N

Rogue Mudboil

Area

Mudboil Depression

Area (MDA)

Sediment Retention

Dam Onondaga Creek

Remediation of Mudboil Discharges in the 

Tully Valley of Central New York

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

Open-File Report 2009–1173 

June 2009

Mudboils have been documented in the Tully Valley in Onondaga County, in central New York State, since the late 1890s 

and have continuously discharged sediment-laden (turbid) water into nearby Onondaga Creek since the 1950s. The discharge of 

sediment causes gradual land-surface subsidence that, in the past, necessitated rerouting a major petroleum pipeline and a buried 

telephone cable, and caused two road bridges to collapse. The turbid water discharged from mudboils can be either fresh or 

brackish (salty). 

Mudboil activity was first reported in the Syracuse, NY, Post Standard in a short article dated October 19, 1899: 

“Tully Valley—A Miniature Volcano

Few people are aware of the existence of a volcano in this town. It is a small one, to be sure, but very interesting. 

In the 20-rod gorge where the crossroad leads by the Tully Valley grist mill the hard highway bed has been rising foot 

after foot till the apex of a cone which has been booming has broken open and quicksand and water flow down the 

miniature mountain sides. It is an ever increasing cone obliterating wagon tracks as soon as crossed. The nearby bluff 

is slowly sinking. Probably the highway must sometime be changed on account of the sand and water volcano, unless it 

ceases its eruption.”
This newspaper article accurately describes mudboil 

activity and presages the collapse of the Otisco Road bridge, 

92 years later in 1991. The article indicates that land subsidence 

occurred nearby, but gives no indication that Onondaga Creek 

was turbid; this was either an oversight by the reporter or was 

not a concern at that time. 

In 1991, the Onondaga Lake Management Conference 

(OLMC) identified the Tully Valley mudboils as the major 

source of turbidity being discharged into Onondaga Lake. The 

OLMC created the Mudboil Working Group (representing local, 

State, and Federal agencies) in the fall of 1991 to develop a plan 

of study to identify the cause of mudboil activity and formulate 

ways to reduce or eliminate mudboil discharges, thereby 

decreasing associated turbidity in Onondaga Creek and nearby 

land subsidence. The U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation 

with researchers from the New York State Department of 

Environmental Conservation and Syracuse University, began 

the first comprehensive, long-term study of mudboil activity 

in the Tully Valley. The initial hydrogeologic study was to 

(1) define the mechanism and extent of mudboil development; 

(2) drill test wells to define the glacial stratigraphy (layering of 

glacial materials) and thereby delineate ground-water flowpaths 

within the valley, including drilling a deep test well to penetrate 

the salt beds below the mudboil area; (3) monitor the flow and 

sediment concentrations of mudboils to calculate the amount 

of water and sediment discharged to Onondaga Creek; and 

(4) identify and implement remedial actions to reduce mudboil 

discharge and monitor the results of those actions. 

The results of the hydrogeologic study indicated that 

flow from a mudboil is driven by artesian pressure that forces 

water and sediment upward from two sand and gravel aquifers 

through a 60-foot-thick layer of dense silt and clay which 

covers the floor of the Tully Valley. The artesian pressure within 

the aquifer can lift water 20 feet or more above land surface on 

the valley floor and 30 feet above the bed of Onondaga Creek. 

The source of the artesian pressure is related to the infiltration 

of surface water to the confined ground-water system along the 

valley walls—primarily at the southern end of the valley at the 

Tully Moraine and from valley-wall alluvial fans at the mouth 

of both Rattlesnake Gulf and Rainbow Creek (fig. 1). Water 

may also enter the mudboil aquifer system at the former brine 

field areas along the east and west valley walls in the southern 

part of the Onondaga (Tully) valley (fig. 1).

The flow of water from the mudboils changes seasonally in 

response to changes in artesian pressure in the two aquifers. In 

the spring, when ground-water recharge is greatest, mudboils in 

the main mudboil depression area (MDA) (fig. 1, inset map) can 

discharge 400 gallons per minute (gal/min) or more. As recharge 

to aquifers declines during the summer, artesian pressure in 

the aquifers also declines, and flow from mudboils typically 

decreases to about 200 gal/min or less. The rate of mudboil 

discharge does not change in response to individual rainstorms 

but does respond to seasonal variations in precipitation.

