Affected

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I NTRODUCTION 147

A QUATIC ORGANISMS 157

WILDLIFE 179

S PECIAL S TATUS S PECIES 183

VEGETATION 196

C ULTURAL RESOURCES 201

VISITOR USE AND E XPERIENCE 204

HUMAN HEALTH 219

S OCIOECONOMIC RESOURCES 221

NORTH C ASCADES C OMPLEX MANAGEMENT

AND OPERATIONS 229

Welcome
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 147

INTRODUCTION 

HIS “AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT” chapter describes the resources of the 

North Cascades National Park Service Complex (also referred to in the 

document as the “North Cascades Complex”) that could be affected as a result of 

implementation of any of the proposed fishery management alternatives. The 

resource descriptions provided in this chapter serve as the baseline from which to 

compare the potential effects of the management actions considered in this Draft 

Mountain Lakes Fishery Management Plan / Environmental Impact Statement 

(plan/EIS). The resource topics presented in this chapter, and the organization of 

the topics, correspond to the resource impact discussions contained in the 

“Environmental Consequences” chapter that follows this chapter. 

GENERAL PROJECT SETTING 

G EOGRAPHIC S ETTING

The National Park Service (NPS) administers three units that make up the North 

Cascades Complex. Those three units are North Cascades National Park 

(505,000 acres), Ross Lake National Recreation Area (117,000 acres), and Lake 

Chelan National Recreation Area (62,000 acres). The North Cascades Complex is 

located in the northernmost portion of the Cascade Mountain Range in 

northwestern Washington State (refer to “Figure 1: Vicinity Map” in the 

“Purpose of and Need for Action” chapter). The North Cascades Complex is 

surrounded by approximately 6 million acres of National Forest System lands, 

including the Mount Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest to the south and the 

Okanogan National Forest to the east. 

North Cascades National Park is divided into two administrative units: the North 

Unit and the South Unit. These two units are split geographically by Ross Lake 

National Recreation Area, which contains three reservoirs (Ross, Diablo, and 

Gorge lakes) created by the dams of the Skagit River Hydroelectric Project. The 

lakes provide a variety of recreational opportunities such as boating, sport 

fishing, tours of the hydroelectric facilities, and short hiking trails. The Skagit 

River Hydroelectric Project includes two small “company” towns: Newhalem 

and Diablo. It also includes a very large infrastructure of dams, penstocks, power 

houses, and associated maintenance facilities. In partnership with NPS and the 

North Cascades Institute, Seattle City Light is constructing an Environmental 

Learning Center on the shores of Diablo Lake. 

Ross Lake has two developed areas that provide recreational opportunities for 

park visitors: Ross Lake Resort and Hozomeen. Located in the shadow of Ross 

T
A FFECTED E NVIRONMENT

148 DRAFT MOUNTAIN LAKES FISHERY MANAGEMENT PLAN

Dam, Ross Lake Resort is a small assemblage of floating cottages operated by a 

private concessioner. Hozomeen is a semiprimitive visitor-use area situated in 

Ross Lake National Recreation Area on the United States-Canadian border. 

Visitor amenities at Hozomeen include several campgrounds, a boat launch, 

several docks, and a trail leading to Hozomeen Lake and points beyond. The 

Silver-Skagit Road, which originates near Hope, British Columbia, is the only 

road access to Hozomeen. Visitors can also access Hozomeen by boat but only 

when Ross Lake Reservoir is at or near full pool. Predominant visitor use is 

camping, boating, and sport fishing. Many visitors to Hozomeen are Canadian 

citizens. Approximately 8,200 people visited Hozomeen in 2002. 

The last major developed area in Ross Lake National Recreation Area is the 

highway corridor along State Route 20, commonly referred to as the “North 

Cascades Highway,” which provides the only road access across the North 

Cascades Complex. State Route 20 is closed in winter because of heavy snowfall 

and avalanche dangers. There are a variety of trailheads and rest stops along the 

highway that provide viewpoints and access to the remote interior portions of the 

North Cascades Complex. In 1992 the average vehicle use along State Route 20 

through Ross Lake National Recreation Area was approximately 1,300 vehicles 

per day (WDOT 2002). 

The community of Stehekin is the only development in Lake Chelan National 

Recreation Area. Situated at the head of Lake Chelan, Stehekin is a settlement of 

year-round and summer homes and recreation-oriented businesses. There is no 

road access to Stehekin. The only access is by trail, ferry, boat, or small airplane. 

The Stehekin Valley Road, a 21 mile dead-end road, leads north from Stehekin 

into the interior portions of the North Cascades Complex. 

The North Cascades Complex has approximately 386 miles of maintained trails, 

including a portion of the Pacific Crest Trail that runs from southern California to 

the Canadian border. There is also a network of climbing routes and way-trails 

throughout the North Cascades Complex that lead to various mountaineering, 

sport fishing, and other backcountry destinations. The NPS does not formally 

maintain these trails. 

W ILDERNESS

Approximately 634,600 acres, or 93%, of the North Cascades Complex are 

designated and managed as wilderness (NPS 1989) under the provisions of the 

Wilderness Act of 1964. Roughly 1.6 million acres of National Forest System 

lands that surround the North Cascades Complex are also designated as 

wilderness. To the east are the Pasayten Wilderness (529,477 acres) and Lake 

Chelan-Sawtooth Wilderness (151,435 acres); to the south is the Glacier Peak 

Wilderness (570,573 acres); and to the west are the Mount Baker Wilderness 

(117,528 acres) and Noisy-Diobsud Wilderness (14,133 acres). 

The border between the United States and Canada forms the northern boundary 

of North Cascades National Park and Ross Lake National Recreation Area. Just 

over the border into Canada are E.C. Manning Provincial Park, Skagit Valley 

Provincial Park, Chilliwack Lake Provincial Park, and various forest lands 
Introduction 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 149

The North Cascades Complex 

contains some of the most 

rugged and remote wilderness 

in the contiguous United 

States. 

administered by the province of British Columbia. Though not designated as 

“wilderness,” these Canadian protected areas are, for the most part, extremely 

rugged, wild, and remote, and they further complement the wilderness buffer that 

largely surrounds the North Cascades Complex. It is particularly important to 

note that these Canadian areas provide habitat corridors and source populations 

of medium- and large-sized mammals of conservation significance, such as 

grizzly bears and wolves. 

Because the North Cascades Complex is almost 93% wilderness, the majority of 

lands in the national park and two national recreation areas have not been 

developed. In accordance with the General Management Plan (NPS 1988b) for 

the North Cascades Complex, these areas are managed as “natural zones” to 

ensure that natural resources and processes remain largely unaltered by human 

activity. All of the natural lakes in the North Cascades Complex fall under the 

“natural zone” category for management purposes. 

Research Natural Areas, which are special subzones of natural zones, were given 

that designation by the NPS because of their unique natural features with 

essentially no past human influence. There are five Research Natural Areas in the 

North Cascades Complex. Two of these, Silver Lake Research Natural Area 

(1,627 acres) and Pyramid Lake Research Natural Area (164 acres), are centered 

around mountain lakes. Silver Lake was last stocked in 1961, and surveys 

performed in 1980 showed no fish remained in the lake. Pyramid Lake was last 

stocked in 1968, and surveys performed as recently as 1999 indicated no fish 

remained in the lake. Although both lakes were stocked in the past, current 

management of Research Natural Areas involves strict protection of their 

scientific values. 

G EOLOGIC O VERVIEW

This section provides an overview of the geology of the North Cascades 

Complex to demonstrate the inextricable link between hydrology and geology. 

The geology of the North Cascades Complex has a profound influence on various 

hydrologic processes such as rainfall, runoff, and the physical structure of lakes 

and streams and their associated water quality. 

Geologists have divided the region into three main geologic domains. From west 

to east, these domains include the Western domain, the Metamorphic domain, 

and the Methow domain. 

The Western domain consists mostly of sedimentary and volcanic rocks of 

marine origin. Notable peaks in this domain include Mount Baker and Mount 

Shuksan. 

The Metamorphic domain is composed of metamorphosed crystalline rocks, such 

as the steep vertical layers of granite that were formed under intense heat and 

pressure deep within the earth. Often referred to as the “crystalline core,” this 

domain is most visibly expressed in the rugged, remote peaks of the Picket 

Range. 

Metamorphism: In 

geological terms, the 

changes in the 

composition and 

texture of rocks caused

by heat, pressure, 

moisture, and other 

factors. 
A FFECTED E NVIRONMENT

150 DRAFT MOUNTAIN LAKES FISHERY MANAGEMENT PLAN

The Picket Range (shown 

above), along with the 

Eldorado Range, form 

the boundary of the 

Skagit Crest.

East of the Cascade Crest lies the Methow domain, composed of 

unmetamorphosed sedimentary rocks of marine and volcanic origin. This domain 

is separated from the Metamorphic domain by the Ross Lake fault. Each of the 

three geologic domains consists of many tectonic terrains, or relatively 

homogenous sections (in other words, the same character or composition 

throughout) of the earth's crust that have formed according to the geologic 

principles of plate tectonics. The many different tectonic terrains create an 

exceedingly complex mountain mosaic of many different types of rock (Tabor 

and Haugerud 1999). 

The Metamorphic domain consists of two major mountain divides: the Skagit 

Crest and the Pacific Crest. These two divides have a profound influence on the 

climate and hydrology of the North Cascades Complex. The Picket Range and 

Eldorado Range form the boundary of the Skagit Crest. The Pacific Crest Trail 

roughly forms the boundary of the Pacific Crest, which lies further east. These 

two mountain divides give rise to three hydrologic zones: the first is west of the 

Skagit Crest; the second is the Central basin, which is also referred to as the Ross 

Lake basin; and the third lies east of the Cascade Crest. 

Moving from west to east along these hydrologic zones, 

precipitation and runoff decline substantially due to the rain 

shadow effect produced by the high peaks of the Skagit Crest. 

The Cascade Crest creates a climatic barrier between the westside maritime climate and the east-side semiarid continental 

climate. This climatic barrier is useful for distinguishing 

between “west-side” and “east-side” lakes, though this 

classification is slightly complicated by the rain shadow effect 

produced in the lee of the Picket Range in the area around 

Ross Lake. Based on records from nearby weather stations, the 

average annual precipitation is about 100 inches on the west 

side and 60 inches on the east side. 

H YDROLOGY OF THE 

N ORTH C ASCADES C OMPLEX

The creeks and rivers of the North Cascades Complex drain into three regional 

watersheds: the Skagit River watershed, the Fraser River watershed (via the 

Chilliwack River), and the Columbia River watershed (via the Stehekin River). 

The Skagit River is the largest watershed in the Puget Sound area. Major 

tributaries that enter the Skagit, or that drain significant parts of the North 

Cascades Complex, include Little Beaver, Lightning, Big Beaver, Devils, Ruby, 

and Thunder creeks and the Cascade River. The Stehekin River drains into Lake 

Chelan and eventually into the Columbia River. The Chilliwack River originates 

in the northwest corner of the North Cascades Complex and drains northward 

into the Fraser River. “Map 1” is located in the envelope that accompanied this 

document and shows the creeks, rivers, lakes, and reservoirs described in this 

chapter. 

Ross Lake National Recreation Area contains three reservoirs along the Skagit 

River: Ross Lake (11,680 acres), Diablo Lake (910 acres), and Gorge Lake 

(210 acres). These three reservoirs make up the Skagit River Hydroelectric 

Tectonic: The study 

of the movement and

deformation of the 

earth’s crust.
Introduction 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 151

The Stehekin River 

originates as snow and 

glacial meltwater near 

Cascade Pass. 

Project, owned and managed by Seattle City Light. Although these reservoirs 

were considered in the impact analysis portion (the “Environmental 

Consequences” chapter) of this plan/EIS, they are beyond the scope of this 

document because they are manmade reservoirs and not naturally formed 

mountain lakes. 

Geologists believe that the Skagit River once flowed northward into the Fraser 

River drainage. At the end of the last ice age (about 13,000 years ago), huge 

amounts of glacial meltwater were blocked by the Cordilleran ice sheet, and this 

blockage caused the Skagit River to reverse course and carve out the Skagit 

River gorge between Newhalem and Diablo. This phenomenon, called drainage 

reversal, was widespread in the North Cascades Range (Tabor and Haugerud 

1999). As a result of drainage reversal, the Skagit River watershed can be broken 

down into upper and lower reaches. The Upper Skagit watershed extends well 

into Canada and includes the upper sections of the Skagit River, Ross Lake, and 

various other smaller creeks including Big Beaver, Little Beaver, Lightning, and 

Thunder. The Lower Skagit River watershed begins in the Skagit River gorge 

between the towns of Diablo and Newhalem. Major tributaries to the Lower 

Skagit watershed in the North Cascades Complex include the Cascade River and 

the upper reaches of Baker River, upstream of Baker Lake. 

On the east side of the Cascade Crest is the Stehekin River drainage. 

Most of the Stehekin River watershed is in the North Cascades 

Complex and the Glacier Peak Wilderness. Major tributaries along 

its course include five creeks: Bridge, Company, Agnes, Rainbow, 

and Boulder. Near the southern end of Lake Chelan National 

Recreation Area, the Stehekin River joins the deep blue-green waters 

of Lake Chelan. 

Lake Chelan, perhaps one of the most remarkable examples of 

glacial erosion in the North Cascades Complex, is a natural lake 

50 miles long (4 miles of which are in the Lake Chelan National 

Recreation Area) and 1,500 feet deep—one of the deepest lakes in 

North America. A dam constructed in 1927 added 21 feet to the level 

of Lake Chelan, giving it a full-pool surface elevation of 

approximately 1,010 feet above mean sea level (the 1982 to 1990 

mean). The lake levels fluctuate on an annual basis, with an average 

drawdown of 18 feet by late winter / early spring to accommodate 

snowmelt for hydropower generation. Full pool is usually restored by 

early July. 

The glaciers provide extremely cold water, help maintain summer base flows in 

the dry summer season following spring snowmelt, and contribute high loads of 

suspended sediment and various nutrients to lakes and rivers. The North 

Cascades Complex has approximately 330 glaciers. The minimum elevations of 

glaciers (glacier threshold) rise from west to east across the North Cascades 

Range due to lower snow accumulations and higher summer temperatures on the 

eastern slope of the range. Along the Pacific Crest portion of the North Cascades 

Complex, most glaciers are located south of Cascade Pass. North of Cascade 

Pass, most of the glaciers are found along the crest of the Skagit Range (also 

Glaciers play a 

significant role in the 

hydrology of many of 

the streams and lakes 

in the North Cascades 

Complex. 
A FFECTED E NVIRONMENT

152 DRAFT MOUNTAIN LAKES FISHERY MANAGEMENT PLAN

referred to as the Eldorado and Picket ranges). Throughout the North Cascades 

Complex, glaciers are located primarily on cooler north- and east-facing slopes. 

Glacier monitoring data indicate that the glaciers are melting rapidly. Since the 

end of the Little Ice Age in the late 1800s, glaciers have retreated throughout the 

North Cascades Complex, and it is likely that over 100 glaciers have disappeared 

from the North Cascades Complex since the late 19th century. Continuing 

shrinkage and disappearance of glaciers in the North Cascades Complex mean 

that its hydrology, aquatic ecosystems, and vegetation are changing as well. One 

result of glacial melting is that new lakes are being formed, and existing cirque 

lakes are expanding as their parent glaciers melt. Silver Lake is an excellent 

example of such a lake. From 1901 to 1906, Canadian geologist Reginald Daly 

mapped the glacier on Mt. Spickard (then Glacier Peak) as entirely covering the 

lake basin. Today, the glacier has retreated significantly and exposed an indigocolored lake (Silver Lake) over 1 mile long (Beckey 1995) and more than 

500 feet deep. 

Aside from glacial runoff, flooding plays an important role in the hydrology of 

the North Cascades Complex, and floods can happen at any time of year, but are 

more common under certain conditions. Summer floods usually occur during 

thunderstorms and associated periods of intense rainfall. These floods usually 

affect areas that are less than 10 square miles in size. Spring floods occur in May 

or June during peak snowmelt. The magnitude of these floods varies depending 

on the depth of winter snowpack and spring weather (precipitation, freezing 

level, and temperature). The most extreme flood events usually occur in winter 

during heavy rain events associated with unusually warm temperatures (high 

freezing level) and a pre-existing heavy snowpack. 

O VERVIEW OF M OUNTAIN L AKES

The North Cascades Complex has 561 permanent natural water bodies that 

include lakes, tarns (small mountain lakes formed by glaciers), and ponds. There 

are an unknown number of seasonal ponds that flood following snow melt but 

eventually dry up over the course of the summer. Approximately 245 of the 

permanent water bodies are considered mountain lakes because of their larger 

size and depth. Also, lakes and ponds are usually distinguished according to 

whether or not sunlight can reach the bottom (Wetzel 2001). For the purpose of 

this plan/EIS, each of the 91 water bodies with a history of fish stocking is 

considered a lake. Silver and Pyramid lakes also have a stocking history (they are 

currently fishless) but are not part of this plan/EIS because they are in one of the 

Research Natural Areas described earlier in this chapter. 

The mountain lakes with a history of fish stocking are dotted throughout the 

major watersheds in the North Cascades Complex and occur at elevations 

ranging from about 1,350 feet above mean sea level at Thunder Lake to 

6,795 feet above mean sea level at Stiletto Lake (see table 17). The mountain 

lakes occur in four broad vegetation zones: lowland forest, montane (high) 

forests, subalpine parkland, and alpine. Lakes are found in all four zones on both 

sides of the Cascade Crest and range in size from less than 1 acre to 

The lakes in the North 

Cascades Complex can 

be classified according

to the geologic 

processes, particularly 

the glacial processes, 

that formed them. This 

method of classification 

is commonly referred to 

as lake morphometry 

(Wetzel 2001).
Introduction 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 153

Silver Lake is 

classified as a 

cirque lake. 

Skymo Lake is classified as 

a moraine lake. 

TABLE 17: RANGE OF PHYSICAL ATTRIBUTES FOR MOUNTAIN LAKES WITH A HISTORY OF FISH STOCKING

Size 

(acres) 

Depth 

(feet) 

Elevation 

(feet above mean sea level) 

Mean 16 55.2 4,981 

Median 5.4 25.9 5,140 

Maximum 162 (Silver Lake*) 522 (Silver Lake) 6,795 (Stiletto Lake) 

Minimum 0.2 (Panther Potholes, upper) 9 (Panther Potholes, upper) 1,350 (Thunder Lake) 

Note: 

* Silver Lake has a history of fish stocking but is now fishless. It is in a Research Natural Area and 

not included in this plan/EIS. 

approximately 162 acres (Silver Lake). Many of the lakes in 

the park (64%) are less than 10 acres. There are only 9 lakes 

greater than 50 acres and only 3 lakes greater than 100 acres. 

This skewed distribution follows a similar pattern with respect 

to lake depth: there are only 12 lakes greater than 100 feet and 

only 4 lakes greater than 200 feet deep. Silver Lake is the 

largest (162 acres) deepest (522 feet), and nearly highest 

(6,700 feet above, mean sea level) lake of the mountain lakes. 

The attributes of the 91 lakes analyzed in this plan/EIS are 

presented in appendix E. 

The mountain lakes in the North Cascades Complex are 

characterized by eight classes: cirque, trough, ice scour, 

moraine, bench, fault, slump, and kettle. 

• Cirque lakes exist at the head of U-shaped glaciated (or formerly 

glaciated) valleys (Silver Lake is a cirque lake and, excluding Lake 

Chelan, the deepest in the North Cascades Complex). 

• Trough lakes were formed in glacially scoured U-shaped valleys. They 

tend to be long, narrow, and wedge-shaped, with the deepest spots in the 

lakes near their outlets. 

• Ice-scour lakes occur in irregular depressions and are often found on 

ridgetops. These lakes generally tend to be shallow. 

• Moraine lakes formed behind terminal or lateral moraines that were 

deposited by receding glaciers. 

• Bench lakes are literally found on topographic benches (relatively flat 

areas). 

• Fault lakes were formed by bedrock dams created by differential 

displacement of bedrock along tectonic faults. 

• Slump lakes occur in the depression left by the rotational “slip” of deepseated soil. 

• Kettle lakes were formed by depressions or “kettles” left after a glacier 

retreated. 
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154 DRAFT MOUNTAIN LAKES FISHERY MANAGEMENT PLAN

The lakes of the North Cascades Complex occupy a wide range of elevations, 

geologic terrains, and vegetation types. There are a variety of lake attributes, with 

large differences in shape, surface area, temperature, and depth. No two lakes are 

alike; each lake is a unique result of the physical, chemical, and biological 

processes that shaped the surrounding lake basin and the lake itself. These 

processes continue to unfold as glaciers melt and new lakes are born and as older 

lakes slowly accumulate sediment, organic matter, and woody debris. One way to 

measure these dynamic processes is by analyzing the water quality of the lakes. 

M OUNTAIN L AKES W ATER Q UALITY

The term “water quality” is used to describe the physical, chemical, and 

biological condition of water as influenced by natural processes and human 

activities. There are many ways to characterize and quantify water quality, and 

selection of appropriate methods often depends on the intended use of the water 

or the water body (Novotny and Olem 1994). For lakes in the North Cascades 

Complex, the “intended use” of water is for maintenance of ecological functions 

and processes and preservation of human values such as recreation, aesthetics, 

and clean water for consumption. These intended uses reflect the need for water 

and water bodies of the highest and most unimpaired quality. 

The common physical and chemical measurements of water quality include 

temperature, pH, alkalinity, dissolved oxygen, conductivity, and nutrients such as 

nitrogen and phosphorus that are important for photosynthetic organisms such 

plants, algae, and phytoplankton (primary producers) and for indirectly 

sustaining organisms at higher levels in the food chain. Approximately 105 of the 

lakes in the North Cascades Complex have been surveyed by park biologists and 

affiliated researchers for one or more parameters of baseline water quality; some 

lakes have been surveyed repeatedly over many years. The results of those 

surveys have yielded some broadly descriptive patterns and correlations with 

physical, chemical, and biological processes that may have important 

implications for mountain lakes fishery management. 

Broadly speaking, lakes in the North Cascades Complex are relatively cold, 

neutral in pH (i.e., neither overly acidic nor alkaline), low in concentration of 

dissolved solids, and also low in concentration of inorganic nutrients such as 

phosphorus and nitrogen. Taken together, these parameters indicate that most of 

the lakes in the North Cascades Complex are oligotrophic or ultra-oligotrophic 

(Liss et al. 1995). Oligotrophic means the lakes contain relatively little plant life 

and nutrients but are rich in dissolved oxygen. Under these conditions, the lakes 

are low in productivity and capacity to sustain aquatic life through primary 

production (Wetzel 2001). Although lakes can be somewhat uniformly described 

as oligotrophic, there is a great deal of variation in water quality among the 

mountain lakes due to a variety of factors including geographic distribution, 

elevation, aspect, and morphology (shape and structure) of the lake basin. 

The biological productivity of lakes in the North Cascades Complex is strongly 

influenced by lake elevation and basin aspect. These two factors greatly affect 

the length of time a given lake remains frozen each year. Low-elevation lakes 

have the longest ice-free periods, and high-elevation alpine lakes have the 

pH is the measure of

the acidity or

alkalinity of a solution,

such as vinegar, or a

damp substance, such

as soil. The pH of pure

water is 7, with lower

numbers indicating

acidity and higher

numbers indicating

alkalinity.
Introduction 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 155

shortest ice-free periods. Some high-elevation lakes, particularly lakes with 

easterly or northerly exposures, may not thaw following a winter with heavy 

snowfall (NPS, J. Reidel, pers. comm., 2003). Most lakes, however, become icefree by mid-July and freeze over by late October to early November. Lakes on 

the west side of the Cascades tend to freeze over about two weeks later than lakes 

on the east side. The generally short ice-free season in the North Cascades 

Complex has a great influence on the survival and reproductive potential of both 

native species and stocked fish. 

Water quality parameters (water temperature, pH, alkalinity, conductivity, total 

Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN), ammonia nitrogen, and total phosphorus) tend to 

decline at higher elevations, but nitrogen, in the form of nitrates, increases in 

concentration at higher elevations. Lakes with a strong glacial influence contain 

higher levels of phosphorus. Lake depth also appears to have some influence on 

water quality; for example, concentrations of alkalinity, conductivity, TKN, and 

total phosphorus appear to be higher in shallow lakes (less than 32 feet deep) 

than in deeper lakes. Lake-basin geology does not appear to play a major role in 

segregating most lakes based on water quality (Liss et al. 1995), although the 

higher pH level of certain lakes (such as Ridley Lake with a pH of 8.3) may be 

related to the limestone composition of the underlying geologic terrains (for 

example, Hozomeen terrain). 

O RIGIN OF M OUNTAIN B IOTA

All the mountain lakes in the North Cascades Complex were at one time fishless 

because of topographic barriers, such as cascades, that obstructed fish migration. 

Though lacking in fish, the lakes were far from barren of aquatic life. When the 

glaciers receded following the last ice age, a dynamic process of dispersal and 

colonization occurred, giving rise to a rich array of aquatic organisms that 

eventually colonized the mountain lakes. This process, which continues today, 

varied greatly among the different organisms. Most insects flew or were carried 

by wind to the lakes. Smaller zooplankton may have been carried on up-valley 

breezes (OSU, G. Larson, pers. comm., 2003). Larger species of crustacean 

zooplankton and amphipods may have been transported on feathers, in the 

digestive byproducts of waterfowl, or in fur of semi-aquatic mammals (Daborn 

1976; Peck 1975). The amphibians slowly spread over land or followed 

watercourses. Recent genetic research (Shields and Liss 2003) indicates that 

long-toed salamanders may have colonized the east and west sides of the North 

Cascades from two separate glaciers. Over long periods of time, the lakes were 

colonized by a unique, fishless assemblage of aquatic and semi-aquatic 

organisms. 

The following sections describe the various organisms (invertebrate and 

vertebrate) that researchers have found in North Cascades Complex lakes. 

Because it is believed that fish are not native to mountain lakes prior to their 

introduction by humans, this section is intended to describe the predisturbance, or 

historic conditions, of mountain lakes in the North Cascades Complex based on 

available information and professional judgment. Fish stocking has taken place 

now for more than a century, and it may not be possible to truly understand the 

pre-stocking diversity, abundance, and distribution of native species. 

Biota: The total 

complement of all 

the animals and 

plants in a given 

area. 
A FFECTED E NVIRONMENT

156 DRAFT MOUNTAIN LAKES FISHERY MANAGEMENT PLAN

The term “biota” refers 

to the total complement 

of all the animals and 

plants in a given area. 
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 157

AQUATIC ORGANISMS 

INTRODUCTION 

This section describes four main groups of aquatic organisms that are key 

components of the lake ecosystems in the North Cascades Complex. 

Plankton (free-floating microscopic plants (phytoplankton) and 

animals (zooplankton) 

Macroinvertebrates (larger invertebrate animals like worms and 

insects) 

Amphibians (frogs and salamanders) 

Fish 

Each of these plays an important role in maintaining desirable conditions in 

mountain lake ecosystems and in preserving the biological resources of the lakes. 

