Appendix T 

Status and Life History of the Alameda Whipsnake (Masticophis lateralis 

euryxanthus) 

1.1 Species Listing Status 

The Alameda whipsnake (Masticophis lateralis euryxanthus) was listed as threatened on 

December 5, 1997 (62 FR 64306) by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) 

(USFWS, 1997 and Westphal, 1998). A recovery plan for the chaparral and scrub 

community species east of San Francisco Bay, California was approved by the USFWS 

on March 20, 2003 (USFWS, 2002 and 2005). Critical habitat was designated for this 

subspecies on October 2, 2006 (USFWS, 2005 and 2006). 

1.2 Description and Taxonomy 

The Alameda whipsnake “is a member of the family Colubridae, which includes most of 

the species of snakes found in the western United States” (USFWS, 1997 and 2005). “It 

is a slender, fast-moving, diurnally active snake with a slender neck, broad head and large 

eyes. Another common name for the Alameda whipsnake is the ‘Alameda striped racer’” 

(USFWS, 1997, 2002, 2005, and 2006). Adult whipsnakes “reach a length of 3 to 4 feet 

(91 to 122 centimeters). Their back is colored sooty black or dark brown with a distinct 

yellow-orange stripe down each side. The front part of their underside is orange-rufous 

colored. The midsection is cream colored. The rear section and tail are pinkish” 

(USFWS, 1997 and 2005). 

The Alameda whipsnake is one of two subspecies of the California whipsnake 

(Masticophis lateralis)” (USFWS, 2002 and 2005). The other subspecies, which is more 

common, is the chaparral whipsnake (Masticophis lateralis lateralis) (USFWS, 2005). 

The Alameda whipsnake was described in 1954 “from a total of six specimens collected 

in the vicinity of Berkeley, Alameda County, and near Somersville, Contra Costa County, 

and from Mount Diablo, Contra Costa County, California (USFWS, 1997). 

1.3 Distribution and Status 

Historical Range: 

When the Alameda whipsnake was first described in 1954, “only six specimens had been 

collected and preserved” suggesting that this subspecies was “distributed in the Berkeley 

Hills and around Mt. Diablo” (USFWS, 2002). “By 1970 there were a total of 14 

observations or specimens within Alameda and Contra Costa Counties; however, two of 

these specimens” “were identified as chaparral whipsnake” (USFWS, 2002). “With these 

limited data, the extent of historical distribution is difficult to determine” (USFWS, 

2002). However, the “Alameda whipsnake likely inhabited suitable chaparral and scrub 

habitats within Alameda, Contra Costa, and possibly western San Joaquin and northern 

Santa Clara Counties. The extent to which the chaparral whipsnake or individuals with 

intergrade characteristics existed in these areas is not clear” (USFWS, 2002 and 2005). 

1
Current Distribution: 

“The Alameda whipsnake inhabits the Inner Coast Ranges in western and central Contra 

Costa and Alameda counties,” “with additional occurrence records in San Joaquin and 

Santa Clara counties” (USFWS, 1997, 2005, and 2006). “The current distribution of the 

subspecies has been reduced to five separate areas with little or no interchange due to 

habitat loss, alteration, and fragmentation: 

1. Sobrante Ridge, Tilden/Wildcat Regional Parks area to the Briones Hills, in 

Contra Costa County (Tilden-Briones population) 

2. Oakland Hills, Anthony Chabot area to Las Trampas Ridge, in Contra Costa 

County (Oakland-Las Trampas population) 

3. Hayward Hills, Palomares area to Pleasanton Ridge, in Alameda County 

(Hayward-Pleasanton Ridge population) 

4. Mount Diablo vicinity and the Black Hills, in Contra Costa County (Mount 

Diablo-Black Hills population); and 

5. Wauhab Ridge, Del Valle area to the Cedar Mountain Ridge, in Alameda County 

(Sunol-Cedar Mountain population)” (USFWS, 1997 and 2005). 

“These populations all occur on private or public, non-Federal, land” (USFWS, 1997). 