Suspended-sediment discharge from the MDA to 

Onondaga Creek had been measured between October 1991 and 

September 2008. The yearly average daily suspended-sediment 

load for water years1 1992–2008 is shown in figure 2. Most of 

the suspended sediment is very fine clay and silt with a small 

fraction of very fine sand.

Chemical analyses of mudboil discharge in the MDA 

indicate that the source of the discharged water is both the 

upper, confined freshwater aquifer and the underlying brackishwater (salty) aquifer (fig. 3). Chloride concentrations in the 

upper, freshwater aquifer range from 37 to 430 milligrams 

per liter (mg/L) and from 2,000 to 7,100 mg/L in the 

lower, brackish-water aquifer. The difference in chloride 

concentrations between these two aquifers is due partly to the 

source of salt, deep within the bedrock, as well as the greater 

density of the saltwater, which causes the brackish water to 

concentrate in the lower aquifer.

1

 Water year—This is the 12-month period from October 1 through September 

30. The water year ending on September 30, 2008, is the 2008 water year.

What is a Mudboil?

The Tully Valley mudboils are volcanolike 

cones of fine sand and silt that range from several 

inches to several feet high and from several inches 

to more than 30 feet in diameter. Where active, 

mudboils are dynamic ebb-and-flow features that 

can erupt and form a large cone in several days, 

then cease flowing, whereas others may discharge 

continuously for several years. In the early 1990s 

the Onondaga Lake Management Conference 

was charged with improving the water quality of 

Onondaga Creek and Lake, and the Tully Valley 

mudboils were identified as a chronic water-quality 

problem within the Onondaga watershed. This 

report presents results of ongoing U.S. Geological 

Survey studies of mudboil activity and remediation 

efforts in the Tully Valley.

2
Purpose of the Onondaga Lake Management Conference:

“To prepare and implement a comprehensive Management Plan to define a cleanup strategy for Onondaga Lake, rehabilitate the Lake ecosystem, and restore beneficial uses of the Lake to the citizens of Onondaga County.”

—Statement from: Citizens Advisory Committee, General Goals and Objectives, April 1991

Figure 1. Physiographic features in the Tully Valley, Onondaga County, New York, and location of brine field, diversion 

channel, and mudboil areas. Insert picture shows detail of the Mudboil Depression Area (MDA), Rogue mudboil area, 

and location of several depressurizing wells and MDA dam.

Onondaga Creek

Onondag a Creek

Onondaga Creek

76°10' 76°07'30"

42°52'30"

42°50'

Base from U.S. Geological Survey, Otisco Valley Quadrangle, 1955

Universal Transverse Mecator Projection, Zone 18,

North American Datum (NAD) 1927

Tully

Finger Lakes

Region

Mudboil Dam

 

Mudboil Area Features - 2008

N

Webster Road

Big Sink

Tully Moraine

Otisco Road

Tully Farms Road

New York Route 11-A

Rattlesnake Gulf

Bare Mountain

Onondaga Creek

Rainbow Creek

U.S. Route 20

Dutch Hill

NEW

YORK

Study Area

Syracuse Onondaga

County

Location map

Tributary #5

Tributary #6

Valley walls

Valley floor

EXPLANATION

0 .5 1.0 1.5 MILES

0 .5 1 2 KILOMETERS

Landslide—not investigated

Stream channel—arrows show

direction of streamflow 

Depressurizing well

Diversion channel—from

Tributary #6 to Tributary #5 

Landslide—investigated

Brinefield

Emerson Gulf

Alluvial fan

Mudboil Depression Area

Mudboil Depression Area

Rogue Mudboil

Area

Rattlesnake

Gulf

Landslide 

Rainbow Creek

Landslide 

1993 

Landslide

Webster Road 

Landslide

3
Remedial efforts near the Tully Valley mudboils include 

(1) diverting flow from the tributary that feeds the MDA 

to an adjacent tributary, (2) installing depressurizing wells 

at several locations around the MDA and along Onondaga 

Creek to decrease the artesian pressure, (3) constructing a 

dam and sediment-retention impoundments to detain mudboil 

sediment that would normally discharge to Onondaga Creek, 

and (4) modifying several geologic features that allow surface 

water to recharge the ground-water system in the southern Tully 

Valley (alluvial fans, losing-stream reaches, and sinkholes).