A large part of an organism’s importance has to do with its role in the lake food 

web; that is, its “trophic level” or “trophic role.” This basically comes down to 

“who eats whom” and if there is sufficient food to support higher levels of 

organisms within the lake and sustain the lake’s desired ecological condition. 

Each group of organisms also plays a role in the cycling of nutrients in the lake 

ecosystem by taking up and/or releasing nitrogen and phosphorus, which are 

needed for the production of plants that support the overall productivity of the 

lake. The following “Introduction to Lake Ecology” should help the reader form 

a basic understanding of these roles and the importance of each group of aquatic 

organisms. 

INTRODUCTION TO LAKE ECOLOGY

H OW A QUATIC S YSTEMS W ORK : F OOD 

C HAINS / W EBS AND N UTRIENT C YCLING

The relationships between biological communities within a lake ecosystem may 

be organized conceptually into a food chain or, more realistically, a food web. A 

food chain is a simple representation of the flow of food energy from one level to 

another, usually starting with plants that can make food through photosynthesis, 

and leading up to the “top” consumer. For a mountain lake, a simple food chain 

might resemble something like this: 

Phytoplankton → Zooplankton → Macroinvertebrates → Amphibians → Fish
A FFECTED E NVIRONMENT

158 DRAFT MOUNTAIN LAKES FISHERY MANAGEMENT PLAN

Each level in the food chain is called a “trophic” level, and the plants that make 

the food are referred to as primary producers. Organisms further up the chain are 

called the consumers or predators and are often divided into those that eat plants 

(herbivores) or those that eat animal tissue or meat (carnivores). Generally, there 

are a lot more producers and lower-level consumers in a food chain, since they 

are needed to support larger organisms at the top—the top predators. However, in 

real life, many species eat a variety of organisms (omnivores) and are not 

necessarily tied to particular trophic level. Also, consumers often shift levels 

throughout their life cycle. For example, a larval fish may initially eat fine 

particulate material and small zooplankton, and it may then switch and graze on 

larger zooplankton and, ultimately, end up feeding on salamander eggs and 

larvae when it reaches maturity. Therefore, relationships in a mountain lake are 

more realistically portrayed as a food web. Figure 8 depicts the simplified food 

web for a typical mountain lake. 

The following is a summary of connections between the organisms depicted in 

the food web: 

Phytoplankton—these, along with the periphyton (algae attached to rocks or 

other substrates) are the primary producers in a lake ecosystem and form the base 

of the food web. These organisms undergo a process called photosynthesis in 

which they take energy from sunlight and convert nonliving, inorganic material 

(carbon dioxide, water, and nutrients) into living, organic plant tissue. Oxygen is 

released as a byproduct of this process. Generally, phytoplankton are not directly 

affected by fish predation but are indirectly affected by changes in the food web 

caused by fish introduction. 

Zooplankton—these include a wide variety of microscopic animals such as 

copepods and cladocerans. They are the first consumer level in the food web. 

Most grazing zooplankton species feed on phytoplankton, but some smaller ones 

are, in turn, preyed upon by other larger zooplankton species. Zooplankton are 

directly affected by fish predation and indirectly affected by changes in the food 

web caused by fish introduction. 

Macroinvertebrates—these include organisms such as aquatic insects, snails, 

amphipods (scuds), and a variety of worms. These organisms primarily eat 

phytoplankton, periphyton, and zooplankton and may also consume detritus 

(decaying plants and animals) for food. Macroinvertebrates are directly affected 

by fish predation and indirectly affected by changes in the food web caused by 

fish introduction. 

Amphibians—these include salamanders and frogs, which consume zooplankton 

and macroinvertebrates. Much of the consumption depends on the stage of the 

particular amphibian in its life cycle. For instance, salamander larvae consume 

mostly zooplankton, while adult salamanders eat larger macroinvertebrate larvae 

and adult insects and worms. Amphibians are directly affected by fish predation 

and competition for prey and indirectly affected by changes in trophic 

interactions and nutrient cycling caused by fish introduction. 

The density of

plankton varies 

depending on the 

availability of

nutrients and stability 

of the water. A liter of

lake water could

contain more than 

500 million planktonic 

organisms.
Aquatic Organisms 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 159

FIGURE 8: FOOD WEB FOR A LAKE WITH FISH
A FFECTED E NVIRONMENT

160 DRAFT MOUNTAIN LAKES FISHERY MANAGEMENT PLAN

Fish—these include many stocked and introduced species. Juvenile fish feed 

primarily on zooplankton and the smaller macroinvertebrates, while adult fish 

may eat larger zooplankton, macroinvertebrates, and amphibian larvae. Native 

fish are directly affected by predation by introduced fish species, competition for 

habitat and prey, and in some cases, hybridization (interbreeding).

Humans, bears, eagles, and other large predators—although not directly part 

of the aquatic food web, these are the top predators in the entire lake system of 

the North Cascades Complex when fish are available. 

As shown on figure 8, nutrients are also part of the picture, and they cycle 

through the system. Nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorus, are needed for 

plant production and the overall productivity of a lake. When organisms die, 

nutrients contained in the decaying organic matter (called detritus) are released as 

this material decomposes. Nitrogen, in particular, is also contained in wastes 

excreted by organisms (fish excrete quite a bit more nitrogen than others, given 

their size). Just like houseplants, phytoplankton use these nutrients to grow and 

develop. The more nutrients, the more phytoplankton can grow to support upper 

trophic levels, and the more productive the lake. On the other hand, an abundance 

of nutrients in a lake can cause an unusual increase in the amount of 

phytoplankton that develops. 

It is important to discuss and analyze these organisms in this plan/EIS because 

they serve as vital links that ensure the stability and biological resources of the 

ecosystem. If a particular species is reduced or eliminated from the food web, 

other organisms in the system are affected, just like breaking a strand in a web 

will put new stresses on the remaining strands and change the structural stability 

of the web. The concern about stocked fish to a naturally fishless lake comes 

from the potential effects on the trophic relationships and the nutrient balance in 

the lake (in other words, potential changes in the food web). For example, certain 

stocked fish may eat a large quantity of zooplankton, which can reduce the 

amount of food available to other organisms (such as some macroinvertebrates) 

that depend on zooplankton for their food supply. Also, with fewer zooplankton, 

certain species of smaller zooplankton or phytoplankton may increase. Fish also 

add nutrients through their waste elimination, and this could add to the increase 

in phytoplankton or other producers as more nitrogen is available. All these shifts 

and changes can cause an imbalance in the normal functioning of the ecosystem, 

and in some cases, important links in the food chain or sensitive species could 

actually be eliminated. 

H OW O RGANISMS A RE O RGANIZED : 

E COSYSTEMS , C OMMUNITIES , 

P OPULATIONS , AND M ETAPOPULATIONS

Another way aquatic organisms are organized is by their relationship with other 

species and their environment. In this case, we are not talking about trophic 

levels, but rather the different levels of organisms as defined by their genetic 

connections and their connections with the other components of their 

environment. In general, from smaller to larger, there is a “biological spectrum” 

that can be depicted as 
Aquatic Organisms 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 161

Genes → Cells → Organs → Organisms → Populations → Communities → Ecosystems 

In the analysis provided in the “Environmental Consequences” chapter, the focus 

is mainly on impacts at the population and community levels, which have 

implications at the ecosystem level. A population (sometimes called “species 

population”) is a collective group of organisms of the same species occupying a 

particular geographic space. For example, the analysis may discuss a population 

of long-toed salamanders or a population of certain species of phytoplankton in a 

lake. 

A community is any group of populations living in a certain geographic area or 

physical habitat. For example, the phytoplankton community consists of all the 

different species of phytoplankton in a lake. In some cases, the extent of 

geographic distribution is best described as a cluster of geographically discrete 

(separate) populations that are connected by infrequent, but critical, 

interbreeding. This is then referred to as a metapopulation. For example, the 

geographic extent of a population of aquatic macroinvertebrates with a flying 

adult phase, such as caddisflies, is generally determined by drainage basin 

boundaries. Adult caddisflies from one population may frequently disperse to 

other drainage basins and interbreed with other populations, forming a 

metapopulation relationship. This is important because metapopulation 

relationships allow for recolonization of suitable habitats where populations, for 

some reason, are no longer present. 

Finally, an ecosystem includes both the living and nonliving components in an 

area—the organisms and their physical environment, which includes the soil, 

sediments, air, and water they use and live in. 

PLANKTONIC ORGANISMS 

Planktonic or “free-floating” organisms can be found in lakes throughout the 

North Cascades Complex. These organisms include phytoplankton, which are 

free-floating microscopic plants, and zooplankton, their animal counterparts. 

P HYTOPLANKTON

Phytoplankton are tiny photosynthetic plants that float within the water column. 

The phytoplankton community in mountain lakes consists of many different 

types of microscopic and submicroscopic organisms that include diatoms, bluegreen algae, green algae, and photosynthetic flagellates (Reid and Wood 1976). 

Just like other algae or land-based plants, phytoplankton transform sunlight and 

carbon dioxide into organic tissue through photosynthesis and are, therefore, 

considered “primary producers.” When phytoplankton die (or are consumed), 

they become organic matter or food that is available for organisms at higher 

levels in a lake’s food web. Because they are the first link in the aquatic food 

web, phytoplankton are vital components of the lake ecosystems of the North 

Cascades Complex. 

Diatoms are singlecelled algae with a 

cell wall made of 

silica. 
A FFECTED E NVIRONMENT

162 DRAFT MOUNTAIN LAKES FISHERY MANAGEMENT PLAN

As discussed previously in the section titled “Mountain Lake Water Quality,” the 

water quality of the lakes is influenced by such factors as lake elevation and 

temperature, the concentration of dissolved solids, total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN), 

and water temperature increases relative to decreasing lake elevation. The 

physical and chemical characteristics of lakes tend to change with changes in 

elevation. Phytoplankton densities and productivity tend to increase with 

decreasing lake elevation and associated changes in water quality. The lower the 

elevation and higher the water temperature of a lake, the more likely it is to have 

higher levels of dissolved solids and TKN, an indicator of the potential for plant 

growth and lake productivity (Larson et al. 1999b). The density of 

phytoplankton, which is a large part of the measured productivity of a lake, also 

increases along this same gradient; that is, it is higher in low-elevation warmer 

lakes with high levels of dissolved solids and TKN (Larson et al. 1998). The 

productivity and diversity of phytoplankton also tend to increase with increasing 

amounts of the nutrient phosphorus in lakes (Larson et al. 1998). 

As mentioned previously, phytoplankton are at the base of the aquatic food web 

of mountain lakes. Top predators in North Cascades Complex lakes, such as 

salamanders and fish, do not feed on the tiny phytoplankton. It is the zooplankton 

and other invertebrates that feed on phytoplankton, and they in turn, are 

consumed by larger animals such as fish and salamanders. Fish stocking, 

however, can disrupt the natural balance of the density and species of 

phytoplankton that would usually occur in fishless lakes. Zooplankton that would 

normally graze on phytoplankton may be consumed by fish, resulting in higher 

densities of phytoplankton or a particular species of phytoplankton. Fish waste 

products may increase nutrient levels and cause changes in phytoplankton 

populations outside the normal range of variability. 

Z OOPLANKTON

Zooplankton are microscopic animals that are free-floating in the water column. 

They include a wide variety of organisms, including protozoans, rotifers, and 

crustacean zooplankton. Protozoans are one-celled plankton that include ciliates 

(those with cilia, or small hair-like projections) and flagellates (those with whiplike projections). Rotifers have retractable crowns of cilia that create currents to 

draw in food. They are widely distributed in the lakes of the North Cascades 

Complex and may be the dominant zooplankton under certain conditions. The 

crustacean zooplankton community includes cladocerans and copepods. 

Cladocerans, commonly called “water fleas,” are small, generally transparent 

crustaceans that feed on small organic particles. Daphnia are the most commonly 

known genus of cladoceran. These small herbivorous (plant-eating) zooplankton 

are often referred to as the “cattle” of lakes and ponds because they graze 

primarily on phytoplankton. In contrast to the flat disc-like shape of cladocerans, 

copepods are a type of crustacean zooplankton with a cylindrical and segmented 

shape. Copepods exhibit a wide variety of feeding preferences, even consuming 

other zooplanktonic organisms. In the food web of mountain lakes, the larger 

cladocerans and copepods are a very important component of the food base for 

larger vertebrate organisms such as larval amphibians and fish (Wetzel 2001; 

Brönmark and Hansson 1998). 

Flagellates, like 

diatoms, are 

phytoplankton 

responsible for

producing energy 

and forming the 

base of the aquatic 

food chain.
Aquatic Organisms 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 163

The crustacean zooplankton communities in lakes of the North Cascades 

Complex are very diverse, and more detail about their ecology can be found in 

documents that are posted on the website developed for this plan/EIS 

(http://www.nps.gov/npca/highlakes.htm). This research, which is summarized in 

the “Purpose of and Need for Action” chapter, indicates that zooplankton are 

found in all 91 lakes addressed in this document, including the lakes with fish. 

Five species of diaptomid zooplankton inhabit the lakes in the North Cascades 

Complex: Diaptomus kenai, D. articus, D. tyrelli, D. lintoni, and D. leptopus. 

The most common large diaptomid, D. kenai, is able to persist over a wide range 

of conditions—even conditions that would not be expected to support living 

organisms (Liss et al. 1998). The densities of zooplankton are not known for all 

the lakes in the North Cascades Complex, but results from the study of a subset 

of lakes indicate that the densities of copepods are affected by temperature, 

nutrient levels, and especially, fish predation. In general, much of the research 

indicates that high densities of fish, especially reproducing fish that can build up 

to very high densities and form multiple age classes over time, can cause a 

substantial decrease in the density of certain large copepods due to predation 

(Liss et al. 1998). Lower densities of fish, more typical of stocked situations, do 

not have as great an effect. There is not much difference in abundance of 

diaptomid copepods between these stocked lakes and fishless lakes (Liss et al. 

1998), possibly because the densities are not as high in stocked lakes, and the 

zooplankton can recover between stockings. 

In addition, it was found that copepods are more abundant in deeper lakes with 

high fish densities than in shallower lakes with high fish densities because it is 

thought that the zooplankton use the deeper waters to escape predation (Liss et al. 

1998). For herbivorous copepods, the nutrient level of a lake is also important. 

The small herbivorous copepod, L. tyrelli, is restricted to shallow lakes (less than 

32 feet deep) with relatively high concentrations of TKN and total phosphorus. 

Also, some smaller herbivorous copepods serve as food for the larger 

zooplankton, and the smaller copepods may flourish when a lake is stocked and 

fish eat many of the larger zooplankton (Liss et al. 1998). 

MACROINVE RTEBRATES 

The term “macroinvertebrate” is often used generically to describe a diverse 

array of aquatic invertebrate organisms that are large enough to be seen clearly 

with the naked eye. Many larval and adult macroinvertebrates (such as 

Chaoborus, a phantom midge) in lake ecosystems are also planktonic or freefloating, so the distinction between planktonic organisms and macroinvertebrates 

in this discussion is useful but somewhat arbitrary. 

Research into the ecology and numbers of macroinvertebrates in the lakes of the 

North Cascades Complex has focused largely on the nearshore 

macroinvertebrates, primarily because of the logistical limitations of sampling 

deeper water. Also, predators, such as salamanders and fish, are known to feed 

selectively on macroinvertebrates in the shallow nearshore areas of lakes. 

The recent research into the ecological effects of stocked fish in the lakes of the 

North Cascades Complex (Liss et al. 1995) found 88 nearshore classifications of 

Five species of 

diaptomid zooplankton 

inhabit the lakes in the 

North Cascades 

Complex. 
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164 DRAFT MOUNTAIN LAKES FISHERY MANAGEMENT PLAN

macroinvertebrates, representing 16 distinct taxonomic groups including aquatic 

insects, gastropods (snails), amphipods (scuds or sandhoppers), nematodes 

(unsegmented worms), oligochaetes (segmented worms), and turbellaria 

(flatworms). The presence of nearshore macroinvertebrates in lakes in the North 

Cascades Complex is associated with habitat and food availability, plus lake 

water temperature and elevation (Hoffman et al. 1996). In general, higher 

elevation lakes, which are colder and have less nearshore vegetation and food 

availability, contain fewer types of macroinvertebrates. Research found that 83% 

of different taxonomic groups inhabit lower-elevation forest-zone lakes, 61% 

inhabit subalpine lakes, and only 16% inhabit higher alpine lakes (Hoffman et al. 

1996). 

Macroinvertebrates are a very important food source for salamander larvae and 

fish, the two top vertebrate predators in lakes in the North Cascades Complex 

(Tyler et al. 1998a; Liss et al. 1995). When lakes with vertebrate predators were 

compared to lakes without vertebrate predators, statistically significant 

differences were found in the abundance of three types of aquatic insects: a 

stonefly (Taenionema), a mayfly (Ameletus), and a caddisfly (Desmona mono). 

The larval stonefly was far less abundant in lakes with vertebrate predators, 

though the role of fish predation in reducing its abundance could not be 

determined. The mayfly was found almost exclusively in lakes without 

salamanders or fish, but salamander predation, not fish predation, appeared to 

limit its distribution. Only the caddisfly appeared to be limited by fish predation 

(Liss et al. 1995). 

The caddisfly is an herbivore (feeds on plants) and detritivore (feeds on decaying 

plant or animal material) that is commonly found throughout the western United 

States, particularly in stream habitats (Merrit and Cummins 1996). In the North 

Cascades Complex, the caddisfly, D. mono, is found in lakes on both sides of the 

Cascade Crest, but it is more common in subalpine lakes than forested lakes (Liss 

et al. 1995). 

As part of a program for long-term monitoring of aquatic resources in the North 

Cascades Complex, NPS biologists have been collecting nearshore benthic 

macroinvertebrates (those that live on lake bottoms) to identify long-term trends 

in the biological resources of lakes and streams. Benthic macroinvertebrates are 

especially suited for long-term monitoring of ecosystem health because they are 

widely distributed, and certain taxa are quite sensitive to pollution and other 

human-caused stresses. The benthic macroinvertebrate monitoring has detected 

D. mono in over 50 of 88 surveyed lakes in the North Cascades Complex, 

indicating that the species is a common and widely distributed taxon, primarily in 

lakes without fish. 

Amphipods are laterally compressed crustaceans in the order Amphipoda; they 

resemble tiny shrimp. More commonly called “scuds” or “sandhoppers,” they can 

be a very important food source for fish in freshwater habitats (Reid and Wood 

1976; Brönmark and Hansson 1998). Three kinds of amphipods (Stygobromus

sp., Gammarus lacustris, and Hyalella azteca) have been collected in about 

10 lakes (including Hozomeen Lake) in the North Cascades Complex. 

The term 

“macroinvertebrate” is often

used generically 

to describe a diverse array 

of aquatic invertebrate 

organisms that are large 

enough to be seen clearly 

with the naked eye. 
Aquatic Organisms 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 165

The “blind 

amphipod” was 

found in water 

samples taken from 

Redoubt Lake and 

Upper East Lake. 

Recent sampling of benthic macroinvertebrates in fishless lakes led to the 

discovery of an unusual genus of blind amphipod not previously found in the 

Pacific Northwest. The blind amphipod, belonging to the genus Stygobromus, 

was collected from two relatively shallow lakes: Redoubt Lake (maximum 

depth—46 feet) and Upper East Lake (maximum depth—unknown). Redoubt 

Lake was last stocked with fish in 1967 but has since become fishless. This 

finding was an interesting new record for the western United States since the 

only other known taxon in the genus Stygobromus was collected from very deep 

water in Lake Tahoe, California. According to the taxonomist who identified the 

amphipod, it is unusual that a blind amphipod would be found in such shallow 

water (ODU, J. Holsinger, pers. comm., 2001). 

AMPHIBIANS 

Of the 12 species of amphibians in the North Cascades Complex, 9 are believed 

to inhabit lakes and ponds or associated outlet streams and wet meadows; there 

are 2 species of salamander, 1 newt, 5 species of frog, and 1 species of toad. The 

highest diversity of amphibian species appears to be in the Big Beaver drainage 

on the west side of Ross Lake. This large drainage is relatively low in elevation 

and has an abundance of water resources such as creeks, beaver ponds, forested 

and scrub shrub wetlands, and seeps. The following section describes the range, 

habitat, and abundance (if known) of four of the amphibian species that inhabit or 

breed in lakes in the North Cascades Complex. Five more amphibian species are 

discussed under the section titled “Special Status Species” in this chapter. 

L ONG - T OED S ALAMANDER

The long-toed salamander (Ambystoma macrodactylum) is widely distributed 

throughout the Pacific Northwest (Leonard et al. 1993) and in the North 

Cascades Complex (Liss et al. 1995; Bury et al. 2000). Research in the North 

Cascades Complex has documented larvae in a wide variety of watery habitats, 

ranging from shallow ponds to deep lakes. Adult long-toed salamanders are 

fossorial (terrestrial animals that live underground in burrows). They are not 

capable of creating their own burrows but depend on small mammal burrows for 

habitat and dispersal (Petranka 1998; Semlitsch 1983). In the fishless highelevation mountain lakes of the North Cascades Complex, long-toed salamanders 

are considered the top vertebrate predator (Tyler et al. 1998a). The long-toed 

salamander is an important species to examine in this plan/EIS because it has 

been shown to be sensitive to nonnative fish predation in several studies 

conducted in mountain lakes in western North America (Dunham et al. 2004). 

“Table G-4: Assessment of Impacts on Amphibians” (see appendix G) lists those 

lakes that were found to have either long-toed or Northwestern salamanders 

present or likely to be present, based on recent research completed in the North 

Cascades Complex. Of the 91 lakes in the study area, 40 are likely to have longtoed salamanders present, based on suitable habitat and known ranges, and 

32 lakes have had long-toed salamander presence documented by surveys. Longtoed salamanders are found on both the west and east sides of the Cascade Crest; 

however, on the east side, the larvae appear to be more abundant in smaller, 

shallower lakes (Liss et al. 1995). 
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166 DRAFT MOUNTAIN LAKES FISHERY MANAGEMENT PLAN
Aquatic Organisms 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 167

Two subspecies of long-toed salamanders occur in the North Cascades Complex. 

The distribution of the eastern long-toed salamander (A. m. columbianum) is east 

of the Cascade Crest in the Lake Chelan and Stehekin River drainages, as far 

upstream as the junction of Bridge Creek (including Bridge Creek to its 

headwaters). The western long-toed salamander (A.m. macrodatylum) is 

distributed west of the Cascade Crest in the drainages of the Skagit, Baker, and 

Chilliwack rivers. The western subspecies appears to be absent from much of the 

center of the North Unit of North Cascades National Park, and both subspecies 

appear to be absent in most of the South Unit, with most of the eastern long-toed 

salamanders documented in the Lake Chelan National Recreation Area. This 

distribution is consistent with long-toed salamanders recolonizing lower-gradient 

streams and rivers that have deep glacial sediments and avoiding the least 

productive lakes in the central regions of both the North and South Units. 

The findings of the research conducted in the North Cascades Complex regarding 

effects of fish and other parameters on salamanders are summarized in the 

“Purpose of and Need for Action” chapter. In general, the research indicates that 

there are far fewer long-toed salamanders in lakes and ponds that contain fish 

(especially reproducing fish), compared to lakes and ponds that are fishless, 

although the variation in abundance can be high even within a lake. For example, 

recent surveys for long-toed salamanders in eight randomly selected fishless 

lakes found between 0 to 65 individuals per 328 feet of shoreline surveyed (Liss 

et al. 2002). In the early 1990s, researchers documented 2 to 170 individuals per 

328 feet of shoreline at six lakes with no fish present at the time of the survey 

(2 had been previously stocked). In contrast, in seven lakes containing fish that 

were either nonreproducing stocked (2 lakes) or reproducing (5 lakes), the range 

was drastically lower: 0 to 8 individuals per 328 feet of shoreline surveyed. The 

presence of salamanders in lakes with fish may be due to their ability to persist in 

areas that are unfavorable or unsuitable for fish, such as in shallow areas along 

shorelines with rocks and woody debris where they can hide under and escape 

predation. 

Although fish predation appears to be a primary factor affecting salamander 

densities in mountain lakes, there are other factors that influence the presence 

and abundance of larval long-toed salamanders. Some important environmental 

factors may include elevation, area, water depth, temperature, and certain water 

quality parameters (Liss et al. 1995). Another important factor is the distribution 

of the species within the region, especially the availability of nearby source 

populations that can serve to recolonize individual lakes where local populations 

of salamanders are no longer present. 

One particular parameter that appears to be related to the abundance of long-toed 

salamander larvae in North Cascades Complex lakes is TKN (Tyler et al. 1998a), 

which is a combined measurement of ammonia and organic nitrogen. Nitrogen is 

a nutrient needed for production of organic matter by plants (phytoplankton and 

periphyton in the lakes), which are the first link in the aquatic food web and 

thereby, form the basis for the overall productivity of the lake. Researchers have 

found that the density of larval long-toed salamanders increases with increased 

concentration of TKN (Tyler et al. 1998a). In practical terms, this can be 

explained by the links in the food web. Long-toed salamander larvae feed on a 

variety of cladoceran zooplankton. Lakes with more nitrogen generally support 
A FFECTED E NVIRONMENT

168 DRAFT MOUNTAIN LAKES FISHERY MANAGEMENT PLAN

more phytoplankton, which are the food for the cladoceran zooplankton, which in 

turn supply more food to support larger numbers of salamanders. Therefore, 

lakes with high TKN and associated high productivity, especially smaller lakes 

that do not have fish and often not stocked, provide particularly important habitat 

for long-toed salamander larvae. 

Very recent research into the genetic population structure of long-toed 

salamanders in the North Cascades Complex has uncovered a high degree of 

genetic diversity between local populations and populations separated by 

distances. Genetic isolation appears to increase with distance, and genetic 

exchange among separate populations is very low. This research found no 

significant loss of genetic diversity due to fish presence, and it underscores the 

importance of maintaining metapopulations by protecting lakes that are 

geographically isolated. 

N ORTHWESTERN S ALAMANDER

The Northwestern salamander (Ambystoma gracile) belongs to the same genus as 

the long-toed salamander. It is secretive and rarely seen except during the 

breeding season. Terrestrial adults, like the adults of long-toed salamanders, are 

fossorial and generally only come to the surface at night during rainstorms, 

primarily when migrating to and from breeding sites. Mountain populations are 

often neotenic, which means that juvenile characteristics are retained in the adult. 

Salamanders in this “arrested” form of development fail to change 

(metamorphose) from the larval form to terrestrial adults, but instead become 

sexually mature and reproduce while retaining larval features such as gills. 

Experts believe the neotenic phase may help Northwestern salamanders survive 

drought and other environmental stresses that often kill terrestrial salamander 

adults. 

Unlike long-toed salamanders, which can metamorphose during their first 

summer in shallow temporary ponds, Northwestern salamanders require at least 

two years in the larval stage before metamorphosing into terrestrial adults or 

maturing into neotenic aquatic adults. A perennial waterbody is required for 

breeding and rearing of larvae and neotenic adults. Breeding female 

Northwestern salamanders attach large, firm egg masses to sturdy support 

structures, frequently attaching the egg masses 1–3 feet below the water surface 

(Licht 1975). In lakes or ponds that experience large fluctuations in water levels, 

egg masses can be exposed and then dry up or freeze, thus killing most of the 

developing larvae. 

