Improving Public Messaging 

for Evacuation and Shelter-in-PFindings and Recommendations for Emergency Managers from PeeResearch | April 2021 
Evacuation and Shelter-in-Place Literature Review 

Purpose: An examination of published peer-reviewed research on evshelter-in-place protective actions to: 

 Document research findings; and

 Present research-based recommendations to emergency man

• Informing community members about risk, and

• Providing effective messaging to increase compliance with 

evacuate or to shelter-in-place.

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Design and Methodology 

1. Used the Protective Action Decision 

Model (PADM) to create five research questions. 

2. Established a list of search terms 

based on the questions. 

3. Used search terms to identify relevant 

research, resulting in 771 distinct peerreviewed articles. 

• 

4. Created and applied 

inclusion criteria resulting in 127 articles: 

• 

5. Documented research 

using NVivo software. 

6. Grouped findings by re

questions and then by element. 

7. Created recommendat

findings. 

Included literature: 

• Published in past 10 years (2009-1• Focused on individual decision-ma• Researched U.S. populations • Researched expected population b• Focused on community evacuation 

Excluded literature: 

• Focused on technology solutions o

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Protective Action Decision Model (PADM) 

Protective Action Decision Model: Lindell, M. and R. Perry. “The Protective Action Decision Model: Theoretical ModificatiEvidence.” Journal of Risk Analysis, Vol. 32, No.4. 2012. 

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Research Questions (RQ) 

 RQ1. How do environmental and social cues affect individuals’ at

response to evacuation and SIP guidance? 

 RQ2. How do warning messages, information sources, and chann

message receiver’s beliefs and behaviors? 

 RQ3. What individual and family characteristics affect beliefs and 

relative to evacuation and SIP guidance? 

 RQ4. How do awareness and perceptions of different threats and 

affect decision-making? 

 RQ5. What are the impediments to positive behavioral response? 

situational factors tend to support public response to evacuguidance? 

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The Report 

 The full report is availa

Planning Guides webpawebsite, in the EmergeManagement tab: 

Planning Guides | FEM

The report and these Powercontain links and referenceproducts and entities. Inclureferences is not an endorsFederal Emergency ManageDepartment of Homeland Sfederal employee of the concontain. 

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How to Use This Slide Deck 

 This slide deck provides the findings and recommendations from 

Evacuation and Shelter-in-Place Planning Literature Review. 

 The findings and recommendations are provided in two ways: 

1. Organized by the Research Questions and their Sub-Elements (Aligned wi

Table of Contents). Slides 8-85. 2. Organized by Communication Strategies and Implementation Timeline: P(Aligned with Appendix C). Slides 86-143. The notes section includes the relereferences. 

 Select the slides that work best for your purposes. Note: This full 

NOT intended to be used as-is, as presenting both sections in fulduplicative. 

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Evacuation Shelter-in-Place: 

Research Findings and Recommendations 

Organized by the Research Questions and their Sub-Elements (Aligned with the Report’s Table of Co
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RQ1: Environmental Cues Findings and Recommendations 

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Findings: Environmental Cues 

 Sights, sounds, or smells that 

 If environmental cues 

indicate an impending threat are present, individuals m

important for confirming that a risk and-see approach. is real. 

 People seek environmental cues for 

the decision to take a protective action (rising water, smoke or flames). 
Recommendations: Environmental Cues 

 Use websites and social media platforms, and work with lo

provide authoritative, time-stamped, geo-tagged photos anhazards such as rising waters and wildfires. Encourage indshare those visuals with friends and family and on social m

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RQ1: Social Cues Findings and Recommendations 

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What We Found: Social Cues 

 Seeing neighbors or others evacuate 

was a predictor of increased evacuation across hazard types. 

 If individuals in non-evacuation 

zones saw neighbors leave, it increased the likelihood that they would also leave. If individuals in 

areas that should evacuate did NOT see neighbors leave, that may have caused them to conform to the neighborhood norm and also not evacuate. 



Receiving messages 

friends in addition to authorities was a majinfluence on evacuatmaking. Those who sinformation with othelikely to themselves e

 The actions of local g

and businesses also important social clueheighten risk perceptclosing/boarding up bclosing public areas, transportation, or spe
Recommendations: Social Cues 

 Encourage media to cover the different ways jurisdictions, 

individuals are preparing for the threat e.g., closing public other public areas. 

 Encourage businesses to share actions they are taking on 

social media accounts (closing their businesses, encouragevacuate and stay safe). 

 Encourage individuals to share the alerts and warning mes

received and the protective actions they are taking with theencourage individuals to post photos of visual cues of the evacuate. 

 Encourage social media platforms like Nextdoor, and home

associations (HOAs), to share evacuation guidance and che
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RQ2: Warning Messages Findings and Recommendations 

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What We Found: Warning Messages 

 Mandatory evacuation orders 

significantly increase evacuation rates. 

 Changing the type or area of the 

order causes confusion and delay. 

 Messages that clearly describe the 

tangible personal impact of the 

hazard motivate protective action. 

 Messages that comp

current storm to simithe past helps individunderstand the risk. 

 Adding visuals, such 

photos, improves mescomprehension and dmaking. 
What We Found: Warning Messages, continued 

 Attention-getting language and 

describing storm impacts is effective. However, language 

designed to scare people did not seem to further increase the motivation to act. 

 There may be a risk of “overwarning,” for hazards like tornadoes. 

Warning areas are typically much larger than the area at risk which desensitizes individuals to future warnings. 

 Individuals do not un

the hurricane categowarning “cone” only adamage, not surge, aincrease in category exponential rise in thdamage. 
Recommendations: Alert and Warning Messages 

 Use language that will capture attention but is not overly d When communicating about hurricane risk, ensure that the 

includes flood and storm surge risk as well as the hurrican

 Use mandatory, timestamped evacuation orders associate

evacuation zones when possible. Understand that changingeographic area of evacuation orders will cause confusion
Recommendations: Alert and Warning Messages 

 Use the Integrated Public Alert and Warning System’s Wire

Alert (WEA) capability for messages, as WEAs are not constsame bandwidth limitations as general text messages. 

