Appendix T Status and Life History of the Alameda Whipsnake ( Masticophis lateralis euryxanthus )

1.1 Species Listing Status The Alameda whipsnake ( Masticophis lateralis euryxanthus ) was listed as threatened on December 5, 1997 (62 FR 64306) by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) (USFWS, 1997 and Westphal, 1998). A rec overy plan for the chaparral and scrub community species east of San Francisco Bay, California was approved by the USFWS on March 20, 2003 (USFWS, 2002 and 2005). Critic al habitat was designated for this subspecies on October 2, 2006 (USFWS, 2005 and 2006).

1.2 Description and Taxonomy The Alameda whipsnake “is a member of the family Colubridae, which includes most of the species of snakes found in the wester n United States” (USFWS, 1997 and 2005). “It is a slender, fast-moving, diurna lly active snake with a slender neck, broad head and large eyes. Another common name for the Alameda whipsnake is the ‘Alameda striped racer’” (USFWS, 1997, 2002, 2005, and 2006). Adult whipsnak es “reach a length of 3 to 4 feet (91 to 122 centimeters). Their back is colore d sooty black or dark brown with a distinct yellow-orange stripe down each side. The fr ont part of their underside is orange-rufous

colored. The midsection is cream colored. The rear section and tail are pinkish” (USFWS, 1997 and 2005).

The Alameda whipsnake is one of two subspecies of the California whipsnake ( Masticophis lateralis )” (USFWS, 2002 and 2005). The ot her subspecies, which is more common, is the chaparral whipsnake ( Masticophis lateralis lateralis ) (USFWS, 2005). The Alameda whipsnake was described in 1954 “from a total of six specimens collected in the vicinity of Berkeley, Alameda County, and near Somersville, Contra Costa County, and from Mount Diablo, Contra Co sta County, California (USFWS, 1997).

1.3 Distribution and Status

Historical Range: When the Alameda whipsnake was first desc ribed in 1954, “only six specimens had been collected and preserved” sugges ting that this subspecies was “distributed in the Berkeley Hills and around Mt. Diablo” (USFWS, 2002) . “By 1970 there were a total of 14 observations or specimens within Alameda a nd Contra Costa Countie s; however, two of these specimens” “were identified as chap arral whipsnake” (USFWS , 2002). “With these limited data, the extent of historical dist ribution is difficult to determine” (USFWS, 2002). However, the “Alameda whipsnake like ly inhabited suitable chaparral and scrub habitats within Alameda, Contra Costa, and possibly western San Joaquin and northern

Santa Clara Counties. The extent to which the chaparral whipsnake or individuals with intergrade characteristics existed in thes e areas is not clear” (USFWS, 2002 and 2005).

1Current Distribution: “The Alameda whipsnake inhabits the Inner Coast Ranges in western and central Contra Costa and Alameda counties,” “with additiona l occurrence records in San Joaquin and Santa Clara counties” (USFWS, 1997, 2005, and 2006). “The current distribution of the subspecies has been reduced to five separate areas with little or no interchange due to habitat loss, alteration, and fragmentation:

1. Sobrante Ridge, Tilden/Wildcat Regional Parks area to the Briones Hills, in Contra Costa County (Tilden-Briones population)

2. Oakland Hills, Anthony Chabot area to Las Trampas Ridge, in Contra Costa County (Oakland-Las Trampas population)

3. Hayward Hills, Palomares area to Pleasanton Ridge, in Alameda County (Hayward-Pleasanton Ridge population)

4. Mount Diablo vicinity and the Black Hills, in Contra Costa County (Mount Diablo-Black Hills population); and

5. Wauhab Ridge, Del Valle area to the Ceda r Mountain Ridge, in Alameda County (Sunol-Cedar Mountain populati on)” (USFWS, 1997 and 2005).