Some authorities recognize two subspecies of the Northwestern salamander, but 

the current consensus is against any subspecies divisions. The mountainous 

habitats of the North Cascades Complex are near the elevational range limit of 

the Northwestern salamander, and this may explain why they appear to be 

restricted to lower elevations on the west side of the Cascade Crest. Table G-4 

lists those lakes where Northwestern salamanders are present, or likely to be 

present, based on the recent research completed in the North Cascades Complex. 

As can be seen in table G-4, there are eight lakes that have suitable habitat for 
Aquatic Organisms 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 169

t

s

s

t

s

.

Emergent vegetation 

has roots underwater, 

but upper parts above 

the water. 

Northwestern salamanders, and all eight have had the presence of these 

salamanders documented by surveys. 

Northwestern salamanders and long-toed salamanders rarely co-exist on the west 

side of the Cascade Crest, and long-toed salamanders appear to be excluded from 

larger, deeper lakes and ponds by Northwestern salamander neotenes. 

Northwestern salamanders typically inhabit larger, deeper lakes and ponds with 

plenty of coarse wood and relatively soft, flocculent (fluffy) bottoms (Hoffman et 

al. 2003). Northwestern salamander presence is also strongly associated with the 

presence of emergent vegetation (Adams et al. 2000). When Northwestern 

salamanders are present, the long-toed salamanders inhabit the smaller, shallower 

lakes and ponds with plenty of aquatic vegetation and relatively hard bottoms. 

Long-toed salamander breeding sites in deeper lakes in the North Cascades 

Complex are typically in open areas close to subalpine forest, while 

Northwestern salamander breeding sites typically occur in forested areas at least 

1,000 feet below the treeline. In the one recorded instance of the two species 

occupying the same lake in the North Cascades Complex (Diobsud No. 1), 

Northwestern salamander larvae are the dominant species in the main body of the 

lake (located in subalpine forest near the treeline), with a few long-toed 

salamander larvae occasionally observed. Most of the long-toed salamander 

larvae in this lake are found in shallow pools of the outlet stream near the lake, 

where there are few predatory fish or Northwestern salamanders. 

All of the populations of Northwestern salamander documented in the North 

Cascades Complex occur in tributary lakes of the Skagit River and Ross Lake 

and some of the larger tributary streams. Within this limited range, Northwestern 

and long-toed salamander populations occur in approximately equal numbers. 

Although both species occur in tributaries of the Skagit River and Ross Lake, 

Northwestern salamanders appear to be unsuccessful in colonizing subalpine and 

alpine lakes and seldom occur above the low-forest zone. 

Recent surveys of three lakes containing fish reported that Northwestern 

salamander abundance was in the range of 18 to 21 larvae per 328 feet of 

shoreline. These numbers are much higher than densities of long-toed salamander 

larvae in lakes with fish, and may indicate that Northwestern salamanders are 

more resistant than long-toed salamanders to fish predation. Northwestern 

salamanders secrete noxious chemicals when threatened, and when exposed to 

fish predation, they have the ability to alter their feeding behavior (for example, 

they shift to nocturnal feeding schedules). Also, adult Northwestern salamanders 

are too large for most fish to consume. These physical and behavioral adaptations 

may make them less susceptible than long-toed salamanders to fish predation 

(Liss et al. 1995). 

OTHER AMPHIBIANS 

Our greatest understanding of the ecological relationships between salamanders 

and fish in the North Cascades Complex is limited to the long-toed salamanders 

and Northwestern salamanders. There are, however, other amphibians in the 

North Cascades Complex whose life history and habitat requirements overlap 

with mountain lakes that contain fish and, therefore, could be affected by fishery 
A FFECTED E NVIRONMENT

170 DRAFT MOUNTAIN LAKES FISHERY MANAGEMENT PLAN

The Pacific tree frog is 

found in Willow Lake, 

which has many shallow 

areas with abundant

shoreline vegetation.

management actions. Two species are described in this section. Several other 

amphibians are listed as species of concern or candidate species and are 

described in the section titled “Special Status Species” in this chapter. 

R OUGH - S KINNED N EWT

The rough-skinned newt (Taricha granulosa) is the least abundant salamander in 

the North Cascades Complex. It has been documented in only two low-elevation 

lakes: Pyramid and Thunder (Liss et al. 1995). Like the Northwestern 

salamander, it appears to be at the limit of its eastern range in the North Cascades 

Complex. The skin secretions of the newt contain toxins that are extremely 

poisonous; for example, a healthy human adult could die from ingesting one 

rough-skinned newt (Leonard et al. 1993). In Mount Rainier National Park, newts 

have been found where fish are present, which indicates they are not particularly 

sensitive to fish predation (Tyler et al. 2003). 

P ACIFIC T REE F ROG

Pacific tree frogs (Pseudacras regilla) are the most widely distributed frogs in 

the Pacific Northwest. Until recently, Pacific tree frogs were in the genus Hyla

(tree frogs), but genetic studies have since confirmed they are actually part of the 

genus Pseudacras (chorus frogs) (Leonard et al. 1993). 

Taxonomists are currently split as to their correct 

classification. Searches under both Latin names indicate that 

Pacific tree frogs have been documented in at least 10 lakes 

and ponds that range in elevation from about 1,500 feet to 

4,000 feet above mean sea level (Bury et al. 2000; Liss et al. 

1995). Two of the lakes where they have been found, 

Willow Lake and Ridley Lake, also contain fish. These lowelevation lakes have abundant shoreline vegetation and 

extensive shallow areas that may allow the frogs to hide and 

escape fish predation. Also, the scientific literature indicates 

that Pacific tree frogs may be less sensitive to predation 

from other amphibians and introduced fish because they not 

only breed in permanent water bodies, but they also breed in 

ponds that regularly dry up (Leonard et al. 1993). 

The scientific literature varies in its findings about the effects of fish on the 

Pacific tree frog. Recent research on the impacts of nonnative fish on Pacific tree 

frogs in the Sierra Nevada Mountains suggests that Pacific tree frogs have 

declined significantly in areas with large numbers of stocked lakes as a result of 

fish predation on egg and larval stages (Matthews et al. 2001b). Conversely, 

other research into the ecological effects of fish on native biota in the North 

Cascades Complex did not document a link between fish and Pacific tree frog 

abundance. Two of the three low-elevation forested lakes that were studied, 

Willow Lake and Ridley Lake, contained both nonreproducing populations of 

fish and Pacific tree frogs (Liss et al. 1995), which may indicate that these frogs 

can adapt to or tolerate the presence of stocked fish. These lakes also have nearby 

refugia and breeding areas (small ponds, wetlands) that serve to support the frog 

populations in these lakes. 
Aquatic Organisms 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 171

All five Pacific salmon 

species occur in the Skagit 

River within the North 

Cascades Complex. 

FISH 

Fish in the North Cascades Complex that are addressed in this plan/EIS include 

two groups: (1) the native species that inhabit the mountain streams and 

drainages that may connect to the mountain lakes; and (2) the stocked or 

introduced species that are not native to the receiving lakes and that may be 

removed under various alternatives considered in this plan/EIS. 

N ATIVE F ISH S PECIES

There are at least 25 native fish species that inhabit the streams and reservoirs of 

the North Cascades Complex (see table 18). Native fish species expected in the 

study area include salmon, trout, char, and mountain whitefish (family 

Salmonidae); minnows and dace (family Cyprinidae); suckers (family 

Catostomidae); sculpins (family Cottidae); and lampreys (family 

Petromyzontidae). 

Salmon are anadromous fish, meaning they hatch in 

freshwater, spend a large part of their lives in the 

ocean, and return to freshwater to reproduce. All 

five Pacific salmon species (pink, sockeye, chum, 

Coho, and Chinook) occur in the North Cascades 

Complex in the Skagit River. These five species 

also occur in the Nooksack drainage outside the 

North Cascades Complex. Coho and sockeye 

salmon can also be found in the Chilliwack 

drainage in the national park. Anadromous runs of 

coastal cutthroat trout, bull trout, steelhead trout, 

and Pacific lamprey are found in the west-side 

drainages of the national park. 

Native fish populations have been affected by a variety of activities such as 

logging, commercial fishing, fish stocking, dams, and reservoirs. The reservoirs 

in the North Cascades Complex have altered and extended habitat, allowing fish 

migration above natural stream barriers. Prior to 1900, native anadromous and 

resident fish occupied primarily the low-gradient mainstream rivers and 

floodplain portions of their tributary streams in the North Cascades Complex. 

West of the Cascade Crest, native fish and char spawned and reared in steeper 

gradient tributaries of the mainstem rivers as far upstream as the first barrier to 

fish migration. In most cases these barriers were a short distance from the 

mainstream. In the Lake Chelan drainage, westslope cutthroat trout (O. clarki 

lewisi) were native to the Upper Stehekin River and many of its tributaries. With 

time, salmonid fish became established in naturally isolated tributary streams 

through stocking, downstream dispersal (from stocked fish populations in lakes), 

and from access gained by swimming around natural stream barriers when 

reservoirs were constructed and filled. 
172 DRAFT MOUNTAIN LAKES FISHERY MANAGEMENT PLAN

TABLE 18: NATIVE 

FISH 

SPECIES

Common Name Latin Name 

Native Distribution 

in the North Cascades Complex

(Side of Cascade Crest)a

Basins in the North 

Cascades Complexb

Bas

No

Lamprey (Petromyzontidae) 

Pacific lamprey Entosphenus tridentatus West Skagit, Chilliwack NookRiver lampreyd Lampetra ayresi West Skagit NookWestern brook lamprey Lampetra richardsoni West Skagit, Chilliwack Nook

Sturgeon (Acipenseridae) 

White sturgeone Acipenser transmontanus Westa Skagit Nook

Salmon, Trout (Salmonidae) 

Pink salmon Oncorhynchus gorbuscha West Skagit NookChum salmon O. keta West Skagit NookCoho salmon O. kisutch West Skagit, Chilliwack NookSockeye/kokanee salmon O. nerka Westb Skagit, Chilliwack ColuChinook salmonf O. tshawtscha Westb Skagit NookCoastal cutthroat troutd O. clarki clarki West Skagit, Chilliwack, Nooksack ColuWestslope cutthroat troutd O. clarki lewisi East Chelan Rainbow/steelhead trout O. gairdneri Westb Skagit, Chilliwack, Nooksack ColuBull troutg Salvelinus confluentus Westc Skagit, Chilliwack ColuDolly Varden S. malma West Skagit NookMountain whitefish Prosopium williamsoni West, East Skagit, Chilliwack, Nooksack, Chelan FrasPygmy whitefishd Prosopium coulteri East Chelan 

Sucker (Catostomidae)

Longnose suckerh Catostomus catostomus West, Eastd Skagit, Chelan NookLargescale sucker Catostomus macrocheilus West, East Skagit, Chilliwack, Chelan NookBridgelip suckerd Catostomus columbianus East Chelan 

Codfish (Gadidae) 

Burbot Lota lota East Chelan 

Sculpin (Cottidae) 

Coastrange sculpind Cottus aleuticus West Skagit, Chilliwack, Nooksack ColuSlimy sculpin C. cognatus East Chelan Prickly sculpin C. asper West Skagit, Chilliwack, Nooksack ColuShorthead sculpin C. confusus East Chelan Torrent sculpin C. rhotheus East Chelan 
TABLE 18: NATIVE 

FISH 

SPECIES (CONTINUED) 

E N V I R O N M E N T A L I M P A C T S T A T E M E N T 173 Common Name Latin Name Native Distribution in the North Cascades Complex (Side of Cascade Crest)a Basins in the North Cascades Complexb Bas

No

Minnows (Cyprinidae) Peamouth Mylocheilus caurinus West, East Skagit, Chilliwack, Chelan Nook

Northern squawfish Ptychocheilus oregonensis West, East Skagit, Chilliwack, Chelan NookLongnose dacei Rhinichthys cataractae West, Easte Skagit, Chelan, Nooksack FrasSpeckled daced Rhinichthys osculus East Chelan Redside shiner Richardsonius balteatus West, East Skagit, Chilliwack, Chelan, Nooksack Fras

Stickleback (Gasterosteidae) Threespine stickleback Gasterosteus aculeatus West, East Skagit, Chilliwack, Chelan, Nooksack Fras

Notes: a. Distribution only refers to distribution within native range of species. Coastal cutthroat and rainbow that are present in the Nooksack basin within 

boundaries may have been stocked but are native to watershed. Most of the Washington distributions are taken from Wydoski and Whitney (2003). Adddistributions is from maps in Smith (2002) and information in Cutler (2001). Additional information on distribution of fish in the Chilliwack watershed 

(1973). b. There are four basins in the North Cascades Complex. Most of the North Cascades Complex west of the Cascade Crest is in the Skagit basiheadwaters of the Nooksack River (above the range of anadromy), and portions of the upper Chilliwack River and its tributaries also occurring in the No

the Cascade Crest. The Skagit and Nooksack rivers drain into Puget Sound. The Chilliwack River drains into the Fraser River and the Straits of Geor

Complex east of the Cascade Crest is in the Lake Chelan basin, which drains into the Columbia River. c. This column, “Basins Downstream from the North Cascades Complex” lists areas in one of the four main basins (Nooksack, Skagit, Columbia [Chelan River], and Fraser [Chilliwack is a subbasin of the Fraser River]) downstream that have fish present that are not native to watersheds in the North Cascad. Represents additional species/subspecies or the common name approved by the American Fisheries Society. e. White sturgeon do not reproduce in the Skagit River but do enter and forage in the lower (tidal portion) of the river. There are no barriers to moveReservoir, so they may occasionally enter the portion of the Skagit River in the North Cascades Complex. f. Chinook salmon and the landlocked form of sockeye salmon (kokanee) have been introduced into Lake Chelan but are not native to the Lake Chelan to the Columbia River above and below the confluence of the Chelan watershed with the Columbia River. g. Bull trout are also native to the Lake Chelan basin but were gone from this watershed by the early 1960s. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service is considh. Populations of longnose suckers found west of the Cascade Crest in the Fraser, Skagit, and Nooksack river watersheds are morphologically difColumbia River basin and are reproductively isolated. These fish are referred to as Salish suckers and may represent a subspecies of longnosed suckei. Populations of longnose dace found west of the Cascade Crest in the Fraser, Skagit, and Nooksack river watersheds are morphologically different froRiver basin and are reproductively isolated. These fish are referred to as Nooksack dace and may represent a subspecies of longnosed dace or undesc
A FFECTED E NVIRONMENT

174 DRAFT MOUNTAIN LAKES FISHERY MANAGEMENT PLAN

Hybridization: To 

generate a new form 

of plant or animal by 

combining the genes 

of two different

species.

In the early 1900s, the native fish in the Stehekin River / Lake Chelan system 

were bull trout, cutthroat trout, burbot, and various nongame species. A number 

of introduced species have since become established, including rainbow trout, 

brook trout, kokanee salmon, Chinook salmon, and hatchery strains of cutthroat 

trout. Lake trout also inhabit Lake Chelan. It is believed that bull trout no longer 

inhabit the Stehekin River / Lake Chelan system, and native westslope cutthroat 

populations have been partly compromised through hybridization with rainbow 

trout (see the discussion under “Special Status Species” in this chapter). In 

addition to the Stehekin River drainage, stocked fish populations have developed 

in such tributaries as the North Fork Cascade River and Thunder, Fisher, Big 

Beaver, Newhalem, and Ruby creeks. 

The distribution of native fish species in the North Cascades Complex is not fully 

understood. The expansion of nonnative hatchery strains may be impacting 

native fish populations through interbreeding or by competition and predation. 

Outside of the North Cascades Complex, impacts to native fish are occurring as a 

result of such actions as unsustainable land use practices and commercial and 

sport fish harvest, which have greatly reduced native populations of Chinook 

salmon, Coho salmon, steelhead trout, Dolly Varden, cutthroat trout, and bull 

trout. The abundance of discrete populations of many of these species in the 

North Cascades Complex boundary is currently unknown. Dolly Varden, which 

are very similar in appearance to bull trout (a listed species), are found only in 

the Thunder Creek basin (tributary to Diablo) and tributaries to the Upper Skagit 

River above Ross Lake, and in other tributaries to the Nooksack that are not in 

the national park. Dolly Varden, therefore, would not be affected by any actions 

in the 91 lakes that are the subject of this plan/EIS (WDFW, M. Downen, pers. 

comm., 2004). 

Over the last 30 years, Skagit River salmon stocks have been considerably 

impacted by loss of habitat from logging, hydropower development, agriculture, 

estuary degradation, and nonpoint source pollution. These stocks have also been 

subjected to exploitation in commercial, tribal, and sport fisheries. Chinook, 

sockeye, and Coho salmon have been impacted the most from these activities. 

For example, the Coho escapement goal (a measure of how many fish must 

return in order to continue reproduction and sustain the fishery) is set at 30,000 

and has only been attained three times in the last 27 years. The spring Chinook 

escapement goal of 3,000 has only been attained two times in the last 27 years. 

The summer run Chinook escapement goal of 15,000 fish has been attained eight 

times in the last 27 years. Sockeye, which are native to the Baker River drainage 

and are subject to intensive management efforts by several agencies, have just 

recently approached the escapement goal of 3,000 fish. Some of these native fish 

are discussed in the section titled “Special Status Species” in this chapter. 

Salmon provide an important food source for many species of wildlife and a 

nutrient source that contributes to the biological productivity of both aquatic and 

terrestrial ecosystems. The Skagit River’s 300 to 500 wintering bald eagles 

depend largely on salmon as a food source. 

Escapement Goal: The 

number of returning adults 

needed to fully use the 

spawning habitat.
Aquatic Organisms

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 175

N ONNATIVE F ISH IN M OUNTAIN L AKES

Over the years, several trout species and subspecies have been stocked in lakes in 

the North Cascades Complex, and six of these have become established as 

reproducing populations. 

California golden trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss aguabonita) 

Coastal cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarki clarki) 

Westslope cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarki lewisi) 

Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) 

Yellowstone cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarki bouvieri) 

Brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) 

The Yellowstone cutthroat trout and brook trout are not considered in this 

plan/EIS for future stocking because neither fish is native to the area. Also, brook 

trout tend to overpopulate lakes in which they are stocked because of their ability 

to spawn successfully on lake bottoms, not just in the gravel bottoms of outlet or 

inlet streams (Behnke 2002). Brook trout have been stocked in at least four lakes 

in the North Cascades Complex over the years and have survived as reproducing 

populations in three lakes: Blum (Lower/West No. 4), Hozomeen, and 

Sourdough. Brook trout in Hozomeen Lake are known to be dispersing 

downstream into native bull trout habitat, although hybridization has not yet been 

documented. Ipsoot Lake has the only remaining reproducing population of 

Yellowstone cutthroat trout. 

Research into the ecological impacts of nonnative fish has demonstrated that high 

densities of reproducing stocked fish have the greatest impacts on native species 

(Liss et al. 2002; Tyler et al. 1998a, b). High densities of fish can result from 

excessive stocking densities or from natural reproduction when conditions are 

suitable for spawning (such as the presence of inlets and streams). There are 37 

lakes in the North Cascades Complex with reproducing populations of stocked 

fish, primarily various strains of rainbow and cutthroat trout. In most of these 

lakes, the stocked fish have the ability to dominate many trophic levels and have 

developed high densities. 

Table 6 in the “Alternatives” chapter lists the 62 lakes in the North Cascades 

Complex managed by the Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife (WDFW) 

that are known to contain fish, the reproducing fish species currently present in 

35 of these lakes, and the species and strains of fish to be stocked under one of 

the proposed new management frameworks presented in the “Alternatives” 

chapter. A description of the species and strains of fish in the current stocking 

program is provided in the following sections. 
A FFECTED E NVIRONMENT

176 DRAFT MOUNTAIN LAKES FISHERY MANAGEMENT PLAN

A Lake Whatcom 

strain of cutthroat

trout is stocked in 

Willow Lake.

California Golden Trout 

All California golden trout outside of California are derived from a single 

population in Golden Trout Creek in the upper Kern River drainage and 

transplanted around 1872 to Mulkey Creek, a tributary of the South Fork of the 

Kern River (Behnke 2002). The California golden trout (O. mykiss aquabonita), 

along with Little Kern River golden trout (O. mykiss whitei) and Kern River 

rainbow trout (O. mykiss gilberti), is one of three closely related subspecies of 

redband rainbow trout native to the Kern River basin of California (Behnke 

2002). California golden trout are occasionally confused with Mexican golden 

trout (O. chrysogaster), a separate species, and West Virginia centennial golden 

trout, a highly colored hatchery strain of rainbow trout (O. mykiss). Neither of 

these fish is stocked in Washington. California golden trout are known to have 

been stocked in six lakes in the North Cascades Complex in the past, and 

California golden trout are on the current stocking list for four lakes: Middle 

Thornton, Triumph, Upper Bouck, and Hidden. 

California golden trout exhibit excellent growth and survival in mountain lake 

habitat, and in Washington, they tend not to reproduce excessively or disperse 

downstream from mountain lakes. Golden trout can successfully reproduce in 

lakes in Washington State, but reproduction levels are not high enough to sustain 

populations without periodic stocking (WDFW 2001). In addition, their beautiful 

and distinctive coloration makes them highly sought after by anglers. 

Coastal Cutthroat Trout (Lake Whatcom Strain)

Coastal cutthroat trout are native throughout many Pacific Coast 

drainages from Prince William Sound, Alaska, to the Eel River in 

northern California, including on the west side of the Cascade Crest in 

the study area. Interior strains of cutthroat trout are preferred by many 

fishery biologists for stocking mountain lakes because of their ability 

to survive and grow rapidly in cold, short, ice-free seasons and lownutrient environments. Currently, the Lake Whatcom strain of 

cutthroat trout is being stocked. This is a hatchery strain of coastal 

cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarki clarki) that originated from 

broodstock collected in Whatcom Lake, Washington. The broodstock 

is currently being maintained at the Eells Springs Hatchery where 

eggs are collected and fertilized for shipments to local hatcheries for 

hatching and rearing, prior to stocking in mountain lakes. This strain 

of coastal cutthroat trout is currently on the proposed stocking list for four lakes: 

Copper, Panther Potholes (Lower), Willow, and Stout. 

Lake Whatcom strain coastal cutthroat trout were selected to diversify the fishing 

opportunity for mountain lake anglers and add a variety of fish that are native to 

the Skagit River drainage. They are also proposed for stocking in Stout Lake, 

which has a nonnative reproducing population of westslope cutthroat trout, in the 

hope that they would replace, in time, the westslope cutthroat trout population or 

reduce the proportion of westslope cutthroat genes in the reproducing population, 

thereby producing a stock of fish with the phenotype of coastal cutthroat trout 

(WDFW 2003). 
Aquatic Organisms

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 177

Westslope Cutthroat Trout (Twin Lakes) 

Twin Lakes cutthroat trout are a wild broodstock of westslope cutthroat trout 

(O. clarki lewisi) proposed for stocking at Coon Lake. This stock of cutthroat is 

currently hatched and reared at the WDFW Chelan Hatchery for stocking in 

several North Cascades Complex lakes within the Lake Chelan drainage where 

westslope cutthroat trout are native. It is unclear when these lakes were first 

stocked with westslope cutthroat trout (Crawford 1979). 

The common name for this subspecies in scientific literature is “westslope 

cutthroat trout,” and this is the common name used in most literature and by the 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in referring to this subspecies. This name was 

applied because it was originally believed to be native only to the west side of the 

Rocky Mountains. It is also referred to as “intermountain cutthroat” (WDFW 

2003) because it is typically found between the crest of the Cascades and the 

crest of the Rockies. This subspecies, however, is also the native cutthroat trout 

of the east side of the Rocky Mountains north of the Yellowstone River drainage 

(Behnke 1992). 

Rainbow Trout 

(Ross Lake and Mt. Whitney Strains) 

Rainbow trout have a native range along the Pacific slope from the Kuskokwim 

River, Alaska; to approximately the Rio Santa Domingo, Baja California; and 

east to the upper Mackenzie River drainage (Arctic Basin), Alberta and British 

Columbia; and lower-elevation basins of southern Oregon (Page and Burr 1991; 

Behnke 2002). Rainbow trout are native to the lower elevations on the west side 

portions of the North Cascades, but not to the mountain lakes. There are many 

varieties of rainbow trout, and various hatchery strains have been stocked in a 

large number of lakes in the North Cascades Complex. 

Ross Lake Strain—The Ross Lake strain of rainbow trout is a natural stock of 

resident (nonmigratory or non-anadromous) coastal rainbow trout (O. m. irideus)

native to the upper Skagit River watershed (Ross Lake subbasin). Eggs and milt 

are stripped from Ross Lake rainbows at tributaries of Ross Lake and hatched 

and reared at the Marblemount Hatchery for stocking into the upper Skagit River 

basin. The Ross Lake broodstock program is mainly intended to maintain a 

reservoir fishery in Gorge and Diablo lakes (which are not part of the study area 

for this plan/EIS), but Ross Lake rainbows are also proposed for stocking into 

Ridley Lake, which drains into Ross Lake. Although Ross Lake rainbows are 

capable of reproducing in a natural environment, they are not known to be able to 

reproduce in Ridley Lake due to an absence of graveled tributaries, and any fish 

that escape downstream would be populating a basin where they are already 

native. 

Mt. Whitney Strain—Mt. Whitney rainbow trout are designated as the proposed 

species to be stocked in 32 of the 38 lakes in the current program (refer to table 6 

in the “Alternatives” chapter). These fish are a hatchery strain of rainbow trout 

originally developed at the Mt. Whitney Hatchery (California) from several 

subspecies of rainbow native to the state of California. Coastal (Oncorhynchus 

mykiss irideus), Sacramento River (O. m. stonei), and Kern River (O. m. gilberti) 

rainbow trout broodstock are likely to have been used to develop this hatchery 
A FFECTED E NVIRONMENT

178 DRAFT MOUNTAIN LAKES FISHERY MANAGEMENT PLAN

strain of rainbow trout, and it is possible that broodstock from the Kamloops 

(O. m. gairdneri) and Klamath River (O. m. newberrii) rainbow trout may have 

contributed to its genetic makeup. Lahontan cutthroat trout (O. clarki henshawi) 

broodstock also were crossed with this stock before it was obtained from the Mt. 

Whitney Hatchery. 

