USDA Forest Service RMRS-RN-40. 2009. 1

United States

Department

of Agriculture

Forest Service

Rocky Mountain

Research Station

Research Note 

RMRS-RN-40

July 2009

Introduction

Tree mortality caused by the mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae Hopkins) has been 

extensive in ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa Lawson) 

stands in the Black Hills. Millions of ponderosa pine 

(PP) trees have been killed on the Black Hills National 

Forest (BHNF) by the mountain pine beetle (MPB) 

during the past century. During the last decade, the 

current MPB epidemic has killed over a million trees 

with annual mortality exceeding 300,000 trees per year 

in 2001 and 2002 (see Johnson and Long 2003). In 

the Beaver Park area southwest of Sturgis, SD, MPBcaused tree mortality was 100% in some stands (Allen 

and others 2002). In the vicinity of Deerfield Lake, 

tree mortality averaged 24 trees/acre (Allen and others 

2003). As a result of this recent MPB-caused mortality, the number of snags has greatly increased on the 

BHNF (BHNF 2005).

Snags have been identified as an important component of PP stands because they provide essential 

habitat for a variety of animals. In order to maintain 

this important component, the 1997 BHNF Plan stipulates that, on average, three hard snags with diameters 

>9 inches at breast height (DBHs) and heights of 

>25 ft be maintained across each coniferous acre of the 

BHNF. The BHNF considers hard snags to be standing 

dead trees with branches and bark mostly intact. The 

Final Environmental Impact Statement (FEIS) of the 

Phase II amendment for the 1997 BHNF Plan indicates 

that this objective of three hard snags/acre with an average height of 25 ft is currently being met and is likely 

to be achieved in the future (BHNF 2005).

The FEIS does not indicate the primary source of 

snags or if unharvested MPB-killed trees (hereafter 

called MPB snags) will be left to function as snags. 

Presumably, MPB snags could be a primary source of 

snags and would be created by non-management activities. If MPB snags are left to fulfill the three snags/

acre objective during the next 50 to 100 years, then 

information on their persistence is critical to achieving 

that objective. However, persistence of MPB snags in 

PP stands on the BHNF is imprecisely known. Further, 

although Lentile and others (2000) reported the median 

persistence of snags on the BHNF was 15 years, their 

report did not identify if their median snag persistence 

represents the persistence of snags created by a combination of different factors (e.g., lightning, MPB-killed, 

wet snowstorms/wind, and other factors) or snags primarily created by a single factor (e.g., lightning).

While information on the persistence of MPB snags 

is lacking for the Black Hills, data are available from 

other states and Canadian provinces (see Lewis and 

Mountain Pine Beetle-Killed Trees as Snags in 

Black Hills Ponderosa Pine Stands

J. M. Schmid1, S. A. Mata2, and W. C. Schaupp3, Jr.

Abstract—Mountain pine beetle-killed ponderosa pine trees in three stands of different 

stocking levels near Bear Mountain in the Black Hills National Forest were surveyed over 

a 5-year period to determine how long they persisted as unbroken snags. Rate of breakage 

varied during the first 5 years after MPB infestation: only one tree broke during the first 2 

years in the three stands; breakage increased during the third year; the highest percentage of 

snags broke during the fourth year; and 10% to 14% broke in the fifth year. Cumulatively, 

snag breakage was 76%, 91%, and 95% in a GSL 80/90, GSL 100/110, and unmanaged 

stand, respectively. On average, 56% of the snags broke below 25 ft. The rate and height of 

breakage in mountain pine beetle-killed trees indicates that they are unlikely to persist as 

suitable snags for more than 5 to 10 years after infestation.

Schmid, J.M.; Mata, S.A.; Schaupp, W.C., Jr. 2009. Mountain pine 

beetle-killed trees as snags in Black Hills ponderosa pine stands. 

Res. Note RMRS-RN-40. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. 5 p.

Authors

1

 Retired entomologist, U.S. Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research 

Station, Fort Collins, CO. 2

 Retired entomologist, U.S. Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research 

Station, Fort Collins, CO. 3

 Entomologist, U.S. Forest Service, Forest Health Protection, Rapid City, 

SD.
2 USDA Forest Service RMRS-RN-40. 2009.

Hartley 2006). In Colorado PP stands, MPB snags began falling during the third year after infestation at one 

location and during the fourth year at a second location 

(Schmid and others 1985). Once trees started falling, 

the rate of falling during the following 4 years was 3 to 

4% per year at one location and 17% per year at the 

other location (Schmid and others 1985). Considering 

both locations, 60 to 70% of the trees fell during the 

10-year period after infestation.