 Provide interactive maps to help individuals locate their ho

addresses and know their zone before an event. 

 Provide easy and quick ways for individuals to corroborate 

through hyperlinks to other authoritative sources. 
Recommendations: Alert and Warning Messages 

 Compare the potential impact of an upcoming storm to oth

have posed similar threats and post visual cues. 

 Given increased forecasting accuracy for tornadoes, use th

polygon possible, associated with local landmarks, to incre

understanding that the warning forecast is specific to their 

 Highlight probable impacts to individuals who stay and the 

duration of those impacts. Address the urgency for immednoting when it will no longer be safe to evacuate or for emepersonnel to attempt rescues as the storm gets close. 
Recommendations: Alert and Warning Messages 

 When issuing evacuation orders, explain the risks that led 

to evacuate some zones and why other zones are not evac

 Always encourage individuals to share information with fam

friends. 
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RQ2: Information Sources Findings and Recommendations 

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What We Found: Information Sources 

 Receiving several warning messages 

from multiple credible, trusted sources, increased rates of evacuation. NWS was specifically seen as a trusted source of information. 

 Evacuation orders issued by local 

authorities helped uncertain individuals make the decision to evacuate. 

 Both authorities and 

friends influenced the evacuate. Studies do their relative influenc

 Authority figures actin

models by evacuating or going door to door to leave could increaseffectiveness of evacmessages. 
What We Found: Information Sources, Continued 

 Trust in government and guidance 

from local first responders influences preparedness and the decision to evacuate. For wildfires, an element of this trust was due to the visibility of firefighters in the 

community. For hurricanes, individuals were more likely to take action when emergency responders went door-to-door in the community. 

 Lack of trust in autho

individuals to spend mdiscussing their evacwith others. 

 High trust in authoriti

some to believe that officials would keep ttherefore they don’t nevacuate. 

 Tourists who seek inf

tourist offices rather are more likely to eva
Recommendations: Information Sources 

 Build relationships in advance with television and radio rep

forecasters and other journalists likely to cover hazards faccommunity. 

 Familiarize the media with evacuation zones, transportatio

need it, and support for those in nursing homes or other si

 Provide information about how plans consider public healt

as the spread of illness in crowded public shelters. 
Recommendations: Information Sources 

 Encourage individuals and organizations with large numbe

(e.g., media stations, weather forecasters, American Red Cworship, universities) to follow the jurisdiction’s social med

they can receive updates during the disaster and share aumessages with their networks. 

 Have plans to use all communication channels that can pr

information, especially if cell bandwidth becomes constraiincludes highway advisory radio, highway signs, amateur raweather radio. 
Recommendations: Information Sources 

 Encourage individuals to sign up for the jurisdiction’s opt-in 

warning channels so they directly receive updated informat

 Confirm that the jurisdiction’s social media channels are a

provide up-to-date information during the event. 

 Include messaging and live interviews that address indi

barriers to evacuation. 

 Collaborate with and follow the social media of authorit

within the jurisdiction and across neighboring jurisdictioinformation consistent and address inconsistencies and they occur. 
Recommendations: Information Sources 

 Share and promote NWS’s warnings and forecasts to reinfo

the local jurisdiction. Recommend that individuals follow th

Forecast Office social media accounts. 

 Provide easy and quick ways for individuals to corroborate 

through hyperlinks to other authoritative sources. Always e

individuals to share information with family and friends. 
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RQ2: Channel Access and PrefereFindings and Recommendations 

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What We Found: Channel Access and Preference 

 While television remained the chief 

communication channel, receiving warnings from multiple channels increased the likelihood of individuals taking protective action. 

 People use social media as a 

complementary source rather than 

their primary source of information. 

 As cell phone owners

prevalent than home public alert and warnlandline phone numbeffective. The increascell phones may also cellular bandwidth coan incident. 

 Evacuated individuals 

same information souentry phase that they deciding whether to e
Recommendations: Channel Access and Preferen

 Work closely with local media during the event to show firs

encouraging evacuations. 

 Provide press with information so viewers see the actions o

responders, businesses, and individuals taking action befo

 Update media regularly on alternative routes to avoid cong

availability of services along evacuation routes and shelter 

 Highlight how local authorities are heeding warnings: closin

boarding up schools or other government buildings at risk, 
Recommendations: Channel Access and Preferen

 Use social media monitoring tools to identify the channels 

most people with effective messaging. Use these channels disseminate information about plans for re-entry. 

 Plan to surge staff to monitor social media for rumors, mis

and disinformation that must be quickly corrected. 
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RQ2: Information Seeking Findings and Recommendations 

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What We Found: Information Seeking 

 Individuals seek corroborating 

information, although that may be reduced by receiving warnings with geographically specific information. 

 Those who accessed weather apps 

and/or radar imagery were more likely to seek shelter in the event of a tornado warning. 

 Tourists not familiar w

or the area they are vinformation from mul

when a hurricane wa

 Tourists who were mo

area at risk generally existing knowledge aas much information
Recommendation: Information Seeking 

 Work with local hotels and motels to provide tourists guida

authorities regarding evacuation or SIP decisions. 
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Q3: Multiple Vehicles Findings and Recommendations 

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Findings: Access to Vehicles 

 Households with multiple vehicles 

not only evacuated in multiple vehicles but tended to split their evacuation times. Households with multiple vehicles were 2.7 times more likely to evacuate in multiple vehicles. Multiple-vehicle evacuation increases highway congestion. Households see the ability to evacuate with multiple vehicles as a benefit, as one person can delay leaving in order to safeguard property. 

Those living in an eva

tended to evacuate wvehicles to minimize damage. 


Recommendations: Multiple Vehicles 

 Factor the added volume from multiple cars and multiple d

times into evacuation models. 
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RQ3: Age Findings and Recommendations 

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What We Found: Age 

 Across the literature, findings 

regarding the relationship between age and evacuation varied. This may indicate that other factors have greater influence on the evacuation decision. These variations were similar across hazard types. 
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RQ3: Attitude Findings and Recommendations 

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What We Found: Attitude 

 Those with stronger confidence in 

their ability to defend their home, as 

well as attitudes associated with self-reliance and being an individualist, were associated with lower levels of evacuation. Those who see themselves as individualists may also have felt that warnings were overblown. 