The Washington State broodstock for Mt. Whitney rainbows, currently stocked 

on both sides of the North Cascades, is currently housed at the Eells Springs 

Hatchery near Shelton, Washington, where all eggs are taken. Eggs or fry are 

dispersed from Eells Springs to various local hatcheries to supply fry for stocking 

in high lakes. The Washington broodstock was founded from a shipment of eggs 

obtained from the Mt. Whitney hatchery at Independence, California, in June 

1962 (Crawford 1979). The Mt. Whitney hatchery strain was originally 

developed at the Mt. Whitney hatchery in 1940, and eggs from the original 

California broodstock were shipped to Washington hatcheries for planting in 

mountain lakes as early as 1946 (Crawford 1979; WDFW 2001). This hatchery 

strain of rainbow trout is currently the preferred choice of the WDFW for 

stocking mountain lakes because it has never been documented to reproduce in 

mountain lakes of Washington State (WDFW 2001). This is likely because the 

timing of their breeding season is too early to successfully spawn in mountain 

lakes (the majority of spawners become ripe in January). The nonreproductive 

nature of Mt. Whitney rainbows in a mountain lake environment eliminates the 

risk of stocked mountain lakes becoming overpopulated with stunted rainbow 

trout. Mt. Whitney rainbows also exhibit excellent growth and survival in 

mountain lake habitat and produce fry at an appropriate time for stocking in 

mountain lakes during their ice-free period. Other hatchery rainbow stocks (with 

the exception of anadromous steelhead) maintained by the WDFW are fall 

spawners. 

Mt. Whitney rainbows do have the potential to reproduce in lower-elevation 

streams but have not been documented to establish populations from fish stocked 

into mountain lakes in Washington State. The haplotype of Mt. Whitney rainbow 

has been found in low frequency during surveys of Yellowjacket Creek, a 

tributary of the Cowlitz River in Washington, but no mountain lakes exist in the 

stream’s basin (Trotter et al. 1995). Mt. Whitney rainbows are stocked in lowelevation, off-channel ponds (Yellowjacket Ponds) about a half-mile upstream 

from the survey collection site as “super jumbo” catchable trout. Since the 

Mt. Whitney rainbow haplotype was found in typical small stream trout sampled 

in Yellowjacket Creek (rather than “super jumbo” sized fish), it is likely that 

introgression between stream-resident rainbow trout and escapees from hatchery 

stocks of Mt. Whitney rainbows accounts for the presence of the Mt. Whitney 

haplotype in Yellowjacket Creek rainbow trout. Measurable introgression 

between Mt. Whitney rainbow trout stocked in mountain lakes and low-elevation 

stream population of rainbow and cutthroat trout would probably require the 

colonization of higher-elevation reaches of lake outlet streams, an unlikely event 

considering the early spawning of Mt. Whitney rainbows. Although individual 

Mt. Whitney rainbows may occasionally escape mountain lakes where they have 

been stocked and make it far enough downstream to have suitable spawning 

habitat during the winter months, the level of genetic contribution to native fish 

populations is likely to be so slight as to be unmeasurable. 

Haplotype: A set

of closely linked

genes inherited as a 

unit. “Haplo” comes 

from the Greek word

for “single.”
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 179

WILDLIFE 

All species of terrestrial wildlife in the North Cascades Complex depend on 

water for various reasons and to different degrees, but only a small fraction of all 

wildlife species have strong links to the mountain lakes fishery or would be 

impacted by mountain lakes fishery management activities. This section 

describes a variety of birds and mammals that inhabit the forests, streams, 

wetlands, and meadows surrounding the mountain lakes that could be directly or 

indirectly affected by changes in mountain lakes fishery management actions, 

including changing stocking regimes, discontinuing stocking altogether, or 

removing fish using one of the lake treatment methods described in the 

“Alternatives” chapter. Many other wildlife species inhabit the North Cascades 

Complex but are intentionally not discussed here because they would unlikely 

incur impacts from fishery management activities, do not generally inhabit areas 

near mountain lakes, or do not depend on aquatic resources. 

MAMMALS 

Mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) are the most numerous 

ungulates in the North Cascades Complex, including the 

blacktail subspecies, which occurs west of the Cascade Crest. 

Elk (Cervus elaphus) and moose (Alces alces) inhabit the 

North Cascades Complex in smaller numbers, though both 

species are considered rare visitors. It is estimated that 100–

330 mountain goats (Oreamnos americanus) inhabit the higher 

elevations in the North Cascades Complex, and its populations 

are declining. The rate of mountain goat mortality is unknown; 

it is known, however, that mortalities are due to avalanches, 

falls, and predation (by mountain lions or golden eagles, for 

example), as well as stress and parasites due to extreme winter 

conditions. 

Black bears and grizzly bears inhabit the North Cascades Complex. Black bears 

(Ursus americanus) are common, but grizzlies (Ursus arctos) are extremely rare 

and unlikely to be affected by fishery management actions. Grizzly bears are a 

federally listed species and are addressed in the section titled “Special Status 

Species” in this chapter. Black bears are omnivores and eat any kind of food 

(plant or animal), including fish, if the opportunity presents itself. The extent to 

which black bears rely on fish in mountain lakes has not been studied but is 

thought to be rare, though they are known to feed on spawning fish in inlet or 

outlet streams. During one unusual instance in the mid-1990s, Willow Lake 

nearly dried up during an extended summer drought. The stocked fish in the lake 

died, and within a few days, several black bears were seen feeding on the fish 

carcasses. 

Bobcats (Felis rufus) are elusive yet common in broken, rocky mountainous 

areas, as well as hardwood and coniferous forest. The diet of bobcats generally 

consists of small mammals and birds (Larrison 1976). Canada lynx (Lynx

Although well-adapted 

for life in rugged terrain 

and harsh climates, 

mountain goat 

populations are 

declining. 
A FFECTED E NVIRONMENT

180 DRAFT MOUNTAIN LAKES FISHERY MANAGEMENT PLAN

canadensis) are known to occupy areas east of the North Cascades Complex and 

are discussed in the section titled “Special Status Species” in this chapter. 

Coyotes (Canis latrans) occupy virtually all natural habitats, but are less 

common in subalpine and alpine habitats (Larrison 1976). Red foxes (Vulpes 

vulpes) inhabit foothills and mountains and eat mice, insects, birds, amphibians, 

and reptiles. 

River otters (Lutra canadensis) prefer low-elevation, forested habitat in rivers, 

ponds, and lakes, so potential habitat in the North Cascades Complex is fairly 

widespread. Otters are documented in many drainages throughout the North 

Cascades Complex, including Little Beaver Creek drainage. Otters are known to 

feed on game fish, such as trout, but they appear to prefer slower-moving fish 

such as suckers and larger cyprinids (Whitaker 1980). 

Beavers (Castor canadensis) are widely distributed at lower elevations in the 

North Cascades Complex, particularly in the Big Beaver, Stehekin, Thunder, and 

Little Beaver valleys. Beavers eat bark, not fish (Whitaker 1980) and, therefore, 

have an indirect ecological relationship to stocked fish in that they create or 

augment water bodies at lower elevations, and these habitats often benefit a wide 

variety of other wildlife, including stocked and native fish. 

Twelve species of bats may occur in the Cascade Mountain Range of 

Washington. The most common species to inhabit the North Cascades Complex 

are Yuma myotis (Myotis yumanensis) and little brown myotis (M. lucifugus) 

(Christophersen and Kuntz 2003). Long-eared bat (Myotis evotis) and longlegged bat (M. volans) have also been documented in the North Cascades 

Complex. Long-eared bats are most common in low- to mid-elevation forested 

habitats, and long-legged bats are rarely captured, with only one capture 

occurring in low- to mid-elevation riparian habitats (Christophersen and Kuntz 

2003). Yuma myotis and long-eared bats are considered species of special 

concern that are most likely to occur near high mountain lakes and are discussed 

further in the “Special Status Species” section in this chapter. Additionally, 

nonlisted bat species that are closely associated with old-growth forests in the 

Pacific Northwest include California myotis (Myotis californicus), big brown bat 

(Eptesicus fuscus), silver-haired bat (Lasionycteris noctivagans), and hoary bat 

(Lasiurus cinereus) (NPS 1999a). 

BIRDS 

R APTORS

Ospreys (Pandion haliaetus) are breeding residents in the North Cascades 

Complex, with nest sites located on Ross Lake, Diablo Lake, Lake Chelan, 

Thunder Creek, and the Skagit River. While some of these nests are not actively 

used every year, others are used annually (NPS, B. Kuntz, pers. comm., 2004). 

Ospreys have been observed feeding on fish at Thornton, McAlester, and 

Monogram lakes. The osprey at Thornton Lake may have been from the breeding 

pair along the Skagit River (NPS, R. Christophersen, pers. comm., 2003). The 

Cyprinids: Freshwater

fish of the family that

includes carp and

minnows, typically 

with rounded scales, 

soft fins, and

 toothless jaws.
Wildlife

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 181

extent to which ospreys depend on the mountain lakes fishery is not known but 

could be quite substantial given the relatively easy opportunity to catch fish. 

Red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis), northern harriers 

(Circus cyanus), great-horned owl (Bubo virginianus), 

barred owl (Strix varia), and Western screech owl (Otus 

kennicottii) inhabit the North Cascades Complex and may 

potentially nest in trees near the lakes. Northern goshawks 

(Accipiter gentilis) are a federal species of concern that also 

may nest near lakes in the North Cascades Complex; they 

are discussed further in the “Special Status Species” section 

in this chapter. Sharp-shinned hawk (Accipiter striatus), 

Cooper’s hawk (Accipiter cooperii), golden eagle (Aquila 

chrysaetos), merlin (Falco columbarius), and peregrine 

falcons (Falco peregrinus) occur in the North Cascades 

Complex but are not directly associated with lake habitats. 

Wintering bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) are frequently observed in 

lower-elevation lakes. The bald eagle is a federally listed species and is further 

addressed in the “Special Status Species” section in this chapter. 

W ATERFOWL

Many species of waterfowl, such as ducks and geese, occupy the North 

Cascades Complex seasonally or in migration, but only a few of these species 

nest in the North Cascades Complex. Harlequin ducks are a federal species of 

concern that nest in the North Cascades Complex, and common loons are a 

sensitive species in the state of Washington; both species are discussed further 

in the section titled “Special Status Species” in this chapter. 

Two fish-eating ducks, the common merganser (Mergus merganser) and hooded 

merganser (Lophodytes cucullatus), nest in and inhabit the wetlands, open water, 

and riverine habitats in the North Cascades Complex. Both species have been 

observed on Coon Lake, and common mergansers are also seen frequently along 

the Stehekin and Skagit rivers. There are no records of these two ducks occurring 

near any of the mountain lakes in the study area, although it is certainly possible 

that they could feed on fish in the summer months, particularly at the lowerelevation lakes. 

Another duck species, Barrow’s goldeneye (Bucephala islandica), inhabits lakes 

and ponds larger than two acres in high-elevation montane habitats. Barrow’s 

goldeneye requires tree cavities for nesting, usually within 100 feet of open 

water. The species primarily eats insects, crayfish, some fish, blue mussels, 

pondweeds, and wild celery. 

Mallard ducks (Anas platyrhnchos), wood ducks (Aix sponsa), and Canada geese 

(Branta canadensis) are known to nest around lakeshores in the North Cascades 

Complex. Wood Ducks have been observed at Coon Lake and Thunder Lake. 

Canada Geese nest most commonly near the head of Lake Chelan, along the 

shores of all the reservoirs in the North Cascades Complex, and along the lower 

2–3 miles of the Stehekin River (NPS, B. Kuntz, pers. comm., 2004). 

Monogram Lake is one 

of the few lakes in the 

North Cascades 

Complex where 

ospreys have 

 been observed. 
A FFECTED E NVIRONMENT

182 DRAFT MOUNTAIN LAKES FISHERY MANAGEMENT PLAN

P ASSERINES

Many species of songbirds are residents or nest in the North Cascades Complex 

and occupy areas near lake, riparian, or wetland habitats such as those found 

adjacent to lakes and streams. Birds known to occur in the North Cascades 

Complex that are dependent on riparian or lake habitats for shoreline nesting or 

foraging habitat are shown in table 19 (NPS 2003b). 

REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS 

The common garter snake (Thamnophis sirtalis) and terrestrial garter snake 

(T. elegans) are found in the North Cascades Complex, but there is little 

information on their abundance and distribution. The terrestrial garter snake 

inhabits the Puget Sound trough and the east side of the Cascade Crest up to 

3,000 feet in elevation. The common garter snake is abundant on both sides of 

the Cascades. It is found up to 2,000 feet in elevation in the Skagit River 

drainage and up to 4,000 feet in the Bridge Creek drainage. Both species are 

commonly associated with water, including ponds, wet meadows, and lakes. The 

terrestrial garter snake can also be found in low-elevation forests (Dvornich et al. 

1997). 

The common and terrestrial garter snakes consume a wide variety of prey, 

including invertebrates, small mammals, and amphibians. Both species are 

known to feed heavily on amphibians, even species such as the Western toad and 

rough-skinned newt that are considered unpalatable to highly toxic for most other 

predators. In high-elevation lakes in the Sierra Nevada Mountains, researchers 

have found that amphibian presence is an important biological factor in the 

persistence of the mountain garter snake (Matthews et al. 2001a). There are no 

studies, however, that document garter snake dependence on amphibians in 

mountain lakes in the North Cascades Complex. 

Five amphibians in the North Cascades Complex are federally listed as species of 

concern as defined by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service: Cascades frog, 

Columbia spotted frog, tailed frog, northern red-legged frog, and Western toad. 

These species are discussed further in the section titled “Special Status Species” 

in this chapter. Other amphibian species were discussed earlier in the “Aquatic 

Organisms” section. 

 TABLE 19: PASSERINE BIRDS THAT UTILIZE RIPARIAN AREAS IN THE NORTH CASCADES COMPLEX

Common Name Scientific Name Common Name Scientific Name 

American dipper Cinclus mexicanus Olive-sided flycatcher Contopus cooperi

Barn swallow Hirundo rustica Red-winged blackbird Agelaius phoeniceus

Belted kingfisher Ceryle alcyon Swainson’s thrush Catharus ustulatus

Cliff swallow Petrochelidon pyrrhonota Tree swallow Tachycineta bicolor

Dusky flycatcher Empidonax oberholseri Violet-green swallow Tachycineta thalassina

Hammond's flycatcher Empidonax hammondii Warbling vireo Vireo gilvus

Killdeer Charadrius vociferous Wilson's warbler Wilsonia pusilla

Northern rough-winged 

swallow 

Stelgidopteryx serripennis Little willow flycatcher Empidonax traillii brewsterii
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 183

SPECIAL STATUS SPECIES 

For the purposes of this plan/EIS, “special status species” are defined as those 

listed by either the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service as endangered, threatened, 

candidate, or special concern; or by the state of Washington as endangered, 

threatened, candidate, or a sensitive species. The terms “threatened” and 

“endangered” generally describe the official federal status of vulnerable species 

in the North Cascades Complex, as defined by the Endangered Species Act of 

1973. The term “candidate” is used officially by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife 

Service when describing those species for which sufficient information on 

biological vulnerability and threats is available to support issuance of a proposed 

rule to list, but rule issuance is precluded for some reason. The federal “species 

of concern” status is applied to those species for which listing may be warranted, 

but further biological research and field study are needed to clarify their 

conservation status. 

For Washington state-listed species, animals are categorized as threatened, 

endangered, candidate, or sensitive by the WDFW. Rare plants are listed in one 

of six categories (endangered, threatened, sensitive, possibly extirpated [no 

longer present], review status, or watch status) by the Washington Natural 

Heritage Program. NPS Management Policies dictate that federal candidate 

species, species of concern, and state-listed threatened, endangered, candidate, or 

sensitive species be managed to the greatest extent possible as federally listed 

threatened or endangered species (NPS 2001a). Therefore, all of these special 

status species are included in this discussion. 

FEDERALLY LISTED SPECIES 

A consultation letter was sent to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and a reply 

was received on August 15, 2003 (included in appendix C). The reply included 

county-based listings of federally listed species in the North Cascades Complex. 

Based on this broad information and input from North Cascades Complex 

biologists, a list of those special status fish and wildlife species that could 

possibly occur within the boundaries of the North Cascades Complex was 

prepared (see appendix C, table C-1). This list was then narrowed down further 

to a list of those special status species that would be expected in or near lakes or 

in nearby forests within the study area that could be affected by actions proposed 

in the various alternatives. These species are listed in table 20. 

There are no known species of federally listed plants in the North Cascades 

Complex. 

C ALIFORNIA W OLVERINE ( F EDERAL 

S PECIES OF C ONCERN , S TATE C ANDIDATE )

Wolverines are nocturnal and solitary and historically occurred in low densities. 

They occupy boreal forests (forests with northern temperate climates) and tundra 

habitats. Wolverines eat a variety of prey, including fish, but they do not rely on 

fish as a sole source of food. Their population size, distribution, or abundance in 

the North Cascades Complex is unknown. 
A FFECTED E NVIRONMENT

184 DRAFT MOUNTAIN LAKES FISHERY MANAGEMENT PLAN

TABLE 20: FEDERALLY LISTED SPECIAL STATUS SPECIES 

POTENTIALLY OCCURRING IN THE NORTH CASCADES COMPLEX

Species Status 

Common Name Scientific Name Federal State 

California wolverine Gulo gulo luteus Species of Concern Candidate 

Canada lynx Lynx canadensis Threatened Threatened 

Gray wolf Canis lupus Endangered Endangered 

Grizzly bear Ursus arctos Threatened Endangered 

Pacific fisher Martes pennanti Species of Concern Endangered 

Yuma myotis (bat) Myotis yumanensis Species of Concern 

Long-eared bat Myotis evotis Species of Concern 

American peregrine falcon Falco peregrinus anatum Species of Concern Endangered 

Bald eagle Haliaeetus leucocephalus Threatened Threatened 

Harlequin duck Histrionicus histrionicus Species of Concern 

Marbled murrelet Brachyramphus marmoratus Threatened Threatened 

Northern spotted owl Strix occidentalis caurina Threatened Endangered 

Northern goshawk Accipiter gentilis Species of Concern Candidate 

Little willow flycatcher Empidonax traillii brewsterii Species of Concern 

Olive-sided flycatcher Contopus borealis Species of Concern 

Cascades frog Rana cascadae Species of Concern 

Columbia spotted frog Rana luteiventris Species of Concern Candidate 

Northern red-legged frog Rana aurora aurora Species of Concern 

Tailed frog Ascaphus truei Species of Concern 

Western toad Bufo boreas Species of Concern Candidate 

Bull trout Salvelinus confluentus Threatened Candidate 

Chinook salmon Oncorhynchus tshawtscha Threatened 

Coho salmon Oncorhynchus kisutch Candidate Sensitive 

Westslope cutthroat trout Oncorhynchus clarki lewisi Species of Concern 

C ANADA L YNX ( F EDERAL 

T HREATENED , S TATE T HREATENED )

Canada lynx occupy contiguous areas of spruce/fir forests. Although 

Canada lynx have only been documented in areas east of the North 

Cascades Complex, it does contain suitable habitat for the species, and 

therefore, lynx are likely present in the North Cascades Complex; 

however, lynx do not depend on fish as a source of food. 

G RAY W OLF ( F EDERAL 

E NDANGERED , S TATE E NDANGERED ) 

Gray wolves occupy forested and open habitats away from human development 

and use. Gray wolves have been observed in several locations in the North 

Cascades Complex, but not since 1993. Nonetheless, wolves are likely present in 

the North Cascades Complex in small numbers, though that number is unknown. 

Gray wolves may eat fish opportunistically. 

Small numbers

of gray wolves may

be present in the

North Cascades

Complex.
Special Status Species

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 185

G RIZZLY B EAR 

( F EDERAL T HREATENED , S TATE E NDANGERED ) 

The status of the grizzly bear is unknown in the North Cascades Complex, but 

based on the suitability of the habitat, grizzly bears inhabit the North Cascades 

Complex in small numbers (NPS, R. Zipp, pers. comm., 2003). Grizzly bears are 

omnivores, but they occasionally eat vegetation or scavenge trash and may eat 

fish opportunistically. 

P ACIFIC F ISHER ( F EDERAL 

S PECIES OF C ONCERN , S TATE E NDANGERED )

Pacific fishers are rare nocturnal carnivores that have historically occurred 

throughout Washington in large contiguous areas of undisturbed forested habitats 

at elevations below 6,000 feet. The fisher’s primary prey are porcupine and 

snowshoe hare, although they do eat smaller mammals such as shrew, squirrel, 

muskrat, and beaver, as well as carrion and fruit. They den in tree cavities, rotten 

logs, and rocky crevices. 

The WDFW does not believe a viable Pacific fisher population exists in 

Washington, and soon, the species may no longer occur in the state (Lewis and 

Stinson 1998). In 1991 the U.S. Forest Service conducted extensive linetriggered camera surveys in the North Cascades, among other sites, and 

documented no evidence of Pacific fishers. Currently, the NPS at the North 

Cascades Complex is conducting a Forest Carnivore Inventory (2003-2004), and 

at the time of writing, no Pacific fishers have been documented (NPS, B. Kuntz, 

pers. comm., 2004). Several recent observations in the Bridge Creek drainage 

suggests that Pacific fishers could potentially be present in the North Cascades 

Complex in very small numbers, although that number is unknown because the 

species is solitary and elusive, generally avoiding large open areas. 

Y UMA M YOTIS

( F EDERAL S PECIES OF C ONCERN )

Yuma myotis is a small insect-eating bat that is closely associated with water. In 

a recent field survey, Yuma myotis was the most frequently captured bat species, 

with the majority of captures occurring in low- to mid-elevation riparian habitats 

(Christophersen and Kuntz 2003). The ecological relationship between 

introduced fish and this small bat is indirect, since both species feed on a similar 

food base of aquatic and terrestrial insects along riparian areas. 

L ONG - EARED B A T

( F EDERAL S PECIES OF C ONCERN )

Long-eared bats are insectivores and primarily inhabit mid- to low-elevation 

coniferous forests, but they have been captured at high-elevation sites (Bats 

Northwest 2004). The bats day roost in sheltered areas such as tree cavities under 

loose bark and rock crevices and also use these sites, as well as caves and mines, 

for night roosts (USGS 1995). These bats prey on insects such as beetles, moths, 

and flies that are gleaned from leaves in dense vegetation, but long-eared bats 

Yuma Myotis usually 

flies close to the 

water’s surface, 

foraging on moths and 

small insects such as 

caddisflies and 

midges. 
A FFECTED E NVIRONMENT

186 DRAFT MOUNTAIN LAKES FISHERY MANAGEMENT PLAN

also forage over water (USGS 1995; Bats Northwest 2004). The U.S. Fish and 

Wildlife Service lists long-eared bats as a “Species of Concern” due to the lack of 

information on both hibernation and reproductive biology (Bats Northwest 2004). 

Like Yuma myotis, long-eared bats do not have a direct ecological association 

with stocked lake fish. Furthermore, while long-eared bats are known to forage 

over water, they do not depend on aquatic habitats to catch their prey. 

A MERICAN P EREGRINE F ALCON ( F EDERAL 

S PECIES OF C ONCERN , S TATE E NDANGERED )

Peregrine falcons occur in a variety of habitats and usually nest on cliffs in the 

North Cascades Complex. This raptor hunts medium-sized birds (including 

waterfowl) in open areas. Once listed as endangered, peregrine falcon 

populations have rebounded, primarily because of the ban on the use of DDT 

(dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane). 

B ALD E AGLE ( F EDERAL T HREATENED )

Bald eagles primarily inhabit low-elevation riparian areas in the North Cascades 

Complex and have a direct ecological relationship to stocked fish. Eagles 

typically time their arrival to the North Cascades Complex to coincide with the 

fall and winter salmon runs along the Skagit River. Usually by mid-November, 

the Skagit River hosts 300 to 500 eagles, one of the largest wintering 

concentrations of bald eagles in Washington State (NPS 1999a). Monitoring 

records over the past 16 years show that wintering eagle populations were 

increasing, but recently, it appears that eagle populations may have stabilized. 

A bald eagle pair has nested near the mouth of the Stehekin River since 2001, 

and a pair of bald eagles has been seen foraging on Ross Lake during the 

breeding season. Just over 1 mile west of the North Cascades Complex boundary, 

a bald eagle pair has nested successfully for at least the past 10 years. The extent 

to which bald eagles hunt for fish in mountain lakes is unknown; they most likely 

limit their foraging to lower-elevation lakes with long ice-free periods. 

H ARLEQUIN D UCK

( F EDERAL S PECIES OF C ONCERN )

Harlequin ducks are small diving ducks that feed primarily on aquatic 

invertebrates in low-gradient creeks and streams, but they also consume fish 

(Gough et al. 1998). These ducks are summer residents that nest on the rocky 

shores of low-gradient (less than 5% slopes) creeks and streams in the North 

Cascades Complex. Harlequin ducks arrive in early to mid-April. The males 

leave in late June to molt, while females and young remain through September 

before migrating back to the coast. The distribution of harlequins is fairly broad, 

and the species occurs throughout the North Cascades Complex, including the 

tributaries of the Skagit and Stehekin rivers. Even though they are not directly 

associated with mountain lakes, they may opportunistically feed on fry 

swimming downstream from lakes containing stocked fish. 
Special Status Species

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 187

M ARBLED M URRELET ( F EDERAL 

T HREATENED , S TATE T HREATENED )

Marbled murrelets are small birds that winter on the Pacific Ocean and nest up to 

about 50 miles inland in old-growth forests in the Pacific United States. 

Murrelets return to the coast early in the morning to forage and return to the nest 

in the evening to feed their young. There have been observations of marbled 

murrelets near the west boundary of the North Cascades Complex, but no 

marbled murrelets have been documented in the North Cascades Complex. The 

marbled murrelet is listed as threatened at the federal and state level due to 

fragmentation and loss of old-growth forest nesting habitat and mortality from 

capture in salmon gillnets while foraging in the ocean. 

N ORTHERN S POTTED O WL ( F EDERAL 

T HREATENED , S TATE E NDANGERED )

The northern spotted owl inhabits mainly old-growth forests in the Pacific United 

States but also utilizes a variety of other forest types. In Washington, spotted 

owls primarily prey on flying squirrels, woodrats, and red tree voles (NPS, 

B. Kuntz, pers. comm., 2004). Approximately 20 breeding pairs of spotted owls 

occur in the North Cascades Complex. At least one spotted owl nest has been 

located within 1 mile of a lake considered in this plan/EIS, but the majority of 

lakes included in this plan/EIS are outside the elevational range of the northern 

spotted owl. The northern spotted owl is listed as endangered in the state of 

Washington because of extensive loss of habitat. 

N ORTHERN G OSHAWK ( F EDERAL S PECIES OF 

C ONCERN )

Northern goshawks generally nest within about 650 to 980 feet of permanent 

water sources. They occur in mid- to high-elevation mature forests but usually 

prefer to nest in lower-elevation forests (Desimone and Hays 2004; Smith et al. 

1997). The NPS has not documented northern goshawk nests near study area 

lakes, though pairs have been observed and may nest in areas near Dagger Lake 

(NPS, R. Zipp, pers. comm., 2004). Goshawks would more likely be found 

nesting near lower-elevation lakes within forested habitat. Northern goshawks are 

a federal species of concern due to loss of habitat. 