“There remain only two or perhaps three potential corridors for gene flow between 

populations. A northern corridor remains between the Tilden-Briones and the OaklandLas Trampas populations, and a southern corridor remains between Hayward-Pleasanton 

Ridge and Sunol-Cedar Mountain populations. Remaining natural habitat in these areas 

may provide a movement corridor for the Alameda whipsnake, but it is as yet unknown 

whether whipsnakes are able to use these corridors in a manner that would promote gene 

flow. The Oakland-Las Trampas population and the Hayward-Pleasanton Ridge 

population are divided by Interstate 580, and it has not yet been determined whether 

whipsnakes could move between these populations by traveling underneath the raised 

portions of the Interstate” (USFWS, 2002). There are also “probably varying degrees of 

isolation due to natural and human-caused barriers” within these five populations 

(USFWS, 2002). “Therefore there may be some subpopulations within each population 

that are geographically and genetically isolated and others that may contribute to gene 

flow within each population. The boundaries of these five populations and the two 

corridors represent the extent of suitable habitat that includes known Alameda 

whipsnakes” (USFWS, 2002). 

1.3.1 Critical Habitat 

Critical habitat was designated for the Alameda whipsnake on October 2, 2006 (USFWS, 

2005 and 2006). “In total, approximately 154,834 acres (ac) (62,659 hectares (ha))” of 

critical habitat were designated for this species (USFWS, 2006). “The critical habitat is 

located in Alameda, Contra Costa, Santa Clara, and San Joaquin Counties” (USFWS, 

2006). Critical habitat is defined in the Endangered Species Act (ESA) as specific areas 

within the geographic area occupied by a species at the time it is listed, containing 

physical and biological features necessary for the conservation of the species, and that 

may require special management to protect the listed species (USFWS, 2006). Critical 

2
habitat may also include “specific areas outside the geographical area occupied by the 

species at the time it is listed” if they are determined to be “essential for the conservation 

of the species” (USFWS, 2006). The designation of critical habitat is based on habitat 

areas that provide essential life-cycle needs of the species or areas that contain primary 

constituent elements (PCEs). PCEs include, but are not limited to, space for individual 

and population growth and for normal behavior; food, water, air, light, minerals, or other 

nutritional or physiological requirements; cover or shelter; sites for breeding, 

reproduction, rearing (or development) of offspring; and habitats that are protected from 

disturbance or are representative of the historic geographical and ecological distributions 

of the species (USFWS, 2006). 

The PCEs for the Alameda whipsnake are: 

1) Scrub/shrub communities with a mosaic of open and closed canopy: “Scrub/shrub 

vegetation dominated by low- to medium-stature woody shrubs with a mosaic of 

open and closed canopy, as characterized by the chamise, chamise-eastwood 

manzanita, chaparral whitethorn, and interior live oak shrub vegetation series 

occurring at elevations from sea level to approximately 3,850 feet (1,170 meters)” 

is essential because “scrub/shrub vegetation within these series form a pattern of 

open and closed canopy used by the Alameda whipsnake for shelter from 

predators; temperature regulation, because it provides sunny and shady locations; 

prey-viewing opportunities; and nesting habitat and substrate. These features 

contribute to support a prey base consisting of western fence lizards and other 

prey species such as skinks, frogs, snakes, and birds” (USFWS, 2006). 

2) Woodland or annual grassland plant communities contiguous to lands containing 

PCE 1: “Woodland or annual grassland vegetation series comprised of one or 

more of the following: Blue oak, coast live oak, California bay, California 

buckeye, and California annual grassland vegetation series” are essential because 

“this mosaic of vegetation supports a prey base” “and provides opportunities for: 

(1) Foraging, by allowing snakes to come in contact with and visualize, track, and 

capture prey;” “(2) short and long distance dispersal within, between, or to 

adjacent to areas containing essential features (i.e., PCE 1 or PCE 3); and (3) 

contact with other Alameda whipsnakes for mating and reproduction” (USFWS, 

2006). 

3) Lands containing rock outcrops, rock debris piles (talus), and small mammal 

burrows within or adjacent to PCE 1 and/or PCE 2: “These areas are used for 

retreats (shelter), hibernacula, foraging, and dispersal, and provide additional prey 

population support functions” (USFWS, 2006). 

1.3.2 Alameda Whipsnake Critical Habitat 

Six units of critical habitat were designated for the Alameda whipsnake (USFWS, 2006). 

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Unit 1: Tilden-Briones; Alameda and Contra Costa Counties

This unit is “bordered approximately by State Highway 4 and the cities of Pinole, 

Hercules, and Martinez to the north; by State Highway 24 and the City of Orinda Village 

to the south; Interstate 80 and the cities of Berkeley, El Cerrito, and Richmond, to the 

west; and Interstate 680 and the City of Pleasant Hill to the east. The South end of Unit 1 

abuts Unit 6. Land ownership within the unit includes approximately 8,108 ac (3,281 ha) 

of” East Bay Regional Park District (EBRPD) “lands, 15 acres (6 ha) of State land, and 

the remaining 25,997 ac (10, 520 ha)” are “under private ownership” (USFWS, 2006). 