 Those who indicated 

likely to evacuate tenhigher self-reported rwildfire areas, those tolerance also tended and-defend attitude, belief that individuals live near wildland–urareas should accept also had a strong emconnection to their pr
Recommendations: Attitude 

 In messaging to those who want to stay and defend their p

likely to be men), clearly define the risks and communicate 

inability of first responders to help them once the threat hacertain severity threshold. 
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RQ3: Education Findings 

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What We Found: Education 

 Individuals who have not completed Those with higher lev

high school are less likely to education had higher evacuate. ownership, and that c



may make it less likeindividuals to evacua
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RQ3: Gender Findings and Recommendations 

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What We Found: Gender 

 Women are more likely to take Men were more likely 

appropriate protective action than evacuate because thmen. Female tourists are also more protect their propertylikely to evacuate. This holds true for wildfires as well as hurricanes. 


Recommendation: Gender 

 Communications strategies should be tailored to gender di

example, given that women are more likely than men to takactions, messaging on preparedness should use outreach geared toward women. 
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RQ3: Households with Children/PFindings and Recommendations 

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What We Found: Households with Children 

 Parents with children in the 

household tended to have more difficulties deciding to stay or to leave for hurricanes and flooding. 

 The desire to "keep my family safe" 

served as a motivation to evacuate. 

 More children in the home meant 

lower likelihood of evacuation. For 

wildfires, however, parents tended to make decisions to evacuate faster, even if the evacuation order was voluntary. 

 Households with child

go to friends’ homes rather than to public 

 Single parents with m

conditions were less 

evacuate than others
What We Found: Households with Pets 

 Having a pet, especially where there 

is a strong attachment to the pet, decreased the likelihood of evacuation. Many studies highlighted concerns about shelters accepting pets, the added cost of evacuating with pets, and the logistics of having a pet at a shelter as impediments to evacuation. 

 A greater number of p

exacerbated the difficassociated with evacmore individuals to devacuate. 

 One research study o

noted that having live

contributed to the se“stay and defend.” 
Recommendations: Helping Households with Child

 Consider using daycare centers, schools, pet stores and br

rescue centers as delivery channels for information that ca

parents and pet owners reduce the stress of an evacuation planning, including preparing go bags. 

 Include the message “keeping my family and/or my pets sa

motivate families with children to evacuate early, which wistress of the actual evacuation. 

 Encourage shelters and hotels to note their policy regardin
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RQ3: Housing - Homeowners, Renand Those Living in Mobile HomeFindings and Recommendations 

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Findings: Homeowners, Renters, and Those in Mob

 Homeowners were less likely to 

evacuate than those who rent. They 

tend to underestimate storm severity and believe their home is safe. 

 Those who rent were more likely to 

believe that their home was not safe from a hurricane. 

 Those who live in mobile homes 

were more likely to evacuate from a 

hurricane than those who live in other types of housing. 

 Mobile home residen

areas susceptible to t

less likely to have a pplan that included whshelter in the event o

 Residents with strong

in their ability to defeas well as attitudes aself-reliance and beinindividualist were lesevacuate. 
Recommendations: Homeowners, Renters, and Th

Mobile Homes 

 Promote methods to safeguard homes prior to evacuation 

likely impacts of the hazard, including loss of electricity and water, which will make staying uncomfortable. 

 Address concerns about how re-entry will be handled upfro

should acknowledge that homeowners will be anxious to rehomes as soon as possible but that should not stop them fevacuating. If relevant, note steps that government is takinproperty secure until individuals can return to their commu(increased patrols, curfews, etc.). 
Recommendations: Homeowners, Renters, and Th

Mobile Homes 

 Those who have purchased generators may feel more secu

so if there is loss of power, messaging should address how generators safely to avoid carbon dioxide poisoning. 

 In messaging to those who want to stay and defend their p

likely to be men), clearly define the risks and ensure they ulikely inability of first responders to help them once the thrreached a certain severity threshold. 

 Provide messaging specifically for residents of manufactur

homes in areas at risk. Encourage those individuals to eva
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RQ3: Income Findings 

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What We Found: Income 

 If households with higher incomes 

evacuate, they do so in multiple groups, at different times, using multiple vehicles. They stay at hotels 

or friends’ houses rather than shelters. 

 Those with lower inco

bank accounts are leunderstand evacuatio

 If they do evacuate, t

shelters. 
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RQ3: Need for Assistance - Individwho have Disabilities or Dementiare Homebound, and Their CaregFindings and Recommendations 

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Findings: Individuals who Have Disabilities or Dem

Are Homebound, and Their Caregivers (page 1) 

 Older, homebound adults indicated 

a lack of ability to evacuate due to issues of physical mobility. Many would need assistance to leave their house, and transportation out of the area. 

 Family and friends (the social 

network) play an important role in determining whether to evacuate or not. 

 Older adults who hav

other cognitive disabcaregiver(s) that wouwith them have evacuthat are the same asothers. Caregivers are about their care receexposed to stigma anprivacy in a shelter, aunfamiliar settings wtheir symptoms. 
Findings: Individuals who Have Disabilities or Dem

Are Homebound, and Their Caregivers (page 2) 

 Older adults with dementia and their 

caregivers who go to shelters experience increased agitation, 

emotional distress, and 

disorientation, among other symptoms. It is challenging for caregivers to provide normal levels of care and comfort in this environment. 

 Care facilities and ca

challenged in decidinevacuate given their sresponsibility to their important for care facand their families to ddocument the decisiocare for them in a diswhether they would efamily’s residence – asticking to that decis
Recommendations: Individuals who Have Disabilit

Dementia or Are Homebound, and Their Caregiver

 Ensure that representatives of advocacy organizations are 

shelter preparations. Ask them to communicate with their a

constituents and describe how shelters are prepared to proappropriate care and services. 

 Bring together community advocates for those with access 

functional needs to discuss and address challenges. 

 Work with first responders and other agencies to plan for e

transportation assistance and medical needs for those whevacuate on their own. 
Recommendations: Individuals who Have Disabilit

Dementia or Are Homebound, and Their Caregiver

 Acknowledge and express empathy for the stress and anxie

with evacuations. 