Realizing that snag persistence may vary by source 

as well as site conditions, persistence of MPB snags on 

the BHNF becomes important if MPB-killed trees are 

left as snags to fulfill the snag objective of the BHNF 

Forest Plan. This study determined the persistence of 

MPB snags (their rate of breakage) and height at which 

breakage occurred at one location during the 5 years 

following MPB attack.

Study Area

In 1986, a set of four 2.5-acre permanent plots was 

established about 0.5 miles southwest of the Bear 

Mountain Lookout in the BHNF; the lookout is northwest of Custer, SD. The plots are located near the 

bottom of a west-facing slope in pure PP stands. Other 

tree species are present in the vicinity of the plots, but 

were not present on the plots.

Plots were established to study the relationship between MPB-caused PP mortality and stand density. 

The plots consisted of one uncut control representing 

the unmanaged stand condition and three plots cut to 

growing stock levels (GSLs) of 60, 80, and 100. In 

2000, the partially cut plots were cut again, at which 

time, the GSL of each plot was increased by 10 ft2

/

acre. Prior to partial cutting, basal areas in the plots 

ranged from 143 to 162 ft2/acre and quadratic mean diameters ranged from 10 to 11 inches. The plots would 

have been classified in structural stage (SS) 4C prior 

to cutting. After cutting, the GSL 80/90 would have 

been classified as SS4B while the GSL 100/110 and 

unmanaged stand would remain in SS4C. Trees within 

the central half of each plot (central inventory plot, or 

CIP) were tagged in order to determine growth and tree 

mortality in subsequent years.

During the first 10 years following partial cutting in 

1987, MPB-caused mortality was limited to 1 tree in 

each of the GSL 60/70 and GSL 80/90 plots and a group 

of six trees in the buffer strips of the unmanaged plot in 

1991 and 1993. In 1998, the MPB population increased 

both in the plots and general area surrounding the plots. 

During the next 6 years, the epidemic MPB population killed hundreds of trees. More than 200 trees were 

attacked within the CIP, ca. 1.25 acres, of the control 

plot in 2003. Adjacent partially cut plots also incurred 

substantial MPB-caused mortality in 2002, 2003, as well 

as in later years (see Schmid and others 2007).

Methods

To determine the rate of breakage1 and height of 

breakage for the MPB snags, MPB snags were monitored in the CIPs of the GSL 80/90, 100/110, and the 

unmanaged stand. We monitored 29 MPB snags in the 

GSL 80/90, 56 MPB snags in the GSL 100/110, and 

192 MPB snags in the unmanaged stand. MPB snags in 

the GSL 80/90 were created in 2002; those in the GSL 

100/110 and unmanaged stand were created in 2003.

The trees were surveyed on September 29, 2004; May 

19 and September 16, 2005; April 11 and September 

15, 2006; April 21 and August 30, 2007; and April 

21 and September 24, 2008. Fall surveys were generally conducted in September because each subsequent 

September represented approximately one or multiple 

years since the probable completion of the MPB attack 

period. Trees were also surveyed in the spring (April or 

May) of each subsequent year to determine if breakage 

was occurring more frequently during the SeptemberApril period than in the April-September period.

The point at which trunk breakage occurred was 

measured from ground level to 8 ft above ground but 

was estimated for heights >8 ft. During analysis, height 

of breakage for each tree was assigned to one of the 

following categories: 0-2 ft, 3-15 ft, 16-24 ft, 25-35 ft, 

or ≥36 ft. These categories were developed in collaboration with Blaine Cook, Silviculturist, BHNF.

The results of the surveys are presented in terms of 

years since the trees were attacked rather than the date 

on which surveys were conducted. For example, the 

results for September 2004 represent 1 year after attack 

for the GSL 100/110. The percentage of trees with stem 

breakage for any specific date/year represents the number of MPB snags exhibiting breakage between the 

previous survey and the successive survey divided by 

total number of MPB snags in the sample. Cumulative 

percentages were derived by adding percentages for 

successive surveys.

Tree diameters for the year of MPB attack were 

based on previous diameter measurements and growth 

rates derived from those measurements. Trees were 

measured in 1987 and 1997. The annual diameter 

1

 It became obvious in the third year of the study that MPB snags were breaking off at 

various heights above ground and were not always breaking off at ground level 

(i.e., completely falling). Thus, “rate of breakage” is used rather than “rate of falling” 

because some portion of the bole remained standing after an upper portion broke off.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-RN-40. 2009. 3

growth rate for each tree derived from these measurements was multiplied by the number of years between 

the year of attack and the 1997 measurement. This 

value was added to the 1997 diameter to derive the diameter during the year of attack.