This unit is designated as “critical habitat because it contains features essential to the 

conservation of the Alameda whipsnake, is currently occupied, and represents the 

northwestern portion of the subspecies’ range and one of five population centers” 

(USFWS, 2006). Unit 1 “contains a complex mosaic of grassland with woody scrub 

vegetation of several types (PCE 1 and PCE 2), as well as rock outcrops or other talus 

features (PCE 3) distributed throughout the unit with little habitat fragmentation. 

Alameda whipsnake records occur within the unit and are uniformly distributed 

throughout the unit. The dates of Alameda whipsnake records span a time period from 

before the subspecies’ listing to after the time of listing (1986 to present)” (USFWS, 

2006). In addition, “very limited development has occurred with the unit” (USFWS, 

2006). 

Unit 2: Oakland-Las Trampas; Contra Costa and Alameda Counties

“Unit 2 is located south of State Route 24, north of Interstate 580, east of State Route 13, 

and west of Interstate 680 and the cities of Danville, San Ramon, and Dublin. The North 

edge of Unit 2 abuts Unit 6. Land ownership includes 4,386 ac (1,775 ha) of EBRPD and 

East Bay Municipal Utilities District lands and 20,050 ac (8,114 ha) under private 

ownership” (USFWS, 2006). 

“Unit 2 is included in the critical habitat because it contains features essential to the 

conservation of the Alameda whipsnake, is currently occupied by the subspecies, and 

represents the central distribution of the Alameda whipsnake and one of five population 

centers” (USFWS, 2006). This unit “contains a range of vegetation (PCE 1 and PCE 2), 

soil types, and rocky features (PCE 3) essential to the conservation of the subspecies, 

supports viable Alameda whipsnake populations, and has minimal development such as 

roads and structures” (USFWS, 2006). “Areas with development or reduced soil and 

vegetation characteristics” were not “included in the critical habitat for this unit” 

(USFWS, 2006). “Alameda whipsnake occurrences have been documented by multiple 

records within the unit as well as adjacent to the unit. Dispersal of snakes between Units 

2 and 1 is possible only through Unit 6, and impediments to such movement do not 

appear to be present” (USFWS, 2006). 

Unit 3: Hayward-Pleasanton Ridge; Alameda County

“Unit 3 is located immediately to the west of Interstate 680 and to the south of Interstate 

580. Land ownership included 404 ac (163 ha) of EBRPD land and 25,562 ac (10,345 

ha)” of “privately owned land” (USFWS, 2006). The Stonebrae Country Club project 

site was not included in the critical habitat for this unit (USFWS, 2006). 

4
This unit “is included in the designated critical habitat because it contains features 

essential to the conservation of the Alameda whipsnake; is currently occupied by the 

subspecies; and represents the southwestern portion of the subspecies’ range and one of 

the five population centers” (USFWS, 2006). “Unit 3 contains the mosaic of scrub and 

chaparral vegetation and rocky outcrops (PCE 1, PCE 3) considered essential to the 

conservation of the subspecies. The unit also includes variation in the vegetation patch 

size, abundant edge between grassland and woodland, and a minimal amount of 

development or planned development” (USFWS, 2006). The whipsnake “records within 

this unit are associated with Gaviota rocky sandy loams in particular, which likely 

provide talus (PCE 3), and appear to coincide in aerial imagery to scrub or chaparral 

vegetation preferred by Alameda whipsnake” (USFWS, 2006). The vegetation in this 

unit is largely “oak woodland community of variable densities (PCE 2) and statures 

(trees, shrubs) interspersed with grassland. Some peripheral portions of habitat around 

this unit were not included as critical habitat due to the high degree of developmentrelated disturbance and fragmentation of the habitat” (USFWS, 2006). 

Unit 4: Mount Diablo-Black Hills; Contra Costa and Alameda Counties

“This unit encompasses Mount Diablo State Park and surrounding lands, and is largely 

within Contra Costa County except a small portion that is within Alameda County. 

Lands are owned by the Bureau of Land Management (23 ac (9 ha)), State Department of 

Parks and Recreation (13,855 ac (5,607 ha)), and private landowners (9,348 ac (3,783 

ha))” (USFWS, 2006). EBRPD “lands and lands covered by the draft East Contra Costa 

County Habitat Conservation Plan and Natural Community Conservation Plan” were 

excluded from the critical habitat in this unit (USFWS, 2006). 