 Encourage households with children and pets to discuss a

evacuation plans early. 

 Include individuals with disabilities in planning efforts for e

 Ask neighbors to help plan. When evacuation orders are iss

encourage neighbors to ask if they need help to evacuate a

authorities that these individuals need evacuation assistan
Recommendations: Individuals who Have Disabilit

Dementia or Are Homebound, and Their Caregiver

 Provide as much information as possible on evacuation rou

shelters, and re-entry plans to reduce the number of evacuunknowns. 

 Provide and promote behavioral health services at shelter 

support those who are feeling anxious and stressed. 
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RQ3: Preparedness Findings 

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What We Found: Preparedness 

 Having a household plan increases 

the likelihood of taking the appropriate protective action for a tornado. 

 Individuals who have prepared for 

an emergency by strengthening their home or purchasing generators are less likely to evacuate. 

 Individuals who lack 

their community planknow if their communemergency managemtended to be less willwith evacuation direc
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RQ3: Race Findings 

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What We Found: Race 

 Black and Hispanic p

relatively high intentions to evacuate when asked about different hazard scenarios. 

Black and Hispanic people have 

likely to evacuate tha

 In the literature revie

differences in race/e

documented related tmedia sources. 
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RQ3: Social Networks Findings and Recommendations 

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Findings: Social Networks (page 1) 

 For hurricane areas generally, a 

strong social network supported the decision to evacuate. However, 

others did not evacuate because of the support they felt they had within the community. 

 For the medically fragile, a strong 

sense of social support tended to 

result in non-evacuation. 



Residents in commun

higher broad commutended to make simildecisions (whether to not to evacuate), whifelt their specific sociwould provide supporstay. 

 In wildfire-prone area

networks tend to supdecision to evacuate. 
Findings: Social Networks (page 2) 

 Those who are married were less 

likely to evacuate. family/friends signific

the likelihood of receinformation about evaorders. 

 Being employed and 
Recommendations: Social Networks 

 Seek out leaders of HOAs or other community leaders who 

encourage their constituents to evacuate and commit to mevacuation behavior. 

 Encourage advocacy organizations for those who are medi

work with these individuals, their caregivers, and their socinetwork to help them through the evacuation decision-mak

 Encourage people to share official warnings and safety info

their personal social networks. 
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RQ4: Threat Perceptions Findings and Recommendations 

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Findings: Threat Perceptions 

 Many studies noted that the greater 

the perceived risk, the greater the likelihood of evacuation. 

 The personalization of risk/impact 

(I/my family/my house is at risk) also increased the probability of evacuation. 

 Individuals’ perceptio

hurricane’s risk tendeits Saffir-Simpson hu(higher categories refrisk), which conveys ospeeds, and whether path was directly oveHowever, some studiethat perception of huincluded the potentiaand storm surge. 
Recommendations: Threat Perceptions 

 To motivate people to leave when evacuations are issued, 

information about the risk of the hazard and its probable eindividual safety, property damage, and community functiodescriptions of prolonged impact on quality-of-life considerwater, electricity, food. 

 For hurricane risk, include all risks associated with a hurric

flooding and storm surge, in messages. 
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RQ5: Facilitators and ImpedimenAppropriate Evacuation and SIP Decision-making Findings and Recommendations 

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Findings: Impediments to Appropriate Evacuation 

Decision-making (page 1) 

Impediments include:  Traffic congestion and availability of 

gasoline. Individuals facing hurricanes and wildfires want reliable information about alternative routes to help overcome worries about traffic congestion. Residents at risk of wildfire were especially concerned with the capacity of the road system to handle the traffic. 

 The greater the numb

the household, the grbarrier to departure. 

 The physical security 

Many studies noted cthe ability to re-enter zone after the disastetake care of any damreason not to evacuaconcerns were especin the hurricane resein repairs to water dalead to mold. Some snoted fear of looting neighborhoods. 
Findings: Impediments to Appropriate Evacuation 

Decision-making (page 2) 

 Costs of evacuation, including travel 

costs. 

 Legal status of undocumented 

immigrants. 

 Stress and anxiety surrounding 

evacuation decision-making including unknowns related to the evacuation (potential destination, space at shelters, travel issues) as well as separation from family, pets, and the home. 

 Individuals faced with 

shelter as their primahad more reluctance Their concerns includstrangers and being laway from social netw

 Some individuals cou

because of ongoing joresponsibilities. 

 Lack of agreement am

members about the sdecision could delay evacuation decision-m
Findings: Facilitators to Appropriate Evacuation an

Decision-making 

Facilitators include:  The desire to be safe and to ensure 

children were safe from physical or psychological harm from experiencing a disaster were positive motivations to evacuate. 

 Ensuring comfort and convenience 

(power and air conditioning) supported evacuation decisions. 

 Evacuation notifications issued early 

in the day or at other trigger points, such as school dismissal. 

 Evacuation orders iss

enough for individualbefore traffic became allow choice of prefer(family, hotel) rather tshelter. 

 The ability to leave at 

allowed travel to be cduring daylight hours
Recommendations: Impediments and Facilitators 

Appropriate Evacuation and SIP Decision-making 

 Continue/implement public education “know your zone” ca Link alert and warning communication channels to interac

can pinpoint specific addresses as in or not in evacuation 

 Work with the media to ensure evacuation information rea

populations such as tourists. 
Recommendations: Impediments and Facilitators 

Appropriate Evacuation and SIP Decision-making 

 Provide information about public shelters, including items 

with comfort (availability of power, air conditioning, rest roospace for families to ensure lack of crowding) as well as seindividuals with disabilities and facilities for pets. 

 When possible, encourage individuals to evacuate early to 

congestion, drive during daylight hours, and have more assregarding availability of gasoline and other services. Providinformation on evacuation routes, alternatives, and service
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RQ5: Evacuation Zones Findings and Recommendations 

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What We Found: Evacuation Zones 

 Evacuation likelihood is higher for 

those who believe they live in evacuation zones. Those in designated evacuation zones are significantly more likely to take preparation measures on receipt of advanced watches or warnings. 