Results and Discussion

Rate of Breakage

GSL 80/90

No MPB snags had breakage during year 1 (table 1). 

One MPB snag broke during each of the next 2 years 

(years 2 and 3), or 3% of the MPB snags in each year 

(table 1). Sixteen MPB snags (55%) broke during 

year 4. During year 5, four (14%) MPB snags broke. 

Cumulatively, 76% of the MPB snags had breakage in 

the 5 years following MPB attack.

GSL 100/110

No MPB snags had breakage during years 1 and 2 

(table 1). Eighteen MPB snags (32%) had stem breakage during year 3. During years 4 and 5, 25 MPB snags 

(45%) and eight MPB snags (14%) suffered breakage, 

respectively. Cumulatively, 91% of the MPB snags had 

breakage within the 5-year period following MPB attack (table 1).

Unmanaged stand

No MPB snags had breakage during the first 2 years 

(table 1). Forty-six MPB snags (24%) had stem breakage during year 3. During years 4 and 5, 117 MPB 

snags (61%) and 19 MPB snags (10%) suffered breakage, respectively. Cumulatively, 95% of the MPB 

snags broke during the first 5 years following MPB 

attack (table 1).

Period of Breakage

Breakage was slightly greater in the SeptemberApril period (54%) than in the April-September period 

(46%) during year 3. During year 4, 92 (78%) MPB 

snags broke in the September-April period while 25 

(22%) broke in the April-September period. All the 

MPB snags breaking in year 5 broke in the SeptemberApril period. Cumulatively, 75% of the MPB snags 

broke during the September-April period.

The percentage of MPB snags breaking was highest between September 2006 and August 2007 (table 1, 

year 4). High westerly winds occurred in the Bear 

Mountain area in September 2006 immediately following the September survey (J. Schmid, pers. obs. 2006), 

and 30 to 65 mph winds were present throughout the 

BHNF on March 2, 2007 (B. Cook, pers. comm. 2007). 

Winds of these magnitudes undoubtedly contributed to 

greater rates of breakage during this period.

Direction of Fall

Most MPB snags breaking within 1 ft above ground 

fell in an easterly and southerly direction—mostly uphill or across the slope. Because the study area was 

located at the bottom of a predominantly west-facing 

slope, the trees were more exposed to westerly and 

northerly winds and mostly protected from southerly 

and easterly winds. Thus, the previously mentioned 

westerly and, to a lesser extent, northerly winds exerted more influence on the direction of fall and probably 

caused the observed pattern of falling.

Height of Breakage

Height of breakage in all three stands ranged from 

near ground level (<1 ft) to >36 ft (table 2). More 

MPB snags broke off between 0 and 2 ft above ground 

level than in any other height category (table 2). 

Breakage between 0 and 2 ft was partially attributed 

to the presence of red belt fungus (Fomitopsis pinicola

(Swartz:Fr) Karst) as evidenced by conks of this fungus on the basal section of numerous trees. MPB snag 

breakage was also high in the 25- to 34-ft category. 

Breakage above 15 ft may have been influenced by the 

pouch fungus (Cryptoporus volvatus (Pk.) Shear) that 

was visible on a few snags. The presence/absence of 

this fungus was not confirmed on all snags because the 

snags were not felled for more thorough examination.

Table 1. Number, percent, and cumulative percentage of breakage in MPB snags by GSL and year since MPB attack.

GSL 80/90 (SS4B) GSL 100/110 (SS4C) Unmanaged stand (SS4C)

Year Number Percent Cum. % Number Percent Cum. % Number Percent Cum. %

1 0 0.0 0.0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0.0 0.0

2 1 3.4 3.4 0 0.0 0.0 0 0.0 0.0

3 1 3.4 6.8 18 32.1 32.1 46 24.0 24.0

4 16 55.2 62.0 25 44.6 76.7 117 60.9 84.9

5 4 13.8 75.8 8 14.3 91.0 19 9.9 94.8
4 USDA Forest Service RMRS-RN-40. 2009.

GSL 80/90

The MPB snag in year 2 broke off above 25 ft while 

the MPB snag in year 3 broke off below 25 ft. In year 4, 

57% of MPB snags broke off below 25 ft. Fifty percent 

of the snags breaking in year 5 broke off below 25 ft. 

Cumulatively, 49% of broken MPB snags initially 

broke below 25 ft (table 2). Two of the snags initially 

breaking above 25 ft later broke below 25 ft.