L ITTLE W ILLOW F LYCATCHER

( F EDERAL S PECIES OF C ONCERN )

The little willow flycatcher is a subspecies of the willow flycatcher. The 

subspecies primarily nests and forages in dense brush in small wetlands and 

riparian zones within forested habitats, usually near pooled or running water 

(Craig and Williams 1998; WAGAP 1997). The subspecies arrives on the 

breeding grounds in May and June and migrates to southern Mexico and Central 

America in August (Craig and Williams 1998). Declines in populations are likely 

due to fragmentation and loss of habitat. Little willow flycatchers forage by 

hawking larger insects by waiting on exposed forage perches and capturing 

insects in flight or gleaning insects from leaves (Craig and Williams 1998). Little 

Northern spotted owls 

nest in hollowed-out 

cavities of very old trees. 

They feed on a variety 

of rodents. 
A FFECTED E NVIRONMENT

188 DRAFT MOUNTAIN LAKES FISHERY MANAGEMENT PLAN

willow flycatchers have been documented to nest in the North Cascades 

Complex. 

O LIVE - SIDED F LYCATCHER

( F EDERAL S PECIES OF C ONCERN )

Olive-sided flycatchers inhabit burned, logged, or openings and edges of 

coniferous forests, such as water bodies (WAGAP 1997). Individuals perch on 

tops of coniferous trees or dead tree snags where they forage for large flying 

insects, and they are also known to nest in conifer trees in the North Cascades 

Complex. This species migrates to South America in August and returns between 

May and June. The species is declining throughout the Cascade Mountains where 

it was historically abundant (SAS 2002). Reasons for decline are unknown, but 

loss of habitat in wintering territories is suspected (SAS 2002). 

C ASCADES F ROG

( F EDERAL S PECIES OF C ONCERN )

The Cascades frog (Rana cascadae) is distributed in a relatively narrow band 

from the Cascade Mountains in northern Washington southward through Oregon 

to the northern edge of California. Separate populations exist in northern 

California and near the Washington coast. 

The Cascades frog is a “mountain” frog that is generally found between 

2,000 feet and 6,200 feet in elevation (Leonard et al. 1993). Populations have 

declined substantially in northern California and Oregon; however, no published 

documentation indicates Cascades frog populations are declining in Washington. 

Bury et al. (2000) reported only a few populations of Cascades frogs in the North 

Cascades Complex. The likely causes of its decline in California are habitat loss 

and predation by nonnative fish. Additionally, there is evidence that increased 

ultraviolet radiation exposure due to the depletion of atmospheric ozone may be 

another important factor contributing to decreasing numbers. 

A survey of lakes and ponds in Olympic National Park found that Cascades frogs 

were abundant in all habitats, except the deeper lakes where fish were present 

(Adams et al. 2000) and in lakes containing Northwestern salamanders. The 

Cascades frog primarily inhabits small pools and streams in subalpine meadows 

and can also be found in bogs, ponds, small lakes, and marshy areas. They were 

found to be more common in ponds that had high dissolved organic carbon, 

which may provide some filtering of harmful ultraviolet radiation (Adams et al. 

2000). Cascades frogs are also more common in lakes with emergent vegetation. 

The distribution of these frogs is irregular, and they are often not found in areas 

that appear to have suitable habitat (Leonard et al. 1993). 

The Cascades frog has been documented in two ponds and one stream location in 

the Bridge Creek drainage. Cascades frogs have not been recently documented in 

larger, deeper lakes containing stocked fish, and one explanation for lack of 

documentation of the species in the North Cascades Complex is that it is the 

northern edge of the species’ range (Bury and Adams 2000). 
Special Status Species

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 189

C OLUMBIA S POTTED F ROG 

( F EDERAL S PECIES OF C ONCERN , 

S TATE C ANDIDATE S PECIES )

The Columbia spotted frog (Rana luteiventris) was previously classified as 

R. pretiosa, but recent genetic analysis revealed that specimens classified as 

R. pretiosa were two distinct species geographically isolated from each other 

(Green et al. 1997). The Oregon spotted frog, R. pretiosa, does not occur in the 

North Cascades Complex (NPS, R. Holmes, pers. comm., 2003). 

Populations of the Columbia spotted frog have declined dramatically throughout 

its range due to loss of wetland habitat and predation by introduced bullfrogs and 

nonnative fish (Leonard et al. 1993). As a result, it is listed as a federal species of 

concern and as a candidate for listing in Washington State. 

The Columbia spotted frog is a highly aquatic species that lives in mountainous 

areas in or near cold, slow-moving streams, springs, marshes, ponds, and small 

lakes with only slight amounts of emergent vegetation (Leonard et al. 1993). In 

the North Cascades Complex, the Columbia spotted frog has been documented in 

wet meadows, seasonal streams, seeps, and various lakes and ponds at elevations 

ranging from 2,500 feet to 5,900 feet (Bury et al. 2000; Liss et al. 1995). 

Columbia spotted frogs have been documented in several beaver ponds in the 

Ross Lake basin and in four lakes on the east side of the Cascade Crest. Two of 

these east-side lakes (Dagger and McAlester) where Columbia spotted frogs have 

been documented have reproducing populations of stocked fish. These lakes also 

have extensive meandering inlet and outlet streams that may protect the frogs 

from predation (NPS, R. Hoffman, pers. comm., 2003). 

N ORTHERN R E D - L EGGED F ROG 

( F EDERAL S PECIES OF C ONCERN )

Of the two subspecies of red-legged frog, the northern red-legged frog (Rana 

aurora aurora) and the California red-legged frog (R. aurora draytonii), the 

northern red-legged frog is the only one found in the Pacific Northwest. The 

distribution of the subspecies ranges along the west side of the Cascade Crest 

from southwest British Columbia through most of Oregon and Washington, from 

sea level to approximately 3,800 feet in elevation, but the frog is more commonly 

found below 2,000 feet (Leonard et al. 1993). 

The northern red-legged frog is a medium-sized frog that is well adapted to the 

cool, wet climate of the western region of the Pacific Northwest. Adults prefer 

cool, densely covered riparian areas next to streams, ponds, and lakes. The 

subspecies have been found up to 350 feet to 1,000 feet from the nearest water 

source. During warm, dry summers, some red-legged frogs move closer to water 

sources (Nussbaum et al. 1983). Amphibian surveys in the North Cascades 

Complex have documented a fairly abundant population of red-legged frog 

tadpoles and adults in wetlands and ponds in the Ross Lake drainage basin and 

along the Skagit River near Newhalem. Surveys of the Big Beaver valley in the 

early 1970s documented five adults near a “willow pond,” though the exact 

location is not known (Taber 1974). 
A FFECTED E NVIRONMENT

190 DRAFT MOUNTAIN LAKES FISHERY MANAGEMENT PLAN

Tailed frogs are 

typically found

in or near cold,

 rocky streams.

T AILED F ROG 

( F EDERAL S PECIES OF C ONCERN )

Tailed frogs inhabit the Pacific Coast and Cascade Range from southwestern 

British Columbia to northern Oregon. They are typically found in or near cold, 

rocky streams at elevations from sea level to about 5,500 feet. In the North 

Cascades Complex, tailed frog tadpoles reach sexual maturity by 6 years. 

Tadpoles and adults have been documented in the outlets of six lakes in the North 

Cascades Complex, including Upper Bouck and Nert lakes, which are currently 

stocked (Bury et al. 2000; Liss et al. 1995). The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

considers the tailed frog a species of concern because of declining populations. 

W ESTERN T OAD ( F EDERAL S PECIES 

OF C ONCERN , S TATE C ANDIDATE S PECIES )

Western or boreal toads are quite large and robust with dry, warty skin. Adults 

and tadpoles secrete a milky white poison when threatened. Western toads are 

widely distributed from northeast Mexico through the western United States, 

Canada, and southeastern Alaska. Historically, they were distributed throughout 

most of Washington State except for the arid portions of the Columbia River 

basin and plateau. Western toads have been documented from sea level to 

approximately 6,520 feet near Harts Pass, a few miles east of Ross Lake National 

Recreation Area. They are most common near marshes and small lakes (Leonard 

et al. 1993; Mathews 1999). 

Intensive surveys of the Big Beaver valley in the early 1970s indicated that 

Western toads were extremely common in a variety of habitat types except rock 

slides (Taber 1974). More recent surveys of amphibians in North Cascades 

Complex lakes found the distribution of adult Western toads to be fragmented, 

and that they inhabit lower-elevation beaver ponds, floodplain ponds, and gravelbar pools in the Stehekin, Skagit, and Ross basins. The species is also known to 

occur in foothill lakes and ponds in the Baker basin, outside the North Cascades 

Complex. More specific to lakes considered in this plan/EIS, Western toads 

occur in or near four lakes: Battalion, Lower Thornton, Trapper, and Willow 

(Liss et al. 1995). Tadpoles were observed at Trapper Lake. These four lakes 

vary in size from less than 6 acres to 146 acres; from less than 12 feet deep to 

160 feet deep; and at elevations ranging from 2,854 feet to 5,343 feet. Unlike the 

surveys in Big Beaver valley, adult Western toads were typically seen in talus 

(rock rubble) slopes, as well as near ponds associated with the larger lakes. 

The population of Western toads, like many amphibians, appears to be declining 

throughout the lowlands of western Washington and the high-elevation wetlands 

of the North Cascades Complex. Some of these declines are difficult to document 

(particularly in alpine regions) because of a lack of historical records. Because of 

these declines, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service lists them as a species of 

concern; the WDFW lists them as a candidate species. Western toad tadpoles are 

probably not preyed upon by fish because they secrete an unpalatable toxin 

(Corn 1998). 
Special Status Species

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 191

Chinook salmon 

are found in the 

Skagit River 

and its major 

tributaries. 

B ULL T ROUT ( F EDERAL 

T HREATENED , S TATE C ANDIDATE ) 

Bull trout (Salvelinus confluentus) are a listed species at the federal level and a 

state candidate species. Dolly Varden (Salvelinus malma) are not on the federal 

or state list, although in 2001 the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service proposed listing 

the Dolly Varden as threatened under the “Similarity of Appearance” provisions 

(66 FR 6: 1628-1632, January 9, 2001). The WDFW refers to bull trout and 

Dolly Varden char collectively as “native char” because the two species are 

impossible to reliably distinguish between without genetic analysis. In the study 

area, Dolly Varden distribution in the Skagit River basin is restricted to Thunder 

Creek (tributary to Diablo) and tributaries to the upper Skagit River above Ross 

Lake. 

The distribution of bull trout is fairly broad in the west-side drainages of the 

North Cascades Complex, including Ross Lake, and they were historically 

documented in the Stehekin River drainage. During extensive surveys, however, 

none were found (NPS 1999a). It is unclear why bull trout are no longer present 

in these waters, although the combined effects of over-fishing and successive 

years of bad weather could be important contributing factors to their 

disappearance (NPS, S. Zyskowski, pers. comm., 2003). Fluvial (resident in 

larger streams) and anadromous populations of bull trout currently exist in the 

Skagit River, while Ross Lake and the Chilliwack River contain lacustrineadfluvial (lake rearing fish that spawn in streams) populations. 

The presence of brook trout in Silver and Hozomeen creeks has generated great 

concern for potential hybridization (cross breeding) between bull trout and brook 

trout, although to date, no hybridization has been documented. The current lack 

of documented hybridization may be related to differences in spawning habitat 

because brook trout tend to spawn in warmer water, and bull trout spawn in only 

the coldest water. Though hybridization has not yet been documented, the 

potential clearly exists (Seattle City Light, E. Conner, pers. comm., 2003). 

C HINOOK S ALMON ( F EDERAL T HREATENED ) 

Chinook (king) salmon are found in the Skagit River and its major tributaries, 

and smaller numbers are found in the Baker River drainage. Populations of 

Chinook salmon have been divided into evolutionarily significant units (ESU) for 

protection under the Endangered Species Act. Chinook salmon, currently listed as 

threatened, is present in the North Cascades Complex, which is part of the Puget 

Sound ESU. The ecological overlap between Chinook salmon and nonnative 

trout is questionable, given their vastly different life histories. While 

hybridization is not known to occur, Chinook salmon fry could be preyed upon or 

forced to compete with nonnative trout dispersing downstream from mountain 

lakes. Such competition, however, would take place against the backdrop of the 

widespread native trout that share similar habitats. 
A FFECTED E NVIRONMENT

192 DRAFT MOUNTAIN LAKES FISHERY MANAGEMENT PLAN

C OHO S ALMON ( F EDERAL C ANDIDATE 

S PECIES , S TATE S ENSITIVE S PECIES )

The Georgia Strait / Puget Sound ESU of Coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) 

is a federal candidate species. Coho are favored by many anglers. Wild stocks of 

Coho salmon have been greatly reduced throughout California, Oregon, and 

Washington because of habitat loss, overfishing, hybridization with hatchery 

stocks, and poor ocean conditions (Behnke 2002). In 1995 these declines 

prompted the National Marine Fisheries Service to list Coho populations in 

California and Oregon as threatened. At the same time, however, the National 

Marine Fisheries Service determined that listing Coho as threatened was not 

warranted for the Puget Sound / Straight of Georgia ESU, but instead listed that 

unit as a candidate species. 

Coho salmon from the Puget Sound / Straight of Georgia ESU are found in most 

of the major west-side tributaries of the North Cascades Complex, including the 

Skagit, Baker, and Chilliwack rivers and their higher-order, lower-gradient 

tributaries. Less abundant than the sockeye, pink, and chum species, Coho 

salmon spend their first year in the birth tributary and the next 18 months in the 

ocean before returning to spawn from November through early February. Since 

the young spend roughly one year in freshwater before smolting (when young 

salmon swim to the ocean), they must compete with other native salmonids and, 

potentially, with introduced fish dispersing downstream. Hybridization has only 

been documented with hatchery strains of Coho and with their close relative, the 

Chinook salmon, but not with nonnative rainbow, cutthroat, or char. 

W ESTSLOPE C UTTHROAT 

T ROUT ( F EDERAL S PECIES OF C ONCERN )

The westslope (inland) cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarki lewisi) is currently 

listed as a species of concern, but because of continued declines, various 

conservation organizations have recently petitioned the U.S. Fish and Wildlife 

Service for a rule to list the westslope cutthroat trout as threatened throughout its 

range (American Wildlands et al. 1998). Two status reviews of westslope 

cutthroat trout (in September 1999 and August 2003) concluded that the 

westslope cutthroat trout is not likely to become a threatened or endangered 

species within the foreseeable future and that listing was not warranted under the 

Endangered Species Act at this time (Federal Register 68 (152):46989-47009). 

Westslope cutthroat trout inhabit the Stehekin River and its headwater tributaries. 

They are the only trout native to the drainage that are still present. The westslope 

cutthroat trout in the Stehekin River drainage are geographically isolated from 

other populations of westslope cutthroat trout in the western United States 

(Behnke 2002). 

Stocking of rainbow trout in Lake Chelan, and in various lakes at the headwaters 

of the Stehekin River, has caused hybridization between westslope cutthroat and 

rainbow trout. Recent genetic research has demonstrated that rainbow trout 

dispersing downstream from stocked mountain lakes in the Stehekin River 

drainage are responsible for some of the hybridization. Rainbow trout stocked in 
Special Status Species

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 193

Lake Chelan and various tributaries to the Stehekin River have also hybridized 

with westslope cutthroats. This ongoing genetic research has found that two 

genetically “pure” strains of westslope cutthroat are still present in the 

headwaters of the Stehekin River drainage and in Park Creek. The persistence of 

these two pure strains may be related to differences in spawning habitat because 

westslope cutthroats generally spawn in high-gradient waters, while rainbow 

trout prefer low-gradient streams in the Stehekin River drainage (WFRC, 

C. Ostberg, pers. comm., 2003). 

OTHER SPECIAL STATUS SPECIES 

A NIMALS

Table 21 lists those species that are recognized as special status species by the 

state of Washington and are known or likely to occur in the North Cascades 

Complex but do not have federal status. 

TABLE 21: STATE OF WASHINGTON 

SPECIAL STATUS SPECIES WITH NO FEDERAL STATUS

Common Name Scientific Name Species Status 

Black-backed woodpecker Picoides albolarvatus Candidate 

Common loon Gavia immer Sensitive 

Golden eagle Aquila chrysaetos Candidate 

Lewis' woodpecker Melanerpes lewis Candidate 

Merlin Falco columbarius Candidate 

Pileated woodpecker Dryocopus pileatus Candidate 

Vaux's swift Chaetura vauxi Candidate 

B LACK - BACKED W OODPECKER

( S TATE C ANDIDATE )

Black-backed woodpeckers inhabit coniferous forests and prefer 

burned, logged, or swampy areas in the North Cascades Complex. 

The species nests in tree cavities, usually close to the ground. 

C OMMON L OON ( S TATE S ENSITIVE )

Common loons are regular spring and fall migrants and summer 

post-breeding visitors, with the exception of the pair breeding on 

Hozomeen Lake. They are rare winter visitors in the North Cascades 

Complex. Their breeding numbers appear to have declined significantly in 

Washington State because of the widespread loss of low-elevation lake habitats 

and associated human disturbance (Richardson et al. 2000). Hozomeen Lake is 

one of only 20 sites throughout Washington State where loon nesting has been 

confirmed in the last 30 years. A few loon observations are reported each year 

from nearly all the major lakes and reservoirs in the North Cascades Complex, 

but nesting has only been confirmed at Hozomeen Lake where loons have nested 

Hozomeen Lake is one 

of only 20 sites 

throughout

Washington State 

where loon nesting

has been confirmed in 

the last 30 years.
A FFECTED E NVIRONMENT

194 DRAFT MOUNTAIN LAKES FISHERY MANAGEMENT PLAN

consistently since at least 1971. The area around the lake is closed each season to 

minimize disturbance. The brook trout food base at Hozomeen Lake, as well as 

the close proximity to other favorable feeding grounds such as Ross Lake, are 

probably two key factors in providing favorable habitat. Because of the low 

numbers of nesting loons in Washington State, common loons are now listed as 

sensitive in Washington State (Richardson et al. 2000). 

G OLDEN E AGLE ( S TATE C ANDIDATE )

Golden eagles are large raptors that occupy mountainous areas. Golden eagles 

prey mainly on small mammals but also hunt other birds. Although golden eagles 

may be permanent residents of the North Cascades Complex, there are no known 

golden eagle nests (NPS, R. Zipp, pers. comm., 2003). 

L EWIS ’ W OODPECKER ( S TATE C ANDIDATE )

In higher elevations, Lewis' woodpeckers nest in open old-growth ponderosa pine 

with snags but prefer lower-elevation riparian woodlands dominated by 

cottonwoods. This woodpecker also prefers logged or burned-out areas. They 

primarily eat acorns, berries, and insects. 

M ERLIN ( S TATE C ANDIDATE )

Merlins are small, fast falcons that prey on birds and insects. Three subspecies of 

merlins occur in the North Cascades Complex. The taiga merlin (Falco 

columbarius columbarius) breeds in the high-elevation forests in the North 

Cascades Complex between April and October (SAS 2002); however, merlins are 

considered very rare breeders, and the status of nesting in Washington is 

unknown (WAGAP 2003). Taiga merlins nest in trees near open grasslands, 

meadows, lakeshores, or forest openings. They may occasionally use the valleys 

when foraging and during migration (WAGAP 2003). 

P ILEATED W OODPECKER

( S TATE C ANDIDATE )

Pileated woodpeckers are the largest woodpecker species and is a year-round 

resident of the North Cascades Complex. Pileated woodpeckers inhabit deep, 

mature forests and use cottonwood trees (Populus spp.) along lakes and riparian 

corridors to prey on carpenter ants. 

V AUX ’ S S WIFT ( S TATE C ANDIDATE )

Vaux’s swift is an insectivore that nests in tree cavities in mature forests. This 

bird species migrates south in the winter season. Vaux's Swifts are common in 

suitable habitat throughout the North Cascades Complex (NPS 1999a). 
Special Status Species

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 195

P LANTS

Appendix C, table C-2, lists the plant species that are recognized as special status 

species by the state of Washington and are likely to occur in the North Cascades 

Complex, but do not have federal status. There are 26 graminoid (grass) species, 

45 forb (a broad-leaved herbaceous plant that is not a grass) species, and 10 fern 

species that are state listed. It is not possible to establish the presence or absence 

of any of these species because surveys for plant species of special concern have 

not been conducted. 

In addition to the state of Washington status, plant species of special concern are 

classified according to their reliance on wetland (riparian) vegetation 

assemblages. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers uses this classification system 

in wetland delineation. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service developed the list of 

plant species of special concern that occur in wetlands. 

Wetlands are classified as follows: 

FAC—facultative (occurring in a variety of conditions) species occur 33% 

to 67% of the time in wetlands; 9 of the state-listed species are facultative 

species 

FACU—facultative upland species occur 1% to 33% of the time in 

wetlands; 5 of the state-listed species are facultative upland species 

FACW—facultative wetland species occur 67% to 99% of the time in 

wetlands; 12 of the state-listed species are facultative wetland species 

OBL—obligate (only occurring in particular environmental conditions) 

wetland species occur 99% of the time in wetlands; 18 of the state-listed 

species are obligate wetland species 

UPL—obligate upland species are rarely found in wetlands; 37 of the statelisted species are obligate upland species. 
196 DRAFT MOUNTAIN LAKES FISHERY MANAGEMENT PLAN

Elevation influences 

the type, growth, 

and distribution 

of vegetation.

VEGETATION 

This section describes vegetative communities in the North Cascades Complex. 

Species that have special status are described under “Plants” in the previous 

section titled “Special Status Species.” 

The terrestrial vegetation of the North Cascades Complex is highly diverse as a 

result of the co-occurrence of climatic gradients and topographic diversity over 

relatively short distances. Vegetation and wildlife are influenced by several 

factors, including climatic differences caused, in large part, by two geological 

barriers in the North Cascades Complex: the Skagit Crest (Boston-PicketSpickard Divide) and the Pacific Crest. The west sides of these crests have a 

temperate marine climate, which is characterized by relatively warm winters and 

cool summers. Precipitation on the west side ranges from 60 to 138 inches per 

year. East of these crests, the climate is semiarid continental, with colder winters 

and hot, dry summers. The east side receives between 25 to 130 inches of 

precipitation per year (Liss et al. 1995; NPS 2003a). The area between the Skagit 

Crest and Pacific Crest (the Ross Lake drainage) is a transitional zone where 

vegetation and climatic characteristics are moderated between the mild, wet 

conditions typical of the west side and the semiarid conditions typical of the east 

side of the Cascade Crest. 

Elevation, and the differences in precipitation and temperature 

related to it, also influence the distribution of vegetation. In this 

area, precipitation generally increases with elevation while 

temperature decreases. Four main vegetation zones are recognized 

based on differences in elevation and dominant vegetation: 

lowland forest, high forest, subalpine parkland, and alpine. 

Climatic differences between the east side and west side influence 

the distribution of these vegetation zones relative to elevation. 

Vegetation zones on the east side occur at higher average 

elevations than their west-side counterparts. This means, for 

example, that while the alpine zone occupies a significant portion 

of the west-side watersheds, it is restricted on the east side. Eastside forests are drier and have less understory vegetation than 

west-side forests (Liss et al. 1995; NPS 2003a). While these trends 

are true for most of the North Cascades Complex, local topography also 

influences the interaction between vegetation zone and elevation. Therefore, 

most lakes classified in this document as located in a particular vegetation zone 

vary consistently with elevation, but sometimes, the influence of local 

topography means this is not always true. For example, in some cases, a lake 

classified as high forest may occur at a higher elevation than one classified as 

subalpine. 

Discrete subtypes may occur within these broad vegetation zones. The subtypes 

are described by the dominant plant stature and result in a cover-type 

classification. Deciduous and/or coniferous trees are dominant in the forest cover 

type. The shrub cover type is characterized by the predominance of woody 

shrubs. Meadow cover describes areas where forbs and graminoids are dominant 

but may include low-lying shrubs as well. Areas that are not vegetated include 
Vegetation

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 197

Western Red Cedar

Douglas Fir

Subalpine Fir

exposed bedrock, talus slopes, and cliffs. Descriptions of each cover type are 

described below and are grouped according to climatic region (the west or east 

side of the Pacific Crest) and vegetation zone. The descriptions are very general 

and do not necessarily represent the species actually found at individual lakes. 

Ground surveys at the lakes are essential in order to characterize the riparian 

vegetation surrounding individual lakes. 

WEST SIDE 

The lowland forest zone includes 6 of the 91 lakes occurring between 1,350 and 

3,380 feet (see “Appendix M: Shoreline Cover Types Around the 91 Study Area 

Lakes”). Coniferous tree species that dominate the lowland forest cover type are 

Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla), and 

western red cedar (Thuja plicata). Willows (Salix spp.) and vine maple (Acer 

circinatum) are the most common shrub species in this zone. Most lakes in the 

study area on the west side are surrounded by a combination of the four cover 

types (forest, shrub, meadow, and bare), although all cover types are not 

represented at every lake. The forest cover type covers more area in this zone 

than in higher-elevation zones. 

The high forest zone includes 10 of the 91 lakes included in this plan/EIS. High 

forest generally occupies habitat on the west side at elevations ranging between 

3,843 and 5,540 feet. The high-forest cover type is dominated by Pacific silver fir 

(Abies amabilis) and mountain hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana), with lesser 

amounts of subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa), grand fir (Abies grandis), and 

Alaska yellow cedar (Chamaecyparis nootkatensis). Douglas fir grows at lower 

elevations in this zone. Dominant shrub species in this zone are huckleberry 

(Vaccinium spp.) and white rhodedendron (Rhododendron albiflorum). As in the 

lowland forest zone, most lakes are surrounded by a combination of the cover 

types. The shrub and meadow cover types are more common, and forest cover 

type is less common than in the lowland forest zone. 

The subalpine zone includes 49 of the 91 lakes, and occurs on the west side at 

elevations between 3,685 and 6,560 feet. It is characterized by a mosaic of tree 

islands and subalpine meadows. The dominant trees in the tree islands are 

subalpine fir and mountain hemlock, with lesser amounts of whitebark pine 

(Pinus albicaulis). Forest cover is much less common in the subalpine zone than 

at lower elevations. At the interface between the subalpine and alpine zones, trees 

are characterized as Krummholtz, a vegetative growth form characterized by 

clumped, low-stature trees. Heather (Phyllodoce spp., Cassiope spp.), 

huckleberry (Vaccinium spp.), and willows are dominant shrubs. The heatherhuckleberry community is very sensitive to the effects of trampling and takes 

longer to recover than other plant communities (Cole and Trull 1992). The 

meadow vegetation in this zone can be grouped into 11 community types ranging 

from early successional communities on glacial moraines to heather and 

huckleberry communities. In general, meadow areas are dominated by sedges 

(Carex spp), rushes (Juncus spp.), and hellebore (Veratrum spp.). The bare cover 

type is much more common in the subalpine than in the forest zones. 
A FFECTED E NVIRONMENT

198 DRAFT MOUNTAIN LAKES FISHERY MANAGEMENT PLAN

Ponderosa Pine

Western Larch 

The alpine zone includes 6 of the 91 lakes at elevations ranging between 4,055 

and 5,830 feet. Alpine plants are low growing and often mat-forming, and alpine 

plant communities can be sparse or dense. Alpine cover is characterized by fell 

fields consisting of sedges, grasses, composites, heather, talus, and snowfields. 