For individuals living 

hurricane evacuation media focus on severforecasts noting elevawind damage causes evacuate unnecessar

 Studies indicated tha

individuals did not knthey were in an evacuan area with flood ris
Recommendations: Evacuation Zones (page 1) 

 Begin or continue public education “know your zones” cam

Ensure individuals are aware of their location relative to evzones or areas of flood risk. 

 Link alert and warning communication channels to interac

can pinpoint specific addresses as in or not in evacuation zwith the media to help this information reach transient poas tourists. 

 To reduce these elevated levels of stress, encourage indivi

especially households with children and pets, to discuss anevacuation plans early. 
Recommendations: Evacuation Zones (page 2) 

 Have and promote behavioral health services available at s

locations to support those who are feeling anxious and stre

 When issuing evacuation orders, explain the risks that led 

to evacuate some zones and why other zones are not evac

 Provide as much detailed information as possible on evacu

traffic, shelters and re-entry plans to reduce the number ounknowns. 
Evacuation Shelter-in-Place:

Research Findings and Recommendations 

Organized by Communication Strategies and Implementation Timeline: Prepare/Respond (Aligned w
Prepare the Public 

Findings and Recommendations 

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What We Found: Prepare the Public 

 Evacuation likelihood was higher for 

those who believed they lived in evacuation zones. Those in 

designated evacuation zones were significantly more likely to take preparation measures on receipt of advanced watches or warnings. 

 Studies indicated that many 

individuals did not know whether they were in an evacuation zone or an area with flood risk. 



Receiving several wa

from multiple, credibsources, such as NWSauthorities and local increased rates of evwas specifically seen source of information
What We Found: Prepare the Public 

 Those who lived in communities with 

higher community cohesion tended to make similar evacuation decisions (whether or not to evacuate), while those who felt their specific social network would provide support tended to stay. 

 Care facilities and the

were challenged in mdecision whether to e

given their sense of rtheir residents. This rindicated the importafacility residents and deciding (and documwould care for them i(e.g., whether or not tevacuate to a family’s and then not changinas the threat neared. 
What We Found: Prepare the Public 

 Older, homebound adults indicated a 

lack of ability to evacuate due to 

issues of physical mobility. Many would need emergency responder assistance to leave their house, as well as assistance with transportation out of the area. 

 Adults who have dementia or other 

cognitive disabilities and a caregiver(s) who would evacuate with them have evacuation rates that are the same as, or lower than, others. 

Caregivers were conc

potential for those in exposed to stigma an

privacy in a shelter. Tconcerned that unfamwould exacerbate theFamily and friends (thnetwork) tended to pimportant role in detewhether to evacuate 


What We Found: Prepare the Public 

 Tourists who sought information 

from tourist offices rather than hotel staff were more likely to evacuate. 

 Tourists not familiar w

or the area they were to be more concerned 

potential impact of a those more familiar wand so they looked fofrom multiple sources hurricane was approawho were more local risk generally relied oknowledge and did nomuch information. 
What We Found: Prepare the Public 

 In response to hurricanes, those 

who live in mobile homes were more likely to evacuate than those who 

live in other types of housing. Mobile homes do not provide adequate safety from a tornado, yet mobile 

home residents living in areas susceptible to tornadoes were less likely to have a preparedness plan that included where to go for shelter in the event of a tornado. 
Recommendations: Prepare the Public 

 Provide public outreach “know your zone” campaigns with 

interactive maps to help individuals locate their home and addresses and know their evacuation zone.

 Encourage individuals to sign up for the jurisdiction’s opt-in 

warning channels so they directly receive updated informat

 Ask community and HOA leaders to encourage planning fo

and commit to modeling that evacuation behavior.
Recommendations: Prepare the Public 

 Ask neighbors to check in on individuals with access and f

needs to help them plan how to evacuate.

 Encourage advocacy organizations for access and function

individuals, their caregivers and social support networks to prepare for an evacuation. Integrate advocacy organizationcommunity planning process for evacuation and shelter in 



Work with local hotels and motels to provide tourists inform

whether the hotel/motel is in an evacuation zone and how evacuation guidance from local authorities.
Recommendations: Prepare the Public 

 Provide outreach and messaging specifically for residents o

manufactured or mobile homes in areas at risk because thhousing is structurally less safe. Encourage those individuato evacuate and plan to provide services to those who may 

assistance.
Federal Emergency Manag

Target Messaging Based on SocioDemographic Characteristics Findings and Recommendations 

Federal Emergency Manag
What We Found: Socio-Demographic Characterist

 Those living in an evacuation zone 

tended to evacuate with all their 

vehicles to minimize potential damage. 

 Women are more likely to take 

appropriate protective action than men. 

 Men were more likely not to 

evacuate because they wanted to protect their property. 

 Households with mult

not only evacuated in vehicles but tended to evacuation times. Houmultiple vehicles were more likely to evacuatvehicles. Multiple-vehiincreases highway conHouseholds see the aevacuate with multiple benefit, as one person leaving in order to safeproperty. 
What We Found: Socio-Demographic Characterist

 Those with stronger confidence in 

their ability to defend their home, as well as attitudes associated with self-reliance and being an individualist, were associated with lower levels of evacuation. Those who see themselves as individualists may also have felt that warnings were overblown. 

 Those who indicated t

likely to evacuate tendhigher self-reported riswildfire areas, those wtolerance also tended and-defend attitude, abelief that individuals live near wildland–urbareas should accept talso had a strong emoconnection to their pro
What We Found: Socio-Demographic Characterist

 Parents with children in the 

household tended to have more 

difficulties deciding to stay or to leave for hurricanes and flooding. 

 The desire to "keep my family safe" 

served as a motivation to evacuate. 

 More children in the home meant 

lower likelihood of evacuation. For 

wildfires, however, parents tended to make decisions to evacuate faster, even if the evacuation order was 

voluntary. 

 Households with child

go to friends’ homes o

rather than to public s

 Single parents with me

conditions were less lievacuate than others. 
What We Found: Socio-Demographic Characterist

 Having a pet, especially where there 

is a strong attachment to the pet, decreased the likelihood of evacuation. Many studies highlighted concerns about shelters accepting pets, the added cost of evacuating with pets, and the logistics of having a pet at a shelter as impediments to evacuation. 