GSL 100/110

Height of breakage varied from years 3 to 5. In year 

3, 44% of MPB snags broke below 25 ft. In years 4 

and 5, 92% and 38% broke below 25 ft, respectively. 

Cumulatively, 61% of the broken MPB snags on the 

GSL 100/110 plot broke below 25 ft (table 2).

Unmanaged stand

As in the GSL 100/110 stand, height of breakage varied from years 3 to 5. In year 3, 33% of MPB snags 

broke below 25 ft. In years 4 and 5, 74% and 63% broke 

below 25 ft, respectively. Cumulatively, 59% of the broken MPB snags broke below 25 ft (table 2). Three snags 

initially breaking above 25 ft broke below 25 ft within 

1 year of the initial break.

Conditions Relating to Rate of Breakage

Some larger MPB snags toppled other MPB snags 

and one uninfested PP sapling as they fell. Whether the 

other MPB snags would have fallen at the same time 

if they had not been hit by the falling snags was not 

determined.

The percentage of broken MPB snags was lowest 

in the GSL 80/90 and highest in the unmanaged stand. 

While this suggests MPB snag breakage may be correlated with stand density, the small number of samples 

in the GSL 80/90 precludes a definite conclusion with 

respect to stand density. Trees that are well-spaced with 

diameter growth >1 inch/10 years may be less subject 

to breakage.

Diameters of MPB snags standing after 5 years 

ranged from 8 to 14 inches. In the GSL 80/90, diameters 

ranged from 10 to 14 inches with 17% of the standing 

MPB snags <11 inches. In the GSL 100/110, diameters 

ranged from 9 to 13 inches with 55% of the standing 

snags <11 inches. In the unmanaged stand, diameters 

ranged from 8 to 14 inches with 80% of the standing 

snags <11 inches. MPB snags >11 inches may be more 

prone to early breakage than smaller MPB snags but 

growth prior to MPB infestation may also contribute 

to persistence.

Management Implications

During the field inventory work, this study was unaware of the BHNF’s classification of snags as hard 

or soft snags and was primarily intent on determining 

how long MPB snags remained standing. Thus, MPB 

snags were not classified as hard or soft snags. In retrospect consideration of the criteria for hard and soft 

snags, classification of MPB snags into either category 

would have been ambiguous because the MPB snags 

exhibited characteristics of both categories during the 

5 years. Bark sloughing was not evident on nearly all 

MPB snags after 5 years which classifies the MPB 

snags as hard snags. The presence of bole breakage on 

a high percentage of the MPB snags indicates some 

decay, which would classify the trees as soft snags. 

Because of these ambiguities, MPB snags could, at 

best, be classified as hard snags during the first 2 to 

3 years and as soft snags thereafter.

Given the prior considerations, MPB snags would 

be a poor choice for fulfilling the hard snag objective 

in the BHNF Forest Plan if MPB snags throughout 

the BHNF exhibit the same patterns for rate of breakage and height of breakage as recorded in this study. 

Assuming 90 to 95% of MPB snags in unmanaged 

stands exhibit breakage within 5 years of MPB attack 

(fig. 1) and about 60% of the breakage occurs below 

Table 2. Percentage of MPB snags breaking at various heights in the GSL 80/90, 100/110, and unmanaged 

stand. Percentages are rounded to nearest whole number.

Height GSL 80/90 (SS4B) GSL 100/110 (SS4C) Unmanaged stand (SS4C)

above

ground Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent

0-2 ft 8 28 28 50 81 42

3-15 ft 6 21 3 5 19 10

16-24 ft 0 0 3 5 13 7

25-35 ft 7 24 14 25 42 22

	 ≥36 ft	 2	 7	 3	 5	 27	 14

Unbroken 6 5 10
USDA Forest Service RMRS-RN-40. 2009. 5

25 ft, then approximately two of every three MPB 

snags left per acre would not satisfy the BHNF snag 

criteria 5 years after MPB infestation. The remaining MPB snag would probably be unsuitable on most 

acres because it would probably break below 25 ft in 

subsequent years. In order to have three functional, unbroken MPB snags/acre after 5 years, 30 MPB snags/

acre would have to be left on each acre. Although some 

of the broken MPB snags would still satisfy the BHNF 

criteria because they broke above 25 ft, it seems doubtful that they would remain standing in light of observed 

subsequent breakage in previously broken snags and 

the probability of strong winds in any given year. Any 

unbroken MPB snags remaining after 5 years would 

probably be unsuitable 5 years hence (i.e., 10 years after MPB attack).