Meadow cover is less common in the alpine zone than in the subalpine zone. The 

bare cover type predominates in this zone. 

EAST SIDE 

The lowland forest zone on the east side includes 1 of the 91 study area lakes 

that occurs at 2,172 feet. Tree species that dominate the forest cover type are 

Ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), Douglas fir, and lodgepole pine (Pinus 

contorta var. latifolia). Lakeshore vegetation is 29% forest cover. Willows are a 

common shrub species in this zone. The meadow cover type represents more than 

half of the riparian vegetation at this lake, and there is no area classified as bare 

cover type. 

The montane forest zone on the east slope includes 5 of the 91 study area lakes 

that occur between 5,375 and 5,630 feet. In addition to the silver fir and 

mountain hemlock, whitebark pine and larch are also common at higher 

elevations in this zone. Most lakes are surrounded by a combination of cover 

types. 

The east slope subalpine zone includes 14 study area lakes that occur between 

4,165 and 6,795 feet. This zone has a more moderate level of precipitation than 

that of the west slope, and the longer growing season allows subalpine vegetation 

to extend to the ridgetops in most lake basins. Lakeshore tree islands are 

dominated by subalpine fir, mountain hemlock, larch (Larix occidentalis), and 

whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis). Larch is more common in higher, colder areas 

than pine, but they are often found together. Heather, willows, and huckleberry 

are dominant shrubs. Sedges, grasses, rushes, helleborus, and patridgefoot 

(Leutkea spp.) dominate meadow areas. Again, shrubs, meadow, and bare cover 

types are more common than the forest cover type. 

No east-side lakes are classified as alpine. 

D ECIDUOUS T REES

Throughout the North Cascades Complex, deciduous trees predominate in moist 

and exposed areas such as floodplains, riparian areas, and avalanche chutes. 

Common species include bigleaf maple (Acer macrophyllum), black cottonwood 

(Populus balsamifera spp. trichocarpa), red alder (Alnus rubra), vine maple 

(Acer circinatum), and willow (Salix spp.). 

R IPARIAN V EGETATION

In an ecosystem context, riparian zones are “the interfaces between terrestrial and 

aquatic ecosystems. As ecotones, they encompass sharp gradients of 

environmental factors, ecological processes, and plant communities. Riparian 
Vegetation

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 199

zones are not easily delineated but are composed of mosaics of landforms, 

communities, and environments within the larger landscape” (Gregory et al. 

1991). The riparian zone of a lake or pond generally consists of the adjacent land 

that is periodically influenced by flooding, ponding, or soil saturation. The plants 

and animals that occupy these zones are often uniquely suited to wetland 

conditions. In the North Cascades Complex, riparian zones can range from very 

extensive (for lakes surrounded by wet meadows) to minimal (for lakes 

surrounded by rock and/or glaciers). 

Most of the lakes in the North Cascades Complex are oligotrophic, meaning they 

are low in nutrients and very limited in their capacity to produce and sustain 

aquatic life. Under these conditions, the ecological role of riparian zones is very 

important because they provide additional sources of nutrients and carbon to the 

aquatic food chain. The nutrients from riparian zones greatly augment the lakes’ 

sources of carbon and nutrients that are originally derived from phytoplankton 

and transferred up the food chain. 

Lakes commonly receive nutrients from organic debris such as leaves, pine 

needles, and fallen branches and trees. While some of this material originates 

within the immediate riparian zone of the lakes, a substantial amount of debris 

(especially large, coarse woody debris) can be carried over long distances into 

lakes by flooding and avalanches. As lake elevation decreases, the growing 

season lengthens, and the density of riparian zone vegetation increases. These 

conditions increase the overall lake inputs of nutrients and organic debris from 

the surrounding basin. This general relationship may help to explain why lake 

productivity in the North Cascades Complex increases with decreasing elevation. 

Riparian zone vegetation in the North Cascades Complex varies widely in 

relation to elevation. Generally speaking, as elevation increases, forest vegetation 

gives way to lower shrubs and meadows, and the amount of exposed rock (such 

as cliffs, bedrock, and talus) along the shoreline increases. Many other factors 

beside elevation influence the composition and structure of riparian vegetation; 

those factors include soil, surface geology, aspect, and disturbance history 

(flooding, avalanches). Many of the lakes in the North Cascades Complex (such 

as Willow Lake) have wide variations in water level and the corresponding extent 

of riparian zone vegetation, particularly at lower elevations where a longer 

growing season favors more rapid growth of vegetation. 

Trampling of riparian vegetation has been documented around many lakes in the 

North Cascades Complex. Except for a few instances (such as horse trampling 

around McAlester Lake), the impacts cannot be assigned to any particular group 

because lakeshores are used by many different types of backcountry visitors. In 

the late 1980s, an observational study of angler use around lakeshores in the 

North Cascades Complex found that, on average, anglers spent three times longer 

in riparian zones than other user groups. The researchers hypothesized that if 

time spent in the riparian zone was proportionate to impacts, then anglers could 

have up to three times as great an impact as hikers (Hospodarsky and Brown 

1992). This hypothesis is based on observations that have yet to be tested in a 

statistically rigorous study. An unknown, though potentially substantial, number 

of dedicated anglers use rafts when fishing in mountain lakes, and the use of rafts 

Riparian Vegetation: 

Vegetation found 

along waterways 

and shorelines that 

is adapted to moist 

growing conditions 

and occasional 

flooding. 
A FFECTED E NVIRONMENT

200 DRAFT MOUNTAIN LAKES FISHERY MANAGEMENT PLAN

has the potential to greatly reduce the amount of shoreline trampling (WDFW 

2001). 

The cover type along shorelines can greatly influence where and how anglers 

travel around lakeshores. Lakeshores that are dominated by bedrock, talus, and/or 

snow would be less sensitive to trampling than lakeshores with an abundance of 

low meadow vegetation that allows for easy walking along the shore. The 

composition of shoreline vegetation around all lakes with a history of fish 

stocking is provided in “Appendix M: Shoreline Cover Types Around the 

91 Study Area Lakes.” 
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 201

CULTURAL RESOURCES 

Much of the information presented in this “Cultural Resources” section is from 

the Final Resource Management Plan (NPS 1999a) and An Updated Summary 

Statement of the Archeology of the North Cascades National Park Service 

Complex (NPS 1998). Appendix J contains additional information on documents 

and plans related to cultural resources within the North Cascades Complex.

The NPS groups cultural resources by these categories: archeological resources, 

cultural landscapes, historic structures, museum objects, and ethnographic 

resources. Each category is addressed in the following section, with the exception 

of museum objects, which would not be affected by the fishery management 

actions proposed in this plan/EIS. 

ARCHEOLOGICAL RESOURCES 

There is evidence that the general North Cascades area was used extensively by 

Native American groups for at least the last 8,400 years. It is believed that the 

earliest inhabitants of the area were ancestors of today's Coast Salish and Interior 

Salish-speaking people such as the Skagit, Chilliwack, Nooksack, Nlakapamux, 

Chelan, Entiat, and Methow bands. It is likely that numerous other indigenous 

bands on both sides of the North Cascades Range would have periodically used 

the resources of the area. 

An archeological overview and assessment (NPS 1986) for prehistoric 

archeological resources predicted the occurrence of hundreds of cultural 

resources within North Cascades Complex boundaries. Cumulative results of 

systematic surveys and site evaluations since that time are compiled in the NPS 

Archeological Sites Inventory Management System (ASMIS) database. As of 

1999, less than 5% of the 684,000 acres in the North Cascades Complex had been 

formally surveyed for cultural resources. 

The NPS has recorded 255 prehistoric archeological sites in the North Cascades 

Complex. Twenty-three of these sites have been determined eligible for the 

National Register of Historic Places (National Register). Many other sites have 

been determined ineligible due to loss of site integrity from reservoir inundation 

(NPS, R. Mierendorf, pers. comm., 2004). 

While most sites are located in river valleys, some are also found in alpine and 

subalpine locales. In general, the resources reflect extensive use of the North 

Cascades mountain areas for hunting, gathering, and fishing; food processing and 

cooking; and working with a variety of other local resources. Site types include 

lithic scatters (chipped and ground stone); features (living floors, hearths, sweat 

lodges), stone quarries; collecting areas; hunting, gathering, fishing, and food 

processing camps; rockshelters, overhangs, and caves; rock features including 

talus pits, rock walls and alignments, and rock cairns; pictographs; culturally 

modified trees; permanent and semi-permanent villages and camps; and 

prehistoric trails and resource use areas. The presence of obsidian (jet-black 

volcanic glass) from sources in California, Oregon, Idaho, and Wyoming clearly 

suggests that inhabitants of the area utilized broad and sophisticated regional 

trade networks. 
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202 DRAFT MOUNTAIN LAKES FISHERY MANAGEMENT PLAN

Four generators 

went on-line when 

Ross Dam was 

completed in 1952.

Approximately 89 historic archeological sites associated with 19th and early 20th 

century settlement and mining have also been identified in the North Cascades 

Complex. Twenty-nine of these sites have been determined eligible for the 

National Register (NPS, J. Kennedy, pers. comm., 2004). 

For the purposes of evaluating impacts to cultural resources, 6 trails and 8 of the 

91 lakes considered in this plan/EIS have been designated sensitive because of an 

increased potential for impacts to archeological resources from proposed fishery 

management actions (NPS, R. Mierendorf, pers. comm., 2004). Information 

regarding these sensitive archeological resources is contained in a confidential 

document that is not available for public release. 

H ISTORIC S TRUCTURES AND D ISTRICTS

Historic development in the North Cascades occurred relatively late, primarily 

within the last 200 years, partly due to the rugged landscape and relative isolation 

of the area. Historic contexts identified in a 1986 historic resource study 

(Luxenberg 1986) include exploration primarily in the Skagit, Cascade, and 

Stehekin river valleys; followed by settlement, commercial development 

(including miners), recreation, and administration of the area by the U.S. Forest 

Service. Forty-three buildings, five sites, and one structure were found to be 

eligible for inclusion in the National Register as a part of the multiple resource 

nomination (Luxenberg 1989). 

Numerous additional historic resources have been identified in the North 

Cascades Complex and include cultural landscapes, districts, and structures. 

These historic resources primarily represent pioneer homesteads; placer, 

hydraulic, and hard rock mines; wagon roads and trails (for example, mine-to 

market wagon roads); recreation; and federal land management. Twenty-nine 

historic structures are listed in the National Register. 

The Cascade Pass trail corridor contains several historic roads and 

trails that likely date back to the late 19th century and form an 

east-to-west passageway through the North Cascades mountains. 

One lake has been identified as particularly sensitive to human 

activity because of several historic sites located in the immediate 

vicinity (NPS, J. Kennedy, pers. comm., 2004). 

Perhaps the most notable evidence of historic human use of the 

area is reflected in the facilities associated with the Skagit River 

Hydroelectric Project and associated reservoirs operating in the 

North Cascades Complex. The 540-foot-high Ross Dam, which 

created the 11,680-acre Ross Lake, was completed in 1949. Diablo 

Dam was completed in 1927 and is 389 feet tall; Diablo Lake 

covers 910 acres. Gorge Dam, completed in 1961, is 300 feet tall and its reservoir 

(Gorge Lake) inundates 210 acres. Together, the dams, power houses, and related 

facilities comprise the Skagit River Hydroelectric Project No. 553, an inholding 

in the North Cascades Complex that is owned and managed by Seattle City Light. 

Many features of the Skagit River Hydroelectric Project are either eligible for or 

listed in the National Register, including the company towns of Newhalem and 

Diablo. 
Cultural Resources

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 203

Sourdough Lookout was 

constructed in 1932 and 

 is in the National 

Register of Historic Places. 

E THNOGRAPHIC R ESOURCES

Ethnographic resources represent tangible evidence of the past and present 

behavior or knowledge of identifiable human populations in a geographic area. 

They are often intimately related to other categories of both natural and cultural 

resources. Such data create an ethnographic baseline for interpreting connections 

between archeological data and native inhabitants. The ethnographic resource 

types that have been identified for further study in the North Cascades Complex 

include historic and contemporary human populations, historic and contemporary 

subsistence uses and residency, current uses of ceremonial or religious localities 

by indigenous people, traditional sacred localities and/or objects, 

ethnogeographic resources, and Traditional Cultural Properties (see National 

Register Bulletin 38, http://www.cr.nps.gov/publications/bulletins/nrb38/). No 

ethnographic resources have been documented in the North Cascades Complex, 

although it is very possible that some do exist (NPS, R. Mierendorf, pers. comm., 

2004). 

C ULTURAL L ANDSCAPES

Within the past decade, cultural landscapes have come to formally represent a 

distinct cultural resource group, reflecting human adaptation to using the natural 

resources in a given area. Efforts to document and understand the natural and 

cultural resources of the landscape in the North Cascades Complex were 

completed in the past, but additional work is believed necessary. The North 

Cascades Complex contains a diversity of cultural 

landscape resources including backcountry 

homesteads, 19th century resort developments, 

historic administrative areas, and trails. In 1998, as 

part of a cultural landscapes inventory, 

24 individual sites and districts were identified in 

the North Cascades Complex as cultural landscapes. 

While most have not been evaluated, several have 

been determined eligible by the Keeper of the 

National Register or the Washington State Historic 

Preservation Office. These cultural landscapes 

include the International Boundary Corridor, 

Golden West Lodge, Horseshoe Basin and Black 

Warrior Mine, Buckner Homestead, and 

Marblemount Ranger Station. 
204 DRAFT MOUNTAIN LAKES FISHERY MANAGEMENT PLAN

VISITOR USE 

AND EXPERIENCE 

Visitation to the North Cascades Complex from 1996 to 2002 fluctuated slightly 

but generally remained at an average of 412,012 people per year (see table 22). 

Approximately 449,216 people visited the North Cascades Complex in 2002. The 

national park portion of the North Cascades Complex received approximately 5% 

of total visitation, with the highest use in the area around Cascade Pass. The Lake 

Chelan National Recreation Area experienced 9% of total use, and Ross Lake 

National Recreation Area experienced 86% of total use. The highest use occurred 

in July and August and the lowest in January and February. Approximately 80% 

of the visitors to Ross Lake National Recreation Area (310,700 people) traveled 

along State Route 20. The wilderness character of the North Cascades Complex 

accounts to some degree for the relatively low backcountry overnight use. Of the 

estimated 449,216 visitors in 2002, only 37,231 visitors (this figure includes all 

backcountry areas including the areas around the reservoirs) spent one or more 

nights in the backcountry (NPS 2003c). 

Visitation increased from 1996 to 1998, then decreased the following two years. 

Visitation began increasing again in 2001. 

TYPES OF RECREATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES 

IN THE NORTH CASCADES COMPLEX 

The majority of visitors (86% in 2002) to the North Cascades Complex recreate 

in Ross Lake National Recreation Area along State Route 20 and do not venture 

far from the highway corridor. Recreational opportunities available along the 

highway corridor include bicycling, day hiking, picnicking, and fishing. Several 

TABLE 22: TOTAL VISITATION TO THE NORTH CASCADES COMPLEX, 1996 TO 2002* 

Location 

Year

North 

Cascades 

National Park 

Ross Lake 

National 

Recreation Area 

Lake Chelan 

National 

Recreation Area 

Total 

(all areas) 

Percent

Change 

1996 27,910 313,565 36,891 378,366 

1997 27,203 332,164 34,300 393,667 4% 

1998 32,753 425,209 45,779 503,741 28% 

1999 21,488 333,944 50,087 405,519 -19.5% 

2000 25,704 273,696 51,825 351,225 -13.4% 

2001 27,739 332,061 42,547 402,347 14.6% 

2002 20,690 387,936 40,590 449,216 11.6% 

Average 26,212 342,654 43,146 412,012 4.2% 

North Cascades Complex Average Annual Visitation (1996–2002) 412,012 

Note: 

*Visitation information was obtained from http://www2.nature.nps.gov/stats/ (NPS 2003c). 
Visitor Use and Experience

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 205

Since 1918, Seattle 

City Light has 

operated the Skagit 

River Hydroelectric 

Project to deliver 

power to the city of 

Seattle. Gorge Dam 

(shown above) was 

completed in 1924. 

rest stops provide interpretive displays and scenic vistas. Seattle City Light 

offers tours of the Skagit River Hydroelectric Project, which is popular 

during the summer months. 

Although use is comparatively lower, the backcountry of the North Cascades 

Complex also offers a wide variety of recreational opportunities, including 

boating, paddling, hunting (in the recreation areas only), hiking, camping, 

rock climbing and mountaineering, horseback riding, and sport fishing in 

mountain lakes, creeks, rivers, and reservoirs. Approximately 8% of visitors 

in 2002 spent one or more nights in the backcountry. 

Boating typically occurs in the reservoirs in the North Cascades Complex. 

Paddling, such as kayaking or canoeing, occurs on the larger rivers, 

particularly the Stehekin and Skagit rivers. No boating or paddling occurs in 

the mountain lakes. Very few people hunt, and hunting is limited to the 

national recreation areas. Hunting season typically occurs in the fall and 

winter when mountain lakes ice over and visitation is low. 

The following sections describe the recreational opportunities available in 

the North Cascades Complex. 

H IKING AND B ACKCOUNTRY C AMPING

Hiking is one of the most popular backcountry activities in the North Cascades 

Complex, which contains 386 miles of maintained trails that provide a wide 

range of experiences, including long hikes through deep forested valleys and 

steep climbs to breathtaking alpine scenery. Lower-elevation trails are usually 

accessible from early April through mid-October. Higher-elevation trails (which 

comprise most of the backcountry in the North Cascades Complex) do not open 

until mid-July and remain accessible through late September. 

The backcountry trail network extends beyond the North Cascades Complex 

boundary onto National Forest System lands and wilderness areas. The Pacific 

Crest Trail, a designated National Scenic Trail that extends from the 

California/Mexico border to the Washington/Canada border, passes through the 

South Unit of North Cascades National Park and Lake Chelan National 

Recreation Area. This is a popular, well-established trail used by through-hikers 

and people wanting to access Stehekin Valley from State Route 20. Hikers on the 

trail tend to congregate in the community of Stehekin for supplies, showers, and 

mail, but they must take a shuttle van (or hike) from High Bridge to Stehekin. 

Various other users, such as day hikers and overnight hikers, use portions of the 

trail without necessarily congregating in any one place, other than perhaps the 

road/bridge crossing at High Bridge and along State Route 20 outside the park at 

Rainy Pass. 

The 60-mile portion of the Pacific Northwest Trail, which passes through the 

North Unit of North Cascades National Park and Ross Lake National Recreation 

Area, is a designated National Recreation Trail. The Pacific Northwest Trail 

stretches from Glacier National Park in Montana to Cape Alava on the Pacific 

Ocean in Olympic National Park. The portion of the Pacific Northwest Trail in 

the North Cascades Complex enters the east side of Ross Lake National 
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206 DRAFT MOUNTAIN LAKES FISHERY MANAGEMENT PLAN

Camping at Perfect Pass. 

Mountaineering in the North 

Cascades Complex is 

becoming more popular.

Recreation Area along the Devils Dome Loop, skirts Ross Lake 

via the East Bank Trail, travels northwest along the Big Beaver 

Trail into the Little Beaver drainage, and continues west over 

Whatcom and Hannegan passes. The trail is evolving, and a small 

section adjacent to State Route 20 in Ross Lake National 

Recreational Area is currently under construction, so it does not 

yet completely traverse the park (see “Map 2” located in the 

envelope that accompanied this plan/EIS). 

Camping is permitted only at designated backcountry campsites or 

in untrailed cross-country zones. The most commonly used 

backcountry sites occur along the shores of Ross Lake. These sites 

accommodate between 25% to 40% of total backcountry overnight 

users, excluding those who camp in cross-country zones. The 

North Cascades Complex has over 200 backcountry campsites that 

are formally maintained by the NPS. The “Map 2 Table” (in the envelope that 

accompanied this plan/EIS) lists the 91 study area lakes and the cross-country 

zones and established camps near those lakes. 

Cross-country zones are a wilderness area classification used to manage 

backcountry overnight use in the untrailed portions of wilderness in the North 

Cascades Complex. There are two types of cross-country zones: Zone I areas 

include popular climbing routes and bivouac (temporary camp) sites; Zone II 

areas represent approximately 90% of the wilderness and are considered the most 

pristine, with little evidence of human presence (NPS 1989). In cross-country 

zones, dispersed camping is permitted, and camping next to lakes (both with and 

without fish) is common. The party size in cross-country zones is limited to 12 in 

Zone I and 6 in Zone II, and campfires are prohibited in all areas of cross-county 

zones. 

C LIMBING AND M OUNTAINEERING

The North Cascades Complex is a renowned destination for 

mountaineering. All levels of difficulty are available, from easy 

ascents to arduous, multi-day approaches and climbs that challenge 

even the most skilled mountaineer. Anecdotal evidence suggests 

that some backcountry climbers carry a fishing rod and fish in 

mountain lakes, although no data is currently available to 

determine what percentage of climbers fish in this opportunistic 

fashion. Eldorado Peak is accessed via the Cascade River Road 

that reaches its highest point near Cascade Pass. Forbidden Peak 

and Boston Peak are the most popular for mountaineering because 

they are the easiest to access and a moderate level of difficulty. 
Visitor Use and Experience

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 207

In addition to mountaineering, various newer forms of climbing, including bolted 

sport climbing and bouldering, are becoming increasingly popular in the 

frontcountry portions of Ross Lake National Recreation Area. The sudden 

increase in these nontraditional types of climbing has prompted the NPS to place 

a voluntary moratorium on new route development. An environmental 

assessment is planned for the winter of 2004 to address the impacts of climbing 

and to develop a climbing management plan. 

S TOCK U SE AND H ORSEBACK R IDING

Many trails and backcountry camps are available for stock use, which is limited 

to horses, mules, and llamas. Twenty-nine backcountry camps are available for 

stock use in the entire North Cascades Complex. Horseback riding is especially 

popular on the eastern side of Lake Chelan National Recreation Area in the 

Stehekin River valley. Concessioners in Stehekin lead horse tours into the North 

Cascades Complex, and some of the horse tours include fishing. Of the 91 lakes 

in the study area, 11 (see table 23) are accessible by horseback (the number of 

stock [horses, mules, llamas] users that fish in mountain lakes is not known). 

Seven of the 10 lakes provide good fishing opportunities and 7 are stocked (none 

are fishless). Six lakes (Coon, Hozomeen, McAlester, Rainbow Upper West and 

South, and Willow) are stocked by aircraft (refer to table 11 in the “Alternatives” 

chapter for methods used to transport fry to lakes that are currently stocked). 

Coon and McAlester lakes are located in the Lake Chelan National Recreation 

Area near the concessioners. 

F ISHING

Archeological records indicate that humans have been fishing in the lowerelevation creeks, rivers, and lakes around the North Cascades Mountains for at 

least 8,000 years; however, the purpose of fishing has changed from subsistence 

to sport. The locations of sport fishing have also expanded to include historically 

fishless mountain lakes. 

TABLE 23: LAKES ACCESSIBLE BY HORSEBACK

Lake Name Stocked Fishing Potential 

Coon Yes Good 

Dagger No Good 

Dee Dee, Upper Yes Good 

Hozomeen No Good 

McAlester No Good 

Rainbow, Upper (West) Yes Poor 

Rainbow, Upper (South) Yes Poor 

Ridley Yes Good 

Unnamed MR-11-01 Yes Fair 

Willow Yes Good 
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208 DRAFT MOUNTAIN LAKES FISHERY MANAGEMENT PLAN

Generations 

of anglers have 

fished the 

mountain lakes

 in the North 

Cascades Complex.

The state of Washington estimates that there are nearly 4,700 high lakes east and 

west of the Cascades (WDFW 2001). High lakes are defined as greater than 

2,500 feet in elevation on the west side of the Cascades, and greater than 

3,500 feet on the east side of the Cascades. Of these, 800 are reported to be 

stocked and 1,000 have reproducing fish populations. Within a 100-mile radius 

of the North Cascades Complex’s boundaries (in Whatcom, Skagit, and northern 

Snohomish counties), approximately 200 lakes are stocked by the state, and 

another 200 are estimated to have reproducing fish populations. While the 

number of anglers using these lakes is unknown, there is opportunity for sport 

fishing in the vicinity of the North Cascades Complex. 

Estimates of current angler use were 

derived from several sources. A survey in 

1995 of resident game fish anglers in 

Washington State found that roughly 

175,000 people fished in Washington 

lakes (WDFW 1996). The mountain 

lakes in the North Cascades Complex 

account for roughly 3% of the total 

number of lakes in Washington, so a 

general estimate of mountain lake angler 

use in the North Cascades Complex 

would be roughly 5,250 people each 

year. This estimate is likely too high 

because it does not account for various 

limiting factors such as access 

difficulties, distance to large population 

centers, and differences in use among the 

various land management agencies that 

provide mountain lake fishing 

opportunities outside the North Cascades 

Complex. 

Within the North Cascades Complex, the 

reservoirs, rivers, streams, ponds, and 

mountain lakes provide a variety of 

opportunities to fish in a spectacular mountain setting. Approximately 74% of 

anglers fish the reservoirs (see figure 9 and table 24), which indicates the 

reservoirs are the most popular areas to fish. Ross Lake Reservoir is the most 

popular sport fishing destination on the west side of the park. On the east side of 

the North Cascades Complex, Lake Chelan and its parent tributary, the Stehekin 

River, are the most popular fishing locations. Fishing in the natural mountain 

lakes is largely limited to the summer months when the lakes are ice free, but 

some of the lower-elevation lakes (such as Willow and Coon) can be fished in the 

shoulder seasons when the higher-elevation lakes are still ice covered. The 

running waters of the North Cascades Complex are difficult to fish during spring 

and early summer because of high flows created by snowmelt. 
Visitor Use and Experience

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 209

FIGURE 9: 2003 VISITOR BACKCOUNTY OVERNIGHT USE ACTIVITIES 

Note:

The percentages shown in the chart are derived from table 24, which shows the number of nights 

spent (per person) at permitted backcountry overnight use locations by intended activity during the 

2003 summer season.
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210 DRAFT MOUNTAIN LAKES FISHERY MANAGEMENT PLAN

The North Cascades 

are a renowned

destination for

mountaineering.

TABLE 24: RELATIVE POPULARITY OF 

VARIOUS ACTIVITIES IN THE NORTH CASCADES COMPLEX

Notes: 

a. This “Percent of Total Use” shows the relative percentage or popularity of various activities 

throughout the North Cascades Complex. 

b. The “Percent of Total Use Near Mountain Lakes” column excludes data from the reservoirs 

and other areas in the North Cascades Complex that do not provide mountain lake fishing. 

These areas include backcountry camps near the 91 study area lakes and cross-country zones 

that may contain any of the study area lakes. The data are derived from the backcountry permit 

database for the summer 2003 field season (NPS 2003c). 

c. NA = not applicable.