 A greater number of p

exacerbated the difficassociated with evacmore individuals to devacuate. 

 One research study o

noted that having livecontributed to the se“stay and defend.” 
What We Found: Socio-Demographic Characterist

 Homeowners were less likely to 

evacuate than those who rent. They 

tend to underestimate storm severity and believe their home is safe. For hurricanes, homeowners who did evacuate did so only after protecting their homes (e.g., boarding up windows). 

 Those who rent were 

believe that their homfrom a hurricane.
What We Found: Socio-Demographic Characterist

 Those who live in mobile homes 

were more likely to evacuate from a hurricane than those who live in other types of housing. 

 Mobile home residents living in 

areas susceptible to tornadoes were less likely to have a preparedness plan that included where to go for shelter in the event of a tornado. 



Residents with strong

in their ability to defeas well as attitudes aself-reliance and beinindividualist were lesevacuate. 
What We Found: Socio-Demographic Characterist

 Homebound adults indicated a lack 

of ability to evacuate due to issues of physical mobility. Many would need assistance to leave their 

house, and transportation out of the area. 

 Family and friends (the social 

network) play an important role in determining whether to evacuate or not. 

 Adults who have dem

cognitive disabilities caregiver(s) that wouwith them have evacuthat are the same asothers. Caregivers are about their care receexposed to stigma anprivacy in a shelter, aunfamiliar settings wtheir symptoms. 
What We Found: Socio-Demographic Characterist

 Older adults with dementia and their 

caregivers who go to shelters experience increased agitation, 

emotional distress, and 

disorientation. It is challenging for caregivers to provide normal levels of care and comfort in this environment. 

 Having a household plan increased 

the likelihood of taking the appropriate SIP protective action for a tornado. 

 Care facilities and ca

challenged in decidinevacuate given their sresponsibility to their important for care facand their families to ddocument the decisiocare for them in a diswhether or not they wto a family’s residencsticking to that decis
Recommendations: Socio-Demographic Character

 Given that women are more likely than men to take protect

messaging and communication channel selection should fwomen.

 Households with children and/or pets:

 Include the message “evacuating will keep your family a

pets safe” to motivate households with children and petearly.

 Acknowledge and express empathy for the stress and a

associated with evacuations for households with childreRecommend these households discuss and agree on evplans early.
Recommendations: Socio-Demographic Character

 Households with children and/or pets:

 Consider using daycare centers, schools, pet stores, res

as delivery channels for information to help parents and 

reduce the stress of an evacuation by pre-planning, inclpreparing go bags. For children, go bag items can includspecial foods, clothes/diapers, health information and mFor pets, consider pet carriers and pet food, pet identifihealth and vaccination information, as well as informatior hotels and motels that take pets.
Recommendations: Socio-Demographic Character

 Homeowners:

 Promote methods to mitigate damage to homes prior to  Note the likely impacts of the hazard, including loss of e

running water, which will make staying risky and uncom

 Messaging should acknowledge that homeowners will b

about security and anxious to return to their homes as spossible but that should not stop them from evacuatingnote steps that government is taking to keep property sincreased patrols, curfews, etc.
Recommendations: Socio-Demographic Character

 Encourage those living in mobile and manufactured homes 

early and plan to provide services to those who may need a

 Ensure messaging includes information about how individu

access and functional needs can find support for transportevacuation planning, transportation assistance, and assistshelters.
Federal Emergency Manag

Work with Local Media Findings and Recommendations 

Federal Emergency Manag
What We Found: Work with Local Media 

 Receiving several warning messages 

from multiple credible, trusted sources, increased rates of evacuation. NWS was specifically seen as a trusted source of information. 

 Evacuation orders issued by local 

authorities helped uncertain individuals make the decision to evacuate. 

 Both authorities and 

friends influenced the evacuate. Studies do their relative influenc

 Authority figures actin

models by evacuating or going door to door to leave could increaseffectiveness of evacmessages. 
What We Found: Work with Local Media 

 Trust in government and guidance 

from local first responders influences preparedness and the decision to evacuate. For wildfires, an element of this trust was due to the visibility of firefighters in the 

community. For hurricanes, individuals were more likely to take action when emergency responders went door-to-door in the community. 

 Lack of trust in autho

individuals to spend mdiscussing their evacwith others. 

 High trust in authoriti

some to believe that officials would keep ttherefore they don’t nevacuate. 

 Tourists who seek inf

tourist offices rather are more likely to eva
Recommendations: Work with Local Media 

Familiarize the media with community plans in advance of a d Ensure the media has access to easy-to-use information an

related to evacuation zones and routes. The graphics shoudepict what zones are included in evacuation orders and w

 Provide information on the jurisdiction’s plans for transpor

those who need it and support for those in nursing homes similar f

acilities.

 Describe how plans consider public health issues, such as 

the spread of illness in public transportation or shelters.
Recommendations: Work with Local Media 

 Provide press with information about the early stages of ev

viewers see the jurisdiction, businesses, and individuals tabefore the storm. Highlight how local authorities are heedinwarnings: activating the emergency operations center, closboarding up schools or other government buildings at risk.

 Keep media informed with regular, updated information (in

information to overcome potential barriers to evacuation), suggestions of how to avoid congestion, availability of servevacuation routes and shelter information.
Recommendations: Work with Local Media 

 Encourage local media to show first responders evacuating 

members and their own family members. For example: “I’m because it’s my job, but my family has evacuated to safety.

 Provide media with authoritative, time-stamped, geo-tagge

videos that they can share during broadcasts and their web

 Hazards such as rising waters and wildfires. Different ways jurisdictions, businesses, and individuals 

the threat, including preparing to evacuate (e.g., closing transportation or other public areas).
Federal Emergency Manag

Maximize Social Media Use Findings and Recommendations 

Federal Emergency Manag
What We Found: Maximize Social Media Use 

 While television remained the chief

communication channel, receivingwarnings from multiple channelsincreased the likelihood ofindividuals taking protective action.