“These populations all occur on private or public, non-Fede ral, land” (USFWS, 1997). “There remain only two or perhaps three pot ential corridors for gene flow between populations. A northern corridor remains be tween the Tilden-Briones and the OaklandLas Trampas populations, and a southern corr idor remains between Hayward-Pleasanton Ridge and Sunol-Cedar Mountain populations. Remaining natu ral habitat in these areas may provide a movement corridor for the Al ameda whipsnake, but it is as yet unknown whether whipsnakes are able to use these co rridors in a manner that would promote gene flow. The Oakland-Las Trampas populat ion and the Hayward-Pleasanton Ridge population are divided by Inte rstate 580, and it has not yet been determined whether whipsnakes could move between these popula tions by traveling unde rneath the raised portions of the Interstate” (USFWS, 2002). Th ere are also “probabl y varying degrees of

isolation due to natural a nd human-caused barriers” with in these five populations (USFWS, 2002). “Therefore there may be some subpopulations within each population that are geographically and gene tically isolated and others that may contribute to gene flow within each population. The boundaries of these five populations and the two corridors represent the extent of suita ble habitat that in cludes known Alameda whipsnakes” (USFWS, 2002).

1.3.1 Critical Habitat

Critical habitat was designated for the Alam eda whipsnake on October 2, 2006 (USFWS, 2005 and 2006). “In total, approximately 154,834 acres (ac) (62,659 hectares (ha))” of critical habitat were designated for this spec ies (USFWS, 2006). “The critical habitat is located in Alameda, Contra Costa, Santa Clara, and San Joaquin Counties” (USFWS, 2006). Critical habitat is defined in the E ndangered Species Act (ESA) as specific areas within the geographic area occupied by a speci es at the time it is listed, containing physical and biological features necessary for the conservation of th e species, and that may require special management to protect th e listed species (USF WS, 2006). Critical

2habitat may also include “specific areas out side the geographical area occupied by the species at the time it is listed” if they are determined to be “essential for the conservation of the species” (USFWS, 2006). The designati on of critical habitat is based on habitat areas that provide essential life-cycle needs of the species or areas that contain primary constituent elements (PCEs). PCEs include, but are not limited to, space for individual and population growth and for normal behavior; food, water, air, light, minerals, or other nutritional or physiological requirements; cover or shelter; sites for breeding, reproduction, rearing (or developm ent) of offspring; and habita ts that are protected from disturbance or are representati ve of the historic geographical and ecological distributions of the species (USFWS, 2006).

The PCEs for the Alameda whipsnake are:

1) Scrub/shrub communities with a mo saic of open and closed canopy: “Scrub/shrub vegetation dominated by low- to medium-s tature woody shrubs with a mosaic of open and closed canopy, as characterized by the chamise, chamise-eastwood manzanita, chaparral whitethorn, and inte rior live oak shrub vegetation series occurring at elevations from sea level to approximately 3,850 feet (1,170 meters)” is essential because “scrub/shrub vegetation within these series form a pattern of open and closed canopy used by the Al ameda whipsnake for shelter from predators; temperature regul ation, because it provides sunny and shady locations; prey-viewing opportunities; and nesting ha bitat and substrate. These features contribute to support a prey base consis ting of western fence lizards and other prey species such as skinks, frogs, snakes, and birds” (USFWS, 2006).

2) Woodland or annual grassland plant comm unities contiguous to lands containing

PCE 1: “Woodland or annual grassland vege tation series comprised of one or more of the following: Blue oak, co ast live oak, California bay, California buckeye, and California annual grassland ve getation series” are essential because “this mosaic of vegetation supports a pr ey base” “and provides opportunities for: (1) Foraging, by allowing snakes to come in contact with and visualize, track, and capture prey;” “(2) short and long dist ance dispersal within, between, or to adjacent to areas containing essential feat ures (i.e., PCE 1 or PCE 3); and (3) contact with other Alameda whipsnakes for mating and reproduction” (USFWS, 2006).

3) Lands containing rock outcrops, rock de bris piles (talus), and small mammal burrows within or adjacent to PCE 1 and/or PCE 2: “These areas are used for retreats (shelter), hibe rnacula, foraging, and dispersal, and provide additional prey population support functions” (USFWS, 2006).

1.3.2 Alameda Whipsnake Critical Habitat

Six units of critical habitat were designate d for the Alameda whipsnake (USFWS, 2006).

3Unit 1: Tilden-Briones; Alamed a and Contra Costa Counties This unit is “bordered approximately by St ate Highway 4 and the cities of Pinole, Hercules, and Martinez to the north; by State Highway 24 and th e City of Orinda Village to the south; Interstate 80 and the cities of Berkeley, El Cerrito, and Richmond, to the west; and Interstate 680 and the City of Pleasan t Hill to the east. The South end of Unit 1 abuts Unit 6. Land ownership within the unit includes approximately 8,108 ac (3,281 ha) of” East Bay Regional Park Di strict (EBRPD) “lands, 15 acres (6 ha) of State land, and the remaining 25,997 ac (10, 520 ha)” are “under private ownership” (USFWS, 2006).

