontally. Form: Single or multistemmed; top breakage common (figs. 55 and 56); often branches along upper three-quarters of bole. 

Branches: Small: break off soon after death. 

Wood: Light-colored wood; very susceptible to the heart-rot fungusFomes fomentarius (fig. 57).Wildlife value: Commonly used for nesting by woodpeckers, particularly northern flickers and sapsuckers.

28 
Structural Classes for Snags

Just as it is impottant to i

dentify the species of a snag or log, it is equally 

important to identify the structural classes of sna

gs that occ

ur in a stand. 

We have categorized t

he structure of s

nags into three classes (fig. 58). This 

classificatio

n syste

m is designed to fit most snags. There will be so

me

snags that do not readily fall into one of the classes. T

he structural class is 

identified by the amount of bark and bra

nches, condition of the tree top, 

and condition of the wood. These characteristics of the snag

determine 

which wildlife is likely to use the snag. Representatives i

n each class 

should

be retai

ned in a stand with more emp

hasis on the first two classes, 

because they e

ventually decay into the third class. 

Structural class 1 represe

nts those trees that have died recently an

d retain

most of their bark and most of their branches; the top is i

ntact (fig. 59). 

Very little decay has occurred in the wood, u

nless the tree 

had heart-rot 

decay whe

n it was livi

ng. Class 1 sna

gs typically are use

d primarily for 

foraging by

woodpec

kers o

n

bark beetles i

n a

nd under the bark. Once the 

bark loose

ns, bats can roost a

n

d brown creepers (Certhia americana) can 

nest under the bark. 

Structural class 2 represe

nts those s

nags that have bee

n dea

d at least

several years a

n

d have lost some bra

nches a

n

d some bark (except

grand fir 

and Dou

glas-fir, which ten

d to retain their bark after death); tops are often 

broken; there is some evide

nce of 

decay (figs. 60 and 61). Class 2 s

nags 

typically are used by woodpec

kers for nesting, foragi

n

g i

n t

he bark, and 

foraging in the interior after carpe

nter a

nts.

30 
Structural class 3 represents those snags that have been dead a long time 

and lack branches and bark (except grand fir and Douglas-fir, which tendto retain their bark after death). Tops are broken off, and the sapwood andheartwood are extensively decayed (fig. 62). The primary use of these trees is by woodpeckers foraging on carpenter ants and woodboring beetlelarvae. Most of these trees arc too decayed for woodpeckers to excavate acavity in them, although existing cavities may be used by secondary cavity nesters.Hollow snags are unique structural features and should be noted as such.All hollow snags should be retained because of their value as nest and roost sites for Vaux's swifts, roost sites for pileated woodpeckers acid northern flickers, and rest sites for bushy-tailed woodrats, flying squirrels, weasels, and other small mammals. Evidence that large-diameter trees have hollow interiors includes: • A broken bole with a bayonet top formed over the break 

More than one pileated woodpecker entrance hole 

• Fruiting bodies of Indian paint fungus • An old injury or bend along the bole where a new leader formed a new 

trunk inany years ago

32 
Structural Classes for Logs 

Log classification by structural classes is based on t

he amount of bark

and bra

nches, amount of ground contact, decay condition of the wood, 

and how intact the log is (fi

g. 63). Representatives in each class should 

be retained with more emphasis o

n the first two classes. 

Structural class 1 for logs re

presents t

hose trees t

hat have just fallen over,

retain their bark and branches, have little decay in the wood, and are resting largely above the ground (fig. 64). T

hese logs are used primarily as

cover by American martens, squirrels, black bears, deer, el

k, mountain 

lions (Fells concolor), and other mam

mals. 

Structural class 2 represe

nts those logs that are in co

ntact with the 

ground, have lost some of their bark and bra

nches, a

nd have some decay 

in the wood (fig. 65). 

T

hese logs are used extensively by pileated 

woodpec

kers a

n

d black bears for foraging o

n carpenter a

nts and by

American martens a

nd small mammals for cover. 