 People use social media as a

complementary source rather than

their primary source of information.

 As cell phone 

owners

prevalent than home public alert and warnlandline phone numbeffective. The increascell phones may also cellular bandwidth coan incident.

 Evacuated individuals 

same information souentry phase that they deciding whether to e
What We Found: Maximize Social Media Use 

 The actions of local governments and

businesses also provided importantsocial cues that can heighten riskperception. These included closingand boarding up businesses andclosing public areas, publictransportation or specific roads.

 Adding visuals, such as maps or

photos, improved messagecomprehension and supporteddecision making.



Research indicates th

authorities and familyinfluenced the decisiStudies show mixed rto gauge their relative 

 Receiving several wa

from multiple, credibsources, such as NWSauthorities and local increased rates of evwas specifically seen source of information
Recommendations: Maximize Social Media Use 

 Confirm that the jurisdiction’s social media channels are a

and during the event. Provide up-to date information during 

 Encourage individuals and organizations with large numbe

(e.g., media stations, weather forecasters, American Red Cof worship, universities) to follow the jurisdiction’s social mso they can receive updates during the disaster and share messages with their networks.



Follow and monitor the social media accounts of other aut

sources within the jurisdiction and across neighboring juriskeep information consistent and address inconsistencies ainaccuracies if they occur.
Recommendations: Maximize Social Media Use 

 Urge businesses to share their preparedness and response 

their websites and social media accounts (e.g., closing theencouraging employees to evacuate and stay safe).

 Encourage those with neighborhood-focused social media 

Nextdoor, homeowner associations (HOAs) and other neighgroups to support evacuation guidance and checks on neig
Recommendations: Maximize Social Media Use 

 Provide environmental cues that the hazard is real by posti

authoritative, time-stamped, geo-tagged photos and videos 

such as rising waters and wildfires on social media and weEncourage individuals to share those visuals with friends aincluding via their social media.

 Encourage people to share official warnings and safety info

their personal social networks. Encourage them to post ph

visual cues of the hazard as they evacuate.
Recommendations: Maximize Social Media Use 

 Use social media monitoring tools to identify the channels 

most people with effective messaging. Use these channels disseminate information about plans for re-entry. Plan to smonitor social media for rumors, misinformation and disinfmust be quickly corrected.

 Use social media channels during the event to encourage i

sign-up for community alerting systems to make sure they most up-to-date information.
Federal Emergency Manag

Leverage Trusted Messengers Findings and Recommendations 

Federal Emergency Manag
What We Found: Leverage Trusted Messengers 

 Receiving several warning messages 

from multiple, credible, trusted sources, such as NWS, local 

authorities and local media, increased rates of evacuation. NWS was specifically seen as a trusted source of information. 

 Homebound adults in

of ability to evacuate of physical mobility. Mneed emergency respassistance to leave thwell as assistance witransportation out of 
What We Found: Leverage Trusted Messengers 

 Adults who have dementia or other 

cognitive disabilities and a caregiver(s) who would evacuate with them have evacuation rates that are the same as, or lower than, others. 

 Caregivers were conc

potential for those in exposed to stigma anprivacy in a shelter. Tconcerned that unfamwould exacerbate theFamily and friends (thnetwork) tended to pimportant role in detewhether to evacuate 
What We Found: Leverage Trusted Messengers 

 Seeing neighbors evacuate or others 

leave was a predictor of increased evacuation. 

 Receiving messages from family and 

friends in addition to local authorities was a major positive influence on evacuation decision making. 

 Those who shared inf

others about evacuatvisual cues of storm rlikely to themselves e
Recommendations: Leverage Trusted Messengers 

 Help individuals validate the threat by sharing the authorit

from NWS and local trusted meteorologists. Individuals sholocal NWS Forecast Office social media accounts.

 Coordinate with advocacy organizations for those with acce

functional needs. Ask them to support evacuation decisiondescribe how shelters can provide appropriate care and sethese advocacy organizations in the evacuation and shelteprocess.
Recommendations: Leverage Trusted Messengers 

 When evacuation orders are issued, ask neighbors to chec

individuals with access and functional needs to see if they evacuate, and if so, alert authorities that these individuals e

vacuation assistance.

 Encourage individuals to share the alerts and warning mes

receive and the responsive protective actions they take witand their community.
Federal Emergency Manag

Help People Overcome Barriers to AFindings and Recommendations 

Federal Emergency Manag
What We Found: Helping People Overcome Barrie

Action 

Impediments include:  Traffic congestion and availability of

gasoline. Individuals facinghurricanes and wildfires wantreliable information aboutalternative routes to help overcomeworries about traffic congestion.Residents at risk of wildfire wereespecially concerned with thecapacity of the road system tohandle the traffic.

 The greater the numb

the household, the grbarrier to departure.

 Many studies noted c

the ability to re-enter zone after the disastetake care of any damreason not to evacuaconcerns were promihurricane research, arepairs to water damato mold. Some studielooting in evacuated 
What We Found: Helping People Overcome Barrie

Action 

 Costs of evacuation, including travel

costs.

 Legal status of undocumented

immigrants.

 Stress and anxiety surrounding

evacuation decision-makingincluding unknowns related to theevacuation (potential destination,space at shelters, travel issues) aswell as separation from family, pets,and the home.

 Individuals faced with 

shelter as their primahad more reluctance Their concerns includstrangers and being laway from social netw

 Some individuals cou

because of ongoing joresponsibilities.

 Lack of agreement am

members about the sdecision could delay evacuation decision-m
Recommendations: Help People Overcome Barrie

Action 

 To motivate people to leave when evacuation orders are iss

messages should include information about the risk of the 

probable effect on individual safety, property damage and functions. Include descriptions of prolonged impact on quaconsiderations (e.g., water, electricity, food).

 Because many individuals do not want to go to public shelt

information about the shelters associated with comfort (e.g

of power, air conditioning, rest rooms, and space for familiewell as services for individuals with access and functional 
Recommendations: Help People Overcome Barrie

Action 

 In messaging to those who want to stay and defend their p

likely to be men), clearly define the risks and communicate inability of first responders to help them once the threat hacertain severity threshold.