If the assumed median age for snags in the Black 

Hills is 15 years (Lentile and others 2000), then MPB 

snags would generally not be expected to persist 

for 15 years. Under a 30-year reentry cycle, at least 

30 MPB snags would probably have to be created every 10 years in order to maintain the three snags/acre 

objective for 30 years. This scenario seems unlikely 

if the BHNF manages PP stands to minimize MPBcaused mortality.

The rates of breakage observed at this study site 

may not be applicable to all sites or stands on the 

BHNF. Rates of breakage observed in this study contrast sharply with the results from the Colorado study 

wherein 60 to 70% of MPB snags in PP fell within 

10 years after attack. The difference may be attributable 

to site differences. The Colorado sites were generally 

dry with little ground cover, whereas the generally 

moister Black Hills site supported understory grasses 

and some shrubs. In addition, this Black Hills site was 

exposed to westerly and northerly winds that may have 

increased breakage. Thus, the particular site conditions 

for this location may have contributed to greater rates 

of breakage than would generally be observed in other 

drier sites in the BHNF.

Some readers might interpret our statements regarding the creation of MPB snags as advocating the use 

of MPB baits or other means to induce MPB attacks in 

specific stands in order to meet the snags/acre criteria. 

To the contrary; we do not advocate such management 

activities. This study was undertaken solely to determine the suitability of MPB-killed trees as potential 

snags so that the BHNF might consider using them to 

fulfill the snags/acre criteria.

MPB snags observed in this study were created by 

an MPB epidemic that created large groups of MPB 

snags. Under these conditions and patterns of breakage, MPB-killed trees would be better harvested than 

left as snags. Although it seems doubtful, MPB snags 

created under endemic MPB populations may persist 

longer and thus be more suitable for meeting snag criteria. However, the longevity of MPB snags created by 

endemic MPB populations is unknown and needs to be 

determined.

Literature Cited

Allen, K.K.; Schaupp, W.C., Jr.; Long, D.F. 2002. 

Evaluation of mountain pine beetle activity in the Beaver 

Park area of the Black Hills National Forest. Biological 

Evaluation R2-03-09. Lakewood, CO: U.S. Department 

of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Region, 

Renewable Resources, Forest Health Management. 

14 p.

Figure 1. Cumulative percentages of MPB 

snags breaking during the 5 years following 

MPB infestation.
6 USDA Forest Service RMRS-RN-40. 2009.

Allen, K.K.; Schaupp, W.C., Jr.; Long, D.F. 2003. Evaluation 

of mountain pine beetle activity in the Deerfield area of the 

Black Hills National Forest. Biological Evaluation R2-

03-04. Lakewood, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 

Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Region, Renewable 

Resources, Forest Health Management. 14 p.

Black Hills National Forest. 2005. Black Hills National 

Forest Phase II Amendment: Final Environmental Impact 

Statement for the 1997 Land and Resource Management 

Plan. Custer, SD: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 

Forest Service, Black Hills National Forest. 470 p. plus 

appendices.

Cook, B. 2007. Personal communication. Email dated March 

6, 2007. Silviculturist, U.S. Forest Service, Black Hills 

National Forest.

Johnson, E.; Long, D.F. 2003. [Letter to Forest Supervisor]. 

January 7, 2003. 3 p. On file at: U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Forest Service, Black Hills National Forest, 

Custer, SD.

Lentile, L.; Smith, F.W.; Shepperd, W.D. 2000. Snag 

management in the Black Hills National Forest. 

Unpublished final report submitted to the Black Hills 

National Forest. 27 p.

Lewis, K.J.; Hartley, I.D. 2006. Rate of deterioration, 

degrade, and fall of trees killed by mountain pine beetle. 

BC Journal of Ecosystems and Management 7(2): 11-19.

Schmid, J.M. 2006. Personal observation. October 4, 

2006. Retired entomologist, U.S. Forest Service, Rocky 

Mountain Research Station, Fort Collins, CO.

Schmid, J.M.; Mata, S.A.; McCambridge, W.F. 1985. 

Natural falling of beetle-killed ponderosa pine. Res. 

Note RM-454. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and 

Range Experiment Station. 3 p.

Schmid, J.M.; Mata, S.A.; Kessler, R.R.; Popp, J.B. 2007. 

The influence of partial cutting on mountain pine 

beetle-caused tree mortality in Black Hills ponderosa 

pine stands. Res. Pap. RMRS-RP-68. Fort Collins, CO: 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky 

Mountain Research Station. 19 p.
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