Backcountry Overnight Use 

Data from the 2003 season show that 11.5% of all backcountry overnight 

users were engaged in fishing (refer to figure 9 and table 24) throughout 

the North Cascades Complex, not just in the study area lakes. The 

backcounty permit data account for backcountry overnight use in 

established camps and cross-country zones of various shapes and sizes. 

A cross-country zone could have a lake or a group of lakes that may be 

fishable, but the lake(s) could also be visited by hikers or completely 

bypassed by climbers headed to a popular peak in the same cross-country 

zone. Recognizing the limitations of this information, analysis of 

backcountry data from the 1999–2002 seasons indicates that the average 

annual backcountry overnight use for all camps and cross-country zones 

near the 91 study area lakes was approximately 4,035 people per season 

(see “Map 2” and “Map 2 Table” located in the envelope that 

accompanied this plan/EIS). 

Prior to the 2003 summer season, the backcountry permit data could only 

provide total estimates of backcountry overnight use by all visitors; no 

data were available to indicate what fraction of visitors were engaged in 

sport fishing. To improve the backcountry permit data and enhance 

understanding of the popularity of various backcountry activities, including sport 

fishing, beginning in 2003 all backcountry overnight users were asked to identify 

their primary activity when they were issued a permit to camp. Analysis of those 

data for the 2003 season (NPS 2003c) indicates that approximately 10.5% of all 

overnight visitors to camps and cross-country zones near the 91 study area lakes 

(that is, those areas that provide mountain lake sport fishing opportunities) 

intended to sport fish (refer to table 24). Using the estimated average annual 

Activity 

Percent of 

Total Usea Percent of Total Use 

Near Mountain Lakesb

Administrative use 6.2 11.1 

Bicycling 0.2 NAc

Boating (paddle) 11.2 2.1 

Boating (power) 2.9 NA 

Fishing 11.5 10.5 

Hiking 48.0 65.1 

Hunting 0.1 0.2 

Rock climbing and mountaineering 17.9 8.2 

Skiing 0.4 0.5 

Stock Packing 1.5 1.6 
Visitor Use and Experience

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 211

backcountry overnight use amount of 4,035 people per season (as shown in the 

previous paragraph), it was estimated that 424 of the backcountry overnight users 

engaged in sport fishing (4,035 × 10.5% = 424). 

Day Use 

For most visitors, only a few lakes in North Cascades Complex can be reasonably 

fished in one day without camping. These eight day-use lakes include Hozomeen, 

Willow, Ridley, Monogram, Lower and Middle Thornton, Hidden, and Coon 

(Thunder Lake is also a day-use lake but is currently fishless). It should be noted 

that a small number of experienced anglers fish in other lakes in the North 

Cascades Complex without camping overnight. 

In the summer of 2003, NPS personnel and researchers from the University of 

Washington conducted visitor use surveys at the most accessible day-use lakes, 

except Thunder Lake. The surveys (approved by the Office of Management and 

Budget—approval number 1024-0224) were conducted on randomly selected 

weekdays and weekends from July 12, 2003, through August 31, 2003. To 

conduct the surveys, NPS personnel were stationed at trailheads and surveyed 

day users as they were leaving the lakes. A total of 444 people were surveyed. 

Preliminary analyses from those visitor-use surveys suggest that a very small 

percentage (less than 3%) of day users surveyed were fishing, excluding Coon 

Lake, which experiences substantially higher fishing visitation (see table 25). The 

survey data also indicate that, while day-use fishing is possible at Monogram 

Lake, no anglers were fishing there, and none were surveyed during the survey 

period. The 5-mile one-way hike to Monogram Lake is very steep (approximately 

5,000 feet of elevation gain), and its arduous access may limit angling to mostly 

overnight users. The percentage of day users engaged in fishing at Coon Lake 

was higher (approximately 20%), perhaps because the lake is an easy 15-minute 

walk from the Stehekin Valley Road and is also relatively close to the 

community of Stehekin. In summary, the day-use angler surveys indicate that 

approximately 75 day-use anglers fished during the survey period from July 12, 

2003, through August 31, 2003 (see table 25). 

TABLE 25: DAY-USE ANGLING STATISTICS

Hozomeen, 

Willow, and 

Ridley Lakes 

Lower and Middle 

Thornton Lakes 

Monogram

Lake 

Coon 

Lake 

Hidden

Lake 

Estimated total day use 

is 1,432 peoplea 244 409 113 239 427 

Percent of day users 

engaged in fishingb 2.9 2.4 0 20 2.3 

Estimated total for dayuse anglers is 75 7 10 0 48 10 

Notes: 

a. Day-use visitors were surveyed on randomly selected weekdays and weekends during the survey 

period from July 12, 2003, through August 31, 2003. Data from those surveys were extrapolated for 

the entire survey period to calculate estimates of total day use. 

b. The percent of day users engaged in fishing represents the actual percentage of surveyed day 

users who said they were fishing; those data were also used to estimate the total number of anglers 

who fished during the survey period. 
A FFECTED E NVIRONMENT

212 DRAFT MOUNTAIN LAKES FISHERY MANAGEMENT PLAN

Angler Use Summary 

In summary, deriving an estimate of total angler use of mountain lakes in the 

North Cascades Complex is very challenging because of the following factors: 

Angler use is small and dispersed across an extremely large area. 

An unknown, but potentially significant, number of backcountry 

overnight users do not acquire backcountry permits. 

Many backcountry anglers are seeking a remote wilderness 

experience and purposefully avoid contact. 

There is high variability in arrival and departure times and 

entry/exit points. 

In light of these limitations, the preliminary NPS estimates on sport fishing in the 

mountain lakes is approximately 499 anglers per year; of that amount, 424 (85%) 

were backcountry overnight anglers, and 75 (15%) were day-use anglers. These 

estimates are likely very conservative. A more reasonable estimate of annual 

angling use of the 91 study area lakes would be about 1,000 people per year, 

when taking into account incomplete sampling due to dispersed access, highly 

variable and broad times of entry and departure, and purposeful or inadvertent 

avoidance of backcountry permit registration. 

SOCIAL VALUES 

Two predominant issues surround the management of the fishery in the North 

Cascades Complex mountain lakes. First, the long-held tradition of sport fishing 

by generations of anglers and their families is predominant among the angler user 

groups. Second, the conservation of natural processes in the North Cascades 

Complex is of concern to conservationists and conservation groups, as well as 

many anglers, especially because the majority of the North Cascades Complex is 

protected as designated wilderness. 

A TTITUDES T OWARD W ILDLIFE

Extensive literature exists concerning general social attitudes and values towards 

wildlife, although no systematic surveys of information specific to the stocking 

of nonnative fish in the North Cascades Complex exist. For example, Kellert 

(1976) identified a number of distinct attitudes toward wildlife including 

aesthetic, dominionistic, ecologistic, humanistic, moralistic, naturalistic, 

negativistic, scientistic, and utilitarian (see table 26 for definitions). 

Most people typically hold more than one attitude toward an issue and react 

differently in different situations. Nonetheless, it is possible to identify in most 

people predominant characteristics of a primary attitude toward an issue. For 

example, ranchers tend to have a utilitarian (value measured in terms of 

usefulness) attitude towards animals, while scientists tend to take a scientific 

view (Kellert 1976). 
Visitor Use and Experience

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 213

TABLE 26: PEOPLE’S PERCEPTIONS OF ANIMALS IN AMERICAN SOCIETY

Attitude Key Identifying Terms

Highly 

Correlated With

Most 

Antagonistic Toward

Aesthetic Artistic character and display Naturalistic Negativistic 

Dominionistic Mastery, superiority Utilitarian, negativistic Moralistic 

Ecologistic Ecosystem, species interdependence Naturalistic, scientistic Negativistic 

Humanistic Pets, love for animals Moralistic Negativistic 

Moralistic Ethical concern for animal welfare Humanistic Utilitarian, dominionistic, scientistic, 

aesthetic, negativistic 

Naturalistic Wildlife exposure, contact with nature Ecologistic, humanistic Negativistic 

Negativistic Avoidance, dislike, indifference, fear Dominionistic, utilitarian Moralistic, humanistic, naturalistic 

Scientistic Curiosity, study, knowledge Ecologistic None 

Utilitarian Practicality, usefulness Dominionistic Moralistic 

Source: S. Kellert (1976). 

Settlers began stocking North Cascades lakes in the late 1800s with exotic 

(nonnative) fish (Oncorhynchus and Salvelinus spp.), and these stocking 

activities were most likely for subsistence or utilitarian purposes, rather than pure 

sport. By the 20th century, stocking was a routine management practice for the 

U.S. Forest Service and various counties to promote sport fishing—a form of 

recreation. 

A shift in values from a purely utilitarian view of the mountain lakes to more 

scientific and aesthetic views evolved further when in 1933, the Washington 

Department of Game (currently the Washington Department of Fish and 

Wildlife) assumed responsibility for stocking mountain lakes throughout the state 

in order to establish and maintain a recreational fishery. The department’s 

involvement grew largely out of the need to prevent haphazard stocking by 

individuals without biological expertise. With particular emphasis on systematic 

assessment of fish species and stocking rates, the department conducted the first 

lakes fishery research and developed many principles central to fishery 

management today. 

Throughout the 1980s, the NPS and WDFW entered into a series of agreements 

concerning the management of the fishery (see the “Purpose of and Need for 

Action” chapter for further information). Attitudes evolved further into more 

ecological and naturalistic-based values as NPS policies prohibited the 

introduction of exotic (nonnative) species into areas under its jurisdiction. In 

order to further define the scientific effects of fish stocking, the NPS initiated a 

long-term research effort with Oregon State University to evaluate effects of fish 

stocking on native biota in mountain lakes. 

While overall public policy evolved, the concerns of groups representing a 

variety of attitudes and values also evolved. In 1991 the North Cascades 

Conservation Council (NCCC) challenged the NPS on a number of issues that 

brought about a Consent Decree (see appendix A) between the two parties. In 

part, the Consent Decree ordered the NPS to “conduct a NEPA [National 

Environmental Policy Act] review of the fish stocking of naturally fish-free lakes 

within [the park] upon completion of ongoing research.” This, and the 

designation of wilderness within the North Cascades Complex, has intensified 
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214 DRAFT MOUNTAIN LAKES FISHERY MANAGEMENT PLAN

Middle Thornton Lake 

being stocked by

 a Trail Blazer.

the debate between the individuals and groups holding various attitudes toward 

continuation of stocking and conservation of natural processes. These values are 

further described in the following section. 

S OCIAL V ALUES OF 

A NGLERS AND A NGLER U SER G ROUPS

Sport fishing in the North Cascades Complex follows a tradition that precedes the 

designation of the North Cascades Complex as a unit of the NPS by almost a 

century. The traditions and social values surrounding the mountain lake fishery 

are clearly embodied in two Seattle-based sport clubs: the Washington State HiLakers and Trail Blazers, Inc. The Hi-Lakers are “a diverse group of engineers 

and schoolteachers, lawyers and contractors, University of Washington 

professors and research scientists, artists, consultants, and free-lance writers 

united by a shared passion for mountain lakes” (Bain 2003). Some of the 

members of the Hi-Lakers are also affiliated with the Trail Blazers. The current 

membership of the Trail Blazers and Hi-Lakers is approximately 60 people. 

Membership in these groups appears to be holding steady, with new members 

joining at the rate of 1 to 5 people a year, offsetting attrition. These numbers, 

however, are a poor correlation of overall angling use because many anglers do 

not belong to formal clubs such as these. 

Founded in 1933, the Trail Blazers have voluntarily assisted the 

WDFW with mountain lakes fishery management, including 

taking eggs, providing funding for maintenance and equipment, 

carrying and stocking fry in lakes, and collecting fish observation 

data. The Trail Blazers have also created and maintained an 

extensive high [mountain] lake and stream database that includes 

data on lake and stream identity, location and physical 

characteristics, fish stocking, fish observations, water chemistry, 

water biology, and recreational use. In this unique capacity, the 

Trail Blazers have assumed a role for 70 years as a de facto right 

arm for the WDFW’s mountain lakes fishery management 

program (WDFW 2001). 

Although the Trail Blazers and Hi-Lakers represent perhaps the most well-known 

user groups associated with mountain lakes sport fishing, other mountain lake 

anglers are also passionate about fishing in mountain lakes but do not belong to a 

formal group. 

The passion for mountain lakes fishing that is shared by the Trail Blazers and HiLakers reflects a set of values and traditions that have been passed down through 

several generations. Although members of the Trail Blazers and Hi-Lakers enjoy 

fishing in mountain lakes throughout the state, the rugged, remote, and highly 

scenic qualities of the mountain lakes in the North Cascades Complex offer an 

unparalleled backcountry fishing experience that cannot be duplicated elsewhere 

(Hi-Lakers and Trail Blazers, S. McKean, pers. comm., 2003). 

Few studies of the sociological dimensions of sport fishing in North Cascades 

Complex lakes have been conducted, so an understanding of the social values 
Visitor Use and Experience

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 215

surrounding sport fishing is limited to secondary data from related studies in 

similar areas. Results from a study of alpine lake fishing in the Alpine Lakes 

Wilderness Area in Washington State (Hendee et al. 1977) reveal some useful 

parallels for understanding the social values surrounding fishing in the North 

Cascades Range. This study found that sport fishing helped to facilitate natural 

appreciation and social contact between members of a party and, to a lesser 

extent, between parties. Indeed, for many anglers the social dimensions of fishing 

were often more important than successfully catching fish, and this may help to 

explain why fishermen spent an average of only two hours per day actually 

fishing. When anglers were asked to rank and prioritize their reasons for visiting 

lakes, fishing was found to be secondary to nature and scenery appreciation, as 

well as companionship. Other primary motives given for visiting mountain lakes 

include relaxation, escaping daily routine, hiking, and photography. Taken 

together, these results suggest that sport fishing is but one of many activities 

associated with the total outdoor experience. 

Some representative opinions expressed during public scoping (conducted in 

2003) include: 

Sportsmen, including anglers, were instrumental in getting 

the . . . park . . . established by Congress in the 1960s . . . it 

was the intent of the legislation to continue fish stocking in 

the high lakes of the . . . park 

I think that all avenues should be explored in keeping the 

program running. Catch and release, fly fishing only . . . 

heartier species, all should be examined to keep what is an 

outstanding recreational sport going. 

. . . to catch a native trout in a pristine lake high up in the 

mountains with no one else around except a friend, son or 

daughter and to share this experience with them is one of 

the greatest highlights of my life. 

S OCIAL V ALUES 

OF C ONSERVATION G ROUPS

In contrast to the value placed upon the mountain lake fishery by groups such as 

the Trail Blazers and Hi-Lakers, many other groups and individuals believe that 

the mountain lake fishery in the North Cascades Complex violates the spirit and 

intent of the Wilderness Act and NPS conservation mission. While many anglers 

are also conservationists, there is a distinction between those who value the 

stocking of lakes for their enjoyment, in contrast to those who value the 

conservation and protection of natural processes. Many of the conservation 

values are intertwined with the value of wilderness. Because the Wilderness Act 

speaks directly to specific wilderness values, that topic is addressed separately. 

The establishment of the North Cascades Complex in the late 1960s coincided 

with the need of the American public to protect natural areas and regulate the 

protection of air, water, and other environmental resources. During this period, 
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216 DRAFT MOUNTAIN LAKES FISHERY MANAGEMENT PLAN

the NPS also responded to critics who maintained that parks were being managed 

for their scenic and visitor use values and were not being managed in accordance 

with ecological principles. Hence, based upon recommendations of the Advisory 

Board on Wildlife Management in National Parks that were authored by the son 

of Aldo Leopold, NPS policies shifted to scientific research to understand and 

promote natural processes (Louter 2003). 

In 1975 the North Cascades Complex instituted a new fishery management 

policy. Up until that time, the NPS allowed stocking, but in 1975 the new policy 

stated it would no longer stock naturally fish-free lakes but would allow for 

naturally reproducing populations of fish to exist in lakes that could support this 

“natural” process. This represented a shift, and compromise, between those 

holding more ecologically based views and the anglers who had a tradition of 

sport fishing in the mountain lakes (Louter 2003). 

Depending on the park leadership at any one time, a series of policy shifts 

continued for the next 20 years. These policy shifts resulted in agreements with 

the state of Washington, as well as a commitment to conduct scientifically based 

research to help determine the long-term impacts of fish stocking. 

The 1991 Consent Decree between the NPS and North Cascades Conservation 

Council directed the NPS, among other things, to develop a fishery management 

plan based upon results of scientific study. While the North Cascades 

Conservation Council is not the only conservation-based group involved in the 

protection of the North Cascades Complex, it most likely represents the view of 

others sharing ecologically based values. 

During the public scoping period for this plan/EIS, conservationists expressed the 

following opinion of continued stocking: 

There is no stated objective to establish Park aquatic ecosystems as 

scientific reference areas and to use them in comparison of other 

non-park Wilderness area fishery management or other 

management in aquatic ecosystems of the Cascades. The mere fact 

that there are literally thousands of Cascade lakes outside of NPS 

areas should be recognized as part of the analysis. NPS is not 

constrained to provide fishing opportunities that exist elsewhere. 

What are the impacts of planting nonnative fish raised in a 

controlled environment and with antibiotics into the most pristine 

environments remaining in the United States? 

We are concerned that introducing fish into an environment in 

which they do not exist naturally . . . leads to impacts to amphibian 

species and their offspring which become food source for the fish. 

The contending social values of preservation and recreation represent in many 

ways the core of the fishery management controversy in North Cascades (Louter 

2003). 
Visitor Use and Experience

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 217

WILDERNESS VALUES 

The Wilderness Act, passed on September 3, 1964, “provides a degree of 

protection to the resources of the National Park System that the NPS Organic Act

does not.” The House Report accompanying the act, which helps to clarify 

congressional intent with respect to the act, states that its purpose is to establish a 

National Wilderness Preservation System made up of designated wilderness 

areas “because of the undeveloped character of their lands and the need to protect 

and manage them in order to preserve, as far as possible, the natural conditions 

that now prevail” (House Report No. 1538, 88th Congress, 2nd session, July 2, 

1964). 

A basic principle of the Wilderness Act is that “uses not incompatible with 

wilderness preservation should be permitted in areas included within the National 

Wilderness Preservation System.” Another basic principle is that “currently 

authorized uses that are incompatible with wilderness preservation should be 

phased out over a reasonable period of time.” The House Report contains a 

“compatible uses” subsection, which states that hunting and fishing are permitted 

“to the extent not incompatible with wilderness preservation” (House Report No. 

1538, 88th Congress, 2nd session, July 2, 1964). 

The Washington Parks Wilderness Act of 1988 designated over 630,000 acres in 

the North Cascades Complex (North Cascades National Park, Ross Lake 

National Recreation Area, and Lake Chelan National Recreation Area) as 

wilderness. The North Cascades Complex contains close to 400 miles of trails 

throughout the 93% of the land area that is designated as the Stephen T. Mather 

Wilderness. The designation of this wilderness did not speak to the 

appropriateness of fish stocking. NPS policies generally reflect that natural 

processes should prevail in wilderness areas and recognize that without natural 

resources, especially native species, a wilderness experience would not be 

possible. Policies also apply the principle of nondegradation, where natural 

processes will be allowed as much as possible to support wilderness ecosystems. 

In addition, NPS policies also direct park managers to eliminate the presence of 

exotic species where “prudent and feasible” (NPS 2001a). Various elements of 

the wilderness character of the North Cascades Complex include outstanding 

opportunities for solitude and the ability to pursue recreational opportunities such 

as hiking, climbing, and sport fishing in a primitive and unconfined manner. The 

wilderness characteristics and values of the North Cascades Complex, however, 

are not completely devoid of human disturbance. 

In addition to the formal network of managed trails, there are many informal 

routes and social trails that are readily visible to the wilderness user. These 

informal trail networks access a variety of backcountry destinations including 

mountaineering routes, scenic vistas, and mountain lakes. Many backcountry 

lakes that contain fish have visible patterns of human use (such as social trails) 

around readily accessible portions of the riparian zone, including inlet and outlet 

streams. 

Some backcountry users, including anglers, occasionally key in on the patterns of 

social trails around a lake as a means of determining whether or not a lake 

contains fish. Those who are opposed to the mountain lake fishery often point to 
A FFECTED E NVIRONMENT

218 DRAFT MOUNTAIN LAKES FISHERY MANAGEMENT PLAN

the social trails around lakes that contain fish as evidence that the mountain lake 

fishery contributes to a derogation of wilderness aesthetics. This is because trails 

around lakes detract from a sense of solitude and provide evidence of human 

manipulation (for example, stocking) of natural processes. Those who favor the 

mountain lake fishery point out that other users besides anglers are also 

responsible for social trails around lakes. They argue that stock (horses, mules, 

llamas) users, in particular, are responsible for some of the most egregious 

examples of trails and riparian zone impacts. 

Some representative opinions expressed during the public scoping period are 

presented below. 

Assess the lakes as scientific reference areas for other management 

agencies in other parts of the Cascades. Discuss role of NPS 

policies in light of the broader Cascades ecosystem. As directed by 

Congress the Park is to be kept in Wilderness and pristine 

condition and the surrounding National Forests are managed for 

multiple uses. 

Let the wilderness be wild, let the high alpine lakes or all the lakes 

in the wilderness live and evolve on their own without human fish 

stocking. 

Acknowledgement of a wilderness overlay was completely ignored 

in the presentation I attended . . . what are the effects on wilderness 

from present stocking? 

Visible signs of human disturbance aside, the interpretation of the Wilderness Act

as legislation protecting natural processes versus protecting an esthetic 

experience is currently the subject of litigation and court debate. 
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 219 

HUMAN HEALTH 

HUMAN HEALTH CONCERNS WITH 

POTENTIAL CONSUMPTION 

OF CHEMICALLY TREATED FISH 

This plan/EIS considers the use of antimycin for chemical treatment. Antimycin 

is registered as Fintrol® with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) 

for use by state and federal fish and wildlife agencies in fish management 

projects. According to the PICOL database maintained by Washington State 

University, Fintrol Concentrate - Antimycin A (EPA No. 39096-2) is presently 

registered for use as a fish toxicant in Washington (WDFW 2004). As described 

in the “Alternatives” chapter of this plan/EIS, antimycin works by entering the 

fish gills and irreversibly blocking cellular respiration (Rosenlund and Stevens 

1992). Antimycin, when used in proper concentration, is less harmful to 

nontarget aquatic animals than the recommended concentration of rotenone, the 

only other piscicide that is registered with the EPA for general use in the United 

States (Finlayson et al. 2002; NPS 2000b). Antimycin is also considered to be 

harmless to waterfowl, mammals, and humans at concentrations needed to 

control fish, and following application, it degrades rapidly (Rosenlund and 

Stevens 1992). Antimycin is the only control method, other than dewatering, that 

is capable of complete eradication of fish populations (WDFW 2004). It also 

controls all post-embryonic life stages and can be selective by fish species 

(Finlayson et al. 2002). For all of these reasons, antimycin would be the preferred 

toxicant for fish removal. 

Concern has been expressed about the potential effects on human health from 

consumption of treated fish. An undated Fintrol® Concentrate label from 

Aquabiotics Corporation (see appendix L) recommends that “pending the 

conclusion of studies now in progress, fish killed with antimycin A should not be 

consumed by man or animals.” Although specific effects are unknown, antimycin 

reportedly has little impact on nontarget species such as humans. Antimycin is 

toxic to target species at extremely low concentrations, so only very small 

amounts of the chemical are needed to kill fish. The concentration of antimycin 

necessary to remove fish is considered to be harmless to humans, and antimycin 

breaks down very quickly in a fish’s body, reducing the likelihood of 

contamination if fish are caught and consumed (NPS, R. Zipp, pers. comm., 

2003; Rosenlund and Stevens 1992). 

The potential for human consumption of fish treated with antimycin is low or 

non-existent due to the closing of lakes to be treated, educational materials 

posted, the extremely low dose used for treatment, and treatment of discharged 

waters. These mitigation measures are further described in appendix I, and the 

analysis of impacts is described in the “Human Health” section in the 

“Environmental Consequences” chapter. 
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220 DRAFT MOUNTAIN LAKES FISHERY MANAGEMENT PLAN

HUMAN HEALTH CONCERNS WITH 

POTENTIAL EXPOSURE TO METHYL-MERCURY 

AND PERSISTENT ORGANIC POLLUTANTS 

THROUGH CONSUMPTION OF EXPOSED FISH 

There is a small but growing body of evidence indicating that the water quality of 

lakes in the North Cascades Complex is being tainted by persistent organic 

pollutants (such as polychlorinated biphenyl [PCB], dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane [DDT], toxaphene, and methyl-mercury). These anthropogenic 

compounds enter the atmosphere as volatile contaminants and can be transported 

for long distances. The compounds can be deposited through condensation and 

precipitation. The highest amounts of contaminated snowfall are often deposited 

at high elevations in glaciers and snowfields. Meltwater washes these pollutants 

into mountain lakes and streams, where they can become absorbed and 

accumulated in the food chain. This process has been well documented in the 

Canadian Rockies where researchers there found that contaminant levels in fish 

tissues are well above the residue guidelines for piscivorous wildlife such as 

otters, bald eagles, and ospreys (Blais et al. 1998). 

Out of concern that bioaccumulation of persistent organic pollutants and methylmercury might be occurring in the mountainous national parks in Washington, in 

the summers of 2002 and 2003, researchers with the U.S. Geological Survey - 

Water Resources Division collected and analyzed fish tissues from select highelevation lakes in the North Cascades Complex, including Upper Wilcox, 

Skymo, Green, and Copper lakes. Fish tissue samples from Green Lake were 

found to contain concentrations of methyl-mercury and organochlorine 

contaminants that approached the threshold for human consumption. Twentyeight different organochlorine compounds were analyzed for, and only two were 

observed: total PCBs and DDE (dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene). Both of 

these compounds were detected at concentrations below the Food and Drug 

Administration Action Levels for fish tissue of 2 and 5 milligrams per kilogram 

(mg/kg), respectively. The 5 mg/kg Action Level is for total DDT, which 

includes DDE (EPA 2004). However, the average PCB concentrations in fish 

from all sampled North Cascades Complex lakes exceeded EPA’s screening 

value (0.02 mg/kg for recreational anglers) for elevated cancer risk (EPA 2004). 

Methyl-mercury concentrations were likewise below EPA criteria; however, in at 

least one lake, concentrations were approaching the methyl-mercury tissue 

screening values of 0.31–0.47 mg/kg (EPA 2004). Exceedance of these 

recommended values suggests that long-term consumption of fish (two 8-ounce 

meals per month every year over a 70-year lifetime) from such places may 

increase the likelihood of developing cancer or chronic systemic effects. The 

researchers caution that these fish tissue results are preliminary, and additional 

sampling is needed. Nonetheless, the results indicate that contaminant levels in 

Green Lake in the North Cascades Complex are similar to levels found in Green 

Lake in Seattle (P. Moran, pers. comm., 2004). 