 Those who have purchased generators may feel more secu

so if there is loss of power, messaging should address how generators safely to avoid carbon dioxide poisoning.
Recommendations: Help People Overcome Barrie

Action 

 Stress the benefits that will encourage individuals to evacu

including avoiding traffic congestion, driving during daylighhaving more assurance regarding availability of gasoline alProvide up-to-date information on evacuation routes, alternservices available, including availability of gasoline.

 To reduce the number of evacuation unknowns which can 

making, provide as much detailed information as possible 

routes, traffic, shelters and re-entry plans.
Federal Emergency Manag

Improve Effectiveness of Alert and Warning Messages Findings and Recommendations 

Federal Emergency Manag
What We Found: Improve Effectiveness of Alert an

Messages 

 Mandatory evacuation orders 

significantly increase evacuation rates. 

 Changing the type or area of the 

order causes confusion and delay. 

 Messages that clearly describe the 

tangible personal impact of the 

hazard motivate protective action. 

 Messages that comp

current storm to simithe past helps individunderstand the risk. 

 Adding visuals, such 

photos, improves mescomprehension and dmaking. 
What We Found: Improve Effectiveness of Alert an

Messages 

 Attention-getting language and 

describing storm impacts is effective. However, language designed to scare people did not 

seem to further increase the motivation to act. 

 There may be a risk of “overwarning,” for hazards like tornadoes. 

Warning areas are typically much larger than the area at risk which desensitizes individuals to future warnings. 

 Individuals do not un

the hurricane categowarning “cone” only adamage, not surge, aincrease in category exponential rise in thdamage. 
Recommendations: Improve Effectiveness of Alert 

Warning Messages 

 Use language that will capture attention but is not overly d When communicating about hurricane risk, ensure that the 

includes flood and storm surge risk as well as the hurrican

 Use mandatory, timestamped evacuation orders associate

evacuation zones when possible. Understand that changingeographic area of evacuation orders will cause confusion
Recommendations: Improve Effectiveness of Alert 

Warning Messages 

 Use the Integrated Public Alert and Warning System’s Wire

Alert (WEA) capability for messages, as WEAs are not constsame bandwidth limitations as general text messages.

 Provide interactive maps to help individuals locate their ho

addresses and know their zone before an event.

 Provide easy and quick ways for individuals to corroborate 

through hyperlinks to other authoritative sources.
Recommendations: Improve Effectiveness of Alert 

Warning Messages 

 Compare the potential impact of an upcoming storm to oth

have posed similar threats and post visual cues.

 Given increased forecasting accuracy for tornadoes, use th

polygon possible, associated with local landmarks, to increunderstanding that the warning forecast is specific to their 

 Highlight probable impacts to individuals who stay and the 

duration of those impacts. Address the urgency for immednoting when it will no longer be safe to evacuate or for emepersonnel to attempt rescues as the storm gets close.
Recommendations: Improve Effectiveness of Alert 

Warning Messages 

 When issuing evacuation orders, explain the risks that led 

to evacuate some zones and why other zones are not evac

 Always encourage individuals to share information with fam

friends.
Federal Emergency Manag

Review the Jurisdiction Evacuatioand SIP Plan Findings and Recommendations 

Federal Emergency Manag
What We Found: 

Review the Jurisdiction Evacuation and SIP Plan 

 Receiving several warning messages

from multiple, credible, trustedsources, such as NWS, localauthorities and local media,increased rates of evacuation. NWSwas specifically seen as a trustedsource of information.

 Households with mul

not only evacuated in vehicles but tended tevacuation times. Onthat the odds that a hwould evacuate in twgroups is 2.7 times hhouseholds with mult
What We Found: 

Review the Jurisdiction Evacuation and SIP Plan 

 Studies noted that multiple-vehicle

evacuation increases highwaycongestion. Households see theability to evacuate with multiplevehicles as a benefit, as one personcan delay leaving to safeguardproperty.

 Individuals who lacke

their community planknow if their communemergency managemtended to be less willwith evacuation direc
What We Found: 

Review the Jurisdiction Evacuation and SIP Plan 

 Homebound adults indicated a lack

of ability to evacuate due to issuesof physical mobility. Many wouldneed emergency responderassistance to leave their house, aswell as assistance with

transportation out of the area.

 Many studies highligh

about shelters accep

added cost of evacuaand the logistics of hshelter as impedimenevacuation. A greater pets exacerbated the associated with evacmore individuals to devacuate.
What We Found: 

Review the Jurisdiction Evacuation and SIP Plan 

 Facilitators for evacuation include:

o Evacuation notifications issued

early in the day or at other triggerpoints, such as school dismissalmaking it easier to pick upchildren.

o Evacuation orders scheduled to

provide sufficient time forindividuals to completepreparation and still leave beforetraffic became congested.

o The ability to leave 

allowed travel to bduring daylight ho

o Early notification t

a household’s chodestination (e.g., fhotel) rather than shelter.
What We Found: 

Review the Jurisdiction Evacuation and SIP Plan 

 Studies noted the high level of stress

and anxiety surrounding evacuationdecision making. Sources of stressincluded the many unknowns relatedto the evacuation (e.g., potentialdestination, space at shelters,shelter safety, travel issues) as wellas separation from family, pets and

the home.
Recommendations: Review the Jurisdiction Evacu

SIP Plan 

 Plan to use all communication channels that can provide in

especially if cell bandwidth becomes constrained. This incladvisory radio, highway signs, amateur radio and NWS wea



For jurisdictions where many households have multiple veh

evacuation model assumptions should include the added vmultiple cars and multiple departure times.



Work with shelters in advance to prepare for individuals wi

functional needs. Involve representatives of advocacy orgathese health conditions in these preparations.
Recommendations: Review the Jurisdiction Evacu

SIP Plan 

 Work with first responders and other agencies to plan for e

transportation assistance for those who cannot evacuate o

 Have and promote behavioral health services available at s

locations to support those who are feeling anxious and stre

 Encourage shelters and hotels to publish relevant policies 

to their website and social media channels.
Questions?

Please email: 

FEMA-TARequest@fema.dhs.gov

Questions? 

FEMA-TARequest@fema.dhs.gov