Structural class 3 represe

nts t

hose logs t

hat

have beg

u

n decomposi

ng i

nto

the forest floor, arc not intact, are e

xtensi

vely decayed, and lack both limbs 

and bark (fig. 66). These logs are use

d for foraging by pileated 

woodpec

kers a

n

d black bears, by small mammals for shelter a

n

d cone 

stashes and

b

y amp

hibians and reptiles for co

ver

34 
Indicators of Decay 

Fruiting bodies (conks) of decay fungi are good indicators of softened wood, although fruiting bodies are frequently not present on decaying trees and logs. In the absence of fruiting bodies, broken tops, fire scars, andother wounds are all indicators of internal decay. Several of the more common decay fungi arc described and illustrated below, although dozens more are commonly associated with decomposing logs. The decay types are presented by those that cause internal decay in the heartwood, externaldecay in the sapwood, and symptoms of root disease. It is important to differentiate the decay type in order to predict the form the substrate (snag or log) will assume over time. 

Indian paint fungus decays heartwood of living and dead grand fir and western hemlock so extensively that hollow interiors are created; other tree species are rarely infected. Fruiting bodies of this fungus are large, black, perennial woody conks with the entire undersurface toothed (fig.67). The inside of the conk is brick-red. Fruiting bodies are found on the bole on the underside of branches. Trees with one or more fruiting bodiesusually have extensive decay. Red ring rot (Phellinus pini) decays heartwood of living and dead conifers, infecting most western conifer species. The perennial, woodyfruiting bodies differ in size and shape but are typically bracketlike orhoof shaped (fig. 68). The lower pore surface is usually a rich, rust-brown. The upper surface is darker brown and is usually marked byseveral concentric furrows. 

Quinine or brown trunk rot (Fomitopsis officinalis) decays heartwood inlarge dead trees; it is rarely found in young stands. Conks are large, pendulous or hoof shaped, and chalky in color and texture (fig. 69). Theyare found most commonly on western larch; occasionally on Douglas-6r, pines, spruce, and hemlock; and rarely on true firs. The pouch fungus (Cryptoporus volvatus) decays sapwood, ischaracterized by small leathery, whitish "bubbles," and is abundant whenfound (fig. 70). The pouch fungus occurs on all recently dead western conifer species up until 18 months after death. Snags with these fruiting bodies should be listed in structural class 1. 

36 
Red belt fungus (Fomitopsis pinicola) decays both the sapwood and 

heartwood of dead trees. Older conks are small to large, flat to hoof shaped with a white lower surface and gray to black upper surface (fig. 71). A conspicuous reddish margin develops between the two surfaces, thus the name red belt. Young conks are small, white, and round- Thiscommon fungus is found on most western conifer species. Root diseases are caused by a group of decay organisms that infect roots and spread through root contact. Characteristically, root disease pockets start in a tree or stump and spread outward in all directions. Typically, the oldest dead tree will be in the center and fringed by dying or recently dead trees on the outer edge (fig. 72). Trees infected with root disease may add to the snag component for only a short period because they are prone tofall over. 

38 
The Forest Service of the U.S. Department o

Agriculture is dedicated to the principle of muse management of the Nation's forest resoursustained yields of wood, water, forage, wildrecreation. Through forestry research, cooperwith the States and private forest owners, and management of the National forests and NatiGrasslands, it strives-as directed by Congressprovide increasingly greater service to a growNation. The United Stales Department of Agriculture prohibits discrimination in its programs on thof race, color, national origin, sex, religion, adisability, political beliefs, and marital or famstatus. (Not all prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities who requalternative means of communication of progrinformation (Braille, large print, audiotape, eshould contact the USDA Office of Communat (202) 7202791 (voice), or (800) 855-1234 To tile a complaint, write the Secretary of AgU.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington20250, or call (800) 245-6340 (voice), or (80855-1234 (TDD). USDA is an equal employmopportunity employer. Pacific Northwest Research Station 333 S.W. First Avenue P.O. Box 3890 Portland, Oregon 97208-3890

Acknowledgments 

Additional information on species identification and wildlifeuse was provided by Lisa Bate, Riley McClelland, Robert 

Obedzinski, Cathy Raley, and Nancy Warren. Fattier drafts of this manuscript were reviewed by Lisa Bate, Brian Geils, Jim Hoffman, Blakey Lockman, Katy Marshall, Riley McClelland, Robert Obedzinski, Dan Caudal, Cathy Raley, Craig Schmitt, Lynn Starr, and Shelly Witt. Drawings were provided by Janet Hohmann and Susan Lindstedt. 

40