Unit 4 is included in the designated critical habitat for this subspecies “because it 

contains features essential to the conservation of the Alameda whipsnake, is occupied by 

the subspecies, and represents the northeastern portion of the subspecies’ range and one 

of the five populations centers” (USFWS, 2006). “Numerous Alameda whipsnake 

observations (i.e., greater than 90 records from 1972 to 2004) occur throughout the area, 

many of which are associated with dense rock outcrops (PCE 3) and chaparral, scrub, and 

oak woodland (PCE 1, PCE 2). The pattern of woody vegetation with grasslands and 

rock outcrops forms an intricate landscape mosaic that is highly functional habitat for the 

Alameda whipsnake. The vegetation and soil characteristics, the mosaic habitat pattern, 

the abundance of Alameda whipsnake records, and the lack of surrounding development 

and relative absence of roadways, together indicate that this unit likely provides some of 

the very highest quality and largest contiguous blocks of habitat within the range of the 

subspecies, as well as some of its most robust populations” (USFWS, 2006). 

Unit 5A: Cedar Mountain; Alameda and San Joaquin Counties

“Unit 5A is located east of Lake Del Valle along Cedar Mountain Ridge and Crane Ridge 

to Corral Hollow west of Interstate 580. Land ownership within this unit includes 

approximately 2,492 ac (1,008 ha) of Department of Energy land, 246 ac (99 ha) of 

EBRPD land, and 21,986 ac (8,897 ha)) are privately owned” (USFWS, 2006). 

5
Unit 5A is included in the designated critical habitat “because it contains features 

essential to the conservation of the Alameda whipsnake, is currently occupied by the 

subspecies, and represents the southernmost and easternmost distribution of Alameda 

whipsnake and one of the five populations centers for the subspecies” (USFWS, 2006). 

“The vegetation pattern within this unit consists of various woodland, scrub, and/or 

chaparral communities on northeast-facing slopes (PCE 1, PCE 2). Rock bearing soils 

which are associated with multiple Alameda whipsnake records (e.g., Vallecitos rocky 

loam) as well as rock lands are abundant, indicating the presence of PCE 3. Open, 

grassland-dominated communities are prominent on southwest-facing slopes, but there is 

also a significant component of woodland habitat on these slopes. Significant areas of 

vegetation types known to support Alameda whipsnake are present, including coastal 

oak, chamise-chaparral, mixed chaparral, blue-oak-foothill pine woodland, blue oak 

woodland, valley oak woodland, and montane hardwood. About 50 Alameda whipsnake 

records from 1973 through 2002 are known in this unit. In most instances, the 

boundaries for critical habitat designation correspond to natural breaks in plant 

communities, habitat quality, and/or landform (ridgelines, water features). A moderate 

number of light duty roads (e.g., paved or unpaved lightly used) are present within the 

unit, although there are very few structures or other land modifications” (USFWS, 2006). 

Unit 5B: Alameda Creek; Alameda and Santa Clara Counties

“This unit is located northeast of Calaveras Reservoir, south of the town of Sunol, 

including the area along Wauhab Ridge in Alameda County and Oak Ridge in Santa 

Clara County. Alameda Creek is located at the west margin of the unit, and the unit 

contains the Sunol Regional Wilderness and Camp Ohlone Regional Park (approximately 

361 ac (146 ha)), which are managed by the” EBRPD “with the remaining 17,854 ac 

(7,225 ha) in private ownership” (USFWS, 2006). 

Unit 5B was included in the designated critical habitat “because it contains features 

essential to the conservation of the Alameda whipsnake, is currently occupied, and 

represents the southern most distribution of Alameda whipsnake and one of the five 

population centers for the subspecies” (USFWS, 2006). The vegetation in this unit “is a 

mix of blue oak—foothill pine and annual grassland with a significant amount of 

woodland patches. Coastal live oak is present in the vicinity of Lleyden Creek. Soil 

types in which Alameda whipsnakes are found dominate the unit. This subunit contains 

six Alameda whipsnake records documented between 1972 and 2000. Significant areas 

of vegetation types known to support Alameda whipsnake are present, including coastal 

oak, chamise-chaparral, mixed chaparral, blue oak—foothill pine woodland, blue oak 

woodland, valley oak woodland, and montane hardwood interspersed with rock outcrops 

or talus (PCEs 1, 2, 3). The boundaries for critical habitat designation correspond to 

natural breaks in plant communities, soil type, and/or landform. A moderate number of 

light roads are present within the unit, although there are very few structures or other land 

modifications. Development within or adjacent to the unit is minimal. As a result of this 

low development pressure, the survey efforts for the Alameda whipsnake in this unit have 

not been as extensive as in the other units” (USFWS, 2006). 