Surface-Water Diversion

Flow from the upper 0.7 square miles of the Tributary 

#6 drainage area was diverted south to Tributary #5 (fig. 1) 

in June 1992. This diversion reduced total annual surfacewater inflow to the MDA by about two-thirds, which in turn, 

reduced sediment loading to Onondaga Creek—from 30 tons 

per day (the equivalent of about 3 large dump-truck loads 

per day) before the diversion to about 10 tons per day (T/d) 

(about 1 dump-truck load per day) thereafter (fig. 2). Although 

effective, the diversion channel has required some maintenance 

to reduce sedimentation and erosion in the upper and lower 

reaches of the channel, respectively.

Aquifer Depressurizing Wells

Depressurizing wells were installed near the collapsed 

Otisco Road bridge during the winter of 1992–93 to test the 

concept of “locally” reducing artesian pressures in the upper 

aquifer, thereby slowing nearby mudboil activity. The wells 

were drilled to the base of the freshwater aquifer, and 10-footlong well screens were installed to allow artesian-pressured 

water to flow out of the well while holding the fine-grained 

sand and silt in place. These two wells initially had a combined 

discharge of about 25 gal/min of sediment-free water and 

have modestly reduced artesian pressure in the freshwater 

aquifer by about 1 pound per square inch, or about 2.5 feet 

of hydraulic head within a 100-foot radius of each well. In 

2008, the combined flow of these wells was about 10 gal/min 

as the aquifer matrix has been slowly clogged by fine-grained 

sediment drawn to the well screens with the flow of artesianpressured water—well-screen redevelopment in 2007 did 

not substantially improve the flow rate at either well. While 

mudboil activity has not redeveloped near the former bridge site 

since the wells were installed 16 years ago, there is no guarantee 

that future mudboil activity will not return. 

Eight additional wells were installed in the aquifer 

underlying the MDA and Onondaga Creek in 1996–1997 to 

further reduce artesian pressure and slow mudboil activity. 

Ground-water flow from all wells initially was about 

350 gal/min, but in 2009 that total flow was about 150 gal/min. 

Aquifer-matrix clogging at each well screen has occurred, 

even after well redevelopment. The chemical quality of water 

discharged from these wells varies seasonally and with position 

around the MDA; most of the flows around and downgradient 

from (north of) the MDA are slightly brackish to saline, while 

one well south of the MDA has remained fairly fresh. A very 

slow and slight increase in chloride content has been seen in 

discharge from all the wells and is presently not a problem for 

aquatic life in Onondaga Creek (McKenna and others, 1999).

Sediment-Retention Dam

A temporary sediment-retention dam was constructed at 

the outlet of the MDA (fig. 1, inset map) in July 1993 to reduce 

the average daily load of sediment discharging to Onondaga 

Creek. The impounded water covered several mudboils and 

allowed most of the silt and sand to settle out before flowing 

to Onondaga Creek. Also, the weight of water over active 

mudboils, and the additional weight of sediment settling on the 

mudboils likely reduced mudboil discharge. The dam reduced 

the average daily load of sediment discharged from the MDA to 

Figure 2. Annual average daily sediment load discharged to Onondaga Creek from 

the mudboil depression area (MDA) for water-years 1992–2008, and annotation of 

construction projects during that period. AVERAGE DAILY SEDIMENT LOAD BY YEAR , IN TONS PER DAY

1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008

Diversion channel 

constructed

Pilot sediment-retention

dam constructed

Permanent sedimentretention dam 

constructed

Moat evcavated 

around MDA

0

30

5

10

15

20

25 Rogue and southwest part of MDA 

moat re-excavated.

“Big Sink” and 

Emerson Gulf 

projects completed.

4
Lacustrine silt and clay

 ~70 feet thick

Confining till layer—15 feet thick

Upper Mudboil “source zone”, freshwater aquifer

~70 foot-thick layer of silt, very fine to coarse

sand and some small gravel

Area of land-surface subsidence

 Mudboil “vent”

discharges water and sediment 

Mudboil “cone”

composed of 

clay, silt, and fine sand.