This unit is designated as “crit ical habitat because it contains features esse ntial to the conservation of the Alameda whipsnake, is currently occupied, and represents the northwestern portion of the subspecies’ ra nge and one of five population centers” (USFWS, 2006). Unit 1 “contains a comple x mosaic of grassland with woody scrub vegetation of several types (PCE 1 and PCE 2) , as well as rock outcrops or other talus features (PCE 3) distribute d throughout the unit with lit tle habitat fragmentation. Alameda whipsnake records occur within the unit and are unif ormly distributed throughout the unit. The dates of Alameda wh ipsnake records span a time period from before the subspecies’ listing to after the time of listing (1986 to present)” (USFWS, 2006). In addition, “very limited developmen t has occurred with the unit” (USFWS, 2006).

Unit 2: Oakland-Las Trampas; C ontra Costa and Alameda Counties

“Unit 2 is located south of State Route 24, north of Inters tate 580, east of State Route 13,

and west of Interstate 680 and the cities of Danville, San Ramon, and Dublin. The North edge of Unit 2 abuts Unit 6. Land owners hip includes 4,386 ac (1,775 ha) of EBRPD and East Bay Municipal Utilities District lands and 20,050 ac (8, 114 ha) under private ownership” (USFWS, 2006).

“Unit 2 is included in the cri tical habitat because it contains features essential to the conservation of the Alameda whipsnake, is currently occupied by the subspecies, and represents the central distri bution of the Alameda whipsnak e and one of five population centers” (USFWS, 2006). This unit “contains a range of vegetation (PCE 1 and PCE 2), soil types, and rocky features (PCE 3) esse ntial to the conservati on of the subspecies, supports viable Alameda whipsnake populations , and has minimal development such as roads and structures” (USFWS, 2006). “Ar eas with development or reduced soil and vegetation characteristics” were not “included in the critical habitat for this unit” (USFWS, 2006). “Alameda whipsnake occurrences have been documented by multiple records within the unit as well as adjacent to the unit. Dispersal of snakes between Units 2 and 1 is possible only through Unit 6, and impediments to such movement do not appear to be present” (USFWS, 2006).

Unit 3: Hayward-Pleasant on Ridge; Alameda County “Unit 3 is located immediately to the west of Interstate 680 a nd to the south of Interstate 580. Land ownership included 404 ac (163 ha) of EBRPD land and 25,562 ac (10,345 ha)” of “privately owned land” (USFWS, 2006). The Stonebrae Country Club project

site was not included in the critical habitat for this unit (USFWS, 2006).

4This unit “is included in the designated cri tical habitat because it contains features

essential to the conservation of the Alamed a whipsnake; is currently occupied by the subspecies; and represents the southwestern portion of the subspeci es’ range and one of the five population centers” (USFWS, 2006). “U nit 3 contains the mosaic of scrub and chaparral vegetation and rocky outcrops (PCE 1, PCE 3) considered essential to the conservation of the subspecies. The unit also includes variation in the vegetation patch size, abundant edge between grassland and woodland, and a minimal amount of development or planned development” (USF WS, 2006). The whipsnake “records within

this unit are associated with Gaviota ro cky sandy loams in particular, which likely provide talus (PCE 3), and app ear to coincide in aerial im agery to scrub or chaparral vegetation preferred by Alameda whipsnake” (USFWS, 2006). The vegetation in this unit is largely “oak woodland community of variable densities (PCE 2) and statures (trees, shrubs) interspersed w ith grassland. Some peripher al portions of habitat around

this unit were not included as critical ha bitat due to the high degree of developmentrelated disturbance and fragmentatio n of the habitat” (USFWS, 2006).

Unit 4: Mount Diablo-Black Hills; Contra Costa and Alameda Counties “This unit encompasses Mount Diablo State Park and surrounding la nds, and is largely within Contra Costa County except a small portion that is within Alameda County. Lands are owned by the Bureau of Land Management (23 ac (9 ha)), State Department of Parks and Recreation (13,855 ac (5,607 ha)), and private la ndowners (9,348 ac (3,783 ha))” (USFWS, 2006). EBRPD “lands and lands covered by the draft East Contra Costa County Habitat Conservation Plan and Natu ral Community Conservation Plan” were

excluded from the critical habita t in this unit (USFWS, 2006).