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Unit 6: Caldecott Tunnel; Contra Costa and Alameda Counties

“This critical habitat unit lies between Units 1 and 2, along the Alameda and Contra 

Costa County lines. Land ownership within this unit includes 265 ac (107 ha) of” 

EBRPD “lands, 720 ac (291 ha) of State, and 3,166 ha (1,281 ha) in private lands” 

(USFWS, 2006). 

Unit 6 was included in the designated critical habitat “because it contains features 

essential to the conservation of the Alameda whipsnake, is currently occupied, and 

represents the last remaining habitat connecting Unit 1 and Unit 2, which are two of the 

five population centers for the subspecies. Maintaining connectivity between the units 

allows for dispersal between units for the subspecies and allows for genetic exchange 

among all three units” (USFWS, 2006). This “unit is bounded by dense urban 

development to the east and west. However, the vegetation and soil types that are known 

to support Alameda whipsnake are dominant throughout the unit (PCEs 1, 2, 3). About 

eight Alameda whipsnake records are known from the unit between 1990 and 2002” 

(USFWS, 2006). 

Habitat 

Alameda whipsnakes have been documented “in several types of scrub and chaparral 

communities, including coastal sage scrub, chaparral, and northern coastal scrub. 

Telemetry data for six snakes indicated that home ranges of Alameda whipsnakes were 

centered on shrub communities, but that snakes range out into adjacent habitats, including 

grassland, oak savanna, and oak-bay woodland. Radio locations of telemetered snakes 

were clustered in areas of scrub with an open or partially open canopy, and on south-, 

southwest-, southeast-, east-, and northeast-facing slopes. Most radio locations for five 

snakes at a study site in Tilden Regional Park, Berkeley, California, were also within the 

distribution of major rock outcroppings and talus. Alameda whipsnakes were also 

frequently found in adjacent grasslands and oak woodland/savanna habitats. Most 

grassland and woodland locations were within 50 meters (170 feet) of the scrub habitat, 

but distances of greater than 150 meters (500 feet) from scrub were also documented 

during the telemetry study. The distance that whipsnakes will move into open grassland 

is unknown” (USFWS, 2002). However, “California whipsnakes have been observed in 

grassland, oak savanna, and along the edge of riparian vegetation at distances greater than 

300 meters (1,000 feet) from scrub habitats, usually in areas where rock outcrops are 

abundant” (USFWS, 2002). “The majority of grassland use was documented during 

spring. The most common types of retreat site in both the grassland and scrub 

communities were small rodent burrows and rock crevices; however, brush piles, deep 

soil crevices and debris piles were also used” (USFWS, 2002). Alameda whipsnake 

locations have also been observed “near riparian areas” (USFWS, 2002). However, “it is 

unclear what role water plays in the life history of this species” (USFWS, 2002). 

Activity, Movement, and Behavior: 

Adults of this subspecies “appear to have a bimodal seasonal activity pattern with a large 

peak during the spring mating season and a smaller peak during late summer and early 

fall. Although short above-ground movements may occur during the winter, Alameda 

whipsnakes generally retreat in November into a hibernaculum (shelter used during the 

7
snake’s dormancy period) and emerge in March” (USFWS, 2002, 2005, and 2006). 

Hibernacula include rodent burrows and crevices between rocks (USFWS, 2006). 

“Male home ranges range from 1.9 to 8.7 hectares (4.7 to 21.5 acres) in size (mean of 5.5 

hectares or 13.6 acres, n=4), and showed a high degree of spatial overlap” (USFWS, 

1997, 2002, and 2006). “Some animals were recorded to have moved over 1.8 kilometers 

(km) (1 mile (mi)) while crisscrossing their areas” (USFWS, 1997). “Three individual 

snakes monitored for nearly an entire activity season appeared to maintain stable home 

ranges. Movements of these individuals were multi-directional and individual snakes 

returned to specific area and retreat sites after long intervals of nonuse. Snakes had one 

or more core areas (areas of concentrated use) within their home ranges with large areas 

of the home ranges receiving little use” (USFWS, 2002 and 2006). 