Clay remains in suspension

and flows to

Onondaga Creek

Ring fractures surround mudboil vent

resulting from soil removal and 

land-surface subsidence

Lower Mudboil “source zone”, brackish water

aquifer, ~250+ foot-thick layer of glacial sediment

types—ranges between clay, silt, sand, and gravel

Disturbed sediment zones

Figure 3. General sediment stratigraphy of glacial deposits beneath the mudboil area on the floor of the Tully Valley 

showing the upper (freshwater) and lower (brackish water) mudboil aquifer zones that discharge water and finegrained sediment through mudboil vents. These discharged sediments create the mudboil cone and, in turn, cause 

land-suface subsidence. Water and finer-grained sediment flow to Onondaga Creek.

Onondaga Creek from 10 T/d in 1992 to about 1.5 T/d during 

water years 1993–94 (fig. 2). By 1995, however, the impounded 

area was filled with sediment, and sediment discharge to 

Onondaga Creek began to increase. The dam was reconstructed 

in the summer of 1996, and since that time the average-daily 

sediment discharge has remained at or below 1 T/d. The 

impoundment area did fill completely with sediment by 2004 

and subsequently a “moat” was dug around the perimeter of the 

MDA to maintain its sediment-retention capability. However, 

as with most remedial activities, sections of the moat need to 

be periodically cleaned near active mudboils. A new mudboil 

area developed downstream from the MDA in 1998 (“Rogue” 

mudboil area shown on fig. 1, inset map) which requires similar 

remedial actions to keep the sediment loading to Onondaga 

Creek as low as possible. 

Other Mudboil Aquifer Projects

In the western brine field area, Emerson Gulf (fig. 1) has 

long been known to lose surface water to the ground-water 

system at the rate of about 1 cubic foot per second or about 

450 gal/min where the stream leaves its bedrock-lined channel 

and flows into a subsidence area. In the fall of 2008, a 450-foot 

section of the channel was lined with clay to prevent the loss of 

surface water to ground water and route the streamflow to the 

natural clay layer on the valley floor. In the eastern brine field, 

the water level in one of the larger sinkholes (fig.1, “Big Sink”) 

fluctuates about 15 feet on an annual basis—while other 

sinkhole water levels in either brine field only change by about 

1.5 feet annually. The bedrock exposure in the southeastern 

side of the sinkhole allows a direct hydraulic connection 

between the surface- and ground-water systems. The outlet of 

this sinkhole was lowered to prevent the 15-foot fluctuation, 

reduce surface-water infiltration, and eliminate the former 

15-foot hydraulic head in the sinkhole from influencing the 

mudboil aquifer system. These two projects will be evaluated 

in 2009 and 2010 to determine if they are effective in reducing 

mudboil activity on the valley floor. 

In a similar fashion, the alluvial fans at Rattlesnake Gulf 

and Rainbow Creek, where they enter the valley floor area on 

either side of the Tully Valley (fig. 1), also contribute surface 

water to the ground-water system at rates over 500 gal/min. A 

pilot project using “Green Technology”—windmill or solarpowered pumps—will be implemented in 2009 to determine if 

this technology can be used to reduce the amount of surfacewater infiltration to the mudboil aquifer system and thereby 

further reduce mudboil activity. 

5
How Salty Is That?

1 10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000

Typical New York

stream chloride

concentration

~15 mg/.L

Lowest chloride

concentration

that can be tasted

~100–250 mg/L

Average chloride

concentration

in mudboil

discharge

~ 5,000 mg/L

Average chloride

concentration

in seawater

~ 19,000 mg/L

Average chloride

concentration

in the brine-filled

Onondaga aquifer

near Syracuse

~75,000 mg/L

Chloride Concentration, in milligrams per liter (mg/L) or parts per million (ppm)

Onondaga Creek – Average Chloride Concentrations (2004-2008)