Unit 4 is included in the designated critical habitat for this subspecies “because it

contains features essential to the conservati on of the Alameda whipsnake, is occupied by the subspecies, and represents the northeastern portion of the subs pecies’ range and one of the five populations centers” (USF WS, 2006). “Numerous Alameda whipsnake observations (i.e., greater than 90 records fr om 1972 to 2004) occur throughout the area, many of which are associated with dense rock outcrops (PCE 3) and chaparral, scrub, and oak woodland (PCE 1, PCE 2). The pattern of woody vegetation with grasslands and rock outcrops forms an intricate landscape mosa ic that is highly functional habitat for the Alameda whipsnake. The vegetation and soil characteristics, the mosaic habitat pattern, the abundance of Alameda whipsnake records, and the lack of surrounding development and relative absence of roadways , together indicate that this unit likely provides some of the very highest quality and largest contiguous blocks of habitat within the range of the subspecies, as well as some of its most robust populations” (USFWS, 2006).

Unit 5A: Cedar Mountain; Alameda and San Joaquin Counties

“Unit 5A is located east of Lake Del Valle along Cedar Mountain Ridge and Crane Ridge to Corral Hollow west of Interstate 580. Land ownership within this unit includes approximately 2,492 ac (1,008 ha) of Departme nt of Energy land, 246 ac (99 ha) of EBRPD land, and 21,986 ac (8,897 ha)) are privately owned” (USFWS, 2006).

5Unit 5A is included in the designated critic al habitat “because it contains features

essential to the conservation of the Alamed a whipsnake, is currently occupied by the subspecies, and represents the southernmost and easternmost distribution of Alameda whipsnake and one of the five populations cen ters for the subspecies” (USFWS, 2006). “The vegetation pattern within this unit consists of va rious woodland, scrub, and/or chaparral communities on northeast-facing slopes (PCE 1, PCE 2). Rock bearing soils which are associated with multiple Alameda whipsnake records (e.g., Vallecitos rocky loam) as well as rock lands are abundant, indicating the presence of PCE 3. Open, grassland-dominated communities are prominent on southwest-facing slopes, but there is also a significant component of woodland habi tat on these slopes. Significant areas of vegetation types known to support Alameda wh ipsnake are present, including coastal oak, chamise-chaparral, mixed chaparral, blue-oak-foothill pine woodland, blue oak woodland, valley oak woodland, and montane hardwood. About 50 Alameda whipsnake records from 1973 through 2002 are known in th is unit. In most instances, the

boundaries for critical habita t designation correspond to natural breaks in plant communities, habitat quality, and/or landform (ridgelines, water features). A moderate number of light duty roads (e.g., paved or unpa ved lightly used) are present within the unit, although there are very fe w structures or other land modifications” (USFWS, 2006).

Unit 5B: Alameda Creek; Alameda and Santa Clara Counties

“This unit is located northeast of Calaveras Reservoir, south of the town of Sunol, including the area along Wauhab Ridge in Alameda County and Oak Ridge in Santa Clara County. Alameda Creek is located at the west margin of the unit, and the unit contains the Sunol Regional Wilderness and Camp Ohlone Regional Park (approximately 361 ac (146 ha)), which are managed by the” EBRPD “with the remaining 17,854 ac (7,225 ha) in private owne rship” (USFWS, 2006).

Unit 5B was included in the designated critic al habitat “because it contains features

essential to the conservation of the Alamed a whipsnake, is currently occupied, and represents the southern most distribution of Alameda whip snake and one of the five population centers for the subs pecies” (USFWS, 2006). The ve getation in this unit “is a mix of blue oak—foothill pine and annua l grassland with a significant amount of woodland patches. Coastal live oak is presen t in the vicinity of Lleyden Creek. Soil types in which Alameda whipsnakes are found dominate the unit. This subunit contains six Alameda whipsnake records documented between 1972 and 2000. Significant areas of vegetation types known to support Alamed a whipsnake are present, including coastal oak, chamise-chaparral, mixed chaparral, blue oak—foothill pine woodland, blue oak woodland, valley oak woodland, and montane ha rdwood interspersed with rock outcrops or talus (PCEs 1, 2, 3). The boundaries for critical habitat de signation correspond to natural breaks in plant communities, soil type, and/or landform. A moderate number of light roads are present within the unit, although there are very few stru ctures or other land modifications. Development within or adjacent to the unit is minimal. As a result of this low development pressure, the survey efforts for the Alameda whipsnake in this unit have

not been as extensive as in the other units” (USFWS, 2006).