Alameda whipsnakes hold their heads high off of the ground “to peer over grass or rocks 

for potential prey” and are “active daytime” predators (USFWS, 1997 and 2005). “When 

hunting, these snakes commonly move with the head held high and occasionally move it 

from side to side, perhaps to aid in depth perception. Prey is seized with great speed, 

pinioned under loops of the body, and engulfed without constriction” (USFWS, 2002). 

Life History and Ecology 

Life history and ecology information about the Alameda whipsnake, including diet and 

reproduction are provided in the sections below (1.5.1 and 1.5.2). 

1.5.1. Diet 

“Lizards, especially the western fence lizard (Sceloporus occidentalis), appear to be the 

most important prey item of whipsnakes, although other prey items are taken, including 

skinks, frogs, snakes and birds” (USFWS, 2005). “Stomach contents of field-captured 

whipsnakes were exclusively lizards and included western fence lizard and western skink 

(Eumeces skiltonianus). Stomach contents of museum specimens were almost 

exclusively lizards” (USFWS, 2002). Furthermore, “prey preference tests with both adult 

and hatchling Alameda whipsnakes have shown a preference for lizard prey” suggesting 

that this species is a feeding specialist (USFWS, 2002). However, other sources state that 

the diet of the Alameda whipsnake also includes invertebrates and small mammals 

(USFWS, 1997 and Westphal, 1998). Yet another source states that the diet may depend 

“on an individual’s size, sex, age, and location” (USFWS, 2006). 

1.5.2. Reproduction 

“Sperm is stored by the male over winter in the epididymides and vas deferens” and 

“copulation commences soon after emergence from winter hibernacula” (USFWS, 2002). 

“Courtship and mating were observed from late March through mid-June. During this 

time males move around throughout their home ranges, but females appear to remain at 

or near their hibernacula, where mating occurs” (USFWS, 1997, 2002, 2005, and 2006). 

“One female was observed copulating with more than one male during a mating season, 

but the extent to which females mate with multiple males (polyandry) is unknown” 

(USFWS, 2002). “Females begin yolk deposition in mid-April, and intervals of 47, 50, 

8
9

and 55 days have been recorded between dates of first known mating and first egg laid. 

Average clutch size is 7.21 (6-11, n=19), with a significant correlation between body size 

and clutch size” (USFWS, 2002). The eggs are laid May through July (USFWS, 1997). 

“Once the female lays her eggs, it will be about 3 months of incubation before the young 

appear in the late summer and fall. These hatchlings have been seen and captured above 

ground from August through November. Prey items were sometimes detected in the 

stomachs of captured hatchlings during this period indicating that at least some hatchling 

snakes feed prior to winter hibernation. California whipsnakes take 2 to 3 years to reach 

maturity, with adults growing to nearly 1.5 meter (5 feet). Captive whipsnakes may live 

for about 8 years” (USFWS, 2002).

1.6 References 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). 1997. Endangered and Threatened Wildlife 

and Plants; Determination of Endangered Status for the Callippe Silverspot Butterfly and 

the Behren's Silverspot Butterfly and Threatened Status for the Alameda Whipsnake. 

Available online at: http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/federal_register/fr3183.pdf (Accessed on 

April 17, 2008). 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). 2002. Draft Recovery Plan for Chaparral and 

Scrub Community Species East of San Francisco Bay, California. U.S. Fish and Wildlife 

Service, Region 1, Portland, Oregon. 306 pages. Available online at: 

http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/recovery_plans/2003/030407.pdf (Accessed on April 17, 2008). 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). 2005. Species Account: Alameda Whipsnake 

(Masticophis lateralis euryxanthus). Sacramento Fish and Wildlife Office. Available 

online at: http://www.fws.gov/sacramento/es/animal_spp_acct/alameda_whipsnake.pdf

(Accessed on April 17, 2008). 

U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. 2006. Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; 

Designation of Critical Habitat for the Alameda Whipsnake; Final Rule. Available 

online at: http://edocket.access.gpo.gov/2006/pdf/06-8367.pdf (Accessed on April 17, 

2008). 

Westphal, M. 1998. Alameda Whipsnake: The Fastest Snake in the West. Tideline. Vol. 

18 No. 2 1-3. Available online at: 

http://www.fws.gov/desfbay/Archives/Whip/Whip.htm (Accessed on October 3, 2007).