Onondaga Creek at

Tully Farms Road

upstream of mudboils

~ 17 mg/ L

Onondaga Creek at

Otisco Road

downstream of mudboils

~ 170 mg/ L

Onondaga Creek at

US Route 20

downstream of mudboils

and Tully Valley landslides

~212 mg/ L 

Onondaga Creek at

Dorwin Avenue

downstream of West Branch

~143 mg/ L

Other Sources of Turbidity in the Onondaga Valley

The Tully Valley mudboils are not the only source of 

turbidity in Onondaga Creek. The 1993 landslide at the base 

of Bare Mountain (fig. 1), about 2.5 miles northwest of the 

mudboils, is but one in a series of landslides that contribute 

turbid, saline water to Onondaga Creek. Ongoing landslide 

activity is also occurring in middle sections of the Rainbow 

Creek and Rattlesnake Gulf tributary valleys (fig. 1), just 

north of the mudboils area. Remedial efforts to stabilize 

these landslides in the two side valleys are not possible due to 

difficult access, and the steep and unstable nature of the slopes 

that are currently failing. These landslide areas can contribute 

as much, if not more turbidity to Onondaga Creek than do the 

mudboils under the current mudboil-remediation program. 

Also, stream- and road-banks within the Onondaga Creek 

watershed can contribute sediment to the Creek during heavy 

runoff periods. Ongoing stream- and road-bank stabilization 

work by the Onondaga County Soil and Water Conservation 

District has reduced the amount of sediment being eroded from 

these potential sources.

Conclusions

The Onondaga Lake Partnership’s (OLP) primary goal is 

to restore Onondaga Creek and Onondaga Lake’s ecological 

integrity. As one of seven major environmental issues identified 

by the Partnership that affect the quality of Onondaga Lake, 

the Tully Valley mudboils “must be controlled to improve 

the water quality of the Creek and Lake, and improve their 

ecologic habitats.” The OLP has continued to fund the study 

and remediation of the mudboils begun by the Onondaga Lake 

Management Conference (OLMC) in the early 1990s but, 

Federal funds have declined; therefore, the OLP is hoping that 

the mudboil remediation projects will slow mudboil activity 

and make long-term management less costly. The OLP is 

also actively seeking other sources of funding to maintain this 

project, which is vital in keeping mudboil turbidity in Onondaga 

Creek and Lake as low as possible. 

Over all, the past 15 years of mudboil study and 

remediation work has greatly improved the quality of Onondaga 

Creek and Lake. Even though other sources of erosion exist, 

the loading from all these other sources is much less than 

the original 30 T/d of sediment that was originally being 

discharged from the mudboils and carried by Onondaga Creek 

to Onondaga Lake.

By William M. Kappel

6
Recent History of Mudboils and Remediation Efforts

May 1991—Slow collapse of the Otisco Road bridge over Onondaga Creek begins. 

July 1991—Mudboil appears upstream of Otisco Road bridge; bridge deck is removed soon thereafter.

October 1991—USGS Mudboil project begins.

Factors affecting flow and sediment loading to Onondaga Creek by Water Year (WY) [October 1–September 30].

WY 1992—Mudboil Depression Area (MDA) discharges, on average, ~29.7 tons/day of sediment to Onondaga Creek.

June 12, 1992—Diversion Channel construction completed—watershed area at MDA reduced from 1.02 mi2 to 0.32 mi2

Effect of Diversion Channel on sediment loading does not appear until later in 1992.

WY 1993—MDA discharges, on average, ~9.8 tons/day of sediment to Onondaga Creek from October 1992 through 

July 1993. July 1993—Bladder dam installed. Mudboil area discharges 0.4 tons/day August–September 1993.

WY 1994—MDA discharges, on average, ~1.4 tons/day of sediment to Onondaga Creek. 

November 1993—Bladder dam replaced by temporary earth-fill dam.

WY 1995—MDA discharges, on average, ~1.8 tons/day of sediment to Onondaga Creek. 

1995–96 Pilot depressurizing wells installed either side of the Otisco Road Bridge. 

West side well (December 1995) East side well (January 1996).

WY 1996—MDA discharges, on average, ~4.7 tons/day of sediment to Onondaga Creek. 

1996–Present earth-fill dam reconstructed—completed October 1996. Depressurizing wells installed, fall 1996.