DDE is an 

environmentally 

persistent

metabolite (or

residue) of DDT.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 221

SOCIOECONOMIC 

RESOURCES

The North Cascades Complex is less than a four-hour drive from six major 

metropolitan and economic centers: Bellingham, Everett, Seattle, Tacoma, 

Spokane, Washington; and Vancouver, British Columbia. The North Cascades 

Complex is located in the eastern portion of Whatcom County and extends into 

eastern Skagit County and northern Chelan County. The unincorporated 

communities of Diablo and Newhalem in Whatcom County are located along 

State Route 20, which runs east-west through the Ross Lake National Recreation 

Area and portions of Whatcom and Skagit counties. The Lake Chelan National 

Recreation Area is located at the south end of the North Cascades Complex, 

entirely within Chelan County and bordering Okanogan County on the east. The 

unincorporated community of Stehekin is in the Lake Chelan National Recreation 

Area (see “Map 1” or “Map 2” located in the envelope that accompanied this 

document). 

Most urban development in Whatcom and Skagit counties is located at the 

western end of the counties. Areas adjacent to the North Cascades Complex are 

primarily rural. The towns and cities that travelers pass through on the way to the 

North Cascades Complex include Burlington, Sedro-Woolley, and Hamilton. The 

unincorporated communities of Rockport and Marblemount are located along 

State Route 20, which connects to Interstate 5 (I-5) in Burlington. Most visitors 

from the Puget Sound area would travel north on I-5 and east on State Route 20 

to reach the North Cascades Complex. Highway 530 extends east from I-5 at 

Arlington and travels through Oso, Hazel, and Darrington before joining State 

Route 20 at Rockport to the north. Arlington lies 4 miles east of I-5 at Highway 9 

and Highway 530. Towns along State Route 20 east of the North Cascades 

Complex include Mazama, Winthrop, Twisp, Carlton, and Methow. State 

Route 20 is closed in the winter. The Lake Chelan National Recreation Area and 

the community of Stehekin are accessible by trail, small plane, boat, and 

passenger-only ferry. 

In rural areas with natural resources (for example, timber 

resources), small communities are at times built around certain 

industries (such as logging or agriculture-related 

manufacturing) dependent on the available natural resources of 

the area. As long as the industry endures, the community 

survives and may grow; however, if an industry on which a 

community is highly dependent suffers, the community’s 

economy likely suffers as well. In natural resource-dependent 

areas along the west coast of the United States, communities 

have had to diversify their economies due to decreases in 

timber production. Local economies have grown in the 

tourism, service, and trade sectors. This phenomenon has also 

occurred in communities surrounding the North Cascades 

Complex. Many small communities were built 

around natural resource-based 

industries such as logging. 
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222 DRAFT MOUNTAIN LAKES FISHERY MANAGEMENT PLAN

Tourists to North Cascades Complex contribute to the economy by spending 

money at local and regional businesses on lodging, gasoline, food, permits and 

fees, and souvenirs. These expenditures create jobs and income that, in turn, 

create secondary economic impacts. Businesses patronized by tourists are 

typically in the services and retail trade industry categories. In the counties of 

Whatcom, Skagit, and Chelan, trade and services together account for 53% of 

employment (WESD 2003). 

Some specifics about the economies of the three counties in which the North 

Cascades Complex is located are provided in the following sections.

WHATCOM COUNTY 

G ENERAL B ACKGROUND , 

L AND U S E , AND P OPULATION

Whatcom County is bounded by the Canadian border to the north, Okanogan 

County to the east, Skagit County to the south, and the Strait of Georgia and 

Bellingham Bay to the west. The North Cascades Complex encompasses the 

eastern portion of the county. The city of Bellingham’s population is 57,830—the 

highest of all cities in the county. Population growth has been driven primarily by 

in-migration (Whatcom County 1998). Bellingham is located in the western third 

of the county along with the other more-populated areas of the county. 

During the period 1980 to 1990, Whatcom County’s population grew less than 

2% per year on average. During the next decade (1990 to 2000), the average 

growth rate increased to approximately 3% per year. In 2002, approximately 

174,500 people lived in Whatcom County, reflecting an approximate 1% growth 

rate from the previous year. The Washington State Office of Financial 

Management projects that the county’s population could be approximately 

189,100 by the year 2012; Whatcom County projects a 2015 county population 

of 220,366 people (Whatcom County 1998; OFM 2002). Whatcom County’s 

population represents approximately 3% of the Washington State population. As 

a whole, the county grew faster than the state between 2000 and 2001 and also 

during the period 1990 to 2000. 

County population demographics and in-migration affect land use patterns. Areas 

influenced by seasonal residency include Point Roberts, Birch Bay, and the 

Paradise Lakes / Peaceful Valley area near Kendall. Many seasonal homeowners 

are permanent residents of Canada. In addition to vacation homes shaping the 

culture and demography, older populations are increasing in size in Whatcom 

County relatively faster than in the state of Washington as a whole, especially the 

50 to 69 and over-75 age groups (Whatcom County 1998). 

Future land use patterns in Whatcom County would likely be influenced by 

existing future development patterns, existing transportation systems, local and 

international economics, and environmental and natural resource land constraints. 

Agriculture and forestland would likely continue to dominate the landscape 

(Whatcom County 1998). Whatcom County has a major university; access to 

markets in British Columbia, Puget Sound, California, Alaska, and Asia; and an 
Socioeconomic Resources

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 223

existing transportation infrastructure (including seaport facilities, rail, air, and 

highway) (Whatcom County 1998). 

As shown in table 27, income and the value of housing in Whatcom County are 

slightly lower compared to Washington State as a whole. 

E CONOMY AND I NDUSTRY T RENDS

Whatcom County’s economy was traditionally based in agriculture, fishing, 

forestry, and mining. Throughout the 1950s, these four industries represented 

more than 25% of the county’s total employment. Since the 1960s, increased 

manufacturing, trade, services, and government economic activities have 

diversified the county’s natural resource base. 

Whatcom County also gained highway access in the early 1970s. Interstate 5 

provided freeway access to Whatcom County urban areas from British Columbia, 

Canada, and the central Puget Sound region. Western Washington University’s 

enrollment has increased, making the university one of the county’s major 

employers. 

Currently, Whatcom County’s economy is centered on agriculture/food 

processing, fishing/fish processing, timber/wood processing, manufacturing, 

retail trade, and tourism. Resource-based industries in recent years have come to 

account for just under 6% of county employment (Whatcom County 1998). 

Beginning in 1989, Canadian investment in Whatcom County manufacturing 

grew. British Columbia manufacturers developed operations there to take 

advantage of lower operating costs and access to U.S. markets. Canadian 

influences contribute substantially to the county’s economy (Whatcom County 

1998); for example, the Canadian manufacturing investment has been estimated 

at over $86 million, creating over 1,300 direct jobs. 

The large Canadian consumer population in Whatcom County, among other 

effects, has created a relatively large retail sector. In 1994, estimates indicated 

that over 25% of county employment was related to Canadian consumer activity, 

and 30% to 40% of county retail activity depended on the Canadian shopper 

(Whatcom County 1998). 

TABLE 27: WHATCOM COUNTY DEMOGRAPHICS

Measure 

Whatcom 

County 

Washington 

State 

Population, 2001 estimate 170,849 5,987,973 

Population percent change, April 1, 2000–July 1, 2001 2.4% 1.6% 

Population, 2000 166,814 5,894,121 

Population percent change, 1990–2000 30.5% 21.1% 

Persons 65+ percent change, 2000 11.6% 11.2% 

Housing units, 2000 73,893 2,451,075 

Median value of owner-occupied housing units, 2000 $155,700 $168,300 

Median household money income, 1999 $40,005 $45,776 

Per capita money income, 1999 $20,025 $22,973 

Source: Census 2003. 
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224 DRAFT MOUNTAIN LAKES FISHERY MANAGEMENT PLAN

T OURISM

Whatcom County tourism has developed into a $70 million industry, employing 

approximately 2,500 people. The county’s natural scenic attractions draw 

6 million to 7 million visitors a year (Whatcom County 1998). The county’s 

resort areas include Birch Bay, Point Roberts, the Mount Baker winter 

recreational area, and Semiahmoo Spit. 

L OCAL B USINESSES

A variety of businesses provide recreational services and supplies in the vicinity 

of the park. Some include sporting goods stores, angling stores, and small 

convenience stores. 

SKAGIT COUNTY 

G ENERAL B ACKGROUND , 

L AND U S E , AND P OPULATION

Skagit County is located between the cities of Vancouver, British Columbia, and 

Seattle, and connects the San Juan Islands and North Cascades via State 

Route 20. Skagit County’s 2000 Comprehensive Plan (Skagit County 2000) 

focuses on current and proposed land use. The county uses four land use 

designations to apply regulations and standards: (1) Natural Resource Lands, 

(2) Urban Growth Areas, (3) Rural Areas, and (4) Open Space. National park and 

recreation lands, along with wilderness, were designated as Open Space. The 

county is comprised of 130,853 acres of national park and recreation land and 

83,539 acres of wilderness (Skagit County 2000). 

Skagit County’s population, which represents less than 2% of Washington State’s 

population, grew slightly faster than the state’s population during the period 2000 

to 2001, similar to Whatcom County’s population growth. The county population 

also grew faster than the state during the period 1990 to 2000. Skagit County has 

more residents over the age of 65 when compared to the state as a whole, and has 

a lower income and lower median value of housing units when compared to 

Washington State (table 28). 

TABLE 28: SKAGIT COUNTY DEMOGRAPHICS

Measure 

Skagit 

County 

Washington 

State 

Population, 2001 estimate 105,247 5,987,973 

Population percent change, April 1, 2000 – July 1, 2001 2.2% 1.6% 

Population, 2000 102,979 5,894,121 

Population percent change, 1990–2000 29.5% 21.1% 

Persons 65+ percent change, 2000 14.6% 11.2% 

Housing units, 2000 42,681 2,451,075 

Median value of owner-occupied housing units, 2000 $158,100 $168,300 

Median household money income, 1999 $42,381 $45,776 

Per capita money income, 1999 $21,256 $22,973 

Source: Census 2003. 
Socioeconomic Resources

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 225

E CONOMY AND I NDUSTRY T RENDS

The Upper Skagit Indian Tribe owns and plans to develop a substantial amount 

of property at the Bow Hill Road / I-5 interchange. The Tribe’s existing casino at 

Bow Hill Road already generates 550 jobs, with an annual payroll of $12 million. 

Tribal members hold over 70 of the 550 jobs. The Tribe is planning additional 

commercial and economic development that will tie into the Tribe’s culture, 

history, and relationship with the land (Skagit County 2000). The Bow Hill 

Road / I-5 interchange is approximately 70 miles from the west entrance of the 

North Cascades Complex.

One of the county’s objectives is to provide for small-scale recreational and 

tourism uses that could help to diversify the economy of rural Skagit County. In 

the eastern portions of the county, many of the existing towns and rural 

residential areas have experienced a downturn in economic activity related to 

natural resources, similar to what has occurred in Whatcom County. In the North 

Cascades Complex and along the scenic North Cascades Highway (State 

Route 20), the eastern portions of the county have begun to experience an 

evolution from a primarily natural resource-based local economy to one that also 

includes services to tourists. 

T OURISM

During the summer months, approximately 300,000 visitors travel through 

eastern Skagit County. During the winter, State Route 20 closes, tourist travel 

drops substantially, and local economic activity decreases (Skagit County 2000). 

L OCAL B USINESSES

A variety of businesses provide recreational services and supplies in the vicinity 

of the park. Some include sporting goods stores, angling stores, and small 

convenience stores. 

CHELAN COUNTY 

G ENERAL B ACKGROUND , 

L AND U S E , AND P OPULATION

Chelan County is bordered on the north by Skagit, Okanogan, and Snohomish 

counties. On the east, Douglas County borders Chelan County, and its southern 

neighbor is Kittitas County. To the west, King County borders Chelan County. 

Chelan County is one of the largest counties in the state of Washington. 

Approximately 90% of the county is public land, including Lake Chelan National 

Recreation Area, Wenatchee National Forest, Glacier Peak Wilderness Area, 

Chelan Butte Wildlife Refuge, and parts of North Cascades National Park. The 

Columbia River and the Entiat River also run through Chelan County. The 

Columbia River is a water source for drinking and irrigation. 
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226 DRAFT MOUNTAIN LAKES FISHERY MANAGEMENT PLAN

Chelan County comprises 2,921 square miles and seven growth areas, including 

Mission Urban, Chelan Urban, Entiat Urban, Greater Wenatchee Area Urban, 

Cashmere Urban, Leavenworth Urban, and Rural and Resource Lands. 

Chelan County is also one of the fastest growing counties in Washington State. 

As of 2000, Chelan County had a total population of 62,200 people. Between 

1980 to 1990, the population grew 16%, and between 1990 and 2000, the 

population grew 27%. Fifty-five percent of the population growth occurred in the 

cities. The enrollment in the three school districts in Chelan County increased by 

19% to 25% (Chelan County 2000). 

The medium household income in 1999 was $37,316 (table 29), and 

approximately 12% of residents lived below the poverty level. 

E CONOMY AND I NDUSTRY T RENDS

The county’s unemployment rate was approximately 9% in the year 2000. Most 

jobs in the county are in government, educational services, or retail trade. In 

2000, employment in the manufacturing sector was 8% of the county’s total 

employment (Chelan County 2003). Although agricultural production is also a 

large economic presence in Chelan County, the county is comprised of 90% 

public lands. 

L OCAL B USINESSES

A variety of businesses provide recreational services and supplies in the vicinity 

of the park. Some include sporting goods stores, angling stores, and small 

convenience stores. 

TABLE 29: CHELAN COUNTY DEMOGRAPHICS

Measure 

Chelan 

County 

Washington 

State 

Population, 2001 estimate 67,133 5,987,973 

Population percent change, April 1, 2000–July 1, 2001 0.8% 1.6% 

Population, 2000 66,616 5,894,121 

Population percent change, 1990–2000 27.5% 21.1% 

Persons 65+ percent change, 2000 13.9% 11.2% 

Housing units, 2000 30,407 2,451,075 

Median value of owner-occupied housing units, 2000 $148,400 $168,300 

Median household money income, 1999 $37,316 $45,776 

Per capita money income, 1999 $19,273 $22,973 

Source: Census 2003.
Socioeconomic Resources

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 227

CURRENT ESTIMATED SPORT FISHING 

EXPENDITURES TO THE REGIONAL ECONOMY 

The estimated number of visitors to North Cascades Complex in the 2003 season 

who engaged in mountain lake sport fishing is estimated to be approximately 

1,000. This estimate is from one year of surveying visitors (NPS 2003c) who 

applied for a backcountry permit. The number is consistent with the park’s 

observations for the 2003 season that those who engage in sport fishing represent 

10.5% of backcountry permits that were issued to users going to camps or zones 

near the 91 lakes in the study area. It is also consistent with the 1992 Visitor 

Services Project that estimated 12% of Lake Chelan National Recreation Area 

visitors engaged in sport fishing (NPS 1992). Day use of the study area lakes 

appears minimal compared to overnight use; therefore, day-use expenditures are 

most likely also a small part of overall angler expenditures (see the section titled 

“Visitor Use and Experience” in this chapter). The WDFW estimates that 

approximately $49.79 per trip is expended by those who sport fish in the state 

(WDFW 1996). 

Using this estimate of expenditures, and the angler use of the study area, the total 

annual direct expenditures of anglers to the North Cascades Complex is 

approximately $50,000. If assuming that 20% of all backcountry overnight users 

engaged in sport fishing, the annual direct expenditures would be slightly higher. 

IMPLAN is a software program with region-specific input/output data sets that is 

used to estimate economic impacts from projects. A study area (including 

Whatcom, Skagit, and Chelan counties) was modeled in IMPLAN, and regional 

input/output data for each industry was calculated to get an estimate of current 

economic contributions of those who use the study area for sport fishing. Since 

sport fishing is not a standard IMPLAN sector, the model used a combination of 

economic sectors: agricultural, forestry, and fishery services; sporting and 

athletic goods; food stores; eating and drinking establishments; and hotels and 

lodging places. Multipliers for employment, output, and labor income were then 

estimated for the sport-fishing industry. When factoring in the relationship 

between output, jobs, and income from sport fishing associated with the North 

Cascades Complex mountain lakes fishery, the direct economic output ($50,000 

annually) within the three-county area would most likely support one to two 

associated direct jobs and $10,000 in direct labor income on an annual basis 

(IMPLAN, Copyright Minnesota IMPLAN Group, Inc.). 

The total (direct plus secondary) spending that can be attributed to sport fishing 

in the North Cascades Complex represents, at most, 0.001% of total retail sales in 

the three-county area, and 0.006% of total retail sales in the combined 

unincorporated areas of the three counties (WDOR 2003). This means that 

revenues from mountain lakes angling account for roughly $1 out of every 

$100,000 spent in the three-country region. In comparison to the three-county 

economy as a whole, these expenditures are not substantial. 
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228 DRAFT MOUNTAIN LAKES FISHERY MANAGEMENT PLAN

Coon Lake is a popular

fishing destination in

the Stehekin Valley.

CURRENT ESTIMATED SPORT FISHING 

EXPENDITURES TO THE LOCAL ECONOMY 

There are no fishing guide services in the North Cascades Complex; however, 

private local outfitters take visitors on trips to backcountry lakes in the North 

Cascades Complex in part, and at times, to fish. Typically, other recreational 

activities are also offered on these trips. While there is very little local data on 

angler expenditures, business owners have provided some information on the 

relative importance of sport fishing. Interviews with proprietors of local 

businesses on the west side of the North Cascades Complex that cater to anglers 

indicate that mountain lakes fishing in the North Cascades Complex is very 

limited and accounts for a negligible portion of revenues. A variety of factors 

appear to contribute to the limited use, including access difficulties, perception of 

fishing as being prohibited, and a general lack of knowledge that many mountain 

lakes in the North Cascades Complex contain fish. 

A very different perspective of the socioeconomic importance of backcountry 

lakes was provided by the proprietor of the Stehekin Valley Ranch in Lake 

Chelan National Recreation Area. When asked how their business would be 

affected if sport fishing opportunities were reduced or 

eliminated, they said they would lose visitors because 

fishing provides an important incentive for visitation. 

Fishing mountain lakes is very important for their pack trips 

and day trips. They estimate that 28 guests per day visit their 

ranch from June through August. Regarding pack trips, the 

Rainbow Lake fishery is very important. Day trips to Coon 

Lake are also an important part of their business, especially 

during the spring and fall seasons when the high country 

cannot be reached. Stehekin Valley Ranch believes that 90% 

of their guests visit Coon Lake because the lake is an easy 

hike, and it is only 1 mile from the road and 3 miles via 

horseback from the Stehekin Valley Ranch. The ranch 

estimates that 25% of its guests fish Coon Lake in the 

spring, and 25% of the guests fish the Stehekin River in the 

summer. In the fall, 40% of the guests fish, mostly in the Stehekin River, but 

many again turn to Coon Lake. Overall, they believe that stocking should 

continue everywhere that it is economically feasible (Stehekin Valley Ranch, C. 

Courtney, pers. comm., 2003). 

The 1995 Lake Chelan General Management Plan offers yet a different 

perspective of the reasons people visit the Stehekin area. The General 

Management Plan, using data from 1992, identifies sightseeing, hiking, wildlife 

observation, photography, and bicycling as the primary visitor activities for 

people visiting Stehekin. The 10%–12% of visitors who do visit the area and 

engage in sport fishing is a relatively small proportion of the annual visitation to 

the area (NPS 1995). 

 
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 229

NORTH CASCADES 

COMPLEX 

MANAGEMENT AND 

OPERATIONS 

RESOURCES MANAGEMENT 

Resource management in the North Cascades Complex is a critical component of 

overall park operations. NPS staff in the Resource Management Division focus 

on two broad categories of management actions: science and stewardship. 

Scientific pursuits include inventorying and monitoring park resources and 

conditions as they change through time due to various natural and human 

influences. Stewardship in the North Cascades Complex primarily involves 

minimizing and mitigating the impacts of human actions on natural and cultural 

resources. The emphasis on stewardship is preservation and maintenance of 

natural processes, as opposed to specific features. 

The WDFW plays a central role in managing fish and wildlife populations in the 

North Cascades Complex, particularly in the recreation areas where hunting and 

cooperative management of game are authorized as part of its enabling 

legislation. Regarding fishery management, the NPS defers to WDFW 

regulations for setting creel limits and for management (including stocking) of 

game fish in the reservoirs, running waters, and mountain lakes. 

In recent years, resource management activities in the North Cascades Complex 

have focused heavily on improving the baseline knowledge of both natural and 

cultural resources, as part of a national effort by the NPS to inventory and 

monitor park resources as part of its Natural Resource Challenge initiative. The 

initiative is an effort to improve management decisions by enhancing knowledge 

and understanding of NPS resources. In support of this effort, Congress is 

providing funding to the NPS for inventorying, monitoring, restoration, research, 

and education. The North Cascades Complex aquatics program has been focusing 

on 

monitoring salmon in the Skagit River and its tributaries 

monitoring benthic macroinvertebrate streams and lakes throughout the 

North Cascades Complex 

systematically inventorying the distribution and abundance of amphibians 

in terrestrial and aquatic habitats to improve knowledge of amphibian 

distributions 

inventorying stream resident fish populations and stream habitats 

developing long-term stream and lake monitoring protocols 
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230 DRAFT MOUNTAIN LAKES FISHERY MANAGEMENT PLAN

The National Park

Service maintains 

visitor centers in 

Newhalem (shown in 

photo), Sedro-Woolley, 

and Marblemount.

EDUCATION AND INTERPRETATION 

The goal of the Interpretation Program in the North Cascades Complex is to 

provide for public enjoyment and promote understanding, awareness, and 

appreciation of the natural, cultural, scenic, and scientific values of the North 

Cascades Complex and the surrounding ecosystem. Education and interpretation 

are also used as tools to solicit visitor participation in reducing resource impacts. 

In addition, the resources of the North Cascades Complex are used as an 

educational base for a wide variety of age groups. 

The Interpretation Program staff maintain a state-of-the-art visitor center in 

Newhalem, a Wilderness Office in Marblemount, and a visitor center in 

Stehekin at the historic Golden West Lodge. Visitor information is also 

provided at the NPS headquarters office in Sedro-Woolley and at the U.S. 

Forest Service Station in Glacier. Interpretive programs are provided 

throughout the developed areas in the North Cascades Complex. 

Educational materials include bulletin boards, wayside exhibits, 

interpretive displays, and various trail guides and handouts for visitors. A 

few of these guides discuss sport fishing as part of a suite of recreational 

opportunities available to visitors. The guides also educate park visitors 

about the mountain lake fishery in an attempt to promote an awareness of 

the ecological issues and concerns that are being addressed at length in this 

plan/EIS. 

MAINTENANCE 

The Maintenance Division in the North Cascades Complex performs many 

visitor use and development services related to boating, camping, hiking, 

sightseeing, education, and interpretation. The division maintains buildings, 

utilities, roads, and the extensive backcountry trail and camp network. 

CONCESSIONS 

Commercial uses in North Cascades Complex include concessions and 

Commercial Use Authorization (CUA) holders. Most of the commercial uses 

involve backcountry guiding services that operate under CUAs. In addition, there 

are seven rafting outfitters that operate on the Skagit River, and four outfitters 

that provide paddling (kayak and/or canoe) services on Ross Lake. One-third to 

one-half of all CUA holders are nonprofit organizations. 

Concessions differ from CUA holders because they take place under a 

competitively awarded contract with the NPS. CUA operations take place 

entirely on NPS land, and funds are exchanged essentially within the park. They 

often own structures and buildings on NPS land. The only concession service on 

the west side of the park is Ross Lake Resort on Ross Lake. The resort originally 

centered around fishing on Ross Lake, but as the quality of the fishery on Ross 

Lake declined in the 1970s and 1980s, the Ross Lake Resort expanded its 

services to accommodate nonangling clientele. Services now include lodging, 

water taxis, and boat rentals. There are three concessions in the community of 
 North Cascades Complex Management and Operations 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 231

Stehekin, including the Stehekin Lodge, the House that Jack Built (a community 

craft cooperative), and MacGregor Mountain Outdoor Supply. The latter 

provides a variety of outdoor equipment, including fishing supplies. 

There are no concessions or CUA holders in the North Cascades Complex that 

provide services exclusively related to sport fishing in mountain lakes, although 

fishing is part of many activities that are provided by backcountry guide and 

stock services as part of the overall trip experience. For example, Cascade 

Corrals, a horse-packing service based out of Stehekin, operates under a CUA 

and provides day trips to Coon Lake. On these trips, sport fishing is one of many 

activities that take place as part of the overall trip experience. 

ENFORCEMENT 

The Visitor Safety and Resources Protection Division shoulders a variety of 

management responsibilities that include Search and Rescue and law 

enforcement. Regarding law enforcement, the philosophy is to use the most 

minimum tool necessary to gain compliance with federal and state laws and 

regulations. The NPS law enforcement jurisdiction in the North Cascades 

Complex is proprietary, meaning that it reserves the right to regulate as a 

landowner, but the state of Washington retains predominant rights. Proprietary 

jurisdiction allows the NPS to assimilate state law in accordance with 36 CFR 

Part II. NPS Law Enforcement Rangers and WDFW Game Wardens jointly 

enforce regulations governing fish and wildlife. The most common legal 

violation in the North Cascades Complex is failure to secure a permit for 

backcountry camping. Poaching of plants and wildlife is also a common problem. 

PARK FUNDING 

As shown in table 30, funding for operations and programs in the North Cascades 

Complex has remained relatively steady over the past 10 years at approximately 

$5.5 million per year. Referred to as “base funding,” each year NPS units receive 

funds to, among many things, operate the park, pay salaries, undertake 

maintenance projects, and administer natural and cultural resource protection 

programs. Overall, base funding for NPS units has not increased substantially 

and is expected to remain at current levels in the future. 

CURRENT COST OF THE 

FISHERY MANAGEMENT PROGRAM 

The costs of continuing to manage mountain lakes under alternative A would be 

primarily associated with stocking, very limited monitoring, and project 

oversight. These actions would cost approximately $18,000 per year and 

primarily be borne by the WDWF (WDFW, M. Downen, pers. comm., 2004). 

See the “Management and Operations” section in the “Environmental 

Consequences” chapter for the estimated costs to implement each alternative. 
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232 DRAFT MOUNTAIN LAKES FISHERY MANAGEMENT PLAN

TABLE 30: ESTIMATED BASE FUNDING 

FOR THE NORTH CASCADES COMPLEX* 

Fiscal Year 

Estimated Increase 

in Base Funding 

Estimated 

Base Funding

1993 No base increase $4,864,000 

1994 $400,000 base 

increase 

$5,264,000 

1995 No base increase $5,264,000 

1996 No base increase $5,264,000 

1997 No base increase $5,264,000 

1998 $275,000 base 

increase 

$5,539,000 

1999 No base increase $5,539,000 

2000 No base increase $5,539,000 

2001 No base increase $5,539,000 

2002 No base increase $5,539,000 

2003 No base increase $5,539,000 

2004 Requested $350,000 $5,889,000 

Note: 

* Base funding would not be the primary source of funds for 

implementation of the fishery management plan. For more details on 

cost of implementation, see the “Management and Operations” section 

in the “Environmental Consequences” chapter.