6Unit 6: Caldecott Tunnel; Contra Costa and Alameda Counties

“This critical habitat unit lies between Units 1 and 2, along the Alameda and Contra Costa County lines. Land ownership with in this unit include s 265 ac (107 ha) of” EBRPD “lands, 720 ac (291 ha) of State, a nd 3,166 ha (1,281 ha) in private lands” (USFWS, 2006).

Unit 6 was included in the designated critic al habitat “because it contains features

essential to the conservation of the Alamed a whipsnake, is currently occupied, and represents the last remaining habitat conn ecting Unit 1 and Unit 2, which are two of the five population centers for the subspecies. Maintaining c onnectivity between the units allows for dispersal between units for the subspecies and allows for genetic exchange among all three units” (USFWS, 2006). Th is “unit is bound ed by dense urban development to the east and west. However, the vegetation and soil types that are known to support Alameda whipsnake are dominant throughout the unit (PCEs 1, 2, 3). About eight Alameda whipsnake records are know n from the unit between 1990 and 2002” (USFWS, 2006).

Habitat Alameda whipsnakes have been documented “in several types of scrub and chaparral communities, including coastal sage scrub, chaparral, and northern coastal scrub. Telemetry data for six snakes indicated th at home ranges of Alameda whipsnakes were centered on shrub communities, but that snakes range out into adjacent habitats, including grassland, oak savanna, and oa k-bay woodland. Radio locations of telemetered snakes

were clustered in areas of scrub with an open or partially open canopy, and on south-, southwest-, southeast-, east-, and northeast-facing slopes. Most radio locations for five snakes at a study site in Tilden Regional Par k, Berkeley, California, were also within the distribution of major rock out croppings and talus. Alam eda whipsnakes were also frequently found in adjacent grasslands a nd oak woodland/savanna habitats. Most grassland and woodland locations were within 50 meters (170 feet) of the scrub habitat, but distances of greater than 150 meters ( 500 feet) from scrub were also documented during the telemetry study. The distance that whipsnakes will move into open grassland is unknown” (USFWS, 2002). However, “Calif ornia whipsnakes have been observed in grassland, oak savanna, and along the edge of ri parian vegetation at di stances greater than 300 meters (1,000 feet) from scrub habitats, usually in areas where rock outcrops are abundant” (USFWS, 2002). “The majority of grassland use was documented during spring. The most common types of retreat site in both the grassland and scrub communities were small rodent burrows and rock crevices; however, brush piles, deep soil crevices and debris piles were also used” (USFWS, 2002). Alameda whipsnake

locations have also been obs erved “near riparian areas” (U SFWS, 2002). However, “it is unclear what role water plays in the life history of this species” (USFWS, 2002).

Activity, Movement, and Behavior: Adults of this subspecies “app ear to have a bimodal seasonal activity pattern with a large peak during the spring mating season and a sm aller peak during late summer and early fall. Although short above-ground movement s may occur during the winter, Alameda whipsnakes generally retreat in November in to a hibernaculum (shelter used during the

7snake’s dormancy period) and emerge in March” (USFWS, 2002, 2005, and 2006).

Hibernacula include rodent burrows and crevices between rocks (USFWS, 2006).

“Male home ranges range from 1.9 to 8.7 hectares (4.7 to 21.5 acres) in size (mean of 5.5 hectares or 13.6 acres, n=4), and showed a high degree of spatial overlap” (USFWS, 1997, 2002, and 2006). “Some animals were recorded to have moved over 1.8 kilometers (km) (1 mile (mi)) while crisscrossing th eir areas” (USFWS, 1997). “Three individual snakes monitored for nearly an entire activ ity season appeared to maintain stable home ranges. Movements of these individuals were multi-directional and individual snakes returned to specific area and re treat sites after long intervals of nonuse. Snakes had one or more core areas (areas of concentrated us e) within their home ranges with large areas of the home ranges receiving litt le use” (USFWS, 2002 and 2006).