WY 1997—MDA discharges, on average, ~0.8 tons/day of sediment to Onondaga Creek. 

Rogue mudboil area develops late 1996, depressurizing well 97-1 installed January 1997.

WY 1998—MDA discharges, on average, ~0.6 tons/day of sediment to Onondaga Creek.

WY 1999—MDA discharges, on average, ~0.4 tons/day of sediment to Onondaga Creek (October 1998 through 

June 1999—9 months of record).

WY 2000—MDA discharges, on average, ~0.6 tons/day of sediment to Onondaga Creek (full year).

WY 2001—MDA discharges, on average, ~0.5 tons/day of sediment to Onondaga Creek.

WY 2002—MDA discharges, on average, ~0.8 tons/day of sediment to Onondaga Creek.

WY 2003—MDA discharges, on average, ~1.4 tons/day of sediment to Onondaga Creek.

WY 2004—MDA discharges, on average, ~1.2 tons/day of sediment to Onondaga Creek.

WY 2005—MDA discharges, on average, ~0.7 tons/day of sediment to Onondaga Creek.

During a fairly dry summer, extensive maintenance work occurs at the MDA and Rogue areas—digging of a ‘“moat” 

around the MDA, excavation of the entire Rouge impoundment area, and redevelopment of five depressurizing wells. 

Well redevelopment efforts gain little increase in flows, but sediment concentrations leaving the MDA and Rogue areas 

do fall in relation to the successful dredging activities.

WY 2006—MDA and Rogue area discharges, on average, ~0.6 tons/day of sediment to Onondaga Creek.

Due to an above-normal amount of precipitation during 2006, a mudboil in the southwest corner of the MDA 

discharges large amounts of sediment and fills ~400 feet of the moat. These sediments were removed in the summer of 

2006. Land-surface subsidence is noted along the southwest rim of MDA. 

Increased mudboil activity also is noted in the Rogue mudboil area with associated land-surface subsidence. The wells 

on either side of the Rogue area shift, and soon thereafter sediment and turbid water discharge between well and surface 

casings, followed by the development of mudboils adjacent to the failing wells. 

WY 2007—MDA and Rogue area discharges, on average, ~0.5 tons/day of sediment to Onondaga Creek.

As stated above (WY 2006) increased mudboil activity is continuing at the Rogue mudboil area with associated landsurface subsidence. The 97-1 well is lost to mudboil activity (casing slips into sinkhole created by the mudboil) and 

there is a large mudboil at 96-3 (close to the tributary stream and Onondaga Creek), and in the summer of 2007 two 

mudboils developed along the tributary channel. This area has also subsided by several feet—Onondaga Creek might 

become involved if a mudboil develops in the channel. 

WY 2008—MDA and Rogue area discharges, on average, ~0.6 tons/day of sediment to Onondaga Creek.

Increased mudboil activity is continuing at the Rogue mudboil area, and the area adjacent to well 96-3 continues to 

subside. Dredging of the southwest quadrant of the MDA and Rogue areas took place in the summer of 2008. In the 

brine fields south of the MDA a 500-ft section of Emerson Gulf Creek (west brine field) was lined with clay to reduce 

surface-water infiltration to the mudboil aquifer. In the east side brine field, the outlet of “Big Sink” was lowered by 

15 feet to keep the sinkhole water level at its usual summertime low level and to reduce surface-water infiltration to the 

mudboil aquifer.
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Kappel, W.M., and Yager, R.M., 2008, Ground-waterflow modeling of a freshwater and brine-filled aquifer 

in the Onondaga Trough, Onondaga County, New 

York—A summary of findings: U.S. Geological Survey 

Open-File Report 2007–1409, 12 p. Available online at http://

pubs.usgs.gov/of/2007/1409

McKenna, J.E., Chiotti, T.L., and Kappel, W.M., 1999, 

Ecological status of Onondaga Creek in Tully Valley, New 

York—Summer 1998: U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet 

141–99, 6 p. Available online at http://ny.water.usgs.gov/

pubs/fs/fs14199/ 

Pair, D.L., Kappel, W.M., and Walker, M.S., 2000, History 

of landslides at the base of Bare Mountain, Tully Valley, 

Onondaga County, New York: U.S. Geological Survey Fact 

Sheet 0190–99, 6 p. Available online at http://ny.water.usgs.

gov/pubs/fs/fs19099/ 

Waller, R.M., 1977, Subsidence in New York related to groundwater discharge, in Geological Survey Research 1977: 

U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1050, p. 258.

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Landslide hazards in glacial lake clays-Tully Valley, New 

York: U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet 013–98, 4 p. 

Available online at http://pubs.er.usgs.gov/pubs/fs/fs01398 

Yager, R.M., Kappel, W.M., and Plummer, L.N., 2007, Origin 

of halite brine in the Onondaga Trough near Syracuse, 

New York State, USA: modeling geochemistry and 

variable-density flow: Hydrogeology Journal, v. 15, p. 

1321–1339. Available online at http://www.springerlink.com/

content/008m772313n73413/

Yager, R.M., Kappel, W.M., and Plummer, L.N., 2007, 

Halite brine in the Onondaga Trough near Syracuse NY: 

Characterization and simulation of variable-density flow: 

U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 

2007–5058, 40 p. Available online at http://pubs.usgs.gov/

sir/2007/5058

Yanosky, T.M., and Kappel, W.M., 1997, Tree rings record 

100 years of hydrologic change within a wetland: 

U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet 0057–97, 4 p. Available 

online at http://ny.water.usgs.gov/pubs/fs/fs05797/

Getchell, F.A., 1983, Subsidence in the Tully Valley, New York: 

Syracuse, N.Y., Syracuse University, Department of Geology, 

master’s thesis, 108 p.

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occurrence in the Tully Valley, Onondaga County, New York: 

H&A of NY Rochester, N.Y., prepared for Allied Signal 

Corporation, 28 p.

Kappel, W.M., 2000, Salt production in Syracuse, New York 

(“The Salt City”) and the hydrogeology of the Onondaga 

Creek Valley: U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet 139–00, 

8 p. Available online at http://ny.water.usgs.gov/pubs/fs/

fs13900/ 

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mudboil discharges in the Tully Valley of Central New York: 

U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet 143–97, 4 p. Available 

online at http://ny.water.usgs.gov/pubs/fs/fs14397/ 

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Tully Trough—Southern Onondaga County and Northern 

Cortland County, New York: U.S. Geological Survey WaterResources Investigations Report 03–4112, 16 p. Available 

online at http://ny.water.usgs.gov/pubs/wri/wri034112/ 

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valley-fill aquifer in the Onondaga Trough, Onondaga 

County, New York: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific 

Investigations Report 2005–5007, 13 p. Available online at 

http://ny.water.usgs.gov/pubs/wri/sir055007/ 

Kappel, W.M., Miller, T.S., and Hetcher, K.K., 2001, 

Hydrogeology of the Tully Lakes area in southern Onondaga 

and northern Cortland Counties, New York: U.S. Geological 

Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 01–4166, 

16 p. Available online at http://ny.water.usgs.gov/pubs/wri/

wri014166/ 

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Hydrogeology of the Tully Valley and characterization 

of mudboil activity, Onondaga County, New York: U.S. 

Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 

96–4043, 71 p. Available online at http://ny.water.usgs.gov/

pubs/wri/wri964043/

Kappel, W.M., and Teece, M.A., 2007, Paleoenvironmental 

assessment and deglacial chronology of the Onondaga 

Trough, Onondaga County, New York: U.S. Geological 

Survey Open-File Report 2007–1060, 12 p. Available online 

at http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2007/1060/

For more information on the USGS--the 

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only and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Government.

For additional information write to:

New York Water Science Center

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Information requests:

(518) 285-5602

For additional information write to:

New York Water Science Center

U.S. Geological Survey

30 Brown Road

Ithaca, NY 14850

Information requests:

(518) 285-5602

or visit our Web site at:

http://ny.water.usgs.gov

Prepared by the Pembroke Publishing Service Center 

For additional information write to:

New York Water Science Center

U.S. Geological Survey

30 Brown Road

Ithaca, NY 14850

Information requests:

(518) 285-5602

or visit our Web site at:

http://ny.water.usgs.gov

8 Prepared by the Pembroke Publishing Service Center