Alameda whipsnakes hold their heads high o ff of the ground “to peer over grass or rocks for potential prey” and are “active daytim e” predators (USFWS, 1997 and 2005). “When hunting, these snakes commonly move with th e head held high and occasionally move it from side to side, perhaps to aid in depth perception. Prey is seized with great speed, pinioned under loops of the body, and engulfed without constriction” (USFWS, 2002).

Life History and Ecology

Life history and ecology information about th e Alameda whipsnake, including diet and reproduction are provided in the sections below (1.5.1 and 1.5.2).

1.5.1. Diet “Lizards, especially the western fence lizard ( Sceloporus occidentalis ), appear to be the most important prey item of whipsnakes, al though other prey items are taken, including skinks, frogs, snakes and birds” (USFWS, 2005) . “Stomach contents of field-captured whipsnakes were exclusively lizards and incl uded western fence li zard and western skink ( Eumeces skiltonianus ). Stomach contents of museum specimens were almost exclusively lizards” (USFWS, 2002). Furthermor e, “prey preference tests with both adult and hatchling Alameda whipsnakes have s hown a preference for lizard prey” suggesting that this species is a feeding specialist (USF WS, 2002). However, other sources state that the diet of the Alameda whipsnake also includes invertebrates and small mammals (USFWS, 1997 and Westphal, 1998). Yet another source states that the diet may depend “on an individual’s size, sex, ag e, and location” (USFWS, 2006).

1.5.2. Reproduction “Sperm is stored by the male over winter in the epididymides and vas deferens” and “copulation commences soon after emergence fr om winter hibernacula” (USFWS, 2002). “Courtship and mating were observed from la te March through mid-June. During this time males move around throughout their home ranges, but females appear to remain at or near their hibernacula, where ma ting occurs” (USFWS, 1997, 2002, 2005, and 2006). “One female was observed copulating with more than one male during a mating season, but the extent to which females mate with multiple males (polyandry) is unknown” (USFWS, 2002). “Females begin yolk deposit ion in mid-April, and intervals of 47, 50,

89 and 55 days have been recorded between date s of first known mating and first egg laid. Average clutch size is 7.21 (6-11, n=19), w ith a significant correlation between body size and clutch size” (USFWS, 2002). The eggs ar e laid May through July (USFWS, 1997). “Once the female lays her eggs, it will be about 3 months of incubation before the young appear in the late summer and fall. These ha tchlings have been seen and captured above ground from August through November. Prey items were sometimes detected in the stomachs of captured hatchlings during this period i ndicating that at least some hatchling snakes feed prior to winter hi bernation. California whipsnakes take 2 to 3 years to reach maturity, with adults growing to nearly 1.5 me ter (5 feet). Captive whipsnakes may live for about 8 years” (USFWS, 2002).

1.6 References
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) . 1997. Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Determination of Endangered Status for the Callippe Silverspot Butterfly and the Behren's Silverspot Butterfly and Threat ened Status for the Alameda Whipsnake.

Available online at: http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/federal_register/fr3183.pdf (Accessed on April 17, 2008).

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). 2002. Draft Recovery Plan for Chaparral and Scrub Community Species East of San Francisc o Bay, California. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Region 1, Portland, Oregon. 306 pages. Available online at: http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/recovery_plans/2003/030407.pdf (Accessed on April 17, 2008).

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). 2005. Species Account: Alameda Whipsnake ( Masticophis lateralis euryxanthus ). Sacramento Fish and Wildlife Office. Available

online at: http://www.fws.gov/sacramento/es/anim al_spp_acct/alameda_whipsnake.pdf (Accessed on April 17, 2008).

U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. 2006. Endange red and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Designation of Critical Habitat for the Alameda Whipsnake; Final Rule. Available

online at: http://edocket.access.gpo.gov/2006/pdf/06-8367.pdf (Accessed on April 17, 2008).

Westphal, M. 1998. Alameda Whipsnake: The Fast est Snake in the West. Tideline. Vol.

18 No. 2 1-3. Available online at: http://www.fws.gov/desfbay/Archives/Whip/Whip.htm (Accessed on October 3, 2007).